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T./vJLPS^f'^ 


Sarbarl]  CoUfgr  librarD 


I^le  I6icetttentiial  f^tibltcationjs 

IVitb  the  approval  of  tbi  President  and  Fellows 
of  Tale  University y  a*  series  of  volumes  has  been 
prepared  by  a  number  of  the  Professors  and  In^ 
structors^  to  be  issued  in  connection  with  the 
Bicentennial  Anniversary^  as  a  partial  imUca" 
tion  of  the  character  of  the  studies  in  which  the 
University  teachers  are  engaged. 

This   series  of  volumes   is    respectfully  dedicated  t$ 


L 


°  THE 


GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA 


Its  Character  and  Origin 


BY 


E.  WASHBURN  HOPKINS,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

Fr^/asor  0/ Sanskrit  at  YaU  University 


NEW  YORK:  CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 
LONDON:   EDWARD  ARNOLD 

1902 


MAH   29  1902 


Copyright,  1901, 

By  Yale   University 

Published^  Jufu,  tqot 


UNIVERSITY  PRESS   •   JOHN    WILSON 
AND    SON    •    CAMBRIDGE,    U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 

The  sub-title  of  this  book  places  analysis  before  specula- 
tiozL  In  recent  studies  of  the  great  epic  this  order  has  been 
reversed,  for  a  method  calling  itself  synthesis  has  devoted 
itself  chiefly  to  dwelling  on  epic  uniformity^  and  has  either 
discarded  analysis  altogether  or  made  it  subject  to  the 
results  of  ** synthetic'*  speculation. 

The  best  way,  of  course,  to  take  up  the  historical  investiga- 
tion of  a  literary  product  the  origin  of  which  is  well  known 
is  to  begin  with  the  source  and  afterwards  to  study  the 
character  of  the  completed  whole.  But  if  the  origin  be 
unknown,  and  we  wish  to  discover  it,  we  must  invert  the 
process,  and  begin  our  study  with  an  examination  of  the 
character  of  the  work.  When  tlie  results  of  our  analysis 
become  plain,  we  may  group  together  those  elements  which 
appear  to  have  existed  from  the  first,  and  thus,  on  the  basis 
of  analysis,  reconstruct  the  past.  To  begin  with  a  synthesis 
(io  called)  of  wliatcver  is  preserved  in  the  product,  and  so 
to  postulate  for  the  beginning  exactly  what  we  find  to  be  the 
completcil  whole,  is  a  process  that  leads  us  only  to  the  point 
from  which  we  started.  As  vaguely  incorrect  as  is  the  des- 
ignation synthesis  for  tlie  method  so  called  b  the  method 
itself,  which  thus  does  away  with  all  analysis.  Analysis  is 
an  examination  of  constituents.  As  a  method  it  is,  like  any 
other,  obnoxious  to  error,  but  it  b  not  on  Uiat  account  an 
erroneous  method.  It  is  in  fact»  as  turned  upon  history, 
nothing  but  inevitable  critique ;  and  synthesis  without  such 
critique  becomes  merely  the  exploitation  of  individual  opin- 
ion, which  selects  what  pleases  it  and  rejects,  without  visible 
cause,  what  is  incompatible  with  the  synthetic  scheme. 


viii  PREFACE. 

In  the  case  of  the  great  epic  of  India,  the  peremptory 
demand  that  we  should  reject  the  test  of  analysis  is  the  more 
remarkable  as  the  poem  has  never  been  completely  analyzed. 
The  literature  mentioned  in  it  has  been  ably  collected  in  the 
well-known  memoirs  of  Professor  Holtzmann,  who  has  also 
indicated  what  in  his  opinion  may  be  supplied  from  allusions ; 
but  the  poem  has  not  been  thoroughly  examined  to  see  what 
literature  it  reflects  from  the  age  of  the  later  Upanishads  or 
Vedic  schools;  it  has  not  received  a  careful  investigation 
from  the  metrical  side;  its  philosophy  has  been  reviewed 
only  in  the  most  haphazard  fashion ;  and  its  inner  relation  to 
other  epic  poetry  has  been  almost  ignored.  Yet  critic  after 
critic  has  passed  judgment  on  the  question  of  the  date  and 
origin  of  this  poem,  of  which  we  know  as  yet  scarcely  more 
than  that,  before  a  definitive  answer  can  be  given,  the  whole 
huge  structure  must  be  studied  from  many  points  of  view. 
And  last  of  all  the  synthesist  comes  also,  with  his  ready-made 
answer  to  a  problem  the  conditions  of  which  have  not  yet 
been  clearly  stated. 

Thus  far,  indeed,  the  synthetic  theory  has  not  succeeded 
in  winning  over  a  single  scholar  to  accept  its  chief  con- 
clusions, either  as  regards  the  contention  that  the  epic  was 
composed  500  B.  c,  or  in  respect  of  the  massed  books  of 
didactic  material  and  their  original  coherence  with  the  nar- 
rative. Though  the  results  of  the  method  have  not  proved 
to  be  entirely  nugatory,  yet  they  are  in  the  main  irrecon- 
cilable with  a  sober  estimate  of  the  date  and  origin  of  the 
epic;  but  the  hypothesis  is,  in  truth,  only  a  caricature  of 
Biihler's  idea,  that  the  epic  was  older  than  it  was  thought 
to  be.  In  its  insistence  upon  the  didactic  element  as  the 
base  of  the  whole  epic  tale  it  bears  a  curious  resemblance 
to  a  medieval  dogma,  the  epitaph  of  which  was  written 
long  ago.  For  there  were  once  certain  ingenious  alchemists 
who  maintained  that  the  Legend  of  the  Golden  Fleece  was  a 


PREFACE.  IX 

legend  only  to  the  multitude,  whereas  to  the  illuminati  it 
was  a  didactic  narrative  teaching  the  permutation  of  other 
metals  into  gold;  on  the  tomb  of  which  brilliant  but  fal- 
lacious theory  was  finally  inscribed:   Xiyo^  59  i<m  r^  fiiv 

But  though  this  theory  has  failed  as  a  whole,  yet,  owing  to 
the  brilliant  manner  in  which  it  was  first  presented  by  its 
clever  inventor,  and  perhaps  also  to  its  sliaring  in  the  charm 
which  attaches  to  all  works  of  the  imagination,  it  has  had 
a  certain  success  with  those  who  have  not  clearly  distin- 
guished between  what  was  essential  and  adventitious  in  the 
hypothesis.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Dahlmann,  to  whom  we  owe  the 
theory,  has  shown  that  epic  legends  and  didactic  motif  are 
closely  united  in  the  epic  as  it  is  to-day;  but  this  is  a  very 
different  proposition  from  that  of  his  main  thesis,  which  is 
that  complete  books  of  didactic  content  were  parts  of  the 
original  epic.  One  of  these  statements  is  an  indubitable 
fact;  the  other,  an  historical  absurdity. 

This  historical  absurdity,  upheld  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Dahl- 
mann in  a  rapidly  appearing  series  of  somewhat  tautological 
volumes,  is  of  much  wider  application  than  has  perhaps 
occurred  to  the  author.  For  in  the  later  additions,  which 
tbe  Rev.  Mr.  Dahlmann  regards  as  primitive  parts  of  the 
epic,  are  found  those  sections  which  reflect  most  clearly  the 
influence  of  Buddhism.  If  these  sections  revert  to  500  B.  c, 
all  that  Buddha  as  a  personality  stands  for  in  the  history 
of  Hindu  religious  thought  and  practice  belongs  not  to  him 
but  to  his  antecedents,  and  therewith  vanishes  much  of  the 
glory  of  Buddlia.  Though  tlie  author  has  not  publicly  rec- 
ognized this  obvious  result  of  his  theory,  yet,  since  it  is 
obvious,  it  may  have  api)eared  to  some  that  such  a  darken- 

1  AliBott  identicAl,  in  fact,  it  the  Tenlict  on  the  tjnthetic  argument 
^•Uvertd  hj  the  retermn  French  critic,  M.  Darth:  *'concliuion  AudacieoM 
.  .  .  tb^orie  abeolomtnt  nuuiqii^  "  (Joamal  det  StTanu,  1807,  pp.  337, 44S). 


X  PREFACE. 

ing  of  the  Light  of  Asia  added  glory  to  the  Light  of  the 
World,  and  this  is  possibly  the  reason  why  the  synthetic 
theory  has  been  received  with  most  applause  by  the  reviewers 
of  religious  journals,  who  are  not  blind  to  its  bearings.  But 
however  important  inferentially,  this  is  a  side-issue,  and  the 
historian's  first  duty  is  to  present  the  facts  irrespective  of 
their  impUcation^  - 

On  certain  peculiarities  (already  adversely  criticised  by 
disinterested  scholars)  characteristic  less  of  the  method  of 
investigation  than  of  the  method  of  dialectics  which  it  has 
suited  the  Rev.  Mr.  Dahlmann  to  adopt,  it  is  superfluous  to 
animadvert  in  detail.  Evidence  suppressed  by  one  seeker, 
in  his  zeal  for  truth  as  he  sees  it,  is  pretty  sure  to  be  turned 
up  by  another  who  has  as  much  zeal  and  another  method; 
nor  has  invective  ever  proved  to  be  a  satisfactory  substitute 
for  logic.  As  regards  the  claims  of  synthesis  and  analysis, 
each  method  has  its  place,  but  analysis  will  always  have  the 
first  place.  After  it  has  done  its  work  there  will  be  time 
for  honest  synthesis. 

The  material  here  offered  is  by  way  of  beginning,  not  by 
way  of  completing,  the  long  task  of  analyzing  the  great 
epic.  It  is  too  varied  for  one  volume,  and  this  volume  has 
suffered  accordingly,  especially  in  the  chapters  on  philosophy 
and  the  interrelation  of  the  epics.  But  the  latter  chapter  was 
meant  only  as  a  sketch,  and  its  worth,  if  it  has  any,  lies  in 
its  appendix  ;  while  the  former  could  be  handled  adequately 
only  by  a  philosopher.  The  object  of  these  and  other  chap- 
ters was  partly  to  see  in  how  far  the  actual  data  rendered 
probable  the  claims  of  the  synthetic  method,  but  more  par- 
ticularly to  give  the  data  without  concealment  or  misstate- 
ment. For  this  reason,  while  a  gp-eat  deal  of  the  book  is 
necessarily  directed  against  what  appeared  to  be  errors  of 
one  sort  or  another,  the  controversial  point  of  view  has 
not  seldom  been  ignored.     Pending  the  preparation  of  a 


PREFACE.  xi 

better  text  than  is  at  present  available,  though  Dr.  Winter- 
nitz  encoorages  the  hope  of  its  eventual  appearance,  the 
present  studies  are  intended  merely  as  signboards  to  aid 
the  journey  toward  historical  truth.  But  even  if,  as  is 
hoped,  they  serve  to  direct  tliither,  they  will  be  rendered 
useless  as  they  are  passed  by.  Whether  they  are  deficient 
in  their  primary  object  will  be  for  travellers  on  the  same 
road  to  say. 

jAjrcAmr,  1901. 


CONTENTS. 


PREFACE Tfi 

CHAPTER    ONE. 

Pao« 

LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS      ....  I 

Tb«  Vedaa S 

DiTiiiolM  of  V«da 7 

Upuisluult 9 

UpftTedat  ftod  Upifigtt II 

BtttTM 15 

Dlnniukgiilnt 17 

Vtdk  dtatkMit  in  the  Epk SS 

Up>nfabito  ia  tho  Epic S7 

The  ^reti^TBtaim  UpaniAluid 28 

TIm  Ki(hakm  or  Katba  Upanifhad 99 

The  Miitri  Upuitliid  in  the  Epk SS 

The  AthaiTB^irM  UpAnUhad 4< 

Zyrmlijaiui  Gflija  8&trm 47 

PtrinM  and  UililMS 47 

Drama 54 

CHAPTER    TWO. 

INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS 58 

CHAPTER   THREE. 

SnC  PHILOSOPHY 85 

Bpic  STftaaa 85 

Haratics  ••.•...*•••••...•...•.  m 

Attborltj 90 


xiv  CONTENTS. 

EPIC  PHILOSOPHY— Continued.  p^ob 

Vedanta 93 

Njay* 95 

VIi9eaikft 96 

The  Four  FhiloaophiM 9S 

K«pila  tuid  his  S;Bt«u 97 

Suiiikhya  and  Yog» 101 

Fate  and  Free- Will 103 

Simkhva  i«  stheiitic 104 

Tog&  as  deifitic  and  brabmaistic 106 

DiSereoce  betweea  Simkhja  and  Yoga Ill 

SacU IIS 

The  difleKDt  SchemaU 116 

TheGanaa 119 

Flnralit}'  of  Spirits IS9 

TheT"fiily-fifth  PrinriplB 125 

Simkhja  is  Samkhyana 126 

Tha  Slnikhja  Scheme 127 

The  TwGDtj-iiath  Priadtde 139 

M5ja,  Si'lf-Uvliisiun 138 

PaBca^ikha'a  SjMem 142 

The  Tlnriy-tiiic  Kk-meaU  (PaBca^ikha) IS2 

The  Secret  of  the  VedinU 1S7 

Detailiof  philosophicnl  speculalioQ 162 

The  Sixty  CoustitneuM  of  lolellect 163 

The  Seventeen 163 

The  SiiCeen  (A)  Particle* 168 

The  Sixteen  {B)  or  ElerenModiflcatioDi 

The  Eight  Sources 

The  \'iua  Airland  Sensea 

The  I'l'i-  Subtile  ElemeutB.    QroBS  and  Subtile  Bodiea   .... 

Tbe  Colon  of  the  Sool 

The  Fire  Faolta  of  a  Togin 

Disciplioe  of  the  Yo^n IBl 

Tbe  Destniciible  and  ladeatnictible 162 

The  Gods  and  the  Religiou  Life 163 

Heaven  aod  Hell  —  Death 184 

The  Coamic  Egg  and  Creations 187 

The  Grace  of  God 168 


CONTENTS.  XV 
CHAPTER   FOUR. 

Paos 

EPIC  VERSIFICATION 191 

Epic  Ventilcitioii 191 

9lokA  and  Trif tnbh.    ThePidas 194 

Kbjnne 200 

AUitorAtkm SOS 

SimOflt  and  MaUphon.    Pathetic  Repetition 805 

Cadence  in  ^ka  and  TriftnblL 807 

Tag! SU 

Common  forme  of  (loka  and  Trif  (abh SU 

The  Epic  ^oka.    The  Prior  Pida  of  the  (loka.    The  Pathji .    .  S19 

TbeVipolia S20 

The  Poeurior  Pida  of  the  ^oka 839 

The  DiiamboB 848 

Fbetic  Licence 844 

The  Hjpermetric  ^oka 858 

Dialectic  Sanskrit 861 

Proee-Poecry  Tales 866 

The  Epic  Triftnbh.    i,  The  Regnlar  Triyfnbh  in  the  MahlbhiriU  873 

Bird'»«je  View  of  Triytnbh  Pidae 875 

The  Rlmija^a  Trif (nbh 876 

TbeSoolloa 877 

Catalectic  and  Hjpermetric  Triitnbhe 881 

U-iii,  The  Catalectic  Trif  tnbh 888 

iT-ix,  The  Hjpermetric  Triytnbh.   iT-ri,  Simple  Hjpermeten    .  886 

Tii-ix,  Dooble  Hjpermeten  or  Trif (nbhe  of  Thirteen  Sjllablei  898 

DefectiTe  Triftobht 899 

T.  b,  and  ix,  Mora-Trif  fabhe 301 

The  Trif fnbh-Stania.    UpajJUie.    UpendraTaJria  and  IndzaTajria  309 

The  SjUaba  Ancepe 314 

Emergent  Stanxae 317 

The  Fixed  SjUabk  Metres 381 

RathnddhaH 388 

Bhajamgi^fmjita 383 

Drvtarilambita 384 

Viifraderi 385 

AtijkgttiB.    Rodri 386 


xvi  CONTENTS. 

EPIC  VERSIFICATION— Conftnuecf.  Paob 

The  Fixed  Syllabic  lietres  (comtntMif)  — 

Frahar^i^   .    .  * 829 

Mrgendzamukha SSI 

Aiambidhi SS2 

YasantatilaU 833 

M&ini 334 

9irdi]laTikzidita 336 

ArdhanamaTrtta  (Mitrichandaa).    A — Pnspitigri  andAparayaktia  336 

B-— AnpacchandasikaandViitilija 341 

MStrichandas  in  the  Biahibhirata 343 

MItrSsamakaa 353 

Ganacchandaa 354 

The  Diftribaticm  of  Fancy  Metzee  in  the  Epic 856 

CHAPTER   FIVE. 

ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC     ....  368 


CHAPTER    SIX. 
DATE  OF  THE  EPIC 886 


APPENDIX   A.    Parallel  Phrases  m  the  two  Encs     .    .  408 

*'  B.    Illustrations  of  Epic  <}u}1Lk  Forics      •    .  446 

^  C.    Illustrations  of  Epic  Teistubh  Forms     .  459 

FINAL  NOTES 471 

INDICES 477 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


As  mofft  of  tlie  references  in  this  Tolume  are  to  the  Mah&bh&rata,  all 
numbers  without  alphabetical  prefix  refer  to  this  epic  (Bombay  edition,  or 
with  prefix  C.  to  Calcutta  edition) ;  but  when  necessary  to  distinguish  a 
reference  to  the  Mah&hh&rata  from  a  reference  to  the  Kftmftyana,  I  have 
prefixed  ^t.,  which  tlierefore  does  not  refer  to  Mann,  but  to  the  great  epic. 
To  brin^  the  two  parallel  editions  of  the  epics  into  line,  I  have  used  R.  or 
KB.  for  the  Bcmibay  edition  of  the  R&mftyana  also  (rather  than  for  the 
Ben^  text),  and  for  clearness  I  employ  G.  for  the  Gorresio  (Bengal)  text 
thui:~ 

M.  or  MB.,  Mahlbhirata,  Bombay  edition. 
R.  or  RB.,  Rimlyana,  Bombay  edition. 
C.  Mahlbh&rata,  CalcutU  edition. 
G.,  KAmiyana,  Gom*sio*s  edition. 

OtlM>r  al>bn*Tiations,  such  as  those  usually  employed  to  indicate  native  texts, 
or,  f«ir  example,  ZI)M(r.  and  JAGS,  for  the  Journals  of  the  (lerman  and 
.\iiiencan  Orivntal  Societies  rt*sp(H;tiTely,  require  no  elucidation  for  those 
likely  to  use  them.  Those  using  the  old  edition  of  RB.  must  aild  one  to  all 
references  to  sargas  after  tI,  8H,  and  two  to  all  after  Ti,  107.  Sanskrit 
words  usually  anglicized  have  so  been  written. 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


CHAPTER  ONE. 

LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS. 

Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem;  the  great  epic  mentions  post- 
epical  as  well  as  prae-epical  works.)  To  solve  the  paradox 
it  is  necessary  to  assume  that  the  text  has  been  interpo- 
lated, a  fact  admitted  as  a  last  recourse  even  by  him  who 
holds  that  the  epic  was  originally  what  it  is  to-day.  But 
inter{>olations  to  be  referred  to  when  everything  else  fails 
will  not  suffice.  A  large  part  of  the  present  epic  is  inter- 
polation,  some  of  it  self-interi)olated,  so  to  speak.  For,  not 
content  with  receiving  accretions  of  all  sorts,  narrative  and 
didactic,  the  Bharata,  in  default  of  other  sources  of  inter- 
p(>lation«  copied  itself.  Thus  the  same  story,  hymn,  and 
continuation  are  found  in  iii,  83,  116  ff.  and  ix,  88,  39  ff. 
The  matter  of  xii,  223  is  simply  enlarged  in  227,  while  xii, 
248-9  re|x^at8  xii,  194  and  then  reappears  again  in  xii,  286. 
An  example  of  reproduction  with  variations  is  found  in  ix,  51, 
50«  as  com|)ared  with  iii,  138,  12  ff.  In  one  case  a  youthful 
pro<ligy  encounters  venemble  sages  and  teaches  them  the 
VimLi  ;  in  the  other  a  priest  and  king  art*  instructe<U  but  with 
Uie  same  setting  of  pn>verbial  lore-  So  xii,  18o  is  a  repro- 
duction of  iii,  218,  1-19;  xii,  277  (8),  of  xii,  175,  etc. 

It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  a  work  thus  me<'hanically 
inflated  should  have  al«()rlK*d  ohh^r  literature]  But  to  under- 
stand the  relation  between  the  epic  and  the  older  literature 
copie<l  by  the  epic  it  is  essential  to  know  the  whole  liteniture 
rvferriNl  to  as  well  as  cited.     In  this  chapter,  tlien,  In^ginning 

with  the  VedaSy  I  sliall  follow  the  course  of  revealed  and 

I 


2  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

profane  literature  as  far  as  it  is  noticed  in  the  epic  itself, 
reserving,  however,  for  the  two  following  chapters  the  Ra- 
mayana  and  the  philosophical  systems. 

The  Vedas. 

Allusions  to  Vedic  literature,  veda,  chandas,  mantra,  gruti, 
are  naturally  common  in  every  part  of  the  Mahabharata,  but 
except  in  the  didactic  or  later  epic  these  are  usually  of  a  gen- 
eral character.  It  may  be  assumed  that  the  bulk  of  ^ruti  or 
revealed  works,  if  not  all  of  it,  was  composed  before  the  epic 
began.  Nevertheless,  it  is  interesting  to  see  which  portions 
of  this  hereditary  literature  are  especially  mentioned,  and 
particularly  imi)ortant  to  observe  how  the  epic  cites  from 
older  works.  Even  the  fact  that  it  does  cite  verbatim  the 
words  of  the  holy  texts  is  of  historical  moment  when  it  is 
remembered  that  in  other  places  even  women  and  slaves  are 
exjiQited  to  hear  the  recital  of  the  epicV  We  find  indeed  in 
the  course  of  the  epic  narrative  that  a  wttman  is  taught  Vedic 
mantras,*  but  the  mantras  are  from  the  Atharva  Veda,  which, 
without  being  particularly  slighted,  is  less  regarded  than  the 
older  Vedas,  as  is  shown  by  this  incident;  for  no  woman 
would  have  been  taught  Rig  Veda  vei'ses,  for  example. 

The  Vedas  are  all  mentioned  by  name,  though  the  Atharva 
Veda  is  not  always  recognized  in  the  formal  enumeration. 
The  order  of  precedence  is  not  fixed,  though  its  peculiar 
holiness,  vimala,  is  not  the  reason  why  the  Sama  Veda  in  the 
Gita  and  Anugasana  heads  the  list.*  Usually  the  Rig  Veda 
stands  at  the  head  and  the  Atharva,  if  mentioned,  at  the  foot, 
though  the  order  Rk,  Yajus,  Atharvan,  Saman,  and  even 
Atharvan,  Saman,  Rk,  Yajus  is  found;  but  the  last  order 
occurs  only  in  the  didactic  or  later  epic.  The  four  together 
comprise  the  vedag  caturmurtih,  or  fourfold  Veda,  which,  in 

1  Compare  i,  62,  22 ;  95,  87 ;  iii,  85,  ia3 ;  xii,  341.  110,  etc. 

*  Tatas  tarn  grahajSmasa  sa  dvijah  Mantragramam  .  .  .  atharra^rasl 
^mtain  (y.  1.  atharrSngirasi),  iii,  305,  20. 

*  For  in  y,  44,  28,  it  has  this  epithet,  jet  stands  last  in  the  list:  ^  Not  in 
R.  v.,  nor  in  T.  V.,  nor  in  Athanras,  nor  in  the  spotless  SSmans." 


W      *  *    .       A 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  8 

distinction  from  the  threefold  Veda,  is  often  joined  with  the 
**Vedii  of  the  bow/'  The  epic  even  has  caturveda  as  an 
epithet  of  a  man, — ^one  tliat  knows  the  four  Vedas" 
(=  caturvaidya),  —  as  earlier  triveda,  traividya,  is  used  in 
the  same  way  of  one  learned  in  the  three  (caturvidyam  is  a 
pseudo-epic  term  for  the  Vedas).^ 

The  tradition  of  **  lost  Vedas  "  *  and  "  divided  Vedas ''  is 
well  known.  There  was  at  first  but  one  Veda,  but  after  the 
Kfta  age  men  became  men  of  tliree,  men  of  two,  men  of  one, 
and  men  of  no  Vediis,  triveda,  dviveda,  ekaveda,  anrk,  iii,  149, 
14-29,  and  v,  43,  42,  ^tre§u  bliinne^u  being  Vedas ;  bhinnus 
tada  vedaJ^,  xii,  350,  42  (by  Apantaratamas).  The  last  |)as- 
sage  is  peculiar  in  the  use  (9L  41-47)  of  veddkh^dne  grutih 
kaiya,  and  in  the  name  of  Kali  as  kr^na  (as  well  21s  ti^ya).^ 

The  Veda  is  either  recited,  declared,  or  made,  srsta,  krta. 
The  latter  word  contradicts  the  dogma  declared  in  the  well- 
known  words :  na  hi  cchandansi  kriyante  nityani  cchanduiisi, 
**  llie  Vedas  are  not  made,  they  are  eternal ; "  but  the  sense  is 

'  The  wonl  tnre<la  remains  the  usual  form  (tritajaih  seTitaih  sarvani,  ix, 
64,  21).  Ik«i(les  caturre<Ia  as  an  epithet  of  a  ^od  (illustrateiJ  in  I'W.)  we  find 
io  the  late  patjui)re  iii.  •^•),  110  £f  :  pa^hakah  pa|hakii9  cai  'va  ye  ca  'nye 
^trarintakah  snrre  vyanaikino  murkha,  yah  kriyavan  sa  panditah;  catur- 
Teiio  *pi  durrrttah  »a  ^drid  atiricyate,  yo  'i^nihotraparo  dantah  sa  brahmnna 
id  •mrtmh.  On  the  onler  of  names  referred  to  above :  the  lead  of  the  Atharva 
Is  found  also  in  the  Mahabhasya  (IS.  xiii,  p.  4.'^2) ;  the  epic  passage  is  xiii,  17, 
91.  Tbe  name  is  hen*  atliarrana  or  aCharrana,  xiii,  Wl,  l.'U! ;  94,  44.  Exam- 
ples of  the  usual  order  are  rco  yajtlfifii  simini,  i,  1,  <V{ ;  ix,  W,  Iii  ;  xii,  2<'k2,  2 
(rco  yaj&Asi  simini  yo  veda  na  sa  vili  dTijah) ;  rgviMlah  samaveday  ca  yajur^ 
▼fxU^  ca  atharrare^Ia^  ca,  ii,  11,32;  iii,  18i>,  14,  atharvanah.  In  t,  18,  (V-7, 
It  is  said  that  the  name  AtharriA^iras  will  eventually  belong  to  the  Atharva 
Veda.  The  wonl  siniini  is  not  restricted  to  this  Veda.  Thus  Dhaumya,  a 
Purohitm  and,  therefore,  as  WtdK»r  has  shown,  presumably  an  Atliarvan 
prirst, sinfTS  incantations  of  destruction,  simini  rauilrani  yamyani  (gayan),  ii, 
Sft,  H.  I>ii  Che  expression  aihnrvavede  vede  ca,  set*  Indow.  For  the  order  of 
Barnes,  compare  my  Ruling  CAPtis  p.  112;  and  sih*  Holtxmann,  Das  .Mahibhi- 
rata,  {▼,  p.  &;  for  further  passages  (for  the  AV.  in  particular),  Uloomflcld. 
8BE^  xlU,  p.  liiL 

*  On  this  aeonic  occurrence  (xii.  210,  1ft  ff.).  compare  ve<la9rutih  pranasta, 
xii.  MQ,  0.  the  story  in  .'S48,  and  the  quotation  in  the  text  Indow.  'Hie  mudi- 
ird  vrata.  ruK^.  vikriyante  vedavildah,  are  referre«l  to  in  xii.  23.'J.  38. 

*  The  former  as  Kali  is  still  starred  in  pw.  The  latter  is  mastMiline  in  K. 
tI^ 36^  14  (alao  ttaired  aa  soch  in  pw.).    The  word  occurs  alto  in  xii,  341,  SO. 


4  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

not  opposed,  as  the  maker  is  God  (yedakarta  vedango  veda- 
vahanah,  iii,  3,  19),  who  only  emits  the  Vedas  as  he  does  all 
else  when  the  new  aeon  begins.  The  more  decided  "make  " 
is  found  of  seers,  however,  in  the  Hariyan^a,  mantrabrahmana- 
kaitarah,  mantrakrtah,^  seers  and  descendants  of  seers,  just 
as  there  is  a  Mahabharatakrt  and  Itihasasya  karta,  or  iroirjrtf^ 
hr&v^  though  he  too  is  divine.^  The  gods  who  are  credited 
with  the  making  of  the  Vedas  ^  are  Fii-e  and  Sun,  as  All-God 
(above),  or  especially  Brahman,  and  in  the  later  epic  Vishnu. 
It  was  Brahman  who  "  first  recited  the  Vedas,"  vedan  jagau, 
V,  108,  10.  With  a  natural  inversion,  "Brahman  created 
brahman  "  (whereas  in  reality  brahman  created  Brahman),  ac- 
cording to  another  passage,  xii,  188,  1-2.  Compare :  ya  ime 
brahmana  prokta  mantra  vai  proki^ne  gavam  ete  pramanam 
bhavata  uta  'ho  na,  v,  17,  9-10.  The  Self-existent,  according 
to  xii,  328,  50,  created  the  Vedas  to  praise  the  gods,  stutyar- 
tham  iha  devanam  vedah  sr^tah  svayambhuva.  Kr^na,  who  is 
krtagama,  in  xiii  149,  97,  takes  the  place  of  the  more  general 
term.     Compare  xii,  340,  105 : 

yada  vedaQFutir  nast&  mayS  pratyahrta  punah 
savedilh  saqrutlka^  ca  krtdh  pQrvam  kite  yuge 
(atikrantah  puranesu  Qrutas  te  yadi  va  kvacit), 

and  nirmita  veda  yajfia9  cau  '^dhibhih  saha,  ib.  341,  66,  with 
xiii,  145,  61,  agama  lokadharmanam  maryadah  purvanir- 
niitah.* 

^  jayanti  Hia  panah  pnnah  MantrabrShmanakartarah  dharme  pra^ithile 
tatha,  H.  1,  7.  60. 

^  Krsna  DvaipSyana,  also  called  KuniTaA9akara,  xii,  S47,  13;  xiii,  18, 
4«VI4.  The  recitation  of  the  Vedas  is  a  matter  of  scientific  study.  When 
they  are  "  loudly  recited  in  the  proper  way,"  8a9aik8ya,  they  fill  (other)  winds 
with  fear,  and  therefore  should  not  be  recited  when  a  high  wind  is  blowing, 
xii,  329,  2:M6. 

*  For  the  gods  and  especially  for  the  part  of  Brahman  in  creating  the  Vedas 
and  the  trant»fer  of  his  office  to  Vishnu  in  the  epic,  see  Uoltzmann,  ZDMG. 
xxxviii,  p.  188,  and  Das  Mahabharata,  ir,  p.  6. 

*  The  V.  1.  sarva  is  wronj;.  The  word  agama  usually  refers  to  Veda,  but  not 
always.  Compare  xiii,  104,  luO,  Sgamanam  hi  sarresam  acarah  (res^ha  ucyatc ; 
i,  2.  30,  itihasah  9re8thah  sarvagamesr  ayam ;  xii,  60,  KIO,  agamah  puranft- 
nam.    It  means  any  received  work,  particularly  the  Vedat. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO   THE  EPIC  POETS.  6 

In  late  passages  the  two  earliest  forms  of  the  text  (the 
lati^st  forms  ai*e  unknown)  together  with  the  accents  of  the 
text8  are  especially  mentioned.^ 

In  the  important  numerical  analysis  of  xii,  843,  97-98,  the 
Rig  Veda  is  said  to  "have  twenty-one  thousand"  ;  while  the 
Suma  Veda  has  **one  thousand  branches";  and  the  adhva- 
rjava  or  Yajus  has  "fifty -six  and  eight  and  thirty-seven 
(one  hundred  and  one)  branches."  Probably  "twenty-one 
branches  "  is  the  real  meaning  in  the  case  of  the  Rig  Veda* 
Here  too  are  mentioned  the  gitis,  songs  or  verses  (a  rather 
unusual  word)  found  in  the  bninclies  in  their  numerous  divi- 
sions, ^akhabhedah,  qakhasu  gltayah.^ 

It  is  evident  from  this  statement  that,  as  Weber  says  of  the 

passage  in  the  Mahabha.?ya,  we  are  dealing  with  a  period 

wlien  the  numlxjr  of  Yajur  Veda  schools  is  greater  than  that 

recognized  in  the  Caranavyuha,  which  gives  only  eighty-six. 

Another  verse  of  this  book  recojmizes  ten  thousand   rcas: 

"Tliis  ambrosia  churned  from  the  wealth  of  all  the  dharma- 



khyanas,  the  satyfikhySna,  and  the  ten  thousand  rcas,"  xii, 

*  rfrredah  iMidakramaTibhQfitah,  xiii,  S**),  00;  atharraTpdapniTarih  pQ^n^- 
jraJfiiTaniniagih  lamhitim  irayanti  sma  padakramajutaih  tu  te,  i,  70,  40. 
(fiiaya,  Bibhrarjagotra,  Pificala,  the  grammarian,  throngh  tlio  enpi'cial  grace 
of  the  deitj  and  being  instructed  in  the  method  of  Vimadeva.  )H*came  a 
•hining  light  aa  a  krama  «pecialist,  xii,  343,  100  If. ;  laksanani  nvarXiitobhi 
otmktani  annipaHktajah,  xiii,  Sh,  01  (together  with  nigraha  and  pragraha) ; 
rrarlktararjaflJafiahetDjiiktaTi  (girl),  iii,  207.  2<l 

'  Tbe  Terae  tnuittated  alxive  la  ekavinyatinahnAram  (rgvedam  niXm  pra- 
cmkaate).  Twentj-one  thouaand  what?  Not  wtanfa^.  for  the  Kig  Veda  haa 
onlj  half  to  manj  (Mtiller.  ASI^  p.  220).  (>n  the  other  hand,  the  paaMge 
Airrt^a  doaelj  with  one  in  the  Mahlbhifra  (18.  xiii,  p.  4^^>),  where  the  cor- 
responding wonii  arc  "twentr-one  fold/*  after  vartmn  (pch<»ol) :  t-kayatam 
aolhrlnnifikhih.  ftahaararartmi  naroavedah.  <>kaTin9atid1ii  bXhrrcvam  (a 
word  impliefl  in  Mbh.  xr.  10.  11.  "Simba  the  bahrn^al) ").  naradhi  itharrano 
▼edah.  The  «*pic  text,  cloi^dr  correspond in^'.  in :  ekaviAvatinihatrara  rgredam 
.  .  .  aahnara^&kharo  rat  sima  .  .  .  MtpaRt  ayatam  a^^u  ca  «apta  tnii^atam 
it  J  Qta  jaamin  ^ikhl  jajurvede,  no  'ham  Sdlirar^are  vmrtah,  paBcakalpam 
atharrinaiii  krtTibhih  paribrmhitam  knlfuiTanti  hi  mini  ripri  atharrina- 
▼idaa  UthL  There  can  scarcelj  \h*  a  dciubt  tliat  for  the  text  abore  we 
aboald  read  ekaTiAfati9ikhaih  ram,  aa  tlic  parnllcl  •u^^c«t«i,  for  the  trxt  .in 
It  ftan«b  is  onintelligible.  I  regret  that  Wi'ber  haa  nut  noticed  tht*  epic  paa- 
•a^,  io  that  I  cannot  cit4}  his  opinion. 


; 


6  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

247,  14,  where  the  commentator  says  that  this  is  a  general 
number,  implying  a  fraction  over  10,580.^ 

In  the  account  of  the  later  epic  we  have  a  parallel  to  that 
of  the  Vayu  Purana,  where  the  latter,  Ixi,  120  ff.,  is  account- 
ing for  the  successive  editions  of  the  Vedas : 

&vartam&n&  rsayo  yugakhyasu  pnnah  punah 
kurvanti  samhitd  hy  ete  jayam&nah  parasparam 
astdcitisahasrdni  crutarslnam  smrt^ni  vd,i 
t&  eva  samhita  hy  ete  avartante  punah  punah 
gintd  daksinam  panthdnam  ye  gmai^dndni  bhejlre  * 
yuge  yuge  tu  tah  gakha  vyasyante  taih  punah  punah 
dvaparesv  iha  sarvesu  samhitd^  ca  9rutarsibhih 
tes^iii  gotresv  imd,h  qakhft  bhavanti  'ha  punah  punah 
td,h  QOkhas  tatra  kart^ro  bhavanti  'ha  yugaksay&t 

The  eighty  thousand  Vedic  seers  here  mentioned  are  those 
of  the  Harivan^a  (loc.  cit.) :  ye  gruyante  divam  prapta  rsayo 
hy  iirdhvaretasah  mantrabrahmanakartaro  jayante  ha  yuga- 
ksaye.  They  are  mentioned  elsewhere  in  the  Vayu  Purana, 
viii,  184,  and  in  the  epic  itself,  ii,  11,  54,  in  the  same  words : 

ast2U;Itisahasrani  rsln&m  Qrdhvaretasam, 
a  verse  found  also  in  the  Mahabha^ya  (IS.  xiii,  p.  483). 

^  Compare  further  the  da^a  paRca  (ca)  yajunsi,  learned  from  Arka  by  the 
author  of  the  (^atapatha  Brahmana,  in  xji,  310,  21.  The  word  carana,  in  the 
sense  of  school,  occurs  in  xii,  171,  2,  prs^f  ca  gotracaranam  svadhyayam 
brahmacSrikam ;  xiii,  63,  18,  na  prcched  gotracaranam.  The  mantras  of  the 
special  septs  are  referred  to  in  the  late  hymn  to  the  Sun  (Mihira),  iii,  3,  39 : 
(tram  brahmanSh)  sya9akhaYihitair  mantrair  arcanti.  Tlie  commentator 
cited  abore  gires  as  his  authority  for  the  number  of  stanzas  in  the  Rig  Veda 
a  lame  couplet  of  the  (^akalaka :  ream  da9a8aha8rani  ream  paftca^atani  ca 
ream  ayitih  paday  cli-'tat  parayanam  ncyata,  iti. 

*  They  are  referred  to,  but  not  as  Veda-makers,  in  Yaj.  iii,  186,  and  in  Ap. 
Dh.  S.,  ii,  9,  23,  a-6  (as  being  mentioned  "in  a  Purana").  Yajfiavalkya  calls 
them  the  astSyitisahasra  munayah  punaravartinah  .  .  .  dharmapravartakah. 
The  Purana  referred  to  by  Apastamba  may  be  the  one  cited  above,  though 
in  another  form,  since  the  words  have  a  different  application.  There  is  here  a 
prayamsa  of  the  urdlivaretasas :  aMa^isahasrani  ye  prajam  isira  rsayah  daksi- 
i^enffryamfjah  panthdnam  te  ^ma^nani  bhejire^  etc.  Compare  I^rayna  Up.  i,  0,  ta 
era  punaraTartante  tatmid  ete  rfaya  praj&kama  daksinam  pratipadyante. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  7 

DiTisions  of  Veda. 

Reference  is  seldom  made  to  Samhita,  BrahmaQa,  or  Ara- 
nyaka.  The  **  peruser  of  Saiiihita,"  samhitadhya}'in,  is 
alluded  to  in  i,  167,  8,  and  xiii,  143,  56.  The  word  is  used 
also  of  the  epic,  Vyasa's  Saihhit^  the  fifth  Veda.  In  xii, 
201,  8,  sangha  may  be  used  in  the  same  sense  of  collection, 
but  it  probably  means  a  quantity.  I  will  give  the  passage, 
however,  as  it  enumerates  the  usual  (i,  170,  75,  etc.)  six 
Vedangas,  though  in  an  order  constrained  by  the  metre  (they 
and  the  Upangas  will  be  discussed  below,  under  Upavedas) : 

rksAmasafig&nQ  ca  yajansi  c&  'pi 
cchand&nsi  naksatragatim  niruktam 

adhltya  ca  vy&karanam  sakalpam 
qiksam  ca,  bhataprakrtim  na  vedmi, 

"  Although  I  have  studied  collections  of  hymns  and  chants  and 
the  sacrificial  formulas,  and  also  prosody,  astrology,  etymology, 
grammar,  ritual,  and  phonetics,  I  do  not  know  the  First  Cause  of 
being." 

Brahmanas  are  mentioned  in  xii,  269,  83-34,  as  the  source 
of  sacrifice,  and  in  iii,  217,  21 ,  ^*  the  different  Agnis  named 
in  the  Bralimanas,"  brahmane^u.  In  xiii,  104,  137,  "rites 
deelare<l  in  the  Vetla  by  Bralimanas,*'  the  word  means  priests. 
Possibly  Gita,  17,  23,  brahmanali  (and  vedah)  may  be  works, 
as  the  epic  is  not  particular  in  regard  to  the  gender  of  these 
words  (purana,  itihasa,  and  mahabhuta  are  both  masculine  and 
neuter).  Yajfiavalkya*s  (^atapatha  Brahmana  alone  us  named, 
with  all  its  latest  additions  (krtsnam  sarahasyaih  sasariigra- 
hani  sapari^e^im  ca),  xii,  319,  11,  and  16.  So  ib.  24,  25,  and 
W:  ••I  resolve  in  mind  the  Ui>anisha<l  (BA.)  and  the  Pari- 
fe^a  (tlic  last  part),  obser\nng  also  h>gic,  the  best  science, 
invlkfiki  parfi,  and  declare  the  fourth  transcendental  science 
or  science  of  salvation,  HilmiMirayikii,  Ixised  on  the  twenty-fifth 
(Yoga)  principle.'*  ^    Other  Brahmanas  may  be  implied  in  the 

*  In  the  vzpTfMioii,  loc.  cit.,  ^t.  10,  To<lah  imkhiUh  to  'ttarah.  Dttara  rt*f(*rt 
to  tlM  L*p«mihad«  (not  to  the  philo«4>phy).  The  KhiU  Supplement  U  men- 
tioatd  a^la  ia  the  lUriTAi^fm  (Uuhzuuan). 


8  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

list  at  xii,  837,  7  ff^  Tandya,  Katha,  Kanva,  Taittiri.^  As 
"  prose  works,"  gadya,  this  class  of  works  is  perhaps  recog- 
nized in  iii,  26,  8,  in  the  words:  **The  thrilling  sound  of 
yajun^i,  rcah,  samani,  and  gadyani "  (as  they  were  recited). 

Whether  pravacana,  exposition,  means  Angas  or  Brahma- 
nas  or  perhaps  Sutras,  I  do  not  know.  The  (Upanishad) 
word  occurs  in  a  verse  found  also  in  Mann,  where  the  corn- 
et mentator  explains  it  as  Anga,  to  which  the  objection  may  be 
made  that  the  Angas  have  already  been  mentioned.  But  the 
passage  is  not  without  importance  as  showing  how  the  didac- 
tic or  later  epic  adds  elements  to  the  simpler  statement  of 
the  earlier  law-books.  In  xiii,  90,  86,  the  pankteyas,  or  men 
who  may  be  invited  to  sit  in  the  row  at  a  funeral  feast,  are 
not  only  the  agryah  sarve§u  vede^u  sarvapravacane^u  ca  of 
Manu  iii,  184,  and  the  list  of  iii,  185,  trinaciketah  paQcagnis 
trisuparnah  ^dangavid  (v.  1.  brahmadeyanusantana^  chandogo 
jye§tasamagah)  in  90,  26,  but,  among  others,  the  atharvagi- 
raso  'dhyeta,  29  (a  rare  word) ;  "  those  who  cause  the  Itihasa 
to  be  read  to  the  regenerate,"  33 ;  those  who  are  "acquainted 
with  commentaries,"  bhasyavidas  (or  know  the  Mahabha^ya?),' 
and  are  "delighted  with  grammar,"  vyakarane  ratah,  84; 
those  who  "  study  the  Purana  and  the  Dharmagastras  " ;  those 
who  "bathe  in  holy  pools,"  ye  ca  punye§u  tlrthe§u  abhi^e- 
kakrtaframah,  80  (a  practice  not  extolled  by  Manu,  whose 
view  seems  to  be  that  of  Agastya,  asti  me  ka^cit  tirthebhyo 
dharmasamQaya^ !  xiii,  25,  5).  The  bharate  vidvan,  xiii,  76, 
18,  is  naturally  extolled  in  the  epic,  and  yet  even  with  this 
latitude  we  must  see  in  the  list  above  a  distinct  advance  on 
the  position  held  by  the  early  law-makers,  to  whom  it  was 
not  enough  for  a  man  to  recite  the  epic  (not  to  speak  of 
grammar  and  bha^ya-knowers  as  being  ipso  facto  pankteyas) 
to  be  deemed  worthy  of  invitation.  Even  Vishnu's  Smrti  is 
here  exceeded,  and  Manu  and  the  Siitras  have  nothing  in  any 
degree  parallel.     Even  if  we  say  that  the  list  is  on  a  par  with 

1  The  Taittiri  dispute  is  referred  to  in  xii,  319, 17  ft. 

3  But  bhisja  may  mean  any  reasoned  exposition,  bhEsj&ni  tarkaToktanl, 
ii,  11,  35. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  9 

Vishnu  alone,  although  it  really  exceeds  it  in  liberality,  we 
thereby  put  this  epic  passage  on  a  par  with  a  law-book  later 
than  any  that  can  be  referred  to  the  Sutra  period,  later  than 
Manu  also  and  probably  Yajfiavalkya.^ 

Almost  as  rare  as  the  mention  of  Brahmanas  is  that  of  Ara- 
Qyakas.  In  the  passage  cited  above,  xii,  343,  stanza  98  has 
as  elsewhere  the  singular,  gayanty  aranyake  vipra  madbha- 
ktah.  So  ib.  340,  8:  "  Hari  sings  the  four  Vedas  and  the 
Aranyaka"  (as  forest,  e.g.,  ib.  337,  11,  aranyakapadodbhutS 
bhagah);  and  in  xii,  349,  29-31,  the  Krishna  religion  has 
**  mysteries,  abstracts,  and  Aranyaka."  Compare  also  v,  175, 
38,  ^astre  ca  'ranyake  guruh,  "  a  man  of  weight  in  code  and 
esoteric  wisdom " ;  xii,  344,  13,  aran}^kaih  ca  vedebhyalji 
(3*aUia),  where  the  kathamrtam  or  essence  of  story  of  the 
expanded  Bharata,  Bharatakhyanavistara  of  100,000  (lokas,' 
is  compared  to  the  Aranyaka  as  the  essence  of  the  Vedas  (a 
simile  repeated  at  i,  1,  265).  The  word  is  in  fact  general- 
ize<K  like  Upanishad.  But  as  a  literary  class  it  is  found  in 
the  plural  in  xii,  19,  17,  vedavadan  atikramya  (ilstrany 
aranyakani  ca  .  .  .  saraih  dadrgire  na  te,  ^'  they  ran  over  the 
words  of  the  Vedas,  the  ^istras,  and  the  Aranyakas,  without 
discovering  their  inner  truth."  Here  Veda  does  not  connote 
Aranyaka. 

Upanifthads. 

Tlie  Upanishads  are  alluded  to  in  the  singular,  collec- 
tively, or  distributively  in  the  plural.  They  are  gent'nilly 
grou|>e<l  with  the  Angas  and  are  called  Upanisha^ls,  rahasyas, 
m^-steries,  Bralima  Veda,  and  Vedfinta ;  while  like  the  Ara- 
nrakas  they  are  logically  excluded  from  the  Veda  of  which 
they  are  supposed  in  onlinary  parlance  to  form  pai-t.*    The 

>  VUhno,  ch.  S3 ;  Manu.  loc.  cil. ;  YIJ.  1,219;  Ap.ll.  17;  Glut  xt  ;  Var  il. 
I  doobc  whether  the  **  Atharra^irat-n^AtltT  '*  can  imply  the  Ciraa-row,  but  even 
IhU  U  a  comparmtlTelj  late  touch,  Biudh.  ii,  14,  2,  in  this  r%>ffard. 

'  Note  that  the  number  of  vertet  show  that  the  lIariTai^9a  already  existed 
wbrn  this  paasaipe  was  written.     Compare  ib.  .'UO,  28. 

*  I  mean  that  in  the  cum>nt  phrase  redah  tinfrih  or  sopanitadih  the  sa 
•bottid  differentiate  as  much  as  it  does  in  the  parallel  phrase  {-gveda^  saj^ 


10  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

word  upanimd  has  two  distinct  but  current  meanings  in  the 
epic.  It  means  on  the  one  hiind  mysterj',  secret  wisdom, 
essential  truth,  essence,  as  in  xiii,  78,  4,  gavam  upani^advid- 
van,  ''  wise  in  cow-mysteries,"  and  in  iii,  207,  67  =  xii,  252, 
11,  vedasyo  'pani^at  satyam,  satyasyo  'pani§ad  damah,  "  truth 
is  the  secret  wisdom  (essence)  of  the  Veda,  patience  the 
essence  of  truth."  So  in  the  common  phrase,  veda9  ca  sopa- 
nisadah,  xiii,  85,  92,  etc.,  the  word  may  mean  mysteries.  This 
I  think  is  the  explanation  of  the  employment  of  the  word 
mahopani§ad  in  vii,  143,  34-35,  where  Bhuri§ravas  devotes 
himself  to  prdya  before  death  in  battle.  He  is  a  muni  here 
and  desires  to  ascend  to  the  world  of  Brahman,  so  he  sits 
down  in  Yoga  contemplation  and  meditates  the  "  great  Upa^ 
nishad,''  dhyayan  mahopanisadam  yogayukto  'bhavan  munih. 
On  comparing  the  scene  where  Drona  is  in  the  same  situa- 
tion, vii,  192,  52,  we  find  that  he  says  om,  and  this  mystery 
of  om  is  probably  the  meaning  of  mahopanisad,  which  cannot 
be  a  work  here,  as  is  mahopanisadam  in  xii,  340,  111.  But  in 
other  cases  Upanishad  is  clearly  a  literary  work,  even  stand- 
ing in  antithesis  to  the  mysteries  with  which  it  is  sometimes 
identical,  as  it  is  in  the  form  upanisa  in  the  Pali  scriptures.^ 

junredah,  or  in  yad  etad  ucjate  ^astrc  se  Hihase  ca  chandasi,  xiii,  111,  42. 
But  it  is  very  likelj  that  the  term  was  used  to  mean  "  including  "  (as  part  of 
the  Veda).  On  the  use  of  singular  and  plural  referred  to  above,  compare  sa 
raja  rajadharman9  ca  brahmopanisadam  tatha  ayaptavan,  xt,  35,  2 ;  safigo- 
panisadan  vedan  vipray  ca'  dhiyate,  i,  64, 19,  etc.  For  Vedanta  and  Vedantah, 
meaning  Upanishads,  compare  ir.  61,  10,  vedanta?  ca  puranani  itihasam  (!) 
puratanam;  xiii,  16,  43,  (?iva)  yam  ca  vedavido  vedyam  vedante  ca  pratisthl- 
tarn  .  .  .  yam  vi9anti  japanti  ca ;  H.  3,  10,  67,  puranesu  vedante  ca.  I  may 
mention  here  also  the  works  called  Nisads,  which  are  referred  to  (or  invented) 
only,  if  I  mistake  not,  in  xii,  47,  26,  yam  vakesv  anuvakesu  nisatsupanisatsu 
ca  grnanti  satyakarmanam  satyam  satyesu  samasu. 

*  Kern,  SBE.  xxi,  p.  317.  Compare  for  the  use  of  the  word,  xii,  245,  15, 
where  it  is  said  that  the  Upanishads  inculcate  the  four  modes  of  life,  caturtha? 
cSu  'pani^ado  dharmah  sSdhlranah  smrtah ;  and  xiii,  84,  5,  where  it  is  said 
that  Vedopanisadas  inculcate  that  earth,  cows,  or  gold  must  be  the  sacrificial 
fee.  As  we  find  vedah  sarahasyah  sasamgrahah  and  vedavedangabhasyavit, 
xii,  325,  22-23,  so  in  viii,  87,  42,  reference  is  made  to  "  all  the  Vedas,  with 
Tales  as  the  fifth  Veda,  together  with  Upavedas,  Upanishads,  mysteries,  and 
abstracts"  (samgraha).  Narada  is  said  to  l>e  vedopanisadam  vetta  itihasa* 
purSnaj&ah  .  .  .  sadangavit  and  smrtiman,  11,  5,  2  fl.    The  use  in  iii,  251,  23, 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO   THE  EPIC  POETS.        11 

TTpavedas  and  TTpangas. 

The  Upavedas  or  subsidiary  Vedas  are  three  in  number, 
A^nir  Vedju  Dhanur  Veda,  and  Gandharva  Veda.  To  these 
is  added  in  other  works  Stliupatya  Veda,  but  this  term  is  not 
recognized  in  the  epic,  and  the  commentator  on  vii,  202,  75, 
recognizes  only  three,  those  just  given,  or  Medicine,  Archery, 
and  Music ;  but  the  fourth,  Architecture,  is  known  (only 
in  the  epic  introduction),  as  Viistuvidya.^  Authors  are  as- 
signed to  these  and  other  works  in  xii,  210,  20,  Brhaspati 
K'ing  the  originator  of  all  the  Vedangas;  Bhrgu's  son,  of 
Nltivastra,  law ;  Narada,  of  music ;  Bharadvaja,  of  the  sci- 
ence of  arms  (particularly  archery)  ;  Gfirgya,  of  tiiles  of 
the  doings  of  seers  (devar^icarita)  ;  and  Kraiiatrcya,  of  med- 
icine (cikitsita).  They  are  all  contrasted  with  other  Nviiya- 
tantmni,  which  like  these  were  created  at  the  beginning  of 
the  aeon  as  an  aid  in  understanding  Brahman  (ex{)ounded  by 
hetu,  agama,  and  satlacara,  or  reason,  faith,  and  common  con- 
sent of  gocxl  men,  ib.  22).  It  is  noteworthy  tluit  Narada,  not 
HharaUu  is  found  in  this  connection,  and  tliat  Krsnatix*ya 
takes  tlie  place  elsewhere  given  to  Bharailvaja. 

Of  the  first  of  these  subsidiary  Vedas,  the  epic  naturally 
gives  little  information,  though  burtlened  with  much  medici- 
nal knowle<lge  which  may  be  referred  to  some  uucited  work 
on  medit'ine.  Native  scholars  imagine  tliat  the  correspond- 
ing riKinwhiul  i>assiges  im{)ly  the  circulation  of  the  bl(X)d, 
also  thought  to  be  recorded  in  xii,  ISo,  15,  pnusthitTi  hnlayat 
.  .  .  vahanti  annarasiln  nadyah :  "  The  veins  c(mvey  (all  over 

voald  •ajrir«*«t  that  rpani«hii<l  it  a  fort  of  SQtrn,  for  hert*  n  Rpirit  in  NummoncMl 
hy  iDcmn*  of  •*  wMmtrat  dt^cUred  by  Hrhmpati  and  rvatiAn ;  hy  thoM*  tlcdarfd 
In  the  Atharra  Vt-da ;  and  by  r\U*n  in  the  rpantuhAi)."  yi^  ro  'pani«adi  kriyah. 
I  am  Dot  certain  how  to  interpret  pafhyate  »tuti)>ht9  cii  Va  TiMiopaniwailim 
fVMiA  xii.  *iHr>.  \2n. 

>  Thaa  the  architect,  pOtradhlra.  vthapati,  is  rintuTidyiri^irada.  i.  Til.  15 
(tbe  •AtrakarroaTivIrada  of  C.  ii. 87, 1).  An^hitiHtural  (/intm*  an-  mmtionvd 
ia  i.  IM,  K^ll.  As  a  fourth  to  the  threi*  it  elurwhere  •<•!  the  Arthavii^tra. 
The«e  at  a  irmup  are  added  to  the  other  ridy.1i*  {fn-v  note  )k>Iow  on  tlu>  nixiy^ 
tour  artf  and  fourteen  tciencet).  But  in  the  epic%  ArthaviUtra  it  not  gruuiH*U 
vitb  the  I'lMiTedAa. 


12  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

the  body)  the  food-essences,  starting  from  the  hrdaya"  (heart 
or  chest).  But  a  direct  citation  is  the  allusion,  under  the 
cover  of  an  "it  is  said,"  to  the  constituents  pitta,  gle^man, 
vayu  (also  vata,  pitta,  kapha),  which  make  the  threefold 
body,  tridhatu,  according  to  the  Aryurvedins.^  In  the  epic 
Khila  and  in  the  Kaccit  and  eleventh  chapters  of  Sabha,  both 
late  additions  to  the  epic,^  the  science  of  medicine  is  said  to 
have  eight  branches  (ii,  5,  90;  11,  25).  Possibly  in  iii,  71, 
27, 9^1ihotra  may  represent  the  veterinary  science  of  iv,  12,  7. 
The  Dhanur  Veda,  literally  Veda  of  the  bow,  is  often 
joined  with  the  regular  Vedas,  as  is  to  be  expected  in  epic 
poetry,  ix,  44,  21-22,  etc.  It  is  called  also  isvastra,  weapons, 
and  is  said  to  be  fourfold  and  to  have  ten  divisions.  In  the 
Kaccit  chapter  just  referred  to  it  is  said  to  have  a  Sutra  like 
other  Vedas,  and  at  the  time  this  was  written  it  is  very  prob- 
able that  such  was  the  case,  though,  as  I  have  shown  else- 
where, the  knight's  study  of  Dhanur  Veda  consists  in  prac- 
tice not  in  study  of  books.  This  Bow- Veda,  archery,  is 
opposed  sometimes  to  the  four  Vedas  alone,  sometimes  to 
the  Upanishads  and  Brahma  Veda,  while  on  the  other  hand 
it  is  associated  with  various  Sutras,  arts,  and  NltiQustras. 
The  priority  of  Dhanur  Veda  in  the  phrase  dhanurvede  ca 
vede  ca,  found  in  both  epics,  is  due  partly  to  metrical  con- 
venience and  partly  to  the  greater  importance  of  this  Veda 
in  the  warrior's  education:*  na  tasya  vedadhyayane  tatha 
buddhir  ajayata  3ratha  'sya  buddhir  abhavad  dhanurvede, 
"His  intelligence  was  more  developed  in  learning  how  to 
use  a  bow  than  in  perusing  holy  texts,'*  i,  180,  8 ;  dhanur- 

1  xii,  S43,  86-87 :  pittaih  ^lesmS  ca  rSyng  ca  esa  samghSta  ucjate,  etli^ 
ca  dharyate  jantur  etSih  k8inai9  ca  ksiyate,  aTurvedavidaa  tasmat  tridha- 
tum  mam  pracaksate.  Compare  ri,  84,  41,  cited  in  PW.,  and  also  xiv,  12, 
8,  (itosne  cai  Va  tIju^  ca  gnnah  .  .  .  ^arirajah,  whose  equality  is  health 
(N.  kaphapitte).    Some  notes  on  epic  anatomy  will  be  given  later. 

^  Tlic  lateness  of  the  Kaccit  chapter  I  have  discussed  elsewhere,  Am. 
Jonm.  Phil.,  rol.  xix,  p.  147  fif.  A  noteworthy  statement  on  disease  is  that 
of  xii,  16,  0,  which  attributes  all  mental  disease  to  the  body  and  all  bodily 
disease  to  the  mind, manasaj  jayate  garirah  (ryadhih),  "bodily  ailment  arises 
from  mental  (ailment)." 

*  The  same  is  partially  true  of  atharravede  rede  ca,  xiii,  10,  ST^  etc 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO   THE  EPIC  POETS.        13 

Tedaparatvat,  ib.  4.^  It  is  the  K^atra  Veda  or  knightly  science 
par  excellence,  R.  i,  65,  23  (with  Brahma  Veda). 

The  science  of  music,  Gandharva  Veda,  consists  according 
to  iii»  91,  14,  in  the  knowledge  of  singing,  dancing,  chanting, 
and  playing  on  musical  instruments,  gitam  nrtyam  ca  sama 
ca  vaditram  ca,  not  including  apparently  the  Nafasutra  or 
manual  for  actors  mentioned  by  Panini.  The  seven  musical 
scales,  vani  saptavidlia,  ii,  11,  34,  are  a  branch  of  study. 
The  three  notes  of  the  drum  are  spoken  of  ^  and  tlie  names 
of  the  notes  of  the  regular  scale,  gamut,  are  given.  Further 
citations  in  this  regard  will  be  made  hereafter. 

These  Upavedas  are  associated  with  the  chief  Vedas  (vedalji 
and  upavedah,  vii,  202,  75,  etc.),  much  as  are  the  Vedangas, 
Upanishads,  and  Tales,  and  are  distinguished  as  well  from  the 
^Sstras  and  Sutras  mentioned  in  the  piissage  already  noticed, 
ii,  1 1,  32-33,  though  (J^Tistra  is  a  general  term  including  Upa- 
veda.  The  Aiigas  are  the  customary  six  mentioned  above, 
and  are  generally  referred  to  as  in  i,  104, 12,  vedam  ^aflingaih 
pratyadhlyata ;  or  witliout  number,  as  in  i,  15G,  5,  brahmaih 
vedam  adhlyilna  vedaagani  ca  sarva^a^,  nlti^astram  ca  sarva- 
jfiah.*  These  again  have  their  subsidiary  branches,  Upangas, 
ve<lah  saiigopangab  savistanih,  iii,  64,  17  ;  U^anas'  and  Brha- 
8pati*8  ^^tra  with  Augas  and  Upangas,  i,  100,  36-38.  The 
similarity  of  phrase  in  iii,  99,  26  and  elsewhere,  vedah  saiigo- 
pani^lai^  might  suggest  that  Ui>aiigas  were  U^ianishads,  but 
they  are  more  probably  a  species  of  U{)avedas.     The  term  is 

»  ThU  Veda  it  comUntlj  mentioned,  e.  g.  i.  130,  21 ;  221,  72  ;  iii,  .T7,  4 ;  Ix, 
6,  14,  da^ifigam  ja^  catu»pidam  ifTastram  Te<Ia  tattratah,  »ifigani  tu  caturo 
redin  tamjag  ikhTJUiapaAcainin.  The  phra»e  dhanurrcKle  ca  rtnle  ca  iK^cun, 
for  example,  in  i,  100.  10.  In  R.  r. .%,  14.  Rima  U  dt^ribed  as  "  traine<l  in 
th«  Vajar  Veda  .  .  .  and  fkillei]  in  dhanurrc<Ie  ca  Tede  ca  Teilifigeiiu  ca  (tho 
Tajtar  Veda  onlj,  to  which  Vilniiki  belongo<l,  in  here  mentioned).  Kl»i>whero 
the  iciroce  takea  ita  proper  place,  aa  in  M.  iii.  277.  4,  Te<lefU  larahaarefu  dh*- 
•ttrredefQ  piragah,  where  the  plaral  is  notewurthj. 

*  ill.  20,  10,  trihaimi  hanratim  eti  dunduhhih.  The  vini  madhurilipi, 
fweet-Toiced  Ijre,  is  spoken  of  as  gindharTam  sidhu  mOrrhati  {=  mQrcha- 
XaAti).  ir,  17,  14.  The  gindharram  is  the  third  note  of  the  seven,  xii.  184.  30 
=  lir.  60,  Sa. 

*  Compare  brihme  rede  ca  pirairah  contrasteil  with  astrintih  ca  dha- 
attrT«d«,  tU,  13,  30.    So  Brahma  Veda,  R.  i,  tlo,  23  (abore),  not  aa  A  V. 


14  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

one  associated  with  Jain  rather  than  early  Brahmanic  litera- 
ture, and  is  not  explained  by  the  commentator.^  Vedas, 
Pui-anas,  Angas,  and  Upangas  are  sometimes  grouped  to- 
gether, as  in  xii,  335,  25  (vede§u  sapurane§u  sangopiinge^u 
giyase,  the  prior  pada  found  again,  e.  g.  in  842,  6).  The 
Angas  commonly  mentioned  in  particular  are  the  calendar- 
knowledge,  JyotivSa,  and  etj'mology,  Niruktam.  The  latter 
word,  indeed,  generally  means  only  an  explanation  of  the 
meaning  of  a  word,  but  it  occurs  also  as  the  title  of  a  specific 
literary  work  in  xii,  843,  73,  where  we  find  mentioned  not 
only  "Yaska's  Nirukta,"  together  ^dth  Naighantuka,  but 
vocabularies  and  lexicographies.^  A  curious  contemplation 
of  Krishna  as  the  divine  sound  in  xii,  47,  46  analjTtes  him 
grammatically,  "with  joints  of  euphony  and  adorned  with 
vowels  and  consonants."* 

Astronomical  similes  are  not  infrequent.  Thus  Arjuna 
storms  about ''  like  Mars  in  his  orbit."  *  An  indication  tliat 
one  science  as  a  specialty  is  not  much  regarded  is  seen  in  the 

^  The  later  Upangas  are  the  Puranas  (and  upa-) ;  Logic,  nyaya  and  vai- 
(esika;  Philosophy  (including  Vedanta),  mimansa;  and  Law-books  (including 
Samkhya-yoga  and  epics),  dharma^astra.  The  epic  use,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  citation  above,  differentiates  Puranas  from  Angas  and  Upangas.  For  the 
later  meaning,  see  Weber  IS.  i,  p.  13. 

^  ib.  83, 88 :  naighantukapadakhyane,  niruktam  vedaviduso  Teda9abdartha- 
cintakah.  The  common  meaning,  "  explanation,"  may  be  surmised  in  xii,  340, 
50,  caturvaktro  niruktagah  (in  both  editions),  where  the  avagraha  is  certainly 
required,  "  inexplicable,"  despite  Taitt.  Up.  ii,  0. 

'  In  xiii,  17,  111  (where  siddhartha,  according  to  Nilakantha,  is  siddhanta), 
(ira  is  siddharthakari  siddliartha9  chandoTyakaranottarah.  Kalpa  and 
Jyotisa  are  united,  kalpaprayoga  and  jyotisa,  in  xiii,  10,  37.  In  ii,  4,  18, 
Kalapa  and  Katha  are  mentioned;  in  R.  (not  G.)  ii,  32,  18,  the  Kathakalapas 
(after  the  acaryas  taittiriyanam  in  15).  M.  and  G.  (only)  have  Qandilya  and 
Kauyika  (with  Gargya  in  G.)  in  the  same  list,  and  M.  has  Tittiri  (witli  YajHa- 
ralkya).  In  M.  they  are  vedavedangaparagah ;  in  R.,  vedaparagah.  R.  calls 
Trijata  (Piugala)  a  Gargya  in  20  (Angirasa  in  G. ;  cf.  R.  33). 

*  riii,  19,  1,  vakrativakragamanad  augaraka  iva  grahah.  Compare  budh- 
ingarakayor  iva  (a  battle-phrase).  The  Vedaiigas  and  Upa  vedas  are  often 
grouped  together,  as  in  i,  1, 07,  where  (iksa,  phonetics,  is  grouped  with  nyaya, 
rules,  and  cikitsa,  medicine.  In  i,  70,  40-44,  the  same  passage  where  pada 
and  krania  are  mentioned  (above),  ^abda  (samskara),  v^^?^*  chandas,  nirukta 
and  kalajftana  are  found  with  philosophy.  A  priest  who  is  (iksaksaramantra- 
Tit  gets  gold  niskas,  etc.,  ili,  23,  2 ;  30,  42. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO   THE  EPIC  POETS,        15 

fact  that  the  cultivator  of  the  Upaveda  medicine  and  of  the 
An^  astmlogy  are  both  excluded  from  society,  although  it 
should  be  added  that  tlie  man  intended  is  one  who  "  lives  by 
the  stars,"  nak^itruir  ya<j  ca  jivati.  Such  a  fortune-teller  is 
classed  with  rha|>8odes  and  physicians,  xiii,  90, 11.  The  diffi- 
culty of  reconciling  the  data  of  astrology  (fortune-telling)  and 
the  theor}'  of  Karma  is  alluded  to  in  iii,  209,  21 :  "  Many  are 
seen  to  be  bom  under  the  same  lucky  star,  but  there  is  a 
great  difference  in  their  fate."  The  most  8iu*[)rising  astro- 
nomical statement  in  the  epic  is  to  the  effect  that  stars  are 
really  very  large  and  only  apj^ear  small  on  account  of  their 
distiince.*  The  kalajFlfina  or  ''knowledge  of  time,"  already 
menti(me(U  is  attributed  esiKJcially  to  Garga,  who,  as  Weber, 
Lectures,  p.  237,  has  notice<l,  is  associated  with  Kalayavana: 
**  Kalayavana  who  is  endued  with  Garga's  (brilliancy  or) 
power,"  xii,  340,  95.  This  same  Garga  is  credited  not  only 
with  liaving  kiilajflanagati  and  jyoti^iam  vyatikrama,  ''thor- 
ough knowledge  of  times  and  mastery  of  science  of  stars," 
ix,  37,  14-16,  but  also  with  kalajflana,  or  the  fine  arts.  That 
the  epic  has  a  different  order  of  planets  from  that  of  the 
ihinl  centurj'  A.  I>.  has  already  been  ob8er\'ed  by  Jacobi.* 

The  I'jKivedas,  however,  {Kiss  the  Vedic  stiige.  There  re- 
mains a  word  to  say  on  the  older  Sutras,  to  which  may  be 
aiidtMl  an  account  of  thase  more  frequently  mentioned  Sutras 
and  other  treatises  which  are  quite  beyond  the  Vedic  {)ale. 

Sutras. 

A  Vedasutra,  apparently  a  i^rautasutra,  but  [>erhaii8  only 
\Vda  in  grneral,'  is  mentioned  once,  in  xii,  841,  r»3.  (Jrhya- 
sutnM  an'  not  mentioned  by  name,  but  may  be  implied  in  the 
wi»nl  Veda,  as  will  l)e  seen  in  the  quotiititm  given  1k»1ow. 
Tlie  Dharmasutras  are  apparently  implied  in  one  jKUssage  of 

1  dlpftvad  Tipnikrt|atTit  UnQni  fumahilnty  apt  (tirirOpini).  iii,  42,  M. 

•  ZI)M(t.  ToL  XXX,  p.  307;  lloltzmann,  Dan  Mbh.  vol.  \r,  p.  114. 

•  Thr  Kttpn»ine  Ixinl  aari  that  the  c<m1  who  jjivfi  him  a  than*  jrotn  hr  the 
VotiVm  cracr  a  corrrtpondiDg  (ViMja-airangiHl)  aacriflcial  tharv  in  (i.  v.  accord* 
laf  to)  the  Vedaaatim. 


16  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

the  thirteenth  book,  where  a  Sutrakara  in  one  verse  corre- 
sponds to  Yedas  in  the  next,  in  a  passage  cited  from  the 
Mait.  Sanihita  and  Law-books  (see  below);  and  in  another, 
where  aQaknuvanta^  caritum  kimcid  dharme^u  sutritam,  ^^  un- 
able to  do  what  is  siUrified  in  the  laws,"  xii,  270,  86,  must 
refer  to  the  general  class  of  legal  Sutras.  The  Gita,  13,  4, 
mentions  the  Brahmasutra,  which  is  probably  nothing  but 
an  equivalent  of  Vedasutxa,  that  is,  equivalent  to  Veda  in 
general ;  but  it  may  be  one  of  the  late  marks  of  this  poem 
(the  Brahmasutra  being  otherwise  unknown  before  the  Hari- 
van^a)  and  mean  the  philosophical  Sutra.^  Sutrakaras  and 
Sutrakartars,  "  who  will  arise,"  ai-e  mentioned  prophetically 
a  few  times  in  the  didactic  epic.^ 

Profane  Sutras  are  jumbled  together  in  one  of  the  latest 
stanzas  of  the  Kaccit  chapter,  ii,  5,  120,  to  which  I  have 
alluded  before  >  "  Dost  thou  understand  the  Sutras  on 
elephants,  horses,  chariots,  catapults,  and  the  Dhanurveda 
Sutra?" 

As  early  as  Panini  there  were  Sutras  of  all  sorts  and  the 
mention  of  such  works  has  only  the  special  value  of  indicat- 
ing that  the  epic  belongs  to  a  time  when  Sutra  meant  works 
which  were  probably  popular  and  not  written  in  aphoristic 
style.  They  were  doubtless  the  same  as  the  various  ^Sistra 
and  other  treatises  to  which  reference  is  often  made.  Some 
of  these  works  are  called  ^Sstras  and  are  grouped  with  the 
fine  arts  mentioned  above  as  known  to  Garga.  Artha^astra 
and  Kama^astra,  by-names  of  the  epic  itself,  are  mentioned 
in  the  late  introduction  to  the  whole  work.  Tlie  fine  arts, 
kalas,  are  mentioned  or  implied  in  three  places.  First  the 
slave-girls  of  Yudhisthira  are  said,  at  ii,  61,  9-10,  to  be 
**  versed  in  dancing  and  songs,"  samasu,  and  "  skilled  in  the 

^  In  xii,  .^7,  31,  there  is  mentioned  a  Moksa^Sstra,  inspired  by  githSh  porS 
gitih,  a  treatise  which  is  based  on  verses  recited  {by  Yayati)  in  regard  to 
proper  behaTior,  and  it  is  partly  philosophical. 

^  xiii,  14,  101-104,  granthakara,  sutrakarta  (bhari87ati),granthakrt;  16,70, 
tfltrakartar.  In  xii,  245,  30,  svayastrasutrahutimantrarikramah,  sQtra  may 
be  the  tliread  (a  brahma-sutra  as  elsewhere),  but  in  the  connection  seemi 
more  likely  to  mean  Sutra. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.       17 

sixty-four,"  which  muflt  imply  the  sixty-four  kalas.  Then 
Garga,  who  knows  kalajiiana  and  omens,  utpatas,  is  also 
acquainted  with  kalajiiana  catut^isastyauga,  xiii,  18,  38,  which 
shows  that  the  fine  arts  were  not  exclusively  for  women 
and  slaves ;  as  is  also  indicated  by  the  passage  xiii,  104, 
149  fif.,  where,  as  befitting  a  king  to  know,  are  mentioned 
treatises  on  logic  (or  behavior?),  on  grammar,  on  music, 
and  the  fine  arts ;  and  to  hear.  Legends,  Tales,  and  adven- 
tures of  the  saints.^  It  is  interesting  to  see  that  these 
**  sixty-four  arts,**  still  typical  of  culture,  are  proverbial  in 
India  to-day.  A  Maratlii  proverb  says  cauda  vidya  va  cau- 
sa^t^  kala,  ^^  fourteen  sciences  and  sixty-four  arts."  ^ 

Dharziia9S8tras. 

But  if  Sutra  literature,  except  in  the  few  instances  cited 
above,  is  practically  ignored,  all  the  more  fully  is  ^istra* 
and  particularly  Dharma^astra  literature  recognized;  wliich 
I  may  say  at  the  outset  shows  that  the  later  epic  was 
composed  under  the  influence  of  Dharma^astras  rather  than 
of  Dharmasutras. 

The  general  term  Nitifastra,  code  of  polity,  has  already 
been  noticed.  A  number  of  such  codes  is  recognized,  xii, 
138,  196,  and  Dharma(9astras)  are  cited  not  infrequently; 

1  7iikti9i«traiii  ca  te  Jffeyam  9abda9i«tnim  ca,  Bh£rmU,  gindharTa9i«tnira 
ea  kalih  pariJBeji,  naridhipa ;  purinam  itihiai^  ca  tathi  1(h>'inini  yln\  m, 
Bahitmaiiiiii  ca  caritam  9rotaTjam  nityam  era  tc.  The  711k ti^ii tram  U  not 
•zjkUincd.  According  to  I'W.,  it  U  a  maooal  of  etiquette,  but  perhaps  logic ; 
poMibI/  the  unique  sjttem  of  logic  and  rhetoric  developed  bj  Sulabha  in 
xii,  321.  78  ff. 

<  Manwaring.  Martthi  Prorerbt.  No.  1176.  This  is  late.  Cf.  Yijfi.  i.  3; 
aod  VijQ  Purina,  Ixi,  7^79.  In  the  Utter  passage,  the  four  Vedas.  six  AQgas, 
MimliUI,  Nji/a,  Dbarma^istra  and  I'urina  make  the  *'  fourteen  ridjris  "  or 
"eighteen"  including  the  three  Tpavedas  and  the  Arthavlstra. 

*  Or  Smfti,  but  this  word  seems  of  wide  bearing.  Just  as  igama  (abore) 
iadodcs  more  than  Veda,  so  Smrti  includes  all  tradition.  In  xii,  200,  30, 
■Mhismrii  and  anasmrti  seem  to  be  interpreted  hy  the  commentator  as  Samhi- 
tia  and  Vedifigas  (with  Manu  and  others)  respectirelj,  but  his  first  wortls 
■Mj  rrfer  to  the  inferred  Veda  of  the  preceding  Japaka  (the  reciters  of  lM>th 
go  ipeo  facto  to  hearen).  Besides  Manu  (abore),  Varna,  Afigiras,  Drhaspati, 
Ujaaaa,  and  Parftfara  are  tpecialljr  cited  as  law-giycrt. 

% 


18  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

while  a  general  rule  is  given  as  a  Dharma-^asana,  e.  g.,  i, 

72,15: 

Three  fathers  have  we,  for  e'en  thus 

Lau^s  statute  says,  't  is  meet 
To  call  our  sire,  and  who  saves  life, 
And  him  whose  food  we  eat. 

Manu's  Dharmagastra  is  referred  to  under  that  name  only 
in  one  of  the  latest  books  of  the  pseudo-epic.  In  the  early 
books  his  Rajadharmas  are  once  mentioned,  iii,  85,  21,  which 
might  imply  a  chapter  of  our  present  code,  but  otherwise 
only  his  Dharmas  are  referred  to,  though  generally  merely  an 
ipse  dixit  of  Manu  is  cited,  which,  however,  is  often  a  dic- 
tum opposed  to  the  actual  words  of  the  extant  Manu  text. 
The  epic  poets  do  not  always  recognize  Manu  as  in  any  wise 
supreme,  often  not  even  as  prominent.  A  typical  example  is 
furnished  by  iii,  150,  29 :  *'  Gods  are  upheld  by  Vedic  sacri- 
fices; men  are  upheld  by  the  laws  (not  of  Manu  but)  of 
U^anas  and  Brhaspati."  ^  But  in  xii,  336,  39-45,  a  primeval 
code,  anu^asana,  of  100,000  ^lokas,  gives  rise  to  the  "  laws 
which  Manu  the  self-existent  will  declare  and  Ufanas  and 
Brhaspati,"  where  there  is  a  clear  reference  to  the  code  of 
Manu ;  as  in  the  next  stanza,  where  are  mentioned  the  ^^laws 
of  the  Self-existent,  the  (^Txstr^L  made  by  U9anas  and  the  opin- 
ions of  Brhaspati "  (a  ^astram  sangopani^adam,  54).^ 

The  mere  order  of  names,  however,  is  no  more  indicative 
of  priority  than  in  the  case  of  the  Vedas  mentioned  above. 
Another  list  of  Raja^astr^pranetaras  at  xii,  58,  1-3,  13, 
begins  with  Brhaspati  and  U^anas  (Kavya,  cited  with  two 
gathas  at  xii,  139,  70),  and  then  follows  Pracetasa  Manu, 
Bharadvaja,  and  Gaura^iras,  with  the  gods  between.  So  in 
the  next  section,  59,  81  ff.,  ^^va  reduces  Brahman's  work, 

*  So  in  iv,  68, 6,  BhSradvaja  was  **  equal  to  U^anas  in  intelligence,  to  Brha- 
spati in  politj/'  naya ;  ix,  CI,  48 :  "  Hare  you  not  heard  the  instructions, 
upade9a,  of  Brhaspati  and  U9ana8V;  xii,  122,  11:  "You  hare  perused  the 
opinions,  matam,  of  Brhaspati,  and  the  (^astra  of  U9anas,"  as  the  authorities 
generally  recognized.  BharadvSja  has  three  r6lts  in  the  epic,  as  archetypical 
jurist,  physician,  and  teacher  of  arms,  according  to  the  passage. 

a  Compare  xii,  60,  80,  £f. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO   THE  EPIC  POETS.       19 

which  in  turn  is  reduced  by  Indra,  as  the  l^hudantaka,  and 
then  by  Kavya  Yogacarya,  a  work  wliich  embraces  Itihasas, 
Ve<Ias,  and  Nyaya  (141)  or  laws. 

More  important  is  the  fact  that  references  to  Manu*s  laws 
in  the  early  books  are  seldom  verifiable  in  our  present  code, 
while  references  in  the  didactic  epic  more  often  than  not  cor- 
respond to  {)assages  of  the  extant  text.*  Hence  it  may  be 
inferred  that  that  part  of  the  epic  which  agrees  most  closely 
in  its  citations  with  our  code  is  later  than  that  portion  which 
does  not  coincide,  or,  conversely,  that  the  text  of  Manu  was 
8ha|ied  into  its  present  form  between  the  time  of  the  early 
epic  and  that  of  the  dichictic  epic.  In  the  first  ^yeriod,  when 
Manu*8  Dharma4;astra  was  unknown,  Manu  was  merely  a 
name  to  conjure  with.  The  verses  thus  ascribed  to  Manu 
were  not  all  put  into  the  code  when  it  was  formed  and  for 
this  reason  the  earlier  citations  are  not  generally  found  in 
our  text.  Some  of  them  were  adopted,  however,  and  the 
later  epic  writers  therefore  agree  more  closely  with  the  (^is- 
tra  as  it  is  to-day;  though  no  one  who  understands  how 
works  are  enlarged  in  India  will  expect  to  find  all  the  quota- 
tions verified,  even  in  the  later  epic,  for  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  code  was  exactly  the  same  two  thousand 
years  ago  as  it  is  to-day.  But  in  fact,  out  of  eleven  quota- 
tions from  Manu  in  the  thirteenth  book,  there  is  onlv  one 
which  does  not  corres{X)nd  with  our  Manu  text,  and  this  is 
of  a  general  character,  to  the  effect  that  a  friiddha  with  tila 
is  undecaying,  **  said  Manu."  " 

1  So  in  the  RiroijanA  there  are  two  cTidentlj  interpolated  chapters  at  \r, 
17  and  18.  Rima  in  the  tubnequent  chapters  it  incidentally  chari;ed  (with 
gjrmi  tntth)  with  haring  rioiatcd  crory  kni}(htly  rule  in  ulaytng  Vili.  To 
offaet  thb  clear  caae  of  tin  on  the  part  of  the  dirine  hero,  a  formal  charge 
and  defence  is  inserted  (Juft  the  procedure  in  the  Mahibhirata !)  in  chapters 
which  metricailj  belong  to  the  classical  period,  so  close  is  the  adherence  to 
vipoli  rale.  Jost  here  it  is  that  ^fakund  gitau  ^fol-iu  arc*  cited,  rix.,  Manu, 
riii,  318  and  316  (inrerte<l  order),  almost  rerhatim.  Klsewhere  Man*!  is  a 
aafe  merelj,  not  a  cited  law-girer,  as  here,  iv,  18,  30-31  (without  reference  to 
Mann  in  G.).  These  chapters  nee<]  no  further  proof  than  the  reading  to  show 
their  tme  character.  Thej  are  simply  banal,  espt^cially  Hima*s  spi>ech.  aa 
wM  aa  cootradictorj  in  tubttance  to  the  preceding  and  following  chapters. 


20  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

In  a  previous  discussion  of  this  subject  in  the  Journal  Am. 
Or.  Soc.  xi,  p.  239  ff.  (where  will  be  found  more  data  on  the 
subject  of  legal  literature  in  the  epic),^  in  order  not  to  force 
my  argument  I  included  as  unverified  a  quotation  at  xiii,  65, 
3,  "  Manu  said  that  the  highest  gift  is  something  to  drink," 
paniyam  paramam  danam,  because  it  was  in  connection  with 
Tirthas.  In  this  I  was  certainly  over-scrupulous,  for  the 
words  could  easily  refer  to  the  passage  I  there  cited  from 
Manu,  iii,  202,  vary  api  ^raddhaya  dattam  ak^yayo  'pakalpate, 
**even  water  given  with  faith  fits  for  immortality.'*  I  can 
now  add  to  this  another  quotation,  xiii,  67,  19,  toyado  .  . . 
ak^ayan  samavapnoti  lokan  ity  abravin  Manuh,  "  a  giver  of 
water  obtains  imperishable  worlds."  Further,  I  rejected  as 
unverifiable  the  statement  that  Manu  said  the  king  gets  a 
fourth  part  of  the  sin  of  the  people  (instead  of  the  usual 
sixth),  although,  as  I  pointed  out,  this  proportion  actually 
occurs  in  Manu,  only  it  is  for  a  specific  occasion.  Neverthe- 
less as  Manu,  viii,  18,  says  pado  rajanam  arhati  (or  rcchati), 
it  is  clear  that  the  quotation  caturtham  etc.  in  xiii,  61,  34 
cannot  be  said  to  be  "  unverifiable."  It  is  simply  a  free  ren- 
dering verbally  of  a  statement  actually  found  in  Manu.^ 
^  We  have  here  the  incontrovertible  fact  that,  while  the 
other  books  of  the  epic  before  .the  thirteenth  in  giving  quo- 

^  For  example,  the  fabulous  books  of  divine  origin  of  xii,  59, 80  fit.  (like  the 
origin  of  Narada's  law-book),  called  Barhaspatja,  etc.,  according  to  the  dia- 
dochos ;  the  "  law  and  commentary,"  savaiyakho  dharmah,  of  xii,  37, 10,  etc. 
(pp.  254  and  248),  and  other  points  to  which  I  maj  refer  the  reader  without 
further  remark  than  the  references  already  given. 

^  Besides  the  quotation  given  above  from  the  thirteenth  book  and  verifiable 
in  our  present  code,  I  may  add  iii,  02, 10 :  "  By  Manu  and  others  (it  is  said 
that?)  going  to  Urthas  removes  fear,"  manvadibhir  mahSraja  tirthayatrS 
bhayapahS,  if  this  be  the  meaning,  which  is  rather  doubtful.  In  any  caxe 
it  only  adds  one  more  to  the  unverified  citations  from  the  early  books,  but 
it  may  mean  only  that  Manu  and  others  have  journeyed  to  Tirthas.  Compare 
also  xii,  260,  5,  sarvnkarmasv  ahinsi  hi  dharmatma  Manur  abravit,  **  Manu 
the  righteous  proclaimed  that  one  should  not  injure  (animals)  at  any  cere- 
mony." From  the  context,  killing  cattle  at  a  sacrifice  is  here  reprobated. 
This  is  a  perversion  for  sectarian  purposes  of  Manu*s  rule  v,  43,  na  'vedavi- 
hitarii  hinsam  ipady  api  samacaret,  to  which  perversion  some  color  might  be 
given  by  the  following  verses,  which  speak  harshly  of  all  injury  to  living 
creatures.    I  think  no  other  quotations  from  Manu  will  be  found  in  the  epic 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.       21 

tations  from  Manu  agree  with  our  present  text  of  Manu  only 
in  one  third  to  one  half  the  instances,  the  tliirteenth  book  has 
eleven  citations,  of  which  ten  agree  with  the  statements  of 
our  code.  To  this  must  be  added  the  fact  that  only  the  thii^ 
teenth  book  recognizes  ^*  the  ^Estra  declared  by  Manu."  I  do 
not  know  any  other  literature  where  such  facts  would  not  be 
accepted  as  of  historical  importance,  and  they  have  been  so 
regarded  here  by  competent  scholars.  In  the  opinion  which 
I  first  set  forth  in  1885,  the  late  Professor  Biihler  in  general 
concurred,  though  inclined  to  believe  that  the  authoi-s  of  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  books  did  not  know  the  identical 
^Sstra  which  we  have  to-day.  As  Professor  Biihler's  position 
has  not  always  been  cited  with  the  reservations  made  by  him, 
I  will  cite  his  own  words :  ^^  It  remains  indisputable  that 
the  author  or  authors  of  the  first,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth 
Parvans  of  the  Mahabharata  knew  a  Manava  Dharma^dstra 
which  was  closely  connected  but  not  identical  with  the  ex- 
isting text,"  Manu  p.  Ixxix,  and  again :  "  The  answer  which 
we  are  thus  obliged  to  give  to  the  question  whence  the  author 
of  our  Manu-Smrti  took  his  additional  materials  agrees  very 
closely  with  Professor  Hopkins'  hyj>othe8i9,"  p.  xci.  Never- 
tbele:«^  despite  this  admission.  Professor  Biihler,  by  a  line  of 
argument  which  is  based  chiefly  on  the  lack  of  absolute 
identity,  assumes  finally  that  the  authors  of  the  epic  *^  knew 
only  the  Dharma^sutra,"  ib.  p.  xcviii.  The  arguments  other 
than  the  lack  of  total  identity  are,  first,  that  Manu  shows  an 
acquaintance  with  the  epic  because  he  says  tluit  in  a  former 
kal|ja  the  vice  of  gambling  has  been  seen  to  cause  great  en- 
mity; in  regard  to  which  Professor  Biihler  says:  "This  asser- 
tion can  only  j»oint  in  the  first  instance  to  t!ie  match  played 
between  Yudhisthini  and  Duryotlhana,*'  p.  Ixxx.  But  why 
not  to  the  story  of  Nalji,  as  Professor  Biihler  himself  sugi^vsts, 
or  any  other  stor)*  of  dicing  rt*sulting  in  ^'enmity  "  which  may 
have  preceded  our  epic?  Another  argument  is,  tliat  legends 
rrferre<l  to  in  the  (^listra  are  found  in  the  e[»i(%  iK  But  it  is 
of  the  verj'  character  of  the  epir  that  it  rontiins  many  ancient 
legends,  gathered  from  all  sourci^.     It  does  not  follow  in  the 


22  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

least  that  Manu  took  them  from  the  epic.  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  important  to  observe  that  in  no  such  passage  does  Manu 
refer  a  single  one  of  them  to  an  epic  source.  Thirdly,  it  is 
claimed  that  the  passages  parallel  in  epic  and  ^]lastra  often 
have  verses  in  a  different  order,  with  omissions,  etc.,  that,  in 
short,  they  are  not  actual  copies  one  of  the  other.  But  Pro- 
fessor Biihler  himself  has  shown  that  "the  existing  text  of 
Manu  has  suffered  many  recasts,"  p.  xcii,  so  that  we  do  not 
know  the  form  of  the  ^a-sti-a  to  which  the  epic  explicitly  refers 
and  from  which  it  cites  as  the  ^^tra  set  forth  by  Manu.  For 
my  part,  it  still  is  impossible  for  me  to  believe  that  when  the 
pseudo-epic,  in  particular  the  Anu9asana,  refers  to  9^tras,^ 
and  cites  correctly  from  "  Manu's  ^Sstra,"  it  really  knows 
only  Suti-as. 

A  Manava  Dharmagastra,  specifically,  must  from  the  evi- 
dence be  regarded  as  older  than  the  later  epic  but  later  than 
the  early  epic,  which  knew  only  a  mass  of  royal  and  general 
rules,  dharmas,  generally  ascribed  to  Father  Manu  but  differ- 
ent from  those  in  our  extant  ^Sstra.  With  this  result  too 
agrees  the  fact  that  the  metrical  form  of  the  extant  code  is 
distinctly  earlier  than  that  of  the  later  epic.  Not  unimpor- 
tant, finally,  is  the  circumstance  that  the  extant  code  only 
vaguely  refers  to  epic  Tales,  but  recognizes  neither  of  the 
epics,  only  legends  that  are  found  in  the  epics.  In  all  prob- 
ability the  code  known  to  the  later  epic  was  not  quite  our 

^  In  xii,  341, 74,  are  mentioned  "  teachers  in  Dharmayastras,"  acarya  dliarma- 
9:l8tre8u ;  in  xiii,  61,  34,  Manu's  anu9a8ana ;  in  xiii,  47,  36,  "  the  9^>tra  com- 
posed by  Manu,"  manuna  "bhihitam  (astram ;  in  xiii,  45, 17, "  those  that  know 
law  in  the  law-books,"  dharnia9astresu  dharmajHah,  in  reference  to  the  sub- 
ject discussed  in  Manu  iii,  62-o3 ;  iv,  88.  Similarly,  xiii,  19,  89.  In  most  cases 
here  ^astras  are  the  authority,  which  in  iii,  313, 105,  are  set  beside  the  Vedaa 
as  two  standard  authorities.  In  the  face  of  these  citations  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  Biihler's  words,  "  the  authors  .  .  .  knew  only  the  Dharmasutras," 
especially  as  the  words  contradict  what  he  says  in  the  same  essay  on  a 
diiTerent  page,  "  tlio  authors  .  .  .  knew  a  Manava  Dharmagastra  "  (loc.  cit. 
above).  It  has  seemed  to  me  that  the  great  scholar  was  unduly  influenced 
in  his  final  word  by  his  general  desire  to  put  back  the  epic  as  far  as  possi- 
ble. Professor  Iloltzmann,  who  has  collected  the  material,  loc.  cit.,  p.  116  fif., 
is  of  the  opinion  that  "our  Manavaadharmayastra  is  certainly  much  later 
than  the  older  parts  of  the  Mahabh&rata." 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO   THE  EPIC  POETS.       23 

present  code,  but  it  was  a  code  much  like  ours  and  ascribed 
to  Manu,  a  ^astra  which,  with  some  additions  and  omissions, 
such  as  all  popular  texts  in  India  suffer,  was  essentially  our 
present  text. 

Vedio  Citatioiui  in  the  Epic. 

We  have  now  reached  and  indeed  already  passed,  in  the 
notice  of  some  of  the  works  mentioned,  the  point  where  the 
e[uc  impinges  on  the  earlier  literature.  Before  going  further 
I  will  illustrate  the  statement  made  at  the  outset  tliat  the 
epic  cites  freely  or  parodies  Vedic  documents.  The  free 
reniUticm  in  Veda-like  verse  of  the  older  hymnology  is  not 
uncommon.  Thus  in  v,  16,  tlie  opening  hymn  is  not  strictly 
Ve<lic,  but  it  is  very  like  a  collection  of  Vedic  utterances  put 
into  [K>pular  form  and  these  verses  are  called  briihma  man- 
trah,  i^L  8.  Apart,  however,  from  such  instances  of  more  or 
li-ss  exact  imitation  of  general  Vedic  verses,^  we  find  a  num- 
ber of  verses  plainly  imitative  of  extant  Vedic  i)assages  or 
almost  exac*tly  reproducing  them.  This  applies  to  reproduc- 
tions or  imitations'  of  the  chief  Vedic  literature  from  the 
Rig  Veda  to  the  Sutras,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following 
examples : 

Rig  Veda  x,  117,  6, 

mogham  annaih  vindate  apracet&h 

'  Thrrp  arp,  of  coam*.  aUo  a  Taut  numl>er  of  Tcrict  nuch  m  i^iur  mo  miti 
▼rMMiah  piii  me,  introduced,  at  lii*ro,  with  the  flat  imim  ^nitim  udiiharet, 
ziii,  7(1,  (U7 ;  or  with  the  more  usual  ta|r,  iti  rrutih.  a*  for  example,  atniaro 
OiiAAakimi^  (ttarreil  in  pw.)  ca  itj  api  vrAjate  ^TUtih,  iii,  20H,  11;  or  with 
arona,  an  in  a«;Tiniu  to  tmrtiu  c^driu,  xii,  2f>H,  24 ;  an  wfll  at  such  phratn't 
•a  that  of  zir.  Al,  2fl,  yaf  lath  reda  la  Tedarit,  all  of  which  ri>fliH:t  the  lit«*ni- 
t«rr  of  the  earlier  perioiU. 

•  The  Vedic  Wi»rk  rootl  frequently  referred  to  it  the  Yajur  Ve<!a  Hymn, 
tritiupamam  brahma  yajutiih  CAtarudriyam,  lii,  'iSo,  1:{H;  tirhartHlac  ca  rv^ 
dUniin  yajuvim  vatarudriyam,  xiii,  14,  .123:  tad  brahma  vatarudriyam.  rii,  HI, 
13;  Tr«le  ci  *tya  tamtmnltam  ^atarudriyam  uttaniam,  Tii,  2<>2,  12<>:  prnan 
hrmlima  param  ^akrah  vatarudriyam  uttamam,  xiii,  14,  2K4.  It  it  imitate<l 
over  and  oyer  again,  an<l  tome  of  the  epic  hynint  call  themtelvet  by  the 
same  name,  a  fact  allude<l  to  in  the  word* :  Ti*«le  ci  'tya  Tidur  riprih  v^Ul* 
rvdrfjam  ttttamani,  VyUvoo  'kum  ca  yac  ci  'pi  upaathinam,  jluH,  1c)2,  A 


24  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Mbh.  V,  12,  20, 

mogham  annam  vindati  cfl  'pj  acet&h 

Bdhtlingk,  Spruch  4980. 
Rig  Veda  vii,  89,  2, 

drtir  na  dhmato,  adrivah 

• 

Mbh.  iii,  207,  47;  xii,  95,  21, 

mahadrtir  iva  'dhm&tah 

•  « 

(papo  bhavati  nityada,  iii,  207, 47) 
Rig  Veda  i,  10, 1, 

gayanti  tva  gayatrino  arcanti  arkam  arkinah 
brahmanas  tva  ^atakrato  ud  vanQam  iva  yemire 

Mbh.  xu,  285,  78, 

gayanti  tva  gayatrino  arcanti  arkam  arkinah 
brahmanam   tva   ^atakratum   tlrdhvam   kham   iva 
menire 
Holtzmann,  Das  Mahabharata,  iv,  p.  12 ;  also  for  the  following 
parallel,  p.  13: 

Rig  Veda  x,  129, 1-8, 

na  'sad  asin  no  sad  asid  tadanim  •  •  • 

no  ratria  ahna  asit  praketah  •  .  • 
tama  Sslt  tamasa  gdlham  agre 

Mbh.  xii,  348,  8, 

(nidarqanam  api  by  atra)  nasid  aho  na  ratrir  asIn  na  sad  asIn 
na  'sad  asIt,  tama  eva  purastad  abhavad  viQvartlpam 

Compare  also  with  Big  Veda,  i,  13, 4,  asi  hota  manurhitah,  Mbh. 
ib.  10-11, 

tvam  agne  yajfianam  hota  viQvesam  hito  devanam  manusauam 
ca  jagata  iti,  nidarqanam  ca  'tra  bhavati,  viqvesam  agne  yajfianam 
tvam  bote  'ti,  tvam  hito  devair  manusyair  jagata  iti 

Rig  Veda  x,  14, 1, 

vaivasvatam  samgamanam  jananam 

Mbh.  xiii,  102,  16, 

vaivasvati  samyamani  jananam 


..^ 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.       25 

Further,  with  Rig  Veda  i,  164,  46,  ekam  sad  vipra  bahu- 
dha  vadanti,  aad  x,  114,  6,  yipi§h  .  •  •  ekam  santam  bahu- 
dba  kalpayanti,  may  be  compared  Mbh.  (y,  16,  2,  and)  i,  282| 
13,  mani^inas  tvam  jananti  bahudha  cai  'kadha  'pi  ca.  In  xy, 
84,  11,  deyayana  hi  panthana^  f  rutas  te  yajfiasamstare  ^  is  an 
allusion  to  Rig  Veda  x,  18,  1 ;  while  in  xii,  812,  5,  dyava- 
pitliiyyor  iti  e^a  . . .  vede9u  pathj'ate,  the  citation  of  a  Vedic 
phrase  is  acknowledged;  whereas  in  the  epic  phrases  ma 
ririsah  and  bhuyanani  vigva,  yii,  201,  77,  no  indication  of 
V^c  origin  is  giyen. 

Taitt  Samliita  i,  16, 11, 1 ;  9at.  Br.  i,  5,  2, 16, 

ye  yaj&mahe 

Mbh.  ui,  180,  88, 

idam  draam  pram&nam  ca  ye  yajamaha  ity  api 

Compare  iii,  81,  22,  yasya  na  'r^am  pramanam  syat,  etc. 
Aufrecht,  apud  Muir,  OST.  i,  187.  Abo  Taitt.  S.  ii,  6,  1,  1 
is  repeated  yerbatim  Mbh.  xii,  848,  28,  as  shown  by  Weber, 
Ind*  Stud,  i,  p.  410. 

Mait  Samhita  i,  10, 11, 

stry  anrtam 

Mbh.  xiii,  40, 12  and  19,  6-7, 

•triyo  'nrtam  iti  qrutih;  anrtuh  striya  ity  eyam  ycdesT  apt 
hi  intbyate;  anrtfth  striya  ity  evaih  satrakAro  vyavasyati. 

Comi^are  Baudh.  Dh.  S.  ii,  3,  46,  with  Biihlcr's  note,  and 
Manu  ix,  18,  striyo  'nrtam  iti  sthitih  (y.  1.  grutih).  The 
double  reference  in  the  epic,  Sutrakura  and  Veilliiu  may  point 
to  the  same  place,  or  the  writer  may  have  lia<l  in  mind  a 
Sutra  i«assage  {Mirallel  to  Buudlulyana,  if  not  Buudhayana 
himself,  whose  text  here  is  corrupt. 

>  In  the  prrcHinK  rerve  it  cited  an  ac^^m^^hiKniti,  apropoc  of  the  m^r^ 
•unJiaiMna :  loklntnrmirati  nitram  prloi  nitvaih  vAiirinim.  Willi  the  text 
dted  atiore,  compare  dxlw  etiu  pretjra  panthiniu.  etc.,  xii,  320,  JO.  Th« 
Upnaiahada  would  tuflcc  to  explain  tome  of  these  phraaea. 


26  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Atharva  Veda?    Mbh.  xiii,  98,  30, 

osadhyo  raktapusp^  ca  katukah  kantak&nvit^  Qatrtln&iii 
abhicSxarthain  atharvesu  nidarQitdh;  yiii,  69,  83-86,  tvam  ity 
atra  bhavantam  hi  brQhi  .  .  .  tvam  ity  ukto  hi  uihato  gurus 
bhavati  .  .  .  atharvangirasl  hy  es&  qrutlnam  uttama  qrutih  •  •  • 
avadhena  vadhah  prokto  yad  gurus  tvam  iti  prabhuh.^ 

Ait.  Brah.  i,  1, 

agnir  vai  sarva  devatah 

Mbh.  xiv,  24, 10  (read  vedasya  ?), 

agnir  vdi  devatah  sarvah,  iti  devasya  qasanam 

Mbh.  xiii,  84,  56, 

agnir  hi  devatah  sarvah,  suvarnam  ca  tadatmakam 

Holtzmann,  loc.  cit.  p.  14. 

^at.  Brahmana  in  Mbh.  xii,  343,  13-15, 

yajfias  te  devans  tarpayanti  devah  prthivim  bhavayanti,  Qata- 
pathe  *pi  brahmanamukhe  bhavati,  agnau  samiddhe  juhoti  yo 
vidvan  brahmanamukhena  'hutim  juhoti,  evam  apy  agnibhtltft 
brahmana  vidvanso  'gnim  bhavayanti. 

On  this  and  other  citations  from  Samhitas  and  Biuhmanas, 
compare  Holtzmann,  loc.  cit.^  p.  14  fif.,  with  especial  reference 
to  verses  cited  by  Weber,  Lectures,  p.  137-138;  IS.  i,  p.  277. 
To  these  I  may  add  a  passage  reflecting  the  Brhad  Aran.  Up. 
of  this  Brahmjina,  Up.  1,  5,  14  (where  the  chief  verbal  iden- 
tity is  in  ^oda^aya  kalaya),  expressly  said  to  be  from  the 
R^i's  "  more  extended "  exposition  of  the  subject :  viddhi 
candramasamdar^e  suksmayd  kalaya  sthitam,  tad  etad  rsina 
proktam  vistarend  *numiyate^  Mbh.  xii,  242,  15-16  (compare 
^odagakalo  dehah ;  and  305,  4).  The  commentator  refers  the 
passage  to  this  Ui)anishad,  as  cited. 

1  Accordinf^  to  xiii,  163,  53,  tTarhkara  (to  superiors)  is  yadha,  and  is  em- 
ployed only  in  speaking  to  equals,  inferiors,  pupils,  etc.  Compare  Chand. 
Up.  vii,  15, 2.  Echo  arose  in  the  mountains  (compare  Callimachus,  Ep.  xxviii) 
from  the  care  with  which  ^ul^  addressed  his  superior  Vyasa  with  hho,  bho,  xii, 
834,  25-20. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.        27 

Tlie  citations  in  the  Ramayana  I  have  not  examined,  but 
have  noted  by  chance  two ;  Rig  Veda  i,  22,  20 ;  Ka^ha  Up. 
iii,  9;  Maitri,  vi,  26:  t^id  vi§noh  paramam  padam  (sada 
pa^yanti  siirayah) ;  G.  vi,  41,  25,  tad  visnoli  paramam  padam 
(niliato  gantum  icchami)  ;  and  satye  sarvam  pratisthitam  in 
MalianiLr.  Up.  22, 1 ;  satye  lokah  prati^thitah,  R.  ii,  109, 10. 

UpaniAhada  in  the  ZSpic. 

Sporadic  parallels  between  the  epic,  generally  the  Glta, 
Anuglta,  and  (^Tmti,  and  various  Upanisliads  have  often  been 
noticed.  As  illustmtive  material  all  these  passages  are  val- 
uable, but  they  give  no  evidence  that  the  epic  has  copied,  if 
the  mutual  resemblance  is  only  of  general  content  or  is  given 
by  similar  or  even  identical  verses,  when  these  are  not  con- 
nected as  in  the  supposed  model.  As  this  material  has  been 
put  together  by  Holtzmann,  loc,  cit.y  p.  21  ff.,  I  may  refer  the 
reader  to  his  parallels,^  while  pointing  out  that  it  is  histor-A 
ically  <»f  little  imjwrtance  whether  the  oldest  Upanisliads  are 
cited  if  we  can  satisfy  ourselves  that  ] the  epic  draws  on  Upa-\ 
nisiuuls  of  the  second  and  third  peri()d,  not  only  s{)oradically  \ 
but  connectedly.  In  regard  to  the  earliest  works,  it  is  enough 
to  refer  to  the  passage  condensed  from  the  Brliadaranyaka  and 
citetl  alwve.  This  is  the  only  one  of  the  oldest  U|mnishads 
certainly  cited,  though  the  Uluindogj-a,  Aitiireya,  and  Kilu- 
fitaki  have  many  {Kirallels  with  the  epic,  as  liave  among  the 
Inter  works  of  tliis  chtHs  the  Kena,  Muntlaka,  Pra^na,  and  a 
few  others.  Oddly  enough,  the  Maitrfiyana  lias  been  scarcely 
comiKire<U'  but  I  puri)ose  to  show  that  this  and  the  earlier 
Kathaka  were  certainly  copied  by  the  later  epic  |KK»ts. 

*  Not  ail  the  **  Vedic  "  renv  are  here  Terifled,  f.  7.,  Tiitl.  iii,  1,  liai  prino 
ri  annam.  Thia  i«  cile<l  In  the  epic  an  ViHlie  :  annani  prina  iti  jathl  Tcdetu 
paripa^h/ate,  liii,  96,  22.  The  (iiti  diiitributet  older  material,  e.  </..  ^vet.  iii, 
17  =  (jiti,  13,  14,  hot  the  folluwing  pida,  naTadTJLre  pure  dehi,  i$  found  in 
GiU,  5.  13,  ffcc 

*  The  Ter»e  dre  brahmani  (a«  duly  n^cordiHl  by  llcdtzmann)  waa  liM-attH]  bj 
Hall,  and  Buhler  haa  coinpare<l  two  more  vcrufi  with  xii,  3.'l(),  42-4«'i  (Mantt, 
p.  2li),  whUe  Telang  haa  illuatrated  the  Gita  with  general  parallela. 


28 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA, 


The  Cv6ta9Tatara  Upanishad. 

This  may  be  loosely  copied,  but,  except  for  one  parallel, 
the  mutual  passages  are  common  to  this  and  other  sources. 
I  cite  as  exemplifying  a  possible  copy  (though  the  Upanishad 
itself  is  a  copy  of  the  older  Ka^haka)  : 


Upanishad. 
iu,  8  =  V.  S.  31,  18, 

tamasah  parastat ;  na  'njah  pan- 
tha  yidyate  ayanaya. 

iii,  10, 

tato  yad  attarataram  tad  arupam 
anamayam,  ja  etad  yidur  amrta8 
te  bhavantL 

iu,  13, 

aAgusthamitrah  pomsah,  see  be- 
low. 

iii,  18, 

nayadySre  pure  dehi  hai^h,  see 
below. 

iii,  19-20, 

sa  yetti  yedyam  .  .  .  anor  ani- 
yan,  etc. 

iv,  2  and  19, 

tad  eya  (ukraih  tad  brahma; 
yasya  nama  mahad  ya^ah,  see 
below. 

iv,  5, 

a  jam  ekSm  lohita9aklakr8nSm. 

iv,6. 

Birds  and  pippal,  see  the  passage 
from  Drona,  cited  hereafter. 

iv,  17  and  20, 

na  samdr9e ;  hrdS  manisi,  see  be- 
low. 


Epic. 
44,  29*and  24, 

tamasah  parastit ;  ni  'nyah  pan- 
thS  ayanSya  yidyate. 

44,31, 

anamayam  tan  mahad  udyatam 
ya^o  ( Ka^ha,  yi,  2,  mahad  bhay  am 
yajram  udyatam)  yaco  yikaram 
kayayo  yadanti  yasmin  jagat 
saryam  idam  pratlsthitam  ye  tad 
yidur  arortas  te  bhayanti  (com- 
pare BAU.  i,  5, 1 ;  Chand.  iii,  12, 
2;  Ka(ha,yi,0). 


43,  53;  46,  81  (Gita,  10, 
15), 

yo  yeds  redyam  na  sa  veda  s*- 
tyam;  anor  aniySn  (Katha  i,  2, 
20).  In  44,  29,  aniyo  rQpam  ksu- 
radh&raya  samam  (Ka|ha,  iii,  14). 


V,  44,  25  and  26, 

ibhiti  9uklam  iya  lohitam  iyi 
kranam  (followed  by  ayasam 
arkayarnam  with  t.  1.,  atha'Hja- 
nam  kSdrayam  yi) ;  Mahanlr., 
ix,  2 ;  also  ChSnd.  yiU,  6, 1.  On 
account  of  the  yaried  reading  in 
the  same  yerse  the  three  first 
colors  may  be  the  only  original, 
but  eyen  here  the  reference  is  to 
Prakrti  in  the  Upanishad  and  to 
Brahman  in  the  epic. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.       29 

These  are  the  best  examples  of  sporadic  parallels  to  be 
found  iu  the  Upanishads.    I  turn  now  to  the  Kathaka. 

The  BUithaka  or  Katha  Upaniahad. 

From  the  Ka^ha,  iii,  10,  indriyebhya^i  para  hy  artha,  arthe- 
bhj-af  ca  param  manah,  manasas  tu  para  buddhir,  buddher 
atma  malian  parah,  and  ii,  19,  na  'yam  hanti  na  hanyate,  the 
Gita,  3,  42,  has  indriyani  paiuny  ahur  indiiyebhyali  param 
manah,  manasas  tu  para  buddhir,  yo  buddheh  paratas  tu  sa];i 
(the  Sa  is  higher  than  intellect) ;  and  in  2,  19-20,  it  inverts 
and  modifies  the  na  jiiyate  and  hanta  cen  manyate  hantmn 
stanzas.  Less  precise  in  rendering,  but  important  on  account 
of  the  GIta  modifications,  are  two  other  stanzas.  Katha  i,  22, 
has  vakta  ca  'sya  tvadrg  anyo  na  labhyali,  etc.,  a  tri^tubh, 
whereas  Gita,  6,  39,  lias  tvad  anyah  saiiigayasya  'sya  chetta 
na  hy  upapadyate,  a  (loka  (compare  M.  ii,  15,  1,  samgayanam 
hi  niimokta  tvan  na  'nyo  vidyate  bhuvi,  addressed  to  Krishna). 
The  Ka^ha  Ls  older  also  in  the  stanza  ii,  15, 

sanre  ved&  yat  padam  iUnanantii  tap&nsi  sarY&ni 

ca  yad  vadanti 
yad  icchanto  brahinacaryam  caranti,  tat  te  padam 

sangrahena  bravlmi, 

as  compared  with  Gita,  8,  11, 

yad  aksaram  vedavido  vadanti,  vi^anti  yad  yatayo 

Tftarft^h 
jrad  icchanto  brahroacaryam  caranti^  tat  te  padam 

sangrahena  pravaksye. 

Other  parallels  will  be  fonnd  between  Katha  ii,  7, 

^caryo  vaktA  ku^alo  'sya  labdhO,  ft^^ryo  j£Liitil 
kuqalftnui^istah, 

and  Gltl,  2,  29, 

i^carjavat  pa^ati  ka^^oid  enam,  ft4;caryavad  vadati 
tatb&i  'va  c&  'nyah,  etc. ; 

between  Katha  vi,  1  and  Glta,  15,  1  (the  idea  developed  in 
xii,  255,  1  ff.) ;  and  in  a  few  more  instances,  such  as  tasya 


80  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

bhasa  sarvam  idam  vibhati,  Kat^ha  v,  15,  and  ekah  suiya^ 
sarvam  idam  vibhati,  Mbh.  iii,  134,  8.^ 

But  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  these,  as  the  third 
chapter  of  the  Upanishad  is  epitomized  in  a  section  of  ^^nti. 
The  later  feature  begins  at  the  start,  xii,  247,  1  ff.  The 
vikaras,  modifications  of  Prakrti,  do  not  know  the  k^etrajfia, 
or  spirit,  but  he  knows  them.  Then  follows  the  image  of  the 
Upanishad  iii,  2  ff.  The  senses  are  subservient  steeds,  and 
the  spirit  is  the  driver  who  controls  them,  samyanta.  After 
this  general  imitation  follow  the  three  stanzas  of  Katha  iii, 
10,  11,  12,  one  of  which  appears  in  the  Gita  (above),^  but 
with  the  substitution  of  amrta  for  purui^a  in  the  second 
stanza,  and  evam  for  esa  in  the  third.  Then  a  general  like- 
ness follows  between  the  Upanishad's  next  stanza  ("  restrain 
mind  in  knowledge,  in  self  ")  and  the  epic,  which  say^  "  sink- 
ing the  senses  with  mind  as  the  sixth  in  the  inner  self," 
"endowing  the  mind  with  wisdom,"  "one  that  is  not  mas- 
tered (by  the  senses)  gets  the  immortal  place."  The  instruc- 
tion is  a  mystery,  to  be  repeated  to  Snatakas  (compare  Ka^ha, 
iii,  17),  and  besides  containing  the  gist  of  former  wisdom,  "is 
recited  in  the  Upanishads"  vedantesu  ca  glyate,  247,  16,  19, 
21.  I  think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  epic  section  is  an 
abbreviation  of  Katha  iii,  perhaps  under  the  influence  of  the 
MaitRiyana,  as  shown  below.  A  preceding  section  may  be 
compared  with  Ka^ha  v,  1-2,  where  the  city  of  eleven  doois 
is  followed  by  a  reference  to  the  hansa,  lord,  R.  V.  iv,  40,  5. 
Tlie  epic  (see  under  the  "  group  of  seventeen  "),  like  the  later 
Upanishad,  admits  only  "  nine  doors,"  and  says  in  xii,  240,  82, 
the  hansa  lord,  15a,  and  controller,  vagi,  enters  the  city  of 
nine  doors,  because  it  is  controlled,  niyatah,  by  the  senses. 

Other  stanzas  reflecting  the  last  chapters  of  this  Upanishad 

1  Compare  in  the  Up.,  ib.  0  and  12,  agnir  yathSi  Icah  and  ekam  rapam 
bahudha  yah  karoti,  with  eka  eragnir  bahudha  samidhjate,  just  preceding 
in  the  epic.  Gita,  IS,  30,  may  be  a  modification  of  Ka|ha  Ti,  6.  The  GitI 
stanza,  by  the  way,  is  repeated  verbatim  in  xii,  17,  2.3. 

'  The  last  of  the  three  verses  is  cited  again  in  Vana  in  a  copy  of  the  Mil- 
trayana  Upanishad,  which  substitutes  bhutatma  for  giidho  *tmi,  and  JOioft- 
vedibhih  for  8uk8madar9ibhih.    See  the  next  paragraph. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.       81 

are  found  mingled  with  copies  from  other  Upanishads  in  the 
last  chapter  of  the  Sanatsujata  Parvan.  In  every  case  where 
evidence  exists  it  points  to  the  epic  being  a  copy  of  the  Upa- 
nishad*  Thus  in  BAU.  v,  1,  we  read  purnam  adah  purnam 
idam  purnat  purnam  udacyate,  purnasya  purnam  adilya 
purnam  eva  'va^i^yate,  wliich  in  the  epic,  v,  46,  10,  appears 
as  purnat  purnany  uddharanti  purnat  purnani  cakrire  haranti 
purniit  purnani  pHrnam  eva  'vafisyate.  Again  the  stanza  of 
Ka(ha  vi,  9, 

na  Mamdiye  tisthati  rCpam  asya,  na  caksusft  pa9jati 

ka^can&i  'nam 
hida  manUd  manas^  'bhiklpto,  ya  etad  vidar  amrtfls 

te  bhavanti 

is  modernized  already  in  ^et^  iv  17  (idem)  and  20,  hrda 
hrdUtham  manasa  ya  enam  evam  vidur  amrtas  te  bhavanti, 
and  thia  in  the  epic,  v,  46,  6,  appears  as 

na  iddr^ye  tisthati  rapam  asya,  na  caksusft  pa^ati 

kaqcid  enam 
manJMayd  'tho  manasft  hrd&  ca,  ya  enam  vidur  amr- 

tas  te  bhavanti, 

or,  as  ib.  20, 

na  dar^ane  tisthati  rQpam  asya  . . , 

ye  pravrajejur  amrtfis  te  bhavanti. 

The  section  begins  with  an  explanation  of  the  (ukram  brahma 
which  is  mahail  ya^a^  and  tad  vai  deva  upasate,  a  phrase, 
prior  pada,  metrically  borrowed  from  the  licence  of  the  Upa- 
ttiahada,  where  the  epic  usually  writes  upasante  to  avoid  di- 
iambus.^  Here  ^ukram  brahma  and  mahad  jn^ah  are  from 
Kafha  v,  8 ;  vi,  1 ;  (^vet  iv,  19  (yasya  nama  mahad  ya^h). 
Below,  (1.  9,  the  A^vattha  and  its  birds  may  be  drawn  from 
Kafha  vi»  1,  and,  after  the  purnam  stanza  cited  above,  9L  11, 

*  Tb«  Uter  UpanithAdt  retort  to  a  tiroiUr  device.  Thai  in  the  Tog»> 
tittTop.  i«  6  (alle  frnte  I>inge  aind  drei):  trm/o  !okI«  timjo  yedit  traja^ 
mikdhjU  traja^  tnri^.  trajo  'gnajo  gu^Ia  frif  1  (atliiti^  sarrt  trajrikfare). 


82  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

tasmad  vai  vayxir  ayata^  •  •  •  tasmm9  ca  prana  atata^  is  a 
parallel  to  Katha  vi,  2.^    Then  follows^  in  tiie  epic,  9I.  15 : 

angustbamatrah  puruso  ^tar&tmfiy  lingasya  yogena 

sa  j&ti  nityam 
tarn  Iqam  Idyam  anukalpam  adyam,  pa^anti  mtldhfl 

na  yirfljam&naiDy 

which  appears  ib.  27  as : 

angustham&trah  puruso  mahd,tm^  na  drQyate  *8&q 

'  *  hrdi  saninivistah 
ajaQ  caro  divdxatram  atandrita^  ca,  sa  tarn  matvft 
kavir  ftste  prasannab, 

with  which  Kat^ha  iv,  4  (matva  dhiro  na  focati)  may  be  com* 
pared,  and  especially  iv,  12 : 

angustham&trah  puruso  madhya  fttmani  tisthati 
iQano  bhatabhavyasya  na  tato  vijugupsate, 

and  Katha  vi,  17 : 

angusthamatrah  puruso  'ntard,tm^  sadft  jan&u&m 

hrdaye  samnivistab 
tarn  sv3c  cbarlr&t  pravrben  mufij^ld  iva-islk&m  db&ir- 

yena  (tarn  vidyac  cbukram) 

The  last  words  are  found  in  the  epic,  44,  7,  as : 

ta  &tm&nam  nirbarantl  'ba  deb&n,  mufij^  islk&m  iva 
sattvasamstb&b, 

while  just  before  46,  27,  is  found  in  9I.  25 : 

evam  yah  sarvabbatesu  fttm^nam  anupaqyati 
anyatrft  'nyatra  yuktesu  kim  sa  qocet  tatab  parami 

which  is  like  19a  6-7  in  contracted  form. 

^  There  is  here  a  general  resemblance,  noticeable  chiefly  because  of  the 
correlation  of  one  idea  with  the  next  following,  interrupted  in  the  epic  bj 
the  pilrna  stanza.  With  44,  27,  "  His  form  is  not  in  stars,  lightning,  clouda, 
wind,  moon,  sun,"  compare  Katha  y,  16,  "Not  there  the  sun  shines,  mooo* 
stars,  nor  lightnings." 


yljjj 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO   THE  EPIC  POETS.       83 

The  Maitri  UpanlBhad  in  the  ZSpic. 

Especially  instructive  is  the  form  in  which  the  Maitri  or 
Mfiitnlyana  Upanisbad  appears  in  the  epic.  In  the  case  of 
many  of  the  Upanishads  there  is  lacking  any  characteristic 
mark  sufficiently  peculiar  to  identify  the  Upanishad  when  it 
appears  in  epic  form.  But  the  Maitri,  as  is  well  known,  con- 
tains some  special  stanzas  and  above  all  some  special  terms 
not  found  elsewhere  except  in  still  later  Upanishads.  It  is, 
therefore,  more  easily  identified,  and  the  possibility  that  we 
are  dealing  with  material  common  to  the  age  of  the  older 
Upanishads  is  not  so  great.  In  all  i)rol)ability  it  is  a  later 
Upanishad  Deussen,  Sechzig  Upanishads,  p.  812,  success- 
fully maintains  this  view,  and  in  his  Geschichte  der  Philo- 
aophie  i',  p.  24,  groufjs  it  with  the  Pra^na  and  Mandukya 
as  belonging  to  the  group  of  "  later  Prose  Upanishads," 
regarding  it  not  only  as  later  than  the  old  prose,  but  evt'u 
as  later  than  the  metrical  Upanishads,  from  both  of  which 
earlier  groups  I  have  given  epic  parallels  in  the  list  alx)ve. 

Thi3  Maitri  Upanishad  is  found  reflected  in  the  epic  at 
lit,  213,  and  in  a  later  imitation  in  the  twelfth  book.  The 
former  epic  section  is  based  entirely  on  the  Upanishad,  and 
the  prece<ling  sections  apjx?ar  to  be  due  to  an  exi)ansion  of 
the  same  material  The  order  followed  is  in  general  that 
of  tlie  Ufianishad. 

The  teaching  is  called  brahmi  vidya,  iii,  210,  16.  There 
it  an  introductory  s\'8tematizati(>n,  the  assumption  of  tho 
universe  (as  Brahman)  consisting  of  five  elements,*  earili, 
water,  light,  wind,  air,  which  hiive  as  their  characteristics  (in 
inverted  onler),  sound,  totich,  color,  taste,  smell,  so  n'lat^Ml 
tltat  earth  has  all  five;  water,  four;  light  three;  wind,  two; 
air,  one  (sound),  making  alt4>getluT  fifteen  in  combination 
in  all  created  things  (210.  17;  211,  8).  With  these  five 
•*  gunas*^  begins  a  group  of  seventeen  :  cetiinii  or  manas,  mind, 

•  In  210,  17.  the*c  are  pi^pn  in  rcror*c  or«!or,  but  in  211,  3,  in  their  u«ual 
epic  onkrr,  bh&mir  ipaa  tathii  jyotir  TJivur  iki^am  era  ca  (n^TcrtiHl,  khaih 
▼Ifmr  afnir  ipaa  uthi  ca  bliu^). 

8 


34  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

as  sixth;  intellect  as  seventh;  egoism  as  eighth;  the  five 
senses;  atman,  soul,  the  fourteenth;  and  the  three  gunas, 
rajiis,  sattvam,  tamas.  This  is  "the  group  of  seventeen," 
which  has  as  its  designation  the  Unmanifest  (avyakta) ;  to 
which  are  added  objects  of  the  senses  and  the  manifest  and 
unmanifest,  making  the  category  of  twenty-four.^ 

This  is  the  introductory  chapter  of  the  discourse,  and  its 
likeness  to  the  Maitri  Upanishad  consists  in  the  initial  dis- 
cussion of  the  elements  (which,  however,  are  not  called 
fine  elements,  tanmatra,  as  they  are  in  the  Upanishad,  iii, 
2,  mahabhutani  and  gunas),^  and  the  statement  that  this  is 
a  brahmi  vidya,  like  MU.  ii,  3,  brahmavidya.  As  an  indica- 
tion of  the  age  of  the  discourse,  it  may  be  observed  in  pass- 
ing that,  in  211,  9,  the  fifteen  gunas  are  said  to  be  properly 
correlated  in  the  remarkable  verse : 

anyonyam  nd  'tivartante  samyak  ca  bhavati,  dvija 

where  the  use  of  bhavati  for  bhavanti  (subject,  paScada^a 
gunah),  though  declared  by  the  commentator  to  be  an  archa- 

^  Otherwise  the  commentator.  Objects  of  sense  and  action-organs  are  not 
included  in  the  seventeen:  iiy  esa  saptada^ako  ra9ir  avyaktasamjfiakah, 
sarTair  ihe  'ndriyarthais  tu  yyaktavyaktaih  susamyrtaih  caturyinfaka  ity  esa 
vyaktavyaktamajo  gunah  (210, 20-21).  Guna  is  obscure.  Tlie  entirely  differ- 
ent group  of  seventeen  in  xii,  276,  28,  casts  no  light  on  the  subject,  but  in  xii, 
330,  40,  a  similar  verse  has  (in  B)  sarvair  ihe  'ndriyarthai9  ca  yyaktSyyaktair 
hi  samhitah  (v.  1.  samjfiitah)  caturvin9aka  ity  esa  vjaktavyaktamajo  ganah, 
which  gives  the  needed  ganah  for  gunah  and  makes  the  construction  some- 
what clearer,  though  the  latter  passage  is  such  a  careless  imitation  of  the 
one  above  that  in  making  up  the  previous  list  of  seventeen,  atman,  ahamkara, 
and  manas  are  all  omitted  from  the  list  (buddhi  being  represented  by  roahad 
yat  param  ayrayat)  and  5+1  +  5+3=  17!  The  first  group  is  similar  to 
the  group  of  seventeen  in  the  Vedanta-sara,  though  there  the  organs  of  action 
and  the  breaths  are  included  with  the  organs  of  sense,  buddhi  and  manat. 
The  formal  definition  of  vyakta  and  avyakta  in  iii,  211, 12,  repeated  in  xii, 
330,  49,  with  grhyate  for  srjyate  and  with  slight  y.  1.  in  xii,  180,  15,  is  that 
vyakta,  the  manifest,  is  what  is  comprehended  by  the  senses,  while  avyaka 
is  what  is  superscnsuous,  comprehended  only  by  the  "fine  organs"  (lifiga- 
grahyam  atindriyam).  If  the  reading  guna  be  retained  above,  it  wiU  imply 
the  interpretation  of  all  the  constituents  as  gunas. 

^  Tliat  is,  here,  as  synonym  of  dhatu  or  the  elements,  which  after  the  dis- 
solution of  the  universe  appear  in  every  newly  formed  body,  dhatavah  p&ficA- 
bhiutikah,  iii,  211, 11 ;  xii,  184, 1. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO   THE  EPIC  POETS.        35 

ism,  is  really  a  late  carelessness.  It  is  further  to  be  observed 
that  though  in  this  introduction,  and  incidentally  in  a  pre- 
ceding section,  iii,  207,  72,  the  organs  of  sense  are  given  as 
five,  yet  in  iii,  211,  24,  they  are  spoken  of  as  six,*  in  a  figuie 
which  not  only  reproduces  the  exact  language  of  the  GlUl, 
2,  60  and  67,  but  conbiins  the  imagery  of  the  Maitri  Upa- 
nishad  (ii,  6,  ratha^  (arlram,  mano  niyanta,  prakrtimayo  'sya 
pratodah) : 

sann&m  fttmani  yuktAn&m  indriy&n&m  pramathinOm 
yo  dhiro  dhArayed  raqmin  sa  sySLt  paramasd,rathih 
indriy^Axn  prasrst&n^i  hay&nam  iva  vartmasu 
.  .  .  indriy^iUii  vicarat&n),  etc. 

Tliis  image  of  the  senses  to  be  kept  under  control  like  horses 
held  in  check  by  a  charioteer  is  indeed  too  general  to  have 
any  bearing  on  the  relation  of  the  epic  to  the  Upanishad  (it 
occurs,  as  said  above,  in  the  Ka^ha  Upanishad,  for  instance, 
and  again  in  the  epic  in  purely  Buddhistic  form  at  i,  79,  2-3 
=  DIiamma{)ada  222-223)  and  might  pass  unnoticed,  were  it 
not  that  the  corresponding  section  of  the  twelfth  book  brings 
the  two  into  somewhat  closer  relationship.  As  already  ol)- 
serv'cd,  the  teaching  of  the  Vana  in  210  and  211  is  more  or 
lew  cloeely  reproduced  in  xii,  830,  which,  however,  omitting 
the  stanzas  in  regard  to  the  six  senses,  condenses  them  in  the 
statement  tliat  one  is  "tossed  about"  by  the  effects  of  evil 
actions,  but  then  closes  with  a  stanza,  58,  which  has  direct 
reference  to  transmigration  and  is  in  turn  omitted  from  the 
end  of  iii,  211,  paribhramati  saiiiisaram  cakravad  bahuvedanali, 

1  Ho  both  in^iipt  of  orgmnt,  those  of  tonse  and  of  action,  arc  tomi>timot 
coontflHl  AS  making  not  ten  but  elcTen,  including  the  thinking  faculty,  as  in 
lir,  412,  12.  Compare  the  same  image  and  number  in  xii,  247,  2  (abore),  ma- 
Bab«as^ir  ibe  'ndrijiih  sudintiir  ira  sariiyanti,  etc.  In  the  passage^  alniTe, 
Hi.  211,  1*1,  the  sensc^rgans,  indriyini,  are  defined  as  apprehenders  of  obJiH^ts 
of  sense,  grihakinj  esim  ^ab^lldinim.  The  word  is  deriTiHl  from  Indra, 
sii,  214,  23,  tribijam  (apapifha  nrbijam).  indradiiratyara  tasmi^l  indriyaro 
vcjate,  with  a  preceding  description  of  the  seeds,  the  ten  chief  dhamanyah, 
tbe  three  humors,  Tita«  pitta,  kapha,  and  other  meiUcinal  intelligence,  with 
f«pecial  weight  on  the  heart-^rtcry,  manorahi,  ami  its  action  as  known  to 
Atri. 


86  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

that  is,  "  like  a  wheel  he  revolves  through  transmigrations.^ 
Just  so  the  Maitri  Upanishad,  ii,  6,  sajrs  first  that  the  senses 
are  horses  and  then,  after  developing  the  figure,  concludes 
with  anena  (pratodena)  khalv  Iritah  paribhramati  ^dam  (aii- 
ram  cakram  iva  mrtpacena,  ^^  thus  goaded  he  revolves  in  bod- 
ily form  like  a  potter's  wheel." 

The  next  chapter  of  the  teaching,  iii,  212,  discusses  the 
three  guna§  as  (in  general)  in  Maitri,  iii,  5.  The  section 
before  this  in  the  Upanishad,  iii,  4,  is  a  close  prose  prototype 
of  the  9^nti  verses  (omitted  in  iii)  just  preceding  the  gfroup 
of  seventeen  (the  rest  of  the  section,  xii,  330  being  parallel 
to  iii,  211).  This  (xii,  830,  42)  verse  begins  asthisthunam 
snayuyutam  .  .  .  carmavanaddham  (just  as  in  the  Upanishad, 
carmana  'vanaddham),  and  in  28-9,  ko^akara  iva  suggests 
(against  the  commentator  and  Deussen)  that  in  the  Upani- 
shad, the  ending  ko^a  iva  vasuna  should  be  interpreted 
accordingly,  "filled  like  a  cocoon  with  (deadly)  wealth." 
The  next  chapter  of  Vana,  the  special  chapter  under  consid- 
eration, begins  with  the  question  how  the  vital  flame  can 
combine  with  earthnstufif  to  make  the  incorporate  creature, 
and  how  air  causes  activity.  To  which  the  answer  is  that 
the  flame  enters  the  head  and  directs  the  body,  while  air  acts 
by  being  in  the  head  and  in  the  vital  flame.  This  is  like  the 
opening  of  the  Upanishad  where  it  says,  ii,  6,  that  the  spirit 
is  fire.  The  answer  continues:  "All  is  established  upon 
breath;"  which  is  identified  with  spirit,  Purusha,  intellect, 
buddhi,  and  egoism.  Then  follows  a  disquisition  upon  the 
different  kinds  of  bodily  airs  or  breathings.  These  are 
named  as  the  usual  five,  but  are  incidentally  referred  to  as 
ten,  which  makes  it  necessary  to  understand  with  the  com- 
mentator that  the  other  five  are  those  called  naga,  kdrma, 
krkala  (sic),  devadatta,  and  dlianaihjaya,  besides  the  usual 
(in-)  breathing,  with-breathing,  off-breathing,  up-breathing, 
and  through-breathing,   which   are    specifically  mentioned.^ 

1  iii,  213,  16,  dA^apranapracoditSh.  The  ten  are  named  as  aboTe  in  the 
Vedantasara  of  Sadananda,  90,  Bohtlingk's  ChreBt.  p.  2C4.  The  (usual)  flye 
arc  prSna,  samina,  apana,  udSna,  vySna.    The  same  thing  occurs  in  xii,  1S6^ 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.       87 

This  also  corresponds  to  Maitri  ii,  6,  where  the  five  breaths 
are  associated  with  the  vital  flame  (Agni  Vaigvanara  as 
Parana). 

After  the  breaths  are  discussed,  there  is  a  passing  refer- 
ence to  the  eleven  (not  sixteen)  vikaras,  or  transformations 
by  which  the  spirit  is  conditioned  like  fire  in  a  pot ;  ^  just 
as  Maitri  iii,  8,  has  first  yatha  'gnina  'yaspindo  'nyo  va  'blii- 
bliutal;,  etc.,  and  then  the  transformations,  gunani  (=vika- 
ras).  The  corresponding  passage  in  ^anti,  here  242,  17,  has 
karmaguiiatmakam  for  nityaih  yogajitatmakam,  but  then  both 
passages  continue  with  the  stanza : 

devo^yah  samsthitas  (v.  1.  samqritas)  tasminn,  ab- 

bindur  iva  puskare 
ksetrajftam  tarn  vijiinlhi  (v.  1.  *lyat)  nityam  yogiar 

jit&tmakam, 

**Know  that  the  divine  being  who  stands  in  the  body  like  a 
drop  of  water  on  a  lotus,  is  tlie  spirit  eternal  but  overcome 
by  its  association."  The  epic  texts  vary  in  the  next  stanza, 
but  the  sense  is  the  same,  to  the  effect  that  the  individual 
life-spirit,  jiva,  though  conditioned  by  the  three  gunas,  has  the 
characteristics  (gunas)  of  tlie  atman,  while  atman  again  is  one 
with  the  Supreme  Atman  (itaratmakam,  218,  21).  The  third 
Tersion  of  the  passage,  found  in  xii,  187,  23-25,  explains  the 
individual  spirit,  ksetrajAa,  as  iltman  conditioned  by  the  gu- 
9as  of   Prakfti,  and  as  Supreme  Atman  when  freed  from 

1&,  where  the  phrmte  a>>oTe  rcappeart  in  a  copy  of  thia  nortion.  In  xii.  .1*i(>, 
%\  (I  (ao«]  el»ewh«Ti')  the  prinan  are  feren  penonifie*!  creature*,  IM.liia  Ixirn 
of  Samina.  etc..  aa  windu,  pre,  a,  ucl,  tarn,  ri,  pari,  ami  pari  (vahat).  rum> 
parr  al«o  lii,  im,  24.  Ih'Iow. 

>  ek&<lavaTtkiritnii  kaliaambhirananilihrtah  mOrtimantaih  hi  tarn  riddhi 
SftTam  Totfajititmakam,  tatmtn  Tal)  «ani»thito  hy  a^rnir  nityam  nthalyam 
ivi'hitah  itminsirii  tarn  rijinihi  nityam  yogajitatmakam.  213,  IH-IR 

'  In  lii.  24^1.  21).  (lera  may  )h*  jtva.  devarii  tridhatuih  triTftani  fuparnaih 
j»  Ti'lyur  airryim  pararoitmatim  ca.  hut  (»n  the  other  hand  there  may  l»e  a 
t^itual  errr»r  here  <»f  dero  for  dehe.  Compare  xii,  1ST,  24,  ta«min  yah  •aiiivHto 
drhr  hy  ahhindur  ira  puvkare.  The  Supreme  Spirit  if  deTo  (nirgunah),  xii, 
Sll.  1^1,  AA  m  V^t^t.  Up.  i,  8  (here  calle^l,  ()U.  yajRefT  agreharah). 


88  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

them;^  with  a  varied  reading  of  nitj'tim  lokabitatmakam  and 
viddhi  jivagunun  in  the  following  verses ;  26,  however,  being 
almost  the  same  as  iii,  213,  22 :  — 

sacetanaiii  jivagunam  vadanti 
sa  cestate  cestayate  ca  sarvam 

•     •  •      •  V 

(t)atah  param  ksetravido  vadanti 
prakalpayad   (v.  1.   pravartayad)   yo   bhuvan&ni 
sapta, 

"  They  say  that  the  individual  spirit  is  characterized  by  intel- 
ligence; it  moves  and  causes  all  to  move.^  The  wise  say, 
that  he  who  caused  the  many  creations  to  form  is  still 
higiier  (or  the  Highest)." 

Tlie  reading  in  xii,  187,  23  brings  the  passage  into  still 
closer  connection  with  the  Upanishad.  The  latter,  at  iii,  2, 
has  fitnia  bindur  iva  puskare  followed  by  sa  va  e^o  'bhibhutah 
prakrtdir  gunaih^  while  the  epic  has  abbindur  iva  puskare 
preceded  by  atma  ksetrajila  ity  uktah  samyuktah  prdkrtair 
g^maih^  where  the  Vana  version  keeps  ^what  is  here  lost) 
the  image  of  the  fire  in  the  pot  Then  the  stanza  above, 
sacetanam,  etc.,^  closely  reproduces  the  words  as  well  as  the 
thought  of  the  Upanishad,  ii,  5 :  cetanene  'dam  5ariram  ceta- 
navat  pratisthapitam  pracodayita  vai  'so  'py  asya  (compare 
acetiinam  garlram,  ii,  3).  The  fact  that  the  epic  Vana  is 
not  based  on  the  lotus-phrase  of  earlier  Upanishads  but  is 
following  the  Miiitri  is  shown  even  more  clearly  in  the  phra- 
seology of  the  following  stanza,  213,  23,  which  at  this  point 
does  not  correspond  to  ^iinti  above,  but  to  a  later  chapter, 

^  For  the  text,  aee  the  end  of  the  last  note.  A  passafi^e  in  xii,  316,  16-17 
combines  freely  the  two  traits  mentioned  above :  "  The  fire  is  different  from 
the  pot,  ukha ;  the  lotus  is  different  from  tlie  water,  nor  is  it  soiled  by  touch 
of  water,"  etc.  —  a  fact  which  is  said  to  be  "not  understood  bj  common 
people,"  as  in  the  example  below. 

^  The  commentator  says  that  as  individual  soul  the  atman  is  active,  and 
as  the  I^rd-soul  causes  activity  (compare  xii,  47,  Oo,  ya9  cestayati  bhutani 
tasniiii  vayvatmane  namah) ;  but  the  Highest  is  above  both  these.  In  xii, 
242,  20,  jivayate  takes  the  place  of  cestayate. 

•  r.  has  acetanam  in  the  Vana  passajre,  but  both  texts  in  both  the  (^anti 
passages  have  sacetanam,  xii,  187,  20 ;  242,  20. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS,       89 

xii,  247,  5.  The  Vana  passage  says:  "Thus  in  all  beings 
appears  the  bhutdtman  (conditioned  spirit),  but  it  is  seen 
only  by  the  subtile  intellect;"  whereas  the  ^anti  passage 
has  not  bhutatma  sampraka^ate,  but  gudho  'tnia  na  praka^ate, 
^  concealed  it  is  not  apparent,"  that  is,  it  has  the  text  of  the 
Ka(haka.^  But  in  Vana  there  is  the  characteristic  bhutdtman 
of  the  Upanishad,  which  says  at  iii,  3 :  "  (Pure)  spirit  is  no 
more  overcome  (by  environment)  than  fire  is  overcome  when 
the  mass  of  iron  (enclosing  it)  is  hammered ;  what  is  over- 
come is  the  bhutdtman^  which  is  abhibhuta,  overcome,  because 
it  is  bound  up  with  (the  transformations) ; "  and  further, 
iii,  5 :  *•  Filled  with  the  effect  of  the  gunas  (which  condition 
it)  the  bhutatman  is  abhibhuta  (the  same  etymological  tie)» 
overcome,  by  them,  and  so  enters  different  forms."  ^  A  few 
more  passages  contain  tliis  word  bhutatman.     Of  these,  two 

1  See  the  analvBis  aboTe,  p.  30,  note  2. 

*  The  etymological  coonection  between  abhibhtita  and  bbOtitroan  may 
luiTe  ■aggested  to  the  commentator  his  explanation  of  bhQtatman  aa  an 
epithet  of  mahatman  in  xiii,  M,  15,  where  he  says  that  mahatmans  are  called 
bhtttltmant  because  they  hare  orercome  or  controlled  their  thoughts  (bhuta 
=  va^ikrta).  In  the  epic,  bhutatman  appears  as  incorporate  spirit  in  xii,  201, 
I,  where  "  how  can  I  understand  bhutitman  ?  '*  is  to  be  thus  interpreted  ;  and 
as  inteUect,  buddhi,  in  the  reabsorption  process  described  at  xii,  313,  12,  niano 
gTAsati  bhiititmi.  Dififerently  employed,  the  combination  appears  in  Gita,  5, 
7,  where  one  is  said  not  to  be  contaminated  by  action  if  one  is  sarrabhuta- 
tmabbutitmi,  which,  as  is  shown  by  parallel  passages,  is  not  to  be  divided 
into  sarrabhutitma  and  bhutatmi,  but  into  sarrabhuta,  itmabhuta,  itmi, 
vbere  sarrabhutatmahhuta  means  one  with  all,  or  the  All-soul.  Compare  xii. 
S40,  23,  sanrabhutitmabhuta^ra  ribhor  bhutahitasya  ca  deri  'pi  niErgt*  mu- 
kyaoti;  xii.  47.  ^i.  sarTabhutitmabhutiya  .  .  .  namah.  Bhutitman  means 
also  elemental  »pint.  as  in  xii.  21)8,  17-19,  where  it  is  said  that  before  the 
disembo<iii*<l  jira,  or  »pint.  »t»rures  a  new  resting  place  (iyatana,  body),  it 
wander*  about  as  a  bhutitman.  "  like  a  great  cloud."  S<i  in  xii,  2.M,  7,  the 
Ikbfttliman  of  Yogins  wan«!ers  through  space  and  has  seven  subtile  gunas 
<acrv>rding  to  the  commentator,  the  fine  elements.  intelKi't  and  egoism),  like 
•sttvitman.  ib.  rt;  but  here.  too.  it  is  the  bhfititman.  "standing  in  the  heart." 
lb.  12-  I  obsenre.  by  the  way.  that  the  citation  above,  "the  gods  are  con- 
foao'led  at  the  track  of  him  who  is  Identical  with  all  created  things  "  (com- 
pare  the  anlrde^yl  gatih.  "  ind<Micribable  course,  which  the  moksinah  foresee." 
xii.  19.  15).  shows,  as  dm*s  xiii,  113.  7.  apadasya  padiisinah,  that  in  xiii. 
UK  HM.  padaih  tasya  ca  vidyate  should  be  changi*<l  to  na  vidyate,  as  in  C 
54TT  (satcvam  sarrabhutitmabhutantham  is  found  in  xii,  210,  30).  Compare 
Dtiammapada  420,  yaaaa  gatim  na  jinanti  derL 


40  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

or  three  deserve  particular  attention.  In  xii,  240,  21,  it 
appears  in  a  stanza  like  one  to  be  cited  presently,  where 
another  Maitri  word  is  found,  but  here  the  text  says  merely 
that  the  bhutatman  (ceases  to  be  conditioned  and)  enters 
Brahman,  where  it  ^^  sees  self  in  all  beings  and  all  beings  in 
self."  In  9L  11  of  the  same  chapter  the  bhutatman  appears 
as  the  controller  of  mind  in  the  same  simile  of  the  wild  horses 
noticed  above,  but  with  a  different  turn :  ^^  Mind,  as  a  char- 
ioteer his  horses,  directs  the  senses ;  and  the  bhutatman 
which  is  seated  in  the  breast  directs  mind;  as  the  mind, 
restraining  and  letting  out  the  senses,  is  their  lord,  so  the 
bhutatman  in  respect  to  the  mind."  In  xiv,  51,  1,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  mind  itself  is  called  bhutatman,  because  it 
rules  the  mahabhutas.  Finally  the  same  term  is  used  of 
Vishnu  in  xiii,  149,  140,  where  it  is  said :  * 

eko  Visnur  mabad  bbQtam  prthag  bhQt&ny  aneka^ah 
trln  lok^lQ   yy&pya  bhat&tmft  bhunkte    viQvabhug 
avyayah, 

'<  Vishnu  as  one  is  a  great  spirit  (bhata),  and  separately  is  all 
beings;  be,  permeating,  enjoys  the  three  worlds  as  bhat&tman, 
he  the  all-enjoyer,  indestructible." 

It  is  clear  from  these  passages  that  bhutatman  is  not  used 
in  one  strict  sense  in  the  epic,  but  its  signification  varies 
according  to  different  passages.  In  one  case  it  is  a  free  spirit 
of  elements,^  but  in  another  the  conditioned  spirit  in  the 

1  The  quotation  here  given  may  be  the  one  cited  in  PW.  from  CJKDr.  s. 
bhutatman  I,  1.  But  compare  also  xii,  207,  8,  where  the  Lord  Govinda  is 
bhutatma  mahatma.  In  the  "Secret  of  the  Vedantas"  (Upaniahads)  the 
Intelligence  as  Lord  bhutakrt,  maker  of  elements,  is  called  Bhutatman,  zii, 
194,  7  =  248,  4,  and  14  as  Buddhi. 

^  Hence  called  suksma,  fine.  This  seems  to  be  the  sense  in  xii,  203,  6-7 : 
"  As  no  one  has  seen  the  back  of  Himalaya  or  of  the  moon,  but  cannot  saj 
it  is  non-existent,  so  the  fine  bhutatman  which  in  creatures  has  a  knowl- 
eilgo-soul,  jiianatmavan,  cannot  be  said  not  to  exist  because  it  has  not  been 
seen."  With  this  jQanatman  compare,  by  the  way,  what  is  said  of  the  soul, 
ib.  210,  22,  yavan  atmani  vedatma  tavan  atma  paratmani  (just  after  the  verse 
cited  in  the  text  240,  21,  above,  on  bhutatman) :  "The  soul  is  as  much  in  the 
All-soul  as  there  is  knowledge-soul  in  itself." 


.i^iiJIi 


UTERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.        41 

body.^  It  is  the  latter  meaning  which  applies  both  in  the 
Upanishad  and  in  the  epic  imitation  of  it.  In  these  cases 
bhutatman  is  the  atman,  spirit,  not  as  being  pure  Purusa, 
but  as  being  in  connection  vrith  and  conditioned  by  bhuta, 
tliat  is,  imprisoned  in  matter.  It  is  apparently  a  popular  (not 
philosophical)  term  for  spirit  in  general,  and  when  used  in 
philosophy  answers  to  the  ordinary  philosophical  jiva,  incor- 
porate spirit     It  is  not  found  in  other  (old)  Upiinishads. 

But  there  is  still  a  closer  parallel  between  the  epic  and  the 
Upanisliad.  After  the  verse  cited  above,  it  is  said,  iii,  213, 
24-27,  that  salvation  is  attained  by  peace  of  mind  and  by  per- 
ceiving self  in  self,  and  that  this  purified  spirit  by  the  aid 
of  the  lighted  lamp  (of  knowledge),  seeing  self  as  free  of  self ^ 
becomes  released.*  Here  again  we  have  a  i)eculiarly  Muitri 
word  in  niratman^  **free  of  self,"  that  is,  free  from  the  de- 
lusion of  subjectivity.  But  the  two  works  are  here  evidently 
identical.  First,  just  as  the  epic  says  that  one  must  have 
peace  of  mind,  prasada,  and  be  pure,  and  then  becomes  nirat- 
man,  so  in  ii,  2-4,  the  Ui>anishad,  after  an  allusion  to  sam- 
pnkiada,  the  same  peace  of  mind,  says  that  one  becomes  pure 
and  nirdtman  (^uddliah  putah  Qunyah  <;anto  'prano  niratma). 
Tlie  sign  of  tliis  peace  is  explained  as  when  one  sleeps  sweetly, 
iii,  213,  25  =  xii,  247,  11.'  In  the  epic  the  word  nirutman 
occurs  again  in  much  the  same  way,  xii,  199,  123,  Quntibhuto 
nirutmavan,  like   the  collocation   above   in  the   Upanishad. 

>  rompftre  what  ii  laid.  Mlit.  Tp.  iii,  2.  "The  bhatitmnn  is  AfTertod  bj 
IfBoraocr,  and  to  ^tqb  it»elf  up  to  objectf  of  senso."  it  it  laid  in  xii,  2<V4,  5. 

*  **  For  tidf  if  the  friend  of  self,  and  cren  to  ti'lf  if  the  foe  of  telf/'  V,  34, 
64 :  critl,  6.  & 

*  Samprm»i<U  if  fufupti,  unconnciouf  iluinbt^r.  rnconiicioui  exi»t<ncc  ii 
tK«  fTCMil  of  the  foul,  for  the  conditione;!  iipirit,  jira,  "  ^lorioui.  iiiunortal,  an- 
cirtu**  it  a  part  of  thit  uncontcioutnett,  and  on  iKH^omin)?  pure  entert  it.  In 
a  prrce<dinf(  tection  thit  tampraiada,  or  unrontciout  exittenre,  it  dt^lared  to 
W  th^  \iody  of  the  unirertc :  Yah  tanipratido  (am,  C.)  jaf^atah  vsriram,  tarvin 
aa  lokin  adhiiipicchati  'ha,  tatmin  hitam  (hi  tani,  C)  tarpayati  'ha  deraht, 
Ve  tU  trp<^  tarpajantj  JUram  atya,  xii.  '2P\,  .'U.  where  the  ti^nte  tiH^mt  to 
W  that  the  reabaorption  of  the  univerte  pKati^t  the  mouth  of  unrontciout- 
Brtt;  that  if.  the  mouth  of  Time  at  Ix)rd  of  all,  a  metaphor  from  the  pre- 
crdinf  Teraea.  8o  aampnuida  i«  a  tpirit  at  peace,  io  Chiod.  Up.,  cit4.Ml 
oo  th9  next  pag«. 


LJi^:iLi 


42  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Another  passage  reads :  "  The  spirit  (atman,  but  conditioned) 
knows  not  whither  it  goes  or  whence,  but  the  inner-spirit, 
antaratman,  is  different ;  it  sees  all  things ;  with  the  lighted 
lamp  of  knowledge  ^  it  sees  self  in  self.  Do  thou,  too,  seeing 
self  in  (or  with)  self,  become  freed  from  self,  become  all-wise  " 
(ninitma  bhava  sarvavit,  xii,  251,  9-10).  This  verse,  is  in  fact, 
only  a  different  version  of  the  "  lighted  lamp  "  verse  above. 
This  latter,  in  turn  with  its  environment,  must  be  compared 
in  the  original  with  the  Upanishad  to  see  how  close  are  the 
two.  But  for  this  purpose  I  take,  not  the  samprasada  passage 
referred  to  above,  which  is  parallel  to  Chand.  Up.  viii,  3,  4, 
i  but  one  from  the  sixth  book,  where  the  Upanishad,  vi,  20, 

has 

tads.  Hmand  Hmdnam  drstvd  nirdtmd  bhavati. 


whereupon  follows  a  stanza  cited,  ity  evam  hy  aha,  as : 

cittasya  hi  prasddena  hanti  karma  Qubh^ubham 
prasannd,tma  'tmaui  sthitva  sukham  avyayam  annate 

In  the  epic,  iii,  213,  24,  this  whole  stanza  (gloka)  api>ears, 
cittasya  hi  prasadena,  etc.,  in  exactly  the  same  worda^  and 
then,  after  the  definition  of  prasada  and  the  injunction  that 
one  must  be  viguddhatma,  of  purified  soul,  as  explained  above, 
come  the  words,  §1.  27,  drstvd  Hmdnam  nirdtmdnam  sa  tada 
vipramucyate. 

When  this  stanza  is  repeated  in  the  Upanishad  at  vi,  34,  it 
is  preceded  by  the  verse  yaccittas  tanmayo  bhavati,  so  that 
together  we  have : 

yaccittas  tanmayo  bhavati  guhyam  etat  sand,taDam 

(i.  e.,  the  guhyam  of  Dhammapada  1,  mano  setthd.  manomay&; 
compare  PraQoa  Up.  iii,  10,  yaccittas  tenai  'sa  pranam  Syati) 

1  Here  jQanadipena  (compare  Gita,  10, 11)  diptena;  abore,  pradlptene  'ra 
dipena  manodipcna.  Compare  dipavad  yah  sthito  hrdi,  Maitri,  tL  30  (and 
86), 

*  In  the  corresponding  ^Snti  chapter,  in  which  I  pointed  out  abore  the 
simile  of  the  six  senses  as  horses,  and  gudho  *tma  for  bhutStmi,  this  verse 
ia  found  in  a  different  form,  cittaprasadena  yatir  jahati  'ha  9ubhaf ubhanit 
YU,  247, 10. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.        43 

cittasya  hi  pras&dena  hanti  karma  Qubba^ubham 

which  the  Anuglta  takes  up  xiv,  51,  27,  and  36,  in  inverse 
order: 

27,  jaccittam  tanmayo  VaQyam,  guhyam  etat  sanO- 

tanam 
36,  pras^e  c&i  'va  sattvasya  prasadam   saznavO- 

pnuy&t 

If  all  these  points  be  compared,  first  the  general  order  of 
discassion,  then  the  peculiar  words  which  are  used  in  the 
same  way  in  both  texts,  and  finally  the  identical  passage  just 
given,  it  is  clear  that  one  of  these  texts  must  have  followed 
the  other.  The  dispersion  of  the  epic  chapter  over  diflferent 
books  certainly  makes  it  seem  more  likely  that  it  is  a  copy 
than  an  original.  This  opinion  is  strengthened  by  the  late 
features  added  in  the  epic,  the  freedom  in  metre,  almost 
exclusively  characteristic  of  the  later  epic,  and  the  late  Ve- 
danta  grouping  of  seventeen  at  the  beginning.  For  this 
group  is  not  the  old  Sfiinkhya  group,  which  occurs  often 
enough  eLsewhere  in  the  epic,  but  a  modification  of  it  as  in 
the  Vedantasilra. 

The  citaticm  in  the  Miiitrayana  of  the  stanza  cittasya  hi 
prasuclena  from  some  source  might  be  referred  to  the  epic, 
but  it  seems  more  likely  that  this,  like  a  dozen  other  'Ssomo 
one  says"  verses  in  the  same  rixinishad,  is  a  general  refer- 
ence^ and  it  is  quite  counterlKilanced  by  the  fact  that  the 
Vana  version  in  the  epic  a<lds  a  hidden  reference  to  its 
source  in  the  words  maitrayana-gataf  careU  a  stninge  expres- 
sion, which  is  found  only  in  this  verse  and  in  its  reiK'tition  in 
the  twelfth  l>ook ;  *  while  the  SjH^aker  in  the  bust  verat*  of  the 
Vana  chapU»r  confesses  that  what  lie  hiis  l>een  teaching  *'is 
all  a  condensed  account  of  what  he  has  heard."' 

>  iU.  213.  .^4 ;  lii.  279.  A;  with  a  ili^ht  raried  reading  in  xii.  189.  13. 

*  Tatbl  ^mUm  ifUih  tarrath  ftainiiK'na  .  .  .  etat  te  tarTara  ikhvitam,  iii, 
tlS,  4<l.  I  toppoMp  no  one  will  lay  any  weight  on  the  itatemrnt  of  xii,  247, 
wKich  copter  Vana  here  {u.'i*  al>oTe).  that  (12-14)  thin  ia  a  "secret  not  handed 
4own  hj  tradition.**  anlitihyam  anigainam  (atmapratyayikam  v&Jitram).  but 
"chomed   from   dhAnuikhyinaj,  latyikhjina,  and   the   teD 


44  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

It  is  perhaps  worth  noting  further  that  in  the  Upanishad 
yi,  20-21,  one  sees  the  real  soul  and  becomes  isolated  (where 
the  goal  is  kevalatva),  whereas  in  iii,  211,  15  of  the  epic,  the 
result  of  this  same  seeing  of  self  truly  is  brahmanaJ^  samyo- 
grah,  union  with  Brahman;  which  carries  on  the  antithesis 
ak*eady  noticed  between  the  Samkhya  tanmatras  of  the 
Upanishad  and  the  omission  of  the  same  in  the  epic.  This 
special  designation  of  tanmatra  in  iii,  2  is  complemented  by 
the  vi^esas  mentioned  in  vi,  10,  and  is  important  as  showing 
that  the  Upanishad,  as  a  Upanishad,  is  late,  for  none  of  the 
older  Upanishads  has  either  of  these  terms.  Its  priority  to 
the  epic,  however,  may  be  urged  on  still  another  ground 
than  those  mentioned  above.  The  Upanishad  quotes  stanzas 
freely,  and  it  is  scarcel}'  possible  that  if  the  epic  and  Manavic 
verse  cited  above  on  p.  27  had  existed  in  verse  the  prose  form 
of  the  Upanishad  would  have  been  used.  As  Miiller  says  in 
his  note  on  the  Upanishad  passage:  ^^Part  of  this  passage 
has  been  before  the  mind  of  the  author "  (of  Manu  together 
with  the  epic  poet).  So  perhaps,  too,  with  the  recognition 
of  the  eleven  (vikaras)  in  v,  2.  The  epic  has  both  groups, 
eleven  vikaras  and  also  the  system's  sixteen,  as  I  shall  show 
in  a  later  chapter.  As  compared  with  the  epic,  moreover, 
the  Upanishad  is  distinctly  earlier  in  knowing  Yoga  as  "  six- 
fold," vi,  18,  whereas  the  epic  makes  it  "eightfold,"  xii,  817, 
7  ff.  as  does  Patafijali,  ii,  29. 

I  think  another  circumstance  may  point  to  the  fact  that 
the  epic  refers  directly  to  the  sixth  chapter  of  the  Upanishad. 
The  word  tcUatha  is  not,  indeed,  used  in  a  pregnant  sense  in 
the  Upanishad.  It  is  simply  an  ordinary  grammatical  com- 
plex in  the  sentence  vi,  10,  purusa^  ceta  pradhanantahsthah, 
sa  eva  bhokta  .  .  .  bhojya  prakrtis,  tatstho  bhunkte,  "  Prakrti 
is  food;  when  standing  in  it  (Prakrti),  the  Purusa  enjoys/' 
But  in  the  epic,  xii,  315,  11,  we  read  sa  esa  (purusa^)  pra- 
krtistho  hi  tatstha  ity  abhidhlyate,  "  Purusha  is  designated  as 
tatstha  when  he  is  in  Prakrti."     As  the  expression  tatstha 

thoa^and   Hks/'  for  this  applies  odIj  to  pa^jatj  Stmanam  itmani,  seeing 
self  in  self,  not  to  the  exposition. 


M 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.        46 

occoTB  only  in  this  Upanishad,  according  to  Col.  Jacobus  Con- 
cordance, it  seems  very  likely  that  the  epic  verse  alludes  to 
the  tatstha  =  prakftistha  of  the  Upanishad,  where  Purusa  is 
expressly  punisaf  ceta,  and  the  epic  also  follows,  14,  with 
cetanavans  tatha  cai  ^kal^  ksetrajfia  iti  bha^ita)^^ 

In  Up.  vi.  15  and  Mbh.  xi,  2,  24  occurs  Kala^  pacati  bhu- 
tani ;  and  in  the  companion-piece  to  the  image  of  the  body  as 
a  bouse,  cited  above  from  Up.  iii,  4,  as  the  same  with  xii,  330, 
42,  namely.  Up.  i,  8,  occurs  ani^t^samprayoga  =  Mbh.  xi,  2, 
28,  but  I  do  not  think  that  these  universal  expressions  taken 
by  themselves  are  of  any  significance. 

On  the  other  band  I  cannot  regard  as  unimportant  the  fol- 
lowing stanzas,  beginning  with  tlie  extraordinary,  unsyntac- 
tical,  verse  found  in  the  epic,  xii,  241,  82, — 

sanmasftn  nityayuktasya  <^bdabrahma  'tivartate 

compared  with  287,  8  (Gita  6,  44,  jij&asur  api  yogasya,  etc.), 

api  jijfiflsamaQO  'pi  <^bdabrahma  'tivartate 

and  with  xiv,  19,  66, 

sanmfls&n  nityayuktasya  yogah,  Pftrtha,  pravartate 

and  with  Maitr.  Up.  vi,  28, 

sadbhir  m&sals  tu  yuktasya  nityayuktasya  dehinah 
anantah  paramo  guhyah  samyag  yogah  pravartate 

and  with  Maitr.  Up.  vi,  22  =  Mbh.  xii,  233,  80, 

dve  brahmani  veditavye  qabdabrahma  param  ca  yat 
^abdabrahmani  nisnAtah  param  brahm&  'dhigacchati. 

The  last  stanza  occurs  only  here  and  in  this  Upanishad  (ex- 
cepting later  copies).'    The  first  is  a  meaningless  compound  of 

>  It  mmj  be  noticed  here  alto  that  in  caitanya  the  Tocabnlary  of  the  pscado* 
•pic  it  that  of  the  UpanUhad  in  its  later  part,  tI,  10  and  38  (the  word  is  found 
•lae  oolj  in  late  Upaniahadi ).  Compare :  ariitanyam  na  tidyate  (the  tree  hai 
A  Jlva).  lii,  1S4, 17  ;  cetanlrattu  ciitanyam  lamam  bhutcfu  pa^yati,  *'the  ■•(;« 
•eve  ooe  and  the  tame  toul  in  all  conicious  creaturei/'  xIt,  IB,  33.  The  term 
la  •akDowB  to  the  Giti  and  enrl j  epic. 

*  With  the  Tar.  lee.,  dre  Tidje  TeditaTje,  Mund.  Up.  i,  4 ;  Brahmabindo 
Up.  i,  17  Compare  a  tort  of  parodj  in  xii,  100,  5,  nbhe  prajfie  Teditarje 
rJTi  TakrA  ca,  BhiratA.  The  dre  rlra  brahmano  Hipe  of  BAU.  ii,  3,  1,  ar« 
perhapa  the  flrtt  pair,  though  there  it  is  higher  and  lower  Brahman  in  a  metA- 


t^* 


I 


/ 


46  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

the  *'8ix  months"  stanza  and  the  *'two  brahman"  stanza.  The 
second  is  a  theoretical  advance  on  the  latter,  which  says  that 
when  one  is  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  word-brahman  he 
gets  to  the  highest  Brahman.  The  later  Yogin  does  not  think 
this  necessary,  and  emends  to  "  even  one  desirous  of  knowl- 
edge (of  Yoga,  in  Gita)  surpasses  the  word-brahman,"  while 
tlie  "  six  months  "  stanza  in  the  epic  is  adjusted  to  the  occa- 
sion (nityayuktasya  of  the  MSS.  is  to  be  read  in  the  Upani- 
shad  as  in  the  epic).  Here  again,  the  Maitrayana  alone  has 
this  stanza,  nor  does  nityayukta  occur  elsewhere  except  in 
the  same  way  in  the  Gita,  8,  14,  nityayuktasya  yoginah. 

In  my  opinion  these  parallels  together  with  the  cittasya  hi 
prasadena  stanza  above  indicate  that  the  epic  has  copied  from 
the  sixth  chapter  of  the  Upanishad  as  well  as  from  the  earlier 
portions.^ 

The  Vedic  period,  then,  is  represented  in  the  epic  down  to  a 
pretty  late  stage  of  Upanishads.  The  tanmatra  era  of  philos- 
ophy, the  trinitarian  era  of  philosophy,  these  are  represented 
by  the  Upanishad  and  by  the  epic ;  but  only  the  latest  philo- 
sophical and  religious  chapters  of  the  epic  recognize  tanma- 
tras  (the  name)  and  the  trinity,  as  only  the  later  Upanishads 
recognize  them. 

Of  still  later  Upanishads,  it  is  possible  that  the  pseudo-epic 
may  know 

The  Atharva^iras  TTpanishad. 

The  title  is  applied  to  Narayana,  xii,  339,  113,  and  the 
commentator  explains  it  as  referring  to  the  Upanishad.*  But 
we  must,  I  think,  rest  content  ^vith  the  certainty  that  the 
epic  cites  (a)  the  Brhadamnyaka  Up.,  (6)  the  Kafhaka,  {c)  the 

^  The  general  lateness  of  the  Upanishad  is  shown  by  its  recognition,  t,  2, 
of  the  trinity  (Muir  ap.  Holtzmann),  which  is  also  recognized  in  the  later 
epic. 

^  On  this  and  on  i,  70,  3d-40  in  the  ^akuntalS  episode,  bhSrandas5magiti> 
bhir  atharvaviraso  'dgataih  .  .  .  atharvavedapraTarah,  compare  Weber,  IS^ 
Tol.  i,  pp.  383-4.    See  also  above,  pp.  8  and  0  (note  1). 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.        47 

Kaitrujanay  or,  in  other  words,  copies  at  legist  one  of  each  of 

the  three  kinds  of  Upanishads,  old  prose,  metrical,  and  later 

prose. 

A^valayana  Grhya  Sutra. 

In  this  S&tra  i,  15,  9,  occurs  a  stanza  which  is  found  also 
with  varied  readings  in  the  Kau^Itaki  and  BA.  Upanishads 
(ii»  11 ;  vi,  4, 9,  respectively)  as  a  single  stanza.  This  is  cited 
in  the  epic  as  Vedic,  the  reading  following  that  of  the  Sutra 
and  adding  one  stanza,  which  clearly  belongs  to  the  citation, 
i,74,6S-(>4: 

vedesY  api  vadantl  'mam  mantragr&mam  dvij&tayah 
j&takarmani  putranAm  tava  *pi  viditam  tatha 
ang^  afig&t  sambhavasi  hrdayftd  adhi  jayase 
atma  vai  putranaiua  'si  sa  jiva  qaradah  Qatam 
jlvitaih  tvadadhluam  me  sant&nam  api  ca  'ksayam 
tasuat  tvam  jIva  me  putra  susukhl  qaradam  ^tam  ^ 

Tlie  general  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these  citations  is^ 
twofold.  First,  the  epic,  sj-nthetically  considered,  post-dates 
the  latest  Vedic  works.  Second,  the  final  redactors  were 
priests,  well  acquainted  with  Vedic  literature.  Of  these 
points  there  can  be  no  doubt;  nor  is  a  third  open  to  serious 
objection,  namely,  that  the  restriction  of  philosophical  citation 
to  philaso[)hical  chapters  does  not  prove  anything  in  regard 
to  tlie  date  of  the  epic  that  preceded  the  insertion  of  these  < 
chapters. 

Pnri^as  and  Ztihiaaa. 

Whetlier  the  Puranas,  ascribed  to  Romahar^a  (sie)  in  xii, 
819,  21,  precode  or  follow  epic  literature,  is  not  a  question 
that  can  \ye  answered  categorically.  Nothing  is  commoner 
than  the  statement  made  by  some  epic  character  that  a  story 
beard  by  him  long  ago  in  a  Purana.'    But  most  of  the 


>  AcTsllTmna  it  mentioned  onlj  in  the  pteado^pic,  xiii,  4,  &4.    (>n  thl« 
J  hit  rorntioti  of  the  epic,  toe  liclow,  and  llulunuinn,  loc.  cit,  p.  27,  with 
•Cher  0appoeed  referencet  to  Sutini. 

*  Far  exjuDple.  xili,  SI,  fiO,  maji  ^nitam  id^ni  purTaro  purine.  For  the 
rvUtioo  between  the  extant  Purinai  and  the  epic,  compare  Iloltzmann,  loc.  cit., 
^  9  a.    Tbtfv  it  tto  earlier  aUualon  to  an  txtaat  Purina  (8BE.  ii  p.  zzTlii) 


48  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

extant  Puninas  are  in  their  present  shape  certainly  later  than 
the  epic.  Nevertheless,  before*  the  great  epic  was  completed 
the  eighteen  Puranas  were  known,  since  they  are  mentioned 
as  a  group  xviii,  5,  46  (not  in  C.)  and  6,  97.  Further,  a  Vayu 
Purana  is  referred  to  in  iii,  191,  16 : 

etat  te  sarvam  ftkhy&tam  atlt&nagatam  tathft 
Ydyuproktam  anusmrtya  Pur&nam  rsisamstutam. 

This  statement,  however,  implying  that  the  Purana  treats 
of  future  events,  though  illustrated  in  this  instance  by  the 

,  epic's  account  of  later  ages,  scarcely  tallies  with  the  early 

epic  use  of  the  word,  which  regularly  connotes  atita,  the 
past,  but  not  anagata,  (account  of)  things  to  be ;  yet  it  corre- 
sponds exactly  to  the  ordinary  contents  of  the  latQr  Puranas. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  pseudo-epic  contains  this  later  sort  of 
Puriina,  known  as  Purana  as  well  as  akhyana  and  mahopa- 

f  nisada,  where  future  events  are  described.^    It  is  to  be  re- 

marked, moreover,  that  this  reminiscence  of  Vayu's  Purana, 
a  work  which  is  referred  to  again  in  the  Harivanga,  is  con- 
tained in  the  Markandeya  episode,  which  long  interpolation 
is  itself  virtually  a  Purana.  That  some  of  the  verses  in  the 
extant  Vayu  are  like  some  in  the  epic  proves  nothing  in 
regard  to  the  relative  age  of  either.*    There  is  no  real  iden- 

than  that  in  Ap.  Dh.  S.,  ii,  9, 24, 6,  where  a  Bhavisyat  Purana  is  cited,  the  wordi 
having  an  epic  strain,  perhaps  to  be  filled  out  with  vijarthah  srarge  (jivanti 
ydvad)  Sbhutasaihplavat.  See  also  abore,  p.  6.  On  the  Purinas  as  deposi- 
tories of  Vedic  ^ruti,  see  the  quotation  above,  p.  4,  and  compare  H.  8,  33, 5, 
etat  tc  kathayisjami  puranam  brahmasammitam  nana^rutisamijuktAm. 

^  xii,  340,  95-125,  future  avatars,  conquest  of  Kalajavana,  etc.,  called 
mahopanisadam  (sic,  neuter),  in  9I.  Ill,  puranam  in  118  and  124,  ikhyinam  in 
125.  Closely  united  are  "praise  and  Puranas"  (kn«wn  to  SuUs)  in  xii,  68, 8 
(not  like  the  stutivastra,  praise-treatises,  of  the  late  passage,  ii,  452,  where, 
however,  B.  11,  35,  has  stuti^ustrdni). 

^  Even  the  Garuda  and  Varaha  PurSnaa  may  precede  the  final  rerision  of 
the  whole  epic,  though  the  evidence  for  references  is  far  from  conclutiTe; 
but  on  the  other  hand  our  present  Puranas  may  have  been  so  changed  at 
not  to  agree  in  any  detail  with  Puranas  that  once  bore  these  names.  The 
arguments  are  given  by  Holtzmann,  loc.  cit.  The  epic  passages  supposed  to 
refer  to  the  Puranas  are  II.,  3, 33, 5  (above)  and  i,  31,  3.  The  epic  declaration 
i,  2,  380,  that  it  is  the  base  of  all  Puranas,  presupposes  a  goodly  number 
already  in  existence ;  but  this  statement  is  as  late  an  addition  to  the  poem 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO   THE  EPIC  POETS.        49 

tity  in  the  account  cited  from  the  Vayu  Purana  and  the 
extant  Vayu  Purana.  In  the  description  of  the  Kali  age, 
for  instance,  where  the  epic  (in  the  part  said  to  be  from  the 
Vayu  Purana)  has,  190,  64,  ^udra  dharmam  pravak9yanti, 
brahmanah  paryupasakal^,  the  Vayu,  Iviii,  41,  saj-s  ^udracar- 
ya^  ca  brahmanah,  and  where  the  epic,  ib.  97,  has  utsudayi- 
9yati  mlecchaganan,  the  Vayu,  ib.  78,  has  mlecchan  hanti, 
Init  here  there  is  nothing  characteristic.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  most  striking  features  in  the  epic  account,  the  edukas, 
and  Kalki,  with  the  heavy  taxes  laid  upon  priests,  9I.  62, 
66-67,  93  ff.,  are  not  found  in  the  Viiyu  at  all.  Noticeable 
also  is  the  fact  that  the  epic  account  not  only  has  more 
than  the  Vayu,  but  has  contradictory  statements.  Thus  in 
^1.  58,  the  Vayu  declares  one  of  the  signs  of  the  evil  age  to 
be  tliat  girls  less  than  sixteen  will  bear  children;  while  in  tlie 
epic  tlie  sign  is  that  girls  of  five  or  six  will  bear  and  boys  of 
seven  or  eight  will  beget  children :  pailcame  va  'tha  ^as^e  va 
varse  kanya  prasuyate,  saptavar^a  '^t^ivar^'iQ  ca  prajasyanti 
naras  ta<la,  190,  49.  Taken  altogether,  the  epic  account 
seems  to  be  an  extended  and  exaggerated  reproduction  of 
that  in  the  Viiyu  Purana,  but  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether 
it  is  really  based  on  the  extant  text  or  not  The  Puranic 
version,  however,  does  not  seem  to  \ye  taken  from  the  epic 
account,  and  as  the  latter  Ls  expressly  said  to  be  from  the 
Purana  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  Mfirkandeya 
episode  ^-as  inserted  into  the  epic  after  the  Vayu  Purana 
was  written,  though  this  must  remain  only  a  supposition. 

Another  long  intrusion  in  the  same  third  book  of  the  epic, 
this  time  in  the  Tirtha  stories,  iii,  110  ff.,  leads  to  a  nsult 
somewhat  more  definite  in  resi>ect  of  tlie  relation  Ix'tween 
the  ijarticuLir  story  intruded  into  the  ei)ic  and  the  Padma 

M  b  the  mention  of  the  oightcen.  I  wuppouc  most  tchoUrt  will  acct'pt  the 
*«lfhteen  I*ariiui#  **  a«  actuall^r  rt^fcrrint;  to  i>i^htc*fn,  ami  I  am  inrlineci  to 
4o  to  myelt.  At  the  tame  time  the  niimlKT  i«  mnn*  or  let*  conrentional  in 
tiM  epic  (aee  the  irroapi  of  ei)chttH>n  spoken  of  Im*1ow).  ancl  vrvn  in  the  |>«*rio<l 
•f  file  rpAnif hada  litorarj  works  may  have  Uen  ^roui^ed  in  ciKhterns :  yajfta- 
rip4  aafldA^o^tiiM  araram  jesu  karma,  with  DeUMena  remark  on  ukta  and 
to  ex|iUin  the  nninber,  Muml.  Up.  i,  2,  7. 

4 


> 


50  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Purana.  Here,  according  to  the  acute  investigation  of  Dr. 
Liiders,  Die  Sage  von  R§ya§rnga,  the  epic  account  in  its 
present  form  is  based  upon  that  of  the  Purana.  Dr.  Liiders 
thinks  indeed,  p.  108,  that  there  was  an  earlier  epic  form  of 
the  story  which  antedated  the  Puranic  account.  But  it  is  at 
least  certain  that  the  present  epic  form  is  subsequent  to  the 
present  Puranic  form,  and  that  the  tale  is  drawn  from  popu- 
lar sources  that  antedate  in  all  probability  all  the  literary 
versions  in  Sanskrit. 

Leaving  the  modem  Purana,  as  it  is  described,  e.  g.,  in 
Vayu  Purana,  iv,  10, 

8arga<5  ca  pratisargaq  ca  vanqo  manvantarani  ca 
vanQ^aucaritam  ce  'ti  parSnam  paScalaksanam, 

and  turning  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  the  epic,  there 
is  no  essential  difference  between  atlta,  akhyana,^  purana 
and  itihasa.  Together  with  the  more  general  katha,  all  these 
words  mean  ordinarily  an  old  tale,  story,  legend  or  incident. 
Rarely  is  Purana  itself  used  of  cosmogony,  but  a  case  occurs 
in  xii,  201,  6,  where  the  phrase  tad  ucyatam  puranam  refers 
to  the  origin  of  earth,  heaven,  creatures,  wind,  sky,  water, 
etc.  The  birth  of  Asuras  and  Suras  is  a  Puranic  topic  in  i, 
65,  38.  When  not  an  adjective  to  akhyana,  which  is  a  com- 
mon function  of  the  word,  it  is  an  equivalent  substantive. 
Thus  the  Nandini  tale  is  an  akhyiinam  puranam,  i,  175,  2, 
while  in  xii,  343,  2,  hanta  te  vartayisyami  puranam,  the  word 
in  the  phrase  takes  the  place  of  Itihasa;  as  it  does  in  i,  196, 
14,  griiyate  hi  purane  'pi  Jatila  nama  GautamT. 

From  remote  antiquity  these  Puranas  or  tales  of  old  were 
associated  with  Itihiisas,  legends,  whether  cosmological  or 
not  (the  distinction  is  quite  artificial).  They  were  narrations, 
katlias,  composed  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  verse,  gathas. 
Katha  itself  is  entirely  non-specific,  and  may  be  a  causerie 
rather  than  a  tale,  as  in  ix,  88, 16,  where  are  mentioned  reli- 

^  Synonymous  with  this  is  the  won!  upakhyana.  Thus  the  ^^^uitali 
episode  and  Namuci  myth,  ix,  4.3,  i^3,  bear  the  name  upakhyina,  and  in  t, 
18, 16,  and  10  it  is  synonymous  with  akhyana.  The  Fowler's  tale  is  a  dhannl^ 
khyana,  ill,  210,  80  (compare  a  reference  to  many  such,  p.  5,  abore). 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.       61 

gioos  conversations,^  citrah  katha  vedam  prati.  A  legend, 
such  as  that  of  Agastya,  is  a  katha  divya,  iii,  100,  2.  The 
mahopani^adam  alluded  to  above  is  a  kathamrtam,  the  essence, 
sara,  of  hundreds  of  upakhyanas,  xii,  340,  127.  So  the  ^ve- 
tadvlpa  story  is  a  kathasara,  xii,  836,  16. 

But  the  especial  characteristic  of  the  old  legend  is  that  it 
relates  the  story  of  great  kings  or  gods  '^  and  their  acts  in  the 
past  In  iii,  298,  7,  Dyumatsena  is  solaced  "  by  the  help  of 
tales  of  former  kings,"  citrarthai^  pQrvarajflara  katha^rayaih, 
according  to  the  recommendation  in  the  epic  itself:  *' Comfort 
those  afflicted  in  mind  with  tales  of  the  past,"  yasya  buddhih 
paribhavet  tarn  atitena  santvayet,  i,  140,  74;  an  instance 
being  the  story  of  Nala,  kirtana,  itihusa,  itihusah  puranal^ 
as  it  is  indifferently  called,  iii,  79,  10,  11,  13,  16. 

The  word  itihasa  may  also  have  the  meaning  "saying," 
rather  than  "  legend."     Thus  in  iii,  30,  21 : 

atrA  'py  udaharanti  'mam  itih^am  pur&tanam 
Iqvarasya  vaqe  lok&s  tisthante  na  'tmano  yatba, 

where  itiliasa  is  equivalent  to  pravada,  a  proverbial  saying 
(in  this  instance  repeated  in  9I.  25  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
epic).  But  ordinarily  the  word  means  a  tile,  of  which  the 
hemistich  just  cited  is  the  8tereotyi)ed  introduction,  as  in  iii, 
28,  1  and  (tassim.'  It  is  important  to  notice  that,  as  itibfisa  is 
used  for  proverb  and  glta  gatlia  is  also  used  in  the  same  way, 

I  So  A  philosophical  diirourto  of  rrligioui  content,  fnokMcihamia,  it  «n 
ItilUUa,  xii,  334,  42;  and  the  tale  of  a  good  Brahman  if  a  katha  on  dutj, 
iii.S:i4fL 

'  The  tale  of  Athanran  finding  Apni  when  the  Utter  dinappeared  ia  an  Iti- 
ia«a  pariuna.  iii.  217  and  222.  In  iii.  \M,  m,  purivrttah  kathih  punyih. 
arp  "talM  of  kingt.  women,  and  •eer».'*  With  purarrtta  a«  adj.  compare 
kathajranti  purirrttam  itihinam,  xii,  18,  2;  a«  a  noun  it  i«  not  uncommon, 
rijftlm  purirrttam.  "a  tale  of  kings," etc..  «•  it  illuitrated  luflSciently  in  TW. 
(cocnparr  rrttlnta).  Khlmlara's  huming  it  a  piurini  kathi  nitaiiututS.  i, 
t33.  1&  **  Men.  make*,  and  demoni  "  i«  the  lubject  of  a  "  dirine  tale,"  kathi 
«vj|.lniii.^l.4. 

*  A  word  of  analogouf  formation  i«  iitihya,  equivalent  to  traditional  ro* 
port,  Ve<U.  It  u  found,  e.g..  in  xii.  218.  27  and  247.  VA,  and  (2.  t.  H7.  2:S.  at 
ome  of  a  group  of  tourcet  of  knowledge  betidea  anumina  and  pratyakta. 
Omkpmn  itiTftta,  aa  legend,  in  i,  1,  iC. 


62  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

for  example,  the  na  jatu  kamah  proverb,  i,  75,  49-^0,  so  the 
phrase  to  introduce  a  tale,  Itihasa,  may  substitute  gathas,  as 
in  iii,  29,  35,  atiii  'py  udaharanti  'ma  gathah  .  .  .  gitah. 
Such  gathas  refer  to  action  or  to  ethical  teaching  (compare 
the  same  formula  for  both,  loc.  cit.  and  ii,  68,  65).  A  differ- 
ence may  be  imagined  in  the  element  of  song  of  the  g^tha, 
but  this  is  illusory.  The  gathas  are  indeed  said  to  be  sung, 
as  in  the  case  just  cited  (gl.  84-44  are  the  gita  gathah),  but 
singing  is  too  precise  a  translation.  As  shown  above,  even 
the  Aranyakas  are  "sung/'  and  in  point  of  fact  the  ^thas 
are  synonymous  with  glokas  and  are  recited.  Stanzas  of 
Puranas  are  thus  said  to  be  sung.^  Conversely,  gatlias  are 
not  always  sung,  iii,  135,  45,  atm  'py  udaharanti  'ma  gatha 
devfiir  udahrtali ;  while  ib.  54  is  another  illustration  of  the 
word  giithii  meaning  only  a  current  proverbial  gloka.  But  in 
tliis  case  it  is  woven  together  with  the  legend  of  Dhanusak^a, 
whose  direct  curse  not  succeeding  in  slaying  his  enemy,  he 
destroyed  the  mountain,  in  the  life  of  which  was  bound  up 
the  life  of  the  invulnerable  foe.  Hence  they  say  "  man  can 
never  escape  his  fate : " 

acur  vedavidah  sarve  githam  yaih  tarii  nibodha  me 
na  distam  artham  atyetiim  T^o  martyah*  kathamcana 
mahisdir  bhedayd^mSsa  Dhanusak^o  mabldhard,n 

Suuli  gathas ^  are  even  incorporated  into  the  law-books: 

**Vei*ses  recited  by  Yama"  are  cited  (by  those  that  know 

antiquity  and  the  law)  "in  the  law-books"  on  the  sin  of 
selling  a  son  or  daughter,  xiii,  45,  17.* 

»  Compare  Tirtha  gatha  and  Tirtha  9loka,  iii,  88,  22;  89,  17;  00,  0;  "the 
^loka  Hunj;  in  a  Purana,"  purane  fruyate  gitah  ylokah,  v,  178,  47 ;  puranah 
floko  j;itali,  iii,  300,  IW  (a  proverb  on  fame) ;  Iloltzmann,  loc.  cit.,  p.  20  flf. 

'-*  The  reading  amartyah  in  B.  wouM  require  api.  C.  has  martyah.  The 
proverb  appears  in  a  different  form,  v,  40,  o2,  na  distam  abhyatikrantum 
9akyam  bliutena  kenacit. 

*  In  the  Uiimayana  al8o,eti  jlvantam  anando  naram  varsa9atad  api  is  giyen 
as  a  kalvjlni  or  paiirani  giitha  laukiki,  v,  'M,  (5;  vi,  120,  2  (G.  110,  2). 

*  atra  giitha  Yumodgitah  kirtayanti  puravidah  dharmajfia  dharma9aj«trefa 
nibaddhil  dlmrma8etiiMU,  yo  nianuFyah  svakam  putraih  vikriya  dhanam  icchmti 
kanyan'i  va  jivitarthaya  yah  9ulkena  prayacchati,  saptavare,  etc. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.       63 

The  best  known  example  of  the  last  case*  gatlias  recited 
by  a  divinity,  is  found  in  the  Harigitas  (plural),  xii,  847, 
11,  that  is  the  Bhagavad  Gita  (Upanishad).^  Here  the  "sing- 
ing "  is  that  of  the  Aranyakas.  As  Vedantas  are  Upanishads 
(above,  p.  9),  so  we  find  in  xii,  247,  21,  yat  tan  mahar^i- 
bhir  dr^tam  (=  Veda),  vedante^u  ca  glyate,  "  what  is  re- 
vealed in  the  Veda  and  sung  in  the  Upanishads." 

Such  tales  and  legends  are  said  to  be  the  epic  itself,  which 
is  called  indifferently  an  Itihasa,  a  Purana,  or  Kr^na's  Veda.^ 
As  the  Chandogya  Upanishad  applies  the  title  "  fifth  Veda " 
to  the  Itihasapurana,  so  the  epic  claims  the  same  title : 

itih&sapuranah  pafieamo  vedanfttn,  Chand.  Up.,  vii,  1,  2,  4 

(So  each  is  a  Veda  in  ^.it.  Br.  xiii,  4,  3,  12-13.) 
adhltya  caturo  vedftn  s^lg^n  ftkhyftnapaileaman,  vii,  9,  29 
s&figopanisad&n  '  ved&hq  catur  &kby&napaflcaman,  iii,  45,  8 
ved^  adhyapay&masa  Mah^bharatapaficam&n,  i,  G3,  89  and 
xii,  341,  21.* 

In  the  opening  stanzas  •  of  the  great  epic  it  is  described  as^ 
a  Saxhhitil,  collection,  a  grantha,  l)ook,  a  Punina,  an  akhyana, 
an  Itiliasa,  a  Kavya,  a  poem  containing  various  Ciistras,  full 
of  Vyiikhyas  (vaiyakhya)  or  narrations,  and  Upanishads.  It 
is  true  that  it  is  also  called  a  Dharma^astra,  yet  this  repre- 
sents but  one  side  of  its  encyclopjcdic  nature,  as  it  is  besides 
Artha^^astra,  Dliarma^astra,  and  Kama<jastra,  i,  2,  383.  When 
the  character  of  the  work  as  a  whole  is  described,  it  is  in 

'  bhAtpiTAdikhjInam.  Ih.  2;  here  a  recitation  Al>out  the  Ix)rd,  not  by  the 
Lord.     Bat  the  Gtti  ii  a  recitation  b/  the  Lord,  gtta  bhagavati  svayam.  ib. 

•  I,  03.  1^18,  idam  ptirinam  .  .  .  ItihlMim  .  .  kirtnam  redam  vidviln. 
So  the  imiution  of  the  GitI  in  tlie  twelfth  book  ii  called  "  Knna'i  Heligion/' 
SitTato  dhamiah  (tin*  Ik'Iow). 

•  The  other  form  o<'rurf,  e.  ff.,  iii,  206,  2,  tlAffopanisado  redXn  adhlto. 

•  Compare  alto  r,  41.  41  ;  ix.  f^,  14  (a«  alxire),  ami  retUA^  rl  'dhija|?e  pSflffSn 
•rtihlftlii,  i,  (%K  ^;  itahi«apurancffu  nSnl^ikflfU  bodhitah  Tedari^Ungatat- 
traj&ah,  I,  100,  20;  ve'lefu  Mpurincfu  rgvtnle  »a}r«jurTc»<le  .  .  .  purine  fo- 
paaiwade  Uthli  'va  jrotive  iyurrede  tathli  'ra  ca.  xii,  312.  (V-O;  re  Mhiyate 
•rtihiMm  porinam.  xiii,  102,  21 ;  jad  clad  ucyate  (iativ  K^tihiae  c*  chaodaai« 
tiii.  111.42. 

»  I.  1.  W,  49.  65.  61.  7a. 


54  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

terras  of  epic  story,  not  of  didactic  code.  Even  the  Hari- 
vanga  poet  does  not  fail  to  distinguish  the  two  elements. 
He  boasts  that  the  epic  is  an  akhyanam  bahvartham  ^ruti- 
yistaram,  but  still  says  that  it  is  the  Bharati  katha,  Bharata 
story,  the  root  of  which  is  the  dramatic  episode  of  the  Raja- 
siiya,  which  led  to  the  development  of  the  story  (H.  8,  2, 
13  ff.).  So  another  poet  proclaims :  "  I  will  relate  the  great 
good  fortune  of  that  great-hearted  king  the  Bharata,  whose 
brilliant  Itihasa,  story,  is  called  the  Mahabharata,"  i,  99,  49. 
The  reason  that  Kr§na  Dvaipayana  spent  three  years  in  mak- 
ing the  epic  was  not  only  that  he  wished  to  do  a  good  thing 
but  that  he  wished  to  **  extend  the  glory  of  the  Pandus  and 
other  warriors."  ^ 

Constituting  a  small  but  important  part  of  the  various 
tales  told  in  the  epic  are  found  genealogical  verses,  anu- 
vanga-glokas  (or  gathas),  which  commemorate  the  history  of 
the  race  of  valiant  kings  and  great  seers  of  the  past.  I 
shall  speak  of  them  again  hereafter.  Here  it  suffices  to  say 
that  such  verses  are  either  sung  by  professional  rhapsodes, 
or  recited  by  narrators.  The  rhapsodes,  however,  were  quite 
distinct  from  the  Brahmans,  who  recited  the  epic  stories. 
For  a  priest  to  be  a  professional  story-teller  or  a  rhapsode  was 
as  bad  for  him  as  to  be  a  juggler  or  a  physician.^ 

Drama. 

There  remains  only  one  class  of  literature  which  may 
doubtfully  be  included  under  the  head  of  literature  known 
to  the  epic  poets,  the  drama.  Whether  there  was  already  a 
literary  drama  is,  however,  chiefly  a  matter  of  definition. 
It  is  conceivable  that  the  story-tellers  and  rhapsodes  may 
have  developed  dramatic  works  before  any  such  works  were 
written,  that  is,  became  literature  in  a  strict  sense,  and  that 

1  i,  62,  27-28. 

^  xiii,  23,  15,  gayanS  nartakSf  cii  Va  plaraki  vSdakSa  tathi  kathaki 
yodhakay  cai  'va  rajan  na  Vhanti  ketaDam;  ib.  90,  11,  among  api&ktejia 
are  kuyilavas,  rhapsodes,  and  idol-makers  (above,  p.  15).  A  priest  ia  insolttd 
on  being  caUed  a  professional  eulogist,  bandin,  i,  78,  9-10. 


jiM 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.       55 

the  Ikbyana  may  have  been  dramaticallj  recited.  But  it  is 
alflo  true  that  the  early  epic  does  not  mention  the  play  or 
drama.  Nevertheless  a  kind  of  drama  existed  before  the 
epic  was  ended.    Compare  iv,  16,  43: 

ak&lajfiA  'si,  s&irandhri,  Q&ilasI  'va  virodisi 

From  the  expression  ^Hhou  weepest  like  an  actress"  one 
might  hastily  conclude  that  we  have  here  a  reference  to  real 
drama.  But  pantomime  expresses  weeping,  and  no  mention 
of  real  drama  occurs  in  the  epic  except  in  the  passage  ii,  11, 
S6,  where  Drama  is  personified : 

D&tak&  vividh&h  kavy&h  kath&khy&yikakftrikah, 

which  is  anything  but  an  early  verse.*  In  the  Harivan^a,  on 
the  other  hand,  which  probably  dates  from  a  time  posterior  to 
oar  era,  we  find  not  only  pantomime,  abhinaya,  but  even  the 
dramatic  rei>reHentation  of  the  "great  Kaniayana  poem,"  in 
which  the  vidQ^iika,  or  stage-jester  of  the  regular  drama, 
Ukes  part,  H.  2,  89,  72;  92,  69. 

But  even  abhinaya,  or  [xantomime,  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
epic  proper  under  that  name  and  no  technical  dramatic  term 
is  found  anywiiere  in  it  This  is  the  more  surprising  as  the 
manner  in  which  the  epic  is  told  gives  abundant  opportunity 
to  introduce  both  the  terms  and  allusions  to  dramatic  repn^- 
sentation.  Shou-s  of  dances  are  frequently  mentioned,  but 
the  si^ectatore  never  hear  the  players  even  when  mentioned 
as  natas,  a  doubtful  word  which  might  be  actor  and  may  l)e 
pantomimist.     Not  to  s|)eak  of  tlie  aljsence  of  (uubhikas  and 

1  DimsBAtic  rtritatiom§  are  of  conrne  another  matter,  and  fMintominio  muft 
beaeparatrd  from  drama.  Aectmling  to  Kick,  S<KMale  (tlkKicning,  p.  IKH,  thf 
mm*  rvlation  rxittn  in  thi*  Jitakan,  whfrv  aUo  na^  and  na^ka  do  not 
jvt  memn  actors  but  pantnmimcp,  ai  *'  dramatic  pfrformanrt*ii  arc  nowhen* 
4cacfih«i.'*  Thif  in,  in  my  opinion,  the*  ttate  of  afTain  in  the  epic  prior  to 
the  writinir  of  the  late  additions  (siH*  tht*  allusion  below),  ii,  11,  SO,  Udonf^ 
drarlj  to  an  interpolat^Hl  s(*ene,  and  the  fact  that  real  drama,  ni^ka,  is 
Mmtioord  onlj  here  in  the  whole  epic  till  the  IIariTaA9a,  should  show  its 
agv.  He  who  refers  the  paasa^e  to  A(X)  n.  r.,  must  ignore  its  uniqueness  and 
tW  faet  that  the  rest  of  the  epic  knows  no  such  wonl.  See  mj  Ruling  Caste, 
ptW,  and  also  lYoftrtsor  Rhrs  Daridn'  interestin^c  n(»te  on  the  Brahma-Jila 
Svtta^  Dtaloguet  of  the  Buddha,  p.  7  (with  my  note  below,  p.  67,  od  prrkkh£>. 


56  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

others  elsewhere  mentioned  as  actors,  and  of  the  dramatic  vitas, 
^akaras,  and  vidui^akas,  when  groups  of  people  of  this  grade 
are  given,^  even  the  granthika  appears  only  as  a  rhapsode 
processional  singer,  and  the  characters  are  described  merely 
as  "  seing,"  pagyanto  natanartakan,  ii,  83,  49 ;  i,  218,  10,  etc. 
The  expression  "stage"  and  the  various  vague  terms  for 
actors  can  be  referred  to  mimes  with  perfect  propriety  and 
in  the  absence  of  everything  that  would  indicate  real  drama 
ought  perhaps  to  be  so  referred.  In  the  expression  "God 
treats  men  as  men  do  a  doll  on  a  string,"  iii,  80,  23,  the  refer- 
ence must  be  to  the  sort  of  Punch  and  Judy  show  which  is 
still  performed  in  town  and  village.  Even  in  xii,  86,  25, 
rangastri,  '' stage- woman,"  may  perhaps  most  reasonably  be 
explained  as  the  equivalent  of  the  actress  mentioned  above. 
Like  the  Harivan^a,  the  Ramayana  speaks  of  theatrical  exhi- 
bitions, natakany  ahuh  (or  cakruh),  R.  ii,  69,  4;  G.  71,  4. 
Rhapsodic  drama  is  alluded  to  also  in  the  Mahabha^ya,  where, 
as  Weber  has  shown,  the  actors  are  seen  and  heard  and  tra- 
gedies are  presented  in  costume.  But  the  Mahabharata 
neitlier  alludes  to  such  dramatic  plays  nor  does  it  notice  the 
Natasutra.*    All  that  is  heard  seems  to  be  songs  and  instru- 

1  Such  groups  are  frequently  found  in  lists  of  persons  who  are  not  eligible, 
and  are  generally  regarded  as  vulgar  or  dangerous,  but  in  all  these  groups 
among  dancers,  singers,  rhapsodes,  etc.,  no  technical  word  of  the  regular 
drama  is  found. 

2  Compare  Weber,  IS.  xiii,  p.  487 ;  Holtzraann,  loc.  cit ,  p.  78  ff.  The  latter 
scholar  says  ''die  ganze  draroatische  Literatur  ist  spater  als  daa  MahSbhi- 
rata."  lie  means  therewith,  I  presume,  the  received  drama  of  Kalidasa  and 
others.  There  is  certainly  in  the  epic  nothing  like  the  natakikrta  HamSyaiui 
of  the  Ilarivan^a.  The  chronological  value  of  the  Mahabhasya  data  would 
be  greater  if  one  knew  to  which  century  they  reverted,  but  Weber  himself 
warns  against  taking  them  as  of  certain  worth  for  any  time  earlier  than  the 
end  of  the  eighth  century  a.  d.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  320.  A  Punch  and  Judy  show 
is  implied  in  v,  30,  1,  sutraprota  darumayi  *va  yosS.  The  Sutradhara  appeart 
only  in  i,  51,  15,  where  he  is  a  sthapati,  or  architect,  and  a  Sutah  pauranikah. 
The  application  of  the  name  here  is  apparently  to  the  sQtra,  lines  or  plans, 
drawn  up  by  the  architect  (xii,  10,983,  but  B.  has  mudri  for  siltra,  200,  40). 
Lists  of  nntanartakagayanas  are  found  in  iii,  15,  14;  xii,  60,  60;  rangSvata- 
rana,  ib.  205,  5.  In  i,  184,  16,  though  natas  and  Sutas  come  with  dancers  and 
praisers  and  boxers,  niyodhakas,  only  praisers  are  heard  (Sutas,  188,  24).    So 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.       67 

aients :  *^  The  musicians  sounded  their  instruments  together ; 
the  dancers  danced  also;  the  singers  sang  songs,*'  nanrtur 
nartdkuf  cai  Va  jagur  geyani  ga}rana]|^,  i,  219,  4. 

The  conclusion  seems  inevitable  that  the  technical  nataka 
with  its  vidu^aka,  etc.,  that  is,  the  drama  in  its  full  form,  was 
unknown  to  the  epic  proper.  What  was  known  was  clearly 
pantomime.  Dramatic  recitation  like  that  of  the  Bhfisya  may 
be  inferred  only  if  one  ignores  the  facts  mentioned  above, 
which  is  possible  if  the  (non-hearing  but)  seeing  of  shows 
be  taken  as  a  general  expression.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Skhyana-reciters  may  have  been  dramatic  without  the  set- 
ting noticed  in  the  Bha^ya,  They  are  heard  rather  than 
fieen.  I  have  already  noticed  the  fact  that  Narada  is  the 
representative  of  Bharata  as  the  genius  of  music,  and  that 
the  latter  is  not  known  to  the  epic  in  his  later  capacity.^ 

la  ii.4.7.  (with  Tiitilikat) ;  and  in  the  dinamahikratu  at  xt,  14, 17,  which  it 
iu|jiDartakaIi«jidhjrah.  A  dancc-hall,  nartanayali,  nartanigira,  is  mentioned 
in  Ir,  22,  3,  10,  and  a  prekaigira,  "hall  for  teeing,"  it  made  according  to 
Cittrm  rule  in  i,  l«'Vt,  10*11,  a  temporary  affair  for  a  Joutt,  helped  out  with 
maftcat;  a  tamijari^  (more  elaborate)  in  1S6,  16;  while  "tpectatort  at  an 
arma,"  prektakih  .  .  .  raRgari^  ira,  iii,  20,27,  are  alluded  to.  Other  ttago- 
vordt,  rafigabhami,  etc.,  occur  occationallj  without  tpecific  application  to 
acting.  The  ute  to  which  prekfi  and  tamija  arc  put,  when  thej  are  explained 
in  the  i*pir.  thould  make  one  hetitate  to  trantlato  the  tame  words  in  Manu 
more  tpeciflcall/  than  **  thowt  and  meetingt,"  and  the  tame  it  true  of  prekkhi 
in  nil 

^  The  pteudo-epic,  ziii,  33, 12,  tajt  that  tome  priettt  are  thie^et,  tome  are 
liart.  and  tome  are  na^nartaka«,  which  the  commentary  illuttratet  hy  taking 
that  Vilroiki  and  VifTimitra  are  examplet  of  the  thief  while  Bharata  and 
etbert  are  examplet  uf  nafanartakat  (Nirada  it  an  example  of  the  liar,  at 
he  i«  kalahaprirah).  Here,  and  in  the  quotation  above,  nafanartaka  is  one, 
*  artor-dancer."  For  the  part  plajed  bj  dollt  in  the  earlj  ilindu  drama,  tee 
Prnff«tor  Pitchert  illunyinatlng  t^ttaj,  I>ie  Ileimat  det  Puppentpielt  (1000). 
He  alto  fiTce  ref erencet  to  preTioot  Literature  on  the  drama. 


CHAPTER  TWO. 

INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 

Of  the  two  early  epics  of  India,  the  Mahabharata,  the  great 
epic,  is  traditionally  attributed  toadistributor,  vyasa,  who  is 
also  credited  with  the  distribution  or  editing  ol  tne  Vedas 
and  of  several  other  works.  Different  editions  and  former 
declarers  are  also  noticed.  Ua.  other  words,  there  was  no  one 
author  of  the  gre&t  epic,  jLhough  with  a  not  uncommon  confu- 
sion of  editor  with  author,  an  author  was  recognized,  called" 
Vyasa.  .Modem  scholarship  calls  him  The  Unknown,  or 
Vyasa  for  convenience. 
(^  But  if  the  great  epic  lacks  an  author  with  a  real  name,  the 
Mittle  epic,  the  Ramayana,  is  the  work  of  a  definite  personality. 
Here  there  is  no  question  of  disputed  authorship,  only  of 
more  or  less  plainly  marked  interpolation  and  addition.  The 
I  great,  maha,  Bharatarcpic  is  really,  as  it  is  designated,  a  col- 
(^  lection,  Saiiihita,  the  reputed  author  of  which,  correspondii^ 
generally  to  the  parallel  figure  in  Greece,  yet  out^Homers  Ho- 
mer; while  beside  the  huge  and  motley  pile  that  goes  by 
Vyasa's  name  stands  clear  and  defined  the  little  Ramayana  of 
Valmiki,  as  (in  this  respect)  besides  Homer's  vague  Homeiica 
stands  the  distinct  Argonautika  of  Apollonius. 
^  As  the  relation  between  the  two  Hindu  epics,  especially  in 
point  of  age,  has  often  been  discussed,  I  do  not  purpose  to 
repeat  all  the  details  here,  but  to  take  up  the  study  of  the 
great  epic  from  a  new  point  of  view.  For  the  reason  why  so 
much  theorizing  in  regard  to  relative  age  has  been  spent  on 
the  epics  without  satisfactory  result  —  adhuc  sub  judice — is 
that  hitherto  there  has  been  no  recognition  of  the  underlying 
iinit}^  of  epic  speech.  Hence  discussions  in  regard  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  totally  different  origins  of  the  two  epics  and  the 


j^ 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE   TWO  EPICS.  69 

different  ages  thej  represent,  while  their  common  base  has 
been  ignored. 

Ill  regard  to  the  final  growth  of  each,  it  may  be  said  at  onc6 
that  neither  epic  was  developed  quite  independently  of  the  \ 
other.     The  later  Ramayana  implies  the  Mahabharata,  as  the   ^ 
later  Mahabharata  recognizes  the  Ramayana  of  Valmiki.     It 
is  not,  then,  a  question  of  absolute  separation,  but  only  of  the 
length  we  may  go  in  separating. 


Neither  epic  has  a  definitive  text.  The  question  therefore 
naturally  arises  whether  there  is  any  use  in  arguing  about  the\ 
original  form  of  either  poem.  In  regard  to  the  Mahabliaratay 
thin  question  has  been  answered  negatively  by  Dr.  Wintemitz, 
who  holds  that  all  work  on  the  epic  is  useless  till  we  have  the 
text  of  the  Southern  recension,  of  which  he  has  lately  pub- 
linhed,  in  the  Indian  Antiquar}%  some  interesting  specimens. 
But  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  publication  of  the  whole 
Southern  version  would  result  in  a  text  any  more  definitive 
than  that  of  the  Ramayana.  At  most  we  should  have  two 
vemons,  more  or  less  independent  of  each  other,  each  showing 
omissions  and  interiK)lations  as  vieweil  in  the  light  of  the 
other.  This  would  be  of  considerable  value  indeed,  as  pronng 
that  tlie  text  has  been  freely  altered,  a  conclusion  inevitable 
even  without  this  support,  but  based  with  its  aid  on  objective 
reality.  Nevertheless,  though  the  Southern  recension  would 
be  thus  valuable,  its  al)sence  does  not  preclude  the  possibility 
of  obtaining  provisional  data  of  imiK)rtiince  from  the  Northern 
recension  alone,  either  in  reganl  t4)  its  relation  to  the  Rama- 
yana or  in  res|)ect  of  its  o\*'n  development.  Such  ihiUx  must 
finally  be  checkcHl  in  detail  by  a  comparison  \^'ith  those  of  the 
alternate  text ;  but  as  a  whole  they  suffice  to  cast  much  light 
on  several  moot  [xiints,  and  in  themselves  are  useful  in  de- 
monstrating that  the  great  epic  is  the  result  of  the  lalxirs  of  -. 
different  writers  liehmging  to  different  schools  of  style  and 
thought;  a  result  diametrically  opjh>s4h1  to  the  \new  of  the 
method  calling  itself  synthetic,  and  likely  to  be  rather  tiivice- 


60  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

proven  than  disproven  by  the  eventual  publication  of  the 
Southern  text. 

In  regard  to  the  texts  of  the  Ramayana,  I  need  only  refer 
to  the  invaluable  essays  of  Professor  Jacobi,  seconded  by  the 
recent  analyses  of  Dr.  Wirtz  and  Dr.  Liiders,^  especially  as 
this  epic  is  not  the  chief  object  of  consideration  in  this  vol- 
ume. It  is,  however,  obvious  that  exactly  the  same  conditfBns 
obtain  here  as  in  the  case  of  the  great  epic,  and  it  may  be 
added  that  if  there  were  a  third  epic  the  same  conditions 

r'would  obtain  there.  There  is  no  fixed  epic  text  because  Hindu 
epic  poetry  was  never  fixed.  All  epic  poems  were  transmitted 
at  first  orally,  and  the  various  rewriters  treated  them  exactly 
as  the  rhapsodes  had  previously  done,  altered  and  added  as  they 
pleased.  Reconstruction  of  the  original  text  is  therefore  out 
of  the  question.  All  that  can  be  done  is  to  excise  the  most 
palpable  interpolations  in  each  traditional  rendering. 

\"  Neither  of  the  epics,  as  such,  is  recognized  before  the  late 
period  of  the  Grhyasutras,  and  the  first  epic  recognized  here 
and  in  other  Sutras  is  the  Bhiirata.  The  question  has  often 
been  raised  which  epic  is  the  older.     In  our  present  state  of 

^knowledge  it  may  be  said  that  this  question  cannot  now  and 
probably  never  can  be  answered  in  one  word.  In  the  first 
place,  it  will  always  be  idle  to  speak  of  either  epic  as  the  older 
without  specifying  whether  one  means  the  present  text  or  the 
original  t^xt;  for  that  these,  in  the  case  of  either  epic,  are 
convertible  terms  is  an  idea  refuted  by  even  a  superficial 
acquaintance  \\'ith  the  poems.     Assuming,  however,  that  the 

/'question  implies  priority  of  epic  qua  epic  as  a  new  genus  of 
!  literature,  and  whether  this  form  first  arose  as  Ramayana  or 
(Maha)  Bharata,  this  too  cannot  be  answered  categorically, 
because  parts  of  the  latter  are  older  than  the  former,  and  the 
former  is  older  tlian  the  mass  of  the  latter,  as  will  be  shown. 
Personiilly  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  Pandu  (pandava)  form  of 
the  great  epic  is  later  than  the  Rama  epic ;  but,  since  one  was 

1  Das  Ramayana  (tojfctbcr  with  special  studies  mentioned  hereafter),  bj 
Professor  Jacohi ;  Die  Wo.«tliche  RczenHion  des  K.,  by  Dr.  Hans  Wirtx;  Die 
Sage  von  ^?8ya9^^gn,  hy  Dr.  Ileinricli  Liiders,  Giitt.  Nachr.  1897,  p.  87. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE   TWO  EPICS.  61 

a  slow  outgrowth  from  a  Puflj&b  Kuru  epic,  and  the  other,  of 
unknown  antecedents,  was  developed  far  to  the  East,  in  much 
more  polished  form,  while  only  the  Bharata  is  recognized  in 
Vedic  literature,  I  have  as  little  doubt  that  there  was  a  Bha- 
rata epic  before  there  was  a  Ramayana ;  whereof  also  I  shall 
speak  again  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  Here  I  \vish  merely  to 
notice,  in  passing,  the  ridiculous  claim  that  the  Ramayana  dates 

f nim  the  "  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  "  b.  c. This  claim 

has  been  made  not  only  by  Hindus  but  by  Occidental  scholars. 
Whether  there  was  a  Rama  story  at  that  period  or  (just  as 
well)  twelve  or  thirteen  centuries  earlier  no  man  can  know. 
But  that  Valmlki's  Itiimayana  can  lay  claim  to  no  such  age 
tlie  slightest  historical  consideration  will  show,  not  to  speak 
of  an  examination  of  the  almost  classical  metre  of  the  poem. 

The  Mahablmrata,  besides  giving  tlie  Rama  story  as  an  epi- 
sode, Rama-upakhyana,  has  four  direct  references  to  the  Rama- 
yana (apart  fn)m  an  allusion  to  Great  Itihasas).  The  first  is 
tlie  citation  of  a  verse  actually  found,  as  Professor  Jacobi  has 
aho^Ti^  in  the  extant  poem  of  Vabuiki,  api  ca  'yam  pura  gitoli 
9loko  Valmlkina  bhuvi,  vii,  148,  67  (R.  vi,  81,  28).'  The 
iieoond  is  the  citation  of  a  verse  from  Bhargava's  Ram.ocarita 
(Bliargava  lx;lng,  as  Professor  Welier  has  shown,  a  title  of 
Valniiki),  wliich  agrees  in  sense  and  wortls  closely  enough 
with  R.  ii,  67, 11,  to  indicate  that  the  Mahablmrata  poet  of  this 
paiisagis  xii,  57,  40,  hiul  in  mind  this  or  the  original  fonn  (for 
it  is  to  Ik?  noticed  that  the  name  is  not  fixed)  of  this  verse 
in  Uie  Ranuivami,^  and  to  make  impnilmble  the  synchronous 
colUftion  of  the  former  epic  at  xii,  67,  and  68  (cf.  ^1.  15)  : 

M-  clok.'uj  cA  'yam  purilj;Tto  lUiArgavi'na  nialifttmana 
&khyAt6  Hilniacarite  nr]):itiin  prati,  IMiArata, 
rAjliiam    jirathaiuam    vindet    tito    bhAryaiii    tato 

dlianain 
rAjany  asati  lokasya  kuto  bhAryA  kuto  dhanam 

*  DA  hftnUTjih  ttrtTft  ill,  "  Women  in»y  not  ho  •Uin."  Tht*  prncrml  rule 
k  foanl  ftUo  in  K.  ii,  78,  'il,  Av«dhyih  sArvtbhutinim  pramjiUili  kftmya' 
tkm  iti. 

*  Rather  than  a  common  aourcts  a«  I  thought  previoutljr,  AJI*.  xx,  p.  34 


62  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

B.  ar&jake  dhanam  nd.  'sti  ud.  'sti  bh&ryft  'py  arftjake 
idam  atyd.hitam  cd.  'nyat  kuto  satjam  arftjake 

The  third  and  fourth  cases  refer  to  the  Ramayana  without 
mention  of  the  poet:  iii,  147, 11,  " Hanumat  is  very  renowned 
in  the  Ramayana ; "  xviii,  6,  93  (repeated  in  the  Harivan9a) : 
"  In  the  Veda  (which  is)  the  beginning  (of  literature),  in  the 
holy  Ramayana  (wliich  is)  the  end,  and  in  the  Bharata  (which 
is)  the  middle,  in  all  (literatures),  Vishnu  is  besung/'  *  The 
Harivan§a  adds  three  more  references,  two  to  Valmiki,  and 
one  to  a  dramatic  representation  of  the  Ramayana.  Valmiki 
in  these  passages  and  perhaps  in  i,  55,  14,  as  Professor  Holtz- 
mann  surmises,  is  credited  with  being  a  poet.  This  is  also 
implied  in  xiii,  18,  8-10.  Everywhere  else,  and  he  is  men- 
tioned several  times,  ii,  7,  16 ;  iii,  85,  119 ;  v,  83,  27 ;  xii,  207, 
4,  he  is  recognized  only  as  a  saint. 

In  this  material,  which  I  recapitulate  here  only  for  a  view 
of  the  chief  data,^  the  most  striking  fact  is  the  antithesis  be- 
tween the  notices  of  the  Ramayana  as  found  in  the  early  and 
later  ilaliabharata.  The  Rama  story  is  referred  to  over  and 
over,  and  the  whole  tale  is  told  independently  at  iii,  273,  ff., 
but  until  we  come  to  the  much  expanded  Drona  and  the 
didactic  epic,  references  to  the  poem  are  merely  to  the  Rama 
tale,  references  to  the  reputed  author  are  merely  to  a  saint 
recognized  as  an  ascetic  but  not  as  a  poet.  Even  as  a  saint 
the  evidence  is  conflicting,  for,  though  usually  a  Vishnu  adhe- 
rent, in  the  passage  cited  above  from  the  Anugasana,  Valmiki 
is  a  ^ivaite.  The  individual  allusions  prove,  therefore,  noth- 
ing in  regard  to  the  general  priority  of  Valmiki  as  the  first 
epic  poet.  They  prove  only  that  the  Maliabharata  was  not 
completed  before  Valmiki  wrote,  just  as  the  mention  of  the 

^  Tcde  Raniayane  punye  (may  go  with  the  next  word)  BhSrate,  Bharate- 
rsahha,  adau  ca  'nte  ca  madhye  ca,  Harih  sarvatra  giyate.  The  last  claufe 
may  be  taken  more  indefinitely,  "in  V.,  R.,and  M. ;  in  the  beginning,  end,aDd 
middle,  everywhere."  But  such  correlation  is  common  (e.  g.,  rede  loke  ymta^ 
•mrtnh,  R.  ii,  24,  28)  and  seems  to  me  to  be  implied  here. 

*  Weber,  Ueber  das  Ramayana,  first  collected  it ;  Jacobi,  Das  Ramiyana, 
added  to  it ;  Iloltzmann,  Das  Mahabharata.  iv,  p.  ()0  ff.,  has  briefly  tammed 
it,  with  other  references  (omitted  here)  and  independent  additiona. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS.  68 

Vayu  Purana  in  the  Mahabharata  shows  only  that  there  was  a 
Parana  of  that  name  not  before  the  Bharata's  beginning  but 
before  its  end.  They  show  also  that  no  antipathy  or  wish  to 
suppress  Valmlki's  name  influenced  the  Bharata  poets,  who, 
therefore,  had  they  simply  retold  or  epitomized  a  poem  recog- 
nized as  Valmiki's  would  probably  (as  it  seems  to  me)  have 
mentioned  his  name  in  connection  with  the  Kama-upakliyilna. 

Professor  Jacobi  is  of  the  opinion  that  a  verse  of  inferior^ 
form  in  the  episode  points  to  borrowing  because  it  is  inferior. 
But  a  great  poet  is  more  apt  to  take  a  weak  verse  and  make 
it  strong  than  is  a  copyist  to  ruin  a  verse  already  excellent. 
Further,  the  subject-matter  of  the  Kavya  and  episode  is 
treated  differently  in  several  particulars  (details,  loc.  cit.), 
wliiih  points  to  different  workingsover  of  older  matter  rather 
than  to  copying  or  condensing.  Professor  Jacobi  al»<^  em- 
phasizes the  fact  that  tlie  great  epic  cites  Valmiki  but  Valmlki 
dues  not  cite  or  refer  to  the  Bharata.  This  holds  good  for 
the  great  epic  only  from  a  '*  syntlietic  "  point  of  view,  which 
Pn)fe8Hor  Jacobi  of  course  rejects.  The  normal  attitude  of  a 
Hindu  toward  his  sources  is  silence.  He  is  rather  careful  not 
to  state  than  to  prochum  tliat  he  is  treating  old  material,  so 
that  tliere  is  notliing  surprising  in  Valmiki*s  not  speaking  of 
a  predecessor.  Moreover,  in  the  later  Kilmayana,  which  un- 
questionably betrays  acquaint^mce  \^ith  the  Maliabharata,  there 
is  no  more  recognition  of  the  latter  than  there  is  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  poem;  a  fact  which  weakens  considerably  the 
argument  of  silence  as  applied  to  that  earlier  part. 

AfKirt  from  vii,  143,  67,  the  Maliabharata  knows  the  jwet 
Vilmiki  only  in  tlie  twelfth  and  thirteenth  books ;  whereas  it 
knows  everj'where  the  Kama  tale,  a  poem  called  the  Kama- 
ymi}SL,  and  a  siiint  kno\^'n  not  as  a  poet  but  as  lui  as<*etic  cidled 
Vilmiki.  It  gives  tlie  Kania-epis<Hle  as  it  gives  other  ancient 
tales  lianded  down  from  antiiiuity  without  having  been  as- 
signed to  a  siKvific  author.  The  Kama-U{)akhyana  stands  to 
the  Itaiuayai}ia  somewhat^  as  the  Nala-u{>akhyana  stands  to 

>  EiBphAtic.  of  course,  m  the  example  U  t  greftt  cjuq^i^ratlon  in  difference 
«l  ftfr  and  tt/Ie. 


64  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

the  Nai^adha,  in  that  it  is  an  early  tale  of  unknown  author- 
ship which  a  poet  made  his  own.  Long  before  there  is  any 
allusion  to  Valmlki's  Ramayana,  the  base  of  the  great  epic, 
the  substance  of  the  Bharatl  Katha,  is  recognized  in  Hindu 
literature ;  wliile  the  latest  addition  to  the  great  epic  refers  to 
Vabniki  himself  as  a  man  who  is  to  be,  that  is,  who  is  already, 
famous,  yagas  te  'gryam  bhavi^yati,  xiii,  18,  8-10.  Between 
these  extremes  lies  the  Ramayana. 

The  Ramayana  recognizes  Janamejaya  as  an  ancient  hero, 
and  knows  Kurus  and  Paflcalas  and  the  town  of  Hastinapur 
(ii,  68,  13).  The  story  of  the  Pandus,  the  gist  of  the  present 
epic,  is  presumably  later  than  the  story  of  Rama ;  the  former 
everywhere  recognizing  the  latter  as  an  ancient  tale.^  We 
must  therefore  on  these  data  make  the  following  distinctions : 

(1)  The  story  of  Rama  is  older  than  the  story  of  the 
Pandus. 

(2)  The  Pandu  story  has  absorbed  the  Bliarati  Katha. 

(3)  The  Bharatl  Katha  is  older  than  Valmlki's  poem. 


Although  we  have  but  two  ancient  Sanskrit  epics,  there  is 
no  reason  to  suppose  that  epic  poetry  began  with  the  extant 
poems  in  our  possession.  As  was  remarked  above,  the  Maha- 
bharata  alludes  to  the  "  Great  Itihasas,"  which  may  perhaps 
imply  other  poems  of  epic  character  and  considerable  extent.* 
Nor   can  it   be    supposed    that  epic    poetry  was  suddenly 

1  ii,  70,  6,  asambhaye  hemamajasja  jantos  tathS  'pi  RSmo  lulnbhe 
xnrgaya;  iii,  11,  48,  Vali-Sugrivayor  bhratror  jatha  strikankBinoh  pari ;  ix, 
31,  11,  Kavano  nama  raksasah,  Ramena  nihato  rajan  sanubandhah  sahanu- 
gah ;  80  ix,  55,  31 ;  sometimes  interpolated,  as  when  Havana  and  Indrajit 
arc  mentioned  in  i,  155,  44,  but  not  in  C,  which  omits  all  41-44  (after  6081). 
Other  references  will  be  found  in  iii,  25,  8 ;  85,  65,  etc.  Compare  Holtxmann, 
loc.  cit.,  p.  62  ff.  According  to  xii,  34(),  85  ff.,  Rama  comes  at  the  beginning 
of  the  last  era;  Krishna,  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  era  (Rama's  two 
adjutant  monkeys  arc  here  Ekata  and  Dvita).  Rama  is  recognized  here  ai 
an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  also  in  iii,  00,  40. 

'  I  say  perhaps  only,  for  "  great "  is  a  word  often  used  without  reference 
to  extent.  Thus  the  mahad  akhyanam  of  xiii,  2,  1,  is  only  a  philosophical 
fable  (about  a  snake  and  Karma),  8.'$  9lokas  long. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE   TWO  EPICS,  65 

invented  by  one  poet.  The  niunerous  "ancient  tales"  of 
epic  character  must  have  furnished  a  large  body  of  epic  phrase 
as  well  as  fable,  out  of  which  and  on  the  basis  of  which  arose 
our  present  epics.  This  is  rendered  probable  also  by  the  fact 
that  such  brief  epic  verses  as  are  preserved  in  other  works, 
although  not  always  from  the  extant  epics,  yet  have  the  same 
character  as  the  verses  of  the  Bharata  and  Ilamuyana.  Fur- 
thermore, as  said  above,  the  epic  itself  admits  that  the  present 
text  is  not  an  original  work.^ 

We  cannot  suppose  then,  even  if  one  epic  could  be  shown 
to  be  prior  to  the  other,  that  this  prior  epic  was  the  first  work 
in  epic  versification.  We  must  let  pass  the  statement  of  the 
Ramayana  itself  that  Valmlki  invented  the  (loka  verse,  for, 
though  Valmlki  may  have  been  the  first  to  set  out  to  write  an 
epic  in  ^lokas,  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  discuss  such  a 
palpable  bit  of  self-glorification  as  that  in  which  the  later 
Rilmayana  here  indulges.*  As  the  two  Greek  epics  were  both 
based  to  a  certain  extent  on  the  general  rhapsodic  phraseology 
of  the  day,  so  the  two  Hindu  epics,  though  there  was  without 
doubt  borrowing  in  special  instances,  were  yet  in  this  regard 
independent  of  each  other,  being  both  dependent  on  previous 
rhapsodic  and  narrative  phraseology. 

I  cannot,  in  short,  think  that  such  a  very  large  numlx?r  of  | 
identical  phnuws  as  I  shall  enlist  below  can  owe  their  identity 
mmply  to  one  poet's  copj-ing  of  another.  For  tlie  sunilarity 
goeji  too  deep,  into  the  ver}'  gr;un  of  the  verse.  The  exposi- 
tion, I  fear,  will  ho  tiresome  in  its  study  of  minute  detiiil,  but 
it  is  neeessaiy  to  a  full  understanding  of  tlie  conditions  of  the 
problem. 

>  t.  1.  20:  Icmkhrah  karajah  kecit  Mropratjicakfatc  pare  &khvi«yaiiti 
tathli  'yI  'dj«  itihiaam  imam  bhuTi  (cited  tj  lloltimann). 

*  So  with  the  tale  of  the  two  rliaptodt^t  who  "  »ang  "  the  poem  with  moti- 
cal  areompaniment.  after  it  had  been  cnmpotetl  and  taught  to  them  (to  that 
ia  the  flnt  instance  it  waa  recited  aj  a  narrative).  But  all  this  Ib  the  product 
of  a  later  ajre  making  up  itt  own  flctioni  and  mjtht,  tuch  aa  the  tinging  toni 
Ka^a  and  Lara  made  out  of  lu<;Vnr<i,  an  onlinary  word  for  rhaptode.  That 
VUoUki  could  not  hare  "inrented  the  ^loka"  if  shown  by  the  preft4*nce  of 
ta  carUer  form  of  ^lokas  In  the  Brahmanlc  literature  retained  in  Mbb. 

6 


66  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

A  characteristic  of  the  common  basis  of  epic  verse  may  be 
traced  back  to  the  Rig  Veda.  This  consists  in  a  rhetorical 
duplication  of  a  dissyllabic  iambic  noun,  which  favors  the 
diiambic  close  of  the  octosyllabic  pada  or  verse,  as  in  these 
first  three  examples,  or  of  the  twelve-syllable  pada,  as  in  the 
last  example : 

rtavana  jane-jane,  RV.  v,  65,  2 

yac  cid  dhi  tvaih  grhe-grhe,  ib.  i,  28,  5 

haskartaram  dame-dame,  ib.  iv,  7,  3 ;  vii,  15,  2 

sa  darqataqrlr  atithir  grhe-grhe 

vane-vane  Qiqriye  takvavir  iva 

janaih-janam  janio  na  'ti  manyate 

viqa  a  kseti  viqio  viqam-viQam,  ib.  x,  91,  2 

With  the  last,  compare  also  RV.  i,  123,  4,  where  grham- 
grham,  dive-dive,  agram-agram  stand  at  the  start,  not  at  the 
end.  Sometimes  a  whole  pada  consists  of  only  such  com- 
posita,  as  in  x,  97,  12,  aiigam-angam  parus-parus  (cf.  v,  53, 
11 ;  X,  163,  6).  In  the  Rig  Veda,  again,  pure  adverbs  thus 
duplicated  are  never  found  at  the  end  of  the  pada ;  only  such 
nominal  adverbs  as  those  above,  the  nearest  approach  to  pure 
adverbs  so  used  being  idam-idam,  a  pronominal  adverb  closing 
a  pada  at  vii,  59,  1.^  In  the  epic,  however,  the  forms  are  usu- 
ally adverbs,  usually  at  the  end,^  usually  in  9lokas ;  in  the  Rig 
Veda,  never  pure  adverbs,  usually  at  the  beginning  or  in  the 
middle,  seldom  at  the  end  of  the  pada,  and  usually  not  in 
9lokas,  but  in  gayatri  and  especially  in  jagati  or  tri^tubh 
verses.  The  first  examples  given  above  are,  therefore,  rather 
the  exception  thjin  the  rule  as  far  as  their  position  goes.  But 
I  think  we  may  see  in  them  the  precursors  of  the  epic  for- 
mula) used  in  closing  the  hemistich.  The  Veda  puts  the  form 
where  it  best  shows  the  iterative  intensity ;  the  epic  puts  it 
where  it  best  helps  the  metre.     Thus : 

1  Compare  the  list  of  such  composita  in  Professor  Collltz's  paper,  Abhandl. 
d.  V.  Orient.  Congress,  1881,  p.  287. 

'  Exceptions  of  course  occur,  as  in  M.  yii,  7,  53,  punah  punar  abhajjanta 
sinhene  Vc  'tare  mrgSh ;  R.  ir,  43, 53,  ahany  ahani  vardhante.  So  uparj  upari 
sarvesam  and  sanunSm,  Nala  1, 2 ;  and  R.  r,  13, 10,  respcctiTely. 


IXTERRELATION  OF  THE   TWO  EPICS.  67 

punab-punar  m&tar&  navyasi  kah,  KV.  iii,  5,  7 
punah-punar  jayamftna  purani,  RV.  i,  92,  10 
nihqvasya  ca  punah  punah  R.  i,  54,  5 
(nihqvasya)  pratyaveksya  punah  punah,  M.  ix,  29,  49 

Tlie  epic  uses  this  metrical  convenience  constantly,  some- 
times too  often,  as  in  ix,  32,  6,  8,  9,  where  punah  punali  is 
repeated  three  times.  Other  adverbs  of  the  same  sort  in  both 
epics  are  prthak  prthak,  muhur  muhuh,  9anaih  ^luifiih.  In  a 
won!,  both  epics  close  the  hemistich  in  this  antique  Vedic 
manner,  though  the  epic  style  has  somewhat  changed  the 
relation  of  the  phrase  to  the  pada,* 

Like  these  8tereotyi)ed  terminals  in  their  epic  application  is 
the  countless  nimilx?r  of  verses  ending  with  the  same  diiambic 
form,  vocative,  nominative,  or  oblique  case,  of  one  comiK)und, 
and  the  less  frequent  (l)ecause  less  needed)  common  form  of 
tlie  prior  pada*s  pathyii  ending,  such  as  mahabala,  paramtiipa, 
ariihdama  (prior,  malmbaho,  ^jmljflii,  %Ir}'a,  maharajii,  ra- 
jendra) ;  pratiipavan,  pamvlraha,  mahiimnlhe,  raniijire,  nuiiv- 
murdliani,  ninakarka^^ah,  the  oblique  Ciises  of  maliatman 
(constantly  used),  and  such  diiambic  phmses  as  balad  ball, 
suto  btdl.  All  of  tliese  are  useil  in  the  siune  way  in  both  epics, 
m<mt  of  them  repeateilly.  In  some,  the  wonl  passes  back  of 
the  diiambus  and  leiwls  us  toward  the  whole  imda-phrase 
tliough  not  quite  reaching  it  Of  such  sort  are  ranakarktv- 
^ah  (above),  yuddluulurmiulii,  wuiigramamrmlhani,  (Vaninal.i) 
aatyasaiiigaral),  nama  namat^di,  Qatnmisfidana,  akutobhayal.i, 
knidliamurcchitah.  In  otliers,  the  wonl  falls  short*  but  the 
position  of  tlie  mljwtive  is  fixed  and  it  is  gtnicrally  precedt*d 
by  tlie  Hjuiie  ctmibination  jis  in  (tiipam,  giulam,  or  dlumur) 
udyamya  viryavan,  and  the  common  final  manada.^ 

>  And  aUo  eztfnde<l  U  in  the  form  fpite  unto  (inttcad  of  the  noun)  in 
da^Ihe  rll  g%ie  gate,  ziii,  1(»7,  4.'i.  <  H  c*pit*  phrnni'*.  1  hare  nottni  aUo  irrhe 
frbe.  M.  ti,  l***,  2 ;  R.  r.  2t),  *iO;  mnd  (pannini)  |>adt>  |>ade.  Tof^e  jogv,  ram*  ram*, 
and  in  M.,  Jane  Jane  and,  in  the  mnn*  unonaal  initial  position,  mtti  miti 
(Vedk  and  M.  ix,  37.  4).  kile  kale,  ix,  37.  2:).  Of  the  phraM>t  quoted  ahove. 
mnhor  niiihnh  occur*  often ;  faniih  ^aniih.  e.  ir ,  M.  ix.  21).  104  ;  R.  ii.  40,  23 
MdO.  Ti,  111.  13;  prthak  prthak.  e.  g..  Mix.  37.  23;  O.  ri.  M.  .W ;  77,  1. 

*  Among  thoae  mentioned,  parmfirabi  it  converted  into  lumtl  in  trit^nbh, 


68  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

From  these  compounds,  not  only  in  form  but  in  fixed  posi- 
tion common  to  both  epics,  we  may  pass  to  cases  like  (svate- 
jasa,  often)  svena  tejasa,  where  the  pada  ends  with  two  words 
which  take  in  more  than  the  diiambus,  for  example,  bibhrsr 
tim  svena  tejasa,  jvalantlm  svena  tejasa,  the  former  in  M.  xii, 
825,  2 ;  the  latter  m  R.  vi,  107, 11  and  G.  80,  33. 

The  fixed  form  is  shown  most  conspicuously  in  omiles  that 
are  common  to  both  epics,  and  are  of  the  mechanical  form 
instanced  in  the  last  two  sorts  of  examples,  namely  in  diiam- 
bic  or  more  than  diiambic  terminals.  Thus  there  are  fixed 
phrases  which  are  different  except  for  the  terminal,  which 
again  is  common  (as  a  fixed  terminal)  to  both  epics,  for 
example : 

dand&hata  ivo  'ragah,         in  M.  and  in  B. 
paficaqlrsA  ivo  'ragah. 


«  u 


u 

ti 

it 

il 

u 

it 

u 

u 

(( 

it 

u 

it 

u 

it 

(t 

u 

dandahasta  iva  'ntakah, 
pa^hasta  iva  'ntakah, 
vyattananam  iva  'utakam^ 

jvalantam  iva  pAvakam, 
didbaksur  iva  pavakah, 
vidhuma  iva  pavakah, 
pataihga  iva  pavakam, 
qalabha  iva  pavakam, 

Such  phrases  are  common  not  only  to  the  two  epics  but  to 
outside  literature.  Thus  the  iva  pavakah  formula  appears  in 
the  Dhammapada,  71,  as  bhasmacchanno  va  pavako  (epic, 
bhasraapanno  iva  'nalah),  and  the  same  is  true  of  a  limited 
number  of  whole  pada-phrases,  not  only  in  pure  proverbs,  but 

R.  ir.  31,  5  (<'p:hna  is  a  comTnon  side-form) ;  pratapaySn  is  perhaps  leaat  com- 
mon in  R.,  but  it  serves  with  viryaran  ;  for  example,  in  R.  vi,  69, 109 ;  76,  21, 
27,  ff.,  where  follow  a  quantity  of  mahabalas.  Like  viryavan  Is  vegavSn  with 
vegitah  (vcpena  in  the  prior  pada).  M.  has  ativlryavSn,  as  in  lii,  283,  7. 
The  simple  form  is  rare  in  any  other  position,  e.  p.,  G.  v,  2,  23;  8,  71.  At 
a  terminal  it  occurs  in  R.  about  forty  times  in  the  sixth  book,  nncoanted 
often  in  M.  The  common  Mahabharata  terminal  mdn'xa,  I  have  not  noticed 
in  the  RSmayana.  It  appears  to  belon;;  to  later  diction  and  indicatet  an 
epic  recasting,  as  does,  e.  g.,  the  late  tatrabhavant  of  R.  ii,  106,  80. 


INTERRELATION  OP  THE  TWO  EPICS.  69 

in  CTurent  similes  and  metaphors,  like  kalam  na  'rhanti  ^oda- 
fim«  xii,  277,  6;  Mano,  ii,  86;  and  Buddhistic,  Dh.  P.,  70, 
kalam  na  *gghati  solasim;  or  mansa^onitalepanam,  Dh.  P., 
150 ;  Manu,  vi,  76 ;  Mbk  xii,  830,  42  (Mait  Up.  iii,  4).i 

In  some  cases  the  variety  of  padas  constructed  on  a  com- 
mon terminal  is  very  large,  such  as  the  various  forms  of  what 
appears  most  simply  as  ganta  *si  Yamasadanam,  yato  'si  Yama- 
sadanam.  Thus  both  epics  have  yiyosur  Yamasadanam  and 
anayad  Yamasadanam,  along  with  other  forms  more  peculiar, 
Yamasya  sfidanam  prati,  R.  vii,  21, 1 ;  praliinod  Yamasadanam, 
prahinon  m^rtyulokaya,'  garair  ninye  Yamak^ayam,  M.  ix,  26, 
29,  ninye  vaivasvatak.?ayam,  M.  vii,  26,  53,  gato  vaivasvata- 
k^yam,  G.  vi,  82,  183,  yami  vaigravanalayam,  G.  vi,  82,  167; 
nayami  k>kam  (with  Yamasya  omitted,  trii^tubh),  M.  viii,  85, 
81;  nayami  Yamasya  gehabhimukham,  K.  vii,  68,  20;  gami- 
^ami  Yamasya  mulain,  R.  v,  28,  17;  mrtyupatham  nayami, 
G.  vi,  86,  118;  mrtyumukham  nayi^ye,  M.  viii,  42,  11; 
mftyumukhagatilm  (anesyamah),  G.  iv,  45,  9.  Evidently  in'^^ 
these  cases  the  ancient  phrases  Yamasadanam,  Yamak^ayam, 
are  built  upon  in  several  ways,  and  then  the  desire  for  variety 
leads  to  tlie  pulling  away  of  the  Imse  of  the  old-fashioned 
phrase,  and  tlie  superstructure  is  shifted  to  a  new  base,  gen- 
erally in  tlie  later  epic,  the  double  meaning  of  k^ya  helping 
in  anayat  ki^yam,  ix,  27,  48.      Like  changes  occur  in  the 

*  Tberr  are  aito  clear  trace*  of  dialectic  influence  in  the  adaptation  of 
§amt  of  the*e  atandiug  phnuet.  On  this  lubject  I  thall  speak  more  fuUjr 
Mov.  Here  I  will  iiluitrate  what  I  mean  by  one  example  from  the  Kima- 
jaaa.  Then*  i«  a  common  phraae  which  bi^gini  tam  ipatantam  lahana,  or 
•offBe  ttmilar  final  wonl,  the  flr«t  two  referring  to  a  manculine  noun  (weapon). 
Whro  we  Sod,  in  R.  Ti,  tM,  47,  thia  fame  phraae  u»ed  of  a  neuter  noun,  tad 
ipatantam,  we  are  juatifled  neither  in  aaauming  that  the  poet  waa  whuliy 
todiflrmit  to  grammar  nor  in  agreeing  with  the  commentator  that  the  ma»- 
rmUac  form  la  an  archaiim  countenanci*d  by  Vedic  uaage,  punatram  ir»am. 
It  ia  ainplj  a  caae  of  borrowing  a  convenient  grammatical  fonn  (not  San- 
akTit,b«t  Prikrit),  for  ipatantam  ia  a  regular  patoia  neuter  participle.  Forma 
•f  tliM  aort  are  adopte<l  into  the  epic  merely  for  metrical  reaaona,  ahowing 
tkmi  the/  were  borrowed  from  the  common  apeech  of  the  day  when  con- 
▼eftiemt;  which  ahowa  again  that  the  epica  (lioth  are  alike  in  thia  particular) 
were  written  in  Sanakrit  and  not  ma«li'  over  from  Trikrit  originala. 

*  See  for  relercncea,  Appendii  A,  a.  r. 


70  THE   GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

sutumiilam  yuddham  phrases,  generally  ending  with  lomahar- 
saniun,  but  occasionally  in  a  new  setting,  Yamara§(rayivardh- 
anam,  as  in  M.  vi,  79,  60 ;  ix,  10,  61;  11,  5,  etc. ;  in  tri^tubh, 
°vardhanali,  vii,  145,  97. 

Especially  is  the  monotony  varied  in  the  conventional 
phrases  of  convei^sation.  Both  epics  have  etac  chrutva  tu 
vacanam,  tasyai  'tad  vacanam  §rutva,  idaih  vacanam  abravit, 
^rutva  tu  vacanam  tasya ;  and  again  the  phrases  are  shifted, 
tatas  tad  vacanam  §rutva,  tad  etad  vacanam  grutva  (old  and 
mre),  G.  iv,  38,  46 ;  ^rutva  tasam  tu  vacanam,  M.  ix,  35,  52 ; 
idam  vacanam  uktavan,  G.  v,  68,  24 ;  and  in  many  other  ways, 
too  tedious  to  recount. 

Herewith  we  come  to  the  pada  phrase,  which  fills  the  whole 
half-verse  with  the  same  locution,  as  in  palayanaparayana^ 
parasparajigliiiiisavah.  In  the  Am.  Journal  of  Philology,  xix, 
p.  138  ff.,  I  cited  verses  of  the  Mahabharata  which  are  full  of 
such  phrases.  Such  passages  are  also  easily  found  in  the  Kama- 
yana,  of  wliich  I  will  give  but  one  instance,  vi,  71,  where  9L 
67  alone  contains  four  such  phrases :  tam  apatantam  nigitam 
garam  agivisopamam,  ardhacandrena  ciccheda  Lak^manah  parar 
viralia  (with  others  following).  Here  the  whole  gloka  with 
the  exception  of  the  proper  name  consists  of  iterata.  In  the 
Ramayana,  too,  we  find,  as  often  in  the  Mahabharata,  two 
iterata  enclosing  a  verse  that  is  new,  as  in  iv,  11,  18,  where 
the  independent  verse  is  sandwiched  between  the  iterata 
tasya  tad  vacanam  grutva  and  krodliat  samraktalocana^ 
wliich  arrangement  is  found  again,  ib.  73.  In  G.  iii,  57,  15, 
the  hemistich  consists  of  two  whole  phrases,  ro^asamraktana- 
yana  idam  vacanam  abravit  In  G.  vi,  27,  there  are  nine  ite- 
rata in  the  first  eigliteen  glokas.  I  mention  this  that  there 
may  not  seem  to  be  any  distinction  in  this  regard  in  the  two 
epics.  Both  have  many  chapters  wliich  teem  with  verbal  or 
whole  pada-iterata,  the  later  the  more.^     Noticeable  are  their 

^  Tlie  cumulative  style  is  characteristic,  naturally,  of  later  sections.  80, 
for  instance,  in  the  late  fourteenth  chapter  of  the  thirteenth  book,  within 
the  compass  of  about  thirty  (lokas,  240  ff.,  we  find  sarrSbharanabhTlsitain, 
sarvabhutabhayavaliam,  yakratulyaparakramah,  triyikhim  bhriULU^m  kftrl^ 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE   TWO  EPICS.  71 

extent  and  variety.  There  is  hardly  a  field  in  which  Vyasa 
and  Valmiki  do  not  echo  the  same  words.  General  descrip- 
tive epithets  and  phrases  that  paint  the  effect  of  grief  and 
auger,  or  the  appearance  of  city  and  forest;  the  aspect  of 
battle  and  attitude  of  warriors,  with  short  characterization  of 
weapons  and  steeds,  are  all  as  frequent  as  the  mass  of  similes 
found  in  both  epics  in  the  same  words.  In  the  last  category, 
identical  similes  are  drawn  from  gods,  men,  animals,  and  phy- 
sical phenomena.  Again,  both  poets,  as  shown  above,  use 
the  same  phrases  of  speech,  as  they  do  also  of  noises,  and 
of  the  course  of  time;  and  finally  there  are  many  didactic 
verses,  almost  or  quite  the  same  in  both  epics. 

In  the  list  of  parallels  given  elsewhere  *  I  have  incorporated 
such  examples  as  I  have  noticed  of  identical  or  nearly  identi- 
cal phrases  and  verses.  Illustrative  additions  are  occasionally 
added,  not  to  add  weight  to  the  genend  effect,  for  the  number 
of  cases  of  actual  identity  is  sulliciently  large,  but  to  supply 
material  for  fuller  treatment  of  this  whole  subject  eventually. 
Tlie  three  hundre<l  examples  here  registered  include  also  some 
cas(*s  where  verbal  identity  is  not  quite  complete,  such  as 

M.  iv,  19,  29, 

prabhinnam  iva  mataiigam  pariklrnam  karenubhih 

G.  v,  14,  28, 

kan'iiubhir  roahA^ranyc  {>arikIrno  yathil  dvipah 

aiui  I  have  not  i)erhaps  lK»en  thoroughly  logical  in  the  admis- 
sitm  or  exclusion  of  such  ciuses;  but  in  general  I  have  s<»ught 
to  establish  an  etpiation  not  only  in  the  thought  but  m  the 
expression  of  the  thought,  and  for  the  most  part  have  omitted 
such  i>arallels  tisdid  not  tend  to  bring  out  the  verlxil  identity.' 

^<^h««tara  iri  'ntak«m,  dritivft  ira  pivftkah  (to  which  one  text  ftddt  vidhu- 
main  Ua  pivakam)  all  common  iterata  uf  both  epict,  but  far  in  cxivm  of 
Xht  ttftoal  numlHT;  a«  in  G.  ri,  27  (above). 

*  Apprn'lix  A- 

'  I  have  omitted,  for  example,  such  caset  a«  lii.  «10,  42.  karmaiii  tena 
^prna  ItpTate  nunam  iv^arah  ;  G.  tI,  (^J.  22,  Tidhiti  lipjrate  tena  }athi 
piptoa  karmani  (K.  r\,  H3,  23  quite  otherwit<*),  though  I  have  no  doubt  that 
the  tiradef  afcaintt  God  and  dutr  (G.  V>  ft.)  in  each  epic  (at  in  thif  case) 
belong  together.    Some  few  pruvvrbt  are  al»o  entered. 


72  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Those  I  have  collected  were  gleaned  incidentally  from  a  field 
which  I  traversed  with  other  objects  in  view,  and  I  have  no 
doubt  that  these  parallels  could  be  largely  increased  by  a 
close  and  systematic  comparison  of  the  two  epics  throughout. 
The  alphabetical  arrangement  followed  is  merely  for  conven- 
ience of  reference.  I  should  have  been  glad  to  group  the 
examples  according  to  their  content  also,  that  I  might  have 
sho^vn  more  fully  the  varied  fields  they  occupy,  but,  as  this 
would  have  taken  too  much  space,  the  remarks  made  above  on 
this  subject  and  the  former  grouping  made  in  a  preliminary 
study  of  the  question  two  years  ago  ^  must  sufl&ce. 


I  will  suppose  that  the  reader  has  now  read  Appendix  A. 
He  ^^ill  have  noticed  in  so  doing  that,  just  as  the  Uttara  Ram* 
ayana,  as  well  as  the  real  poem  of  Valmiki,  is  recognized  in 
tlie  pseudo-Bharata,^  so  in  the  expressions  asid  raja  Nimir 
nama,  ekantabhavanugatah,  and  yasya  prasadam  kurute  sa 
viii  tarn  dras^um  arhati,  we  have  a  direct  copy  on  the  part  of 
the  Uttara  Ramayana^  not  only  of  the  early  epic  but  of  the 
pseudo-epic's  episode  of  the  White  Country  and  even  of 
the  very  words  employed  in  the  description  of  the  Whites 
(Islanders,  to  retain  the  usual  name,  though  only  country  is 
really  meant;  Kashmere,  I  think).  There  are  several  such 
passages  in  the  Uttara  reflecting  the  great  epic  in  its  earlier 

1  A  .IP.  xix,  p.  138  ff.,  1898. 

2  Thus  the  story  of  Rama  judraghatin,  as  told  in  R.  vii,  75-76  (G.  82-83), 
killin;^  (y'amhaka  or  (^anibuka  is  recognized  with  an  "I  hare  heard/'  ^ruyate^ 
zii,  l'><'^  07  (where  Jambtika  takes  the  place  of  (^ambuka). 

s  So  in  the  praksipta  passage  after  K.  iii,  66,  where  Sita  demands  signs  of 
the  u'od  Indra,  and  lie  appears  with  the  devalingani:  "He  touched  not  earth 
with  his  feet,  winked  not,  had  dustless  garments  and  unfaded  garlands,"  as 
in  Nahi  5,  12-24,  which  the  prnksipta  clearly  copies.  So,  too,  in  the  same 
book,  iii,  60,  not  in  G.,  evidently  an  artistic  improvement  on  the  preceding 
sarga.  in  9I.  26,  Kama  says  :  (drsta  'si)  vrksair  acchadya  caHmanam  kim  mim 
na  prntibhasase,  as  Damayanti  says  (Nala  11,  0:  drsto  'si)  avSrya  gulmiir 
itnitinuih  kim  mam  na  pratibhasnse ;  and  in  9I.  17,  Rama  cries  out:  a9oka 
^okapanuda  .  .  .  tvannamanam  kuru  ksipram  priyasariidarganena  miim,  as 
Duinayanti,  12, 104.  and  107 :  vi9okani  kuru  mam  ksipram  ayoka  priyadar^ana 
satyanlinii  bhava  'yoka  nyokah. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS.  78 

parts  as  welL  Compare  for  instance  the  division  of  Indra^s 
ain  as  related  in  M.  v,  18  with  R.  vii,  85  and  86.  It  will  be 
necessary  only  to  cite  M.  v,  IS,  12, 

raks&rtham  sarvabhflt&nam  yisnatvam  upajagmivfln 

and  from  ib.  18-15, 

tes&m  tad  vacanam  qrutva  dev&nftm  Visnur  abravlt 
mSLm  eva  yajat&m  ^akrah  pavayisy&mi  vajrinam 
punyena  hayauiedhena  mam  istva  pakaqflsanah 
punar  esyati  devauftm  iudratvam  akutobhayah 

as  compared  with  R.  vii,  85,  18,  20-21,  which  give  exactly  the 
same  words. 

Hut  tliis  correlation  exists  not  only  in  the  later  parts  of 
both  epics  and  in  the  later  part  of  the  Ramayana  and  an 
earlier  part  of  the  Bliarata.  It  is  just  as  easy  to  reverse  the 
positions,  as  for  instance  in  the  account  of  creation  at  R.  iii,  14 
((f.  20)  and  M.  i,  66.  Tliis  passage  is  instructive  as  an  ex- 
ample of  the  way  complete  passages  were  roughly  remem- 
bered and  lianded  down  with  shifting  phrases,  omissions,  and 
innertiims : 

M.  66,  58, 

dhrtarftstrl  tu  hahs&fiq  ca  kalahans&n<{  ca  sarvaqah 

R.  14,  19, 

dbrtaHUtrl  tu  hans&nq  ca  kalahans&nQ  ca  sarva^ah 

M.  ib. 

cakrav&kli'iq  ca  bhadra  tu  janayftmAsa  s^  'va  tu 

R.  ik 

cakravAkanq  ca  bhadram  to  vijajfie  sA  'pi  bhaiiuDi 

G.  20,  20, 

(ihrtara^itrT  tv  ajanayad  (IhansAii  julaviharinah 
cakravftkiliiq  ca  bhadraiii  te  sdrasaiK^  cAi  'va  sarvaqah 

M.  59, 

qukT  ca  janay&masa  qukAn  ova  ya^^asvinl 
kaly&naguiiaaampanua  sarvalaksanapQjita 

G.  21, 

(^ukl  qukan  ajanayat  tanayAn  vinayftnvit^n 
kalyanagunasami>auuao  sarvalakMUiapQjiUUi 


74 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


[R.  20, 

quki  nat&m  vijajfie  tu  natd^jSixi  vinatft  sutft] 

M.  60, 

navakrodhavaQ^  n^Ih  prajajfie  krodhasambhavfth 
mrgi  ca  mrgamand^  ca  harl  bliadraman&  api 
R.  21, 

daqakrodhavaQd,  Rdmaj  vijajiie  'py  fltmasambhavflh 
inrgim  ca  mrgamandam  ca  hai-im  bhadramadam  api 

G.  22, 

tatha  krodhavaQ^  n^ma  jajfie  s&  c&  'tmasambbavdJi 
inrglm  inrgavatlm  cdi  'va  QSxdulIiii  krostukim  tatbft 

M.  61, 

md.tangi  tv  atha  Qd.rdull  Qvet&  surabbir  eva  ca 
sarvalaksanasampanna  surasS,  cdi  'va  bha^minl 

R.  22  (and  G.)  a,  do.,  but  ace. ;  b, 

sarvalaksanasampanna  surdsdjh  kadrukdm  api 

M.  62  =  R.  23  almost  exactly,  and  the  following  verses  agree 
much  in  the  same  way,  until  one  passage  which  I  will  cite 
entire,  as  follows: 

MahAbh Arata  (i,  66, 67  -68>       RaalXyana  (iii,  14,  27-28)  2 


tatha  (luhitarau  rajan 
surabhir  \'ai  vyajayata 
rohini  cai  'va  bhadram  te^ 
gandharvi  tu  ya^asvini 
vimalam  api  bhadram  te 
analam  api,  Bharata, 
rohinyam  jajiiire  gajo 
gandharvyam  vajinah  sutah 
sapta  pindaphalan  vrksan 
anala  'pi  vyajayata 
(70,  b)  surasa  'janayan  nagan 

kadruh  putrauB  tu  pannagan 


tato  duhitarau,  Rama, 
surabhir  dcvy  ajayata 
rohinirii  nama  bhadram  te 
gandharyim  ca  ya9a8Tinim 


roliiny  ajanayad  giro 
gandharvi  vajinah  sutin 

(see  31,  below) 

surasa  'janayan  nSgin, 
Rama,  kadruy  ca  pannagSn 
(20)  manur  manusyan  janayat 
(31)  sarran  punyaphalan  yrksin 
anala  'pi  yyajiyata 


The  last  verse  in  R.  gives  the  ori^  of  the  four  castes 
(Rulhig  Caste,  p.  74,  note),  where  G.  has  manur  manu^yan  .  .  • 


^  bhadra  tu,  in  C. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 


75 


janayamasa,  Raghava.  G.  has  virtually  the  same  text,  insert- 
ing liuina  and  omitting  the  mention  of  Anala's  birth,  giving 
only  her  progeny.  In  the  last  verse  G.,  like  M.,  has  sapta 
pincLiphalan  vrk^n  (but)  lalana  (sic)  'pi  vyajayata.  There  is 
here  the  same  substitution  of  liama  and  Bharata  observable  in 
the  late  Kaceit  chapter.^ 

In  my  Proverbs  and  Tales'  I  have  shown  that  a  scene  of 
the  liunulyana  is  exactly  duplicated  in  the  Harivanga,  An- 
other simihvr  case  is  found  in  H.  13,666  ff. ;  G.  vi,  19,  12  ff. 
(both  full  of  iterata)  : 


HarivaS'<;a  : 
(see  verses  below) 

▼arUmine  mahit^hore 
•amfrrinitf  lomahArsmne 
niAhil>hcriinniftfif(iniiii 
IMinaTiniih  tathii  'ta  ca 
9arikhinini  pa^hinim  ca 
samhabhtkTa  mahiaranah 
hatanam  tTanatiih  tatra 
daityinim  ca  *pi  nisTanal^ 

also, 

taramiraniakhurotkirnani 
rathaAemUamuddhatam 

and  further, 

^•trapufpopahiri  ti 
tatri  'ttd  yuddhamiMlini 
dardarva  durrigihjri  ca 


RG.: 

tnramgakhuraTidhyastaiii 
rathancmisamuddhatam 

yartamine,  etc.  (=  M.). 

tato  bheiimrdaiiginini 
pa|ahiniih  ca  nisvanah 

also, 

hatinim  stanamininim 
rikfaaanim  ca  nUvanah 

(see  the  first  verse,  above) 
and  further, 

(aatrapufpopahiri  si  (▼.  1.  ca) 
tatri  'tid  juddhaniedini 
dufprektjri  durriyi  cil  'ra 
mii&fayonitakardanii 


DiDMiv«>nitakardami 

It.  here  (sarga  44)  has  samntthiUmi  in  (1.  10,  but  in  the 
followni^,  {NUiavanuih  ca  ni(h)svanah,  as  in  II.,  and  hayaiuiih 
stansuiuiiuinam  (with  ca  for  sa  in  the  first  i)ada  of  the  hist 
stanza).  Tlie  only  iiniK»rtaiit  variant  is  in  the  hist  verse,  15, 
when%  in.Ht4*4ul  of  the  stereotyiHMl  i>rida  of  (?.  and  H.,  stands: 
durjfieyil  duruive<;il  ca  ^onitasrtivakardamU 

1  AJP.  Tol.  lix,  p.  149. 

*  ib..  Yol.  XX,  p.  'i^.  I  showed  hen*  a  score  of  proTerbt  common  to  both 
cpk^,  most  of  which  had  U-cn  prvTiotulj  noticed.  Another,  not  noticed,  b 
ahtr  eya  ah«h  pidin  rijiniti  na  tamvayah.  R.  y,  42,  9;  ahir  era  by  ahe^ 
pidin  pa^yati  'U  hi  nah  yrutam,  M.  xii,  2<)3,  VX  Sec  alio  the  note  belong 
p.  ta,  Bute  1, 


76  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

HB.  has  a  few  slight  changes,  3,  58,  66  ff.,  with  samatthitam 
like  R.    (72.  indicates  the  Bombay  text  only.) 

The  identity  of  R.  iv,  40,  20  ft.,  with  the  geographical  paa- 
Bage  H.  3,  46,  42  ff.  =  12,825  ff.,  can  be  established  on  sight: 
G.  19,  nadim  bhagarathim  cai  'va  sarayum  kau^ikim  api  =  H,, 
where  R.  20,  has  ramyam  for  cai  'va  in  G.  and  H. ;  but  for  api, 
R.  and  H.  have  tatha.  The  next  stanza,  G.  20,  mekalaprabha- 
vam  9onam,  agrees  only  in  this  text  with  H.  44.  The  next 
verse  in  H.,  gomati  gokulakirna  tatha  purva  sarasvati  is  in 
G.  24  (in  ace);  ib.  b  in  G.  reads:  nadIm  IralamiLaTiTi  cai 
'va  tamasTiih  ca  mahanadim,  where  HC.  and  R.  both  have 
mahT(m)  kalamahl(m)  ca  'pi  (cai  'va,  HB.  kalanadi).  So 
R.  and  HC.  give  the  Magadhas  the  epithet  mahagramah  and 
add  paundiii  vangas  tathai  'va  ca,  where  G.  has  magadhan 
dandakulanQ  ca  vaii^n  angans  tathai  'va  ca  (12,831,  G.  25), 
and  HB.,  9I.  49,  Magadhangca  mahagraman  angan  vaiigans 
tathai  'va  ca.  G.  26,  a,  b,  c  are  identical  vd\h  H.  12,830,  e,  d, 
and  12,831,  a;  with  a  slight  v.  1.  in  HB.  48.  There  are  here 
the  usual  aberrations  from  any  fixed  text,  but  on  the  whole 
the  two  passages  are  identical. 

Another  passage,  G.  i,  24,  9,  11-12,  appears  to  be  one  with 
(M.  iii,  52,  15  and)  M.  iv,  70,  10-12  (after  the  first  verse,  it 
agrees  with  R.  21,  10-12)  : 

M AHiBHARATA :  R AMAYANA  (G.)  : 

anrtiim  mi  vacah  kirsir 

•  •  • 

ma  dharmyan  nlnayah  pathah  ^  mS  dharmyan  nina^ah  {miUui^ 

csa  vi)];rnhavan  dharma  csa  vigrahavin  dharma 

esa  vIryavatSm  rarah  esa  vedaTidam  rarah 

esa  buddhyS  'dhiko  loke  csa  Tiryavatam  9rc9tho 

tapasaiii  ca  parayanam  (v.  1.  <^h)  yidySj^anataponidhih 

eso  '8trarii  vividham  vctti  divyiny  aatrany  a9e8ena 

trailokye  sacaracare  yedai  'sa  Ku^katwuijaJ^ 

na  cai  'va  'nyah  puman  retti  devag  ca  na  yidnr  yini 

na  TC'tflvati  kadacana  kuto  'nye  bhuri  miniri^ 

na  deva  na  'surah  kocin 

na  manusva  na  rakslsah 
•  •  •        • 

gandhanrayaksapravarah 
lakiriinaramaboragah 

^  This  pada  ah)nc  appears  in  iii,  62, 16,    ir,  70, 10  has  the  following 
G.  has  both.    H.  omits  O/s  9  entirely. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS.  77 

Here  R.  in  the  Bombay  edition  has  in  general  the  reading 
of  M.,  but  it  omits  the  first  verse  and  Ku^ikatmajalii,  while  it 
has  the  late  astran  for  astrani,  with  other  variations : 

esa  vigrahavftn  dharma  esa  vlrjavatftm  varah 
esa  vidyft  'dhiko  loke  tapasa^  ca  parftyanam 
eso  'str&Q  vividhftn  vetti  trailokye  sacarftcare 
n&i  'nam'  anyah  pumftn  vetti  na  ca  vetsyanti  kecana 
na  devil  na  'rsayah  kecin  nft  'marft  na  ca  raksas&h 
gandharvayaksapravar&h  sakimuaramahoragilh 

Besides  tlieae  parallels  I  have  pre\'iou8ly'  compared  the 
extended  identity  of  H.  3,  60,  2  ff.,  and  R.  vi,  68,  24  S. ;  and 
three  passages  already  noticed  by  others,  where  the  great  epic 
seems  to  have  an  older  form,  viz.,  i,  18,  18  and  G.  1,  46,  21 ; 
iii,  9,  4  and  R.  ii,  74  (G.  76) ;  i,  175  and  R.  i,  64  (compare 
Holtzmann,  loc.  cit,)  Other  parallels  noticed  by  Iloltzmann 
are:  the  creation,  xii,  166  and  R.  ii,  110;  Ganges,  iii,  106  and 
R.  i,  89  (later) ;  Ilvala,  iii,  96, 4,  and  R.  iii,  11,  56 ;  R§ya^rnga, 
iii,  110  and  R.  i,  19  (see  now  Luder^s  essay) ;  also  a  couple  of 
passages  in  both  later  epics,  origin  of  poem,  i,  1,  57  and  R. 
i,  2,  26;  Skanda,  xiii,  85  and  R.  i,  87,  which  approximate 
closely  nith  i,  136,  1  and  R.  vii,  65,  10,  and  a  few  more  less 
striking  cases  in  both  later  epics.* 

A  review  of  these  parallels,  proverl)s  and  tales,  shows  tliat 
whereas  the  former  may  be  said  to  occur  universidly,  in  any 
jKirt  of  either  epic,  of  the  latter  (apart  fn)m  the  Rama  tale 
itfielf ),  as  far  as  formal  identity  g(H.*s,  by  far  tlie  greater  part 
LH  f(»und  wliere  either  one  or  both  versions  occur  in  hiter  addi- 
tions to  the  |x>em  (R.  i  and  vii,  M.  i  and  xii  if.),  thus: 

M.  R.  M.  R. 

i,  1,  57,  and  i,  2,  23  v,  13  and  vii,  85 

i,  18  and  i,  46  (G.)  v,  141  and  i,  2 

*  II^Tp  enam  it  ••trm(ganain)  andcrttood  (*)• 

<  AJI*.  II.  p.  34  ff.  Iloltzmftnn't  IH»  MahibhiraU.  alrvadj  cited,  both  adds 
to  aad  it  com  piemen  t«Nl  hr  the  mftttcr  giTen  there  and  here. 

'  I  do  not  include  pftrallel  tftli^  without  parallel  phrateologr,  at.  for 
eunplr.  the  allotion  in  iii,  67,  9,  to  the  tale  of  Aaama5Ja«  told  in  ill,  107, 
»fl.aadiAR.iLd6,  lOfL 


78  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

M.  R-  M.  R. 

i,  66  and  iii,  14  xii,  127  and  vii,  87 

i,  175  and  i,  54  xii,  153  and  vii,  76 

(ii,  105  and  ii,  100,  Kaccit)  xii,  166  and  ii,  110 

iii,  9  and  ii,  74  xiii,  85  and  i,  37 

iii,  53  and  vii,  55  H.              R. 

iii,  96  and  iu,  11  I     iv,  40 

iii,  106  and  i,  39  P^, .,    )      vi,  19 

iii,  110  and  i,  19  )      vi,  44 

iv,  70  and  i,  24  (G.)  \     vi,  58 

That  is,  parallel  tales  are  rare  in  the  older,  three  times  as 
frequent  in  the  later  books  of  each.  The  additions  to  one 
epic  are  thus  on  a  par  with  the  additions  to  the  other  in  their 
mutual  obligations.^  This  illustrates  again  the  facts  pre- 
viously observed  in  regard  to  the  two  epics  by  Jacobi  and 
myself  respectively,  namely  that  the  Uttarakanda  has  many 
tales  of  the  middle  district  (Jacobi,  R.  p.  205),  and  that  the 
early  Mahabharata  shows  familiarity  with  the  customs  of  the 
Pufijfib,  while  the  didactic  parts  show  no  familiarity  with 
the  holy  land,  but  all  the  numerous  tales  with  scarcely  an 
exception  are  laid  in  Kosala  and  Videha  and  on  the  banks  of 
the  lower  Ganges  (AJP.,  xix,  p.  21).  In  other  words,  the 
two  epics  in  their  later  development  belong  to  the  same 
locality  and  probably  to  about  the  same  time.  It  is  in  this 
later  development,  then,  that  the  two  epics  copy  each  other.* 
The  common  tales  that  remain,  apart  from  this  phase  of  the 
poems,  are  few,  and  such  as  may  be  easily  attributed  to  the 
general  stock  of  legendary  tradition. 

^  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  Hamijana,  apart  from  the 
first  and  last  books,  refers  to  episodes  known  only  from  the  Mahabharata. 
For  example,  when  Sita  sajs  she  is  as  devoted  to  Rama  "aa  DamayantI 
Bhaimi  to  Naisadha,"  Naisadham  Damayanti  'va  Bhaimi  patim  anuvrati, 
R.  y,  24, 12.  Then  when,  ib.  34,  28-30,  RSma  is  described  as  satjaradi,  idi- 
tya  ira  tejasvi,  and  kandarpa  iva  murtiman  (all  in  one  description,  as  in  Nala), 
which  is  probably  the  borrower  ? 

'  So  the  later  G.  agrees  more  closely  with  M.  w  many  of  the  cases  in 
Appendix  A.  But  there  is  no  uniformity  in  this  regard,  and  R.  has  parallels 
enough  to  refute  the  idea  that  similarity  is  due  solely  to  G.'s  later  copying. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE   TWO  EPICS.  79 

When  we  have  peeled  off  the  outer  layer  (and  in  it  are 
included  witli  one  exception,  if  it  be  an  exception,  all  the 
references  to  Valmlki  in  the  great  epic),  we  have  left  two 
epics,  one  of  which  is  a  complete  whole,  the  other  a  congeries 
of  incongruous  stories  grouped  about  a  central  tale ;  both  built 
on  the  Hsune  foundation  of  phrase  and  proverb  and  in  part  over 
the  same  ground  of  literary  allusion ;  both  with  heroes  of  the 
emme  type  (whose  similarity  is  striking) ;  ^  and  both  aminged 
on  the  same  general  plan,  a  court-scene,  where  the  plot  is 
Liid,  a  jHjriod  of  banishment  in  a  forest-scene,  followed  by  a  city- 
scene,*  where  an  ally  is  gained,  and  tlien  by  battle-scenes.  One 
of  these  epics  claims  priority,  but  the  claim  after  all  is  not 
that  the  great  poet  invented  epic  poetiy*,  but  that  he  first 
wn)te  an  epic  in  ^loka  verse  in  a  Kavya  or  artistic  style.  As 
the  Kamayana  is  mainly  in  ^lok;is  of  a  more  refuieil  style  than 
the  Maluibliarata  and  the  Kilvya  or  artistic  element  is  resdly 
much  more  pronounced,  and  as,  further,  it  is  highly  pn)lMiblo 
tliat  epic  i>oetry  was  first  written  in  the  mixture  of  rougher 
floka  and  tristnbh  characteristic  of  the  Maliabliarat^i,  this 
claim,  S4)  statitl,  may  in  geneml  be  allowed,  without  impugning 
the  relatively  greater  age  of  the  other  epic. 

Professor  Jacobi  mlmits  that  the  metre  of  the  Riimayana  is 
more  refinwL  but  the  explanation  he  gives  is  that  it  was  a  pro- 
duct of  that  East  wliere  jwetic  art  was  first  deveh)pe<l.  In  a 
8ulis4H|uent  chapter  I  sludl  show  that  those  |mrts  of  the  great 
epir  whi<*h  fnim  a  metri(*al  jwunt  of  view  agree  most  closely 
with  the  Kamilyana  are  the  later  parts.  Here  I  would  mert^y 
raise  the  ipiestiftn  whether  the  di(*tum  that  poetic  art  was  re- 
iiui-il  in  the  East  U»foa»  the  great  epic  an>jH»,  is  not  bistnl  on  the 
St  vie  of  the  Uamlivana  alone?  PnKlucts  of  the  same  part  of 
the  countrj*  are  Kuddhistic  an<l  rpanishiul  verses,  ^ith  which 
agrees  the  versification  of  the  Maliubliunita  much  more  closely 

1  Not  mcn-lj  M  being  centrml  flguret.  Sev  for  dcUilf  the  article  bj 
rrofr««or  WintltM-h,  ritrd  in  Dai  MAliihhirmta  {▼.  p.  fVS.  The  •imilaritj  of 
esplt>it«  if  inrri<AiK.Ml  a«  we  take  the  whole  epics»  which  pUinlj  hare  infln- 
eoct-«|  4-ftrh  other  in  their  flnal  retlaction. 

'  <  Nvinir  to  Kima't  oath  he  doe*  not  actoallj  eot«r  the  citjr,  bat  he  finds 
hit  aUj  tberv,  aa  do  the  randoi  at  Viri|a'i  town. 


80  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

than  does  that  of  the  Ramayana.  The  Puranas  also  are  eastern 
and  their  versification  is  in  general  rather  that  of  the  great 
epic.  The  distinction  then  is  not  sufficiently  explained  by 
geographical  relations.  On  the  other  hand  the  metrical  re- 
finement of  U.  the  Upanishads,  B.  the  early  Bharata,  B.*  the 
late  Bharata,  R.  the  Ramayana,  and  K.  Kalidasa  is  in  the 
order  U.,  B.,  B.,^  R.,  K.,  with  B.^  =  R.  in  some  cases,  which 
looks  to  a  progressive  development.* 

Another  moot  point  in  connection  with  this  geographical 
inquiry  is  whether  the  Ramayana  was  written  by  a  poet  who 
really  knew  anjrthing  about  Ceylon,  where  Lanka,  the  seat  of 
action  in  the  Ramayana  war,  is  usually  supposed  to  be.  Pro- 
fessor Jacobi  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  Lanka  is  not 
Ceylon,  and  that,  further,  Valmiki  did  not  know  the  littoral 
at  all,  but  he  was  a  riparian  poet.  Unless  the  allusions  in  the 
poem  are  all  interpolations,  I  cannot  accept  this  view.  In  the 
first  place,  the  language  of  both  poems  on  this  point  is  identi- 
cal, the  images  are  the  same,  and  they  are  couched  in  the 
same  words.  If,  then,  they  are  all  later  additions  to  Valmlki's 
poem,  they  must  be  copied  from  the  Mahabharata ;  which  opens 
a  vista  (of  later  Ramayana  imitating  an  earlier  epic)  which 
Professor  Jacobi  would  scarcely  accept.  But  accepting  some 
copying,  there  still  remains  enough  sea-scape  in  the  Ramayana 
to  show  that  no  poet  who  did  not  know  ocean  could  write  as 
does  Valmiki.  In  both  texts,  for  example,  occurs  this  splendid 
onomatopoetic  description  of  the  rising  waves  of  full  flood, 

which,  as  the  poet  repeatedly  says,  accompanies  the  filling  of 
the  moon : 

parvastl  'dirnavegasya  sftgarasye  'va  nihsvanah 

where  the  swell  and  filling  and  very  hiss  of  the  combing 
breakers  is  reproduced  vA\h  a  power  that  it  is  hard  to  ascribe 
to  a  riparian  poet.     But  I  must  refer  the  reader  to  a  special 

1  Valmlki's  work  holds  indisputable  right  to  the  title  Sdikirja,  or  "  first 
elegant  poem/'  a  title  which  the  great  epic  imitates  in  claiming  to  be  a 
kiyjam  paramapujitam,  ''highly  revered  elegant  poem/'  to  which  claim  it 
won  a  right  after  the  more  refined  rersification  of  the  pseudo-epic  had  been 
added  to  it. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS.  81 

paper  on  this  subject  for  further  illustration  of  our  Valmiki^s 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  sight  and  sound  of  ocean  ^ — 
or,  if  not  our  Valmikif  to  whom  shall  we  assign  the  double 
text? 

Again,  from  the  first  dawn  of  critique  it  has  been  urged 
that  widow-burning  is  not  practised  or  known  (as  sometimes 
stated)  in  the  Ramayana,  but  it  is  practised  in  the  Maluibha- 
rata.  Yes,  in  tlie  first  book  and  the  twelftli  and  following 
bmiks,  just  as  conversely,  in  the  Ramayana,  the  queens  an- 
nounce tliat  they  are  **  devoted  "  and  wU  die  on  the  pyre  with 
tlieir  husband  ii,  66,  12,  or  lament  that  being  *^not  suttee'* 
they  •*  live  an  evil  life  "  in  not  thus  dying,  v,  26,  7.  Does  this 
not  imply  widow-burning?  And  if  it  be  said  (with  truth) 
tlmt  these  are  interpolations  —  well  and  good,  but  so  are  Adi 
and  (^inti  inteqxilations.  Both  epics  ignore  tlie  custom,'  ex- 
cept in  their  later  fonn. 

<  )ne  more  observation  is  necessary  in  this  summary  account 
of  the  mutual  relations  of  the  two  epics.  I  have  insttmced 
tlu>  use  of  the  word  marisa  in  the  Mahabliarata  as  tj'pical  of 
influt^nces  not  so  often  to  be  seen  in  the  Kamayana.  In  the 
foniur,  as  a  constant  term  of  aildress,  it  is  a  link  connei'ting 
this  fpic  with  the  classical  iwricKl ;  and  yet  it  ^ill  not  do 
U)  build  too  much  (m  the  fu<*t  that  this  link  is  wanting  in  tlie 

'  AJP.  vol.  xii,  p.  378.  Ainonir  th<»  trilmtarU^s  of  AjrixlhTl  an»  men- 
tionol  ttif  intiAhiuntt  of  Mftlabnr,  And  "  m^ft-mm,"  in  K.  ii,  82.  8.  whcrv  the 
M*nM-h-««  kiTiiIih  muiit  Ik»  comH'icd  to  the  roading  of  (J.  8H,  7,  KcraliEh. 
Tlir  M-A-mi-ii.  nimutlrih,  niHV  \h*  iiivrt-hiintii  or  the  nHiiu*  of  a  |H*oplt'.  The 
K«ral.i«,  or  MHlalmr  people,  »n.»  hi-n*  i-xpffMlj  " .s<)uthiTHfr«."  'lUvy  are 
Tn«-ntii>n«'<l  aUo  amonK  thi*  li*t«  of  |M<)p|(>  in  K.  \r,  40  fT.,  which  takoi  In 
thr  mUnU"  of  India  (41.  \'J,  Vuiylrup,  ('oln«,  riiidyai,  Kcralan)  and  nirntioni 
th«*  Va^Anan  and  other  out4*r  trilx-^ :  "  I^iMik  Mmt»nir  the  MUHM'han.  Piiltndaa, 
^uraM*naf.  Traiithalaii,  lUiMrata*.  Kiirtifi  with  Madrakan.  KimlM»Jii-VMvanaa 
(rnip<l.),  and  the  tovinii,  pmtnnani.of  VnkA«."  4*1.  11-12  (eompan*  M.  irt.h7. 10). 
AI*o  VaradTtpa,  U.  ir,  4<^  'M,  that  i*  JnvM,  ii  mentioned.  I  fttil  to  Hit*  that  the 
niinivana.  without  turh  a  priori  exi-inion  m»  niaj  alto  Im*  applidl  to  the  Mahi- 
bharata,  shows  le»ii  )C^*o)craphieal  kiiowItMl^e  or  heart* jr  than  dm*s  the  latter 
poem. 

•  Kl»*where  In  the  epi<\  the  wi«!ow  i»  at  inurh  n*<*oiniis4*<l  at  In  Mann,  who 
a1*'*  kno»«  no  *utt«-e  (\im)»are  Killing  fanti-.  pn.  172,  •i71,and  a  pafH-r  l)n 
th«   Hindu  t'uAtoni  of  Ihintc  to  re^lrett  a  ii rievanoe.  JAOS.  xxi,  p.  14't  (L 

6 


82  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA, 

Ramayana.  Such  an  example  shows  only  that  the  Mahabha- 
rata  has  been  in  this  instance  retouched.  Similar  cases  are 
found  in  the  liamayana,  one  of  which  I  have  already  cited. 

For  example,  later  Sanskrit  poetry  describes  women 
adorned  not  only  with  the  niipura  or  anklet  (alluded  to  in 
both  epics),  but  also  with  the  kafici  or  gold  girdle  set  off 
with  bells.  Probable  as  was  the  adornment  in  early  times, 
this  name  for  it  does  not  occur  in  early  literature,  and  so 
far  as  I  know  it  does  not  occur  in  the  great  epic  (frequently 
as  women's  adornment  is  described)  till  the  time  of  the 
pseudo-epic,  where,  xiii,  106,  56,  and  107,  67  we  find  kaficinu- 
pura^abda,  just  as  we  find  the  same  collocation  in  R.,  for 
example,  v,  4,  11;  18,  20;  G.  iii,  58,  26  (^u^ubhe  kaficani 
kafici) ;  V,  12,  44.  The  later  epics  must  have  suffered  this 
experience  in  many  cases,  another  being  offered  just  here  by 
the  use  of  the  rare  vallaki,  xiii,  106,  49,  and  in  vii,  6,665,  but 
not  here  in  B.  154,  25,  wliere  jharjhara  takes  its  place.  Just 
so  in  G.  iv,  33,  26  is  found  this  same  vallaki  (sic),  but  it  is 
not  found  in  the  corresponding  verse  of  R.  iv,  83,  21.  In 
sum,  chance  lateness  of  this  sort  is  evidence  only  for  the  epic 
as  we  have  it,  tampered  with  by  a  thousand  diadochoi.  It  can 
never  show  that  one  epic  was  produced  before  the  other.  So 
niryaiia  for  "death,"  xv,  37,  40,  is  indicative  of  the  age  or 
origin  of  xv,  37,  not  of  the  Mahabharata ;  ^  of  R.  v  (13,  41), 
but  nut  of  the  epic  as  a  whole. 

So,  wliile  we  must  admit  that  Vfdmiki's  mention  of  Kurus, 
Janaiuejaya,  and  Hastinapura,  as  against  his  non-mention  of 
Pandas  and  Indraprastha,  looks  as  if  he  knew  not  the  latter, 
we  must  remember  at  the  same  time  that  Viilmiki's  poem  in 
turn  has,  quite  apart  from  vocabulary,  certain  indications  of 
an  age  not  recognized  by  the  poets  of  the  latter  epic,  of  which 
I  will  mention  particularly  two.^ 

*  Here,  xv, 37,  43,  tathagata  Bccms  to  mean  "dead,"  but  it  may  be  taken  In 
its  usual  sense  of  "  in  such  a  state,"  as  in  R.  ii,  100,  34,  oddlj  near  the  Bud- 
dhist :  yatha  hi  corah  sa  tatha  hi  buddhas  tathagtam  nastikam  atra  riddhi. 

^  Minor  points  of  lateness  (in  either  epic)  are  frequently  apparent.  Those 
in  Mbh.  are  perhaps  more  common,  but  not  in  proportion  to  its  extent  In 
B.  may  be  noticed  ships  holding  one  hundred  men  each  and  palaces  having 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE   TWO  EPICS.  83 

The  date  of  the  AllahAb&d  banyan  cannot  be  carried  back 
wth  any  certamty  to  a  very  early  date,  though  mentioned  by 
1 1  wen  Thsang.^  Now  the  place  where  this  tree  ought  to  be 
is  most  elaborately  described  and  praised  in  the  great  epic, 
iii,  85,  80  flf.,  but  the  existence  of  such  a  tree  is  not  even 
mentioned;  whereas  the  other  fig-tree  at  Gaya  is  praised  as 
holy  beyond  words,  for,  in  the  epic  interpretation  of  the 
modem  ak^y  bai  (bat),  its  fruit  is  imperishable.^  This  is 
particularly  remarkable  as  in  M.  iii,  85,  65,  ynlgaverapur  is 
esj>eciidly  famed  as  tlie  phice  '*  where  liama  crossed/'  But  the 
Riimayana  knows  the  Allaliftb&d  tree,  ii,  55,  6  and  24.  The 
mention  of  tliis  tree  at  Prayaga,  as  against  its  non-mention  m 
the  Malmblmnita,  and  the  hitter's  mention  of  liama  point  to  an 
earlier  <iate  for  the  Mahabhiirata  llrtha  stories  than  for  R.  ii, 
5;*),  and  [>erhaps  shows  that  at  this  time  the  liama  story  was 
knouTi,  but  not  just  as  we  have  it. 

The  wonl  Sanskrit  in  its  present  meaning  is  found  in  the 
Ramiivana  but  not  in  the  Mahabluirata.  The  bare  statement, 
however,  that  the  word  Sanskrit  in  this  sense  is  not  found 
in  an  older  j)eri«Kl  but  occurs  in  the  Ramayana,  does  not  give 
quite  all  the  fjicts.  The  great  epic  knows  the  wonl  but  only 
in  its  earlier  meaning,  "adorned,"  "prepareil,"  asamskrttun 
abhivyaktam  bluiti,  iii,  69, 8 ;  samskftii  and  prakrta,'  "  initiated 
and  not  initi;it<Ml/*  iii,  200,  88  (with  priests  who  are  suvetUih 
an<l  dur\tNlrih ) ;  sjimskrta  mantrah,  xiii,  93,  56.  This  is  also 
the  w»iisi»  in  R.  iii,  11,  57,  where  bhrataniih  Siuhskrtaih  krtva 
itM*If  (in  M.  iii,  96,  1<K  clulgam  krtva  susiuiiskrt^un)  is  joine<I 

(m  in  th<*  drftmft)  ei^'ht  rotirtii  instead  of  thrcM?  (at  in  the  other  epic),  U.  U, 
M.  H;  ;.7.  17  and  24;  ir, .«.  U». 

>  CunninKham.   An(-i«-nt  (»e<>|rraphT  of  India,  p.  .'IsO. 

*  TTiit.  or  **  maki-«  the  ^ivcr  immortal/'  i«  the  epic  interpretation,  not  (at 
niym\  that  the  xuf  \Uv\t  is  immortal.  Compan*  iii,  H4,  Kl,  tatri  'ksavara^ 
nima  th»u  lnke»u  ri^uiah,  tatra  dattam  pttrbhvaa  tu  bharatj  aksaram 
veratr.  So  in  iii.  ST.  U,  and  ttr>,  14  (with  iii,  K7.  be^rins  a  recapitulation  of 
Tlnhaa  already  ntentione<l) :  rii.  (V).  20.  wherr  it  it  (va^h)  aktayakaranah,  at 
alto  in  liii,  HH.  14.  Here  it  found  the  proverb  on  (taji.  at  in  K.  U,  107,  13, 
with  T.  1..  and  in  M  iii.  k4.  IC.  etc..  at  ^\rK-ti  in  Spruch  1474  fT. 

*  At  to  tliit  wonl  in  K..  conifuirt*  ttrlrakram  prakftaiii  yrutTi,  iii,  40,  & 
(aairam,  comin.),  with  rvfervncea  ia  I'W.  •.  ▼. 


84  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

with  the  precedmg  samskrtam  vadan,  the  former  in  the  Maha- 
bharata  version  being  "  cooking  "  (samskrtya  =  paktva)  and 
the  hitter  not  used,  which  looks  as  if  the  Kamayana  version 
were  later.  Several  cases  in  the  Ramayana  do  indeed  show  the 
older  sense,  but  there  are  others,  such  as  v,  80, 17,  cited  by 
Weber,  and  again  by  Muir,  Original  Sanskrit  Texts,  ii,  p.  157, 
in  which  samskrta  vak  means  Sanskrit,  in  that  it  is  the  ^^  culti- 
vated speech."  ^  In  this  case  also  the  Ramayana  is  later  than 
the  Mahabharata,  though  the  latter  epic  recognizes  dialects, 
degabha^as,  iv,  10,  1 ;  ix,  45,  103,  etc.,  and  seems  (in  its  in- 
troduction) to  use  the  expression  brahmi  vak  or  "holy 
speech,"  exactly  in  the  sense  of  the  Ramayana's  samskrta  vak. 
For  in  this  instance  a  woman  recognizes  a  king  because  his 
"  form  and  clothes  are  regal  and  his  speech  is  the  holy  speech," 
rajavad  rupavesau  te  brahmlm  vacam  bibhar^i  ca,  i,  81,  18. 
But  these  cases  show  only  that  when  the  Ilvala  tale  was  re- 
written and  the  much  adorned  fifth  book  of  the  Ramayana 
was  composed,  sariiskrtam  vad  and  samskrta  vak  were  used 
nearly  in  the  modem  sense ;  yet  in  showing  this  they  indicate 
again  that  in  our  estimate  as  to  the  relative  age  of  the  epics 
nothing  can  be  absolute  or  universal,  but  all  must  be  stated 
relatively  and  partially.  If  it  be  said  that  this  judgment 
lacks  definitiveness,  the  reply  is  that  it  accords  with  the  facts, 
which  do  not  admit  of  sweeping  statements.' 

1  Also  Jacobi,  Ramayana,  p.  116  (PW.  i.  s&m-kar).  Other  cases  show 
regard  for  grammatical  nicety  in  the  use  of  language  (Jacobi,  loc.  cit.). 

*  For  the  metrical  position  of  the  two  poems,  see  Chapter  Four.  I  regret 
that  Professor  Jacobi's  long-expected  book  on  the  epics  is  not  yet  out,  as  it  is 
sure  to  contain  much  valuable  matter.  As  it  is,  I  have  had  to  rely,  in  citing 
his  opinions,  on  the  work  cited  above,  and  a  review  in  the  GGA.,  1899,  p. 
800  fl. 


CHAPTER  THREE. 

EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 

Sakhid  bahntaram  duhkluuh  jirite  ni  'tra  saih^ajah,  xii,  331»  10. 
"  There  b  no  doabt  that  there  ia  more  sorrow  than  joy  in  life." 

Epic  Systems. 

In  the  preceding  chapters  I  have  shown  that  from  a  8)ti- 
thetic  point  of  view  the  epic  as  we  have  it,  judged  solely  by 
the  literature  it  recognizes,  must  be  the  product  of  a  companv> 
lively  late  period.  In  this  chapter  it  is  my  purpose  to  sketc*h 
as  briefly  as  possible  the  salient  features  of  tlie  great  s}'stems 
of  pliilosophy  ex])ounded  in  the  later  epic.  To  regard  them 
as  identical  is  imiH)s8ible.  To  see  in  them  a  philosopliic  chaos, 
out  of  which  are  to  arise  future  systems,  is  equally  impossible. 
Some  of  them  belong  to  the  latest  epic  and  they  have  tlieir 
unity  only  in  the  fact  that  they  are  all  colored  by  the  domi- 
nant deistic  view  of  an  age  that,  liaving  passed  from  pure 
idealism  into  dmdisin,  sought  to  identify  the  spirit  of  man 
witli  that  of  a  personal  (t(m1  and  equate  this  god  with  the 
two  separate  facti)rs  of  duidism;  a  dualism  which  was  not 
that  of  spirit  and  matter  but  of  comlitioned  lH>ing,  consc^ious 
intelligence,  as  opjxisetl  to  pure  Ijeing  or  spirit  (soul),  con- 
scious intelligeui'e  being  itself  the  only  origui  of  matter,  whiirh 
is  merely  a  fonn  of  mind.^ 

The  imjiortiuice  of  a  review  of  this  sort  lies  in  the  historicuU 
bac'kgnmnd  it  furnishes  to  the  epi(%  whiih  n»pn»s<»nts  the  last 
of  six  appn)ved  systems  tnM*eal)lc  in  it:  (1)  Vtslisiii  or  or- 
thotltix  Bndmianism;  (2)  atimuiism  or  Hrahmaisin  (pn>iH*rly 

1  S<,<«  on  thia  point  tome  pertinent  remarks  hr  I>r.  Kverett  in  the  twentieth 
volume  of  tht*  Jtmmal  of  the  At >S.,  p.  3fH>.  It  it  a  eomni'in  error  to  ip^^ak  of 
Simkhra  dualitm  at  Matting  npirit  and  niattrr  in  antitht*«i«,  whereat,  acetinl- 
iaf  to  tht  tjtlcm,  matter  li  onljr  a  deTelopment  of  Mrif-cuosciotuoeM. 


86  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Brahmanism,  but  this  term  connotes  a  different  idea),  that  is, 
an  idealistic  interpretation  of  life ;  (3)  Samkhya,  the  dualism 
spoken  of  above ;  (4)  Yoga,  the  deistic  interpretation  of  Saiii- 
khya ;  (5)  Bliagavata  or  Pagupata,  different  but  both  sectarian 
interpretations  of  Yoga;  (6)  Vedanta  or  Illusion-idealism. 
Some  of  the  epic  writers  support  Samkhya ;  some.  Yoga ;  some, 
the  sectarian  interpretation ;  some,  the  Maya,  Illusion-theoiy. 
Besides  these  are  approved  sporadically  Vedism  and  Brahmar 
ism,  not  to  speak  of  a  number  of  theories  not  approved. 


Heretics. 

In  the  Gita  it  is  said,  4, 40 :  "  The  ignorant  and  unbelieving 
man  who  has  a  soul  of  doubt  is  destroyed ;  neither  this  world 
nor  the  next  exists^^  nor  happiness,  for  him  who  has  a  soul  of 
doubt."  The  italicized  words  are  those  which,  at  xii,  133, 14, 
are  put  into  the  moutli  of  the  Nastika,  the  negator  or  repu- 
diator  of  scripture,  spirit,  or  duties.  According  to  epic  inter- 
pretation, one  saying  nasti,  in  refusing  a  gift  to  a  priest,  is  a 
"  negator  "  no  less  than  he  who  refuses  assent  to  the  orthodox 
belief.  But  ordinarily  Nastika  is  used  in  the  latter  sense  and 
connotes  a  dissenter  from  received  opinion  in  regard  either  to 
the  existence  of  transcendental  things  or  to  the  authority  of 
hallowed  tradition.^  Such  an  unbeliever  is  tlireatened  with  a 
sudden  enliglitenment  hereafter :  "  If  your  opinion  is  that  this 
worid  does  not  exist  and  that  there  is  no  worid  beyond,  the 
devils  in  liell  will  soon  change  your  ideas  on  that  subject."  • 
Any  number  of  these  unbelievers  is  known,  who  deny  every- 
thing there  is  to  deny.     In  ii,  31,  70,  an  unbelieving  or  heretic 


1  na  'yam  loko  'sti  na  paro  na  sukharii  sam^ayatmanah.  Compare  Ka|ha 
Vp.f  ii,  0,  ayam  loko  nasti  para-iti  mani,  panah  punar  va9am  Spadyate  me 
(Yama). 

'  Ncploct  of  Vedic  ordinances  or  denial  of  Veda  is  nastikya,  par  excel- 
Icnco,  accordinf^  to  xii,  270, 67,  and  xii,  12,  6  (the  latter) :  vedavadapaTiddlians 
tu  tan  riddhi  bhryanastikan  (also  anastika,  ib.  4),  for  "rejecting  the  Veda 
a  priest  cannot  attain  heaven,"  ib. 

•  Literally,  will  "  make  you  remember ; "  yad  idam  manyase,  rajan,  na  'y*™ 
asti  kutah  parah,  pratismirayitarai  tySm  YamadQtS  Yamak^ye,  xii,  160, 19. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  87 

king  is  mentioned  among  tUose  who  pay  tribute  (in  conjunc- 
tion with  a  tributary  "city  of  the  Greeks");  while  in  iii, 
191,  10,  it  is  said  that  in  tlie  golden  age  to  come  there  will  be 
"  people  of  truth/'  where  previously  had  been  established  the 
schools  of  heretics ;  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  periiaps  that 
Buddhists  or  Jains  are  meant,  as  irreligious  heretics  would 
not  have  religious  orders.^  The  Lokayata  or  I^okayatika 
(doubtful  in  i,  70, 46)  is  periiaps  less  a  Buddliist  (like  Can-aka, 
who  apiH*ars  only  as  a  pretended  Bralunan  Parivraj,  or  priestly 
mendiccUit,  and  friend  of  the  foe)  tlian  a  devotee  of  natural 
science,  as  Professor  Rhys  Davids  maintains.  The  doubter's 
scriptures  are  not,  however,  referred  to  Brhaspati.  The  code 
of  this  ill-reputed  sage,  whom  we  have  seen  as  a  law-giver,  is 
often  enough  alluded  to,  generally  in  connection  with  that  of 
r^anas.  The  worst  that  is  siiid  of  Brhaspati's  teaching  is 
that  it  is  drawn  from  a  study  of  the  female  intellect,  which  is 
full  of  subtilty  and  dec^eit.  But  he  is  here  only  one  of  many 
authors  of  Artlui^'iistras,  xiii,  89,  10.  As  a  teacher  he  is  ex- 
tollcil.*  Materialists  and  other  heretics  without  si>ecial  desig- 
nation api>ear  to  fill  the  whole  land.  Thus  in  xii,  19,  23,  are 
mentione4l  rationalistic  Pundits,  hetumantah,  hard  to  convince, 
who  are  l)y  nature  befogged  and  stubborn,  and  deny  the  exist- 
ence (of  a  soul).  These  are  op{x>se<l  to  tlioso  good  men  who 
are  **  drvote<l  to  ceremonies  and  know  the  Purx'a^iistra  ** 
(mliniiiisa  ?).  **  These  fiKils,"  it  is  added,  **  are  despisers  of 
immortality  and  tidkers  in  assemblies  of  people ;  they  wander 
ovfr  the  whole  earth,  lH«ing  fond  of  sjHjaking  and  leanunl  in 
rev«*lation."  '  Others  are  citc<l  to  illustnite  the  unl)t»licf  that 
consists  in  a  denial  of  the  soul's  unity,  ekiintavyudasa.  These 
U»lii*ve  in  a  soul  jK>sw»sstHl  of  desire  and  hate.  An  appanmt 
allusion  to  Jains  may  Ik>  foun<l  in  the  description  of  the  priest 
who  *•  tnimiMMl  around  Benares  astounding  the  jK^ople,  clothed 

>  ivratnih  fahapi«An(!ih  •thitih  itatrajanlh  prmjih  (bhaTiijanti). 

«  lii.  .Ti.\  in.  IIi»  ttaihinK  in  xiii.  11:1.  i«  Hu.iahiiitic  (A  =  l)h.  l\  1.12,  an«l  7 
it  like  Dh  I*.  4'JO).    (}n  I^ikivata,  •<-«•  I>.iriiN.  p.  1(K)  of  op.  cit  aborp,  p.  fWi. 

'  Tirailuki  l^hu^nitih.  llii*  (loni.il  in  mai  *Uui  n$ti  mutt  from  the  context 
refrr  to  tht-  <*xi«tvntv  of  ttie  toul.  Fur  anrtaf>-i  'ramaiitirah  in  B.  muit,  I 
tiuAk.  be  read  aoirUura. 


88  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

in  air,  clothed  like  a  madman ; "  ^  but  we  must  be  careful  not 
to  identify  the  characters  of  the  epic  too  quickly  with  special 
names.  This  Tn^nin.n  priest,  for  example,  would  seem  to  be 
rather  a  ^ivaite  Brahman  than  a  Jain,  and  digvdsas  is  applied 
to  Vidura  in  his  last  state  and  to  Nala  in  his  distress.*  In  the 
same  way,  the  brown  and  yellow  robe  does  not  necessarily  refer 
to  a  Buddhist,  any  more  than  does  the  statement  that  one 
goes  to  heaven  who  builds  a  Vihara,  xiii,  28,  99 ;  for  these 
terms  are  common  property.  "  What  makes  you  so  glorious  ?  " 
asks  one  woman  of  another,  who  replies :  "  I  did  not  wear  the 
yellow  robe,  nor  bark-garments,  nor  go  shorn  or  with  matted 
hair,"  xiii,  123,  8.  Here  quite  possibly  Buddhists  may  be  re- 
ferred to;  but  when  I  read  that  ^va's  devotees  are  of  two 
sorts,  householders,  and  those  "  whose  sign  is  tonsure  and  the 
yellow  robe,"  maundyam  kasaya§  ca,  xiii,  142,  22 ;  and  see 
that  the  yellow  robe  is  also  worn  as  a  sign  of  grief,  Nala,  24, 
9;  R.  vi.  125,  34,  and  that  "  the  wearer  of  the  yellow  robe" 
is  excluded  from  ^raddha,  xiii,  91,  43,  I  am  by  no  means  sure 
that  even  in  the  most  tempting  passage  this  robe  indicates  a 
Buddhist,  unless,  indeed,  for  some  of  these  passages  we  may 
assimie  that  ^ivaite  and  Buddhist  were  already  confused.  But 
xii,  18,  32,  "  those  who  cast  off  the  Vedas  and  wander  about  as 
beggars  shaved  and  wearing  the  yellow  robe,"  refers  distinctly 
to  Buddhists,  as  I  opine.  Similarly,  the  remark  "  they  that  are 
budhas^  enlightened,  are  devoted  to  Nirvana,"  xii,  167, 46,  may 
be  put  beside  the  buddhas  of  xii,  160,  88,  who  "  have  no  fear 
of  return  to  this  world  and  no  dread  of  another ; "  but  in  the 
latter  section,  and  in  many  others,  "  enlightened,"  budha  and 
buddha,  refers  to  Brahmans;  and  Nirvana  in  epic  teleology 
usually  means  bliss,  for  example  the  bliss  of  drinking  when 
one  is  thirsty,  or  the  bliss  of  heaven.^    In  short,  we  see  here 

^  cankraroiti  diyah  sarvS  digTasa  mohayan  prajah  .  .  .  unmattayesam 
bibhrat  sa  cankramiti  yathasukham  Varanasjam,  xiv,  6,  IS,  and  22;  com- 
pare 6,  6. 

^  To  the  author  of  Das  Mbh.  aU  Epos,  etc.,  dlgrSsas  necessarily  impliea 
digambara  (as  Jain),  p.  224. 

'  In  the  epic,  nirvana  is  used  in  both  of  its  later  senses,  bliss  and  extinc- 
tion, brahmanirvana,  bliss  of  Brahman,  like  the  ninra^a,  bliss,  attained  bj 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  89 

and  in  a  passi^  cited  further  on,  that  Buddhists  are  some- 
times referred  to,  but  we  must  not  call  every  beggar  a  Bud- 
dhist, The  late  passage  xiv,  49,  8-12,  shows  that  when  the 
Anuglta  was  written,  probably  not  before  our  era,  these  infi- 
dels were  fairly  rampant  The  list  of  them  is  quite  appalling 
anil  we  may  perhaps  believe  that  the  "  believer  in  nothing  '* 
is  a  Buddhist  and  the  ^^  shaven  and  naked  "  mentioned  in  the 
same  place  is  a  Jain ;  while  the  svabliavam  bhutaeintaklih  are 
perhaps  materialists.  The  **  course  of  right  is  varied  "  and  the 
view  of  the  author  is  here  that  of  tolerance.  Some  of  these 
philosophers  deny  a  hereafter,  some  doubt  all  things,  some 
hold  the  vyiimi^ra  doctrine  of  revolution  (often  mistranslated 
as  evolution)  of  the  universe,  and  according  to  the  commen- 
tati»r  some  are  adherents  of  the  atomistic  theory,  Ixihutvam. 
Contests  of  these  hetuvadins,  rationalists,  are  not  discoimte- 
n;inoed,  but  enjoyed  as  a  pliilosophic  treat  at  the  king's  court 
or  at  a  great  sacrifice,  as  in  xiv,  85,  27,  where  "  talkative  philo- 
sophers, eager  to  outdo  each  other,  discussed  many  mtional- 
istic  argimients." 

With  all  this  lilx»rality  there  is  often  no  quarter  given  to 
the  heretic,  esi^ecially  the  Pasjimla,*  who  appears  to  be  pre- 
eminently a  despiser  of  the  Veilas.  The  reason  is  the  natural 
one  that  he  who  despises  the  priest's  authority  naturally  de- 
spises the  priest,  **  The  reason  why  I  was  lioni  a  jackal,"  says 
a  chanw-ter  in  xii,  180,  47-48,  '*  is  that  I  was  a  Punditkin,  paiy- 
ditaka,  who  was  a  nitionalist,  haituk;i,  and  blanier  of  the  VeiLis, 
U'inj^  devoti*<l  to  logi(!  and  the  us4»less  science  of  reasoning  (a 
telling  phrase,  rei)eate<l  in  xiii,  37,  12-14),  a  prfKlaiiner  of 
lo^<  al  arguments,  a  talker  in  ass(*inblies,  a  reviler  and  (»piK)ser 
of  priests  in  arguments  alxtut  Brahman,  an  unU*lit*ver,  a 
doubter  of  all,  who  thought  myself  a  Pundit."*     The  IMsancla 

drinkinir.  On  thia  tuhject  much  that  it  niiiilva«linff  hM  Utelr  U^'n  imblithed, 
owiQiT  to  a  falM>  hUtoriral  |M>int  of  vi«>w.  Hut  th<*  |p>al  of  citinrtion  it  alio 
laa«i<-<l.  Thus,  in  xii,  242,  11-12.  ont*  attaint  to  that  wht*iv  going  he  "grieTM 
not.  iJic-c  not,  it  n<it  Imiih,  nor  rfl»om,  an*!  exittt  not,"  na  rartate. 

>  ▼  1.  in  lii,  21H.  4;  liii,  2'1.  07  (<>th«r  n-fcn^ncct  in  PW):  appan»ntljr  % 
forriifn  or  dialiK'tir  woril ;  ftiKi*iall)r  Hu(l<lhittt,  accortling  to  N. 

*  ftkroffi  ci  l>hiTaktl  ca  brahnuTikjcf a  ca  dTiJin  .  .  .  mOrklu^  P*94^ 


90  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

and  reviler  of  the  Vedas  are  closely  associated,  as  in  xiii,  23, 
67,  and  72,  and  like  those  who  here  "  sell  or  write  down  the 
Vedas,"  they  go  to  hell.  In  short,  any  denial  is  usually  per- 
mitted save  the  denial  of  the  Vedas.  The  more  surprising  is 
it  that  elsewhere  (see  below)  the  Vedas  are  openly  repudiated ; 
but  this  is  only  one  of  the  inconsistencies  with  which  the  epic 
teems. 

Authority. 

What  then  was  authoritative?  Characteristic  of  the  con- 
tradictory views  presented  in  the  epic  is  the  fact  that  in  one 
place  tlie  very  authority,  pramanam,  which  is  insisted  upon 
as  the  only  valid  authority,  is  in  another  rejected  as  altogether 
delusive,  and  this  not  by  heretics,  but  by  the  authors  of  the 
respective  essays  whose  combined  publications  issued  in  one 
volume  form  the  potr-pourri  of  the  complete  epic. 

The  reason  for  this  is  obvious.  Several  forms  of  religion 
are  advocated  in  the  epic  and  each  has  its  own  test.  Oldest 
and  most  widely  represented  is  the  biblical  test.  Over  and 
over  again  we  are  assured  that  scripture  is  authoritative  and 
those  wlio  will  not  accept  scripture  as  the  pramanam  or  test- 
stone  of  pliilosophy  are  damned.  But  beside  these  vigorous 
expressions  of  orthodoxy  stands  the  new  faith,  which  discards 
altogetlier  the  old  scripture  as  an  authority.  For  sacrifices 
and  rites  the  Vedas  are  well  enough ;  they  are  there  authori- 
tative. If  one  wishes  to  perform  rites  one  must  naturally 
go  to  the  ritual.  Such  gastrapramanya  and  vedapramanya 
rules,^  admitting  the  necessity  of  rites  at  all,  remain  valid, 
simply  because  there  are  no  others.  But  in  all  higher  matters, 
as  for  one  who  sees  no  use  in  rites,  the  scriptures  are  but  a 
mass  of  contradictions.^ 

tamanikah  (hence  reborn,  as  a  kroatar).  Compare  Ka^ha  Up.  ii,  6,  8va- 
yamdhirah  panditammanvanianah ;  Mund.  Up.  i,  2,  8;  Maitr.  Up.  vii,  9.  The 
passaf^e  in  Anu9a8ana  cited  above  is  a  repetition  of  all  these  epithets  in 
characteristically  free  form.  Compare,  e.  j?.,  9I.  13,  akros^  c5  'tivakti  ca 
brShmananam  sadai  Va  hi  (here  panditamani). 

1  xiii,  84,  20,  and  37. 

*  One  of  the  minor  epic  contradictions  is  that  referred  to'  aboTe,  p.  46,  in 
regard  to  the  "  two  brahmans."    The  orthodox,  but  not  too  liberal  man,  sayi : 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  91 

The  old  view  is  best  represented  in  the  saying  that  Veda, 
Dluirma^stnis,  and  acara,  custom,  are  the  recognized  author- 
ities in  every  matter,  as  in  iii,  207,  83;  xiii,  84,  20,  and  87. 
The  eonfuse<l  rule  of  the  Veda  is  referred  to  in  xii,  19,  1-2: 
**  I  know  the  highest  and  other  ^ustras  and  the  double  injunc- 
tion of  the  Veda,  *  Do  acts  and  abandon  them.' "  '*  Untrue, 
according  to  casuistic  reasoning,  is  the  word  of  the  Veda  — 
but  why  should  the  Veda  speak  untruth?"  says  Vya^a,  xiii, 
120,  9,  when  inculcating  the  late  notion  that  a  small  gift  is  as 
efficient  as  a  great  sacrifice  in  procuring  salvation,  a  theoiy 
that  is  certainly  untrue  in  the  light  of  the  Veda.  **  Logic 
has  no  basis,  the  scriptures  are  divided ;  there  is  not  one  seer 
whose  opinion  is  authoritative,"  pramaniun.  "  The  truth  about 
right  is  hidden  in  a  cave ;  the  only  path  is  that  pursued  by 
the  majority,"  iii,  818,  117.1  **  Deceitful  is  the  Veda,"  it  is 
said  in  xii,  329,  6.  Both  scripture  and  argument,  tarka,  are 
useless  in  comparison  with  the  enlightening  grace  of  God, 
which  alone  can  illuminate  the  "mysterious  hidden  communi- 
cation of  truth,"  xii,  885,  5.  Such  holy  mysteries  must, 
indeifl,  lie  kept  from  those  who  are  "burned  with  books  of 
philoM»phy,"  tarka9astradagdiia,  xii,  247,  18. 

In  the  matter  of  the  Veda,  the  new  faith  discounts  it« 
%'alue  by  setting  beside  it  the  recent  books  of  later  cult, 
exactly  as  modem  sects  take  as  authoritative  their  own  scrip- 
tun*s.  Bhl^ma^s  wonls,  being  inspired  by  Krishna,  are  "as 
authoritative  as  the  words  of  the  Ve<la,"  vedapravada  iva 
(pramanam),  xii,  54,  29-30,  and  Ve<la,  Purana,  and  Itihasa  are 
all  mktmtMl  as  authoritative  in  xii,  843,  20.  But  the  (Jlta  is 
the  4»nly  authority  of  the  Blmgiivatiis,  filUi,  16,  24.  Com{>aro 
aU)  the  tinwle  in  xiii,  163,  2-9:  "  Imme<liate  perception  or 
biblical  authority,  agjuna,  what  is  convincing  pnnif,  kiirana, 

dre  brmhmani  ▼cdiurre  faUUhralima  paraih  ca  jit,  fabfUbrahmani  minAal^ 
param  brahmi  Mhiirarohati,  xii.  tX\,  .*».  ^  wht*o  one  U  tktmmijkl^  ronnrMsl 
with  the  ViMa  he  attaint  to  Brahman;"  but  the  derotee  •'eren  br  Hfirt  t%f 
vtaJom  imrpautt  the  Veda,**  api  jiJftiMmino  'pi  fabdabrahmi  'tivartate,  ib. 

XT.  a 

>  mahijana.  if  thit  be  the  meaning  here;  apparrnUjr  onlj  tiaage  la  meaol: 
mahijano  jvtuk  gata^  ta  panthi^ 


92  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

in  these  ?  Answer :  "  There  is  many  a  text  to  increase  doubt. 
Rationalists  say  that  perception  is  the  only  proof.  They  are 
children  who  think  themselves  wise  and  believe  only  in 
denial,  na  'sti.  Recourse  to  'cause'  amounts  to  nothing.*' 
But  though  philosophy  is  really  interwoven  with  religion,  we 
may  leave  for  the  present  tlie  Bhagavatas  and  ^vaites  to 
their  religion  which  is  "  freed  from  philosophy,"  xiii,  14,  198, 
and  consists  in  identifying  the  All-god  with  their  special 
gods  (viii,  33,  51  "  one  God  of  various  forms  "),  to  consider 
the  more  strictly  philosophic  view  of  authority. 

Only  one  view  is  held  by  the  real  philosopher :  "  Through 
inference  we  learn  the  truth."  ^  Traditional  wisdom,  amnaya, 
as  was  shown  above,  is  not  always  recognized,  though  it  is 
generally  admitted.  "  In  amnaya  are  established  the  Vedas; 
from  amnaya  come  the  Vedas.^  .  .  .  Universal  opinion  says  that 
an  amnaya^eclaration  is  truth,  and  there  is  no  authority  at 
all,  §astrata,  when  that  which  is  not  authoritative  is  allowed 
to  stand  against  the  recognized  authority  of  the  Vedas,"  xii, 
269,  33 ;  261,  9-10.  Thus  "  inference  together  with  scrip- 
ture,"  animiana  and  gruta,  are  the  two  most  substantial  tests 
of  truth,  xii,  205,  19  and  210,  23,  hetvagama ;  for  "  all  that  is 
Vedic  is  the  word  of  God,"  xii,  269,  10.« 

Tlie  third  authority  is  the  one  scorned  above,  perception, 
pratyaksa  (xiv,  28,  18,  pratyak^atah  sadhayamah,  and  often, 
as  cited  below  in  the  course  of  this  chapter).  In  the  mystic 
religion  of  the  Yogin  tliis  pratyaksa  becomes  the  intuitive 
insight  of  the  seer  and  is  the  only  test  of  truth,  answering 
to  "second  sight."*  The  Harivanga  inveighs  against  the 
"doubters  and  curious  speculators"  who  accept  any  authority 
save  faith,  8,  4,  8  ff. 

^  anumSnad  Tijamroah  pumsaro,  xir,  48,  6;  xii,  206,  23. 

*  The  commentator  becomes  confused,  and  rendering  Snmlja  by  Veda 
renders  vedah  by  smrtayah ! 

*  sarvam  arsam  vyahrtaih  viditStmanah  (=  parame9vara8ya).  The  com- 
mentator cites  Brh.  Up.  ii,  4, 10,  nih9Tasitam,  in  support  of  plenary  inspiration 
as  here  inculcated. 

*  The  curious  result  is  thus  reached  that  the  crassest  materialist  and 
most  exalted  mystic  reject  all  proofs  save  pratyaksa.  Only  one  meana  by 
"autopsy"  (physical)  perception  and  the  other  means  insight 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  98 

Besides  these  three^  to  wit,  biblical  authority,  inference, 
and  direct  observation,  the  fourth  "  proof  by  analogy  "  may 
be  implied  in  the  late  conversation  of  Draupadi,  where,  after 
a  passing  reference  to  the  ar^am  pramanam  and  pratyak^a,  is 
added  **  and  thy  own  birth  is  the  proof  by  analogy,"  upania- 
nam,  iii,  81,  11-83.  Elsewhere  the  epic  stands  philosophi- 
cally on  Uie  Saiiikliy-yoga  basis  of  tliree  reliable  proofs  only. 

This  result  is  fully  borne  out  by  the  terminology.  The 
Vetlanta  philosophy  of  the  epic  is  not  called  by  that  name. 
Nyaiya  may  possibly  be  known,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
wonl  ever  refers  to  the  system,  or  the  system,  except  i>erhap8 
in  one  or  two  late  piissages,  is  ever  recognized.  A  brief  sur- 
vey of  the  facts  will  make  this  clearer. 

Vadinta. 

If  the  philosophical  system  were  known  as  such  the  use  of 
tlie  name  would  occur  as  such.  Hut  Vediinta  seems  everj'- 
wliert>  to  mean  Tpanishmls  or  what  is  the  same  thing,  Aran- 
yakas.^  Xo  Ve<lanta  system  is  alluded  to,  Ve<lanta  may  refer 
to  Saiiikhya  in  xii,  19<3,  7  (where  it  takes  the  place  of  the 
hitter  in  aiitithesLH  to  Yoga,  as  the  commentator  thinks),  but 
the  WDitl  more  natundly  means  tlie  teai^hing  of  the  Timn- 
ifiluuLn,  as  usual.'  The  piissages  cite<l  above  in  the  chapter  on 
liteniture  exhibit  the  chanicterlstic  usage.  Thus  in  (illa  16, 
\'u  viMlaiitaknl  vedavid  eva  ca'  ham,  where  Telang  rightly 
takes  the  reference  to  Ix;  to  the  Aranyakas.  So  in  viii,  t)0, 
114,  ve<lantavabhrtluiplut^di,  where  Karna  apiKMils  to  Arjuna 

>  So,  for  «xaniplv,  in  jad  ukurii  riMUridefU  gahanaiii  riMladArvihhih, 
tti'LinttBH  vAthi  yukuth  krania( karma) ro^t^na  lakfyate.  xii,  %^\,  'JH  (-  lai] 
ukum  TtMlaviilcPU  .  .  .  t'ftiantttu  punar  ryakum,  2^AI,  H).  a  nijutrry  (vit., 
^robhimm  irahanam  brahina,  224,  iS). 

*  •aiiikhyayotciu  tu  yiv  uktau  munibhir  mokpatlar^ibhih,  •annyina  era 
TrUanu*  rartaU*  ja|>anam  prati,  rcilaridiv  ca  nirrrtlih  yinti  tirahmanj 
ava«thttih,  thr«t*  hcmitticht.  f>f  which  the  first  it  n*pi*at«Hl  in  the  next  floka, 
when'  alone  it  iei'tnt  to  Wlooir.  (\»nvcrt4-ly,  in  (iiti  IS,  13,  the  wnnl  Sftn^ 
khya  it  taken  by  the  commentator  to  mean  VtsUnta,  becauM*  here  we  hare  a 
fntupinfT  of  flYe  karmahetarah  not  reeo^iniied  in  Saiiikhya.  It  may  be  tald 
ont-«-  for  all  that  the  ronimentator  i»  often  uneleu  in  philoaophical  aecUoiMi 
a«  he  wtthea  to  conrert  Siiiikhya  into  VedintA  un  all  occmaiona. 


94  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

to  observe  the  law  of  fighting,  since  the  latter  knows  the  law 
of  fighting  and  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  holy  scrip- 
tures, i.  e.,  he  is  a  moral  man  (not  a  Vedanta  philosopher). 
So  in  ii,  53,  1,  kings  who  are  declarers  of  all  the  Vedas  and 
versed  in  the  Vedanta,  paryaptavidya  vaktaro  vedantava- 
bhrthfiplutah.  Durga  is  Savitri,  vedamata  tatha  vedanta 
ucyate,  "  mother  of  the  Vedas  and  famed  (not  in  philosophy 
but)  in  the  Upanishads,"  vi,  23,  12.  A  Gandharva  is  "wise 
in  the  knowledge  of  Vedanta,"  xii,  319,  27,  and  asks  ques- 
tions about  Veda  and  logic,  which  are  answered  in  Samkhya 
terms  (vedya  is  purusa,  for  example).  The  priest  who  at 
xii,  349,  56  is  said  to  transmit  the  knowledge  of  the  Gita, 
knows  the  Jyestha  Saman  and  the  Vedanta;  and  he  who 
knows  the  names  of  Vishnu  is  Vedantarleamed,  xiii,  149,  128. 
Again  in  xiv,  13,  15 :  "  Whoso  would  kill  me  (Kama)  by 
vedair  vedantasadhanaih,  power  derived  from  the  mysteries 
of  the  Veda."  I  know  in  fact  only  two  passages  where,  per- 
haps, Vedanta  might  be  fairly  taken  as  referring  to  the  phil- 
osophy. One  of  these  is  in  a  tri^^ubh  verse  which  has  been 
interpolated  (out  of  all  syntactical  connection)  in  xiii,  69,  20, 
and  even  here,  late  as  is  the  verse,  it  is  perhaps  more  prob- 
able that  the  word  is  to  be  taken  in  its  usual  sense.^  The 
other  is  found  at  xii,  302,  71,  where  the  "island  of  Vedanta" 
is  a  refuge  to  the  saints.  The  "  Secret  of  the  Vedanta  "  cited 
below  is  clearly  "  Upanishads."  The  Brahma  Sutra  I  have 
spoken  of  above,  p.  16. 

Mimansa  does  not  occur  as  the  name  of  a  philosophical 
system.  I  have  referred  to  the  Purva^astravids  above,  but 
the  word  is  obviously  too  general  to  make  much  of,  though 
it  is  used  as  if  it  applied  to  the  Piirva-mimansa,  for  the  Pur- 
va^astravidah  are  here,  xii,  19,  22,  kriyasu  nirata  nityam  dane 
yajfie  ca  karmani.  This  implication  is  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary, however.  The  old  name  for  the  system,  Nyaya,  does 
not  seem  to  be  used  in  the  sense  of  Purvamimansa. 

^  TcdantaniRthasja  bahu9ruta8ya,  supposed  to  be  goyemed  bj  yrttim 
(dvijaja)  'tisrjeta  (taflmai)  in  the  next  stanza  1 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  95 

Nyiya. 

The  argumentative  group  of  five,  explained  according  to 
the  padartlia  in  xii,  821,  80  ff.,  consists  of  sauk^mya,  samkh- 
yakrainau,  nirnaya,  and  pniyojana,  which  recall,  especially  in 
tlie  definition  of  the  hist,  the  corresponding  section  in  the 
formal  Xyiiya.     The  epic  gives  the  following  definitions : 

1.  Sauksniya,  snbtilty,  is  where  knowledge,  in  res{)ect  to 
objects  of  knowledge  which  are  divided,  comes  from  distinc- 
tion and  the  intellect  rests  (on  tliis  distinction). 

2.  Saihkhya  or  samkhya,  reckoning,  is  reckoning  the  value 
of  weak  and  valid  [K)ints  and  arriving  at  some  conclusion. 

8.  Krania,  order:  when  it  is  decided  which  should  be  said 
first  and  which  last,  they  call  that  kramayoga,  the  application 
of  prt)jK*r  »e<iuence  in  an  argument 

4.  Nirnaya,  asc*ertainment,  is  a  conclusion  that  the  case  is 
80  and  so,  in  cases  of  duty,  desire,  gain,  emancipaticm,  after 
recognizing  them  according  to  their  differences, 

5.  P ray (»juna,  motive:  where  inclination  i9 produced  by  ilU 
arising  from  desire  or  dislike  and  a  certain  conduct  isfollowedj 
that  is  motive. 

As  lijis  U»cn  n»marke<l  l)y  Mr.  K.  Mohan  Giuiguli  in  his 
translation,  this  final  definition  of  prayojana  is  almost  identical 
with  that  given  by  (lauUuua  i,  24,  yam  artham  adhik|tya 
pnivartit4»  tat  prayojanam :  **  If  one  sets  an  object  liefore  erne's 
self  and  aits  iu*(<»nlingly,  that  is  motive."  So  the  epic, 
prakurs4»  yatra  jayate,  tatra  ya  vrttis  tat  pniyojanam,  as  ren- 
den*<l  aU»v«».  Similarly,  the  epic  definition  of  niniaya  is  like 
that  of  (tantamain  i,  40:  **The  c<»ncIusion  n*iM'he<l  after  hear- 
ing what  can  U*  s;iid  for  and  agsiinst  (on  Utth  sides)  after 
doubting.*'  Tlie  <»ther  memU^rs  of  (iaut4una*s  syllogism,  i, 
82,  serin  to  have  n<»  conntH'tion  with  tlie  al>ove.  The  s|H»ech 
t«»  U'  delivered,  it  is  declartnl  in  this  p;issage  of  the  epic,  must 
lie  nNfiyavrttam  (as  well  as  re;iS4>mible,  not  casuistical,  etc, 
iuxt<t*u  attributes  in  all).' 

1  \n  ripUnation  b  itivcn  of  tho  clfrhtiH*!)  meriu  with  vliirli  the  vpcaker 
br^rint.  Thf  »iit4*fn  attrihutr*  uuijr  be  comparvd  (numerically)  with  ibm 
•iit«-i-n  categorie*  of  the  Njrijra. 


96  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

We  may  compare  further  in  the  late  list  of  Pundits  at  i, 
70,  42,  those  with  nyayatattvatmavijfiana,  possibly  "  versed  in 
psychology  according  to  the  Nyaya-tattva ; "  and  i,  1,  67, 
nyaya9ik§a,  Nyayansystem,  opposed  to  Vedadhyatma  but  also  to 
cikitsa,  etc.  Also  xii,  19, 18,  referred  to  above,  p.  87:  "  Some, 
rejecting  unity,  attribute  to  the  atman  desire  and  dislike,"  a 
Nyaya  view.  Finally,  in  xii,  210,  22,  nyayatantrany  anekani 
(declared  by  various  people),  "  systems  of  logic,"  is  typical  of 
all  remaining  cases.  Nyaya,  then,  usually  means  logic,  but 
occasionally,  in  the  pseudo-epic,  the  special  Logic-system 
known  to  us  as  Nyaya.  ^ 

Vai9e8ika. 

This  word  is  used  as  an  adjective,  of  gunas,  etc.,  in  the 
sense  of  excellent;  but  the  system  is  unknown  in  the  main 
epic  though  it  is  referred  to  in  the  passage  cited  above,  in 
i,  70,  43-44,  and  also  in  ii,  5,  5  (vakya)  paficavayavajiikta, 
another  proof  of  the  lateness  of  the  Kaccit  section,  *  whether 
the  five  avayavas  here  mentioned  be  terms  implying  Nyaya  or 
Vai^esika.  Kanada's  name  appears  first  in  the  Harivanga  (see 
below,  p.  98,  and  above,  p.  89). 

The  Fonr  Philosophies. 

In  xii,  350,  64  ff.  (compare  350,  1,  pracaranti)  it  is  said 
that  there  are  four  current  philosophies,  jRanani,  the  Saih- 
khyayoga,  Paiicanitra,  Vedaranyaka  (or  Vedah),  and  Pa^u- 
pata.      Kapila  declared   the   Saiiikhya;    Hiranyagarbha,   the 

1  For  the  ordinary  use,  compare  tais  tSir  nyayaih,  such  arguments,  passim. 
All  speculation  is  Tarka.  Compare  the  remarkable  statement,  xii,  15,  26: 
"There  are  minute  creatures  whose  existence  can  be  argued  bj  tarka  (so 
small  that)  an  eyelid's  fall  would  be  the  death  of  a  number  of  them." 

^  Tlie  former  passage,  after  mentioning  those  endowed  with  nyayatattyl- 
tmavijfiana  adds  nanavakya8amahara8amaTayavi9aradaih,  Ti9efakar7aTidbhi9 
ca  .  .  .  sthapanaksepasiddhantaparamarth^jflatam  gataih  .  .  .  karyakSrana- 
vedibhih,  whicli  may  refer  to  either  system.  The  passages  hare  been  cited 
by  the  author  of  Das  Mahabharata  als  Epos,  etc.,  p.  220,  who  admits  that  the 
live  "  avayas,"  as  he  call  them  twice,  imply  the  Vai9e8ika  system. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  97 

Toga;^  Apantaratamas  is  called  the  Teacher  of  the  Vedas 
("  termed  by  Bome  Pracmagarbha  ") ;  ^va  declared  the  Pa^a- 
pata  religion ;  Vishnu,  the  whole  Paficaratra.  **  In  all  these 
philosophies  Vishnu  is  the  ni^tha,  or  chief  thing."  * 

Kapila  and  his  System. 

Although  it  is  said,  as  quoted  above,  that  there  is  no  se^r 
wliose  authority  is  authoritative,  this  is  merely  a  teaching  of 
temporary  despair.  Kapila  is  authoritative  in  all  philosophical 
matters  and  his  name  covers  every  sort  of  doctrine.  He  is  in 
fiict  the  only  founder  of  a  philosophical  system  known  to 
the  epic.  Other  names  of  founders  are  either  those  of  mere 
gods  or  disciples  of  Kapila.  Badaruya^a  and  PataQjali*  are 
miknown  even  as  names,  and  Jaimini  and  Gautama  appear  only 
as  sages,  not  as  lemlers  of  speculation.  ^Ei^dilya  (otherwise 
said  tc>  be  known  in  the  epic)  is  respectfully  cited  on  Yoga, 
not  as  founder  but  as  recommending  Yoga  concentration.^  As 

^  Si'e  the  note  on  tlili  renie  Jiut  below.  As  Yoga-teacher  of  DSityaa,  ^akrm 
if  mentioncMl,  i,  tV),  4:t.  Ik)th  Vishnu  and  (ira  are  crtnlited  with  being  Voga- 
lordt  (loc.  cit.  by  Holtimann,  Dat  Mbh.  im  Osten  und  Weaten,  p.  110). 

*  In  the  ViaudeTa  religions  philotophjr  of  Kriihnalam,  as  expounded  in 
zii,  SI.'),  7  fT.,  some  people,  after  death,  become  paraminubhatas,  rery  fine 
sprites,  and  enter  Aniruddha;  then  aa  manobhOtaa,  or  mental  entities,  they 
enter  lYadjumna;  thence  they  go  to  Jira  (Saihkarsana).  8Qch  people  are 
"the  best  priests  and  Sirhkhyas  and  DhlgaTatas."  Finally,  deToid  of  all 
unspiritual  constituents,  triigunyahlna,  they  enter  Pararoitman  (Ksetrajfia, 
nirgunitmaka).  or  Visudera.  l*hesc  are  the  four  forms  of  God.  The  name 
of  (»<>d  is  immaterial.  Hudra  and  Vishnu  are  one  being,  sattTam  ekanit 
diYidt**!  in  two.  xii.  ;U2,  27  (they  are  synonyms  like  brhad  brahma  and  mahat, 
Xr»  2.  paryiyariiikih  yabdih ;  Vishnu  may  be  called  ^ira  and  Brahman 
may  tw  called  IntclliM't). 

*  In  the  SarTadar9anaMimgraha  it  is  said  that  Patafijali  made  (atha  yogi- 
nii9iMnam.  i.  1)  an  anuvisana,  or  8i'cundar>'  collection  (as  ohm  is  explained) 
based  «»n  i-arlier  I'uranic  materials,  'flie  terse  attributctl  in  this  connection 
to  the  YijftaTAlkya  Sinrti  (i:>8,  17 ;  p.  2:K)  of  Cowell's  translation)  has  caused 
the  retc-rsburg  Ix-xicon  to  postulate,  s.  r^  another  Snirti  of  the  same  name. 
I  think  it  is  a  mere  Uimus  for  Vyisa's  Srorti,  for  the  TerK>  cited  ("  lliranya- 
garbha,  and  no  other  ancii-nt.  is  thi*  declarer  of  Yoga  ")  occurs  xii.  36i),  06. 
It  has  occurred  to  me  that  this  rersi*  might  imply  Patafijali.  and  the  **no 
othrr"  be  a  divtinct  r%*futation  of  his  claim,  the  tpic  pn'ferring  diTint 
aatliiirity ;  but  this  is  pt-rhajts  too  pregnant. 

*  prtliagtihutvftt  sff^'su  caturthivraniakarmasn  samldliiu  yogam  tfV^ 
'lac  (madttktam  rikyamj  chindilyah  yamam  abrarit,  xU,  261.  11 

7 


98  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

a  teacher  of  unconditioned  Brahman,  Atreya  is  lauded  in  xiii, 
187,  8 ;  and  in  xii,  819,  59,  a  list  of  teachers  of  the  twenty- 
fifth  (spiritual)  principle  is  given  as  having  instructed  the 
Gandharva  Vi§vavasu:  Jaigi§avya,  Asita  Devala,  Para^ara, 
Var^aganya,  Bhrgu,  Pafica9ikha,  Kapila,  ^xik&y  GSutama, 
Ar^ti^ena,  Garga,  Narada,  Asuri,  Pulastya,  Sanatkumara, 
^ukra,  Kagyapa,  seventeen  mixed  gods,  saints,  and  philoso- 
phers, of  whom  two  are  important  besides  Kapila,  namely 
Asuri  and  Paficagikha,  his  pupils ;  while  one  system  (explained 
below)  is  referred  also  to  Asita  Devala. 

There  seems  to  be  no  reason  to  doubt  that  Kapila  was  a 
real  (human)  philosopher,  and  not  a  mere  shadow  of  a  divin- 
ity. The  fact  that  his  name  is  also  given  to  divinities  proves 
the  opposite  as  little  as  does  his  deification,  for  it  is  customary 
to  deify  sages  and  for  divinities  to  have  sages'  names.  A  per- 
fect parallel  to  the  use  of  Kapila  in  this  way  is  afforded  by 
Kanada,  which,  as  far  as  I  know,  occurs  first  as  an  epithet  of 
9iva  as  supreme  god,  in  the  Harivanga  8,  85,  15-16 : 

yam  &hur  agryam  purusam  mah&ntam 

puratanam  s^mkhyanibaddhadrstayah 
yasy&  'pi  devasya  gunan  samagrans 

tattvanq  caturvinqatim  ahur  eke 
yam  ahur  ekam  purusam  pur&tanam 

KanddcMidmdnam  ajam  mahe^varam 
daksasya  yajfiam  vinihatya  yo  v&i 

vin&qya  dev&n  asur&n  san&tanah 

Kapila's  treatise  is  repeatedly  declared  to  be  oldest,  but  he 
is  not  only  the  oldest,  he  is  the  supreme  seer,  identical  with 
Agni,  with  ^iva  also,  and  with  Vishnu.  He  is  said  to  have 
got  his  wisdom  from  ^iva.^ 

1  "  Of  the  treatises  declared  by  metaphysicians  that  by  Kapila  is  the  ear- 
liest"  xii,  351, 6 ;  agnih  sa  Kapilo  nSma,  siriikhyayogapraTartakah,  Hi,  221, 21. 
Hall  gives  a  later  v.  1.,  sSmkhya9Sstraprayartakah,  SSmkhyasSra,  p.  18,  where 
most  of  the  epic  allusions  are  collected.  As  supreme  seer,  xii,  860, 65 ;  Qira, 
zii,  285,  114,  where  the  commentator  interprets  SSmkhya  as  VedSnta  (aa 
often) ;  xiii,  17, 08,  and  xiii,  14,  323,  giva  as  kapila,  Kapila  is  identified  with 
Vishnu  in  iii,  47, 18 ;  GitS,  10, 26,  etc. ;  with  PrajSpati  in  xii,  218, 9-10,  where 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  99 

I  have  noticed  only  one  passage,  xii,  269,  9,  where  Kapila 
is  presented  in  the  light  of  adverse  criticism  from  the  point 
of  view  of  orthodox  Brahmanism.  On  seeing  a  cow  led 
out  for  sacrifice,  Kapila,  filled  with  compassion,  cried  out 
O  ye  Vedasl  an  exclamation  of  reproof  against  the  Vedas, 
as  inculcating  cruelty  to  animals.  At  this  he  was  attacked 
by  the  inspired  cow  with  a  long  discourse,  challenging 
him  to  show  why  the  Vedas  should  be  regarded  as  authori- 
tative in  any  regard,  if  not  in  regard  to  the  slaughter  of 
animals. 

Kapila  appears  in  this  tale  as  a  teacher  of  unorthodox 
non-injury  and  maintains  to  the  end  (so  that  his  view  is 
presented  as  really  correct)  that  not  the  sacrifice  of  animals 
but  the  ** sacrifice  (worship)  of  knowledge"  is  the  best. 
Elsewhere  also  we  find  the  same  antithesis  between  the  old 
orthodoxy  and  the  new  science  of  thought,  which  not  only 
disreganls  Vedic  ceremonies  but  condemns  them  (xiv,  28, 

7  ff.). 

The  best  evidence  of  the  authority  of  Kapila  is  given  not 
by  express  statement  but  by  implication  in  the  praise  of  other 
s}'stems,  which,  an  important  point,  arc  by  the  same  implica- 
tion looked  upon  as  distinct  from  that  of  Kapila,  although  his 
name  is  use<l  to  uphold  them.  Thus  Kapila*s  own  system  is 
called  generally  the  Samkhyayoga,  or  specifically  the  Kapi- 
1am.'  The  Saihkhyayogins  are  said  to  be  the  models  even  in 
teaching  of  other  tendency,  as  in  xii,  S47,  22,  and  nothing 
l)etter  can  be  said  of  the  Bhagavatas,  here  extolled,  than  that 
tlieir  system   is  "equal  to   the  Saiiikliyayoga,"   not,  be   it 

he  ii  called  the  Bopreme  leer,  incorpormte  in  PaRcm^ikhA  (the  first  pupil  of 
Afori,  who  in  turn  was  a  pupil  of  Kapila).  In  xii,  337,  8,  Kapila  U  ^ilihotra- 
piti  tmrtah,  father  of  C'lihotra,  the  reterinarj  Ui^  (abore,  p.  18).  Kapilah 
prilia :  priU9  ca  Dhagarin  jRinam  dadiu  mama  bharintakam,  ziii,  18,  4. 
The  Ilariva^va,  8, 14,  4,  and  20.  ipeaki  of  Kapila  at  the  "  teacher  of  Yoga, 
the  teacher  of  Hiihkhja,  full  of  wisdom,  clothed  in  Brahman,  the  lord  of 
ascHiot."    Compare  the  supreme  spirit  as  Kapila,  xii,  340,  OS. 

>  "He  learned  the  whole  Yoga-^tram  and  the  Klpilam,**  ]rii,  336,  4; 
VlriRca  iti  jrat  proktam  KipiUm  Jfiinacintakiili  sa  Prajipatis  eri  liam,  xii, 
343.  M  (Kapila,  06).    Also  Simkhjra  kftinta,  GitI,  IS.  13. 


100  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

observed,  the  same,  but  as  good  as  the  system  of  Kapila.^ 
Amid  a  list  of  heroes  in  xiii,  75,  24-25,  we  find  placed  beside 
battle-heroes,  gift-heroes,  moral-heroes,  etc.,  only  Samkhya 
and  Yoga  heroes,  enrolled  to  represent  philosophy.*  As  be- 
tween the  two,  the  implication  contained  in  the  words  at 
Gita  5, 5,  "  the  Yoga  gets  as  good  a  place  as  the  Saihkhya,"  is 
that  it  is  the  Saiiikhya  which  is  the  norm.  Samkhya  is  cited 
alone  as  the  one  system  of  salvation  in  i,  75,  7 :  "  Salvation  he 
studied,  the  unequalled  system  of  Saiiikhya."  In  contrast 
with  Veda  and  Vedanga,  it  is  the  one  type  of  philosophy: 
"  He  became  learned  in  the  Atharva  Veda  and  the  Veda,  in 
the  ritual  also,  and  a  pastr-master  in  astronomy,  taking  the 
greatest  pleasure  in  Sariikhya,"  xiii,  10,  37;  "Vedas,  Angas, 
Saiiikhya,  and  Purana,"  xiii,  22, 12. 

The  two  systems  are  often  separated.  Yogapradarginah 
stands  parallel  to  Saiiikhyanadarginah,  xii,  814,  3-4.  "The 
rules  both  of  Saiiikhya  and  Yoga"  are  mentioned,  xii,  60, 
33.  Narada  "knew  the  difference  between  Samkhya  and 
Yoga,"  ii,  5,  7.  ^aunaka  is  "  rapt  with  metaphysics,  adhyatma, 
skilled  in  Yoga  and  in  Saiiikhya,"  iii,  2, 16.  The  difference  is 
explained  in  the  GIta  as:  "The  double  point  of  view,  ni^t^ 
of  the  Samkhyas,  who  have  jfianayoga;  of  the  Yogins,  who 
have  karmayoga."  Sometimes  Saihkhyajfiana  on  the  one  hand 
is  opposed  to  Yoga  alone  on  the  other,  xii,  315,  18.*  Some- 
times the  ^stra  is  that  of  the  Yoga,  as  opposed  to  jRana  of 
the  Saiiikhya,  xii,  319,  67 ;  yoga§astresu,  340,  69,  etc.  Never- 
theless, they  are,  says  the  Glta,  essentially  one  system.  And 
so  often  we  find  that  Vedic  practices  and  the  existence  of  God 
are  claimed  for  Saiiikhya  and  Yoga,  as  if  they  were  one  system. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  practice  of  austerities  or  asceticism. 
*'  Tlie  many  names  of  God  are  declared  in  the  Rig  Veda  with 

1  Saihkhyayogcna  tulyo  hi  dharma  ekSntasevitah,  xii,  349,  74. 

2  So  in  viii,  3;^,  49,  Yopa  and  Saiiikhya  (Itmanah)  represent  philogophy. 

'  Compare  xiii,  149,  139:  yogo  jfianam  tatha  eamkhyam  yidySh  9ilp8di- 
karma  ca.  In  the  passage  cited  abore,  the  interesting  aristini  tattTSni  are 
grouped  with  yoga  and  8amkhyaj!iana  (as  objects  of  research).  They  are 
explained  elsewhere,  xii,  318,  8,  as  "signs  of  death,"  appearing  to  one  if  he 
cannot  sec  the  pole-star  or  his  reflection  in  another's  eye,  etc. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  101 

the  Tajur  Veda»  in  Atharva  (and)  Samans,  in  Puiai^  with 
Upaniahada,  in  astronomy  also,  in  Samkhya  and  in  Yoga- 
^tra,  and  in  Ayur  Veda,''  to  give  the  bizarre  group  of  xii, 
842,  8.  ^Both  gods  and  demons  practise  austerity,  tapas, 
which  has  been  argued  out,  yuktitalbi,  of  Veda  and  Sam- 
khyayoga,"  xii,  286,  192-1 

SUikhym  and  Toga. 

But  it  must  be  noticed  that  the  claim  for  the  identity  of 
Samkhya  and  Yoga  comes  from  the  Yoga  side,  which  is  deiBtic 
and  seeks  to  mi^e  the  Samkhya  so,  exactly  in  the  way  the 
Vedanta  commentator  seeks  to  make  the  Yoga  passages  Ve- 
dantic.  The  distinctive  mark  of  the  Yoga,  as  given  above 
fn)m  the  Gita,  8,  3,  is,  if  we  translate  it  in  tlie  natural  original 
sense,  application  to  work  as  opposed  to  application  to  under- 
standing ;  in  other  words  the  Yoga  laid  stress  on  religious 
practices,  tlie  Samkhya  on  knowledge.'  It  may  be  that  Yoga 
also,  like  Samkhya,  was  originally  atheistic  and  that  deistie 
Yoga  was  a  special  development  Nothing  could  be  falser, 
however,  than  the  supposition  that  the  Yoga  and  Samkhya 
differ  only  in  method,  or  the  epic  assumption  that  both  are  a 
sort  of  Vedanta  inculcating  belief  in  Brahman  as  the  All-soul. 
Even  the  Glta  recognizes  the  distinction  between  the  two 
schools  in  saying  that  the  system  that  recognizes  the  All-soul 
("one  entity  eternal,  undivide<l,  in  all  divided  existenci»8*') 
is  better  tlian  tlie  one  tliat  recognizes  **  sepunite  an<l  diHtinct 
entities  in  all  existent  beings,"  18,  21-22,  clearly  referring 
to  the  fundamental  difference  between  Bralmuusm  '  luul  Suiii* 

1  It  maj  be  obterred  of  the  tcrminoloKj  that  at  Yoi^a  meant  Vofrin  at  wf*!! 
at  the  ijttem,  to  SIiDkhja  meant  tjttem  or  a  phUotopher  of  tliat  wrtteoi. 
Typical  of  the  ptendo-epic  It  tlie  circumttanco  that  hen*  Siriikhrayoicia  are 
pertonlfled  at  two  belngt  along  with  Xinula  and  Danrltat.  xUi,  151.  A'y. 

*  Compare  the  nae  in  zill.  SI,  40,  where  it  it  atked :  kena  vi  karmajofena 
pradioeoe  'ha  kena  ▼!  (can  I  be  poritled),  L  e^  "  bjr  application  to  holj  work*.** 
Compare  krfijoga,  zill,  S3,  IS. 

*  At  Veillnta  It  coromonlj  Qted  of  ^aiiikara't  Interpretation.  I  rmplor 
Brahmaitra  to  connote  a  belief  in  the  All-tool  without  oecettarlly  impljlng 
a  eoocomitant  doctrine  of  nituion,  J^^iji. 


102  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

khyaism.  The  practical  difference  is  that  formulated  at  xii, 
317,  2  ff.,  where  it  is  said :  **  There  is  no  knowledge  like  the 
Saiiikhya,  no  power  like  the  Yoga;  these  are  both  one  in 
practice,  ekacarj^au,  because  both  destroy  death.  Foolish 
people  regard  them  as  distinct,  but  we  recognize  them  as  one. 
What  the  Yogas  see  is  seen  by  Samkhyas ;  who  sees  Samkhya 
and  Yoga  as  one  sees  truly,"  a  passage  copied  from  the  Gita, 
5,  4-5,  and  repeated  with  varied  readings  in  xii,  306,  19. 

Though  the  pseudo-epic  is  so  like  the  Gita,  its  relative  late- 
ness, I  may  observe  in  passing,  is  shown  inter  alia  by  the  use 
in  this  passage  of  yogam  as  a  neuter  noun,  xii,  317,  27,  etad 
dhi  yogam  yoganam,^  as  in  xiii,  17,  19;  one  of  the  many  little 
points  ignored  in  the  unhistorical  synthetical  method. 

This  passage,  in  its  admission  imder  cover  of  fools'  opinion, 
shows  clearly  that  the  two  systems  could  be  regarded  as  iden- 
tical only  by  insisting  on  the  objective  of  each.  Both  sys- 
tems gave  emancipation,  therefore  they  were  one.  But  one 
way  was  that  of  pure  science  or  knowledge,  the  other  was 
that  of  pious  work  (yoga,  tapas)  added  to  this  science,  a  practi- 
cal divergence  that  existed  quite  apart  from  the  question 
whether  the  goal  was  really  the  same. 

But  the  epic  in  other  passages,  despite  its  brave  pretence, 
is  not  content  with  Saiiikhya  science  or  even  with  Yoga  work. 
On  the  contrary,  the  religious  devotees  named  above  throw 
over  both  systems.  It  is  true  they  keep  the  name,  just  as 
these  philosophical  systems  themselves  pretend  to  depend  on 
the  Vedas,  or  as  European  philosophers  used  to  claim  that 
their  systems  were  based  on  orthodoxy.  But  this  only  shows 
how  important  and  fully  established  were  these  philosophi- 
cal systems  when  the  sects  arose  that  based  salvation  on 
faith  and  the  grace  of  a  man-god,  while  still  pretending  to 
philosophy.  They  could  not  unite,  for  the  true  Saiiikhya  did 
not  teach  Brahmaism,  but  kevalatvam,  or  absolute  separation 
of  tlie  individual  spirit  from  everything  else,  an  astitvam 
kevalam,  or  existence  apart  from  all,  not  apart  in  Brahman. 

^  Repeating  yoga  esa  hi  joginim  in  S07, 25. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  108 

No  less  irreconcilable  with  the  earlier  belief  is  the  later 
sectaiy's  view  of  action,  pravjtti,  as  due  to  God,  For  the  older 
sage  was  intent  on  escaping  action,  which  tlie  system  regards 
as  due  not  to  spirit  but  to  the  inherent  quality  of  its  antithe- 
sis, PralqtL  But  in  the  religious  substitution  of  a  personal 
Lord,  Igvara,  as  synonymous  with  die  Supreme,  it  is  taught 
ttiat  ^  the  Lord  created  pravirtti  as  a  picturesque  effect''  (after 
electing  nivrtti  for  himself)  I  *  Here  the  roots  of  the  Karma 
doctrine  are  cut  by  the  new  faith  of  the  quasi  monotheism 
which  is  reflected  in  the  later  pseudo-epic' 

Fato  and  Frae-lVilL 

Another  side  of  speculation  presents  a  varied  field  of  belief. 
Is  there  such  a  tiling  as  free-will?  The  later  epic  fixes 
responsibility  in  turn  on  the  Lord,  man  himself,  puru^ha,  luck, 
batlui,  and  Karma,  xii,  32,  12,  ff.;  where  Karma  is  finally  rec- 
ognized as  the  only  agent,  as  othenvise  God  would  be  re- 
Hi>onsible  for  sin ;  and  if  man  were  the  sole  agent  there  could 
be  none  higher  tlian  man.  As  luck  would  absolve  a  man, 
only  Karma  is  left,  associated  with  Time  in  a  sort  of  dual 
fatalism,  kanuasutnitmaka.  Obviously  Fate,  as  Time  is  here, 
really  undermines  the  theory  of  Karma  quite  as  much  as  does 
tlie  interposition  of  the  Lonl  or  any  other  foreign  factor.  So 
in  xii,  224,  16  ff.  and  226,  13  and  21  ff.,  we  find  first  the  re- 
flex of  the  Upiuiishads  and  (ilto,  *Mie  who  (in  imagination) 
slays  and  he  who  is  slain  are  both  ignorant,"  and  then :  *'  The 
det^l  causes  the  deed  ;  but  the  dee<l  has  another  creat4)r.  Fate, 
Time.  Fate  or  what  will  he  will  he  is  the  cause.''  **  Sorn)W 
lies  in  thinking  *I  am  res|Minsible  * ;  for  I  do  tliat  which  the 
onlainers  onlained  when  I  was  lioni."  • 

1  praTfttidluinnin  Tifliidhe  krtTi  lok««ra  citrttim.  lU,  S41, 00. 

*  This  U  the  **  fourfoM  (finl/'  worth ippiil  bj  tlir  Kkiotint  at  harinfr  OlM, 
two»  thif<',  or  four  fonnt,  idcntifltHl  with  Krithiui,  hit  ton.  irraniUon,  and 
l>n>thrr.  at  naim.*<l  ttM)T«\  p.  07.  lU*  it  maker  and  non-makfr,  and  takca 
iVakrti't  function  in  "tiMirting:"  jathe  'cchatl  tathi  rijan  kri«}al«  ponifo 
•fjajah. 

•  S)  224.  31 ;  2an.  8 :  227.  M  and  3ft :  kilah  parati . . .  kiUh  kalajrati  pra- 
Jih;  Tjn,  12:  **  Whatever  tut«*  one  obtaint  he  mutt  tajr  bhaYiUTjam,"  *'lt 
waa  fated,"  L  t^  indepeode ntljr  of  Kanaa.    For  klla  from  kal,  cf .  GUI,  10,  SO 


»» 
» 


104  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Elsewhere  Fate  is  the  Divine  power,  daiva,  opposed  to 
human  effort  and  to  nature,  svabhaya,  the  latter  having  the 
implication  of  the  Karma  doctrine.  Each  of  these  factors  is 
upheld  by  one  or  another  theorist,  while  others  claim  that  they 
all  work  together,  xii,  233, 19,  repeated  at  289,  4-5.  In  other 
places  the  same  Fate  that  is  elsewhere  made  responsible  is 
scorned,  daivam  kllba  upasate,  **  only  eunuchs  worship  Fate ; 
and  ^^ there  is  no  Fate,  all  depends  on  one's  own  nature; 
the  Karma  doctrine,  svabhavatah,  xii,  189,  82 ;  291, 18.^ 


Saxhkhya  is  Atheistic. 

In  the  "one-soul "  doctrine  just  referred  to,  God  himself  is 
energy,  karyatman,  the  soul  of  all,  the  saviour,  "the  Light 
which  Yogins  see,"  the  Ego,  eternal,  without  characteristics 
of  any  sort,  aham  ca  nirgunah,  xii,  47,  64,  68,  69-70;  xiv, 
25,  7.  He  exists  "alone  with  wisdom,"  till  he  makes  the 
worlds,  each  succeeding  seon,  xii,  340,  71-72,  just  as  simrise 
and  sunset  follow  each  other,  ib.  75.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
epic  declares  with  all  plainness  that  the  Samkhya  system  is 
devoid  of  a  belief  in  a  personal  supreme  God.  In  xii,  301, 1  ff., 
the  question  is  raised,  What  is  the  difference  between  Sam- 
khya and  Yoga  ?    The  answer  is :  "  Samkhyas  praise  the  Sam- 

^  According  to  xii,  239, 20,  Time  is  the  origin  and  controller  of  all  things, 
prabhayah  .  .  .  tamjamo  jamah,  and  aU  things  produced  bj  daalitj  exist 
according  to  their  own  natare,  svabhSyena.  The  nature  of  the  indiridnal 
spirit  it  often  rendered  bj  this  word,  as  such  a  spirit  is  conditioned  bjr  its 
former  acts.  Below  is  cited  a  case  where  it  is  a  factor  of  the  body,  distinct 
from  organs,  mind,  and  spirit.  An  interesting  critique  of  heretics  leads  up  to 
xii,  238,  3  ff.  (where  the  word  connotes  nature  as  understood  bj  Buddhists 
and  materialists) :  jas  tu  pa97an  syabhSvena  vini  bhSyam  acetanah  pusjate 
sa  punah  sarrSn  prajlSaja  muktahetukan,  yesaih  cai  ^kantabhiTena  svabhi- 
ySt  karanam  matam,  putva  trnam  isikSm  vi,  te  labhante  na  kimcana  .  .  .  sra- 
bhSraih  kiranam  jlSatyS  na  9rejah  prSpnuyanti  te,  syabhSyo  hi  TinS9i7a 
mohakarmamanobhayah,  "  He  is  a  fool  who  teaches  that  nature  alone  exists, 
or  that  cause  of  change  is  inherent  in  nature  alone "  (nature  is  without  in- 
telligence and,  9I.  0,  only  intelligence  giyes  success;  hence  nature  without 
intelligence  would  result  in  nothing;  the  final  opinion  giyen  in  9I.  6  on 
syabhSya  and  paribhSya).  C.  has  a  curious  r.  L  (for  pQtyS,  etc.)  (rutri 
nrnim  rsinSm  yt. 

•  •  •  •     • 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY,  105 

khya  system ;  Yogas  the  Yoga  system.  The  pious  Yogas  say. 
How  can  one  bo  freed  when  one  is  without  a  personal  God 
(ani(Yara^);  while  the  Samkhyas  say  that  one  who  knows 
truly  all  earthly  courses  becomes  unaffected  by  objects,  and 
would  clearly  get  released  from  tlie  body  in  this  way  alone. 
This  is  the  exposition  of  release  given  by  the  very  intelligent 
Samkhyas.  But  one  should  take  as  the  means  of  release  that 
explanation  which  is  given  agreeably  to  his  own  party.  .  .  . 
The  Yogas  rely  on  immediate  perception  (of  trutli)»  while 
the  Samkhyas  determine  according  to  their  code.  For  my 
part,  I  approve  of  both,*  for  either  system  followed  according 
to  its  code  would  lead  to  the  highest  course  (emancipation). 
Purity,  penance,  compassion  towiutl  all  creatures,  and  keeping 
vows,  are  found  equally  in  both  (systems),  but  the  (pliilo- 
sophic)  exposition  is  not  the  same  in  both.''  The  last  words, 
dar^unam  na  samam  tayo^,  ^^  the  exposition  is  not  the  same," 
can  point  hero  only  to  tlio  essential  difference  just  indicated 
hy  tlie  speaker,  namely,  tliat  one  admits  and  one  denies  (lod. 
And  it  is  to  bo  noticeil  that  this  is  the  end  of  the  explanation. 
There  is  not  the  slightest  hint  that  the  anigvara  or  atlieistio 
Samkhyas  believe  in  God  (a  personal  Lord,  T^vara). 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  very  term  here  used 
to  deHC'ribe  tlie  Samkliya  belief,  far  from  being  admitted  as 
one  lliat  connotes  a  belief  in  Rraliman,  is  reprehende<l,  not 
only  in  the  pietistic  question  alxive  (which  may  fairly  lx»  put 
eaU»gorically  as  **  it  is  imiKWsible  to  1x5  8ave<l  if  one  does  not 
lielifve  in  a  i>er8omU  God"),  but  also  in  the  (ilta,  wliich 
links  together  as  a  "creed  of  devils"  the  denial  of  **rt»ality, 
basis,  and  personal  GckI,"  asatyam  apnitiiitl^^^  ^  y^^^^  ahur 
aiucvaram,  Cilta,  16,  8,  an  expression  which  would  have  l)een 
imfxiKiiible  luwl  the  anlijvara  doctrine  UH»n  accepted  ils  simply 
a  fonnal  mo<lification  of  deism,  implying  a  belief  in  a  back- 
ground of  Hraiiman. 

I  do  not  tliink  that  anlgvara  cam  possibly  mean  here  **  not 

>  TTie  Yojr*  hat  the  immiHltatt*  pt-rtvption  <>f  the  myitJc :  prttyakfAhetaTO 
Toflh   tiihkhyih  fiitraTini^cayih,  ubhe  cii  'te  matv  tattve  mama  (Bhlf* 
ija),  9I-  7. 


106  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

having  the  senses  as  master,"  as  it  does  in  xii,  247,  7,  where 
it  is  opposed  to  indriyanam  y a^yatma ;  a  passage  mistranslated 
by  the  author  of  Nirvana,  p.  96,  as  "  Without  the  Lord  one 
attains  the  place  of  immortality,"  though  it  clearly  means: 
'^Not  having  (the  senses  as)  a  master  one  attains  the  im- 
mortal state,  but  being  subject  to  the  senses  one  obtains 
death." 

In  the  theistic  religion,  the  personal  God  not  only  supplants 
the  old  explanation  of  spirit,  but  even  takes  the  place  of  Prar 
krti,  the  unmanifest  imknown  Source  of  the  Samkhya,  and 
creates  everything,  as  does  egoism  in  the  pure  dogma  of  the 
Samkhya,  as  "the  name  made  by  egoism,  which  is  synony- 
mous," ahamkarakrtam  cai  'va  nama  paiyayavacakam,  xii, 
340,  62.  So  to  the  sectary  the  name  is  ever  indifferent. 
As  to-day  he  accepts  Christ  as  his  own  divinity  under  another 
name,  so  he  did  of  old.  The  passage  in  the  Gita  is  well 
known,  which  establishes  the  principle.  In  xiii,  14,  318,  it 
is  said :  "  In  the  Samkhya  system  the  All-soul  is  called  Puru- 
sha,"  i.  e.  the  Saiiikhyas  recognize  only  Purusha,  but  we  say 
that  their  Purusha  is  our  All-souL  The  twenty-fifth,  Puru- 
sha, is  thus  identified  with  wisdom,  vidya,  xii,  308,  7  ff.  In 
a  preceding  section,  303,  119,  Hiranyagarbha  is  intellect,  and 
is  called  Virifica,  Aja,  etc.,  "called  by  many  names  in  the 
Saiiikhya  ^Sstra." 

Toga  88  Deistic  and  BrahmalBtic. 

The  ancient  Yogin  tales  in  the  epic  show  that  there  are 
important  differences  between  the  older  and  later  view  of 
Yoga.  To  stand  on  one  leg  for  years  and  keep  quiet  long 
enough  for  birds  to  nest  in  one's  matted  locks  was  the  "  disci- 
pline "  of  the  primitive  Yogin  as  he  is  represented  in  these 
tales.  But  the  Yogin  of  the  later  epic  regards  all  such  practices 
as  crude  and  unsatisfactory.  His  discipline  is  an  elaborate 
course  of  breathings  and  mental  confinement  in  bodily  postures 
described  as  customary  in  the  Yoga  ^Sstras.  So  many  breath- 
ings at  such  a  time  and  so  many  at  another,  minute  attention 
(in  a  sitting  posture)  to  concentration  and  meditation,  the 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  107 

whole  paraphernalia  of  Pataiijali,  exercised  for  a  "limited 
time,"  ^  not  a  word  about  standing  on  one  leg  for  years.  The 
difference  is  more  than  superficial,  however.  The  one-leg 
Yogin  strove  for  one  thing  only,  supernatural  powers.  Tale 
after  tale  recounts  what  powers  he  gained  by  these  exercises, 
and  these  powers  were  his  goaL  He  was  deistic  but  he  had 
no  thought  of  "entering  Brahman,"  only  of  controlling  the 
powers  terrestrial,  celestial,  and  elemental.  On  death  his 
goal  is  to  be  a  spirit  free  and  powerful,  enjoying  good  tilings. 
On  the  other  tiand,  the  Yogin  of  the  pseudo-epic  discipline 
leams  all  these  powers,  but  "  he  who  practises  them  goes  to 
hell/'  because  his  goal  was  not  to  be  a  thaumaturge  but  to  bo 
released.  Botli  experienced  the  apunarbhavakama,  "longing 
not  to  be  bom  again,"  but  tlie  first  desired  bala,  or  Yoga 
"  lordship,"  ai9varya,  and  all  his  efforts  were  directed  to  that 
end ;  while  the  last  desired  lordship  only  as  a  means  soon  to 
be  rejected  for  something  higher,  release,  mok^a,  or  kevalatva, 
isolation,*  and  eventually  the  recognition  of  ekatva,  unity,  of 
intellect,  mind,  senses,  and  universal  soul,  atmano  vyapina^ 
xii.  241,  2-3.» 

The  Bralimaistic  Yogin  is  an  advance  on  the  deistic  Yogin* 
The  latter  recognizes  only  isolation,  kevalatva.  So  under 
tlie  influence  of  Vishnuism  a  lecture  which  teaches  Brahman 
isolati(m  ap()eare  revimi()e<l  as  pantheistic  Brahmaism.^ 

In  xii,  317,  16  ff.,  the  Yogin  meditates  on  the  eternal  Lord- 
Spirit  and  Braliniim,  t^isthu^mi  puru^am  nityam  .  •  .  i^anam 
bnihma  ca,  the  Yogin  Ix^ing  in  concentration  and  trance,  sam- 
yama,  samadlii:   "Like  a  flame  in  a  windless  place,  like  a 

>  xii,  241,  23  ff.  evam  {Mirimiuni  kiUm  (six  months)  Icaran  i«ino  hi 
rfthmaj  eko  gacchcd  akMnuimjAlIm.    Cf.  pratibhi,  apftTargm,  317,  14. 

*  The  chmptcr  zii,  2H9,  thowt  that  mokfa  maj  be  timplj  UoUtion  or  inde- 
pefxlrnce  and  doea  not  neceatarilj  connote  absorption. 

*  The  whole  Yogakftja  it  comprised  here  in  thia  onion  aa  "  the  highest 
knuwledgv/' 

*  The  rompilert  are  not  averse  to  thia  practice;  it  ia  a  common  Hind« 
method  of  impruTvment.  Kither  the  text  it  rewritten  and  interpolated  or  il 
ia  aUuwfMl  to  stand  anil  another  section  Is  pr%>flxe<l  or  adiled  of  the  same  coo- 
tettt  differenU/  treated.  The  rule  ia  that  tho  improvement  precedes  the 
orifinaL 


108  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

mountain  peak  (compare  kutastha),  he  beholds  Brahman, 
which  is  like  a  fire  in  great  darkness."  Then  *^  on  abandoning 
his  body  without  a  witness,"  this  Yogin,  after  attaining  in  life 
his  powers  over  the  breathings  and  elements,  rudrapradhanas, 
and  wandering  about  with  the  ^^  body  of  eight  characteristics," 
enters  into  the  Lord-  Spirit  who  is  isolated,  kevalam  yiLti,  for 
"  this  is  the  Yogin's  Yoga ;  what  else  would  have  the  sign  of 
Yoga?  "  ^  So  ends  the  chapter,  without  a  suggestion  that  the 
Yogin  is  to  be  identified  with  Vishnu. 

In  the  imitation  and  improvement  of  this  passage,  thrast 
before  it  in  the  text,  the  Yogin's  release  does  not  end  matters, 
though  Vishnuism  is  inserted  rather  clumsily,  as  will  be  seen 
from  an  analysis  of  the  whole  section,  301, 11  ff.  "  Cutting 
off  the  five  faults  by  Yoga,  people  freed  of  sins  obtain  that 
place  (or  condition),  tat  padam,  like  as  big  fishes  cut  through 
a  net  and  get  the  water  (the  fish  is  not  identical  with  the 
water,  tat  padam  is  place  or  condition,  freedom).  Even  as 
strong  animals,  mrgah,  cut  the  net,  so  they  would  get  a  clean 
road  when  they  are  freed  from  all  their  bonds.  Endued  with 
strength,  Yogas,  on  cutting  thus  the  bonds  made  by  greed,  go 
the  clean  way  that  is  highest  and  auspicious.  •  •  •  Those  with- 
out power  are  destroyed,  those  that  have  power  are  released, 
mucyante  balanvitah.  •  .  .  On  acquiring  Yogarpower  one  can 
oppose  the  many  objects  of  sense,  vyuhate  vi^ayan,  as  an  ele- 
phant opposes  a  great  stream.  By  Yogarpower  made  inde- 
pendent, avagal;!,  Yogins  enter  Prajapatis  and  seers  and  gods 
and  the  elements,  as  their  lords.  Not  Yama  nor  the  End- 
maker  (differentiated  here,  often  as  one),  though  angered, 
nor  Death,  fearful  in  prowess,  not  all  these  lord  it  over  a 
Yoga  of  unmeasured  energy.  A  Yoga  could  make  himself 
many  thousands  when  he  has  got  his  power,  and  with  these 
could  wander  over  earth.  Such  an  one  could  take  the  objects 
of  sense  and  then  perform  hard  austerity  and  again  reduce  it, 
as  the  sun  does  his  beams  of  light,  tejogunas.  The  Yoga  who 
holds  to  the  power  and  is  lord  of  bonds  obtains  in  release, 
vimokse,  the  fullest  lordship,  prabhavi^nutva.     These  powers 

1  etad  hi  yogam  jogSnam  kim  anjad  yogalak^nam,  317, 27. 


.Jtk 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  109 

obtained  through  Yoga  have  been  obtamed  by  me.  For  elu- 
cidation I  will  now  tell  thee  again,  O  King,  also  about  the 
subtile  powers.^  Hear  from  me,  O  Bharata,  the  subtile  signs 
of  the  soul  in  concentration,  samadhana,  and  in  respect  to  con- 
templation, dhurana,  O  lord.  As  an  archer  by  being  attentive, 
apramatta,  with  concentration  hits  the  mark,  so  the  Yogin, 
properly  intent,  doubtless  obtains  release,  mok^  As  a  man 
intent,  yukta,  with  intent  mind  would  go  up  a  ladder,  steadily 
fixing  his  thoughts  on  the  vessel  full  of  oil  (in  his  hands),  so 
the  Yoga  here,  intent,  O  King,  steadily  makes  spotless  Iiis 
soul  (till)  it  looks  like  the  image  of  the  sun.'  As  the  steers- 
man \vith  concentration,  samahita,  would  guide  a  ship  on  the 
ocean,  so  by  applying  self-concentration  with  intentness,  atma- 
«ama4llmnam  yuktva  yogena,  he  that  knows  the  true,  tattva, 
gets  a  place  hard  to  attain,  durgam  asthanam,  after  leaving 
his  b(Kly  here.  As  a  cliarioteer  with  concentration  yoking, 
yuktva,  gocKl  horses,  quickly  brings  the  knight  to  the  desired 
pbirc,  de^am  isfam,  so,  O  King,  the  Yogin  with  his  mind  con- 
ccntratetl  in  contemplation  quickly  gets  the  highest  place, 
param  sttianan,  just  as  the  arrow  when  released,  mukta,  finds 
itn  mark.  The  Y<><:^in  who  sUinds  steadily  seeing  self  in  self 
destnn'H  sin  and  gains  the  unalterable  place,  padam,  of  those 
who  are  pure.  The  Yogin  who  projwrly  joins,  yunkte,  with 
hiii  soul  (self)  the  subtile  self  in  the  navel,  tlutmt,  head,  heart, 
cheHti  sides,  eye,  ear,  and  nose,  quickly  consuming  his  Karma, 
gcMid  and  Ixid,  though  monnUiinous  (in  size),  having  recourse 
to  highest  Yoga  is  n»leased,  if  he  wishes." 

This  is  the  end  of  the  discourse  for  the  present.  Nothing 
is  said  of  the  Yogin*s  emancipation  Ix^ing  other  than  a  n*le;ise 
from  lion<ls.  The  conversjition  turns  to  tlie  question  of  f(KKl 
and  means  of  restraint  of  the  senses,  the  hard  path  of  auster- 

'  Thi-n*  wonlt  an*  pt*rbapt  tho  mark  of  intrrpoUtion  her«. 

*  tnchAitanif  >Mithi  pitn*  mana  £«!liSya  ni^falam.  pnniM)  jnkta  irohet 
aopinarii  rukuminaaah,  juktaa  uthi  *yaiii  itminam  roinih  pirthira  nivcalam 
kafocj  anialani  itminam  bhiakaropamadarvanam.  In  317,  22,  tiilapitram 
}rathi  pdrnam  karilihrim  frrhra  paruaah  topanam  iruhcMl  bhitaa  tarjramioo 
'■tplfitbhib  •ariiTatitmi  bhaTil  tcfim  iia  pitrid  biodom  oUfJct  tathll  'to 
'turmm  igamja  tkigramanam  tathft,  etc 


110  THE   GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ities  which  makes  the  subtile  soul  shine  forth,  but  he  who 
follows  it  "is  released  from  birth  and  death,  ill  and  weaL" 
**  This,"  it  is  then  said,  "  is  what  has  been  set  forth  in  various 
Yogar^^tras;  in  the  twice-bom  is  admittedly  the  highest 
Yoga  practice,"  krtyam,  5I.  57. 

Thus  far  the  9lokas  and  the  final  stanza  seems  to  show  that 
this  is  the  end.  But  to  this  are  tagged  on  five  tri^tubh  stan- 
zas,  with  which  the  chapter  now  concludes:  "That  highest 
Brahman-made  Brahm&n  and  Lord  Vishnu,  the  boon-giver,  O 
great-souled  one,  and  Bhava,  and  Dharma,  and  the  six-faced 
(god),  and  the  sons  of  Brahm&n,  tamas,  rajas,  sattva,  and  high- 
est Prakrti,  and  Siddhi  the  goddess  wife  of  Varuna,  and  all 
energy,  tejas,  and  patience,  and  the  pure  lord  of  stars  in  the 
sky  with  the  stars,  all  the  all-gods,  the  snakes,  and  manes, 
and  all  moimtains,  the  terrible  seas,  all  rivers  with  forests  and 
clouds,  Nagas  and  nagas,  troops  of  genii,  spaces,  the  angel 
hosts,  males  and  females — one  after  the  other  attaining,  the 
great  great-souled  Yogin  would  enter  soon  after  he  is  released* 
And  this  narration,  O  King,  is  auspicious  in  that  it  rests  on 
the  god  who  has  great  vigor  and  intelligence.  Such  a  great- 
souled  Yogin,  overpowering  all  mortals,  acts,  having  the  self  of 
Narayana"  (according  to  the  commentator,  makes  all  things 
as  being  identical  with  Narayana).^ 

It  is  true  that  a  view  which  ignores  every  indication  of  in- 
terpolation may  insist  that  literature  is  to  be  treated  without 
critique,  overlook  the  patchwork,  and  concentrate  emphasis 
on  this  last  narayanatma  to  offset  the  whole  teaching  preced- 
ing, which  is  that  the  soul  gets  isolation,  not  absorption  into 
Brahman.  But  even  then  Narayana  is  not  philosophical 
Brahman.  In  the  following  chapter,  which  is  a  new  discus- 
sion, 302,  55,  the  Kapilal^  Samkhyah  are  also  led  to  emancipa- 
tion, in  which  teaching  atman  rests  on  Narayana,  Narayana 
rests  on  emancipation,  but  emancipation  has  no  support  (the 
same  word  as  above  of  the  narration  which  rests  on  Narayana), 
moksam  saktam  tu  na  kvacit ;  though  the  Samkhya  philoso- 

^  yogi  sa  BEirSn  abhibhuya  martySn  nSrSyanitmi  karate  mahitmi,  301, 
62. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  Ill 

phers  are  finally  conducted  through  an  unfinished  sentence 
eighteen  glokas  long^  to  Narayana,  who  bears  them  to  the 
Highest  Soul,  when  they  become  fitted  for  immortality,  and 
return  no  more,  5I.  78- 

These  are  chapters  of  a  sectarian  cult,  which  seeks  to  in- 
clude in  its  embrace  all  systems  of  philosophy,'  and  does  so 
vi  et  armis.  The  more  precious  and  reliable  are  those  expo- 
sitions which  show  the  systems  still  but  slightly  twisted  from 
their  original  form.  This  last  is  a  system  called  Vedanta, 
802,  71,  as  I  have  already  remarked,  but  in  point  of  fact  it, 
L  e^  this  last  chapter,  not  the  preceding  exposition,  is  an  ex- 
position of  Yoga  twisted  into  sectarian  Brahmaism.  The 
86ul  eventually  enters  Vishnu,  who  is  unconditioned  Brahman, 
and  does  not  return ;  but  it  enters  by  jiva  and  videha  mukti, 
in  Yoga  style.  That  is,  before  death  the  real  soul  enters 
Vishnu,  leaving  behind  in  a  man  not  soul  but  only  mind  and 
senses.  Shortly  after,  however,  one  is  really  "released  and 
get«  peace.^*  This,  it  is  said,  is  the  Saihkhya  system  which 
is  identical  with  eternal  Bralunan  (802,  96-101;  compare  106, 
mmurtes  tasya  •  •  •  samkliyam  murtir  iti  ^rutil^).  The  Siimkhya 
system,  which  is  at  first  said  to  be  faultless  (gl.  4),  is  in  gl.  18 
declarvtl  to  have  faults  as  well  as  virtues,  the  same  being  true 
of  Ve<la  and  Yoga ;  that  is,  this  teaching  is  put  forward  as  an 
improvement  on  the  old,  tliough  the  accepted  base  is  the 
Saihkhya.  It  is  pretended  tliat  tlie  teachers  teach  as  do  the 
Kapilas,  who  arc  endued  with  knowledge  and  "clarified  by 
ratiocination,**  karanair  bluivita^  (ublia^,  9L  17. 

Difteraneo  between  Slifakliym  and  Togm. 

As  has  been  shown  above,  the  epic  itself  teaches  that  the 
gresit  difference  between  the  two  systems  is  that  the  Sumkhya 
dues  not  believe  in  a  personal  GcxI,  while  God  is  the  supreme 

1  zii.  9fXi,  24-^  CotnpM^e  6-17  alto  one  tenttroce.  Tbete  IntenniDmble 
•rotrocec  atp  marks  of  tho  late  ttjle  of  the  pteudo^c. 

•  lo  vL  106  it  U  taidtliat  this  VedinU  (9I.  71)  SImkhjra  embraces  all  the 
koowMfre  foand  io  Slmkhjas  and  Yoga  (simkhjefQ  tathil  Va  joge),  tilt 
I'vrina,  the  great  Itiblsas  (pi.),  Artha^Istra,  and  the  world  (Lokljrau  f ). 


112  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

belief  of  the  Togin.  A  further  difference  is  found  by  the 
commentator  in  the  words  of  xii,  240,  8,  where  it  is  said : 
*^  Vishnu  in  stepping,  (^^kidk  in  power,  Agni  in  the  digestive 
organ  (etc.)  wi&lies  to  enjoy,"  bhoktum  icchati,  a  stanza 
wedged  between  the  statements  that  bodies  come  from  earth, 
etc.,  and  that  ears,  etc.,  are  organs  of  sense.  What  is  appar* 
ent  is  that  experience  is  here  shifted  from  pure  spirit  to  the 
corresponding  divinity.^ 

So  far  as  I  know,  the  difference  of  opinion  is  nowhere  in  the 
epic  stated  to  involve  a  distinction  between  the  two  systems, 
and  in  this  chapter  the  subject  of  active  and  experiencing 
spirit  is  not  further  touched  upon.  I  doubt,  therefore,  the 
validity  of  the  commentator's  explanation  as  applied  to  the 
epic,  but  his  words  are  worth  citing :  "  In  the  Yoga  system 
the  spirit  is  not  active  but  experiences  only,  while  in  the 
Saihkhya  system  the  spirit  neither  acts  nor  experiences.  In 
this  passage  the  poet  repudiates  the  first  doctrine,  and  ex- 
presses approval  of  the  second  "  (by  naming  devas  as  "  enjoy- 
ers,"  and  thus  showing  that  it  is  only  a  false  imagination  of 
the  spirit  when  it  thinks  itself  an  **  enjoyer  ").* 

According  to  the  epic,  all  activity  resides  in  Prakrti,  the 
Source  alone,  while  experience  resides  in  spirit  but  only  as  the 
latter  is  conditioned  by  its  environment,  prakrtisthah,  so  that 
when  it  is  in  the  body  the  highest  spirit  is  called  enjoyer  and 
active,  but  it  is  not  really  so,  kurvann  api  ua  lipyate,  na 
karoti  na  lipyate.  This  is  the  explanation  of  the  Gita* 
(which  denies  that  there  is  any  speculative  difference  between 
the  two  systems),  and  is  foxmd  often  enough  elsewhere.*  So 
God  as  a  conditioned  being,  spirit,  enjoys  the  gunas,  as  in 
xii,  340,  where  the  twenty-fifth  principle,  though  "without 

1  Ab  in  Mait.  Up.  ti,  10,  bhokt2  parufo  bhojyi  prakrtih,  "enjoj"  is  tome- 
times  sensuouslj  rendered,  "  Spirit  is  the  eater,  Prakrti  the  food."  Ordinariljr 
"  enjoy  "  is  experience. 

>  jogamate,  StmS  bhoktai  Va  na  tu  karti;  simkhyamate  ta,  na  bhokti 
nS  'pi  karte  'ti ;  tatrS  'dyaih  dusayati,  etc. 

»  Gita,  3,  27 ;  5,  7 ;  13,  20,  etc. 

*  Compare  xii,  247,  1-2:  "The  spirit  saperyises  modification!  (he  knows 
them,  thi>y  do  not  know  him),  he  does  what  is  to  be  done  (only)  in  conjuno 
tion  with  the  senses  and  mind,  the  sixth  "  (Uke  a  charioteer,  at  abore). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  118 

characteristicSy'*  is  gunabhuj  or  enjoyer  of  gunas  as  well  as  the 
superior  creator  of  gunas,  gunasra^tS  gunadhikah^  $L  28.^  So 
yiva  is  ^a^tibhaga  (below).  ^  Like  a  lamp  giving  light  know 
Uie  jfianatman,  knowledge-spirit,  Purusha,  to  be  in  all  crea- 
tures. It  makes  the  ear  hear ;  it  hears ;  it  sees.  The  body  is 
tlie  eatue  (of  perception),  but  this  (soul)  is  the  doer  of  all 
«cts,'*  xii,  210,  40.  Here  the  last  clause,  sa  kartil  sarvakar- 
manam,  means  that  soul  acts  only  as  modified  by  Prakrti.  In 
xii,  222,  17  ff.:  ^  Whoso  thinks  liimself  an  actor,  faulty  is  liis 
judgment.  Activity  is  nature  only,  die  only  factor,*'  svabhava 
eva  tat  sarvam  (one  becomes  vitr^na,  9I.  30,  when  one  knows 
the  difference  between  the  Source  and  its  modifications).  In 
xii,  804,  45,  the  Source  does  every  act,  and  it  alone  enjoys, 
a^nitL  Opposed  to  this  is  tlie  Brahmaistic  view,  which  holds 
that  ^  the  inner  soul,  antaratman,  alone  smells,  tastes,'*  etc., 
as  an  entity  separate  from  elements  (below). 

A  practical  difference  may  be  found  in  the  attitude  of  the 
two  systems  towanl  austerities,  though  it  is  stated  that  this 
exen-ise  is  common  to  both.  Nevertheless  it  cannot  be  sup- 
pos(*d  tliat  the  *' knowle<lge-philo8opher"  admitted  as  much 
tafuis  as  did  the  Yogin,  whose  pnictical  discipline  was  almost 
wh«)lly  a  **  razor-e<lgetl  jiath "  of  austerity.  The  practice  is 
ocTasitmally  reprehended,  as  in  xii,  221,  4,  where  it  is  said 
that  fasting  is  not  meritorious,  as  it  is  injurious  to  the  soul's 
diM'iplino,  utmatiintropaghat^ih,  a  view  which  is  of  course  con- 
tnMlirtor}'  to  the  nuuts  of  te;ic*hing  in  the  epic,  for  example,  ib. 
233,  23,  where  ()eniuiee  is  the  means  of  ^'attaining  to  the  Ixung 
that  cri'utes  the  universe*."  The  "difference  U'twivn  Sritiikhya 
and  Vogii,**  as  mlniitted  and  explainiHl  in  the  late  passage  xii, 
237,  21^ ff.,  is  mainly  a  practical  one,  \\\  tliat  "the  Suiiikhya 
ket* ps  alt N if  fnim  obj(H*ts  of  sense,  contn>ls  the  senses,  iuid  is 
alike  t4)  all  creaturt^s,  frii^ndly  t4)  all,  indifferent  to  all  things,* 
injun*s  no  creatures,  luid  so  attains  to  Hndunan;"  whereas 
tliiit  Y«»ga  is  n*leiised  *'  who,  tninsc*entling  su|H'matunU  |>ower, 
ceases"  (fnmi  activity).     The  Yogi  is  thus  described  in  one 

'  Tlif  twoniy-flfth,  not  th«-  twcntr-«ixth  priiM-iplo,  U  h*Ti»  Go«!. 
*  MurvabhAUMuifft  mlitimb  MUiiAlot|if tiuikiAcmiM(i,  3S,  a  lUnJiog  epithet 

S 


114  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

verse:  yogaigyaTyam  atikianto  yo  ni^kramati  mucyate,  237« 
40.  The  dependence  of  the  Samkhya  on  knowledge  alone  is 
here  merely  implied,  though  the  following  image  of  the  saving 
^^ship  of  knowledge"  makes  it  clearer,  but  the  whole  passage 
is  a  late  attempt  to  interpret  Samkhya  by  another  norm.^ 

One  further  practical  difference  between  the  systems  is 
pointed  out  by  the  commentator  at  xii,  241,  34,  where,  after 
asceticism  is  described,  it  is  said  that  a  man  of  low  caste  or  a 
woman  seeking  virtue  "  may  attain  the  highest  course  by  this 
path"  (of  the  Yoga).  The  commentator  takes  pains  to  re- 
mark that  this  applies  only  to  the  Yoga,  and  not  to  the 
Samkhya.  A  little  farther  on,  in  247,  16,  where  the  same 
system  is  still  taught,  but  on  the  intellectual  side,  not  on  the 
ascetic  side,  it  is,  expressly  stated  that  the  ^stra  should  be 
told  only  to  men  of  the  higher  castes,  Snatakas.^ 

It  is  expressly  charged  against  the  Pa9upata  sect  that  it  is 
subversive  of  caste :  "  I,  Rudra,  formerly  for  the  first  time 
invented  the  mysterious  Pa^upata  religion,  beneficent  to  all, 
facing  in  all  directions,  one  that  takes  years  or  only  ten  days  * 
to  learn,  one  which,  though  blamed  by  the  imintelligent  (be- 
cause it  is)  here  and  there  opposed  to  the  rules  of  the  ^^stra 
and  those  of  the  Orders,  varnaf  ramakrtair  dharmair  viparitam 

^  brahmanam  abhivartate,  a  late  carelessnesB,  repeated  with  ci  'dhigacch- 
ati,  9I.  S6  and  41.  The  four-faced  Brahmi^  and  the  highest  BrtQiman,  re- 
Bpectivelj,  is  the  commentator's  ready  explanation  ("mascnline  bj  Vedic 
licence").  The  same  sort  of  thing  is  found  in  another  later  passage,  where 
a  double  carelessness  appears,  brahmSnam  adhig^tva  (sic)  ca,  ill,  83,  78. 
Part  of  the  above  description  is  a  copj  of  the  Gita,  nirmama^  cS  'nahamkiro 
nirdTandTa9  chinnasam9a7ah  nai  Va  krudhjati  na  dyesfi,  237,  34,  at  in  Giti, 
6,  3;  12, 13  (=  2,  71) ;  18,  53,  brahmabhujaya  kalpate. 

*  See  below  the  passage  inculcating  pure  Tog^  (the  twenty-sixth  prin- 
ciple), where  it  is  said,  xii,  310,  89,  that  it  is  a  doctrine  of  emancipation  for 
all,  and  knowledge  is  to  be  got  from  all,  for  all  castes  are  Brahmans,  aU  are 
bom  of  Brahman,  and  all  castes  are  equal ;  and  compare  ib.  188,  10  ff.,  na 
viyeso  *sti  varnanam,  etc.  In  251,  21,  atmajfianam  idam  guyham,  as  in  the 
earliest  Upanishads.  A  ''God  without  characteristics"  is  responsible  for 
the  democratic  equality  of  the  "no  caste"  view.  So  (^iraism  teaches  that 
castes  are  only  indications  of  position,  brahmah  svabhaTah  is  everywhere 
equal,  and  all  men  are  children  of  the  one  God  who  created  them,  xiii,  148^ 
60-3. 

*  Instead  of  ten  days,  says  the  commentator,  the  Gludas  read  "  fire  daya.** 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  116 

kracit  Baniam,  is  nevertheless  appreciated  by  those  of  per- 
fected wisdom^  gat&ntas,  and  is  really  superior  to  the  Orders  " 
(atya^ramamt  xii,  285,  194-195).  In  the  preceding  stanza, 
this  Pa^upata  is  contrasted  with  the  gods'  and  demons'  relig- 
ion of  austerity,  the  latter  being  '^  drawn  from  the  Vedas  and 
Samkhya  and  Yoga  by  logic,"  ^  another  mark  of  difference  in 
the  views  urged  in  the  epic,  not,  as  often,  concealed  under  a 
pretended  unity,  but  openly  stated. 

Sects. 

I  would  say  a  word  here  in  regard  to  the  sects  recognized 
in  the  epic,  though,  except  for  their  philosophy,  I  do  not  in- 
tend to  touch  further  on  them.  The  epic  commentator  sees  in 
the  epithet  paficamahakalpa,  applied  to  Vishnu,  a  reference 
to  the  scriptures,  agamas,  of  five  diverse  sects,  Sauras,  ^ktas, 
Gane^as,  ^ivas,  and  Vai^navas.  The  epic  in  reality  recog- 
nizes only  the  first  and  last  two,  for  the  allusion  to  shadow- 
worship  (wliich  the  commentator  explains  as  a  Left-hand  rite) 
though  interesting,  does  not  imply  necessarily  a  body  called 
^)&ktas,  and  Gane^as  are  unknown,  the  god  himself  belong- 
ing only  to  the  pseudo-epic  introduction,  and  very  likely  in- 
terpolated there,  as  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Wintemitz.  Even 
Durga  seems  to  be  a  late  addition  to  the  epic  as  she  appears 
hymned.  But  the  ^ivas  are  known  as  having  a  religion 
called  Pa^upata  (above)  and  the  Vai^navas  and  Sauras  are 
known  in  two  late  passages,  xviii,  6,  97  and  vii,  82,  16«  under 
these  names.  I  sup(K>8e  only  the  synthetic  method  would 
claim  ttiat  the  whole  epic  recognizes  the  titles  of  sects  so 
sporadically  mentioned.  The  older  Vishnuite  sect-name  is 
I'aAcaratra  or  the  more  personal  ^devotees  of  the  Lonl/* 
Biiagavatas,  and  Bhagavadbhaktas,  even  these  being  rather 

1  Radrm  sajt  to  Daksa:  bhOja^  ca  te  rartiii  dadroi  Um  tTaih  irrhnitTa 
SQTrmU,  pnuannaTAdADo  bhatri  Ud  ihii  limiiuuiih  9fna;  TtHlit  fadaRgid 
ttddhrtja  timkhja-joiric  ca  juktitab  tapab  tutapcam  Yipulaiii  du^caram 
dcTadlaaTlib.  xU,  286,  1(*1-192 ;  and  tbvn  at  above,  in  contrast,  the  Pi^pau 
0jttrm,  which  ha«  overthrown  the  older  •/•tenia  (Rndra  dettro/t  Dakfa's 
•acriSoe). 


116  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

rare.  The  last,  for  example,  is  found  in  i,  214,  2  (with 
bhaiki^as  or  cauk^as).  The  same  passage  that  calls  Vishnu 
pafieamahakalpa  gives  him  the  titles  of  Pracinagarbha  (below) 
and  Kaugika  and  identifies  him  with  the  Atharvag iras  Upani- 
shad,  xii,  339,  113-125.  Though  the  god  is  her©  Vishnu,  I 
venture  to  think  the  last  epithets  were  originally  applied  to 
^iva.  The  "white  men"  of  the  White  Island,  or  rather 
country  (dvlpa  =  the  dig  uttara  or  more  exactly  uttarapa^ci- 
mena,  "  in  the  Northwest,"  336,  8-10 ;  337,  21  ff.)  must  be 
Eashmere  Brahmans,  who  are  often  almost  as  white  as  Euro- 
peans and  whose  religion  was  the  worship  of  ^iva  (as  a  god  of 
culture  and  letters)  in  monotheistic  form,  which  is  here  per- 
verted. The  location  "Northwest"  and  "far  North"  can 
scarcely  be  anywhere  else  than  Kashmere,  where  alone  "north- 
em  white  men,"  gvetah  pumansah,  336, 10,  were  to  be  seen*^ 

The  Different  Schemata. 

The  philosophical  schemes  elaborated  in  the  epic  show  three 
distinct  groupings,  which  must  belong  to  different  systems. 
These  are  the  Saiiikhya,  the  Yoga,  and  a  third  system,  which 
follows  a  different  series  of  topics.  All  three  differ  essentially 
from  Vedism  and  Brahmaism,  as  this  latter,  in  turn,  differs 
from  what  we  call  Vedanta.  Both  of  the  latter  are  repre- 
sented, making  six  systems,  as  said  above ;  but  of  these  there 
are  full  schemata  or  topica  in  three  cases  at  least,'  indicating 
what  for  convenience  I  shall  call  scholastic  differences,  the 
three  schematizing  systems  being  here  termed  schools.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  point  out  that  no  one  set  of  teachers,  much 
less  the  one  poet  of  the  unhistorical  method,  would  have  incul- 
cated six  systems,  or  elaborated  three  schools,  especially  as  the 
topics  of  two  of  these  schools  imply  a  fundamental  difference 
between  them. 

1  Tlie  "  Sea  of  milk "  in  the  Paranas  is  said  to  surround  a  Himllajmn 
mountain,  Kraufica.  The  second  (earlier)  account  of  the  "  white  men  '*  in  the 
I'pic  is  quite  Samkhyan,  God  is  Purusha,  etc. 

^  Compare  also  the  rather  rare  recognition  of  pure  Vedinta  Miji- 
Brahninism,  and  above  in  the  first  chapter  the  philosophy  copied  from  the 
Upanidhads  without  identification  of  soul  with  sectarian  god. 


EPTC  PHILOSOPHY.  117 

Common  to  all  three  schools  is  the  distinction  between 
the  First  Cause  or  Source  as  manifest  and  unmanifest  The 
manifest^  or  known,  is  all  tliat  is  bom,  grows,  ages,  and  dies, 
while  the  unmanifest,  or  unknown,  is  ^^  the  opposite,"  ^  that 
is,  it  is  devoid  of  these  four  marks,  laki^anas.  Further,  Sam- 
khya  and  Yoga  both  admit  two  selves,  atmans,  it  is  said,  which 
are  declared  "in  the  Vedas  and  in  the  Siddhantas," *  The 
first  is  that  bom  with  the  four  marks,  that  is,  those  of  the 
manifest,  and  has  four  objects  (caturvarga,  virtue,  pleasure, 
gain,  emancipation).  This  is  the  mimifest  self,  bom  of  the 
unmanifest;  it  is  awakene<l,  buddha,  but  has  not  the  highest 
intelligence,  cetana ;  it  is  the  conditioned  sattva  soul,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  pure  knowing  soul,  k^etrajfia,  though  botli 
arc  attached  to  objects  of  sense.  "  Both  systems  admit  twenty- 
five  topics,"  a  statement  to  be  reviewed  below. 

The  Unmanifest  is  that  which  cannot  be  known,  ave<lyam, 
which  has  no  padanyasa,  leaves  no  track,  and  is  Uierefore 
>ieyond  knowledge,  xii,  205, 18;  avedyam  avyaktam,  xii,  819, 
42.  Kapila  calls  it  the  iipx^,  adya,  and  says  he  uses  the  term 
First  Clause,  Source,  Prakrti,  merely  to  escape  a  regressus 
•d  infinitum.  It  is  therefore  merely  a  name,  samjRamatram. 
It  is  used  of  the  That :  "  One  could  never  reach  the  end  of 
causation,  nai  \'a  *ntam  karanasye  yat,  even  if  one  went 
unceasingly  like  an  arrow  from  the  conl,  yatlia  buno  gunacyu- 
tah,  and  swift  as  thought     Nothing  is  more  subtile  than  the 

<  S<>  in  xii.  217.  (^10.  it  is  laid  that  IVakrti  crcaU^i  tn<l  ha*  thrt^  Runai. 
while  npirit'*  marks  arc  '*  the  opposite  "  (for  the  threefold  frv^M  Arc  onlj  hi* 
-  turban."  9I.  12). 

>  xii.  2:r.  27,  31.  sidilhinteso.  Siddhinta  is  mentiono<l  also  in  i.  70,  44. 
In  the  present  pasMfre  the  commentator  takes  the  Ve<Ias  and  Siddhintas  an 
I^inra^ltmihsi  and  rttaramimaAsi.  Another  late  expn»s«ion  in  this  section 
drMTih«-«  the  effulirent  Jira-rnkcHl  car  as  baring  all  the  Tantraa  as  ita  Roatl 
<sanratantraprat«Mlah,  xii.  237, 11,  straddles  the  pidas),  when*  the  commentator 
MTs  Ci^tra*  and  in  prol>abIy  right,  as  we  hare  Njijatantras  mentioned,  which 
are  donbtb^ss  works  on  logic.  Compare  with  the  paasagt*  abore.  xii,  2(yi,  2H. 
aTjaktitmi  pumso  ryaktAkarmi  so  *TTaktatTarii  gacchati  bj  antmkile ;  zil. 
r.<tf.  125,  caturbhir  laksaniir  hinaih  tathi  sadbhih  sas4>da9iih  parasaih  tani 
atikramja  ikicam  pratipadjate  (the  six  are  ills  and  the  sixteen  are  breaths, 
organs,  and  mintl.  according  to  the  commentator),  bot  the  four  are  here  said 
to  b«  cetas  and  three  proofs. 


118  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

tminanifest  That  (91.18) ;  notMng  is  coarser.  Finer  than  fine, 
greater  than  great  is  That,  the  invisible  end  of  all  things,^' 
xii,  240,  28  (29  =  9vet.  Up.  iii,  16 ;  Gita,  18, 13).  It  is  a  term 
used  in  both  philosophies,  and  is  simply  equivalent  to  the 
invisible  unknown  First  Cause.  From  its  synonym  Prakrti, 
First  Cause,  it  may  be  called  simply  the  Source.  So  also 
Brahman  is  avyaktam.  Usually  this  term  is  defined  in  such 
negatives  as  in  neti  netij  a  superabimdance  of  which  appears 
in  this  definition:  '^Brahman  has  not  been  explained  by 
mantras;  with  the  world  of  experience  it  has  not  anything 
in  common;  it  has  not  soimd,  touch,  not  form;  it  is  not  com- 
prehended ;  not  manifest  .  .  .  not  female,  not  male,  not  neuter 
(as  in  251,  22),  not  being,  not  wo^•being,  not  being-and-not- 
being  .  .  .  not  perishable,"  *  an  imitation  of  older  matter. 

This  "Unknown,"  which  forms  the  common  basis  of  the 
great  philosophical  systems,  in  the  Saiiikhya  connotes  potential 
egoism,  becomes  known  first  as  Ego  or  self-<;onscious  intellect, 
and  out  of  this  egoism  is  developed  the  whole  created  uni- 
verse ;  over  against  which  stands  the  pure  imconscious  spirit, 
the  real  Ego.  This,  in  outline,  is  the  whole  plan  of  the  Sam- 
khya  philosophy,  which  admits  nothing  outside  of  pure  Ego 
and  self-<;onscious  Ego,  and  ascribes  all  apparent  other  to 
modifications  of  egoism.  There  are  here  twenty-four  prin- 
ciples  over  against  the  pure  spirit  Ego  as  the  twenty-fifth.* 

On  the  other  hand,  besides  these,  the  Yogin's  system  super- 
adds one  exalted  spirit  as  Supreme  Spirit,  or  God,  the  twenty- 
sixth  principle. 

The  Pagupatas  and  Bhagavatas  have  a  different  system  of 
categories,  but  teach  that  the  Supreme  Spirit  as  a  personal  God 
becomes  manifest ;  in  the  latter  sect,  as  a  god-man. 

Common  to  the  three  schools  is  the  belief  in  the  three  con- 
stituents of  the  Unmanifest,  called  gunas ;  but  these  are  some- 
times treated  as  constituents  and  sometimes  as  attributes. 

1  na  San  na  ca  'sat  sad-asac  ca  tan  na  . . .  tad  aksaram  na  ksaraU  'ti  riddhi. 
In  251,  22,  Brahman  is  asukham  as  well  as  aduhkham,  *'  not  joj,  not  sorrow.'* 

^  Prakrti  is  devoid  of  the  hif^hest  intelligence,  acetanS,  and  onlj  when 
supervised  by  spirit  creates  and  destroys.  Furusha  has  millions  or  1,400,000 
courses,  xii,  316, 12 ;  ib.  2 ;  281,  36. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  119 

The  Gtinas. 

The  Unknown  becomes  known  as  a  result  of  energy,  tejas 
or  rajas,  rousing  itself  and  rousing  conditioned  being,  sattva,^ 
out  of  the  equilibrium  which  is  maintained  between  these  two 
and  inertia  (dulness,  darkness,  tamas).  These  are  the  three 
constituents  of  the  conscious  Ego,  and  consequently  of  all 
things  except  pure  spirit  That  is  to  say,  energy,  inertia, 
and  existence  (conditioned  being),  characterize  all  things, 
and  life  begins  with  energy  moving  sattva  as  well  as  itselL 
A  moral  interpretation  of  these  strands,  gunas,  as  they  are 
called,  makes  being,  as  compared  with  the  other  two,  repre- 
sent the  true  and  real  and  good ;  inertia,  the  stupid  and  bed ; 
while  energ}'  may  be  good  or  bad,  but  is  never  the  best,  as 
tluit  is  devoid  of  all  activity  (quietism).*  These  gunas,  con- 
8tituenU«,  arc,  to  use  a  term  taken  from  their  grammatical 
application,  themselves  gunated  or  characterized  by  the  pres- 
ence of  certain  qualities,  a  meaning  often  found  employed  in 
the  case  of  guna.  Thus  in  xii,  834,  2,  one  abandons  fourfold 
faults,  eigiitfold  tamas  and  fivefold  rajas.  What  is  of  most 
importance,  however,  from  the  iiistorical  rather  than  the  philo- 
sophical [K)int  of  view,  is  tliat  in  these  groups  there  is  no 
uniformity  in  the  teiwhing  of  the  epic.  Thus  in  xii,  814,  21  fif., 
not  five,  as  above,  but  over  twenty  faults  are  given  as  charac- 
teristics, gunas,  of  rajas.     In  the  same  way,  sattva  has  in  xii, 

I  8«ttTa  (coroparp  siitjasjA  latjam)  is  beirifr,  but  not  absolute  beinff,  which 
Is  free  from  eonsciou«ness  of  self.  Wv  mav  liest  render  the  "  three  strmnds  " 
or  inhfrrnt  constitoentu  of  creation  (eTerjthtnfr  except  pure  spirit)  bj  cnerffj, 
ini*rtia.  and  conscious-existence,  which  exist  potentially  in  the  undoTcloped 
and  actuallT  in  the  doTelop^nl  uniTerae.  I  am  aware  that  the  Runas  are 
tran«Iat«Ml  differt-ntlr  hr  hif^h  authorities,  but  must  for  the  present  refrain 
from  furthfr  discufnion  of  the  interpn*tation. 

*  Compare  (titi,  17,  20:  ^  Snt  is  emplore<]  in  the  meaning  of  erittemre  and 
otf^mi"  ((^mmontator  wronir).  The  avjakta  (unknown  underelope^l)  is 
funatix]  as  much  as  is  Tjakta.  onlj  the  equilibrium  not  beinfr  dtsturbtnl  the 
irnna*  are  merely  potential.  aTraktam  trigunaih  smf  tam,  xir,  3D,  24.  In  r#* 
fan!  to  "  ilarkness,"  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  older  philoaophiee, 
«Urkneft«.  Umas,  is  not  a  quality  but  a  substance  (only  the  Nyiya  reRards 
it  as  at»sen(*c  uf  lii^ht).  See  the  argument  in  the  Aftlukya  chaptor  of  tlie 
SarTadaryana. 


120  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

842,  13,  eighteen  gunas,  while  in  814,  17  ff.,  nearly  double 
this  number  are  given  it,  including  most  of  the  former  group 
but  placed  in  a  different  arrangement  Agam  in  xii,  802, 14- 
16,  sattva  has  ten  (unexplained)  gunas ;  rajas,  nine ;  tamas, 
eight;  buddhi,  seven;  manas,  six;  nabhas,  five;  but  then, 
again,  buddhi  has  fourteen ;  tamas,  three ;  rajas,  two ;  sattva, 
one.^  This  merely  means  that  each  strand  has  certain  attri- 
butes.' The  same  list,  for  instance,  is  given  in  the  Anugita, 
xiv,  88,  2  ff.,  as  indications  of  sattva.  It  seems  unnecessary 
to  enumerate  these  varying  characteristics.  The  gist  of  them 
all  is  found  in  Gita,  14,  9  ff. :  sattva  belongs  to  pleasant 
things,  rajas  to  activity,  tamas  to  apathy.  So  in  xii,  194,  80, 
a  touch  of  joy  is  characteristic  of  sattva,  and  **  if  anything  is 
joined  to  joy  there  is  the  condition,  blmva,  of  sattva"  (only 
five  are  given  here) ;  while  in  85  there  are  five  lingas  or  signs 
of  energy,  rajas,  and  in  36,  five  gunas  of  tamas  (=  286,  26  ff., 
with  V.  1.  =  248,  19  ff.)  As  tejas,  energy,  is  attributed  to 
Brahman,  the  term  falls  into  comparative  desuetude,  being 
replaced  by  the  less  moral  rajas,  while  tejas  is  left  as  a 
virtuous  characteristic:  dhStapapma  tu  tejasvl  .  .  .  nini^ed 
brahmanah  padam  (said  of  the  good  man),  and  Brahman  is 
tejomayam,  xii,  241,  9  and  13.  So  tejas  is  a  good  quality, 
Gita,  16,  3.8 

In  this  conception,  sattva  is  as  much  of  a  bond  as  are  the 
other  two  gunas.  Knowledge  and  pleasure  are  the  attach- 
ments with  which  it  binds  the  soul;  while  rajas  binds  with 
action  and  tamas  with  heedlessness,  laziness,  sleep,  the  signs 
of  inertia,  Gita,  14,  6-8. 

*  The  eighteen  gunas  of  sattva,  to  give  an  example,  are  pritih  praka^m 
udrek'o  laghuta  sukham  eva  ca,  akdrpanyam  aaamrambha^  santosah  ^raddadha- 
natd,  Icnama  dhrtir  ahitUd  ca  ^ditcam  akrodha  eva  ca,  arjavam  samata  iatyam 
anasuya  tathai  Va  ca  (those  in  italics  reappear  in  the  longer  list,  314, 17-20). 

^  The  Hindu  conception  is  not  quite  uniform  in  regard  to  the  gunas,  bnl 
there  is,  I  think,  no  reason  for  confounding  essential  constituents  with  attri- 
butes. Joy  and  sorrow  are  not  the  gunas  themselves  but  their  objective  sig^t 
in  the  moral  world.  The  true  opposites  are  tejas  and  tamas,  light  and  dark- 
ness, as  energy  and  inertia  physically,  and  as  goodness  and  badness  morally. 

'  But  rajas  often  keeps  its  pure  tejas  sense,  as  in  xiv,  SO,  0,  rajah  paryi- 
yakarakam,  rajas  is  energy. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  121 

Tiie  Source,  Prak]ti,  is  the  combination  of  the  three  gunas, 
represented  as  a  female  productive  power.  As  a  lamp  lights 
thousands  so  the  Source  modifies  herself  into  tlie  many  gunas 
(clisiracteristics)  of  spirit.  She  does  it  of  her  own  will  and 
desire,  and  for  the  sake  of  sport.^ 

According  to  tlie  projwrtion  of  gunas  in  a  creature,  it  has 
a  high,  middle,  or  low  place,  xii,  816,  8-4 ;  Gita,  14, 18.  Evi- 
dently, therefore,  the  Yoga-god  must  be  without  gunas,  so 
nirguna  is  predicated  of  him  and  of  Brahman,  nirgunasya  kuto 
guniih,  xii,  306,  29,  as  say  the  gunadar; inah,  but  as  God  must 
be  ever)'thing  he  is  also  •*  with  gunas  "  as  well  as  **  without 
gunas,"  a  contnulicticm  which  is  on  a  par  with  God's  being 
being  and  not  l)eing  being  and  being  neither  being  nor  not- 
being,  the  common  tingle  of  metaphysics.*  In  ftict,  religious 
philosophy  is  ho|)elessly  at  sea,  not  only  in  regard  to  the 
question  of  a  conditioned  God  Imt  also  in  regard  to  the  gunas 
of  the  spirit.  It  is  universally  admitted  that  energy  and 
ini*rtia  must  Ikj  dlsjwnse*!  with  in  order  to  a  full  attainment 
of  pure  spiritho<Ml,  xiv,  51,  25.  But  when  8[)irit  has  siittva 
alone  or  is  in  wittva  atone,  sattvam  astluiya  kevalam,  is  it  one 
with  this  lK*ing  or  not?  Some  say,  **and  they  are  wise,*'  that 
8{)irit  and  s;ittva  liave  unity,  ksctrajflasattvayor  aikyam,  but 
thin  is  ^iTimg.  Still,  thoy  cannot  exist  apart.  There  is  unity 
and  diversity,  as  in  tlie  case  of  the  lotus  and  water-drop,  the 
fish  in  water,  the  fly  in  the  IMumlxira  plants  ekatvaniinatvam, 
xiv,  48,  9-11.'     In  xiii,  108,  7,  sattva  must  l)e  **^-ashe<l  out'' 

>  prakrtir  fninin  Tikunite  iTAcchtixlcni  'trntkimrtjl  kritUrthe  to,  xii, 
314,  IVM  (prmkrtis  ttthi  Tikuruto  paniMiiiTA  ^nnin  bahan). 

*  CtfMl  b  nirirunA  and  frunitmnn  «n<!  ninruna  tlont*  ami  trimint,  etc.,  xii, 
XV^^W  ft. ;  xiii,  i:t7,  X  Gunn-iiiiKle  art*  aU  cxintrtiCTfi.  (2iti,  7,  1.1;  (icxl  id  not 
ia  them.  \hvy  an*  in  him,  ih..  12.  Thcj  do  not  affi-ct  (mmI,  xii,  IW\  22  <in  20  it 
it  taitl  that  those  ilcToid  of  rajai  an<]  taniai  attain  to  (to<i,  prptafnaMr  r«'taiti- 
inir  Mttra;  but  diK'wherr  tattra  mutt  al«o  bv  liMit,  e.  ft-.  Xio,  .11)) ;  Titlilhi 
bhiiriii  madi^rajr&n,  xir,  (A,  2 ;  av^aktlt  atpanno  inahin  itmi  idir  irnninlm, 
40,1. 

*  Here  Telanfr  it  oblifn^I  to  render  tattra  at  iroodneit  and  as  natare,  ac- 
conlinK  to  the  TerM*.  e.  pc-.  oninteIli)^>nt  tattTa,  41^  0,  and  12,  where  the  npirit 
9my»ii%  tattTa.  SattTa.  howfTer.  it  alwars  ci>nditiomHl  existence  or  a  oondi- 
ttont^l  U-intr,  abstract  or  c<»nt-rvte.    It  is  the  highest,  because  it  maj  be  free 


122  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

of  the  soul  of  pure  Yogins,  along  with  rajas  and  tamas.  In 
these  cases  we  have  sunply  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  theology 
to  utilize  the  terms  of  atheistic  philosophy,  which  naturally 
leads  to  confusion.  For  the  terms  (applicable  to  Prakrti)  of 
Samkhya  are  incompatible  with  the  philosophy  which  substi- 
tutes God  for  both  Purusha  and  PrakytL 

When  the  gunas  are  called  atmagunas,  as  in  xiv,  12,  4,  it  is 
to  distinguish  them  as  mental  from  the  bodily  constituents, 
gunah  garirajah,  with  which  they  are  compared.  As  the  three 
constituents  of  the  body,  §ito§ne  vayu9  ca  (=  kapha,  pitta, 
vata)  give  a  healthy  condition  when  in  equilibriiun,  so  the 
three  atmagunas,  when  equal,  produce  a  healthy  condition* 
Here  the  three  are  merely  essential  elements  in  a  tridhatu  or 
threefold  entity.  Thus  elements  are  called,  as  the  constit- 
uents or  factors,  dhatavah,  inherent  in  the  Source,  dhatavahi 
pa&cabhautikah,  iii,  211,  9  ff.,  just  as  the  essential  constituents 
of  a  king's  concern  are  called  gunas,  xv,  6,  6. 

Plurality  of  Spirits. 

The  passage  just  cited  from  the  Anugita  on  "unity  and 
diversity  "  reflects  an  important  section  in  ^ntL  Here,  xii, 
816,  3  ff.,  a  difference  is  established  between  Unmanifest 
Prakrti  and  spirit,  the  former  being  affected  by  gunas,  inca- 
pable of  escaping  from  them,  and  inherently  ignorant;  the 
latter  being  both  pure  and  contaminated,  because  he  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  Unmanifest.  Causing  creation  he  is  called 
creator.     Because  of  his  observing  as  a  spectator  and  of  his 

from  rajag  and  tamas,  but  is  itself,  though  "  good,"  not  "  best."  This  is  what 
is  in  the  Hindu's  mind,  but  the  distinction  between  this  existence  and  that  of 
God  or  Brahman  is  much  like  that  between  the  highest  knowledge  of  man 
and  that  non-knowledge  knowledge  of  God.  Both  are  attempts  to  release  the 
infinite  from  the  limitation  of  any  definition.  To  saj  He  t$  is  to  put  Him 
in  a  claRs,  hence  we  cannot  saj  He  is,  but  of  course  we  cannot  say  "  He  it 
not."  He  is  pure  knowledge  but  this  is  a  limitation ;  hence  He  knows  with- 
out knowing  and  exists  without  existing,  totally  indefinable.  The  difference 
between  the  early  Upanishad  and  epic  philosophy  in  respect  of  conditioned 
Atman,  is  that  only  the  latter  uses  technical  SSmkhya  terms,  Just  as  the  later 
Upanishads  use  them. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  128 

being  without  a  second,  ananyatva,  and  of  his  false  opinion 
(of  himself),  abhimana,  Yatis  (Yogas)  regard  him  (the  same 
spirit)  as  both  eternal  and  non-eternal,  manifest  and  unman- 
if  est:  **This  is  what  I  have  heard  said;  but  those  who  have 
the  religion  of  compassion  and  abide  by  knowledge  alone, 
say  that  there  is  unity  in  the  Unmanifest  but  a  plurality  of 
spirits.*'  Here  the  last  authorities  are  clearly  the  Samkhyas, 
who  are  characterized  in  the  epic  not  only  as  ^^  devoted  to 
knowledge,**  but  as  especially  moral  and  compassionate.^  The 
section  concludes:  ^^Purusiia,  spirit,  and  the  Unmanifest 
(masculine)  are  different  The  latter  is  called  eternal  but  is 
not  eteniaL  8pirit*s  connection  with  tlie  Unmanifest  is  that 
of  the  grass  blade  in  its  sheath,  the  fly  and  the  Udumbara, 
the  fish  in  water,  the  fire  in  the  pan,  the  lotus  and  water-drop ; 
Uiere  is  connection  but  not  identity.  This  is  the  Samkhya 
view,  the  best  estimate,  parisamkhyana.** 

So  in  xii,  351,  1,  tlie  question  is  raised  in  regard  to  one  or 
many  spirits,  only  to  be  answered  with  tlie  statement  that 
tliere  may  be  many  spirits,  but  they  all  have  the  same  birth- 
place. The  answer  is  really  assumed  in  the  question,'  so  that 
tlic  passage  is  of  interest  chiefly  as  showing  a  full  recognition 
of  the  fiict  that  Kapila  taught  (as  above)  the  doctrine  of  mul- 
titudinous spirits  without  a  common  source.  This  is  brought 
out  more  distinctly  in  the  following  statement,  viz.,  that  Vyusa 
(the  Yoga)  teaches  that  all  spirits  have  a  common  source, 
although  Kapila  and  other  metaphysicians  have  declared 
^&stnis  in  which  a  plunility  of  spirits  is  inculcated :  ^^  In 
the  discussion  (of  this  sulywt)  by  Siiiiikhya-Yogas  tliere  are 
many  Kpirits  assumed  in  the  world  and  (tht»se  phiIoHo[)heni) 
will  not  grant  tliat  one  spirit  (exists  as  tiie  sole  sounx>).    (Hut 

>  Ih.  9I.  11 :  tTTftktii  l[atTam  \\y  ihur  nlnltTAm  puru*i«  Utlii  parrabha- 
UdATlTanuh  kvTaUrii  Jftinam  bthitih.  It  ii  worth  noticinfc  how  frvquvntlj 
Ibe  Sirhkh^rai  are  calliHl  *'  thoM>  who  hare  compaation  and  knowltKl|Cv/'  a 
Bo<l(ihiittc  inhoritAnce  apparently,  tliough  this  U  a  •ugg<ettion  liable  to  aeem 
antiquated. 

*  l^ahavah  poruil  brahmann  utiho  eka  era  tu,  ko  hy  atra  paniaah  yref  (ha^ 
ko  Ti  Tonir  iho  Vjate.  "Are  there  many  spihta  or  onljr  od«  f  Which  i«  th« 
beat  9  or  which  (tpirit)  la  the  •otirce  ?  * 


124  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

this  is  a  mere  assumption)  and,  as  a  sole  source  of  many 
spirits  is  declared  (to  exist),  so  will  I  explain  that  spirit  which 
is  superior  to  conditions  (or  has  superior  characteristics)  to 
be  the  AIL  .  .  .  This  hymn  [Rig  Veda,  x,  90],  the  Purushar 
Sukta  expounded  in  all  the  Vedas  as  right  and  true,  has  been 
considered  by  (Vyasa),  the  lion  among  sages,  ^i^tras  with 
rules  and  exceptions,  utsargenapavadena,  have  been  proclaimed 
by  sage  metaphysicians  beginning  with  Kapila.  BiLt  Vydsa 
his  proclaimed  spirit-unitt/,  puru^aikatvam,  and  his  teaching 
in  brief  will  I  declare." 

Nothing  could  show  more  clearly  the  absurdity  of  denying 
the  variegated  beliefs  reflected  in  the  epic,  or  the  ancient 
foundation  of  the  Kapila,  not  in  Brahman  but  in  a  plurality 
of  spirits  devoid  of  a  common  source.  In  Vyasa  we  have  a 
revolt  against  Kapila,  not  in  absolute  rebuttal,  but  in  a  denial 
of  his  chief  principles  and  in  an  attempt  to  show  that  the 
time-honored  system  could  be  interpreted  in  accordance  with 
a  belief  in  a  personal  God.^ 

Another  point  of  importance  is  the  decision  with  which  the 
heretical  view  is  attacked :  "  Unity  is  a  proper  view,  separate- 
ness  is  an  incorrect  view,"  ekatvam  dar^anam  nanatvam  adar- 
ganam;  again:  "The  view  that  the  Supreme  Soul  is  one 
with  the  individual  soul  is  the  correct  view;  the  view  that 
they  are  separate  is  an  incorrect  view,"  anidarganam  (the  com- 
mentator says  there  is  another  reading  anudarganam,  which 
he  interprets  as  a  following  or  later  view,  xii,  806,  85-87).' 

*  Here  the  author  of  Nirvana,  p.  97,  supprcssefl  the  fact  that  VySsa't  riew 
is  placed  in  antithesis  to  Kapila's,  and,  leaping  over  the  interrening  Tersca, 
sajs  that  8ariikhja-Yoga  in  this  passage  teaches  only  a  common  source  of 
souls.  It  is  indeed  said  at  the  end  of  the  text  that  Sarakhja-Yoga  is  Vishnu- 
ism  (see  just  below),  but  no  notice  is  taken  of  the  fact  in  Nirvana  that  the 
special  passage  under  consideration  presents  the  matter  quite  difFerentlj. 
The  passage  above  almost  seems  to  imply  that  Vyasa  is  to  be  regarded  at 
a  philosophical  teacher  especially,  perhaps  as  the  author  of  a  philosophical 
work  ( Holtzmann  opposed,  iv,  p.  Ill);  possibly  of  the  Vyiisagrantha  of  i, 
70,  45  (commentator  opposed).  In  any  case,  Vyasa's  teaching,  though  not 
that  of  Badaraynna,  claims  to  improve  on  Kapila's  view. 

*  Compare  Katha,  iv,  11 :  (He  perishes)  "who  sees,  as  it  were, separatenen 
here,"  ya  iha  nSne  'va  pa^yati  (the  separateness  is  here  that  of  any  part  of 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  126 

Of  coarse  the  Samkhya-Togas,  being  the  models,  are  cred- 
ited with  the  view  expressly  said  to  be  not  theirs.  So  in  the 
exposition  above  from  xii,  851,  after  Vyasa  lias  been  distinctly 
opposed  to  the  SamkhyarYogas  and  his  view  is  explained  to 
be  that  the  different  souls  (created  by  Brahm&n)  at  last  are 
absorbed  into  tlieir  one  source,  the  **  subtile  entity  appearing  as 
four'*  (Aniruddha,  etc.),  it  is  calmly  said  that  this  is  Samkhya 
and  Yoga,  xii,  852,  12-18,  28.  But  occasionally  this  flat  self- 
contradiction  is  avoided,  as  it  is  in  the  second  passage  cited 
above,  by  saying  tliat  while  Saiiikliya-Yogas  generally  hold  a 
view  not  quite  orthodox,  the  wdse  among  them  think  other- 
wise. Thus:  "That  twenty-fiftli  principle  which  the  Sam- 
khya-Yogas  as  a  whole,  sarva^ah,  proclaim  to^be  higher  than 
intelUet^  buddhe^  param,  the  wise  declare  is  a  (personal) 
Lord,  conditioned  and  not  conditioned,  identical  both  with 
Puruslia  and  with  tlie  Unmanifest  .  .  .  and  thiM  i$  aho  ths 
opinion  of  tho$e  tcho  being  %killcd  in  Sdmkhya^Toga  Meek  after 
a  Supreme^"'  [lanuiiaisinuli,  xii,  800,  81-88.  In  other  words, 
such  Sriiiikhya-Yogas  as  ailmit  that  the  twenty-fiftli  topic  is 
a  Supremo  Being  siiy  that  he  is  our  personal  God. 

The  Twenty-fifth  Principle. 

In  t!ie  [)iu«8jig(*  ('ite<l  HlN)ve,  xiu  3Ut),  88,  the  spirit  is  denomi- 
xvMi'nX  Pafl(*aviu<;atika,  the  twenty-fifth  prhiciple.  Tliis  is  the 
Lwit  Saiiikliya  t4»[)ic.  But:  **Tlie  wise  say  that  the  twenty- 
fifth  rn^ation  is  a  topic*  and  tliat  thrn*  is  Mmietliing  apart  fmm 
thi'  topit'H  and  lii^hiT.*'  IIi»rt'  staiidH  tliu  inipliration  of  tlie 
tw«-nty-f4ixtli  principle,  in  contniilic'ticm  to  the  prectHlinjj,  as 
ap[HMrH  Htill  iiion*  plainly  in  tlie  next  stH-tion,  where  807,  48 
ff..  it  is  expn*s,sly  said:  "Counting  up  the  four-ond-tweiity 
topirji  with  Pnikrti,  the  Sanikhya.s  n-<'ogiiize  a  twenty-fifth 
prinriple  which  is  ai[>art  from  the  topics ;  this  twenty-fifth 
print  iple  is  s;iid  to  lie  the  soul  without  I^oun*e  or  un-Prakrti- 
s«»ul,  apnikftyfitnuu  when  it  is  enlightene<l,  biidhyainaiuih ; 
and  wliin  it  thus  rerognizes  Si»lf,  it  becomes  pure  and  a{»artt 

Brahman  fruiu  thv  whole).     (>u  the  Vuga  anudarvaiuun,  %vii  the  note  aboT% 
p.  V7. 


126  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

yada  to  budhyate  'tmanam  tada  bhavati  kevala^  This  is  the 
correct  view  according  to  the  topics.  Those  knowing  this 
attain  equableness.  From  direct  perception  one  could  under- 
stand Prakrti  from  guna  and  topic  and  so  one  can  judge  from 
things  without  gunas.  There  is  something  higher  than  the 
destructible.  They  who  do  not  agree  to  this  have  a  false 
view  and  do  not  become  emancipated  but  are  bom  again  in 
manifest  form.  The  unmanifest  is  said  to  be  the  AIL  But 
the  twenty-fifth  principle  is  not  part  of  this  *all,'  asarva^ 
paficavingakah.     They  that  recognize  him  have  no  fear." 

Here  there  is  not  an  indication  of  any  principle  higher  than 
the  Samkhya  twenty-fifth,  except  as  the  commentator  reads 
Brahman  into  the  word  self  as  "  soul,"  but  the  word  is  used  of 
jiva  in  the  preceding  verse,  and  of  Brahman  there  is  not  a  word. 
The  "thing  to  be  known"  is  the  "twenty-fifth  principle"  as 
opposed  to  the  Unmanifest,  which  is  here  the  "field"  of 
knowledge.  The  view  of  a  Lord-principle  is  distinctly  op- 
posed: "  It  is  said  that  the  Unmanifest  comprehends  not  only 
the  field  of  knowledge  (as  has  just  been  stated  in  9L  88)  but 
also  sattva  and  Lord;  the  Saihkhya^ystem  holds,  however, 
that  the  twenty-fifth  principle  has  no  Lord  and  is  itself  the 
topic  that  is  apart  from  topics  "  (that  is,  the  twenty-fifth  prin- 
ciple is  the  supreme  principle),  307,  41-42. 

This  whole  chapter,  xii,  307,  26  fF.,  gives  as  close  an  ap- 
proach to  Saiiikhya  as  is  found  in  the  epic.  It  is  called,  9L 
42,  the  Samkhyadargana,  parisamkhyanudargana.  That  is 
to  say, 

Saxnkhya  is  Saxnkhyana. 

Even  in  the  Anugita,  xiv,  46,  54-56,  we  read:  "The  or- 
gans, the  objects  of  sense,  the  five  gross  elements,  mind, 
intellect,  egoism,  the  Unmanifest,  and  Spirit  (these  are  given 
in  nominative  and  accusative)  —  on  counting  up  all  that 
properly,  according  to  the  distinction  of  topics,  tattva,  one 
gets  to  heaven,  released  from  all  bonds.  Counting  them  over, 
one  should  reflect  on  them  at  the  time  of  one's  end.  Tims  one 
that  knows  the  topics  is  released,  if  one  abide  by  the  ekanta, 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  127 

doctrine  of  unity.''  So  in  xii^  816,  19,  samkhyadarfanam 
etat  te  parisamkhyanam  uttamam,  ^'the  Samkhya  system  is 
the  best  enumeration;**  evam  hi  parisamkhyaya  samkhya}^ 
kevelatam  gatah,  *'the  Enumerators  by  thus  enumerating 
attain  separateness.*'  In  the  same  way  the  Yogin  gradually 
emancipates  himself  by  parisamkhyaya,  enumerating  the  steps 
of  abstraction,  xii,  817, 16.  The  same  thing  is  foimd  in  Git& 
18, 19,  where  guijasamkhyana  or  *•  enumeration  of  gunas"  is 
equivalent  to  Samkhya.  Even  more  strongly  is  this  shown 
when  Yoga  and  Saihkliyana  are  antithetic,  like  Yoga  and 
Samkhya,  as  m  xii,  314,  8  ff.,  where  the  samkliyanadarf ina^ 
are  opposed  to  yoga-pradarf  ina^^ ;  and  in  xiii,  141,  88 :  yukto 
yogam  prati  sada  prati  samkhyanam  eva  ca. 

The  Simkhya  Ekheme. 

As  I  have  shown  above,  this  system  stops  with  the  twenty- 
fifth  principle.  This  fact  sometimes  appears  only  incidentally, 
as  when  in  xiv,  48,  4,  we  read:  "By  ten  or  twelve  suppres- 
sions of  breath  one  attains  to  that  which  is  higher  than  the 
twenty-four."  *  In  its  environment  this  verse  is  as  significant 
as  it  is  gn)teHquc ;  but  it  is  simply  carried  over  from  an  older 
account:  "Turning  the  senses  fn)m  the  objects  of  sense  by 
means  of  the  mind,  one  that  is  pure  and  wise  should  with  ten 
or  twelve  urgings  urge  the  soul  to  that  wliich  is  beyond  the 
twenty-fourth  principle,"  xii,  807, 10-11.  Here,  at  the  outset 
of  the  chapter  disc^ussed  above,  it  is  evident  that  no  twenty- 
sixth  is  contemplated.  The  conditione<l  soul  is  to  be  urged  to 
associate  itself  with  the  pure  soul  and  alwtain  from  the  other 
elements  which  condition  it.  This  pure  soul  is  declannl  to 
l)e  the  "inner  self  standing  in  the  breast,**  antaratma  hfila- 
yastluih,  fl.  19,  wliich  in  Yoga  contemplation  api)ears  like  a 
bright  fire.  "It  has  no  soun*e,  aycmi;  it  stands  in  all  beings 
an  immortal  thing,  and  is  not  seen,  but  may  he  known  by 
intelligence,  buddhidra\'yena  df^yeta.     He  makes  tlie  worlds, 

>  The  commenutor  tnys  ten  or  twelre,  tI  'pi  maj  mean  and,  L  e.,  tweotj- 
two.    He  givet  the  ezcrciiet. 


128  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

standing  beyond  darkness,  and  he  is  called  tamonuda,  vita- 
maska,  the  smiter  of  darkness,"  24.  So  much  for  the  Yoga 
doctrme,  where  the  inner  soul  is  that  **  which  surpasses  the 
twenty-fourth,"  and  is  then  treated  (as  given  above)  as  neuter 
tad  or  masculine,  but  without  recognition  of  the  Lord-Soul  as 
twenty-sixth.^  Then  follows  the  Samkhya-jfiana  (parisam- 
khyanadar9anam),  807,  26  ff.:  "It  is  the  system  of  the  Pra- 
krtivadins  and  starts  with  highest  Prak^ti,  which  is  the 
Unmanifest  From  this  is  produced  the  Great  One  (neuter), 
intellect,  as  the  second ;  from  the  Great  One,  egoism,  as  the 
third;  and  the  Samkhyatmadar^inah  say  that  the  five  ele- 
ments come  from  egoism.  These  together  are  the  eight 
(forms  of)  the  Source,  called  the  eight  sources  (because  pro- 
ductive). The  modifications  are  sixteen.  There  are  five 
gross  elements,  vije^ah,  and  five  senses  (or  the  sixteen  are 
the  five  gross  elements  and  ten  organs  with  mind).'  These 
(twenty-four)  are  all  the  topics,  tattvas,  as  explained  in  the 
enumeration  of  the  Samkhyas.  Inversely  as  it  created  them 
the  inner  soul,  antaratman,  also  absorbs  them,  as  the  sea 
absorbs  its  waves.  The  Source  is  a  unit  at  absorption  and 
a  plurality  at  creation,  ekatva,  bahutva.  The  Source  itself 
has  the  principle  of  productivity,  prasava.    Over  this  field  • 

1  This  section,  like  the  one  cited  above  (to  which  it  is  a  parallel),  ends  with 
joga  eso  hi  yoganSm.  The  next  verse  (though  in  the  middle  of  a  chapter)  hai 
the  Upanishad  mark  of  a  closed  account,  yogadar^anam  etSvat  (as  in  Ka^ha, 
etavad  anudar^anam).  The  soul  appears  as  a  smokeless  fire,  vidhflma,  as  in 
Katha,  iv,  13,  adhumaka ;  it  is  anubhyo  anu,  as  Katha,  ii,  20,  etc.  The  poini 
of  view  is  whollj  that  of  Atmaism  to  the  very  end  without  a  trace  of  Vishno- 
ism.  It  is,  however,  an  intruded  section,  for  the  opening  of  the  chapter 
marks  a  repetition,  the  questioner  saying :  **  Now  you  have  told  me  all  about 
oneness  and  separateness,  but  I  should  like  to  hear  it  all  again  "  (just  as  the 
Anugita  is  marked). 

*  So  the  commentator  explains  9I.  29-4)0,  eti  prakrtayap  ci  's^u  vikari^ 
ca  'pi  soda^a,  palica  cSi  'va  vi^esa  vai  tathS  pafice  'ndriyani  ca,  etavad  eva 
tattvanam  samkhyam  ahur  manisinah.    But  see  below. 

»  Instead  of  "  field  "  we  find  also  the  "  pasture  "  :  **  When  the  senses  (in- 
driyani  pramathini,  as  in  the  Gita)  return  from  the  pasture,  gocarSh,  and 
rest  at  home,  then  shalt  thou  see  the  highest  self  with  the  self,  the  great  aU- 
soul "  (self),  xii,  261,  6.  Tlie  principle  of  productivity,  prasava,  is  synonj. 
mous  with  Prakrti.  Thus  we  have  prakrtijS  gunah  (Gita),  and  prasavaji 
gunah,  xiii,  85, 105. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  129 

stands  the  Great  Soul  as  the  twenty-fifth,  called  the  ki^ 
trajna,  field-knower«  also  the  male,  Purusha  (avyaktike  pra- 
Tifate,  88).  The  field  is  the  Unmanifest,  the  knower  of  the 
field  is  the  twenty-fifth  principle."  Then  follows  the  extract 
given  above.  It  is  clear  that  here  the  twenty-fifth  principle 
(Punislia)  is  not  a  lower  principle  tlian  a  twenty-sixth  (not 
recognized  at  all).  Still  more  remarkable  is  the  following 
exposition : 

In  xii,  811,  8  ff.:  **  There  are  eight  sources  and  sixteen 
mcMlifications.  Metaphysicians  explaui  tlie  eight  as  tlie  Un- 
manifcst,  the  Great  One  (masc.),  egoism,  and  earth,  wind,  air, 
water,  and  light.  These  are  the  eight  sources.  The  modi- 
fications are  (the  five  perceptive  organs)  ear,  skin,  eye,  tongue, 
and  nose ;  the  five  (great  elements),  sound,  touch,  color,  taste, 
smell ;  the  five  (organs  of  action)  voice,  hands,  feet,  and  two 
org.ui8  of  excretion.  [These  differences,  vi9e^b,  are  in  the 
five  great  elements,  malmbhutas;  and  those  organs  of  per- 
ception are  savi^e^ani,  tluit  is,  differentiated.]  Mind,  say  tlie 
meta{)hysicianA,  is  the  sixteenth."  The  bracketed  stanza^  in- 
temipts  the  description  (as  in  the  scheme  above)  with  a 
statement  of  the  "differences"  appertaining  to  the  gross 
elements)  (as  distinct  from  tlie  fine  elements,  wluch  have 
only  one  characteristic  apiece,  and  are  avi^esa). 

Both  these  schemes*  give  the  Aphorism^s  list,  whereby  the 
tattvas  of  the  Saihkhya  (the  Yoga  is  here  expressly  included, 
9I.  8)  api>ear  as  follows :  — 

The  Unmanifest 


Intellect 


Eight 
pm<luctive  I         | 


J 


forms  of 
Pnikfti. 


Egoism 

Five  (fine)  elements  (not  here  named  col- 
lectively; ciUled  tanmStras  elsewhere). 


>  et«  Ti^psI  rljcndra  m«hibhatcsa  paftcafa  boddhlndriji^j  athii  Hial 
iriftfini.  MAithiU,  nil.  14. 

s  Compare  xir,  4Q,  1  fl.,  where  the  uiiiit  crcsUont  apptsr. 

9 


180  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Sixteen 

modificBr 

tions. 


5  Organs  of  Perception  (buddhlndriyas,  5L 

14). 
5  Organs  of  Action  (not  here  named  coUeo- 

tively ;  called  karmendriyas  elsewhere). 
IMind. 
5  Gross  elements  (vige^as,  mahabhutas). 


But  to  the  scheme  at  xii,  811,  there  is  appended  the  following 
incongruous  account,  thus,  5I.  16  fF. :  "  From  the  Unmanifest 
is  produced  the  Great  Soul,  mahan  atma,  which  the  wise  say 
is  the  first  creation,  and  call  the  pradhanika.  From  the  Great 
One  is  produced  egoism,  the  second  creation,  which  is  called 
buddhyatmaka,  that  is,  identical  with  intellect.  From  egoism 
is  produced  mind,  bhutagunatmaka,  identical  with  the  ele- 
mental constituents,  called  ahamkarika,  that  is,  egoistic,  the 
third  creation,  sarga^.  From  mind  are  produced  the  great  ele- 
ments, mahabhutah  (sic),^  the  fourth  creation,  called  manasa, 
mental.  The  fifth  creation  comprises  sound,  touch,  color, 
taste,  and  smell,  which  is  called  elemental,  bhautika.  The 
sixth  creation  is  the  ear,  skin,  eye,  tongue,  nose,  called  bahu- 
cintatmaka,  that  is,  identical  with  much  thought  (matter  is 
only  a  form  of  mind).  The  seventh  creation  is  the  group 
of  organs  (of  action)  after  the  ear,  called  organ-creation, 
aindriya.  The  eighth  creation  is  the  up-€md-across  stream 
(of  breaths)  called  arjavaka,  that  is,  upright.  The  ninth  is 
the  down-and-across,  also  called  arjavaka.  These  are  the  nine 
creations,  sargani,  and  the  twenty-four  topics,  tattvani,  de- 
clared according  to  the  system  of  revelation  (^rutinidar^a- 
nat)."  So  this  scheme  ends  without  hint  of  a  twenty-sixth 
principle,  but  with  productive  mind  and  a  substitution  of 
atman,  soul,  for  intellect. 

A  more  striking  substitution  is  found  in  xii,  204,  10-11, 
where,  instead  of  the  received  order  as  given  above,  the  list 
from  Source  to  the  senses  is  as  follows: 

^  A%  remarked  above,  organs  and  elements  are  called  indifferently  indrijSh 
or  indrijSni,  mahSbhfitSh  or  mnhabhutani,  as  shown  here  and  elsewhere.  So 
in  this  passage,  sargah  and  sargSni    Compare  tattyan,  above,  p.  96). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  131 

The  Great  Unknown,  or  Unmanifest,  avyaktam,  mahat 

Knowledge,  jfiana 

Intellect 

I 
Mind 

I 
enses 

In  the  following  section,  205, 16  ff.,  intellect  active  in  mind 
is  mind.  It  is  mind  which  is  freed  fn)m  the  gunas  and,  ib.  9, 
mind,  as  a  form  of  knowledge  impeded  by  the  gunas,  pro- 
duces intellect,  which  must  be  withdra^iTi  into  mind  again  for 
one  to  attain  the  highest.  In  these  cases,  there  can  l)e,  from 
a  synthetic  iK)int  of  view,  no  unsystematic  intoqiretation  of 
intellect  and  knowledge  and  mind,  but  a  loose  ^  exploiting  of 
Saiiikhya  in  terms  of  Hmhmaism,  lx)cause  elsewhere  the  Sarii- 
kh}'a  scheme  is  fully  recognized.  So  carelessly  are  the  terms 
employe<I  that^  while  in  one  part  of  the  exposition  knowledge 
is  Bnilimaii  and  mind  is  a  part  of  it,  n*late<l  to  it  as  jiva  is  to 
Atman,  in  another  part  we  are  told  that  this  knowledge  comes 
from  something  higher,  the  Unmanifcst.  Again,  Rrahman  is 
not  the  rnnijinifest  Init  in  the  Vnmanifost,  xii,  319, 1.  There 
is  no  substitution  for  egoism  in  the  alcove,  for  this  is  recog- 
nize<I  in  another  stanza  which  enumerates  as  the  **  group 
calle<l  bhutas,"  (croatcMl)  spirit  (!),  Source,  intellect,  objet'tii 
of  sense,  the  organs,  egoism  and  false  opinion,  205,  24.*     Here 

'  Thc«c  para  lad<1cr»  (compare  Oiti.  3,  42  ;  Kiifh.  Hi,  10)  arc  foiin«l  ererj- 
vhrre  and  often  contradict  the  rcf^ular  ■chrmoa :  *'  S<iul  U  hif^hrr  than  mind, 
miml  than  leniof,  highcft  of  creature*  are  thone  that  move ;  of  them*  the 
bip«*«la;  of  thcue  the  twice-lwrn ;  (»f  theno  the  win*,  of  thp»o  thoar  that  know 
the  totil.  itman  ;  of  thc»e  the  humldc/*  xii.  2t>H,  19  IT. ;  "  ()bjei*ta  an*  higher 
than  •^tiu.'n,  mind  hif^her  than  objocti,  inteUi*ct  hif^her  than  mind,  the  i^reat 
Atman  hijrher  than  intellect/'  xii.  247,  3  (!.  (in  240.  2  paro  mauh  f<»r  mahia 
parah) ;  "  The  nnmanifett  It  hi|;her  than  the  irri*at ;  the  immorul  ii  higher 
than  the  unmanifeat :  nothinir  1*  hifrher  than  the  immortal "  (ib.).  The  aUiret 
In  xir.  fiO,  64  fl.,  are  ipace  or  air,  egoiam.  Intellect,  aonl,  the  nnmanifett,  and 
■pint! 

*  Tbit  if  called  the  aamAho  bhataaamJKakah.  or  "  irronp  of  to-called 
crvate*!  thinjrt.'*  which  it  noteworthr  at  containing  INirutha,  tpirit,  and  abhi* 
mlaa,  falae  opinion,  at  a  dittioct  factor. 


132 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


tlie  source  of  the  Source  and  of  Purusha  alike  is  Brahman,  a 
view  utterly  opposed  to  the  passages  cited  above. 

The  Anugita,  which,  as  already  indicated,  also  has  the 
schemes  above,  continues  in  xiv,  42,  with  a  parallel  to  xii, 
314,  on  the  relation  of  the  elements  to  the  individual,  as 
organ,  to  the  object,  and  to  the  special  deity  concerned  with 
each  action.  At  the  opening  of  the  eighth  chapter  of  the 
Gita  adhyatma  is  called  the  individual  manifestation.  It  is 
literally  that  connected  with  the  self  or  soul,  and  is  often 
used  as  a  noun  in  the  sense  of  metaphysics  (xii,  194  and  248, 
etc.).^  In  xii,  314,  4  and  14,  it  is  said  that  an  explanation  as 
the  Sariikhyas  represent  it,  yatha  samkhyanadarfinaltiL,  is  given 
of  the  manifestations  according  to  the  individual,  vyaktito 
vibhuti,  which  differs  somewhat  from  that  in  the  Anuglla. 
Tlie  scheme  is  as  follows,  starting  with  the  elements  and 
with  aka§a,  air,  as  the  first  bhuta  in  the  latter  account: 


Air 

Wind 

Light 

Water 

Karth 

elementa 

•ar 

akin 

eye 

tongue 

Doae 

adhibhuto 

■oand 

touch  (ob- 
ject of) 

color 

taste 

amen 

d^ta 

adhidSiTsU 

Digaa 

Lightning 
(Parana) 

gon 

Soma 
(Water) 

Wind 

dMnttiea 

•dhyStm* 

feet 

i*ya 

vpastha 

Tolce 

OTgaasoC 
actloB 

adhibhuto 

going 

excretioD 

speaking 

acUTitSee 

acta 

adhidiivato 

ViBhna 

mtra 

Prajipati 

Indra 

Fire 

dirlnitiee 

adh;^tina 

ICind 

Egoiam 

Intellect* 

mental 
powera 

adhibhuta 

thinking 
(manUTya, 
nihkalpa) 

understanding, 
or  thinking 

aciiTltlea 

adhidilrata 

Moon 

Rndra,  or  In- 
tellect 

> 

KfetralBa, 
at  Brahmin 

dlTfaxitlea 

1  Compare  the  u«e  of  these  terms  in  BAU.  iii,  7,  14.  On  adhjitma  in 
this  (lemte,  eompare  also  xii,  331,  30,  adhjStmaratir  asino  nirapeksah  .  .  . 
atmanai  'ra  sahayena  yii<;  caret  sa  sukhi  bharet. 

'  huddhih  sadindriyavicarini, "  directinf^  the  six  senses  "  (usuallj  a  function 
of  mind,  which  is  here  paficabhutatmacarakam),  xiv,  42,  20,  and  31.  Tlie 
function  of  intellect  is  here  mantavyam,  which  in  ^^anti  is  piven  to  mind. 
Kudra  in  the  preceding?  group  in  Anuf^ita  is  replaced  by  buddhi  in  (Snti, 
where  buddhi  is  both  adhyntma  and  adhidaivata.  The  adhidairata  of  intel- 
lect is  spirit,  ksetrajita,  in  (-anti :  BrahmiCn,  in  the  Anugita.  It  is  apparent 
that  we  have  here  (a)  rather  late  matter,  (b)  worked  orer  by  two  seta  of 
rerisort. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  188 

This  scheme  is  unknown  in  the  older  Upanishacls.  Even 
eguLsiu  thus  appears  first  (with  some  variations)  in  Pra^na, 
iv,  8  (Deussen).  Compare  xii,  240,  8,  above,  where  Fire  is 
tlie  divinity  to  digestion,  not  to  voice,  and  SarasvatI  is  assigned 
to  Uie  tongue.  When,  as  often  hap{)ens,  no  egoism  is  men- 
tioned, it  is  because  the  intellect  ('^  the  twelfth  '*  as  it  is  called 
in  the  very  passage  which  gives  thiiteen  above,  xiv,  42,  16, 
and  in  the  Pafica^ikha  schemes  given  below)  is  held  to  im[)ly 
egoism.  The  frequent  oiuissicm,  however,  seems  to  iH>uit  to 
the  fact  that  there  was  originally  no  distinction,  or,  in  other 
wonls,  that  intellect  wiis  primarily  regiirded  as  necessarily 
self-consc'ious  as  soon  as  it  became  manifest  at  all. 

The  TwentyUSixtfa  Principle. 

Clearly  as  most  of  the  s^'hemes  given  aUtve  reveal  the  fact 
th;it  the  twenty-fifth  principle,  or  in  other  words  pure  Ego, 
w;lh  rrgiinled  as  tlie  cuhninaticm  of  the  group  i»f  systematized 
categories,  the  intnision  into  this  sc*heme  of  a  new  [trinciple, 
oviTLi[>ping  the  twenty-fifth,  is  here  and  there  nuwle  mani- 
fest. This  new  principle  is  the  one  denied  in  the  Samkhyiin 
seheme,  namely  that  nf  a  jwrsonal  L<»nl,  i^'vara,  whieh  is 
upheld  in  lh(^  contrast*^!  Yogin  s<*heme.  This  twenty-sixth 
primiple  is  explaiiieil  in  xii,  308;  after  the  8[)eidver  says  he 
has  disix»s<Ml  of  tlie  Saiiikhya  system.  Here  the  male  condi- 
tioniNl  spirit  liewails  his  inten*ourse  with  the  female  Source, 
and  ilie  f.M't  that  as-iiM-iatiiig  with  her  he  has  n<»t  n»eognized 
that  he  h;w  Imm-h  *'like  a  fish  in  water/'  a  foreign  element  in 
conihiiKition  witli  matter,  and  eons(M|uently  is  relM>ni  again 
and  again,  i;\*  24~-»»;  but  now  he  U'eomes  enli;^ht<'ne<l, 
Itiiddha,  and  will  reach  unity,  iis  W(*ll  !i8  likeness  with  the 
L«•^d-^pi^it,  the  indi»structibh»,  27-40.  The  twenty-sixth 
principle  is  thus  n'Ci)«^uze<l  not  only  as  the  t»ne  eternal  prin- 
I  iple,  but  iis  a  |NTM>nal  spirit,  ayam  atra  bhavt*d  Uuidhuh,  27. 
I'lien  follows  ani»ther  ex|Hisition,  which  is  KumnI  on  the  system 
of  Nanula,  n^icived  by  liim  fn»m  Vasistluu  who  in  turn  nv 
e  iveil  it  fn»m  Iliranva^^.irbha,  309,40.  This  system  is  Utth 
Yoga  and  Saiiikhyiu  the  systems  being  double  but  tlie  teai'h- 


184  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ing  being  identical  (yad  eva  gastram  Samkhyanam  yogadaiv 
ganam  eva  tat,  808,  44),  the  claim  usually  made  when  Yoga  is 
advocated.  A  huge  ^^istra  is  that  of  the  Samkhyas,  ^*as  say 
viduso  janah,"  and  one  "to  which,  along  with  the  Veda, 
Yogins  have  recourse."  In  other  words,  the  Yoga  teaching 
is  based  on  Veda  and  on  the  Samkhya  as  a  precedent  system. 
Then  f oUows  the  admission :  "  In  it  (the  Samkhya  system)  no 
principle  higher  than  the  twenty-fifth  is  recognized,"  (asmin 
9astre)  paficavin^at  param  tattvam  pathyate  na,  naiudhipa, 
whereas :  "  The  Yoga  philosophers  declare  a  budhyamana  or 
individual  spirit  and  a  buddha  or  Lord-Spirit  to  be  in  accord- 
ance with  their  principles,  the  latter  being  identical  with  the 
former,  except  that  it  is  fully  enlightened,"  §1.  48. 

Here  also  is  a  perfectly  clear  and  frank  statement,  which 
may  be  paraphrased  thus :  "  In  older  Samkhya  philosophy  the 
highest  principle  recognized  is  that  of  the  pure  individual 
Ego ;  in  the  Yoga  pliilosophy  this  Ego  is  identified  as  indi- 
vidual spirit  with  the  fuUy  enlightened  Lord."  Hence  Yogas 
(and  not  Samkhyas)  speak  of  budhyamana  and  buddha  as 
two  but  identical,  budhyamanam  ca  buddham  ca  prahur  yog&- 
nidarQanam,  5I.  48.  Elsewhere  the  twenty-fifth  principle  is 
itself  the  Lord:  aham  puru§ah  paficavin^akah.^ 

After  this  introduction  the  speaker,  Vasi^tha,  proceeds  to 
describe  this  Yoga  philosopliy  in  detaiL  The  Lord-Spirit 
"divides  himself  into  many,"  atmanam  bahudha  krtva,  and 
becomes  the  different  abuddhas,  or  imperfectly  enlightened 
spirits  conditioned  by  Prakrti.  Thus  he  becomes  conditioned, 
gunan  dliiirayate,  and  "  modifies  himself  "  without  true  knowl- 
edge of  liimself,  vikurvano  budhyamano  na  budhyate.  In 
this  condition,  then,  he  becomes  creator  and  absorber  of  what 

1  Compare  xii,  340,  43,  personal  God  is  the  twenty-fifth.  He  is  the  witnen 
di'void  of  faunas,  and  of  kalas,  ib.  23;  "the  twenty-fifth,  beyond  the  twice 
twelve  tattvas/'  ib.  24.  In  this  passage  the  Unmanifest  is  resolved  into  Puni- 
sha,  340,  :)0-31.  This  is  worth  noting  as  being  in  direct  contradiction  of  the 
theory  of  unchanging  eternal  Prakrti,  as  enunciated  in  xii,  217,  S:  "Both 
Turusha  and  the  uninanifeMt  Source  are  eternal,  without  l>eginning  and  with- 
out end."  In  3^^^  20-31,  Source  is  both  born  and  indestructible.  Compare 
IL  3,  S5, 16,  as  cited  above,  p.  08. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  185 

he  has  created.  The  conditioned  cannot  understand  the 
unconditioned ;  it  is  the  Un-undcrstanding,  apratibudhyakam 
(siCf  S09,  4).  The  conditioned  spirit  can  understand  the 
Unmanifest  but  ^^he  cannot  understand  the  stainless  eter- 
nal buddha,  which  is  the  twenty-sixth  principle/'  ^advingam 
vimalain  buddhaih  sanatiuiain,  though  the  latter  ^^  understands 
both  the  twenty-fifth  and  the  twenty-fourth  principles^"  809, 
7.  **Thi8  twenty-sixth  principle  is  pure  unmanifest  Brah- 
nian,  which  is  connected  with  all  that  is  seen  and  unseen,*' 
ib.  8.  "When  the  conditioneil  spirit  recognizes  the  pure 
Highest  Intelligence,  then  he  becomes  clear-eyed,  avyakta- 
loian;di,  and  free  of  the  Source "  (tiula  pnikrtiman,  sic,  read 
apra?).  The  twenty-sixth  is  this  Highest  Intelligence;  it  is 
*nlie  topic  and  that  which  is  apart  from  all  topics,"  ^1.  10  and 
13.  **The  conditi(»ned  spirit  attains  likeness  with  the  twenty- 
sixth  principle  wln*n  it  recognizes  itself  tus  the  twenty-sixth," 
^idviii<;o  'ham  iti  pnijflah,  ^'1. 16.  **  That  $eparat€ne$$  of  spirits 
which  Ls  part  of  the  expoHiti<m  of  Samkhya  is  n*ally  (ex- 
pliiiiie<l  by)  the  conditiontnl  spirit  when  not  fully  enlightened 
by  the  (fully)  enlightone<l  twenty-sixth,"  i^dvin^ena  pra- 
biiddhrna  budhyamano  'py  abud<lliiman,  etan  niinatvam  ity 
uktaiii  >aii)kliya<;nitini(lar(anat,  <;1.  17.  The  continuation  of 
tluH  t4*ii<-hiiig  |M)ints  <mt  that  unity  with  Kraliman  is  attained 
by  tilt*  individual  spirit  only  when  it  no  longtT  lias  any  con- 
6cioiL*<n<'ss  (of  self),  yiulil  buddhya  na  budhyate,  9I.  18. 

In  thi.s  piiss;ig«*  the  attempt  to  reeon<'ile  the  dix'trine  of  the 
Saiiikhya  individual  spirits,  nanatvum,  "  than  which  tlicrt»  is 
nothini;  Iu^^Iht/*  with  the  (hH-trine  <»f  unity,  ekatvii,  is  as  plain 
an  a  reasonable  liist^trian  could  ex|H»<t  to  find  it.  **Thiis  it 
Is.**  tlit*  acc<mnt  concludt*H,  ^'that  oiw  must  understaml  the 
(two  tht*ories  of)  separatenesK  and  unity/*  naimtvaikatvam 
etiivad  <lrastavyaih  ^'astnularvanfit,  i;\.  22.  And  tlien  <H*our8 
a  very  pretty  lapsus.  Tln»  images  of  the  fly  encjise<l  in  the 
plant,  mavak(MlumlKin\  and  the  fish  in  water,  matsycNlake, 
an*  constantly  employtNl  in  Saiiikhyan  philosophy,  ns  shomi 
aUfve,  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  spirit  is  difTen*nt  from  the 
Soun-e,  though  extcmally  united.     Our  good  Vasi^^ha,  how* 


136  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ever,  brings  these  images  in  to  illustrate  the  difference,  anyat- 
vam,  between  the  individual  spirit  and  Brahman:  "The 
difference  between  the  fly  and  plant,  between  the  fish  and 
water,  is  to  be  understood  as  the  combined  separateness  and 
unity  of  these  two,"  as  if,  from  the  historical  connotation  of 
these  images,  they  were  essentially  different,  whereas  according 
to  the  exposition  they  are  essentially  one.  But  this  is  of  a  piece 
with  the  use  of  vikurvanas,  a  Saiiikhya  term  applied  to  the 
modifications  of  the  Source,  when  used  above,  of  Brahman. 

This  Yoga  doctrine,  as  explained  above,  is  to  be  taught 
(not  to  the  man  that  bases  his  philosophy  on  the  Veda,  na  * 
vedanisthasya  janasya  .  .  •  pradeyam,  but)  "to  any  one  that 
desires  it  for  the  sake  of  wisdom  and  receives  it  with  sub- 
mission," 5I.  32. 

The  Yoga  doctrine  as  here  represented  stands  midway 
between  Saihkhya  and  Brahmaism.  The  former  side  has  been 
fully  illustrated.  In  regard  to  the  latter  it  will  have  been 
noticed  that  while  the  personal  Lord-Spirit  is  a  form  of 
Brahman,  and  Brahman  in  turn  is  identified  with  the  pure 
essence  of  every  individual  spirit,  it  is  merely  said  that 
Brahman  is  connected  with  the  visible  as  weU  as  with  the 
invisible,  dr^yadr^ye  hy  anugatam,  309,  8.  The  Brahman  here 
represented  is  not  the  All,  but  a  pure  Supreme  Spirit  into 
which  fractional  spirits,  parts  of  Brahman  when  he  "made 
himself  many,"  are  reabsorbed.  Of  the  identity  of  the  objec- 
tive world  with  this  BraJiman  there  is  no  word;  neither  is 
there  any  hint  that  the  objective  world  is  illusion,  except  that 
at  the  beginning  of  the  preceding  section,  808,  2  ff.,  the  gen- 
eral opinion,  ahuh,  is  cited  that  "the  Unmanifest  is  igno- 
rance," avidya,  as  opposed  to  the  twenty-fifth  principle  as 
wisdom,  vidya.2  Elsewhere  "  the  Source  is  knowledge,"  jfiana, 
but  also  avedyam  avyaktam,  as  opposed  to  (jEleyo)  vedya^^ 
purusah,  319,  40. 


»» 


1  But  na®,  V.  1.,  X.,"to  one  wise  in  the  Veda  it  may  be  imparted  or  to,' 
etc.    Those  excluded  are  given  in  the  following  verses  as  liars  and  other  evil- 
doer}*, a  long  list. 

3  But  ib.  7,  the  Source  hr  unmanifest  is  vidya ;  the  highest  is  Yidhi  (com- 
pare pradhanavidhiyogasthah  of  ^iva,  xiii,  14,  423),  the  Creator. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  187 

This  doctrine  of  the  twenty-sixth  principle  belongs  only 
to  the  later  part  of  the  pseudo-epic.  The  passage  given 
above  is  found  virtually  repeated  in  xii,  819,  66,  and  70  ff. 
Here  as  Pmkrti  the  chief-thing,  pradhana,  does  not  know 
spirit,  so  spirit  does  not  know  Supreme  Spirit.  "The  one 
that  is  different  (spirit),  seeing  and  yet  not  seeing,  h)oks 
ui>on  tlie  twenty-sixth,  the  twenty-fifth  (pure  spirit)  and 
twenty-fourth.  But  the  twenty-fifth  also  does  not  recognize 
the  twenty-sixth,  who  recognizes  him,  and  having  a  fidse 
opinion  of  liimself  thinks  tliat  no  one  is  higher  than  he  "  (so 
Sl^),  4).  And  further:  "Tlie  twenty-fouilh  should  not  be 
acccpteil  by  wise  men  (as  tlie  twenty-fifth),  any  more  than, 
IxH-ause  of  mere  association,  the  fish  should  Ikj  identified  with 
the  water  it  has  entered  (74).  Tlie  twenty-fifth  on  realizing 
tluit  it  is  different  (from  the  twenty-fourth)  becomes  one  with 
the  twenty-sixth  and  n»cognizes  (the  latter).  For  though 
The  Best  appears  different  from  the  twenty-fifth,  the  saints 
n»^anl  this  as  due  to  the  conditioned  nature  of  the  twenty- 
fifth  and  <leclare  that  the  two  are  really  identical.  Therefore, 
being  afraid  of  birth  and  death,  and  l>eholding  the  twenty- 
sixth,  neiiher  Yog-as  nor  Saiiikhyas  a^lmit  tliat  the  twenty- 
fifth  is  the  indesiructible." 

Here  again,  with  the  new  notion  that  jTva  is  destnictible  (in 
Paramatnian)  there  is  the  attempt  to  foist  on  the  Saiiikhya 
the  U'lief  which  has  U'cn  fonnally  deniinl  to  them.  Similarly 
in  the  Aniniildha  theolog}*,  of  the  personal  Lonl  (iovinda, 
>\h«»  is  said  to  ''create  the  elements,*'  xii,  -<>7,  7  ff.,  it  is  s;iid: 
'•rroin  him  whom  Saiiikhya  and  Yoga  philosophers  de<  lai-e  as 
Hiirht>t  Soul,  Paramatnian,  and  who  is  calletl  tin*  (Ireat  Spirit, 
mahripiiiusa,  is  dtiived  tin*  unmanifest,  avyaktam,  of  uhich 
he  is  the  i>;.>e,  pradhaiiain.  From  the  unmanifest  Lord, 
T<;vara,  <  ame  the  manifest,  and  he  is  Aniruddha,  «alhMl  the 
great  Sniil.  As  egnism  he  creatinl  Hrahm&n  and  the  elements, 
and  then  the  guiias,"  xii,  841,  28-33. 

In  this  copy  <»f  the  pn*<e<ling  p;iss4ige  then*  is  als4)  no 
notit»n  of  Ve<laiita  as  implying  Mava  or  illusion.  Significant 
la  the  fa4.t  that  the  present  teaching  is  represented  in  tlie  fol- 


188  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

lowing  stanzas,  319,  84-86,  as  being  newly  inculcated,  and 
especially  designed  for  those  who  desire  emancipation,  in  con- 
trast to  the  Samkhyas  and  Yogas,  who  are  content  with  their 
own  doctrines,  dharma. 

It  is  thus  clear  that  Sariikhya  is  merely  a  name  to  appeal  to, 
and  stands  in  this  regard  on  a  footing  with  Veda,  an  authority 
claimed  for  the  most  divergent  teaching. 

Maya,  Self-Delusion. 

The  "illusion"  theory  of  the  universe  is  a  development 
from  the  simple  idea  of  delusion,  often  self-delusion.  The 
ordinary  (non-philosophical)  epic  maya  is  a  trick  of  delusion. 
Gods  indulge  in  it  to  overcome  their  enemy.  The  illusion- 
god  par  excellence,  Vishnu  as  Krishna,  thus  deludes  his 
enemies  by  making  them  think  the  sun  has  set  when  it  has 
not,  or  by  parallel  magic  tricks.^  This,  in  my  opinion,*  is  the 
only  meaning  in  the  older  Upanishads,  Indro  mayabhih  puru- 
rupah,  Brh.,  ii,  5,  19  (from  the  Rig  Veda),  "  Indra  multi- 
form through  tricks  of  delusion ; "  na  ye§u  jihmam  anrtam 
na  miiya  ca,  "  in  whom  there  is  naught  crooked,  nor  untrue, 
nor  any  trick,"  Pra^na,  i,  16.  Magic  seems  to  be  the  mean- 
ing (parallel  with  moha)  in  Miiitri,  iv,  2,  where  occurs  the 
indrajiila-maya  of  Mbh.  v,  160,  55. 

In  Gita  7,  14-25,  maya  is  a  divine,  daivi,  delusion  caused 
by  the  gunas,  gunamayi,  cliaracterizing  people  wicked  and 
foolish ;  in  4,  6,  it  is  a  psychic  delusion,  atmamaya,  which 
causes  the  unborn  God  by  means  of  Prakrti  to  appear  to  be 
bom  (not,  be  it  noticed,  which  causes  the  not-soul  to  appear 
to  be  real).  It  occurs  in  one  other  passage,  18,  61,  where  it 
is  the  equivalent  of  moha  in  the  preceding  stanza  (as  in 
Maitrl  Up.,  above).  In  all  these  passages,  although  it  is 
possible  to  read  into  maya  the  meaning  given  it  by  ^^^^^^^^ 
for  example,  yet  the  simpler  meaning  suffices  of  either  trick 

1  This  is  called  indifferently  maya  (chadma)  or  yoga,  v,  160,  54-58;  tU, 
146,  m,  etc. 

'^  In  this  interpretation  of  maya  I  am  forced  to  differ  from  that  of  Deussen, 
who  holds  that  maya  is  Vedantic  Illusion  (i.  e.,  the  not-soul  appears  through 
dirinc  Illusion  to  be  real)  even  in  the  earliest  •criptures. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  189 

or  delusion  (false  understanding)  applied  to  the  relation  of 
individual  soul  and  God,  and  tliis  is  probably  the  meaning, 
because  niaya  as  illusion  plays  no  part  in  the  development  of 
the  scheme,  (iuna-miule  delusion  is  the  regular  Saiiikhya 
Prakrii-niiule  ignomme;  it  is  not  Prakrti's  self. 

The  expression  used  alK)ve  of  Krishna's  maya  that  it  is 
**  divine,"  has  no  special  philosophical  significance.  The  same 
phrtt2>e  is  applied  to  I)ur}*odliana'8  water-trick,  daivim  miiyam 
imam  krtva,  ix,  31,  4.  When,  too,  Krishna  in  the  (ilta  says 
that  he  is  lK)ni  by  almamriya,  it  must  be  remembered  tliat  in 
describing  the  parallel  situation  m  the  Kamayana,  where 
Vishnu  is  lx)rn  as  Kama,  the  word  chiulman,  disguise,  cover, 
is  uschI  as  the  etpiivaleiit  of  maya,  G.  vi,  11,  82. 

In  a  very  interesting  criticiue  of  the  new  doctrine  of  mok^a, 
tliat  is,  siilvation  without  Vedic  siicrilices,  an  orthodox  objector 
\a  represented  as  siiying:  "This  doctrine  of  salvation  has 
been  brought  out  by  misc»nible  idle  pundits;  it  is  Ixised  on 
ignonince  of  the  Ytnla  and  is  a  lie  under  the  guise  of  truth* 
Not  by  despising  the  Vediis,  not  by  chicanery  and  delusion 
(mfiyaya)  does  a  man  obtain  great  (Hralunan).  lie  finds 
IJrahman  in  brahman"  (Vt^la).^ 

Similarly,  wlien  Dnlupadi  pliilos< ►phizes  in  iii,  30,  32,  her 
o|M*ning  wonls  sIkjw  that  she  reveivs  as  the  chief  ginl  the 
Creator,  who,  like  other  cn*atures,  is  subje«'t  to  tnuismigrati<m, 
32,  7,  and  is  in  no  res|H»ct  an  All-g(Kl,  though  a  later  n* writ- 
ing of  the  s<ene  mix«*s  up  Hhag;iv;it,  Ivvanu,  and  Pnijapati.* 
This  giwl,  siie  says,  has  deludtnl  (moha)  lier  huslxind*s  mind 

*  A«  ttio  M'<'tinn  if  (H*('upiiMl  in  a(lv(M*atinK  tlu>  oni'-iiotil  (A1I-miuI).  iikit* 
mva.  •IiM-trim*.  it  xn  rhiir  that  iiiiiva  ia  \\vtv  iihtoIv  (K-liiniDfi  or  (ItM-«  it,  siL 
2T(^  '*^'t\.  Till*  wopIi  «if  the  tixt  ari>  :  i;T\\9i  rihiiiiir  alA»iih  |»an<litaih  nam* 
prmvartitAin,  v«-<I{ivti>iiiparijr)aimiii  natyahlia^am  iva  'nrtaiii  .  .  .  na  vrdaiiftm 
|MiriMiavan  na  yathvrna  na  iiiH\ava  maliat  |ira|tni>ti  piiru^ti  tirahniaiii  l»rahmA 
Tin<Liti.  \V\,  'J70,  17.  1*.^  Kaiiila.  to  fihotn  thr  n-uiark  i«  addrtuM**!,  a«lnitU 
*'l)i«*  Vflai  ari>  autlioritatnr."  TiMlah  prantariaiii  lokinatn,  271,  1,  but,  43, 
iD»i«tii  that,  tlimi^h  "  v\vT\  \\\\\\^  in  Im^nl  on  tho  V«Hia,*'  tht*  cruel  animal  •acri- 
fli-««  th<riin  riij<>in«Ml  ar«>  nl>j«-«tii»naMc  (aa  citvil  alntTf).  an<l  u|>hu!«lt  the 
th<**t«  th.it  "  knowh'lu'v  i4  tlu'  Ik'hI  nifant  of  aalvation.*' jftanath  tu  paraml 
gaiih.  jri,  ■>  —  t!ii«  by  thr  by**. 

'    'V\\\'  Tv\\*uii\  ap|H'ar«  t  burly  at  th%*  (inl  in  l>rauiMiilI*t  cunvvrstuo.     Com* 
pan*  Uic  cuiiimvutii,  A(»S.,  I'tociihI.,  March,  lt«m. 


140  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

and  in  deluding  men  generally,  mohayitva,  the  Lord  shows 
the  power  of  his  delusion,  mayaprabhava,  which  deludes  them 
by  atmamaya  (the  same  expression  as  that  of  the  Gita,  cited 
above),  making  them  kill  each  other  as  blind  instruments  of 
his  will,  which  act  without  volition,  just  as  a  stone  breaks 
another  in  the  hands  of  a  man.  Man  proposes,  but  God  dis- 
poses ^  by  means  of  a  trick,  chadma  krtva,  80,  36,  "  playing 
with  men  as  children  play  with  toys."  "  Fie,  fie,"  says  her 
husband,  "  don't  speak  so  of  the  Lord,  through  whose  grace 
the  f aitliful  gets  immortality,"  31,  42 ;  "  for  these  things  are 
divine  mysteries  (devaguliyani,  rewards  of  good  and  evil), 
since  the  divinities  are  full  of  secret  tricks,"  gudhamaya  hi 
devatah,  31,  35-37.  The  ^astras  and  faith,  not  magic,  maya, 
or  sinful  works,  give  faith  in  Krislma,  v.  G9,  3-5. 

Again,  in  the  account  of  the  Paficakalajflas,  the  visiting 
Hindus,  who  look  with  awe  on  the  service  paid  to  the  One 
God,  say  that  they  could  hear  the  hymn,  but  could  not  see 
the  god,  because,  as  they  suppose,  they  were  "  deluded  by  the 
god's  maya,"  mohitas  tasya  mayaya,  xii,  337,  44-48.  God  in 
the  following  is  called  the  mahamayadhara,  as  he  is  also  called 
by  the  rather  modem  epithets  caturmaharajika,  saptamaha- 
bhaga,*-^  xii,  339,  3  ff.  Here  maya  is  truly  illusion,  as  it  is  said 
in  340,  43-45 :  "  God  is  he  by  whom  tliis  illusion  (of  visible 
God)  was  created,"  miiya  hy  e§a  maya  sr^ta  yan  mam  pa^yasi, 
Nanida ;  but  it  is  not  illusion  embracing  the  world  of  objective 
things,  even  in  this  late  accoimt  (careless  enough,  for  example, 
to  construe  iti  vai  menire  vayam,  337,  88).  There  is  at  least 
no  piissage  in  the  epic  which  says  blimtly  that  "Prakrti  is 
maya,"  as  does  ^vet.  Up.  iv,  10.  On  the  contrary,  the  great 
m£uss  of  epic  philosophy,  though  it  teaches  that  the  sinner  is 
deluded  '*  by  Vishnu's  hundred  mayas,"  302,  59,  teaches  also 
that  this  delusion  is  merely  a  confusion  of  mind  in  respect  of 
the  relation  of  the  pure  soul  to  the  conditioned  soul.  It  does 
not  teach  that  those  things  which  condition  the  soul  are  an 

^  anvntha  manjante  purusas  tani  tani  ca  .  .  .  anyatha  prabhuh  karoti 
vikaroti  ca,  iii,  30,  34. 

'  He  is  also  caUed  akbandala,  which  in  xii,  337,  4,  \»  still  an  epithet  of 
Indra. 


EPIC  piriLosopiir,  141 

illusion,  but  that  they  are  eternal  substance,  either  in  tliem- 
selves  or  as  parts  of  Brahman.  Take  for  instance  the  long 
account  in  xii,  196  to  201.  It  is  not  suggested  tliat  the  sin- 
ner divest  himself  of  illusion.  lie  goes  into  molia,  tlmt  is  he 
becomes  confused,  and  again  he  enters  Brahman,  197,  10;  or 
*' enjoys  bliss,"  ramate  sukliiim  ("if  he  does  not  wish  the 
highest,  because  his  soul  is  still  tinged  with  desire,  ni^ltma, 
he  attiiins  wluitever  he  desires  "),^  Knowledge  is  Brahman, 
and  hence  one  must  be  free  of  all  delusion  to  be  Brahman 
indee<l,  and  tnily  immortal,^  but  the  objective  world  is  seldom 
an  illusion  of  Brahman.  Moreover,  the  avidya  of  (iod  is 
clciirly  an  afterthouglit.  Acconling  to  one  section  in  <^anti, 
(f(xl  creates  the  world  "at  the  point  of  day"  througli  avidyii 
or  ignorance.  First  mahat  was  bom,  "which  quickly  iKvanie 
mind"  (where  mind  and  not  intellect  is  vyakt^i,  miinifest), 
which  is  *'  chanicterizcHl  by  desire  and  doubt."  *  This  siime 
aocoiuit  in  its  first  form  is  foiuid  in  232,  32,  without  avidya: 
"The  Lonl,  i(;vam,  sleeps  during  the  cataclysm  sunk  in  med- 
itation, dhvana;  but,  when  a\\'akentMl  at  the  close  of  niirht,  he 
tninsfonns  the  eternal,  vikuruto  Imihmii  'ksayyam,  and  pnv 
duri's  the  (treat  Being,  whence  mind,  one  with  the  manifest." 
The  fi»lli»wing  section  simply  picks  up  this  account,  rej>eat8 
it  in  almost  the  s;ime  wonls,  but  slips  in  avidya  to  explain  the 
expression  "creates."     The  alteration  is  the  more  marke<l  as 

1  Sonn*  wry  fn'()t«>9fluoconct*pti<)nii  arv  expn»iiiod  Iktc.  In  2^0,25,  the  Jirt 
^oul  jr*M'^  to  Atman  ;  ar  jjo^n  to  hcivrn  nn<I  \i\v9  •opiiratfly.  Whon  an  a  tl.iine 
the  njiirit  n»cini!(i  to  lu-avi*n,  Hrahmilii  like  a  oourteoun  liotl  *my§  "  Coiiu*.  tlaj 
«itli  inc."  m-dfM  it  (or  liim)  roHMcious  an«l  then  nwallows  liiiii! 

*  "  SiifTnw  in  tlu*  tn«l  of  joy  a«  ni^rht  in  thi-  vml  of  «lay,  Joy  is  xhv  finl  of 
•orrnw,  A*  il.ty  in  tlu-  ciitl  of  iii^'ht "  (thfnr  hucivi*  1  each  otlicr  ami  cnrh  Un%  iia 
«n!);  "only  kiioulrd^'i'  cixln  n«>t,  for  knofiU^l^i*  i«  HrMhiiiaii,"  \iv.  41.  IH, 
•J^^-Jl  ;  IT,  1.  Not  till  .VJ.  U,  i.  *..,  nftor  the  Anutfita.  In  rtiii»hc«l,  if  Ma\  a  a  lActnt 
here.  Pri'vi<iu»ly  tlure  i«  only  the  ^'horarnoha  or  horrihle  nii«U!i>lrrotniiihng 
of  truth,  xir,  i't,  4,  etc.     In  xviii.  .'1,  lUl,  Indru'*  niiiva  it»  aii  optical  'Uhi^ion. 

■  xii.  J  i-J,  1  tT.  Ili-re  i^  to  \tv  notiee<l  a  rontra«lietJi»n  in  epi«'  p»\eholofly. 
Miu'l  in  thin  p.-inna^rr  ha«  prarthana  an*l  iii*rk»i,  that  i*  it  th'ture*.  whefeM 
el*e%«hrre  «li«iri' (thr  tiiuxplaineil  "  *»•%  enth."  til,  177,  .'i2)  i«  an  attrihtite  of 
t-^..i«tii  inti  !!«  rt  l)i*irt  i*  horn  of  itn^kination.  •aiiiWnlpa,  xii.  177.  ••'• ;  it  it 
<i<-tro\i<l  \'\  a\>>iliiu'  ihiti,  oirj,  M;  but,  "  rvuiuTc  miuil  fruiu  MtixkmlpA  aad 

fix  it  on  »iif."::a,  17. 


142  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

many  texts  make  no  division  of  chapters  here.  In  either  ease 
the  account  of  creation  goes  right  on,  first,  282,  82,  stated  as 
(i§varah) : 

pratibuddho  vikurute  brahm&  'ksajjam  ksapdksaje 
srjate   ca   mahad    bhatam   tasm&d  vyakUltmakam 
manah 

and  then  as: 

brahmatejomajam  Qukram  yasya  sarvam  idam  jagat 
ekasja  bhatam  bbotasja  dvajam  stbavarajangamam 
aharmukbe  vibuddbah  san  srjate  'vidyayd  jagat 
agra  eva  mahad  bhutam  &qu  vjakt&tmakam  manah. 

As  the  seven  creators^  mentioned  in  the  following  stanza, 
233,  3,  are  explained  as  intellect,  mind,  and  the  five  elements, 
it  is  clear  also  that  egoism  as  a  distinct  factor  is  omitted.  The 
seven  cannot  create  apart,  so  they  unite  and  make  the  body 
which  the  "great  beings,"  bhutani  mahanti,  enter  with  Karma. 
The  adikarta.  First  Creator,  is  Prajapati,  who  acts  without 
Maya,  9L  13.^  In  short,  while  sometimes  recognized,  Maya 
is  generally  unknown  in  the  epic,  because  the  epic  lacks  unity, 
being  now  and  then  Vedantic,  but  generally  Yogaistic. 

Panca9i]Lha'8  System. 

In  the  presentation  above  I  have  analyzed  the  three  differ- 
ent religious  philosophies  advocated  in  the  pseudo-epic;  the 
Saihkhya,  which  holds  to  spirit  and  Source  as  distinct  immor- 
tal entities;  the  Yoga,  which  adds  the  Supreme  Spirit;  and 
the  personal  religion  of  Narada  and  others,  which  makes  of 
the  Paramatman  or  Supreme  Spirit  a  modified  form  of  Brah- 
man known  as  Aniruddha,  etc.,  and  identified  with  Krishna. 
In  xii,  352,  13,  the  Paramatman  doctrine  is  declared  to  be  the 

^  minasa, "  mind-creatureB/'  the  same  epithet  as  that  applied  to  the  eternal 
Deva  in  xii,  182,  11.    Compare  BAU.  ii,  6,  7 ;  Gita,  10,  6. 

'  sanrabhutanj  upadaja  tapasag  caranaya  hi  adikartS  la  bhntinim  tam 
evi  'huh  prajapatim.  The  commentator  explains  "by  meant  of  MijI* 
(BAU.  ii,  5, 10),  but  there  is  not  even  the  suggestion  of  the  Miji  doctrine  here. 
The  etymology  in  9I.  11  (te  . .  .  9arfra9rayanam  priptSs  tato  pumsa  ucyate) 
teems  to  be  owing  to  a  confusion  with  puri9ayam  pomsam  ik^te,  Pra9.  y.  6. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  148 

opinion  of  some  Pundits  only,  in  distinction  from  that  of  the 
knowledge-philosophers,  who  are  said  to  hold  to  unity  of  souL 
However  this  passage  may  be  interpreted,*  it  is  evident  that 
it  distinctly  sets  over  against  each  other  the  Yoga  and  Brah- 
man interpretation.  Paramatman  is  identified  with  Vishnu 
the  "  unconditioned.  All-soul  spirit."  The  religion  taught 
is  expressly  opposed,  as  something  higher,  to  Samkhya  and 
Yoga  (9I.  7-8),  and  by  comparison  with  other  schemes  is  of 
Paiicaratra  character.  A  preceding  section  states  that  the 
same  religion  is  identical  with  the  doctrme  taught  to  Arjuna 
in  the  (iTtii,  349,  8,  and  (as  already  noticed)  it  is  here  called 
"  the  Krishna  religion,"  Satvata  dharma,  which  has  mysteries, 
abstracts,  and  an  Aranyaka  (ib.,  29-81).  It  was  handeil  down 
tlin)ugh  the  seers,  and  a  priest  who  was  acquainted  with  the 
(JycHtlia)  Sanian  (and)  Vedanta.  His  name  was  Je^tlia  (sic). 
Tlien  it  disapi)eare(l,  to  be  promulgated  agtiin  in  the  Ilarigltuli^ 
ib.  46  and  53.  In  it,  Vishnu  as  (lod  is  adored  in  one,  two, 
thret*,  or  four  forms  (the  usual  group  is  meant,  Aniniddlui, 
Pnulyumna,  Saiiikarsana,  Vasudeva).*  The  disciples  are  called 
"  Uiose  dev()t4»<l  to  one  (lod,"  ekantinas,  and  it  is  lianl  to  find 
many  of  them  (<lurLibliah,  349,  62,  compare  Gita,  7,  19). 
They  are  identified  yniXx  the  Pallcaratras  (so  336,  25),  a  sect 

>  The  words  neom  to  indicate  the  sntitheffia  not  of  three  but  of  two  )>elieff : 
eTAiii  hi  paramitminam  kecid  icchanti  panditilt,  ekitminaih  tathi  'tininam 
ai>are  jninacintakah,  tatra  yah  paramitmi  hi  m  nityaih  nirf^unah  imrtah,  m 
hi  Nariyano  Jficyali  tarritmapuruso  hi  imh.  The  commentator,  hfiwcver, 
may  U>  rif^ht  in  taking;  itman  to  refer  to  Siriikhyat  and  ekitman  at  brahml- 
bhinnam  (Vedinta).  thou^^h  the  single  subject  would  make  it  mon>  natural 
to  take  ekitniinam  atnianam  as  "  one  spirit  which  is  alone.^  Vishnu  h«>n*  is 
the  manti  mantaTyam,  "  the  thinker  and  the  thought/*  and  the  eternal  fore- 
caus4>.  pradhina,  9I.  17-18.  In  9I.  22,  God  plays,  kridati,  in  his  four  forms  (aa 
often). 

•  O'^*.  on  tbe  othtT  hand,  has  eight  forms  (the  Puranic  view),  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  cofimicntAtnr  (though  murti  may  imply  the  incorporations,  Kudrm, 
Bhiirara.  V^r%,  Tvvara.  Mahadera.  I^ayupati.  (^Mrti,  Hhaira).  are  the  Aire  el^ 
mentf.  sun.  miKin.  and  I'urusha.  iii.  4\>,  H.  Such  divisions  are  oft«n  unique 
an«l  appan  ntly  arhitrary.  Si'e  Indow  cm  the  eight  sources.  '*  Indestructible 
Brahman"  (liki-  Sattva)  in  eightwnfold  accortling  to  (lii.  312,  13)  II  3.  14, 
III.  aftJidavATidhaiii  (or  nidham).  Kight  an«l  a  thousand  (only  pseud«>^pic) 
%Tv^\\tkik  namts.  against  Vishnu's  even  thousand.  The  "  worlds '*  are  right 
(see  below),  ur  sctvo,  or  twenty-one,  according  to  the 


144  TEE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

the  teaching  of  which  is  here  identified  not  only  with  that  of 
the  Saiiikhya-Yoga,  but  also  with  that  of  Vedaranyaka,  ib. 
849,  81,  and  with  the  religion  of  the  "  white  men  *'  and  Yatis, 
gvetanam  Yatinam  ca,  ib.  85.  Compare  836,  19,  the  white 
men's  religion,  and  Satvata  Vidhi,  declared  by  Suiya, 

The  difference  between  religion  and  philosophy  is  obliter- 
ated in  India,  and  the  Pailcaratra,  sect  is  exalted  as  a  develop- 
ment of  the  Bhagavadbhaktas,  as  the  latter  are  represented 
m  the  Gita,  clearly  an  indication  of  posteriority ;  while  their 
philosophy  is  rather  contrasted  than  identified  with  that  of 
the  Saiiikhya. 

Three  expositions  are  given,  which  embody  the  same  ter- 
minology, and  may  be  called  the  Paficagikha  system. 

Paficagikha  Kapileya  (interpreted  as  a  metronymic!)  ap- 
pears in  xii.  218,  6  ff.,  and  820,  2  ff.  His  punch-name  is 
elaborately  amplified  in  the  former  passage,  where,  218,  10  ff., 
he  is  an  incorporation  of  Kapila  and  the  first  pupil  of  AsurL 
In  Pafl<?a8rotas,  where  there  is  a  Kapila  mandala,  he  holds  a 
long  "session,"  satra,  having  "bathed  in  the  jt>afl<?a8rotas " 
(five  rivers  of  the  mind  ?  cf.  ^vet.  1,  5),  and  being  versed  in 
tiie  Pafl(?aratra  (doctrine),  and  being  called  in  consequence 
not  only  jptifl(?aratravi9arada,  but  also 

paflcajflah  paficakrt  pafica-gunah  pafica^ikhah  (smrtah), 

epithets  which  are  duly  interpreted  by  the  omniscient  NUa- 
kantha.  He  also  (below)  has  the  epithet  Faficaratrah,  which 
is  the  only  one  that  need  concern  us,  as  the  interpretation  of 
the  others  is  mere  guesswork.  Paflca^ikha  is  regarded,  then, 
as  the  teacher  of  the  new  sect  of  Paficaratras.* 

His  doctrine  rests  on  the  ancient  foundation  of  "disgust 
with  birth,  disgust  with  acts,  disgust  with  all  things,"  sarva- 
nirveda,  and  is,  in  short,  the  religion  of  ennui,  which  consists 

*  The  seven  Citra9ikhandinfl  are  referred  to  as  the  anthor  of  the  Pilica- 
ritra  Qastra  in  336,  27;  337,  3,  (Istraih  citra9ikhandijam.  These  are  the 
seven  I*rakrtis,  personified  as  the  seven  old  sages,  whose  names  are  given  below, 
p.  170,  to  whom  is  added  Manu  to  make  the  "  eight  sources,"  336,  20.  In 
the  hymn  at  xii,  330,  the  god  is  called  Paficakala-kartrpati,  PSficaritrikA 
PaScagni,  Palicayajlia,  Paficamahakalpa  (as  also  Citra^ikhan^in). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  145 

in  a  little  more  tlian  mere  indifference.  The  literal  meaning 
is  that  one  "  finds  oneself  out  of,"  or  is  sick  of,  tlie  round  of 
birth  and  dciith.  Nirvana  is  attained  by  nirveda.*  This  dis- 
gust and  tlie  rejection  of  that  untrustwortliy  delusion,  ana9va- 
siko  mohah,  which  le;ids  to  religious  practices  and  the  h()|)e  of 
rewimls,  xii,  218,  21-22,  is  the  starting-point  of  the  system, 
whidi,  synthetically  considered,  should  eubninate  in  Krislina- 
Vishnu,  as  the  be-all  and  endsill,  as  in  other  cases. 

Tlie  aniilysis  of  the  system  is  preceded  by  a  most  int<?rest- 
injx  and  liistorically  important  review  of  certain  faUacies,  as 
follows.  The  unbeliever  says:  " One  who  relies  on  tradition 
(the  scriptunO  says  that  there  is  something  beyond  after  the 
destruction  (of  the  ImhIv),  as  l)eiiig  obvious  and  seen  by  all; 
but  such  an  one  is  refuted  bv  the  fact  that  death  of  self  is 
nc<^ation,  deprivation,  of  self,  anfitma  hy  atnmno  mrtyuh. 
Death  is  a  weakness  induced  by  age.  Through  delusion  one 
iniai^int^s  a  soul,  and  this  is  erroneously  reg«inled  as  the 
"  soinrthing  l)cyond  "  (or  higher).  For  practical  puq)oses 
i>nc  may  assume  what  is  not  true  (that  there  is  no  <lejilh  of  the 
soul),  just  as  one  may  say  that  "the  king  never  dies,"  ajiiro 
'yam  anirtyug  ca  rajfi  'sau.  Hut  when  stancthing  is  asscrte^l 
and  denied  and  no  evidence  is  given,  on  what  should  one  Uise 
a  jutl^^nnent?  Direct  obs(»rvation  (evi<lence  of  the  senses)  is 
tin*  Ikis**  of  received  tt»aching  and  of  infen»nce.  Ke<'eived 
tearhing  is  destroy«'<l  by  direct  olKser\'ation,  and  (as  evidence) 
infcHMK  e  amounts  to  nothing." 

Till'  last  si-nteine  reads  in  the  original.  21H,  27: 

nratvaksxiiii  hv  etavnr  imilaiii  krtAntAitihvavor  ai»i 
i>r:itvak<^t'ii:l  *i!ain:)  bhinnali  krtanto  v;\  na  kiiiicaiia 

TIk'  riininirntainr  takrs  krtaiita  as  anumana  and  fiitihya  as 
e<{ui\.iliiit  to  rii:aina  :  tlmuL^h  in  l!40,  2,  ana^atam  anaitihyaiii 
k.iiii.ini  Itrainna  MliiLrat-<  iiati  <  wiicre  tin*  comnient;itor  s;i\  s  that 
fiL'ita    is  prat\aks.i  and  anumrma  ),    **  il(»w   can  a   giMMl    nuui 

1  ('••r]iii:iri*  xii.  !"*'.>.  V»-17  "  <  >iti>  raniint  know  tho  unknnwn  (if  faith  t»e 
1.1' L.f.^"  k>«|i  tht  iiiiiil  oil  faith;  h«il  t  ii  to  \\%v  %  ital  air;  \\\v  >ital  air  to 
It' I  If.  t:  '\  '.:i.i  '.•>  .i!t.iiii<  1  \'\  iur%i  i.i.'  (iita,  ft.  ja.  iiir> iiiiiat'i'taBi  jugo 
(\.  «.  ».  .1%.  II. I  y.Ki .  Muiil  I  |>  I. '.'.  1:.*.  braliiuanu  mrTiHlam  IjiL 

10 


146  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

attain  to  Brahman  not  known  to  tradition  nor  revealed  in  the 
Veda?"^  and  in  G.  v,  87,  23,  aitihyam  anumanam  ca  prat- 
yak^am  api  ca  'gamam,  ye  hi  samyak  pariki^ante,  it  is  distin- 
guished from  the  latter.  The  word  agama  is  of  sufficient 
importance  to  note  the  epic's  own  definition  given  in  xii,  270, 
43 :  agamo  vedavadas  tu  tarkafastrani  ca  'gamah,  "  Received 
(scriptural)  teaching  includes  the  words  of  the  Veda  and 
philosophical  codes ; "  a  remarkable  definition  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  latter  are  heterodox,  and  that  agama  is 
currently  used  as  equivalent  to  right  tradition.  The  tarka- 
vidya  is  elsewhere  differentiated  from  logic,  anvik§iki,  though 
both  are  called  useless,  xiii,  37,  12,  when  not  extolled,  as 
^of  ten  1 

The  next  stanza  continues:  "Enough  of  making  assump- 
tions based  on  this  or  that  inference.  In  the  opinion  of  (us) 
unbelievers  there  is  no  other  '  spirit '  than  the  body." 

For  clearer  understanding  of  the  historical  value  of  this  I 
must  give  the  exact  words,  218,  28 : 

yatra  yatr^  'nam^ne  'smin  krtam  bb^vayato  'pi  ca 
nS,  'nyo  jivah  qarlrasya  ndstikanara  mate  sthitah 

Here  krtam  bhavayatah  in  the  meaning  of  bhavanaya'lam  (N.) 
is  even  more  careless  than  the  following  genitive  with  Qari- 
rasya ;  but  both  are  indicative  of  the  slovenly  style  which 
belongs  alike  to  the  Puranas  and  the  pseudo-epic. 

The  unbeliever  (according  to  the  commentator)  continues 
with  a  stanza  almost  unintelligible  in  its  SQtra-like  concise- 
ness, which  can  be  given  only  by  the  original : 

reto  vatakanIk2yS,m  ghrtap&kddhivasanam 

jS,tih  smrtir  ayaskdntab  saryakS^nto  'mbubbaksanam 

"  The  seed  in  the  banyan-flower  (accounts  for  the  delusion  of 
soul)  ;  butter  (is  only  another  form  of  grass) ;  rum  (is  but 
fermented  rice).  Memory  (and  other  '  psychic '  f mictions  are 
identical  with  the)  creature  bom.*     (The  '  soul '  is  like  the) 

1  Just  below,  240,  3,  the  expression  manasa^  ce  'ndrijanam  ca  aikSgrjam 
may  be  noticed  a«  a  repetition  phrase  of  iii,  260,  25. 

'  I  take  adhiyasana  in  the  sense  of  adhiySsa,  home :  (consider)  the  origin 
of  ghee  and  fermented  (liquor) ;  N.  paraphraaes,  adhlyisitit  (add  in  pw.). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  147 

magnet  (which  moves  iron  not  bj  psychical  but  by  physical 
potency).^  The  burning-glass  (makes  fire,  and  so  the  fiery, 
active,  soul  is  but  a  physical  phenomenon).  (The  fire*s) 
devouring  of  water  (is  t}'pical  of  the  soK^ed  appetite  or 
desire  of  the  soul),'"  or,  in  other  words :  Desire  and  enjoyment 
are  no  proof  of  a  superphysical  entity,  any  more  than  in  the 
case  of  a  fire  gratifying  its  thirst  for  water. 

The  denial  of  the  soul-doctrine  next  calls  forth  the  follow- 
ing refutation : 

^^  A  passing  away  (of  something  not  physical  occurs)  in  the 
ease  of  a  de;id  being.  Supplication  of  the  gods  (proves  the 
existence  of  incoq)ore<il  entities).  (There  would  be  besides) 
in  the  case  of  tlie  dciul  a  cessation  of  actji  [the  Karma  doctrine 
would  have  t4)  l)e  given  up].*  This  is  the  proof.  (Then 
again)  things  incori)<)mte  cannot  be  causes,  hetavah,  for  there 
is  no  identity  (»f  that  which  lias  form  and  that  which  has  no 
form,"  218,  30-31. 

AftiT  this,  other  sceptics,  who  the  commentator  rightly  (as 
I  think)  s;iys  are  Buddhists,'  are  introduced  with  a  new  argu- 

Jitih  nmrtih,  "birth  and  mpmorj,'*  woald  Mcm  to  implj  that  momorj  arfjcuct 
a  f(iriii«T  birth,  aa  in  TataRjuli**  Sutra,  ir,  ().  Thia  would  U?  an  arfcuinvnt  on 
the  oth«T  Miilo,  111  if  the*  Ptanza  Wfn>  writ  to  prorc*  the*  oppoaitt*.  I  follow  N., 
though  iiu-liiird  to  think  that  the  wonln  really  oufrht  to  be  put  into  the  mouth 
of  tho  U'ru*T«'r  (trti*,  butter,  nicniorj,  etc.,  vhow  aoul).    See  the  neit  note. 

1  Hut  compari*  th«>  (tirthotloi)  view  aa  explained  in  xii,  211,  3:  "As  a4.*nae> 
li>fit  iron  ruin*  tow.ir«l  a  ma^nvt ;  «<>  conditiona  liom  lH*cauM>  of  one'a  nature 
and  all  tIm-  nlmihir"  (an*  attracted  toward  the  aoul).  The  pap«af{ct  aeem 
curiouiily  rrliiti-il.  an  jti«t  )K*forc  standi,  9I.  2,  rathi  'yTatthakanikiyim  antar 
bhuto  niahadrumnh  niF>]innno  dictate  Tyaktam  aryaktit  aambhavaa  tathft, 
"birth  from  the  uniiianif«'p>t  id  nn  whm  a  great  tree  lM>m  in  a  flower  coming 
out  is  MH-n  c-Ii-arly."    ('«ini|iar«'  HAl*.  iii,  0,  2H  ;  i^xv\.  I'p.  I,  15,  etc. 

>  Thin,  like  t!ie  Aiip<'iil  to  the  exiitence  of  dirinities,  ia  a  presumption  of 
what  i«  to  )h*  jirovid.  of  courik*,  the  unbelieTer  IddicTes  neither  in  metem* 
p«yi-hotiiti  nor  in  t;odp.  ))Ut  he  is  not  allowed  to  say  any  mure.  In  xii,  «k4,  47, 
tht'  ar^unii-nt  for  the  exi^ti^ne*'  of  the  S<}unv  and  the  spirit  is  that  lM>th  are 
infrrabli  fmrn  efTfct!!  (a«  leapons  are  from  fruits,  .HM),  27).  In  the  latter  paa- 
SA}:o.  th«-  Piiirit  "  inftrretl  by  pitru*,**  lingas,  is  calU-d  paAcaviAvatima  (taklra- 
ItijiA  Ar«ah !). 

"  Inti  n-*tini;.  Tiotli  a«  nhowint;  how  the  epic  r^'p<*ats  itself  and  Bnddhiam, 
ari*  \\\.  IT'i  nii'l  '.'77  (ii*u-r«'  »r^«-ral  pidas  are  identical  with  thi>se  In  the 
l>h  until  i|i.i<U|.  nnd  xiii,  W-V  The  ahiAai  doctrine  is  carried  on  here  In  xili, 
111, '».  Hhii  h  re|Hats  xii,  1¥\  IS,  with  a  tatM  rvA«iia(  that  ahowa  tht  fvtUl^ 


148  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ment  against  the  existence  of  soul:  "Some  say  the  cause, 
karana,  of  successive  rebirth  is  ignorance,  avidya,  desire,  con- 
fusion of  mind,  and  the  practice  of  faulty  acts;  ignorance 
being  the  field  watered  by  thirst,  and  acts  being  the  seed 
planted  in  it,  aU  of  which  cause  rebirth.  They  say  that 
(ignorance)  is  concealed  (in  the  body)  and  is  burned  away, 
and  that,  when  the  mortal  part  is  destroyed,  another  body  is 
bom  from  it  and  they  call  this  the  destruction  of  being.  But 
(in  answer  to  this),  how  can  it  be  just  the  same  man  in  this 
(new  body),  since  he  is  different  in  form,  in  birth,  in  good, 
and  in  aims  ?  For  (if  there  is  no  soul)  all  would  be  discon- 
nected. (Further)  if  this  is  so,  what  pleasure  would  there  be 
in  gifts,  wisdom,  or  the  power  gained  by  religious  practices? 
For  another  entity  would  get  the  fruit  of  what  this  man  prac- 
tises, since  one  man  by  means  of  another's  nature,  prakrtaih, 
would  be  made  wretched  or  blessed  here  on  earth.  (In  this 
matter)  the  decision  in  regard  to  what  is  invisible  (must  rest 
on)  what  is  visible.  If  you  kill  a  body  with  a  cudgel  would 
another  arise  from  it?  Even  so  the  separate  consciousness 
would  be  a  different  consciousness,  not  the  original  one. 
This  destruction  of  being  (spoken  of  above,  satvasamk^aya) 
would  be  repeated  like  seasons  and  years ;  [there  would 
indeed  be  no  end  to  it,  for  if  it  is  argued  that  destruction 
of  consciousness  ever  results  in  a  new  consciousness,  then 
destruction  of  being  would  result,  not,  as  the  Buddhists  teach, 
in  annihilation,  but  in  new  being;  so  there  would  be  no 
escape  from  rebirth.  If  one  says,  however,  that  there  is  a 
conditioned  soul,  it  can  be  only  a  physical  bond  of  unity]  like 
a  house,  growing  gradually  weaker  through  repeated  aging 
and  dying  (consisting,  as  such  a  'soul'  must)  of  (mortal) 
senses,  thoughts,  breath,  blood,  flesh,  bone,  all  of  which  perish 
and  revert  in  due  order  to  their  original  bases.  And,  further, 
(such  a  theory)  would  refute  the  practice  of  the  world  in 

of  relying  on  the  commentator,  who  thinks  that  the  elephant  in  the  following 
stanza  of  <^anti  is  Yoga !  Yatha  nagapade  'nyani  padani  padagaminam,  s&r- 
vany  eva  'pidhiyante  padajatani  kuuTljare,  evam  saryam  ahinsayam  dharmlr- 
tham  apidhiyatc  (in  xiii,  cvam  lokesy  ahinsa  tu  nirdif|i).^ 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  149 

respect  of  obtAining  advantage  from  gifta  and  other  religious 
aLts,  since  both  the  words  of  the  Ve(hi  and  the  practice  of  the 
world  (sliow  tliat  acts  are  perfonnc<l)  for  this  puq)ose  (of 
giiin).  There  are  many  proofs  to  Iw  found  in  the  mind, 
but  what  with  the  iteration  of  tliis  and  tluit  cause  no  dear 
light  is  ol)tainc<l,  but  men  doubt  ainl  turn  to  some  one  expltv- 
niUion,  till  their  intellect  Ixjconics  fixed  on  one  jxant  and  rots 
there  like  a  trt»e.  So  all  creatures,  nuide  wn»tcli«l  thmugh 
(desiring)  useless  objects,  arc  kxl  away  by  riHHMvetl  teaching, 
ag.iinaih,  like  elephants  le<l  by  their  keojx^rs.  Tlius,  desiring 
objects  tliat  bring  endless  pleasure,  tlie  dric<l-up  nuny  gi^t 
instciul  a  givut<T  soitow  on  Iteing  foree<l  to  abamhui  the  bait 
and  enter  tlie  power  of  dtvitli." 

lluj  argument  is  thtj  familiar  one  that  a  man  g<»ts  som>w 
thnnigli  desiring  heaven,  for  after  his  Kanna  is  exhauste<l  ho 
sinks  dt»wn  ag-ain  to  a  lower  level.  S<>  heaven  is  a  biit  which 
attnwts  men;  but  as  it  is  only  a  temp<»ran'  pK'asure  followe<l 
by  pain,  one  snfTers  fnuu  it  all  tht^  nn»re  (nessun  maggiore 
dolore  clie  rit'tmlarsi).  All  this  implies  unconsi'ious  existem-e 
as  tlie  U'st  goal. 

To  tliis  it  is  said,  210,  2,  in  the  wonls  of  tlie  gn'at  rp;uii- 
shad:  **  If  then*  is  no  cnns4-iousncss  after  de;ith,*  wliat  ditTer- 
enro  <l«K''4  it  make  whether  one  has  wixlom  or  not,  or  is  careftd 
or  not?**  Then  I\irica(;ikha  replies  with  a  h»ng  expositit»n  of 
his  system,  219,  T)  (T.,  of  wliirh  I  give  the  chief  points: 

It  is  not  a  system  <»f  annihilation,  uc(-lie<Linistliri,  nor  one 
of  tin*  souPs  separate  existence,  bliavanisthri.  The  (visiblt») 
man  cnn-i^ts  !»f  Uwly,  s«'ns4'S,  and  |>«*ni'ption,  cetas.  Tim 
fnnn«l.iti«»n'<  are  tin*  live  eltineiits,  %\liitli  an*  indt*|N*ndrnt  and 
maki*  tip'  IhwIv.  Th**  ImkIv  is  nut  «»f  one  element,  but  of  five. 
The  agifp-giitf  <\m>in'_c  a«tivity  i^  knowle«l;r|.,  brat,  arnl  \\in«l* 
Fmm  knM\\h-«lirt»  cnnj«'  the  S4'ns<*s  ami  their  obji»«'ts,  si-parate 
exi**t«*nrr,  .sv:ibhava,  |H>n-cptinn,  cctana,  and  mind;  from  wind 
conn*  tlie  two  vital  breaths;  fn»m  heal  nmir  i^all  and  other 

1  \ali  n.i  pritya  #»riijK.i  )i1inv.-i!i  :  rdinii.-irr  tin}'  (MiUtini)  crl   'nurlna^ 
rati.  II :i  pn  i,v:i  •jtiijfiS  \ii  "li,  HAU.  ii,  4,  VL 
•  21l»,  *t»;  i-umiian-  U-luw. 


150  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

bases,  dhatus.  The  five  senses,  indriyas,  hearing,  touch,  taste, 
sight,  smell,  derive  from  the  mind,  citta,  and  have  its  charac- 
teristics. Eternal  cetana  is  threefold  when  united  with  dis- 
cernment, vijfiana.  This  they  call  sukhaduhkha  and  the 
opposite.  Sound,  touch,  color,  taste,  smell,  the  forms  (mur- 
tayah,  containing  these  as  objects),  make  a  group  of  six 
constant  constituents,  gunas,  to  make  knowledge  perfect. 
Dependent  on  these  are  acts  and  visarga  (?),  and  judgment  in 
regard  to  the  meaning  of  all  topics.  This  they  call  the  highest 
seed,  §ukra;  it  is  intellect,  the  great  undeteriorating  (sub- 
stance). This  collection  of  attributes  is  not  soul  but  is 
not^oul,  anatman.  The  true  teaching  is  contained  in  Renun- 
ciation-^stras,  which  enjoin  renunciation  of  all.  Having  ex- 
plained the  six  jfianendriyas,  organs  of  knowledge,  PaficaQikha 
explains  the  "organs  of  action,  which  are  five,  with  bala, 
power,  as  the  sixth,"  §1.  20.  There  are  twelve  organs,  five 
organs  of  knowledge  with  mind  as  sixth,  and  five  of  action 
with  power  as  sixth.  The  eleven  organs  (with  mind)  one 
should  renounce  by  means  of  the  intellect.  Ear,  sound, 
and  mind  (citta,  in  23  and  34 ;  manas  in  22)  are  necessary  in 
hearing.*  Thus  for  all  the  senses  there  are  fifteen  gunas 
(3x5).  There  are  also  the  three  gunas  called  sattva,  rajas, 
tamas.  Ear  and  soimd  are  forms  of  air  (space) ;  so  with  the 
five  others.  In  the  ten  senses  there  arises  a  creation  (entity) 
simultaneous  vnth  their  activity;  this  is  (the  eleventh),  mind, 
citta.  The  intellect  is  the  twelfth.  In  deep  sleep,  tamase, 
there  is  no  annihilation  (of  personality),  although  there  is 
concerned  no  such  creation  simultaneous  with  the  senses  (the 
co-operation  being  a  popular  fallacy).  (In  deep  sleep)  in 
consequence  of  one's  former  waking  experience,  and  because 
one  is  conditioned  by  the  three  gunas,  one  imagines  that  one 
has  material  senses,  although  one  can  perceive  only  subtile 
senses.     But  though  one  imagines  this,  one  does  not  really 

1  Compare  GitS,  18,  18  (threefold  urpfers  to  action),  knowledge,  object, 
knower,  jfianaih  jfiejam  parijftata  trividha  karmacodana;  threefold  action, 
organ,  act,  agent,  karanath  karma  karte  'ti  trividhah  karmaaaihgrahah ;  in 
14,  the  five  kSranini  or  karmanah  hetayah  are  object,  adhis^hina,  agenC^ 
organ,  action,  and  the  d£iTa  (said  to  be  Samkhja,  but  interpreted  as  Vedinta), 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  161 

co-operate  (with  the  senses.  Hence  it  may  be  inferred  tliat  a 
soul  exists  independent  of  mental  processes).  But  the  deep- 
sleep  consciousness  is  a  finite  and  darkened  pleasure.  Even  the 
result  one  derives  from  tnulitional  teaching,  agama,  though 
not  sorrowful,  is  also  merely  darkness,  revealed  lies,  as  it  were.* 
Spirit,  ksetnijila,  is  the  being,  bliava,  standing  in  mind;  it 
is  immortiil,  flowing  as  a  stream  to  the  ocean.  For  the  de- 
Ktru('ti<»n  of  existence,  satvasaiiiksaya  (the  expression  used 
above)  is  (in  Upiinishad  language)  as  when  rivers  run  into 
other  rivers  and  to  the  ocean,  losing  their  individuality, 
vyakti  (eipiivalent  to  form)  and  name.  Consequently,  when 
tlie  individuiil  spirit,  jiva,  is  united  (wth  the  ocean  of  being) 
and  embniciHl  on  all  sides,  how  could  there  be  consciousness 
after  death?  (219,  43).  As  the  creature  tliat  spins  out  of 
xisnAiy  wnipping  itself  in  its  web-house,  stays  there  over- 
powen»<l,  so  is  tlie  soul ;  but  wlien  freed,  it  abandons  its  misery, 
and  then  its  woe  is  destroywl,  like  a  clod  falling  on  a  n)ck. 
As  the  di^iT  Iraves  its  old  honi,  and  tlie  smike  its  skin,  with- 
out l(M>king  Ix'liind,  and  a  binl  lesives  the  falling  tree  and  flies 
away  unattaelied,  so  tlie  fanxl  soul  abiindons  itn  woe,  and 
leaving  pleasure  and  {xiin,  without  even  a  iubtUe  hody^  goes 
the  jH'rfeet  way  (47-49  n»j)cat8  45).* 

For  a  Saihkhya  philos«»pher  Panca^iklm  teaiches  vei^'  extra- 
onlinary  things,  the  most  advance<l  nmhmaism,  which  fails 
only  of  U»ing  Vinlantii  in  its  Liek  of  Mayii.  Three  si'ts  of 
philosophers  aa»  hea»  refutetl,  —  the  materuilist,  the  Buddhist, 

>  Thr  cnnimfntator  reads  at)m  Utri  'pr  upi<UtU*  tamo  'ryaktam  Iri 
'nrtain.  vl-  '^t  whirh  it  iMThapn  U'ttrr  "  hidilrn  falti'tuKxI."  Thv  iiii-aiiinK  it, 
at  fxiil:iin«Ml  alMiTt*.  that  th«'  joy  (rivi«n  hy  Voilir  traching  It  a  ptTithahle 
hcnv«'ii  rrKiiltin^  in  nnrrow  (ditrknrM)  anil  the  teaohintr  U  not  the  hi^ht**! 
trutli.  Cotiipare,  on  the  DthtT  title,  the  tame  reproach,  Miit.  I'p.  vii,  10^ 
iatyam  iva  'nrtani  payyanti. 

*  ('••mp.iro  rray.  Cp.  ▼.  5;  Munil.  Tp.  1,  7  an<l  iil,  1.  The  first  imaK<»  It 
clrnrly  ii<it  that  (if  a  vpitUT  fwliicti  it  not  drttmyetl  by  Its  webl,  but  of  % 
silkn'trtn.  thoiiu'h  the  rinnnicntator  (and  1*W.)  take  urnanibhi  as  a  spider, 
«hi(  li  ( •>inpnrii»on  it  coinmim.  ('itnipart'  xii.2Sfl,  40,  urnanibhir  jrathi  sfitrmifa 
vijn«-\itH  tnntuvad  ifuiiah  (as  in  HAC.  ii.  1.  *J(M.  Kut  the  silkworm  Is  alao 
coniiihin.  Compare  xii.  'M\\,  4.  kovakiro  yathltminaih  kifah  samaTanuidhAtl 
sutriit.intu^'unair  nityaiii  tathi  'yam  a|;uno  guniih  dTandTtm  «U  Cft  air* 
dratiiJ\ah,  etc. 


152  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

and  the  orthodox  Vedist,  The  tenns  used  are  those  of  the 
Samkhya,  jlva  and  ki^traj&a  rather  than  atman  (sthito  manasi 
yo  bhavah  sa  vai  k§etrajfia  ucyate,  5I.  40),  but  this  spirit  is 
only  part  of  Brahman.^ 

Another  point  to  be  noticed  is  the  absence  of  tanmatras. 
Before  passing  to  the  numerical  analysis  of  the  Paficaratra 
scheme  into  thirty  elements,  I  would  point  out  also  that  as  in 
Gita,  7,  4,  so  ib.  13,  5-6,  there  are  gross  elements,  egoism, 
intellect,  and  mind  (=  8),  but  also  ten  organs  and  five  objects 
of  sense  plus  avyakta  (=  24  topics),  to  which  are  here  added, 
Gita,  13,  5-6,  desire,  aversion,  pleasure,  pain,  and  also  body, 
perception,  courage  (samghata,  cetana,  dhrti)  or  thirty-one 
elements  of  "modified  Prakrti." 

The  Thirty-one  Elements  (Pafica9ikha). 

Here  there  is  a  formal  group  of  particles  called  kalas,  not 
sixteen  but  thirty,  but  one  (God)  super-added  makes  thirty- 
one  topics,  the  same  number  ascribed  by  tradition  to  the 
Pa§upatas.  A  most  minute  description  is  given  in  xii,  821, 
96-112.    This  scheme  is  as  follows :  * 

In  order  to  act,  the  organs  "  await  the  outer  constituents," 
gunas.  In  perception,  color,  eye,  and  light  are  the  three 
causes^  and  so  in  all  cases  where  are  found  knowledge  and 
the  object  of  perception,  (similar)  causes  of  knowledge  exist ; 
between  knowledge  and  the  object  intervenes  the  guna,  con- 
stituent, mind,  wherewith  one  judges.  [The  organs  and  mind 
make  eleven.]  *  The  twelfth  is  intellect,  another  constituent, 
wherewith  one  decides  in  the  case  of  doubtful  things  to  be 

1  The  attribute  of  Jagatprakrti  applied  to  NSrSyana  in  the  PaTlcaratra 
hymn,  xii,  339,  89,  "the  god  who  is  the  Source  of  the  world,"  gives  the 
Tital  difference  between  this  teaching  and  that  which  inculcates  a  Prakrti 
distinct  from  pure  soul. 

'  I  italicize  below  without  extended  comment  the  pointa  of  contact  with 
the  scheme  just  giyen. 

*  This  must  be  supplied  from  the  context.  In  the  scheme  at  xIt,  42, 16, 
"mind  must  be  recognized  as  belonging  to  both,  and  intellect  is  the  twelfth," 
only  ten  organs  are  recognized,  as  here,  and  bala  as  a  separate  organ  is 
unknown. 


\ 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  168 

known.  The  thirteenth  constituent  is  sattva.  (It  is  real) 
for  one  is  argued  to  be  an  individual  having  much  or  little 
sattva  (hence  it  is  a  real  constituent,  a  guna).  The  four- 
twntli  constituent  is  egoism  (when  one  says  *  I  am  an  agc»nt '), 
with  whicli  one  gets  the  notion  of  mine  and  not-mine.  Then 
tliere  is  a  fifteenth  constituent,  which  is  different  fn>m  the 
otliers  and  is  called  the  totality  of  tlie  mass  of  separate  factors, 
prthakkrtlasamuluisya  samagrj'am  (i.  e.,  (he  general  dUpoBu 
tion).  Tlie  sixteenth,  a  different  constituent,  is  a  sort  of 
complex,  siuiij^hatii  iva  (because  it  consists,  says  the  commen- 
tiitor,  in  the  union  of  the  three  factors  of  ignorance;  the  six- 
teenth is  then»fore  avidyii,  or  ignorance  itself),  wherein  are 
cnnibintnl  the  SouR»e  and  tlie  individual  niiinifestiition,  vyakti^ 
whiclj  are  n^sjwctively  the  seventi^enth  and  eigliteenth  ccm- 
stitnt'Uts,  gunau.  The  nineteentli  is  tlie  unification  of  doub- 
lets (oppositos),  such  as  pleasant  and  disiigreeable,  age  and 
dt»alh,  ('t<'.  The  twentieth  constituent  is  Time,  the  origin  and 
destruction  of  all  things.  This  complex,  saiiighatii,  of  twenty, 
and  in  addition  the  st»ven  constituents  consisting  of  the  five 
gross  elements  adde<l  to  [the  origin  and  n*lation  of]  Ijeing  and 
not-U*ing,  (making  twenty-stn-en,  is  to  Ix?  mlde<l  again  to) 
tliDM*  nion»  constituents,  vHhi^^ukra^  haUi  (cause,  Hee<l,  power).* 
Thai  is  v\\\\\h\  the  IkmIv  in  which  these  twentv  and  ten  aa»  all 
to^rther.  The  Sonne  ( fonM'ausi* )  of  thesi*  kalis,  fa<'tors,  one 
pliil«»s»)pher  n*<M>gni7.es  to  lie  the  rnmanifest;  another,  dull  of 
iii'^i^lit,  recognizes  (as  such)  the  Manifest.  Metaphysicians 
rein'riiiz«»  u  Source  of  all  lieini's,  whether  it  is  the  Inmani- 
fest  nr  the  Manifc^^t  or  a  douhh'  or  <iUiMlruple  s«)urce.  This 
unm.mifcst  Soiin-c  Um-mhu's  manifest  by  iiM-ans  (»f  the  kaliis 
(the  factors  jnst  ennnienil«'<l).  The  individual  is  the  Snunn) 
so  m  uh»  manifi'>t.  Fn»m  cnnfe]>tinn  to  oM  age  there  is  an 
unini«Tnipt«'<l  mniin-m.iry  spliltin«^  up  of  the  faet4»rs  (par- 
ti<-h*>)<>f  the  ImkIv.  alihntp/h  t<N)  minute  to  U'  (»lis<TVeil  (in 
detail ).     Hut  this  jnissing  away  and  ctmiing  int*)  exi>teni*e  of 

1  A"i '>r!itiL'  ti>  \\w  riMiinii'ntntnr,  thr«t<  at\»  ri|;ht  ari'l  wntnt;  ••  i>ri)(infttlng 
fal*4  i  !•  i»  \  i«:ifiii .  lh;it  wliii  h  iiuitr*  to  «r«*n^  iiI«-Aii ;  An<l  the  vflTurt  Ivadillf 
to  thv  n".i:i:i?i<  lit  of  wronK'  idrat.     But  •!*«  the  ichvinv  above. 


154  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

the  separate  particles  goes  on  from  stage  to  stage  just  like  the 
course  of  a  lamp's  light.  There  is,  therefore,  no  connection 
between  the  individual  existent  creature  and  his  members. 
All  creatures  are  bom  by  the  union  of  particles,  kalas,  as  it 
were,^  just  as  fire  is  produced  by  the  union  of  sunlight  and 
fire-stone^  mani,  or  by  sticks  (rubbed  together). 

This  exposition  is  given  for  a  practical  purpose,  as  is  seen 
in  the  last  paragraph.  One  should  recognize  no  Ottw,  as  all 
creatures  are  one,  distinct  from  the  physical  parts.  The 
"  body  of  particles,"  as  it  is  called  in  xii,  822,  25,  reverts  to 
the  unmanifest  Source,  but  the  self  or  soul  is  but  part  of  the 
same  soul  in  any  other  body  of  particles.  The  doctrine  is 
none  the  less  that  of  Pafica^ikha  because  it  is  taught  by 
Sulabha  to  Janaka,  though  it  is  the  latter  who  professes  him- 
self the  disciple  of  Paficagikha,  "the  venerable  beggar  who 
belonged  to  the  family  of  Para5ara,"  xii,  321,  24.  For  Janaka 
does  not  really  understand,  and  so  Sulabha  is  enlightening 
him.  Pafica9ikha  is  here  said  to  be  a  Saiiikhya  leader.  There 
is  an  unitation  and  would-be  improvement  in  this  late  dis- 
course (the  metre  shows  the  lateness)  of  Gita,  3,  8,  loke 
'smin  dvividlia  ni^tha.  Here  9I.  88,  the  "  point  of  view,"  is 
made  treble,  trividha  ni^t^a  dr^t^;  not  that  emancipation  is 
got  by  knowledge  or  action,  as  in  the  Gita  passage,  but  by 
the  third  (and  best  view),  that  of  Pafica§ikha,  who  "rejected 
both  these  two,"  321,  40.  The  doctrine  is  that  the  vai(e§ikam 
jfianam  or  most  excellent  way,  9I.  23,  leads  one  to  live  a  life 
of  renunciation.  All  depends,  says  the  king,  on  whether  one 
is  bond  or  free ;  the  pure  and  good  devotee  may  still  be  active ; 
asceticism  is  not  requisite;  a  king  is  as  good  as  a  beggar. 
"  The  bond  of  royalty  (says  the  king  in  conclusion),  the  bond 
of  affection,  I  have  cut  with  the  sword  of  renunciation,  which 
has  been  sharpened  on  the  anvil  of  emancipation,"  ib.  62. 
But  his  antiigonist  intimates  that  he  has  not  learned  the  true 
religion,  which  is  renunciation  in  deed  as  well  as  in  thought. 
As  a  system,  the  doctrine  of  Pafica^iklia  is  said  to  be  sopayah 

^  The  commentator  sajs  that  "  this  expression,  (kaliDSm)iT&,ha8  no  mean- 
ing, and  is  mcrelj  used  to  fiU  up  the  Tcrse/'  321,  124. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  156 

sopani^La^  sopasangiih  ^  sanifcayah,  gl.  168,  a  detailed  pliilo- 
sopliical  ex|)ositioiL. 

In  xii,  276,  4  flf.,  there  is  a  third  exposition,  oddly  combined 
\iith  the  Sariikhya  schedule,  while  at  the  end  it  shows  resem- 
blance to  that  just  given.  It  is  referred  to  Asita  Devala,  who 
in  xiii,  18,  18,  is  said  to  liave  receiveil  glory  from  (^va  (f^^va 
is  SiiihkhyaprasacLih,  xiii,  17,  63),  who  "gives  the  goid  of 
Saiiikhyayoga,"  xiii,  14,  198.  In  tliis  scheme  Time  creates 
the  live  gross  elements.  Impelled  by  Being  and  Soul,  Time 
creates  beings  out  of  these  elements,  which  with  Time  make  a 
group,  ragi,  of  six.  To  these  are  added  bhava  and  abhava, 
making  the  "  eight  beings,  bhutani,  of  beings."  When  de- 
stroywl,  a  creature  becomes  fivefold  (elements)  because  of 
tliese.  The  body  is  miule  of  earth,  bhumimayo  dcliah  ;  the  ear 
comes  from  air  (sjxace)  ;  the  eye  from  the  sun ;  the  breath 
fn)m  the  wind;  the  bhuxl  from  water.  The  five  senses  are 
the  '*  knowledges  "  (organs  of  knowledge,  jiliinani).  Sight, 
liearing,  smelling,  touch,  taste,  are  five,  distributed  fivefold 
over  five.  Their  constituents,  tadgiuiah,  are  color,  smell, 
taste,  touch,  and  sound,  apprehended  in  five  ways  by  the 
five  scnst»s.  These,  their  gunas,  the  senses  do  not  know, 
but  the  spirit  knows  them  (this  is  a  correi'tion  of  the  state- 
ment that  objiHts  of  sense  are  apprehended!  by  the  senses). 
Higher  than  the  group  «>f  wnses  is  citta,  jx»n*epticm ;  higher 
tlmn  citt^i  is  mind ;  higher  than  mind  is  intdlect ;  higher  tiian 
intellect  is  spirit.  A  creature  first  |K»nTives,  cetiiyati,  di(Te> 
ent  objects  of  SCUM*.  Then  jnuidering,  viciin'a,  with  the  mind^ 
he  next  (hteriniiies,  vvavasvati,  with  the  intelhn't.  One  that 
has  iiitcll«M-i  (It'tcnnines  objects  of  sens**  appn*hended  by  the 
sens4»s.  Peneption,  the  (five)  senses  as  a  group,  mind,  and 
inteHett  are,  ac<'onling  t4»  meUiphysicians,  the  eight  jililne- 
ndriyas,  org.ms  of  knowUnlgt*.  There  are  five  onjant  of  action 
and  lala  in  the  sixth  urtjan  of  action^  i;\.  22.  Sleejv-sight  is  the 
activitv  of  the  mind  when  the  atlivitv  of  the  S4»nses  is  bus- 
pendcd.      The    states,    bhavas,'  of   s^ittvu,    t^imas,   and    rajua 

>  uT'l-nnira  for  upSttiri^rah  *     N.  tl<*flne«  a*  dh^iniRgini  yamiillnl. 

*  Hut  viuril  tuvanj  bving  a*  entitjr  (and  to  ii  cqaiTal«nt  to  fufa,  cootUttt' 


156  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

(joy,  success,  insight,  virtue,  being  the  causes  of  one  being 
endowed  with  sattva),  which  are  associated  with  acti^^ty, 
whatever  their  cause  of  activity,  vidhi,  are  retained  (in  sleep) 
by  memory.  There  is  an  agreeable  and  constant  immediate 
passage  between  the  two  states,  bhavayoh  (that  is  the  passage 
is  immediately  perceptible  between  waking  and  sleeping). 
The  organs  and  the  states  are  called  the  seventeen  constitu- 
ents, gunas.  The  eighteenth  is  the  eternal  incorporate  one 
in  the  body,  dehi  garire  (spirit). 

Here  fourteen  organs  are  added  to  the  three  gunas,  sattva, 
etc.,  for  there  are  "  eight  organs  of  knowledge  "  and  six  of 
action  (elsewhere  there  are  only  five  organs  of  knowledge). 
Of  the  group  of  seventeen  I  have  already  spoken,  and  note 
here  only  the  intrusion  of  citta  between  senses  and  mind. 
The  account  proceeds  not  very  lucidly:  There  concorporate 
constituents  bound  up  in  body  in  the  case  of  all  incorporate 
creatures  cease  to  be  concorporate  on  the  separation  of  the 
body ;  or  the  body  made  of  five  elements,  paficabhautika,  is  a 
mere  (temporary)  union,  saiimipata.  The  one  and  the  eigh- 
teen gunas  with  the  incorporate  one  and  with  heat,  u^man 
(the  internal  heat  of  the  stomach,  says  the  commentator), 
make  the  complex,  samghata,  of  twenty  composed  of  five  ele- 
ments, which  (twenty)  the  Great  One,  mahan,  with  wind  sup- 
ports. The  death  of  each  creature  is  caused  by  this  (wind). 
On  destruction,  the  creature  enters  the  five  elements,  and 
urged  by  its  good  and  evil,  assumes  a  body  again ;  and  so  on 
from  body  to  body,  urged  by  Time  the  k§etrin  (spirit)  goes,  as 
if  from  one  ruined  house  to  another.^ 

The  vinQo  samghatah  paficabhautikah  or  complex  of  twenty 
composed  of  five  elements  in  this  passage  is  the  same  with  the 
viiigakah  samghatah  of  the  preceding,  321,  109.     But  there 

ent)  or  existence  and  so  state  of  being.  It  often  adds  nothing  to  the  meaning. 
For  example  in  xiii,  141,  85,  "  bhaya  of  self "  is  the  same  with  self :  atmanj 
CTa  *tmano  bhavam  samasajjeta  yai  dvijah,  "  put  self  in  self." 

1  vi9lrnad  va  (=  iva)  grhad  grham.  The  analysis  above,  276  (5),  80 :  eka^ 
ca  da9a  ca  'stau  ca  (=  10)  gunah,  saha  ^aririni  (dehin  in  9I.  28)  iismana  saha 
(besides  heat)>i]&9o  va  samghatah  paficabhautikah,  mahin  samdharayatj  etac 
chariram  vfijona  saha.    Compare  the  first  scheme  above. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  16T 

Time  is  the  twentieth,  and  the  twenty  are  the  bodily  guQas. 
Nevertheless,  the  employment  in  each,  not  only  of  the  group 
of  twenty  but  also  of  bak  and  vidhi,  as  found  above,  points  to 
a  common  basis.^     In  none  is  there  a  trace  of  Vishnuism. 

The  Sacret  of  the  Vedinta. 

The  united  systenj^  of  philosophy  called  **  Secret  of  the 
Vedanta  *'  and  exploited  in  xii,  194,  248  ff.,  and  286,  which 
in  the  following  pages  I  shall  designate  as  A,  B,  C,  present  a 
curious  mixture,  wluch  on  careful  analysis  show  clearly  that 
they  are  three  different  versions  of  an  older  Samkhya  tract, 
which  is  worked  over  into  Bmhmaism.  There  is  no  clear 
recognition  of  egoism,  though  the  commentator  so  interprets 
tlie  ''  maker  of  bhutas  "  in  C  9,  and,  as  I  have  said  above,  I 
think  it  doubtful,  both  from  these  and  other  passages,  whether 
the  earlier  Samkhya  recognized  Intellect  as  other  than  self- 
consi'iouH.  One  of  tlie  present  three  schemes  introduces  the 
Blmtutman  as  dcus  ex  machina.  They  all  differ  slightly  and 
have  the  Pnnca^iklia  terminology  to  a  certain  extent.  In  their 
threefold  fonn  they  offer  an  instructive  example  of  how  the 
epic  copies  itself.  They  all  begin  with  the  same  request  to 
the  instructor  to  give  a  metaphysical,  adhyatma,  lecture*  The 
first  and  last  versions  represent  Blii^ma  as  teacher  and  Tudhi- 
f^liini  as  pupil ;  the  other,  Vyasa  as  teat*her  and  (jhika  as 
pupil  of  the  same  lecture.  The  two  Bhl^ma  lectures  do  not 
agree  so  closely  with  ea<*h  other  throughout  (tliough  more 
alike  at  first)  '  as  do  the  VySsa  and  sec(md  Bhi^ma  version, 

'  Compare  with  thii  Mnighiu  or  ▼iul  complei  the ^IrayAami,  IVa^n.  t.  6. 

*  The  cloKT  •Krifment  U^^rins  with  A  0  as  compared  with  B  0  and  C  10 ; 
"  sound,  t*ar.  anil  hoU**,  this  triad  It  bom  of  air ;  touch,  action,  skin,  are  boni 
of  wind  ;  (*<}lor.  vyi*.  difcvtiiun,  an*  calltnl  the  thn*efoM  light,  tejaa.**  Here  B 
and  (*  liaro  **  vital  air*"  for  tkin,  and  Jyutii  fur  tejaa.  In  the  neit  groap, 
whi-re  A  ha*  tatto.  klvda,  t«in)(ue.  II  and  C  both  have  sneha.  Again  **  mind  M 
the  sixth  '*  organ  ap|K*ars  in  A  U  but  is  omitte*!  in  B  11  and  C  li.  to  reappear 
in  li  17.  C  l.V  In  all  tht^se  Trrsitms,  IkxIv,  with  smvll  and  object,  it  of  earik 
alitor,  bhumigunah.  ItM*.  rit.  lU'sidv*  th«*ftr  triads.  B  and  C  give  sound,  fhofSp 
(yalxU)  from  air.  •null  iilimr  at  bhuniiguiui  in  II,  all  composite  mattvf, 
ghita,  at  cartb-guna  in  C  ;  breath  (C)  or  touch  (B)  from  wind,  ttc 


158  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

which  Ke  nearer  together  in  place.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
treat  these  chapters  rather  fully  if  we  wish  to  get  a  clear  idea 
of  the  manufacture  of  epic  philosophy. 

Coming,  then,  to  details,  the  glokas  are  intermingled  in  such 
a  way  that  part  of  one  gloka  in  one  discourse  is  part  of  another 
in  another  version.  Thus,  after  the  introductory  stanza,  which 
names  the  five  elements  with  but  trifling  variations,  A  has : 
"  Whence  they  are  created  thither  they  go,  again  and  again,  the 
great  bhutas,  from  other  bhutas,  like  waves  of  ocean;  and  as 
a  tortoise,  stretching  forth  limbs,  retracts  them  again,  so  the 
Bhutatman  again  withdraws  the  bhutas  he  has  created."  In 
B,  the  expression  "  like  waves  of  ocean "  comes  in  the  first 
stanza,  replacing  the  expression  "  origin  and  destruction  "  in 
A.  In  C,  as  regards  this  expression,  the  reading  is  as  in  A, 
but  the  important  lines  of  the  tortoise  and  Bhutatman  appear 
here  thus :  "  As  a  tortoise  here,  causing  his  limbs  to  stretch 
forth,  retracts  them,  so  the  smaller  bhutas  in  respect  of  greater 
bhutas ; "  while  B  has :  "  As  a  tortoise  here,  stretching  forth 
limbs,  retracts  them  again,  so  the  great  bhutas,  mahanti  bhii- 
tani,  modify  themselves  in  the  smaller  "  (younger) ;  and  this 
is  repeated,  ib.  14,  in  a  stanza  omitted  in  the  other  versions 
with  the  momentous  alteration :  "  As  a  tortoise  here,  his  limbs 
outstretching,  withdraws  them,  even  so  the  Intellect^  having 
created  the  group  of  senses,  withdraws  them." 

The  next  change  is  in  A  8,  where,  after  stating  that  the 
"  maker  of  bhutas "  put  the  gross  elements  differently  in  all 
beings,  the  teacher  here  adds  "but  the  jiva  spirit  does  not 
see  that  difference,"  which  in  the  other  versions  appears  with- 
out mention  of  jiva,  with  visayan  in  C  for  vaisamyam.  Of 
the  new  group  of  eight  sources  found  here,  I  have  spoken 
elsewhere.  All  the  versions  have  the  following  stanza  A  17, 
B16,  C18: 

gunan  (A,  C,  gunair)  nenlyate  buddhir,  buddhir  eve- 

'ndriyany  api  (C,  ca) 
manahsastani  sarvani  (A,  bhatani),  buddhy  (A,  tad) 

abhave  kato  gunah, 

that  is,  Intellect  directs  the  gunas ;  the  senses  are  intellect 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  160 

and  their  constituents  could  not  exist  without  it.  A  and  C 
make  the  intellect  subservient  to  the  guqas  I  C,  as  if  to  ex- 
plain the  gunas,  inserts  **  tamas,  sattva^  lajas,  time,  and  act|** 
while  in  18  it  has  a  verse  (minglii^  cases),  ^^sattva,  lajas, 
tamas,  kala  (nom.),  and  karmabuddhi  (nom.),  and  mind,  the 
sixth,  in  these  (bases)  the  Lord  created."  B,  too,  has  an 
addition :  **  Mind,  intellect,  and  nature,  svabhava,  these  three 
are  bom  of  their  own  sources ;  they  do  not  overpass  the  guqaa 
on  arriving  at  that  which  is  higher  than  the  gu^as ''  (18,  na 
grui^n  ativartantc).  So  in  816,  2,  gunasvabhavas  tv  avyakto 
gui^n  nai  Va  'tivartate.  But  in  249, 8  ff.,  the  continuation 
of  B,  tlie  intellect,  identified  with  the  bhSvas  (states  produced 
by  gunas)  does  overpass  them,  ^as  the  sea  does  the  shore.'' 
The  image  here  is  so  conventional,  saritam  sagaro  bharti 
mahavelam  ivo  'rmiman  (compare  A,  28  ff. ;  C,  28  ff.)  that 
there  is  no  doubt  what  has  happened.  The  constant  unchang>- 
ing  epic  simile  is  that  one  remains,  not  over-stuping,  **as 
the  sea  docs  not  overpass  its  shore.''  In  other  words,  there 
is  in  this  passage  an  intrusion  of  the  Yoga  idea  ^  that  the  soul 
can  overpaHs  the  gunas  (compare  GIta,  14,  21,  and  xii,  252, 
22),  and  so  the  ancient  simile  is  introduced  without  its  nega- 
tive, milking  the  absunlity  shown  above.* 

B  alone  adds,  in  249,  8,  **the  intellect  is  soul,**  Stman, 

1  Compare  xii,  205,  17:  ''Mind  abftodooinf  fn^M  atUint  frMdom  from 
iranM"  (AlM>Te).  Gunas  and  bhivas  arc  h«rv  the  aaiiie  thing,  for  the  Utter 
arv  tht*  Tv%\x\\  of  the  presence  of  the  former.  Thej  (or  the  cifcht  tourcet) 
"carry  the  unirerte  but  rest  on  God,"  210,  88,  SS.  Thia  if  a  Lord-ejrtteiB, 
though  "Ixird**  it  a  form  of  Ignorance:  "elementa,  lensei,  gu^aa,  thre« 
worhU,  the  l^ird  himself,  are  all  baaed  on  egoism,"  212,  18-10. 

*  svnMiira,  nature.  Is  dintinct  from  sadbhiva.  One  is  tenporarj,  Om 
otiu-r  i4  itomal,  xiT,  *2»,  22;  (fiti,  8.  Z,  The  three  texU  in  deacribing  tiM 
m<xlitiiiiii(>n  of  intolloct  "caUo<l  mind  when  it  deairea,"  A  :I0;  B  (240),  S; 
C  'A\  hari*  slight  ▼ariants;  "that  with  which  it  aeea  to  ejre,  hearing  It  to 
calK^i  ear/'  A  ID;  H  4;  C  10,  where  B  and  C  have  cr^^^tl,  etc^  b«t  A 
the*  TiTb  throughout.  In  A  13  (and  the  corrcaponding  ▼eraea  B  18^  C  10) 
"tlu*  niimi  doubts."  saihvayam  kumte,  "the  intellect  decidea,"  adhjavaafr 
naya.  Compare  211*,  1,  mann  riarjate  bhiram  boddhlr  adhjavaaiylnl,  hfdft- 
yam  priy«i»riyr  voila.  iriviilhS  karmacodanL  "The  Intellect  to  the  chtof 
thinh'  in  that  which  in  to  Ih>  niadt' **  (B  16),  snggeatlsg  egoiam,  batC  14 
kfUiK'  and  A  has  no  pubjcct  at  all. 


^  160  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

which  is  in  line  with  the  tendencies  at  work  here.  So  in  249, 
20,  there  is  a  stanza  which  must  be  compared  step  for  step 
with  the  parallel  passages :  "  Soul,  atman,  puts  forth  intellect, 
but  never  (read  na  'pi)  gunas ;  the  gunas  do  not  know  soul, 
but  soul,  sa,  knows  gunas  always,  and  it  is  the  observer  and  in 
proper  order  occupies  itself  with  them.  Know  that  this  is  the 
difference  between  intellect  and  spirit  (k^etrajfia  for  the  pre- 
ceding atman),  one  creates  gunas,  one  does  not  create  gunas ; 
both  being  different  but  joined  by  the  Source,  united  as  a  fish 
to  water,  or  fly  to  udumbara,  or  as  sheath  to  grass-blade. 
Intellect  truly  creates  gunas,  but  the  spirit,  the  Lord,  superin- 
tends, as  the  gunas  modify  themselves ;  all  that  is  part  of  its 
own  nature,  that  intellect  creates  gunas ;  as  a  spider  does  his 
thread,  so  that  creates  gunas." 

In  A,  38  fE. :  "See  the  difference  between  intellect  and 
spirit,  ksetrajila ;  one  creates  gunas,  one  does  not  create  gunas ; 
as  the  fly  and  udumbara  so  are  they  joined ;  both  being  differ- 
ent, but  joined  by  the  Source ;  as  a  fish  and  water  are  joined 
so  are  they;  the  gunas  know  not  the  soul,  atman,  but  the 
soul,  sa,  knows  the  gunas  always.  But  being  an  observer  of 
the  gunas  (the  spirit)  imagines  them  created  (by  himself). 
The  soul,  atman,  with  the  senses  and  intellect  as  the  seventh, 
which  are  moveless  and  ignorant,  illuminates  the  object,  pada, 
like  a  lamp.  Intellect  truly  creates  the  gunas,  the  spirit, 
k^etrajRa,  looks  on;  this  is  tlieir  connection.  There  is  no 
support  for  the  intellect  and  spirit.  Mind  creates  intellect  but 
never  creates  the  gunas  ...  A  Yogin  in  his  proper  nature 
creates  (srjate)  gunas,  as  a  spider  his  web."  ^ 

C  33  begins  as  in  B,  **  Know  that  this  is  the  difference," 
down  to  the  image  of  the  fish;  then,  omitting  the  fly,  etc., 
goes  on  as  in  A :  "  The  gunas  know  not  the  soul,  atman,  but 
the  soul  knows  gums  always,  but,  being  an  observer  of  the 
gunas,  it  imagines  itself  tlie  creator.  There  is  no  support 
for  the  intellect  .  .  .^  the  intellect,  buddliir  antara,  with  the 

1  Unique.    Mind  here  is  for  atman  in  B. 

'  A  Bonsoless  addition  is  found  here,  followed  by  srjate  hi  ^unan  sattyam 
kyetrajuuh  paripayyati  (as  in  A).    Sattva,  itself  a  gupa,  rests  on  rajas,  xii. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  161 

flenses,  which  have  no  eyes  and  are  ignorant,  makes  the  flenses 
luminous  like  a  lamp  (the  intellect  alone  aees,  the  flenees  are 
like  lamps)  •  •  •  this  is  even  the  fulfilment  of  its  nature  that 
(intellect  creates)  gu^as  as  a  sfnder  his  thread;  the  guqas 
diould  be  recognized  as  a  web."  ^ 

A  Samkhya  text  is  here  changed  into  a  later  philosophy, 
with  soul  substituted  for  spirit,  and  the  Yogin  making  guigas. 
Hence  also  the  intellect  is  grouped  with  senses  as  ignorant  in- 
struments of  the  soul,  while  Mind  is  creative  souL  Even  apart 
from  the  philosophical  modifications  here  visible,  it  is  difficult 
to  see  how  the  synthetic  method  can  account  for  these  three 

SIS,  12,  MttTaiii  ca  njati  tthitam,  jBInldhlflhlDAm  aTTiktam  buddl^ 
ahAihklraUkfanmm  Ud  bijam  dehinim  iho^  Compare  S16^  86^  jfiioidhl* 
fthinam  ajRinam  TiJRininagataiii  JBinam  ajfilnenl  'pakffjate.  Bat  we 
hare  in  i^rayo  ni  'iti  tattratja  a  phraM  in  which  aattra  it  cqniTaleat  to 
oonacioiu  buddhi.  The  raricd  readings  show  dearlj  that  tha  text  haa  been 
tampered  with.  In  i^rayo  ni  'iti  aattratja  gufl^  9abdo  na  eetaai  in  SKK 
14,  followed  by  tattram  hi  teja^  nj<^^  o*  i^l^>SB  ^^  kathariirana  tbefw  k 
•tiU  another  parallel  to  oar  text  So  in  241,  8  ft,  aattTa  it  boddhi.  higher 
than  citu,  a«  it  ii  said  "merge  citU  in  aattTa"  (947,  6  and  0,  the  Togin'i 
afikimi  buddhih).  EUewhere  dtta,  bj  the  waj,  ia  an  organ  "lower  than 
mind.**  270,  10.  The  reraion  in  1D4,  44,  ia  i^rajo  ni  'ati  tattratja  kfe- 
trajBajya  ca  ka^cana,  aattram  mana^  aaiiiifjate  na  ga^in  tU  v«<i»^t^i 
(after  the  words  trjate  hi  ga^in  aatt?am),  where  Bumaa  moat  fipffeeent  itmaa 
in  the  renion  abore.  The  form  ga^i^  fabdo  na  celani  appears,  a  aerlbe'i 
error  apparently,  in  286,  SO,  as  ganasarge^a  oetani,  before  the  meanlngleti 
words :  sattvam  asya  sfjanty  anye  ga^in  reda  kadicana>  The  epic  sattra 
is  well  Icnown:  'Mhie  is  fitted  for  Brahman  existence  as  sattra  gimdoaQj 
departii/*  i.  e.,  as  circumscribed  Jlra  becomes  pare.  Compare  also  817, 21-M 
(210-217  arc  a  profi»tMNl  adhyitma  of  Niriya^a),  where  it  is  said  that  Jlva 
qaits  rajas  and  gfM*s  about  like  sound  bat  in  a  body,  and  then  gvta  eetabUahed 
in  Source,  and  finally  leares  cren  thai  body  ^od  enters  "end  of  body  wUeh 
rests  on  nnthinff,"  nirivraya. 

>  ( n\\vT  cfimmon  metaphors  and  similes  are  that  of  the  cocoon  (pp.  89, 
i:il).  the  '*  Inrndf  of  hopu."  icipin  Giti,  IS,  12;  the  net,  xil,  242, 7  ff.;  bol 
aniquv  i«  the*  wvarer  of  xil.  217, 90:  **  As  a  wearer  passes  the  thread  throogh 
doth  with  a  nctiilr.  so  the  thread  of  transmlgralSoB  Is  fastened  with  the 
neiHiU*  of  dfitn*.  imihtirayati  (samsirasitra)  tfffisScyL  Compare  foaa-UIn 
body  and  liinMike  miuI.  xU,  S22,  7 ;  as  well  as  tlie  elaborate  rlTeMnetaphora 
(taken  fn>m  the  bsttle^plc),  where  the  bank  la  trath,  waves  are  aBtnith» 
de«ire  U  a  cn>codile.  and  the  rirer  of  the  anmanifest  goes  Into  the  sea  of 
tnintiiiif;rati«.n.  Hi.  207,  72 ;  xii.  861, 12  S.  (Dh.  F^  8&U  •'  Mhl 
Jilam  n'  attlii  tsrthisami  nadl). 

11 


162  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

conversations.  From  an  historical  point  of  view  the  problem 
is  of  course  simple. 

The  question  asked  above,  "What  would  become  of  the 
gunas  in  the  absence  of  intellect? "  is  taken  up  and  continued 
at  the  end  of  the  discussion :  "  When  the  gunas,  the  strands 
spun  by  intellect,  are  dispersed,  pradhvastah,  they  do  not  cease 
to  be,  na  nivartante;  a  cessation,  nivrtti,  is  not  perceived. 
This  is  beyond  the  sphere  of  what  is  immediately  perceptible 
(but)  it  is  ascertainable  through  reasoning,  anumana.  So  some 
decide,  while  others  say  they  cease  to  be,  nivrttL  Let  one 
consider  both  views  and  decide  as  one  thinks  best,  loosening 
the  firm  knot  of  the  heart  (an  Upanishad  phrase)  caused  by  a 
difference  of  judginent,"  194,  60-62.  B  and  C  have  "their 
activity,  pravrtti,  is  not  perceived,"  for  "a  cessation  is  not 
perceived." 

The  Yogin,  who  according  to  the  teaching  of  this  lecture 
can  overpass  the  gunas,  is  said  in  the  last  section,  in  a  supple- 
ment, xii,  262,  ff.,  to  surpass  even  the  destruction  of  gunas, 
atikrantagunak^ya,  and  reach  the  highest  goaL 

Details  of  Philosophical  Speculation. 

It  has  been  shown  thus  far  that  there  are  not  only  three 
religious  philosophies  in  the  epic,  but  also  three  formal  sys- 
tems, one  inculcating  the  twenty-five,  one  the  twentynsix,  and 
one  the  thirty-two  categories. 

These  broad  differences  are  sufficient  to  show  how  entirely 
lacking  in  any  imiform  plan  or  scope  is  epic  pliilosophy  as 
a  whole,  and  also  to  prove  that  the  epic  does  not  represent  a 
preliminary  chaos  of  opinions,  but  reflects  at  last  three  per- 
fected and  systematized  schemes  of  philosophy.  I  turn  now 
to  some  details  of  speculation,  incongruous  for  the  most  part, 
reflecting  different  interpretations  and  different  views ;  but  in 
some  cases  noteworthy  not  so  much  for  their  lack  of  harmony 
with  other  epic  schemes  as  for  the  imiqueness  of  views  foimd 
only  in  one  or  two  passages  of  the  pseudo-epic,  amid  a  mass 
of  theories  covering  the  same  general  subject. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  188 

The  Sixty  Oonstttaentii  of  laWIIsot 

This  group,  one  of  the  most  elabonte  in  the  epic,  is  obtained 
fay  an  **  enumeration,**  pariBamkhySna,  which  analyzes  the  ele- 
ments, xii,  266,  1  ff.  They  are  thus  distributed;  ** Earth 
has  ten,  firmness,  weight  (gurutva),  haidness  (kSthinya),  the 
function  of  productivity,  scent,  density  (also  gurutva,  but 
explained  as  prathamanatS,  pi^^pu^t^),  ability  (to  hold 
scents),  compactness,  support,  endurance.  Water  has  ten,  cool- 
ness, taste,  moistness,  fluidity  (dravatva),  adhesiveness  and 
softness  (?  snehawumyata),  tongue,  dispersion,  also,  and 
softening  (frapana)  of  earthy  things  (these  make  nine,  but 
the  commentator  supplies  *  freezing  *  from  ca,  *  and,*  which  I 
render  *  also ' !  Probably  bhfiumftnam  contains  an  old  error). 
Fire,  ten,  dangerousness,  light,  heat,  cooking,  brightness,  pain, 
passion  (and  \b)  swift;  (it  has)  sharpness  and  ever  upward 
flaring.  Wind  (air),  ten,  tempered  touch,  (it  is)  the  organ 
of  speecli,  vSdasthSna ;  (it  has)  independence,  power,  speed, 
emission  (of  secretions),  activity,  movement  (of  breath),  life 
(atmata,  of  the  vital  airs),  and  birth.  The  characteristic  con- 
stituent of  air  (space)  is  sound ;  (it  has  also)  comprehensive- 
ness, openness,  non-support,  non-suspension,  unmanifestneas, 
steadfastness  (avikarita),  non-resistance  (apratlghStitS),  ele- 
mentality ,  and  clianges  (bhutatvam  vik^tini  ca,  *  that  is,  it 
causes  hearing  and  apertures  in  the  body,*  N.).  Thus  related 
are  the  fifty  constituents  (gUQ&b  paBci^atam),  which  are  the 
essentials  of  the  five  elements.**  To  tliese  are  added  nine 
constituents  of  mind  and  five  of  intellect,  as  follows:  ** Cour- 
age, reasoning,  mcmoiy  (so  tlie  commentator  renders  upapatti 
and  vyakti,  i)crliaps  individuality),  creation  (viaaiga,  rendered 
Moss  of  niemor}'  *  by  the  commentator),  imagination,  patience, 
gocKl,  evil,  and  swiftness,  are  the  nine  characteristics  of  mind. 
The  destruction  of  tlie  pleasant  and  the  unpleasant  (in  deep 
slet^p),  jnd^ient  (v^nivasaya),  concentration,  doubt,  and  insight 
aru  nvo^iizcxl  as  the  five  characteristics  of  intellect.**  The 
two  List,  8aiiiQa}'a  and  pratipatti,  are  rendered  by  the  commeD- 
tator  in  just  the  opposite  maaningt,  namely  knowledge  in 


164  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

doubtful  matters  and  the  application  of  other  proofs  as  well 
as  direct  perception.  In  the  light  of  explanations  current 
elsewhere  in  the  epic,  where  "doubt-making"  is  an  attribute 
of  mind,  and  judgment  that  of  intellect,  "doubt,"  which  is 
here  cleariy  attributed  to  intellect,  must  indeed,  from  a  syn- 
thetical point  of  view,  be  interpreted  by  its  opposite,  or  one 
may  fall  back  on  the  remark  cited  below,  that  this  is  all 
nonsense.  From  an  historical  point  of  view,  however,  the 
statement  may  stand  beside  the  many  other  inconsistencies  of 
the  epic, 

The  section  closes  with  a  query  on  the  part  of  the  listener  as 
to  how  intellect  has  five  constituents  and  how  the  five  senses 
are  reckoned  as  attributes,  katham  paficendriya  gunah ;  to  which 
the  answer  is  the  stanza :  ahuh  sa§tim  buddhigunan  vai  bhuts^ 
vi9i9t^  nityavisaktah,  bhutavibhutig  ca  'k^rasr^t^  putra  na 
nityam  tad  iha  vadanti,  "  They  say  that  the  constituents  of 
intellect  are  sixty.  These  are  distinguished  by  the  elements ;  ^ 
(but)  are  always  attached  (to  the  intellect).  The  manifests^ 
tions  of  the  elements  are  created  by  that  which  is  indestruc- 
tible. They  say  that  that  is  non-eternal."  "That,"  it  is 
;ulded,  "which  has  been  declared  to  you  here  is  foolishness, 
cintakalilam,  and  imorthodox,  anagatam.  Learning  the  whole 
truth  in  regard  to  the  meaning  of  elements,  gain  peace  of  intel- 
lect by  acquiring  power  over  the  elements  "  (bhutaprabhavat. 
Yogi-power). 

The  sixty  may  be  got  by  adding  the  five  gunas  of  intellect 
to  the  five  elements  plus  their  fifty  characteristic  constituents ; 
but  the  commentator  says  the  true  coimt  is  seventy-one,  five 
elements  with  their  fifty  constituents  added  to  mind  and  intel- 
lect with  their  nine  and  five  constituents  respectively. 

Two  views  are  given.  One  is  that  there  are  fifty  and  nine 
and  five  constituents  of  five  (elements),  one  (mind),  and  one 
(intellect)  =  71.  The  other  is  that  intellect  has  sixty  con- 
stituents, five  of  its  own,  fifty  of  the  elements  (as  parts  of 
intellect),  and  the  elements  themselves  (which  are  different 

^  The  commentator  paraphrases  bhutayi9iB|Sh  with  pafica  bhutlnj  api 
buddher  era  gnnah,  ''  the  five  elements  arc  constituents  of  intellect.'' 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  165 

from  tlie  constituents).  The  latter  view  is  repudiated  as 
unorthodox,  and  tlie  final  injunction  is  given  to  turn  from 
this  calculation  to  Yogi-discipline. 

This  unorthodox  enumeration  is  represented  elsewhere  by 
the  title  of  (^\%  who  is  called  ^a^tibliaga,  xiii,  17,  72,  and  per- 
haps also  by  tlie  mysterious  manoviruddhani  in  the  enumem- 
tion  of  tlie  jwychic  colors  explained  below.  Seven  hundred 
\'3'iiluis,  or  forma  of  activity,  are  traversed  by  the  soul  on  its 
way  through  rwl  and  yellow,  to  white,  when  it  courses  above 
the  eight  worlds.     Then  follows,  xii,  281,  46 : 

astau  ca  sastim  ca  cat&ni  c&i  'va 

•   •  •       •   •  m 

manoviruddhani  mah&dyutlnftm 

"The  eight  (worlds)  and  the  sixty  ami  the  hundreds  (of 
vyulias)  are  iiniHtUmeuts  to  the  mind  of  the  illuminate." 
Till*  sixty  are  heR»  expUiined  as  constituents  of  existence  still 
julhi»ring  to  the  whito  soul.  The  comment^itor,  however,  gives 
an  entirely  diffea'nt  explamition  from  the  one  above,  and 
though  mu(*h  the  Kune  in  regard  to  tlie  List  two  cases,  his 
interpri'Uition  is  not  ([uite  unifonn.  In  the  fonner  rase,  the 
g<»cl  tMijoys  tiittvas  or  topics,  exjwriencetl  as  stated  at  the 
U*ginniiig  of  the  Milndukya,  in  unconscious  slumlx*r,  \^'ake- 
fuhit'ss,  and  onliiLirj*  slivp,  wich  of  the  Litter  Ijeing  the  nsil 
or  illusionan'  fino  and  grr>ss  elements  ailded  to  the  nineteen 
•*(I(M»rs  of  enjoyment,"  soul,  five  hnniths,  and  the  usual  thir- 
tivii  (t4'n  organs,  mind,  int4*ll(vt,  aiul  egoism);  while  two  of 
tlie  sixty  an»  attrihuli-^l  to  dnnimless  slumUT,  cetas,  soul,  ami 
sul»tilfst  eapu-ity.  In  the  Litter  ease,  the  tlmw  stat4*s  an»  sur- 
I«iss4<(l  ))y  a  f(»nrth  state,  to  which  the  imiK*d4*d  white  soul  mn- 
not  attain.  Tlie  imiNtliments  an*  mueh  the  same  as  tlioM* 
alMivr,  hut  includt*  ignorance,  desin*  ami  acts  (the  triiid  men- 
tionttl  aU)ve),  ami  the  states  tliemselves. 

The  Seventaan. 

In  the  ex{M>siti<m  given  in  xii,  276,  G  it.,  aUive,  p.  15(i,  theiv 
is  a  group  of  S4*vcnteen  witli  an  luLU-d  spirit,  nuiking  «*igiiteeu 
in  all.     Furilier  tiieix*  an3  '*  eight  beings  uf  beings,**  which  re- 


166  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

mind  one  of  the  "  eight  sources,"  but  instead  of  the  usual  group 
we  find  here  the  gross  elements,  Time,  being,  and  not-being 
(egoism  is  not  a  factor  here  at  all).^ 

The  group  of  seventeen  plays  an  important  part  in  epic 
categories,  but  it  is  clear  from  a  comparison  of  the  cases  that 
there  is  no  symmetry  of  system  in  the  explanation.  It  is  in 
short,  as  is  the  case  in  other  instances,  a  Samkhyan  term  used 
because  it  is  an  old  term,  but  explained  differently  in  different 
cases.  One  form  we  have  just  examined ;  another  I  gave  in 
the  first  chapter,  above,  p.  33,  where  was  shown  a  late  group 
of  seventeen,  containing  most  of  the  elements  of  the  same 
group  in  the  Vedantasara,  five  elements,  mind,  intellect,  ego- 
ism, five  organs  of  sense,  spirit,  atman,  and  the  three  gunas  or 
constituents  of  all  that  is  not  pure  spirit. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Saiiikhyan  group,  as  in  Aphorisms 
iii,  9,  may  be  understood  of  the  bodily  constituents  (ten  organs, 
mind,  intellect,  and  five  elements)  in  a  praise  of  ^iva  who  cre- 
ated the  "seven  guardians  and  ten  others  who  guard  this 
city,"  2  vii,  201,  76.  The  city  here  is  the  body,  as  in  the  Upar 
nishads  and  Gita  (9vet.,  8,  18;  G.  5,  13),  elsewhere  called 
"house,"  as  in  v,  33,  100,  "this  house  of  nine  doors,  three 
pillars,  five  witnesses,  under  control  of  the  spirit."^ 

1  This  exposition  is  called  "sillj  talk/'  dasUpralapah,  xii,  280,  23,  becaiue 
it  does  not  recognize  that  the  course  of  transmigration  may  be  brought  to  an 
end.  For  it  is  taught  in  the  following  chapter  that  not  knowledge,  penance, 
and  sacrifice,  but  only  self-restraint,  can  result  in  the  attainment  of  Vishno, 
the  supreme  God.  For  as  a  goldsmith  purifies  gold  in  fire  so  the  soul  is  puri- 
fied by  many  rebirths  or  by  one  alone,  Hari  creates,  whose  self  consists  of  the 
eleyen  modifications,  ekada9aTikaratmS,  the  sun  is  his  eye,  his  mind  is  in 
the  moon,  his  intellect  is  in  knowledge,  etc.,  and  the  gunas  are  essentially  of 
God,  281,  0,  11-12,  19-21,  24.  Here,  as  I  have  elsewhere  pointed  out,  eleyen 
modifications  take  the  place  of  the  regular  sixteen,  evidently  the  organs  and 
mind  without  the  elements. 

^  In  conjunction  with  the  two  birds  (spirits)  and  pippal  trees  (vikaras), 
manasau  dviu  suparnau  Yaca9akhah  pippalah  sapta  gopah  da9S  'py  anye  ye 
puram  dharayanti.  Compare  for  the  birds  and  pippal  tree  Mund.  Up.  iii,  1 ; 
Vvet  iv,  0. 

'  The  five  senses,  mind,  intellect,  egoism,  and  the  gross  body,  make  the 
nine;  the  pillars  are  restraints,  ignorance,  desire,  action;  the  house  is  the 
body  ;  the  witnesses  are  the  senses,  says  the  commentator,  who  at  Gita,  5,  18, 
gives  a  different  explanation  of  the  nine.    The  witness  (as  in  popular  style,  i. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  167 

Another  passing  allusion  is  found  in  xii,  280^  4,  **  freed  from 
the  seventeen,"  where  (since  tiie  context  excludes  objects  of 
sense,  gunas,  and  the  '* eight*')  the  seventeen  are  explained 
by  tlie  commentator  as  five  breaths,  mind,  intellect,  and  ten 
organs  (tlie  eight  being  objects  of  sense  and  gunas).  Another 
(Nissiige  idluding  to  the  seventeen  is  taken  in  the  same  way: 
*•''  Who  are  free  of  the  seventeen,  the  gunas,  and  acts,  the  fifteen 
kalUs,  {Kirticles,  being  abandoned,^  they  are  released,*'  xii,  885, 
40.  So  again  in  xii,  852,  15-16:  ^*The  highest  spirit  is  not 
afTei'tttl  by  fruits,  as  the  lotus  leaf  is  not  affected  by  water; 
but  tlic  otlier,  tlie  active  spirit,  kannatinan,  is  bound  by  the 
U)iuls  of  salvation'  and  it  is  bound  also  by  tlie  group  of  seven- 
teen,** where  nlvi,  group,  is  used  as  in  the  first  example  above, 
though  the  group  is  a  different  one. 

It  follows  tliat  tlie  epic  is  not  consistent  witli  itself  but 
interprt»ts  tlie  '*gn>up  of  seventeen"  in  different  ways,^ 

74,  .'U.  hnli  sthitah)  is  vomctimct  toAde  lixfold,  m  the  ipirit  and  fire  toiiaett 
xiii,  7,  't.  Various  ]MH'tioal  modifications  occur:  ''A  house, ugirakain,  of  onv 
pillnr.  nine  doors,"  xii,  174,  TuO;  a  city,  xii,  210,  37;  nine  doors  ajrain  (still 
difTcrently  fxplaincd  by  the  cominentator)  in  xii,  240,  ."12,  where  the  spirit  U 
hansa  ((Niuipan*  2t4i.  2(^31).  A  Tery  elaborate  workinf(-ap  of  the  body-citj, 
with  Pt-n^'ii  an  citizens,  buddhi  as  Lord,  etc.,  will  be  found  in  xii.  255,  0  ft. 
Till-  hniii^a  passage  reflects  the  Tpanishads :  240,  21^  =  (*Tet  iil.  Id;  .')0=  t.  L 
of  Vvet.  ib.  2<);  31  has  the  unique  dvaiiihllhax^  (itmanah)  of  Miitri.  rii.  11 : 
32  .:  later  form  of  Cvet.  iii,  IS.  <  )n  p.  45, 1  gare  kilah  pacatt  in  Strip,  as  acci- 
dental tir  universal.  Not  so  here,  however,  where  Miitri  ri,  15,  kilah  pacati 
.  .  .  vuKiniiM  tu  pacrate  kilo  yas  taiii  Teda  sa  vtMlavit,  appears  complete  <with 
tlie  V.  1  tiiiii  viilc  'ha  na  ka^*<'ann)  in  210,  25.  So  tmi  yl-  17  :-  Ka^ia  iii.  16; 
and  iM  Tvet.  It,  P.<;  while  in  15,  mtinUi  manasi  Tiprah  |>avyaty  itminam 
itniani  (eMitii  sajitadavam  dehe  irrtjim  stHlavabhir  truniih)  therein  a  direct 
copy  iif  the  I'Mer  form.  i^wX.  iv,  17,  etc.     V'*  1**.  '^*  •!  ^^V7  *^>*'  ^'ili- 

1  ye  hiiiiih  it:iptailavabhir  gunaih  karniabhir  era  ca,  kalah  |»aAcada9t 
tyakta*  t«-  iniiktn  iti  ni^*<-Ayah.  Here  the  conuiientator  takes  gunas  as  sattra, 
raj.ii*.  an<l  t.iMiaN.     <  >n  the  fifteen  kalis,  utt*  Ih*1ow. 

'  Mok^abandhah,  fn^-rhaps  nioha  should  be  n*ad,  unless  moksa  Impliet 
de«ire 

•  Tin  ff  .ire  i»f  rourse  other  trroups  nf  •eTent«*«*n.  Thus  in  xii.  2»KJ,  26-98, 
Ak'ni  i-  ••■%eiit«-enth  in  the  •acrifleial  ^rt»up.  plants,  cattle,  tre«*s,  withes,  butter, 
nnlk.  -•iir  imlk.  ^\u'v.  l;uid,  |M»inls  of  cuuipass,  faith,  time  (ar«*  twelve),  the 
tliret-  Vi>!a«,  the  sucrificcT  (oTv  sixti-ui).  and  sevent^fUth  is  Kirv,  the  boua^ 
lurd. 


168  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

The  Sixteen  (A)  Particles. 

What  has  happened  in  the  mixture  just  described  is 
obvious  enough.  The  fifteen  kalas,  mentioned  above  as 
something  to  be  abandoned,  imply  a  sixteenth  kala,  the 
not-to-be-abandoned  psychic  entity  itself.  The  impediments 
are  called  indifferently  kalas  and  gunas,  the  former  being  the 
old  designation,  as  in  MuncL  Up.  iii,  2,  7,  '^the  fifteen  kalas 
disappear."  Here  as  in  Brh.  Aran.,  i,  5, 16,  the  sixteenth  is 
the  soul ;  but  in  Pra?.  Up.  vi,  2-5,  the  soul  is  the  source  of 
the  sixteen,  sa  puruf  o  yasminn  et^  ^oda^a  kalah  prabhavanti, 
Puru^a  makes  them,  each  from  the  preceding:  ^^ breath,  faith, 
five  elements,  sense,  mind,  food,  energy,  austerity,  hymns, 
sacrifice,  the  world,  and  the  name  (individuality),"  and  they 
all  flow  back  into  Puru^a  in  reverse  order.  In  xii,  47,  68  ff., 
(where  the  samkhyatman  is  yogatman,  mayatman,  vi9vatman9 
goptratman)  God  is  "  the  Saiiikhyas'  Seventeenth,  having  three- 
fold soul  (tridhatman,  awake,  dreaming,  in  dreamless  sleep), 
standing  in  soul,  enveloped  in  the  sixteen  gunas."  The  six- 
teen in  xii,  210,  83  are  the  eleven  organs  and  five  objects  of 
sense,  which  come  from  (1)  the  Unmanifest,  producing  (2)  act- 
bom  intellect,  which  produces  (8)  egoism,  whence  come,  one 
out  of  the  other,  (4)  air,  (6)  wind,  (6)  light,  (7)  water,  (8) 
earth,  the  eight  fimdamental  sources  on  which  the  universe  is 
established  (vs.  29,  the  sixteen  modifications,  ten  organs,  five 
objects  of  sense,  and  mind).  Compare  also  above  the  "  freed 
from  six  and  sixteen."  So  in  xii,  242,  8  =  xiv,  61,  81,  where 
every  creature  has  a  body,  mdrti,  and  "  consists  of  sixteen," 
murtiman  ^oda^atmakah.  The  Upanishadic  kalas  and  the 
Samkhya  groups  have  united,  and  in  turn  are  affected  by 
other  later  groups.  In  xii,  240, 18,  there  is  a  group  of  sixteen 
"always  in  the  bodies  of  incorporate  creatures,"  the  five 
senses  and  the  five  objects  of  sense,  the  svabhava  or  individual 
nature,  intellect,  cetana,  and  mind  added  to  two  vital  breaths 
and  to  spirit  itself ;  wliile  in  802,  24,  svabhava  and  cetana  are 
apparently  not  included  in  the  "  sixteen  gunas  "  which  encom- 
pass tlie  body ;  or,  if  the  sixteen  be  interpreted  as  including 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  169 

them,  then  in  both  cases  we  have  a  group  of  sixteen  qnite 
distinct  from  that  in  the  previous  section,  where  organs  and 
objects  of  sense  make  the  number.  Further,  in  the  former  of 
the  two  last  sections,  cetanS  is  distinct  from  manas,  with  which 
it  is  elsewhere  identified  (see  the  section  cited  on  p.  84  from 
the  third  book).  Compare  also  the  account  of  creation  in 
xii,  288,  10  ff.,  already  referred  to,  where  the  seven  mahi^ 
mans,  intellect,  mind,  and  the  elements,  unite  to  make  body 
as  a  base  for  spirit,  fariram  ^raya^ad  bhavati,  murtimat  90^ 
(atmakom,  238, 12,  into  which  enter  mahanti  bhiitanL  The 
elements  are  the  gross,  as  they  are  described  in  (1.  8  (gu^Sil^ 
sarvasya  purvasya  prSpnuvanty  uttarottaram),  and  there  seems 
no  reason  for  differentiating  them  from  the  Great  BeingSi 
though  the  commentator  takes  them  as  intellect  and  tanm&» 
tras,  and  the  sixteen  as  gross  elements  and  eleven  organs, 
explaining  the  whole  process  as  the  creation  of  the  linga  in 
the  sthula  body. 

The  group  of  sixteen  plus  a  seventeenth,  as  given  in  the 
scheme  above,  is  a  combination  of  two  schedules,  one  the 
regular  seventeen  of  the  Aphorisms,  the  other  an  earlier  group 
of  sixteen  only,  in  which  the  sixteenth  is  the  permanent  spix^ 
itual  part  as  contrasted  with  the  fifteen  impermanent  parts, 
like  those  of  the  moon,  xii,  805,  4. 

The  Siztaan  (B)  or  Eteran  MoatflctioM. 

The  epie  (as  already  cited)  gives  the  modifications  as  eleven 
in  nunilier.  Apart  from  the  usual  explanations  of  these 
eleven,  there  is  a  passage,  xii,  258,  11:  **  Three  higher  gu^as 
an'  in  ull  en^atures,  liesides  the  five  gross  elements,  with  mind« 
wliirh  is  essi*ntially  analytic,  vyakaranatmakam,  as  the  ninth, 
intelleet  the  tenth,  and  the  inner  soul,  antaifttman,  as  the 
eleventh/'  Here  the  commentator  explains  the  three  as  igmv 
ninee,  ilesins  and  ac*tion  (avidya,  kama,  karma,  (1.  9),  thou^ 
in  the  text  blulva,  abliava,  and  kiila,  are  given  as  tliree  addU 
tions  (<;!.  2),  with  other  departures  from  tlie  scheme  already 
n'eopiizi'il  in  what  precedes.  Hut  apart  fnim  this  special 
case,  Uie  fact  remains  that  in  some  parta  of  the  epic,  as  in  i 


170  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

218,  18  (p,  87),  xii,  281,  20,  only  eleven  modifications  are 
admitted. 

On  the  other  hand,  sixteen  modifications,  eleven  organs  and 
five  elements,  as  in  the  regular  Samkhyan  system,  are  fully 
recognized,  as  in  xii,  811,  8  ff.,  and  elsewhere. 

There  is,  therefore,  no  uniform  epic  interpretation  of  the 
modifications. 

The  Eight  Sources. 

As  given  above  from  xii,  210,  28  and  811, 10,  the  mula- 
prakrtayah  or  eight  fundamental  procreative  powers  are  the 
Umnanifest,  intellect  ("bom  of  activity,"  the  result  of  the 
equilibrium  being  disturbed  by  tejas,  energy),  egoism,  air, 
wind,  light,  water,  and  earth ;  or  in  other  words  (the  fine  ele- 
ments being  ignored,  as  usual),  the  five  elements  and  self- 
conscious  intellect  as  the  first  manifest  production  of  the  un- 
manif est  produce  everything.  But  in  Gita,  7,  4,  the  "  eight 
sources  "  are  these  elements  plus  mind,  self-consciousness,  and 
intellect.  The  terminology,  it  may  be  observed,  is  already 
broken  up  in  the  Gita.  In  this  passage  "another  source," 
prakrti,  is  the  jivabhuta,  which  is  the  same  with  one  of  the 
"  two  spirits,"  purusas,  in  15, 16,  one  of  which  is  '  all  beings," 
with  a  "  third  spirit,"  the  Lord,  iQvara,  paramatman,  added  in 
17,  who  is  not  identified  with  the  ak^ara  but  is  "higher." 
When,  however,  egoism  is  rejected  in  favor  of  spirit,  as  in  the 
"  Secret  of  the  Vedanta,"  then  the  group  of  eight  appears  as 
the  six  senses  "  (the  five  senses  which  are  perceptive,  vijfianani, 
with  mind  as  the  sixth),  intellect  and  spirit.  Other  groups 
of  eight,  like  the  last,  seem  to  be  based  on  this  early  grouping 
of  productive  elements.  They  are  assumed  in  xiii,  16,  64, 
where  ^iva  is  "the  eight  sources  (above  'eight  forms '),  and  he 
who  is  above  the  sources,"  and  they  are  personified  in  the  per- 
sonal creation  of  xii,  341,  80  £F.,  as  "  eight  sages,"  who  are 
sources,  though  created  from  the  elements : 

Marlcir  AiigiraQ  ca  'trih  Pulastyah  Pulahah  Kratuh 
VasisthaQca  mahatma  vai  Manuh  Sv&yambhuvas 

tath& 
jfieyah  prakrtayo'stau  ta  yAsa  lokah  pratisthit&h 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  171 

Compare  210,  28,  mulaprakftayo  hy  a^tiiu  jagad  etasv  avasthi- 
tani.  As  already  noticed,  the  system  requires  that  the  ele- 
ments here  should  be  ^^  fine/*  and  tills  is  occasionally  expressed 
(see  p.  129),  but  elsewhere  the  fine  elements  are  ignored  in 
this  gn>up  of  sources.  Then  the  five  (gross)  elements  are 
productive,  which  leaves  oidy  eleven  modifications. 

The  Vital  Airs  and  Sanaes. 

In  xii,  802,  27,  there  are  seven  breaths,  tlie  usual  five  and 
in  mldition  an  adhah  anilah  and  a  pmvahal^.  Instances  where 
ten  and  five  viud  breaths  are  mentioned  have  already  been 
piven.  So  witli  two,  which  are  often  the  only  airs  recognized^ 
iLs  in  xii,  240,  13.  Tliese  are  all  uld  groups,^  and  represent 
as  varu'<l  opinions  in  tlie  epic  as  in  earlier  literature. 

(ionenilly  s{)eaking,  pLuits  are  ignored  in  tlie  elaborate  an- 
alysis of  cut<*gories,  but  tliey  are  specifically  mentioned  at 
tinu's.  Thus  in  xii,  188  fT.,  tliere  is  an  m^count  of  creatioiu 
Wiitrr  was  the  lirst  creation  after  space.  Water  pressing  made 
wind.  Tiu*^  friction  of  wind  and  water  niiule  fire  which  bei^ame 
snliil  and  thus  foniicd  earth.  There  are  five  sense-making  ele- 
ments in  all  cn'atiMl  things.  Trees  do  not  ap{)car  to  {Mmsess 
tlirni,  but  they  really  do.  They  Iiave  s|)ace  or  how  coukl 
It-avfs  I'onu's  out?  They  liave  heat  as  is  sho^n  by  withering. 
'\\\v\  liavr  (MI'S,  for  at  the  souiul  of  thuiMler  they  lose  leaves, 
and  s«mnd  is  ht-anl  only  with  «irs.  They  Imve  eyes  for  a 
witlii*  can  wind  its  way,  an<l  there  is  nt)  [uth  without  sight. 
Tlifv  can  sniclK  for  giMxl  and  Ixul  smells,  of  incens4*,  ete.,  make 
tlnni  fi«»nrish  *»r  tlecline.  Thev  taiste,  for  thev  drink  water. 
So  all  *  rcatUD'S  liavc  the  five  elements.  Tlie  cartliH^lement 
is  .Mill  in  hkin,  fic^h,  Ume,  marrttw,  sinew;  the  finM*lenient» 
in  cncp^^y,  wniih,  hi^ht,  lieat,  ainl  iligestive  fire;  tlic  lur  (or 
.H|i:u  i)  cl(in(*nt  in  ear,  nos4',  mouth,  heart,  ami  st<»nuu-li  (usu- 
ally not  a.s  liens  1^4,  'I'ly  but  in  all  the  a(ii*rtui\*s) ;  the  water- 
Mi  v«  n  thf  tt-n  an*  nH*«>K'nii«Mi  in  V*^*  I'f-  ^i<  ^t  ^.  •*»•  ^Uv^*  'iiu»  punife  pri^ft 
Atiit.il  'k.il.i(,.ih  (i-alKil  ru<Irali).  TIicik'  can  tcarovl/  W  thtr  ur KAiit,  fur  M 
fill,  h  rV.  \  H..ull  iiK-luiIi'  the  kaniu>n<lriyaf,  tihii-h  ilit  nut  "iK*part'*at  (leath. 
Ti.i  li.iiiii*  arv  t;i«tn  aburv,  |i.  ^    Cuuijiarv  the  rudna  of  xU,  317,  &. 


172  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

element  in  slime,  bile,  sweat,  fat,  blood.    There  are  five  vital 
airs  (winds)  which  cause  a  person  to  move,  184,  24-25 : 

pranat  pranljate  pr&nl  vyanftd  vyayacchate  tath& 
gacchatj  apano  'dhaQ  c&i  'va  ^  samano  brd  j  avastbitah 
udan&d  uccbvasiti  ca  pratibbedftc  ca  bhasate 
ity  eva  vayavab  pafica  cestayanti  'ba  debinam 

The  five  senses  belong  to  the  five  elements ;  one  smells  by 
reason  of  the  earth-element;  tastes  because  one  has  the  ele- 
ment of  water;  knows  color  through  the  eye  as  the  fire- 
element;  knows  touch  through  the  wind.  Smell  is  of  nine 
sorts ;  taste  is  of  six  sorts ;  color  (and  form),  of  sixteen  sorts 
(color  as  distinguished  from  form  is  of  six  sorts,  white,  black, 
bright-red,  yellow,  blue,  yellow-red) ;  wind  has  a  double  char- 
acteristic, sound  and  touch ;  touch  is  the  characteristic  of  wind 
and  is  of  many  sorts,  viz.,  twelve;  air  (space)  has  but  one 
characteristic,  sound.  But  there  are  seven  sorts  of  sound  (the 
gamut)  called  ^adja,  p^bha,  gandhara,  madhyama,  dhaivata, 
paiicama,  ni^ada.  Whatsoever  sound  of  drum,  thunder,  etc., 
is  heard  is  contained  in  this  group  of  seven  soimds  (notes).* 

The  more  extended  account  of  airs  in  the  next  chapter  gives 
ten  vital  breaths  or  airs,  though  it  describes  but  five,  nadyo 
dafapranapracoditah,  xii,  185,  15  (as  noticed  above,  p.  86, 
with  the  correspondence  in  the  third  book).  In  xiv,  60,  42 
ff.,  the  same  (duplicated)  account  says  smell  is  of  ten  sorts; 
color  (form),  of  twelve  sorts;  sound  of  ten  sorts  (the  gamut 
and  also  ^*  soimds  which  are  agreeable,  disagreeable,  and  com- 

^  This  is  the  later  yiew  that  apSna  is  the  anus  wind,  pljupSsthe  'pinam, 
Pra^na  Up.  iii,  6. 

3  On  the  six  colors  mentioned  together  in  the  Rig  Veda,  and  the  light  of 
thirty-four  kinds,  see  my  article  on  Color  Words  in  the  Rig  Veda,  Am.  Journal 
of  Phil,  iy,  p.  190.  Seren  recitations  or  notes  are  recognized  in  the  Chand. 
Up.  ii,  22, 1 ;  the  roaring  note  is  the  Agni  note ;  the  unclear  is  Prajipati's ; 
the  clear  or  definite  is  Soma's ;  the  soft  smooth,  is  Viju's ;  the  smooth  strong, 
if  Indra's;  the  heron-note  is  Brhaspati's;  the  inharmonious,  is  Varuna't. 
The  names  here  are  indefinite  and  apply  vaguely  to  seven  divinities.  They 
are  found  also  in  other  early  literature.  The  epic  names  have  no  analogy  in 
the  Upanishads  till  the  Garbha.  On  the  other  hand  the  epic  grSma,  gamut,  it 
late.  Compare  above,  p.  13,  vlnl;  also  saptatantri  vini,  iii,  134,  14,  *'the 
•even-stringed  lyre,"  called  fadgrimarigidiaamidhiyokti,  in  H.  ii,  80, 68. 


EPIC  PniLOSOPHT.  178 

pact''),  alUiough  the  two  descriptions  are  almost  identicaL 
Eiich,  however,  has  added  new  fiictors.  The  Anuglta  list 
betters  the  Ciireless  text  above,  whereby  the  sound  called 
**  Fiftli,"  paflcama,  stiinds  in  the  sixth  place  (xii,  184,  89). 

The  Five  Snbtilo  Elementn.    GroM  and  Snbtilo  Bodies. 

The  word  for  subtile  element,  tanmatra,  is  late  and,  as  I 
think,  itM  e<|uivulcnt  is  not  often  to  be  understood.  The  ear- 
lier schemes  were  content  with  "elements";  the  later,  or  a 
divergent  inter[)re tuition,  introduced  fine  elements,  suksmani, 
the  Litest  luive  the  cUissical  term  tanmatranL  Of  course  the 
conunent^itor  often  interprets  fine  elements  where  none  is 
mentioned.  Thus,  in  xii,  205, 15,  "as  the  elements  disappear 
on  the  destruction  of  the  gunas,  so  intellect  taking  the  senses 
exists  in  mind,'*  where  subtile  forms  may  be  inferred,  as 
thi'V  may  be  in  xiv,  51, 13,  where  vigvasrj  is  doubtful  (v.  1.). 
In  xii,  252,  21,  uvi^'csani  bhutani,  and  in  xii,  811,  8  ff.,  where 
tlie  m(Hliti(*ations  of  tiie  five  elements  are  again  elements 
(alK>ve,  p.  129),  fuie  elements  are  recognized.  In  xiii,  14, 
423,  viditva  siipt^i  suk^mani  ^aclangaii)  tvuih  ca  murtita^ 
"knowing  thee  as  having  in  bodily  form  the  subtile  seven, 
and  having  six  limlis,**  the  comment;itor  may  bo  right  in 
analyzing  tlie  seven  as  intellect,  egoism,  aiMl  five  tanmatriini, 
as  lie  (Itx's  in  the  case  of  tlie  Yogin*s  liiiga,  soul,  also  Kiid  to 
have  **  sevt'U  sQksniiis,"  xii,  254,  7.*  Elsewhere  tliere  are  eight 
(|H»wrrs?)  cluiracteristics  of  the  subtile  Ixidy  of  the  Yogin, 
xii,  .SI 7,  ♦). 

Hut  it  nnist  have  caused  suqmHo  in  the  many  schemes 
glMii  alH»v<s  that  a  ('l<*;ir  iiHli(*ation  of  this  theor}'  is  S4>  often 
larking  where  it  would  be  most  in  place.  The  elements  are 
simply  niahribhutris  (sic,  or  bhutani).  Only  the  Litest  part 
of  tli<*  ipic  liiis  the  tiH'hnieal  wonl,  i,  90,  13-14,  where  the 

1  Pi  rli.ijif.  biiwcTiT,  tho  tcvcnfoM  knciwIiMlf^  of  the  Tofjfin  li  meRot  at  Is 
Sutr*.  ii.  I'T  The  pa»Mi|ro  Above,  liii.  14,  4:i:t.  it  a  cop?  of  xii,  2&4.  l/i,  whcrt 
till*  «i  Ti  It  :iri  «-ipUtnvii  at  M'ltKt,  ohjccu,  mind,  intvllect.  mahat.  the  unmaal- 
fi*i.  •I'.r.t  iilic  ail  iin*  hrrt*  fiplniiiiNl  a«  all-knowing,  content,  knowMft 
without  U^'iniiiiig,  iniWpendeocv,  cTvr-claar  •ifht,«QiUMa  powtr). 


174  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

spirit,  k^etrajiia,  is  connected  with  the  tanmatras  before  birth 
in  the  body;  and  xiii,  14,  202,  where  the  order  of  yi'^fl-'s 
creation  is  '^  mind,  intellect,^  egoism,  the  tanmatras,  and  the 
organs."  * 

In  xii,  202,  18  ff.,  when  the  soul  leaves  the  body  and  takes 
another,  it  is  said :  '^  A  man  leaving  his  body  enters  another 
unseen  body.  Abandoning  Kis  body  to  the  five  great  (gross) 
elements,  bhute^u  mahatsu,  he  takes  up  a  form  also  dependent 
on  these,  tadaQrayam*  cai  Va  bibharti  rupam.  The  five 
(senses)  exist  in  the  five  great  elements  and  the  five  objects 
of  sense,  in  the  senses."  Here  there  is  another  body,  but  it  is 
composed  of  the  same  great  elements  and  no  other  elements 
are  recognized.  The  new  body  is  called  a  linga,*  but  so  is  the 
old,  9rotradiyuktah  samanah  sabuddhir  lingat  tatha  gacchati 
lingam  anyat,  "possessed  of  hearing  and  other  senses  and 
having  mind  and  intellect  he  passes  out  of  one  body  to 
another,"  9I.  14. 

Elsewhere  it  is  said  that  the  beings  that  pass  out  of  the 
gross  body  pass  into  a  subtile,  siik^ma,  body,  and  are  called 
suk^mabhutani  sattvani,  "  fine  beings,"  which  "  wander  about 
like  sunbeams,"  superhuman,  atimanusani,  xii,  254, 1-8  (sattva 
is  bhutatman).  The  passage  in  xii,  845,  14  ff.  has  already 
been  referred  to.  Here  the  sun  is  the  door  (as  in  the  Iga)  and 
the  dead  become  paramanubhutah,  then  manobhutah,  and  then 

^  Here  mat!  stands  for  baddhi,  as  it  does  in  xii,  202,  21,  sarrini  c&i  'tSni 
manoDugani,  buddhim  mano  *nycti  matih  svabhayam,  "the  senses  follow 
mind,  mind  follows  intellect,  intellect  follows  the  pore  entity  (here  equira- 
lent  to  paramah  svabhayah  of  203, 1). 

3  The  word  tanmatra  occurs  onlj  in  late  Upanlshads,  according  to  Col. 
Jacob's  Concordance  (his  reference  s.  paBca^  includes  MSitri,  iii,  2).  To  the 
last,  Garbe,  in  his  Samkhja-Philosophie  adds  (p.  230)  Ka^ha,  iy,  8,  referring 
to  Regnaud,  Biat^riaux  pour  senrir  k  Thistoire  de  la  philosophie  de  Tlnde,  ii, 
81,  32.  This  is  an  error.  The  Katha  knows  nothing  of  tanmitras.  Pra^na 
must  be  meant,  where  mitras  arc  mentioned,  iv,  8. 

*  Compare  tan-mStram,  but  in  the  passage  cited,  tad  most  refer  grammati- 
callj  to  the  gnreat  elements. 

^  So  in  xii,  307,  IB,  the  Yogin,  still  in  his  gross  body,  becomes  quiet  as  a 
lamp  in  a  windless  place,  shines  like  a  lamp  (or  is  like  a  stone  or  piece  of 
wood).  When  he  shines  forth  and  is  nirliSgah  and  moyeless,  he  would  not  be 
reborn.    Here  lifiga  seems  to  be  merely  a  distinguishing  mark. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  176 


traigunyahinS^  and  enter  VSeudeYa  (niigOQStmaka),  the 
Svasa  (compare  ffavasya),  the  home  of  all  (or  dwelling  in 
all).  We  may  compare  VSeudeYa  derived  from  aarvahhata- 
krtavSsa,  xii,  848,  94.  The  Yogin  eoul,  «"  clothed  in  seven 
subtile  things,'*  has  also  been  referred  to  above,  p.  89. 

In  these  cases  there  is  evidence  of  a  general  belief  in  a 
subtile  body,  but  evidence  against  a  general  belief  in  subtile 
elements,  negative,  of  course,  but  rather  strong  when  the 
elements  called  great  beings  (not  necessarily  gross,  implying 
antittiesis  of  subtile)^  are  said  to  be  the  constituents  of  the 
second  body.  I  add  another  similar  case  where  no  mention  is 
made  of  subtile  elements,  though  the  elements  and  the  subtile 
post-mortem  body  are  discussed,  since  it  is  an  interesting  pas* 
sage  in  itself  sikI  also  offers  a  particularly  convenient  oppoi^ 
tunity  for  the  introduction  of  the  idea  of  subtile  elements, 
but  no  such  idea  is  suggested. 

The  dincusaion  begins  with  an  account  of  creation,  explains 
the  five  elements,  and  proceeds  with  an  argument  in  leguA  to 
the  i>syt*hic  agent.  Life,  it  is  said,  is  invisible  and  the  que»> 
tion  comes  whether  there  is  any  vital,  jiva,  spirit,  and  how  it 
sur\iveH  ai»rt  from  the  body,  when  the  latter  **  passes  into  the 
five  elements  **  (i.  e.,  into  the  gross  elements,  tasmin  paBcatvam 
aixiniio  jivali  kim  anudhavati,  xii,  186, 10).  ^  When  a  nian*s 
bcMly  lias  been  eaten  by  birds,  or  has  fallen  from  a  clifif,  or  has 
been  burned,  how  can  life  come  to  him  again,  kutaljii  samjlvi^ 
nam  puniih,  18.  If  the  root  of  a  cut-down  tree  does  not  grow 
agiiin,  but  only  the  seeds  of  the  tree  grow,  how  can  the  man 
(eut'4l()>%'n)  rcapi)ear?  The  seed  alone,  which  has  been  started 
pn*viou}<ly,  tlmt  remains  in  existence;  the  seed  comes  fnim  a 
s(?ecl,  but  dead  men  perish  when  they  die,**  15.*  ^  No,**  says 
tlie  tiiicher, ''  tliere  is  no  destruction  of  the  vital  spirit,  jivm. 
The  vital  (xirt  of  a  man,  pri^I,  enters  another  body;  the  body 

>  The  Application  of  grett  in  mAhlbhttU  it  tiptttily  Mid  to  bo  (boI  la 
antithftit  to  tubtllc,  but)  oo  accovnt  of  tbtlr  aalimitod  cbaraetor,  ■— '•*»*tt 
mahivalMlo  ylnti  bhfltlni  MUDbbATMBy  tatM  tofim  auihibbita^abJo  *7wm 
QpapaiijaU*,  lil,  1S4,  3. 

s  (\)m|uirc  BAU.  ili.  9,  SS,  retoM  iti  ml  vooftU  .  .  BWtjft^  tvit 
rrknah  kumla  mSlIt  prarobati.    With  tbo  ir«>«lmlW,  «t  Qrtt  I,  VL 


176  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

alone  is  destroyed.  The  vital  spirit  supported  by  the  body, 
gariragnto  jivah,  is  not  destroyed  when  the  body  is  destroyed ; 
for  it  is  like  the  flame  when  the  wood  is  burned  "  (implying 
that  though  invisible  it  exists).  "Just  so,"  says  the  objector, 
"  it  is  like  the  flame,  but  no  flame  is  apprehended  when  the 
wood  is  used  up,  and  I  regard  such  a  fire,  when  the  wood  is 
used  up,  as  destroyed,  since  it  has  no  visible  course,  nor  proof 
(pramana),  nor  thing  to  hold  to,''  samsthana.  To  this  the 
answer  is :  "  The  fire  is  not  apprehended,  because  it  has  dis- 
appeared into  air  without  a  support  So  the  vital  spirit,  on 
abandoning  the  body,  exists  like  air,^  but  like  fire  it  is  not 
apprehended,  because  of  its  subtilty,  suk^matvat;  the  vital 
breaths  are  upheld  by  fire  and  this  fire  must  be  regarded  as  the 
vital  spirit.  When  breathing  is  restrained,  the  breath-uphold- 
ing fire  is  destroyed.  When  the  bodily  fire  is  destroyed,  then 
the  body  (deham,  n.)  becomes  senseless  and  falls  and  becomes 
earth,  yati  bhumitvam ;  for  earth  is  the  place  it  goes  to,  ayana. 
Breath  and  fire  go  to  air,  for  these  three  are  one ;  the  pair  (of 
other  elements)  is  fixed  on  earth.  These  (elements)  assume 
form  only  in  connection  with  bodies  (either  mobile  or  im- 
mobile, 187,  9-10).  .  •  •  The  five  senses  are  not  universally 
found*  (and  the  body's  resolution  into  elements  does  not 
affect  the  soul) ;  the  inner  soul  alone  carries  the  body,  it  alone 
smells,  tastes,  hears,  etc.  The  inner  soul  is  (not  local  but) 
found  in  aU  the  parts  of  the  body,  presiding  over  that  (mind) 
which  has  five  (characteristics),  in  that  (body)  which  consists 
of  five  (elements)  .  .  .  The  soul  does  not  die  when  the  body 
perishes."  * 

This  is  Paramatman  doctrine,  ib.  23,  and  since  from  the 

1  xii,  187,  6,  jivo  hy  ikS9aTat  sthitah  (sarragato  nitya^  ca,  coinm.)f  reminds 
one  of  BAU.  iii,  2, 13,  aka9am  atma,  only  the  strange  Buddhistic  assumption 
(of  Karma  alone  remaining)  is  here  carefully  guarded  against,  though  the 
preceding  simile  suggests  the  soul's  fate  to  be  that  in  the  Upanishad. 

*  Literally :  "  In  respect  to  what  you  are  saying  (whether  the  operation  of 
mind  and  senses  indicates  an  agent)  there  is  no  general  application  of  the 
five,"  187, 19. 

*  mithyai  'tad  ihur  mrta  ity  abuddSh :  da92rdhatii  'ri  'sy<^  9arirabhcdah, 
187,  27. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  17T 

beginning  of  the  discussion  where  the  elements  are  introduced, 
184, 1  if.,  to  the  close  as  given  above,  there  is  every  opportu- 
nity to  introduce  tlie  fine  elements,  it  is  evident  they  have  no 
place  in  tliis  system.  We  must  eitlier  assume,  therefore,  that 
tliey  are  known  in  some  parts  of  tlie  epic  and  are  not  known 
in  others,  owing  to  a  dilTerence  liistorically,  or  that  tliey  are 
taught  and  not  taught  in  different  passages,  owing  to  a  funda- 
nu*ntal  doctrinal  dilTercnce.  The  synthetic  interpreter  is  wel- 
come to  either  horn  of  tliis  dilemma. 

The  ortluKlox  {KipuLir  l)elief,  which  of  course  is  also  taught 
in  thf  epic,  in  tlmt  one  can  go  to  heaven  with  a  "divine  form,'* 
ns  in  xviii,  3,  42.  In  xvii,  8,  22-28,  one  goes  to  hciiven 
"with  his  (I)unuin)  Ixxly."  The  reason  maybe  tliat  explained 
in  the  wonls^  "liecause  of  Ocxl's  residence  in  them,  tlie  gross 
elements  are  <»tcniiil."  These  life-breaths  and  so  forth  exist 
ctcnially  even  in  the  other  worUU  f4»r  a  i^Vuti  sjiys  so,  in  the 
wonls:  **  Kvcn  when  gtme  to  the  other  world  the  life-breaths 
of  inrnriHiratc  l)eings  adwiiys  (exist),"  xv,  34,  10  (text,  above, 
p.  2/>). 

The  ImxIv  comes,  a<'conling  to  the  ei)ic,  from  earth  alone  or 
fn>in  various  elements.  Aeconling  to  the  scheme  given  above 
from  \ii,  1H4,  4,  the  ImkIv  is  m;ule  of  eartli.  So  the  ear  comes 
frniii  air:  the  eye  from  the  sun,  etc.,  xii,  276,  11,  tasya  bhQ- 
mitimyo  drhah.  Com|virt*  xii,  240,  7,  "fnmi  I'arth  the  InmIv, 
fiiini  wwWT  the  fat,  from  light  the  eyes."  Hero  wind  is  the 
hUpiHirt  nf  the  two  viud  ))riniths,  prrinaiirina(;myo  vayuh,  and 
air  n»r  ^I«u*l*)  is  in  the  holes,  khesv  uka<.*am,  of  coriMirute 
liiiii::^  a  si'h«*nie  of  cn*:ition  which  attrilmtos  tlie  "great 
luiiiu'-^"  (elements)  to  the  ^* first  creation"  of  a  {wrsonal 
tnMti»r. 

In  \li,  'lOt!,  />,  the  characteristics  of  nude  aiMl  feimde  |)arent4 
are  tr.iililiuiLilIy '  thri-e  e;wli,  as   inheriteil   by  the  offspring: 

>  m.i)ill>hutiiii  fiityini  l»hutiilliipatl«jini\'rayit.  ir,  .14,  &. 

'  ijn^rtinia  v«-li-  ^.t*trf  ca  iiAthvatv.     It  U  atl<!iM| :  "  AnthoriUtire  It 

«h.it  !•  <li  I.irt-1  ill  •>tii'«  tiwn  Vi*«|ji.  iTavrilokum,  aotl  what  ii  r«*«i  ia  Um 
V^>tr.i«,"  a  nttrictiun  m  to  tlitf  VviU  not  cbwhiffv  aJmitltd. 

13 


178  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

bone,  sinew,  marrow  from  the  father;  skin,  flesh,  and  blood 
from  the  mother.  But  in  9!.  24  it  is  said  that  skin,  flesh, 
blood,  fat,  bile,  marrow,  bone,  and  sinew  are  all  eight  pro- 
duced by  the  male,^  fukrena  prakrtanL  Here  tradition  is  set 
aside  for  the  sake  of  the  new  philosophy. 

The  growth  of  the  body  is  described  in  xii,  321, 114  ff.,  the 
seed  and  blood,  male  and  female,  uniting  produce  a  flake, 
kalala,  which  becomes  a  bubble,  budbuda,  which  develops  into 
a  lump,  pe^i.  From  this  lump  come  the  limbs;  from  the 
limbs,  nails  and  hair.  At  the  end  of  the  ninth  month,  *'*'  name 
and  form  (individuality)  "  are  bom.* 

Besides  one  subtile  body,  the  epic  may  recognize  two,  as  do 
the  Vedantins  and  later  Sariikhya  philosophers  (Garbe,  Sam- 
khya  Phil.,  p.  267).  But  the  following  text,  I  think,  scarcely 
supports  this  interpretation  of  the  commentator :  "  When  the 
spirit  in  a  body  is  out  with  rajas,  it  would  wander  about,  like 
sound,  with  a  body ;  having  a  mind  unaffected  by  the  result  of 
action  (the  spirit)  is  established  in  Prakrti  because  of  its  free- 
dom from  affection."  *  The  commentator  thinks  that  when  the 
spirit  is  in  Prakrti  it  has  a  very  minute  body,  different  from  the 
span-long  or  thumbkin  body.*  This  is  his  explanation  also  of 
the  unfinished  sentence  in  xii,  254,  18.  In  12  one  sentence 
ends  with  the  statement  that  unclarified  spirits  "do  not  see  the 
bhutatman  in  bodies."    Then  in  13,  "  those  who  are  devoted 

^  Apparently  a  clear  contradiction  of  the  preceding,  but  ezcuBed  by  the 
author  on  the  pica  of  understanding  the  inner  meaning,  and  not  the  words 
alone,  of  Veda  and  Qlatra,  grantharthatattra  1 

3  The  same  process  is  described  in  late  Samkhja  texts  (Garbe,  p.  273). 
Compare  the  Garbha  Upanishad.  "  Name  and  form  "  is  a  phrase  sometime! 
amplified :  "  The  Lord  creates  name  and  form  and  acts,"  xii,  233,  25-20  (as  in 
Brh.  Up.,  i,  6, 1,  nama  rupam  karma,  which  may  be  referred  to  here,  yaduktam 
Tcdavadcsu  .  .  .  tadantesu). 

•  rajovarjyo  'py  ayam  dehi  dehaySfi  chabdavac  caret,  karyiir  aTyShata- 
matir  vairagyat  prakrtau  sthitah,  xii,  217,  21.  The  next  half-stanza,  idehSd 
apramadac  ca  dehantad  ripramucyate,  is  interpreted  by  the  commentator  to 
mean  "the  three  bodies  (sthula-siiksma-karana)  being  abandoned,  the  soul 
(without  body),  because  of  its  mental  freedom,  is  released  definitirely." 

*  The  subtile  body  is  "span-long"  in  xii,  200,  22;  "the  size  of  a  thumb," 
it  wanders  by  reason  of  its  connection  with  the  liiiga,  v,  46,  16,  and  27 ;  xii, 
285, 175,  afigus^hamatrah  purusa  dehasthih.     See  above,  p.  32. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  170 

to  Yoga-^astra,  desirous  of  seeing  that  soul,  —  (things)  with- 
out breiith,  (things)  without  form,  and  what  (things)  are 
like  thunderbolts.**  Here  the  commentator  takes  die  three, 
anucchvasaiii,  amurtani,  yani  vajropamany  'pi,  as  bodies  devoid 
of  intelligence,  suk^ina  or  subtile  bodies,  and,  Uiinlly,  bodies 
imlestructible  even  in  the  ffionic  destruction,  or  karai^u- 
(arirai]ii,  with  atikriimanti,  overpass,  to  be  supplied  in  the 
text.  If  anytliing  is  supplied  it  is  "they  see,"  but  the  pas- 
sage is  clearly  without  sense  as  it  stands  and  probably  repre- 
sents a  later  and  awkward  interpolation  of  the  three  bodies. 

The  Colors  of  the  Soul. 

The  color  of  the  soul  is  assiuned  through  its  union  with 
the  UkIv,  in  the  same  \w\y  as  when  one  near  a  tire  gets  a  red 
col(»r,  xii,  202,  17.  The  incoqx)rate  spirit,  dehin,  is  said  to  be 
^i-ithout  color,  but  it  is  tinged  ^iitli  tlie  fruit  of  acts,  and  so  is 
said  to  attain  to  color,  varna,  which  is  of  course  siKH*ifically 
"(Lirkness.**  **  But  when  tlie  creature  by  means  of  knowledge 
puts  off  diirkness,  ))om  of  ignonince,  then  ap{M2ars  etenud 
Bnihnmn**  (pun\  without  color,  201,  26).  "As  wind,"  it  is 
Hiiid,  "  Ixvonics  colored  vf\\\\  dust  and  so  itself  colors  all  the 
air  (Hiwcc),  thus  tlie  spirit,  jT\"a,  u^nthout  color,  because  of 
acts'  fruits  Ixromes  color-tingi^"  xii,  280,  9  ff. 

This  simple  idcii  of  pure  white  soul  (as  in  ^'et.  Up.  iv,  1) 
l)i*ii)g  (Lirkcncd  ))v  coiit«ict  with  impure  darkness-bom  not-soul, 
and  eventually  UN-oming  clrar  aiul  colorless  again,  is  worked 
up  into  a  confus^'^l  tlu*or}'  of  spirit-oolor  in  the  next  chapter, 
wh«*n»  jir.t,  spiriU  lu^s  six  colors,  tjuidjhiivanuih,  xii,  2S1,  33,  as 
fiillows:  **  Spirit  luis  six  colors,  bLu*k,  yellow-gnm  Cor  grey), 
and  blue,  tiie  middle  color;  rud,  more  helpful  ainl  giMid,  bright 
Vfllnw,  iiiul,  U»st  of  all,  wliite.  White  is  U»st,  s]M>tless,  ^intlumt 
M»rn»\v,  lr;uling  to  succi'ss.  •  •  .  Tlio  couno  cn^^itures  take  is 
iiumIi*  by  tlicir  (spiritiud)  color.  Color  is  csiusi'il  by  oiie*s 
fnniKT  a<ts  (Time,  as  often,  represents  the  KaniuV  The 
(Lirk  color  Icsuls  to  a  lf»w  course  and  liell.  After  licll  tht^ 
spirii  jiitaiiis  vcllow-j^iwn  (liarit  =:  dhumni).  When  jn-a  is 
eiHlt>\V(*ii  witli  sattva  it  casts  off  txuuas  (dairkncss)  by  means 


180  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

of  intelligence,  and  after  blue  attains  to  red  and  lives  as  a 
human  creature.'^  Then  the  spirit  attains  to  yellow  as  a  god, 
returns  to  hell,  and  goes  on  in  the  same  way  to  white,  finally 
surpassing  the  three  states  (gunas).^  The  inner  meaning  of 
this  passage,  according  to  the  commentator,  is  that  when  the 
spirit  has  the  three  gunas,  tamas,  rajas,  sattva,  in  quantitative 
proportion  to  this  sequence,  the  result  is  that  the  spirit  is 
black ;  but  in  the  order  tamas,  sattva,  rajas,  yellow-green  (or 
grey)  ;  rajas,  tamas,  sattva,  blue;  rajas,  sattva,  tamas,  red; 
sattva,  tamas,  rajas,  yellow ;  sattva,  rajas,  tamas,  white.  The 
whole  theory,  which  is  alluded  to  again  in  292,  4  ff.,  seems 
to  be  an  elaboration  of  the  simple  thesis  of  the  preceding 
section  given  above.  In  the  passage  following,  the  "  higher 
color  "  is  gained  by  "  pure  acts,"  varnotkar^am  avapnoti  narah 
punyena  karmana.  The  identification  of  light  with  heaven 
("  brightryellow  gods,"  above)  is  as  natural  as  that  of  dark- 
ness with  hell.  Thus  xii,  190, 1  ff .,  after  it  is  said  that  **  truth 
is  light  and  darkness  is  lies,"  we  read :  "  Light  is  heaven  and 
darkness  is  hell ;  man  gets  a  mixture  of  both  in  this  life,  truth 
and  lies."  Compare  Patafijali's  Aphorisms,  iv,  7:  "Yogin's 
work  is  neither  white  nor  black."  I  see  no  support  in  the  text 
for  the  elaborate  explanation  of  the  commentator,  as  recorded 
above. 

In  xii,  308, 46,  there  are  "  three  colors,  white,  red,  and  black, 
with  which  are  affected  all  things  in  PrakrtL"  Here  these 
are  set  parallel  to  the  gunas  (red  apparently  corresponding  to 
energy,  rajas),  as  signs  of  the  soul,  which  goes  to  hell  if  it  is 
tamasa,  humanity  if  la jasa,  heaven  if  sattvika ;  apparently  an 
intermediate  view  between  the  six  colors  and  the  simple  an- 
tithesis of  pure  and  impure,  white  and  dark.  The  tricolored 
being  is  known  in  a  phrase  common  to  epic,  v,  44,  25,  and 
Upanisliad,  ^vet.,  iv,  6.* 

1  The  commentator,  instead  of  taking  the  states  to  be  gunas,  takes  them  as 
waking,  sleeping,  and  deep  slumber,  ending  in  turya,  the  fourth  state. 

'  Epic  text,  xii,  SaS,  46 :  ^uklalohitakrsnini  rflpiny  etini  trini  tu  sarriny 
etSni  rupSni  ySni  lia  prakrtani  vai.  (}yeX.  Up.  It,  5 :  ajim  ekam  lohita9ukla- 
knnSm  bahyih  prajah  srjamanim  sarupih  (MCiller  gires  the  varied  readings 
in  his  note»  SBE.,  toL  ii,  p.  350).    For  t,  4i,  26,  compare  abore,  p.  28. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  181 

The  FiTO  Faults  of  a  Togin. 

In  xii,  241,  8  if.,  the  faults  of  Yoga  as  known  to  the  seers* 
Ka\'is,  are  desire,  wrath,  greed,  fear,  and  sleep,  kama,  krodha, 
lobha,  btiaj-a,  svapna,  two  added  to  an  ancient  trio.  In  xii, 
801,  11,  Uie  five  Yoga  faults  to  be  "cut  oflf '*  are  registered 
as  rSga,  motia,  snelia,  kima,  krodha.  In  xii,  802,  55,  the 
**  ixith-knowiiig  Kapila  Samkhyas**  give  as  the  five  faults, 
kama,  knKltui,  bliaj-a,  nidra,  (vasa.  In  xii^  817,  13,  tlie  five 
faiults  are  simply  the  actions  of  the  five  senses.  See  also  the 
list  alx)ve,  p.  119. 

PatiiRjali,  ii,  8,  recognizes  five  kle^  **to  be  abandoned'* 
(heyi^l),  avidya  Vmita  ragadve^a  'bhinive^ah.  Five  to  be  "cut 
oflf ''  antl  "  to  be  abandoned  "  are  also  recognized  in  the  Dliam- 
nuipatk,  370,  pafica  chinde,  paOca  jahe.  In  the  epic  the  "  five  ** 
are  known  as  such,  but  different  expositions  explain  them 
differently. 

DiscipUna  of  tlio  Togin. 

The  iK'rfect«l  Yogin,  who,  by  means  of  the  sevenfold  dhS- 
ranfus  metluMls  of  fixing  the  mind,  lias  overcome  seven,  the 
eh*in(*nts,  egoism,  and  intellei't,  attains  to  "complete  and 
faiilth*ss  illumination,**  pratibha,  in  which  state  he  surpasses 
tht!  guruis  iuid  i)erfonus  miracles.  These  tectmical  terms  of 
the  Y<»g:i  arc  only  two  of  many  found  in  tlie  later  epic. 
Pratibha,  upasargas,  the  eightfold  [Hiwer,  the  various  com- 
fnrtiible  "sittings,**  calcuhite<l  to  induce  concentration  of 
thniiglit,  e.  g.,  vlras;mii,  the  c(Mlaniis,  "urgings*'  (by  which 
oiif  contmls  the  breatlis),  the  "pressing  of  breaths**  into  tlie 
hiMrtK.'aniil,  or  into  the  space  betw(*en  tlie  brows,  tlie  fixed 
hf»urs  of  exen-ise  in  menUd  discipline  —  all  tliis  Yoga-iiiai*hin- 
i-ry  is  as  well  kno\ni  to  the  epic  rewriters  as  t**  Patafljali. 
That  the  epic  here  precedes  the  Sutni-maker  may  lie  inferred 
fmni  tlu*  fact  that  in  the  matter  of  "faults**  (above)  and  in 
«ither  tiH'linieal  tonus  it  dtM's  not  ali^nys  foll«)w  the  latter, 
though  it  luis  the  Sutra  tenuinolog}'  tii  a  certain  extent. 
Hut,  on  the  other  hand,  tliere  ciui  lie  little  doubt  tliat  the 
«l>ir-writors  were  steeped  in  Yoga-terms  and  used  to  Yogi^ 


182  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

practices  of  extreme  refinement,  for  they  reveal  a  very  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  Yoga-technique.  Over  against  these 
adepts,  or  scientific  Yogins,  stand  the  vulgar  ascetics,  whose 
practices  consist  simply  in  the  austerity  of  painful  posturing. 
The  latter  forms  are  antique,  and  continue,  of  course,  through 
the  whole  epic,  as  indeed  they  continue  till  now  in  India ;  but 
in  contrast  with  those  who  practise  the  scientific  rules  of  the 
skilled  Yogin,  the  "one-legged,  up-€irm"  ascetic  belongs  to 
the  vulgar  cult,  inherited  as  "  Veda^njoined  penance,"  where 
the  wretch  is  not  so  much  engaged  in  control  and  samadhi, 
graduated  concentration,  as  in  mortifying  himself  to  get  power 
or  win  God's  grace.  Even  Vishnu  thus  stands  by  his  "  eight- 
finger-high-altar,"  and  performs  austerities,  "  standing  on  one 
leg,  with  upturned  arm  and  face ;  "  and  it  is  the  worshippers 
of  such  gods  who  retain  as  their  sole  means  of  winning  divine 
grace  the  same  sort  of  practices.  No  sharper  contrast  can  be 
imagined  than  the  two  disciplines,  that  of  the  votary  and  that 
of  the  scientific  student  of  psychology  (whose  theology  rests 
in  Brahmaism),  as  presented  in  the  epic.^ 

Tha  Destmctible  and  Indestmctible. 

Both  spirit  and  the  Source  according  to  the  Saiiikhya  system 
are  eternal  and  indestructible,  xii,  217,  8 ;  Gita,  13,  19.  They 
are  therefore  not  created  things.  But  spirit  in  other  passages 
is  a  "  created  thing  "  and  so  is  the  source,  xii,  205,  24.  For 
according  to  the  Brahmaistic  interpretation,  both  of  these  are 
destructible  so  far  as  their  entity  goes.  The  twenty-fifth  is 
reabsorbed  and  the  twenty-fourth  is  also  absorbed  into  Brah- 
man, xii,  808,  7  ff.  See  above,  pp.  134, 137.  "Lord  Tune's 
Retaking"  pratyahara,  is  the  name  given  to  the  cosmic  re- 
absorption  as  explained  in  xii,  234, 1  ff.  The  imiverse  becomes 
subtile  and  metaphysical,  adhyatma.  All  things  are  first 
burned  and  enter  the  condition  of  earth,  till  earth  looks  bare 

1  The  chief  chapters  to  be  compared  will  be  found  in  QSnti  (237,  241,  817; 
also  pp.  44,  107,  aboTe),  but  for  details  I  must  refer  to  a  paper  read  at  the 
Meeting  of  the  Oriental  Society  in  April,  1900  (to  be  published  in  the  Jour- 
nal, voL  xxii). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  188 

as  a  tortoise  shell.  Then  water  takes  up  earth ;  fire,  water ; 
wind,  fire ;  air,  wind ;  mind,  air  (with  sound,  etc.,  i.  e.,  mani- 
fest mind  {xisses  into  unmodified  mind) ;  tlie  moon,  as  sam- 
kal{Ki  or  fancy,  swallows  mind,  citta ;  then  Time  swallows  this 
as  knowledge. 

Up  to  tliis  |)oint  the  retroaction  is  at  least  intelligible  but  it 
Ls  interrupted  Iicro  by  a  revealed  text:  kalo  girati  >njflanam 
kuLim  bulam  iti  fmtih,  balam  kalo  gpnsati  tu,  tarn  vidyS 
k unite  va^e,  "Time  swallows  knowledge,  power  9wallcw9 
Time,  and  Time  swallows  power;  then  Wisdom  overpowers 
Time."  Fiimlly:  "The  Wise  One  puts  into  himself  the 
sound,  ghosa,  of  air  or  sixice.*'  That  is  unmanifest,  highest, 
etcnuil  Bmlimun,  "and  so  Bmhman  alone  is  the  recipient  of 
all  cruatiuvs."  * 

The  Oods  and  the  Religiotui  Ziifo. 

Tlir  orth(Klox  Bnihman's  insistence  on  tlie  four  stadia  of 
lifr  is  found  in  the  nonnal  attitude  of  the  poets.  Opposed  to 
this  is  the  (IiriH*t  teaching  tliat  these  stadia  are  quite  unneces- 
8;ir}\  xii,  327,  26-21:  "In  tlie  first  stadium  one  can  be  per- 
fi*<*t4*<l,  wliiit  use  is  there  of  tlie  other  tliree?*'  Compare  iii, 
207,  2r>,  nm  <lvitivam,  etc. 

In  some  [Kissiiges  the  god  Rmhm&n  is  indestructible  and 
si'lfH-n^atitl ;  in  others  he  is  a  creation ;  in  some  he  is  below 
Vishnu,  in  others  al)ove  him;  in  some,  he  is  below  (^vn;  in 
others  al>ove  him.'     Brahm&n,  agsiin,  appears  as  the  equiU  of 

^  vl  1~=  «*Tiirii  narrSni  bhutini  brmhmii  Va  prmtiMihcarmh.  This  ahtorp* 
ti<in  i*  (he  rnuntc-rpiirt  to  thi*  piTtonal  civation  of  Ilrahmin  {h.*c  p.  U2K  from 
the  "  >ri-<l  inadi'  tif  lirahnian-Klurf,  whvnctt  aU  thv  worltl,"  23li,  1.  I  do  not 
prftin<l  to  unilcrntanil  thv  fliml  pnK*c>M  of  rcalitorption  dvflcrilH*^!  aboTe: 
lkaV'»*y  f A'l*  K^'ofAih  taiii  viilviD  kuruto  *tniani,  tad  aTjaktani  jiaraiii  brahniA 
tai'  chav«tttaiii  anuttaniam.  llit*  oti-mal  sound  hvn*  implioatiil  in  Ilrahmaa 
may  U-  that  "  Word  without  l>c»rinnin)r  or  vnd,  WiMlom.  uttvrvtl  hy  th«  Srlf* 
cii*ti-ii(,  from  wliirh,  aa  Vftla-aoundf,  the  Lord  (at  cit«<l  in  the  note,  p.  17S) 
tu  xUv  }n'\zit\nitnt  or\-atoi  naiiu*«.  fonns,  and  arti/*  lii.  2Xi,  24~li(l 

>  In  lii,  :\y\  Ui\  Hrahmdii  kiiowi  that  Vi«hnu  ia  grvatrat;  bnt  in  lii.SSfi^ 
l»l.'i.  Viohnu  is  unahli*  to  roiiiprilu*nd  the*  irrfatni-M  of  (,*iTa.  C«iroparr  on  iIm 
initi  i  lirAii  riiiiitrniu»{  Hrahmaii.  Iloltimamr*  vuay.  /l)M(t.  ixxTiii,  p.  ItH  E* 
1  i-anii>>t  at:rt-f  with  thi*  author  iu  xUv  opiuiou  that  Hrahmto  la  thr  chief  Qod 
of  the  "  uMi-r  i-pic/'  but  onlj  of  the  oldvr  Ulvt  incorponted  into  Um  tplc 


184  THE  GREAT  EPIC  t>F  INDIA. 

the  other  two  gods  in  the  trinitBiian  theosophy,  which  is  lep- 
lesented  in  the  epic,  but  only  sporadically  and  in  its  latest  addi- 
tions.^ He  is  sometimes  looked  upon  as  the  chief  of  all  gods, 
but  his  supreme  attributes  are  in  other  passages  taken  by  his 
later  rivals.  Three  stages  are  clear,  with  a  top  stoiy  added 
last  of  alL  The  earliest  tales  received  into  the  epic  know 
no  god  higher  than  Brahm&n,  the  later  pseudo^pic  knows 
no  god  equal  to  (a  Paf  upata)  ^i^^^  Between  the  two  lies  the 
mass  of  the  epic  teaching,  where  supremacy  is  given  to  a  sec* 
tarian  Vishnu.  The  very  latest  additions  to  the  epic  adopt  a 
synthetic  view  and  make  of  this  religious  olla  podrida  one  har- 
monious whole,  where  all  three  great  gods  are  one. 

Arjuna  is  a  form  of  Vishnu.  He  is  taught  this  with  won- 
der and  great  amaze  in  the  sixth  book.  But  our  amazement 
at  his  amazement  is  still  greater,  for  this  doctrine,  apparently 
so  new  to  him,  was  revealed  to  him  long  before,  in  the  third 
book,  and  on  that  earlier  occasion  he  appeared  fully  to  appre- 
ciate the  fact  that  he  was  divine  and  identical  with  Krishna, 
facte  which  in  the  sixth  book  he  has  totally  forgotten.* 

Heaven  and  HelL    Death. 

Inconsistent  as  is  the  Karma  doctrine  with  the  notion  of 
heaven  and  hell,  the  Hindu,  like  Pindar,  successfully  combines 
the  two  beliefs  by  imagining  that  metempsychosis  follows  the 

1  For  the  usual  caturmurti,  compare  iii,  203,  15;  tU,  29,  26;  zii,  S35,  8. 
In  iii,  272,  47,  is  found  the  only  definite  expression  of  the  late  trinitarian 
belief  in  a  trimurti,  an  interpolated  section  (compare  mj  Relif^ons  of  India, 
p.  412) ;  though  it  maj  be  implied  in  i,  1,  S2  and  ziii,  16,  16,  but  only  here 
tiU  we  reach  the  Hariranfa,  2, 126,  81.  It  appears  first  in  the  later  Upani- 
shads,  or  in  late  additions,  as  in  Maitri  t  (as  distinguished  from  the  close  of 
iy),  above,  p.  46.  Among  other  religious  noyelties  the  pseudo-epic  introdncef 
Citragupta,  Death's  secretary,  xiii,  126, 6 ;  130, 14  £L  In  sereral  points,  such 
as  in  this  and  in  grammatical  peculiarities,  the  Ann^isana  shows  itself  later 
in  some  parts  eren  than  (inti,  all  ignored,  of  course,  by  the  synthesitt. 

*  Compare  iii,  12, 16.  In  this  passage,  Arjuna  exalts  Krishna  as  the  wor 
preme  Lord  of  the  uniyerte,  and  Krishna  in  turn  identifies  the  two :  yas  trim 
dves^  sa  mSm  dyefti,  etc,  ib.  46  (Vishnu  says  the  same  thing  almost  to  Rudra 
in  xii,  343,  133 ;  yas  tySm  yetti  sa  mim  yetti,  yas  tyim  ann  sa  mim  anu). 
Arjuna's  godhead  is  proclaimed  to  him  in  iii,  41, 36, 43;  47,  7.  On  the  hjmz]^ 
iii,  12,  compare  Lassen,  Ind.  Alt.,  i,  p.  489. 


.i 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  186 

penalty  of  hell,  or  reward  of  heaven.  The  two  views  stand 
sometimes  separate,  however,  and  the  hero  is  promised  an 
abode  in  Indra*s  heaven  without  any  allusion  to  metempsy- 
chosis ;  or  one  is  promised  a  high  or  low  birth  hereafter  with- 
out allusion  to  the  older  teleological  fancy.  Ordinarily  in  the 
former  case,  tlie  rule  is  tliat  a  good  man  goes  to  heaven  and  a 
bad  man  goes  to  hell,  as  in  tlie  Upanishads,  e.  g.,  Mui^^  i, 
2, 10,  and  in  tlie  epic  generally.  But  in  one  exegesis  quite  a 
different  view  is  taken.  The  idea  hero  is  that  a  fiurly  good 
man  goes  first  of  all  to  hell ;  wliile  a  man  who  on  the  whole  is 
mther  sinful  tlian  good  goes  first  of  all  to  heaven.  Afterwards 
tiie  goixl  nuin  goes  to  heaven  and  tlie  bad  man  goes  to  hell.' 

I'he  ix)puLir  noticm  of  tlie  Yogin  is  not  at  all  that  of  absorp- 
tion  into  Brahman.  ^ Grieve  for  the  living,  not  for  tlie  dead; 
this  pious  hero  after  his  death,  like  a  Yogin,  has  become  a  be- 
ing  with  a  human  body  an<l  shines  glorious  like  a  king.*''  In 
Iiiniveii  there  are  cool  breezes  and  perfume,  no  hunger,  thirst, 
toil,  old  agis  nor  sin,  but  **  eternal  happiness,*'  in  heaven,  which 
is  liere,  in  contrast  to  liell,  the  ^  highest  place,"  xii,  190, 18- 
14.  So  in  the  Sablias.  The  Yogin  **  revels  in  joy,  knows  no 
sorrow,  aixl  rides  anmnd  on  high  in  a  heavenly  car,  attended 
by  si*lf-Iuminous  women,"  xiii,  107, 180  (compare  the  rftmS^ 
samtliah  of  Katlia  Up.  i,  25).  This  is  the  happiness  of  a  Yogin 
after  iltnith,  a  view  of  cfiurse  diametrii^ally  opposed  to  that  of 
tlio  philosophy  taught  elsewhere,  for  it  is  taught  as  finaU  not 
as  pn*liiniiiar}'. 

In  various  |iassages  it  is  taught  tluit  a  good  man  should  aim 
at  iittiiiniiig  to  limvcn.  Tliis  too  is  not  put  forth  as  a  half-view 
with  a  n\<or\'ation,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Ufxinisluuls.  But  in 
oUu'r  rases  it  is  expressly  just  such  a  tudf-view.'    Heaven  is 

>  lihaviMhain  pipakarmi  jrah  tm  pinraih  irarfUB  acnvte.  etc.,  XTiii.  S,  14. 

<  tim  iiniUTim  Itmaunatn  .  .  .  iratAh.  tU.  71.  17.  Coai|Mrr  xii,  :I3:I,  63. 
Tiyulihutah  pniTi-kfjIini  t4*Jorivirii  diTikaram  (not  horv  to  the  moon,  vhleli 
rhanfri-t):  "  In  the  form  of  wind  I  ihall  enter  CIm  ran"  (to  Uve  with  the 
•4i'r«) :  yatra  ni  'vartate  punah  ((iO),  **  whence  there  it  no  retmrn.** 

*  WvTv  it  may  he  objected :  lint  thia  la  for  warriori.  and  ercn  la  the  Upas* 
i«h«(l4  thi>«i*  that  wunhip  I'rajipati  aa  matter  Instead  of  apirit  are  mattrkl^ 
blrttnl.    ThU  raiiea  the  qaeatioo  sfnln  which  I  toacli«d  apoo  al  th«  oatnt 


186  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

here  a  good  place  for  good  but  unintelligent  people,  but  it  is 
scorned  by  the  philosopher.  "  I  have  done  with  heaven,  away 
with  thee,  heaven,  whither  thou  hast  come,"  says  an  enlight- 
ened king;  "let  the  priest  receive  my  merit  if  he  wishes," 
xii,  199,  77-78.  The  priest,  orthodox,  is  recognized  as  still 
striving  for  heaven  and  likely  to  go  to  hell,  in  the  old  way: 
"  Hell  is  where  priests  go,"  it  is  said  rather  bluntly,  ib.  14-16, 
nirayam  nai  Va  yata  tvam  yatra  yata  dvijari^bhah,  yasyasi 
Brahmanah  sthanam.  For  of  all  the  heavens  of  all  the  gods 
it  is  said,  "these  are  but  hells  to  the  place  of  the  Highest 
Soul,"  xii,  198,  6. 

All  kings  but  one  go  to  Yama's  heaven  in  the  Sabha 
account;^  in  the  battle-scenes  most  of  them  go  to  India's 
heaven.  But  in  vi,  16,  20,  they  go  to  the  Brahmarworld. 
Again,  the  heaven  one  goes  to  depends  either  on  one's  gunas 
(as  explained  above),  or,  according  to  where  one  dies  (Tirtha), 
or,  as  a  third  explanation,  according  to  the  place  in  the  body 
through  which  the  soul  escapes  at  death.  If  it  goes  through 
the  feet,  one  goes  to  Vishnu's  place ;  if  through  the  arms,  to 
Indra's  place ;  if  through  the  crown,  to  Brahm&n,  etc.,  xii,  818, 
1  ff.  (with  vi5vedevan  in  5,  common  in  the  pseudo-epic). 

Death,  it  may  be  observed,  is  usually  a  male ;  but  in  vii,  58, 
17  and  xii,  258, 16-21,  a  female.  There  are  here  two  accounts 
which,  though  together  opposed  to  the  view  held  everywhere 
else,  are  of  critical  value,  not  on  this  account  (for  a  poet  may 
perhaps  be  allowed  to  unsex  death),  but  on  account  of  their 
being  almost  identical,  two  versions  of  one  tale,  one  bearing 
traces  of  greater  antiquity  than  the  other.' 

In  one  part  the  warrior  auditors  are  taught  the  deepest  mysteries,  in  another 
they  are  taught  what  is  not  taught  in  the  Upanishads  except  as  introduc- 
tion to  true  teaching.  Synthetically  considered,  the  epic  teaches  nothing 
systematic  in  these  rarying  expositions. 

1  Yama's  home  is  here  a  hearen  of  delight,  elsewhere  in  the  epic  it  is  a  heU 
of  horrors. 

^  The  account  in  Drona  is  here  the  later  of  these  two  similar  scenes,  as  hat 
been  shown  by  Uoltzmann,  ZDMG.  xxxviii,  p.  218.  In  philosophy,  death  is 
the  dissyllabic  Ego  as  opposed  to  the  eternal,  immortal,  three-syllable  non- 
ego,  or  mama  versus  namama  ("  this  is  mine  "  is  a  thought  deadly  to  trath, 
and  untruth  is  death),  xii,  13,  4  and  xlr,  13,  3  (identical  paisages). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY.  187 

The  Cosmio  Sgg  and  Oroatloiis. 

According  to  the  old  belief,  tlie  universe  comes  from  a 
cosmic  egg.  The  philosophical  schemes,  of  course,  discard  this 
egg,  but  we  hear  of  it  in  the  popular  accounts  often  enough 
and  meet  it  in  tlie  first  verses  of  the  epic.  Occasioimlly,  how- 
ever, in  the  personal  creation,  which  stands  in  so  sharp  con- 
tnust  with  tlie  more  philosopliical  schemes,  tliis  becomes  a  sub- 
ject of  controversy.  Thus  in  xii,  812,  tlie  "  Unmanifest "  is  a 
l)er8on,  who  iirst  creates  plants  as  the  food  of  all  incoqx>rate 
things.  ^*'  Then  he  produced  Brahm&n,  bom  in  a  golden  egg. 
Umlun&n  lived  in  the  egg  a  year.  Then  he  came  out  and  put 
together  tlie  four  forms  of  all  beings,  and  earth  and  heaven 
above  —  as  it  is  said  in  tlie  Vedas,  dyavapftliivyo^^  *  —  and 
then  the  middle  sixvce.  After  tliis  he  created  egoism,  a  being, 
bhuUi,  and  four  sons  besides,  who  are  the  fathers*  fathers. 
The  g(Kls  are  the  sons  of  the  fathers;  by  tlie  gods  tlie  worlds 
wen*  filled.  Egoism,  he  tliat  stands  in  the  highest,  created 
fivefdld  Iwings,  earth  and  tlie  other  elements.'*  Several  verses 
follow  (in  the  imiM>S8ibility  of  the  senses  acting  alone  (**the 
organs  do  not  {leu'eive,  etc.  Mind  alone  sees.  Mind  is  tlie  lord 
<»f  till'  8en*<es,*'  etc.).'  Here  the  egg4x)m  creator  is  acknowl* 
e<l^(il  in  a  M-heme  which  is  a  mixture  of  mythoh>gy  and  philos- 
ophy. Hut  in  xiii,  154, 16  if. :  **  Some  fools  say  tliat  Hmhm&n 
Wiw  Umi  <»f  an  egg  .  .  .  but  tliat  is  not  to  lie  reg-anled.  How 
could  the  unlNirii  ))e  Inini?  Air-s{)ace  is  the  egg,  acronling 
t4)  tnulition,  and  out  of  ttiat  wsis  Ixini  Knihmdn,  the  forefatlier. 
( lit*  n-quired  no  MUpjM>rt|  for  lie  is)  iH.*rs4»nilied  ccmM'iousness, 
tilt'  Lnnl.  Then*  is  no  egg;  there  is  Kmhni&n  .  .  .  tlie  unman- 
iff>i  rtrriiid  CriMlor  Lonl"  (15).  This  |Ki.Hs:ige  is  not  merely 
an  allf^^irical  interpn*t^ition  of  the  egg-myth  ;  for  in  the  former, 
Hnilinian  ('n.*iitrH  H{vMre  after  he  is  )>oni  of  tiie  egg  fn»ni  which 
lit'  is  Uirn,  while  hure  the  egg  is  sjKU'e.     The  number  of  ei 


1  Tliat  it,  the  Viilic  furm  imptiit  thv  truth  of  ht-aven  and  varth  %m  bcft 
•tattd. 

*  III  till*  i>a»«ac^\  i-te  Tiycti  tiiahibhuti'tu,  312,  1:2,  riinaU  th«  flrtt  half* 
« tan/a  of  Ul.  14,  cited  abovv,  p.  1:A>. 


188  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

tions  in  philosophy  I  have  already  discussed.    They  are  given 
as  nine,  or  again  as  five.^ 

Tb»  Oraco  of  God. 

The  belief  in  the  saving  grace  of  God  is  found  only  in  the 
later  Upanishads.  It  asserts  that  one  sees  the  Self  (or  Lord) 
by  the  grace  of  the  Creator,  Ka^ha  Up.,  i,  2,  20  ff. ;  ^vet,  iii, 
20 ;  vi,  21 ;  Mu^cL,  iii.  2,  8.  One  is  chosen,  and  cannot  get 
salvation  by  knowledge  alone.  This  general  view  is  that 
maintained  by  the  epic  poet,  who  says:  "The  Vedas  and 
Orders,  though  established  on  various  opinions,  nanamatasa- 
masthital^,  unite  in  worshipping  Spirit  as  the  personal  God 
by  whose  grace  one  is  saved."  So  again:  " That  man  can  see 
Him,  to  whom  He  gives  His  grace,"  yasya  prasadam  kurute 
8a  vai  tarn  drafit^un  arhati,  xii,  837,  20,  (a  verse  found  also  in 
the  pseudo-Ramayana).  The  grace  of  God  is  here  the  chief 
element  of  salvation,  opposed  to  what  is  recognized  as  the 
severer  school  of  those  who  attain  salvation  scientifically 
either  by  knowledge  of  soul  or  of  God.  This  older  system  in 
the  Upanishads  is  represented  by  those  who  are  saved  by 
knowledge  alone ;  in  the  epic,  by  like-minded  men,  who  have 
worked  out  a  system  or  science  of  salvation,  and  depend  wholly 
on  this  science,  jiiana,  or  on  ascetic  practices,  tapas,  yoga, 
super-euided  to  this  science.  Both  of  these  are  recognized  as 
older  systems  in  the  epic,  compared  with  the  grace-of-Gtxi 
theory,  and  practically  they  are  thrown  over  by  the  adherents 
of  the  latter  school,  who,  however,  differ  from  their  ancestors 
in  the  Upanishads  by  a  clear  mark  of  lateness,  in  that  they 
specify  that  the  God  whose  grace  saves  is  Krishna  alone. 
Salvation  not  through  knowledge,  even  of  God,  not  through 
the  grace  of  God,  but  through  the  grace  of  the  man-god  is  the 
saving  way,  the  easier  way,  or  as  it  is  called  in  the  Gita,  the 
**  less  troublesome  way,"  12,  5. 

Side  by  side  stand  in  the  epic  these  two  great  modem  modi- 

1  These  are  the  modiflcatioDS  of  God,  aTidyitargms  and  ridjiaargat,  fire 
in  number  in  zii,  303,  but  when  the  account  ii  repeated  in  811,  nine  in  aU. 


fications  of  the  older  UpanishadB:  there,  knowledge,  wiadooit 
jRana,  vidyS,  contrasted  with  the  later  graoe  of  the  ^  Creator* 
Spirit,"*  at  most  recognized  as  yiva.  Here,  the  SSmkhya- 
Yoga  system,  contrasted  with  the  later  Krishna  cult  ^I 
will  release  thee  from  all  thy  sins,  grieve  not,''  says  the  man* 
god,  Gita,  18,  66.  But  the  Yogin  replies:  ^Sink  or  swim« 
let  one  put  his  trust  in  science  alone,**  zii,  287,  1  and 
288,  1,  and  claims  that  he  is  purified  not  by  Krishna  bat 
by  Yoga  knowledge,  rejecting  even  the  purity  induced  by 
bathing  in  the  sacred  pools  (for  his  purity  is  ^obtained  by 
knowledge  "),  which  elsewhere  in  the  epic  are  said  to  purify 
from  all  sin.^  But  inasmuch  as  the  Yogin's  science  postulated 
wliat  the  Samklij'a  denied,  a  personal  God,  the  fonner  became 
a  bridge  between  the  atheist  and  the  devotee,  a  bridge,  how* 
ever,  occasionally  repudiated  by  the  latter,  who  does  not  alwaysy 
as  usually,  claim  that  he  is  thus  philosophic,  but  exclaims: 
*'  By  Samkhya  and  by  Yoga  rule  I  meditate  the  way  of  God 
and  find  it  not,**  xii,  352,  7-8. 

Tlie  irreconcilable  difference  between  the  Simkhya  and  the 
faitli  of  die  Krishniute  could  be  removed  only  by  modifying 
one  of  these  extreme  views.  Either  the  atheistic  (or  even 
Bratiman)  philosopher  had  to  win  over  the  adherents  of  the 
man-gtMl  to  renounce  him  and  return  to  the  ^  ship  of  salvation 
of  knowledge,'*  or  the  devotee,  having  admitted  that  the 
Yogin*s  Spirit  was  God,  had  to  identify  his  Krishna  with  that 
PuniMlia  r(>'anL  Late  as  are  all  the  purely  philoeoidiical 
chiipters  of  the  epic,  they  still  show  which  power  prevailed. 

>  There  U  of  count,  farther,  Um  Qlw^tt,  who  worahipfwd  Dot  Krishaa  tat 
another  aa  the  highett  God,  not  to  tpeak  of  thoM  that  renalBed  tnM  to 
Vf«ltc  trmdition  and  vent  for  salTation  no  futher  than  McrlScet  asd  gifta* 
Thfre  are  also,  within  the  gronp  of  philotophera,  thoM  who  reeognlaed  oalj 
the  earlier  twentj«flTe  principles,  and  thoae  who  recognlaad  twenty^aUf  aa  t>» 
plained  abi»ve.  There  It  alto  tha  fractional  tcctarj,  who  regardad  Krialna 
aB  the  **  half  of  the  fourth  "  of  tha  "^  rooUaMdlag  llahideTa  **  (aa  fafM**,  ^ 
44,  he  createa  eziitcncea,  zU.  SSI,  Sl-SS).  AU  Uwm  dlTergcnt  baliefa  are 
reprr«ented  in  startling  asd  Irrecoodlabla  aBtagaoluD  In  an  epic  eoaeerolaf 
which  the  unhittorical  view  It  daaa  es  Ichta  n  tlner  einheltUchen  At 
abgemndeta  Elemento  tlnd,  wclcha  daa  Epoa  Uatat,  Mlfrifa.  p.  SA I 


190  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Faith  absorbed  iin&ith.  The  religious  philosophy  of  the  epic 
is  a  successful  attempt  to  uphold  Kliishnaism  not  only  against 
the  science  of  atheism,  but  against  a  deistic  science  that  postu- 
lated God  but  saw  no  godship  in  Krishna ;  a  science  which  in 
its  turn  is  technically  elaborated,  a  long  advance  on  the  vague 
speculations  of  the  Upanishads,  but  not  yet  as  uniform  as  in 
the  completed  system.  Krishnaism  stands  to  Samkhya-Yoga 
chronologically  as  stands  the  later  grace-of-the-Creator  theory 
to  the  earlier  knowledge  of  the  Upanishads.  But  both  epic 
Samkhya-Yoga  and  Krishnaism  are  later  even  than  this  modi- 
fication of  Upanishad  teaching.  Latest  of  all  is  trinitarianism. 
Side  by  side  stand  all  these  creeds,  each  pretending  to  be  a 
definitive  answer,  each  forming  part  of  the  contents  of  a  poetic 
vessel,  mto  which  have  been  poured  the  vinegar  and  oil  of 
doubt  and  faith;  but: 

0^09  r'  aXiuf^a  r'  iyxia^  ravrf  irvrci 
&XO(rraroiW  iv  ov  ^iXoi  irpocrcwcroc?. 


CHAPTER  FOUR. 

EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 

almmkrUm  ynbhiih  ^abdiiti 

•amayiir  diTyaminufiih 
chandoTittiif  ca  TiTidbiir 

aoTitam  Tidiifim  priyam 

A  Tale  adorned  with  polUhed  phraae 
And  the  wise  lore  of  gods  and  men. 

With  Yertet  turned  in  ▼ariooa  ways 
Replete,  a  J07  to  scholars'  ken. 

Epic  .▼•raifloatioiL^ 

The  poctr}'  of  tho  epic  is  composed  in  metres,  chandas,  of 
three  fiorlA.  The  first  Lb  measured  by  syllables,  the  second  by 
monis  the  thiixl  by  groups  of  morse.  These  rhytlmis  mn  the 
one  into  the  other  in  the  following  course.  The  early  free 
sylhihic  rhythm  tended  to  assume  a  form  where  the  syllaUes 
wen*  diiTer(*ntiated  as  light  or  heavy  at  fixed  places  in  the  verse. 
Then  the  fixe<l  sylluhic  rhytlim  was  lightened  by  the  resolution 
of  8|HH*ifir  heavy  Kyllables,  t!ie  l)eginningof  monv-measurement. 
Tho  re}<4>liition  then  liecame  general  and  t!ie  numlier  of  niorad, 
not  the  niunlM.*r  of  Hyllables,  was  reckoned.  Finally,  the  mone 
ti'nditl  to  aminge  themselves  in  groups  and  eventuidly  Urame 
fixnl  in  a  welhiigh  un(*liangeal)le  fonn.  Part  of  tliis  develo{>- 
nuMit  WiW  n»iU'he<l  U^fon*  tlie  epic  U'giin,  but  there  were  other 
[liirtji,  ;is  will  up|)iMr,  Htill  in  pnK*esri  uf  completion.     Neither 

1  I  wt«h  ti>  scknowledffe  in  befrinning  this  chapter  on  epic  nietrrs  the  frrtal 
help  sffonli-ti  inc  l)V  rnifeasor  (*ap|wller  of  Jrna,  who  put  at  my  dispoaal  a 
manuBf-ript  oq  the  metrical  forms  in  the  epic,  in  which  all  the  metres  w«r» 
lorau-d  and  tlio  trif^ubhs  of  the  flrtt  thrrt*  b<Miks  wrre  analrsrd  seriatim.  I 
nifd  )iar«lly  lar  that  thi*  loan  has  materiallv  liifhtrned  the  labor  of  preparing 
the  fiill<»«in)r  vketch,  a  loan  the  kindness  of  which  was  the  more  apprvciAtod 
as  it  was  eotirvlj  unsolicited,  thon^h  most  fratcf uUj  rtocivtd. 


192  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

0 

of  the  chief  metres  in  the  early  epic  was  quite  reduced  to  the 
later  stereotyped  norm.  The  stanzarform,  too,  of  certain 
metres  was  still  inchoate. 

r  The  mass  of  the  great  epic  (about  ninety-five  per  cent)  is 
written  in  one  of  the  two  current  forms  of  free  syllabic 
rhythm;  about  five  per  cent  in  another  form  of  the  same 
class;  and  only  two-tenths  of  a  percent  in  any  other  metre. 
The  two  predominant  rhythms,  gloka  and  tri^tubh,  are  in 
origin  the  oldest  Indie  or  pre-Indic  rhythms,  while  of  the 
others  some  are  in  turn  early  developments  from  the  first  epic 
rhythms.  For  convenience  of  reference,  before  discussing 
these  rhythms  in  detail,  I  give  a  list  of  all  those  used  in  one 
or  both  of  the  two  epics  according  as  they  are  free  syllabic 
(^loka,  tri^tubh),  fixed  syllabic  (ak^aracchandas),^  mora-metre 
.^  (matrachandas),  and  group-rhythms  (ganacchandas). 

floka:  a  stanza  of  two  verses  (hemistichs)  of  sixteen 
syllables  each,  restricted  to  a  certain  extent  as  to  the  place 
where  heavy  and  light  syllables  (or  long  and  short  vowels) 
are  permitted.  Originally  the  stanza  consisted  of  four 
verses  of  eight  syllables  each  and  many  traces  of  this  di- 
vision, by  independent  "quarters,"  padas,  survive  in  the 
Mahabharata. 

tri§tubh:  a  stanza  of  four  verses  of  eleven  syllables  each, 
arranged  with  very  little  restriction  (and  consequently  of 
various  types)  in  the  Mahabharata;  reduced  to  one  prevail- 
ing type  in  the  Ramayana.  Increased  by  one  heavy  syllar 
ble  in  each  pada,  this  metre  is  called  jagati,  but  the  two 
types  are  interchangeable  in  the  same  stanza.  Fixed  types 
of  this  metre  are  common  in  verse  form,  but  rare  in  stanza 
form^  except  as  given  in  the  next  group  (of  four-verse 
stanzas). 

^  The  fixed  sjUabic  ii  called  also  yarnaTrtta,  "sjllabic  Terse"  (vrttar: 
rertus). 

■  That  ii,  pure  in  the  form  (a)  and  (b),  v^ \j \j\j vy ^  (— ) ; 

(e) ,^Kj w ;  (f) ,vyw vy Thete 

are  called  (a)  upendrayajrS;  (b)  Ta69a8tha(bila) ;  (c)  (Slini;  (f)  yitonni; 

or  (a)  and  (b)  with  the  opening w ,  called  (c)  indrayajrS  and  (d)  in- 

drayanfl,  as  they  haye  eleyen  or  tweWe  syllables,  respectiyelj.  When  (a) 
and  (c)  or  (b)  and  (d)  are  mingled,  the  stanxa  it  called  upaJitL 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


198 


•kfancchandM 

or 

Ttr^aTitU 


bhajaiiigapnijita,*]agatlw %\j %\j iw-.-.  tx 

dniUTiUmbiU,  A  jAgatf    \j\j\^ w^-.wv^-.w.-.|], 

Tii^TAdeTl, a JagatI        .. , w-. w -.  •* 

mciriy  an  atijmgati  ^        xj^^sj iwwww  — w  — W../3 

prabarfiQi, anatijagati %\j\j\j\j% \/..w...-.  ■• 

mrgendramqkha,  an  atljagatl  kjkaj^a  — va>^ w \j -.  i^ 

ajambidhi,a^Tari* ^,\/\j\j\j\j\j ',i\ 

Taiantatilaki,  a  fakTaii w iwwv^ ww— v/ -.  m 

milinl^anati^akTaii  wwwwww— ^^w..— w—..  r  *~ 
9irduUTikri4ita, an atidhrti        ^_.\/w_«\/.va   | 


mltrichandat 
(ardliatamaT|tU) 


/pofpitlgri  and  inpaechandatfkm,  ttanat  of  two  Term, 
each  Tene  haTing  dxtacii  and  dghtoen  mont  In  prior 
and  potterior  pida,  retpoctlTelj,  tho  mont  being  ai^ 
ranged  in  qrllablet  more  (pnfpltigri)  or  leet  (lnpno> 
chandaiika)  Used. 

aparaTaktra  and  Tiitil^  tho  Muno  In  eataledlc  fofm, 
each  pidi  being  thortoied  hj  two  moni. 

mitriMunaka,  a  stann  of  Idv  Term,  each  vcno  baviog 
■izteen  mora. 


gayarrhandae 


gitrj^  irjigitiy  vpagiti),  ttannt  of  two 

containing  eight  groope  of  mont,  the  groop  of  foor 
moiw  each,  bvt  with  the  leetrletioB  that  anphlbracfaa 
are  prohibited  in  the  odd  gronpe,  bit  maj  make  aagr 
eren  gronp  and  mnet  make  the  eUth  gionpb  nnleei  l» 
deed  this  dith  groop  be  ffgpteeenied  (in  the  eecond 
liemittich)  bj  onlj  one  mora  or  fovr  breree;  and  that 
the  eighth  gronp  maj  be  rgpteeenied  1^  ooljr  two  moff» 
The  metre  it  called  iryigiti  when  the  eighth  foot  haa 
four  mont;  npagltl,  when  the  sixth  foot  irreg«lar(]r  haa 
but  one  mora  in  each  hemistich.* 


>  That  ii,  a  JagatI  with  one  sjllable  OTer,  ati,  or  with  thirteen  syllablee  in 
the  pida.    The  second  atljagatl  aboTe  is  sometimes  called  pfmharfa^L 

*  That  is,  haTing  fonrtcen  qrllables  In  the  pida,  flftj-aiz  In  the  itana. 
The  aticakTari  and  atidhfti  haTe  fifteen  and  nineteen  syllables  In  the  pidii 
respectiTclj. 

•  Brown,  Prosody,  p.  17, points  ont  that  this  metre ie  almoet  thatof  BotMi^ 
Odes,Ui.  U:  miserar  )  est  ncq  a- 1  mori  |  dare  In- 1  d«m  neqne  I  dnl- 1  d  malnl 
Tino,  etc. ;  and  sic  to  |  diTa  po- 1  tens  Qrpri  |  sle  fhi- 1  ties  HeW*  |  bm  1 1» 
dda  I  sidtfa,  etc.,  saTe  that  the  sixth  gronp  ie  here  of  two 


194  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

91oka  and  Trif^bh. 

THE  PlDAS. 

The  number  of  verses  in  a  gloka  or  tri^t^bh  stanza  may  be 
decreased  or  increased  by  one  or  two,  respectively;  but  in 
the  great  majority  of  cases,  two  in  a  floka  and  four  in  a 
tri^tnbh  constitute  a  stanza.  Sometimes,  however,  where  one 
or  three  hemistichs  make  a  stanza,  it  is  merely  a  matter  of 
editing.  Compare,  for  instance,  i,  90,  22 ;  i,  98,  19-21  with 
8,682-88 ;  iii,  4, 17  with  234 ;  iii.  111,  14  ff.,  with  10,040,  ff. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  no  arrangement  can  always  group  the 
hemistichs  into  uniform  stanzas.  Thus  in  xii,  850,  49  ff.,  five 
tri^tnbh  hemistichs  follow  three  gloka  hemistichs.  A  stanza 
of  three  hemistichs  is  apt  to  close  a  section,  as  in  vii,  54  and 
187.  In  6.  vi,  49, 55,  there  is  one  hemistich  in  excess  because 
53  a-b  were  added  to  the  original,  and  this  is  doubtless  the 
cause  of  many  such  cases ;  though  it  is  also  true  that  a  half 
stanza  is  often  found  where  there  is  no  reason  to  suspect  a 
later  addition.    Six  padas  in  a  tri^^bh  occur  occasionally. 

But  in  the  case  of  the  gloka,  the  padas  are  metrically  linked 
in  pairs,  while  tri^tnbh  padas  are  metrically  independent. 
The  ^loka,  therefore,  is  a  couplet.  Its  two  halves  are  metri- 
cally disjimct  and  may  be  treated  as  independent  wholes. 
Each  hemistich  is  a  complete  verse.  The  two  halves  of  this 
verse,  the  quarters,  padas,  of  the  whole  stanza,  are  sometimes 
knit  together  into  euphonic  combination  and  a  syntactical 
whole.  But,  relatively  speaking,  this  is  seldom  the  case. 
The  unity  consists  rather  in  the  fact  that  one  half  of  the  verse 
is  metrically  different  from  the  other  and  cannot  be  substi- 
tuted for  it,  whereas  in  the  tri^t^bh  any  pada  can  be  substi- 
tuted, if  the  sense  permits,  for  any  other.^  The  different  fall 
of  the  ^loka  padas  may  be  seen  very  well  when  the  words  are 
almost  identical : 

1  In  some  fonns  of  the  tristubh,  however,  there  is  a  restriction  in  the  final 
syllaba  anceps  of  the  first  and  third  padas,  not  found  in  the  second  and 
fourth  pSdas.  In  such  cases  (discussed  hereafter)  the  tris^ubh,  like  the  (loka, 
consists  of  two  parts  (hemistichs)  and  the  perfect  independence  of  the  pida  it 
modified.    This  does  not  affect  the  free  epic  tris^ubh. 


.iA 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  195 

amitrftnftm  bhayakaro  mitrftn&m  abhayamkarah 
qalabha  iva  ked&ram  ma^akfl  iva  pftvaJcam 
D&  'tantrl  vidyate  vln&  n&  'cakro  vidyate  rathah 
rukmapufikhair  ajihmftgrfti  nikmapuAkhftir  ajihma- 

gftih  (G.  vi,  20,  26  and  19,  G8) » 
kim  DU  me  syfld  idam  krtva  kim  nu  me  syfld  akur- 

vatah 
yato  dharmas  tatah  Krsno  yatah  Krsnas  tato  jayah 
pagyan  qrnvau  spnjan  jighrann  a^nan  gacchan  svapan 

qvasan 
japate  japyate  cfti  'va  tapate  tapyate  pnnah 

Tlio  final  8yllalxi  anceps  of  all  padas  indicates,  however, 
that  the  ^loka,  like  the  tri^t^bh,  originally  permitte<l  the 
Biimo  metrical  fall  in  both  padaa,  and  such  we  know  to  have* 
been  the  case  in  tlie  older  metre  from  which  the  (loka  derives. 
The  Maliabharata  retains  tliis  identical  measure  here  and  there, 
as  in 

tad  v^  dcvfl  updsate  tasmftt  stlryo  virdjate^ 

but  such  cases,  usually  reflecting  or  imitating  the  older  venu* 
of  the  rpanishtiAls,  as  in  this  example,  v,  46,  1,  are  regularly 
avoidiHl,  even  by  the  sul)stitution  of  irregular  or  dialectie 
forms.    Thus  in  viii,  84,  12,  where  the  same  verb  is  employed, 

I>uryodhanam  updsante  pariv&rya  samantatah 

The  Qlr»ka  verse  (hemistich)  does  not  often  indicate  its 
unity  l)y  its  form.  CJenerally  its  prior  lialf,  or  the  pftila  (to  n^ 
tain  this  wonl  for  tlie  division  of  eight  syllal)les),  is  not  unito<l 
with  the  iK>sterior  pada.  Verses  tliat  do  unite  the  two  usu- 
ally give  lists  of  objects,  which  is  the  onlinarj'  case  in  the 
early  t*pi(\  tliough  the  later  epic  does  not  liesitate  to  makt> 
fn*er  us4»  of  this  unit-verse.  But  on  the  wliole,  tliougli  com- 
mon en(»ugh  in  iM)st-i*pi(*al  v^Titing,  this  is  liy  no  means  typical 
o{  the  epic*  itsi*lf.  Tlie  greait  bulk  of  tlie  i)oem  does  indeetl 
funiish  a  gcNMlly  number  of  examples,  but  relatively  speaking 
eases  like  the  foUtming  are  rare: 

>  Thr  othvT  reruf  are  found  in  R.  tU.30.22;  7,3;  11,30,30;  M.  Ui.tt,10: 
Ti.  *A  *iS ;  20.  S ;  xiii,  14, 160. 


196  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

mah&maniQil&pattabaddhapaiyantaYedik&mi  ii,  8,  32 
aikyasamyogananatvasamay&yaviQ&radah,  ii,  6^  3 
yayam  hi  devagandharvamftnusyoragaraksas&ny  iii,  63,  29 
jambvaniralodhrakhadirasalavetrasaniakulam,  ib.  64,  4 
Qinha^dalamatamgavaraharksamrgayatam,  ib.  39 
badarengudakaQmaryaplaksaQvatthabibhltak&ihy  ix,  37,  61 
gad&mTi8alanaracaQaktitomarahastay&,  ix,  46,  66 
dilate  hi  dharmarapenft  'dharmam  prakrtaQ  caran, 

xii,  261,  6 
ajayata  xnaharajavanQe  sa  ca  mahadyntih,  ziii,  10,  35 
sa  bhavftQ  dandasamyogenA  'nena  hrtakilbisah,  G.  iv,  17, 58 
bhavadbhir  niQcayas  tattyavijfi&nakuQaldir  mama,  G.  iv, 

32,  6.^ 

The  hemistich  of  the  gloka  is  also  generally  independent  of 
the  rest  of  the  stanza  in  sense  as  well  as  in  metre,  but  it  is  not 
infrequently  united  with  it  syntactically,  as  in  vi,  19,  12, 

na   hi    so    'sti    pumanl   loke    yah    samkraddham 

Vrkodaram 
drastum  atyugrakarmftnam  visaheta  nararsabham 

Not  a  mortal  on  earth  exists,  who  deep-incensed 
Vrkodara, 

Mighty,  a  chief  of  awful  strength,  could  a  mo- 
ment behold  in  war. 

So  samalamkrtam :  fatam,  in  the  first  chapter  of  Nala,  11; 
krodhasya  ca  vinigrahah :  karyah,  xii,  830,  10 ;  asambhavyam 
vadham  tasya  Vrtrasya  vibudhadhipal^L :  cintayano  jagama  '911, 
R.  vii,  85,  15,  etc.  Inside  the  hemistich,  the  padas  are  &e- 
quently  euphonically  independent  (hiatus) ; 

Prajangho  Valiputrftya  abhidudrava,  E.  vi,  76,  22. 
na  kimcid  abhidhatavya  aham,  B.  vi,  118, 10 
ma  vinaQam  gamisyama'  aprasadya  'diteh  sutam, 
R.  vii,  36,  63 

1  R.  (Bombay)  has  caesura  between  pSdas  and  avoids  both  these  forms 
(samjogSt  in  18,  04,  for  samjogena,  etc.). 

'  G.  here,  38,  113,  has  the  fatore  imperatiye,  gamisyadhTam.  Other  ex- 
amples of  hiatus  may  be  seen  in  B.  v,  CO,  8;  ri,  60,  8;  yii,  11,  42,  etc., 
besides  the  ample  collection  of  Bohtlingk  for  the  first  four  books. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  197 

SAomitram  tamparifTaJTa  idam  Taoftaam  atatTlt, 

B.Yi,23,l 
nihanyfid  antaram  labdhTi  tUtlko  Tljaa&Q  iva,  B.  ti, 

17,19 
ffiranftny  a^annyflni  Agramfini  k|ttiii  nab,  B^vii,  6^  6 

In  0«  the  hiatus  is  usually  avoided,  but  it  is  sometimes  kept 
here,  as  where  R.  vii,  21, 19  has  goiasam  gopradatSro  anuam 
cai  'va  (adiak^it)  and  G.  rectifies  the  grammar  but  keeps  the 
hiatus,  gopradatrng  ca  annanu^  In  the  last  book  of  the  poem, 
hiatus  in  6.  is  more  common  than  in  the  eariier  einc;  for 
example,  6.  has  the  hiatus  of  R.  vii,  6,  40,  svadhKam  dattam 
ift&m  ca  aigvaiyam  paripalitauL  On  the  other  hand,  within 
the  pada  attempts  are  sometimes  made  to  avoid  hiatus  at  the 
expense  of  form,  as  in  R.  vii,  109,  4,  brahmam  (cl  88,  20) 
avartayan  param.  Contrast  is  often  the  cause  of  hiatus,  both 
in  the  pSda,  as  in  apSyam  vS  upSyam  vi,  R.  iii,  40, 8,  and  in  the 
hemistich,  as  in  hinam  mSm  manyase  kena  ahlnam  8arvaviki»- 
miil^,  K.  vi,  36,  6.*  So  in  the  Mahibhirata,  satyanimi  bhavi 
*foka,  afoka^  (okanSfana^  iii,  64,  107.  The  latter  epic 
otherwise  presents  the  same  phenomena: 

yesAm  mtltram  upighrtya  api  bandhyt  prasQyate, 

iv,  10, 14 
upftvartasva  tad  brahma  antaritmani  vi^mtam,  v, 

43,69 
vive<^  GaAgftm  Kaoravya  UlQpl,  zvii,  1,  27 
devA  *pi  mArge  mnhyanti  apadasya  padAifinah,  zii, 

270,22 
anAhatah  pravi^ati  aprs^  bahu  bhA^ate,  v,  33, 36,  etc. 


Thorp  is  nothing  peculiarly  epic  in  hiatus.    It  is  found  in 
precedent  and  subsequent  poetiy.     Its  occurrence  in  the 

>  R.  in  the  Mcond  tmnif tlcb  Iim  ffliU^  ea  ffluidllAra^  (aee.)  tTakam^ 
phaUni  «v<^uh,  a^  '^  ^oj*  u  in  M.  ill*  tt,  d 

*  ErapbMU  also  nuij  cmntt  hUtvt,  u  la  dhaf  Itmi  iti.  R.  I,  tl,  7 ;  aata 
Taktom  aamartho  liaiii  trajri  Itmaga^Aa  fv^ia,  R.  It,  S,  6 ;  or  It  oiaj  bt  tai- 
ploj«d  to  MTe  tlie  Ufa  of  a  word,  aa  In  dakfl^Artht  "tAo  rt^Mcblijra^  ilU,  M^  16 
(the  conraoDcat  blalva  la  thla  befoct  ff  **  ^  aarra  ea  ftava^ ;  kAniTaaTa  fft; 
anja  rbfaTaub,  tl«.). 


198  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Mababha^ya,  as  in  fayana  vaidhate  durva  aslnam  vaidhate 
vi^iam,  IS.,  xiii,  p.  461,  may  be  epic. 

The  cadence  of  the  floka,  like  that  of  all  other  poetry,  de- 
pends on  the  sense,  and  the  csBsnra  cannot  be  determined  by 
rule.  In  most  cases  there  is  a  caesura  at  the  end  of  the  pada, 
but  it  is  frequently  shifted,  as  in  kva  'rjunaJ^i^  nrpatiJb^  ?  f^hram 
samyag  akhyatum  arhatha,  R.  vii,  31,  11.  A  complete  sen- 
tence seldom  exceeds  the  limit  of  a  stanza,  and  when  it  goes  fur- 
ther it  may  be  set  down  as  a  mark  of  lateness.  Quite  anomalous 
in  epic  style  are  those  long  sentences,  usually  relative,  which, 
as  in  Gita  2,  42-44  and  6,  20-23  run  through  twelve  or  four- 
teen padas.  Still  more  awkward  are  the  sentences  found  in  the 
later  epic.  Thus  in  xii,  302,  occurs  a  sentence,  not  of  four- 
teen i^das  as  in  the  Gita,  but  of  fourteen  glokas  (5-17) :  yet 
this  is  surpassed  in  the  same  section  by  a  sentence  of  thirty 
^lokas,  which  even  then  has  no  finite  verb  and  in  reality  never 
comes  to  an  end  at  all  (24-52).  Such  monstrosities,  however, 
belong  only  to  the  pseudo-epic. 

Like  the  gloka,  Hie  tri^t^bh,  in  euphony  and  sense,  may  be 
a  couplet,  the  first  two  and  last  two  padas  making  a  unit,  as 
in  iii,  118,  20  c  —  d,  anyang  ca  Vr^nin  upagamya  pujam :  cakre ; 
vii,  2,  33  a  —  b,  na  tv  eva  'ham  na  gami^yami  te^am :  madhye 
Quranam.  Euphonic  unity  is  illustrated  by  the  elision  in  vii, 
163, 14  of  a  in  adr9yanta  at  the  beginning  of  the  pada  after  o ; 
by  tang  capy :  upopavi^tan  between  c  —  d  in  i,  191,  19 ;  and 
by  the  complete  hemistichs: 

yada  'qrausam  BhlmasenS  'nuyatenfl  'qvatthamna  para- 

mastram  prayuktam,  i,  1,  213 
sa-KarnarDuryodhana-Qalva-QalyarDraunayani-Kr&thar 

Simltha-Vakrah,  i,  187,  15  (compare  in  qloka; 

Bhlsma-Drona^Krpa-Drauni-Earna'rjuna-Janar- 

danan,  viii,  20,  3;  bahuQO  Vidura-Drona-Krpa- 

Gangeya-Sriijayaih,  ix,  61,  20) 
uddhatalangalamahapatakadhvajottamansftkulabhlsan- 

&ntam,  iv,  54,  27. 

Ordinarily,  however,  disjunction  and  not  conjunction  of 
padas  is  the  rule.     Thus  between  b  —  c,  iii,  132,  5,  a  +  a,  and 


^ 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  199 

eyen  between  a  —  b  and  o  —  cL  Here  also  hiatus  qypean  even 
in  the  p3da,  as  in  i,  1,  214  b,  svasti  ^ty  uktiil  astram  astra^a 
(antam  (so  must  be  read);  or  in  i,  74,  80  c,  ahaf  ca  ittrif  ea 
ubhe  ca  samdhye.  It  may  then  be  expected  between  pidaa» 
as  in 

yada  'Yamansthah  ^  sadfQah  qxeyasaQ  oa,  alpIyasaQ 

oayiySSySa  — b 
▼anaspatlQ  osadhl^  ca  Vigantii  ftpo  (s  apo)  Tiynm, 

i,90,  ila-b 
santi  loka  bahayas  te  parendra,  apy  ekAi  liah,  i,  9^ 
16a-b 

So  in  Yijiiaseni :  ekimbaiS,  ii,  67,  84  a  —  b;  ntsahlmi :  lyof- 
man,  ill,  192,  67  c  —  d;  putri :  Ikfv&kn,  ib.  70  c  —  d;  tapaff 
ca:  amStsaiyam,  v,  48,  20  a  —  b ;  aciiyeqA:  itmakftam  (text 
•Qat),  V,  44, 14  a ;  apo  'iha  adbhya^  salilasTa  madhye,  v,  46» 
8  a.  B.  occasionally  rejects  (betters)  the  text  of  C,  as  in  vi, 
129  c  ^  d,  stands  na  c&  'pi  te  madvafagft  maharye,  'nugrahaib 
kartum  arha  hi  me  mati^  where  B.  8, 61,  has  na  ci  'dharmaniv 
etc«  So  in  viii,  4,840,  pa^^cid  vadhifye  tvim  ^)i,  sampramn^Uia» 
ahaiu,  etc.,  where  B.,  85,  88,  has  mu^UianL  Both,  howererv 
continue  with  aham  hanisye  'rjuna  ijimadhye,  and  in  the  next 
verse  both  have  prasahya  asyii  Va  in  c  —  d.*  Other  cases 
are:  fatruhantfi:  uvaca,  viii,  85,  80  o  —  d ;  madam  ea  lebhe 
li^bho^  Kurunam,  ix,  17, 18  d;  nttinapfaye  na  havir  johoti, 
xii,  246,  27  a;  bibheti:  afraddheyam, xiv, 9, 27  o  —  d;  Madam 
nama  asurum  vicvarQpam,  xiv,  9,  88,  c  (from  the  text  in  B^ 
numusuram,  and  in  C.  251,  Madam  nimSnam) ;  Tilottami  eft 
'py  atlia  MenakS  ca :  etSs,  H.  2, 89, 71  a  —  b.  Examples  frcmi 
the  Kriniayana  are  f^ven  by  Bdlitlingk,  or  may  be  seen  in  the 
conjuiu^tion  of  maharathasya:  Ikfvftkn,  R.  vi,  14,  12  a  — b; 
ubhyui)etya :  uvaca,  R.  vi,  59,  45  o  —  d.    In  both  metroSy  to 

>  The  flrtt  foot  coiuitU  of  Sts  tjUAblM. 

•  n.'t  nading  in  iii.  112.  16  d.  cmUteTS  d  'dt  for  edltmi  lilt.  ICMM^ 
mtLj  be  to  AToid  hUtus.  In  ii,  6S,  S  d  s  S^llS,  both  tostt  bavo  adatte 
lihimauh  ■▼aliandbttni,  wbrre  hintat  maj  bt  aaramtd,  tboagb  aol  aaoil 
•ahlr.  M  Also  in  iii,  1U7,  IS  b,  na  (tU)  TliaA  pitaro  (a)^  kvrala.  lb.  IS 
a  -  b.  b«ith  trxu  have  biato*.  nkyipam  paktvl  aaba  odanona  atall  kspolll 
prati  t«  na/antu  (give  joa  for). 


200  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

avoid  hiatus,  irrataonal  particles  are  often  inserted.  A  good 
example  is:  pnra  kftajuge  tata  hy  asld  raja  hy  AkampanaJ^ 
vii,  2,029,  where  B.,  62,  26,  omits  the  first  hL 

Rliyiiio. 

Connection  of  padas  by  rhyme  is  not  uncommon*  It  is  less 
noticeable  in  flokas  than  in  tri^tnbhs  on  account  of  the  alter- 
nate trochaic  and  iambic  cadence  employed  in  the  former,  and 
some,  for  example,  may  think  that  in  iii,  65,  65-66, 

vasasva  mayi  kaly&ni 
pritir  me  paramft  tvayt « •  • 
ihai  'va  yasatl  bhadra 
bhart&ram  upalapsyaM 

the  rhymes  of  the  nameless  queen  are  practically  unfelt,^  but 
this  is  scarcely  possible  when  alternate  rhymes  occur,  as  in 
R.ii,88,7: 

prSsftdavarayar^emi 

Qltavatsa  sugane^Aim 
usitvA  Merokalpefu 

krtakaHcanabhit^wu 

In  9L  13  of  the  same  section,  three  successive  padas  end  in 
-€un ;  in  14,  two  end  in  -a ;  and  in  28-25  seven  end  in  -fim, 
or  -am,  with  some  inserted  besides : 

bahuvIry&bhiraksi^Sm 
qtlnyasamvaranftraA^d^ 
ayantritahayadvipam 
an&vrtapuradv&rdm 
r&jadhftnlm  araksi^Sm 
aprahrstabaZSm  nyandfii 
visamas/ASm  an&vrfam 

So  in  tri^t^bhs,  rhymes  are  both  irregular  and  regular,  as  in 
R.  iv,  24, 13, 

1  Compare,  however,  the  affected  initial  assonance  (with  the  same  differ- 
ence) in  B.  iv,  S3, 02 : 

Taraya  cS  'pj  anujliStas 
tvaraya  tS  'pi  coditah 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  201 

aointasayam   pariTarjanlyam   anlptaiayorii  STftoi^ 
▼ek^anlyam 

and  in  R.  vif  78,  65,  where  three  pidas  end  in  ^dhdm^  -(AAit, 
-kdnU  respectively ;  the  same  (in  4dnt,  -^'dnt,  -nam)  ^)pearing 
also  in  a  pu^pitagiS  stanza,  R.  v,  20,  86.  In  R.  iv,  28,  41,  we 
find: 

pramattasamnfiditabarhiiiAii 

saqakragopflkola^TaMut 
caranti  nlpftrjanavftsitdnt 

gaj&h  suramyAnt  yaQAntarAfrf 
navftmbad  hftrfthatakey  rJnt 

dhniTam  parisyajya  saroroAdfii 
kadambapuspAiii  sake^artftii 

navAni  hrstft  bhramarfth  pibanti 

In  the  following  passage  the  effect  of  ihyme  is  given  bjr  simple 
repetition  of  the  whole  word,  R.  iv,  28,  25  (not  in  G.) : 

nidr&  ^anftih  ke^vam  ohhffupdiH 

dratam  nadi  sSgaram  abkj^pdUt 
hnta  balflkft  ghanam  abhifupSiii 

k&Dta  sakAmft  priyam  aihyupdUi 

words  put  into  the  mouth  of  love-sick  RSma  (kimapradhina^ 
as  he  is  called)  by  some  late  poetaster,  who,  not  content  with 
the  last  stanza,  adds  to  it  (27) : 

vahanti  varsanti  nadanti  bhinti 
dhyftyanti  nityanti  samflQvasantl 

Compare  also  in  the  same  section,  weak  rhymes  in  -llnlnit 
-vanum,  -kanam,  -ra^am  (at  the  end  of  the  pida  in  81).  This 
readies  its  height  in  the  ridiculous  (late)  section  R.  v,  6, 
where  tlie  same  word  is  repeated  at  the  end  of  each  pida 
till  even  6  is  a  relief,  where  occurs  the  alternation:  -pafiko, 
-pankah,  -lanko,  -fankatu  But  elsewhere  in  IL,  e.  g*,  iit  18t 
47,  tliree  pit  las  of  a  trif  t^bh  end  in  -am,  the  other  in  <4uh(d) ; 
and  in  the  preceding  stanza  three  pidas  end  in  -ii(s  though 
jagatl  {ladas  are  here  interchanged  with  tristubh. 

Foot  may  rhyme  with  foot  or  with  altamala  foot  in  the 


202  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

floka,  just  as  pada  rhymes  with  pada,  that  is,  either  with  a 
modification  of  the  precedent  syllable,  thus,  x,  16,  84, 

eyamkura 

na  c&  'nyft  tu 

or  even  with  alternate  rhyme,  as  in  R.  v,  59,  24, 

pativratft 

ca  suqronl 
ayastabdh& 

ca  J&nakI 

but  the  same  sound  may  also  be  repeated  without  any  such 
precedent  difference,  as  in  x,  15,  14, 

adharmaQ  ca 
krto  'nena 

Such  light  fundamental  rhymes  cannot  be  said  to  be  pro- 
duced without  design.  They  are,  in  fact,  the  vulgar  rhyme 
of  the  common  proverb,  such  as  is  conspicuous  in  all  popular 
sayings.     Compare    for   instance    the    following    Marathi 

proverbs : 

(a)  icchi  parft 

yei  ghar& 

(b)  jyatse  kude 

ty&tse  pudhe 

(c)  svarga  lokl 

vaitarani 

• 

(d)  zase  zhada 

tase  phala^ 

Alliteration. 

Alliteration,  according  to  the  native  rhetorician  Dandin,  is 
affected  rather  by  the  Gaudas  than  by  the  Vidarbhas,  the 

1  (a)  what  is  wUhed  for  another  will  come  to  one's  own  honse ;  (b)  eril  Is 
in  front  of  an  eyil  man  (honi  soit  qui  mal  j  pense) ;  (c)  in  heaven  the  riyer 
Viitarani  (the  river  of  death  precedes  the  joy  of  heaven) ;  (d)  as  is  the  tree, 
so  the  fruit  Manwaring,  Marathi  Prorerbs.  The  earlier  anus^ubh  shows  the 
rhjme  better  on  account  of  the  iambus  in  the  prior  pSda,  e.  g.,  BY.  t,  88,  6  s 

arhanti  cit  puro  dadhe 

an9eTa  devSv  atvaU, 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  208 

latter  preferring  cognate  soancU  to  mere  repetition*  The  ref- 
erence is  rather  to  classical  affectations  than  to  epio  style, 
where  alliteration  is  a  common  trick,  but  is  not  so  overdone 
as  it  IB  in  the  works  of  later  poets.  A  great  deal  of  it  is 
probably  unconscious,  or  at  least  required  and  almost  unavoid- 
able. Still,  the  later  epic  writers  certainly  affect  the  anuprisa 
which  Dai^din  says  is  not  liked  by  the  Vidarbhas.  Thus  in 
vii,  118, 16, 

modft  sametah  parayft  mahatmS 
rarAja  rftjan  snrarftjakalpajji 

and  in  yiii,  94,  64, 

nihatya  Earnam  ripum  fihave  'tjonah 
rarAja  rftjan  parmmena  varoasft 
yatha  purft  vftraTadhe  qatakratoh 

So  in  ix,  85,  24, 

de^e  d^e^  tu  deyftni  dioAni  Tindhftni  oa 

and  in  iii,  68  21, 

^a^rrftha  '^a^aro  prftba^ 
or  iii,  64, 118, 

AA  'si  ifcasyft  'si  JbJyftpi,  iim  vft,  etc. 

Cf.  iv,  14, 12, 

ka  tvam  kasyft  'si  kalyftni,  knto  vft,  etc. 
or  iii,  64,  99, 

/»halS|pafpqpaQobhitAh 

The  taste  for  jingling  is  clearly  seen  in  such  examples  from 
both  epics  as  the  following : 

Taro  'bravit  tatas  tatra,  G.  r,  1, 49 
qayAD&iii  ^yane  qubhe,  B.  r,  10,  60 
prallnamlnamakaram,  rii,  146,  3 
Kuru<;restha  Kumkaetre  karofra  "^•^•^'^  kriyam, 
ix,  37,  67. 

Allitonition  is  sometimes  built  on  a  foundation  of  older 
phnuks  sii(*h  as  bhimo  bhlmaparitknuna^,  Rimo  ramayatim 
varuit^.    Thus  in  R.  vii,  42,  22-28, 


204  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

xnano  "bhiiftmft  ramfts  t& 
B&mo  ramayat&m  yarah 
ramay&mftsa  dharin&tm& 

A  good  deal  of  this  is  due  to  the  later  revisors.  Thus  R. 
Y,  56,  51  (also  a  pun  in  sa  lilam),  not  in  G., 

sa  lilanghayisur  bhimam  salilam  lavan&rnavam 
kallolasph&lavel&ntam  utpapata  nabho  harih 

r  As  it  is  quite  impossible  to  tell  what  proportion  of  such 
verses  reverts  to  the  original  epic,  it  must  suffice  to  show  that 
epic  poetry  as  we  have  it,  while  not  attaining  to  the  perfected 
abominations  of  classical  works,  nevertheless  employs  alliter- 
ation to  portray  situations.    Thus  the  raudrarasa  in  R.  vi, 

-.65,41, 

r&udrah  qakatacakrakso  mah&parvatasanmibhah 

where  the  "harsh  thimder-soimd  "  is  well  given  by  fakat^a- 
kraki^o.     Admirable,  too,  is  the  phonetic  imitation  of  motion, 
"  stumbling,  falling,  and  dying  in  Mbh.  vii,  146,  86 : 

babhramuQ  caskhaluh  petuh,  sedur  mamlug  ca,  Bhftrata 

.The  rhapsode's  clay  is  moulded  variously,  but  it  is  the  same 
stuff,  the  last  example  being  a  studied  improvement,  to  suit 
the  situation,  of  viii,  19,  2 : 

vicelur  babhramur  nequh  petur  mamluQ  ca,  Bhftrata, 

repeated  in  21,  16,  with  varied  reading,  but  leaving  (tresuh) 
petur  mamlug  ca  (sainikah),  and  varied  in  19,  15  with  the 
fatal  mdrisa  of  the  later  poets  (here  in  place  of  Bharata).^ 
The  examples  given  above  show  both  the  Northern  and  tiie 
Southern  style  used  in  both  epics. 

That  Valmiki  was  copied  by  his  successors  goes  without 
saying.    The  pseudo-Ramayana  shows,  e.  g.,  vii,  82,  64 : 

^  One  of  the  signs  that  the  completed  MahibhSrata  is  posterior  to  the 
RamSjana.  Compare  A.  J.  Phil.,  toI.  ziz,  p.  142.  It  is  a  Buddhistic  term, 
miriso,  foreign  to  the  Ramajana  but  current  in  the  MahabhSrata  and  later 
Sanskrit  works.  The  word,  be  it  noted,  is  as  old  as  one  pleases,  but  its  stereo- 
typed  employment  in  the  BhSrata  puts  that  whole  work  from  a  synthetio 
point  of  view  on  a  par  with  other  non-Buddhistic  literature  using  it. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  905 

n  to  Mh!iffft^iw^7ft  telfid  gthyft  <liiAflTta.n^in 
teiandha  telavftn  iftjft  Adim  NArftyano  yathii 

and  this  atrocity  in  6.  v,  82,  45  (not  in  B.) : 

suvarnasya  tuyarnasya  luvarnasya  oa  bhftvini 
R&mena  prahitam  deri  suvarnasyft  'figorlyakam,^ 

where  the  poetaster  alliterates  the  whole  word  in  an  attempt 
at  pathetic  repetition.  Thou^  this  is  not  in  B.,  yet  the 
latter  countenances  iii,  89, 18,  where  ^  woids  beginning  with 
R**  frighten  Itama^s  victim: 

ra-k&rftdini  namftni  Bftmatrastasya  BiTsna 
ratnaoi  ca  rathAQ  ofti  'va  Titrftsam  janayanti  me. 

SimilM  and  Ifetaphon.    PallMtIo  SfpatttlOD. 

On  epic  similes  and  metaphors  an  interesting  essay  remains 
to  be  \iTitten.  As  these  subjects  lie  quite  i^iart  from  a  study 
of  the  verse  itself,  I  shall  at  present  make  only  one  or  two 
observations  touching  on  the  significance  of  these  figures. 
First  of  all,  the  presence  in  the  epic  of  rupakas,  metaphors,  of 
this  or  that  form,  no  more  implies  acquaintance  with  a  studied 
ars  poetica  than  do  such  phenomena  in  other  early  epio 
poetry.  The  pseudo-epic  has  a  disquisition  on  rhetoric,  as 
it  has  on  every  other  subject,  but  rhetoric  is  older  than  Rhet- 
oric, and  I  cannot  see  that  illustrations  of  later  norms  found 
in  the  epic  prove  acquaintance  with  those  norms. 

In  Uie  rewritten  G  itS,  unquestionably  one  of  the  older  poema 
in  the  epic,  though  not  necessarily  an  old  part  of  the  epic,  we 
find  thut  the  current  dipo  nivatasthab  simile  is  introduced  as 
a  ''  traditional  simile,*'  upamS  sm|tS,  6, 19.  Such  stock  sim-*] 
ilcH  U*l(>ng  to  neither  epic,  but  to  the  epic  store  in  general,  at 
may  l)e  neen  by  consulting  the  long  list  of  identical  similes 
in  identical  phraseology  common  to  both  ei»cs.  But  the 
epics  hk*k  tlie  more  complicated  figures  of  classic  form,  just 
as  tliey  lack  the  later  complicated  jfonuJMi.    What  they  have  j 

1  Comitare  O.  W,  42, 12  =  44, 12  (aSffvlfjan,  tie,  la  lb«  Utter),  wbiis  tiM 

ring  U  "  «>iiirr«rc<l  with  the  mark  of  Rlma't  naoM  "  (u  sitovt  sis  Bsrkei  la 

y^     M).    So  R.  T.  SO.  2,  (aSfaUraksm) 


206  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

in  abundance  is  (a)  the  simile;  (b)  the  simple  metaphor; 
(c)  the  double  metaphor.  They  have  also  a  most  atrocious 
mixture  of  metaphor  and  simile,  as  in  R.  vi,  41,  45,  te  ta 
yanara^ardulah  ^ardula  iva  dan^^rinah,  ''  those  ape-tigers  like 
fanged  tigers,"  The  simile  is  sufficiently  illustrated  in  Ap- 
pendix A.  I  note  only  that  it  may  be  doubled,  Rahur  yatha 
candram  iva^ ''  he,  like  Rahu,  him,  as  if  the  moon  "  (overcame). 
Illustrations  of  the  double  metaphor  are  found,  for  example,  in 
xiii,  107,  33,  sarasvatlm  gopayanah,  keeping  silence  ("herding 
fluency ") ;  xiv,  90,  95,  svargargalam  lobhabijam,  "  heaven's 
bar  has  greed  as  its  seed  I" 

For  my  present  purpose  it  is  necessary  only  to  point  out 
that  the  later  part  of  the  epic  exceeds  the  earlier  epic  in 
involved  metaphor.  Nothing,  for  example,  in  the  early  epic 
is  quite  equal  to  xiii,  107,  26,  where  after  mentioning  bil- 
lions, sagara,  in  21,  the  poet  adds : 

avartanftni  catv&ri  tadft  padrnftnl  dvOda^ 
Qarftgniparimftnam  ca  tatr&  's&u  vasate  sukham, 

which  means  that  one  remains  in  bliss  fifty-one  padmas  of 
years,  sixteen  plus  the  aggregate  of  the  (five)  arrows  (of 
Love)  into  the  (seven)  ^  fiames  =  35  (+16).*  But  parallels 
almost  as  extravagant  (including  the  gopay  simile  above)  have 
been  noticed  by  Professor  Lanman  in  the  interesting  essay 
referred  to  in  the  last  note.  Not  so  striking,  though  in  style 
more  rhetorical  than  is  foimd  in  the  love-passages  of  the  early 
epic,  is  the  metaphor  of  iv,  14,  25 : 

atmapraddnavarsena  samgamftmbhodharena  ca 
Qamayasva  var&rohe  jvalantam  manmathanalam, 

"  0  graceful  maid,  quench  the  mind-shaker's  (Love's)  glowing 
fire  with  the  rain  of  self-surrender  and  the  water  of  union." 

1  PW^  8.  9&r5gm,  says  three  fires.  But  compare  yad  agne  te  giTam  rupam 
ye  ca  te  sapta  hetayah,  i,  232, 10,  and  saptarcis,  passim :  and  MaAd.  Up.  ii,  1, 8. 
Besides,  the  result  is  35  and  one  multiple  is  6,  so  the  other  must  be  7  (flames). 

*  These  high  numbers,  while  not  confined  to  the  pseudo-epic  (Ind.  Streifen, 
i,  p.  07  ff.),  receive  fresh  additions  there  in  names  of  numbers  before  un- 
known. Compare  xiii,  107,  63,  for  example,  where  occur  the  9afiku  and 
patSka :  tathS  ^afikupatake  dve  3rugintam  kalpam  era  ca,  ayutiyutam  tathi 
padmam  samudram  ca  tathS  raset.    On  similes,  cf .  Lanman,  JAOS.  zz,  p.  16. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  90T 

Another  rhetorical  trick,  which  appears  not  to  have  been 
noticed  in  the  epic,  is  the  occurrence  of  distinct  attempts  at 
**  pathetic  repetition.**  A  comical  example  is  given  i^ve. 
I  have  noted  cases  but  rarely,  and  only  from  late  parts  of 
the  great  epic,  but  I  cannot  say  they  are  not  found  else- 
where.^   The  first  is  from  viii,  75,  6-7  a: 

ratham  sastltam  sahayam  ca  kamoit 

ka^id  rathi  mrtyuvafuh  ninSja 
ninftya  c&  'py  ekagajena  kaqoid 

ratbftn  bahan  mftyuvaqe  tatht  '^rfln 
rathftn  sasotftn  sahayAn  gajftn^  ca 

sanrftn  arin  mr^vafam  yriUighii^i 

Another  is  found,  H.  8, 118,  9  =  15,776  : 

adrftksam  adrftksam  '  aham  sonirrftah 
piban  pibaiis  tasya  vapoh  punah  ponab^ 
(B.  has  porfttaDam) 

and  in  the  next  stanza: 

samsmrtya  samsmrtya  tam  eva  nirvitah. 

This  differs  from  simple  repetition,  such  as  that  of  jbiimi 
in  K.  iv,  88,  58  ff.,  but  only  in  the  effect  aimed  at  Per- 
haps the  yada  *f rftu^am  passage  may  be  includedi 

OaArao^  In  91oka  and  IMffotth. 

The  gibberish  of  xii,  10,899  (v.  L  in  285, 125X 

h&yi  h&yi  huTft  boyi  huTft  hoyi  tathA  'sakft 

is  interesting  as  showing  the  epic*s  recognition  of  this  form 
of  interjcitional  piety  (gayanti  tvim  sura^re^tha  samagi 
bratiniavudiiuil));'  but  I  introduce  it  here  as  illustrating  the 


>  Without  the  tttcmpted  pathoe*  mert  ivptCltioo  to  aa  aadiol  trail  «!• 
hiblt«d  at  earl/  at  the  Rig  Veda,  aa  polalad  out,  a.  f^bj  Wabar,  Vadtoeba 
Beitriffe,  1900,  p.  7,  on  RV.  U«  11.  BepetitkMi  of  the  lama  worda  fai 
inir  ttanxM  it  perbapt  beat  Ulattrated  bj  R.  IL  SS^  wbafa  da^khaa  ato 
It  the  pathetic  refralo. 

*  Compare  RV.  I«  S6.  IS,  dtfrfam  .  .  .  dir^aai. 

•  Compare  the  etobba  lb.  106:  blA  blA  bUkirapM^ als. 


208  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

common  occurrence  of  the  repetition  of  the  final  foot  of  the 
prior  at  the  beginning  of  the  posterior  pada.  This  extreme 
example  duplicates  even  the  syllables,  but  in  the  pathya  form 
of  the  gloka  the  duplication  of  the  whole  foot,  while  not  re- 
producing the  syllables,  may  extend  backward  as  well  as  for- 
ward, thus  giving  three  identical  feet,  as  in  R«  vii,  28,  6, 

na  bhetavyam  na  gantavyam  niyartadhvam  rane 
sur&h 

Such  a  verse,  however,  is  often  modified  as  in  iii,  168,  80 : 

nibodhata  mah&bhagfth  ^ivam  c&  'Qflsta  me  'naghfth, 

or,  if  the  first  two  are  maintained,  by  making  the  third  foot 

__v^_wor •    The  different  possibilities  concern  us 

here  only  as  they  affect  the  cadence,  for  the  monotony  of  the 
pada  is  varied  quite  as  much  by  the  rhetorical  cadence  as  by 
the  foot.  Even  the  stereotjrped  diiambic  close  of  the  posterior 
pada  is  constantly  broken  by  a  choice  of  words  which,  far  from 
lending  themselves  to  iambic  rhythm,  impede  it.     So  instead 

of  the  posterior  i^ v/,  v^  —  v^—  the  pada  must  often  be 

read  asi^_^_v>v>_,  %>__;  while  in  the  prior  pada  i^  v/  _  v/, 

\j ^  is  frequently  to  be  read  9A  ^  \jj^\j  \j  ^^^^.    Pro- 

noimced  cretics  and  dactyls  often  claim  recognition,  as  at  R. 
vi,  17, 12, 

Kavano,  nftma,  durvrtto,  rSksaso,  raksaseqvarab,^ 

or  ib.  17,  67,  vidyate  tasya  samgrahah ;  ib.  18,  7,  iti  ho  'vaca 
Kakutstho  vakyam,  satyaparakramah.  Hence  even  in  the 
more  rigid  posterior  pada  the  gloka  presents  great  variety. 
The  effect,  for  example,  of  the  diiambic  ending  is  quite  lost 
in  the  following  typical  examples: 

balad  dd&ya,  ylryav&n 
nava,  pafica  ca,  sapta  ca 
sandhim  KAmena,  B&vana 

To  read  such  j^Ldas  mechanically,  as  if  they  had  a  pause 
before  the  diiamb  (as  Occidental  scholars  almost  always  read 

^  A  itock  phnae,  the  parallel  to  RSrano  lokarSyanah,  B.  ri,  20, 21,  etc. 


EPIC   VERSIFICATIOX.  209 

them),  is  vicious.  The  (loka»  more  than  any  other  metre»' 
must  be  read  by  sense  rather  than  by  scheme.  The  latter 
method  is  bad  enough  in  all  metres,  but  peculiarly  so  in  the 
short  floka,  where,  unless  the  stress  jibes  with  Uie  words, 
the  result  is  a  peculiarly  painful  tum-tum,  which  in  no  way 
gives  the  rhythm;  for  in  reality  tlie  (loka  is  a  metre  of 
great  subtlety  and  force,  in  which  neither  iamUc  nor  tro- 
chaic cadence  has  ever  held  sway,  but  both  interchange 
^ith  pleasing  variety  even  in  pathyis,^  often  imiting  in  a 
dactylic  or  choriambic  measure,  as  in  iii,  56,  24, 

kim  abravTo  ca  nah  sarv&n, 
vada,  bhamipate,  "nagha 

or  R.  vi,  65, 11, 

gaccha  qatmvadhflya  tram, 
Kumbhakarnajayftya  ea 

or  ib.  59,  47, 

tarn  abravTn  mahftteja 

Rumah,  satyaparftkraxnah, 
gaccha,  yatnapara^  c&  'pi 

bhava,  Laksmana,  samyuge 

With  the  same  freedom  at  the  outset,  the  tri^tuUi,  instead 
of  cinbnicing  all  forms,  us  it  might  liave  done,  continued  on 
a  more  and  more  restricted  path.  It  kept  the  iamUc  cadence 
murh  more  closely  than  did  the  (loka  and  contracted  ita 
middle  io  an  almost  un\'ai^'ing  shape.  It  Uius  grew  more 
and  inon^  monotonous,  and  not  having  even  tlie  advantage 
of  h<Mni8tich-unity  it  became  a  mere  collocation  of  hen- 
di'kiisylLibic  verses,  each  pada  having  the  same  unvaxying 
quantity: 

^ v^ \j  \j  ^^     \J b£. 

1  Still  f?rrat«r  rarietj  Is  ^ron  by  the  raelodloni  Tipnlli,  of  which  I  thall 
•peak  U'h»w.     Bat  tercii-ciirhthf  of  epic  ▼erae  are  In  pathjE  fonn,  that  la, 

half  th«'  •>- liable**  in  the  verte  are  uaallerabljr  flied  asv/ wftodw^Si/W, 

•o  that  it  it  of  interett  to  tee  how  with  thli  telf-impoeed  reetrictlon  th«  IDadv 
p<H>t  ft  ill  managrt  to  make  Tenet  eo  melodiooa,  energetic,  aod  raried,  whtn 
read  propcrlj. 

14 


210  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

(called  upajati),  as  in  Horace's 

trahontque  siccas  machinae  carinas.^ 

The  only  way  to  save  from  dead  unif onnity  a  rhythm  so 
stereotyped  was  to  shift  the  csBsnra  frequently.*  In  the 
Ramayana,  where  upajatis  are  the  rule  (the  Mahabharata 
trift^bh  did  not  reach  the  same  level  of  monotony),  there  is 
often  a  constant  play  from  fourth  to  fifth  or  a  remoter  syl- 
lable, as  the  place  of  rest.  With  the  usual  pause  at  ^e 
fifth,  the  dactylic  middle  foot  is  converted  into  an  ana- 
psestic  iambic  slide,  as  in  the  following  examples  from  R. 
iv,  43,  62 ;  44, 16 ;  v,  32,  10,  the  last  two  examples  showing 
also  the  lighter  caesura  not  of  sense-pause  but  of  breathing: 

(a)  tatah  krt&rthah 

sahitah  sabdndhava 
maya  'rcitah 

sarvagunair  manoramaih 
carisyatho  *rvlm 

pratiQ&ntaQatravah 
sahapriya 

bhatadhar&h  plavamgamfih 

(b)  sa  tat  prakarsan 

harinAm  mahad  balam 
babhava  vlrah 

pavanatmajah  kapih 
gatambude 

vyomni  viquddhamandalah 
9aQl  'va  naksatraganopaQobhitah 

(c)  svapno  hi  na  'yam 

na  hi  me  'sti  nidra 

1  Brown's  Sanskrit  Prosody,  p.  9.  On  the  other  hand  the  JagatI  corre- 
sponds in  outer  form  to  the  iambic  trimeter  with  twelre  syllables.  I  treat 
tlie  jagatl  throughout  as  a  tristubh  with  one  syllable  added  (the  final  syllaba 

anceps  of  the  former  becoming  fixed  as  brevis),  \j \j ;  not  assuming  this 

as  a  genetic  fact  but  as  a  convenience,  the  same  body  appearing  in  both  and 
the  padas  being  interchangeable  except  in  the  aksaracchandas. 

s  On  the  derivation  of  types  fixed  in  respect  of  the  initial  syllable  (the 
upendra  and  indravajra  being  derived  from  the  upajSti  and  not  vice  versa), 
see  below,  the  section  on  the  Stanza. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  211 

Qokena  dahkhena  ea 

pl^ittyfth 
Bokham  hi  me 

dA  'tti  yato  yihmi 
tene  'nduptlrnapratiiiiAiianena 

But  this  tendency  ran  to  extremes  also,  and  as  the  syllaUc; 
arrangement  became  fixed,  so  the  cttsuia  became  stereotyped, 
till  stanzas  showed  an  almost  unvai3ring  cassara  of  the  painful 
type  of  R.  V,  47,  80, 

iti  prayegam  tu 

parasya  tarkayan 
tyakarmayogam  ca 

Tidb&ya  TfryarAn 
oakAra  yegam  tu 

mahabalas  tadA 
matixh  ca  oakre  *8ya 

yadhe  tadSnTin 

or  of  It  vi,  126,  66, 

tatah  sa  yikySir 

madhuiAir  Hantlmato 
uiqamya  hr^to 

BhanOah  kjrtafiJAlik 
uyflca  yAnIm 

manasah  praharfinim 
oirasya  pUrnah 

khalu  me  manorathah 

Even  if  Valmiki  dkl  not  write  these  stanzas,  which  may  be 
dnubtetl,  a  greater  poet  than  he  is  guilty  of  the  same  sleepy 
iti*niti(>n  of  cadences,  as  may  be  seen  in  Raghuvan^a  iii,  80; 
V,  18;  vii,  19  (cssura  after  the  fifth  in  all  pidas);  vii,  16 
(after  tlio  fourth  in  all  pSdas). 


Alternation  of  tri^tubh  and  jagatl  pIdas  in  the  same  stanza 
heliMtl  Homcwliat  to  mitigate  the  weary  efifect  of  this  netre ; 
but  it  gradually  yielded  before  the  floka  or  passed  into  other 


212  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

I  forms.  One  of  its  decadent  uses  was  to  famish  new  tags  for 
the  end  of  chapters  of  ^lokas.  This  was  an  old  use,  but  it 
is  extended  in  the  later  epic.  The  different  texts  show  no 
uniformity  in  the  insertion  of  these  tag-tri^^ubhs,  one  text 
having  several,  where  another  has  one  or  none,  just  as  in 
the  case  of  other  tag-metres,  for  example,  a  pu^pitagra,  6.  iii, 
39,  42 ;  two  ruciras  between  G.  iii,  56  and  57,  but  none  in  R. 
Plainly  a  late  insertion,  for  instance,  is  the  imitationnstanza 
which  serves  as  a  tag  to  G.  iii,  43,  42  (not  in  R.), 

k&lasya  k&laq  ca  bhavet  sa  Rftmah 
samksipya  lokanq  ca  sijed  ath&  'ny&n, 

Manu,  ix,  315 ;  Mbh.  ix,  36,  40, 

sa  hi  kruddhah  srjed  anyfta  devfta  api  mahfttap&h 

xiii,  152,  16, 

adaivam  daivatam  koryur,  dftivatam  c&  'py  ad&ivatani 
lok^  anyftn  srjeyus  te 

Such  tags  may,  in  fact,  be  made  of  adjacent  glokas.  An 
instance  is  given  below  where  a  rucira  has  thus  been  created. 
As  regards  trif^bhs,  G.  iii,  62  ends  with  a  tag  made  out  of 
a  gloka  omitted  in  this  text  but  kept  in  the  other,  na  ^arma 
labhate  bhlruh  and  na  vindate  tatra  tu  garma  Maithill.  A 
good  example  is  foimd  in  R.  vii,  75,  18  ff.,  where  a  triftubh 
tag  is  added  in  almost  the  same  words  with  those  wherewith 
the  following  chapter  begins,  showing  that  with  the  division 
into  two  chapters  a  tag  was  simply  manufactured  out  of  the 
next  stanza ;  as  is  still  more  clearly  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
76,  2  answers  the  question  of  75, 18,  vaigyas  trtlyo  varno  va 
9udro  va  ('si)?  gudrayonyam  prajato  'smi.  Evidently  only 
one  verse  intervened,  the  gloka:  tasya  tad  vacanam  grutvS 
iivakgiral^  •  •  .  uvaca  ha.^ 

^  The  same  thing  occurs  in  R.  ir,  60,  where  the  chapter  closes  with  the 
(loka :  papraccha  HanumSAs  tatra  kS  'si  tyam  kasya  vS  biiam.  Then  fol^ 
lows  the  tag:  tato  Handman  girisamnika9ah  krtifijalis  tim  abhiTidja  Tr> 
(MhSm,  papraccha  k5  tram  bhavanam  bilarii  ca  ratnani  ce  'mini  yadaara 
kasya,  simply  repeating  the  last  (loka  in  tris^ubh  form.  6.  reiy  properlj 
drops  the  (loka ;  but  it  is  clear  that  originaUj  the  9loka  closed  the  qaeation. 


EPIC   VERSlFICATlOir.  218 

The  tag-function  of  the  triffaUi  is  also  known  in  the  llahi- 
bharata,  notably  in  the  one  tri^tubh  found  in  the  Nala»  iii,  76, 
589  which  has  been  regarded  as  spurious  on  account  of  its 
isolation*  But  the  following  sections,  after  the  Nala  episode, 
show  just  the  same  conditions,  the  end  of  chapters  88  and 
100.  So,  too,  at  the  end  of  ix,  24  and  28.  Hariy.  2,  86,  and 
69  end  with  one  jagati  each;  2,  68,  with  three. 

The  present  text  of  the  RamSyaqa  shows  many  cases  of 
tri^tubhs  and  jagatls  interpolated  into  the  middle  of  a  ^loka 
section.  Some  of  these  at  least  are  clearly  the  finale  of  former 
chapters.  Thus  R.  vi,  69, 15  looks  like  an  inserted  jagati,  but 
its  function  is  to  close  the  chapter  in  6.  48, 18.  So  R.  vi,  69, 
88-96  appear  as  a  group  of  interpolated  triftuUbs;  but  in  6. 
the  same  group  is  a  tag  to  chapter  49.  Probably  the  break 
in  R.  vi,  69,  44,  6.  49,  81,  is  the  original  finis  of  a  chapter. 
Occasionally,  when  one  edition  breaks  a  chapter,  only  the  new 
division  is  found  to  have  triftubh  or  jagati,  as  an  accepted 
sign  of  conclusion,  as  in  R.  iii,  11,  after  70 ;  0. 16,  41. 

A  special  function  of  the  later  tri^tubh  is  to  produce  pathetic 
efifect^  In  this  guise  it  wins  new  life  and  makes  whole  chap- 
ters, as  in  R.  V,  28,  where  the  burden  of  the  chapter  is  ex- 
pressed by  ha  Rama  hS  Takyma^^t  hi  Sumitre,  eta ;  or  in  R. 
iv,  24  (not  in  G.),  a  lament,  the  dolorous  style  of  which  may 
be  illustrated  by  the  reminiscent  verses,  18-14 : 


prftpto  *8mi  ptpminam  idam  vayasya 

bhrfttur  vadhit  Tviytravadhid  ive  'ndrah 
pftproAnam  Indrasya  mahl  jalam  ea 

ca  kAmam  jagrfauh  striyaq  ea,  etc. 


Closely  allied  is  the  employment  of  the  triftnfah  to  describe 
not  mental  conditions  but  operations  of  nature.  The  Vedic 
pm  vitS  vinti  patayanti  vidyutah,  RV.,  y,  88,  4,  ajqieais  in 


>  ThU  befint  in  ^ht  Mahihhlrata  m  aa  tttoatloB  <»f  Um  Hit-faaetloB. 
Coaip*r»  Um  Ulottrmtlimt  giTca  la  A.  J.  FhIL,  Tot  six.  ^  IS  ft  ▲  good  ts* 
ample  of  Um  tentinienul  cflcct,  tetflBtifleatioo  ef  borron.  cle^  dtpatod  to  Um 
trittnbh  bj  prvdilcctlon.  It  fowMl  la  It,  t,  64,  SO  ft  The  astioa  It  la 
The  moral  dETect  U  fircn  bj  the  foQowlaf  tri||«blw. 


214  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

R.  iv,  28,  45  as  var^pravega  vipulah  patanti  pia  vanti  vata^ 
samudimave^Lh,  in  a  long  section  wholly  descriptive.  Another 
example  is  found  in  R.  iv,  30,  28-57. 

^okas  and  tri^tubhs  are  not  often  commingled,  save  in  a 
few  late  passages  of  the  great  epic,  i,  282,  10  ff. ;  Hariv.  8, 
82,  8  ff. ;  and  in  R.  v,  41 ;  G.  87  (chiefly  upendias),  through- 
out a  section.  In  R.  a  few  long  passages  occur  in  the  sixth 
book,  59-61,  67,  but  apart  from  these  books  the  exchange 
of  the  two  metres  is  avoided.^  In  the  Sanatsujatiya,  v,  46, 
there  is,  indeed,  a  regular  gloka  refrain  besides  other  glokas 
intermingled  with  tri^tubhs,  but  this  is  because  the  author 
is  reducing  Upanishad  stanzas,  and  at  the  same  time  adding 
some  of  his  own.  The  practice  belongs  to  those  scriptures, 
and  is  not  generally  kept  up  in  the  epic,  though  occasion- 
ally a  5loka  or  two  appears  among  tri^^ubhs,  as  in  ii,  64,  9-10. 
In  xii,  350,  49  ff.,  two  trif tjubhs  (the  second  having  three 
hemistichs)  are  inserted  between  glokas  (after  a  gloka  of 
three  verses). 

Common  Forms  of  Cloka  and  Tristnbh. 

From  a  mechanical  point  of  view,  the  prior  pada  of  the  gloka 
and  the  tri^^ubh  are  identical,  except  for  the  fact  that  to  the 
eight  syllables  of  the  gloka  p»da  the  tri^t^bh  appends  a  scolius 
or  amphibrach.  The  natural  division  of  the  eight  syllables  in 
each  case  is  into  groups  of  four  or  five,  followed  respectively 
by  four  or  three.  For  convenience  the  group  of  four,  which  is 
found  oftenest,  is  usually  called  a  foot,  and  to  have  a  name  I 
sliall  so  designate  it.  Now  in  epic  (Mahabharata)  poetry,  every 
foot  of  the  gloka  p«da  is  found  in  the  tri^^ubh,  and,  vice  versa 
(as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table),  every  prior  foot  and 
every  last  foot  of  the  triptjubh's  eight  syllables  is  also  a  corre- 
sponding ^loka  foot : 

^  G.  ii,  110,  3ff.  is  not  in  R.,  and  appears  to  bo  an  interpolation.  The  par- 
allels to  G.  V,  80  are  also  lacking  in  R.  Verse  7  in  G.  ri,  34,  is  praksipta  (the 
passage  is  not  in  R.,  but  compare  R.  iv,  33,  53). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  216 

Pbiob  fooT  OF  C^KA  Last  voov  ov  i}uomA, 

▲VD  TUfTCBH.  ▲»!>  TSI^rUBB. 

S*^ .....  %  \J\J\J  ^^ 

4,  ^ \j  4,^^^^ 

4     ^  WV/  ^    WW.... 

But,  curious  as  is  this  purely  mechiinical  identity,  it  is  subject 
to  three  limitationst  which  prevent  the  efifect  one  might  think 
would  be  caused  by  it  Firet,  the  tristnbh*s  eij^th  syUi^  is 
long,  while  in  the  ^loka,  since  the  pSda  ends  here*  the  same 
syllable  is  anceps.  Second,  the  seolius  of  the  triftuUi  is  usu- 
ally closely  united  with  the  second  foot,  while  in  the  case  of 
upajatis  uid  some  other  tri^^nUbs  the  cosura  occurs  in  a 
majority  of  cases  after  the  fifth  syllable,  so  that  the  feet  are 
not  in  reality  what  they  are  in  the  measured  division  given 

above;  but  the  pada  appears,  for  example,  as  \j^\j , 

K^sj^yj^sj,  whereas  in  the  gloka  the  usual  cosura  is  after 
Uie  fourth,  and  only  in  certain  cases  falls  after  the  fifth  sylli^ 
blc.  But  the  third  difference,  that  of  the  general  effect  given 
by  the  (loka  cadence  and  that  of  the  corresponding  syllables 
in  the  tri^tubh,  is  produced  by  the  interrelation  of  the  first 
and  second  foot.  Here  there  is  a  wide  divergence,  and  it  is 
the  preference  for  one  combination  over  another  that  makes 
the  f^atest  difference  between  the  form  of  the  (loka  as  a 
whole  and  the  tri^tubh  as  a  whole.  Although  it  is  true,  as 
haii  been  remarked  by  Professor  Jacobi,  that  the  essential 
differeiiec  in  metres  lies  not  in  the  opening  but  in  the  dose  of 
the  [mdiu  yet  in  this  case  the  interrelation  just  referred  to  is 
almost  US  imi)ortaiit.    Thus,  to  take  a  striking  example,  while 

v/ iH  a  second  foot  both  in  (loka  and  tri^tnlih,  in  the 

fonuer  it  U  pathya,  ^  regular,**  in  all  combinations,  the  com* 
moncHt  of  all,  while  in  triftubh  it  is  a  rarity  in  any  comfain»* 

tion.    So  WW occure  after  four  or  five  forms  of  the  first 

f(K)t  in  ^loka,  yet  is  never  a  favorite,  in  triftubhs  after  six 
forms,  and  Ls  here  eveiywhero  conuum* 


216  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

It  is,  however,  interesting  to  see  in  how  many  cases  a  per- 
missible form  of  both  metres  is  used,  so  that  one  cannot  tell 
which  metre  one  is  reading  till  the  pada  is  nearly  complete. 
Ordinarily  the  general  rhythm  determines  the  anticipation 
and  the  expected  metre  is  duly  met ;  but  not  infrequently  is 
the  justified  anticipation  deceived,  and  the  metre,  still  keeping 
on  the  lines  of  the  preceding  form,  suddenly  changes.  A 
penultimate  verse,  for  example,  in  R.  ii,  38,  14,  begins  maya 
vihlnam  varada  prapannam,  but  we  no  sooner  learn  that  this 
is  a  gloka  verse,  not  a  tri^tubh  tag  (as  we  might  expect  from 
its  form  and  position),  than  in  15  we  read  imam  mahendropa- 
majatagardhinun,  the  real  tag  of  the  section. 

The  form  just  cited  is  the  usual  one  in  which  the  gloka. 
coincides  with  the  body  of  the  tri^t^bh.  Sometimes,  as  in  set 
phrases,  the  same  words  are  used ;  thus  in  G.  ii,  18,  33,  and  55, 

prasftdaye  tv&m  qiras^  karisye  vacanam  pituh 
pras&daye  tv&m  qirasa  yatavrate  (tristubh) 

or  in  R.  vi,  106,  4  and  59,  36, 

tam  ftpatantam  sahasft  svanavantam  mahftdhvajam 
tarn  ftpatantam  sahasA  samlksya  (tristubh) 

With  the  prevalent  upajati  caesura  and  almost  after  a 
system  of  upajatis  (one  gloka  intervening),  appears  in  R.  vi, 
69, 130,  sa  vayusunu^  kupita^  cik^epa  fikharam  girel^  a  per- 
fect upendravajra  pada  in  a  floka  verse.  Such  alien  padas 
are  not  very  common  in  the  midst  of  a  gloka  system,^  but 
are  common  in  close  conjimction  with  tri^t^bhs,  as  if  the 
poet  either  wished  to  trick  or  could  not  himself  get  the  last 
metre  out  of  his  ear.  Another  instance  like  the  one  above  is 
foimd  in  R.  v,  54,  48  ff.,  where  only  a  gloka  hemistich  inter- 
venes between  a  triipt^bh  system  and  the  tri^t^bh-like  cadence 
of  the  gloka :  vyarajata  'ditya  iva  'rcimali ;  Lankam  samastam 
sampidya  langulagnim  mahakapih,  nirvapayam  asa  tada  samu- 
dre  (haripungavah).    Cases  where  a  whole  floka  is  interposed 

^  But  compare  R.  y,  2,  31,  anena  riipena  majS  na  9akjS  raksatSm  pari ; 
R.  Ti,  43, 17,  ^arirasamghStavahShpraausruh  gonitSpagSh ;  Nala,  3, 1,  tebhja^ 
pratijfiSya  Nalah  karisja  iti,  BharaU ;  and  ib.  12,  but  no  more  caaet  till  6^  8. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  21T 

are  not  at  all  rare.  In  R.  vi,  67, 99-101»  99  ends  in  a  tri^tabht 
100  is  a  gloka  pathya,  101  begins  sa  Knmhhakanjasya  faiSn 
faiire  (sapta,  yiryavan).  Less  striking  is  the  case  where  only 
one  pada  of  a  gloka  of  ohoriambic  form  (second  Tipula)  corre- 
sponds to  the  tri^tubh  it  follows,  for  here  the  former*s  cadence 
is  not  kept  up.  Such  a  pada  needs  no  intervening  pathyi,  but 
may  follow  directly  on  the  triftnbh,  as  in  R.  vi,  67»  21-22» 

pradodruvuh  samyati  Kombhakarnftt 

tatas  tu  Nllo  balavftn  (paryavastbipayan  balam) 

When  an  unimportant  word  or  a  superfluous  adornment, 
an  unnecessaiy  adverb  or  epithet,  is  added,  it  arouses  a  suspi- 
cion that  some  of  the  (lokas  may  be  reduced  from  an  older 
form.  Thus  vidyunmali  appears  to  stop  a  jagatl  in  R.  vi^ 
48,41a, 

qilftprahara  'bbihato  (vidyunmftll)  nifioarah 

SoinR.  vi,69, 188  a, 

khadgaprahftrft  ni>hihato  HanAmin  (mimtitmajah) 

So,  too  in  the  verse  cited  above,  haripuSgava^  fills  out  the 
verse  where  mahakapi))i  precedes,  a  sufiBcient  subject  In  O. 
iv,  60,  2,  niveda}'amasa  tadi  mahar^im  (samhatili jali^) ;  in 
the  other  example  above,  sapta,  viiyavfin ;  and  in  the  following 
example  both  terminals  (even  the  accusative)  aie  unneoesMiyt 
R.  vi,  71,  87, 

tato  'tikftyo  balavin  praviqya  (barivfthinUn) 
visphAray&mAsa  dhanur  nanAda  ca  (pnnah  pona^) 

And  very  likely,  since  an  inspection  of  epic  phnseology 
sliows  tluit  Uiere  were  many  stereotyped  turns  of  expresaiont 
Uiere  were  phrases  used  first  in  the  triffubh  which  were  pr^ 
served  in  a  crystallized  form  in  the  general  floka  solution  in 
which  the  epic  was  immersed.  But  to  say,  except  in  the  case 
of  such  stereot}'ped  phrases,  whether  this  hi^^peiied  in  any  one 
instance,  would  be  at  best  rather  an  idle  expression  of  opinion.^ 


1  In  tldhQ  tldhT  Iti  (to)  iMdiK  (cs)  dfft^  ^stmi  (or  rskfs^)  psr^ptsa. 
It  Ti.  44.  31.  O.  10,  87,  a  ttock  phrMt  la  sitlMr  tela,  sa  old  IriftaUi, 
sj .« might  bt  prooorrod,  bst  o  ▼sriod  nidlag  to  aofo  HMf • 


218  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Certain  verbal  forms  lend  themselves  best  to  one  cadence  and 
it  is  not  surprising,  for  instance,  that  one  turn  should  go  to 
make  both  gloka  and  tri^tubh  (R.  v,  47, 10 ;  vi,  106, 14),  or 
that  the  exact  form  here  is  elsewhere,  6.  vi,  89,  25  (R«  has 
hayan),  used  as  part  of  another  tristubh,  so  that  we  find: 

pracodayamSsa  ratham  sa  s&rathih 
pracoday&masa  ratham  soras&rathir  uttamah 

pracoday&m&a  qit&ih  Qarais  tribhih 
pracodayam&sa  qit&ih  Qarair  hemavibhQsit&ih 

On  this  pomt  I  have  only  to  add  that  a  complete  jagati 
pada,  as  well  as  a  tri^^ubh  pada,  may  thus  appear  in  a  y loka» 
as  in  the  example  above  and  in  R.  v,  57, 15  b, 

sa  paray&mSsa  kapir  di^o  da^a  (samantatah) 

and  that,  next  to  the  choriambic  form,  the  old  tri^t^bhs  in 

^  \j \j\j\j  —  \j  —  w,  and  ^ \j  —  \j  \j  \j \j \j  are  most 

often  incorporate  in  flokas,  as  in  Nala,  4,  28,  varnyamane^u  ca 
maya  bhavatsu;  9,  4,  vyadlryate  'va  hrdayam  na  cai  'nam; 
and  12,  89,  patatribhir  bahuvidhaih  samantad,  etc.,  etc.  Pro- 
fessor Jacobi  has  suggested  that  the  ^loka  has  borrowed  such 
forms  from  the  tri^t^ubh.  This  seems  to  be  a  reasonable  sug- 
gestion, yet  it  should  be  said  that  the  argument  advanced  in 
favor  of  it  is  scarcely  valid.  Professor  Jacobi  bases  the  deri- 
vation of  the  second  vipula  from  the  tri^^ubh  on  the  assumed 
fact  that  in  this  form  of  the  pada  ^^  _  w  w  w  almost  never  takes 
the  place  of  «.  w  w  — ,"  IS.  vol  xvii,  p.  450.  This  statement, 
however,  is  based  on  a  rather  restricted  area  of  examples. 
In  the  Bliarata  glokas,  ^\j\j\j  is  not  uncommon  except  in 
late  passages,  and  even  there  two  or  three  cases  out  of 
twenty-five  to  thirty  are  not  very  unusual.  All  that  we  can 
say  is  that  final  brevis  is  much  less  frequent  than  in  the 
first  vipula. 


.Lljkri 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  SIO 

Thm  finite  9^dluL 

ThB  PbIOB  PJLDA  of  TEOB  ^}U>KAm 

The  PiUhjfd. 

The  pathjS,  or  ordinaiy  form  of  the  first  p8da,  should 
exclude  q)oradic  cases,  but  including  them  for  convenience 

we  may  say  that  the  pathya  foot  \j ^  is  preceded  by  five 

kinds  of  feet,  sporadic  choriambus  or  proceleusmaticus ;  iambio» 
w  _  \>  ^ ;  pyrrhic,  ^  _  w  w ;  trochaic,  ^  ^ «.  w  and  ^  ^  ..  w; 

spondaic,  w and  w  w..*    The  frequency  of  these  feet 

advances  in  the  order  here  given*  With  the  exception  of  % 
sporadic  choriambus  or  other  wild  irregularity,  all  these  fonns 
occur  passim,  even  that  with  precedent  iambus.  This  last  is 
sure  to  be  found  so  many  times  in  a  given  number  of  (lokas 
and  it  must  therefore  be  marked  as  occurring  passim  rather 
than  as  common ;  but  it  is  far  less  frequent  than  the  other 
forms,  often  less  than  half  as  frequent  as  the  pynhic,  as  this 
is  often  only  half  as  common  as  the  precedent  trochee.  The 
relation  between  the  trochee  and  q)ondee  is  from  one-half  to 
two-thinhi.  A  curious  fact  in  regard  to  the  avoided  iambus 
(before  tlie  iambus  of  the  pathJi^  as  in  the  posterior  pida)  is 
Uuit  when  used  it  is  sometimes  prefeired  in  its  double  form. 
ThuA  in  xii,  812  ff.,  for  about  two  hundred  hemistichs,  the 
prcccHlt*nt  spondees,  trochees,  pyrrhics,  and  iambs  are  (respec- 
tively) 82,  54,  29,  11;  but  of  the  11  iambs,  10  are  double 

sj^yu^  (af^nKt \j  .)•    On  the  other  hand,  in  xiv,  59  £Ft 

tliesc  i>rucc«lents  are  73,  88,  81,  20 ;  and  of  the  20  iambs,  only 
8  are  dnuble;  wliile  the  o{)ening  stanzas  of  the  Gita  (intro- 
duction, (*h.  13)  Hhow  9(^  62,  27, 14;  but  only  6  double  iambs 
out  of  tlu*  14.  The  precedent  double  iambus  is  characteristao 
alrto  of  Tuli  verse.  It  does  not  seem  to  me  that  any  great 
weight  in  t4>  be  laid  on  tliis  or  that  ratio  in  the  use  of  these 
f(H.*t,  siiK^c  all  are  used  by  epic  writers  eveiywherep  and  the 
only  striking  distinction  as  regards  their  employment  is  that 
HiNin<Iees  naturally  (it  is  a  matter  of  nice  ear  to  a  great  extent) 
occur  oftenest  before  an  iamb»  and  iambs  least  often ;  iriiile 


220  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

trochees  and  pyrrhics  lie  between.    But  very  often  a  doable 

trochee  («_  \>  —  w)  is  preferred  to  a  spondee  (—  w ).^    As 

regards  minor  differences,  as  for  example  whether  ^  v>  —  v>  or 

^ w  is  used  more  frequently,  I  have  not  thought  it  worth 

while  to  gather  the  statistics.  Only  the  curious  preference 
in  later  writers  for  three  successive  iambs  seemed  worth  notic- 
ing, as  it  leads  to  the  hemistich  of  eight  iambs  sometimes 
affected  by  doggerel  epic  poets.^  Such  a  combination  regu- 
larly occurs  only  at  the  beginning  of  a 'prior  pada,  being 
tabooed  in  the  posterior  pada,  though  occasionally  foimd  there. 
The  genei-al  (not  inviolate)  rule  for  the  pathya  is  that  any  foot 

may  stand  before  w :^  which  does  not  make  tribrach  or 

anapaest  after  the  initial  syllaba  anceps  of  the  pada.  The  final 
syllable  of  the  pathya  is  long  in  about  two-thirds  of  the  cases. 
More  important  are  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  preference  for 
certain  forms  combined  with  the  vipulas,  although  these  make 
but  a  small  proportion  of  prior  padas. 

The  VtptUdi. 

The  vipulas  (syllables  five  to  eight)  are  four  in  number: 

(1)  v^ww^,  (2)«v^wv^,  (8)«, v^,  (4)  -.vy_v^.    Only 

the  third  (as  indicated)  has  an  almost  invariable  caesura.  In 
respect  of  the  general  rules  for  these  vipulas,  from  an  exam- 
ination of  a  considerable  mass  of  material,  I  would  state  first 
that  the  epic  gloka  generally  conforms,  as  far  as  I  can  formu- 
late them,  to  the  following  conditions : ' 

1  The  preference  for \j v-»  instead  of  _  v/ ii  illuitrated  below. 

Cases  of  double  iambns  before  the  pathjS  seem  to  me  rather  characteristic  of 
the  popalar  and  late  scholastic  style  than  an  archaic  sorriyal  (the  late  scho- 
lastic often  coincides  with  the  popular  through  a  common  carelessness  or 
ignorance).  To  be  compared  are  Simons,  Der  ()loka  im  P&li,  ZDM6.,  voL  xlir, 
p.  84  ff.,  and  Oldenberg,  ib.  Ht,  p.  194.  The  latter  seems  inclined  to  see  (with 
due  caution)  evidence  of  antiquity  in  the  precedent  iambus.  I  regard  this 
combination  rather  as  a  sign  that  the  writer  is  more  careless. 

'  See  below  for  an  example. 

*  Besides  the  articles  above,  see  Colebrooke;  Gildermeister,  ZEiM,  t,  200; 
Weber,  IS.,  vol.  viii ;  Oldenberg,  Bemerkungen  zur  Theorie  des  (loka,  ZDMG. 
XXXV,  p.  187 ;  and  Jacob!,  IS.,  vol.  xvii,  p.  443 ;  Das  RimSjana;  and  Onmpfl- 
jSkSumudL   Professor  Jacobi's  rules  given  first  at "  valid  for  the  older  epics  " 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  221 

1.  The  first  yipula,  \j  \j  \j  yi,  usually  follows  ^  .  w  ., 
^ ,  or  v^  w ,  though  it  is  sufficient  to  have  the  pre- 
ceding syllable  long  (even  this  restriction  is  not  always 
observed).  The  later  style  has  fewer  cases  of  the  first  of 
these  comlnnations.  The  c»sura  is  after  the  (pBda*s)  fourth 
or  fifth  syllable,  sometimes  after  the  sixth.  The  last  syllable 
of  the  vipula  is  prevailingly  long  but  not  infrequently  short, 
especially  apt  to  be  short  after  the  diiamhin  opening.  When 
the  csDsura  is  after  the  fifth  syllable  of  the  [dUla  the  last 
syllable  of  the  vipuli  as  a  rule  is  long  (which  would  indicate 
that  this  cssura  is  later  than  the  one  after  the  fourth). 

2.  The  second  vipulft,  —ww^,  usually  follows  ^.w-.» 

though  a  preceding  ^ or  even  ^  w is  not  a  great 

rarity.  Any  other  precedent  foot  is  sporadic  only.  The 
caesura  is  after  the  fourth  or  fifth  syllable  of  the  pida, 
inclining  to  the  latter  place  (at  times  twice  as  frequent)* 
The  last  syllable  of  the  vipula  is  sometimes  short,  most  oftm 
when  the  caesura  is  after  the  fourth  syllable  of  the  pida*  but 
is  prevailingly  long,  especially  in  the  later  epic,  where  a  short 
final  is  often  rather  rare  (rarer  than  in  the  first  vipuli).^ 

8.  Tlie  third  vipulft,  ., hL  usually  follows  ^..v/.. 

Ttie  caesura  is  veiy  rarely  after  any  other  syllable  than  the 
fifth,  and  is  seldom  neglected*  The  last  syllable  is  indiffer- 
ently sliort  or  long.    This  is  the  most  rigid  foimv  both  in 


wcr«  modlSed  in  the  Uter  trticlet  dttd  (1SS4, 1808, 1808).  Pkofcwor  OMmi- 
berg's  obeervmUoDf  gire  an  eicelleot  oompuitoo  of  l&uia'i  praetlot  with 
thmt  of  an  epic  paaeage.  The  iUtemenUi  in  Colehrooke'i  nad  Weber*!  worki 
mentionvd  mbove,  beied  on  the  nilee  of  aatlTe  netridels,  often  coafonn, 
through  no  fmalt  Mve  thmt  of  the  metridete,  neither  to  epic  nor  to  Hittltml 
tuegv  and  historical! j  conaidervd  are  oeeleee  aa  regmrda  the  eztnal  epic  ^loka. 
I*roft*Mor  Jacobi's  mlet,  aa  modified  bjr  him,  thoagh  not  eshnnatiTe,  are  gea- 
eralljr  quite  animpeachable  and  give  the  beat  (aa  did  Oildenaelaier'a  ia  hk 
day)  pretrnution  of  epic  conditioaa.  I  follow  hia  ofder  ia  aamberiag  Iha 
four  vipulU,  and  his  rules,  with  some  revlaloB. 

1  The  age  of  the  piece  affecta  the  qaaatitjr  of  the  fiaal  ^yllabto.  For  •» 
ample,  of  the  two  lotua-theft  Teraioaa,  tlie  prior  (aa  ia  ofiea  the  caat)  la  Iha 
more  niud^m  (liil,  03).  Here  tliere  ia  ao  caae  ^  ^\j\j\j,  bat  foartMBOMiS 
of  _  v/  v^  _  (one  hundred  fortj-aine  clokaa).  Bat  la  M^  la  the  eoaysMsC 
fort/  9lokaa,  ^\j\j\j  oocart  fix  tiaaa  (igihwt  ^  w  ^»  toar  tteti). 


222  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

respect  of  caesura  and  of  precedent  foot,  so  that  the  pada  is 
ahnost  always  ^  _  w , ^. 

4,  The  fourth  vipula,  _  w  _  m,  usually  follows  m  _  w  — , 

but  in  some  sections  is  found  quite  as  often  after  m 

and  ^\j .     The  csesura  rarely  changes  from  the  fourth 

syllable.    The  last  syllable  of  the  vipula  is  generally  long. 

6.  The  Mahabharata  has  what  may  be  called  a  fifth  vipula, 

Kj  \j It  occurs  sporadically  in  all  parts  of  the  epic  and 

is  not  very  uncommon,  though  not  so  current  as  in  the 
Upanishads.  This  form  crops  up  occasionally  in  the  Puia- 
nas,  but  is  ignored  by  Valmiki  and  later  Eavis. 

These  epic  conditions  may  be  condensed  into  one  short  rule 
of  general  usage :  All  vipulas  are  found  after  i=f  _  w  _,  but 

with  occasional  exceptions  ^  only  the  first  vipula  after  ^ 

and  ^  w ,  and  no  other  precedent  feet  are  admitted  be- 
fore vipulas.  The  ceesura  is  free  (usually  after  the  fourth  or 
fifth  syllable)  in  the  first  and  second  vipula ;  after  the  fifth 
in  the  third;  after  the  fourth  in  the  fourth  vipula. 

The  chief  difference  between  the  normal  type  of  the  epic 
pada  and  that  of  classical  writers  lies  in  the  circumstance  that, 
as  contrasted  with  the  facts  stated  above,  in  classical  works 
there  is 

1 )  almost  complete  absence  of  the  fourth  vipula, 

2)  greater  rarity  of  the  first  vipula  after  diiambus, 

8)  greater  strictness  in  the  caesura  of  the  third  vipula, 

4)  very  rare  exceptions  in  the  employment  of  other  prece- 
dent feet  (e.  g.,  the  third  vipula  after  \j ,  Ragh.  xii, 

71). 

5)  almost  exclusive  use  of  long  finals  in  first  and  second 

vipuliis.^ 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  still  an  appreciable  advance 

1  The  commonest  exception  is  found  in  the  case  of  the  fourth  yipuli.  On 
an  average  half-a-dozen  exceptions  occur  in  the  course  of  a  thousand  hemi- 
stichs,  but  excluding  the  fourth  vipula  onlj  one  or  two  exceptions,  generallj 
in  the  form  \^ , \j  kj . 

*  On  the  rarity  of  the  fourth  vipuli  in  classical  writers,  see  Jacobi,  IS^  toL 
xvii,  pp.  443.  The  rule  for  the  long  finals  is  cited  by  Weber,  IS.,  vol.  Tiii, 
p.  d45 :  sarvSsSm  vipulSnSm  caturtho  varnah  prayena  gurur  bhmvmti. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  228 

to  be  noticed  in  the  classical  style  as  compared  not  only  with 
the  stylo  of  older  parts  of  the  epic  but  also  with  the  normal 
epic.  Fewer  vipulas  (especiaUy  fewer  second  vipnlas)  in 
gencnd,  avoidance  of  Uio  fourth  vipida,  and  greater  strictness 
in  the  use  of  vipulas  mark  in  some  passages  an  advance  even 
on  the  normal  epic. 

There  is  no  ••  epic  usage "  in  respect  of  the  proportion  of 
vipulils  to  pathyas.    The  fact  tliat  there  is  considerable  variety 
pn)ves  little  in  regard  to  difference  of  authors,  since  many 
conditions  affect   tlie  ratio.      Not  only  is  there  apt  to  be  a 
largt*r  nun)l)er  of  vipulas  in  scenes  of  excitement,  as  Pro- 
fessor Jiu'ohi,  I  think,  has  somewhere  obser\'ed,  but  lUso  a 
monotonous  list  develops  vipulas,  partly  because  it  is  apt  to 
be  comiM)sed  of  munes  which,  as  they  are  harder  to  manage, 
always  receive  a  certain  latitude  of  treatment,  partly  because 
tlie  duhiesH  of  the  subject  requires  the  livelier  effect  of  the 
skipping  vipida.     The  vipula  (in  excess  of  the  normal)  may 
ihi-n  U»  (hie  to  a)  {wrscmal  style;  b)  intensity;  c)  formality; 
d)  avi)i<l;in('e  of  dulness;  to  which  must  be  added  imitation 
or  actual  citation  of  older  material.     For  tliis  reason  tliere  is, 
in  mere  ratio  of  vipulas  to  pathyas,  no  especial  significance, 
as  niiiy  Ik*  further  slio\i^  by  the  fact  tliat  on  an  average  tliis 
r.itio  is  ill  Mint  the  same  in  the  Kamayana  and  Hliarata,  though 
e;u'h  p(H*n)  shows  greiit  variations  within  itself.     Thus  in  tlie 
first  thousiind  verses  (hemistichs)  of  the  Itamayana*s  third 
an<l  fourth  IxM^ks  n*si>ectively  the  vipulas  are  125  and  118, 
or  oncHMghth.      But   twenty   thousand   hemistichs,  which   I 
hiivt*  cx:iininc(l  from  all  |t;irts  of  the  lUiaratii,  give  twenty* 
six   IniiiiinNl  vipulas,  or  a  trilli*  over  the  same  ratio.      I  do 
n«»l  tln'M  l;iy  much  stress  on  the  presen(*e  or  al)si*nce  of  vi|>- 
ulas  in  an  (*pic  se<'tioii  unless  it  shows  remarkable  extremes. 
Thus  if  we  cninpiire  the  101«8  ^'loka  verses  of  the  Itaghu- 
Viinca  and  tht*  1()7<)  whicli  make  the  first  hidf  of  Nala,  we 
tiiid  that   in  Nala  tlie  ratio  of  vipuUls  is  one-sixth,  while  in 
t!ie   Ka;^'huv;inca    it    is  one-fi»urteenth   (184  in   Nala,   76   in 
Kai^huvai'ica).     Hut  this  paucity  (»f  vipulils,  thougli  common 
to  most  chissicid  writers,  is  not  found  in  Magliu  (ai*cording 


224  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

to  Professor  Jacob!  because  he  was  a  Westerner,  loo.  cit. 
p.  444),  so  that  in  itself  it  is  no  criterion  of  lateness. 

The  number  of  vipnlas  gives  the  general  average  (of  12|^ 
per  cent)  abeady  noticed.^  But  this  ratio  is  sometimes  ahnost 
halved  and  sometimes  nearly  doubled,  small  sections  of  two 
hundred  verses  (hemistichs)  not  infrequently  showing  from 
fourteen  to  f ortynsix  non-pathya  forms ;  while  in  special  cases 
even  greater  disproportion  may  be  observed,  some  of  which 
when  taken  into  consideration  along  with  other  elements  may 
still  be  worth  noting.  Thus  as  between  the  old  tale,  Upir 
khyana,  of  Naifiuci,  as  told  in  ix,  48,  88  ff.,  and  the  following 
account,  hanta  te  kathayi^yami,  of  Skanda,  in  44,  5  ff.,  the 
weight  of  probable  seniority  lies  with  the  Vedic  tale.  Here 
there  are  vipulas  enough  to  make  the  ratio  88^  per  cent, 
instead  of  the  average  12^  per  cent;  whereas  in  the  Skanda 
tale  tliere  are  only  half  as  many.  But  again,  the  list  of 
Skanda's  followers,  ib.  45,  86  ff.,  shows  fourteen  vipulas  in 
fifteen  glokas,  as  the  list  of  Mothers  in  46  shows  fortynsix  in 
one  hundred  glokas,  and  the  list  of  nations  in  xii,  101,  8  ff., 
has  thirteen  vipulas  in  twenty  glokas,  all  of  these,  however, 
being  names  and  therefore  exceptionaL  There  are,  on  the 
other  hand,  good  reasons,  apart  from  vipulas,  for  considering 
that  the  conversation  of  Sulabha  and  Janaka  is  not  an  ancient 
part  of  the  epic  (bad  grammar  is  one  item),  and  here  in  nearly 
four  hundred  cases  there  are  but  eight  vipulas,  or  less  than 
8  per  cent ;  instead  of  the  average  12}  per  cent. 

Not  the  number  of  vipulas  per  se,  but  the  use  of  vipuiSs 
may  be  a  determining  factor.  The  refined  classical  style 
differs,  however,  not  from  the  epic  alone  but  from  the 
Puranas,  where  obtains  even  greater  freedom  than  in  the 
epic,  especially  in  the  nice  test  of  the  fourth  vipula.  Thus, 
fifteen  fourth  vipulas  is  not  a  high  number  in  a  thousand 
Puranic  verses,  e.  g.,  exactly  this  niunber  is  found  in  Vayu 

1  In  simple  narratiye,  with  no  disturbing  factors,  the  compass  ranges  from 
fourteen  to  thirty  ripulis  in  one  hundred  9lokas  (two  hundred  cases),  three 
times  more  often  abore  twenty  than  below  it,  and  seldom  exceeding  thir^, 
for  instance,  only  once  in  the  first  4,000  cases  of  the  ninth  book. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  225 

Pumna,  ch.  4-9,  five  hundred  (lokaa ;  and  in  the  epic  section 
of  9^nti  from  the  end  of  the  prose  in  248  to  the  end  of  861 
(18,224-18 J40).  The  Agni  PoraijA  has  as  many  as  fifty-seyen 
fourth  vipulas  in  the  same  number  of  yerses,  the  first  twenty 
chapters,  five  hundred  and  five  (lokas.  But  if  we  compare 
the  use  of  the  vipulas  we  see  at  once  a  striking  difference  in 
these  passages.  The  epic  selection  has  fifty  second  vipulSa 
and  thirty-two  third  vipulas ;  the  Vayu  selection,  thirty-three 
second  and  fifty-one  third;  the  Agni  selection,  twenty-six 
second  and  fifty  third ;  withal,  despite  the  carelessness  in  the 

last,  which  gives  four  cases  of  the  second  after  ^w and 

three  of  tlie  tlurd  after  ^ That  is  to  say,  even  the 

late  and  careless  Puranic  style  still  inclines  to  the  third  iw^t^^ 
of  second  vipula,  which  is  the  classical  preference.  If,  how- 
ever, we  revert  to  an  older  selection  of  the  epic,  we  find,  for 
instance,  in  the  heart  of  the  Bhagavad  GitS  (880-1,882),  that 
the  ttocond  vipula  (in  the  same  number  of  verses,  hemistichs, 
namely  one  thousand,  wluch  in  all  the  examples  now  to  be 
given  is  the  number  to  be  assumed)  has  twenty-nine  cases  and 
the  third  but  eleven;  that  is,  the  proportion  is  not  only 
reversod  but  is  in  very  striking  contrast  both  to  the  norm  of 
tlie  Kaiiiayana  and  Uaghuvan^  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
PuruiuiM  on  the  other.  Coincident  with  this  is  the  further 
fact  that,  whereas  Valmiki  and  Kalidisa  have  proportionally 
few  first  vipulas  after  diiambus,  both  epic  selections  above 
have  more  first  vipulas  after  diiambus  than  after  any  other 
combination ;  while  the  Puranic  specimens  are  quite  classical 
in  this  reganU  the  Vayu  having  only  one-fourth,  the  Agni 
only  oiu^tliinl  of  all  the  first  vipuliis  after  diiambus.  An  ex- 
tnu't  frt»ni  the  Anu^asana  Pan'an  of  the  epic,  (L  8,782-4,240, 
bIiowh  also  an  appnmch  to  the  classical  model  (ten  first 

vipulIiH    after    diiambus,  twenty-three   after  ^ and 

^  w ea4*)i ).    The  last  case  has  thirty-six  second  vipulis 

agiiinst  fifty-four  tliinl  vipulas  and  only  seven  fourth  vipulis 
(when*;ui  tlie  (ilta  extract  has  twenty-two  fourth  vipuJis)*^ 

>  Tiw  flvv  WWB,  nitl,  XmU,  Aosf.  P. ;  UmljrafA  It,  1-11,  mmI  Bagiui* 
TftAfm  show  mt  fourth  Tlpnlit  (ia  1000  TcrtM)  St,  lOt  7,  S;  0^  l«fficllv«|jr 

IS 


226  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

A  curious  fact  is,  further,  that,  while  this  extract  of  tlie 
Anugasana,  which  is  a  medley  on  the  gifts  of  cows,  origin  of 
gold,  and  other  late  stuff,  has  but  seven  fourth  vipulas  in  five 
hundred  9lokas,  the  following  chapter  on  ^^^dhas,  the  basiB 
of  which  is  old  (rules  expanded  from  Manu's  list  of  guests), 
has  four  in  sixty  ^lokas.  Another  interesting  fact  is  that  the 
thousand  verses  which  lead  up  to  and  follow  after  the  extract 
from  the  Gita  given  above,  495-830, 1,882-1,582  do  not  keep 
the  ratio  between  the  second  and  third  vipulas,  but  approach 
the  later  norm,  having  an  equal  number  of  each  vipula.  The 
Anugita  itself  contains  only  one-half  as  many  "irregular" 
forms  as  does  the  Gita  in  the  same  amount  of  matter ;  ^  but 
following  this  the  epic  narrative  is  expanded  in  modem  form, 
and  here,  where  the  subjects  are  the  mountain  festival,  recapit- 
ulation of  the  Bharata  war  (xv,  61,  1),  digging  for  buried 
treasure,  Parik^it's  birth,  demise,  and  restoration  to  life,  loos- 
ing the  white  horse,  and  Arjuna's  renewed  battles,  the  metre 
becomes  almost  classical,  with  scarcely  a  single  violation  of 
vipula  rules  and  with  only  five  cases  of  the  fourth  vipula 
to  the  thousand  verses.  Compare  for  instance  the  vipulas  in 
Raghuvanga,  the  Kamayana  (iv,  1-11),  and  Agvamedhika' 

Parv.  69-77,  accordmg  to  vipulas: 

•  ••  • ••  • 

1  u  m  lY 

Ragh.,        S3  17  26  0 

Ram.,         62  20  34  2 

A9V.,         74  27     ,      84  5 

The  vipulis  of  the  first  thoiuand  yerses  (hemistichs)  of  Nmla  are,  in  their 
order,  01,  33,  60,  10.  Though  modernized,  the  irregularities  in  NaU  are 
antique :  3, 13,  iva  prabhim ;  12,  106,  Nalam  nSma  'rimardanam  (changed  to 
damanam);  16,  37,  katham  ca  bhras^  (?)  jBStibhjah;  20,  18,  tram  iT« 
yantS  (now  eva) ;  in  12,  66,  and  01,  Tilapatim  must  be  read  (g^rammar  if 
of  no  importance  here,  as  will  be  shown  below). 

1  They  are  three  cases  of  the  second  vipulS  after  v^ and  ^  v/  _  — 

respectirely ;  tre  and  one  each  of  the  fourth  yipulS  after  the  tame  feel 
respectirely. 

*  The  strictness  here  may  be  measured  by  the  fact  that  there  is  only  one 
case  of  final  brevis  in  the  second  vipulS  and  only  three  in  the  first ;  no  caae 
of  second  or  third  ripulS  after  any  precedent  foot  save  ^  ..  w  -.  (and  only 
one  of  the  fourth  yipulS).  Further,  only  one-third  of  the  flnt  TipnUto  follow 
a  diiambus. 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  227 

Also  in  the  first  thousand  hcmistichs  of  Agrama  there  are 
only  four  eases  of  the  fourth  vipula.  Like  Mugha  of  the 
West,  tlie  Mausalii,  on  the  other  hand,  which  treats  of 
Dvunika  and  was  probably  a  clan-tale  of  tlie  West,  comes 
much  nearer  to  tlie  antique  standard,  Iiaving  ten  fourth 
vipulfis  in  five  hundred  heniistichs,  three  of  them  irregular, 
besides  one  further  vipula  irregularity  (stz.  47, 182,  211, 258).^ 
It  should  bo  added  too  that,  tliough  (as  just  statetl)  there  are 
four  fourth  vipulas  in  the  first  thousand  hemistidis  of  the 
fifteenth  book,  yet  they  are  idl  found  in  the  first  seventy- 
seven  verses,  luid  from  tliis  i)oint  on  there  is  not  another  case 
of  fourth  vipula  for  one  thousand  hemistichs,  which  is  as 
classicid  as  Valiniki.  This  last  selection  is,  in  fact,  almost 
prtH'isely  on  the  classical  model,  and  differs  from  it  anyway 

only    in    Iiaving   two   second   vipuliis  after  ^ .      This 

would  imply  an  lu^ciuaintamce  ^\ith  the  classictd  nonn,  wliich 
can  iwrhaps  scan*ely  Iw  doubted  in  the  case  of  tlie  ^Titers 
who  finally  complete<l  the  [MH*m. 

A  ver>'  inten»sting  example  of  how  the  antique  ^ill  make 
tlu*  ptH^t  hark  Itiu'k  to  an  older  norm  is  given  by  the  Suuptika. 
It  will  Im^  rcmeinlH*re<l  that  this  is  almost  pure  narrative,  but 
that  at  one  [K)int  (^iva  is  addresse<I  with  a  hymn  and  his 
demons  arc  briefly  descrilMxl.  This  occurs  just  at  the  middle 
of  a  sekvtion  like  those  alx^ve  of  one  thousand  hemistic'hs. 
Now  up  to  this  iM)int  there  is  no  fourth  vipula  at  all,  but 
with  the  hymn  and  names  come  five  fourth  vipuliis  within 
thirty-five  Qlokas.  Then  the  narrative  is  resumed,  and  till 
thr  end  of  th(*  thousand  hemistichs  apiH*ar  <mly  three  more. 
S<»nH»  snijiller  points  here  also  deserve  attentif»n.     The  num- 

1  In  the  npit  rarriin.  thrro  *re  four  fourth  Tlpnlb  In  two  hundrp^l  Ti'rtet. 
but  thri-1*  an*  at  thi*  U'^sinninfr  ami  in  thr«*«>  snrcrMiTe  hemiaticht,  ami  of 
thifif,  two  arv  f«irr«'<l  )ir  prt)per  namcf.  Hiat  pmp«>r  namrt  mrp  quite  Impor* 
tant  timy  \*v  rhnwn  hr  the  ratalot^m*  at  thi*  iMvinniiiK  of  the  llariTaA^a. 
whtTv  the  namt-t  fi*rt*e  up  the  fourth  vipulft  to  twelve  (aeveii  of  theae  beinir 
in  nom.  pnip.).  an<l  a  thinl  vipuU  occur*  after  w  _  _  ..  (in  m  name) ;  aa 
contraiti-tl  with  the  next  thontaml  Trrtea,  where  there  are  onW  four  foorth 
ripulU.  HhaTi«ra.  partir  owing  to  imitAtkm  of  Gill  and  Smfti,  partly  to 
DAinea»  hat  nine  in  iu  tirat  thonaand  Trrtc*. 


228  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ber  of  first  and  second  vipulas  with  csesnra  alter  the  fifth  is 
double  that  of  those  mth  caesura  after  the  fourth,  and  there 
is  only  one  first  vipula,  and  no  second  vipula,  with  final  brevis. 
Finally,  there  are  only  fourteen  cases  of  first  vipula  after 
:id  _  \^  —  out  of  fifty-four  in  all.  Thus  from  every  point  of 
view  the  same  result  is  obtained.  The  little  Parvan  is  com- 
paratively refined  in  style  (number  of  vipulas,  54,  80,  86,  8). 

No  doubt  this  parisamkhya  philosophy  is  tiresome  reading, 
but  as  it  is  even  more  tiresome  to  obtain  the  facts  than  to 
glance  at  them,  I  shall  beg  the  reader  to  have  patience  while 
I  give  the  results  of  a  few  more  reckonings,  since  I  believe 
they  are  not  without  a  certain  value.  What  I  want  to  show 
is  that  the  treatment  of  the  fourth  vipula  goes  hand-in-hand 
with  that  of  other  factors  involving  a  more  or  less  refined 
style,  but  not  necessarily  with  all  of  them.  I  will  take  as 
my  first  illustration  the  tent-scene  from  Drona  72-84,  and 
ib.  51-71,  a  group  of  apparently  old  stories  on  the  '^  sixteen 
kings  that  died''  and  allied  tales.  In  the  former  there  are 
four,  in  the  latter  twenty-one  fourth  vipulas  to  the  thousand 
hemistichs ;  in  the  former  there  is  but  one  slight  irreg- 
ularity (^^\j ,  —  v^  v^  —) ;  in   the  latter  there  are  six. 

But  in  the  former  there  is  one  more  second  vipula  than 
there  is  third;  in  the  latter  these  stand  thirty  to  forty- 
seven;  while  after  diiambus  in  the  former  there  are  nine 
out  of  forty  in  all,  and  in  the  latter  sixteen  out  of  fifty-five 
in  all.  In  other  words,  in  the  last  test  there  is  scarcely 
any  difference,  but  in  that  of  second  and  third  vipulas 
such  evidence  of  antiquity  as  is  furnished  at  all  by  this 
test  is  in  favor  of  the  former,  whereas  in  the  other  tests  it 
is  in  favor  of  the  latter  specimen.  I  have  not  selected  these 
specimens,  however,  to  show  that  all  these  tests  are  use- 
less. On  the  contrary,  I  believe  they  may  be  applied,  but 
all  together  and  with  constant  reference  to  all  other  factors. 
The  modifying  factor  here,  for  example,  is  that  though  the 
tales  of  the  "  kings  that  died  "  are  undoubtedly  old,  yet  they 
are  told  (or  retold)  in  such  modem  careless  Sanskrit  that 
final  i  is  here  kept  short  not  only  before  br  but  even  before 


EPIC  VERSIFICATIOX.  229 

vy.  It  is  not  enough  then  to  say  that  a  story  in  Droi^a  or  » 
Anu^iisana  is  ^^undoubtedly  old/'  because  perlmps  it  smacks 
of  antiquity  or  even  is  found  in  a  Buddhist  record.  It  is  not 
the  age  of  the  story  but  the  age  of  the  form  in  which  it  is 
couched  that  marks  the  age  of  the  literature.  Tliis  specimen,  ' 
for  example,  enumcnites  earth^s  islands  as  eighteen  in  num- 
l)er,  a  sure  mark  of  lateness,  but  here  supi>orted  by  other 
data.  Another  extract  from  Dnma,  an  onlinary  battle-scene 
ailhy.  92-100,  has,  to  be  sure,  thirteen  fourth  vipulas,  but  tht» 
vipulas,  in  their  onler,  nm  44,  14,  37,  18,  with  not  a  single 
irn»gularity  of  any  sort,  while  only  ten  of  the  forty-four  art^ 
after  diiambus ;  in  other  wonls,  iis  clean  a  scheme  as  might  Ix* 
met  ill  Vfilmiki,  except  for  the  fourth  vipula,  and  even  hen» 
eight  of  tlie  thirteen  arc  in  pn){)er  names.  Ia*ss  classic  in 
app(»anui(e,  but  still  far  removeil  from  the  free  epic  t}'pe, 
is  th(*  piiss:ig(>  dealing  with  the  deaths  of  Khuri^ravas  an<l 
Jayadratha  (vii,  141-146,  not  (piite  a  thous;uul  verses),  im- 
{Mirtant  iKuause  of  its  mention  of  Valmlki,  143,  67.  Ilen^ 
th<*  vipiilas  run  43,  33,  18,  11  (four  of  these  in  nom.  prop.), 
with  thri'c  im»gular  fonns  of  the  second  vipula.^  A  fourth 
of  th(*  iirst  vipulas  follow  iambus.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
dtMth  of  Dnn.ia  and  the  following  scene,  vii,  190-198  =  8,695- 
9,19/),  only  one-sixth  of  the  first  vipulas  follow  iambus  and 
Xhvu*  an»  no  certain  exceptions.  The  s<*lieme  of  vipulas  is 
hen*  30,  28,  43,  9  (two  in  noin.  pn)p.),  that  is,  a  more  miKleni 
pn-pninlrnmce  of  thinl  vipulas.  S4»vend  other  features  sh<»w 
nitHJi  in  t(>urlit*s.  Tlius  in  192,  7,  Kudnisve  *va  hi  kniddluisva 
is  fiiluT  ii  Vl'^^•  can-lcss  vipula  or  contiiins  an  exaniplt*  of  the 
rur.mir  lircnre  (tak(*n  fn»m  Prakrit)  of  short  vowrl  li^fore 
kr:  uhili'  in  the  same  passiige,  ^'1.  13,  rs<»  c»r  esa  hi  ftarsato 
vir.ili,  ui*  li.iv«*  to  rh<M>se  lM»twt»en  can*less  s.mdhi  or  <-an'less 

nirtn-.     In  H«<i,  33,  the  antifpiity  of  ww is  in  an  inhcrit4Nl 

n.mii',  .l.iiiLulagnih,  wlirre,  as  in  similar  ciis<*s,  the  old  licence 
lKTM>ts  fvrn   into  Punuiic  writings.*     In  11*5,  44,  kailarthl- 

*  In  1  Ki.  T.m'curii  tho  rmro  rombination  vy  «^  _  \^.  v-»  w  w  — ■    Tli*  rr»J- 
iii^'  "f  ('  *>.'.'t'»  -  14«f.  W  it  Ticiuui.  anil  if  convctc^l  in  II. 

'  Naiiu «.  furniul*.  and  nanMnUs  often  rrUia  ttilt  licence,  •.  $.,  ffAJTAC  cm, 


230  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

krtya  is  a  late  phrase,  and  in  191,  87,  the  stereotyped  man^ 
(Buvres  are  twenty-one  in  number  (the  earlier  epic  having 
fourteen).  Here,  then,  the  vipulas  (110  in  number,  slightlj 
below  the  average)  do  not  badly  represent  the  period  of  the 
selection,  which  is  a  worked-over  piece,  intended  to  save  the 
heroes  from  blame,  and  is  often  incongruous  with  the  rest  of 
the  epic ;  as  in  the  humbug  of  the  war-car  '^  not  touching  the 
ground  hitherto."  When  Yudhi^t^hira  tells  a  lie  his  car  drops 
to  the  earth  for  the  first  timel  But  "hitherto"  there  has 
been  no  mention  of  this  conscientious  chariot,  which  here  is 
represented  as  having  floated  just  above  the  earth. 

In  Karna  we  may  compare  the  thousand  verses  of  18-29, 
where  there  is  late  battle-action  (guna  for  jj'a  for  example), 
with  the  five  hundred  fifty  verses  of  old  tales  in  33-34.  Each 
has  seven  fourth  vipulas,  though  one  is  only  half  the  length 
of  the  other.  In  Sabha  the  interest  centres  on  the  gambling- 
scene,  certainly  the  kernel  of  the  old  tale.  Here,  ii,  50  flE.,  for 
a  thousand  verses,  there  is  the  greatest  nimiber  of  fourth 
vipulas  (thirty-six,  nine  of  which  are  in  proper  names)  and 
the  most  irregular  forms ;  three  cases  of  a  third  vipula  after  a 
spondee,  one  case  of  a  prior  pada  ending  in  iambus,  two  cases 
of  the  "  fifth  "  vipula,  v^  v^  _  ^,  one  case  of  first  vipula  after  a 
brevis,  besides  six  cases  of  ordinary  exceptions  (second 
vipula  not  after  ^  «.  w  — ),  all  of  which  remove  the  piece  far 
from  the  almost  classical  norm  found  in  some  of  the  cases 
given  above.  It  is  in  fact  Puranic.^  Of  course  the  scene  is 
intense  and  exciting;  but  I  opine  that  no  poet  who  had  once 
learned  to  walk  the  straight  and  narrow  way  of  the  later 
stj'lists  would  ever  get  so  excited  as  to  use  thirty-six  fourth 

zii,  340,  78;  da^a  dcvah,  Ag.  P.  xrii,  6.  The  same  cause  induces  the  fourth 
Tipula  in  manj  cases  of  the  Ramajana.  For  example,  the  only  fourth  yipulS 
in  the  first  thousand  rerses  of  K.  ill,  viikhanasah  vilakhiljSh,  6.  2. 

^  Compare  for  instance  the  605  ^lokas  or  1010  verses  in  the  first  twenty 
chapters  of  the  Agni  Purana,  where  the  vipulas  in  their  order  are  41,  26,  60, 
r>7,  with  six  irre^rular  second  vipulas  (not  after  iambus) ;  five  third  vipulit 
not  after  iambus ;  and  only  nineteen  of  the  fifty-seven  fourth  vipulSs  after 
iambus.  The  first  vipula  in  the  gambling-scene  is  run  up  by  the  repetition 
of  one  phrase.    They  are  in  order,  00  (odd),  34,  61,  36. 


EPIC   VERSIFICATIOX.  231 

vipulus  in  a  thousand  verses  I  Besides,  there  are  other  pas- 
Siiges  almost  as  dramatic.  If  we  compare  the  Ja^ug^rha  and 
four  hundred  verses  of  the  Hitlimba  stories,  which  together 
make  ii1x)ut  a  thousand  verses,  we  find  eleven  fourth  vipulas, 
half  of  which  are  in  proper  names,  only  one  case  of  a  tliird 
vipula  not  after  ^^\j^,  and  three  ordinary  exceptions  in  the 
case  of  the  second  vipula.  The  Kicaka  in  Virata  is  also  a 
lively  scene,  which  with  a  slight  addition  of  circumjacent 
vcrst*s  contains  a  thousand  verses  (825-825),  and  here  tlie 
vipuUls  are  in  onler,  42,  24,  52,  6,  with  no  unusual  exceptions 
and  only  three  onlinary  exceptions  in  the  second  vipula;^ 
while  live  of  the  six  fourth  vipulas  are  in  proper  names  and 
in  the  title  nljaputrl. 

Hut  since  it  may  be  objected  that  the  subject  matter  is  after 
all  the  essential  fiutor,  I  will  compare  a  philosophical  set*tion 
wlicre  the  nuitter  is  that  of  the  Hhagavad  (iitii,  for  example 
(^Yinti,  :ulhy.  811  and  following  for  one  thousand  verses.  Here 
the  vipulas  in  their  onler  are: 

(ilta,  88  29 

(,anli,  60  81 

Compare  K.  iii,  1-16,  60  83 

It  will  Im*  seen  that  the  extract  from  (^Unti  is  almost  on  a 
metrical  par  with  the  onlinar}'  namitive  of  the  Kamayana 
(lOlo  verses).  But  further,  of  the  three  cases  of  fourth 
vipula  in  (^anti,  one  is  in  a  pn){>er  name  and  there  are  no 
anonialniis  f<inns  of  unusuid  chanu*t4>r,  and  only  two  onlinary 
exfcptinns  (stvond  vipula),  while  the  (iitii  luis  a  dozen  im*^- 
ularitiis  of  all  kin<ls  (including  **  fifth  vipulas**).  I  may  luld 
to  ihi-si*  specimens  tht»  instructive  o|K»ning  of  I'dyoga,  where 
for  in'.iily  lWi>  hun<lre<l  vlok;is  ilien»  is  epic  narrative  ft»llowed 
tiy  tlif  uld  tale  of  Nahusa  and  In«lra.  The  vipulas,  for  (me 
tlii»u>;ind  hciuisiirhs,  are  hert»  f>5,  i'l,  46,  10,  n*s|HH'tively,  but 
nim*  nf  the  ten  an*  in  the  M  t«de,  mlliy.  9  fT.,  v^.  227,  tlie 
othiT  (>ni*  Uing  in  a  pro|H*r  name.     In  the  ohl-style  diilacUo 

1  ]\y  •>r<Iitiary  oiiCptiuDf  I  ucao  CAU-t  ulivrv  ttu*  ftc-cuOil  vlpall  doct  not 

follow  an  uiiibuj. 


11 

22 

29 

8 

SI 

1 

232  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

verses,  v,  35,  60  ff.,  on  the  other  hand,  there  axe  six  fourtih 
vipnlas  in  only  five  glokas. 

Whether  we  are  entitled  to  draw  from  these  data  conclu- 
sions in  regard  to  the  time  when  the  several  selections  were 
written  may  be  doubted  in  all  cases  when  the  percentage  of 
fourth  vipulas  is  not  sustained  by  other  factors.  But  it  seems 
to  me,  as  I  have  said,  that  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  assume  a 
more  modem  authorship  in  the  case  of  a  sustained  refinement 
of  style.  Even  in  cases  where  the  data  are  not  of  an  extreme 
character  I  think  it  is  legitimate  to  question  whether  a  com- 
parative refinement  is  not  of  significance.  Take  for  example 
the  thousand  verses  of  Udyoga,  119-133  (4,000-4,500).  Here 
the  subject-matter  of  the  selection  is  the  Bhagavadyana. 
Notliing  in  the  accoimt  seems  antique ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
whole  story  appears  on  the  surface  to  be  a  late  addition.  Now, 
going  beneath  the  surface,  we  find  that  the  vipulas  are  in  order 
48,  23,  39,  13,  but  that  eight  of  the  last  are  in  proper  names. 
The  collateral  evidence  agrees  with  the  two  factors  here 
shown  (preponderance  of  tliird  vipula  over  second,  compara- 
tive scarcity  of  fourth  vipula) ;  for  of  the  forty-eight  only 
twelve  are  after  iambus;  of  the  twenty-three,  nineteen  are 
after  iainbu§;  while  of  the  four  ordinary  exceptions  (after 

^ )  two  are  in  the  same  phrase,  yatha  Bhismah  ^ntsir 

navah;  the  tliird  vipula  is  perfectly  regular  or  has  at  most 
one  exception,  manena  bhrastah  svargas  te  (though,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  there  cannot  be  much  doubt  that  we  have  here 
the  late  light  syllable  before  bhr) ;  the  five  fourth  vipulas  not 
in  proper  names  are  all  after  iambus  except  one,  contained  in 
an  hereditary  phrase,  esa  dharmah  ksatriyanam.  Here  then, 
though  there  is  not  the  striking  classical  smoothness  found  in 
parts  of  the  pseudo-epic,  the  few  fourth  vipulas  agree  with  the 
other  data  in  marking  the  piece  as  rather  refined,  perhaps 
modem,  when  compared  with  the  oldest  epic  style. 

When,  however,  the  data  are  contradictory,  as  often 
happens,  we  may  imagine  a  rehandling,  as  in  the  suspected* 
Naniyana  exploitation  in  ^Jinti,  from  the  end  of  the  prose  in 

1  Compare  Biihlcr  in  Indian  Studies,  No.  ii,  p.  62. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  288 

843  to  the  end  of  351,  about  a  thousand  verses,  18,224-18,740, 
where  the  scheme  of  vipulas  is  in  order  80,  50,  32,  15 ;  tliirty- 
one  of  the  eighty  being  after  iambus ;  with  five  cases  of  irreg- 
ular second  vipuLl  and  perfectly  regular  third  vipula  (save 
for  a  slightly  ncglecte<l  cicsuni,  dluinnapratisthahetuf  ca). 
The  fourth  vipula  here  owes  its  large  numl)er  solely  to  names, 
numbers,  and  an  old  phrase.  Thus  we  find,  not  after  iiuubus, 
tasmin  yajile  vart4unrine  (like  the  regular  phrase  tasmin 
yu(hlhe  vartamilnc) ;  Viisudevam  (second  foot) ;  Samkhyaiii 
Yogiim  Pailcaratnun ;  Sankhyayogam  (second  foot);  Paflca- 
nltrani  (second  foot);  VaiklianasTdi  phenajK^bhya^i ;  Sarva- 
knchram  (name  C)f  vnita)  ;  astiidaiiijitrau ;  leaving  two  (Mises, 
durvijru'vo  <Iu8kani<^  ca  and  jilyamanam  (as  second  foot) 
after  m ;  witli  five  more  after  iambus. 

Rather  a  strikhif:  example  of  the  mixture  of  styles  is  given 
by  ix,  4S,  when*  ln<lra  and  the  jujube-girl  are  concerned. 
Tliis  is  phiinly  interi)olato<l  with  a  (^ya  parody.  (*om{>are, 
for  instanrts  prlto  'smi  te  ^ubho  l)haktyii  ta{)asa  niyamena  ca, 
in  the  Indni  dialogue,  with  ^h  45  (in  the  inteqK)lation),  prito 
'snii  tava  dhannajAe  tapasa  niyamena  ca.  Now  the  original 
Inilra  talr  has  tiftern  vipuhls  in  the  first  thirty  cxld  verses; 
but  the  same  nimilK*r  of  ^'lokas  in  the  following  (^iva  i)arody 
shows  f»nly  five  vipulas. 

A^»iiin  it  must  U*  n»meml)ere<l  that  some  rather  mcKlcm 
s<*I(M'tinns  an*  int4*rsix*rse<l  with  ol<l  material.  In  the  six 
huntlnd  (Mid  vrrscs  of  tlie  <^\ikuntala  epis<Mle«  for  instance, 
thf  st\li'  is  m<Ml(*ni  to  a  (*ertain  extent,  the  first  vipula  U^ing 
Ifss  (Dniinon  aftrr  iambus  than  after  s|H»ndre,  and  only  onj 
i»nlin:irv  except  ion  tK-eurring  in  the  sit-ond  vipula,  wliile 
thfic  art*  no  unusual  anomalies.  Hut  tin*  (Kissiip*  luis  thirti*en 
fourth  vipulas,  which  is  not  a  refinnl  nitio  and  may  U*  ex- 
plained only  partly  by  tin*  pnsenci*  <tf  Dhamiavastni  material, 
hnli  ^tliitah  ka^ll:l^aksl,  bluir^am  patih  Kunpnivi^'Va  ( Mimu, 
ix,  s ).  In  my  i>pinion  the  episode  is  old,  but,  like  many 
ancient  tales  in  th«*  epit*,  it  has  Inm'u  n*written  ami  in  itA 
prcM'nt  >liape  is  not  mi  old  as  the  van(;a  and  Yayati  episodes 
follow in;^«  where  then*  arc  as  many  fourth  vipulas  and  more 


284  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

anomalies.  This  episode  has  reeentlj  been  made  the  subject 
of  an  interesting  study  by  Dr,  Wintemitz,^  who  believes  that 
it  is  of  very  doubtful  antiquity,  because  it  is  lacking  in  the 
Southern  manuscript  examined  by  him  and  because  the  knot 
is  untied  by  a  "divine  voice,"  instead  of  by  a  ring.  One 
point  not  noticed  by  Dr.  Wintemitz  must  be  remembered, 
however,  namely  that  the  HarivauQa  recognizes  the  episode 
and  cites  from  it,  apropos  of  the  "  divine  voice,"  *  so  that  it 
existed  in  the  present  version,  if  not  in  its  exact  form,  before 
the  Harivanga  was  added  to  the  poem ;  though  I  should  not 
deny  on  that  account  that  it  was  of  doubtful  antiquity. 

I  think  I  have  now  shown  sufficiently  that  the  different 
parts  of  the  epic  cannot  revert  to  one  period,  still  less  to  one 
poet,  and  will  leave  this  minute  analysis  with  a  repetition  of 
the  statement  that,  whereas  the  parts  already  cited  clearly 
reveal  more  styles  than  we  may  attribute  to  one  age  or  man, 
occasional  freedom  of  style  in  respect  of  vipulas  does  not  in 
itself  indicate  antiquity ;  but  when  all  the  elements  agree  in 
refinement,  this  sustained  refinement  certainly  points  to  a  dif- 
ferent environment  and  may  imply  that  some  parts  of  the  epic 
are  later  than  others.  There  is  a  refined  style  and  there  is  a 
careless  style,  but  the  latter  is  late  Puranic  as  well  as  antique, 
and  mere  carelessness  proves  nothing  beyond  the  fact  that  the 
poet  either  did  not  know  or  did  not  regard  classical  rules. 
On  the  other  hand,  even  the  careless  Puranic  writers  gener- 
ally show  a  greater  number  of  first  vipulas  after  spondee  than 
after  iambus  and  more  third  than  second  vipulas.  When, 
tlierefore,  even  these  rules  are  not  upheld  and  we  find  besides 
other  irregularities,  such  as  the  three  cases  of  the  fifth  vipula 
in  the  Gita,  we  may  rest  assured  that  the  writer  was  rehand- 
ling  material  more  antique  than  that  of  other  passages.  I  say 
rehandling,  because  the  Gita  has  clearly  been  rewritten  by  a 
modernizing  hand,  as  is  shown  not  only  by  the  circumstance 
already  noticed  that  the  heart  of  the  poem  differs  in  style 
from  its  beginning  and  ending,  but  also,  for  example,  by  the 

1  Indian  Antiquary,  1808,  pp.  C7  and  136  ft 
«  i,  74,  111  =  H.  i,  82, 12. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


885 


fact  that  in  GitS,  12, 15  we  read  yasmin  no  'dvijate  lokaltii,  a 
metricaUy  bettered  form  of  yada  eS  *yaih  na  bihheti,  a  phrase 
found  intact  in  other  parts  of  the  epic.^ 

The  usual  epic  floka,  apart  from  occasional  YariationSi 
differs,  as  I  have  said,  from  Uie  classical  model  most  conspicu- 
ously in  vipula  licence ;  as  will  clearly  be  seen  at  a  glance 
on  comparing  the  normal  epic  forms  with  the  classical  in  the 
following  tables,  where  is  given  first  the  average  epic  usage : 


nmrboi 

iMmdrtal 

\J\JSJ  ^ 

^\j\j  ^ 

^ 

_\y_  ^ 

^ \j 

pAMim 

pAMim 

pMtim 

pMtim 

^ 

paMim 

COmiDOD 

rmra 

^  w 

pittlm 

conuDOO 

tpondie 

commoa 

and  then  the  forms  permitted  and  almost  never  exceeded  in 
KalidTisa  (''  common  '*  here  means  not  unusual  yet  not  passim) : 


nm  fbot 

iMmdrtal 

\j  \j\j 

\JSJ  ^. 

— • ^ 

—  w.  ^ 

w  .  v^_ 

coromon 

paMim 

paMim 

^ 

pAMlm 

W   v^ 

paMlm 

>  IVr  coDtra.  in  the  SaiuiUojitm  ranrAii.  t,  4S,  iS,  jatho  'dsplM  owbaal  it 
a  ni«*triral  inipr(iTi'ni«-nt  on  Ciiii,  2,  Vl,  jivln  artha  adaplne.  Other  latir 
fi*aturi-f  in  thi>  (riti  are  the  lung  tentencea  alrvadj  rrfeirvd  to ;  tba  tpoiadle 
intruiiim  uf  the  Mljrft  diK'trine  (iU«ciiMvd  abo?a  in  ChapCar  ThrM),  aad 
ha|>t  alto  Uie  recognitioo  of  tba  Vadiata  Stem. 


r> 


236 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


The  usual  Ramayana  gloka  agrees  with  this  later  scheme, 
except  in  admitting  sporadic  cases  of  the  fourth  vipuia  after 
an  iambus.^ 

But,  to  get  a  comprehensive  notion  of  the  epic  gloka,  in  its 
rarer  forms  as  well  as  in  its  normal  or  average  appearance, 
one  must  contrast  these  tables  with  the  next,  which  gives,  I 
believe,  about  all  the  Bharata  combinations  for  the  prior 
pada: 


FlntFoot 

Second  Foot  of  Prior  Fid*  of  gidkm  in  the  ICahibhinta 

^ ^ 

www^ 

_ww!^ 

1—     ^ 

^\j—^ 

wv>_:^ 

\j^ 

\j^\j^ 

S»i£— w_ 

P    , 

P       9 

P      ,4 

p  « 

■^  » 

34 

T 
89 

• 
43 

vy__ 

P       2 

■^     10 

c 

16 

r 

22 

c 

2D 

35 

8 

40 

• 

44 

^^\j 

P       3 

P    n 

C 

16 

8 

23 

C 

30 

36 

• 

41 

8 

4B 

^ \j 

P       4 

8 

12 

8 

17 

1 

21 

8 

31 

37 

8 

42 

^vy_w 

P       5 

8 
18 

8 

25 

8 

32 

38 

48 

^^\j\j 

■^       6 

8 

19 

8 

26 

33 

^v^_ 

8 

7 

8 

13 

8 

20 

8 

27 

\j\^f\y\y 

8 

8 

V&thyl 

First 
Vipuia 

Second 
VipulS 

Third 
VipulS 

Fourth 
Vipuia 

Minor 
Ionic 

Major 
Ionic 

Dilunlnii 

Abbreviations :  p,  passim ;  c,  quite  common ;  r,  rare ;  s,  very  rare,  sporadic. 
The  interrogation  marks  indicate  doubtful  cases,  for  wliich  the  illustrationt 
(as  numbered  in  the  table)  must  be  consulted  in  Appendix  B.  For  the  corr^ 
sponding  table  of  tris^ubh  forms,  see  below. 

1  For  the  few  exceptions  to  these  much  more  restricted  forms  of  the 
Klmavana,  see  Jacobi's  Itamajana.  There  is  to  tills  uniformity  not  a  single 
exception,  for  example,  in  the  two  thousand  hemistichs  found  in  R.  ill,  1-16; 
It,  1-11.    Final  breTis  is  rare  in  the  second,  but  not  in  the  first,  R.  ripvUL 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  287 

Midway  between  the  claasieal  and  the  nonnal  Bhirata  0oka 
stands  that  of  the  RamayaQa.  The  latter  does  not  admit 
many  forms  found  in  the  Mahabharata.  Some  of  these  are 
older,  some  are  later.  But  in  its  aberrations  from  the  subse- 
quent type  of  the  classical  writers  the  MahibhSrata  is  much 
freer  than  the  Itamayana ;  freer  not  only  in  admitting  other 
tyi)es  of  (loka  than  those  found  in  the  Ramiya^a,  but  also  in 
the  way  of  handling  f  lokas  common  to  both  epics.  The  (loka 
of  the  Upanishads  (Kafha,  Kena,  I9&)  admits  as  prior  p8das» 

^ \j^\j^ 

2^ w v^  — v^.- 

^ .- w     W.-W.- 

^^ww      W..W  — 

M     \JKJ 

Quite  so  free  the  Mahabharata  floka  is  not,  but  it  admits 

here  and  there  as  second  foot  w.w_  and  kj\^ ,  and  as 

first  foot,  .^v^.,  which  is  also  found  as  first  foot  of  the 
soi'ond  [Nida.  So  free  as  this  the  Ramaya^a  is  not.  From  the 
occurrence  of  these  freer  forms  we  are  entitled,  however,  to 
tuiy  only  that  the  Mahabliarata  is  occasionally  freer  in  its 
^loka-foot  than  is  the  Itama}'ana.  But  it  is  generaUy  freer, 
and  innch  freer,  in  the  non-obsenrance  of  vipulS  rules.  This 
** chanicteriHtic  stamp**  of  the  Mahabh&rata,  as  Profeiwor 
Jiu'ohi  calls  it,'  in  <liHtinction  from  the  Ramiya^a,  is  one  that 
it  Hhares  to  a  ^n^at  <legree,  as  I  have  said  above,  p.  79,  with 
the  early  Kuddlii.stic  and  Upanisliad  (loka,  which  is  so  wide 
a  provinre  that  the  explanation  given  by  Professor  Jacobi 
ik*eiiiH  to  me  to  be  inade<|uate. 

Yet  if,  UN  I  think,  the  ^loka  of  the  R&mayaQa  shows  that  it 
iH  in  its  pn^sent  form  not  only  more  refined  (which  is  con- 
rifled  )  but  also  later  tlian  parts  of  tlie  Mahibhftrata,  the  latter 
no  less  is  Liter  thiui  the  RamayaQa  in  otlier  parts.  There  are 
five  sorts  (i>erhap8  stages)  of  floka  reflected  in  epic  and  pr^ 

>  Ganip&JIUaaiwII,  p.  tt. 


238  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

epic  literature  (besides  its  parent  Vedic  anu^t^bh).  The  first 
is  the  free  gloka  of  the  Upanishads.  The  second  is  the  less 
free,  but  still  unrefined,  ^loka  of  certain  parts  of  the  Mahabha- 
rata.  The  third  is  the  current  Bharata  ^loka.  The  fourth  is 
the  (loka  found  in  parts  of  the  pseudo-epic,  a  gloka  which 
stands  on  a  par  with  the  gloka  of  the  Rdmdyana.  The  fifth  is 
the  continuous  iambic  gloka,  which  is  found  only  in  the 
Mahabharata  and  is  certainly  later  than  other  epic  forms  of 
(loka.  Nearly  forty  stanzas  of  this  type,  consisting  of  iambs 
only  (allowing  final  anceps),  that  is,  over  six  hundred  succes- 
sive iambs  —  evidently  a  late  tour  de  force  —  occur  in  xii,  822, 
88-71,  written  by  a  poetaster  who  presents  old  ideas  in  a  new 
style,^  as  in  this  specimen : 

purft  vrkft  bhayamkarft  manusyadehagocar^ 
abhidravanti  sarvato  yataq  ca  punya9llaQe 
purft  hiranmayftn  nagftn '  nirlksase  'drimOrdhani 
na  m&trputrab&ndhavd.  na  samstutah  priyo  janah 
anuvrajanti  samkate  vrajantam  ekap&tinam 
yad  eva  karma  kevalam  pur&krtam  9ubhfiQubham 
tad  eva  putra  sarthikam  bhavaty  amutra  gacchatah 
iha.  'gnistlryav&yavah  qarlram  flQritds  trayah 
ta  eva  tasya  s&ksino  bhavanti  dharmadarqinah 

So  far  as  I  have  observed,  although  the  prior  pada  may  end 

either  in  ww or  in  ^_w—,  the  union  of  both  in  one 

gloka  is  unknown  to  the  epic.  This  is  a  combination  of  one 
freedom  with  another.  The  forms,  therefore,  were  felt  as 
liberties  and  consequently  were  not  multiplied  in  narrow  com- 
pass. Such  Qlokas,  however,  are  found  in  the  early  style,  and 
even  the  Mahabha^ya  gives  us  a  sample,  apparently  from 
some  defunct  epic  source,  where  one  prior  pada  is  aharahar 
nayamano  and  the  following  is  Vaivasvato  na  trpyati.'    This 

1  Found,  for  example,  in  the  VedSntasSra  of  SadSnanda :  satattrato  "nj- 
athSprathS  vikara  ity  ndlritah,  102,  etc.  For  the  single  pEda,  diiambic  prior, 
see  Tii,  65,  49,  cited  below  under  Diiambus.  A  single  pida  of  this  sort  is  both 
Vedic  and  Puranic. 

*  See  Proverbs  and  Tales  in  the  Sanskrit  Epics,  A.  J.  FhiL,  toL  zz,  p.  24i 

*  Cited  bj  Weber,  Indische  Studien,  vol.  ziii,  p.  488. 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  289 

may  indicate  that  our  epic  has  been  metrically  refined ;  other- 
iiiise  we  should  perhaps  find  in  it  tlie  same  freedom.  Notice- 
able also,  I  may  say  in  view  of  the  i)aragraph  below  on  the 
posterior  jxlda,  is  the  absence  of  any  certain  case  of  a  hemi- 

stirh  ending  like  the  prior  piida  in  ^ This  Gatlia  form 

is  found  in  the  examples  from  the  Bhasya  (compare,  for 
instance,  ratrim  ratrim  smari^yanto  lutrim  ratrim  ajunanta^ ") ; 

but  the  utmost  freedom  of  the  epic  is ^  _  at  the  end  of 

a  hemistich,  except  in  the  semi-prose  example  given  below 
(on  the  Diiambus) ;  a  circumstance  that  makes  it  impossible 
to  believe  that  tlie  epic  in  its  present  form  is  older  than  the 
second  century  n.  c. 

The  Posterior  Pada  of  the  (^uchul. 

Owing  to  the  prevailing  diiambic  close  of  the  hemistich 
tlicre  is  little  variety  in  the  posterior  pada.  The  first  f<x>t 
may  have  (sponwlicidly)  luiy  <jne  of  seven  funns,  that  is,  with 
the  exception  of  the  unique  opening  of  the  prior  (liida  in  pnv 
celtMisinaticus,  tlie  first  foot  of  the  jK)sterior  pada  may  be 
id(*nti(*al  with  any  of  those  of  the  prior  pilda.     The  second 

f(K)t  is  a  diitunbus,   or  siK)radically \j^%  and   w 

(doubtful). 


rnrr  Foot.  8boo*d  Foot, 

1-  ^  _  v/_ 

2.  ^ 

3.  M  \^ 

4.  i£ \j 

ft.  M  w \j 

7.  ^  \j\j 


•pormdic 

^M 

Iv. 1 


/ 


( )f  tlies4'  fonns  the  first  three  and  the  fifth  occur  also  as 
pri<»r  |«diLs  (with  dii^unbic  close)*  The  seventh  fiirm  is 
avoidiNl  Umiium*  it  is  the  jagati  measure;  but  in  gi*neral  three 
tin:il  iainhs  are  avoide<l.  The  first  form  is  an  (Nldity.  Illu8- 
tr.itions  of  all  the  fonns  of  prior  and  posterior  \w\sls  VkiM  be 
found  in  Api)endix  H.  The  rules  for  Uiifl  pada  are  given 
bi'low. 

1  Weber,  loc.  dt,  p.  4861 


240  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Of  the  forms  of  the  first  foot  (third  of  the  hemistich), 
all  except  Nos.  1  and  7  are  found  passim  in  both  epics;  of 
the  forms  of  the  second  (fourth)  foot,  with  rare  exceptions 
only  the  diiambus  is  found.  The  commonest  forms  are  Nos. 
2  and  8  (ending  in  spondees).  After  the  first  vipula  both 
of  these  are  equally  common  and  each  is  about  twice  as 
frequent  as  No.  4,  and  from  two  to  four  times  as  common 
as  No.  5  (final  trochees).  No.  6,  ending  in  a  pyrrhic,  is 
sometunes  surprisingly  frequent  after  this  vipula;  but  at 
other  tunes  is  lacking  for  whole  test-sections  of  a  thousand 
verses.  After  the  second  vipula,  which  usually  ends  in  an 
iambus,  as  after  the  first  vipula  (also  iambic),  Nos.  2  and  8 
are  favorites;  No.  8  being  perhaps  a  little  more  frequent. 
Here  Nos.  4,  5,  6,  are  much  less  common;  No.  6,  however, 
is  rarest  of  all.  After  the  third  vipula.  No.  2  sometimes 
yields  in  frequency  to  No.  8 ;  but  in  other  sections  this  foot 
still  holds  its  own,  and  as  in  the  former  examples  is  even 
twice  as  common  as  other  combinations,  though  it  practi- 
cally repeats  the  vipula,  _, ,  vy Here  Nos.  4 

and  5  are  about  on  a  par,  sometimes  only  a  third  as  com- 
mon as  No.  2,  sometimes  more  frequent,  with  No.  6  half 
as  common  as  Nos.  4  and  5.^  After  the  fourth  vipula,  how- 
ever, No.  6  is  as  common  as  any  other,  sometimes  slightly 
in  excess,  with  the  others  about  on  a  par ;  No.  4  being  per- 
haps the  rarest. 

Such  varj^ng  ratios  are  not  worth  tabulating.  They  show 
that  while  the  posterior  patla  is  not  absolutely  uninfluenced 
by  the  form  of  the  prior,  yet  the  determining  factor  is  rather 
the  inevitable  presence  of  the  former's  diiambus,  since  the 
only  marked  choice  is  for  spondees  before  it,  as  in  the  first 
pada  before  an  iambus  (patliya).  The  other  cases  reveal 
merely  a  shifting  predilection  for  one  of  several  forms,  all 
of  which  are  used  pretty  freely,  the  strongest  influence  of 
the  preceding  vipulas  being  simply  that  Uie  usual  prefer- 

^  For  example  in  one  text  case  of  a  thousand  verses,  there  were  tweWe 
cases  of  No.  2 ;  four  each  of  Nos.  4  and  5 ;  and  two  of  No.  6.  In  another, 
nine  of  No.  2  ;  eleven  each  of  Nos.  4  and  6 ;  four  of  No.  0. 


/ 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  241 

ence  for  a  spondee  before  tlie  final  diiambus  is  changed  into 

a  natural  aversion  after  a  spondaic   vipula,  _, or 

.  v/ ,  but  Uiis  is  what  might  have  been  predicated  in 

advance.  After  patliyas  one  foot  is  as  permissible  as  anotlier. 
( )ccasional  variations  here  are  of  even  less  significance  than 
in  the  case  of  precedent  vipulas. 

As  all  the  forms  of  the  prior  and  posterior  padas  may 
have  syllaba  anceps,  both  initial  and  final,  each  pada  may 
ap]>oar  in  four  fonns.'  Not  to  speak  of  the  important  modi- 
fk'utions  intHKlucwl  by  a  var}'ing  ctcsurat  the  syllabic  com- 
binati(»ns  resulting  fntm  joining  any  one  of  the  four  kinds  of 
t';u'h  ft»nn  of  the  {M)steri(>r  imld  with  any  one  of  the  four 
kinds  of  viii'h  fonn  of  the  prior  pilda  results  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  possible  verse  (hemistich)  fonus;  while,  since  any 
fonn  of  tlic  first  hemistich  may  l)e  united  with  any  form  of 
the  stH'ond  hcinistii'h  —  to  take  only  the  comuKmest  eighteen 
fonns  of  prior  jiTida*  and  the  five  current  fonns  of  {>osterior 
[ulda  —  the  nvsult^uit  variations  in  the  fonn  of  the  verse  (hemi- 
stirh)  are  1440;  in  the  case  of  the  whole  stanza  (^loka), 
2J^T*^000;  so  that  one  could  write  twenty  MahiibhaniUis  in 
clokas  (tlie  pn*s<*nt  one  in  the  Calcutta  edition  contains 
l*r),739  vl^'kas)  iuid  never  rc[>eat  the  same  metrictd  stanza. 
Despite  this  latitude,  however,  the  poets  are  not  at  all  shy 
of  n*ptMting  the  Siune  syllabic*  hemistich  in  juxta[K>sition, 
hliowiii^  that  tlu*v  were  indifTen^nt  to  the  vast  possibilities 
U'forc  titcni  and  cansl  for  ciesura  more  than  for  syllables. 
Thus  Nala  v,  451)-4(5a: 

DainayaiityA  saha  Nalo  vijahArft  *maropaniah 
jaiiay.lniOsa  ca  Nalo  DaxuayautyA  maliauianah 

1  In  (  xpLinatiiin  of  the  numU*r  of  ox«nipK>t  In  App«*nilii  B.  I  wouM  Mjr 
t!iat.  for  till-  «.ikr  of  ^hitwin^  tlit*  truth  uf  this  Anr^pt  thfurv,  I  Umrv  irivi-n  the 
f<itir  f«irinii.  fi\li.itiA  Aiicip*  at  \***\h  rmli  of  tlir  |iiil«. 

*  That  i«,  tli«-  fir«t  nix  |iath«A«,  thr  flmt  fnur  formi  of  the  ilrtt  and  M'cond 
»i|iuU«  ri  *]•«  «-tivi  ly.th«'  flmt  fonti  t>f  tli«*  third  Tipuli.«n<l  the  tint  thrve  funnt 
tif  t)ii  fiiiirth  «i;iu1a.  rh««v,  hy  tht*  «iiy.  an-  thr  foriiit  **  appruTcd  "  bj  mod- 
ern luti^i*  fi  !iijlar».  ai'curthng  tu  Hruwii.  Trufody,  p.  t). 

10 


242  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Tha  DiiamboB 

The  rule  of  diiambic  cadence  appears  to  be  violated  in  the 
epic.  Far  from  regarding  this  as  an  archaism  on  the  part 
of  epic  poets,  one  should  recognize  in  such  cases  only  a 
Puranic  licence  or  adaptation  of  the  Gratha  freedom  con- 
spicuous in  all  popular  and  therefore  loose  composition. 
Not  only  is  that  rule  for  Sanskrit  which  allows  a  syllable 
to  remain  light  before  kr,  pr,  br,  hr,  valid  for  the  later  epic, 
but  the  extended  Prakrit  licence  is  also  found,  whereby  al- 
most any  conjunct*  may  be  treated  for  metrical  purposes 
like  a  single  consonant.  Examples  are  found  both  in  the 
Mahabharata  and  the  later  Ramayana.  For  the  latter  epic, 
Jacobi,  Das  Ramayana,  p.  25  ff.,  should  be  consulted,  where 
are  given  examples  in  br,  pr,  mr,  ml,  tr,  hr,  kl,  and  ^r,  e.  g., 
kim  tu  Ramasya  prityartham,  R.  v,  58,  18 ;  vina^ayati  tnu- 
lokyam,  ib.  1,  65,  13.  From  the  Mahabharata  (in  the  ap- 
pended illustrations  of  epic  {loka  forms)  I  have  drawn 
several  examples  which  are  doubtful,  because  they  may  be 
regarded  either  as  irregular  (unusual)  forms  without  this 
licence  or  regular  forms  with  it.  Such  are  da^a  pafica  ca 
praptani  (No.  25);  hate  Bhi§me  ca  Drone  ca  (No.  22); 
sar\'a^auceipu  Brahmena  (No.  23) ;  abhijanami  brahmanam 
(No.  41);  manena  bhra§tah  svargas  te  (No.  22);  Rudrasye 
'va  hi  kruddliasya  (No.  24).  But  further,  in  a  few  cases, 
9r  also  seem  to  leave  the  syllable  light  behind  them,  as  in  R. ; 
e.  g.,  adyaprabhrti  grlvat^^ah  (Nos.  16,  26,  39).  Nor  are  we 
aided  as  much  as  we  should  like  to  be,  when,  turning  from 
these  doubtful  priors,  we  examine  the  posterior  padas.  For 
though  at  first  it  seems  decisive  that  such  a  pada  appeara  as 
putram  ipsanti  brahmanah,  vii,  55,  21 ;  to§ayi§yami  bhra- 
taram,  viii,  74,  80 ;  yet  it  is  not  quite  settled  whether  we  have 
here  a  syllable  to  be  read  light  because,  as  in  Greek,  mute 
and  liquid  really  make  insufficient  position,  or  whether  the 
syllable  is  heavy  but  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  light.  For 
there  are  other  cases  where  mute   and  liquid   are  not  the 

1  Colcbrookc,  Efsajs,  toI.  ii,  p.  05,  note  ("anj  conjunct**  in  PrSkrit). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  248 

components  of  the  conjunct  First  we  have  double  semi- 
vowels, which  ordinarily  make  position,  but  fail  to  do  so, 
for  example,  in  vii,  55,  50,  abhi  ^vaitye  'tl  \7aharan,  which 
appears  after  a  (loka  with  a  diiambic  prior  pada  (sa  ceii 
mamara  SyBjaya).  So  the  syllable  remains  light  before  cch 
and  k^  and  dv,  or  tlie  metrical  ride  is  violateil.  In  the  Kama- 
yana  and  in  the  Malmbharata,  cases  of  liquid  and  k^  are  found 
more  rarely  in  tri^t^^Wis,  but  often  enough  to  sliow  tliat  tliey 
are  (K'casionally  allowed.  Thus  in  R.  iii,  63,  6  b,  **etya 
kle^'iuu  (tristubli).*     In  M. : 

viii,  37,  24  d,  tyaktv^  prftnan  anuyftsyOml  Dronam 
xii,  73,  7  a-b,  yada  hi '  brahma  prajah&tl  ksatram 

ksatraih  yad&  vft  prajahAtl  brahma 
xii,  319,  80  by  sarve  nityaiii  vyftharante  ca  brahma 

In  sum,  tlu*  cases  where  tliis  licence  may  be  assumed  for 
the  later  I'pic  style*  are  before  dr,  br,  bhr,  mr,  kr,  pr,  kl,  tr, 
vr,  hr,  ty,  vy,  gy,  dv,  cch,  k?.  For  dv,  compare  striya^  <*ii 
kiinyfn;  <a  tlvijag  ca  suvratah,  iv,  37,  83 ;  uvartanani  catvari 
talhfi  piuliuriiil  (lvrida^';i,  xiii,  1U7,  26;  for  cch,  yugcsv  isasfi 
chatrcsu,  vii,  l.*)!*,  3(5,  wIktc  the  texts  avoi<l  the  thinl  vipulfi 
by  writing  ch  for  oh.  Hut  whenever  a  short  syllable  is  ntHMletl 
U'ft»rt»  crh  it  is  gut  by  dropping  c  (mmietimes  in  one  text, 
soiiH'times  in  anoiluT).  For  Vt^  cji  ksTvato,  xii,  848,  87: 
ranabhiiag  rfl  ksatriyah,  vii,  73,  39  (apparently  an  intoqK>- 
lalt-<l  pass;igf ) :  exartlv  jw  wt»  lin<l  the  wmie  li<*cncc  in  VJivu 
Punina,  viii,  1.")'),  where  tlie  cloka  ends  'sil  ksiitrivan,  or  as 
ib.  V,  lis,  we  thid  the  common  lieenc*?  liefnre  ^t,  li»kan  srjati 
br.ihni.itve.  F«»r  vy» '**'e  U'low  on  tin?  tristnbh  wolins ;  mr, 
ml,  tv,  tr,  I  liiive  mn  found  in  the  Mahabhurata.  Thev 
s«'r:ii   tn   Ul«ing   to   the   latest   parts  of  the   IMmavana. 

*  J;n-..».i.  Kim.  p  '.»:,  jfiTii  rauft  fn»m  iht*  Utcr  K.  In  V,  t.2s,  ;».  na  tjAJH 
I II   •  ..m-n  T.  I  I ;  (i    li.  JT.  1*1.  trayi  •ihani  (B.  foiTvct  t    1). 

•  rh»«  »»•  ii.,ri  i«  U%v  ;  hot  in  xii/JO".*,  22  l>,  therr  i«  «n  upajSti  irniup  wbciv 
»«■  fln-I  la«I  »vt  |'r.itynilA<latr  •▼ftdtlu*  (* '  v^ Winfp  (IrmamliHl). 

'  KvAinpii  «  ••(  ri  k'uinr  flicAvy)  |Mi»iti«in  U*fnr«>  niutr  «n«t  liquid  Mtf  foand 
,.%.r>wh.r..  r  ^  .  It.  17.  41.  \\  44.  47.  .M,  .V-*;  xii.  rt:i.  H.  27;  W.  M.  1H,«U-. 
'ri.;fl  i«  the  rui«- ;  f.iilurr  to  iiiaki*  |Mi«itiun  or  nrfclvrt  uf  quADtitj  it  thr  ricep- 
tinn  ami  ip  ctiaracU'riftic  rather  of  thr  later  epic,  at  abown  bjr  Um  cBamplea 
alK>Ti>. 


244  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

We  may,  I  think,  assume  that  the  liberty  in  respect  of 
liquid  and  consonant  was  first  introduced  into  epic  Sanskriti 
and  that  then  in  the  later  epic  this  was  extended,  with  Gatha 
freedom,  to  cases  where  the  precedent  syllable  cannot  be  light, 
but  is  reckoned  so.    Therefore,  while  the  early  epic  has  only 

diiambic  close,  the  later  epic  (like  the  Puranas)  admits v/  . 

as  an  equivalent;  not  of  course  generally,  but  sporadically, 
where  the  writer  is  late  and  careless,  as  is  indicated  by  the 
character  of  the  sections  where  such  illegitimate  freedom  is 
found.  So  in  the  trL^t^bh  scolius,  there  are  a  few  cases  of 
careless  writing  where  a  heavy  syllable  stands  in  the  place 
of  a  light  one.  To  say  that  this  heavy  syllable  is  light  be- 
cause it  ought  to  be,  is  misleading.  The  weight  may  be 
ignored,  as  in  Prakrit  (though  there  mutilation  explains 
much  that  appears  of  tliis  nature),  but  it  must  exist.  Even 
the  Greek  poets  occasionally  pretended  that  a  heavy  sylla- 
ble was  light.    In  fine, w-.  must  be  admitted  as  an 

occasional  fourth  foot  of  the  hemistich,  though  it  is  avoided 

whenever  possible.^    For  the  foot  \j ,  I  have  only  the 

hemistich  etac  chrutva  tu  Kauravyah  ^ibim  pradak^iQam 
krtva,  iii,  194,  7,  but  this  is  apparently  an  accidental  verse 
in  a  prose  narration. 

Poetic  Liconce. 

In  general,  however,  while  the  epic  poets  are  here  and  there 
rough  and  uncoutli  in  their  versification,  the  normal  epic  style 
sacrifices  a  good  deal  to  what  is  regarded  as  good  metrical 
form.  Such  a  sacrifice,  which  culminates  in  the  classical  rule 
tliat  one  may  use  bSn  for  bean  (masa  for  ma^a)  if  one  only 
follows  the  metrical  norm,  is  found  most  clearly  exemplified 
in  tliia  very  case  of  the  diiambic  close ;  a  proof  that  the  diiam- 
bus  was  regarded  in  general  as  obligatory.^  But  it  is  also  to  be 
noticed  in  the  observance  of  preferred  vipula  forms  at  the  sao- 

^  Its  restitution  in  Pra9na  ii,  0,  rco  jajiinBi  samani,  jajfimh  kMtram  [ea] 
brahma  ca,  is  at  least  probable. 

^  Compare  even  in  the  Kig  Veda  the  regular  irregularitj  of  jmrisfhimm, 
for  yavistham,  for  the  sake  of  the  diiambus ;  and  sec  now  an  article  bj  Fko* 
fossor  Bloomfield  on  this  very  point,  JAOS.  xzi,  p.  50  ff. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  245 

rifice  of  (Sanskrit)  giammatical  accuracy.  There  are,  indeed, 
cases  where  woidHstructure  appears  to  be  needlessly  sacrificed ; 
but  the  vast  majority  of  cases  in  which  Sanskrit  grammar  is 
violated  have  to  do  with  metrical  necessity  or  predilection. 

As  already  stated,  the  most  frequent  cause  of  such  violation 
is  the  well-nigh  obligatory  diiambus  at  the  close  of  a  verse,  as 
in  phullam  GomatT-tirajam,  iv,  17, 12.  The  diiambic  rule,  as 
ordinarily  stated,  is  included  in  this  presentment  of  (loka  re- 
strictions :  ^^  The  second,  third,  and  fourth  syllables  of  a  pos- 
terior pada  should  not  foim  a  tribrach,  aniqpcest,  or  amphi- 
macer,  and  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  syllables  should 
make  a  diiambus  or  second  paeon,  while  the  tribnu^h  and 
anapaest  rule  apply  also  to  the  prior  pada.**  Obviously,  in  the 
posterior  pada,  the  tribrach  rule,  forbidding 

is  to  avoid  a  succession  of  four  or  five  short  syllables ;  while 
tlie  anapaest  and  amphimacer  rule,  forbidding 

is  to  avoid  the  (jagatl)  close  of  three  final  iambs.  The  rule 
then  for  the  even  ()ada  is  simply :  Posterior  padas  must  end 
^ith  diianilM,  but  must  not  end  with  triiambs,  and  must  not 
contain  a  procclcusmaticus. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  how  secondary  is  San- 
skrit fi^nunmar  to  this  metrical  rule:  yaf  ca  (unyam  upaaate 
(for  uimsUOf'  v,  33,  89;  na  sma  {)afyama  laghav&t,  vii,  146,  /i 
(nt'oessarily  present) ;  bhar}'ayai  gacchati  vanam,  R.  ii,  82,  8 : 
Hotihaso  (S  chandAAi«  xiii.  111,  42;  kathlkhySyiklkSrikSb*  ii, 
11,  8(»,  and  8va<llia  ca  HvadhSbhojinam,  R.  vii,  28,  28;  yatim 
hi  kunito  raja  pnijas  tiim  anuvart^fr,*  R.  vii,  43,  19;  madliuni 
dn^nainatmni  Iiahul)hil]i  parig|iiyaf«,  R.  v,  62,  9  (not  in  G.) : 
a{)akr&iiuit,  ix,  11,  62. 

1  So  wc  find  at  the  end  of  a  triftvbh  pida.  apltate  jah.  iU,  6^  19  b.  hff 
commnn  ii  tho  ttTond  peraon.  mokfadharmain  oplaaae»  xU,  816»  1&. 

*  Ttiip  is  timptj  a  caar  of  Mcriflce  to  metrv  by  a  pcdaat  who  iBitatM 
Manu  Tiii.  ITri,  whi^re  prajia  tam  anarartaiite  b  the  cleat  of  apnV  pida. 
Anothir  fiirm  of  thit  prorerb,  by  the  way.  b  ahovii ia  R, U,  109, 9:  jtAwpMf, 
•anti  rftjioai  tadrrtu^  tanU  hi  pnji^  (8pr.  IJM,  1,009,  M«9). 


246  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

These  examples  comprise  different  elapses,  where,  metri 
caus&y  are  changed  (a)  the  conjugation  or  mode;  (b)  the 
temporal  termination;  (c)  the  feminine  participle;  (d)  the 
euphonic  rule ;  (e)  the  gender ;  (f)  the  syntactical  combina- 
tion;^ (g)  length  of  root-vowel  and  other  sporadic  cases. 

Of  these,  by  far  the  commonest  are  irregularities  in  the 
temporal  termination,  and  in  the  ending  of  the  feminine  par- 
ticiple. Of  these  two,  the  usual  changes  are  the  substitution 
of  preterite  for  present  endings  and  oR  for  anfi/  less  often, 
present  for  preterite  and  anti  for  atu  The  participial  change 
is  the  commonest  of  all,  and  what  is  most  important  is  that 
scarcely  any  of  the  irregular  participial  stems  are  irregular 
from  any  other  cause  than  that  of  metrical  preference,  and 
the  greater  number  are  fasliioned  simply  to  give  diiambus  at 
the  end  of  the  hemistich.  I  lay  especial  stress  on  this  because 
in  the  lists  of  such  changes  occasionally  published  either  no 
weight  at  all  has  been  laid  on  the  motive  of  the  change,  or 
the  motive  has  been  only  incidentally  acknowledged,  or  thirdly 
the  lists  have  been  made  with  reference  to  the  class  of  the 
participle,  as  if  the  conjugation  were  especially  important.' 
The  only  thing  of  importance,  however,  is  the  metre.  What 
has  been  lost  sight  of,  or  not  seen,  is  that  not  only  the  obvi- 
ous diiambic  rule  but  also  the  vipula  preferences  come  strongly 
in  play,  especially  in  the  Ramayana.  A  few  examples  will 
illustrate  this. 

First  for  the  diiambus:  ca  'nyam  gatim  apaQyatl,  R.  vi,  47, 
10;  kurarim  iva  vagatun,  Nala,  11,  20;  so  elsewhere  in  Mbh*, 
iibhilapsati,  ciklr^atT,  nadayati,  avek^atl,  anve^atl;  and  in 
Ram.,  parigarjati,  yacati,  anudhavati,  janayati  mama,  etc. 
Likewise  in  the  verbal  ending:  adlio  gacchamS  medinim,  i, 
13,  18;  duhkliam  prapsyamft  diirunam,  ix,  59,  80;  yuddhe 
kim  kurm^  te  priyam,  ix,  32,  62 ;  katha  drak§yamS  tam  purim, 

^  See  below,  on  dialectic  Sanskrit. 

^  At  the  same  time  I  wish  to  acknowledf^e  my  indebtedness  to  the  follow* 
ing  lists  as  collections  of  material:  For  four  books  of  the  KSmijanm, 
Ik>htlingk,  Berichte  d.  philol.  histor.  Classe  d.  Kiinigl.  Sachs.  Gesell.  d.  Wist. 
1887,  p.  213 ;  lloltzmann,  Grammatisches  aus  dem  MababbSrata. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  247 

R.  ii,  47, 11 ;  na  ca  pa^yamtt  Maithillm,  R.  iv,  60, 16 ;  66, 18. 
Comparo  also  tlie  striking  example  in  R.  ii,  91,  69:  nai  Va 
'ycxlhyam  giiniisyamo  na  gami^yamU  Dandakan.  These  ordi- 
nary irregularities  might  be  exemplified  with  hundreds.^ 
Other  ciisos  are  less  frequent ;  but  to  tlie  same  cause  is  due 
the  close  of  hcmistichs  in  tav  akurvfttam,  i,  176,  9;  the  fre- 
quent change  of  voice,  as  in  svargam  IhantT  nitya^al^,  vii, 
71,  14;  the  change  of  vowel-length  in  upakr&mat,  apakramat, 
IKiraknimet,  vii,  54,  58;  ix,  11,  47;  11,  62;  xii,  140,  26;  so 
'pi  niskiilman,  R.  iv,  50,  9;  Lak^mTvardhanali^  (passim)  and 
the  frequent  loss  of  augment,^  One  of  the  most  striking 
verlxil  clianges  is  in  na  bibhyati  for  na  bibheti  in  i,  75,  63;  nu 
bibhvase,  R.  iii,  46,  30. 

The  other  half  of  the  rule  for  the  i)Osterior  pada  is  kept  by 
avc»iding  three  iambs  and  a  succession  of  four  breves,  with  a 
sacrifice  of  the  nonnal  (piantity,  in  praceiaso  da^a  (so  ex- 
phunc<l  in  P\V.  s.  v.):  sakhTgjinavrla,  Nala,  i,  24;  na  ^rir 
jahati  vfii  tanuh,  xi,  25,  5  Tjahanti  for  jahati,  l)elow);  u|>a- 
sant4*  ni:i]triuj;isah,  R.  vii,  37,  19  (u|>sisate  in  20)  and  21 ; 
ayatihitain  U(  yate,  (i.  iii,  44,  11 ;  and  instead  of  afUmrayam 
(nialiavnitain),  samadhanmi,  R.  vii,  13,  25.  Compare  also  na 
svapaini  iii«;as  tada.  Nala,  13,  61,  patois  for  svapimi ;  and  the 
midflh*  draksyasc  vi^atajvaram,  ib.  12,  93,  with  drak^yasi  in 
9-  and  9'):  <lniksy:is<»  surasattamiun,  v,  14,  5.* 

In  tht*  prior  pfula,  to  avoid  the  anapaest  the  same  form  is 
us«m1,  draksyast*  di'Varajanani,  v,  11,  21;  tlie  sandhi  of  eso  hi 

1  nn«>  of  thi>  i'<>nim<>n('«t  c%%v%  \%  tho  »ut»ttitiitii>n  nf  tmA  for  fmAh.  ThU 
i«  fiiiinl  .fmii  -T  in  the  j»ri«»r  piiU  but  also  in  ihv  fMktUTior.  i*.  jj..  It.  it,  rt.'i,  11, 
nntiprii;i!~ih  4iiin  o-iinpr.itam. 

*  ('..iiij.in  nU.i  \\u'  4ii<iin;:«  p«tnT*u.  pnikrtijiin«h,  K.  i.  ^,  rt;  -I'J.  I; 
^rhai/r  iliMinrun.  K.  vi.  T'l.  II.  mAnvQiiiin*  ih.  lo  (ilirKhilihSra  ftrMliii«r«  the 
•i-KnIi;i*:  I  .  k<i{»«  nil  'Mi.p.iri.  rtah,  It.  Tii,.>.  1»*J  (Ulow);  «nu<Unim,  iiT,4fl, 47. 

*  II«  rr  t"ii  >>•  l<iii.'«  rl.r  ii«i-  nf  t)i(»  fiiturf  iiiip«>rmtirf  in  is,  2A.  44,  clrakfTt* 
(Iht.tTti  \.\  \\  jiTriti.  f  'll-iwcl  l>,v  vuilhva>lhv«rh  ftahilih  •«rre.  IV«htlin|{ll.  loc. 
1  :t  .  !•  It  .  •  t.i  t'.i  .  pio  a  fiitun-  ini{M  ratiro.  Tlir  «'a»*»  I  have  ritoil,  howeTrr. 
i*  II  -t  ;m  nolt/iii.iiin'ii  li-t  liHV  rtt.  (  U>i,  on  which  II.  tlrawt  fur  hii  matrrial, 
an  {  '.!•>•  iii«  tn  mi>  i  'in-  !u«t%c  in  favtir  of  tuoh  a  fiirm  (an«l  mraning).  Were 
it  n  <!  :>r  :* .  I  r<  \t  •  thi-  p-nt  %i>ul<!  have  xxtvA  pa^vata  (nut  drakftvatha),  M 
i«  •!.  >wn  !  V  \  .;  !t.\  A<l!;%a::i  aiil  thr  |:rncral  lituattoD. 


248  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

par§ato  virah,  vii,  192,  13;  the  long  vowels  in  Pu^Lnam 
abhyadravata,  vii,  202,  59;  Qrutavati  nama  vibho,  ix,  48,  2; 
and  the  change  of  conjugation  in  dadanti  vasndham  sphitam, 
xiii,  62,  46.  To  avoid  diiambus  at  the  close  of  the  prior  pada 
we  find,  for  the  genitive,  dadar^a  dvairatham  tabhyam,  vii,  98, 
26 ;  the  participial  exchange  noted  above,  kusumany  apacin- 
vanti,  R.  iii,  42,  82 ;  jananti,  R.  ii,  10,  35  and  Mbh.  i,  78,  6 ; 
and  various  sporadic  irregularities  in  the  latter  poem:  prar 
daksLnam  akurvanta,  viii,  72, 12 ;  pusnamy  au^adhayah  sarvah, 
i,  78, 40 ;  Duryodhanam  upasante,  viii,  84, 12 ;  ^ayanam  samup- 
asanti,  vii,  72,  40  (so  G.  vii,  41,  2) ;  valukam,  pattibhi^,  etc., 
R.  iii,  73, 12;  iv,  25,  23;  gaktibhih,  R.  vi,  71,  14.  For  a  like 
reason,  but  to  avoid  a  final  minor  Ionic,  we  find  pagyate  raja, 
R.  vii,  32,  25 ;  drak§yase  tatra,  ib.  34,  10,  etc. 

Less  generally  have  been  recognized  irregularities  due  to 
vipulas.  But  here  too  Sanskrit  grammar  yields  to  the  decided 
tendency  to  have  an  iambus  or  diiambus  precede  in  three  of 
the  four  forms  and  also  to  less  marked  tendencies.  Even  the 
pathya  shows  similar  cases,  though  in  this  foot  more  latitude 
is  allowed.  But  there  often  is,  for  example,  in  the  pathya  a 
decided  preference   for  the   opening  ^  \j  ^  \j  rather  than 

^\j ,  and  in  accordance  with  this  we  find  ardita^  sma 

bhrQam  Rama,  in  R.  iii,  10,  11,  and  agatah  sma,  ib.  15,  2; 
where  sma  must  be  for  smah  (in  some  cases  this  is  doubtful).* 
Of  the  vipulas,  the  third  is  naturally  chiefly  affected.  In  the 
last  passage,  for  example,  9I.  19,  we  read  iha  vatsyama  Sau- 
mitre,  which  is  changed  as  certainly  for  metrical  reasons  as 
are  the  similar  cases  in  the  diiambic  ending.  So  in  R.  ii,  17, 
10 ;  40,  22,  etc.  So,  too,  loss  of  augment  in  sa  pravi^ya  ca 
pa^yad  vai ;  the  participle  in  -ant,  tatha  rudantiih  Kausalyam, 
R.  ii,  40,  44;  duhkhany  asahati  devi,  R.  ii,  12,  89;  kacic 
cintayati  tatra,  R.  vii,  24,  11  (as  opposed  to  sa  cintayanti 
buddhya  'tha,  Nala,  5,  12) ;  and  shortening  of  a  long  vowel, 
sapatntvixldliau  ya  me  tvam,  R.  ii,  8,  26 ;  pitur  ingudYpanya- 

^  In  upasanta  maharajam,  iv,  18,  10,  the  form  is  chosen  not  from  anj 

ftTcnion  to  >^ \j\jt  hut  for  variety,  hecausc  this  foot  precedes  in  the  tame 

9loka.    In  R.  i,  4,  4,  agrhitam  ("  Vedic  ")  is  merely  an  error. 


M 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  249 

kam,  R«  ii,  104,  8 ;  so  'maravatlsamkafain,  R.  vii,  88,  4.  The 
commonest  form  here  is  the  sma  just  referred  to :  pitimatya^ 
sma  bhadram  te ;  kirtapunya(i  sma  bhadram  te,  R.  i,  38,  3 ;  ii, 
55, 12.  So,  adharmam  vidma  Kakutstha  asmin,  R.  vii,  68,  2. 
Ofifensive  is  the  heavy  third  vipula  preceded  by  a  succession 
of  heavy  syllables,  and  so  we  find :  aho  tfptall^  sma  bhadram 
te,  R.  i,  14, 17  ;  nunam  piupta^  sma  sambhedam,  R.  ii,  54,  6 ; 
vyaktam  priiptal]i  sma  tarn  de^am,  ib.  98,  7.^ 

The  Maliubharata  is  not  so  strict  in  its  vipula  regulation, 
but  even  hero  we  find  the  same  condition  of  things,  though  in 
less  careful  observance.  Thus,  tvayy  adhinS^i  sma  rSjendra» 
V,  8,  22;  tvadadhlnal]i  sma  rajendra,  xv,  8,  54;  upagiksama  te 
vrttiun,  xii,  16,  2 ;  *  ihai  'va  vasati  bhadre,  Nala,  18, 66.  Both 
texts,  merely  in  accordance  with  the  vipula  rule  or  predilec- 
tion, have  kim  mum  vilapat&n  ekam  in  Nala,  12,  55,  and  91* 
which  modem  editors,  sure  of  granunar  but  ignonint  of  metrOv 
change  to  vilapimtim  (compare  R.  iv,  20,  22,  kim  mam  evam 
pnilapatim) ;  e\'am  vilapatim  diniim,  vii,  78,  86.  Other 
exiuiiplcH  are  UUo  rudantim  tarn  dfi^tvi,  Nala,  16,  88  (as  in 
R.  vii,  80,  18,  araja  *pi  rudanti  sa,  to  avoid  the  Ionic;  but 
viHiiiiijnakailimiii  rudatim,  vii,  78,  89,  etc.) ;  mim  anusmarati 
(ete,  viii,  44,  17 ;  paitim  anve^atlm  ekSm,  Nala,  12, 84.  Most 
partiripiiil  changes  of  tikis  sort  not  due  to  the  diiambus 
(uvoidtHl  or  sought)  are  due  here  as  in  the  RimiyaQa  to  the 
natural  disinclination  to  heap  up  long  syllables  and  the  grad- 

>  Al>out  half  the  c««ot  of  ama  for  sniA^  are  diM  to  metre.  Thb  word 
bffon*  iion«Dt«  nn  account  of  ita  monoajUablc  would  loae  ita  character,  and  for 
thit  n-awon  mopt  of  the  caaea  not  dne  to  metre  are  before  aonanta  to  avoid 
f mo.  Of  all  the  raa4*i  in  B(»htlingk's  liat  onl^  two  are  before  awrda.  At  the 
pSi!ii-4>niI.  whrrc  Xvn^xh  ia  indtffervnt,  sma  ttanda  onl^  before  aonanta.  With 
the  rxiffttiiin  of  «nia,  in  the  Sr*t  fotir  bookf  of  the  RImijrana  (accordlnf  to 
]i<»htIinK'k'a  lint)  the  onlj  examplea  of  nia  for  ma^  vblch  appear  to  be  iade» 
IN*n«i<  nt  nf  metre  are  Tiilma  pQnram  and  praeekajlnia  at  the  beirinning  of 
|M>«t(riiir  pft'lai.  The  Srtt  b  not  in  O. ;  the  aecond  appcnra  ia  O.  aa  arirf vd«i. 
I  may  a<l«l  t»f  tma,  at  indicatire  of  the  paendo^pic,  that  the  thirteenth  book 
hftt  thn  o  formi  of  thia  word,  amal^  ama  (perhapa  dialectic),  and  amahe.  The 
lait.  a  mfi'lfm  form,  la  found  not  onl^  in  xUi,  1,  18,  but  la  98,41,  an  amahe 
man«!aTijf\ani  na  mnalie  mandabuddha^ah  .  •  .  pratlboddhl  ama  Jiirrma. 

'  il<ilt/itiaiin,  at  I  MS ;  but  I  thonld  not  entertain  the  notion  that  anjr  of 
these  foniii  (af  here  suggeatcd)  waa  othtr  than  ladlcatieo. 


250  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ual  creation  of  the  iambic  rule  for  the  third  vipula.^  The 
change  to  antl,  illustrated  by  mu^nanti  and  kurvanti  in  Nala, 
6,  8,  and  16,  11,  respectively,  and  ayanti,  R.  vii,  26,  47 ;  96, 
11,  etc.,  is  in  part  explained  by  preferred  combinations  and  in 
part  by  analogy,  the  great  mass  of  verbs  making  the  form 
antl.  The  best  case  of  change  for  metre  is  furnished,  how- 
ever, by  the  tri^tubh  in  ii,  67,  53  (i:£  _  vy  vy  begins  a  tri^t^bh 
only  before  ^\j ) : 

tatha  bruvantlm  kamnam  rudantlm  ' 

The  first  vipula  is  responsible  for  the  form  upasanta  in  ix, 
88,  58,  tvam  upasanta  varadam ;  the  second,  for  aho  mudha^ 
sma  suciram,  xiii,  16,  27 ;  the  third,  for  vicarisyama  loke  'smin, 
viii,  33,  12.     For  the  fourth  I  have  no  sure  case. 

In  regard  to  the  augment,  it  is  omitted  so  freely  that  only 
in  pronounced  cases  are  we  sure  that  it  is  dropped  for  metre, 
especially  as  the  endings  ta  and  tha  are  interchanged  (as  they 
are  in  the  later  Upanishads).  Thus  in  R.  iv,  53,  8  kim  na 
budhyata  may  be  present,  or,  as  the  commentator  says,  stand 
for  nabudhyata  (diiambus)  ;  but  again  there  appears  to  be  no 
reason  for  samantat  paridhavata  in  R.  vii,  28,  17,  for  the  aug- 
mented form  would  serve  as  well.  But  in  this  category, 
besides  the  influence  of  patois,  we  have  a  more  than  usual 
source  of  pseudo-archaisms.  For  in  many  other  cases  we  can 
but  assume  that  copyists  have  tampered  with  the  text,  cor- 
recting after  their  wont,  sometimes  for  grammar  and  some- 
times for  metre,  according  to  their  individual  taste ;  a  process 
that  explains  in  our  printed  texts  the  frequent  divergences 
that  depend  on  these  points.^  But  with  the  augment  it  is 
especially  easy  to  give  an  archaic  effect,  since,  while  Sanskrit 

^  In  Iloltzmann's  list,  for  example,  the  only  case  of  at!  for  anti  that  does 
not  come  under  these  rules  is  carnt!  in  Nala,  12, 10 ;  which  may  be  attracted 
by  anvesatl  in  the  same  verse  (the  latter  caused  by  the  diiambic  rule). 

3  Iloltzmann  registers  rudanti  for  i,  0,  6,  where  B.  has  rudati;  and  for  Nairn, 
17, 12,  but  B.  has  rudatyau. 

*  For  this  reason  I  have  elsewhere  called  them  "  unguarded  texts,"  mean- 
ing of  course  that  they  were  not  protected,  as  were  the  poems  of  sacred 
character,  by  artificial  methods  of  transmission. 


-M 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  251 

kept  the  augment,  most  of  the  other  forms  dealt  with  are 
current  side-forms  as  well  as  antique.  So  we  find,  for  ex- 
ample, in  R.  vii,  28,  26,  nanSvadyini  vSdyanta,  but  in  6. 
86,  26,  ^y  avadyanta,  and  here,  as  in  parallel  cases,  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  say  whether  we  have  a  grammatically  emended 
text  or  a  mere  imitation  of  the  antique  on  the  part  of  a 
copyist. 

Instances  of  alteration  in  tri^fubh  verse  are  of  the  same 
sort  as  those  just  mentioned  and  need  not  be  specifically 
detailed.  Here  too  we  find  the  same  imitation  of  the  antique. 
One  example  will  illustrate  both  cases.  In  xiii,  102, 55  a  —  b, 
occurs,  budhyami  tvam  Vftrahanam  fatakratum,  vyatikrdf- 
mantam  bhuvanani  vipva.'^  Compare  also  na  ca  ^pi  j&nimdf 
tiive  *ha  natham,  iii,  265,  4d;  na  ^bhutikSlefU  phalam  €Uh 
dantij  xii,  25,  7  a;  and  the  following  examples: 

na  tftiii  vaded  asatim  p&palokyftm,  xii,  300,  8  d 
prayama  sarve  qaranam  bhavantam,  i,  197,  4  d 
Karnam  hibhednh  sahit&h  prsatk&ih,  viii,  82,  16  c 

jahara  pAfias  tarunTih  vices^tlm,  B.  iii,  63,  26  c 
apaqyati  Kaghava-Laksman&v  ubhftu,  R.  iii,  52, 44  c 
batah  sma  sarvah  saba  mantribhiQ  ca,  R.  ii,  61, 26  b 

I  lore,  as  will  Ije  seen  from  the  structure  of  the  tri^tubh,  the 
vixscH  of  f^unmalical  irregularity  are  of  the  same  t]rpe  and 
cliiinu'tor  as  tlioso  in  floka.  The  prevailing  type,  namely,  is 
tlie  piit4»iM  Hubstitution  of  ma  for  mas  as  verbal  ending,  and 
tlie  altoniate  {mrticipial  fonn.  The  change  here  also,  as  in 
^*l<>k!^  indiu'OH  a  preferred  or  ^* regular**  form  against  a  more 
uiiusiiaK  more  disliked,  or  more  irregular  form.  The  last  ex- 
ainplt'  alM)Vt*,  for  example,  gives  a  cadence  common  t4)  both 
eiiics:  hut  to  Imvo  nmiih  for  sma  would  be  a  cadence  of  the 
Mahal >lirinit4u  not  (»f  the  Itamavana. 

To  sum  lip  f<»r  the  ^l<»ka:  In  the  occasional  mcxlification  of 
nrc«'ptiHl  Sanskrit  forms  pun4y  for  tlie  sake  of  metre  and  in 
the  l.u'k  (»f  a  thorough  obsori'ance  of  metrical  laws,  which  have 

1  Thit  f«irm  ciccurt  ilto  In  i,  S,  67  bhaTaalal  tI^I;  mi4  tII,  SOI.  TTi 
lihuTtuiiii  '\uk  vivvi,  in  th«  mum  furmoUu    QmmnUj  MpU  t$km  Its  pises. 


262  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

yet  obviously  affected  certain  parts  of  the  epic,  we  can  see  the 
rules  themselves  in  process  of  making.  For  the  greater  part 
of  the  Bharata  there  is  no  fixed  rule,  but  the  foundation  of  the 
rule  is  there  in  popular  liking  and  dislike.  Thus  cases  do  ex- 
ist, and  they  are  not  infrequent,  of   "^^j before  a  second 

vipula,  but  there  is  a  decided  tendency  against  such  a  combi- 
nation, and  as  a  result  we  find  bhak^ayi^yava  sahitau,  i,  152, 18 ; 
to  explain  which  we  need  only  say  that  the  first  vipula  favors, 
while  the  second  does  not  favor,  this  precedent  foot;  just  as 
ib.  154,  35,  9!ghram  gacchama  bhadram  te  is  merely  a  present 
indicative  with  a  preterite  (patois)  ending,  substituted  because 
the  Sanskrit  ending  would  oppose  a  metrical  combination  to 
which  there  is  a  growing  though  not  yet  thoroughgoing 
aversion. 

Finally,  as  already  abundantly  illustrated,  the  statement 
that  *'*'  the  laws  of  the  gloka  are  the  same  in  the  Ramayana,  the 
M ahabharata  and  the  classical  poets  "  ^  is  certainly  much  too 
strong.  What  is  quite  fixed  in  the  last  is  not  so  rigid  in 
the  first,  and  is  much  looser  in  the  Bharata  than  in  either  of 
the  other  two.^ 

The  Hypennetric  Cloka' 

A  ninth  syllable  is  often  attached  to  the  octosyllabic  prior 
9loka  pada,  regularly  prefixed,  sporadically  incorporated ;  the 
hypennetric  syllable  in  the  former  case  being,  with  the  next 
also,  a  brevis,  wliile  the  third  is  long  before  an  iambus,  the 
whole  foot  preceding  a  pathya  or  any  vipula,  thus :  — 

1  Das  RSmSyana,  1893,  p.  24. 

*  It  is  indeed  enough  if  the  vipula  be  preceded  by  a  heavy  sjUable  or  long 
ToweU  as  has  justly  been  remarked  by  Jacobi,  in  his  article  Ueber  den  Qloka 
im  Mahabharata,  but  this  rule  does  not  mark  the  distinction  between  prece- 
dent iambs  and  spondees.  The  rule  is  to  have  a  precedent  iamb,  and  a  spondee 
is  always  exceptional ;  but  in  R.  it  is  a  very  rare  exception ;  in  Mbh.  a  rery 
common  exception. 

*  Analogous  to  the  freedom  in  tristubhs  we  might  expect  to  find  also  cases 
of  catalectic,  or  more  properly  abridged,  (loka-padas,  such  as,  e.  g.,  pura^  cakre 
dvipadah,  BAU.  ii,  6,  18  (cakara?);  bat  I  have  not  noticed  any  such  epic 
pSdas. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  258 

paihya: 

anabhtlyatftm  ayam  vlrfthi  Nala,  2,  9 

first  vipola : 

prakrtir  gunAn  vikurutey  xii,  314|  16 
second  vipula : 

katham  Arstiseno  bhagavan,  ix,  40, 1 
tliird  vipula: 

navanltapaikkfth  kslrod&hi  xiii|  SO,  6 
fourth  vipula : 

qaraiiftgatam  na  tyajeyaoii  ▼,  12, 16 

The  regular  hypermeter  thus  coincides  in  its  opening  with 

the  irregular  and  unusual  octosyllabic  pBda,  kj\j  ^ \j . 

For  instancCt  ak|lavrana^  fubhair  vakyai])^  v^  ISi,  14,  is 
hj-permetriCf  while  apakarinam  mam  viddhi,  xiii,  96,  7,  is  an 
acatalectic  pada ;  for  which  reason,  probably,  the  latter  is  so 
mre. 

Such  Iij'permeters  are  not  unusual  in  the  Mahabhaiata  and 
Ituinuyanii,  tliough  more  frequent  in  the  former,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  imisM,  hut  in  the  same  amount  of  matter.  They 
s4H.*iii  to  be  at  times  mlher  affected  by  the  later  epic  poets; 
)>crhapH  to  give  an  appeamnce  of  antiquity,  whereby,  as  often, 
the  effwt  is  ovenhine.  I  know  at  least  of  no  passage  in  either 
epic  wlicns  an  in  Ilarivanga,  1,  8,  64,  and  87,  and  91,  and  108, 
four  h yiK^nuetera  can  be  found  in  tlie  space  of  fifty  odd  (lokas. 
Thcv  an*  coiam<»n  Um)  in  the  PurilnaH. 

<  'ertain  phnuu^s  are  apt  t4)  ap[)ear  in  tliis  form.  The  com- 
monest is  lihhivrMlayunti  or  mime  similar  derivati\'e,  which 
often  intHxhuvH  hyiienueteni  in  (lokas  (as  also  in  triftubhs). 
Tlius,  for  example : 

abhivAilayaDti  bbavatfm,  v,  90,  98 
ahhivAdayanti  vnldhai'iQ  ca,  r,  47, 16 
alihiva«layc  tvftiii  rftjcndrm,  iii,  291,  37 
abhivOilaye  tvOm  bhagaraD,  iii,  207,  13  and  K.  iii, 

11,72 
abhivAilitah  kanlyobhih,  iii,  257,  8 
abliiviUlya  cai  'naiii  vidhirat,  r,  179,  13 


254  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

abbivadayitva  ^iras^  v,  176,  28 
abbivadaylta  vrddbOnQ  ca,  xiii,  104,  66 
abbivadayisye  brste  'ti,  xiv,  ^^  19 
abbivadayamas  tvam  sarvab,  R.  vii,  49,  16 

Although  avamanyase  mam  nrpate,  v,  189,  22,  might  sug- 
gest the  possibility  of  pronouncing  omanyase,  and  abhiva- 
denti  in  the  examples  above,  yet  this  explanation  is  almost 
excluded  by  the  fact  that  parallel  examples,  in  overwhelming 
majority,  admit  of  no  such  solution.  Many  of  the  cases  have 
been  collected  by  Gildermeister  in  his  excellent  article  in  the 
fifth  volume  of  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  die  Kunde  des  Morgen- 
landes,  p.  269.^  It  is  easy  to  add  many  parallel  examples. 
Thus  abhisektukamas  tarn  raja,  G.  ii,  74,  55,  is  a  parallel  to 
abliisektukamam  nrpatim,  jMbh.  i,  85,  19,  and  faraiiagatam 
is  an  opening  used  repeatedly,  e.  g.,  v,  178,  9;  viii,  90, 112; 
xiii,  32,  2  and  34  (but  in  38  b,  ^ara^gatasak^anam).^  Some 
difference  of  texts  is  to  be  noticed.  Thus  in  xiii,  93,  119» 
§aranagatam  bantu  sa  vai,  C.  omits  vai,  an  impossible  pada. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  xiii,  94,  27,  anrtau  vrati  ja^i  cai  'va, 
of  C.  4,573  is  converted  into  anrtau  ca  vrati  cai  'va.  So  in 
G.  V,  63,  2,  abhayam  dadami  te  vira;  but  in  B.,  abhayam 
te  pradasyami.  The  commonest  words  thus  employed,  owing 
perhaps  merely  to  opportunity,  are  abhivadayanti,  or  an  equiv- 
alent^ ^araniigata®,  and  Janamejaya.  Those  mentioned  by 
Benfey,  in  the  notes  to  his  Chrestomathie,  are  chiefly  of  the 
same  character,  but  he  also  adduces  long  initials,  of  which 
I  shall  speak  presently.  Although,  as  shown  above,  any 
form  of  vipula  or  a  patliya  may  contain  the  hj^ermetric  pada, 
and  the  fourth  vipula  is  veiy  common,  yet  the  pathya  is  the 
usual  place  for  it,  so  that  the  last  may  be  regarded  as  itself 
the  patliya  or  regular  form  of  tliis  irregularity. 

Besides  the  cases  noticed  by  others,  to  which  references 
will  be  foimd  loc.  cit.,  Janamejaya,  ablii^aryamanam,  aditir 

^  Compare  al80  Jacobi^Das  Hamajana,  p.  24  and  in  the  GumpujSkSuinadL 
*  In  V,  12, 15,  and  10  (cited  above),  (aranagata  'smi  te  brahman,  and  (aranft- 

gatam  na  tyajevam,  respectively.    But  in  y,  15,  33,  9aranam  tvam  prapanno 

*8mi. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  266 

diti^i  balavat  8apat>  upajlvanam,  vnallpati^  purofam  tv 
idSnim,  aru^odayei  tarn  aham  smayann  iva  raqie  (one  of  the 
repeated  phrases,  v,  179,  22,  etc.)>  atithiviatl  (also  repeatedt 
iii,  260,  4,  etc.),  akftavrai^piabhrtayat  (repeated  opemng, 
y,  180, 17,  etc.),^  and  a  few  more  hitherto  cited,  I  add  with 
references: 

aparftjito  jyotiluuj  ca,  i,  35, 13}  upaglyamftnft  n&rlbhih,  eto^  ii, 
58,  36  (iii,  158,  83;  vii,  82,  28);  kapil&Tatam,  iii,  84,  31;  (kapi- 
lasya  gob,  xii,  269,  5) ;  bhagavftn  anekaqah,  iii,  99,  39 ;  188,  9; 
Tiyunajmi  dehftt,  iii,  142, 26;  parioftrakesu,  iii,  200,9;  amitftujase, 
T,  4,  12 ;  Sumanomakho  Dadhimukhah,  ▼,  103, 12  (in  i,  36,  8,  as 
Sumanftkhyo  Dadhimakhah) ;  krtakilbis&h,  ▼,  165,  22;  pomfah 
sanfttanamayab,  vi,  21,  14  =  773,  ▼.  L ; '  madanngrahftya  para- 
mam,  vi,  35,  t;  avamanyamftno  yftn  yftti,  vii,  73,  30;  arunAm 
Sarasvatim  pra])ya,  ix,  5,  51 ;  Garud&nanfth  kaftkamukb&h,  ix, 
45,  83;  madadhistUitiitvat  samare,  ix,  62,  18;  Qakune  vayam 
sma  deva  vai,  xii,  300,  4;  avyaktarapo  bbagavftn  qatadhft  oa 
saliasradha,  qatadbft  sahasradha  cAi  'va  tath&  isatasabasradbft,  xii, 
315,  2;  tadanantaram  ca  Rudrasya,  xii,  319,  62;  arani  mamantha 
brahmarsih,  xii,  325,  9;  Uqan&  Brbaspati^  cfti  'va,  xii,  336,  46; 
ayajad  dhariiii  surapatim,  xii,  338,  30;  paramftnubhata  bhatva  to, 
xii,  345,  15;  sabasa  jagrhatur  vedfto,  xii,  348,  29;  trida^  tri- 
kaladhrk  karma,  xiii,  17,  62;  animantrito  na  gaecheta,  xiii,  104» 
143;  Vidurfldayai;  ca,  xv,  3,  76;  atavlbalam,  xt,  7,  7;  Upada* 
uavl  suUlnl  Icbbe,  II.  i,  32,  8 ;  asatim  Vapustamam  etam,  H.  3,  6^ 
21;  dhvajinah  patakinaq  cfti  *va,  K  v,  4,  20;  Amaravatliii  samft- 
sAiiya,  U.  vii,  5,  26;  Yamalftrjuoau,  R.  vii,  6,  35;  Krtavan  Pra> 
ct^tasas  iiutrah,  R.  vii.  111,  11. 

It  will  Im)  (»ljHerve<l  that  Yamalarjunau  and  Amaruvatlm 
(thes4'  Hainayana  [Nuwa^*s  have  tdreaily  been  cited  by  Jacobi) 
are  exiutly  c»f  the  wunc  tyiie  as  are  dhvajina^  patiikinalt^ 
ubhivadaye,  and  alihim^ktiikiiinah,  though  the  first  two  occur 
tnp*tlH*r  in  a  Lite  aildition  to  Uic  epic  and  tlie  otlier  three 
cxanipK'H  are  in  tlie  Ixxly  of  the  work.    As  the  t}'pe  per  ae 

1  Tbrnv  art*  ctimptfiiirDUiy  rrfrimcet. 

*  r.n<l«.  vatjh  KrtriA*  uio  Jijah,  TAiiAiit  OD  the  oU«r  plmat,  jwl  prtctdi 

ini;.  }atu  tlltarniai  Uto  Jijra^ 


266  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

is  old  (Upanishads),^  the  occurrence  of  hjpeimeters  denotes 
rather  lack  of  refinement  than  lack  of  antiquity,  so  that  the 
phenomena  as  a  class  stand  parallel  to  the  care  or  careless- 
ness in  the  making  of  vipulas. 

When  on  two  short  syllables  a  third  short  follows,  the 
phrase  is  rudely  adapted  to  metrical  needs.  Hence  aho 
manyata  for  ahar  amanyata  in  R.  iv,  85,  7.^  Some  excep- 
tions occur  to  mar  the  uniformity  of  the  phenomena,  but  for 
the  most  part  they  are  in  words  or  phrases  which  are  forced 
upon  the  poets  and  which  they  have  to  handle  as  best  they 
can.  So  we  find  a  variant  on  the  da9a  proverbs^  in  the 
form  da^a^rotriyasamo  raja  ity  evam  Manur  abravit,  i,  41,  81, 
where  there  are  two  departures  from  the  norm  and  the  verse 

is  a  hypermetric  form  of  the  pathya  ^^\j  kj^  \j ^  *    A 

similar  case  occurs  in  R.  iii,  35,  9,  where  we  find  da^agiivo 
vingatibhujah.  Here  I  can  scarcely  agree  with  Professor 
Jacobi  in  regarding  daga  as  monosyllabic  (Ram.,  p.  24).  So 
in  the  case  of  Dagakandhara-rajasunvoh,  cited  by  the  same 
author  (in  Gurupuj,  p.  62)  from  iii,  290,  19,  which  is  like 
pratibodhaviditam  matam,  simply  hypermetric  but  answering 

to  the  iypQ  ^—  \j  \j^^  \j (not  to  be  read  as  Da^akand- 

hara,  as  Jacobi  suggests).  Either  this  or  the  explanation 
offered  below  of  suppressed  a  seems  to  me  most  probable. 

Hypermeters  with  long  initial  syllable  are  sometimes  found* 
They  are  of  two  sorts  and  should  be  carefully  distinguished* 
The  first  is  where  the  pada  corresponds  exactly  to  those  just 
discussed  save  that  a  long  syllable  takes  the  place  of  the  first 
brevis.  So  far  as  I  know,  this  occurs  only  in  the  later  epic 
portions  (also  Puranic).  It  is  a  clumsy  or  careless  form 
which,  induced  generally  by  proper  names,  regards  only  the 
mechanically  coimted   syllables  and  entirely  disregards  the 

^  For  example,  pratibodhaviditam  matam,  Kcna,  il,  4 ;  abbajam  titfrtatim 
pSram  Ka|ha,  iii,  2.    Gildermcister,  loc.  cit.,  p.  275. 

'  Compare  B<>htlingk,  loc.  cit.,  p.  214  ad  fin.    So  puno  pi,  GathS  and  PSli. 

*  Compare  xii,  108,  10,  da9ai  'va  tu  sada  'carjah  9rotriyan  atiricyate ;  xiii, 
105,  14,  da9a  'carvan  upadhyayah. 

^  The  partial  parallel,  uttarajanam  from  Manu  yi,  10,  cited  bj  Gilder* 
mcister,  loc.  cit.,  p.  272,  Ib  a  later  text  for  turSyanam  (see  JoUy's  text). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  267 

essence  of  the  hypermetxic  light  dissyllable.  This  consists  in 
a  mora  measurement  of  two  breves,  or  light  qrllables,  as  a 
substitute  for  one  long  vowel  or  heavy  syUftblef  which  is  im- 
possible in  padas  that  have  such  initials  as 

Ekata-Dvita-TritflQ  co  'cub,  xii,  337,  20 
AQvaxnedhikam  sainasfidyay  xviii,  2789  corrected  in 

B.  6,  69  to  ftsOdya.* 
Naimis&ranye  kulapatih,  H.  1, 1,  4  (C.  11) 
daksinfiyanaxh  smrtft  rfttrih,  H.  1,  8,  9  e  * 

Where  a  short  vowel  follows  (as  in  other  parallel  cases 
mentioned  hereafter)  it  is  practically  suppressed*  So  asthlny 
antanito  daruni,  B AU«  iii,  9,  28  (asthlny  antar  *to)  *  and  in 
die  epic: 

paksivanaramtajfiaiq  oa,  i,  70,  45  (van  'ra), 

or  the  two  breves  must  be  read  as  a  mora-equivalent.  It  is  a 
mark  of  the  popular  style,  as  in  Agni  Purana,  iii,  11,  bibhrata 
kainaniLihim  purnam ;  ib.  x,  28,  brahmana  I)af arathena  tvam. 
Pri'tixed  extra  metrum  is  aum  in  xii,  848,  88,  Sum,  namas  te 
bmhinahrdaya,  and  elsewhere. 

The  ciiHos  of  long  initial  cited  from  the  older  epic  are  of 
quite  different  character  from  tlie  form  with  initial  long. 
The  HupiH)(HHl  parallel  from  Manu  vi,  10,  adduced  by  Gilder- 
meiKtiT,  and  cited  aI)ove,  being  removed  in  the  revised  text, 
there  reniiiin  only  a  few  {lailas  of  entirely  different  formation. 
InMte;ui  of  having  a  long  syllable  prefixed  they  follow  a  di»- 
tiiu't  tyiK*  of  tris^ubh.  The  puda  dues  not  begin  with  a  kmg 
syllable  and  then  continue  with  a  short,  but  begins  with  two 
lon^  vowels  or  heavy  Hyllables,  or  a  short  followed  by  a  long: 

(:i)   retotllifth  putra  unnaynti,  i,  74,  111 ;  H.  1, 32, 12 
()))    Bhl.smo  v:usAn«lni  anyatamah,  v,  185,  18 
(<*)   (^rAddhaiu  pitrbhyo  na  iladAti,*  r,  33,  36 

1  Ti  mi  pa  re  Aniariratirii  Miniiiiilya,  t.  1.  I«Idjrs,  R.  tU,  6^  SO. 

'  In  Miinu  i.  *u,  ritrih  nviil  dak»inijanmni.  Compm  the  simlUr  *  INv- 
anic  "  vir*c.  •lakMncni  'ryamnah  panthlnain,  cited  aboTe,  p.  S,  note  S. 

■  rMtiiiiart-  tlu*  tubucqui'iit  pltlaa :  rrtatA  iti  ml  Tocata:  dhlolmlui  iva  vU 
Trk*ah.  tli.»M^'!i  lu*re  wi*  may  n-a<l  a(h)  +  i  =  e,  at  alfo  ocraakmaHy  la  tple 
Tfr«f 

*  C^iu-U  l>v  GiMcrmrittcr,  loc.  clt^  p. 

17 


258  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

One  case  (cited  like  these  by  Jacobi)  is  found  in  the  later 
Ramayana,  vii,  21, 14, 

samt&ryamftnftn  V&itaranlm 

with  the  first  sfyllable  short  and  second  long,  e.  g.,  v,  48, 11, 
(d)   katham  samiddham  asamrddham 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  caesura  is  after  the  fifth  qrllable. 
The  forms  in  the  corresponding  (a,  b,  c,  d)  tri^tubh  padas, 
where  the  initial  length  is  indifferent,  may  be  illustrated  by : 

(a)  na  cen  mftih  Jisnur  |  Abvayitft  sabhayftm 

(b)  amantraye  tvam  |  brtlhi  jayam  rane  me 

(c)  yasya  'vibhaktam  |  vasu  rajan  sahayftih 

(d)  samftnam  mardhni  |  rathayanam  viyanti 

Many  cases  of  these  forms  will  be  shown  in  the  next  section 
on  tri^t^bhs.  The  two  formations  are  evidently  identical ;  but 
what  occurs  passim  in  the  tri^t^bh  is  sporadic  in  the  gloka. 
The  pada  in  each  case  consists  of  a  complex  of  two  metrical 
groups,  2s:  _«  H  —  ^  and  ^\j  \j  ^ot  \j  \j ^ 

An  extra  syllable  in  the  posterior  jmda  is  indicative  merely 
of  late  carelessness  under  the  power  exerted  by  names  and 
titles  which  are  hard  to  coerce  into  normal  metrical  form;  as 
in  the  spurious  verse  cited  by  Professor  Jacobi  from  R.  vi, 
105, 10,  Hiranyareta  divakarat^.  Such  cases  as  Pulastyovaca 
rajanam  or  Lak^manas  tu  tatovaca  indicate  not  a  precedent 
hypermeter  but  the  looseness  of  epic  sandhL  They  are  veiy 
common. 

There  is,  however,  a  more  regular  interior  hypermeter  which 
is  old.  Thus  in  Ka^ha  Upanishad,  vi,  8  and  vi,  11,  respect- 
ively, we  find 

avyakt^t  tu  parah  pnmsah 
apramattas  tada  bhavati 

1  The  references  for  the  tristubh  pSdas  will  be  given  below.  The  jiida 
cited  from  the  MahSbhasja,  IS.  vol.  xiii,  p.  459,  ayidySj^sah  pratjabhirSde 
is  without  parallel,  I  believe,  in  the  epic.  The  same  rule  appears  in  Bfann  U, 
123  with  abhivSda,  which  may  have  stood  here  orig^nallj,  onleM  abhi 
monosyllabic. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  269 

It  was  suggested  by  Gildenneister,  loc.  cit.  p.  274,  that  in 
such  instances  in  the  epic,  bhavati  might  be  read  as  two  qrl- 
lables,  but  he  seems  inclined  to  reject  the  notion.  Professor 
Jacobi,  on  the  other  hand,  favors  this  reading,  and  says  of 
such  cases,  ^^All  is  in  order  if  one  pronounces  Uiavati  as 
bhoti  '*  (Gurupiij.,  p.  52).  But  he  is  forced  to  add  immedi- 
ately, ^It  is  more  difficult  to  decide  how  one  could  have 
managed  with  kimsvit  suptam  na  nimiyati  and  Vat^iiin  sam- 
fddhiun  asamiddham.** 

The  explanation  lies,  I  think,  in  the  fact  that  mora- 
measurement  was  at  work  in  syllabic  verse.  This  is  very  clear 
in  tri^tubh ;  in  fact,  it  is  the  only  possible  explanation  for  a 
mass  of  forms  which  from  a  syllabic  point  of  view  are  wildly 
irregular  but  with  this  admission  of  mora-measurement  are 
easily  understood.  The  floka  cases  are  generally  found  at 
the  end  of  padas,  where  csBSura  aids  the  reading  of  two  breves 
as  eciuivolent  to  one  long.  In  the  case  of  bhavati  itself  and 
a  few  similar  forms,  where  we  know  that  bhoti  or  hoti  is  a 
dialectic  equivalent,  there  is,  to  be  sure,  no  great  objection  to 
reading  bhavati  as  bhoti,  but  the  general  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  as  a  class  is  not  that  w  w  is  eofntraeUdy  for  some 
of  the  intervening  consonants  would  make  this  impossible, 
but  measured  as  the  metrical  equivalent  of  one  long.  In  the 
examples  above  bliavati  and  puruyati  and  nimifati  are  thus 
parallel  cases.    In  Kafha  iii,  5-6,  both  pSdas  are  hypermetric : 

yas  tv  avijfiflnavAn  bhavaty 
ayukteoa  manasA  sada 
yas  tu  vijIUnavftn  bhavati 
yuktena  manasft  sadA 

I  see  no  reason  to  separate  these  cases  from  their  epic  an»> 
lo^u's.^  Here  we  have  the  oft^ited  examples  of  prior  pSdas 
Gliding  in  -triyo  bhavati,  priyo  Uiavati,  nivartayitum,  unnayati, 
iii,  SIS,  45-48.^    In  the  cases  cited  above  from  this  passage, 

1  For  more  ciamplet  from  Um  Upanithads,  eonpaft  OHiltnatlrtir,  loe. 
dt,  p.  276.  if. 

*  The  invfpiUr  nse  of  meit  la  this  paaMff*  pw^abl^  asplalM  ths  lapotrfMi 
piiU.  keDA  [sTid]  dTitlijravIo  bliATatl.  &.  47.    la  ths  lollof«ilii«  ^S^mAm.  •?» 


260  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

313,  61,  and  from  v,  43,  11,  the  same  principle  is  extended, 
exactly  as  we  shall  see  it  in  tri§tubh  verse,  where  the  second 
foot  after  the  first  dipody,  ^«_^_«,  may  be  resolved  from 
_  v>>  ^  —  into  Hy  w  w  ^.    So  here,  kirn  svit  suptam  na  nimi^ti 

may  be  on  the  tri^t^bh  model, v^,  \j\j\j\j,  which 

passes  into  and  appears  as ,  ^^^y  w  ^  cr,  as  in  the 

tri§t^bh,  V,  16,  5,  prapte  kale  pacasi  punah  samiddhat»  tvam 
eva  'gne  bhavasi  punah  prati^tha.  So  we  shall  find  labhate 
in  a  tri8t;ubh,  where  it  must  be  equal  to  \^  __,  just  as  in  the 
gloka  of  the  Dhammapada,  No.  131,  we  find  pecca  so  na 
labhate  sukham,  where  the  two  breves  must  be  measured  as 
one  long  (so  the  MSS.,  but  changed  in  the  new  text),  but  is 
not  contracted  (compare  in  prior,  prajapatig  carasi  garbhe, 
Pragna  ii,  7;  ^rlg  ca  prajfiam  ca  vidhehi  nah,  ib.  18), 

A  very  interesting  phase  of  this  question  is  the  relation  of 
the  Sanskrit  to  the  Pali.  We  have  a  proverb  in  R.  ii, 
103,  30, 

yadaunah  puruso  bhavati  tadannd^  tasya  devat&h, 

which  Professor  Lanman  at  the  Meeting  of  the  Oriental  Society 
in  1899  argued  was  from  the  Pali  form  because  there  hoti 
actually  occurs  in  the  same  proverb.^  But  against  the  cer- 
tainty (though  not  the  probability)  of  this  conclusion  stand 
the  facts  that  the  form  of  the  verb  is  undetermined  in  Pali 
and  the  hypermeter  of  this  sort  is  just  as  conmion  there  as  in 
Sanskrit.  It  is  clear,  for  example,  that  in  such  verses  as  na 
tena  bhikkhu  hoti,  Dhammapada  266,  must  be  read  (as  the 
text  now  stands)  bhavati  (compare  tatrayam  adi  bhavati,  sic, 
in  375,  and  in  other  verses  of  the  same  collection) ;  while  on 
the  other  hand,  in  387,  sannaddlio  khattiyo  tapati  (=  tap'ti) 
stands  parallel  to  similar  uncontractile  forms  in  Sanskrit  gloka 

ifl  omitted,  as  it  should  be  here.  The  other  cases  are  all  parallel  to  kena  sric 
chrotriyo  bhavati,  grutena  9rotTiyo  bhavati,  47-48. 

^  Since  publishing  an  article  on  the  Parallel  Proverbs  of  the  two  epics  in 
A.  J.  Phil.,  vol.  XX,  p.  22,  ft.,  I  have  found  a  parallel  to  this  jadannah  proverb 
in  the  Mahabharata,  viz.  yadanna  hi  narS  rajans  tadannas  tasya  devatSh,  where 
tasva  is  still  preserved  though  the  plural  noun  precedes !  It  is  (of  course) 
from  the  careless  pseudo-epic,  xiil,  06,  61. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  261 

and  tri^tubh  forms.  There  is  then  no  real  necessity  for 
changing  the  latter  to  khatyo  (a  possible  form.) 

Nevertheless,  in  the  case  of  Uiavati  itself,  which  like  bhos 
may  have  been  current  as  bhoti  in  Sanskrit  as  well  as  in 
dialectic  form,  the  latter  may  have  been  used,  and  a  dual 
pronunciation  may  be  accepted  and  given  as  a  probable  reason 
for  its  frequent  recurrence  in  apparent  hypermeters.^  In 
other  words,  padas  with  this  word  majf  pouibly  not  be  true 
hypermeters,  as  miut  be  other  forms  which  are  not  thus  con- 
tracted or  contractile.  That  a  hoti  in  Pali  may  stand  for 
an  original  bhavati,  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Dhammap. 
260withMbh.iii,188, 11: 

na  tena  thero  hoti  [bhavati]  yen'  assa  phalitam  siro 
na  tena  sthaviro  bhavati  yenft  'sya  palitam  girah 

Compare  Manu  ii,  156,  na  tena  vjddho  bhavati  (v.  L  sthaviro 
in  some  of  the  commentators).  Another  of  these  numerous 
bhavati  proverbs  is  found  in  Dhammiqp.  268,  na  monena  muni 
hoti,  Mbh.  V,  48,  60,  maunan  na  sa  munir  bhavatL* 

Dialaotio  Sanskrit. 

Accepting  bhoti  (=:  hoti)  as  a  possible  dialectic  Sanskrit 
form,  I  have  next  to  show  that  the  mafa  for  mSfa  principle,  as 
illuHtrated  in  the  paragraph  above,  is  subject  to  an  important 
restriction.  It  would  be  quite  wrong  to  suppose  that  the 
mass  of  grammatical  irregularities  are  of  a  form  entirely 
arbitrary,  or  that,  in  general,  a  grammatical  modification  that 
is  found  rei)eatedly  in  one  category  may  be  utilized  for 
metrical  puq>oscs  in  any  other  of  the  same  outer  appearance. 
I  say  in  general,  because  I  admit  that  here  and  there  in  the 
epic  (K'riir  grammatical  monstrosities  and  forms  not  subject  to 
metre,  thougli  irregular,  but  what  is  of  moment  is  that  ma9t  <(f 
the  grammatical  irreffularitie$  in  th$  0pie  ar$  mtrtly 


^  That  xii,  283.  IS,  ^mrinuh  fnja^id  bhaTatl,  mttrtiiiist  fodscltnuilumit 
and  of  ton. 

*  <  >n  ttie  rariant  to  the  jaiUiiiia^  pcoTtrb  coatsincd  Is  th«  worda  jaedttss 
tanaajo  bhATati,  tee  p.  4S. 


262  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

variations.  For  this  reason  in  the  paragraph  above,  headed* 
Poetic  Licence,  I  have  been  careful  to  state  that  the  modi- 
fications were  those  of  Sanskrit  forms,  not  that  they  were 
absolute  alterations  of  received  forms,  independent  of  any- 
grammatical  basis.  I  believe  the  latter  cases  to  be  exces- 
sively rare,  while  on  the  contrary  there  is  some  sort  of  gram- 
matical authority  for  most  of  the  changes  so  abundantly 
introduced.  Metre  surpasses  Sanskrit  grammar  but  not 
grammar  altogether.  What  then?  Where  Sanskrit  gram- 
mar fails,  the  poets  had  recourse  to  patois.^ 

As  I  have  already  shown,  a  large  majority  of  the  cases 
imder  consideration  are  comprised  under  the  head  of  feminine 
•participles  and  first  plurals  of  verbs,  with  a  smaller  nimiber  of 
various  forms.^ 

Some  of  these,  like  brumi,  are  at  once  dialectic  and  yet 
accepted  as  Sanskrit.  There  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not 
regard  kurmi,  Gatha  kurumi,  in  tatha  kurmi  and  kim  kurmi  *ti 
krtafijalih,  iii,  142,  44 ;  H.  3,  14,  12,  as  on  a  par  with  brumL 
The  latter  occurs  not  only  in  R.  vi,  9,  20  (where  G.  reads 
bravimi,  v,  80,  22),  but  also  in  R.  ii,  19,  4 ;  iii,  18, 17 ;  iv,  7, 
14.  So  R.  ii,  12,  36,  afi jalim  kurmi ;  vii,  78,  20,  aharam  gar- 
hitam  kurmi.  So  too  vedmi  and  dadmi,  e.  g.,  R.  ii,  53,  21 ; 
vi,  124, 17,  aham  apy  atra  te  dadmi,  which  in  the  later  Bharata 
is  more  and  more  frequent.  Others  appear  to  be  gross  violar 
tions  of  grammar,  like  °nati  and  vidui^ah,  nominative,  as  in 
parallel  forms,  tasthusam  puru^am,  xii,  317,  17,  etc.,*  but  they 
may  be  not  only  Vedic  but  dialectic,  as  Pali  °ati  and  vidfi 
(=  vidviin)  may  imply.     Doubtless  some  are  pure  archaisms, 

^  So  far  as  I  know,  this  important  subject  has  only  been  touched  upon  in 
a  note  by  Kielhom,  JRAS.,  1808,  p.  18,  who  says :  "  In  the  so-called  epic 
Sanskrit  there  are  not  a  few  forms  and  constructions  which  seem  to  me  to  be 
Pili  rather  than  Sanskrit." 

>  Lengthening  of  a  Towel  metri  gratift  is  caUed  Srsam  almost  inyariably 
by  the  commentators.  Some  of  the  cases  are  really  archaic;  others  are 
clearly  a  sacrifice  of  form  to  metre,  generally  for  the  diiambus,  at  in  R.  t, 
36,  21,  sukhanam  ucito  nityam  asukhanSm  aniicitah. 

>  To  Prof,  lloltzmann's  list  I  add  (the  reduplicated  fonns,  {  ^^)  tasthofl, 
X,  8,  70,  and  nedu^am  (apsarasSm),  iz,  67, 08. 


EPIC  VERSJFICATIOir.  268 

as  in  vifva,  lack  of  augment,  va  for  iva,  and  vaiying  final  vowel 
length  (atM  pari,  na,  etc.) ;  but  when  we  consider  that  the 
participle  is  indifferently  bliavati  and  bhavanti,  and  that  the 
first  plural  verb  ends  regularly  in  ma  in  all  forms,*  tliat,  for 
instance,  asma  is  regular,  we  shall  hesitate  to  speak  of  any 
general  grammar-sacrifice  save  that  of  Sanskrit  Thus  krS- 
mati  (for  kram)  is  Prakrit.*  In  the  older  epic,  arbitrary 
chiinges  were  not  introduced  at  will,  but  dialectic  forms  were 
borrowed.  Even  upasante  for  upasate  (compare  the  older 
hiiisiite  for  hiiiste,  K.  iv,  53, 16)  is  merely  a  dialectic  change  of 
conjugation,  just  as  is  tlie  case  with  tlie  forms  dadanti^ 
jahaiiti  (compare  Dhainmap.,  hinsati  and  dadanti,  okam  okaxh 
jahanti  te,  etc.).  These  fonus,  it  is  important  to  observe,  can- 
not l)e  explained  on  the  assumption  tliat  epic  Sanskrit  precedes 
tlie  differentiation  of  correct  (Sanskrit)  and  vulgar  (l^riikrit) 
forms,  l)ecause,  were  that  the  case,  they  would  appear  passim; 
whereas  they  appear  usually,  as  in  sva^mmi  for  svapimi  and 
grliya  for  grliitva  (cited  above,  pp.  205,  247),  only  when 
the  metre  requires  them.  Take,  for  insUuice,  the  clear  ease 
(»f  patois,  geha  for  grha.  It  occurs  in  iii,  69  (Nala  17), 
15-16  io  prevent  a  <Iiiimibus  at  the  end  of  a  prior  pada  (though 
grha  is  usihI  in  the  precinling  verse) ;  again  at  v,  86,  84,  to 
pn*vent  the  minor  Ionic ;  in  ii,  68, 1,  to  prevent  a  tliird  vipulft 
from  following  a  brcvis,  bhavanti  gehe  bandhakyah;  in  iii, 
8o3,  13,  to  pn*v(*nt  m\  anapaest,  mama  gehe  maya  ca  *8ya 
(for  the  s;ime  n*;ison  in  R.  vii,  68,  20) ;  in  xii,  886,  25,  to 
avoid  trii.iinhus  in  an  even  {uula.  Dialei'tic  are  further,  in  all 
prolMhllity,  tlio  exrhaiige  of  weak  and  strong  [>erfet*t  forms 

1  'Ph'  rliinco  U  not  rpallr  frniinmaticAl  hut  phonetic,  at  l>r.  Thorp  hat 
phiiv%ii,  «iiii  (•  the  prvti-rito  ii  not  ummI  for  tht*  pn*K*ot  but  the  primarj  i'n<ling 
i*  ri  'liK  .  •!  fri>rn  niaa  to  ma  {Ukd  ma/  b«  contracted,  aa  in  na  Jioime  'ly  athi 
'l.ru\a!i.  T.  Iji).  'J I  J. 

*  I'liii  !>i  I.  <ir»nimatik  der  IVIkrit  Sprachen.  |  481.  For  sraplmi,  compare 
it> .  S  r.'T  .  f<ir  aaivi  at  na  ■vit.  |  444;  for  neuter  in«tead  of  maac.,  |  367. 
rrtift«fl>>r  Pivchil'i  mini*  of  wi-alth  came  to  hand  only  after  this  book  had 
fr<*ii«'  t'i  (iri'^*.  or  I  ot>uM  haw  i(\rtn  a  mure  ajitematii'  aa  wi>U  aa  fnUer  treal* 
nil  tt  .f  A  I  ••niparit<in  ba»«il  chirfl/  on  Santknl  and  I*in,  and  anch  few  di»> 
III  til  f.irtnii  a«  chani*«  fumiahod.  Bot  I  think  the  more  the  epic  ia  ataditd 
thi-  iiiurt-  I'rakrit  «iU  be  found. 


264  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

and  perfects  without  reduplication,  when  needed  for  metre, 
akarjatuti,  i»  163,  44 ;  bibheduh,  viii,  82, 16  (to  avoid  a  brevia 
before  a  second  yipula);  the  exchange  of  nominative  and 
accusative,  au§adhayah  (acc.)»^  though  this  is  also  Vedic. 

But  the  epic  took  long  in  making,  and  while  the  earlier 
poets  drew  on  dialectic  forms  (thereby  creating  a  sort  of 
Gatha  dialect,  though  not  so  gross  as  the  genuine  article),  the 
later  poets  did  exactly  what  the  later  Greek  hexameter  poets 
did,  viz.,  copied  their  predecessors  instead  of  borrowing  from 
the  life.  Consequently  they  made  blunders.  The  early  poets, 
for  example,  used,  metri  causfi,  optative  for  indicative,  viii,  89, 
22,  and  often  (as  in  late  Upanishads,  e.  g.,  ^vet.  v,  6)  a  vulgar 
confusion ;  and  ma  for  mas  and  dadanti  for  dadati ;  because 
they  knew  that  these  were  spoken  forms,  if  not  the  polite  forms 
(which  they  used  by  preference  when  convenient) ;  but  the 
later  poetaster  knew  only  that  the  old  epic  poets  had  mixed 
up  ma  and  mas  and  anti  and  ati,  and  so  he  used  the  un- 
Sanskrit  forms  not  only  more  frequentiy  but  more  incorrectiy. 
Thus  he  said  apa9yamas,  ix,  1,  20,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  use 
bhavati  for  bhavanti,  of  course  only  in  the  later  epic,  as  in  iii, 
211,  9  (a  late  chapter,  above,  p.  34),  anyonyam  na  'tivartante 
samyak  ca  bhavati^  dvija.  Compare  the  wisdom  to  be  learned 
at  Mitliila,  in  the  preceding  copy  of  Valmiki's  proverb,  striyo 
hy  avadliyah  sarvesam  ye  dharmam  abhivindate,  iii,  206,  46 
(na  hantuvya  striya  iti,  vii,  143,  67).  So  in  xiii,  145,  20 
(alpabuddhayah),  bubhu§ate  (for  diiambus)  ;  and,  in  the  later 
Ramiiyana,  prajas  tam  anuvartate,  R.  vii,  43,  19  (v.  62,  9, 
interpolated  ?  above,  p.  245). 

1  Both  in  Mhb.,  pnsnSmy  SuRadhayah  sarvah,  i,  78,  40 ;  and  R.  drakfjasj 
otadhayo  diptah,  vi,  74,  32.  Compare  sarrah  prakrtayah  ^anfiih  .  .  .  sarii- 
jahara  (Ja^ugrha  Panran)  and  ib.  145,  4 ;  with  R.  t!^  112,  10,  santvayitri 
prakrtayah.  Carelessness  in  the  length  of  vowels  in  declension  is  also  a  mark 
of  patois  (epic  examples  above).  The  Ramaynna  has  some  genders  which 
maj  be  dialectic.  Thej  certainly  arc  not  Sanskrit :  parikhin  (!)  purayanta9 
ca,  R.  vi,  42,  IG ;  ciksipur  vividhan  (astran  (!),  R.  yi,  63,  20  (both  lacking  at 
such  in  pw.),  etc.  As  remarked  above,  some  of  this  maybe  scribe's  work. 
Thus  yada  veda9rutir  nasta,  xii,  340,  105 ;  veda^rutim  yathi,  G.  iv,  5, 4 ;  bat 
in  R.  0,  5,  nastaiii  deva9rutlm  ("  arsa  ")  iva.  But  merely  for  metro  is  doyam 
for  dosah,  R.  v,  28,  6 ;  G.  vi,  33,  30. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  266 


In  the  careless  writing  of  the  pseudo-epiCi  Sanskrit  grammar 
is  flung  to  tlie  winds.  I  do  not  mean  that  irregular  forms  are 
not  found  outside  of  it.  Substitution  of  the  arconjugation  is 
found  in  adadftt^  iii,  178, 8 ;  275, 40 ;  ix,  51, 10 ;  though  the  last 
is  an  evident  interpolation,  and  as  the  forms  are  not  required 
metrically  in  the  other  cases  it  is  stiU  open  to  question 
whetlier  they  do  not  contain  just  such  copy-slips  as  are  founds 
e.  g.,  in  the  Vayu  Purai^a,  where  viii,  163  has  vyadadhat  pra- 
bhul>,  wliile  165  has  adadat  prabhu^  The  cases  in  the  older 
epic  are,  however,  not  frequent  (in  xi,  25,  5,  jahSti  is  8d  sg.)^ 
but  in  the  late  epic  they  flourish  like  reeds  (compare  jahanti 
in  i,  172,  8 ;  dadanti  in  xii,  25,  7 ;  841, 16 ;  xiii,  62,  46,  etc.), 
and  it  in  just  here  that  new  irregularities  are  found.  Thus 
vifvcdeviln  apnoti,  xii,  818,  5 ;  vigvedevebhya^  xiii,  97,  14. 
Even  such  a  s^oitaetical  monstrosity  as  the  Gathaism  iti  vai 
nienire  vayam  (with  Himilar  cases  there)  is  not  shunned,  xii, 
837,  38,  to  say  notliing  of  the  syntactical  confusion  in  'a^vi- 
bhyilm  pataye  cili  Va  marutam  pataye  tatha,  xii,  841, 108.  In 
Uie  Uiirteenth  l)(>ok,  besides  kurvB^as,  xiii,  17,  181,  we  find 
smahe,  xiii,  1, 13;  98,  41 ;  stam  for  astam,  ib.  98,  7;  the  first 
inMt<inoo  of  a  finite  negative  verb,^  another  Gathaism  (compare 
ajanelii  for  ina  jiuiaya),  afterwanls  somewliat  affected :  dr^yate 
Mrvyato  ca  *pi,  xiii,  14,  160.  Here  also,  another  Gathaism, 
the  i><>pulariz(^I  change  of  the  fdeclension,  apaharta  and 
hartu  ( topHhtT  with  Atliarva,  which,  however,  is  in  late  Upa^ 
ni^hiuK  Mund.  i,  1,  epic  athanr'^ya  namab),  sra^ti^rSya  nama||u 
ih.  300-310  and  318-814.  So  etSn  for  etani,  xiii,  62,  55. 
Such  ncKtlo^Hms  go  far  l)eyond  the  current  interchange  in 
uiiasiinti*  and  viUiNinyiil]!  (arc.),*  also  found  here,  xiii,  104, 19; 

1  With  tli«*  inflnitiro.  r.  ir..  xr,  11. 1A.  nl  'dllQiii.  Th^  negatlTe  teHs  v«% 
ie\rvn  hore  In  C ,  «n«l  rvHiuinnl  hj  thr  troir)  la  not  recofpilied  la  the  gnmmut 
«»  m'riirrint;  b«*fiir«*  tho  rliMlcal  prHod. 

s  In  (iiti  10.  in  «n«l  10.  ItmivlbhSUTAh  nuj  be  nomliutlTe.  Tht  fam  M 
aor  ran  •rarr«*lT  ho  a  VimHc  rrrmlon.  The  Ofll  ftlU  wea  bo  =  ns  «•  mnd  ts 
in  iii.  :U.  11  :  hut  In  liii.  .M,  10.  Tad  eud  apl  no  mUfam,  iie  b  almplj  tatenad 
r«rt  1«  >•  f«ir  na.  K«litnr«  or  ropyitta  hmve  tried  to  ehaaire  bhtTstl  and 
thi-  ttxt  in  r.  XT,  rro  (-  11. 21 ),  bnt  they  enanot  te  ilU,e2,  SO,  and  la 
bhaTati  hhumidam,  it  Mill  coverna  the 


266  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

107,  89,  and  bring  ns  into  the  field  of  sloyenly  adaptation 
from  any  source,  which  characterizes  the  slipshod  Sanskrit  of 
later  epic  and  Puranas  alike. 

Prose-Poetry  Tales. 

In  the  Verhandlungen  der  Phihlogenver%ammlung  in  Qera^ 
1878,  attention  was  called  by  Professor  Windisch  to  a  "pre- 
epic  phase  of  poetry,"  consisting  of  prose  narration  inter- 
spersed with  ^thas  or  verses  of  popular  form  which  helped 
on  the  story.  One  epic  tale,  which  has  gone  over  into  later 
verse-form,  has  been  shown  by  Professor  Oldenberg,  in  his 
article  on  the  old-Indic  Akhyana,^  to  exist  in  a  prototype  of 
this  kind.  Such  mingling  of  prose  and  verse,  as  remarked 
by  the  latter  writer,  is  found  in  the  epic  itself,  in  i,  8.  There 
is  also,  though  not  of  epic  content,  a  kind  of  rhythmic  prose 
which  is  half  metrical,  as  in  xii,  190,  5  ff. :  tatra  yat  satyam. 
sa  dharmo,  yo  dharmah  sa  praka^o,  yaJbi  praka^as  tat  sukham 
iti  .  .  •  yat  tamas  tad  dulikham  iti,  atro  'cyate  (three  9lokas) ; 
tat  khalu  dvividham  sukham  ucyate  (.  .  .  to  13) :  susukha^ji 
pavanah  svarge,  gandha^  ca  surabhi^  tatha,  etc.  Here  the 
epic  Upanishad  glides  in  and  out  of  metre,  the  last  verse  be- 
fore the  resumption  of  §loka  being  again  metrical,  in  a  form 
of  tri^tiubh  found  elsewhere  in  the  epic:  na  cai  'te  do^a^ 
svarge  pradur  bhavanti. 

The  next  chapters  to  this  have  alternate  prose  and  ^lokas, 
the  latter  appearing  either,  as  at  the  end  of  191,  without  warn- 
ing, or  introduced  with  the  words  "  there  's  a  stanza  about 
tliat,"  bhavati  ca  'tra  9lokah.  In  192,  one  unannounced  9loka 
follows  the  introductory  prose,  then  more  prose,  and  with  the 
words  bhavanti  ca  'tra  glokah  follow  one  ^loka  and  two 
triatubhs.^  after  which  ^lokas  are  again  resumed. 

It  happens  that  a  late  poet  runs  on  in  tri^tubhs  till  he 

1  ZDMG.,  vol.  xxxvii,  p.  54  ft 

«  The  9loka  here,  xii,  7006,  is  another  form  of  a  proverb  (fiven  elsewhere 
in  the  epic,  ahhayam  sarvabhutebhyo  dattvS,  and  may  be  added  to  SprAche, 
4vS5,  480.  ?lok5h  here  scarcely  connotes  tristubhs  (as  in  the  BrShmAna8),but 
includes  them  with  the  yloka. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  267 

stumbles  and  ends  in  prose,  xii,  886, 10,  after  seveiBl  tri^taUiB : 
(vetafi  pumaiiso  gatasarvapap&f  cak9armu9a|^  papokitam  naift- 
nam,  vajrasthikayaltji  samamanonmSnS  divya(n)  -▼a7a(Ta)r&- 
pa^  9ubliasaropeta]|i,  etc.,  in  pure  prose.  There  is,  further,  a 
good  deal  of  plain  prose  narration  in  the  first,  third,  and 
twelfth  books  and  in  a  hymn  in  H.  8,  68  (praise  by  titles). 

But  a  tale  of  the  prose-verse  variety  exists  complete  in  the 
story  of  the  Frog-girl,  iii,  192.  In  this  apparent  prose  there 
are  not  only  metrical  and  half-metrical  padas  and  hemistichs, 
such  as  mnmniyam  san)  dfB(va,  but  even  regular  epic  pSdas, 
such  aa  mudal  (xiramaya  yuta^«  the  latter  being  indeed  a  stereo- 
tyiHHl  epic  phrase,  as  in  iii,  256,  20 ;  295, 16.  The  verses  here, 
as  was  14  >  t)e  expected,  are  freer  than  in  the  regular  epic  style.' 

The  tale  begins: 

2.  atha  'casta  MOrkandeyah  (aparvam  idam  Qrayat&m) 

The  ()i)ening  line  of  C,  18,148,  is  not  in  B.  From  the 
oiK'nings  in  the  follo\iing  tales,  parv.  196  and  198,  the  pluuse 
athfi  Viuita  Markandeya^  was  stereotyped  and  united  with  the 

prvcediiig,  thus : 

bhQya  eva  mahabhftgyam  kathyat&m  iti  abravlt 

atlift  'casta  MOrkandevah 

•  •  •  •  #    • 

In  the  pn^sent  tale  the  former  appears  as:  bhQya  eva  biih- 
niaijuuuahuhhiigyam  vaktum  arhasi  *ti  abravlt 

In  the  f()ll<)\iing  mixture  of  prose  and  metre  it  b  sometimes 
difliciilt  t4)  Hay  whether  tlie  rougher  metrical  parts  ought  to  be 
toiichtML  Ft)r  insUince,  at  the  beginning,  Ikfvakukulodvaha^ 
[iTirlhiviili  Parlk.Hin  nunia  nifgayam  agamat  may  have  been 
prositl  out  of  Ik^vfikukulavanlluuiab  Parikiiin  n&ma  p&rthiva|^ 
nitpiy:liii  giiUivfin  nn>uh«  or  some  such  turn.  So  in  the  next 
Miit4'iir(\  tain  ckavveiia  nifgam  anusanuitam«  from  tarn  a^veni 
*iinsiir.intani ;  whil«^  for  the  ninth  stanza  or  paragraph  it  woaU 
lie  a  hin  i>f  oiiiisnion  m)t  to  note  how  easy  it  is  to  read:  alha 

>  In  another  rate,  ill.  1(M,  the  wctJoB  twffat  mmI  cada  In  priMe,  b«t  Imm 
finkns  U-twrin,  the  laat  hemlatlch  of  which,  brfort  th«  nAmiloa  cloMS  la 
pri»»«-.  Iiat  tho  fn-v  meaauiv  cited  «hove,  p.  344,  ^  ^  _  ^,  v/^^«^ 
v/_w-.w .  i'tac  chratvi  ta  KInnTja^  ^b4m  pcadskfifsA  k|t?l» 


268  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

kanyam  gayantim  ca  pu^pani  ca  Vacinyatim ;  apa^yad,  atha  sa 
rajiiah  samipatah  paryakrSmat ;  all  with  freedom  not  unknown 
to  the  epic  §loka.  But  any  change  would  in  the  first  place  be 
pure  guesswork,  and  besides  why  should  ^lokas  have  become 
prose?  Again,  these  tales  are  built  with  prose  bricks  and 
metrical  mortar  and  it  is  not  strange  that  the  mortar  occasion- 
ally runs  over  the  brick.^  I  therefore  abstain  except  in  two 
or  three  cases  (in  some,  as  wiU  be  seen,  where  the  length  of 
prose  invites  verse)  from  the  temptation  to  make  ^loka  padas 
out  of  clauses  more  or  less  metrical,  and  write  the  story  as  it 
stands  (with  prose  omissions  as  indicated  below) : 

1-4,  Ayodhyaydm  Iksvakukulodvahah  p^rthivah  Parlksin  nftma 
mrgay&m  agamat,  tarn  ekd^vena  mrgam  anosarantam 

mrgo  duram  ap&harat  (5,  prose) 

6,  ramanlyam  saro  drstva 
sa^va  eva  vyagahata 

7,  madhuram  gitam  a^rnot 

8,  sa  qrutva 'cintayan  no 'ha 
manusyagatim  paqyami 

kasya  khalv  ayam  gltaqabda  iti.^  9,  atha  'pa^at  kanyam  para- 
marilpadarqanlyam  puspany  avacinvatim  gayantim  ca,  atha  sft 
raj£[ah  samipe  paryakramat.    10,  tarn  abravid  raja 

kasya  'si  bhadre  ka  va  tvam  (iti)  • 
sa  pratyuvaca  kanya  'smi  (iti) 

^  That  is  to  say,  as  in  the  case  given  in  the  last  note,  a  more  or  lest  regular 
verse  may  incidentally  and  accidentally  be  shaped  in  prose  narration  with- 
out its  being  intended  as  regular  verse,  though  the  poetic  style  of  the  en- 
vironment may  have  induced  such  prose-poetry  subconsciously.  As  for  the 
metaphor  above,  except  as  illustrating  my  meaning  very  roughly,  I  cannot 
defend  it.  On  the  contrary,  as  the  verse-element  in  tales  was  fixed  and  uaed 
in  many  buildings,  while  the  prose  was  crumbled  up  and  renewed  in  each  new 
edifice  built  of  the  same  brick,  it  would  not  be  quite  unhistorical  to  invert  it 
and  speak  of  poetic  bricks  and  prose  mortar. 

*  Was  this  :  kasya  khalu  ayam  yabdah  ? 

'  This  or  ki  'si  kasya  kutay  ca  tvam  is  an  ordinary  epic  (verse)  formula, 
With  the  preceding,  compare  (STta)  kusumany  apacinvanti  (prior  pida),  and 
kusumani  viclnvatT,  R.  iii,  42,  32  ;  43, 1. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  269 

tftm  rftjo  'vftca  arthi  tvayft  'ham  iti.*    11,  atho  'vfloa  kanyi 

samajena  aham  qakyft 
tvayft  labdhum  na  anjathft 

iti,  raja  tftm  samayam  apicchati  kanyo  'vfioa 

DO  'dakam  me  dan^ayitaryam  (dar^tavyam  f ) 

iti,  12,  sa  rftja  tftm  bftdham  ity  oktvft  tftm  apayemey*  krtodvfthaQ 
ca  rftjft  Parlksit  kridamftuo 

mudft  paramayft  yutah* 

tusnTm  saiiigamya  tayft  sahft  'ste.  IS,  tatas  tatrfti  'vft  'sine 
rftjani  senft  'nvagacohat(a).  14,  aft  seDo  'paTistam  rftjftnam  pari- 
vftryft  'tisthat,  paryftqvastaQ  ca  rftjft  tayfti  'vasaha  qibikayft  prftyfld 
avaghotitayft  8ya(iii)  nagaram  anuprftpya  rahasi  tayft  sahft  'ste.* 
15,  tatra  'bhyfti^tho  'pi  ka^in  nft  'paijyad  atha  pradhftnftmfttyo 
'bhyftqacarfts  tasya  striyo  'prcchat.*  16,  kim  atra  prayojanam 
vartate  (vartata)  ity,  athft  'bruvans  tfth  striyah.* 

17,  aparvam  idam  paqyftma 
udakam  nft  'tra  nlyata(e) 

ity,  athft  'mfttyo  'nudakam  vanam  kftrayitvo  'dftravrksam,  etc. 

18,  vanam  idam  udftrakam* 
sftdhv  atra  ramyatftm  iti 

1  Pc'rhapi  Minarthl  tvAji  bhadre  liain  (coropsre  88). 

*  Mort*  naturml  would  be :  m  rijft  bidhain  \\j  uktTi  tlih  kavyim  vpsjemt 
ha. 

*  A  rofrular  opic  phnue  In  taHoiu  forrnt,  rondi,  9ri/i,  pritjrft,  etc^  witli 
juuh  or  Tukuh,  acc>ur«Hnir  to  the  plda.  Compare  the  rrfervneee  above  aad 
ii.  ^>:},^^'i :' NaU,  2«).  40 :  ix,27.0:  80,42;  pri^i  paramaji  juku^,  U,  66, 4 ;  B. 
1,^2.  ll.rtc. 

«  Th«*  trttfi  friiro  'nrafracrhat  and  'nTa^acchata,  ivanairarani  and  ivaA 
njipAraiii.  Thin  iiiav  point  to  a  comtption.  LcaTing  oat  the  floe  |lalanqitin : 
tata^  tatrai  'vi'fiiio  (tu  *)  rijRi  M*ni  *nTaKacchata  at  (tu)  avno 'pavlf (am  (ha) 
pari  vary  a  ati»thata,  paryi^iraiUv  ca  (aa)  riji  annpripja  iTaiiafaram  rahaay 
intr  tayi  talia.  Thv  lontr  atrvtch  of  proae  favors  thla.  CoBpaiv  QTica  ea 
taya  n^ilia.  an  rpir  phraio,  v.  )(.« i,  73, 31). 

*  TliiTr  i*  no  (»hjiH*t  to  thi*  flnt  Tcrb.  Waa  It  not :  tatrl  'bhylfastKo  *pl 
kav  in  '^<*  liriiM  na  apayyata,  atha  prailhinftmlt/aa  tn  taa/a  itri/ah  apfcchsts  f 

*  Ilii*  iiKirt*  pri»hal>li*  form  la  rartate  kIm  prajojanam;  kim  prayoJaasM  Is 
a  n-uMilar  <  pir  (•!<••«•  nf  a  lu*rolitich.  Compare  for  ejumpls,  sUI,  96^  81.  ksqrft 
'rthi',  knit  |ira%«ijaiiani. 

'  ^K-.  H  ;  (*,  uiliram  anudakam 


270  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

After  this,  prose  to  28-26, 

kruddho  Sjfiflpay&masa  (sa  r&jft)  •  •  • 
yathft  vrttam  nyavedajan 

.  •  •  27,  iti,  9lokau  ca  'tra  bhavata^  (28-29).  Compare  y, 
64,  5,  where,  although  the  whole  text  is  in  ^lokas,  one  stanza 
is  especially  mentioned,  (lokena  'nena,  Kauravya,  papraecha 
sa  mimis  tada. 

SO,  tam  evam  T^dinam  istajanaQokaparlt&tmft  rftja  'tho  Vfica 

31,  na  hi  ksamyate  tan  mayft 
hani^yamy  etan  etair  duratmabhih,  etc. ;  prose  to 

32,  sa  tad  yftkyam  upalabhya 

etc.,  prose  to  88. 

In  the  following  I  omit  references  to  the  intervening  prose 
and  give  the  metrical  padas  in  their  order: 

33,  tam  abravld  raja  taya 
samarthl,^  sa  me  dlyatam 

34,  athai  'nam  rajfie  pita  'dad  * 
abravio  ca  enam  enam 
rajanam  QUQrasasve  'ti ' 

35,  evam  uktva  duhitaram 

36,  harsena  baspakalaya 
vaca  *  prapatya  'bhiptljya 
mandakarajam  abravld 
anugrhlto  'smi  iti  (so.  te,  omit  iti) 

37,  yathagatam  agacchat(a) 

1  In  C,  asmy  aham  arthL 

*  In  C,  dadin.    Perhaps  sa  dadlo. 

*  Perhaps :  abravic  ca  duhitaram  enam  rljinain  ^(Hisa,  ItL 

^  A  stereotyped  phrase,  either  straddling  the  pSdas  of  a  verse,  Nala,9,S5; 
or  in  a  pSda  (after  one  syllable),  as  in  si^  iy,  20,  28 ;  B.  11,  82, 10.  Perhapf 
here :  sa  bSspakalayS  ySca  pranipatyS  'bhlpujya  ca. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  271 

38,  atha  kasyaoit  kfilasya  ^ 
tasy&m  kumftrfts  (te)  trayas 
tasya  rftjfiah  sambabhaTul^ 
9alo  Dalo  Balaq  oe  'ti 
tatas  tesftm  jyesfham  9alam 

samaye  pitS  rajye  'bhi^icya '  tapaai  dhrt&tmS  vanam  ja{^(ina» 
prose  through  89.    In  the  following  Tale  of  Qftla : 

40y  satam  co  'yfica,  Qlgbiam  mftdi 
vahasva  [iti],  sa  tath&  ukta^  * 
sato  rftjftnam  abravlt 

41,  na  kriyatftm  anabandho 
nfti  'sa  Qakyas  tvayft  mfgo 
'jram  grahltuniy  yady  api  te 
rathe  yukt&a  yamyfta  syatAm  (iti) 
tato  "bravld  rftjft  satam 

42,  athai  'nam  evam  bmyftnam 

[abraTid  rftja] 
VAmadeyfif ramam  yahi  (iti)  * 

43,  bhagavan,  mrgo  [me  Tiddhah]  pallyate 
sambh&vayitom  arhasi 

[v&myaa  datomi  iti,  tarn  abraTid  {fir 
dadani  te  vftmyaa] 

krtakAryena  bharatft 

mamai  'va*  vftmyaa  niryityia 

[ksipram  iti] 
.  •  .  antahpnre  asthapayat 

44,  atha  'rsiq  ciDtayamAsa 
tanino  rAjaputro  Csti) 
kalyanam  pattram  asadya 

>  An  epic  phnue  with  ▼arlAtiom,  luqradl  tr  atha  klluya,  H.  8, 6^  11,  tie. 

s  Poasihlj :  pitft  rlj/e  l>hjafccajat  UU^  UpMl  dhfUtml  Tuuufa  JagliM 
(•«  riji) :  or :  piU  rijjt  'bhificja  ol  Both  art  formvlat,  at  ia  1,74^  US  tad 
75,  r»A. 

■  The  u>xt  haa :  rahafTeti  ta  tatho  lila^  ptrliapt  at  rnveh  of  a  Ytnt  at  it 
the  form  aboTe.    At  in  35,  tht  Iti  pidat  art,  I  admit,  partkilarlj  bad. 

«  B.  prajr&hi. 

»  8oB. 


272  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ramate  na  (me)  pratiDiryatayaty,  aho  kastam  iti  (prose  to  48,  ff. 
tristubhs). 

Though  far  from  epic  verse,  this  is  not  exactly  prose,* 
which,  though  often  rhythmical,  is  not  metrical  to  such  an 
extent  as  this.  Further,  the  actual  presence  of  epic  padas 
in  the  narrative  shows  beyond  question  that  it  is  meant  to 
be  couched  more  or  less  in  metrical  form.  Of  what  sort 
then  is  this  metrical  prose?  It  is,  I  think,  an  early  form 
of  popular  verse,  older  than  the  present  epic  ^loka,  which, 
as  I  have  remarked  above,  is  probably  more  refined  than  it 
was  when  first  written  and  is  less  free  even  than  the  M aha- 
bhai^ya  epic  9loka.  It  is  not,  however,  necessarily  antique, 
nor  necessarily  modem.  It  is,  in  short,  the  instrument  of  the 
perpetual  story-teller,  a  naive  form,  running  in  and  out  of 
prose  like  rhymes  in  fairy  tales.^ 

1  Benfej,  Panchatantra  (translation),  voL  i,  p.  259,  sajB  that  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  two  9loka8  (28-29),  "  the  rest  of  the  narrative  is  in  prose." 

'  The  same  tendency  to  the  creation  of  pSda  verse  (not  arranged  in  9loka 
form)  may  be  seen  in  the  prose  tale  of  i,  3,  where,  besides  the  regular  verses 
in  the  prose  narration,  are  found  such  metrical  combinations  as : 

Janamejaya  evam  ukto 

devayunya  Saramaya  .  .  . 

etasminn  antare  ka9cid 

rsir  Dhaumyo  nama  'podas  .  .  . 

sa  ekam  yisyam  Arunim 

Pa&calyani  presayamasa  .  .  . 

sa  upadhyaycna  samdista  Arunih, 

the  last  being  a  respectable  tristubh  pada.  If,  however,  this  and  the  tale  of 
Sugobhana  be  regarded  (as  Benfey  says)  as  pure  prose,  what  difference  is 
there  between  the  other  parts  which  will  not  give  any  rhythmical  cadence 
and  such  a  rhythmical  complex  as,  c.  g.,  ramaniyam  saro  drs^va,  si^va  era 
vyagahata,  kruddho  SjSapayam  asa,  and  yathS  vrttam  nyavedayan?  And 
how  does  it  happen  that  kasya  'si  ni)hadre  kS  vS  tvam,  and  mudft  paramayi 
yutah  and  .  .  .  baspakalaya  |  vaca  are  actual  verses  found  in  the  epici 
There  is  a  literary  product  which  is  neither  prose  nor  poetry,  but  a  middle 
genre,  a  sort  of  dog-trot  between  walking  and  running,  into  which  a  narrator 
may  drop  without  the  conscious  campu  alternation  of  padya  and  gadya  (poetry 
and  prose)  found  in  more  precise  literature.  It  is  perhaps  not  extravagant  to 
say  that  beneath  the  cultured  verse  of  the  literati  this  kind  of  style  may  have 
existed  for  centuries  and  even  have  been  the  foundation  of  the  earliest  literary 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  278 

The  Bpio  Trif  tabh 

i.  The  Regulab  Teistubh  in  the  MahadhXbata 

The  rarest  forms  of  the  epic  tri^tubhs  are  those  that  in 
the  corresponding  syllables  answer  to  the  commonest  forms 
of  the  gloka,  namely  the  pathya  and  first  and  third  vipulas. 
The  commonest  forms  of  tri^tubh  are  those  that  answer  to 
the  second  and  fourth  vipulas  (decadent  in  the  more  refined 
(loka)  and  to  the  minor  Ionic,  a  form  of  floka  almost  extinct 
in  the  later  epic  style.  Hoth  metres  have  besides  the  diiam- 
bic  and  major  Ionic  forms,  but  in  both  they  are  exceptionaL 

MeaMurcil  by  tlieir  precedent  combinations,  the  tri^^ubh 
forms  thus  corresponding  to  the  (lokas  in  second  and  fourth 
vipulfis  and  minor  Ionic,  outclass  the  others  as  decidedly  as 
th(*y  do  in  tlie  number  of  their  occurrences;  for  whereas 
liefon*  the  tristubh  feet  corresponding  to  the  pathyl  and  first 

vipula  fonns  stiuid  only  ^  ^  sj  ^  and  ^ ,  before  the 

second  and  fourth  vipulii  forms  stand  five,  and  before  the 
minor  Ionic  form  stand  seven  combinations,  respectively* 

In  thus  gn)uping  tlie  tri^^ubhs  floka^wise  I  have  wished 
mcn*ly  to  contrast  the  general  structure  of  this  metre  with 
that  of  the  floka,^  and  liave  included  only  the  hendekasylli^ 
bic  tristubh.  For  the  sake  of  convenience,  I  shall  call  regu- 
lar all  fonns  of  the  eleven-syllable  tristubh  (pida),  however 
unusual,  in  distinction  from  other  forms,  and  will  now  give 
a  scheme  of  these  regiUar  tristubh  forms  (omitting  the  scolios 
or  tenniuid  tunphibnich).' 

pr(»ilurt.  Tliac  anj  of  it  hftf  been  pre«enred  i«  a  mere  accident,  not  nnt«e»- 
(li'iitly  to  Ik*  i'Y|N*<*tiM). 

^  of  couno,  as  pn>Tiou«lj  explained,  the  sjllaba  ancept  of  the  elfhtll 
•vllat»lc  mutt  \*v  iriirt-n  up;  bat  the  initial  ijUable  l«  aacvpa^aa  it  la  In  tbn 
yhtka.  in  tin-  uiituil  fonni. 

*  'Pii*  j.iK'Ati  <Mvur«  in  cho  lame  fonns  aa  the  tii«tabh  and  needs  no  special 
taltli-  Mli<»uu'h  »«p«nit«*lr  ilitcuMed  below).  Mechankalij,  It  la  merslj  a 
tri«*iiMi  with  an  fxtra  ■>lUbU;  add«d, making  tbacloatwlth  diiambna  ioalaad 

fif  aiiiplulirach. 


18 


274 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Ck>MBIKATIOHB  OF  THS  BXOULAB  EPIO  TsifTl^BH  Df  THS  BCasIbhIBATA. 


nntVoot 

BeoondTootoflMfftiibh 

w^-' — 

_^__ 

\AJ 

\J^JSJ — 

\J \J 

__^_ 

v^_v/— 

P   . 

P      6 

P  ,. 

C 

19 

8 

21 

8 
28 

8 

t 
IB 

vy 

P   » 

•*      T 

P     .3 

r 

20 

8 
22 

r 

25 

i^V/ 

c 

8 

c 

8 

c 

14 

^ vy 

8 

4 

8 

9 

C 

15 

28b 

8? 

28b 

S^V/ — \J 

1 
9b 

8 

16 

^— W^ 

8 

10 

8 

17 

^W^— 

8 

5 

11 

8 

18 

v-^AM^ 

For  the  abbreviations,  compare  the  table  above,  p.  236.    For ^ \j 

as  a  second  foot  in  a  hjpermetric  pSda,  see  the  paragraph  in  the  list  of  Hint- 

trations  in  Appendix  C,  under  No.  11.    For  \j  \j >^  as  second  foot,  see 

under  No.  15.  The  hypermetric  forms  indicated  in  Appendix  C,  when  refer- 
ences are  not  given,  will  be  found  illustrated  in  the  following  paragraphs. 
Tris^ubhs  of  catalectic  and  hjpermetric  form  are  not  included  in  this  table. 

The  Illustrations  in  Appendix  C  give  a  full  discussion  of 
the  occurrences  of  these  forms  as  they  appear  in  combination 
with  the  cffisura,  now  after  the  fourth  now  after  the  fifth 
syllable.  Here  I  will  point  out  that,  as  is  shown  by  the  table, 
all  cases  of  pyrrhic  and  most  cases  of  trochee  in  the  syllables 
immediately  preceding  the  fourth  syllable  are  merely  sporadic, 
whatever  be  the  caesura;  but  that  the  trochee  before  the 

vatormic  middle,  \j  \j ,  is  not  uncommon;  and  add  that 

the  caesura  is  here  after  the  fourth  syllable  (No.  16).  The 
prevailing  types  of  the  great  epic  are  (as  is  also  shown  by  the 
table)  an  iambic  or  spondaic  opening,  i^  _  :bii  _,  followed  by 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  276 

«.w^— ,  —  \j ,  \^w ,  all  three  of  which  are  found  in 

the  same  stanzas.  They  are  always  commingled  in  the  older 
parts  of  the  epic  and  even  in  later  parts*  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  first,  or  choriambic  middle,  is  the  stanzapform  often 
exclusively  employed  in  late  sections,  as  is  shown  below  in 
the  paragraphs  on  the  Stanza. 

Bird's-eyo  View  of  TMftabh  PUas. 

The  regular  Mahabharata  triffubh,  which  is  of  the  hendeka 
variety  (i),  appears  then  in  three  (four)  principal  phases 
(all  others  being  rare  or  sporadic),  thus: 


fl 


(c)mv/ ^  \j \^  _  M  J  common 

Resides  these,  as  will  be  shown  below,  there  are  other  BhSrata 
tyi)e8.  Urns: 

.!,    —  —  —  —  yl ^ ( eatoloctic,  dckatjlUble. 

Jagatl  forms  of  these  pudas  will  be  discussed  below. 

The  epic  tristnhh,  then,  is  not  (as  has  been  affirmed  by  a 
clistinjnnshtHl  whtJur)  of  one  uniform  tyi>e.  On  an  aver- 
ap\  nlM)ut  otu^tifth  of  the  Hliiirata  trlptuhlis  of  the  regular 
inixiHl  tyiH?  have  twelv<Miyllahle  ikwIos,  which,  however,  are 
not  jajr.itiH,  sin<»o  they  have  tlie  tri^tubh  finide.  A  noticeable 
|H»int  iH  th(*  common  (not  pussim)  occurrence  of  the  trochaic 

oiN^nin^,  _  ^ .in  some  sections  of  triftubha,  and  also  in 

siK'h  M(Mtif  iiiH  th(*  comfuimtive  rarity  of  the  choriambic  tri^tufah 
as  <-oiii{)an*<l  with  tht*  triftubhs  which  have  forms  of  ^inl, 

—  w or  vatonnl,  v/  w .  character  (though  not  strictly 

VuIiiiT  or  vut4>rml  {)ttdas).    Thus  in  the  hundred  odd  f^»» 


276  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

that  complete  in  tri^tubh  form  the  story  of  the  Frog-girl  given 
above,  there  are  only  a  dozen  of  choriambic  form ;  while  only 

one  stanza  out  of  the  twenty-five  is  of  upajati  (^^\j \j\j^) 

form  throughout,  though  two  others  have  two  consecutive 
choriambic  padas. 

The  Ramayana  Tristubh. 

Very  different  is  the  scheme  presented  by  the  Ramayana. 
Here  the  upajati  is  almost  exclusively  the  form  of  tri^fubh 
employed,  and  all  the  variegated  padas  of  the  Bharata  are 
practically  reduced  to  one  type.  In  fact,  the  exceptions,  given 
under  Nos.  7,  13,  19,  23,  of  the  Illustrations,  Appendix  C,  are 
so  few  as  scarcely  to  modify  the  statement  that  the  Ramayana 

employs  only  one  kind  of  tri^^ubh,^  which  is  ^^\j ^^— ^_^, 

with  variable  caesura,  as  in 

R.  vi,  128,  122  : 

ayusyam  arogyakaram  yaqasyam 
saubhratrkam  buddhikaram  qubham  ca 

qrotavyam  etan  niyamena  sadbhir 
akhyanam  ojaskaram  rddhikamaih 

R.  ii,  82,  32 : 

tatah  samutthaya  kale  kule  te 

rajanyavaiqya  vrsalaq  ca  viprah 
ayuyujann  ustrarathan  kharanq  ca 

nagan  hayanq  cai  'va  kulaprastltan 

^  I  pass  over  some  obvious  errors,  noticing  their  place :  typog^phical,  Q. 
iv,  43,69,  vicetum;  R.  vi,  69,  12,  pataka;  G.  vii,  7,  48  (a9ani  in  R).  These 
afifect  the  fourth  syllable.  R.  iv,  28,  66,  affects  the  eighth,  nigrhe  for  nigrahe. 
Other  palpable  errors  affecting  the  metre  are :  G.  ii,  80, 24,  ksudha  ca  tandryi 
(ca  ?)  vipannatam  gatah,  not  in  R. ;  G.  iii,63,  28,  jahau  tadi  trtsamudbhaTam 
klamam  (in  R.,  ksudha  duhkha^);  ib.  29,  pada  ends  eyas  tada  (compare  end 
of  R.  iii,  63,  6  b,  etya  kleyam,  where,  however,  kl  probably  does  not  make 
position) ;  G.  v,  14,  Qfif  priyam  aviksamano  Raghunandasya,  corrected  by  R., 
priyam  apayyan  Raghunandanasya  tam;  ib.  19,  34,  evam  aa  tarn  hetubhir 
anuviksya,  for  anvaveksya  (the  form,  though  with  v.  1.,  in  R.) ;  nayati  for 
nayyati  in  v,  80,  24,  is  noticed  under  No.  19 ;  G.  vii,  20,  44,  tam  arcayitri 
niyacaro  jagau  (not  in  R.)  has  apparently  lost  a  ca  (cf.  d) ;  G.  rii,  40,  19, 
Hanumatah  kah  sthasyati  purastat,  for  sthSsyati  kah  (R.  36,  46).  In  R.  ri, 
59, 12,  nanapatikS  dhvajachatrajustam  (yaatra  in  G.  35,  6),  cch  becomes  eh 
as  in  Mbh.  i,  3,658,  prchami  tvam.  Contrast  sSyvadhvajacchatramahSpatikam, 
R.  ib.  135. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  277 

R,iv,ll,  98: 

yathft  hi  tejahsu  ^  varah  sadA  ravir 
yathft  hi  Q&ilo  Himav&n  mahftdrisa 

yathft  oatuspatsu  ca  kesarl  varas 
tath&  nar&n&m  asi  vikrame  varah 

This  uniformity  of  metre,  resulting  in  an  almost  classical 
tri^tubh*  places  the  Ramayaqia  on  the  same  plane,  when  com* 
pared  with  the  Bharata,  as  we  saw  it  occupied  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  (loka.  The  more  antique  forms  of  regular 
tri^t^bhs  are  found  in  the  Bharata.' 

Yet  if  this  is  the  case  in  the  regular  tri^tubh,  still  more 
Ktriking  is  the  difference  between  the  two  epics  in  respect  of 
the  catulectic,  hj-permetric,  and  other  irregular  tri^tubhs,  which 
are  antique  and  found  in  the  BMrata,  but  are  unknown  to  the 
Uaiiiayana.  But  before  taking  up  these  three  classes  as  they 
upIKMir  in  the  great  epic,  I  have  a  few  words  to  say  in  regard 
to  the  final  amphibrach  or  scolius. 

The  Boolins. 

The  many  examples  given  in  Appendix  C  sufficiently 
ilhi.stnite  the  fact  that  after  the  long  eighth  syllable  (very 
n&rely  short)  *  the  ninth  syllable  of  the  tri^tubh  is  regularly 

1  In  G.  11,  U,  yathi  hi  toJaATUaro  dUikaro,  etc.*  followed  bj  a  lUiitt  not 
in  R.,  with  na  tarTajakfevadhanev^iw  ribhu^  the  other  pidaa  hsTliif  cstorm 
after  fourth  ur  Hflh. 

>  <  >ne  rannoi,  howcTcr,  claim  aa  •Tidenoe  of  antiqaitj  tbo  antlqiie  ^inl 

ami  Titfirmi  Xy\ic  (if  pida,  cither  pure  or  in  parti-form,  ^_^ ..w...^ 

and  ^:^.M_vy^ ,  without  noting  that  these  are  alto  I^lrinic,  though 

ran*  hon*,  and  cliivflj  loans.  Thus  in  a  pare  tingle  (aeparate)  npmdra 
■Unsa  at  Viyu  1*.  r.  It),  gunda  prararute  eodyamiaa^  Mmantlt.  8o  ib.  Is, 
1 13,  whore  a.  b,  d.  harv  vUinl  form,  and  c  haf :  difa^  ^rotre  earm^lm  ci  'aj* 
bhumih.  Mnit  of  thi»  it  rpic,  e.  g^  ib.  ztU,  7  d,  aa  Jiyate  mriyate  ▼!  ka- 
dioit  ((fiti,  2,  dO).  8tUl  rarer  (aa  in  Oltl,  S^  9)  la  the  form  lo  the  lame 
Purina,  sir.  7  c.  IcaTim  pori^am  ann^ialtiraaL  I  take  thia  opportnal^  of 
•utinic  tliat  I  ahall  hereafter  nae  npendra  and  eaA^aatba  ••  ahorter  foraa 
of  npc>ndraTaJrl  and  TaAcstthablla,  though  I  btUeve  oo|jr  tha  latter  haa 
authoritj. 

■  8«t*  Appendix  C,  andcr  No.  16^  eluub  tlma  jajw  tklB  ff  cki,  xil,  0K 

47  r 


278  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

shorty  the  tenth  is  long,  and  the  eleventh  is  anceps*  This  role 
is  seldom  violated,  but  in  the  ^ibicarita,  iii,  197,  8,  we  find :  — 

gadami  ved&n  vicinomi  cchandah 

sarve  ved&  aksaraso  me  adhltfth 
na  s&dhu  d&nam  Qrotriyasya  pradanam 

ma  pradd^  qyend^ja  na  kapoto  *8mi 

Here  we  find,  in  {^da  a,  the  phenomenon  discussed,  above, 
in  relation  to  the  close  of  the  ^loka.  Before  cchanda^  the 
vowel  should  weigh  heavy,  but  it  is  doubtless  reckoned  light. 
In  b,  me  'dhitah  is  more  probable  than  the  (hypermetric) 
pada,  as  it  appears  in  both  texts  (above) ;  but  since  this  is  a 
possible  form,  the  pada  cannot  be  cited  for  a  long  ninth. 
Pada  c  is  regular.  In  d,  the  pada  may  be  corrupt,  the 
necessary  ma  (=  mam)  apparently  being  lost  after  the  pro- 
liibitive  ma,  though  a  long  ninth  cannot  be  avoided  in  any 
circumstances  ^\'ith  the  rest  of  the  text  as  it  is.  I  suspect 
that  gyenaya  has  taken  the  .place  of  a  vocative,  and  that  the 
verse  read  originally:  ma  ma  prada  na  'smi  rajan  kapota^; 
but  it  may  be  a  specimen  of  the  group  of  six  before  csesura, 
like  yatra  devT  Ganga  |  satatam  prasuta,  and  the  other 
(jases  of  the  sort  cited  below,  if  the  hiatus  may  be  assumed 
to  leave  a  short  vowel,  ma  pradah,  gyenaya  na  kapotS  asmi 
(hj-permetric),  as  in  xiv,  9,  9  a,  just  below.  The  tale,  how- 
ever, is  a  popular  story,  doubtless  handed  down  in  rough  verse, 
and  since  the  long  ninth  is  actually  foimd  in  such  verse,  it  is 
not  necessar}'  to  assume  that  the  pada  must  be  correct.  In  the 
following  stanzas,  in  the  same  way,  we  find  the  vowel  appar- 
ently reckoned  as  still  short  (light)  before  ^y.    The  cases  are : 

iii,  107, 15  c,  yasmin  de^e  ramase  'tiva,  ^yena 

ib.  18  b,  saumyo  hy  ayaiii,  kiiii  na  jSnasi,  ^yena 

ib.  24  b,  prcchami  te,^  Qakune,  ko  nu  qyenah  * 

1  Perliaps  accusative.    I  refer  to  C.  only  when  the  reading  differs. 

2  I  >n  ^yena  as  yiena  in  10  c,  see  the  parajjraph  on  Defective  Tristubhs  be- 
low. Ahovi'  I  have  cited  cases  where  the  vowvl  is  short  (light  syllable)  before 
mute  and  liciuid  in  ylokas  and  also  given  examples  in  tris^ubh,  where  c& 
hrahma,  °W  kiiatrani,  and  °uit  Dronam  make  the  scolius.  The  latter  is,  as  it 
were,  strengthened  to  make  position  in  vii,  170,  47  b,  antarmanah  kurusu 
pradravatsu  (C.  8,101,  prft). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  279 

In  V9  44,  24 d  the  long  ninth  is  admitted  into  an  old  pBda: 

na  'nya^  pantha  ayanaya  yidyate,  in  VS.  81,  18;  9^et.  Up. 

8,  8 :  vidyate  (a)yanSya  (perhaps  in  the  epic  for :  na  anya]|^ 

pantha  ayanaya  vidyate). 

Another   apparent  example  is  found  in  the  stanza^  zii, 

270,  23: 

caturdvftram  pumsam  catarmnkham 

caturdha  ofti  'nam  upayftti  yficA 

bfthubhyOm  vftoa  ndarftd  npasthit 

tes&m  dv&ram  dvftrapftlo  bubhOset 

But  here  the  first  pada  is  perhaps  a  jagati,  either  with  ca  lost 
before  puru^am  or  (but  tlus  is  unlikely)  with  resolution  of 
the  semivowel:  eaturduaram  puru^am  caturmukham  (as  in 
RV.  iv,  51,  2,  vi  u  vmjasya  tamaso  duara) ;  though  as  it  stands 
it  is  a  metrical  duplicate  of  na  *nya^  panthS  (above). 
Two  metrical  irregularities  appear  in  xiv,  9,  4c: 

samvarto  y&jayati  'ti  me  fmtam 

Tliis  pfula  also  is  of  the  same  form  as  the  two  last,  with  the 
im'^ilar  v/  ^  .  w  as  second  foot  and  ^  v^  w  as  the  scolius ;  yet 
t<)  riNul  fnUam  me  corrects  them  both.  But  in  iv,  8*  8  a,  fr 
certainly  fail  to  make  position,  though  not  before  a  scolius. 
The  first  Hcc^tion  lias  another  example,  xiv,  9,  9  a,  aham  g»> 
ochrnni  magluivan  duto  'dya,  where  hiatus,  as  in  the  first 
exjiinplo  alxive,  may  {)crlmps  be  assumed  with  a  short  vowel: 
liluiiii  giu'chami  |  nuighavan  dut0  adya,  unless  an  inversion  has 
Uiken  pLice,  iiilya  dutjili,  iiith  magliavo  (or  bhagavo,  C.)  be- 
fon*  it.  Below,  ib.  81  \\  salm  \vibhyam  somam  ag|1ii)&i  eka^ 
B.  siiv(*.s  tlu*  metre  and  C  249  saves  tlio  grammar. 

In  tilt*  IIarivan<;a  is  found  one  case  at  7,593c  which  is  coi^ 
HN'ti-*!  in  B. : 

prahur  vipras  tv&ih  ganinam  tattvajfUh 

Tlinu^h  of  the  same  cLuw  with  the  Anufisana  pida  (cited 
Ulow)  endin]^  in  pnlyiu'cliat,  yet,  while  the  latter  may  be 
ca.Hily  cnuntK'tU  tattvajflal|i  is  intxactable,  and  the  hypennetar 

1  K'T  t!u-  luraninir.  romparr  ib.  2S;  r.  I.  in  300,  SS :  CfttTlii  JMjm  dTlrlfl 
•ui;ui>!aiiy  aiiiarutumih,  upsathAm  oiUruii  bMtIo  vlk  catwthi  aaiflMfSfll. 


280  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

of  B.  2,  74,  32,  is  probably  correct :  prahur  vipras  tvam  |  gn^i- 
nam  tattvavijfiah.  Another  apparent  case  in  H.  14,782  d, 
where  yada  ve  '§varah  ends  a  tri^tubh,  is  a  mere  misprint  for 
yadave^varah,  8,  82, 13.    But  xii,  292,  22  d,  antye  madhye  va 

vanam  a§ritya  stheyam,  has  a  clear  case  of v^  for  \j^\j. 

A  secondary  caesura  is  more  likely  not  to  be  foomd  before 
the  scolius  than  to  be  found  there.  Examples  of  both  cases 
are  given  (incidentally)  in  the  examples  of  the  different  sorts 
of  trii^t^bh.  Calling  the  scolius  an  addition  is,  then,  merely  a 
mechanical  device,  to  show  the  pada  forms  free  of  their  uni- 
form close.  In  reality,  the  scolius,  because  it  is  always  the 
same,  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  pada,  since  it  seals  the 
tri^tubh.  To  show  how  the  second  caesura  does  not  divide  off 
the  scolius  as  a  sort  of  tail  tied  on  to  the  pada  proper,  may  be 
taken  vii,  179, 18  ar-b : 

£Lsth&ya  tarn  k^canaratnacitram 
rathottamam  sinhavat  samnanada 

The  form  v/  _  ^  is  then  the  only  form  of  the  epic  scolius, 
except  for  a  few  cases  of  seeming  carelessness,  as  in  prayacchat 
and  vidyate,  where  special  reasons  may  have  induced  the  ex- 
tant form,  or,  as  in  cases  before  kt^,  cch,  etc.,  where  advantage 
appears  to  have  been  taken  of  a  Gatha  freedom  in  reckoning 
a  heavy  syllable  as  light  in  certain  cases.  Of  the  scolius  type 
_  v>  _  v/,  wliich  Fausboll  (previously)  set  up  for  the  Dhamma- 
pada,  the  epic  has  parallel  examples,  but  I  doubt  whether 
the  single  example  to  be  found  in  the  Dhamma,  vs.  806: 

yo  v&  'pi  ka-  |  tvA  na  karo-  |  ml  'ti  cS.  'ha 

^vill  be  found  on  second  thought  really  to  support  this  interpre- 
tation.    For  in  this  case,  as  in  all  similar  epic  examples,  the 

division  is  not,  as  Fausboll  assumed, w_  |_v>v/-_|— v>_v/, 

but  (as  a  hypermeter) kj \\j\j |v/  —  v/,  exactly  as 

in  the  common  hypermeters  of  the  epic,  e.  g.,  sa  vai  rajan  na  | 
'bhyadhikah  Lathyate  ca,  where  tlie  only  difference  between 
the  scansion  and  that  of  the  more  usual  hypermeter,  e.g., 
3rasya  Vibhaktam  |  vasu  rajan  sahayaih,  is  that  in  the  latter 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  281 

case  the  caesura  is  normal,  while  in  the  fonner  it  is  neglected.^ 
On  such  cases,  see  the  section  just  below,  on  Hypenneten. 

The  epic,  then,  as  a  whole,  has  passed  fax  beyond  the  Vedio 
stage,  where  the  final  syllables  of  a  tri^tubh  are  (^)  v^  v:^  ^ ; 
nor  is  it  likely  that  Uie  few  cases  aboTO  are  to  be  explained  as 
arcluiisms  rather  than  as  further  examples  of  such  slovenliness 
as  has  U^en  met  before  in  the  examples  already  given.  For 
even  the  Kig  Veda  poets  are  already  tending  to  a  stricter  form, 
w  —  M,  as  is  shown,  for  example,  by  the  substitution  of  mttslya 
for  mauslya,  RV.  x,  58,  4,  merely  to  win  an  amphibrach. 

Catalaotio  and  Hypwmatrto  THstaUui. 

A  short  form  of  tri^t^bh  is  where  a  syllable  is  omitted,  but 
in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve  the  characteristic  final  cacknce, 
giving  the  i>entad  form  familiar  to  the  Rig  Veda;  as  in 
Mhh.  iii,  195,  8,  tam  tvam  ppcchami  |  katham  tu  rSjan,  like 
RV.  i,  67,  8,  ya  Iih  ciketa  |  guha  UiavantanL  Although 
caUilectic  is  a  name  more  properly  applied  to  a  pSda  cut  off 
at  the  end,  I  sliall  yet  call  the  double  pentad  a  catalectio 
tristuhh. 

In  \\  jagati,  by  the  afldition  of  a  syllable,  the  final  trochee  or 
siHindee  of  the  tri$(tubh*s  amphibrach  is  converted  into  a  di» 
iaiiihiis ;  in  a  hypennetric  tri^tubh,  the  final  cadence  is  preserved 
int;u*t,  the  tri^t^ibh's  nature  is  not  lost,  but  a  syllable  is  pre- 
f\Xi^\  or  ins«*rt4Hl  elsewhere.  It  may  be  said  that  any  dodeka 
is  a  jag-.itl  I  villa.  I  shall  not  quarrel  with  this  (native)  defini- 
tioii,  hut  tht'  (IiiTen*n<*e  hero  is  one  of  metrical  character,  and 
iiiiLHt  Ik.*  Htmngly  nuirked  in  name.  Admitting  then  that  it  is 
S4>iiu>\vhiit  urhitmr}-,  I  slmll  designate  as  a  jagati  only  the 
(lii.unhi(\illy  rlnseil  [mda ;  the  otlier,  as  a  hypennetric  tri^tubh. 

1  Utit  tnt«-rprft*ti<>n.  anywaj.  Mcma  to  b«  mtnUj  a  tUfht  OTcrsi|[ht  oa  tba 
part  of  the  loftrncnl  t^litor.    In  No.  8S0,  eko  cmre  mluitir'  armlBe  ?•  nlgo,  tba 

fSrtt  fiM>t  i«  <<im>i-tlj  giTfD  m vr The  eboriuDb dovbUcM  cftMcd 

thi-  (liffiTint  intfrprrtatifiD ;  bat  the  middle  foot  ..  v/  ..  ..  W  parallel  to 

v^  ^ .  M  thovii  In  the  euunplet  cited  below,     (ne  new  test  la  906 

omiti  i!i    hut  I  ki-fp  the  rrmark  above,  written  prior  to  the  new  tut'e  nppts^ 
Micv«  M  the  uM  t«*xt  Hm  authoritj  and  need  aoc  bt  ohaagtd  mtol  esMai] 


282  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Besides  the  prefixed  or  inserted  syllable,  which  gives  two 
varieties  of  the  hypermetric  triptubhy  a  tri^t^bh  pada  may 
have  both  the  prefixed  and  inserted  syllables.  The  trii^tubh, 
then,  as  shown  in  the  bird's-eye  view  on  p.  275,  may  consist 
of  ten,  eleven,  twelve,  or  thirteen  syllables,  without  losing  its 
characteristic  cadence.  Unique,  however,  and  not  typical  (I 
may  add)  is  a  fourteennsyllable  tri^^ubh.  Apart  from  all  these 
forms  lies  the  matra-trii^tubh,  of  thirteen  syllables,  but  with  two 
breves  reckoned  as  equivalent  to  one  long  syllable.  Post- 
poning the  examination  of  these  forms,  I  take  up  now,  reckon- 
ing the  regular  tri^^ubh  (above)  as  i,  the  catalectic  and  simple 
or  dodeka  hypermetric  tri^tubh,  ii-vL 

ii-iii.    The  Catalectic  Trlatnbh. 

ii.  In  this  form  the  caesura  falls  after  the  fifth  syllable.  The 
pada  is  one  of  a  tri^t^bh  stanza.    Examples  are  iii,  113,  23 : 

ArundhatI  v&  sabhagft  Yasistham 
Lopdmudrd  v&  yathcL  hy  Agastyam* 

Nalasya  vai  DamayantI  yatha  'bhad 
yatha  ^acl  Vajradharasya  cfti  'va 

Here  b  can  be  scanned  only  as  Lopamudra  vS  |  yathS  hy 
Agastyam.  Another  case,  referred  to  above,  is  found  in  the 
stanzas  at  iii,  195,  3-4 : 

3,  vidvesanara  paramam  jivaloke 

kuryan  narah  partbiva  yacyamanah 
tarn  tvdm  prcchdmi  katharn  tu  rGjan 
dadydd  hh-avdn  dayitam  ea  me  *dya 

4,  na  cd  'nuktrtayed  ^  adya  dattvd 

ayacyam  arthaih  na  ca  8am9rnomi 
prapyam  arthaiii  ca  saih^rutya 

taiii  ca  'pi  dattva  susukbl  bhavami 

In  3  d  and  4  a,  the  caesura  is  shifted,  and  the  padas  can  be 
read  as 

dadyad  bhavan  da-  |  yitam  ca  me  *dya 
na  ca  'nuklrta-  |  yed  adya  dattva 

^  TIiIb  seems  better  than  anokirtaye  (he)  dadya  (N.). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  288 

In  4  c,  there  is  a  {loka  pada;  unless  d  be  reft  of  its  opening, 
to  leave  another  pentad :  prapyam  aitham  ca  samQratya  taiii 
ca,  wliich  would  leave  d  as :  api  dattvS  sn-  |  sukhl  bhavimL 

The  dekasyllabie  pada  is  particularly  striking  when  united 
with  the  hypermetric  pada  (10  +  12.)  An  example  occurs  in 
the  same  story^  iii,  197,  26,  o-d : 

etad  vo  laksma  |  9ivam  karomi 
biranyavarnam  |  mciram  ponyagandham 

The  ten-syllable  pada  ib.  17  b,  has,  perii^M,  lost  a  syllabl6» 
(tarn)  te  pa^yantu : 

(a)  uknilnam  vehatam  anOnaih  nayantu 
(b)  te  pa^anta  purusft  mam&i  'va 
bhayOhitasya  d&yam  mamA  'ntikflt  trim 

pratyftmn&yanta  tvam  by  enam  mft  hinslh 

(a) wi     WW \j ^\j  (No.  13,  hypermetric) 

(b)  (-) w   WW-       w-w(No.  20) 

For  V  and  d,  see  No.  28  and  No.  7,  in  the  Illustrations  of 
ApiK^ndix  C.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  b  belongs  under 
another  head  (Ix^low).  Giving  a  patois  pronunciation,  poii" 
antu^  would  make  the  verse  quite  smooth.  In  the  subsequent 
stanzii,  19  c,  there  apfM^ars  to  be  a  case  of  resolved  semi-vowel 
(<,'ieiui  for  vyenu),  a  regular  p8da: 

yatha  qiena  priyam  eva  karyim, 

thouf^h  it  miiy  bo  reail  as  catalectic* 

A  r;u4o  in  ( \  viii,  4,545  d,  is  corrected  in  B.  89,  22: 

C. :  vAyavyftstrena,  tatah  sa  KarnAt 
11. :  vayavyAatrena  'patatah  sa  Karnlt 

In  xii.  ^2i,  72  -  12,115,  where  C.  lias  klm  to  dhanena 
lKUulhul)his  t4%  l\,  lius  the  dekasyllabie  pada: 

klm  to  dhanena,  kiih  bandhubhis  te, 

thf  otlitT  pfuLis  U*ing  hendekas.    A  combination  of  hyper* 

1  V-'T  till-  vt  r*o  in  the  mom  tuim,  jsthi  mUi  (U)  ?li  sidhaviiUi^  pfi» 
•ftnnjih,  •«!  Uluw.  Thv  Ilypisniictnc  TViftalih. 


284  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

metric,  catalectic,  and  hyper-hypennetric  pada  occurs  in 
H.  7,448 : 

yasmOd  bhtLt&nam  |  bhtltir  anto  'tha  madhyam 

dhrtir  vibhutih  \  grutig  ca  Rvdrah 
giabA  (sic)  'bhibhatasya  pumsasye  'Qvarasya 

Compare  ^  H.  8,899 : 

tarn  kflrdamdnam  madhusfldanah  sa 
drstva  mahd,tm2L  I  harsanvit^  t&h 

•  •  •  I  •  • 

cukarda  satyft  sahito  mahatmft 

balasya  dhlman  |  hars^amartham 

ill.  This  pada  is  what  may  be  called  csesurally  catalectic 
Like  the  last,  it  is  antique,  in  Veda  and  Upanishads,  and  the 
epic  has  but  few  examples.  The  pause  follows  the  fourth 
syllable,  which  is  usually  heavy.  Here  the  caesura,  so  to 
speak,  costs  a  syllable  and,  unless  read  with  sufficient  time 
allowance,  the  tri§tiubh  appears  to  be  crippled.  Of  this 
sort  are: 

i,  3,  61  d,     maya  'gvin^u  samanakti  carsani  (so  66  c) 
i,  92, 14  a,   prcchami  tv&m,  sprhaniyarapa 

In  the  latter  example  there  may  be  corruption.  Compare 
i,  88,  10  c,  tat  tvam  prcchami  sprhaniyarupa,  but  the  open- 
ing phrase,  prcchami  tvam  is  stereotjT)ed,  i,  98,  21  a;  v,  48, 
1  a,  etc.  We  may  compare  RV.  i,  120,  4,  vi  prchami  pakia 
na  devan.*    The  next  case  is 

iii,  197,  27  b,   surarsindjn  atha  sammato  bhrqam 

Although  this  pada  has  eleven  syllables,  it  is  not  a  tri^t^bh, 
but  a  catalectic  jagati,  analogous  to  the  trL^tubhs  of  the  same 
nature.  The  whole  stanza  consists  of  syllables  18  +  11  +  12 
+  11,  but  a  is  doubly  hypermetric  (explained  below),  so  that 
there  is  no  alternate  symmetry  but  chiastic  symmetry,  thus : 

13  (=  11)  +  12  +  12  +  11 

^  In  the  Bombay  edition,  2,  72,  50 :  dhrtir  bhutir  yay  ca  gnhl  ^rati9  ca 
guha  'bhio,  etc  (on  this,  see  below).  The  following  8,309  =  2,  SO,  17,  also 
avoids  the  same  cadence  by  reading:  drs^vi  mahitmi  ca  mudinyito  'bhiU 
.  .  .  harsSgamSrtham  ca  balasya  dhimSn. 

*  C.  in  3,064  has  prchSmi  (sic)  tyim. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  286 

It  is,  however,  possible,  perhaps,  to  resolve  the  «Sin. 

V,  42y  5  a,     pram&dfid  vfti  asurfth  parftbhavan  (jagati) 
V,  42|  21  a,  ya  etad  vft  bhagavftn  sa  nityo 

In  this  cose,  although  there  is  no  possible  objection  to 
reading  the  puda  as  it  stands,  it  is  possible  that  a  bhati  lias 
been  lost  after  etad.  The  sense  is  yaj  jagad  iva  bhati  sa 
nityo  'vikiirl  bhogavon  (N.).    Compare  48,  7,  jagad  bhatL 

V,  46,  3  c,  atandritah  Savitur  vivasvftn 

The  same  criticism.  Before  Savitur,  sa  may  have  been 
drop|>e(U  OS  in  C.  viii,  8,848  c,  fete  papab  suvibhinnagStra^ 
when*  B.  restores  the  metre  with  gete  sa  papa^.  So  C.  omits 
8U  in  the  uparavaktro,  xii,  9,035  b,  but  corrects  it  in  repeat- 
ing the  verse  at  10,530.  Nevertheless,  I  prefer  the  text  as 
it  st^iiuls,  especially  as  any  correction  would  have  to  be  ex« 
tendetl  into  tlic  next  stanza,  where  we  find : 

ib.  4  b,  diqah  qakro  bhavanam  Inbharti 

Here  it  is  easy  to  suggest  sambiUiarti,  but  emendation  is 

otiose. 

V,  48,  37  c,   Matsy&ih  sArdham  anr^aD^arQp&ih 

The  next  stanza  has  j}-e9thiun  Matsyam  anpcansaiyarSpam, 
which  makes  it  rather  doubtful  whether  this  form  may  not 

have  8t<NMl  in  37  e. 

V.  r»7,  r>  c,      Anayasva  pitaram  mahftvratam  (jagati) 
viii,  r»8,  7  a,  apy  liqiHma  vayam  Arjuna  tvayi 

(\  8,3^0  h;is  utlia  \*isma.  Possibly  Sfi^ama  should  be  read 
hut  it  is  nf)t  ntH'esKirv'.  The  brevis  is  noticeable  (compare 
uUivr,  in  §  ii,  iii,  197,  17  b). 

xiii,  70,  7  a  (after  the  injunction  in  the  balf-floka,  vs.  6): 

r>,      ])ravi(;\'a  ca  gav&m  madhye  im&m  qrutim  udAhaxet 
7  a,  gAur  uio  mfttA  vnabhah  piU  me 

divam  ^arma  jagati  me  pntafth^  eta 


286  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

xiii,  102,  55  d: 

budbyami  ty&m  Vrtrabanam  Qatakratam 

vyatikramantam  bbuvanani  vi^vft 
kaccin  na  yflc&  yijinam  kadflcid 

akdrsam  te  manaso  ^bhisangOt 

iv-ix.    The  Hypermetrie  Trlstubh. 

iv-vL  Simple  Hypermetbrs. 

The  first  form,  iv,  is  the  initial  hypermeter ;  a  light  syllable 
appears  to  be  prefixed  to  an  iambic  opening.  The  same  effect 
is  produced,  in  some  cases  with  the  same  words,  as  that  already 
described  in  the  account  of  the  gloka.  The  pada  starts  with 
an  anapaestic  slide.  The  difference  is  one  of  frequency,  since 
in  the  case  of  the  tri^^ubh  the  initial  hypermeter  is  not  very 
common.  Most  of  the  cases  have  a  brevis  and  in  fact,  to  my 
ear,  the  long  (heavy)  initial  belongs  in  another  category  (vi) ; 
but  I  admit  that  in  yatra  devi  Granga  satatam  piasiita  and 
the  few  similar  cases  it  is  doubtful  how  we  should  regard  the 
extra  syllable.  I  have  noticed  with  short  initial  the  following 
cases  (iv) : 

i,  3,  147  b,  vayatas  tanttln  satatam  vartayantyftu  (No.  13) 
i,  76,  55  a,  asurOih  8ur£y£Un  bhavato  'smi  dattah  (No.  1) 

Here  the  preceding  pada  ends  in  i,  but  it  is  scarcely  possible 
that  the  two  tri^tubhs  should  have  been  read  as  a  unit.     The 
same  thing  occurs  occasionally  in  the  examples  of  hypermetrie 
glokas. 
i,  92,  6  c,  kuta  ayatah  katarasyam  diqi  tvam  (No.  13) 

iii,  5,  10  a,  tata  uttbaya  Viduram  Pandaveyah  (No.  15) 

V,  42,  6  c,  pitrloke  rajyani  anuqasti  devah  (No.  20) 

V,  44,  18  b,  dhanam  aearyaya  tad  anuprayacchet  (No.  20) 

xii,  63,  4  c,         vrsallpatih  piquno  nartanaq  ca  (No.  12) 
xiii,  70,  14  d,      pratigrhnan  vai  gopradane  vidhijfiah  (No.  7) 
xiii,  102, 19  a,    atithivratah  suvrata  ye  jana  vai  (No.  6) 
ib.  35  c,  (jagati),  Yaruiiasya  rajnah  sadane  mabatmanah 
xiii,  126,  38  a,   bahule  sainange  hy  akutobhaye  ca  (No.  1) 
H.  2,  72,33  b,    krtinaiii  vTram  (C,  7,422  dhlram)  dana- 

vauaiii  ca  badham  (No.  7) 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  287 

All  these  cases  have  an  anapaBstic  opening ;  all  but  one  have 
the  fifth  syllable  heavy .^  Some  have  been  given  under 
the  examples  referred  to  above. 

V,  a.  Much  more  frequent  is  the  inserted  fifth*  I  do  not 
mean,  of  course,  that  a  regular  tri^tnUi  is  first  made  and  a  syl- 
lable is  then  inserted,  but  that  the  cadence  does  not  have  the 
rhythm  of  iv,  to  wit,  w  w  J.  ^  J.,  but  (with  the  csBSura  regu- 
larly after  Uie  fifth  syllable)  ^  JL  ^  ±  ..,  so  that  the  effect 
is  that  of  a  syllable  inserted  at  the  place  of  cadsuia.  This 
measure  produces  mther  a  pleasing  alteration  and  is  frequently 
foimd  in  regular  tri^^ubh  stanzas,  scanned  exactly  like  the 
other  padas  ^ith  the  modification  thus  indicated.  The  form 
is  Vedie,  and  is  found  also  in  the  Upanishads  and  in  the 
Buddhistic  texts.    Examples  are: 

i,  71, 40  dy     yatha  tvadartham  |  raksitft  'ham  oareyam  * 
V,  48, 101  d,  saihyudhyamanil  |  Dhftrtarfts^  na  santi 

The  effect  of  this  measure  I  have  endeavored  to  reproduce 
from  tlie  following  extract,  v,  48,  75-76 : 

ayaiii  G&ndhftrftns  tarasft  samprmmathya 

jitvft  putrftn  Nagnajitah  samagrin 
baddham  mumoca  vinadantam  prasahya 

Sudarqanaih  vfti  devatAn&m  lalsm^w^ 
ayam  KapAte  *  ni jaghAaa  PAndyam 

tathA  Kaliftg&D  DantakQre  mAn^f^rtu 
anena  dagdha  varsapQgftn  vinAtba 

Vilr&iiasl  nagarl  sambabhQva 

And  yon  GftndhlLrfls,  at  a  blow  Krishna  vanquished, 
And  conquered  all  Nagnajita's  descendants, 

Th(*ir  plaining  victim,  as  he  lay  bound,  releasing 
(Of  gods  the  jewel, «« Ueautiful ''  called,  a  fair  man); 

1  Chi  thill  iftiK'  (UU  Qtthlja).  ft  Mow,  p.  IQO. 

<  (^umpjirv  with  thit  eianiplc.  Kiff  Veda,  i,  190,  S,  U  do  vklTlAa  |  OMMUM 
YfK-ftftiii  A'lva,  An<I  fur  other  Vedic  parmllelt,  OldMbrrg,  Iljowta  Am  |Uf 
VvU.  Tol  i.  p.  «Vt  n.  (ZMMO.  Tol.  ««Tll,  p.  76). 

•  ▼.  1.,  ka|iiU'iia  Jatfhlna.  Below,  the  •chotlAil  eipUlM  dMHakttlv  M  !■ 
hattlo  rmthiT  than  a«  a  proper  iiAiiie.  P^Miuipt  DttalftkrarsA  JaglUtea  (ib^ 
Tire  kr),  a*  In  vti,  TO,  6. 


288  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

m 

He  at  Kap^t  slew  in  a  war  the  P^dja, 
He  smote  KalingaSi  Dantakur's  men  a-fighting, 

He  too,  that  hero,  burned  and  enslaved  a  long  time 
Benares  town,  city  sans  help  unaided. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  part  of  this  measure  is  that 
of  the  regular  tris^ubh  with  the  caesura  after  the  fifth,  as  in 
Yamo  'bravin  ^  mam :  na  mrto  *si  saumya,  xiii,  71, 18  a,  which 
form  may  have  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  hypenneter 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  csesurally  catalectic  pada  on  the 
other. 

The  texts  sometimes  show  variations,  like  those  found  in 
the  simple  tri^^ubh  forms.*  Thus  in  vii,  179,  46  d,  where 
C.  has  the  hypermeter,  B.  omits  the  extra  syllable:  sampa^- 
yanto  (vai)  vijayam  luk^asasya. 

Of  the  different  hypermetric  fonns,  the  commonest  are  those 

in  which  the  fifth  syllable  is  followed  by— w or  \j\j ; 

less  often  by  __  v>  w  —    All  three  occur  at  i,  76,  50  ff.; 

50,  kacasya  m^rgam  pratipatsye  na  bhoksye 

53,  guror  hi  bhito  vidyay^  co  'pahtltah 

54,  smar&mi  sarvam  yac  ca  yathft  ca  vrttam 

The  extra  syllable,  like  the  initial,  may  be  heavy  or  light ; 

but  except  when  followed  by  v^  v^ the  latter  is  rare.    The 

second  and  fourth  syllables  are  rarely  light.  I  give  below 
examples  of  the  different  forms.  First  of  the  common  va- 
rieties (but  \j\j\^^as  second  foot  is  the  rarest  of  these) : 

yaqo  na  naqyej,  jfiatibbedaq  ca  na  syd^t,  iii,  4,  8  a 
vadbaya  rajan,  Karnastltasya  samkhye,  viii,  85,  36  b 
ma  vai  dvitlyam  ma  trtiyam  ca  vafice(t),  iii,  297, 25  c 

1  On  page  186,  note  1,  I  have  referred  to  Yama's  world  as  portrayed  in 
Sabha  in  contrast  to  "  elsewhere."  The  remark  is  correct,  but  elsewhere  is 
not  everywhere  else ;  e.  g.,  this  account  of  Naciketas  represents  it  as  blliifiiL 
Usually,  of  course,  it  is  a  hell. 

*  These  changes  I  have  discussed  in  A.  J.  Phil.,  xx,  p.  18  ft.  as  affecting  vii, 

163.    In  vii,  179,  24  a,  B.  has  _  v-r for  \j  >^ in  C,  with  severml 

similar  changes  close  by ;  strikingly  in  32  d  =  8,146,  where  B  has  no  babhamj^ 
(C,  na). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  289 

So  in  V,  44,  24c;  vii,  2,  88b;  viii,  42,  17o;  xu  278  (7), 
6  a,  etc. 

A  ease  of  fifth  brevis  and  also  fourth  brevis  is  fonod  in  it 
1,  217  c,  dv}'u»a  Yiii9atir  ahati  IcfSuhi^inSm;  and  fourth 
brevi8  in  iii,  197,  12d,  na  trai^m  labhet  traqam  icchan  aa 
kale ;  where,  however,  C.  has  labhate  (labh*te)  which  may  be 
correct^  All  five  syllables  are  heavy  in  ii,  77,  10  b;  kan- 
yam  Paflcalim  Pandavebhyaf^  pradaya.  Unique  (I  think) 
are  breves  in  Uie  Uiinl  and  fourth  syllables :  datvi  *na4uham 
8ur}'aIokam  \TLijanti,'  iii,  186,  8  b  (No.  10). 

Preceded  by  brevis  (fifth  syllable) : 

sam&nam  mdrdhni  rathayftnam  riyanti,  i,  S,  64  b 
tatha  titiksur  atitiksor  viqistah,  i,  87, 6  b  =  zii,  300, 15b 
yas  tv  evam  brahma  tapasft  'nveti  Tidvfln,  iii,  192, 66  o 
dliarmam  pur&nam  upajTvanti  santah,  viii,  40, 16o 
taiii  vai  inanyeta  pitaram  mfltaram  ca,  zii,  108,  22  o 
garbho  'mrtasya  jagato  'sya  pratisthi,  ziiiy  76^  10  b 

Soi,  1,212c;  1,218c;  89,  6o;  282,16c;  iii,  4, 18a;  viii, 

42,  16  h;  elo. 

PrwitUnl  by  a  heavy  syllable: 

hataih  samgrame  Sabadevena  pftpam,  i,  1,  208  o 
idaih  ca  r«ljan  hitam  uktam  na  oet  tram,  iii,  4, 12o 
tat  ha  i^aktlr  apy  adhamam  ghorarOpah,  t,  181,  9d 
titha  vayva^nl  pramiro&nam  jagao  ea,  rii,  201,  67  b 
vaAyA  'vibhaktam  vasu  rfljan  sabflyAih,  iii,  5,  20  a 
tfin  aha  sarvan  rsimukhyftn  Agastyah,  ziii,  94,  9a 

So  iii,  r>,  l«b:  118,  6b;  v,  42,  15a;  48,  46c;  >•«,  179, 
42  a:  viii,  37,  Soh;  42,9d,etc, 

(  as<*s  of  fourth  brevis  are  ii,  66,  15  c,  pa^t  tapsyase  tad 
U|irtkr:unv:i  \rikyam;   aiul  i,  1,  216  b,  tatlii  bandhubhi^  pit|^ 

bhir  bbralrbhiv  ra. 


1  (omparr  aUo  iii.  H^iOU.  jmthi  mUi  111  ?li  sldlivvidll^ 
vlu-n*.  liMWi  v«  r.  11.  11*7.  IW.  omlta  hi,  which  makM,  when  rHalacd,  a  hh^Jaifc 
fTApravatii  iii>!a  ;  q.  ▼.  In>1o«.  ander  the  hMA  of  AkfftmechMMlat. 

>  <  .iM.p.iri-  uv.  Yiii.  r«,  7,  InJriTaravi  I  OuMasMm  sdrplm,  dM  hgr 

OltJciiUrg.  liKT.  cit.,  p.  flS. 


290  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

For  V,  516,  prayaccha  mahyam  bhavatsahyam  kaii^iye,  B.  16, 
82  d,  has  tava  sahyam.  In  vii,  200,  82  a,  B.  has  tasya  ^syatas 
tan  nigitan  pTtadharan,  where  C.  9,839  has  siinigitan.  All  five 
syllables  are  heavy  in  ii,  77,  7  a ;  citran  saihnahan  avamufio- 
antu  cai  '§am. 


\j\j 


Preceded  by  brevis : 

na  can  mSih  Jisnur  dhvayita  sabbfty&m,  ii,  58, 16  b 
t^s  te  dad^ni  ma  prapata  prapatam,  i,  92, 11  a  =  93, 3 

Preceded  by  a  heavy  syllable : 

gomayur  uccair  vyaharad  agnihotre,  ii,  71,  22  b 
amanyamanah  ksatriya  kimcid  anyat,  v,  42,  15  c 
amantraye  tvam  brtihi  jayam  rane  me,  viii,  67,  22  c 
anartbakam  me  darqitavan  asi  tvam,  viii,  68,  8  c 
prayaccha  'nyasmai  Gandivam  etad  adya,  viii,  68, 28  a  * 
nai  'ko  bahubhyo  Gaatami  raksitavyah,  xiii,  1,  30  b 

There  is,  I  believe,  only  one  other  case  of  this  form  in  the 
thirteenth  book,  103,  42  c.  It  is  rare  as  a  tii^tubh  hyper- 
meter,  but  it  occurs  also  (see  below)  as  a  jagatl. 

Besides  these  forms  are  found:  w\j^^^  of  which  I  have 
but  sporadic  examples :  sa  yatre  'cchasi,  Vidura,  tatra  gaccha, 
ii,  64,  11  c  (note  to  No.  20) ;  aham  karte  'ti,  Vidura,  ma  ca 
mansthah,  and  na  tvam  prcchami,  Vidura,  yad  dhitam  me,  ii, 
64,  7  a  and  c  (C.  has  ma  'vamansthah) ;  pratas  trivarpi  ghrta- 
vaha  vij^pma,  xiii,  26,  88  c  (No.  19,  ad  fin.). 

Between  divisions  iv  and  v  stand  a  couple  of  cases  in  which 
the  initial  syllable  is  heavy  but  the  second  is  light.  They 
belong  neither  to  iv  with  its  anapaestic  opening,  nor  to  v  with 
its  iambic  or  spondaic  opening:  agvinav  indum  |  amrtam 
vrttabhuyau,  i,  3,  63  a;  atra  Kaunteya  |  sahito  bhratrbhis 
tvam,  iii,  184,  41  a.  Compare  above  p.  286,  tatS  utthayS 
viduraih  Pandaveyah  (No.  15).^ 

1  Tliis  pada  is  followed  bj  tyatto  70  'strair  abhjadhiko  v5  narendrah,  with 
the  cssura  ifi^nored.  Pada  a  is  virtually  repeated  in  viii,  60,  72  c-d,  anjasmii 
tvam  Gandivam  dehi  Partha,  tvatto  'strair  va  viryato  va  vi9i8|ah. 

*  Such  Vedic  cases  as  this  last  are  grouped  by  Oldenberg,  loc.  cit.,  with 
those  just  mentioned,  e.  g.,  abhi  krsnena  rajasS  dyam  rnoti,  RV.  i,  85,  0, 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  291 

Quite  exceptional^  though  corresponding  to  recognized  (but 
unusual)  fonus  of  tlio  regular  tri^tubh,  are  further : 

dadarqft  'slnaiii  dharmatm&nam  viviktey  iii,  5,  60 

(No.  27) 
kiiii  vidviso  vai  mam  evam  vyfthareyuh,  ii,  71,  7  0 

(No.  26) 
dhrtayudhah  su-krtlnam  uttam&ujah(v.  1.  sukrtinam)^ 

H.  7,442  c  (No.  24 ;  v.  1.  iu  ii,  72,  63)! 

Compare  also  a  ca^  of  No.  2S,  below,  p.  294. 

The  hyi)enneter  beginning  with  an  anapcest,  iv,  is  found 
also  in  popidar  Buddhistic  poetry,  where  also  a  long  syllable 
rarely  takes  the  phu*e  of  the  initial  brevis.  There  are,  for 
exaiiiph*,  in  the  Dhiunmapada,  htdf  a  dozen  cases  witli  anapaest, 
but  n<ine  with  long  initiid  (vs.  40  has  naga-^  in  the  new  text). 

Kxaniples  of  jagatls  like  the  tri^t^bh  hypermeters  given 
alx)vc '  are : 

athili  'va  qyeno  vajrahaatah  qacTpatih,  iii,  197,  25b 
lihltim  prapannaiii  yo  hi  dadati  q.atraTe,  iii,  197, 12 0 
svAdhy.ayaoIla  fniniqiK^rnnane  rat&h,  xiii,  102,  33  a 
satyo  sthitlnaih  vedavidam  mahatmanaro,  xiii,  102,  34  0 
l>al«Mia  tulyo  yasya  puman  na  vidyatc,  ii,  65,  25  a 
(a  has  13  syllables ;  b,  12;  c-d,  11  each) 

Occasionally  a  tristubh  and  jagatl  occur  in  the  same  stanza 
in  hyiH»niu»tri('  fomi,  as  in  iii,  184,  89: 

tato  'stArakram  matur  athA  *ntike  pitA 

nadlih  samafigaih  qighram  imam  viijasra 
(provftca  cAi  *nam  sa  tathA  vive^) 

The  unique  tristubh-iifida  of  fourteen  syllables,  of  which  I 
sjMikc  aUive,  nins,  ii,  64,  Id: 

balan  ivA  'tmAn  aramanyase  nityam  era 

[M-rliApii  U-ttiT  to  than  with  the  inltUI  hyprnneter,  u  the  latter,  eicept  for 
tlii*  I Linijili'.  i«  rharacti*rifr<l  br  a  hcavr  fifth,  as  atated  abore. 

1  Al-..  V,^Iir.  c  ir-.  TivTifa  dhirav  rljakftjeaa  aatpste,  RV.  s,  W^S  (i» 
( ludi'J  umli-r  thfiabha  in  Oldcobtrg't  UtI,  loe.  dt). 


292  TUE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

The  scholiast^  who  rarely  touches  on  purely  metrical  phe- 
nomena,^ explains  this  as  **  redimdant  and  archaic,'^  recogniz- 
ing the  pada  as  it  stands.  But  it  is  impossible  to  suppress  the 
suspicion  that  avamanyase  stands  for  an  origmal  manyase,  a 

regular   hypermeter    (^^,^\j ),   "thou  regardest  us   as 

children,"  strengthened  by  some  one  to  "  thou  despisest  us." 
Another,  but  doubtful,  example  is  given  below. 

The  distribution  of  these  hjrpermetric  forms,  va,  is  somewhat 
uneven.  The  examples  run  in  groups,  showing  clearly  the 
effect  of  different  styles.  A  baker's  dozen  of  hypermeters,  for 
example,  are  found  in  the  seventh  book,  which  has  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty  tristubhs ;  but  half  of  the  dozen  are  in  the 
fifty-seven  tristubhs  of  adhy.  179.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
fourth  book,  wliich  has  two  hundred  tristubhs,  has  no  ex- 
ample.2  The  second  book,  wliich  has  only  one  hundred  and 
fifty-five  tri^tubhs,  has  thirty  examples.*  In  the  thirteenth 
book  the  older  parts  have  most  examples.  Thus  in  the  few 
tri^tubhs  that  tell  of  tlie  seers'  oath,  adhy.  94,  there  are  twelve 
hj-permeters  in  tliirteen  trif fubhs,  a  much  greater  proportion, 
as  the  tale  is  much  more  ancient,  than  is  found  in  any  other 
part  of  equal  length  in  this  book.* 

As  an  illustration  of  the  epic  free  tri^tubh  with  hyper- 
meters may  be  taken  the  following  stanzas  from  the  continu- 
ation of  the  story  of  the  Frog-girl  in  iii,  192,  48  ff. : 

[Vamadeva  uvSca] 

prayaccha  vamyau  mama  parthiva  tvam 
krtaiii  lii  te  karyam  abhyam  aqakyam 

1  ITo  seldom  comments  on  unusual  rhythms,  although  often  remarking  on 
archaiitms  real  or  fancied,  as  for  example  on  prasthe  dattrS  yipinam  brahma- 
nebhyah,  at  i,  W5,  23  b,  explaining  prasthe  as  for  pratasthe  "  with  Vedic  lost 
of  reduplication." 

>  Tlie  fourth  book  is  writ  like  the  RSmSyana,  in  the  refined  style,  and  has 
scarcely  a  dozen  padas  of  the  free  tristubh  type,  almost  all  its  tristubhs  being 
upajatis. 

>  Two  such  hypermeters  in  one  stanza  are  not  unusual  in  old  tales,  e.  g.,  iii* 
102,  68  a-b,  jananii  putraih  da^ayarsam  tayS  'ham  jatam  mahisyim  ^yena- 
jitan'i  narendra. 

4  Compare  what  was  said  aboye,  in  the  note  on  p.  221,  regarding  the  (lokas 
in  this  section. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  298 

mft  tvft  'vadhid  Varono  ghorapftiQftir 
brahmaksatrasjft  'ntare  vartauiAnam 

[rftjo  'vflcaj 
anadvAh&u  suvratftu  sAdbudAiitftT  (—  w ) 

etad  viprftn&m  |  vfthanam  Vftmadeva  (..  ^\j^  J) 
t&bh j&m  yfthi  tvam  |  yatra  lULxno  mabane  (-.•  _  w ) 

ocband&nsi  vfti  tvAdrQam  samTabanti  (_  w ) 

[V&madeTab] 
cband&usi  vfti  mldrQam  samyabanti 

loke  'musmin  p&rtbiva  yftui  aanti 
aamiiiB  tu  loke  mama  y&nam  etad 

asmadTidbAnilm  |  apareaftm  oa  rftjan  (— •  «^  ^ «-«-) 

[raja] 

cutvaras  tT&m  vft  |  gardabbfib  samvabaiitu  (.. .  w ) 

qresth&qvataryo  |  barayo  vfttaranbAb  (_ .  sjs^ ) 

tais  tvaih  yahi  ksatriyasy&i  'aa  Tftbo  (_  vr ) 

mam.ai  'va  vAmyftu  |  na  tavfti  'taa  bi  viddbi  (— ,  w  w ) 

[Vftiuadovahj 
ghoraiii  vrataro  brftbmanasyii  *tad  Abor 

t*tail  rAjan  yad  ib&  'jlvamftnah 
aya.Hmaya  ghorarQpA  mabintaq 

cutvAro  vSL  yfttndbAnftb  aarftudrftb 

•  •  • 

mayft  |irayuktftfi  |  tvadvadbam  IpeamAnft  (.^  .  w  w  — ) 
vahaiitu  tvaib  (^itaqQlOQ  caturdbft 

And  S4»  on  (the  LiMt  stanza  lias  six  pSdas,  as  not  infre- 
qii«*iitly  hap{x*iis).' 

As  MM*n  in  Mime  of  thew  Ktanzai!,  there  ia  aometimea  accord 
Irtwrrn  tiit*  Iiyin-nncter  and  ita  envimnment.  Tbia  ia  not 
ran*.     Thus  in  ii,  />8,  W  three  {>§iLui  liave  tlie  fonn  w  _  \/  _ 

w  ^ vy  .  V,  aiwl  thene  an*  followed  by  pida  d  aa  a  hy« 

|i«*nnrt4T  of  th(*  Kinn*  Mirt ;  ity  aguto  liaih  nfpa  te  taj  jiH 
HiNva.  I'hi*  hyiM*nni*trio  raden(*e  to  cloae  a  paaaage  ia  not 
uiMi-iual.  Thus  to  rhise  a  Htanza,  xiii,  159,  11:  m  eva  pur> 
vaiii  nij:i;:hrina  driityiin,  m  iiiir\'adevaf  ca  faabh&va  miiri(, 
Ki  hhuiaiulni  liiiuvuno  bliutaMiav}ii^  ^  vi^vaayi  *8ya  jagalaf 

>  Tlmt  Is,  It  U  a  ttropb*  of  two  tiwatpMa  triftablM  (atom  ^  IMK 


294  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ca  ^bhigopta.  Again,  in  i,  90,  5  d :  bhuyag  ce  'danuh  yada 
kiiii  te  vadami;  Uieu  Ai^faka  uvaca.  As  hypenneteis  I 
should  explain  the  difficult  padas,  1,  3,  123  c-d,  the  latter 
having  (affectation  of  the  antique  ?)  choriambic  opening  be- 
fore \j  \j (No.  18  has  \j  \j  \j  ^  \j  \j vy  —  vy) : 

vail  navaDltam  |  hrdayam  tiksnadbaram(iti). 

The  preceding  pada  is,  I  think,  to  be  read  as : 

tad  viparitam  |  ubhajam  ksatriyasja, 

instead  of  tad  ubhayam  etad  viparitam.  Then  all  the  padas 
are  metrical,  after  a  fashion. 

There  is  a  regular  tristubh  with  the  movement  ^  __  vy  —, 

^  — ,  and  hypermetric   in   bhayahitasya  dayam   mama 

'utikat  tvam  (cited  under  No.  23).  Like  this,  but  with  a 
different  hypermetric  opening,  is  the  apparent  j»da  found  in 

1,  3,  63  c:  hitva  |  girim  agvi-  |  nau  ga  muda  carantau, 

\^  ^  Kj w  _,  with  neglected  caesura. 

This  brings  me  to  the  comparatively  few  cases  of  different 
Ci'esura  in  tliis  form  of  hyijermeter.  As  shown  in  the  exam- 
ples given  al)ove,  the  cajsuml  pause  comes  after  the  fifth 
syllable.  When  tliis  is  neglected  (but  the  practice  is  ob- 
served in  a  large  majority  of  the  cases),  we  have  an  approach 
to  the  shifting  caesura  of  the  former  division,  iv,  and,  as  I 
liave  said  already,  it  may  seem  simpler  to  regard  such  cases 
as  initiid  hyjxjnneters  with  long  instead  of  short  initial.  But 
the  difference  of  ciulence  between  the  opening  \j  \j  ^^^,  and 
v.  —  :^  _  ^,  seems,  as  in  the  case  of  the  ^loka,  to  mark  an 
iiniK)rtant  though  not  a  radical  distinction,  between  these 
groups.  While  the  ictus  of  the  fonner,  as  in  vrsalijjatih,  is 
\j  Kj  JL\j  ±,  that  of  the  Litter,  as  in  ha  tarn  samgrame  is  vy  i., 

I .     Nor  doc\s  the  shift  of  ctesura  in  asuraih  surayam 

bhavato  'smi  dattiih,  etc.,  change  this.  But  when  the  second 
cliiss  shiftij  the  cit'sura  to  the  sixth  syllable,  as  in  yatra  devi 
Gangii  satatam  pmsuta,  then,  instead  of  coinciding  with  the 
ictus  of  iv,  we  still  have  necessiirily  the  same  opening  with 
that-  of  V,  but  still  differentiated  in  the  following.     For  in 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  296 

the  whole  tnRtubli,  we  certainly  cannot  read  hatam  samgrame 

Suliiulovena  [Nipam  an  kj  1 I ^^  etc.,  whereas  in  the  other 

casi>  the  only  way,  an  it  seems  to  me,  to  read  the  pSda  is  yatri 
devi  (iian  |  ga  |  Katat&in  piusuta.  I  prefer,  therefore,  not 
to  call  these  cases  long  initial  hj'penneters,  but  to  class  tlieni 
sc^jKirati'ly,  as  vi.  There  are,  as  I  have  sliown,  cases  which 
bn<Ige  the  distinction  and  connect  these  classes  in  Uieir  ex- 
treme varieties,  so  tliat  some  may  chcM>se  rather  to  consider 
them  as  nidieally  identical  openings;  but  it  is  certainly  con- 
venient to  distinguish  tliese  forms.  Of  vi  I  have  tlie  follow- 
ing examples,  the  tyi)e  being  antique,  as  in  Mui^d.  Up.,  iii,  1, 
6,  yatra  Uit  satyasya  paramam  nidlianam,  as  distinguislied 
from  ih.  ii,  2,  10,  na  tatra  sui^'o  bhati  na  candratarakam,  ne 
*mri  vidyuto  bhanti  kuto  'yam  agni]^,  etc.  I  unite  with 
them  the  sponidic  cases  where  tlie  caesura,  instead  of  coming 
aft4  r  the  sixth,  where  it  is  usually  founds  is  neglected  or 
falls  after  the  fourth  sylLible,  except  where,  in  the  latter  case, 
two  lijjjht  syllables  fc)lh)w:* 

i,  8'.»,  .'$  b,  sa  vai  rftjan  na  'bhyadhikah  kathyate  ca 

(No.  13) 
i,  1'.»7,  10  (1,  yatra  devT  Gafigfl  satatain  prasatft  (Xo.  3) 
ii.  r»t.  11  1>,  viqesaUih  ksattarahitim  manusyam  (No.  19) 
ill,  1.'4.  7  a,  evam  Astavakrah  saniitAu  hi  garjan  (No.  3) 
il>.  I'T  <\  Mlosu  putresu  kr|>anam  vadatsa  (No.  19) 

ill,  i:i.r.)3  a  (R.  1U2, 54)  maniAi  'va  tAu  v&myau  parigrhya 

rfljan 
]».  omits  ova,  hut  Imth  texts  immediately  after  bave^- 
i;i,  \\y2,  «>*>  b,    na  tvft  'uu^Asmy  adya  prabhrti  hy  asatyam 

(No.  1) 
V.  \'2,  0  h,  tatra  *nu  te  yftnti  na  taranti  mrtyam  *  (No.  19) 
V  .  IL',  17),  l,5<Jl.'d,  etad  vidvau  upaiti  katliaiii  nu  karma 

(Na    2) 
1».  h.i«i  N«»  'pAiti  -^ 
V.  11.  lo:^       giiniiii  (^isyo  nityam  abhivfldaytta         (No.  20) 
V.  1 1.  JS  0,       ratliaiiitare  bArhadratbe  ▼&  'pi  rtjan     (No.    6) 
V,  IS.  77  <\       vegenai   'va  ^ailam   abhihatya   jambhah 

(No.  20,  note) 

1  For  tbiK^  CMC!  irc  below.  *  C  XfiH  kss  to  totri  IsviatL 


296  TUE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

vii,  2, 1  b|        bhinnam  navam  iva  'tyagftdhe  KurOnftm 

(No.   9)» 
viiy  179,  26  b,  qaktyrstiprasamusalany  ayudhani         (No.  13)* 
But  G.  8,140,  has  qaktyah  prftsa  (regular)  — 
viii,  4,546  b|    pradu^  cakre  vajrapratiinaprabh&yam    (No.    2) 

Here  B.  89,  23  has  vajram  atiprabhavam,  but  C.'s  form 
(words)  is  a  stereotyped  tristubh  ending,  as  in  viii,  89,  61  d ; 
ix,  17,  19  d;  85,  37  c;  xii,  112,  21b,  etc.;  e.  g.,  in  the  last 
case,  pura  mahendra  pratimaprabhava. 

[xii,  108,  33  a,   etat  sarvam  anirdeqenfti  Vam  uktam  *] 
xiii,  94,  13  d,     na  hy  utsahe  drastum  iha  jivalokam       (No.  19) 
xiv,  9,  34  c,       sahasram  dantaiiam  ^atayojanan&m        (No.    2) 
H.  2, 72, 31  c,     virQpaksam  budarQanam  punyayonim      (No.    7) 
ib.  32  d,  somapuiiam  marIcipau£Uh  varisthah         (No.    8) 

ib.  44  a,  vi-ailjano  jano  'tha  vidvan  samagrah 

(Note  to  No.  9  in  Appendix,  with  the  pftda  tri-ambakam 
pustidam,  etc.,  another  case  of  resolution.) 

Compare  also  the  pada  cited  above  p.  278,  ma  pradati 
5yentiya,  etc. 

In  the  explanation  of  the  padas  given  above,  I  have  partially 
accepted*  the  analysis  of  Kiihnau,  who  in  liis  book,  Die 
Trishtubh-Jagati  Familie,  hiis  divided  yatri  tat  s&tyasy&  | 
paramdm  nidliandm ;  but  I  cannot  carry  this  out  in  tans  te 
diulani,  ma  pnipata  prapatam,  and  therefore  separate  the 
cliisses,  reading  the  latter  as  tans  td  dadani  |  ma  pnipatd 
prapatam.     The  padii  \\ith  caesura  after  the  sixth  syllable, 

*  Tcrhaps  vi  for  iva  (as  below). 
^  On  this  pada  also,  see  below. 

*  Tliis  extraordinary  verse,  thoufi^h  anirde^cna  U  Touched  for  by  the  com- 
mentator, seems  by  metre  and  meaning  to  have  been  originally  a  sample  of 

No.  27  (with  nirde9ena  in  its  usual  sense),  v> , \j \j. 

As  it  stands  it  must  have  fourth  brevis  (hypermeter), ^  ^ 

\j w« 

^  Kiihnau's  schemes  (loc.  cit,  pp.  104, 160)  find  a  place  even  for  the  pida: 
yada  Vrausam  Dronah  Krtavarma  Krpnv  ^'<^>  which  does  indeed  stand  in  C. 
100  a,  but  is  corrected  in  B.  i,  1,  108,  \Tau8am  having  been  taken  over  from 
the  circumjacent  padas,  but  being  properly  omitted  (as  in  C.  201,  yada  Dro^eJ* 
leaving  a  regular  tris^ubh.    See,  however,  viii,  below. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  29T 

examples  above,  may,  however,  be  grouped  for  mechanical 
clearness  witli  the  regular  tiif^uUis,  the  numbers  of  which 

I  have  added  to  the  various  specimens. 

As  in  the  case  of  tri^tubh  versus  floka  pada,  one  cannot 
always  say  just  which  measure  one  has  in  hand  when  regular 
and  h}i)eimetric  trLptubhs  run  together.    Thus  in  xiii,  80» 

II  a-b: 

dhenuih  savats&m, 

kapil&m  bhUriQiftglm 
kilnsyopadohftm, 

vasanottarlyftm ; 
or  in  iii,  34,  21  c-k1  : 

mitrani  cfli  'nam  |  acirfld  bhajante 
dev&  ive  'ndram  |  upajlvauti  c&i  'nami 

like  a  vuitaliva. 

The  hyi»i*nnotric  R}'llable  may  be  only  apparent  (elision) 
in  S4>ine  rasi's.  In  tlie  older  epic  I  have  noticed  only  a  elided 
tluiK,  us  in  V,  44,  10  d: 

csa  prath  'mo  brahmacaryasya  pAdah 

In  the  Liter  epic,  such  elision  takes  place  as  well  in  the  case 
(»f  u  and  i,  unless  we  assume  a  freer  use  of  hypermetric  sylli^ 
blcs  ;  iis  in  : 

i,  T^r^  1 1  <1,  tvaiii  va  Vaniiio  dharmarftjA  Yamo  tA 

vii,  L'Ol,  ^'i  h,  iar«u;vailkinaiii  gadinaih  cA  'yatAsim 

il>.  (*,  (^ubliraiii  jatilam  musaliDam  candnunAalim 

vii,  l», I.V)  <l  (=.  ib.  d),  vyaghrAjiuam  lAridadhAnam  daiKlapAnim 

Kilt  htn*  H.  has  iKirighinain. 

xiv.  lo,  L'  a,   DhrtarAstra !  praliito  gaocha  Manittam ' 

II.,  2,  TlK  i^c,  wliere  the  whole  stanza  reads: 

:i,  Aim)  dovja   |  rsIiiAiii  (hi*)  viqvadhAtryo 

h,  (livva  madantyo  yAh  |  <*aiiikarA  dharmadhAtryah 

i\  hiranyavariiAh  |  |)AvakAh  ^ivaUmana 

d,  roMMia  i^reyaso  mAiii  jusantu 

*  UrAil  irarch'  (a  commoo  ^jpt*  No.  14). 

<  1 ..  ',VM,  oniiu  hi.  and  Id  b  rtada  dbsrwttitlTa^ 


298  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA, 

If  yah  followed  rasena  it  would  improve  both  padas ;  but  on 
tliis  see  the  next  paragraph.  In  c,  hypermetric,  givatamena 
must  be  reiul  as  giv'tamena.  In  the  next  stanza  (after  apam 
e§a  smrto  mantrah,  intervening),  C,  d,  has  (sc.  ma) 

bhartur  bhaveyam  rusati  sySiii  ca  vaqagft 

but  here  B.,  11,  has  syam  vagamga,  which  smacks  of  B.'s 
usual  improving  process. 

vii-ix.    Doable  Hjrpermeters  or  Tristnbhs  of  Thirteen 

Syllables. 

vii.  Sporadically  appears  an  "inserted  fifth"  in  addition 
to  the  initial  hypermeter: 

xiii,  94,  3  a,       rsayah  sametfth  |  paqcime  v&i  prabh&se 
xiii,  102,  39  a,   qatavarsajlvi  |  yaq  ca  quro  manusyah 

If  the  reading  is  right,  tliis  is  found,  but  with  different  open- 
ing, in 

iii,  197,  27  a,   etasam  prajanam  |  palayita  ya^asvl. 

\dii.  But  in  the  last  case  (though  tiisam  may  be  suggested 
for  etasiiui)  a  combimition  seems  to  be  at  work  which  is  like 
that  wrought  by  the  ca?sura  after  the  fifth,  in  cases  where 
the  ti-ist^ubh  then  builds  up  its  second  half  independently. 
Thus  palayitii  yagiusvi  would  be  a  regular  second  Imlf  and 
etiisHni  pmjanam  would  be  a  rough  metrical  equivalent  of 
tlie  tyi^  yatm  devi  Gaiiga.     The  cases  are: 

(1)  ii,  67,  4  c,  sa  tvam  prapadyasva  |  Dhrtarastrasya  veqma* 

(2)  iii,  5,  20  c,  sahayanain  esa  |  samgrahane  'bhyupdyah 

(3)  v,  40,  27  c,  aja(j  caro  divfi-  |  ratrara  atandritaq  ca  * 

(4)  viii,  7G,  18  a  prasag  ca  miidgarah  |  gaktayaq  tomaraq  ca 

(5)  xiii,  159, 26  a,  sa  eva  parthaya  ]  Qvetam  aqvam  prayacchat 

(read  prayacchat?) 

(6)  xiv,  9,  10  b,       balani  sarvani  |  virudhaq  ca  'py  amrdnan 

1  Possibly,  however,  prapadya  has  been  altered  here  by  a  grammarian. 

2  In  .'JO,  ajav  caro  diviiratrain  atandrito  *hani,  where  C,  1,71X),  has  aja^  ci 
'horatnun.  Tlie  stanza  is  Upanishadic :  afiKUstiiamatrah  purufo  mahatmi  na 
dr9yate  'sau  hrdi  sunmivistah.  ajay  (etc.),  sa  tarn  matva  kayir  aste  pnip 
lannah  (as  in  Ka^ha  vi,  17,  etc.). 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  299 

(7)  H.  2f  72, 32  a,   bhunkte  ya  eko  (proDouDce  yftiko)  vibhur  | 

jagato  Ti<;vam  agryam 

(8)  ib.  47  d,  abhi  trivistapam  |  qaranam  y&mi  Rudraui 

(9)  ib.  C.  7448  c,     guha  'bhibhatasya  |  purusasye  \ysLTtisyA^ 

And  w),  ixirliaiw,  in  the  case  cited  above  from  IL,  2,  79,  9  b, 
divvfi  nicuLintyo  yah  |  ^liikara  dhamiadhatr}'at  (when,  after 
ras4Miii  in  d,  tah  may  be  supplied). 

11)0  nuniUT  of  eases  (all  I  have  found)  is  considerably 
rwluitHl  by  roiuling  in  the  eUisaiu  verse  above» 

tOsAm  prflj&nam 
in  (1)         s3l  tvam  prapadya 
in  (4)         prflsiU^  ca  inudg*rah 
in  (.">)        sftiva  pilrthaya 
in  ((>)         balani  sarvA  (analogous  to  vigTA) 
in  (S)        trivistapam  (omitting  abhi) 

Hut  th(*  tyiH*  MH*nis  to  1x3  established  by  bhunkte  yaiko  vi- 
bhuh  in  (7),  and  guha  'bhibhutasya  in  (9);  so  it  may  seem 
Utt<*r  to  stick  to  tlu'  text  tluin  to  adopt  an  explanation  which 
would  driiiiind  still  further  chaiifi^'s,  such  as  omitting  e^  in 
(2 ),  and  vilihuh  in  (7) :  or  reji?cting  the  form  of  (9).  Otiier 
t*\anii»l(*s  of  thirt4*<*n-syllable  tri^tubhs  exist,  but  tliey  seem 
to  UlmiLr  to  another  category*,  as  shoMn  below,  where,  howe%'er, 
iliaiidnvidas  te  j  ya  uta  iia  *dhitaveda^  differs  from  adyaiVa 
pniiNa  *liani  |  uta  v.di  ran(Li%'eyiLl|^  only  by  cicsura,  the  Litter 
(^fnun  i,  llH,  />  b)  Udonging  here. 

DefectiTa  TMstoblui* 

('niisid«Tin«;  tlu»  exti'Ut  of  the  epic\  tlie  numlier  of  defecti%'e 
( iin|His^iblf)  tris^ubh  [uilas  is  small.  Some  of  thf*se  I  liave 
alii  M'ly  notirnl  incidentally*  and  newl  not  take  up  again.    The 

nili»i-s  I  trniup  in  their  onler: 

i,  \*J7,  .'mI,       (u\y\  '<;«*sasya  bharanaaya  tram  bharfl  'dyah 

Umit  liliava,  ^'iva  (No.  13,  bypermetrio). 

1  Il«re  B.  (60)  hsa  pw«ftfVMmPa. 


800  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Y,  42, 15  df        nS,  'dhlylta  nlrnudann  ivft  'sya  eft  'yah 

Kead  va  for  iva.^ 

Y,  44,  3  C;  anarabbydjh  vasati  'ha  kftryakdle 

Omit  iha  (=  atmaDj  eva), 

Vi  44,  25  a,         ftbhati  ^uklara  iva  lohitam  iva  'tho 

krsuam  atba  'fijauam  kadravam  va  (v.  L  in  26  % 
krsnam  ayasam  arkavarnam). 

Read  va  for  iva  'tho  and  atho  krsnam  afijanam.  In  26  a,  a 
like  change.  So  v,  48,  86  d,  akage  ea  'psu  ca  te  krama^  syat, 
for  ca  apsu. 

y,  44,  28  a-c,     nai  'varksu  tan  na  yajuhsu  na  'py  atharvasa 

na  drqyate  vai  vimalesu  samasu 
rathaihtare  barhadrathe  va  'pi  rajan 

For  c,  see  the  list  above,  p.  295,  In  a,  read  naivark^u  tan 
na  'pi  yajiili^v  athar\'asu,  or  as  hypermetric  witli  yajti^u? 

viii,  3,338  c,      ditsuh  Karnah  samare  hastisatkam  yah 

B.  66^  30,  has  hastisadgavam  and  omits  yah 

xii,  60,  46  c-d,  adharo  vitanah  samsrsto  vaigyo  brahmanas  trisu 

varnesu  yajiiasrstah 

The  preceding  padas  make  metre  and  sense.  These  make 
neither. 

xii,  226,  18,  na  tat  sadah  satparisat  sabha  ea  sa 

prapya  yam  na  kurute  sada  bhayam 
dbarmatattvani  avagahya  buddhiman 
yo  'bhyupaiti  sa  dhuraihdharah  puman  (v.  1.  narah) 

Read  (?) 

na  tat  sadah  satparisat  sabha  ea  sa 
sam  prapya  yaiii  na  kurute  sada  bhayam 

tad  dharniatattvam  avagahya  buddhiman 
yas  tv  abhyupaiti  sa  dhuraiudharo  narah 

The  sa  has  caused  the  loss  of  the  following  sam,  a  copy-error. 
Just  so,  bhavatmakam  parivartamanam  lias  lost  sam  before  the 

*  Tlie  form  va  for  Iva  is  found  everywhere,  e.  g.,  xiii,  00,  42  c,  m  vli 
XDuktah,  pippalam  bandhanad  vS  (cyavate).    So  R.  vii,  34, 15;  30, 42. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  801 

last  word,  xii,  10,544  a  =  287, 18.  The  parallel  proverb,  v.  85, 
58,  has  na  sa  sabha  yatra  na  santi  y|ddha]|^  (Maou,  xii,  114). 

xii,  285|  26  d,  m&m  adhvare  QamaitArah  stUTanti 

rathamtaraih  sftmagftQ  oo  'pagftnti 
mam  br&hman&  brahmavido  yajanta 
(d)       mama  'dhvaryavah  kalpayante  ca  bhftgam 

VaritHl  rcadmgs  in  xiii,  159, 16,  where  d  appears  as  tasmai 
havir  mlhyarj-ava^i  kalpayanti,  but  tasmai  here  is  offensive. 
Keiul  me  'dhvarj'avab. 

H.  2,  74, 27  b,  (jiu^vac  chreyah  kOfiksibhir  varadAmeyavIrya(h)  * 

(so.  pajyase) 

V,  b  and  ix.    Morm-THstQblui. 

V,  I).  In  the  form  of  the  hypermetric  triftubh  shown  above 
ill  tatlifi  titik^ur  atitik^or  vififfa^  or  na  tvam  ppDchSmi,  Vkiun, 
Viul  ilhitain  me,  tlie  scheme  is 

M  _  ^  .  w»  w  \ji£.  ^\J^^ 

N<>w«  as  H(M)n  ns  the  oicsura  in  such  a  combination  of  syllables 
shifts  Uic'k  to  the  fourth  syllable,  ^  —  ^^..k/k/k/^.w..^ 
as  ill 

ti'saiii  kraiuau  kathaya  tato  *pi  ca  'nyat,  ▼,  42^  28  c, 

it  is  t*vi(K*nt  ttuit»  although  such  a  pada  may  be  mechanically 
t'lpiati'd  with  No.  19  (as  a  hj^wnneter),  it  is  on  the  other 
liand  nothing  hut  a  moni-cquivalent  of  the  fonn  (No.  1) 
:^  _  ^  — ,  v.x  ^  v^  _  w  _  2:^  Again,  in  the  case  of  neglected 
«;isiir.i  (aUive),  whore  two  light  syllables  follow  the  ••  extra** 
syUahhs  wi*  may  um  woll  take  Qtiktyp^tiprSsamusalany  iiyudlmni 

a^  ;ni  r«|nivah»nt  of  ^  _  v/ —  yji^w v^  —  :^,  like  the  regular 

I  ri<Li  w  ith  .  ^ in  the  second  foot  (No.  6) ;  or,  to  give  an 

fv.iinph*  where  tlie  cwsum  is  clearly  marked,  sa  main  jihmaiii« 
\'i«hira,    s;ir\';un    brovl^i,  iii,  4,   21  a«  may  be   si*annod   as 

^ .  ^;  ^  v^ \/^\j.     Such  pBdas  stand  pamllel  to  the 

n -/iilar  foriu-s  us  in  tlie  Giti,  2,  29,  imitation  of  Kafha  Up. 
ii,  7  : 

1  Thr  rommrnUtor  AMrfti  thftt  thU  U  waUj  a  **  f oartna  ^Ihblt  ylds," 
but.  At  iiitvA.li  pryctfdcg,  gayvat  Buy  b»  oBUttsd^kayJag  a  Js<ika  jyp wttiB 


802  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

&Qcaryavat  paqyati  kaqcid  enam 
aqcaryavad  vadati  tatliai  'va  cd.  'Djah 
aweary  avac  cai  'nam  any  ah  ^moti. 

As  resolution  may  take  place  in  several  places,  we  get  quite 
a  variety  of  rucira-like  padas.  The  common  alternation  of  the 
_  v^ and  v^  v^ padas  is  thus  represented : 

xiv,  10, 19  a-b,  ayam  indro  haribhir  ayati  rajan 

devaih  sarvais  tvaritaih  sttlyamanah 

ib,  10,  23  c-d,    ayam  yajSam  kurute  me  surendra 

Brhaspater  avarajo  vipramukhyah 

But  the  choriambus-equivalent  is  more  common,  as  in 

iii,  134,  28  c,  hasti  'va  tvam,  Janaka,  vinudyamanah 

xiv,  26, 1  ff.  (refrain),  yo  hrechayas,  tam  aham  anubravlmi 

Two  or  three  of  these  padas  together  are  not  unusual : 

iii,  132,  9  d-10  a,    bharyaih  ca  vai  duhitaram  svam  sujatam 

tasya  garbhah  samabhavad  agnikalpah  ^ 

viii,  68,  7d  and  8  a-b,  phalarthinam  viphala  iva  'tipnspah 

pracchaditam  badiqam  iva  'misena 
samchaditam  garalam  iva  'qanena 

So  in  the  jagatT-i)ada  iii,  133,  10  d,  kasmad  balah  sthaviia 
iva  prabhiisase.  Here  it  needs  only  the  iambic  opening  to 
make  a  true  rucira,  \j^\j^  \j\j\j\j ^  v^_^^_,  and  this  pada 
is  found  repeatedly,  not  in  complete  rucira-stanzas  alone,  but 
in  jagati  stanzas.  For  example,  iii,  8,  31  is  a  vanQasthabila 
stanza,  where  three  padas  are  regular,  but  b  has : 

praklrtayec  chucisumanah  samaliitah 

On  the  other  hand,  in  i,  84,  26,  the  first  pada  alone  is  of  vanfa- 
stha  ty[3e,  while  three  ruciiii  piidas  follow,  e.  g.,  jxida  d : 

mahatmanah  patagapatch  praklrtanat 
These  are  both  tag-stinzas,  embellishing  the  close  of  a  chapter 

>  Tlic  naiYc  padas  10,G00b-7a,  following  this  stanza,  arc  omitted  in  B. 
Tlic  embryo  here  says :  vedan  saiigan  8arYa9astrair  upetan  adhitaTin  u ml 
tava  prasadat,  etc.  I 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  808 

and  of  bcncdictive  content.^  A  similar  case  ocean  in  iii,  8, 
75  Hj  where,  after  pnuse,  is  said : 

imaiii  stavaiii  prayataman&h  samAdhinft 
pathed  iha  'uyo  'pi  varaiii  samarthayan,  etc* 

Hut  this  armngemcnt  is  found  also  aiMurt  from  such  employ- 
ment. So  in  viii,  06,  47,  a,  b,  d  are  of  this  rucirS  type;  c  is 
of  upendni  form,  tlius  c-d: 

hato  mayft  so  'dya  sametya  Karna 
iti  bruvan  praqamayase  (v.  1.  me)  'dya  PhAlgnna 

Ih»re  eleven  nyllables  do  not  equate  twelve  (thirteen),  but 

<l  equals  \i^  yj  y^ In  viii,  84,  20  a,  B.  lias  sptiatikaeitra, 

whei^e  (\  4,281  has  (tato  dhvajam)  spliatikavicitnikafieukam, 
pidUibly  the  original,  as  B.  is  apt  in  varied  readings  to  have 
the  iiioiv  unifonn  (impn)v«l)  tj'pes. 

As  u{x*iulni  and  vanvasUia  padas  alternate,  so  mcirft  padas 
altrniat4»  with  van^iistlias.  Tlnis  in  xii,  244,  29,  a  and  c  are 
of  ruciiil  fnnn;  band  d,  of  vnn^astiia  form.  In  a  stanza  of 
niixe<l  u{i;ijritis,  xii,  341,  119  b  luis 

niahatmanah  purusavarasya  kirtitam  ' 

The  seventh  Untk  has  a  number  of  these  combinations  of 
ni<  ira  i^idas  and  stanzas  and  upajati  padas  and  stanzas,  usu- 
ally  as  iiTula  tat^s  at  tlie  oimI  of  chapters,  for  example,  adhy. 
2«»,  L*!*,  :><^  o2;  but  it  luis  also  incorporate<l  complete  ruciris 
as  parts  of  an  tqvijati  system,  as  in  2,  15  and  16. 

I  ijive  n«»w  —  revertinjj  to  the  tris^ubh — a  few  more 
exanq»lrs : 

ii,  r>S,  ir,a,   na  cA  'kAmah  ^.ikuninA  deritA  *ham 
ill.  4. 17  a,   tvayA  prstali  kiin  aliain  anyad  vadeyam 
ill,  1.  IS  a,  ctaii  rakyaiii  Vidura  yat  te  sabh&yAm 

1  In  lii.  '2UK  .Vi.  two  or  tlirfw*  pl«U«in  •  bcocilktiT*  tUass  arv  of  tliU  tjpt. 
T!m-  tir.t  paila  in  C  Uirin*  imjim  rah  pAfJiAti  TimokfAiiifcajaai,  for B.'t  imarii 
hi  va)i  |.:i!hati  (vi  ')  mokMni^raxaiii.  In  lil,  114,  SI,  a  bencdictlvo  ttaaa, 
ru<  :r I  ]  4!.i«  ApiMAr  in  a  an<l  d,  c.  it.,  the  Uttrr:  as  vlflmaxam  m  labhatl 
ki:!»  1 1  .ii<n,v.<ini     liii,  77,  tQ  haa  a  whoW  nicirl  la  tmcdlcUoa. 

'  C'TiilKir^  i;iti.  H.  10,  m  um  param  parafam  aplitl  divyaoi^oie. 


80-4  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

In  this  example,  ii,  71,  17,  the  much  affected  pSda  sym- 

metiy  is  shown,  b  and  d  having  \j  \j ,  a  and  c  having 

\^  \j : 

atidjtltam  krtam  idam  Dhflrtar&stra 

yasm&t  strijam  viyadadbvam  sabhayftm 
yogaksem&u  na^ato  vah  samagr&a 
pftpftn  mantrftn  Koravo  mantrayanti 

Similar  is  ib.  8,  only  the  first  pada  is  jagatl.  But  the  second 
foot  corresponds  to  that  of  the  third  pada ;  and  so  the  fourth 

pada  has  \j  \j corresponding  U)  \j  kj  \^  ^  in  the  second 

pada: 

anyam  vmTsva  patim  aqubbftvini 

yasmftd  ddsyam  na  labhasi  devanena 
avSx^ya  y&i  patisu  kamavrttir 
nityaih  dasye  viditam  tat  tavft  'stu 

Contrast  this,  for  example,  with  the  following  padas,  20  a, 
24a,  26c,  of  the  same  section: 

Bhimasya  vakye  tadvad  eva  'rjunasya 
tato  Gandharl  Vidura<j  eft  'pi  vidvan 
Krsnam  PaScallm  abravlt  santvaptLrvam 

The  last  is  a  pure  vaiQvadevi  pada,  as  above  nityam  dasye 
viditam  tat  tava  'stu  is  a  pure  vatormi  pada,  and  yogak^emau 
naQyato  vah  samagrau  is  a  pure  ^alini  pada. 

In  padas  of  the  rueira  or  rucini-like  type,  the  same  woid 
appears  in  the  tri^tubh,  which  has  caused  a  discussion  in  the 
^loka: 

iii,  192,  ijQ  d,    tena  qrestbo  hhavati  hi  jivamanah 

V,  44,  18  e-d :   sa  taiii  vrttim  bahugunam  evam  eti 

guroh  put  re  hhavati  ca  vrttir  esa 

xii,  300,  27  d,    moghah  Qramo  hhavati  hi  krodhanasya 

Here  bhavati  need  not  be  pronounced  bhoti,  as  it  is  a  perfect 
parallel  to  bahu  gu-  in  this  stanza  and  to  pacasi  (bhavasi}  in 
the  following: 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  806 

i,  2S2y  14^  sn^A  lokftns  trln  im&n  haTyav&ha 

kale  prftpte  paoasi  panah  aamiddha^ 
tram  sarvasya  bhuranasya  prasatii 
tvam  ev&  'gne  bhavasi  punah  pratis^ 

A  monosyllabic  pronunciation  cannot  be  claimed  for  all  these 
cases,  though  it  might  be  maintained  for  special  words: 

i,  197,  42  a,  tarn  c&i  'vA  'gry&m  striyam  atirQpayoktam  ^ 

iii,  4, 1  c,  dharm&tm&nam  Viduram  agfldhabuddhim 

iii,  4,  3  a,  evam  gate  Vidura  yad  adya  kftryam 

iii,  2C),  lid,  labdhva  dvijam  nudati  nrpab  sapatnto 

iii,  31, 1)  b,  yathak&mani  viditam  Ajfltaqatro 

iii,  m,  20  c,  mah&gunam  harati  hi  pfturusena 

iii,  111,  10 d,  vratam  brahmanq  carasi  hi  devavat  tram 

xii.  :^)2,  114  b,  maliarnavaih  viinalam  ud&rakftntam 

xiii.  71,  16  a,  drstvfti  Va  m&m  abhimukham  Apatantam 

xiii.  1)3.  13(3  a,  adhvaryave  duhitaraih  vA  dadAtu' 

xiii,  102,  'Mi  b,  tathe  'stTnAiii  daQagatam  prApnuvaoU 

xiii,  lo.'i,  .V>  b,  tiith&i  'vA  'nyAn  aoaduho  lokanAtha 

II.  2.  72,  .'Ua,  AtharvAnaih  suqirasam  bhatayonim 

li.  2,  74,  2:i  b,  khyAto  dcvah  paqupatih  sanrakarmA 

Hut  the  ^"cit  objection  to  a  monosyllabic  pronunciation  is 
th;it  the  nicinl  [uda  interchanges  up  to  three  padas  with  the 
nnliiiiiry  tri^t^hh  iwla,  and  must  therefore  be  identical  in 
strui  tim»  with  the  same  |)fiila  when  four  times  repeated,  in  a 
[H-rf<M't  nicira  stanza.  But  in  tlie  rucirR  stanza,  no  one  can 
maintain  fur  u  moment  that  \j\j\j\j ^  istobe  read  with  crasis. 
Why  iUrn  when  a  stanza  lias  three  pfidas  of  the  same  type  or 

It  may  U*  siiid,  however,  timt  tlie  mora  tri^ttihh  patla  differs 
ill  no  n*siM*rt  fnmi  tlie  **inserte<l  fifth,**  when  tlie  Litter  is  a 
li^Oit  Mllalile.     For  example  in  this  stanza: 

ill,  4,  21,   na  niAiii  jihmam,  Vidura,  sarvaro  braTisi 
niAnaiii  ca  te  *ham  ailhikam  dhArayAmi 
yathe  'cchakaiii  gaccba  vA  tistha  tA  tram 
susantvyamAnA  'py  asatl  strl  jahAti 


»  AM  ihf  othrr  pido  here  mre  of  •trict  fiUnf  type, »— v/_«« 


\j  — 


s  lb.  m.  44.  iarm,  but  ?i  UUa. 


306  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Here  it  is  clear  that  susantvyamana  'py  is  a  complete  foot  of 
tlie  inserted  fifth  variety ;  but  pada  b  is  indifferently  an  in- 
serted fifth  or  a  mora  pada,  the  caesura  pointing  but  lightly  to 
the  latter  explanation.  One  reason,  however,  against  such  an 
identification  is  that  the  mora  explanation  in  almost  all  eases 
is  indicated,  as  in  most  of  the  examples  given,  by  a  plain 
caesura  before  the  fifth.  Another  is  that  this  explanation 
brings  the  various  padas  of  a  stanza  into  symmetry,  as  in  ill, 

192,  where  _  v^ is  employed  with  predilection  throughout^ 

and  we  find  in 

iii;  192,  69,   yathd,  yukUl  |  vamadevft  'ham  enam 

dine  dine  |  samdiQantI  nrqansam 
brahmanebhyo  |  mrgayati  saDrt&ni 
tatha  brahman  |  punyalokam  labheyam 

Here  mrgayati  su  — ,  as  ^-l^  w ,  accords  with  the  structure 

of  tlie  other  padas.     So  in  jagatTs,  e.  g., 

vii,  26,  (^Q-(SQj  sa  nagarajah  pravarafikuqahatah 

pura  sapakso  'drivaro  yatha  nrpa 

bhayam  tada  ripusu  samadadhad  bhrqaih 
vanigjananarii  ksubhito  yatha  'riiavah 

tato  dhvanir  dviradarathaQvaparthivaih,  etc. 

vii,  60, 14a-b,     tatha  tada  yodhanam  ugradarQanam 

niqamukhe  pitrpatirustravardhanam  ^ 

vii,  109, 37  c-d  niqamya  tam  pratyanadans  tu  Pandavas 

tato  dlivanir  bhuvanapatha 'sprqad  bhrgam 

Compare  the  close  of  vii,  15">,  four  stanzas  of  ruciras  and 
of  vancasthas,  vni\\  tlie  same  niora-|)adas. 

A  third  point  to  l)e  noticed  is  that  the  "  inserted  fifth  "  as 
brevis,  and  \\\\\\  its  caesura  tliere,  is  always  a  rarity  (as  indi- 
cated in  the  lists  above)  unless  followed  by  two  (or  three) 
other  breves,  so  that  we  have  fimilly  two  chief  classes  to  ex- 
plain, one  with  cajsura  after  the  fifth  hesivy  syllable,  and  the 
other  with  caesura  after  the  fourth,  followed  by  breves  equiva- 

^  Variant  on  the  old  stereotyped  yamarastravardhana,  of  battle,  hero,  etc. 
as  in  vii,  145,  07  d;  ib.  98d. 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  807 

lent  in  moitc  to  the  nicira  pada.  There  are  a  few  casea 
bridging  these  clautses  and  showing  that  the  metrical  equation 
was  not  ahvuys  in  hanuony  witli  tlie  cffisura,  but  thia  is  no 
more  than  was  to  be  expec*tod.  We  are  not  to  imagine  that 
the  |MK*ts  Het  themselves  to  com|>otie  padas  by  categories;  but 
we  can  haitlly  escape  the  conclusion  that  a  {wda  identical  witli 
a  rucira  |)ada  was  felt  to  be  the  same  with  it*  tliough  tlie 
chanuteristic  i>ause  of  the  rucira  may  be  absent ;  for  in  tlie 
n^gular  niciru  tlie  senso-pause  and  rhythmical  pause  are  not 
always  identical.  Hence,  when  we  find  samiinam  munlhni 
nithayanaiti  viyaiiti  in  one  stanza,  andyuvaiii  vanjuLn  vikurutho 
vivvaruiuin  in  the  next»  i,  3,  65  a,  we  may  explain  tliem  as 
iH'longing  to  two  categories  ciesundly  distinct,  or  put  tliem 
intn  ont!  cati'gor}',  remarking  tliat  usuidly  tlie  caesura  is  after 
the  fourth  in  such  svllabic  combinations;  for  even  with  two 
bn*ves  following  (the  commonest  case  witii  tlie  caesura  after 
the  tifth)  the  examples  are  rare  in  comparison  with  the  rucir^- 

likt»  or  true  rucira  [>iuLi,  m_m_w,  ww w_^;i^_if«., 

\j  \y  ^  ^  ^  \j  ^  )l<  (nicira-like) ;  v^_k/_,  wv^v^w—  v/_w  — 
( nicinl ).  It  is  [H>rluips  in  each  case  merely  a  question  of  how 
tlu*  pfula  is  naturally  t4>  be  read.  Some  will  scan  only  one 
way,  e.  g.,  mnrgi*  bhaginuh  v^ikatam  ivi  Valakyun  in  iii,  18S, 
12:^(1,  irn*s[KMtive  of  the  stanza;  while  others  may  be  read 
either  way,  as  in  the  stanza  ib.  19: 

8^)  'haiii  (;nitv.a  brilhmanAn&iii  sakiqe 
brihuiOilvAitiiii  kathayitum  Agato  'ami 

kvA  Vau  IkiikII  yAvad  enaiii  sametya 
naksatfuiif  'va  savita  nAi^y&iui 

or  when  unito<I  with  the  live-syllable  f(N>t,  as  in  i«  89,  20: 

tatra  sthitam  mAm  dcvasukheso  saktam 

kale  'titu  u;diati  tato  'tim&tram 
diUo  devanAm  abravid  ugrarOpo 

dhvaiiso  *ty  uccAis  trihpluteua  STarena 

ix.  Thi*  mritra  or  ati-tri^tubh  {Ada  may  even  be  combined 
with  th«*  [iTmLi  living  inserted  liftli,  where  tlie  brevet  follow- 
iiii:  the  ra'sura  mH;m  to  be  only  nicira-like  reiolutioiL  It  ia 
a  trci^kaiileka  measure: 


808  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

i,  89,  23  b,  samlksya  ce  'm&m  |  tvaritam  upftgato  'smi 
(i,  198,  5  b,  ady&i  'va  puny&  'ham  |  uta  vab  P&ndavey&h') 
Y;  43,  50  c,  cLandovidas  te  |  ya  uta  ii&  'dhltaved&h 
xvii,  3, 13  b,  yad  dattam  istam  |  vivrtam  atho  hutam  ca 

In  xiii,  1,  32  d,  ksipram  sarpam  jahi,  ma  bhut  te  Yigankay 
compared  with  ^aktya  rak^o  jahi  Kama  'dya  tuinam,  vii,  179, 
48  c ;  tapantam  enam  jahi  papam  ni^ithe,  ib.  49  b,  te  may  be 
thought  to  be  an  intrusion,  but  it  has  a  sort  of  parallel  in  iii, 
4,  22  d,  ne  *dam  asti  'ty  atha  Yiduro  bhafflimanah  (where  C. 
has  atho  I). 

The  mora  rhythm  in  general  is  early,  being  found  not  only 
in  the  epic  but  in  tlie  Upanishad  and  Buddhistic  verse.  But 
it  is  foimd  also  in  imitative  parts  of  the  Puranas,  as  in  Vayu 
P.,  xiv,  7,  in  a  section  where  upendra  padas  interchange  with 

the  galini-like  j^da  ( \j^^^\j ).     Here  in  7  b^ :  ma- 

hatmanam  paramamatim  varenyam,  kavim  puranam  anu^asit- 
anun,  where,  as  often  in  the  epic,  kj  \j  \j  \j  ^  stands  with 
Kj\j\j^  and  ^\j\j^  (e.  g.,  9  a)  as  the  equivalent^  \^\j\j  ^^ 
of  the  latter.  On  the  last  verse  above,  see  the  note  on  p. 
277.  The  measure  appears  in  tri^t^ubhs  as  an  ati-trii^hh  of 
twelve;  in  jagatis,  as  an  ati-jagati  of  thirteen  syllables. 

In  the  Ramayana  I  know  of  only  one  case  where  this  re- 
solved form  is  found,  and  that  is  peculiar.  In  R.  vii,  81,  22, 
an  extraordinary  9loka  closes  the  section,  and  in  6.  88  a 
tiig-tristubh  of  the  form  above  is  made  out  of  it.  The  ex- 
traordinary §l()ka  is:  sa  tair  brahmanam  abhyastam  sahitair 
bmhmavittaniaih,  ravir  astaih  gato  Rama  gaccho  'dakam  upa- 
spr9ii,  "  the  sun  has  set  (after  accepting  as  a  laudation)  the 
secret  worship  by  the  assembled  Veda-versed  (seers),"  ac- 
cording to  tlie  commentiitor.  The  parallel  in  G.  indicates  a 
bnilunanair  abhistutah  instead  of  brahmana  =  upani^ad  or 
pujii.  The  tag-i'ud  in  G.  \'ii,  88,  22  seems  to  be  from  a 
phrase  just  precwliug  (found  in  G.  and  R.),  samdhyam  upasi- 
tum  vira  (Ranui).     Tlie  wliole  tag  reads : 

1  As  remarked  above,  p.  290,  this,  though  inserted  here  on  acconnt  of  its 
likeness  to  the  next  example,  belongs  rather  to  the  group  of  Double  Hjper- 
meters. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  809 

abhistutah  surayarah  siddhasafigflir 

gato  ravir  surucirain  asta^ilam 
tvain  apy  ato  Raghuvara  gaccha  samdhyim 

upftsitum  prayatamanA  narendra 

This  may  be  called  a  nicira-trLptubh.    On  the  niciii  stanza* 
800  Uie  Hcctlon  on  ak^aracchandas  below. 

The  TMsfobh  Stansm. 

UpAJATIS.      UrENDBAVAJBAS  AND  IXDRAVAJBAS. 

As  Htanzus,  tlie  forms  Uiat  begin  mth  a  diiamb  and  con- 
tinue  \\itli  a  choriamb  are  not  particularly  common.  They 
are  giaienilly  mudiiiod  as  upujatis,  by  combination  with  the 
indra  variotios,  which  begin  with  a  spondee,  iudra%'ajra  and 
indnivauvru  Somctijnos  tlie  jwrfect  form  appears  as  a  mere 
Liter  luldition.  Thus  in  iii,  23,  only  one  stanza,  14,  is  upen- 
dni  in  stxUH.*n  u|xijatis  (|iada  a  lias  final  brevis).  So  iii.  111, 
17-18  =  10,044;  while  in  iii,  2!)o,  9  and  10  are  two  perfect 
vanvii-siIuiH,  inteqN)hitcd  among  ylokas.  In  iii,  282,  14,  an 
uhiiost  |H.TfcHa^  uiicndru  is  ensconced  in  a  stuti  of  Skanda, 
whrn;  tho  ciivinmmcnt  is  uiujilti.  Again,  in  iii,  286,  in  an 
u|nijati  system  of  thirtyninc  stanzas,  one,  15,  is  pure  upendni, 
c\rc|ii  that  iiTida  a  ends  in  a  brevis;  and  19«  25,  27  are  also 
|>un*  ii|K*ndras,' except  tluit  in  27,  luda  a  ends  in  brevis.  In 
\\u  i!f)K  out  (if  twenty-seven  tri^fubhs,  two,  6  and  28,  are 
pun*  uiNiidnis.  A  {Kiir  of  paiLis  occurs  in  viii,  89,  47,  tato 
iii.il.iiii  Mli^arainekhalilih  tvaih  sa|Kittaniiih  grilmavatith  fVunfiU 
(liirmi.  Kilt  two  i«idas  t4>gether  is  a  lurgi!  numlirr  except  in 
Ln«*  jusNip's,  like  iii,  170  and  177,  where  they  are  not  uncom- 
ni..ii  ( IT*;,  7,  15,  Irt ;  177,  11,  21,  22);  %'anvaHUias  in  vii,  109, 
ii»>-i57,  with  a  nirim  inuLi,  etc. 

As  the  v.inraHtlia(hiLi)  is  merely  an  upemlm  ^iHth  a  sylla- 

'  Th<-  thir«l  pll.i.  hnwerrr.  cn<l«  In  a  brrTle.  On  thli  point  ii  to  be  Botkv4 
thit  ••It  !>  A  )in«i«  if  not  anrommon  in  the  nhlratA,  but  !■  the  Rialya^a  b 
r.iri  i  !;'>-.:jh  tii  di'MTvr  A  fpecUl  notice  of  K.  ▼!.  74.  M,  where  every  pSda 
(-11  !•  Ill  l.r«  \  i«     llfiv  the  itaott  ii«elf  !■  npcadfrn,  bat  tbt  ifsteB  U  ttp^|ltL 

'  Ilf-n- on!  v  light  pUM  ATV  BOt  of  ttpajltl  foTM,  b«t  ^  ^  ^  ^,  ^  W  ^  .^ 


810  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ble  added,^  so  the  jagatT  corresponds  to  the  different  fonns 
of  the  tri^t'Ubh.  Tlius  in  i,  197,  25,  it  takes  the  place  of  a 
vatormT,  tatra  hy  ekam  bhavitaro  na  samgayo,  yonim  sarve 
manusim  avigadhvam,  tatra  yuyaih  karma  krtva  Vi^ahyam, 
bahun  anyan  niiUianam  prapayitva;  and  just  below,  63  h, 
jxificanam  eka  svakrtene  'ha  karmana,  where  it  is  hyper- 
metric.  Here  a  and  d  have  eleven,  c,  12,  and  b,  13  syllables. 
A  near  approach  to  a  perfect  vaiigastlia  is  found  in  i,  198,  8, 

where  all  four  padas  are  normal,  except  that  in  b, \j  ^ 

takes  the  place  of  the  opening  diiamb.  In  ii,  64,  5,  all  j^das 
are  perfectly  regular.  The  intercliange  of  an  occasional 
van^astha  pada  vaiXi  the  other  padas  of  an  upajati  tri^itubh 
is  too  common  to  call  for  further  remark.  Two  instances 
will  be  found  in  i,  193,  20  and  22.  In  the  former,  the  stanza 
would  be  a  perfect  upendra,  but  pada  c  is  of  vaiigastha  form ; 
in  the  latter,  which  is  an  upajati  tri^tubli,  pada  c  again  is  of 
pure  vaii^astha  form.  So  in  i,  197,  11,  an  indravaii^a  pada 
heads  and  closes  a  trist»ubh  stanza.  The  caesura  is  after  the 
fifth  or  fourth,  passim ;  or  after  the  sixth,  as  in  i,  197,  17  a, 
yada  tu  par}Tiptam  ilui  'sya*-*  krujLiya;  or  a  second  occurs, 
as  in  iii,  5,  19  c,  saihvardhayan  stokam  iva  'gnim  atmavSn. 
The  sixth  place  is  often  half  as  common  as  the  fifth. 

The  caisura  in  the  padas  of  the  upajati  system  is  found 
most  frequently  after  the  fourth  or  fifth.  The  former,  per- 
luips,  in  isoktcd  padas,  as  in  xii,  64,  18  d,  tatas  te  'ham  dadmi 
variin  yathcstam,  and  i,  92,  9  a  and  11  d ;  but  the  forms  in  the 
Bhiimta,  thongli  inclining  largely  to  the  fifth  place,  vary  con- 
stantly, as  they  do  in  the  Kamriyana.  Examples  from  the 
latter  have  been  given  above  in  the  introductory  paragraph. 
I  add  some  8|x^cimcns  from  the  other  epic: 

tad  vai  ni^qansaiii  tad  asatyam  fthur 

yah  sevate  dhannani  anarthabuddhih 
artho  *py  anlcasya  tathai  'va  Fcljan,  i,  92,  5a-c 

nTlotjKilahlja  siiradevate  S'a 

Krsnfi  sthita  martiinatl  Va  Laksinlh,  iv,  71,  17  o-d, 

*  That  is  for  ^ ^,  ^ v^ ,  mechanically  considered. 

*  On  the  light  syllable  before  mute  and  liquid,  lec  above,  p.  242. 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  811 

where  a-b  liave  etcsura  after  the  fifth  and  fourth  respectively. 
Not  infn'(iuently  where  the  tri^tublis  pause  after  the  fifths 
the  jii^utl,  in  the  same  stanza,  pauses  after  the  fourth,  as 
in  iii,  268,  19: 

sai^afikhtighosah  satalatraghoso 
g&ndIvadhaDv&  muhur  udvahan^  ca 

yada  (^ar&n  arpayitil  tavo'rasi 
tad&  manas  te  kim  iv&  'bhavisyat 

lint  in  pun*  van(;a8thaM,  the  caesura  is  apt  to  vary  ahnost  with 
the  puda,  tus  in  xii,  103,  40 : 

na  silmadandopanisat*  pra^yate 
na  luOrdavaiii  qatrusu  yatrikam  sadA 

na  sasyaghato  na  ca  samkarakriyft 
na  ca  'pi  bhayab  prakrter  vicilranft 

So  in  viii,  IS,  12,  the  caesura  of  two  padas  faUs  after  the  fourth 
and  lifth  n^sinH'tively,  and  then  comes  the  piida:  ativa  cuk^>- 
bhayisiir  junfinlanam ;  while  the  fourth  pSda  is  cut  after 
the  foiinh   HvHable.    Alternation  is  common,  as  ib.  14-15 

(vy.^ and  v/_w_  alternately).     Sometimes  there  is 

no  cii'Mini: 

vaditra^afikhasvanasiiihaDildftih 
<;arasi(^ktyrMtinipataduh8ahami  viii,  88,  S-4 

or  it  i»*  irn»^dar: 

:il;iiii  virodhena  !  dhig  astu  vigraham,  ib.  21  b. 

kit}  Am  atharvftfigiraslm  ivo  *grAm,  viii,  91, 48  =s  is,  17,  44. 

I'lMJatis  an*  84inietimeM  used  to  cIokc  systems,  as  are  also 
uiH  iidra>  and  van<;asthaH.  Pure  van<;iisthas  may  end  a  system 
nf  up.ij.lti  triKfuhhs,  an  in  viii.  Id  ami  79,  xii,  167,  49-61,  just 
an  i.iiajatis  rluMf  a  scene  rnni|ir»sed  in  old  tri^tubhs.  The 
aii.il—jx  with  tht*  ta^-nH*sisun*s  (diM*usse«I  Ixrlow)  is  here  conv- 
pl>:i-;  ilti>  i*4v\\v  in  m»t  off  with  something  better  than  the 
nniiii.iiA.  Ah  an  example  of  the  way  in  which  upa^tis  are 
thii^  iis*il  may  M>r\'e  tiie  eiul  of  iii,  154;  or  in  i,  197  and  198, 

1  I'|..ii>i-a«I  it  hc-rv  •ecTvcy,    So  prrhapt  la  lit,  S71,  80,  (sprUtrffiBisi* 
vu  I  i  4turtljo|iAui^ddlijiniial^  tidliftnfa  111  tMfti^ 


812  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

where  the  first  part  of  the  wedding  scene  at  Dmpada's  is  in 
irregular  old  trii^^^ubhs,  but  regular  upajatis  conclude  the 
scene ;  the  latter  beginning  just  where  the  actual  wedding  is 
described,  and  taking  in  the  statement  that  the  heroine  was 
first  married  to  Yudhi^t^hira,  then  to  the  other  brothers ;  that 
she  preserved  her  virginity  day  by  day ;  and  that  Drupada  in 
conclusion  gave  most  extravagant  gifts.  The  smoothness  of 
the  statement  babhuva  kanyai  'va  gate  gate  'hani,  etc.,  198, 14, 
stands  with  its  surrounding  verses  in  at  least  metrical  contrast 
to  the  part  that  goes  before,  where  tri^^ubhs  of  vatormi  and 
^alinl  padas  and  every  sort  of  irregular  combination  is  the 
rule.  Whether  the  uniform  upajatis  conform  to  the  uniform- 
ing of  the  poem  is  certainly  a  proper  question  to  raise,  though 
no  signed  and  sealed  statement  to  that  effect  is  extant. 

Another  interesting  example  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the 
gambling  scene,  where  from  ii,  67,  24,  almost  regular  upajatis 
continue  to  the  end.  This  happens  to  be  the  passage  where 
the  heroine  puts  the  legal  question  to  which  Bhl^ma  is  un- 
able to  reply,  and  where  Karna  joins  in  the  laugh.  The 
question  is  implied  in  what  follows  (68-70),  but  the  passage 
in  its  present  form  is  certainly  open  to  the  suspicion  of  having 
been  rewritten  by  a  more  modem  hand. 

The  first  chapter  of  the  Rsya^raga  episode  is  in  old  tri- 
9tubhs.  With  the  beginning  of  the  sensuous  description  in  the 
second  chapter  begin  the  uptijatis,  iii.  111,  112. 

In  the  systems  of  the  older  epic,  M_vy-_,v^vy ,-_v-r , 

and  __  w  w  __,  are  used  as  interchangeable  second  feet.  So  uni- 
versal are  __  w and  \j\j that  they  must  be  considered 

as  the  chief  tris^ubh  measure  of  the  older  epic,  greatly  in 

excess  of  __  w  v^ But  in  the  fourth  book  and  most  later 

parts,  these  recede  before  the  upajfiti  forms.  Jagati  padas  are 
inserted  occasionally  in  all  the  free  tri^t^bh  sections.^  It  is 
perhaps  worthy  of  remark  that,  for  example,  in  the  Dyuta 
Parvan,  the  diiambic  opening,  or  even,  it  might  be  said,  the 

^  The  process  elsewhere  of  making  a  jagati  pada  is  sometimes  patent,  at 
in  viii.  1>0, 72d  :  bhindhi  tram  enam  Namuciih  jatha  Uarih  (foryath  'endrah); 
here  in  nn  upajati  system  of  jagatis. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  818 

whole  upendra  form^  is  found  par  excellence  in  the  final 
puda(s),  though  found  also  in  a,  b»  c,  especially  as  the  section 
graduaUy  passes  (towards  its  end)  into  regular  upa^tis,  67, 
26  fF.    For  example,  at  the  beginning  of  the  scene,  66, 12-16 : 

12,    \J  \J  ^*  \J W^Wf— ..\/^WW__V/..V/{ 

w_ t  \j  \j vy— «.;  v/ —  w __t  w  w  — _ \/_ v/ 

13) \j »  \J  v^^vy_— i  ^-.w  _«  ^  \j  v/  ^  v/  ^  ..; 

\J  ^t\J  \j \j  ^\j\  \j .^wv/ \j  ^\j 

14, f  —  \j \j ; \j ,  ^  w  w  ...  w \J  \ 

\j *  —  \J vy_vyt   \j  ^^\j  _,  _  w w  _  s/ 

15, v/  — •  —  \j \j ; \j  — •  —  WV/..V/-.W; 

w  — ,  \j  \j \j  ^ ;  v/.-.v/^_ww_v^_%^ 

16, .  v/vy  —  ^^  \j 1   \j  —  \j  _•  _  w  _  ^  v/  _  w  ( 

\j \Jt  \j  \j w_v/i  \j  ^\j  _,  _  s/  v/  _  v/  _  w 

I  Imve  remarked  in  the  list  of  examples  given  above  that 
sonio  of  the  older  forms  of  the  tri^tubh  are  practically  confined 
to  th(^  early  \n\Tis  of  the  epic.  The  fourth  and  seventh  books 
are  consitlenHl  to  \yo  late,  or,  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing, 
m<Nli>rii  exi)andiHl  fonns  of  older  materiaL  The  middle  foot 
\j,yy  \j  ^  occurs  nr)t  infrequently  in  the  older  einc,  but  in  the 
whole  fourth  book  it  occurs  but  once,  and  in  the  seventh  only 
twin*  ill  1280  |iiuLis.  U]iajati  systems,  except,  as  just  ob* 
Ki*r\-(^I,  as  a  sort  of  tag,  are  not  frequent  in  the  older  epic, 

whrn»  tlM»  systems  are  of  the  tyi*  _  w and  \j  \j with 

iiUorsjM^rsiHl  choriiimlM.  llic  latter  part  of  the  third  book, 
liowcvtT,  and  all  of  the  fourth  lxx)k  prefer  the  upajSti  system 
(thr  ra'suni  Ihmh^  after  the  fourth  in  only  one-third  of  the 
castas  in  tht*  latter),  and  blocks  of  u|)ajatis  appear  in  the  mucb- 
exiKinilciI  Uittle-lNH)kM.  As  a  system,  the  upajati  marks  late 
{Kis.s,i«^'rs.  NUrli  as  the  Hon^  of  (^Vi  in  tlie  eleventh  section  of  the 
thirtrcnth  UhiIc,  and  the  pniise  of  gifts  in  the  fifty-seventh  secv 
tinu  of  tlie  siinie  lnNik,  where  only  two  padas  are  not  upa^tL 
Tliis  UmiIc  is  also  iniirki^I  by  tlie  laigo  number  of  its  (filinl 
stin/.is  (not  single  p&Lis),  which  keep  up  an  okl  measure  in 
a  new  tixfd  funn.  Old  as  is  the  choriambic  pida,  the  stamm 
fonn  i>f  tilt*  rhnmnibic  triftu^^l^  employed  in  great  groups  toth0 
exrlu**iiin  «if  other  fonns  of  tri4tul>h  appears  to  bean  innovatioii* 
A  fo*:ii  {>iir«*  ^iven  iiersists,  and  so  we  have  late  paastma  with 


314  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

-_  vy as  the  second  foot,  just  as  this  and  \j\j are  still 

met  here  and  there  in  the  Puranas,^  but  when  the  choriamb  is 
employed  continuously  in  a  long  system  *  the  passage  may  bo 
set  down  as  late,  or,  if  one  prefers  the  expression,  as  more 
refined,  as  in  the  whole  Ramayana  and  in  the  later  books  of 
the  Mahabharata. 

Another  mark  of  lateness  appears  to  lie  in  the  absence  of  an 
indiscriminate  mixture  of  tri^^ubh  and  jagati  forms.  Later 
passages  are  rather  apt  to  show  uniformity  in  this  regard; 
earlier  passages  show  none,  though  an  harmonious  com- 
mingling in  alternate  or  chiastic  form  (12  -f-  11  +  12  -f-  11  or 
11  -f-  12  -f-  12  +  11)  is  at  all  times  somewhat  affected,  and  late 
passages  sometunes  show  no  uniformity ;  but  the  tendency  is 
in  the  other  direction. 

The  Syllaba  Anceps. 

In  respect  of  the  pada  syllaba  anceps,  the  epic  permits  this 
not  only  in  free  tris^ubhs,  but  also  in  upajatis,  and  even  in 
isolated  pure  choriambic  stanzas.  But  even  the  classical  poets 
share  this  freedom.  That  is  to  say,  as  Professor  Capeller  has 
shown,  although  the  rule  is  that  pure  upendras  and  indravajnis 
or  the  corresponding  jagatis  shall  liave  final  anceps  only  at  the 
end  of  the  hemistich,  yet  if  these  stanzas,  though  complete 

1  Solitary  ^nlini  stanzas  also  occur  in  the  Puranas.  For  example,  Vijru  P. 
vi,  71,  repeated  in  ix,  110,  where  occurs  the  stanza:  vaktrad  .vasja  brahmanS 
samprasutah,  vad  [tad]  vaksatah  ksatriyah  piirvabliage,  vaiyya9  ^^  'rror 
yasya  padbhyani  ca  yudrah  sarve  varna  ^atratah  samprasutah,  a  pure  ^alinL 

2  A  choriambic  vcrpo  or  stanza  is  a  different  matter.  This  may  be  as  old, 
or  older,  than  a  correi!]>onding  stanza  of  other  form.  For  example,  the  prose 
proberb  uf  Gaut.  xxiii,  21),  appears  in  the  form  paiica  'nrtany  Shur  apatakini 
first  in  Vas.  xvi,  Oo,  as  an  upajati  stanza.  The  oldest  version  in  the  epic  is  in 
i,  82,  IM,  where  there  is  no  exception  in  the  case  of  a  teacher,  as  in  Gautama 
(for  an  untruth  here  is  a  mortal  sin,  not  venial),  nor  is  the  priest  included,  as 
in  Vas. ;  but  the  five  venial  lies  are  in  case  of  wounds,  about  women,  in  case 
of  marria^je,  death,  and  robbery,  couche*!  in  u]mjati.  A  second  form  occurs, 
however,  in  xii,  lOo,  iX),  where  the  teacher  is  mentioned  in  the  same  way  as 
is  the  priest.  Tlie  otiier  difference  between  the  epic  versions  is  that  the  latter 
begins  na  narmayuktam  anrtaih  hinasti ;  the  former,  vacanam  hinasti,  as  cho- 
riamb. S]>ru('h  0,021  has  only  one  of  these  forms  (ascribed  to  a  Porftna), 
Manu,  viii,  112,  is  in  v^oka. 


SPIC  VERSfFICATtOH.  816 

In  UiemaelTes,  fonn  jnrt  of  a  gtttwral  syrXem  of  upQJStis,  Um 
freer  fonn  U  pen[iitt«<l.    'Hiiih  in  Kagbavan^  rit,  9,  b  pore 
iiulraviijrS  ix^oure  with  Uie  third  pBda  ending  in  brrviB,  but  it 
ia  in  an  ujjujnti  cbupUr.     ExaiupW  fmm  epic  jtcieu^  ure; 
ii,^),  21  a  (a  triatubh  stanza),  tato  vidrAn  Vidunuu  man- 
trim  ukhy  Am 
ti,  63,  10  a  (ditto),  janlnioiko  dcvitam  Sliiluilasj-il 

So   in   tbcw   jiure  choriambic   Kluniait,   fuiinil   ui  a  general 
■i[»JBti  systt-m : 

iii,  176, 7,  tava  pratijn&m  Kururftja  fiaty&ih 
ciklr^ruAiiSa  tad  anapri^aiii  oa 
tato  na  gaooliOina  vnoAujr  iptej^k 
Suyodlimiuuii  Maucaraiii  nihaatmm 
and  iU  Iii, 

tavft  'Tthasiddhyartfaam  ap)  prav^uUi 

fluparnaiketiM]  na  Qlne^  ta  naptt 
tathki  'va  Kp^ud;  pmtino  balraft 
tath&i  "n  cA  'buii  BAiad«vft  tvrj% 
it,  II,  0,  c,       BffaAcnalftm  tnlm  DandBra  viddbl 
ib.  J>l,  17  0,        oaoln  aaihkhj'o  Tidi<^  diqa^  oA 
Tliis  in  vet7  nn  in  Viilta.    Id  jugaU : 
iii.  SCA,  lOc^     yadt  ^ula  npajiM  tavD'ruI 
xiii,  70,  Oe-d,    trayt  pari  dattui  in  *ha  ^a^rumK 

nrp*  dvij'bbjrah  kvk  nu  tad  gstsrit  btvt 
Exiunpira  io  the  KariniAca  nn;  bo  foanl  at  8, 96, 1  Cf.  (w 
6781  IT.);  iU  6k;  iU  10  and  He:  ib.  14a  and  ot  ib.S4ct 
iti.  S9l-  (na  wtn)]  S,  124.  61  a  (a  lO.flSS),  nUi. 

Epic  luugv.  boworer,  ItMpa  tlw  final  tillable  long  in  tlia 
prior  [iSiIflA.  EKceptiotw  lika  Uum  just  gins  an  not  unL-o<n> 
ttioti.  but  are  dbUnctly  excQptiooa.  I  haw  no  itatiiitiii,  bat 
|NTb.i{M  tlie  itrnen)  randitinn  WKj  be  ilatod  w«U  enoo]^  io 
Kiying  (luit  one  has  to  bunt  for  flad  bmroa  In  prior  pidat  of 
pnru  upcmlra  ami  ImltsTaJri  Ktantaa  and  dm*  not  hara  to 
hunt  for  fiiuil  loiif^ ;  whDti  in  Qpajfttb  the  final  bnvaa  an  aol 
m  uneomuiou  aa  in  iho  pan  stanaaa  uf  awfrnF*  tjpe> 


816  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

In  this  regard  I  see  no  special  difference  between  the  two 
epics.  Perhaps  the  Ramiiyana  poet  is  a  little  more  shy  of  the 
brevis  but  it  occurs  there  also,  not  only  in  pure  upendraa 
standing  in  an  upajati  environment,  but  even  in  isolated  tag^ 
stanzas  where  the  upendra  stands  alone.  Thus  where  6.  ii, 
83,  27  has  a  varied  reading  which  converts  the  stanza  to  an 
upajati,  the  Bombay  text  of  R.  ii,  83,  29,  presents  (in  an 
upajati  environment)  a  pure  upendra  stanza,  with  the  first 
pada  ending  in  brevis,  pratlksamano  Tbhijanam  tada  'rtSnu 
Another  example  will  be  found  in  vi,  69,  92  =  G.  49,  77.  In 
upajatis  it  will  be  enough  to  refer  to  R.  ii,  15,  44  a;  21,  62  p; 
87,  34  a;  36  a;  v,  28,  4  ff.,  etc.  In  the  case  of  isolated  tag- 
upendras,  examples  may  be  found  in  R.  vi,  61,  89,  where  c 
ends  in  a  brevis,  although  the  isolated  stanza  is  pure  upendra, 
and  in  R.  ii,  115,  24  (not  in  G.),  where  both  a  and  c  end  in 
breves : 

tad&  hi  yat  k3,ryam  up9,iti  kimcld 
up9,yanam  co  'pahrtam  mah&rham 

sa  pddukS,bhy9,in  prathamam  nivedyft 
cakdra  pa^cdd  Bharato  yathavat 

One  fact  seems  certain  from  the  treatment  of  upajatis 
versus  upendras  and  indravajras  or  vaiigasthabhilas  and  india- 
vangus,  namely,  that  the  native  metricists  in  calling  the  upajati 
a  mixture  of  upendra  and  indravajra  or  of  vangastha  and 
indravaiiga,  and  treating  it  as  a  derived  form  are  historically 
incorrect.  Of  course,  the  upajati  stanza  is  a  stanza  in  which 
some  padas  are  of  one  type  and  some  are  of  another ;  but  it 
is  not  a  mixed  development  from  pure  stanzas  of  either  type. 
On  the  contrary,  the  upajati  is  the  prius,  and  the  pure  upendra 
and  pure  indravajra  stanza  is  a  refinement  on  the  mixed  type. 
Historically  the  choriambic  tristubh  begins  with  syllaba  anceps 
like  the  gloka,^  and  upendras  and  indravajras  are  differentia- 

1  For  this  reason,  in  the  Dlustrations,  though  givinf;  examples  of  each,  I 

do  not  separate  (as  is  usually  clone)  the  tjpcs  of  opening,  e.  g.,  \j \j 

and Kj .    Only  in  complete  forms  of  stanzas,  like  the  cfilini,  rfitonnl, 

and  rucira,  is  the  first  syllable  fixed.    In  the  free  tristubh  and  upajati  ttanrai 
the  initial  syllable  is  quite  indifferent.     Tlien  comes  the  upendra  ataoxay 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  81T 

lions  of  the  earlier  mixed  types.  They  had  the  same  devel- 
opnient  as  luul  the  ^alinlt  which  began,  aa  in  the  epic,  with 

^  _  :^  .,  and  settled  at  last  into aa  a  first  foot. 

The  upajati  stanza  in  its  turn  is  derived  (as  a  more  refined 
form)  from  the  mixed  tris^ubh  of  tlie  early  epic  type,  which 
unites  into  one  stanza  not  only  {ladas  of  the  choriambic  type 

and  of  the  t}'pes  _w ,  \j\j ♦  vyvyvy_,  but  also  of  the 

ty)H*  of  the  rucira  or  mora-pada ;  of  which,  together  with  tlie 
siKH'iiil  Htaiiziis  of  fixed  form  derived  from  these  measures,  I 
hIiuII  siHNik  hereafter.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  tlus  mixture 
of  vrit4)nni,  9ulini,  choriambic,  and  resolved-syllable  padas  in 
oni»  stanza  is  Vedic  and  Bliarotaie,  non-classical  and  non-IiamS- 
yaiian,'  but  also,  in  a  very  limited  degree,  Puranic.  That  is  to 
miy,  the  Bharata,  the  oldest  extant  PurS^  on  the  one  hand 
presiTvoH  the  old  Vedic  type,  which  is  still  kept  up  in  a 
mrasun*  in  the  Liter  Pumnic?  diction,  wliile  on  the  other  it 
has  the  clmrH'Ut  upajaiti  system  favored  liy  Valmiki,  the 
former  Uitli  in  early  and  late  |)arts;  tlie  latter  only  in  late 
parts,  arronlin){  as  the  different  poets  preserved  the  old  style, 
or,  like  Valmiki,  cut  loose  from  it  and  n^TOte  only  in  upajSti 
form. 

Emergent  Btansas. 

<  )f  |H»<'uliar  inten*st  is  the  growth  of  the  completed  stanza 
of  otIuT  tristuhh  fonns.  In  the  great  epic,  we  can,  as  it  weie» 
Ml'  till'  ^nidual  emerp»nee  of  the  complete  falini,  vatormi,and 
\rii(;v;i4lrvi  stanziiM  (of  four  identical  {wdas)  from  tlie  single* 
(IniiMc,  and  triple  |ia4la  of  this  fomi  in  tri^tubh  stanzaa, 
till  at  last  a  few  complete  ^alini  stanzas  are  found  and  one 
prrfiTt   vai^'vadrvi, 

Tlir  (M caMonal  ixlda  is  indefinitely  antique*  It  is  tlie  foui^ 
foM^'onihination  that  is  emerging;  just  as  upajatis  emei^ 
from  mixed  tristnhhs,  and  ii|>endnis  from  upajatis.  In  the 
(oin{)lct4*tl  rt'lined  {lada  the  opening  is  spondaic;  in  the  emer» 


w  _  w  _.  iu  i!ittinfriiUh«4l  from  Uie  iadrftvajrl,  ^  ^  w  .,  both  Mcoadslx, 
11"  1  A*  p»<l.i«,  liut  ••  tUniAt.  to  the  upAjitL. 

>   ri.«   Vi  lie  ui«Kv  la  illttjtrat«d  in  Ktthaaa,  DU  IViffablHlassa  raailit. 


p.  uj. 


818  THE   GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

gent  type  it  is  indifferently  iambic  or  spondaic  like  other 
trist;ubh  fonns.  This  sporadic  appearance  calls  for  no  special 
remark  here,  as  exiimples  may  be  found  in  the  list  of  ex- 
amples of  tris^ubh  padas.  The  first  stage  beyond  this  is 
where  two  padas  appear  of  half-§alini  form  but  with  iambic 
opening.    This  is  either  "  regular  "  or  hypermetric,^  as  in 

iii.  By  16  c-d :   yathd,  ca  parne  puskarasy&  'vasiktam 

jalaiii  na  tisthet  pathyam  uktam  tath&  'smin 

The  hyixjrmetric  ^alini  i^da  of  this  sort  (vaigvadevi)  is 
common,  as  in  i,  55,  12  b,  trata  loke  'smiiis  tvam  tathe  'ha  pra- 
janam  (so  ii,  77,  10  b,  etc.),  as  shown  below. 

Again,  in  mixed  trisfublis,  where  we  have  half  a  stanza  of 
almost  pure  ^rdini  form,  as  m  vi,  3,  65  c-d ;  or  even  an  almost 
complete  stanza,  as  in 

i,  58, 19  :   etac  chrutva  priyaraanah  sameta 

ye  tatra  'san  pannaga  vltamohah 
Astike  vai  prltimanto  babhQvur 

Ileus  cai  'nam  varam  istaiii  vmlsva 

•  •  •  •  • 

Here  the  galini  is  complete  save  for  the  last  pada.  So  in 
iii,  4,  4,  there  is  a  perfect  galini  save  for  the  first  syllable  of 
a.  In  iii,  5,  13,  the  stanza  is  nearly  vatormi,  but  three  padas 
begin  with  a  short  syllable  and  the  first  has  the  galini  trochee. 
In  V,  40,  29,  three  jxidas  are  pure  (jalinT  and  one  is  vatormi. 
These  forms  are  often  sjinmetrieally  united.  Thus  in  i,  68, 
20,  the  ixidas  nui  ^iilini  -f  vatormi  -f  ^alinl  +  ratonnT,  save 
that  in  b  and  c  the  tliiixl  sylliible  of  the  first  foot  is  brevis. 
Sometimes  the  arrangement  is  chiastic,  sis  in  i,  197,  30,  where 
the  padi\s  are  viitonnl  —  ^iilinT,  ^alini  —  vatormi,  etc.  These 
fonns  are  again  mixed  freely  with  upajiiti  padas,  as  in  i,  187, 
6,  tliis  combination  IxMng  too  common  to  need  further  illus- 
tration. The  viitormT  or  Qiilini  pada  often  closes  the  stanza 
in  such  a  combination.  Thus  in  i,  76,  47,  a  is  upajati,  b  is 
jagati,  c  is  galini,  d  is  vatormi ;  ib.  64,  d  is  galini,  the  others 

*  Til  is  form  is  sometimes  effaced  by  varied  readinps.  Thus  in  vil,  51,  43, 
pijiena  'tmanam  majjayifvaty  asantam,  of  C.  2110,  api>ear8  a«  pipe  *tminain. 


EPIC   VERSIFICATfOX 


819 


an  upajati  i^daa.  AltvmatinQ  of  upa^tiii,  ^ilinI>[wlB  tri- 
elulitu),  iuiJ  ^lukas  Li  Coiuul  in  tho  diauuitiu  <|^rngiijiakliyaxia, 
I,  2y2.  8  ff. 

A  ^oinU}'  iiiin]lN.'r  of  (tpcoLmviu  of  stanziw  iihtiwin^  a  clou 
ap{>r<KU'li  to  Uu^  ^lliiii  is  foutid  iti  vii,  2,  vrhem  fiimlly,  la  20. 
apiNiui'H  ODU  whole  {JLlinl  staiisa: 

nqvta  agryftn  pai,i4urftbbnpnks^n 
pa8|An  snAtAn  uiAntnipQUbliir  sdbbi^ 

tapt&ir  bhaiitlaih  lillflcaii&ir  abhyupoUo 
^tgbrOb  ^ighram  sQtapatr&  'uayasva 

So  in  ni,  64,  40  iT„  tlivre  b  a  ntimber  of  almcMt  eomplete 
oDil  t^uitu  cDutplutn  ^linia. 

A  complvto  (oUril  ovcun  in  i,  68,  21 ;  aiK<tlier  In  v,  83. 
i}5  (towunl  Uiu  eu)  uf  wlliy.  40  Uictd  are  ^'ilinl  |Kulaa). 
1*he  luiutl  onlrr  In  tin'  c|ur,  however,  w  a  iiuxtun.'  of  sUiglo 
[MtLui.  Tb»  [Meuilo-cplo,  on  the  otlier  luuxl,  tun)M  up  otnn- 
pli-U'  vnlint  stanuut.  Tbiu  in  a  Uule  q-aUuu  of  teu  Moiiua  at 
xii.  24,  2!t  IT.,  ^lini.  vStnnnl.  and  upa^  pftdaa  an  all  mixa) 
up  U>{,i*Urt  but  loul  tip  to  perf*»t  {ilinl  afauaaa  in  89,  80,  SS. 
In  .\nU(;nMana,  roniplvtt''  stanzoM  are  common,  e.  g^  xiU.  78, 
Sl>;  77.  81  anil  88  (witli  •  rai-'ui  between),  im  ffiving  vows 
U>  ]>riiMUc  In  ()Bnti  may  \»  ronipaml  oUn  xii.  63,  Q~\0  (two 
complete  ^tliuT  8tanza»)i  SSl>,  89-12:  111&.  SSff-  (fi^'«  oat  of 
aeven  huiiuh).  T)m  prior  |4dit  of  the  betniatich  may  cod 
ill  bi^vtft,  a*  in  KMDB  of  tbe  laat  example*,  e.  g.  in  819,  81^ 
w-Iion'  tlte  Htamn  fmn  a  Bmhnauuc  point  of  view  b  a«  lata 
tut  Uie  »«ulimeu(: 

■arf e  fur^  bttbnant  ImliniajSf  fla 
■am  nityiun  v^llMmate  «i  biahma 

tattvaiii  ijAatnm  bTabmabadtDiyt  brarlint 
■arrmm  riijTani  bnlima  oAl  'tat  aamaaiaai 

TliR  vitJirml  rtaoxa,  if  I  am  oot  ■"fr'TV^i  U  not  jret  c 
p1<>te  in  the  epic ;  but  ila  |*laa  come  near  to  naUng  i 
pU-'U)  Btanaa,  aa  in  rii,  SOI,  78: 


I 


820  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ast&asam  tvam  tava  sammftnam  icchan 

vicinvan  vai  sadrQam  devavarya 
Budurlabhan  dehi  var&n  mame  'stdii 

abhistutah  pravik&rslQ  ca  m&yftm 

still  closer  in  ii,  58,  12 : 

ke  tatr&  'uye  kitavd,  dlvyamAnft 
yinS,  rd,jf[o  Dhrtarftstrasya  putr&ih 

prcchd,mi  tv&iii  Vidura  brdhi  nas  tftn 
yair  divy&mah  qataqah  samnipatya 

The  hypermeter  is  not  so  common  as  that  of  the  galinL  A 
case  occurs  in  iii,  134,  14  b :  sapta  cchandansi  kratmn  ekazh 
vahanti;  and  another,  ib.  12  b:  yajflah  paiicai  Va  *py  atha 
paficendriyani.  So  in  ii,  77,  7  a ;  v,  35,  42  a.  The  last  case 
reads: 

n9,i  'nam  chand&nsi  vijin&t  tftrayanti 
(in  43,  5,  as  :  na  cchand&nsi  vrjinat  t&rayanti) 

As  said  above,  the  isolated  vaigvadevi  pada  is  not  unusuaL 
Such  padas  are  reckoned  as  tri^t^bh  padas,  as  in  i,  1,  205  c ; 
216  a ;  and  so  very  often  elsewhere.  For  example,  xii,  819, 
91  d: 

ajflS^natah  karmayonim  bhajante 

X&ai  tdm  rd,jaus  te  yathA  y&nty  abhd,vam 

tath^l  varnil  jiianahlnah  patante 

ghorad  ajfUnat  prakrtam  yonijolam 

In  i,  1,  212  b,  there  is  a  pada  identical  with  this  save  that  it 
lias  initial  brcvis,  hataii  Paficfilan  Diiiupadeyang  ca  suptan^ 
followed  in  217  d  by  a  pure  patU,  tasniin  samgrame  bhairave 

ksiitriyfinfim.     In  i,  89,  12  b, ^,  —  ^ ^  —  ^,  the 

vaigvadevi  apjwars  as  an  irregukr  hypermetric  falml.  This 
stanza  is  ahnost  a  vai^vadevi : 

anityatlih  sukhaxhihkhasya  buddhva 

kasmat  saiiitA^pam  Astaka  'ha,m  bhajeyam 

kiiii  kuryam  vfii  kiiii  ca  krtvft  na  tapye 
tasmat  saiiitapam  varjayamy  apramattah 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  821 

Half  a  complete  stanza  appears  in  xii,  292,  22  (a  tag) : 

rajiUk  jetavy&h  (^atravaQ  oo  'nnatAQ  ca 
samyak  kartavyam  pftlanam  ca  prajftnAm 

agniQ  ceyo  bahubhiq  c&  'pi  yajfiflir 
antye  madhye  vft  yanam  fi^ritya  stheyam 
(where  the  scolius  is vy.  above,  p.  280) 

A  vaitvadev!  {xkla  api)ear8  also  in  a  benedictive  verso  in 
viii,  C.  5,045  d,  f  udra  arogyam  pnipnuvanti  *ha  sarve,  but 
H.  06,  63  has  (udru  *rogyam.  The  complete  stanza  occurs  but 
once  in  tlie  great  epic  and  twice  in  the  Ramaya^a,  as  will  be 
shown  in  tlie  next  section. 

The  Fixed  Syllabio  BCetree* 

The  title  ak^anioohandas  or  its  equivalent,  var^vrtta, 
*'  Hvllabic  verse  *'  covers,  properly  speaking,  all  metres  fixed 
by  syllabic  nieiisurenient,  but  it  is  used  only  of  such  stanzas 
as  have  a  fixeil  number  of  syllables  anunged  in  a  fixed  order 
in  each  jiTuLi,  all  four  padas  being  alike.  The  (loka,  therefore» 
is  not  iiicluded,  nor  tlie  free  tri^tubh  of  the  Mahiibharata. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  triftubh  in  several  of  its  fixed  forms, 
when  these  are  usixl  tliroughout  tlie  stanza,  is  an  ak^ara- 
C(iiaii(Lis.  Such  are  the  upajati  forms,  the  (alini,  vatormi, 
vait;va4UrvI,  and  nicira.  In  tlie  scheme  of  classical  metres, 
tlicn*  an'  fnun  twenty  to  thirty  each  of  such  bendekas  and 
(l«Mli  k.is,  callevl  tri^t^^l^^  ^^^"^  jagatTs  because  of  the  number 
of  s\  ll.ililcs  in  them. 

<  >f  this  liirf]^  nnniU*r,  almut  a  dozen  are  found  in  epic 
|HN*trv.  Tliey  include  those  just  iiametl,  in  n*ganl  to  which  it 
will  U*  iHTcssiin-  to  s|teak  further  only  of  two,  the  viuyvailevi 
aixl  ru<  irfu  Besides  these,  the  lulilitional  epie  rhytlims  of  this 
rl  '.*-•*  will  now  U»  n'viewwK  arranpwl,  aeconling  to  tlieir  syllA- 
hi'  v.iliic.  as  tristubh,  ja^ati,  atija^Tnti,  ^ikvari,  ati^akvarl,  and 
ati<l)irti,  tliat  is  in  stanzas  of  four  |«ifLiA,  each  pida  having 
clt\tiu  twt*lve,  thirt4*4'n,  fourteen,  fifteen,  and  (in  the  epie 
ca^O  niiH'tivn  sylkibles,  respectively.  They  axe  distriboted ^ 
U-t\\«'«*n  the  two  epics  as  follows: 

1  <  >n  their  ntimerical  dtotribatUw  hi  the  MsMhMflli,  mm  bslwr, 

n 


322  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


In  Mahabharata 
and  Kamayana 


In  Mahabharata 
alone 


'  (upajatis  and  their  components} 

vaigvadevi 

bhujamgaprayata 

rucira 

prahar§ini 

vasantatilalaka 
,malini 

'  f  (5alini) 
rathoddhata 
drutavilambita 
9ardulavikridita 


In  Ramayana   rmrgendramukha 
alone  \  asambadlia 

The  upajatis,  including  their  four  components,  as  also  the 
galini  and  vatormi,  have  already  been  sufficiently  discussed. 
The  vatormi  does  not  reach  stanza  form,  but  its  j^da  is  fre- 
quently found  alone,  duplicated,  or  trebly;  the  last  case, 
which  is  rare,  giving  tliree-fourths  of  a  complete  vatormL 
The  galinl  is  found  not  only  often  in  pada  form  but  occasion- 
ally as  a  complete  stanza,  sometimes  grouped  in  small  numbers 
in  the  later  books  of  the  great  epic.  The  jagati  pramitak^arit 
padas,  isoLited  in  the  yfinti  Parvan,  will  be  spoken  of  be- 
low, under  tlie  head  of  matrachandiis ;  wliere  will  be  discussed 
also  the  free  praharanakalita  found  in  the  same  part  of  the 
pseudo-epic. 

Rathoddhata. 

Having  eleven  sylhibles  to  the  pada,  this  metre  is  called  a 
tristiibh.  Its  scheme  is  __v^_,  ^v^vy— .  ^  —  ^— ;  for  ex- 
ample, tasya  taj  janayati  'ha  sarvatiih.  It  may  be  regarded^ 
therefore,  as  a  jagati  without  the  initial  syllable,  its  final 
diiambus  giving  the  tnie  jag«itT  cadence.  Compare  under  No. 
19  :  (ku-)lambluiran  aiiiiduhah  Qatiiih  (»atan.  There  are  three 
and  one  lialf  stanzas  of  this  rhythm,  though  the  actual  occur- 
rences are  more  numerous ;  but  the  same  stanza  appears  re- 
peated.    Thus  xii,  250, 13-14  is  a  repetition  of  xii,  194, 61-68. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  828 

Here  there  are  two  and  one  half  stanzas,  arranged  in  B.  in 

groups  of  four,  two,  and  four  pidas ;  in  C,  as  four,  four,  and 

two ;  as  if  tlie  hemistich  were  a  whole  in  itself.     In  xii,  286, 

46,  one  of  these  stanzas  is  repeated  again  with  slight  changes. 

In  the  first  instance,  tlie  group  forms  a  tag  with  an  apara- 

vaktni,  as  it  does  also  in  tlie  second  instance ;  while  in  the 

thini  it  appears  in  tlie  same  way  after  a  puffutagri.     The 

tliini  sci^iinito  stanza  of  this  sort  is  found  as  a  tag  after  (lokas 

in  xii,  247,  23.     All  tliese  cases  are  regular;  only  the  hemi- 

sticii  ends  in  brcvis.     The  metre  is  found  only  in  ^^ti  Mok^a 

and  not  in  tlie  It&nfiyana.    The  hist  case  may  serve  as  an 

example : 

yac  ca  te  manasi  vartate  param 

yatra  ca  'sti  tava  samqayah  kvacit 

qrOyatilxn,  ayam  aham  tavft  'gratah 

putra  kiib  hi  kathay&mi  te  punah 

Tiu*  (nu^uiin^less)  diianibic  name  may  at  least  be  a  reminder 
of  the  mth(Hl(lhata*s  presumably  original  opening,  and  its 
diianilm!  dose. 

Bhnjaiiiigaprajrita. 

This  twdviMiyllabhtl  rhythm  is  called  a  jagati,  but  it  has 
tilt*  final  tristuhh  cadence.  The  latter  part  of  the  pida  is  in 
fart  idrntiral  with  tluit  common  trif(ubh  form  which  has  the 

midilli*  and  end  _^ w  — ^i    but  before  this  are  five 

8yllal)h*s,  tin*  ftiurtli  U'ing  a  brevis  yj ^ Such  a  form 

as  tins,  liowever,  is  actuaUly  found  in  one  text  as  the  ptda  of  a 
hy)H*nni'trir  tri.stnhii,  as  already  pointed  out  (p.  289),  and  is 
nearly  C(|ii;illf4l  (^lon^  initial)  in  tlie  corres{)onding  pida, 

iia  traiiain  lahhct  trftnam  icchan  sa  kftle, 

W\\\  the  s|)i^ini«'ns  in  the  epic  show  that  tlie  ciesuniisnot  that 
(»f  the  paiLi  just  eiutl,  but  mtlier  that  of  a  series  of  faacchii: 

sa  Ailih  I  sa  madhya^  |  sa  eft  'ntah  |  prajAnftm 
aiiailyci  hy  amadhyas  tathft  eft  'py  ananUh 

This  ni«*tn*  ap{>ears  once  as  a  tag  in  a  Tlrtha  stoiy,  ix,  41, 40, 
and  twiie  in  tlie  twelfth  book  in  an  kientical  hymn  in  the 


824  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

middle  of  two  chapters,  xii,  841,  100  and  848,  90,  the  fint 
and  thud  padas  of  each  version  being  those  just  cited,  one 
being  a  repetition  of  the  other  with  variations. 

There  is  only  one  case  in  the  Ramaya^jia,  vi,  77,  24.  In  IL 
this  is  part  of  a  tag  after  a  pu^pitagra,  which  appears  in  both 
texts,  while  the  bhujamgaprayata  itself  is  lacking  in  G.  Here 
also  the  cadence .  is  distinctly  bacchiic :  cacale  'va  co  'rvi  | 
papate  'va  sa  dyaur  |  balam  rakgasanam  |  bhayam  ca  'vivega.^ 
In  both  epics,  the  hemistich  alone  has  final  brevis  (anceps), 
as  above,  and  in  ix,  41,  40  d,  dhrtatma  jit^tma  8amabhyaj»- 
gam&.    This  metxe  is  expressed  by  its  name  bhujamgarpraya- 

tam,  *  the  snake-^lide,'  ^ w  —  ^,  which,  in  the  stanza,  is 

repeated  (as  a  whole)  eight  times. 

Drutavilambita. 

This  measure,  having  twelve  syllables  to  the  pada,  is  called 
a  jagdti.  But  although  it  ends  as  well  in  a  diiambus,  it  is  yet 
far  from  die  cadences  already  examined  under  the  name  of 
jagati.  The  rhythm  is  in  fact  dactylic,  so  that  the  trisyllabiG 
measurement  suits  it ;  but  the  first  foot  has  a  tribrach  as  a 
substitute  for  a  dactyl,  and  the  final  syllable  is  long:  ^  v»  w, 

_  vy  ^,  —  vy  vy,  -_  ^ Only  two  of  these  stanzas  are  found 

in  the  great  epic,  and  none  in  the  Ramayana.  The  two  are 
together  in  vii,  184,  47-48 ;  the  latter,  for  example,  as  follows: 

haravrsottama-gdrtrasamadyutih 

smaraqar^ana-pilrnasamaprabhah 
navavaclhnsmita-carumanoharah 

• 

pravisrtah  kumudakarab&ndhavah 

These  are  not  exactly  tags,  but  they  are  close  to  the  end  of 
the  oliiipter.  The  prevailing  caesura  ^  may  indicate  that  the 
metre  is  a  catalectic  form  of  tri§tubh  witli  resolved  opening; 

^  A  rough  English  equiTalcnt  would  be  (of  the  hymn):  "Beginning  and 
midst  he,  and  end  of  creation ; "  (of  the  description) :  "  and  terror  then  entered 
the  \\M^(i  liost  of  demons."  The  trisyllabic  native  mcaaurement  ia  here  the 
most  accurate. 

^  The  last  pada  above  may  of  course  be  read  as  anapaestic  with  anacni^; 
the  preceding,  more  naturally,  with  dactylic  cadence. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  826 

but  tills  genesis  is  by  no  means  so  certain  as  in  the  case  of 
other  tri^tubh  derivatives.  To  judge  from  the  epic,  it  is  a 
later  metre,  and  may  be  either  an  experiment  in  resolution  (of 
No.  2),  or  a  now  independent  invention*  It  is  not  neees8ary» 
I  c*onceive,  to  derive  every  metre  from  some  other,  and  I 
incline  to  the  latter  view.  All  the  padas  in  the  two  epio 
8{)ecimcns  end  in  heavy  syllables.  The  sound  drutavilambitlm, 
vy  w  ^  —  w  w.  may  servo  to  remind  of  the  opening  cadence; 
but  the  other  form  of  Uie  name  (in  ^taih)  really  agrees  with 
thi'  meaning,  *'  rapid  and  dilatoiy/*  indicating  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  {mda. 

▼ii9Tad«TL 

Kare  in  l)oth  epics,  this  metre  occurs  but  once  in  stanza 
fona  in  the  Muiulbluirata,  a  tag  followed  by  a  supplementary 
tristuhh.     The  first  hemistich  end  in  brevis.     Sporadic  padas 

of   llie  vjii^*vailevT  t\i>e, ,  ^\j vy-«M,  are  not 

infn*<pH*nt.  The  twelve  syllables  do  not  make  a  jagatl, 
thoii|;h  the  metre  is  so  called,  but  a  hjrpermetric  triftubh  of 
the  ty{H3  descrilMHl  above  (see  No.  7).  The  native  method 
of  nuMsiiring  by  trisyllables  in  all  cases  is  well  shown  in  this 
metre  to  be  alwunl.  For  example,  in  the  pida  cited  above, 
Krsnririi  Pant-allm  al)ravit  Kuntvapurvam,  the  caDSura  and 
natunil  division  is  in  gnniim  of  five  and  seven  syllaUea 
n*siMNtiv(*ly.  So  in  the  one  stanza  of  the  great  epic,  xii, 
21U,  25  =  10,721  (Mokfla): 

hhlrQ  riljanyo,  br&hmanah  sarvabhaksyah 
v.lir}'o  'nihflvfln,  hlnavarno  lasac;  ca 

vitlvAi'u*  cA  Vllo,  vrttahlnah  kulTnah 
flatvfld  vibhnu«to  brthmanastrl  ea  tnstt' 

m  •    •  •  •   ■ 

(2C,  r\g\  yuktah  pacamAno  'tmahetor 

mark  ho  vakU  nrpahlnam  ca  riUfram 
ete  8arve  qoryaUliii  ySnti  rAjan 

yai;  cfl  *yiiktah  snehahlnah  prajAsn) 

1  This  U  the  Mdinf  of  B.    la  C,  brlbaiiva^  siri  ea  «af|i. 


326  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

In  the  Ramayana,  a  single  pada  is  found  in  R.  (aboye),  and 
one  whole  stanza  also  (lacking  in  G.),  v,  65,  28  (both  hemi- 
stichs  ending  in  brevis).  There  is,  further,  a  half  stanza  in  v, 
63,  33,  imited  with  a  hypermetric  tri^t^bh  hemistich,  not  in  6. 
but  following  a  tag-tri§tubh  common  to  both  texts;  an  inter- 
esting example  of  the  equivalence  of  the  vaif yadeyi  and  free 
tri§tubh  padas: 

pritisphTtd.ks&u  samprahrst&n  kum&r&u 
drstv&  siddhSrth&u  yanaranam  ca  rSj& 

aiig&ih  pr&hrstd,ih  kdxyasiddhim  vidity& 
b&hvor  Osannam  d,tim&tram  nananda 

For  the  two  padas  of  the  second  hemistich,  see  Nos.  6  and  13 
in  the  Illustrations  of  tristubhs.  The  only  difference  between 
them  and  the  vai^vadevi  lies  in  the  syllables  marked  short. 
For  another  form  of  vai5vadevT,  see  the  malini  below. 

Atijagatis. 

Rncirft. 

Of  the  fifty-one  stanzas  of  ruciras  in  the  MahabhSrata» 
almost  all  are  regular.  One  or  two  slight  irregularities 
occur  in  the  thirteen  eases  found  in  the  Kamayana.  Inde- 
pendent pa^las  of  this  type  scattered  among  ordinary  tri^tubh 
padas  are  not  uncommon  in  the  former  epic.  They  haye  been 
discussed  above  as  mora-jagatis  and  tri^tubhs.  The  type  of 
the  pure  rucim,  w_v^-_,  wv^wv^-_v^-«w_,  has  long  been 
held  ^  to  be  merely  a  jagati  with  resolution,  and,  as  was  said 
above,  this  seems  to  be  the  only  possible  explanation  of  the 
piida,  whether  it  happens  to  occur  four  or  three  times,  twice, 
or  only  once  in  a  stanza. 

Less  common  than  the  substitution  of  a  rucira  pada  for  a 
tristubh  or  jagati  piidji,  yet  still  not  infrequent,  is  the  bar* 
monious  alternation  of  padas.  The  converse  of  the  former 
case  is  found  in  the  occasional  substitution  of  a  vangasthabila 
pada  in  regular  rucii-a  stanzas,  as  in  the  group  of  ten  tag- 

1  Gildermcister,  in  LaBRen's  Antbologia  Sonscrita,  2d  cd.,  p.  124;  JacoU, 
ZDMG.,  Yol.  zxzYiii,  p.  607. 


El-IC    VERSIFJCS  TIO.V. 


827 


mcii^  at  i,  19,  22-31  (hemisticlis  end  in  brevui;  so  in  xli. 
62.  84).  llvre  Uw  stonzuA  ore  all  regular  mcimo,  four  padas 
each  of  tho  type  givun  abovu  (tuuU  naceps  only  at  tbn  L-nil  of 
Uic  Iifinistkh >,  w-ith  tho  cxi-uption  of  stanzas  27  and  80.  in 
wbicli  tho  ML-eund  [jadaa  are  viui^tJiat>iin-iiSda!i ;  tboB,  29-SO : 

tato  mablth  laranajaluii  ca  nAgaram 

mabasurilh  pravivi^ur  arditah  sui&ili 
viyadgatam  jralitahuuu^naprabham 

BudarqanaiQ  parikupiuuh  nii;ain7atA 
tatah  BoriVir  Tijayam  arapya  Jlaodarab 

Bvam  cva  defam  gamitah  snpOjitab 
vinOilya  kham  diram  api  c&i  'va  samqu 

tato  gatlh  saliladharft  yathftgatam 

In  i.  28.  2t-26,  thcro  aro  rix  tag  rocftfia,  as  stntJ,  but  in 
etanza  23  only  one  pada  is  of  nieiii  Conn,  tbo  otben  being 
upajTtlis;  while  in  i,  84,  26,  one  vaAfulha  pida  U  (ollowod 
by  \\\rve  nicirii  iinda«. 

Il  It  very  unu«tial  to  find  tJiia  stanxa  except  aa  a  tag,  oa  in 
tJtc  uxampleH  just  given.*  In  i,  66,  1,  howvver,  ia  found  a 
BtaR3:a  connisting  of  one  mdrft  pida  and  tlin^  triftuhb  podoa, 
the  linit  being  peculiar  in  opening  with  a  8pondv«:  biilo'py 
ayam  Btharini  iv&  'vabhifate,  Rft  '}-am  bftlai^  itfaaviro  'yam 
mold  DIB,  etc  Souh  a  pAda  lo  tuch  a  ftann  cooflmu  tbo 
view  that  the  whole  nicjrS  la  meiviy  n  molvad  jagali. 

Tlie  atteniatf!  anungenieut,  refemxl  tu  on  the  buft  pagCt  ma/ 
be  «cen  in  tht-  Ug  at  Tti.  29.  61 : 

Dibatja  tam  narapattm  indnvikntDadi 
ukblyim  intlruya  tad  ftindrir  fthiT* 

tato  parln*  tarn  jftymkukfi^  narta 
babliAfiJa  Tllyar  balarfln  drainla  fvB 

>  At  111,  U,  >,  ■  ndrf  •unn  BpfMr*  mmamf  A*  grMp  of  nlrtabht  with 
•falrb  ilw  A^f\mt  bvglaL  If  Ini  pUi  t*  m  adw  vt  tm  m»  eU«<l  M>o*«. 
Urn  l^Bikia  ji^uaBtIcau|inbK«B.  la  *U,  t.  Uk-UI,  i«o  ntdrl*  appnr 
In  tbn  Mm*  wmjr  ■Boat  Talif  th—  Al  lfc«  m4  «r  *■,  lA  Uw  la««fl*cn 
U  <l<.iw  anr  villi  br  th*  aiUltlM  fai  &  «,4I>K.  oC  ft««  (Mm  (aot  bimk 
In  HiiTlrr  ibv  ivo  ikAfaMht*.  wUdi  to  B.  Mnpkl*  Ik*  to*  bign  Vr  Ua 


828  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

The  same  arrangement  has  already  (p.  808)  been  noticed  in 
xii,  244,  29.  Another  stanza  in  this  book,  xii,  62,  84,  foims 
the  finale  of  a  short  system  of  pure  (tag)  yanfasthabilas* 
One  fifth  of  all  the  rucira  stanzas  in  the  epic  are  in  the  Haii- 
Tan^a,  inserted  as  tags,  and  they  are  all  perfectly  regular, 
with  the  substitution  of  one  vangastha  pada  each  in  2,  128, 
85  c  and  8,  84,  48  d,  respectively.  In  addition  to  these,  there 
is  half  a  rucira  at  C.  10,274  (after  van^asthas  and  before 
9lokas),  the  prior  pada  of  which  ends  in  brevis :  name  'sta 
te  mahisamahasurardinT,  namo  'stu  te  bhaysikari  vidvii^m 
sada.  Here  B.  2,  120,  43,  inverts  the  padas,  permitting  the 
brevis  at  the  end ;  but  it  also  has  a  varied  reading,  bandhanar 
mok§akarini,  which  leaves  only  one  rucira  j^da.^  The  other 
cases  call  for  no  special  remark.  The  caesura  is  after  the 
fourth  syllable. 

In  the  Ramayana  there  are  but  four  ruciras  common  to  the 
two  texts,  R.  and  G.,  two  of  which  are  in  the  seventh  book ; 
but  there  are  four  in  G.  not  foimd  in  R.,  and  five  in  R.  not 
found  in  G.  As  in  the  Mahabharata,  the  caesura  is  regularly 
after  the  diiambus,  the  gana  division  >^  — w,  _ww,  v/vr— , 
vy  _  w ,  _  not  corresponding  to  any  text.  Here  the  position 
of  the  rucira  is  always  that  of  a  tag,  usually  after  upajatijB. 
The  second  hemistich  occasionally  ends  in  brevis,  e.  g.,  G.  ii, 
68,  56  ;  vii,  68,  25 ;  R.  vi,  62,  22 ;  but,  as  in  the  Mahabharata, 
even  this  liberty  is  seldom  taken.  In  R.  v,  7, 15-17  (not  in 
G.),  of  the  twelve  padas,  all  are  regular  save  the  first,  which 
has  an  extra  syllable :  iti  'va  tiul  grham  abhigamya  gobhamS- 
nam.^  In  G.  vi,  39,  33,  padab  has  yagaskaram  priyakaram 
bandliavapriyam,  where  R.  62,  22,  is  regular,  yatha  priyam 
pri}'arana  bandhavapriya.  R.  omits  the  tag  of  G.  vii,  68,  25 
(continuing  with  glokas).  The  case  is  interesting,  because  it 
is  evidently  an  instance  of  breaking  a  chapter  by  means  of 
a  tag  (perhaps  as  an  aid  in  recitation),  and  because  the  ruciiu 

1  p.  W.  8.  v.  mahiiia  2  c,  gives  a  var.  lee.  I  give  the  readings  of  the  Calcutta 
and  Bombay,  1805,  Harivanga. 

^  It  is  easy  to  saggcst  (obhitain ;  but  this  haLf-mcirS  half-praharfi^  iMa 
really  needs  no  emendation.    See  just  below. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION'.  829 


tag  thus  employed  is  highly  irr^ralar  (jMlda  b: 
Itaghuvara,  na  'tia  sam^aya^)  in  making  the  ccesora  answer 
for  a  long  syllable ;  thus  showing  that  there  is  a  late  (care- 
less) freedom  as  weU  as  the  freedom  of  early  (undeveloped) 
forms.  With  one  exception,  no  such  substituted  padas  as 
eqiuita  upajatis  in  the  other  epic  occur  in  the  R&mSya^a.^ 

PrahandnL 

Having  thirteen  syllables  to  the  pSda  this  metre  is  called 
an  atijag.itl,  though  its  finale  is  that  of  a  triftubh,  w  _  ^.  As 
to  llie  rehition  of  the  measure,  it  is  clearly  of  the  puqpitigri 

diss,  in  closing  in  \^^\^^\j ,  as  wiU  be  seen  below ;  and 

as  clinirly  of  rucir&  nature,  both  in  its  middle  and  even  in  its 

opeiiiiig;  for  it  begins  with  a  morar^quivalent, ,  of  the 

ru(*ira*8  diiambus,  w.v/.,  and  continues  with  the  ruciri*8 
resolved  tri^tubh  form.  In  fact,  as  we  have  seen  tliat  a 
rucini  iKuLi  may  appear  with  the  extra  syllable  of  the  pn^ 
hai>inT,  wo  can  supply  all  the  links  from  triftubh  to  puspi- 
ta;^'ra  with  actually  extant  measures  (see  also  below,  under 
matnlchandas,  p.  887) : 

tri.stubh-jagati,  vr.v/.,  _ww_  \j^\j^ 

rucirft  ty{)e,        v^ v^.t  \j\j\j\j^  w_w. 

ruoirA  freak,      v^-.v^^  \j\j\j\j .^  \j^\j^^. 

praharsinl,         .. .. ^9  \j\j\j\j ^  v/.—  w..^ 

puspitlgra,        v^\/[v^v^),  "^  \j\j^  vf  — w_— . 

TIm*  stvondary  ca*8um  sometimes  makes  the  pZda  coincide 
viTV  closely  with  tlie  rucirii,  for  example  in  R«  ii,  79, 17  ar-b: 

QoOs  te  I  vacanam  idam  |  nicjamya  hrstft^ 
samaty&h  I  saparisado  |  viyfttaqokAh, 

lr.it  in  otluT  rases  tliis  cmsuro  causes  a  trochaic  cadence  to  be 
>«tiu<  k  witli  the  U'ginning  of  a  new  wonl  after  the  proceleu^ 
niati*  us,  as  is  clwirly  shown  in  U.  ii,  107, 17o-d: 

gacoha  tram  |  purararam  |  adya  samprahntah 
saiiihrstas  |  tr  aham  api  |  DaiidakAn  praveksje 

1  For  tblt  exeeptioo  la  the  Rlmi^jaf^  Mt  sboT%  F*  Ml 


830  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Do  thou  now  |  to  the  city  |  fare  with  heart  rejoicing 
while  meantime  |  mSrrily  I  |  will  to  Dandakfls  go 

It  is  rather  striking  that  in  both  these  examples  the  name 
of  the  metre  seems  to  be  implied  in  it,  hr^t^h  and  samj^p^tas 
like  prahar^ini  (or  -ani)  "  rejoicing,"  but  I  do  not  know  that 
this  is  more  than  an  accident.^  There  is  a  parallel  in  the 
rucira-like  pada  cited  above  from  the  Ramayana,  G.  vii,  88,  22: 

gato  ravir  suruciram  astaqftilam 

The  Ramayana  has  one  more  case  of  this  metre,  G.  vi, 
25,  41,  sa  krodhad  yipulaya9a  mahanubhavo,  etc.  The  only 
short  finals  are  at  the  end  of  the  whole  stanza. 

In  the  Mahabharata  there  are  twelve  cases,  all  regular  (but 
the  first  hemistich  as  well  as  the  second  may  end  in  brevis), 

with  tlie  same  norm  and  varying  caesura, ^\j\j\j\j^ 

__w  —  vy ,  or ,  Kj\j\j^  \j ^\j ^\j .     They  are  not 

all  tags.  For  example,  that  at  vii,  143,  48  and  the  group  of 
four  in  xii,  322,  24-27 ;  but  that  at  i,  2,  896,  is  the  tag  of  a 
tag,  apjxirently  merely  a  scholiastic  addition : 

akhyftnam  tad  idam  anuttamam  mah&rtham,  etc., 

as  are  those  in  i,  21, 18;  22,  12;  25,  17  (tag  to  a  rucira  tag, 
b  ends  in  brevis),  vedangany  abhigamayanti  sarvayatnai^,  etc. 
The  first  two  of  these  just  mentioned  are  akin :  in  21  c,  vistlr- 
naih  diidrgatur  ambaraprakagam ;  in  22 1),  gambhiram  vikasitam 
ambarapraka<j{un.  In  the  specimen  at  xiii,  7,  28,  the  praLir^inl 
is  by  one  gloka  stiinza^  removed  from  the  end  of  the  section, 
and  is  a  niond  excrescence  added  to  the  tale : 

1  I  may  add  that  in  the  first  example  there  is  not  only  hrt^ah  in  R.  ii,  79, 
17,  hut  in  the  vaii9a8tha  which  ])recede8  this  tap:  ^e  find:  praharnajan  tarn 
prati  hiiHpnhindavo,  etc.  Sec  a  case  like  this  from  the  other  epic  cited  in 
the  next  note. 

2  Tliis  final  o\6kh  says:  "I  have  repeated  what  the  seer  proclaimed  in 
regard  to  the  pettinp:  of  good  and  evil  fruit.  Now  what  do  yon  want  to 
hear  ?  "  Tlie  ^loka  hofore  the  prnhar^itn  is :  BhismasySi  'tad  vacah  gmtri 
vismitnh  Kurupufigavali,  asan  jfrahrstamanasa^  prftimanto  'bharana  tadl. 
See  the  last  note. 


BJ'/C   VEIISIFICA  noS. 


ya&  monbs  Uuvati  vrtbo  ';>ayujyani.1n() 
yat  soDM  bharati  vTtli&  'bluNnjramltno 

yao  cil  'giiau  bh&vati  vrthA  'bhifanyamSiM 
tat  sarvam  bliavati  vrtbft  'bhidblyaniOno 

The  tendency  to  rextrict  tJio  fliuil  tuylluba  ancepn  to  the  i;Iom 
of  tliu  8tanzn  is  nl>servable  iti  iM^venil  uf  thcw*  uuws.  For  iu- 
stAnce,  in  Uie  group  cited  fmni  tlio  twvUtJi  book,  ilin  only 
tiiuil  lireveH  are  at  tlie  end  of  wliole  stutiuu,  nut  at  the  end  of 
tlie  tintt  hcmititich.  In  i,  t!,  the  fimt  heTniAtich  cods  in  a  ahoit 
vowel,  bnt  before  two  conaonantii  (d  kiiAa  in  fl) ;  lu  i,  21  and 
2^  no  fhul  \»  short.  The  only  exi-eption  in  tho  one  noticed 
ftlKtve,  i.  25.  17  b.  Ttiu  twi)  nucs  in  II.,  C^  6348  ana  ll~.  8,  7, 
25  nre  tng^  aiul  have  no  fbiol  bruvlik  Tho  former  hma  Itiattui 
in  pndu  d  (avoidetl  ia  It.,  2, 53, 67,  manujeiulm  ci  'tnuni^thun): 

yad  yuktaii],  kuni  mannjendra,  AtmaaestaDi 

TIio  latter,  inntcad  of  C.'s  unrtani,  11,808,  Imu 

yat  satyaiD  yid  anrtam  Idintakjvmik  TlIi 

nhore  (iidima  and  k^uni  uru  kanu^  aud  kuira)'  Iditna  b  a 
lutu   adjoctivc. 

On  the  verso  gnpta  wkmikfyn  Bultftinim  daditi  lokin,  see 
IkIow  under  nmtriuihiuiiLui. 

Mygwidmnnklia 
Another  otijagatT,  not  foiiml  in  the  MaliSbfainta,  but  in  oim 
test  of  tlio  Ramayaqo,  U  tlw  mtgeiidnunuklia  uf  R.  vi,  101. 
ftfi.  which  tnku  the  placd  of  a  pofpliigift  tag  in  G.  S5,  13. 
T)m>  |i«#t<<nor  |>Bd«a  of  the  lattar  metn  hare  tvgularfy  tlie 
fiinn  illiuitnitnl  by  G.  at  thU  plaea,  aiudilamani^  Munud* 
ikfitiim  tratami.  u  wv/w_%^  v  _w_  w_  w.  This  funn  b 
oiinjily  iiimlnipln]  tn  ocilar  to  make  tba  mi^gendnunnkha  t 
tlio  radenM  of  wUdl  b  ofteii  made  trochalo  thrungli  tho 
i^iMiira,  aa  in  tbia  flpio  tiaai|)lo,  a  and  d  i 

<  tn  ilw  ttftX  |kU«,  B.  hM  J*A  khoian  hharttl  Blthag  ea  jarf  liliaitpa^ 
olu^  C  k»i  jtA  Utwn  kharai  aaduA  ea. 


k 


832  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

yadi  vadham  icchasi  |  Kftvanasya  samkhye 
yadi  ca  krtilm  hi  tave  'cchasi  pratijf[&m 

yadi  tava  rd.ja8utAbhilasa,  ftrya, 
kura  ca  vaco  mama  |  Qighram  adya  vlra^ 

The  native  division  of  the  pada  of  course  is  v/  w  v/,  v/— .w, 
%• »_  w,  _  w  — ,  _,  wliich  fits  pada  b.  The  brevis  at  the  end  of 
either  pada,  as  in  this  case,  is  probably  due  to  the  &ct  that 
the  metre  is  a  stereotyped  posterior  pada  in  repeated  form.  . 

Asambadha. 

The  remaining  ak^ra  tags  are  longer  metres,  the  fakvari, 
of  syllables  4  x  14;  the  atigakvari,  of  4  X  15:  and  the  ati- 
dhrti,  of  4  X  19.  Of  the  first,  there  are  two  varieties,  of  which 
one  is  tlie  asambadha,  found  only  in  the  Bombay  R.  ii,  116, 

25,  with  the  norm  (according  to  the  example, , 

\j\j\j,  Kj  \j\j, )  violated  as  follows  (prior  hemistich) : 

E&mah  samsddhya  rsiganam  anugamandd 
de^at  tasmat  kulapatim  abhiv^ya  rsim 

samyak  prltd.is  t&ir  anumata  upadist&rthah 
punyaih  vOsftya  svanilayam  upasampede 

To  this  is  added  a  supplementary  tag,  a  peculiar  stanza 
(where  G.  iii,  1,  35,  has  a  van^astha  tag),  in  which  the  last 
pada  differs  from  the  three  preceding ;  a,  b,  c,  being  alike  in 
having  each  the  fourteen  moras  of  the  even  vaitaliya  {xUla 
(explained  below),  and  eleven  syllables,  but  not  in  a  fixed 
order;  against  seventeen  morae  and  twelve  syllables  in  d« 
Pada  b  is  aparavaktra,  but  I  do  not  know  what  to  call  the 
whole  (R.  ii,  116,  26) : 

a^ramam  rsivirahitam  prabhuh 
ksanam  api  na  jahau  sa  Raghavah 

Raghavarii  hi  satatam  aniigatas 
tapasaQ  ca  'rsacarite  dhrtagunah 

*  The  stress,  but  not  the  quantity,  is  Satumian :  kuru  ca  vaco  mama  |  Tfhim 
mfhi  Cosmena  |  ^Tghram  adya  vira  |  fnsec*?  versiltum.  The  name  m|^ndrft- 
mukha  comes  from  the  mnemonic  verse:  ksudliltamrgendramukham  nifg^ 
upetya  (Brown). 


^ 


SPW  VBBStFtCATtOy. 


VaBantatUaka. 


The  second  {akvari  called  viLKantatilAkii  (or  "knin)  m  found 
tvicti  m  Utn  ItiiiuiiyaoH,  but  only  Ui  tlie  lattt  aiul  latent  l>t>ttk, 
vii,  8.  28,  wliuru  it  lit  foUowi^  by  a  jagatl  ii[>aj&ti  t»  a  filial  litg. 
Olid  vii,  96,  28,  nbto  a  tag.  In  ttie  Lilt«r  i:aae,  all  {tiuW  hare 
liuitvy  dual  syllable)).  In  tbe  fonner,  jNula  c  Iiah  linal  bivvu, 
but  tliU  liberty  in  takim  id  tlie  cwm  of  lliu  viu)antatilak&  even 
by  tlie  classical  writers.'     The  metre  in  clearly  byperm«tria 

trift^bh:  __w_,  w  ww,— v^^  — w or w_w,  ^  w_, 

u  ^  _  <^ In  tlio  first  example,  xiavo  \-&daa  bavu  cawtuu 

after  tlui  lifth,  like  other  b}~por[uetrio  tri^tobli^: 
efH  iuay&  tava  narOdliipa  rftkfa«Ai.iAin 

ulpaltir  adya  |  katliitA  aakalA,  yatlUlrat 
bhflyu  iiibodlia  {  Ragbnaattaina,  RAvanwyl 
janma  prabliAram  |  atuLam  Hsatasja  uurui 

The  MabaUiamta  tiM  twelve  ooeumooM  of  VBanttttiliikiii, 
but  only  ui^tit  wpamte  Matncas,  tba  otben  being  vain  n-[Miti- 
tion.4  of  old  material.  Tbe  flnrt  thne  ara  Ui  the  tiff'-ffiuup  at 
Die  end  of  U  2, 291  ff..  which  cniU  In  a  iindiufipL  Tlitt  sHmod 
of  thiit  group  has  iiliort  finala  in  b  awl  d ;  the  tUtd  (which 
fdllowH  inuuudiately  after  two  ^lokat)  faaa  final  lirevis  in  a. 
I1i(r  ntonnui  are  bnifidiotiTe  and  an  partially  repeated  at  the 
end  <if  xvtil.  5,  67-68,  wline  B.  hai  the  thini  t>f  this  groDp 
(otnillnl  bttrc  in  C),  and  thix  agmo  la  fmtnd  at  thi»  beginning 
nf  the  llarivnA^  In  all  thetw  flcoamocea  of  the  HUnr  stanza, 
ilaiUtI  in  left  at  the  Pod  of  pjbla  a  t  bat  in  o  tb*>  nvding  vnms 
between  Atatath  i;xn<^i1  In  xviii  and  VTPuyio  ca  nlQraih  or 
tadvat  in  t,  9,  8Sfi  and  Ilariva^ciu  i.  1.  4.  In  sHt.  1A1,  80, 
the  name  utann  haa  katfaayec  ca  nityam.  I  gJTe  ft  In  full  on 
arcnunt  of  iu  univervtl  interett: 

*  romparr  tW  note  to  rimftM'*  KtOrvvpb  by  IVnfMMir  tSpftUrr.  ^  M, 
TW  flaal  hnrU  in  prinr  piita*  It  (miflil  «lwi  In  iBKriptinn*!  ftruj.  CiOttpmn 
•  |.  Ill*  iMnI  uiil  iMtli  wttamt  la  TuMUufll'i  pMB.  ftfUi  runu;.  ^*tt 
Id  riiiil.licr'a  MUT  am  Id>1Uii  InaeripCloM,  jf.  01.  wbct*  pCiU*  •  unl  r  rM|i>» 
lltriT  flottr  Im  htrtla:  nr  tb*  Ulk  aaJ  iwat^-aftli,  «b<m>,  b  Mck,  kMh  ttm 
lirlnr  pUu  va-I  In  bravU.  la  tact.  Uw  Uairtj  b«f»  b  U  rin**  Ik*  fccinlNkh 
la  Im*/ •rildilM  aa4  th«  irUt  fUN  la  Ughi  qrllahlM  M  IT.  n,  a^  «). 


834  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

JO  goqataiii  kanakaqrngamayam  dad^ti 

vipi-aya  vedaviduse  subahuQrutaya  ^ 
punyaih  ca  bharatakathftm  satatam  Qrnoti 

tulyam  phalam  bhavati  tasya  ca  tasya  cfti  'va 

In  the  thirteenth  book  (as  in  the  case  of  the  Ramaya^a, 
this  metre  is  found  only  in  pseudo-epic  or  late  books),  there 
are  two  new  cases  of  vasantatilaka.  The  first,  14,  189,  is 
unique  in  not  being  a  tag  (only  d  has  final  brevis);  the 
other  (with  a  §aixliLlavikridita)  being  a  tag,  as  usual.  The 
latter  is  united  with  the  benedictive  stanza  above,  and  like 
it  has  final  brevis  in  the  fii-st  pada,  151,  80-81  (80  being  the 
stanza  quoted  above). 

The  Ilarivanga  has  a  tag-group  (followed  by  one  floka)  of 
three  more  vasantatilaka  stanzas  at  3,  114,  39-41,  the  last  of 
wliich  also  has  final  brevis  in  c : 

41,  c,   jyotis  trilokajanakam  tridaqSikavandyam 

d,  aksnor  mama  'stu  satatam  hrdaye  'cyutakbyam 

Malini. 

Tliis  is  an  atigakvarl,  4  X  15  syllables,  having  syUaba  anceps 
regularly  only  at  the  close  of  the  hemistich,  but  in  one  in- 
stance at  the  end  of  a  prior  pada,  a  freedom  found  among 
classical  works  only  in  the  Mixjchakatiikam,  according  to 
Professor  Cappeller.^  The  metre  is  found  in  both  epics; 
but  tlie  Ramayana  has  only  one  case  common  to  R.  and  G., 
and  that  is  in  the  last  book,  vii,  59,  23  =  G.  61,  21,  the 
stiinza  only  ending  in  brevis.  It  is  a  tag.  In  R.  vi,  40, 
29-30,  there  are  two  cases,  not  in  G.,  both  regular,  a  tag 
couplet  (in  the  former  case  both  hemistichs  end  in  brevis). 
G.  ii,  106,  29-30,  has  two  stanzas,  not  in  R.,  a  tag  (final 
brevis  only  at  the   end  of  the  first  stanza).     The  natural 

division  is  often  v^^w,  wv^v^, ,  _w_,  _v^ ,  with 

caesura  after  the  spondee.     The  iltdiabharata  has  eleven  cases, 

1  T.  1.  bahuvi^rutaya  in  the  Bombay  II.    Also  ca  for  su-,  and  other  rmri* 
ants  in  Anu^asana. 
*  Loc.  cit. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATIOIT.  886 

and  (like  the  one  case  in  both  texts  of  the  RamSyana)  they 
are  iUl  in  the  later  epic:  vii,  73,  48;  viii,  85,  1^;  90,  24; 
xiii,  6,  45-47;  H.  2,  105,  84;  and  8,  182, 100.  The  one  in 
Dnma  unites  with  a  pu^pitagra,  but,  although  both  are  almost 
at  the  end  of  a  cluipter,  they  are  rather  a  tag  to  a  speech  than 
to  the  chapter  itself.  Those  in  Kari>a  are  at  the  beginning 
and  in  the  middle  of  their  respective  chapters.  Those  in 
AnuvaHiinii  are  a  tag,  except  that  two  (lokas  follow.  In  the 
group  of  viii,  85,  all  the  |Nidas  end  long  except  the  posterior 
{Kidas  of  the  third  sUuiza,  both  of  wliich  have  final  brevis. 
The  two  cases  in  Ilariv.  arc  tiigs  (one  floka  following  in  the 
latt4T)  with  hrevis  only  at  the  close  of  the  stanza.  An  irreg- 
uLirily  appwirs  in  xiii,  6,  46  c-d : 

bahutarasusainrddhyft  iD&nus&n&xh  grh&nl 
pitrvanabhavauftbham  drgyate  eft  'niarftnftm 

In  47,  thi'  homistichs  end  in  brevis;  in  45,  only  the  first 
hemistich.  The  pluml  grlulni  is  remarked  u])on  as  Vedic  by 
th«*  H<h(»liast,  who  thus  sup])ort8  it;  but  gfham  (vai?)  ia 
pniUihly  right. 

A   \ety  common  cadence,  whereby  the  end  of  the  puda 

assniin's  the  fall  _  v-^ ♦  w ,  rather  tlian  «  ^z  — ,  —  w , 

is  illustniKHl  by  II.  3,  182,  100  a-b  (cited  above): 

ajaram  aniaram  ekam  dhyeyam  flilyanta4;Qnyam 
saguiiain  aguiiam  fldyaiii  sthQlam  atyautasQksmam 

Aimthcr  kind  of  malini,  not  found  in  the  epics,  begins  with 

_^  ,   V.  v/  V .  sliowing   that  the  epic  form  is  a  furtlier 

rcsnliititiii  of  an  (»riginal  tri^fubh,  which  may  be  represented  by 

V .   -  ^ v^ This  is,  of  course,  Uie  vfiif^va- 

i\v\\  fiiriii  nf  tlu*  liyiM*nnctric  tristubh,*  tlie  close  relation  of 
\\lii<  h  with  thf  puspitagm  is  well  shown  in  vii,  78,  48-49: 

•IS  a-b :   asurasurarnanuftyflh  |>akHino  vo  *rago  vt 
I'itrrajanirara  vfl  hrahmadevarsayo  vt 

41)  a-h  :   ymli  virati  raH&tilani  tad  airryaih 

viyail  api  devapuram  Ditrh  puram  vt 

1  f'.mpiiri-  I*rnf«'t«nr  J«rolii'»  Iramrd  rtMjr,  CatwIcMvaf  dtrbNUfdMa 
Mrtr:k  ill  iiat  livv«li«ctirr  Zrit.  ZDMQ.  vol.  xnTUl,  pb 


886  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

The  content  of  this  malini  appears  a  little  further  on,  77, 
26,  in  the  form  of  a  pu§pitagra: 

yadi  ca  manujapannagah  piQftc& 
rajanicarah  patag&h  8ur93urd^  ca 

and  in  yiii,  87,  86,  in  aparavaktra :  asurasnramahoragan  nanuu 

9ardulavikridlta. 

The  only  remaining  aksaracchandas  in  the  epic  is  the  ati- 
dhrti  (4  x  19)  §ardiilavikridita,  which  occurs  in  the  eighth 
and  tliirteenth  books  of  the  JVIahabharata.  The  chapter  of 
the  former  book  graced  with  a  malini  is  also  enlivened  with 
the  "  tiger's  pky,"  viii,  90,  42  (two  lines  in  C,  4668-9).    It 

is  not  a  tag  and  is  perfectly  regular,  four  times ,  —  ^  v/  — , 

w—v^,  ww_; w, w TherQ  are  also  one  and  a 

half  stanzas  at  xiii,  14,  229,  and  a  whole  stanza  ib.  234; 
neither  of  which  is  a  tag.  This  position  of  a  fancy-metre 
in  a  chapter  instead  of  at  its  end  always  shows  a  late  section 
(affected  in  the  IIarivan9a).  In  xiii,  151,  79,  the  9anliilayi- 
kridita  joins  with  vasantatihikas  to  make  a  tag.  All  the  speci- 
mens are  regular.  Tlie  metre  may  be  a  late  development 
from  the  tri^fubh.  The  iutermeduite  phases,  however,  aie 
not  very  clear,  though  the  genesis  may  tentatively  be  as- 
sumed as ; ,  _»  w  w  »_  w  _  w  (iis  in  the  vaitaliya,  below), 

\j  \j ,  —  v^ w  _,  or  two  stanzas  to  the  strophe,  as  in 

the  classical  grouping  of  yl<jkas,  with  shift  of  caesura.  This 
metre  is  not  found  in  the  Kamayana. 

Ardhasaxnavrtta  (Matrachandas). 

(A)    PusriTAGRA  AND  APARAVAKTRA. 

These  metres,  as  is  indicated  by  their  name  "  semi-equal," 
are  uneven  in  their  padas.  Tliey  are  not  quite  mora-metres, 
since  the  numlxT  and  i)ositic>n  of  their  sylLibles,  heavy  or 
light,  are  n^gularly  fixed ;  but  on  the  other  liand  they  are 
not  like  aksiira  metals,  for  their  padas  are  not  identical.  In 
the  epic,  however,  the  rule  of  fixed  syllables  is  not  strictly 
prcserv'eil.     The  cadence  of  the  hemistich,  with  its  unequal 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  887 

padas,  has  either  wholly  trocbaio  dose  or  alternate  txoohaio 
and  iambic.    The  first  is  illuBtrated  by  R.  vi,  88,  86  o-b : 

tarn  ihaQaranam 

abhyapftihi  derX 
haya  ira  manijalam 

fif  a  yah  karoti 

Bapid  as  a  charger  is, 
HasteUi  hony  qniekly. 

As  already  remarked,  the  second  pSda  of  this  pnfpitigiS, 
when  (iiuulnipled,  makes  the  mfgendramukha  (above,  p.  881)« 
which  also  has  trochaic  falL  The  aparavakira,  which  has  one 
syllable  (usually  two  morffi)  less  than  the  pufjutigiS,  shows 
more  clearly  the  derivation  from  the  txiftuUi,  R.  ii,  89,  41 : 

murajapanava-meghaghosavad 

Daqaratha-ve<;ma  babhava  yat  put 

or,  again,  in  M.  viii,  87,  42 : 

bhavatn  bhavatu,  kim  vikatthase, 
nana  nuuna  tasya  hi  ynddham  adyatam 

Tlierc  is  one  form  of  trif(ubh  which  actually  correspondf 
to  the  se(*oiKl  verse  of  the  pu^pitSgift,  when  its  breves  are 
equated  with  hca>7  sj'Uablcs,  thus: 

tristubh  (  ™^^°^  ^^  kurytn  na'dadhtta  rofam 

puspitAgra  b  I  g^aparamatair  gahanam  pratarkayadbhi^ 

ProfeKsor  JacoU  also  sees  in  the  jagati  or  txiftubh  the  ori- 
gill  (»f  the  pu^pitagra,  though  he  is  inclined  to  adopt  a  more 
<'ntuplirat<*d  development  (from  a  Vedic  verse  of  12  +  8 

Hvlliil  lies'). ^ 

1h<'  puMpitugrS  and  aparavaktra  are  used  only  as  tag* 
iiutns;  suinetimes,  as  in  R.  v,  16,  80  (not  in  O.)  inserted 

1  /T)MO  Tol.  iiirill. !».  601  ir.  FrofMior  JscoU,  p.  SOA^  Mfsrdt  the  pvfpl- 
tltrrX  «•  %  <l«*Tr1<»pinriit  from  a  purr  mitrlchuKUia,  which  in  turn  he  rrfm 
to  th<-  tatn^irhatl  (4  X  12  +  &)•    CompATt  slto  the  MOM  ftsthor,  IB.  toL  srtt, 

p.  449. 


338  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

among  upajati  tags  common  to  both  texts ;  sometimes,  as  in 
G.  iii,  54,  28  (not  in  R.)  after  a  common  trL^t^bh-tag ;  or  in 
other  similar  situations.^ 

The  pu§pitagra  occurs  much  more  frequently  as  a  tag- 
metre  than  does  tlie  aparavaktra.  For  example,  in  the  Ra- 
mayana,  the  pu§pitagra  is  found  four  times  as  often.  There 
are,  however,  only  thirteen  cases  common  to  the  two  .texts, 
R.  and  G.  Besides  these,  G.  has  fourteen,  and  R,  has  twenty- 
one  cases  not  found  in  the  alternate  text. 

The  mark  of  the  posterior  pada,  as  distinguished  from  the 
prior,  is  tlie  apparent  insertion  of  a  heavy  syllable  (in  terms 
of  matra  metre,  two  morae),  at  a  point  which  is  usually  fixed 
as  after  the  initial  four  breves.  This,  however,  is  not  always 
the  case.  Tlius  in  G.  v,  31,  62  b,  corresponding  to  d,  which 
latter,  vacanam  idam  mama  Maitldli  pratlhi,  is  regular,  ap- 
pears as  posterior  pada  of  a  puspitagra: 

lavanajalanidhir  gospadlkrto  me, 

w^here  the  heavy  syllable  is  put  after  all  the  breves,  perhaps 
merely  on  account  of  the  awkward  phrase  (in  floka,  ib.  88, 
23,  go^padlkrtah).  Later  rule  especially  forbids  this  arrange- 
ment for  all  matrachandases :  "  In  the  opening  of  prior  padas, 

Kj v^,  and  of  posterior  padas,  ^ ^  and-.^^  w  w  v^  v^  w 

and  Kj  \j  \j   \j  \j  Kj  ^,  are  forbidden."  ^ 

Further,  for  the  prior  pada  may  be  substituted  a  different 
cadence,  abnost  tliat  of  the  vaitalijra,  ww-»wv^_,  vr^— , 

\j This  occurs  in  G.  vi,  62,  44  a  (where  R.  83,  44,  has 

the  normal  w  v^,  w  www,  _  w_  w )  thus : 

G.,  ayam  adya  vibho  tava  ca  priyartham 
R.,   ayam  anagha  tavo  'ditah  priyartham 

Compare  G.  vi,  92,  83  b:  svabala  'bhivrto  rane  vyarajatfi, 

1  In  G.  vi,  30,  32,  where  K.  has  only  a  nicirS,  there  is  a  puspitSgri  inserted 
before  the  rucira.  These  two  names,  by  the  way,  appear  together  as  ordiii«T7 
adjcrtives  "blooming  and  shining"  (trees),  supuspitagrSn  mdrin  (yrkfin), 
R.  V,  14,  41. 

2  Weber,  IS.  vol.  viu,  p.  309. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  889 

\i'hcrc  R.  108,  34,  has  svajanalxilu  'bliivrto  nu^e  babhiivB.^ 
The  prior  pada  imiy  be  hyponnetric.     Thus   R,  vi,  107» 

68  a-b : 

I)a(;aratha8iitar&ksasendrayo8  tayor 
jayam  anaveksya  rane  sa  RAghavasya 

A  parallel  ease  or  two  occurs  in  the  other  epic  (see  below), 
<  )ccasi()iially  tlierc  is  a  quasi  inversion,  \/_  ^  _  w  _,  of  the 

eiicliiijr  _  w  — ^ ,     This  occurs  twice  in  R.,  but  only  in 

Adi  and  rtUim.  The  first  case  presents  varied  readings.  In 
(i.  i,  22,  20,  there  is  simply  the  not  unusiml  tH]uivalence  of  a 
and  ('  puspita^^a  and  b  and  d  (aparavaktra)  ratalectic.  But  in 
K.  the  siinie  sUmzii,  i,  19,  22,  has,  besides,  the  irregular  poda  a: 

\u  \j  \j    \y  \^  \j    —  vy  —    v/ |=b 

that  is  inst^>iid  of  iti  hnliyavidammim  tailiinim  in  G.a,  R.  has 
iti  sail  nil  vanianovithlmiiani.  Tliis  can  m^antdy  be  a  mere 
liipsus,  as  tht;  iinale  o(*curs  again  in  the  Mahabhamta  and  in 
li.  vii,  29,  38  c-<l : 

yail  ayam  atulabalas  tvayft  'dya  vfti 
triila(;a|katis  tridai^ilq  ca  nirjitah 

In  thf  latter  jKissiip*,  37  a  lias  ^  ^  — ^ aa  cloae : 

atha  saranavigatam  uttamauj&h  * 

Wliilt*  [N>st«Ti(>r  padas  have  sylLdxi  anrcps,  as  in  O*  vi^  92| 
b.U),  ('it4*(l  aliove,  a  prior  {Nula  has  this  only  in  R«  vi,  83,  86, 

1  Anntlirr  rniio  of  Tamtinti,  R.  tI,  84,  2Sfl  =  O.  03,  2S,  where  O.  hM  Man^ 
Taro  'iiiiiAtliatiiva  yatlift  in«hvfii1rmh  mmr  be  comipt  (fur  MormTftfo  'Din^ 
tl..int  \athi  iiiahcmlrah  ').  IS.  \iM»  diTiJaripttmatliAiM  /atbi  Bahciidrml^  (for 
ri|...r  '). 

^  III  h.  r<>m|»«rr  (».  t.  M,  77  h,  JanAkanffkitiiuiJiflhfUni ;  bat  R.  SS,  70,  hat 
J.inAkAiiri'iitiitaja}  iilhrtam  iirabhivit,  whicb  U  correct.  In  R.  tU.  S9,  87  and 
:'»-«  nn-  i>U4i>itA^«ra« ;  .11*  anil  40  are  aparavaktraa.  In  G.  the  onlj  irreffnlaritj 
li.  n-  i!i  in  4 "J)  li"*  r.  •vaiutaaya  Tacanam  atipri/arii  tat.  Here  hi  40=  R.  90, 
a  f  .iparAvaktra  an*l  b  i»  putpiilirri,  thottgh  the  Utter  maj  have  added  tb# 
iititMri-««ary  tram  that  makrt  the  chaDfe.  The  tame  ia  tnm  of  R.  SSa. 
I  l.iTt-  n<>tiit<l  Utitb-t  onlj  the  followinit  pttfpitl|[rl  Irreffnlaritlet,  whick 
•<«iM  t'>  iiir  iiiorr  Kr*i»oM<i(^  tliAn  metrical,  or  aMprr  errort:  O.  II,  St^ 

*."'»*.   .'  v./  ^  ._  f'T  _  ^ ,  read  apratlnaripa  f     G.  Iv,  81,  85^  im4 

afirtaiiia'lhur4-'  •    Nrither  etaiiBa  la  fo«ad  la  R. 


840  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

devt  (cited  above),  where,  however,  G.  has  Site  (here,  9,  89, 
abhayamkaram  is  to  be  read).  In  posterior  padas,  final  syllaba 
anceps  is  found  about  a  dozen  times  in  the  forty-odd  pu^pita- 
gras  of  the  Kamayaiia  text. 

The  aparavaktra  is  a  pu^pitagra  shortened  by  one  long 
syllable,  two  morse,  in  each  pada ;  or  in  other  words,  its  pada  is 
a  catalectic  pu^pitagra  pada.  To  native  prosodians,  as  to  Euro- 
pean scholars,  the  shorter  is  the  type,  and  the  puf pitagri  is  an 
expanded  aparavaktra ;  a  view  that  appears  to  me  erroneous. 
The  aparavaktra  occurs  in  Uie  Kamayana,  as  said  above,  not 
quite  one-fourth  so  often  as  the  pu^pitogiu.^  Like  the  latter, 
it  is  used  alone,  or  witli  other  metres  to  make  tags.  The  final 
syllables  are  always  long.  Irregularities  are  rare ;  a  substitute 
like  that  in  the  puspitagra  occurs  in  G.  ii,  82, 15  a : 

KJ  \J  \J  \Jt  KJ  KJ f  V^  W  — . 

\j  \u  \y  K^f  \j  \j \j f  \j\j (ca  sati  omit  ca  ?) 

\y  KJ  \y  \Jf  WW t  w  w  

Here  R.  has  a  regular  aparavaktra,  ii,  81, 16,  In  G.  iv,  62, 25, 
tlie  second  pada  is  plavagapungava^i  paripiirnamanasah,  for 
R/s  (63,  15)  pliivagavai-ah  pratilabdhapauru^ah ;  and  in  G. 
63,  29,  pla^^^ngiunal.l  paripurnamanasah. 

There  is  only  one  passage  in  the  Uttara,  vii,  29,  87-40, 
where  puspitagiil  and  aparavaktra  are  found.  Otherwise  these 
metres  are  distributed  pretty  eveidy  over  the  Ramaya^a, 
except  that  the  first  lx)ok  has  no  aparavaktra,*  and  only  one 
puspitagra  common  to  both  texts,  but  R.  here  lias  four  not  in  G. 
The  rejison  is  that  the  later  epic  prefers  pure  matrachandas. 

Intorchangi^  of  ajxiravaktra  and  puspitagra  padas  occurs 
occasiomilly,  as  in  G.  ii,  15,  36  (R.  lias  upendra  here),  where  a 

1  Tlierc  arc  onlv  nix  cnses  common  to  both  texts ;  besides,  two  in  R.  not 
in  G. ;  thrte  in  (J.  not  in  K. ;  twelrc  in  all,  as  G.  at  it,  62,  25  and  03, 29  hat 
the  one  at  U.  Qi\  15.  In  the  last  case,  the  first  puda  is  the  same  in  the  three 
stanzas ;  in  R.  all  the  other  padas  are  normal,  but  in  G.  02,  26 d  it  a  pntpl- 
ta^rii  piida,  as  is  c  of  (h\  20.  The  missing  stanza  in  the  alternate  text  i«  duo 
men-ly  to  the  latti-r  hnyinj?  a  puspitagra  in  G.  iii,  7,  30;  R.  vi,  08,  24. 

>  The  fifth  book  has  no  aparavaktra,  but  it  has  half  a  dozen  puspitigrito. 
The  sixth  book  has  the  greatest  number  of  puspitSgria. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  841 

and  c  are  pufpitagrfi  pSdos  and  b  and  d  are  apaiuyaktia 
padiu)  in  regular  interchange ;  or  as  in  G.  v,  86,  77,  where 
only  tlie  Li8t  pfida  of  the  stanza  la  catalectic  (of  apaiavaktia 
form). 

It  Ih  clear  that  the  pu9pitSgrfi,  a  form  of  triftubh,  and  the 
Bixinivaktra,  a  catalectic  pufpitigrS,  are  not  regarded  as  separ- 
ate but  OS  interchangeable  in  pSda  formation.  As  complete 
stanziis,  the  latter  compared  with  the  former,  are  rare.  The 
[mdi  \\\iQ  is  not  absolutely  fixed. 

Bt'fore  comimring  tlie  usage  in  the  Mahlbharata,  I  shall 
c()nii)lcte  this  description  of  the  phenomena  in  the  RamayaQa 
with  an  account  of  the 

(B)    AUPACCnANDASIKA  AKD  VArTALlTA. 

In  the  Liter  \t\Ti  of  tlie  ItamayaQa  —  if  one  may  dare  sug- 
p>st  that  any  epic  poem  in  India  was  not  all  written  at  tlie 
Kinit*  moment  —  the  place  of  tlie  pu^pitagra  and  apaxavaktra, 
as  ta^Miieti-cs  is  taken  by  pure  m&trftchandases,  namely,  the 
rin}):uclianfUiMika  luid  vaitallya,  which  bear  to  each  other  the 
KuiH'  notation  as  that  held  by  tlie  former  pair;  that  is  to  say, 
thi*  vriitallya  {ulda  is  a  i*atalectic  ftupacchandasika  pftda. 
'^rhi'*^*  two  pairs  are  essentially  klentical,  as  may  be  seen  by 
c(uii|Kirini^  th(*  {M>stcrior  (udas,  which  in  each  are  increased 
by  a  lon^'  h\  liable.  The  ixwterior  [Nula  of  the  aupaoehanda- 
Hika  is 

Avhic  h,  \\\\v\\  ratah^-tic,  shoultl  have  final  syllaba  anceps;  but 
this  never  liapiK'ns  at  the  end  of  the  first  Iicmistich,  only  at 
the  eii<I  nf  the  ^tan7;^  an  imlieation  tliat  the  vaitallya  is  Uie 
(h  ii\eil  fnnn.  A^ain,  the  uu{iueehandasika  is  really  the  epic 
ht.tn/.i  inetn*.  The  vaitilllya  is  used  but  once  as  a  stanza,  all 
thi*  I'tlier  ra*«es  U-in^  nien*ly  catalectic  pidas  of  an  iupaccluin- 
(Li>ik.i  ht.Lii/a.  The  prior  {ifida  in  iupaochandasika  may 
al>n  eiiil  in  brevis,  uimI,  as  Uie  spondee  is  usually  resolved 
int'>  an  anapa-st  in  botli  {nULis,  we  get  the  norm  (16  and  18 
nioni' ) : 


842  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


(a)  WW, \j\j f \j \j ^ 

(b)   v^ v._.v._^_ 

or  (b) ,  —  vy  w  _,  w  — .  vy  —  i:^ 


This  is  evidently  a  variety  of  the  pu§pitagra.^  That  i8»  it 
reverts  to  a  trLjtubh  origin. 

R.  vii,  57,  21  =  G.  59,  22,  may  be  taken  as  the  typical 
form: 

WW,  —  WW  — ,  W W ( — ) 

W  W ,  WW ,  w w  w 

WW,  WW  — ,  W  —  W — 


G.  adds  te  to  R.'s  pada  a,  iti  sarvam  a§esato  maya  (te).  The 
final  syllable  of  the  stanza  in  vii,  61,  24  =  G.,  66,  24,  vaitallya, 
is  short  in  R.,  long  in  G.  Prior  padas  do  not  usually  end 
in  brevis,  but  they  do  occasionally,  as  in  G.  vii,  87, 18  (not 
in  R.),  where  in  b  the  spondaic  type  of  opening  is  illustrated: 

iti  karma  sudd.runam  sa  krtva 

Dando  dandam  avuptavS.n  ugram 
Qmu  sarvam  aqesatas  tad  adya 

kathayisye  tava  rajasinhavrtta 

The  close  of  b,  however,  shows  an  unusual  phase  of  the  type 
of  the  equivalent  variant  with  spondee ;  but  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  suppose  that  a  brevis  is  lost  before  ugram.  Both 
posterior   padas    may   begin   with  a  spondee   (but   end    in 

—  w  _  w ),  as  in  R.  vii,  55,  21  =  G.  57,  22  (all  padas  end 

long),  e.  g.,  tulyavyadhigatau  mahaprabliavau,  apparently  an 
older  fonn  tlian  the  usual  resolved  type. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  puspitagra  and  aparavaktra,  the  cati^ 
lectic  (vaitaliya)  pada  may  take  the  place  of  the  full  measure. 
Thus  in  R.  vii,  95, 17  (not  in  G.),  the  spondee  tj^  (b)  is  used 
as  a  catalectic  pada: 

iti  sarapravicarya  rAjasiuhah 

qvobhilte  qapathasya  ni^cayam 
visasarja  munin  iirpanq  ca  sarvan 

sa  maliatmu  mabato  mabauubhavah 

1  Compare  the  form  cited  above,  ww ww w w ww,  *»m  Tariant 

of  puspitagra  (b). 


EPIC    VERSiriCA  TION. 


843 


lu  R.  vU,  86,  21  (G.  98,  21).  a-b  sliow  a  new  fonn  of  this 
comluimUoo : 

iti  LakHmanaT&kyam  uttamam 
nrfintir  atlvauaaoharam  mah&tmft 

that  is,  a  vaitSlija  prior  aiid  pii^pita^  posterior  p3(lu.  Com- 
part! the  only  caaa  not  in  the  L'ttArakAi.i(lit,  where  ui  G.  li. 
81,  S8  (not  in  K.),  a  lame  aparavaktin  benmtich  \i  foUowtsd 
by  a  liune  niatra  hemistioli  (fifteen  ouuae) : 


i 


The  patois  metrca  show  th^  thp  matiH-form  was  tueil  emrly, 
but  liow  much  vailivr  than  the  UuiU  ctmtury  B.C.  it  in  impo»- 
«iblo  tu  suy.  Tbu  viUa]i^-a  itself  is  a  common  motra  of  the 
I)h;uiUilupudii.* 

MfitrftcbandM  lu  the  Mahfibhftrata. 

The  mmiy  "  wJiui-cquaU "  in  tho  givat  epic  form  a  fair 
pantllul  to  tho  Htatt)  of  tlunga  [q  tlic  littln  a\w..  Unt  there 
aro  no  regular  v&itUIya  or  inpawbiUMhuuka  Htuusaji  at  all. 
In  a  Late  iiaaoagD  of  Vaoa  and  in  i^i\  thuno  ia  a  ^lunuliR 
approach  to  vftitUIya  form.  On  tlte  otlwr  band,  thrre  ant 
(iwr  luDety-ooB  pusjiiiat^ras  and  apomvoktiBa.  Thay  an 
found  cbicfif  in  the  later  part  of  tbo  n\»e  and  i^ipear  more  in 
grou|is  tlian  tliey  do  in  the  Rindyni^  The  inti'ichanuv  of 
pii^pitAgri  and  jqMuranktnt  lAdoa,  of  which  I  lure  apokcn 
bImitc,  U  met  with  m  the  very  tint  euunple  at  tho  end 
of  i.  80: 

aira{«Eubahinryate}nw 
dbftaauuiaiali  {Mrltakfane  *nrt*«7S 

aiiUBpanivldftnfAl^  nir* 

middharapa^prakt^aa]^ 


I  "natTiwbvN  kM  la  Iha  pdttaftor  ftUa 
phlnuxrr  m  •■  <>p«ala(  i  kM  kolh  twi*  tail 

(rvr>l<)nil»«lLa««4lbWlndw      ' 

Butlml  aUi**.  lb*  (om  b  sac 


*  ffTMtir 

ih»  •MMtnMl  tntfabrltiM 
ihaalanu. 


844  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

iti  samaravaram  sur&h  sthit&s  te 

parighasahasraQatflih  sam&kulam 
yigalitam  iva  ca  'mbar&ntaram 

tapanamarlciyikd^itam  babhase 

In  the  first  stanza  the  padas  are  aparav.,  pulpit.,  apaiay., 
aparav. ;  in  the  second,  pulpit.,  aparav.,  apaiav.,  pu^it.  Al* 
most  the  same  as  the  latter  is  the  arrangement  in  a  tag  to  a 
danakathana  (followed  by  three  tri^tubhs),  at  the  end  of  ill, 
200,  126,  where  a  pni^pit.  pada  is  followed  by  an  aparav.  i»da 
in  the  first  couplet ;  but  the  second  begins  with  the  poiterior 
pu^pitagra  pada,  and  is  followed  by  the  posterior  pada  of  an 
aparavaktra : 

c--d :  bhavati  sahasragunam  dinasya  r&hor 
visuvati  c&  'ksayam  a^nute  phalam 

as  if  the  posterior  pada  were  used  originally  in  either  position 
as  the  norm ;  which  would  agree  with  the  identification  with 
the  tristubh  ventured  above. 

Of  the  eight  pu^pitagnis  in  the  seventh  book,  six  (all  tags) 
are  perfectly  reguLir  (2  X  16  +  18)  and  require  no  notice 
(for  C.  2731,  rajanr,  read  rajani®,  as  in  B.  77,  26).  Here 
only  hemistichs  end  in  brevis.  Two  cases  deserve  notice.  In 
vii,  1622  =  87,  37  b,  C.  has  pitrsuracarana-siddhasanghaih,  in 
B.,  siddlmyak^sanghaih.  But  B.  is  often  less  better  than 
bettered,  and  here  the  net  result  of  three  correotions  is  to 
make  a  perfect  pu^pitagra  out  of  C.'s  scheme,  which  is 

w>^v^    \j  "u  \j    yy K^ ,  \J  KJ  \J    \J \J    \J \J    — t  16  +  16 

\j  \yu  yjK^yj   yy  —  \j   — \j i  \j  \j  \j  \J  \J  \J \J i  17  +  17 

but  this  is  attained  by  adding  yiiksa  in  b ;  changing  avanita- 
liivigiitai?  ca  to  avanitaLigataig  ca  in  c ;  and  inventing  the 
woitl  ativibabhau  for  abhibabhau  in  d  (B,  ativibabhau  hut&- 
bhug  yatha  'jyasikbih).  Mates  to  pada  c  were  shown  above 
from  the  Kainayana.  IiTegular  too  as  is  d,  it  is  not  lightly  to 
be  rejected,  since  it  has  its  perfect  parallel  in  the  eighth  book 
(below),  as  also  in  Ilariv.  C.  11,209  d  (3,  6,  4d) 

(iti  sa  nrpatir  atmavans  tadil  'sd.a) 
tad  ana(vi)cintya  babhava  vltamanyuh 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  845 

where,  for  C.*8  anucintya,  anu  vtcintya  of  B.  may  be  a  corrected 
readings  as  above  it  is  easy  to  propose  abhivibabhau  and  refer 
to  tlio  Kig  Veda  for  the  form. 

The  case  at  vii,  182,  27  =  8278,  shows  a  better  reading  in 
B.,  where  hi  is  required  (accidentally  omitted  in  C.)*  The 
{)ada8  Iiere  are  regular,  the  stanza's  end  having  brevis  (in  77f 
2G,  tlie  first  hemistich  ends  in  brevis).  The  chief  peculiarity 
here  is  that  the  passage  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  chapter, 
tlie  other  cases  in  Drona  being  tags. 

Once  w  w  w  —  N^  takes  the  place  of  ^  ^^  v^  w  w  v^.  producing 
in  i)a(ki  a  the  choriambus  equivalent  to  tliat  in  b  and  d.  This 
luipi)ens  in  one  of  tlie  two  great  groups  of  late  aparavaktras 
in  tlie  eighth  book,  viii,  80,  8  (almost  at  the  beginning  of  the 
chapter)  ^  : 

\j\j\j  \j%  ^\j  \j  ..t  v^  -.  \y  «. 

\J   \J   \J   \J%    ~^    \J   \J    — «    \J   \J  mmm 

The  R'st  of  the  twenty-five  **  semi-equals  **  in  the  eighth 
iMMtk  WW  all  ^>ui)ed  togetlier  in  87,  81  ff.,  where,  after  one 
piispita^ii  pml;^  follow,  as  in  the  last  group  after  a  stanxa, 
upanivaktnis  only.  In  this  group  of  twelve  stanzas,  brevee 
<H'(*ur  but  nin*ly  at  the  end  of  the  hemistich,  in  (81),  40,  and 
42  at  the  Htanza*ri  end,  in  35  alcme  at  the  end  of  b.  Only  two 
of  tlit'se  stanzxH  require  a  word.  In  87  c-d,  where  the  first  of 
the  two  (Kuhm  luis  seventeen  monv  (for  fourteen), 

dinakarasadrqAih  <^rottam&ir  yudhl 
KnruHU  l»ahQn  vinihatya  tAn  arfn, 

it  src:ns  simple  to  dn>p  the  hyjiennetric  and  unnecessaiy 
yutliirt ;  hut  1:  is  in  Uith  textji  (Nllakantha  says  that  this  pai^ 
ti<  ul.ir  s*  i:i/a  is  viHanuiih  rhanckis)  and  has  a  pamllel  in 
H.i:;\.  1  l.'Jtiii,  when*  ((\  only)  a  pufpit^grK  begins: 

1  n  •  \\t*\  «tAii/a  of  t)if  rhaptrr  if  m  flokm ;  the  flrtt  tUim  of  Um  groip  Is 
•  {.u^iiiLicri ;  ttun  fnWnm  apaniTaktrM  to  0,  where  tht  Snt  half  it  cfttalcctio 
(a|'^raiaktr.i)  anl  thi*  •••<-f»nil  half  if  pofpitlffri  (m  Ib  IS^  b  todi  itt  brtrif) ; 

10  i*  «  rrtruUr  apaniTAktrm :  l:t-U.  rrfolar  »p*niTaktnf;  11  b  regvlar  la 

11  A.  l*ut  irn  kTuUr  in  C  (viniYrfo^'>Af*rApW^>'*  for  ^farilr  alplfiUBi).    Itot 

li  i'udt  in  bri'vif. 


846  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

yidhivihitam  a^akyam  anyathft  hi  kartam^ 

A  similar  case  has  been  shown  above  in  the  Ramayana. 

The  other  stanza  deserving  notice  is  the  first  of  the  groupt 
viii,  37,  81  =  1787.  Both  texts  have  a  pu^pitagra  pada  in  a ; 
an  aparavaktra  pada  in  b ;  and  in  c-d 

jugupisava  iha  'dya  Fd.ndayam 
kim  bahuDd.  |  saha  t&ir  jayftmi  tarn 

that  is,  ^\j\j  for  \j\j^oi  the  resolution  in  vaitallya  (but  the 
caesura  in  d  is  after  the  choriambus :  "  Though  the  gods  may 
wish  to  guard  the  Pandu  here  to-day,  what  then  ?  I  shall 
conquer  liim,  gods  and  all  "). 

In  9^nti,  the  puspitagras  are  generally  too  regular  to  be 
interesting.  A  big  bunch  of  them  in  Moki^  makes  a  tag  at 
the  end  of  adhy.  179,  thirteen  in  all.  They  have  an  unusual 
number  of  final  breves,  but  only  because  vratam  idam  ajagaram 
gucig  canimi  is  the  final  refrain  of  ten  of  them  (only  twice 
has  b  brevis).  Of  the  twenty-one  stanzas  of  this  class  in 
^nti  (Mok§a),  sixteen  are  puspitagras;  five,  aparavaktras. 
About  the  same  proportion  obtains  in  Harivaii^a,  where  there 
are  twenty-two  stanzas  of  ardhasamas,  of  which  only  three  are 
aparavaktras.  All  those  in  ^^inti  are  tags,  either  following 
tri§tubhs  or  followed  by  another  supplementary  tag  (as  in  the 
case  of  a  rathoddliata  mentioned  above).  In  xii,  250,  12  b  = 
9035  (yad  avidusam)  maliiidbhayam  (paratra)  in  C.  appears 
to  be  a  kpsus ;  in  B.  as  sumahadbhajram,  and  in  10,580,  yad 
avidusfim  sumaliadbhayam  bhavet;  but  compare  the  parallel 
below  in  II.  The  following  is  a  parallel  to  the  case  above 
in  the  Ramiiyana  in  its  late  form  (v^  _  <^  _  v^  _) :  xii,  819, 
112  =  11,83G  (the  order  of  morse  is  17  +  18  4- 16  or  17  +  16) ; 
where  B.  has : 

yad  upanisadam  upd,karot  tatha  'sSu 
Jaiiakanrpasya  pura  hi  Yajflavalkyah 

^  This  is  in  the  stanza  referred  to  above.  In  this  case,  H.  3,  6,  4  m  has  only 
Tidhivihitam  avakyam  anyatha,  to  which  C.  adds  kartum.  The  fact  thmt  the 
same  superfluity  of  syllables  is  found  in  the  Kamayana  must  at  leaat  make 
doubtful  an  instant  acceptance  of  the  more  usual  form  giyen  in  what  ia  so 
often  a  clearly  improved  text. 


EPIC   VERSIFICATION.  847 

yad  apaganitaqA<;vat&yyayam  tao 
chubham  amrtatvam  aqokam  archati 

(liere  C.  in  c  has  ^ganitam).     Both  texts  have  thus  in  a: 
and  C.  lius  in  c : 

The  lust  stanza  in  the  book,  866,  9  =  13,948,  has,  as  an 
upanivaktra  tag,  mone  14  +  18  +  14  +  18,  alternate  calalecUo 
versos,  of  which  I  luivo  8|x)ken  above. 

The  renuiining  nmtracliandases  in  ^nti  are  discussed  below. 
The  thirteenth  b<M>k  Ims  no  apani\'aktras  but  nine  pufpitagriSy 
all  of  which  are  jx^rfeetly  n»giilar  (the  hemistich  ends  in  brevis, 
e.  g.,  7G,  31).  All  except  those  in  the  extraordinary  (late) 
se<  tion,  14,  180,  and  190,  are  tags,  though  26,  101-2  are  fol- 
lowed by  four  ylokas.* 

Al^u-t  fn»ni  the  i)udas  already  noticed,  the  Harivaiita  lias 
little  of  interest.  Interchange  of  the  two  forms  (a,  catalectic) 
(K'curs  in  3,  (>,  3.  In  the  pu^pitiigras  at  12,705-6,  the  latter 
Ims  in  K  v^  v^  ^  v^  _,  v^  _  v^  _  ^  .  w,  as  in  the  lapsus  above. 
Ilcn*  s;i  Ims  lieen  dropiHxl,  (3,  42,  21)  dititana\*aiii  (sa) 
nir^ridhi{M)  (huhir^i.  Ah  usiml  in  the  later  books,  several  of 
tht'  stanz;is  aa*  not  Uigs:  2,  123,  32  is  followed  by  flokas  and 
rucirris,  hut  is  m^ir  the  end  of  tlie  section;  at  the  beginning 
are  thi*  thnv  of  3,  6,  2  (T. ;  in  the  midille  of  tlie  section  are 
3,  41K  31  =  VIM^K  and  3,  /lO,  12  =  12,989;  as  are  the  four 
ill  3,  f)!,  vss.  18,  IW  42,  49  =  13,024-35-61-58.  Many  of  the 
tiii.tl  staii/uis  an*  liene<Iictivo,  as  in  3,  6,  10,  where  puf{HtagTis 
are  interwoven  in  an  upajati  kavyastuti: 

vijavati  vasudhAiu  ca  rftjavrttir 
(Ih.inam  atulaiii  labliate  dvisajjayam  ea 

vipulaiii  api  dhanaiii  labhec  oa  vAi^ah 
supitiiu  iyan  chravanflo  ca  <*QdrajAtih 

purAnam  etac  r.iritam  mabitmanAm 
ailhltya  buddhim  labhate  ca  Diiatikliiii  ete. 

f?aru|>aii,  fur  "raujrt*  .  .  .  |iathinayogm*  ia  B. 


848  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

It  will  be  convenient  here  to  put  together  the  foims  of 
aidhasamavrttas  thus  &ir  exhibited  in  the  two  epics.  In  the 
Mahabharata  and  Ramayana  the  general  types  of  aparayaktra 
and  pu§pitagra  are  : 

(a^)   ^^wwww,  —  vy_w_  (_),  14  (16)  mond 
(b^)  \j\j\j\j^\j\Jt^\j^\j^ (— ),  16  (18)  morsB 

These  may  be  called  the  types,  because  the  following  vari- 
ations are  proportionally  insignificant.  But,  though  few  in 
nmnber,  they  are  important  as  showing  that  there  was  no 
absolute  line  between  the  fixed  matrachandas  and  the  free 
matrachandas,  for  these  variations  may  just  as  well  be  re- 
garded as,  e.  g.,  vaitaliya  padas  as  variants  of  aparavaktra 
padas.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  do  not  repre- 
sent [mdas  of,  e.  g.,  vaitaliya  stanzas ;  only  equivalent  padas 
of,  e.  g.,  aparavaktra  stanzas,  which  I  call  variants  on  account 
of  their  position  : 

In  M.  and  R.  botli  are  found  the  following  variants  of  (a^) : 

(a*)    \j  \j  \j    yj\j\j    \j \j \j ( ) 

In  both  texts  of  both  epics,  two  cases  in  M. ;  three  in  R,     In 
M.  both  cases  are  in  pada  c ;  in  R.,  only  in  aparavaktrau 

(a*)  yj\j  \j  \j\j\j  —  \^ \j \j (hypenneter) 

In  !M.,  in  both  texts  and  also  in  Harivaiiga ;  in  R.,  one  case. 

In  M.  alone : 

(a*)   \j  \j\j \j\j \j  \j 

In  R.  alone : 

(a*)  \j\j\j  KjKjKJi  \j\j \j (B.,  vii) 

(a^  WW—  WW—  WW—  w (G.,  17  morae) 

(a^)  www  www  — w—  WW—  (doubtful,  p&da  c,  16  morsB) 

(a*)  www  WW  — w—  w (only  in  G.,  pada  c,  16  morse) 

In  M.  and  R.  both  is  found  the  following  variant  of  (b^)  : 

(b^  wwww—  WW—  w (only  in  C.  and  G.,  16  morse) 

In  M  alone : 

(b*)  www  — WW—  w— w (only  in  C.  aod  HarivanQa, 

padas  b  and  d,  17  morae) 
(b*)  wwww— ,  w— w  —  w  —  w  (sic,  bis  in  C.) 

(b*)     —  WW  WW     w w 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  849 

In  R  alone : 

(b*)  \j\j\j  \j\j\j^t^\j^\j^^  (only  in  0.,  forbidden  hj 

rule) 
(b^     wv/s^-.  \y^«v/s^  —  v/  —  %•  —  (only  in  O.) 
(b*)  v/  —  v/—  v^^,  —  v/  —  %•—  (only  in  Q.) 
(b»)  wv^—  vyv/—  w_w—  v/v/  (only  in  O.,  a  prior  Anpi^ 

cchandasika) 

The  complete  vaitallya  and  Supacchandasika  atanzaa,  of 
perfect  mora  form,  found  only  in  the  later  RimayaQa,  have 
the  scheme : 

(a)    s^w,-.  v/s^-..vy-.v/_U) 

(b*) •  — WW— ,v/^s^_(^) 

(b«)  ww-.-.ww-.w«w-(M) 

(b*) ,  _v/w—  v/ 

Before  taking  up  the  odd  cases  remaining,  I  cannot  refrain 
from  ileparting  somewhat  from  a  purely  metrical  point  of 
view,  to  express  admiration  for  the  art  with  which  these 
metres  are  handled.  The  poeta  of  the  later  epic  play  with 
tliem  skilfully.  They  are  not  apprentices  but  master  work* 
nif*n.  I  give  two  illustrations.  In  one,  the  metre  is  em- 
ployoil  to  give  a  list  of  fighters  and  weapons,  the  names  of 
which  are  cleverly  moulded  together  to  form  half  a  perfect 
Htuii/a.  In  the  other  the  poet  is  indulging  in  satire  at  the 
ex(>ense  of  tlic  philosophers: 

viii,  30,  5,      parighamosalw^ktitomarftir 

nakharabhuqundigadAqattir  hat&h 
dviradanarahaj&h  sabasra^ 
nulhiranadlpravahas  tadft  UiaTan 

xii,  170,  35,   bahukathitam  idam  hi  bnddhimadbhih 

kavibhir  abhiprathayadbhir  Atmaklrtim 
idam  idam  iti  tatra  tatra  tat  tat  ^ 
svapanunatAir  gahanam  pratarkayadbhih 

I  liave  now  given  seriatim  all  the  mitilchandas  cases  in 
the  gn\it  epic,  with  the  exception  of  one  case  in  Vana,  to  be 


860  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

mentioned  immediately,  and  two  or  three  peculiar  groups  in 
^anti,  also  to  be  discussed  below.  It  will  have  been  noticed 
that  in  the  later  books  great  heaps  of  stanzas  of  this  metre 
are  piled  together.  Thus  all  the  twenty-five  in  Karna  (a 
late  book  in  its  present  shape)  are  in  two  sections,  thirteen 
stanzas  in  one,  twelve  in  another ;  while  in  ^nti  another  group 
of  thirteen  is  found.  This  stupid  massing  of  adornments  — 
for  these  tag-metres  were  used  originally  only  as  fringe-work 
—  the  still  later  thirteenth  book  exceeds  by  uniting  together 
in  one  heap,  first,  a  puspitagra,  xiii,  14, 180,  then  four  aiyas, 
ib.  181-4,  then  two  glokas,  ib.  185-6,  then  an  aiya,  ib.  187, 
then  an  upajati,  ib.  188,  then  a  vasantatilaka,  ib.  189,  then 
a  puspitagra,  ib.  190,  then  an  arya,  ib.  191. 

Despite  this  profusion  of  pu^pitagras  and  aparavaktras, 
the  Mahabharata  has  no  such  regular  vaitallyiis  and  aupac- 
chandasikas  as  has  the  later  Ramayana*  But  the  following 
interesting  verses  occur  in  the  popular  stoiy  of  Yudhi^thira 
and  the  daemon,  who  required  him  to  answer  certain  ques- 
tions. They  are  not  tags,  iii,  813,  112-118;  they  are  late; 
and  they  are  an  approach  to  vaitaliyas: 

priyavacanavddl  kim  labhate 

vimrQitakd.ryakarah  kim  labhate 
bahumitrakarah  kim  labhate 

dharme  ratah  kim  labhate  kathaya 

\J  KJ%\J\J\J ,  \J  \J ,  16 

\j\j  \j\ji  —  \j\j , \j\j ,  16 

^\Ji  —  \j  \j , \j  \j ,  14 

v^  — f \j  \j I  \j  \j  \j^  16 

priyavacanavadi  priyo  bhavati 

vimr^itakaryakaro  'dhikam  jayati 
bahumitrakarah  sukhaih  vasate 

ya^  ca  dharmaratah  sa  gatim  labhate 

\j  \j  \j  \j% \j\j ,  \j \j  \j\j^  16 

\j\j%  —  \j  \j f  \j \j\j 1 16 

—  ^,  —  v/  v/  — ,  w  w  —  v/  v/  — ,  17 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  861 

In  C.9  17,897-98y  the  same  text  This  is  the  kind  of  stoiy 
wliicli,  because  it  appears  BuddhistiCt  is  often  labelled  as  a 
matter  of  course  *  certainly  old.'  But  the  tale,  on  general 
priaciplesy  is  just  as  likely  to  be  late  as  early ;  perhaps  more 
so,  when  one  considers  that  kings  interviewed  by  spirits  who 
ask  conundrums  are  merely  stalking-horses,  and  must  first  be 
famous  as  kings  before  such  stories  are  fastened  upon  them. 
This  particular  tale  bears  all  the  marks  of  a  late  inset' 

Altliough  the  great  epic  lacks  the  regular  vaitallya  of  the 
Rainayana*s  Utt^iRikanda,  yet  9^nti  offers  a  type  of  metres 
wliich  shows  forms  ending  in  the  close  of  this  measure. 
For  l)esi(Ie8  tlie  usmd  ending  ^  w .  w .  of  the  matra  form, 

the  close  may  also  be  _  vy  v^ (called  apatalika).     Also 

tlic  iK'f^nning  of  the  verses  given  below  is  of  matra-formation, 
but  the  matras  are  not  regular.  The  group  xii,  822,  28-32  = 
12,071-75,  follows  a  group  of  prahar^inis  (4  x  18  syllables): 

28,  rilja  sada  dharmaparah  qubhftqubhasya 

gopta  samlksya  sukrtinAm  dadbftti  lokAn 
bahuvidham  api  carati  praviQati 
sukham  anupagatam  niravadyam 


iMorn»  20  4-  21  4-  14  +  14,  the  first  hemistich  bridging  the 

pnHtMlinjr  pniharsinlH, , v^v^v^v/, -.  \j  ^\j ,  and  the 

apalalikri  (<'-<l  whtMne  alw)  in  80,  lielow). 

1^,   ovAno  MilHanakAvA  avomiikhani 

vavAi'isi  l)alap:rilhra[kula]  paksinAm  ca  aafighlh 
nanikadano  nidhirai^A  giinivaca — 
nanudain  uparatam  vi<;aDty  asantah 


w w.  w  v^ w  [\^  v/J*  — .  \y  *.  W 

Vi/ v/ w  w  —     v>  v./ vy  —  •  Vi/ v^  vy  w 

19  4-  19  4-  lo  +  16 


1  ritnipart*  Ilnltzmann.  who  riiEhtlf  u^  that  th«  ttoffj  It  a  laic  t^JHtim 
to  the  ihini  book  to  coimect  it  with  the  fowth,  Ntvasika  Biclwr,  fw  IM^i 


852  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

30|   xnaryfldfiniyata  svayambhaya  ya  ihe  'mflh 
prabhinatti  da^agunft  manonugatyftt 
nivasati  bhiQam  asukham  pitrvisa— 
ya-vipinam  avag&hya  sa  pftpah 

\j\j\j    \j\jK^i  \JKJ vyv/v^v^  (=  28  c) 

\j\j\j    \j\j  \^t  —  yj^ ^  (=  28  d) 

22  +  18  +  14  +  14 

31,   yo  lubdhah  sabhiQam  priy&nrtaQ  ca  manusyah 
8atatanikitiva£[caDd.^-bhiratih  syftt 
upauidhibhir  asukhakrt  sa  paramanirayago 
bhrqam  asukham  anubhavati  duskrtakarmft 

a, f  —  \JKJ  ^tKj  —  vy  —  wv/ (=32  a) 

b,     Kjf  \j  \j  \j  \j  \j \j» \j  \j — 

Cy  \J  \J  yj  \Jt  w  w  w  w  ^1  \Ji  \j  \j  \j  \j  \j  \j  ^» 
dj  Kj  \j\j\j \j\y    \j\j\j\Jt \J  \^ — 

22  +  17  +  19  +  18.    Here  c  has  the  resolved  equivalent  ol 
the  v^  w  w  V:^  _  close  of  a,  b,  d.    The  chonamb  of  a  is  all 

resolved  in  d,  v,a^  v^:^,  v^  w  w  ^^,  _  w  w ;  in  c  only  the  fiisl 

syllable,  s^'^^'^^wkj^  (as  if  sa  were  interpolated). 

32,   usnOm  Y&itaranlm  mahSnadlm  *  avagSdho 
'sipatravanabhinnagditrah 
paraquvanaQayo  nipatito  vasati  (ca) 
ca  mah&niraye  bhr^&rtah 

,  _  >^  >^  — ,  (>^  — )  w  —  \j\j (=  31  a) 

\j \j\j\j \j 

\JKJt  ^  ^  ^  ^  — »  W  W  >^ \J\J\J  l\j) 

K^\Jt  ^  ^  — » ^ 

22  (19)  +  13  +  16  +  13 

1  C.  vacana,  but  N.  yaficaiii  cauiySdL 
'  C.  omits  maha®. 


KPIC   VEllSlFlCATlOiV. 


Matruunakas. 

In  xii,  836, 11-12  =  1270ft-7  occur  two  lines,  u  printid  in 
C,  which  seem  to  be  mthur  rbythmicral  prose  than  yot-iry ; 
but  in  347,  18-22  =  18441  tbcra  an  five  mStri  rUuuas,  o( 
wliit'h  I  give  the  scbemu  alone  (tliey  ue  Dot  aTmngod  to  tba 
sauie  way  in  both  texta}: 

—  —  a6x2) 

^  ^^^z  "jc  V  w "  (16'+  rTT"""  """- 

B.  oildti  v/  \/  lyf  w  w  V  _.  vhich  C.  gives  to  the  next  rtum. 

19,  <^^^  ^v^_,w_^_vA^w_w^y_«_K,_(16  +  U) 

C.  luldn  wv  — ^>w_,  which  B.  gires  to  the  next  biimbrtich. 

.y^ w ww_^.v/_«„.«ww_w (lH  +  17) 

(to  +  23  Of  17) 

^w «s/^^_^_.«w_^/_^.x^^ w^_(I6+W) 

P«rbn|iM  puTilQatii  in  SI  ta  to  be  omitted.     Tbe  t«xt  b  t 

tuit  loIuksAksinnia  ajun  paraiam  partnam  rarivap- 

uaia  ii;Taraii)  gatim  bobu^ah 
[irnitain^hTain  ckamaiiato  yatah  nlilodbliavo  *ji 
Um  T?'")  pnnatab 

22,^w_w_o.vM_w« w_uw.ww_ww_(l«  +  in 

«_«,  wu_ww_. w_ww.^^_w_w_(16-f  18) 

Tlte  Brk'S  foim  i«  rlcar  in  rtantaa  18  and  90.  On  the  oth«r 
hand,  tlwi  first  atanza  a  an  alraoat  pars  pnhan^akaliti  pida, 
w  «  w  w  w  u  — I  wliile  the  pramitAkfait  phla,  ^,  „  _  „  _  „ 
t>  u  -  w  w  — .  prcTaiU  in  the  following  ataniae ;  not,  bnwonr, 
aa  pun)  c<^vaiT  nr  jigatS  rtottua,  but  with  mittft  raaolution. 
Tbtr  Ktanitna,  if  they  an  tnalad  aa  niMn  gmap,  maj  peihapa  be 
coiuidered  aa  rallier  niagb  toittiaamakaa  (foor  pSdaa  of  alx* 


864  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

teen  morae  each),  partly  of  the  vigloka  type ;  ^  or  as  aiyagiti 
(but  with  four  morse  in  the  sixth  foot),  mixed  with  matra- 
samakas.    Nothing  of  this  sort  is  found  in  the  Ramayana. 

Ganacchandas. 

The  statement  that  the  arya  metre  occurs  in  Buddhistic 
writings  (and  earliest  inscriptions)  but  not  in  epic  poetry,  was 
made  so  long  ago  that  the  learned  author  of  Das  Ramayana 
can  scarcely  at  this  date  be  held  responsible  for  the  slight  over- 
sight.' Nor  is  the  main  argument,  to  which  this  statement 
served  as  a  support,  especially  affected  by  the  fact  that  the 
Mahabharata,  besides  the  stanzas  of  aryagiti  mentioned  in  the 
last  paragraph,  has  eight  arya  stanzas ;  since  these  are  in  parts 
of  the  epic  so  late  that  their  presence,  as  affecting  epic  poetiy 
in  general,  may  be  discounted ;  at  least  for  any  one  who  takes 
a  reasonably  historical  \^ew  of  the  growth  of  the  great  epic. 

Six  occur  m  xiu,  14,  181-84, 187, 191  =  772-75, 778,  782 : 

181, 1  w  —  ^t »  v^ Kj'.Kj  \j\j  \Ji\j \Jt\j\j t  vy, 

,  —  \j  \j% ;  yj \Jt\JKJ »  \Jt »  vy 

182, 1  \j  \j  — ,  \j  \j ;  \j \Jt ,  \j \Jt f  W| 

\j  \j\j  \j?  \j \jt  yj  ^  — ; \j  \Jt 1  w»  ^  —I  _ 

183,  \j  vy  — » » ;  vy  —  ^i f  vy  —  vy, 1  — » 

191,  \j  \j  — f  \j vy, ;  vy  vy  w  vy, f  \^, •  — f 

, ,  —  vy  ^;  \j  —  ^t ,  vy, ,  — 

The  last  two  stanzas  are  upagiti,  that  is,  they  have  the 

1  Colebrooke,  Essajs,  vol.  ii,  pp.  78,  142  ff. ;  Weber,  Ind.  Stud.,  vol.  riii, 
pp.  oli-olS.  I  am  indebted  to  a  query  note  in  Professor  Cappeller's  manii- 
Bcript  for  the  suggestion  that  these  may  be  imperfect  aksaracchandaaca  of 
tlie  types  named.  The  pure  matrasamaka  has  brevis  in  the  pSda's  ninth 
syllable. 

^  ZDMG.,  Tol.  xxxriii,  p.  600;  Das  RamSyana,  p.  03. 

■  B.,  bharati  hi ;  C.  omits  hi. 

*  Text :  yesam  na  ksanam  api  rucito  haracaranasmaranavicchedah ;  SySgftI 
and  neglected  cssura;  but  if  api  (an  easy  intrusion)  were  extruded,  the 

neglected  caesura  would  be  in  its  usual  place, , \j\j^\jkj .^i  \jkj\^\^ 

<^  ^,  v^,  _  «_  _,  with  the  arya  final  foot  of  two  mone. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  865 

short  verse  in  each  hemistich*  The  full  eighth  foot,  aiyagiti, 
is  found  only  in  188  b  (if  left  uncorrected).  There  are  no 
im^^^ularities  in  the  use  of  the  amphibrach*  Brevis  may  stand 
at  the  end  of  the  first  hemistich*^ 

Two  cases  occur  in  Harivaiifa.    I  give  the  text: 

1>  1  y  3,  jajati  ParftQarastinuh  satyavatlhrdayanandano  Vyfisah 
yasya  'syakamalagalitam  Tftfimayam  amrtam  jagat 
pibati 

1,  1,  7,  yo  Ilarivaiiqaiii  Ickhayati  yath&  TidhinA  mahOtapAh 

sapacU 
(in  (\)  sa  yftti  Hareh  pa(lakamala[m]  kamalaiii  yath&  madh- 

u|>o  lubdhah 
(in  r>.)  sa  jayati  HarifMidakamalam  madhnpo  hi  yathA  rasena 

samlubdhah 

The  first  stanza  is  regular.  The  second  neglects  the  usual 
caesura  after  the  ihinl  foot  in  the  first  hemistich  in  both  texts; 
while  (\'h  text  is  iniixissible  in  the  second,  though  the  metre 
niiiy  l)c  set  right  by  omitting  the  antecedent  and  reading 
(without  sa): 

The*  trxt  (»f  H.  is  regular,  with  \j  ^  \j  hb  sixth  footi  where  (in 
the  .M'ctiud  Iicniistich)  stands  v^  in  the  cases  above. 

(  hi  paj^t*  1C4, 1  cited  in  full  a  stanza  beginning:  ahu^  ^a^tim 
butldhi^unan  vai  (tlie  sixty  Samkhya  gunas);  the  scheme 
(utiitiut*  in  the  epic )  for  the  whole  stanza  being  (xii,  256, 12) : 


WW WW    ..  ^    —.WW    .._    WWWVi/    -.v/ 

Althouirh  this  Lirks  tlie  marked  cliaracteristics  of  the  iryi* 
Ixiih  ill  its  <Mrly  imd  in  its  Liter  forms,  it  is  yet  a  gana  metre 
%\liii  h  may  U^  nnkoned  either  as  arj'agiti,  or  as  matiSsamaka, 
hut  not  pun*. 

As  til  the  origin  of  the  ganacchandas,  the  metre  seems  to 
nir  to  In*  rather  a  s])cc*ies  tlian  a  genus.     As  seen  in  the  speci* 

1  Tlti-n^  {•  ht'rc  no  cft«^  of  four  hrvTM  in  the  filth  foot  of  th«  mcomI  hMsl- 
■ti<  K.  wtiirh  fK-run  in  cUmIc  writtra  and  lateriptloaal  Iryii*  t.  fi»  Vi 
lih«ni,  luc.  cit.,  Tt.  30. 


856  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

mens  above  under  matrasamakas,  they  are  intercbangeable 
with  the  latter,  of  which  they  are  only  a  more  special  type, 

with  SL^  Mv,  v^  —  ^,  siv  vii', as  the  last  four  feet  of  the 

hemistich  (compare  183  a,  only  this  is  not  in  the  aiyagiti 
form,  but  has  the  alternative  one  heavy  syllable  for  two,  or 
two  morse  for  four).  The  matrasamakas  in  turn  are  the 
equivalent  in  mora)  of  the  (loka  strophe  (that  is,  a  unit  com- 
posed of  two  glokas,  such  as  the  classical  writers  affect),  the 
thirty-two  syllables  of  the  half  strophe  answering  to  the  thirty- 
two  morse  of  the  hemistich  in  the  matrasamaka  and  aiyagiti 
(the  one  mora  of  the  sixth  foot  and  two  morse  of  the  eighth 
foot  being  special  modifications).^ 

The  Distribution  of  Fancy-Metres  in  the  Oreat  Epic. 

The  relation  of  gloka  and  tri^tubh,*  which  in  the  whole 
Mahabharata  stand  numerically  in  the  rough  proportion  of 
95,000  to  5000  (out  of  101,900  stanzas  or  prose  equivsr 
lents,  the  sum  of  the  whole),  varies  enormously  from  book 
to  book,  one  trisfubh  to  three  hundred  and  ten  flokas  in  the 
eighteenth  book,  almost  nine  hundred  tri^tubhs  to  four  thou- 
sand ^lokas  in  the  eighth  book,  the  extremes  in  absolute 
nimiber  of  tri^tublis  as  well  as  in  their  proportion  to  f  lokas. 

From  reasons  quite  apart  from  metre,  I  have  elsewhere 
maintained  that  the  first  part  of  book  i,  and  book  xiii,  with 
the  Ilarivanga  were  late,  as  compared  with  books  vii,  viii,  xii, 
but  tliat  these  in  their  turn  contain  very  late  additions  to 

^  One  may,  indeed,  take  the  yloka  hemistich  in  the  form \j , 

\j  —  w  —  and  reckon  it  in  morse,  15  +  14,  as  a  hemittlch  of  s 

mat^a^amaka,  wliich  U  as  nearly  correct,  that  is  as  near  to  a  real  aamaka, 
as  arc  the  cases  above,  where  the  pada  may  have  15, 16,  or  17  mors.  Bat  I 
prefer  to  rest  with  the  fact  that  the  matrasamaka  is  a  parallel  In  terms  of 
mone  to  the  yloka-stroplie  in  terms  of  syllables,  without  attempting  a  derin^ 
tion.  For  particular  studi(*s  of  the  ^anaccliandas,  see  Professor  CappeUer^'s 
Die  (innacchandas,  and  Professor  Jacobi,  ZDMG.  vol.  xxxriii,  p.  {|95  ff.  The 
latter  scholar  believes  the  ar^^ii  to  have  been  a  musical  adaptation,  and  to 
have  come  into  Sanskrt  from  Prakrt  poetry.  Th?  metre  can  be  traced  back 
to  tho  time  of  A9oka. 

^  That  is  tri^tnbli  and  jagati.  There  arc  just  about  the  same  number  of 
tristuMi-jagati  stanzas  in  the  Mahabhi&rata  as  in  the  Kig  Veda. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  857 

the  original  epic,  often  palpable  intnimonB.'  The  use  of  the 
fancy-metres  seems  to  illustrate  the  general  correctness  of  my 
former  analysis.  Thus  the  ruciri  occurs  in  i,  iii,  vii,  zii,  xiii, 
Ilariv.;  the  vasantatilaka  only  in  i,  ziii,  zviii,  Hariv.;  the 
niTilini  only  in  vii,  viii,  xiii,  Hariv.;  the  aiyi  only  in  xiii, 
Hariv.  The  tag-metros  of  Adi  are  confined  to  the  first  quar- 
Xmr  (two  thousand)  of  the  eight  thousand  in  the  whole  book. 
They  cease  after  Sarpasattra  (almost  after  the  beginning 
of  Astlka),  or,  in  other  words,  they  occur  almost  entirely  in 
tlie  most  modem  part  of  the  book.  Books  ii,  v,  and  vi  have 
no  fiuicy  metres  at  all ;  book  iz  has  but  one,  a  bhujamgapra- 
yata.  On  tlie  otlicr  hand,  books  iv,  z,  zi,  ziv,  zv,  zvi,  and 
xvii  have  none  also,  which  however,  need  not  surprise  us 
mm  h,  as  most  of  tliem  are  short  supplementary  books,  and 
the  fourteenth  is  mainly  an  imitation  of  tlie  GIUL  That  the 
fourth  l)ook  is  not  adorned  with  tliese  metres  indicates  perhaps 
that  it  was  written  between  the  time  of  the  early  epic  and  the 
whole  {)fteiuU>-epic.  The  much  interpolated  eighth  book  would 
Ih'  coiiiparatively  free  fmm  these  adornments  were  it  not  for 
ilH  in;Ls.MHl  hea{M  of  anlhasamavjttas,  twenty*five  in  all  (other- 
wise it  htm  only  one  ^nlulavikri<lita  and  five  malinis).  The 
N*v('nth  lM»()k,  on  the  other  hand,  has  two  drutavilambitas, 
niiif  niciifis,  one  prahar^ini,  one  malini,  and  eight  ardhasama- 
vrtta}«,  —  twenty-one  in  all.  The  first  book,  that  is,  its  firat 
({iiarter,  h;iii  tliirty-one,  of  which  twenty-two  are  roeiiSs;  four, 
{»r.ih.ii>(inls ;  thn'e,  vasantatilakas ;  two,  ani hasamavyttaa.  The 
I>«i<Mi(liM*|»ir  HhowH  the  gresiteiit  variety,  as  well  as  of  course 
tht*  irriMtrst  niim))er,  the  lMN>ks  represented  (with  the  ex- 
(i-pUMii  <if  on«*  v;is:uitatiLika  in  the  eighteenth)  being  the 
twilfth.  thirteenth,  and  Harivaufa,  with  48},  28|,  and  48, 
rf.H|»«*i  tively. 

1  r.inip.tn*  tin*  paper  on  the  Dhlrmu  uid  OrMt  BhIrmU,  AJP.,  ToLxix, 
p  !•>  iT  That  t).«ri>  are  antique  parta  io  booka  grnrrmllj  late,  no  one  I  bc» 
liiT*>.  hftf  fT«-r  4l«  tiu-tr  Nur  liaa  anj  comprtent  critic  ever  denied  that  In 
tHH.kt  i:«'"**r«llv  (iM  Uie  paaaafra  are  found.  Adl,  Vana,  and  Anu^iaana, 
■ri<l  in  a  l«-«i  «lrirr^<f  Karna.  are  a  hod|re>pcMl)re  of  old  and  new,  and  the  onlj 
qiio'ioti  «•(  nioimot  u  whether  In  each  Instance  old  or  n«»  prevaib  or  la 
•ubsnliarr. 


858  TEE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

The  number  of  occuireDces  of  each  metre,  accoiding  to 
the  books  in  which  they  are  found,  \b  ^ven  in  the  following 
table: 


i 

22 
4 
8 

iU 

lU 

^ 

1 

>U 

- 

M 

BuIt. 

TataL 

HitrS 

Bh  uj  athgaprajatH 
DnitavilainbiUi  . 
ViifTadevI.  .  .  . 

Rucira 

Frahanini  .... 
VaeantaUkka  .  . 

3 

3 

9 

1 

1 
6 

25 

i 

1 

4 

4 

SI 

3 
1 
S 
3 

n 

« 

1 

10 

a 

5 
3 

23 
2 

6* 

s 
s 
1 

61 
U 

u 

11 
<i 

103 
8 

CardulHiikriilila 

PuBpitigri      ^ 
ApaiaTaktra  J   . 
Matraiamaka  ) 

2 

6 

Total 

31 

0 

21 

31 

1 

48i 

m 

1 

« 

213 

IIow  arc  we  to  account  for  these  fancy-^neties  ?  Let  as 
imagine  for  a  moment  —  to  indulge  in  rather  a  harmless 
fancy  —  tliat  tlie  wliolo  epic  was  written  by  one  individual, 
not  of  course  by  Vyasa  the  arranger,  but  by  Krit  the  maker, 
oven  OS  the  pseudo-epic  saj's ;  tliongh  the  latter  sets  reason- 
able bounds  to  the  human  imagination  and  very  properly  adds 
tliat  the  maker  of  such  a  poem  must  have  been  divine. 

This  superhuman  being,  Krit  (Bhanitakrt  or  better,  Mahft- 
bliuratakrt)  must  have  had  from  the  beginning  a  well-devel- 
oikJ  ear  fur  fancy-metrufi.  When  he  unites  them  he  writes 
them  very  coi-cfully,  seldom  opposing  the  rules  that  later 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  859 

writers,  say  of  500  A.  d.  and  later,  impose  upon  themselves, 
except  in  Uie  caae  of  the  ardhasamavfttas.  These  at  one 
time  he  writes  correctly  and  another  loosely,  as  if  he  occa- 
sionally failed  to  grasp  the  distinction  between  this  class  of 
nletn^s  and  tliat  of  the  strict  matrachandas ;  which  is  rather 
IK^oiilLir,  when  one  considers  how  correctly  he  writes  at  otlier 
times.  Hut,  passing  tliis  point,  how  are  we  to  account  for 
the  dLstribiition  of  these  metres?  Evidently  there  is  only 
one  way.  Having  started  out  with  the  statement  that  the 
{MH'm  w;is  to  glitter  witii  various  fancy-metres,  the  poet  first 
g;ive  an  exhibition  of  what  he  could  do,  reserving,  however, 
tin*  mow.  complicated  styles  for  the  end  of  the  poem.  Then^ 
settliii«^  down  into  the  stor}%  he  got  so  absorbed  in  it  that  he 
for^^nt  all  about  the  fancy-metres,  till  after  several  thousand 
8t«inz:i8  he  suddenlv  remembered  them  and  turned  off  three 
nirinls  and  six  anlliasamavrttas,  e.  g.,  as  tags,  lauding  ^iva^s 
gift  and  Arjun:i*s  glorious  trip  to  heaven;  but  then,  becoming 
int4Tested  again,  again  drop|)«I  them,  while  he  wrote  to  the 
end  of  the  sixth  b(M>k.  With  the  seventh  book,  feeling  that 
an  interminable  series  of  similar  and  repeated  battle-scenes 
w.is  i^etting  a  little  dull,  he  sprinkled  five  different  kinds  of 
f.mry  m(*tres  4)ver  his  last  pnNluction,  and  in  the  eighth 
eniptit^l  a  In>x  of  them  in  a  heap,  which  lasted  till  the  first 
part  nf  the  |MK*m  was  complete.  On  resuming  his  labors  (we 
art*  rxpH'ssIy  told  that  he  resti'vl  before  taking  up  the  latter 
half  nf  the  jnumu)  he  dtvidiHl  that,  as  all  interest  in  the  stoiy 
it^ilf  was  over,  the  only  w.ty  to  liven  up  a  philosophic  en^ 
e\<lup(Mlia  w«>(iM  1)0  to  adorn  it  with  a  good  many  more 
faiK  v-mt-tres,  and  towanl  the  end  he  brought  out  tlie  irj'Ss, 
uiiirh  itt*  h;ul  had  t-oneoahNl  all  the  time,  but  kept  as  a  final 
attrartinn.  In  this  List  part  also  he  emptied  whole  boxes  of 
nirtii's  tn;r(.t||(.r,  just  as  hc  IiatI  done  so  desperately  in  the 
eiLrlitli  Uiok. 

'V\iU  seems  to  me  an  entirely  satisfactory  explanatioii, 
p mtln;^  th«*  pn^misA.  Hut  in  rase  one  is  dissatisfied  with 
tli«>  (  nativ«*)  assumption  of  a  homogeneous  Homer,  one  might 
eoiLsider  whether  it  were  not  equally  probaUe  that  the  present 


860  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

poem  was  a  gradual  accumulation  and  that  fancy-metres  were 
first  used  as  tags^  to  chapters  in  the  later  part  of  the  work, 
as  an  artistic  improvement  on  the  old-fashioned  tri^tubh  tag 
(to  gloka  sections)  ;  and  so  find  the  reason  why  the  masses 
of  fancy-metres  are  placed  in  the  middle  of  sections  in  a 
later  exaggeration,  a  vicious  inclination  to  adorn  the  whole 
body  with  gewgaws,  whereas  at  an  earlier  date  it  was  deemed 
a  sufficient  beauty  to  tag  them  on  to  the  end  of  a  section* 
The  only  difficulty  in  this  assumption  is  that  it  recognizes 
as  valid  the  delirament  of  believing  in  the  historical  growth 
of  the  epic. 

As  regards  the  arya,  it  makes  no  difference  whether  it  was 
a  Pmkrit  style  known  before  the  epic  was  begun  or  not.  Just 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Kig  Veda,  the  point  is  not  whether  such 
and  such  a  form  existed,  but  only  whether  (and  if  so,  in  how 
far)  the  poets  admitted  the  form  into  hymns;*  so  here,  the 
question  is  simply  as  to  when  Sanskrit  writers  utilized  Prakrt 
melodies.  It  is  somewhat  as  if  one  should  properly  tiy  to 
define  the  decade  in  wliich  a  piece  of  X's  music  was  com- 
posed by  considering  that  it  was  in  rag-time.  One  might 
object  that  rag-time  melodies  have  been  used  for  unnumbered 
decades  by  the  negroes.  The  reply  would  be :  True ;  but  it 
is  only  in  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  that 
rag-time  has  been  utilized  by  composers;  ergo,  X  must  have 
published  his  composition  in  that  decade  or  later. 

When  then  did  the  vulgar  aiya  (i.  e.,  melody  used  as  a 

^  Tlic  expression  tag-metres  answers  exactly  to  the  function  of  the  fancy- 
metres  in  tlie  Hilniayaria,  and  pretty  closely  to  their  function  in  the  BhSrmta, 
I  have  indicated  above  the  few  cases  where  in  the  latter  poem  they  have  been 
inserted  in  other  positions.  Tliere  can  he  no  serious  doubt  that  such  medial 
position  simply  shows  how  late  is  tlie  passa^^c  where  are  found  such  atftniuit 
thus  located.  Tlie  bhujamgaprayata  appears  in  medial  position  in  (^inti;  the 
drutavilanihita,  in  Drona  ;  where  also  the  rucira  (usually  only  tag) ;  the  pra^ 
harMni  (medial),  only  in  Drona  and  ^aiiti ;  the  vasantatilaka,  generally  a  tag, 
medial  only  in  Anuva^ana ;  the  malini,  medial  in  Karna  ;  the  9ardiUaTikridita» 
medial  in  both  these  last. 

^  The  all-sufficient  answer  to  the  unsatisfactory  contention  that,  because 
certain  Vedic  forms  are  pre-Vedic,  therefore  their  employment  by  Vedic  poeta 
cannot  be  used  in  evidence  of  the  age  of  certain  hymns. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION.  861 

f nunc  for  literature)  appear  in  Sanskrit  poetry  ?  The  author 
of  the  Kamayana,  using  freely  the  akfaraechandaa  and  ardhsr 
saiiiavrttiiH  as  tag-poetry,  either  knew  it  not  or  ignored  it. 
The  hiter  poets  of  the  Mahabharata,  doing  the  same,  ignored 
it  also.  Only  the  poets  of  the  latest  tracts,  the  fourteenth 
section  of  Anugasana  and  benedictions  in  Harivanfa,  used  it, 
whether  inventing  or  utilizing  is  a  subsidiary  question*  The 
en)ph>yment  of  tliis  metre,  if  borrowed  from  the  vulgar,  stands 
panillei,  therefore,  to  the  adoption  of  Prakrit  licence  in 
pros(Kly.* 

Further,  the  sometime  intrusion  into  the  middle  of  a  chap- 
ter of  metres  used  originally  only  as  tags,  shows  that  parts  of 
the  Miihablmmta  reflect  a  later  phase  than  that  of  the  Kamft- 
vana,  which  still  confines  them  to  their  earlier  function*  In 
f;ut,  the  MahfihliiLrata  is  here  on  a  level  with  the  poems  of 
insATiptions  where  all  metres  are  flung  together,'  and,  like 
thest*  poems,  its  later  parts  show  a  predilection  for  long  com* 
pounds  and  for  hmg  sentences  extending  over  many  verses. 

The  total  result  of  a  comparison  of  the  various  metres  in 
the  two  epics  shows  in  outline: 

In  the  Maluibharata  In  the  RamiyaQa 

(a)   early  (Vedic)  (h>ka 

c.irly  (Vetlic)  tristiibh 
(h)  ahii<»st  cliissical  vh>ka  (b)  almost  classical  (loka 

I  la.ssiral  tristuhh  classical  tri^t^^^^ 

(<■ )   l.it«*  vh»ka  staiiziis  (pure    (c)  early  use  of  fancy  metres 

iainlis) 

litr  tristuhh  stanzas  (^*a- 

\\\\\  ) 

laif  use  of  fancy  metres 

•> 

A  rr\it'\v  of  the  n*sults  obtained  in  regard  to  the  chief 
nitiiv  of  the  epii*  makes  it  clear  tliat  the  presence  in  the 

1  <»ii:v  &iii.  11  U  rraUr  affiTtnl.  The  henrdlrtiv*  H«ri?aA(«  Tertcs  art 
an  n  I  !.t)<>ti  (••••  Utt-  tn  affcTt  <Utc«.  Kvro  tlie  osti?*  (Bombftjr)  ediUoa  onlli 
tl.«  lit  fr.iiii  t).«-  u-it  |in>|>«'r. 

-  >. .  ..II  tht*  |xiint,  Huhler'a  ettajr,  Du  Alter  dcr  IncUtclmi  K«MtpOMi% 

With  I  xaiiii'Ut  at  (hr  end. 


862  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Mahabharata  of  glokas  of  an  older  and  also  later  type  than  are 
found  in  the  Kamayana  indicates  not  only  that  the  style  of 
the  Mahabharata  is  more  antique  in  one  part  than  in  another, 
but  also  that  this  difference  is  not  due  to  conscious  metrical 
variations  on  the  part  of  one  poet ;  or,  in  other  words,  that 
the  epic  was  not  made  all  at  once.  For  the  general  shape  of 
glokas  might  voluntarily  be  sliifted,  though  even  here  it  is 
not  probable  that  a  poet  who  wrote  in  the  refined  style  com- 
mon to  the  Ramuyana  and  to  parts  of  the  pseudo-epic  Maha- 
bharata would  sliift  back  to  dliaiubic  close  of  the  prior  pada 
or  a  free  use  of  the  fourth  vipula.  But  even  granting  this, 
there  remain  the  subtle  differences  wliich  are  perceptible  only 
with  careful  and  patient  study,  elements  of  style  not  patent 
to  the  rough-and-rciuly  critique  which  scorns  analysis.  The 
poet  who  had  trained  himself  to  eschew  first  vipulas  after 
diiambs  and  renounce  a  sylkba  anceps  would  not  write  first 
in  this  particular  stjle  and  then  in  the  careless  old-fashioned 
manner.  The  very  presence  of  the  more  refined  art  precludes 
the  presumption  that  the  same  poet  in  the  same  poem  on  the 
same  subject  would  have  lapsed  Ixiok  into  barbarism.  For 
the  distinction  is  not  one  that  separates  moral  discourses  from 
the  epic  story.  Except  in  the  case  of  a  few  obvious  imita* 
tions  or  parodies  of  ()vnt\  texts,  topics  of  the  same  sort  are 
treated  with  a  difference  of  style  attributable  only  to  different 
authoi*s  and  in  all  reasonable  probability  to  different  ages. 


CHAPTER   FIVE. 

THE  ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  EPIC. 

Wk  hiive  now  reached  a  point  where  an  intelligent  opinion 
may  Ih*  formed  in  regard  to  tlie  general  make-up  of  tlie  Ma> 
hablifinita.  It  is  based,  as  was  shown  in  the  second  chapter, 
on  a  more  or  less  stereotyiHxl  diction,  and  contains  adventitious 
matter  commcm  to  both  epics.  It  contains  allusions  to  the 
Litest  pre-(  lassical  works,  as  was  shown  in  tlie  first  chapter; 
wiiih*  its  didactic  parts  recapitulate  the  later  Upanishads ;  and 
it  shows  iRM|uaintance  with  a  much  larger  number  of  Vedio 
schools  tlum  were  recognized  even  at  a  late  date.  Its  philo- 
Hopliiral  HiH'tions,  as  wns  shown  in  tlie  third  chapter,  reflect 
v.ii  jinI  sch(M)ls  and  c(mtnuli(*tory  systems,  some  of  which  are 
as  latt*  as  4)ur  em.  Its  metres,  as  have  just  been  explained, 
pn'rlmK*  th«*  pn)UibiIity  of  its  Iiaving  been  written  by  one 
port,  or  evrn  by  M^vend  [>oets  of  the  same  era.  It  api)ears  to 
U*  a  h('t4*rop*ncous  collection  of  strings  wound  about  a 
niirlriis   uhiiost  lost  sight  of.    The  nucleus,  however,  is  m 

Sl«»IV. 

rills  storv  is  in  its  det^iils  so  abhorrent  to  the  writers  of  the 
cplr  (hat  they  make  ever}'  effort  to  wliitewash  the  heroes,  at 
oiii*  tinit*  rxplaining  that  wlrnt  they  did  would  have  been 
wii  k(Nl  if  it  hiiil  not  \h*vi\  done  by  divinely  inspired  heroes;  at 
ant>th(T  frankly  stating  that  the  henies  did  wrong.  It  is  not 
th«*ii  proUihh*  that  luul  the  writers  intended  to  write  a  moral 
tail'  th«*v  w«»ul«l  have  built  on  such  materiaL  Hence  the  tale 
(•\l>ti<l  as  su'-h  lK*fore  it  bec;une  the  nocleilS  of  a  sermon. 
Thrn*  an*  then  two  elements  in  the  epic,  narrative  and 
i\l\  t>  til*. 

lit  itH  |irt's«*nt  di<hM*tic  form  the  epic  is  recited*  At  its  own 
( l<i**t*  wf  li-.trn  that  it  wsoi  not  given  as  a  dramatic  rucitation, 
.still  1'  ss  iLs  a  rha|isudic  production.    A  priestly  reciter,  vScaka, 


864  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

pathaka,  "  speaks "  or  "  reads  "  the  epic  as  "  he  sits  com- 
fortably aiid  recites,  carefully  pronouncing  the  sixty-three 
letters  (sounds)  ^  according  to  their  respective  eight  places  of 
utterance  "  (as  gutturals,  etc.).  He  reads  from  manuscripts, 
samhitapustakas,  which,  after  the  performance  is  over  and  the 
gentleman  has  been  dismissed  ^vith  a  brahmasutra  and  a  hand- 
some fee,  are  wrapped  in  cloth  and  piously  revered.  The 
recitation  takes  four  months,  and  should  be  performed  by 
Brahmans  during  vasso,  the  rainy  season,  xviii,  6,  21  flf.  (i, 
62,  82). 

Such  recited  stories  are  recognized  elsewhere.  A  knight 
leaves  town  to  go  into  the  woods  accompanied  with  "  priests 
who  know  the  Vedas  and  VecLingas,"  and  "  priests  who  recite 
divine  titles,"  divyakliyanani  ye  ca  'pi  patlianti,  but  also,  and 
disthiguished  from  these,  wdth  sutali  pauranikah  and  kathaka]^ 
(besides  liemiits,  gramaniiQ  ca  vanaukasah),  i.  214,  2--8. 
The  storj'-tellers  here  niimed  may  be  represented  again  by 
knights  who  tell  each  other,  as  they  sit  and  talk,  "  the  glorious 
deeds  of  old  and  many  other  tales,"  or,  as  it  is  expressed  else- 
where, "  tales  of  war  and  moil  and  genealogies  of  seers  and 
gods."  2 

But  buried  with  the  storj^-nucleus  are  elements  also  more  or 
less  concealed.  The  first  of  these  is  the  genealogical  verses, 
anuviin;a(,'loka,  or  anuvaiigya  gatha,   wliich  in  the  extract 

1  sariibkrtah  Barva^astrajfiah  . .  asamsaktaksarapadam  svarabhavasamaor* 
itani  trisaHtivarnasarhyuktam  aRtastlianasainlritam  vacaycd  vacakah  svastha^ 
Bvasin.'ih  susamaliitah,  xviii,  6,  21,  and  II.  loc.  cit.  in  PW.  s.  varna.  In  the 
CDuiiioration  of  pnrvans  following,  the  Anu9a8ana  is  omitted,  aa  it  ia  in  one 
of  the  lists  in  A<li,  wherea8  the  otluT  list  makes  it  a  separate  work :  "  After 
this  (i.e.,  after  ^ilnti  as  rajadharmanuvasana,  apaddharma,  and  moksa)  with 
829  or  V.  I.  :};il)  sections  and  14,732  9lokas  [our  text  has  18,043  sUnzas  of  all 
kind:*]  must  be  reckoned  the  Anu9a8ana  with  140  sections  and  8000  9lokat'' 
[our  text  7700] ;  where  atah  urdhvam  shows,  with  the  figures,  that  the  Ana- 
9asana  is  not  included  with  V^"ti  (t)ie  former  is  also  called  inu9i8anikam 
parva),  i,  2,  7<*»-78,  328-:5:n.  On  the  list  i,  1,  88  ff.  which  omits  the  thirteenth, 
seventeenth,  and  I'ighteenth  books,  see  AJP.  xix,  p.  5. 

3  tatra  purvav yatltani  vikrantani  'tarani  ca  bahilni  kathajitva  tau  rcmStey 
1,222,20;  prnvi9ya  tain  sabhaiii  ramyaiii  vijahrate  ca,  Bharata ;  tatra  ynd- 
dhakuthii9  citrah  pariklevaii9  ca,  Piirthiva,  kathayogc  kathayogc  kathayfan 
isatuh  sada,  rhinam  devatanam  ca  Tan9an8  tSv  ahatuh  sadS,  zIt,  15,  6-7. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.      865 

just  referred  to  are  recited ;  as,  again,  in  iii,  88,  5,  ia  found : 
Markundeyo  jaguu  gutham  (anuvanfyam).  Such  memorial 
8tiinzii8  in  honor  of  the  family  either  are  strictly  genealogical^ 
''  Devayfiul  bore  Yadu  and  Turvasu,'*  or  characterize  a  man,  as 
in  i,  95,  46  (the  otlier,  ib.  9),  where  ^Suhtanu^s  name  is  de- 
rived, on  the  strength  of  such  a  stanza,  from  his  having  the 
healing  touch  (the  careless  compilers  a  little  later,  i,  97, 19, 
give  another  derivation).  Such  stanzas  are  sometimes  inserted 
in  |)n)se  narration  ^  in  honor  of  the  family,  though  occasionally 
of  ven*  gcMienil  content.  On  the  other  hand,  really  geuealogi* 
cal  Htanzas  may  be  introduced  without  any  statement  as  to 
their  character,  though  the  poets  usually  quote  them  from 
rhapHtxIeH,  '^  men  who  know  the  tales  of  okl  here  sing  (or 
recite)  this  giitlia,**  upy  atra  gathaih  guyanti  ye  puraQavido 
jiiiifih,  i,  121,  13;  vii,  67,  14. 

Though,  as  was  shown  in  a  previous  chapter,  the  word  for 
niii]^  is  scarcely  more  tlian  recite,  yet  it  reflects  conditions 
where  hanls  actually  sang  songs  in  honor  of  kings.  The 
anri(>nt  a^e  knew,  in  fact,  just  such  a  distinction  as  underlies 
the  (louhlt*  chanu'ter  of  the  epic.  On  tlie  one  hand,  it  had  its 
slowly  n*|>eate<l  circle  of  tales  (sometimes  mistranslated  by 
cyrh'  of  tal(*s),>  and  on  the  other,  impnimptu  bardic  lays,  not 
in  iiiticriti^l  fonn  hut  improvijtations,  where  the  rhapsode,  as 
is  opcrially  pn)vi<le4l  for  in  the  ritual,  on  a  certain  occasion 
was  *'  to  .siller  an  original  song,  the  subject  of  which  should  be» 
Tills  kiiiL^  fought,  tliis  king  conquered  in  such  a  battle.**  The 
soii^r  in  |i,.rt.  iif(*omi)anicd  with  the  lute  or  lyre,  which  in  the 
epic  is  call«^l  8even-Htringc«I,  saptatantrl  v!^  (faiJiowif 
(i'OfjfjLiy^,  si«»  aU»ve,  p,  172).  Such  song  as  ^hero-praising 
\c:-c/*  narfirrii'iM  ^atlui,  are  recognized  in  the  G|iiya  SQtras 

>  r.irniiin>  tht*  illuttratlnnt  hy  Tmifi  and  Weber  and  nollnMnn  himielf, 
■  ufiifm-l  u|*  til  thi'  I  Alt  writcr't  work,  loc.  cit^  p.  S. 

*  Um  tali«<ifji  (rrar't)  cirrlr,  plripUTtm  ikhjriMua,  have  no  cyclic  ele- 
ni«  nt.  Y'^r  htmturt*  on  Uie  earlj  rhapMxIet  and  rrdtera.  eee  ^l,  Br.  illi,  4, 
.{. .:. :» ;  w.  t..  r.  IH  i.  p.  IMS.  Compafv  Pir.  O.  R  I.  16,  17.  The  cradlUonat 
I.^:«ril  irt  th<  i  {.ic  U  ralle<l  (plram)  parylfpitam  ikhjinarii  kalhilam,  iil«  SIO^ 
1 '.'.'•.  I  >  Itii-  vArljr  improvieed  lajt  art  called  tv^yithiamhhftl gSthl^  (lon» 
III ,  V*t   Hr  ). 


366  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

as  traditional  texts,  differentiated  from  "  legends,"  and  were 
probably  genealogical  stanzas  preserved  in  the  family.  Be- 
sides the  single  singer,  there  were  also  bands  of  singers  who 
"  sang  the  (reigning)  king  with  the  old  kings."  * 

In  these  Brahmana  stories,  the  rhapsode-lay  took  place  at 
the  very  time  of  the  priestly  recited  tale,  which  circled  round 
a  year.  There  is  no  difference  of  date  between  them.  The 
rhapsode  and  the  reciter  were  contemporary.  So  in  the  epic, 
although  the  recitation  of  tales  is  noticed,  yet  rhapsodes  are 
constantly  mentioned.  In  xiv,  70,  7,  praise  is  rendered  by 
dancers  and  luck-wishers  and  also  by  rhapsodes,  granthikas, 
"  in  congratulations  that  uttered  the  praise  of  the  Kuru-race," 
Kuruvangastavakhyabhir  agiibhih.  In  parallel  scenes  we  find 
"  story-tellers,"  who  could  praise  only  by  performing  their 
business,  as  in  iv,  70,  20 :  "  Eight  hundred  bejewelled  Sutas 
along  with  magiidhas  (singers)  praised  him,  as  the  seers  did 
^akra  of  old ; "  ib.  72,  29 :  "  Singers,  gayanas,  those  skilled 
in  tales,  akhyana(,*Ilus,  dancers,  and  reciters  of  genealogical 
verses,  na^avaitalikas,^  stood  praising  him,  as  did  Sutas  with 
magadhas."  Again  in  vii,  82,  2-8:  jagur  gitani  ^}raka^ 
Kuruvangastavarthani :  "  Singers  sang  songs  which  lauded  the 
Kuru-race,"  where  the  rhapsode,  granthika,  above,  appears  as 
singer,  gayana.  For  the  history  of  the  poem  it  is  worth 
noticing  that,  though  the  Pandus  are  the  present  heroes,  the 
stereotyped  phrase  is  always  of  "praise  of  the  Kuru  race,'* 
even  where  a  Pandu  is  praised. 

We  have  in  the  epic  the  names  of  what  are  to-day  the 
epic  reciters,  ku(jilava  and  kathaka,  and  the  repeaters  of 
genealogical  verses  (in  distinction  from  the  Sutas),'  called 
viiitiilikas. 

*  Weber,  loc.  cit.,  and  Episches  im  Vedischen  Ritual,  p.  6. 

'  So  in  ii,  4,  7,  natas,  Siitas,  and  raitalikas  wait  on  the  king  along  with 
boxers  and  wrestlers.  Sudi  epic  professionals  are  called  (besides  pinitTmiil- 
kas)  magadhas,  nandivadvas,  bandins,  (i^aj-anas,  8aukh7a9S3ika8,  vSitJUikMy 
kathakas,  f^ranthikas,  gathins,  ku^ilavas  and  pauranikas  (Sutas). 

'  So  xii,  37, 43,  where  a  king  is  praised  by  Siitas,  vaitalikas,  and  (sabhiaita) 
magadhas.  Compare  the  distinction  in  R.  ri,  127,  3,  with  Comm. :  the  Sutaa 
"know  praise  and  PurSnas"  the  vaitalikas  recite  genealogical  Tenet.  Both 
epics  hare  the  group  (phrase)  siitamagadhabandinah. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.       867 

» 

When  the  lyre  is  mentioned,  it  is  to  wake  up  sleejxjre  by 
means  of  "sweet  songs  and  tlie  sound  of  the  lyre,"  gita, 
vinayabda,  i,  218,  14.  Only  Narada,  a  superhuman  arehetypi- 
cal  banl,  eomes  skilled  in  danee  and  song  with  his  melodious 
uiind-sootliing  tortoise-lyre,  ix,  54,  19.^ 

Tliere  is  then  in  the  epic,  though  a  musical  accompaniment 
is  unknown,  a  distinct  recollection  of  the  practice  of  reciting 
hiys,  gitani,  the  sole  object  of  which  was  to  "praise  the  Kuru 
race/'  as  op|X)sed  to  reiulingor  reciting  conversationally  stories 
of  ancient  times.  To  neither  of  these  elements  can  a  judicious 
historian  as<Tilx?  priority.  The  story  and  the  lay  are  equally 
old.  Their  union  \*-a8  rendere<l  possible  as  soon  as  the  lay, 
foniierly  sung,  was  dissociated  from  music  and  reiHjated  as  a 
heroic  tale  of  antiquity.  This  union  was  the  foundation  of 
the  i>n*sent  epic. 

Traces  of  the  epic  quality  of  the  early  poem  cannot  be 
disriMTiinltMl.  The  central  tale  and  many  another  tale  woven 
into  the  present  narrative  are  thorouglily  heroic.  To  this 
djiy,  warj>e<l  and  twisted  from  its  original  purpose,  it  is  the 
story,  not  the  st»mion,  that  holds  enthralled  the  throng  that 
listens  to  the  recitation  of  the  great  epic.  Be  it  either  epic, 
its  t;ile  is  still  popuLir  in  India.  But  the  people  cannot 
undt^rstand  it  Hence  the  poem  is  read  by  a  priest,  while 
a  translator  and  interpreter,  of  no  mean  histrionic  talent, 
takrs  up  his  wonls  and  renders  them  in  foreible  patois,  ac- 
companying the  dmmatic  recital  by  still  more  dramatic  ges- 
tures aixl  contortions.  Such  a  recitation,  without  the  inter- 
nitiliate  inteq)reter  (the  modem  dliaraka)  was  undoubtedly 
the  iH*rfonnanee  given  (not  by  the  Liter  pafhaka,  but)  by  the 
earliiT  epic  guthin,  gayaka,  and  granthika,  just  as  tliey  are 
dt*pi(t<'<l  al)out  the  stn^ond  century  B.  c.  on  the  Sftnchi  Tope.' 

*  The  pininranikAS  mentioned  abore  maj  be  {Mintoniiniittt  or  timpU 
"  h.in'l-cUpi>on/*  The  Utt«r  is  the  meaning  in  the  coiniate  pinlTidaka  at 
K.  ii,  fV.*},  4  (romparo  Rrahmajila  SutU,  Rhjs  Darids'  note,  p.  8).  In  the  paa- 
0.1  cr  nbore,  iz,  />4,  10,  the  prakarti  kalahiniih  ca  nitjam  ca  kalabaprijah  is 
r«pn««-nti'ii  at  kacchapim  sakha^bdintlm  grbjra  Tiflm,  a  late  paitage, 
•ppannlly, 

3  Ia  vi,  Lc  theltre  indieo,  p.  300. 


868  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

But  though  it  is  a  gross  exaggeration  of  the  facts,  as  well  as 
a  miittippi'ehension  of  poetic  values,  to  make  the  epic  a  poem 
that  was  from  the  start  a  moral  and  religious  naiiative,  yet, 
inasmuch  as  in  the  hands  of  tlie  priest  the  latter  element 
was  made  predominant,  there  is  no  objection  to  the  statement 
that  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  epic  as  a  whole  the  Maha- 
bharata  is  to-day  less  tale  than  teaching.  That  this  double 
character  was  recognized  by  those  who  contributed  the  in- 
troduction to  the  poem  itself  is  indisputable  (above,  p.  58), 
The  "  tales  "  are  counted  as  separate.  The  original  Bharata 
was  only  a  quarter  of  its  present  size.  Then,  as  later,  the 
different  elements  were  still  distinguished,  and  the  poem  was 
not  regarded  as  wholly  a  Smrti  or  instruction-book,  but  as  an 
artistic  poem,  Kavya,  per  se.  So  the  pseudo-epic  vaunts  its 
own  literarj'  finish :  fabde  ca  'rthe  ca  hetau  ca  e§a  prathama- 
sargaja  (sarasvati),  xii,  886,  86. 

The  particular  school  of  priests  in  whose  hands  the  epic 
was  transfonned  was  probably  that  of  the  Yajurvedins.  The 
Yajur  Veda  is  "  the  birth-place  of  the  warrior  caste,"  accord- 
ing to  a  well-kno\vn  verse,  and  it  has  been  shown  by  Weber 
that  the  ^^tapatlia,  a  Yajur  Veda  text,  stands  in  peculiarly 
close  relation  to  the  didactic  epic*  As  has  been  shown 
in  the  first  chapter,  the  ^^itapatha  is  the  only  Brahmana 
praised,  perhaps  even  mentioned,  in  the  epic ;  while  the 
Yajur  Veda  ^atarudiiya  is  exalted  above  all  texts  (except 
perhaps  where  Indra  sings  this,  Vishnu  sings  the  jye^t^ 
saman,  and  Brahmd,  the  rathamtara,  xiii,  14,  282,  but  even 
here  the  (^atanidriya  is  not  slighted).  In  dividing  the  Iti- 
hasa  from  the  Purana,  moreover,  the  epic  groups  the  former 
with  the  Yajur  Veda,  as  agdinst  the  Puiana  with  the  other 
Vedas,  viii,  34,  45.  Here  the  Itiliiisa  represents  the  epic,  as 
it  does  in  the  similar  antithesis  of  xii,  802,  109:  yac  cfi  'pi 
dr^taih  vividham   pui-iine  yac  ce  'tiliase?u  mahatsu  di^tam, 

*  ValmTki  too  bclonprcjl  to  this  nehool.  Compare  Weber,  IS.,  xiii,  p.  440, 
and  M  citiMl  by  Holtznmnn,  loc.  oit ,  p.  18;  Muir,  OST.,  i,  p.  17,  citing  TB. 
ill,  12,  9,  2,  wh*Tc  the  Vaiyyaa  are  derived  from  the  Kig  Veda,  the  Kfatliju 
from  the  Yujur  Veda,  and  the  Brahmana  from  the  Sama  Veda. 


ORIGIN  AXD  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TUB  EPIC.       369 

where,  as  alreiuly  observed,  tlio  Great  Itihusas  point  to  sev- 
end  fj)k*  poems.  I-Kistly,  the  Upauishads  especially  copieil  in 
the  epic  are  those  belonging  to  the  Yajur  Veda. 

Hut  while  this  is  true  of  the  completed  epic,  there  is  noth- 
ing to  show  that  the  Hluirati  Katha  was  the  especial  proi>erty 
of  any  sihool,  and  no  preference  is  given  to  the  Yajur  Veda 
in  the  later  epic,  for  in  the  (ilta  the  Siima  Veda  stands  as  the 
Ih'st,  ''  I  am  the  Sfima  Veda  among  Ve<las,**  10,  22,  and  this 
is  cittMl  with  approval  and  enlarged  up(»n  in  xiii,  14,  823: 
*»  rinm  art  the  Sfima  Veda  among  Vedas,  the  yatarudria 
aiimn:^  Vajus  hymns,  the  Eternal  Youth  among  Yogas,  Kapila 
aninn;^  Saiiikhyiis." 

In  the  epic  itself  the  Sutiis  called  [niuranikaA  arc  recognized 
as  ihf  re-writers  and  reciters  of  the  epic.  They  pnibably  t<M>k 
tlie  epic  Ie(^(M)ds  and  arnuigiMl  them  in  onler  for  the  p(»pular 
re.  itatitui,  whieh  is  also  recognized  when  "priests  recite  the 
.M.ihrihhrnata  at  tht»  asseml)lies  of  warriors,"  v,  141,  56,  a 
p.i-s.i.^M*  pMcntly  cited  by  ProfcsMir  Jiu'obi,  as  evidence  of  a 
diiifh  IK  e  U'tween  the  manner  of  luuiding  down  tlie  heroic 
l.ilr-.  and  the  iv«itals  of  U»gen<ls.^ 

1  lir  iiicihnd  of  narrating  the  epic  stories  is  that  of  the  old 
pri.  -.lly  li'L^end,  where  the  vei-si»-tale  is  knit  together,  as  in  the 
t  pK  .  I.y  pinse  statemeiits  as  to  the  s|)eaker.  So  in  the  epic, 
a  niiiiUM*.  not  a  rhapxMlie  or  dramatic,  deliver}'  is  indicate<l 
b\  >ii<  h  phra>es.  In  the  Kamfiyan:!,  on  tlie  other  hand,  the 
\»:-f  In  knit  mi»re  <li»sely  together,  and  the  s{M*akers  are 
iiii.  itt'l  ahuMst  always  in  the  versi*.  The  one  exception  is  a 
l.it»-  .uitlitiMii  ((;.  ii,  ll<l,  4-0). 

I  li  ■  Mahaliljarata  is  not  only  a  Veda,  it  is  so  important  a 
\'.'!i  ?l..i!  tt»  read  it  is  to  dis|H'ns4>  with  the  need  of  nnuling 
•  !};•  1  \  i«l.is.2  III  tln»  dynamic  alteration  constspient  <m  the 
a*:  i.ii-ii:^'  ..f  .su<h  an  ideal,  we  may  exiH»et  to  thid  that  the  tale, 
a--   I  ■..il'-,  i-»  full  of  the  gr«>ssesl  im-ongmities;  for  to  fulfil  its 

•  •;  ••  M.-...  ii,.  (n-lihrtf  Ani«-lp»,  IMV,  p.  877  ff.  I  inWy  9L!grt^  with  the 
n  .•*    --%.»:•!  r«  ;;.irt|  to  thi*  "  Turanic  "  Sutaa  U-injc  the  c«>inpUcn  of  tlie 

'!■■ 

•<  \.-.'\aU*x  ra  Trillolni  pinfo  lihirmtam  pAfhAo,  l»  <K3,  32. 


870  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

encyclopedic  character  all  is  fish  that  comes  to  the  net,  and 
scarcely  an  attempt  is  made  to  smooth  away  any  save  the 
most  glaring  inconsistencies.  Tale  is  added  to  tale,  doctrine 
to  doctrine,  without  much  regard  to  the  effect  produced  by 
tlie  juxUiposition.  If  wo  take  these  facts  as  they  stand, 
which  is  the  more  probable  interpretation,  that  they  were 
originall}"  composed  in  this  incongruous  combination  or  that 
they  are  the  result  of  such  a  genesis  as  has  just  been  ex- 
plained ?  As  for  the  facts,  I  will  illustrate  them,  though  to 
any  Bliaratavid  they  aie  already  patent. 

In  i,  214,  Arjuna  protests  that  he  is  a  brahmacarin  for 
twelve  years,  in  accordance  with  the  agreement  (chapter  212) 
that  he  has  made  with  his  brother,  which  is  to  the  effect  that 
he  will  be  "  a  brahmacarin  in  the  woods  for  twelve  years.** 
This  can  have  only  one  meaning.  A  brahmacarin  is  not  a 
man  wandering  about  on  love-adventures,  but  a  chaste  stu- 
dent. Above  all,  chastity  is  implied.  Now  the  first  thing 
the  hero  Arjuna  does  is  to  violate  his  agreement  by  having  a 
connection  with  Ulupi,  a  beautiful  water-witch,  who  easily 
persuades  him  to  break  his  vow;  after  which  he  resides  in 
a  city,  taking  to  liimself  a  wife  with  whom  he  Uves  for  three 
years.  After  this  he  has  a  new  adventure  with  some  en- 
chanted nymphs  and  then  stays  with  Krishna ;  when,  in  a  new 
vikiiinta  or  dcrringdo  (tlie  hero's  rape  of  Subhadra,  chapter 
2:i0),  all  the  talk  of  brahmacarin  wandering  in  the  woods  stops 
inconsecjuently.  When  he  marries  (in  town)  not  a  word  is 
said  of  his  vow;  but  wlien  he  approaches  Krishna  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Suhha<lni  the  poet  makes  the  former  say  "how  can  a 
wood-wanderer  fall  in  love  ? ''  This  is  the  only  allusion,  and 
one  entii-ely  ignore<l,  to  the  matter  of  the  vow ;  which  in  the 
earlier  Manipur  scene  is  absolutely  unnoticed.  Each  of  these 
feats  is  a  separate  heroic  tale  and  they  are  all  contradictory  to 
the  setting  in  which  they  have  Ix^en  placed  by  the  diadochcn 
and  later  epic  manipulators.  As  heroic  tales  they  are  per- 
fectly intelligible.  Certain  feats  in  separate  stories  were 
attril)ut(Ml  to  the  hero.  They  had  to  be  combined  and  they 
were  combined  by  letting  him  go  off  by  himself  under  a  vow 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.      871 

of  wandering  in  the  woods.  The  wood-wanderer  was  usually 
a  chaste  ascetic,  so  he  was  given  this  character,  but  this  rSle 
is  kept  for  only  one  of  the  noble  deeds.  For  after  he  has 
l>n>t4'8ted  once  at  the  outset,  all  pretence  of  his  being  a  brah- 
niiuririn  vanishes  and  the  next  we  know  he  is  comfortably 
mated  and  living  in  town,  while  still  supposed  by  the  poets 
to  Ui  a  brahniacarin  in  the  wcmxIs.  Tlie  indc()endent  origin 
■  of  these  stories  is  seen  at  tlie  beginning  in  the  formula  **  Hear 
,  now  a  wonder-tale  of  him/'  tatra  t;isya  *dbhutam  karma  ^{t^u 
tvani,  214,  7.  Such  formulae  of  special  tales  are  found  fre- 
({uently,  idaih  yali  ffnuyad  vrttam  is  another,  used  for  the 
I'rvai;!  episoile,  iii,  4G,  62.  AnoUier  is  like  our  **once  upon 
a  time,*'  pura  krtayuge  liijiin,  e.g.,  iz,  40,  3. 

The  fiul  that  Arjuna  is  here  banished  for  twelve  years  is 
not  without  signifieauiee.  Tlie  epic  lias  been  completed  on 
rather  formal  lines.  Agni  is  satiatoil  for  twelve  years  at 
Khandaviu  Arjuna*s  iHinisliment  is  for  tlie  same  length  of 
tiintr  as  that  af  the  brothers  as  a  family.  So  the  epic  is 
dividiMl  into  ei^^htoen  books,  as  there  are  eighteen  Purar^as  (p. 
4*.) ) :  ami  th(*re  are  eight4*en  armies  battling  for  just  eightet*n 
days,  and  ei^htot*n  bnuirh(*s  of  younger  Yadavas;^  while 
tiiLiIly  then*  aiv  eighteen  islands  of  eartli«  The  number  of 
i>I.inils  dt*>eiTes  [nirti(*ular  notice,  as  it  is  one  of  the  innumer- 
a1>h^  small  intlieations  that  the  [Kiem  has  been  retouched. 
Ilaitli  has  four.  M*ven,  or  at  miwt  thirteen  islancb  in  all  liten^ 
tun*  iif  n's|H'rtahle  aiititiuity.  Seven  is  the  usual  number  in 
th**  r\^[r  as  it  is  in  the  older  Purilnas,  but  in  the  hymn  to  the 
Mill  at  iii,  n,  r>2,  ** earth  with  its  thirteen  islands**  is  men- 
tini;r.).'-  Tlie  mt^ntiou  of  «M^htocn  is  found,  of  course,  in  one 
of  the  hiioks  wlirn;  one  who  distinguished  between  the  early 
and  hit«-  tlrments  would  be  apt  t4>  look  for  it,  in  the  much 
iittl.it«^l  and  rewrittiii  M-venth  b(x>k,  where  (above,  p.  221)), 
with  iMisti'niarv  iiii-«>iisistenrv,  it  stands  beside  another  refer* 
<ih  «•  t«>  thf  usual  M'Vcn  islands,  sar\'an  aftiida^  dvipKn,  viit 
T<^   !'•:  sapt.i  dvI[Kin,  21. 

1  i ..  1 1.  4i>.  .V> ;  aUo  is.nno  brotheri  mad  coaslat,  tf. 

*  Tlu-  tAniv  puuge  call*  tb*  mm,  ^L  61^  vlvaivfa  aalMl  plfl  alln^ 


872  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Another  tale  which  bears  evidence  of  having  been  rewrittoi 
and  still  shows  its  inconsistencies  is  found  in  iii,  12,  91  ff. 
Here  Bhiina  and  Iiis  brothers  and  mother  are  surrounded  by 
fire,  and  he  rescues  them  by  taking  them  on  his  back  and 
leaping  clear  over  the  fire.  No  suggestion  is  given  of  any 
otlier  means  of  escape.  On  the  contrary  it  is  emphasized  that 
he  can  fly  like  the  wmd  or  Garuda,  and  the  escape  is  due 
entirely  to  his  divme  power  and  strength.  But  in  i,  2, 104 ; 
61,  22;  and  148,  12,  20fif.,  the  same  story  is  told  with  an 
added  element  which  quite  does  away  with  the  old  solution. 
Here  (in  the  later  first  book)  the  party  escape  through  an 
underground  tunnel,  suranga  (9I.  12)  or  surun^  and  after 
tliey  are  well  off  in  the  woods  far  from  the  fire,  Bhima  is 
matle  to  pick  them  up  and  carry  them.  The  old  feat  was  too 
attractive  to  lose,  so  it  was  kept  postponed,  but  the  later  ver- 
sion \vith  the  Greek  word  to  mark  \\a  lateness  takes  the  place 
of  the  older  jump.  No  one  can  read  the  account  in  Vana  and 
fail  to  see  that  it  is  not  a  mere  hasty  rdsumd  omitting  the 
suruiiga,  but  that  the  original  escape  is  a  feat  of  the  wind-god's 
son.  But  the  fii*st  part  of  this  same  section  in  Vana  contains 
a  laudation  to  K^shna-^''ishnu  which  is  as  palpable  a  late 
addition  as  one  could  find  in  any  work. 

The  surun;^ri,  "  syrinx,"  is  not  the  only  Greek  word  added 
ill  the  later  epic.  As  such  must  certainly  be  reckoned  trikona 
=  Tpiycovo(;.  There  are  in  fact  two  kona.  One  is  Sanskrit  or 
dialectic  for  kviina,  the  "  sounder,"  or  drumstick  of  the  Rama- 
yfina,  vi,  32,  43 ;  42,  34,  and  elsewhere  (not  in  the  Mahabhi- 
rata).  The  other  is  found  in  the  pseudo-epic  xiv,  88,  82: 
catu^cit yah  .  .  .  astada^akaratmakah  sarukmapak^o  nieitas  tri- 
kofjo  garu(,lakrtih,  of  an  altiir  (the  corresponding  passage  in  R. 
i,  14,  29,  lias  trigunali),  where  the  word  must  mean  angle  and 
be  tlie  equivalent  of  Tpiywvo<;. 

The  question  of  the  character  of  the  epic  is  so  intertwined 
witli  its  date  that  I  \nll  not  apologize  for  pausing  here  a  mo- 
ment to  speak  of  another  geograpliical  and  ethnographical 
feature.  Tlie  apologia  publish(Ml  under  the  title  Genesis  des 
Maliabliarata  omits  to  reply  to  the  rather  startling  conclusion 


ORIGIN  AXD  DEVELOPMENT  OP  THE  EPIC.      878 

dra\i'n  by  Weber  in  a  recent  monograph  on  the  name  Bahllkat 
or  Hulhlka,  as  it  appears  in  tlie  epic.  In  the  Sitsungsbericht 
of  tlic  Berlin  Academy,  1892,  pp.  987  ff.,  Weber  claims  that 
any  work  containing  this  name  or  that  of  Pahlava  must  be  as 
late  08  the  first  to  tlie  fourtli  century  A.  D.  I  camiot  but  tliink 
that  the  escape  fn^m  this  conclusion,  in  part  suggested  by 
WeUir  himself,  is  correct.  In  the  rewriting  of  foreign  names  it 
is  p(;rfc<*tly  [H>s8iblo  that  hiter  copyists  should  have  incorpo- 
rated a  fonn  current  in  tlieir  own  day  mtlier  than  conserved  a 
fonii  no  longer  current,  which  it  was  easy  to  do  when  not  fop* 
bidden  by  tlie  metre.  Again,  that  tliere  was  actiuil  confusion 
lM*t  wiH^n  the  fonns  Vrdilka  and  Balhika,  Uie  former  beinga  Pufi- 
jab  clan,  the  latter  tlie  Kaotrians,  it  is  not  difficult  to  show. 
Acconling  to  tnulititm,  a  drink  especbUy  beloved  by  the  Ballii- 
k;L^  is  sauvlni,  or  suuviraka.  Tliis  can  scarcely  be  anything 
cls4^  tlian  the  drink  suvlraka,  said  to  be  lauded  in  the  epb  by 
dci^adtMl  foreigners.  But  here  the  foreigners  are  notBahllkas 
hut  Vahlkas,  whose  Madriki  (woman)  sings,  viii,  40,  89-40, 
*'  I  will  give  up  my  family  ratlior  than  my  beloved  suvlraka»** 

ma  ni&iii  suvlrakam  ka^^id  yflcatAm  dayitam  mama 
putraiii  dady&m  patim  dad^'ftm  na  tu  dadyftm  sovl- 
rakani 

It  is  [Kissihle  that  the  epic  arose  further  to  the  north-west, 
and  in  its  south-oastcm  journey,  for  it  ends  in  being  revised  in 
the  south-4Nist,i  h;is  transferred  the  attributes  of  one  people  to 
anrith<*r,  as  it  has  transferred  geographical  statements,  and 
ni:id"  M'ven  Sanis\-:aTs  out  of  the  Seven  Rivers  of  antiquity, 
ix,  8x,  3.  As  an  indication  of  the  earlier  habitat  may  be  men- 
tioiKHl  the  ^Try  puzzling  ivmark  made  in  iii,  84,11.  Here 
tluTt*  is  an  apparent  allusion  to  the  agreement  in  ii,  76,  wluch 
aun'i*<'Tni'nt  U  t!iat  on  Inmu^  aH*ogiiized  before  the  expiration  of 
the  tliirt4M*nth  year,  either  ivirty  shall  give  up  his  kingdom 
( svantjvam,  ^1.  14);  and  it  is  assumed  throughout  that  the 
t\Nn  kininliims  an'  those  of  Ilastiiiiipur  on  the  Ganges  and 

1  S«o  nil  thi»  point  the  eTidenrv  pmeatfd  in  my  pnptr on  tbt  Mtlwta 
the  (irrtt  BbirAtA,  Am.  Jown.  VfdL  vol  sis.  |k  Sl  & 


374  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Inclraprastha  on  the  Jumna.  But  in  the  passage  of  Vana  just 
refciTed  to  there  is  an  (old)  tri^^ubh  rdsumd  of  the  situation, 
which  makes  the  Kuru  say : 

bravlmi  satyam  Kurusamsadl  'ha 
tav3i  Va  td,  Bh&rata,  pafica  nadyah 

Here  we  get  an  account  where  the  Pandus  are  lost  in  the  older 
Bhiiratas,  and  to  them  the  Kuru  king  says,  "  If  we  break  this 
agreement,  yours  shall  be  all  this  Puiijab."  But  what  has  the 
Punjab  to  do  with  the  epic  in  its  present  form  ?  It  is  a  land 
of  Vfihikas  and  generally  despised  peoples  (who  morally  axe 
not  much  better  than  barbarians),  and  also  a  holy  land  (an- 
other little  inconsistency  disregarded  in  the  synthetic  method) ; 
but,  whatever  it  is  morally,  it  has  nothing  to  do  politically  with 
the  present  epic  heroes,  except  to  provide  tliem  with  some  of 
their  best  allies,  a  fact,  however,  that  in  itself  may  be  signifi- 
cant of  eiirlier  Western  relations.^ 

To  return  to  the  evidence  of  remaking  in  the  epic.  Passing 
over  the  p.assage  ix,  33  to  65,  a  long  interpolation  thrust  mid- 
way into  a  dramatic  scene,  we  find  that  chapter  61  begins  with 
the  repetition  of  the  precedent  beginning  of  chapter  59,  which 
latter,  after  15  9lokas,  together  with  chapter  60,  is  taken  up 
with  a  moral  discourse  of  Yudhistliira,  who  reproaches  Bhima 
for  insulting  the  fallen  foe.  Then  Kama  joins  in  and  is  about 
to  slay  Bhiina,  when  Krishna  defends  the  latter,  saying  that  his 
ignoble  insult  wiis  entirely  proper.  Tliis  argiunent  of  Krishna 
is  characterized  by  Safljaya  as  dharmacchalam,  or,  in  other 
words,  Krishna  is  said  to  l)e  a  pious  hypocrite  (60,  26) ;  Rama 
departs  in  disgust,  and  the  virtuous  heroes  "became  veiy 
joylt'ss  "  (31).  Tlien  Krishna,  who  lias  all  along  been  approv- 
ing the  act,  turns  to  Yudhistliira  who  reproved  it,  and  says, 

^  Jiicohi  touches  on  the  sifrnificancc  of  these  Western  allies  in  the  reriew 
mentioiK'd  above.  The  "  land  of  the  Bharntas  *'  extends  nortliwest  of  the 
Punjab  even  to  tlie  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  for  in  coming  from  Ilemakuta  to 
Mitliila  one  traveriK^s  first  the  Haimavata  VarBa,  then  "passing  beyond  this 
arrives  at  the  Bliiirata  Varsa,  and  (so)  reaches  Aryavarta"  (seeing  on  the 
journey  "  difFerent  districts  inhabited  by  Chinese  and  Iluns/'  cinahanaiiife- 
vitau),  xii,  o:20,  14-15.    But  this  is  the  Varsa  or  country  in  generaL 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OP  THE  EPIC.      875 

• 

**  Why  do  you  approve  of  this  sin  ?  **  Tudhif^tura  answers, 
*'  I  am  not  pleased  with  it,  but  (because  we  were  so  badly 
tri'iitud  by  Uiis  man  therefore)  I  overlook  it.  Let  Pandu*s 
son  take  liin  pleasure  whether  he  does  right  or  wrong'*  (38). 
And  when  Yudhis^liira  had  said  t(iis,  Krishna  answered  ^*as 
you  will,*'  and  Yudlii^tliira  then  ^^  expressed  gratification  at 
what  IMiIma  luul  dcme  in  the  fight"  In  the  next  chapter, 
Kiishna  is  openly  charged  with  violating  all  rules  of  honor 
and  m»l>lc  conduct  (61,  88) ;  to  which  tlie  god  at  first  replies 
by  specious  reasoning  (tit  for  tat),  and  then,  tlirowing  off  all 
dis^niise,  says:  *^This  man  could  not  be  killed  by  righteous 
means,  nor  could  your  other  enemies  have  been  slain,  if  I  had 
not  acted  thus  sinfully,**  yaJt  nai  ^vamvUham  jatu  kurydm 
jihmam  aharh  rane  (04). 

Ih*rc  there  is  scimethuig  more  than  dramatic  incongruities 
!<»  ntitit  c.  For  is  it  conceivable  that  any  priests,  setting  out  to 
write  a  moral  t^de  which  should  inculcate  virtue,  would  first 
niakt*  <inc  of  the  heroes  do  an  ignoble  tiling,  and  then  have 
Ixith  their  great  ginl  (uid  their  cliief  human  exponent  of  mo* 
nility  <'o!nl)ine  in  ai)plauding  what  was  openly  acknowledged 
even  by  the  i^xls  t^>  l)e  dishonorable  conduct?  Even  if  the  act 
w;i>  (Iriniatieally  (lermitted  for  the  purpose  of  setting  its  con- 
demnation in  a  stnmger  light  aiKl  thus  purging  in  the  emU 
ran  \yr  imagine  timt  the  only  vimlirator  of  virtue  should  be 
Kama,  and  that  Krishna  ami  Yudhi9thira  of  all  others  should 
cnt  so  rnnteniptible  a  figure?  On  the  other  hand,  is  not  the 
wholt*  set*ne  explicable  without  any  far-fetched  hypothesis,  if 
wi*  a'^sume  tluit  we  liave  here  tlie  mingling  of  older  incident, 
in<>«|uraM«»  fnmi  tlio  hentio  narrative,  and  the  later  teaching 
ailminlHtcre*!  by  a  moml  deiis  ex  macliinft?  As  the  scene 
ht.iii'ls  it  is  ^>te«t4pie.  Krishna*s  sudden  attack  on  Yudliif^ 
hifi  Ih  mtirely  unealKil-for;  and  the  latter,  who  has  first  dd- 
noun« . .{  the  det*il«  then  joins  with  the  former  in  approving  the 
vtry  tiling  of  which  Krishna  himself  half  way  through  the 
NtMn*  «l!f*a|»pnives. 

I»i.t  to  th'Ht*  who  think  that  the  epic  was  built  on  a  moral 
<lt«li<  lir  pLui  this  is  only  one  of  many  cases  whers  a  itiafactoiy 


876  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

explanation  in  accordance  with  the  theory  will  prove  difficult. 
They  must  explain  why  polyandry,  in  which  the  heroes  in- 
dulge, while  it  is  condemned,  is  permitted.^  Ludwig  explains 
this  "  sharing  of  the  jewel "  (i,  195,  25)  as  a  **  MythLsches 
Element ; "  others  hark  back  to  the  old-fasliioned  allegorical 
treatment.  But  why  is  allegory  with  a  bad  moral  seriously 
defended  if  the  heroes  are  merely  to  be  represented  as  models  ? 
On  tlie  other  hand,  it  is  known  that  polyandry  was  no  un- 
common thing  on  the  borders  of  Bmhmanic  civilization,  and 
Biihler  recognized  the  custom  within  its  pale;  while  the 
Pandus  have  no  Brahmanic  standing,  and  are  evidently  a  new 
people  from  without  the  pale.^  As  a  simple  historic  element 
it  is  perfectly  natural,  explained  otherwise  it  remains  an  in- 
explicable mystery.  So  too  with  all  the  violations  of  the 
etliical  code  wliich  are  eniunerated  in  the  chapter  referred  to 
above.  As  characters  in  an  historical  epic,  the  heroes'  acts  are 
easily  understood ;  as  priestly  models,  dummies  for  sermons, 
their  doings  are  beyond  explanation. 

Apart  from  the  ignoble  conduct  of  heroes,  there  are  other 
items.  Getting  drunk  at  a  picnic,  for  instance,  is  not  proper 
conduct  for  an  exemplary  Hindu  lady.  But  in  the  later  epic 
the  most  virtuous  latlies  get  so  drunk  that  they  cannot  walk 
straight,  madaskhalitagaminyah,  i,  222,  21,  madotkate,  28. 
Such  shocking  beliavior  belongs  to  the  revelry  of  the  Harivan(a 
and  the  probably  contemporaneous  tale  here  jovially  recorded. 
It  is  not  a  moral  epis(xle  of  the  fifth  century  B.  c.  Elsewhere 
ladies  are  supposed  to  be  "  unseen  by  the  sun  and  wind,"  not 
only  before  they  are  maiTied,  but  afterwards.^    Drinking  sura 


1  i,  158.  30 ;  105,  27,  28. 

s  This  follows  from  the  sharp  contrast  presented  by  the  Kuros  and  Pandas 
in  Brahmanic  literature.  While  the  Kurus  are  a  famous  folk  in  ancient 
reconls,  the  Pandus  are  there  utterly  unknown. 

*  ii,  TiO,  4  ff. ;  iii,  02,  21.  The  formal  phrase  here  is  noticeable.  DrIupadI 
says :  yaih  na  vayur  na  ca  'dityo  drstaTantau  pura  grhe,  sa  'ham  adya  talkm- 
mntlhi/r  drvyami  janasam^adi  (she  was  one  of  the  ladies  who  got  drunk  at 
the  outdoor  picnic).  So  Damayanti,  of  whom  Nala  says:  yam  na  riyur  na 
ca  Mityah  pura  payyati  me  priyam,  se  *ifam  adya  sahhamadhyt  ^te  bhaTSr 
anSthavat. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THg  EPIC.      877 

is  especially  forbidden  by  the  codes,  but  it  is  drunk  without 
compunction  by  tlie  heroes.^ 

The  subject  of  meatneating  is  not  a  trivial  one  to  the  Hindu. 
I  need  not  cite  the  numerous  passages  describing  the  slaugh- 
ter and  eating  of  animals  by  the  epic  heroes,  more  especially  as 
I  iuive  elsewhere  illustrated  tlie  fact  veiy  fully .^  What  I  wish 
to  point  out  particularly  at  the  present  time  is  the  impossi- 
bility of  supi)osing  that  the  same  plan  of  moral  teaching  is 
( anit'd  out  not  only  in  the  tales  of  meatrcating,  but  in  the 
ortlKnlox  teai*hing  tliat  meat  may  be  eaten  at  a  sacrifice,  and 
in  tlie  strict  vegetarian  diet  even  at  sacrifices,  which  is  in- 
sist<nl  iiiMMi  in  the  ahinsa  doctrine  of  the  later  epic'  Here, 
not  only  is  the  substitution  of  a  deer  for  a  horse  a  new 
feature  in  the  Agvamedha  sacrifice,  xii,  848,  62;  but  a  king 
is  held  up  as  a  model  because  there  was  no  killing  of  animals 
ut  an  iu;vaniedluu  For  this  model  king  was  ahinsra^  fucir 
aksudrah,  that  is  *Mie  did  no  Iiarm  to  any  living  thing,  he  was 
pure  and  not  cruel**  (akfudra  =  akr&ra),  xii,  887,  10.  The 
parts  of  the  mu^rifice  were  all  wood-growth,  for  there  is  a 
vaiiliki  (rutih  which  says  bljiLir  yajfief u  yoftavyam ;  ajasam- 

1  I'lu*  c<xIot  are  etrlj  SQtnu  at  weU  m  Ql'tnu*  ••  St  Oiat.  zxi,  1-7.  In  It, 
7*J.  2"^.  At  a  Wi-iMinff,  ■oriroiirFjapinAni  and  meat  of  aU  kinds*  nifgaa  and 
niiMilivuh  pa^arah.  Karna's  aauraTraUm  (■nrlraliitaai,  V.)  Indlcatea  Ua 
haiituiil  uno  of  turS,  hi.  2o7, 17.  BoUi  RrUhna  and  Aijnna  are  drank  whao 
tlii-y  rii'riT«»  an  anil>a»Mi(lor,  r,  &P,  &. 

*  Killing  Tatti*.  p.  110.  Further  lUottratlont  alto  are  here  ftTen  of  tho 
otitiT  virrfl  nirntiomil.  My  potUion  in  rrfard  to  three  polnte  I  find  it  necve- 
•  tM  !o  n*»tatv,  owini;  to  the  miarvprraentatlon  of  then  in  the  eo-callcd 
(fi  :w.«  ilti  Mahabhirata.  The  author  simplj  parodlee  when,  on  p.  66^  he 
»iy«.  "  t!ir«4>  patt»»:<'i  cannot  hclnng  to  a  time"  (etc.).  In  the  pfveentatlon 
t^<i«  4  irii  jiturv'l  I  x'paratiNl  no  parts  of  the  epic;  bnt  simplj  pointed  onl 
t!i  it  \\\v  iitatomcnta  of  the  moral  code  are  not  In  liarmoaj  with  the  action  of 

'  !'•)  tlii*.  p4<rhap«,  it  due  the  intrusion  Into  epic  aacriScee  (amonit  a^v^ 
II..  t  -I.  rij.tvuya.  aipl  other  ancient  rites)  of  the aocalled  pnp^**^^ sacrlSee, 
or  •.!•  nrlrt-  of  lotu»(rtMit«).  which  is  ft^uentl/  mentioned,  bnt  appears  In 
Ik-  unkii'iwn  lM>for%>  the  epic.  The  fraclonsnees  of  the  VIshnn  cnll  is  Uln^ 
trf  -I  !*y  it*  in«i*t4*nr«  on  reiretal  and  not  animal  offerlnffa.  The  orthodos 
Hri>.i.i!)  (nlt'i  thf  V^i^O  drmands  blootl-sacTiaoes ;  Krishna  prohibits  them. 
Tilt-  •!  Tiriiuf,  tfill  marked,  appears  in  the  epte  and  no  " ynthasli * 
eipUiu  a  otherwise. 


878  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

jUani  bijani  cchagan  no  hantum  arhatha  (you  must  not  kill 
goats  at  a  sacrifice;  sacrifice  with  vegetables  and  call  them 
goats)  nai  '§a  dharmah  satam  deva  yatra  vadhyeta  vai  pa^uj^ 
(it  is  not  the  rule  among  good  men  to  kill  animals),  xii,  838t 
4.  Now  this  whole  teaching  is  opposed  not  only  to  the  for- 
mal codes  and  to  the  practice  of  the  epic  heroes,  but  also 
to  tlie  formal  teaching  of  the  epic  itself,  which  says  ex- 
pressly :  "  No  man  does  wrong  in  eating  food  prepared  with 
the  sacrificial  verses,"  yajiLsa  saiiiskrtam  mansam  upabhu&jan 
na  dusyati,  xiii,  163,  43.^  Animal  sacrifices  are  inveighed 
against  in  one  part  of  the  epic  and  praised  in  another  (iii,  80, 
etc.).  Even  human  sacrifices  are  not  only  mentioned  but  also 
enjoined  on  the  model  heroes :  "  Sacrifices  are  the  chief  means 
of  success.  Do  thou  therefore  institute  a  Rajasuya,  a  horse- 
sacrifice,  an  all-sacrifice  and  a  human  sacrifice,"  xiv,  3,  6-8.* 

As  to  hunting,  all  epic  heroes  hunt  and  eat  the  meat  of 
their  victims ;  but  since  this  practice  is  opposed  to  the  ahiusa 
doctrine  the  casuist  has  a  good  deal  of  difficulty  in  reconcil- 
ing the  pi-actice  of  the  model  heroes  with  that  doctrine.  It 
is  said  to  be  permissible,  because  sacrificial  animals  may  be 
eaten,  and  deer  are  brought  under  this  head  by  a  reference 
to  Agastya  who  "  sanctified  them."  But  while  Rama  is  quite 
content  to  say  that  hunting  even  with  traps  is  permissible, 
because  the  saints  of  royal  blood  practised  it  of  old;  the 
teacher  in  tJie  MaliabhTirata  is  still  imeasy,  even  after  con- 
tending that  the  quarry  is  "  sacrificial ; "  so  he  says  that  really 
the  hunter  is  contending  for  his  life  and  it  is  a  matter  of 
fighting,  wliich  tiikes  it  out  of  the  categoiy  of  **  injury,*'  since 
the  hunter  liimself  is  as  likely  to  be  killed  as  to  kill.'     All 

1  The  chine  is  excepted,  prfithamansam,  43.  Tliis  and  rrthainiAsam  if 
the  same  as  i)utniniansain,  that  is,  it  is  as  bad  to  cat  meat  not  used  for 
sacrificial  purp«)sc9  as  it  is  to  be  a  cannibal,  for  amrtam  brahmani  giva  itj 
etat  trayaTii  ekatah,  cows  are  as  holy  as  Brahmans,  42.  Compare  also  xiii, 
115  an<l  110  (below). 

2  Compare  xiii,  10.'),  32  fl.,  "arkajanas,  turliyanas,  human  sacriflcet"  (aod 

OthpFP). 

'  The  pa^sapes  of  the  two  epics  are  related.  Compare:  ato  rajarfayah 
sarve  nirpayaih  yanti,  Hharata,  with  yanti  riijarsayay  ca  'tra  mrgayiiii  dhar- 
makovidah,  xiii,  110,  IS,  and  H.  iy,  18,  40,  respectively.    The  law  is  laid  down 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.      879 

of  this  is  good  Rcnsc,  but  it  docs  not  save  the  teacher  from 
the  wriikuess  of  advauciug  two  excuses,  and  thus  betrayuig 
the  fiut  that  the  whole  ahiusa  received  from  Buddhism  and 
half  iiccepted,  is  a  kte  modification  of  the  practice  of  the 
nuxlel  hen>efl,  who  disregard  the  real  aliiusiL  Yudlii^thira 
8;iys  frankly  tliat  he  likes  meat,  and  Bhi^ma  agrees  that  it 
is  a  most  plciusant  and  strengthening  food;  but  he  says  tliat 
th<»sc  who  indulge  in  it  go  to  hell,  and  then  explains  that 
warrioi*s  may  pnu'tise  Ininting  for  the  reasons  given  above. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  the  mmlel  meat-eating  hero  says  ^my 
mind  is  liefuddlcd  on  this  {H)int.**  Formal  Brahmanie  law 
accttiints  hunting  one  of  the  four  worst  vices  a  king  may 
luive. 

Such  contradictions  are  nottliose  of  a  ^* greatrhearted  poet** 
%\lio  scorns  the  niimmness  of  accuracy.  Uf  tliis  latter  class 
<if  contradi<'tions  the  {)oem  is  full.  The  Hindu  Homer  nods 
cotitiinially.  He  forgets  tliat  liis  puppet  is  addressing  BhT^ma 
and  makes  him  use  the  customary  vocative,  Yudhif^iira,  be- 
cause the  latter  is  liis  onlinary  dummy,  iii,  82,  64;  85,  111. 
He  says  that  even  a  \nse  man  who  sells  soma  goes  to  helU 
an«i  t!iat  the  sile  of  soma  by  one  who  is  wise  is  no  fault,  xiii« 
1<*K  \1  IT.,  xii,  34,  31.  His  giMls  have  no  shadows  in  a  weU- 
kiiown  i);iss;ige  of  NaLi,  but  elsewhere  **the  gods*  vast  shad* 

in  M.inu.  vii.  /io.  The  whole  of  liU,  115  «nfl  IIS  li  aa  awkward  attempt  to 
uii.ii-  li'iiitiiit;  iiiorftlitj  with  noii-iiiJar7,  na  ca  dofo  'tra  TMjatc  (Riiiia)^ 
Miuu^.iti  11.1  •lu^yati  (M.).  Uima  goes  fo  f ar  a«  to  mj  that  to  kill  a  mookcjr 
!•  no  iTMi.f.  for  the  reatons  i;iTcn  aboTo,  a  iHrcaliarlj  mteahinantc  arga* 
ni.  lit.  hiif  t(»  tlic  influenre  of  ISutMhUm  ■poradlcatlj  rrprvMOted  b  alio 
th.-  pi— A^'o  »o  fimiUr  to  the  Dhamnuipaila  (l>h.  P.  «VA» taiii  aliam  brfiml 
Ir  t:.ni  i!i:un.  mill  :ifX\,  vAiuhi  U(*<*an  ca  dhAiQino  ca,  to  takhi  lo  ca  bribmapo) 
in  ui.  Jl''.  It-l'i.  yat  tu  vudro  dame  satje  dhanne  ca  aalatottbita^  tam 
1<r.iliiii.iti.ini  nli.irn  m«nrc  Trit«*na  hi  bhaved  dTiJah,  and  the  parallel  paMag« 
in  till.  1 1:.  1'*.  IT ,  which  decUfM  that  a  ^Qdra  not  oolj  maj  become  a  taiiia- 
kr?  .  'Itiiih  hiTrafUT,  but  that  he  thoold  bt  revered,  terjra^  like  a  regea* 
I  r.i:i  p.  r*'.n.  if  \\v  i»  "pure  of  heart  and  of  tabdued  •eaiea," alact " Dot  blrtli« 
n>r  -I  riMitnt.  nor  Irani  ing.  nor  stock  (•aatatih)  maka  ooa  regenerate,  bnl 
ot:\v  « ..n  lu<  t  "  i«  the  rauM*  of  rrgrnerarj  (dvlJatTaejra  Tf*^**"  *^s  <"  kln^ 
r«:irTi)  Wi>  iiavi*  from  llrihmanaa  and  SOUrat  a  prettj  clear  idea  of  wkal 
Hr.iliiii.u>i>in  tatiifht  In  regard  to  tbe  ^iidra.  Bnt  It  never  tangbt  thla 
in  the  I'lanithada.    It  la  poffv  BnddhJMn,  taoglU  •• 


880  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

ows  "  are  seen,  ix,  87,  9.  His  saints  are  stars,  but  again  only 
"like  stars,"  and  finally  "not  stars,"  iii,  25,  14;  261,  13; 
xii,  245,  22;  271,  25,  etc.  I  lay  as  little  weight  on  such 
contradictions  as  would  any  one  familiar  with  the  history  of 
literature,  and  it  is  a  mere  travesty  to  say  that  to  this  class 
belong  such  fundamental  differences  as  those  which  are  char- 
acteristic of  the  precept  and  practice  of  the  epic.  No  poem 
composed  to  teach  certain  doctrines  would  admit  as  its  most 
virtuous  characters  those  who  disregarded  these  doctrines 
systematically. 

Whetlier  the  fact  that  only  the  pseudo-epic  puts  the  Ath- 
arva-Veda  first  in  the  list  of  Vedas  be  worthy  of  consideration 
or  not,  it  lias  an  interesting  pardUel  in  tlie  fact  that  only  the 
pseudo-epic  places  the  Atliarvan  priest  before  the  others. 
In  early  works  the  Acarya,  who  taught  gratis  all  the  Vedas, 
is  declared  to  be  worth  ten  Upadhyayas,  Vas.  xiii»  48 ;  iii, 
21-22;  ilanu,  ii,  140-145.  This  Upadhyaya  is  the  direct 
etymological  ancestor  of  the  modem  ojha,  wizard.  In  ancient 
times  he  ^vas  a  sub-teacher,  who  taught  for  a  livelihood  one 
part  of  the  Veda  and  Vedaiiga,  and  he  is  identified  in  the 
epic  with  the  Purohita,  wlio,  as  Professor  Weber  has  shown, 
is  essentially  an  Atharva-Veda  priest,'  or  magic-monger,  whom 
seers  regaixl  as  contemptible.^  The  pseudo-epic  inverts  the 
ancient  nitio  and  makes  the  Upadhyaya  worth  ten  Acaiyaa, 
xiii,  105,  14-45. 

1  One  example  of  magic  recorded  in  the  epic  is  particularlj  interesting, 
as  it  is  referred  to  the  Kaulika-yastra,  or  left-hand  cult,  and  is  a  parallel  to 
the  practice  recorded  in  Theocritus*  second  idyll.  It  is  called  chSvopaseTina 
or  shailow-cult,  and  consists  in  making  an  image  of  an  enemy  and  ■ticking 
pins  into  it  to  cause  his  death,  iii,  .^2,  4. 

5  The  Jatakas,  too,  regard  the  Purohita  as  a  mere  magic-monger,  thongh 
they  call  him  also  acariya,  Fick,  Sociale  Gliederung,  p.  110.  On  the  Purohita 
Upadhyaya,  see  the  story  of  Marutta,  xiv,  0,  7  ff.  Here  (and  in  xiii,  10,  96) 
the  office  is  hereditary.  Tlie  king  in  the  former  passage  insists  that  hit 
family  Purohita  shall  serve  him  with  an  incantation,  but  the  prieit  tells 
him  he  is  engaged  elsewhere,  and  says  **  Go  and  choose  some  one  else  at 
your  rjiadhyaya."  So  in  i,  3,  11  ff.,  where  a  proper  Purohita  is  sought  "to 
kill  bad  magic  "  and  is  installed  as  l'p>idhyaya.  On  his  practical  importance 
and  honors,  compare  i,  183,  1,  0;  fl-7;  v,  12fJ,  2;  127,25;  ix,  41,  12.  On  the 
contempt  with  which  he  is  regarded,  xiii,  10,  S6;  ^  83;  135,  11. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.      881 

The  epic  in  its  present  fonn  is  swollen  with  many  additions, 
but  tliey  are  all  cast  into  the  shade  by  the  enormous  mass 
lulded  bfxlily  to  the  epic  as  didactic  books,  containing  more 
than  twenty  thousand  stanzas.  I  have  elsewhere  fully  ex- 
plained ^  the  machinery  by  which  this  great  appendix  was 
adileil  to  the  original  work  through  suspending  the  death  of 
tlie  narrator,  and  shown  that  there  are  many  indications  left  in 
the  epic  pomting  to  the  fact  that  the  narrator  in  the  original 
version  was  actually  killed  before  he  uttered  a  word  of  the 
appendix.  As  this  one  fact  disposes  of  the  chief  feature  of 
th.ii  theory  of  the  epic  which  holds  that  the  work  was  origi- 
nally what  it  is  to-day,  and  as  no  sufficient  answer  has  been 
^iven  to  tlie  facts  adduced,  there  can  be  no  further  question 
in  ie<;anl  to  the  correctness  of  the  term  pseudo-epic  as  applied 
to  these  parts  of  the  present  poem.^  There  has  been,  so  far 
as  I  know,  no  voice  heard  in  favor  of  the  so-called  synthetic 
theory  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  these  late  books,  except 
certain  utterances  based  apparently  on  a  misconception.  Thus 
it  has  Imh'U  s;u(1,  I  think,  by  Professor  Oldenburg,  that  the  di»- 
eovery  of  the  lotus-stalk  tale  among  the  early  Buddhistio 
h'L^rnds  tends  to  show  that  the  epic  book  where  it  occurs  is 
anti()nt'.^  On  this  jx>int  this  is  to  be  said:  No  one  has  ever 
(Itnird  tliat  then*  arc  early  legends  found  in  the  late  parts  of 
thi*  epic* ;  Init  the  fai*t  that  this  or  that  legeml  repeated  in  the 
pvuil<M'pir  is  found  in  other  literature^  no  matter  how  old^ 
(lot '^  iiiithiTiL;  towanl  proving  either  the  antiquity  of  the  book 
as  ;i  wljnli*,  whieli  is  just  what  the  "sjTithetic"  method  con- 
t«ii(is  fnr«  or  th«'  antiquity  of  the  epic  form  of  the  legend* 
Tin-  Ntoiy  of  the  IMuge,  for  example*  is  older  than  any 
HiKlilhistic  nif»nunient:  but  this  does  not  prove  that  the  epio 
vcisitai  in  th«*  thinl  iKNik  is  old.    The  same  is  true  of  the 

*  Am.  J«»urn.  Itiil.,  lii,  p.  7  If. 

-  In  t)i.«  «irw  I  Aiii  glAtl  to  tee  tbst  IYofr«M»r  Jacolil,  in  the  rerirwdtod 
At'.n .-.  f -iliv  A^Ti t«.    So  tkXuy  M.  lUrtli,  Joonuil  69%  8«Tsau.  1807,  p. 4181         / 

*  I  nrn  not  •tin*  tli«t  I  luTe  hrrp  HIihI  the  well-kBovB  RttMlan  Mvsat 
T'lrr.  <  ti>  .  A*  I  \\m\v  m'cD  onW  t  notice  of  hii  pAprr ;  but  I  brlteTe  the  rttrnttsi 
I>  •  rii  :•  Ti*  »:i«i  n  aImitc.  The  I^tttA-Tbcft,  bovvvrr.  ptrhspt  tb«  mow  tloiji 
is  .111  a  It  1  to  A4  oArl/  M  AIL  Br.  t.  80. 


882  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

first  book,  where  the  paurani  katha  of  Khandava,  for  ex- 
ample, is  a  justifiable  and  instructive  title,  set  as  it  is  in  a 
late  book.  A  special  "ancient  tale"  is  just  what  it  is;  in- 
truded awkwardly  into  the  continuous  later  narration,  228, 
14-16,  but  still  bearing  traces  of  its  heterogeneous  character^ 
as  I  have  shown  elsewhere.^  Knowing,  as  we  do,  the  loose 
and  careless  way  in  which  epic  texts  have  been  handed  down 
(compare  the  way  in  which  appear  the  same  passages  given 
in  different  editions  of  the  same  epic  or  in  both  epics),  and 
the  freedom  with  which  additions  were  made  to  the  text, 
we  are  in  such  cases  liistorically  justified  in  saying  only  that 
certain  matter  of  the  epic  stands  parallel  to  certain  Bha^ya 
matter  or  Buddliistic  matter.  A  tale  is  found  in  tlie  epic. 
Its  content  is  pictured  on  a  stone  or  found  in  different  form 
in  a  Jataka.  Wliat  possible  guarantee  have  we  that  the  epic 
form  of  the  tale  is  as  old  as  the  Jataka,  still  less  that  it  is  as 
old  as  the  stone,  least  of  all  that  the  book  in  which  the  epic 
tale  appears  must  as  a  whole  be  antique  ?  Only  paucity  of 
solid  data  could  make  eminent  scholars  build  structures  on 
such  a  morass. 

Having  already  given  an  example  or  two  of  late  feat- 
ures in  the  pseudo-epic,  I  would  now  point  to  some  of  the 
characteristic  marks  of  the  later  poem  in  other  regards,  Mid- 
way in  the  development  of  the  epic  stands  the  intrusion  of 
the  fourth  book,  wliere  to  fill  out  an  extra  year,  not  recog- 
nized in  the  early  epic,  the  heroes  live  at  court  in  various  dis- 
guises. Here  the  worship  of  Dur^  is  prominent,  who  is 
kno\\'n  by  her  Puranic  title,  mahisiisuranagini,  iv,  6, 15,  whose 
"grace  gives  victory,"  ib.  30  (though  after  the  intrusion  of 
the  hjiun  notliing  furtlier  is  heanl  of  her).  The  Durga  here 
depicted  Invars  a  khctaka  (as  she  does  when  the  same  hymn  is 
repeated  in  vi,  23,  7),  iv,  6,  4.  This  word  for  shield  amid  in- 
numerable passages  describing  arms,  is  unknown  in  the  epic 
except  in  connection  with  Durg«a,  but  it  is  found  in  post- 
epicid  literature.  It  stands  in  the  same  historical  position  as 
does  the   epithet  just  mentioned.     In  these  cases  we   have 

1  BhSrata  and  Great  Bharata,  p.  16. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.      888 

general  cvidenco  of  the  lateness  of  the  book  as  well  as  of  the 
hymn  to  Durgu.     Matter  and  metre  go  hand  in  hand. 

A  vt*r}'  striking  example  is  given  further  in  tlio  show  of 
amis  which  are  deseribeil  in  this  book.  Although  Arjuna  is 
still  a  young  man,  yet,  when  the  exliibitor  comes  to  show  hia 
bow,  (iandlva,  he  says  ^*  And  tliis  is  the  world-renowned  bow 
of  the  son  of  Prtlia,  which  he  carried  for  five-and-sixty  years** 
iv,  4'),  l-<).  Nothing  could  bo  plainer  than  this  passage.  The 
exhibition  of  anus  was  comix>sed  when  the  later  poet  had  in 
mind  the  actual  number  of  years  the  hero  carried  tlie  bow 
a<'rc»nrmg  to  the  epic  stoiy.  He  forgot  that  he  was  composing 
a  s<'cnc  which  was  to  fit  into  tlie  hero*s  young  manhood  and 
not  into  the  end  of  his  life.  In  iv,  71,  15  Arjuna  is  reco^ 
ui/nl  as  still  a  ** dark-featured  youth,'*  ^  and  some  time  after 
this  scene  it  is  expressly  stated  tliat  it  was  even  then  only 
thirty-tlin*o  years  since  the  time  when  Arjuna  got  tlio  boWf 
V,  Til*,  10  ( rcfcning  to  the  Klmmlava  episode,  i,  225).* 

While  it  is  obvious  to  one  who  is  willing  to  examine  the 

1  Hire  t)u>n>  it  mnnthiT  inconsiateiicjr.  In  It,  44,  20.  Insteftd  of  beiof  a 
V>rinii)  vinn  mi  in  71,  1<'».  hi'  U  calli*(l  Arjunm  bc*cmiue  of  hU  white  ■tecdt 
un  1  «nfii|.N  xion.  "whirh  \»  ntv  on  r*rth/'  when*  the  "white"  complexion 
inittt  iitR  «ti-(Ml«  and  <1i-«mI«,  "purr  (white)-**    In  r,  69,  10^  ArJnnA  li  al»o  «UrlL 

1  Ar< Minlint:  to  t,  82.  40,  mnd  Ui).  47  And  70.  retpectiTelj,  the  time  from  tb* 
(iili>  til  tiir  linttU'  i>  thirtifn  Trar»  |>Mt  ("this  i§  the  fooitcenth ").  Ignor- 
iru»  t!it>  di-rrf|iaiiry  U-twc4*D  twidre  and  tliirteen  jreart  of  exile«  we  mail 
nlliiw  :it  Ua*t  twrnty-nini*  reart  for  Arjuna  to  live  before  the  Khl^dava 
iiM  i  !•  r.t.  Hliirh.  a<ld<*d  to  thirtr-three,  makea  ■ixtjr-foar,  which  would  bt 
Arjiii.:!'*  ii;:f  wtu-n  "  a  vnuth."  Wfnre  the  war  begin*!  If.  howeTer.  we  oTer> 
\>">\.  «^i-  •iiahnunt  of  V.  'tj,  10,  and  add  the  year*  of  exile  to  twentj-oinc^ 
Ml-  k!ill  l:i  t  ffirtv  o<l>l  Vi-an  an  hit  lift-limit  when  he  haa  carried  the  bow 
^:\!v  !:\i>  v.-.ir*.  It  niuit  Ih*  rt'mcml>eri.»«l  tlial  Arjuna  waa  twentj* four  yean 
111  I  \.!..  twi  \m'  \«-..r«  U-fori'  thi*  dicing  and  twrlre  or  thirteen  after  it,  and 
t!..it  At  !ii..:.irjk  u  W.-14  •ixtii-n  fili«-n  the  war  hmke  oat  (forty«foar  jeara  for 
Arjurci  if  l.r  won  Ihriupadi  wlu*n  he  was  tixteen.  and  be  coaid  not  bav« 
1 1  •  II  twriity  \«  .i:«  uld«T  at  that  time).  The  iTnthefUt  maj  mj  "How  nar> 
r-iH  *  I'lH  !»  •!•!  if>t  n>};anl  nut  h  discrrpanciea,**  but  eTefi  poeta  art  fenerall/ 
iiu.ir.-  !\.tt  «  !.i  -.>  li  «•  than  flfty  cannot  bare  carried  a  bow  for  mam  tham 
p\\:\  .^•■■ir«.  i-iHiiallr  whi-n  he  g«>t  It  at  the  age  of  fortjr  or  tbereaboatal 
Kr:*>!;.t  'hi*  in  t!u>  thirtT<«isth  Tear  after  the  war  (xl,  S&.  44).  which  sbonld 
in  iK.  Arjuna  AfMiiit  thirtr  at  the  lieginning  of  the  war.  Thla  throws  a  aid** 
li.-^  •n  {]  K-  iit:ru»iun  uf  the  twelTv-jcan  exile  aa  a  brahwarlria,  apokaa  <l 
alM>V(-. 


884  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

epic  with  careful  analysis  that  the  Gita  and  the  thirteenth  book, 
for  example,  are  purely  priestly  products,  and  that  one  of  them 
is  on  tlie  whole  as  early  as  the  other  on  the  whole  is  late,^ 
it  is  not  ejisy  to  decide  what  is  the  relation  between  these 
great  groups  of  verses  and  the  heroic  epic,  with  which  neither 
has  any  inner  connection.  Nevertheless,  although  there  can 
be  as  a  result  of  the  inquiry  only  the  historical  probability 
usual  in  answering  the  problems  of  ancient  literature,  and  not 
such  a  mathematical  quod  erat  demonstrandum  as  the  synthe- 
sist  deniiinds,  we  are  not  wholly  at  a  loss  to  reply  to  this 
question.  In  the  first  place  we  have  a  very  instructive  anal- 
ogy in  the  intrusion  into  both  epic  texts  of  an  incongruous 
oldactic  chapter  found  both  in  the  Kamayana  and  the  Maha- 
bharata,  which  bears  on  its  face  evidence  of  its  gradual  expan- 
sion. But  even  without  tliis  evidence  it  will,  I  think,  be 
clear  even  to  the  synthesist  that  the  same  chapter  cannot 
have  arisen  independently  in  both  epics ;  so  that  in  this  in- 
stance we  have  a  plain  case  of  the  d}Tiamic  intrusion  into 
an  epic  text  of  foreign  didactic  material.^ 

Again,  the  presence  of  a  huge  volume  of  extraneous  addi- 
tions, containing  both  legends  and  didiictic  stuff,  now  tagged 
on  to  the  epic  as  its  nineteenth  book  and  recognized  in  the 
last  part  of  the  epic  itself,  is  an  object-lesson  in  dynamic 
expansion  which  in  itself  shows  how  the  pseudo-epic  may 
with  perfect  reganl  to  historic  probability  be  supposed  to  have 
been  adch^l  to  the  epic  proper.  The  Kiimayana  too  is  instruc- 
tive, as  it  shows  that  wliole  chapters  have  lx?en  interpolated, 
as  admitted  by  its  commentator.  The  great  epic  itself  admits 
that  there  is  a  difference  Ix^tween  the  main  epic  and  the  epi- 
sodes, in  saying  tliat  tlie  former  is  only  one-fourth  of  the 
wliole,  and  rele^.itintjf  seventv-six  of  its  hundred  thousand 
stanzas  to  the  domain  of  the  episcKlic  epic.^ 

1  Coinprtrc  the  chaptiT  on  iiictros. 

'  This  cljaptcr  is  the  Kaccit  section  ii,  5  and  K.  ii,  100,  previously  referred 
to,  cli<ciissi'il  in  iletail  in  AJI*.  xix,  1 17  iT. 

'A?  an  inttTi'stinj,'  example  of  the  prowth  of  Sangkrit  popular  poemt, 
Mr.  Cirierstin  informs  nic  that  there  is  extant  n  TnMha  or  brhad  VUhna 
Parana,  which  contains  large  additions  to  the  rccciTcd  text 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.      885 

That  the  priests  developed  the  epic  for  their  own  interests, 
goes  without  wiying;  hence  the  long  chapters  of  priestly 
orij^in  on  the  duty  of  charity  —  to  priests.  That  they  added 
h'p'iuls  huM  alreiuly  Ijcen  shown,  and  tlie  metre  still  attests 
the  appn)XLiuate  age  of  a  Nala  or  a  Sulabha  episode*  But 
Ix'sides  di(lac*tic  and  legendary  masses,  it  was  necessar)\  in 
onlor  to  [K^pularize  tlio  poem,  to  keep  some  sort  of  prtiportion 
Ix'twcen  the  tale  and  its  tumors.  Hence  tlie  fighting  episodes 
\V(*rc  increased,  enlarged,  re^Titten,  and  inserted  doubly,  tlie 
Hiiiiu;  s<*eno  and  description  occurring  in  two  different  places. 
For  this  reason,  while  there  is  an  appreciable  difference  in  the 
metre  of  the  different  episodes  which  were  inserted  whole,  the 
ti^^'liting  scenes  are  chiefly  of  one  floka-type,  —  a  type  later 
than  that  of  some  of  the  episodes,  but  on  a  par  with  that  of 
tht*  later  didiuaie  and  narrative  insertions. 

Whether  the  original  Ude  was  occupied  with  the  Pandus  or 
lint,  the  oldest  hennss  are  not  of  this  family,  and  the  old  Vedio 
tradition,  while  it  re(*ognizes  Bliiiratas  and  Kurus,  knows 
iiotliiii)^  ul>out  Piuidus.  The  Kuru  form  of  epic  may  perhaps 
U'  prtserved  in  the  verse  (restored)  of  one  of  the  oldest 
rpaiiish;uls,  ('hand.  Tp.  iv,  17,  9: 

yat<i  yata  Avart:ite  tad  tad  gacchati  mAnavah 
Kunln  VLi\\\  *bliirakHatiy 

a  pi: ha  restonnl  by  omitting  an  evident  interpolation*'    The 
st\  le  is  like  the  usuid  epic  turn,  e.  g..  It.  vi,  106,  22, 

ytna  yena  ratho  yftti  tens  tena  pradbflTati. 

NrviTthrless,  a  Pandu  epic  of  some  sort  existed  as  early 
.iH  \\\r  tliinl  rentury  u.  (\,  as  is  shoi;iii  by  the  testimony  of 
rr.iiiiii  and  the  .lritak;is  (which  may  imlecd  give  testimony  for 
III  ria  tvcii  later  than  the  tliinl  iH?ntur}')*  though  in  the  latter 
Iir<  ratlin*  t)i«'  cpie  story  is  not  presented  as  it  is  in  our  epic 
i  lii>  takrs  us  from  the  ff»nu  to  the  date  of  the  MaluLbhirata. 

1  <  '..nipAn-  Mulli-r.  SUE.  i.  p.  71.  Sve  «1m>  the  Stira  Tcnt  oa  Um  Kom^ 
•!•  f.  at,  citiil  \ty  l*rufrMor  Liulwif,  Abh.  Buhm.  Get.  18SA.  p.  & 


CHAPTER  SIX. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC. 


First,  to  define  the  epic.  If  we  mean  by  this  word  the 
beginnings  of  epic  story,  as  they  may  be  imagined  in  the 
"circling  narration,"  in  the  original  Bharati  Katha,  or  in 
the  early  mention  of  tales  of  heroes  who  are  also  epic  char- 
acters, the  time  of  this  epic  poetry  may  lie  as  far  back  as 
700  B.  c.  or  1700  b.  c,  for  aught  we  know.     There  are  no 

;  further  data  to  go  upon  than  the  facts  that  a  Bharata  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Liter  Sutra,  that  the  later  part  of  the  ^^tapatha 
Brahmana  mentions  the  "  circling  narration,"  and  that  akhy- 
ana,  stories,  some  in  regard  to  epic  personages,  told  in  prose 

.  and  verse,  go  back  to  the  early  Vedic  period.^  We  must  be 
content  with  Weber's  consei'vative  summary:  "The  IVIaha- 
bhfirata-saga  (not  the  epic)  in  its  fundamental  parts  extends 
to  the  Brahmana  period."^ 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  mean  the  epic  as  we  now  have  it, 
a  truly  sjTithetical  \'iew  must  determine  the  date,  and  we  shall 
fix  the  time  of  the  present  Mahabhiirata  as  one  when  the 
sixty-four  kalas  were  known,  when  continuous  iambic  padas 
Vi'crc  written,  when  the  Litest  systems  of  philosophy  were 
recognized,  when  the  trimurti  was  acknowledged,  when  there 
weix3  one  hundred  and  one  Yajur  Ve(La  schools,  when  the 
sun  was  called  Mihira,  when  Greek  words  liad  become  familiar, 

1  On  the  early  prose-poetic  akhyana  of  the  Vedic  and  Brahmanic  a|te,  com- 
pare the  essays  by  von  Bradke,  Journal  of  the  German  Oriental  Societj, 
zzxvi,  p.  474  ft. ;  and  Oldenber^,  ib.  xxxvii,  p.  fA  ft.,  and  zxxiz,  p.  62  ff.  Ballad 
recitations,  akkhana,  are  mentioned  in  early  Buddhistic  works,  which  wemaj 
doubtfully  assign,  as  Professor  Rhys  Davids  does  undoubtingly,  to  the  fifth 
century  b.  c. 

^  Kpi*>ches  im  Vedischen  Kitual,  p.  8 :  Die  ^Pjharata-Sagc  reicht  somit  fbnt 
Grundlage  nach  in  die  Brahmana  Periode  hinein. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC.  887 

and  the  Greeks  were  known  as  wise  men,  when  the  eighteen 
islaniLi  and  eighteen  Purai^as  were  known,  when  was  known 
the  whole  literature  down  to  grammara,  oommentaries,  Dharmar 
f  fistras,  grantlias,  pustakas,  written  Vedas,  and  complete  MSS. 
of  the  Maliabharata  including  the  Harivaufa.  But  this  is  a 
Utile  too  much,  and  even  the  inconsistent  synthesist,  who 
draws  on  a  large  vituperative  thesaurus  whenever  another 
hints  at  intrusions  into  the  epic,  may  well  be  pardoned  for 
luonientarily  ceasing  to  be  synthetic  and  exclaiming  with 
reason  Da  liegt  doch  die  Interpolation  vor  Augen  I ' 

That  the  complete  Maiiabliarata,  for  the  most  part  as  we 
have  it  toniay,  cannot  be  later  than  tlie  fourth  or  fifth  century 
of  our  cni,  follows  from  tlie  fiict,  brought  out  first  by  Pro- 
fessor Hluiiuhlrkar  and  then  by  Professor  Btihler,  that  it  is 
n*f(*rnMl  to  as  a  Smpti  in  inscriptions  dated  not  much  later 
tlian  this,  while  by  the  fifth  century  at  least  it  was  about  as 
Inn^  as  it  is  now.'  But  we  may  go  further  back  and  say  with 
coin|iiinitive  certainty  tliat,  witli  the  exception  of  the  porta 
latest  luhh^U  the  introduction  to  the  first  book  and  the  last 
i>«)ok,  even  the  pseudo-epic  was  completed  as  early  as  200  A*D. 
For  tlie  Itoiuan  denarius  is  known  to  the  Harivanga  and  the 
Ilarivanf,^!  is  known  to  the  first  part  of  Uie  first  book  and  to 
th(*  hist  lNN)k  (impliiMl  also  in  the  twelfth  book);  hence  such 
parts  of  tlu'Hc  iKKiks  as  recognize  the  Harivanga  must  be 
l.it«T  than  the  introduction  of  Roman  coins  into  the  countiy 
(lo(i-*joo  A.  !>.);  hut  though  coins  are  mentioned  over  and 
iivtr.'  nowhcHN  even  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  books,  is 
tilt*  (Ifnarius  alluded  to. 

1  f  M-nt-dU  (]«••  MfthibhiraU,  p.  120. 

)  (^iiitf  imiMirtant.  on  the  other  hand,  U  tiM  fact  rrcvntly  twmhiriwl  hf 
I>r  <  ':irt«  Uirn.  WZ  liii.  p.  flO.  1H0P :  **  Filr  SaUndha  wkI  Bipa  ww  dM  IUIiI> 
M  if*  rat  A  .  .  .  kfin  ilhaniiftyistra,  •oodcrn  cln  KItja,**  which  tbt  po«m  ftlMtf 
pr>><  Imiiit  itti'lf  to  tie,  i.  1.  61. 

*  'Vhv  moner  rvctiiniiu^l  i«  irold  and  iHTer  **  owde  uA  mmad»  *  uA  alflm, 
thf'ik'h  « }if«tii  of  prn*ioii»  metal  are  mentlosed  and  a  grMt  deal  of  woay  it 
f<itiii.i  «f Inn  rxcAvaiinir  for  trvatare  (perhapa  nemr Tkiila).  When  the  nm\m 
\%  proapfrnii*  the  •nldier'f  par  U  ''not  copper.*  Fbr  refeftBOM  to  woay, 
r  .in*.  <  t<  .  ttH*  ii.ni.  2.H.  SO-fti;  HI.  !&.»;  Sfift,  17;  In  18»  IS;  SS,  10;  M^dS; 
lii. :{;.'»,  M  (threefold  tret  of  fold)  iwkf.U.1/^  (aMiMl  of  ifosaaw).    Ob  IIm 


388  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

Another  interesting  item  is  contributed  by  the  further 
negative  evidence  afforded  in  the  matter  of  copper-plate 
grants.  Gifts  to  priests  are  especially  urged  in  the  Anu^sana, 
and  the  gift  of  land  above  all  is  praised  in  the  most  extrava- 
gant terms.  We  know  that  by  the  second  century  of  our  era, 
and  perhaps  earlier,  such  gifts  to  priests  were  safeguarded  by 
copper-plate  grants,  bearing  the  technical  name  of  pattst  (pata) 
or  tunirapatt^,  and  elaborate  instructions  for  their  making  are 
given  in  the  law-book  of  Narada  and  Vishnu,  while  they  are 
mentioned  in  the  code  of  Yajiiavalkya,  but  not  before;  for 
Manu,  though  he  mentions  the  boundary-line  being  "re- 
corded," nibaddha,  has  no  suggestion  of  plate-grants.  The 
epic,  however,  at  least  the  pseudo-epic,  speaks  of  writing 
dowTi  even  the  Vedas,  and  recognizes  rock-inscriptions,  but 
in  the  matter  of  recorded  grants  to  priests  says  nothing  at  all ; 
much  less  does  it  recognize  such  a  thing  as  a  tamrapatta* 
The  only  terms  used  are  parigralia  and  agrahara,  but  tlie 
liitter,  which  is  very  rare,  is  never  used  in  the  sense  of  a  land- 
grant,  though  gmniagrahara  occurs  once  in  the  later  epic,  xv, 
14, 14.  Even  the  general  (jasana  is  never  so  employed.^  It 
is  true  that  this  negative  evidence  does  not  prove  the  epic  to 
have  been  completed  before  the  tamrapatta  was  known ;  but 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  unlikely,  were  the  tumrapatfa  the 
usual  means  of  clincliing  a  bhumidana  when  the  Anu^sana 
was  composed,  that  this  mode  would  have  passed  unnoticed, 

conquest  of  Taksa^ila,  see  i,  3, 20.    According  to  ii,  61,  20,  the  soldier's  pay  it 
"  a  thousand  a  month,"  here  preBumably  copper. 

*  Legal  documents  appear  first  in  Vas.  I)h.  S.,  xvi,  10,  16,  under  the  name 
lekhita.  l*robably  the  firat  deeds  were  written  on  cloth  or  boards,  phalaka,  aa 
a  boanl-eopy  precedes  tlie  rock-inscription,  ASWI.,  iv,  p.  102.  The  epic 
has  />/r/Mr/'-pata,  as  in  xv,  32,  20,  dadr^e  citram  patagatam  yathZ  (a9car7a- 
bhiitam)  and  often.  Kock-inscriptions  are  mentioned  onlif  in  xiii,  139,  43, 
cirarii  tisthati  medinyarii  (uile  lekhyam  iva  'rpitam.  Written  Vedas  are 
alludod  to  ouJy  ib.  23,  72.  Seals  are  used  as  passports,  iii,  15»  10.  Compare 
also  ii,  r>5,  10,  na  lekhyarh  na  ca  matrka ;  v,  148,  23,  citrakfira  ivi  'lekhyam 
krtvS ;  ib.  180,  1.  "  lekliya  and  other  <irts; "  yii,  00,  7,  namankitah  (compare 
above,  p.  2i )•'>),  of  arrows.  Tlie  conjunct  ganaka  lekhakah  occurs  only  in  zt, 
14.  rt,  and  in  the  verse  of  the  Kaccit  section,  ii,  5,  72,  which  is  a  subsequent 
addition  even  to  this  late  chapter;  AJP.,  xix,  p.  140. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC.  889 

and  we  may  conclude  that  the  giftpBections  of  this  book  were 
at  least  as  old  as  the  oldest  copper-plate  gnmts  to  priests.' 

The  tune  of  the  whole  Mahabharata  generally  speaking 
may  then  be  from  200-400  A.  D.  This,  however,  takes  into 
accuunt  neitlier  subsequent  additions,  such  as  we  know  to 
have  been  made  in  later  times,  nor  the  various  recastings  in 
verUil  form,  which  may  safely  be  assumed  to  have  occurred 
at  the  hands  of  successive  copyists. 

For  tlie  terminus  a  quo,  the  external'  evidence  in  regard  to 
the  Pandu  epic,  Maliabharata,  Uiough  scant}*,  is  valuable.  It 
kIiows  us  first  that  the_  Maliabharata  is  not  recognized  in  any 
Sanskrit  literary  work  till  after  the  end  of  Uie  Brahma^a 
{)iTi(Ml,  and  only  in  the  latest  Siitras,  where  it  is  an  evident 
intnision  into  the  toxt.  For  the  0]iiya  Sutras  belong  to  the 
(lose  of  the  Sutra  period,  and  here  the  words  Bharata  and 
Mahablmrata  occur  in  a  list  of  authors  and  works^as  substi- 
tutes for  the  earlier  mention  of  Itihasa  and  Puia^a  in  the  same 

>  Tlic  Terse  lii,  66,  £S,  whkh  Uie  auUior  of  Dm  MahlbhlmUi  ala  Epoi  and 
Kiohtaliuoh,  p.  187,  A<Idnce»  to  prove  that  written  deeds  were  known,  U  giTca 
bv  him  without  the  conteit  When  thU  Is  examined  it  It  fonnd  tlut  the  Tene 
nfcri  not  to  land  but  to  a  kinif's  realm.  Neither  doce  the  tezi nor  the  coa- 
nu'iitstor  necossariljr  (at  asserttn],  loc.  clL)  make  it  refer  to  land-grants.  The 
wonl  u«v<l  is  visajA,  a  king's  realm  or  coontrjr  (aa  la  xIt,  98, 8)  and  the  poet 
pavii  thst  miniftcrs  who  are  given  too  much  libertj  "  rend  the  king's  realm  hj 
rnuiitiTffits  "  (or  falsifications).  The  situation  aad  the  analogy  of  fi0, 40,  aad 
tv.».  'j-j.  ftn<l  100,  A,  where  general  de(*eit  and  dissension  are  the  meant  emplojred 
tn  •Iintrny  a  realm,  make  it  most  probable  that  tlie  word  pratirfipaka  Is  aatd 
hvTv  to  iltiitinguiih  the  forged  laws  and  edicts  of  the  nenrping  ministers  frooi 
xhv  trup  Iftws  which  the  helpless  king  would  enact.  Such  snpprssslon  of  tbt 
liufi  an«l  tulMtitutiun  of  false  edicts  are  thoronghljr  Oriental,  aad  majr  tmdly 
U-  iilu«(rat4M|  hy  the  use  of  this  Terjr  word,  pratlrfipaka,  la  the  Lotus  of  Tkve 
I^w.  wlurv  iirstirupaka  means  Just  such  ''false  laws"  evbstitnted  for  tbt 
riJil  V'lUK'n  truf  Uws  (iii,  22;  8BE^  ul,  p.  W,  note,  with  Iranian  parallel). 
The  roiiinicntator  sajrs  **  corrupt  the  country  by  false  edict4iocttmenta,'*  that 
i*.  hv  i;iri«  a  gfm*ral  application  to  the  words,  which  may  be  Interpreted  at 
ri  ft  rriii^  to  Und-granU,  but  this  Is  not  necessary.  Ptosaible  would  be  lbs 
lat«r  law  nifsniDK  of  frauds  of  any  kind, perhaps  eo— ttrfelt  OMoey.  Ceftnla 
it  !•  that  the  paaisge  is  nut  "a  direct  proof  for  forged  docnwf  ts,*  tliU  Isti 
fi>r  "  falM*  tliNumrnu  by  meant  of  which  any  oat  gets  laad." 

'  (*i*  in<!u*  evidence  is  negatiTe  aad  without  weight  Megattheact,  c.  MO 
If  <- .  )ia«  l«-ft  no  fragment  on  Hindu  epka,  aad  the  towet  of  Dip  Chiyto^ 
tuiiius  ( lUO  A. u),  who  metitiont a  Hiada  Uowitr, it 


390  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

place,  so  recent  a  substitution  in  fact  that  some  even  of  the 
latest  of  these  Sutras  still  retain  Itihasa  and  Purana.  But 
when  the  words  do  actually  occur  they  are  plainly  additions 
to  the  earlier  list.  Thus  in  ^nkhayana  iv,  10,  13,  the  list 
is  Sumantu,  Jaimini,  Vai§ampayana,  Paila,  the  Sutras,  the 
Bliiisya,  Gargya,  etc.,  with  no  mention  of  the  epic.  But  the 
A^valayana  text,  iii,  4,  4,  inserts  the  epic  thus:  Sumantu, 
Jfiiniini,  Vaiganipayana,  Paila,  the  Sutras,  the  Bha^ya,  the 
Bhdrataj  the  Mahdbharata,  dhanmcaryaSj  Jananti^  Bahavi^ 
Gargya,  etc.  The  next  step  is  taken  by  the  (JSnibavya  text, 
which  does  not  notice  the  Bharata  and  recognizes  only  the 
Mahabhanita  (whereas  some  texts  make  even  the  Agvalayana 
Sutra  omit  Mahiibliarata  altogether,  reading  Bharatardhar- 
maciirj'ah).  When  it  is  remembered  that  these  and  other  lists 
of  literature  are  not  uncommon  in  the  Sutras,  and  that  nowhere 
do  we  find  any  other  reference  to  the  llahabharata,  it  becomes 
evident  that  we  have  imix)rtant  negative  testimony  for  the 
lateness  of  the  epic  in  such  omission,  wliich  is  strengthened 
by  the  evidently  interpolated  mention  of  the  poem,  withal  in 
one  of  the  Litest  Siitras.^ 

Patau jali,  it  may  be  admitted,  recognizes  a  Pandu  epic  in 
the  verse,  asid^-itlyo  'nusasara  Piindiivam,  and  in  liis  account 
of  the  dnunatic  representation  of  the  sacred  legend,  indis- 
solubly  connected  with  the  tale.^  This  takes  us  at  farthest 
back  to  the  second  centur}' ;  but  tliis  date  (p.  56)  is  doubtfuL 

Piiiiini  knows  the  names  of  the  epic  heroes,  and  recognizes 
the  ArjunarKrishna  cult  in  giving  a  derivative  meaning 
'"  worshipper  of  Arjuna  "  (Krishna).  lie  also,  which  is  more 
importiint,  recognizes  the  name  ilahabliarata.  It  cannot  rea- 
sonably be  claimed,  I  think,  that  this  name  does  not  refer  to 
the  epic.  It  stands,  indeed,  beside  malia-Iiibalii,  and  might  (as 
muijculine)  be  supposed  from  tins  circumstance  to  mean  "the 

^  That  thcBc  lists,  anyway,  are  not  of  cogent  historical  Talue,  has  latelj 
been  emphasized  by  Dr.  Winteniitz  in  his  last  review  of  Dahlniann.  Tbej 
certainly  cannot  help  in  dating  the  epic  before  the  fourth  century.  The 
intrusion  of  tlie  genus  itihasa-purana  into  such  lists  is  illustrated  ercn  in  the 
lipanishads.     Compare  Mund.  Up.  i,  5,  with  the  note  at  SBE.,  xv,  p.  27. 

-  Compare  Weber,  IS.,  i,  pp.  147-1-iy ;  xiii,  pp.  3oG-357. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC  991 

great  deactindont  of  Bharata,"  yet  not  only  do  other  words  in 
the  Uut  show  that  thU  U  not  necesaaiy,  but  further,  there  is 
wi  iiuttuiwe,  either  in  the  epic  itaelf  or  in  outside  Uterators, 
■whvTfi  MuLiibli&iBta  meaoa  a  man,  or  where  it  does  not  mean 
tlte  epic.  In  thU  particular,  therefore,  as  it  gives  me  pleasure 
tu  sute,  I  txstieve  that  the  Rev.  Mr.  Dahlmann  is  r^ht,  and 
that  I'at^iiii  knew  an  epic  called  the  Mahibhamta.  That  he 
knew  it  08  a  Piuidu  epic  may  reasonably  be  inferred  from  bis 
lUL-iitioiiiiig,  e.  g.,  Yudliifthira,  tLe  chief  hero  of  the  epic* 

Itut  nu  evidence  has  yet  been  brou^t  forward  to  show  con- 
clusively tliut  I'tiniiii  lived  before  the  tliird  centiuy  B.  o. 

A)r:iin,  it  is  one  thing  to  say  that  I'ai^  knew  a  Pandn 
MiiliTibliiinita,  but  quite  another  to  say  that  bis  epic  was  out 
jin-tH-iit  epic.  [The  I'aiulu  epic  as  we  bave.it  represents  a 
lK-ri()d  Kubtscquent  not  only  to  Buddhism  600  B.  C,  but  to  the 
(ireok  iuvusion  300  B.c.{  Buddhistic  supremacy  already  de- 
(NHlont  is  implied  by  the  paasngca  (no  syntheast  may  logically 
disregiinl  them)  which  allude  contemptuously  to  the  eijlukai 
or  ItuiliUiiutio  luouuments  as  having  ousted  the  temples  oi 
tilt!  K'xli*-  'I''>us  in  iii,  190,  65,  "They  will  revere  e^ukas, 
ili<-y  will  m-(;lc(-t  tlte  gods;"  ib.  67,  "the  earth  shall  be 
liihil  nitli  ctlukan,*  not  adorned  with  god-houses."  With 
Mii'li  cxjin-iwitina  may  be  compared  the  thoroughly  Buddhis* 
ii<'  ■■{•iihct,  ciltumialtarajika,  in  xii,  S89,  40,  and  Buddhistte 
)iliil<>M>iiliy  (u<  cxjMiunded  in  the  same  book.  More  impop- 
Unit  tli;iii  tliiti  cvidcnt-c,  however,  which  from  the  places 
^vtl<'lv  it  in  found  may  all  belong  to  the  recasting  of  the 
i-]>ii-,  is  tliu  UR-Iiitocturc,'  which  is  of  stone  and  metal  and 

■  Uv  mi-ntioni  bin  »nl  m  ft  TtnAm  b«t  valf  M  •  bum,  Uk«  GsTtflhira; 

i.xlioiinKUiili  tl)i'iiunefniniihe«iprFMloB{e.f.  R.  *l,  41,  d6t  7DdU  itbln^ 

t  |.r..umv. 

•  l^»-n.  1.K-.  cit,  p.  *m.  8n,  Ul.  IBS,  68.  vlUn  ;  «,  plfaffa;  8T,  Nna 
•iiiK  ;  all  foun.1  in  cior  piMr  (p.  W).    Sr*  Am)  doIc*. 

•  llu<l<lliutiL-  liuiiaioi*  with  woodca  fcncv*  ud  wmlU  of  brick  cad  iMw 
■t.-  alliflfl  tu  in  Cull.  T1.XL  In  canMcllon  with  tbU  tnbjvci  It  bum  b* 
r.'iii.'mWnl  thai  rTi-a  ibr  IBM  (ifbTa  Kairu  la  flvbiB  dlrcelloa*  torhawm- 
l»iiMinif  kniiw  oolj  wumlva  Ibatcb^  hai«M. 
ttiji  ilir  llinilua  tupil  unlj  mod,  wood,  aad  fariek.  TUa  ■ 
ttiat  WtwJ  srvbiicctur*  bad  atnort  dhajpMWd  li 


892  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

is  attributed  in  all  the  more  important  building  operations 
to  the  demon  Asura  or  Danava  Maya,  who,  by  his  magic 
power,^  builds  such  huge  buildings  as  are  described,  im- 
mense moated  palaces  with  arches  and  a  roof  supported  by 
a  thousand  pillars.  LThere  is  in  India  no  real  architecture 
that  goes  back  of  the  Buddhistic  period,  and  of  both  Bud- 
dhistic and  Jain  architecture  the  remains  are  distinctly  in- 
fluenced by  Greek  models.^i 

The  Greeks  are  described  as  a  western  people  (northwest- 
em,  ^\ith  Kambojas),  famous  as  fighters,  wearing  especially 
fine  metal  armor,  and  their  overthrow  is  alluded  to.  The 
allies  engaged  in  the  epic  battles  are  not  only  native  princes 
but  also  Greek  kings  and  Persians,  who  come  out  of  the  West 
)  to  the  war.  In  one  passage  the  Greeks  are  described  as 
"  all-knowuig,"  though  I  tliink  this  to  be  a  late  interpolated 
chapter.^    But  ra^i,  iii,  190,  90,  surely  implies  the  zodiac. 

But  even  if  the  passage  mentioning  all-knowing  Greeks  be 
an  interpolation,  the  fact  that  the  "  Greeks,"  who  must  here 
be  the  real  Greeks,  bear  the  name  Yavanas,  shows  that  the 

1  So  the  great  walls  and  palaces  of  Patna,  which  are  especially  mentioned 
in  the  Mahabhasya,  arc  attributed  by  tradition  to  demoniac  power  (Fa- 
Ilien),  and  the  great  arcliitecturc  of  Mathura  is  also  ascribed  to  superhuman 
power.  On  Maya's  may  a,  to  which  is  attributed  the  most  extensive  building, 
compare  ii,  1 ;  t,  1()0,  1-2 ;  viii,  3*%  17  (Asura  cities) ;  R.  it,  51,  10.  It  ia  poa- 
siblc  that  the  Benares  ghats  are  referred  to  in  yii,  60,  1  (Gaiiga)  cayanfiih 
kancanaiv  cita.  "  Golden  "  buildings  may  be  only  gilded  wood  (as  they  are 
to-day).  IMuted  stune  is  mentioned  in  ii,  o,  32.  Old  Patna's  noble  "walls  and 
palaces  **  are  now  unfortunately  under  the  Ganges,  in  all  probability. 

^  Tlie  caitya  and  stupa  mounds  (only  R.  has  a  caityaprasada,  y,  43»  3),  like 
the  cavei<,  are  not  to  be  compared  with  roofed  palaces  of  stone  and  marble. 
A  statui*  of  iron  is  mentioned,  iiyaso  Bhimah,  xi,  12, 15;  iron  bells  in  templea, 
xii,  141,  o2.  In  ii,  4,  21-22,  the  Greeks  are  compared  to  Kalakeya  Asnraa. 
Here,  along  witli  the  king  of  Kamboja,  is  mentioned  one  king,  (the)  Kam- 
pann,  "  who  was  the  only  man  that  ever  frightened,  kamp,  the  Yavanas,  (men) 
strong,  heroic,  and  skilled  in  weapons.  Like  as  Indra  frightened  the  Kala- 
keya Asuras,  so"  (K.  friglitened  the  Greeks).  Compare  also  KilayaTana 
who  had  tlie  Garga-glory  (p.  15)  in  xii,  340,  05,  Weber,  loc.  cit. 

»  Compare  ii,  14.  14 ;  iii,  2M,  18 ;  xii,  101, 1  ff. ;  Ruling  Caste,  p.  305;  Tiii, 
45,  3(5,  Marvajila  Yavaniih,  in  the  expansion  of  the  preceding  vituperative  sec- 
tion, wIiiTo  from  hanta  bhuyo  bravlmi  te,  in  45,  1,  Karna  bursts  out  again  in 
new  virulence,  which  looks  almost  too  much  like  a  later  adornment. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC.  898 

Yavanas  eiRewhere  mentioned  *  are  also  Greeks  and  not  some 
other  {K'ople  exclusively.  It  is  a  de8i)erate  resort  to  imagine 
tluit.,  in  all  tlieso  cases,  well-known  names  refer  to  other 
IKH>pK>8,  as  tlio  synthcsist  must  assume  in  the  case  of  Uie 
(int^kH,  Bactrians,  Persians,  Huns,  and  other  foreigners  men- 
tit  )ne<l  frequently  throughout  the  poem*  A  further  well- 
known  indication  of  Greek  influence  is  given  by  the  fact 
that  the  Ksudrakas  and  Malavas  were  united  into  one  nation 
for  tlie  first  time  by  the  invasion  of  Alexander,^  and  that 
they  up|)e«ir  thus  united  under  tlie  combined  name  kfudra- 
kanirihivrLs  in  the  epic,  ii,  62,  15.  The  Romans,  Romakas, 
are  mentioned  but  once,  in  a  formal  list  of  all  possible 
peopU*s,  ii,  51,  17  (cannibals,  Cidnese,  Greeks,  Persians, 
S(  ytlniuis,  and  other  barbarians),  and  stand  Uius  in  marked 
eontnist  to  the  (ireeks  audi  PersianSi  Paldavas,  I  who  are 
nirntiontHl  ver}'  often;  though  in  tlie  account  ot  Kridma 
killing  the  Yavaim  whos(»  name  was  Kaserumat,  iii,  12,  82,  it 
has  lK*en  su^^'sted  by  Weber  that  tlie  name  was  really  of 
I.:itin  ori«^n.  It  is  clear  fn)m  this  tliat,  while  the  Greeks 
were  faiiiihiir,  the  Romans  were  as  yet  but  a  name.  Furtlier, 
thr  distinct  propheey  that  ** Scythians,  Greeks,  and  Bactrians 
will  rulf  unri^^hteously  in  the  evil  age  to  come  **  (kali*age), 
\\hi>  h  (H'cnrs  in  iii,  188,  3.*>,  is  t<x>  clear  a  statement  to  be 
iLTunrrd  or  exphiintMl  away.  When  this  was  written  the 
(Moplfs  ini*ntion(*d  h;id  alnMily  ndc<l  Hindustan*  If  tliia 
wt'vv  \hr  only  phue  where  the  names  occurrod,  the  Markun- 
d'>\;i  rpixMJi*,  it  nii^ht  lie  n*pinU*d  as  part  of  an  interpolation 
in  ni.i*«s.  Hut  the  [H^ople  here  described  as  foreign  oppres- 
s*:^  an*  all  nientiontnl  n*iK'atiHlly  as  barbarians  and  warriors, 
a^-^H  i.iti'fl  i;i'nt*r:dly,  as  in  the  passage  just  mentioned,  with 
otlitr  |M-ii|ilfH  of  the  West,  such  as  AUiirns  and  Kiimbojas. 
Tlius  in  iii«  51,  23,  **  Singlmlese,  Harbanas  and  barbarians,* 

1  V.n  .vin«  or  Viunat  (ili.  2fn.  43-«1),  I.  r.  lonUnt.    8o  JacoM,  loc.  dt 
3  I.i.*.  II.  iM'i  Alt.  ii.  pp.  imt-lTI ;  Weber.  Ind.  Ktod.  ilU,  |».  87&. 
'   lit!  :•  iH.th  tbf  llimltt  and  naCiTe  name  for  Cejloa,  and  the  Graek  and 
i:  r  lu  I  vi.if  .r  LarUrianl  SiAlialin  Harbarin  Mleccbla  je  ca  Unklnlvft* 
•  •.  th     'lh«*  wnnl  liarbari«  (=  •!  Bd^B^m)  occ«r«  In  b«tli  epica  b«t  aot  tai 
htiTaiurt*  of  an  earlier  date.    Web«r»  ImL  lit,  p.  S87»  aolt«  eaUs 


l\ 


394  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

and  the  inliabitants  of  Lanka"  are  grouped  together,  in  con- 
trast to  the  *'*'  Westein  realms,  those  of  the  Persians,  Greeks, 
and  Scytliians"  (witli  the  folk  of  Kashmeer,  Daradas,  Kirar 
tas,  Huns,  Chinese,  Tusaras,  Indus-dwellers,  etc.).  So  in  xii, 
207,  43,  opposed  to  sinners  of  the  South,  are  the  Northern 
sinners,  Greeks  (Yaunas),  Kambojans,  Kandahar-people  (Gan- 
dharas),  Kinitas  and  Barbaras,  who  are  here  said  to  be  wander- 
ing over  tliis  earth  from  tlie  time  of  the  Treta  age,  having 
customs  like  those  of  wild  animals  or  of  the  lowest  castes. 
Such  allusions  as  these  can  mean  only  this:  the  Panda- 
\  Epic,  in  its  present  form,  was  composed  after  the  Greek^iny^ 
Xsion.^  I  have  suggested  above  that  the  form  of  the  name 
Bactrian  does  not  compel  us  to  accept  Professor  Weber's 
conclusions  in  regard  to  the  date  of  passages  now  containing 
this  form.  If  this  seems  inconclusive,  there  is  nothing  for  it 
but  to  ix^fer  the  epic  in  its  present  form  to  a  post-Christian 
em.  But  even  other\vise,  tlie  presence  of  the  Greeks  and 
Biictrians  as  warriors  and  rulers  in  India  cannot  be  explained 
out  of  the  poem  by  a  loose  reference  to  the  fact  that  India 
had  heaixl  of  Yavanas  before  Alexander. 

This  brings  us  to  another  point  of  view.  A  stanza  fol- 
lowing the  one  kst  cited  proclaims  that  "  even  Narada  recog^ 
nizes  Krishna's  supremacy,"  an  utteitince  ^  which  points  clearly 
to  a  compuiutively  recent  belief  in  Krishna  as  All-god,  a  point 
long  recognized.  On  the  basis  of  the  Arjuna  cult  implied 
by  l*anini,  the  syntliesist  urges  that  the  whole  epic,  in  its 
present  Smrti  fonn  and  with  its  belief  in  the  all-godhead  of 
the  Krishniir Arjuna  pair,  is  as  old  as  the  fifth  century  B.C. 
But  even  if  an  Arjuna  cult  were  traced  back  to  this  date* 

to  this  constant  union  of  (xrcok  with  other  Western  peo])le8  in  other  litcrmtare 
as  well.  The  name  was  extumled  to  Indo-Scythians  and  later  even  to  Peniuu 
and  Arabians.     Weber,  loc.  cit. 

^  Ab  lias  lon^  n^o  been  Hu<;<j;ested,  of  the  Greeks  mentioned  in  the  epic  among 
the  allied  forces,  Bhagadattu  may  be  Apollodotus  the  founder  of  the  Grwcxh 
Indian  kingdom  (10)  n.  c).  Weber,  Ind.  Lit.,  p.  204  ff.  This  Greek  is  espe- 
cially mentioned  not  only  as  "ruler  of  the  Yavanas/'  but  as  the  friend  of  ihm 
{•pic  hero's  father,  that  is,  as  known  to  an  older  generation,  11, 14,  16;  tod 
Schroeder,  Lit.  uml  Cultur,  p.  -lOiJ  (with  other  references). 

'  Narado  'py  atha  Kr^nasya  parani  niene  .  .  .  v^V^'^^^^^^*^™*  ^»  SOT^  48L 


DATE  OF  TBS  EPIC.  895 

tliere  would  still  be  no  evidence  in  regaid  to  the  cult  of  the 
twain  a»  All-god.  And  this  is  the  claim  of  the  pieeent  epic, 
(■xr<'|it  wlutre,  as  in  the  case  just  cited,  incredulity  is  involun- 
tarily tiiuiiifestvd  or  plainly  stated  (as  in  the  reviling  scene 
in  Sablui).  The  Gita  itself  admits  that  those  who  worship 
Ki'iHliiia  as  tlie  All-god,  or  recognize  him,  are  few  in  number: 
vilsiiilovul;! '  san*am  iti  sa  niahatma  sudurlabhati,  7,  19 ;  **  Me 
(us  All-g<Ml)  in  human  form,  not  recognizing  my  godhead, 
fiiuU  di-spiso,"  9,  11.  The  MahaUufya  does  not  recogniu. 
Krisliiift  us  All-god,  but  as  hero  and  demigod.  The  cult  is 
^'rowing  evvn  in  the  epic  itself.  So,  too,  no  Smfti'  can  be 
iiiipliitl  by  I'unini's  words.' 

1  (iiiiiu  now  tu  the  teHtimony  of  Buddhistio  literature.  As 
Kiiiil  uUtve,  the  oltlest  literature  know%.on^  ballad  tales.  It 
initv  Itu  luuiuuied  that  the  Jutakas  are  older  than  Ajjvaghoa*, 
»'li<i  knows  epic  tales,  but  not  always  in  epic  fonn,  and  doe* 
not  refvr  tu  the  cpto  either  by  name  or  by  implication,  his 
gi-ncnU  aganiu  being,  as  I  have  shown,  a  term  used  of  any 
intilitional  liturature,  nacrcd  or  probne.*   \^QUi  Jitakas  may 

I  Mithiiri  In  the  whole  epic  ■■  tbe  blnhplMCe  of  Vltadvira,  vbo  wvui  to 
h(T<l  lii*  ('■tile  ilwrv;  wliitu  in  the  Hmhll>hi*r>  It  1*  tAhu-Konnrl  Hsthurl 
■  ii.|  llif  I'liii-f  cnj  of  ihe  I'kBcIIu,  cicu-ljr  tbe  older  view.  Bm  II,  14,  84, 
4'>iT.:  aii.  ■'M<i,  I*):  1,  L'-JI,  40  |cow»,  miiharwlcfrlh)  i  IS.  illl,  p.  SHI  It.;  on 
Krt.hna  a>  nui  Viiiinu  in  tlie  BhSija,  ib.,  pp.  31S,  3S3.  In  11,  1^  Krithna  (u 
All'i^M-t  ']  "iiiulii  not  injurr  hlj  for  ft  en  la  three  hoDilrcd  roim,"  38  and  ST. 

'  Tlif  *tslv  <i(  minil  Ihal  in  the  itct  uf  the  "  CTlJcDce  "  al  PifUi  cu  kad 
'':ii  i.i  ray  /'anini  ■>!•  ar^naimtiJ  rilk  a  Pan dt-JfahiUirala  ptcalimrig  Jidarttt 
<i>.i.  Ml.)>.  ■!•  llti'blthui-h,  p.  lU)  It  IncuncrlTahle.  The  whole  " aTldance  "  at 
.:.  Ill  '•!  i-ilm-inK  I*  that  l'ai>inl  knew  a  JlahibhlnU  In  which  Ike  bcroM 
H.  -•  .i!.j<-i  toit  Bui-li  wnnhipa*  !■  airunled  to  mo«t  lllndv  heroea  after  death. 

■  Si  i!ii'  tiller  llSnia^a^  i«  tuminii  Into  Jtut  tnch  a  nun)  and  didartie 
i>'<rk  HI  ilii-  •■Ihvr  fpic  I  tuTcalrradj  Itutancrd  the  Inlnaionof  the  Kacdt 
•i  >  ;...ii  Si  Itania,  In  Til,  .'>.'•,».  trl*  )iim»elf  tolelllng  bomiUea,  with  a  famUlar 
<' .ml.  I'li'a-m  /■.iriim.iJliarmi'ikim  Trtfaanani  npacakrano  IJnal  ai  In  i*,  SB^ 
11.  k.>[]ii  aivvi  'll>anui*|hi(  it  ^hiTan,  nrpa) ;  and  R.  ib.  <7,  84,  kalhi^ 
k.i'l.i  anic  ■III anil aiaiiiTuktih  pnrfnaJBUr  mahiUMbU^  In  the  aana  way. 
!',..  Uti'  iKra-lual)  iili-nliaoatiun  of  Kiiua  wllfa  Vbhnv  etanda  pamUel  to  the 
.  iii^-i.  of  I)ii'  <l<  miu'Hl  KrUbna  to  the  Alliiod  VUhnn,  for  Rrlahna  la  neTcr 
ni  .t!.il  —  ili.-n-  ii  no  tuch  antltliMU  —  bnl  he  ■eeertbelcee  U  nflaa  aot 
•  ii'fi  nil-  K'")  I'UI  iinljr  drmlpxl  In  the  epic 

*  s,  iif  taa-rulr*  In  epic  lanffnaffe,  a.  f.,  flfA  Vltnfw  ■■Ifil—  fjava* 
•;antr  anu  rljanadi  -**———.  R.  Ill,  AO,  9  (Q.  haa  najmliliifa) 


896  THE   GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

go  back  to  the  third  or  fourth  century,  or  tiey  may  not,  so 
far  as  their  present  form  is  concerned.  At  any  rate,  they  show 
no  knowledge  of  the  epic  as  such/]  Wliat  they  show  (the 
mnteiial  has  been  sufficiently  collected  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Dalil- 
mann)  is  that  the  epic  characters  were  familiar  and  the  fitoiy 
of  the  Pandus  was  known,  although  the  characters  do  not 
occupy  the  position  they  do  in  the  epic.^  But  no  date  of  an 
epic,  still  less  of  our  epic,  can  be  established  on  casual  refer- 
ences to  the  heroes  of  the  epic  found  in  literature  the  date  of 
which  is  entirely  uncertiiin.  Perhaps  it  is  negatively  quite  as 
significant  that  the  Jiitakas  do  not  refer  to  the  epic  at  all,  but 
only  to  people  mentioned  in  it. 

The  present  epic,  if  it  records  anytliing  historical,  records 
the  growth  of  a  great  power  in  Hindustan,  a  power  that  could 
not  have  arisen  before  Buddhistic  supremacy  without  leaving 
a  trace  of  the  mighty  name  of  Pandu  in  tlie  early  literature. 
■  There  is  no  such  trace.  Moreover,  even  the  idea  of  such,  ft 
power  as  our  epic  depicts  was  unknown  before  the  great 
empire  that  arose  under  Buddhism.  For  this  reason  it  is 
impossible  to  explain  the  Pandu  realm  described  in  the  epic 
as  an  allegory'  of  the  fifth  century,  for  we  cannot  have  an 
allegory  in  unkno^\^l  terms.  The  Pandus,  be  it  remembered, 
rule  all  India,  and  the  limits  of  their  empire,  as  geographically 
defined  in  the  epic,  far  surpass  the  pre-Agokan  unaginatipn, 
as  it  is  ivflected  in  the  literature.  Even  Manu  has  no  idea  of 
an  empire.     His  king  is  a  petty  rlij/^ 

Before  the  ilahfibliarata  there  were  tales  of  Kuru^.ajid 
Bliarats  known  to  anti(iuity.  Incongruous  as  the  name 
appears  to  be,  Bharata  yet  designates  the  Pandu  epic.     How 

^  Tlie  latter  point  proves  notliing,  for  even  in  Sanskrit  litcratnro,  at  I 
pointed  out  long  a;;o,  the  heroes  of  the  two  epies  arc  mixed  up  confusedl/t 
and  we  ennnot  suppose  a  Budclhist  would  be  more  careful  than  a  Brahman 
in  verifying  references  to  Bralimanic  literature. 

3  "  (treat  kings  "  and  "  emperors  "  are  indeed  known  even  in  prc-BuddhUtie 
times,  but  what  was  tlie  "empire"  of  any  king  before  Agcka?  Certain^ 
not  tliat  of  tlie  Pandus.  It  is  significnnt,  in  view  of  the  great  importance 
laid  by  some  scholars  on  the  cakravartin  idea,  that  this  word  docs  not  occur 
before  the  later  Tpanisliads,  although  "great  kings  "  arc  mentioned;  nor  if 
it  an  early  epic  pi i rase. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC.  897 

tlic  PatiduB  succeeded  in  attaching  themselves  to  the  tales 
wliii-Ii  told  of  the  old  national  heroes  is  unknown.  All 
tliciirioti  and  hypotheses  of  development  are  pure  guesswork^ 
Wliiit  we  know  is  tliat  the  tales  which  told  of  Kunis  and 
ItliamtiiK  iHicame  the  depository  of  the  Pandus^jrho  appear  to 
have  Kuhstitutcd  tliemsclves  for  Bhantas'  and  m^  in  fact 
IiAvc  l)«.>cn  a  hnuich  of  the  tribe,  which  from  a  second-rate 
|"'sitiiiti  raised  itself  to  leadersliip.  There  is  a  theory  that 
tlir  (']iic  stor)-  lias  been  inverted,  in  favor  of  the  Paodus; 
tlu-re  ix  onotlier  that  it  is  what  it  pretends  to  be*  the  strife  of 
I'itiiiliiiit,  (-idling  theniRelveii  IMiiiratas,  n-ith  the  scions  of  the  old 
Kiini8.  With  the  former,  that  so  persuasively  advanced  by 
I'nifcssiir  llohzniann,  I  have  never  been  able  to  s^ree;  but 
my  iiwii  theory  I  have  from  the  beginning  put  forwmrd  merely 
as  i.iH-  of  {in>Uil>le  epic  growth.' 

\\'tiil<-,  however,  it  is  mvessaiy  to  recognize  the  doubtfid 
i-ti.ini<  ttT  of  ttiKi-ulation  in  n'gard  to  the  exact  couise  of  epic 
ilrvi'liipmoiit.  it  iH  not  desirable  to  blink  the  truths  that  are 
iiiaiK-  i-lt-ar  in  view  of  the  fwts  we  actually  possess,  the  evi- 
ili'iii  I-  of  n-miiking,  the  Ikums  of  the  poem  resting  on  old  Kunis 
ami  lihrkHitiW,  the  present  structure  of  Pandu  material;  the 
aL;<-  of  llii'  I'lindn  [N>ew  as  a  whole  (sjmtbetically  considered), 
I'vjiu'i'il  ii]t(>r  uHii  by  its  rerognitioD  of  late  philosophical 
uiitiTK  sill  It  HH  I'linonviklia  (e.  100  A.D.)i  by  a  growing 
im<h|i'|'iiiii>h  of  iiietn>,  by  ucquiuntance  with  Greeks  and  Greek 
.lit,  .-tf, 

I'litiiii^  tlicHP  fartit  lngelhcr  with  those  gleaned  from  other 
^^.>^l;s  iliaii  llie  rpio  itwlf,  wo  may  tentatively  assume  as 
ajipi'M\iiiiati'  (kites  of  the  whole  work  in  its  different  stages: 
l>lirirai;i  (  Kurn)  bvH,  j)erlui]M  eomUned  into  one,  but  with 
III)  (Aidi-iii'i-  of  an  p|>i(>  before  400  n.c.     A_Mah£bhinta  talo 

>    rUi-  llhiraii  Katlil  (B«*er  "  PluidB-Ule  '),  u  tb«  Nctlvvd  D«me  «f  «ha 

.■•.,.;  .,  Mainly  Uti,n  ihb  Ti«w. 

•  '!:.;•  1  HAi  (-anful  lo  poinl  <ral  al  lu  Bnl  pmcttUIlM  la  bj  Haling 
I'.i-li-  if.'.w  iiinrly  Dflrvn  jran  Bito)  •ilta  aaji  and  mifilt  sad  mwiu,  lad 
..:li,  r  IK.  ful  until:  A*  4  ih^arj  I  itlU  coosldct  tU*  tb*  btM  7*1  offand. 
I.I.I  1  h.r,.  m'Tpr  hrlrl  II  to  U  J— oMUabta.  aaly  man  m  l«»  fnkMt. la 
r'^iiLriv  an<I  tlciail  n*|>«ctirrljr. 


398  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

iwith  Pandu  heroes,  lays  and  legends  combined  by  the  Poianic 
jdiaskeuasts,  Krishna  as  a  demigod  (no  evidence  of  didactic 
form  or  of  Krishna's  divine  supremacy), . 400-200  B.  c.  Re- 
making of  the  epic  with  Krishna  as  all-god,  intrusion  of 
masses  of  didactic  matter,  addition  of  Puranic  material  old 
and  new ;  multiplication  of  exploits,  200  B.  C.  to  100-200  A.  D. 
The  last  books  added  with  the  introduction  to  the  first  book, 
\  the  swollen  Anugasana  separated  from  ^nti  and  recognized 
:  as  a  separate  book,  200  to  400  A.  D. ;  and  finally  400  A.  D.  +  : 
occasional  amplifications,  the  existence  of  wliich  no  one 
acquainted  with  Hindu  literature  would  be  disposed  antece- 
dently to  doubt,  such  as  the  well  known  addition  mentioned  • 
by  Professor  Weber,  Lectures  on  Literature,  p.  205 ;  and  per- 
haps the  episode  omitted  by  Ksemendra,^  Indian  Studies,  No. 
ii,  p.  52. 

In  the  case  of  these  more  precise  dates  there  is  only  reason- 
ably probability.  They  are  and  must  be  provisional  till  we 
know  more  than  we  know  now.  But  certain  are  these  four 
facts : 

1,  That  the  Pandu  epic  as  we  liave  it,  or  even  without  the 
masses  of  didactic  material,  was  composed  or  compiled  after 
the  (jreek  invasion;  2,  That  tliis  epic  only  secondarily  de- 
veloped it5  present  masses  of  didactic  material ;  3,  That  it  did 
not  become  a  sj>ecially  religious  propaganda  of  Krislmaism 
(in  the  accepted  sense  of  that  sect  of  Vaisnavas)  till  the  first 
centur}'  B.  c. ;  4,  I'hat  the  epic  was  practically  completed  by 
200  A.  D. ;  5,  That  there  is  no  "  date  of  tlie  epic  "  wluch  will 
cover  all  its  parts  (though  handbook  makers  may  safely 
afisip:^!  it  in  general  to  the  second  century  B.  c). 

The  question  whether  the  epic  is  in  any  degree  historical 

^  We  cannot,  however,  bo  too  oautiouB  in  accepting  the  negatire  eTidcnce 
of  one  nianjari,  or  precis,  ns  proof  tliat  the  original  work  lacked  a  certain 
passajie.  I  <lissent  altogether  from  the  sweeping  statement,  made  loc.  cit., 
p.  27:  "The  importance  of  tlie  condensations  lies  in  the  fact  that  by  mcana 
of  them  we  are  enabled  to  determine  the  state  of  these  works  (epics,  etc.) 
in  his  (Ksemen<lra*s)  time."  Two  or  three  compendia  agreeing  on  one  point 
of  omission  mi^ht  "determine/'  hut  one  resumed  alone  can  only  create  a 
possibility,  as  in  this  ease  (p.  0-3  note). 


ifATi-:  nr  Tin-:  rcrir. 


390 


S(M*ins  to  mo  siiiswiTaMo,  thouj^li  not  without  doiiht,  ftn<l  I 
ciiiinot  rifi:iin  fmui  fxpn'ssiii;^  ;iii  opinion  on  a  |H)ini  so  iin- 
|ti>it.ml.  As  I  hiiXi"  it'inarkttl  alnivt*,  llu*n*  is  \ut  ii'tlfx  of 
Tainlii  i:h>v\  in  Hr.ihinanic  liimitun*  lK'fi»retlu'  tliinl  or  fourth 
iniiuiv.  It  is,  furtlitT,  inipossiM*-  Ut  suj»j>os«*  that  ilurin;^  lhi» 
t:iri.i{>li  of  Huddhisin  su<  h  a  [mmmu  rouhl  liavr  In'^u  (-ninposttl 
l"i  tlir  jjft  in'ial  |»ul>lic  for  whiili  it  \v;us  int4-n«hil.     Tin*  nu'lro 

•  'I  liii-  ii.Miii  shi)\\s  ih.it  its  pn'si'Ut  f<»nn  is  latiT  tlian  tin*  rj»ic 
fi'MM  nf  ratafijali's  rjiir  vt-rsrs,  hut  this  irjdiratt'S  .•^iinply  n»- 
^A  till'.::  ^M  th.it  a  r.iiirin  M.ihnliharata  may  havr  r\i>iiil  pri*- 
\:  'ii>l\,:i<  ini['liri|  |>y  IMnini.  lint  while  a  nu«Mhi>t  fmjH'rur 
W.I-   iilivi*   iin   •»ii'h    nr.ilim:inii*  I'lnjM'ror  as   tlial   t»f   thr  i*|»i«* 

•  '-.;.l  li.i\r  fxi-ti-l.  Mil  smh  attarks  on  IJu<Mhi<m  as  an*  in  thr 
I  :  ;••  •  ••'ilil  h.iNr  Ih'iii  iiLiih*.  and  thi*  i'i>i<'  «»f  t«>-»Liv  couM  not 

km 

!.■■.•'  .  \i-».  I  ImI".!!-.'  tli»' <  in  «us  uiTi"  |'i'!-<onally  fimiliar.  In 
.;'■.■:•  Wi.il-..  '.:!.i*::ti|  :i  hl-torv,  that   hi  'orv   niu^-l   h.i\i*  In  "M 

•  .:!''^''l   I*  1' .I't  :!«- !.!!••  .iN  thi*  hi*«t«'rv  \v.'»i  iH»--il»l.».      iMidnrs 
!:-  .;':■!  ilii f  ll;i«!'ih;  «iii'  \\  rit»-r-^  >li  lU  t^  it  thr  I'an^Ius 

•   l.'i'"'.  M  .IN   hi  riM's.      It    is,   furlSMT,  m«»-t  iiiipr-iUilih'  that 

■     :!  ■    !   :-.   v.l.i  ni.nh-  thi*   i»im:ii  ni-ri-si-m    I\t:i-lu   virtth'S 

\     •    ■ :  ^,  w-':'.  I    ht\i*  ih^M-n   tis   in    for  tliin  pii>iti  in  had 

!■     ;i  i::-. -M-  \].      Ill  thfir  rra*»< Ttlun  of   r»:.ihniani>m  i!m'V 

i  '.!'.•'  <  !; ri!!i'r  tl.r  \>r'l-i.ii«»\vii  ainifiit  IirahiiMni'* 

:'  ::.'■  «  ■  !   •  :  i'--.  UliriiatI   Ka^Iia:   \*'.  t«»  appt-al   to  ihi* 

•••!■.:_:    :-t!   and    n«-ar   \>.in   ii« '«■-«»  ii\ .      iJui    wlii].. 

•'■•     ■       •  ■!  I'li'ijn    th«*  i-«'iid:t ii'M^i  w*:**  laikiiiLj  whi-h 

.  •■  ]  ••!:■•  I  r^  •■  ]-.  N  'II.  \\  itii   t!.--  > nil  n-iit  iirv  tl.i-v 

■     I  ".■   :  '     a:.  1    '1.  T."    ^^  :•*    a!:«   ilv    l!n»    l*aii.lii    ti;*»* 


al 


\' 


:■  I"  •«    I   r.    .    %.    I\  ••'.  "•  •••»%   /.jr  ^tl'  .^1  !i  l•'.l!.l■ 
■    !•     .    ■'.   -■      '  :■     :■   .:    !'..    %•    'k    .  ..■::  !    !  n  .■   I . .  ti 

.1  r  ■■.:*.  .  \  i  x\  .'  t  .■  •'.  i!  *.-.  t     -f  v.  i  1 !;.  -t-i 

J."  ..■•     •■.  !  :■  :.  V  •  '.  I"  ••  I  h'  .  :i  :^.,    \l  \.i'\  \  ■\\ :,   »*y 
.  •  •    -    « •:    *  \    1'  .•\  I";    :'\    \:\    IT  -   t.   . 


'••, 


?).:-A..  ■.-:  :..  1.  i»  i:   i».p 

*.    t  .ir.    '    -•■•r.i  .il   !r  I  t,  riTi  !  fc"  I  •  •  A  1 1  M"  jiijjt  tn  iin 

f     !.^  '•  \   r  '\ .   ■*'•  .   \   }     Hi  t  •  r.   ■■  ari  •  I\ 

!'  .*   I    I'M    ."l.i  !  •  ■  r  '.  I    r-  V  ii«n  •  i/-'i  ••  mi    i.f   tin    .in- 

.'  "     .'        .;         '  •  .1'./  ■  .!•:    1TJ    :'•    J  fi  ••  li!  #?■  ■!;»••  l.»-f     fi- 

.:>    I    <      •.;:••:%  !  \y  li.ii  in!i  jh;!  !« lit  rifirt-iKc  to  Ai'Iual 


T» 


400  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

with  its  perhaps  justified  claim  to  be  considered  a  branch  of 
the  Blmratas,  its  own  later  heroes,  its  cult  of  anti-Buddhistic 
t}^e.  \  In  so  far,  then,  as  we  may  discern  a  historical  germ  in 
the  midst  of  poetic  extravagance,  it  would  seem  that  the  poem 
represents  an  actual  legend  of  a  real  tribe,'  and  in  so  far  as 
that  legend  persists  in  its  adherence  to  polyandry  as  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  legend,  a  tribe  which,  like  so  many  others 
in  India,  had  been  bralimanized  and  perhaps  become  allied  by 
marriage  to  the  old  Bharata  tribe,  whose  legends  were  thus 
united  with  its  o^vn. 

Finally,  I  would  speak  shortly  of  the  poem  as  a  literary 
product  of  India.  In  what  shape  has  epic  poetry  come  down 
to  us?  A  text  that  is  no  text,  enlarged  and  altered  in  every 
recension,  chapter  after  chapter  recognized  even  by  native 
commentaries  as  praksipta,  in  a  land  without  historical  sense 
or  care  for  the  preservation  of  popular  monuments,  where  no 
check  was  put  on  any  reciter  or  copyist  who  might  add  what 
beauties  or  polish  what  parts  he  would,  where  it  was  a  merit 
to  add  a  glory  to  the  pet  god,  where  every  popular  poem  was 
handled  freely  and  is  so  to  this  day.  Let  us  think  ourselves 
back  into  the  time  when  the  reciter  recited  publicly  and  dia- 
matically;  let  us  look  at  the  battle  scenes,  where  the  same 
thing  is  repeated  over  and  over,  the  same  event  recorded  in 
different  parts  of  the  poem  in  slightly  varying  language. 
Tlie  Orient;il,  in  his  half-contemptuous  admission  of  epic 
poetry  into  the  realm  of  literature,  knows  no  such  thing  as  a 
definitive  epic  text.  The  Vedas  and  the  classics  are  his  only 
real  care.  A  Bhfiratavid  in  India  is  even  now  more  scorned 
tliiin  honored. 

If  the  epic  as  a  whole  belongs  to  no  one  era,  and  this  re- 
mains an  incontrovertible  fact,  it  is  then  in  the  highest  degree 
probable  also  that  no  one  part  of  the  whole  can  be  assigned 
to  a  certain  peiiod.  I  mean,  not  only  must  wo  admit  that 
old  Ix^oks  contain  more  recent  insets,  as  for  example  chapters 
five  and  eleven  of  book  ii,  and  that  late  books  contain  old 
passages,  as  for  example  the  rape  of  Subhadra  and  the  burn- 
ing of    Khanclava    m    lx)ok   i,   or   the    lotus-theft  in   book 


DATE  OF  TBB  BPtC.  401 

xi!i,  but  we  must  admit  further  tliat  the  Bmaller  diruions, 
tliL-tie  specuil  aceuea  ttiemaelves,  have  in  all  probability  not 
rciiiiiiiivd  untouched,  but  that  the  tale,  the  language,  and  the 
verse  of  the  epic  liuve  been  Aihjected  to  un  eveoing  procew 
irn-<riilurly  applied  since  first  the  poem  wan  put  together  a»  8 
MuliitUianita;;  great  liberty  being  taken  with  the  poem  both 
by  n^'iten)  and  copyists,  the  establishment  of  the  text  by  com- 
iiiL-iitaries  (riiitii-i'd  as  early  as  tlte  introductory  chapter  of  the 
JKK.-II1  iUiflf)  proving  no  bar  to  occasional  altentions  and  ud- 
ditiontt.  I'Sufh  changes  were  not  introduced  of  set  purpose 
(or  tlie  metre  would  have  been  made  more  uniform),  but 
iiiiidi'iiUUy  and  illogically.!  The  same  tale  was  told  not 
in  ideiiiii-al  language  but  with  slight  variations;  intrusions 
wi-rv  not  RliunuMl ;  grammatical  and  metrical  forms  were 
h;iiiille(l  fnt-ly,  but  with  no  thorough  revision  of  form  or  sus- 
t;iimil  iittfinitt  at  harmonizing  incongruities  of  statement  It 
is  for  tliiH  n-;u«)>n  that'  tlitre  is  not  a  still  sharper  metrical  line 
iH-utct-n  old  uihI  new  in  the  epic  itself,  and  it  is  for  this  rea- 
son ihat  ihu  fpic  ventes  of  tlie  Maliabliafya  ore  freer  than 
liiiiM-  of  the  Mtdiubliiirata.^  The  former  were  fixed  by  their 
t'liiK'iiiiii  -M  exaniples  in  agnuomar;  tlie  latter  were  exposed 
to  i'iiii.i[ant  though  itp«>radic  modification,  and  appear  to-day 
an  (Ik  V  survive  after  having  onthirvd  the  fret  and  friction  of 
iiiiiniiK'niblt;  hvitt>rs  and  jwiUiitio  purists.  One  by  one,  and 
lii'ir  ;iiiil  tliere,  the  tniniuiiitterB,  working  neither  in  coia-ert 
ti<<r  I'Miiiiiiuously.  but  at  hapliazani  and  at  pleasure,  have 
tiitiiiiK-'l  tliiH  miglity  pile  into  a  shape  more  uniform,  though 
il«  V  li.ivi>  not  ultogctlicr  hid  its  gruHth,  except  from  ena 
tli.ii.  M'<'iii^  the  wliolu  as  a  tiling  uf  |H)wer  and  beauty,  are  per- 
1l.>|>^  lf>K  a|>t  to  mark  tlie  signs  of  varying  age. 

r>ni  if  thi.s  lie  ho.  it  may  be  asked,  and  I  think  it  will  be 
.i~k--il,  jH'ili.iiiH  triumptkuntly,  liy  those  locking  in  sobriety  of 
jiiilt,'int'iil,  uhut  tM.t.'omcs  of  tlie  fvsulta  of  the  analysis  of 
iiM'TM's  of  tin-  di-u-ovory  of  lute  vlcmcnts  in  this  or  that  sec- 
tion .'     Wlut  do  th<-y  signify  ? 

'I'h'-y  Hi),iiify  and  proclaim  that  the  Greai  Epio  was  com- 
plt'iitl  ill  just  the  way  the  syntheaist  ploelaiiM  it  «m  not 


402  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

completed.  Pitched  together  and  patched  together,  by  the 
diaskeuasts  and  priests  respectively,  the  older  parts,  though 
not  free  from  rehandling,  bear  a  general  stamp  of  antiquity 
lacking  in  later  parts.  For  this  reason,  the  Gita  and  Gam- 
bling  scene  are,  as  wholes,  metrically  and  stylistically  more 
antique  than  are  the  Anugf ta  and  the  extravaganzas  in  the 
battie-books;  and  for  this  reason,  the  pseudo^pip..  ccmes 
nearest  in  syntax  and  forms  to  the  hybrid  language  that  is 
preserved  in  literary  monuments  immediately  preceding  and 
following  the  Christian  era.  But  it  is  true  that  no  one  can 
prove  the  relative  antiquity  of  the  Gita  and  Grambling  scene 
so  absolutely  as  to  prevent  one  devoid  of  historical  sense 
from  clmgmg  to  the  notion  that  these  parts  of  tiie  epic  are 
in  origm  synchronous  witii  the  pseudo-epic.  Fortunately, 
however,  tiie  judgment  of  scholars  is  in  general  sane,  and 
the  determination  of  values  may  safely  be  left  in  their  care. 


APPENDIX  A. 

PABALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS. 
[M.  is  prefixed  to  Mbh.  refereocce  onljr  wliere  confofloD  with  R.  Ii  potriblt.] 

1,  aciren&i  'vtk  kftlcna,  ix,  2,  58;  B.  ▼,  2e»  23;  rif  61|  20;  adrena 

tu,  R.  ii,  80, 11. 
atltAyAm,  No.  94. 

2,  atha  dlrghasya  kftlasja,  iii,  70,  1;  y,  160,  20;  K.  ir,  9,  17; 

vii,  99, 14 ;  atha  dirghena  kftlena,  O.  ▼!,  24,  3;  K.  Tii,  34, 
C,  72;  tato  dirghena  kftlena,  M.  ix,  1,  W);  sa  ta  dirghena 
k.,  ib.  48;  36,  10;  atha  kftlena  mahatft,  O.  i,  40, 16  =  B. 
38,  19,  r.hf  atha  dirghena  kftlena;  atha  k.  m.,  also  0«  i, 
40,  22  s  B.,  38,  23,  tatah  kftlena  mahatft.  See  above,  p. 
271. 

atha  rfttryftm,  No.  94. 

athA  'nyad  dhanur.  No.  66,  and  No.  80. 

3,  anayad  Yaniaaftdanam,  ▼!,  54,  81 ;  Tii,  19,  15;  O.  iii,  84|  SI  > 

75,28.    See  Na  226. 

4,  anastariigata  ftditye,  vii,  145, 19 ;  aoe.,  O.  t,  S^  41  (in  B»  It, 

G7,  15,  anastamitam). 
an  vat  kftrmukam,  No.  80. 
aiivonvavadha^,  No.  157. 

5,  abhidudrftva  vcgena,  rt,  100,  49;  104,  34  85,  eto. ;  B.  ri.  09, 

99 ;  76,  46.    See  No.  97. 
r>,   abhiv.liiayo  tvft(m)  bhagavan,  iii,  207, 13;  B.  iii,  11,  72. 

7,  uiiirsyani.lnaA  tain  ghosam  (tat  kanna),  ete.,  H.  111,60,3;  B. 

vi,  t;7,  142;  69,  14li  eto. 

8,  alAt.vaknii)ratini&(m),  iv,  61,  9;  B.  !▼,  46|  13;  ri,  93;  S8. 

The  first  and  last  refer  to  weapona,  B.  ir,  46^  IS  to  eartli, 
prthivi,  alAtacakrapratimft  drffft  goepadavat  kfUL 
D,   alALirakravattftinyam  tadft 'bhramata,  Tiii,  81,40;  alfttaoakfa> 
vac  cakram  bhramato  *rinirvfthanam  (tie  I)  O.  !▼,  6,  25w 
Com|are,  of  pertona,  ti,  59,  2S;  tu,  7,  5S;  air,  77,  ID. 


404  APPENDIX  A. 

10,  avaplutya  rathat  tQrnam,  vi,  94,  22;  96,  39;  G.  vi,  18,  47; 

avatlrya,  G.  vi,  36,  87 ;  rathad  avaplutya  tatah,  M.  vi,  59, 
99,  etc.     For  other  forms,  see  AJP.  xix.,  p.  143. 

11,  avasldanti,  me  prOnah,  iv,  61,  12;  parisldanti  me  prOn&h, 

G.  vi,  82,  6  =  K.  101,  6,  avasidauti  gatranL 
11  b,  aqokah  Qokanaqauah,  iii,  64,  107 ;  aQokah  Qokavardhanah, 
K.,  iv,  1,  59. 
aqvanam  kliura°  No.  247. 

12,  astrani  vividhani  ca,  vii,  7,  1 ;  Qastrani,  R,  vi,  103,  29.     The 

terminal  is  fixed,  vasani,  vastrani,  bhandaui,  etc.,  preced- 
ing, e.  g.,  ix,  47,  24 ; 

asm  in  hate,  Ko.  328. 

akarna,  No.  170. 

13,  akrlda(m)  iva  Rudrasya  ghnatah  kalatyaye  paqtln,  vii,  19, 

35 ;  akrida  iva  Kudrasya  kruddhasya  nighnatah  pa^tln,  G. 
vi,  73,  38 ;  akridabhamih  kruddhasya  Rudrasye  'va  ma- 
hatmanah,  R.  vi,  93,  35.  Compare  ix,  14,  18,  Rudrasyft 
'kridanam  yatha. 

14,  akhyatum  upacakrame,  xviii,  5,  7 ;  R.  iii,  11,  10 ;  iv,  8,  46 ; 

b2y  3 ;  G.  V,  66,  2,  where  R.  65,  2  has  pravaktum  upaca- 
krame. Compare  vaktum  samupacakrame,  xiii,  87,  2. 
The  phrase  is  common  in  R. ;  rarer  in  M.,  owing  to  the 
use  in  the  latter  of  the  dramatic  uvaca,  extra  metrum. 
Both  epics  have  also  the  similar  phrase  vyahartum  upar 
cakrame,  e.  g.,  xii,  350,  15;  R.  vi,  115,  1;  vii,  51, 1.     See 

2so.  0<. 

15,  ajaghfino  'rasi  kruddhah,  vi,  61,  36;  R.  vi,  69,  152;  76,  29; 

passim  in  M.     See  1.  c,  No.  10,  p.  142,  and  note  to  No.  35. 

16,  aditya  iva  tejasa,  iii,  53,  2 ;  R.  vi,  55,  9 ;  aditya  iva  tejasvl, 

R.  V,  34,  28,  metrical.     See  No.  176. 

17,  filikhantam  iva  'kfu^am,  iv,  38,  3;  R.  vi,  99,  12. 

18,  avarta  iva  saiiijajile  balasya  mahato  mahan,  H.  iii,  60,  4; 

G.  vi,  32,  21;  avarta  iva  gafigasya  toyasya,  G.  v,  60,  16; 
asid  ganga  iva  'vartah,  M.  vii,  36,  13. 

19,  avista  iva  yudhyante,  vi,  40, 3;  avista  iva  kruddhas  te  (cakrus 

tumulam  uttamam),  G.  vi,  54,  64. 

20,  arlvisa  iva  kruddhah,  vii,  10,  31 ;  R.  v,  67,  7. 
asit  kila^,  aslc  catacata,  etc..  No.  334. 

21,  asl'l  raj.'i  Nalo  nama,  iii,  53,  1 ;  asId  rajaNimir  nama,  R.  vii, 

ui}f  4.     With  Ylrascna-suto  ball  at  the  end  of  the  first 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.       406 

▼erse,  compare  Dyuroatsenaaato  ball,  M.  iii,  294, 18;  sato 
ball,  R.  iii,  12,  2 ;  Ajodhyftj&ih  purft  rftjft  YuvanftQvasuto 
ball,  11.  vii,  67,  5 ;  Praj&patisato  ball,  K.  vii,  90,  23  (in 
G.,  'bhavat). 

22,  iti  me  niqciU  matih,  iii.  78,  6;  O.  ▼,  8,  25  (R.  ▼•  L);  68,  36 

(U.  V.  1.). 

23,  ity  asit  tumulah  qabdah,  vi,  119,  19;  ity  evain  t  q.,  G.  vi, 

19,  4  (R.,  evaiii  sutumulah  qabdah).  Compare  babhdva  t 
<;.,  M.  vi,  56,  22,  etc.;  K.  vi,  68,  17,  etc.;  samjajfte  t.  q., 
M.  vi,  4C,  17,  and  1.  c  No.  10,  p.  144,  ff.  Compare  Nob. 
82-K4. 

24,  idaiii  vacanam  abravit,  iii,  69, 17,  etc ;  R.  i,  26,  38 ;  it,  8,  1, 

etc.  Sometimes  tato  for  idam,  ix,  3,  51  (=  C.  176,  idam). 
About  forty  timea  in  RAm.,  unnumbered  in  Mbh.  See 
No.  237. 

25,  Indradhvaja  ivo  'ccbritah  (tato  nipatito  bhOmln),  ix,  17,  63 

and  often;  Indraketum  ivo  'cchritam,  ix,  4,  16;  Qakra* 
dhvaja  ivo  'cchritah,  R.  v,  i,  59.  Compare  utthftpyamftna^ 
^'akraAya  yantradhvaja  ivo  'ccbritah,  R,  ii,  77,9;  mahA- 
merum  ivo  'cchritam,  ix,  37,  20 ;  ubhftv  Indradhvaj&v  iva 
(l>oUituh),  ix,  12, 24;  dhvaj&v  iva  mahendrasya  (nipetatuh), 
H.  vi,  45,  17-18 ;  jagftma  vasudh&m  ksipram  ^akrasye  *r% 
miiliililhvajah,  G.  iii,  34,  25 ;  apatad  devarftjasya  muktara* 
qniiT  iva  dhvajah,  Ii.  iv,  17,  2;  Indradhvaja  ivo  ^tsrsfo 
yantninirmuktabandbavah  (pap&ta),  If.  vii,  93^  70;  yan« 
traiuukti  iva  dhvajah  (pap&ta),  M.  vii,  92, 72 ;  yantracyuta 
iva  dhvajah  (pap&ta),  G.  ii,  84,  8. 
Iiiilr.l4;ani,  No.  275. 

2.Mn  ihiii  *va  prftyam  ftjiiftye,  x,  11,  16;  R.  iv,  63, 19. 

2('s  uttistha  rAjan  kiih  <^mo,  xi,  2,  2 ;  G.  vi,  95, 37 ;  rftjann  uttiftha 
kiiii  (:«*s«s  (}.  ii,  81, 10 ;  uttifltho  'ttiRtha,  GtodhAri,  xi«  26, 
1  ;  uttistho  *tti8tha,  kim  ^m,  R.  vi,  111,  81  (preceded  by 
No.  45) ;  uttiHtbo  *ttistha,  bhadram  te,  M.  i,  172,  4;  R.  i, 
:i\  2;  preceded  in  Mbh.  by  nvioa  madhuram  vftkyam, 
iKith  whirh  compare  ix,  36,  60,  nviea  pamaani  vftkyam; 
tiruh  fluina<lhurftm  v&iilin,  R.  vii,  70|  1 ;  hhadrarii  te  being 
cum'nt  ad  nauseam  in  both  epiea. 
uv.lra  .  .  .  vftkyam,  No.  26. 

27,  I  k.'irit^ibhAvopagaUh,  xii,  337,  28;  ekantabhATtoofatl^  JL 
vii,  38,  6.    In  both,  of  the  mm  in  fjft^l^wtpk,  pveeaded 


406  APPENDIX  A. 

in  M.  by  tatra  N&r£lyanapara  m&nava^  candravarcasah;  in 
K.,  by  ananyamanaso  nityaih  N&rayanaparayanflh  tadft  rft- 
dhanasaktd^  ca  taccittfis  tatparS,yan&h  (ananyamanasah  is 
a  Gltd,  phrase,  9, 13,  bhajanty  ananyamanasah ;  8,  14,  ana- 
nyacetfth  satatam). 

28,  etac  chrutva  tu  vacanam,  vi,  48,  98 ;  G.  iv,  66, 19,  and  passim. 

29,  etat  te  kathitam  sarvam  and  (in  prior  pSda)  etat  te  sarvam 

akhyatam ;  ix,  46,  108 ;  G.  vi,  82,  167.  In  M,  preceded 
by  yan  mOm  tvam  pariprcchasi,  as  in  xii,  334,  40 ;  ziii,  14, 
139,  etc. 

30,  etasminn  antare  vlrah,  vi,  48,  96,  and  often;  E.  lii,  30,  37; 

vi,  50,  7 ;  vii,  28,  19 ;  G.  vi,  36,  99.  The  phrase  here  is 
etasminn  antare,  which  is  filled  out  with  various  words,  as 
RS,mah,  E.  vi,  111,  91 ;  tatra  or  tasya  (v.  1.),  E.  vi,  92,  68 ; 
kruddhah,  E.  vi,  100,  13 ;  krodliat,  102,  47.  Compare  also 
etasminn  antare  9unye,  M.  vii,  17,  7 ;  xii,  330, 1 ;  cfti  'va, 
vii,  19,  38;  QQrah,  ix,  28,  17;  G.  vi,  32,  16,  etc.  A  com- 
bi nation  of  this  and  tlie  next  (No.  31)  is  found  in  etasminn 
antare  kale,  <<  in  the  meantime,"  R.  vi,  20,  33. 

31,  etasminn  eva  kale  tu,  like  the  last,  a  standing  phrase,  e.  g., 

i,  149,  1 ;  iii,  64, 13 ;  168, 13 ;  298, 1 ;  v,  121,  9 ;  vi,  74, 36 ; 
ix,  61,  25;  xii,  328,  3,  etc.;  E.  i,  9,  7;  33,  11;  G.  21, 1, 
etc. 

32,  evam  uktah  pratyuvaca,  or  tathe  'ty  uktva,  vi,  69, 47 ;  vii,  202 

70 ;  ix,  35,  68 ;  G.  vi,  36,  102.  Compare  evam  astv  iti 
(with  pratyuvaca),  ix,  48,  b2\  G.  vi,  109,  18  (co  Vfica) ; 
(krtva  sa),  ib.  82,  bO. 

33,  kaksam  agnir  iva  jvalan,  ix,  24,  62 ;  kaksesv  agnir  iva  jvalan 

4,  36  (C,  kakse  'gnir  iva  samjvalan);  vanauy  agnis  ivo 
'tthitali,  E.  vi,  (S%  12;  kaksam  agnir  ivo  'tthitah,  G.  v, 
85,  24 ;  kaksesv  iva  hutaqanam,  G.  ii,  106,  26.  Compare 
also  (dahantam)  kruddham  agniih  yatha  vanam,  M.  vii,  21, 
30 ;  vanam  agniri  vai  'dhitah,  E.  ii,  63,  44,  where  G.  65^ 
39,  has  quskarii  kastham  iva  'nalah,  like  E.  v,  41, 11,  quskam 
vanam  iva  'nalah.  The  iva  'nalah  ending  is  common  to 
both  epics,  e.  g.,  dahan  kaksam  iva  'nalah,  M.  vii,  14,  1 
(followed  in  2  by  saksad  agnini  ivo  'tthitam,  C.  vrksam); 
tan  me  dahati  gatrani  quskavrksam  iva  'nalah,  M.  vi,  95,  7, 
etc.     See  also  Nos.  75,  99,  117,  196,  226,  256,  291. 

34,  kafikapatrair  ajihmagaih,  vi,  103, 11  and  often;  R«  vi,  62,  4. 


J 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.       40T 

Frequently  close  together  with  svarna,  rokma,  or  hema 
pufikhair  ajihmagftih,  ri,  114,  11;  tu,  18^  18^  hema;  O. 
vi,  19,  68.  In  O.  vi,  20,  28,  mkma^  ajihmigrftih,  metrical 
(v.  I.  in  R.).  The  common  terminal  ^arair  ajihmagaih  ii 
sometimes  inverted  in  jagatls,  as  in  O.  !▼,  30,  22,  though 
the  regular  qloka  order  is  also  found  in  this  jagati  metre^ 
ib.34,  34.    See  No.  234. 

35,  Kandarpa  iva  rOpena,  mOrtiman,  iii,  53,  15;  rOpavan  •  •  • 

kaudarpa  iva  martiman,  B.  v,  34, 30.  This  with  Aditja  iva 
tejasvl,  is  a  description  of  Rama,  28,  as  the  two  phrases, 
and  also  satyavfldi  (R.  29),  here  describe  Nala. 

36,  kampayann  ivamedinim,  ii,  29,  7;  viii,  34,58;  ix,  18, 26^  etc; 

kampayauq  ca  'pi,  ix,  30, 60;  sa  kampayann  iva  mahim,  iii, 
78,  3 ;  kampayann  iva  medinim,  O.  vi,  37,  101 ;  R.  vi,  56^ 
13;  67,  115;  kampayanti  'va,  O.  iii,  62,  31 ;  kampayanti 
'va  parvatiUi,  M.  vii,  181,  11 ;  calayann  iva  medinim,  R. 
iii,  67,  13;  darayann  iva,  R.  iv,  15,  5  (O.  kampayann); 
darayanu  iva  parvatiUi,  M.  iv,  46»  21;  nadayann  iva  medi- 
nim, G.  vi,  46,  91.  pdrayann  iva  medinim,  H.  iii,  73^  8 
(pQrayanto  diejo  da^  ix,  46,  77),  eto^  eta  For  di^  daga, 
800  Xo.  114. 
karaiii  kareiia,  No.  163. 
kaniayata,  No.  170. 

:;7,   kariuaiia  mauasa  vdca,  iii,  65,  32,  41 ;  ix,  50,  2 ;  xii,  327,  34 ; 
iiianasa  karmana  vai^a  caksusa  ca,  R,  vii,  59,  1,  24.    Com- 
pare Spniche,  IfiTtdft.,  2,222;  Dhammap.  301. 
kahliii  na  *rhati.  No.  196. 
kalpyatam  me  rathah.  No.  230. 

;w.   ka.s.ayIkrtalocanah,  "^am,  i,  102,  23;  131,  3;  O.  vi,  3$,  17;  87, 
(VS.    Ill  M.,  sakrodhamarsajihmabhrah  precedes  in  eaoh 
iiLsLancc.    Com|iare  Nos,  50,  51. 
ka.sy«\  '.si.     See  above,  p.  268. 

:\\\  k.irio;in(>NiilKinas  tatra  vetrajharjharapanayah,  vi,  97,  33; 
kailrukosnlsinas  tatra  vetrajbarjharapanayah,  R,  vi,  114, 
L'l .    Coni|»arc  it.  vi,  33, 10  and  13,  vetrajharjharapAnibhih. 

to,  kAiiiaUnaprapIditah,  i,  220,  7 ;  G.  iii,  61, 2  (R.  55,  2,  banaih); 
k.linal>.anabhisamUptah,  iii,  28(^  3;  kama^linavagal^^g«ta^;, 
IC.  vii,  8H,  12. 

11.  KAl:irakram  ivo  Myatam,  vii,  7,  31 ;  iva  *pafam,.0.  vi,  73^  8S 
(It,  93,  SO,  iva  prajah)  ;  kalsda^ai  ivt  *piiiam  (B^  iva 


408  APPENDIX  A. 

'ntakah) ;  G.  vi,  51,  89  =  R.  71,  85.  For  the  var.  lee., 
compare  s.  dandahasta,  Ko.  104,  and  kalaratrim  iv&'ntakah, 
E.  vi,  G9,  134.  Compare  kalard,trim  ivo  Mjat&m,  ix,  11, 
50;  °8uryam,  xiii,  14,  270. 

Kaladandopama  and  Kalapd^qopama,  No.  220. 

Kalananam,  No.  272. 

Kiilaratrim,  No.  41. 

42,  Kalrmtakayamopamah,  iii,  22,  31 ;  27,  2b ;  iv,  33,  25  ;  vi,  54, 

47 ;  G.  iii,  32,  5 ;  vi,  49,  3G ;  R.  vi,  57,  32 ;  60,  94 ;  82,  7 ; 
95,  41.  See  No.  220 ;  and  for  Kalantakopama,  see  Nos. 
104, 105. 

43,  Kalo  hi  duratikramah.    While  not  generally  including  in  this 

list  the  proverbs  common  to  the  two  epics,  I  enter  this 
particular  proverb  because  of  the  similar  environment  in 
imilm  avasthd,m  prapto  'smi,  Kalo  hi  duratikramah,  iz,  64, 
9  (C.  vai)  ;  so  'yam  adya  hatah  qete,  Kalo  hi  duratikramah, 
R.  iii,  68,  21.  For  the  rest,  compare  Am.  Joum.  Phil., 
vol.  XX,  p.  26,  and  add  (besides  the  above)  Kalo  hi  durati- 
kramah in  M.  ii,  46,  16;  also  H.  iii,  2,  30,  and  5,  36 ;  dai- 
vaih  hi  duratikrainam,  R.  vii,  50,  18 ;  daivaxh  tu,  ix,  65, 
31 ;  and  the  later  version,  lekha  hi  kalalikhitah  sanrathft 
duratikrama,  H.  iii,  2,  27. 

44,  kifikinijalasaihvrta,  ix,  23,  13,  ®aih  rathaih;  R.  vii,  23,  1,  2, 

^aih  nagaram.  Ordinarily  in  M.,  kinkinljalamalinam,  etc., 
i,  221,  45 ;  ii,  24,  18 ;  viii,  ^(j,  4 ;  in  R.,  kinkinlqatabhtlsita, 
vi,  102,  9 ;  but  I  cannot  say  whether  or  not  malin  appears 
in  H.  in  this  combination.     See  No.  113. 

45,  kim  mam  na  pratibhasase,  part  of  a  lament  (see  nttistha, 

above,  No.  20),  iii,  63,  9 ;  64,  19  ff.;"  xi,  20, 13-14;  R.iii, 
GO,  26;  vi,  111,  80  (doubled  in  G.  95,  36,  and  v.l.  37). 
In  R.  vi,  115,  \b  (=  G.  98, 12)  kim  ca  mam  na  'bhibha- 
saso,  V.  1.  as  in  G.  95,  37. 

46,  kuoalam  paryaprcchata,  ix,  34,  17 ;  R.  i,  52,  4. 

47,  krtakautukamafigalah,  i,  129,  24  ;  viii,  1,  11 ;  R.  i,  73,  9. 
kitapurvahnikakriyah,  No.  49. 

48,  krtva  karma  suduskaram,  vi,  14,  14;  vii,  8,  32;  R.  ii,  101, 

5;  vi,  76,  70;  G.  vi,  21,  11;  30,  37;  55,  36.  Variations 
are  naturally  many,  e.  g.,  karma  kurvanam  duskarain,  vi, 
105,  C;  krtam  karma  suduskaram,  R.  vi,  67,  55;  127,  47; 
G.  vi,  88,  17 ;  karma  kurvanti  duskaram,  R.  vi,  65,  4 ;  tat 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  I.V  THE   TWO  EPICS.        409 

krtva  duflkaratb  karma,  K.  ti,  126,  14;  karisyan  karma 
<lii8karam,  G.  it,  15,  20.  Similar  in  R.  are  mahat  karma 
krtiim  tvayA  and  krtatit  tvayft  kanaa  mahat  saduflkanun, 
G.  vi,  113,100andG.  ¥1,36,118,  respectively;  aho  mahat 
karma  krtam  nirartham,  R.  T,  48,  60;  eOdhu,  Laksmana, 
tiisto  'ami,  karma  te  aukitam  krtam,  0.  vi,  70,  80;  sudua- 
kamm  tu  tat  karma,  O.  It,  11,  7.  Somewhere  in  U.  iz 
(vorsc  lost)  occur  toother  the  two  phrases,  kitrft  na  su- 
skaraiii  karma,  gato  Vairaavataksayam  (So.  55). 

40,  Urtv.!  jtAurvShniklh  kriyah,  iii,  1G8,  2 ;  296, 10 ;  "kam  karma, 
K.  iii,  17,  2;  "kliii  kriySm,  R.  rii,  59,  1,  1;  krtaparrah- 
iiikakriyah,  viii,  1,  13;  R.  i,  35,  3  (with  the  phrase,  tae 
chriitvA  racanaih  tasya). 

ifO,  krotlhasatiirakt-inayanih,  i,  78,  35;  vii,  1,  19;  R.  i,  62,  15; 
().  V,  89,  1 ;  Ti,  76,  11.  In  M.  r,  9,  45,  united  with  idam 
vacanam  abravtt.     Sec  note  to  Ko.  61. 

T'l,  krixlhas-tiiirnktalocanJlli,  v,  178,  40;  vi.  100,62;  ix,42,  13; 
It.v.4l,I*.»;  vi,96.3;  kroilhltaam",  R.  Iv,  9, 22;  vi,dS,  1. 
Itnth  forms,  No.  50,  Xo.  51,  are  common  in  both  epics. 
They  are  tlie  aame  phraae  differentiated  according  to 
nii-trioal  requirements,  an«l  interchange  with  the  aimilar 
k'>[>:i-  anil  rosa-formn,  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  give 
in  ili'Liil.  Variants  are  common,  e.  g.,  krodhaparyftkulek^ 
ai,i:ili,  V-,  17S,  94;  (i.  iv.  15,  17;  often  united  with  another 
)ti-r:it-,  p.  (;.,  roMs.iniraktanayana  idam  vaeanam  abravll, 
(i.  iii,  .'17,  15;  saihraktsnayanah  krodhSd  (0.  kopid)  idam 
v;ir,-itiam  abravlt,  R.  vi,  59,  AG  =  O.  36,  33.  Compare  tarn 
kr<»Ih;ir:ikt.-inayanaiii  kurv.intam  bhrflkuHmukham,  G.  iv, 
.'t:t,  •!<>;  na  krtva  bhrOkutlm  raktre  roaasaihraktalocanah, 
t;.  vi.  SC,  4r>,  when*  R  102,  38,  has  aa  krtvl  bhrfikutliii 
lir:iM)i:i)i  kiiiicit  sariiraktalocanali.  See  Nob.  106,  123, 
I'.Hi,  I'.iS,  and  s.  V.  rW.,  where  they  aie  illustrated  aulfi. 
oi-i.tlv. 

:.J.  kr.'.:'t»('.m  knrarlm  iTa.i.6, 12;  G.  ii,68,43;  Kiv,  19,29; 
y  It  li.\,  V  i,  3'.',  3 :  phiral,  xi,  12,  10 ;  16, 18 ;  rarianta,  G.  ii, 
<•:.  K' :  iv.  ID,  4 ;  v,  18, 12 ;  R.  ri,  49,  9,  ete ;  kurarlm  iva 
v.>'::ttim,  M.  iii.  M.  2<).  That  in  G.  ii,  67, 16,  the  nnuaoa] 
form  kiirarr.is  trftnitA  iva  follows  the  exclamation  bt  nitha 
l.ft  iiirto  'si  'ti  in  12,  just  aa  hi  nltha  in  N.11,S3  followt 
kiirarim   iva  v^atlm  io  20  (above),  la  parbapa  worth 


410  APPENDIX  A. 

noticing,  especially  as  this  chapter  of  B.  6.  is  not  in  the 
Bombay  text  and  may  be  supposed  to  be  late.  The  corre- 
spondence is  not  remarkable  enough  to  prove  copyingi 
though  it  may  be  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Nala  passage, 
as  this  episode  is  well  known  to  the  later  K&m&yana. 

53,  ksitikampe  yatha  qailah,  vii,  174,  23;  yatha  'calah,  vii,  36» 

29 ;  ksitikampe  yatha  nagah,  G.  vi,  30,  30,  where  IL  has 
ksitikampa  iva  drum£lh,  56,  31.    See  No.  248. 
khuranemisvanena  ca,  Ko.  247. 

54,  gatapratyagat&ni  ca,  term,  tech.,  vii,  19,  6;  B.  vi,  107,  32. 

See  mandalS.ni,  No.  201. 
b^j  gato  Vaivasvataksayam,  or  uinye,  vii,  26,  53,  and  8.  krtvft 
karma,  No.  48,  above  ;  R.  vi,  82,  183. 

56,  gadam  adaya  virj-avan,  ix,  11,  49 ;  32,  37 ;  55, 24 ;  56, 27,  etc. ; 

R.  vi,  69,  33.  In  G.  vi,  49, 18,  vipulam.  See  1.  c.  No.  10,  p. 
142,  and  No.  80,  for  parallel  variants. 

57,  gamanayo  'pacakrame,  i,  151,  14 ;  B.  vii,  25,  51 ;  gaman&yft 

'bhicakrama,  R.  i,  77,  18  (G.  79,  4,  upa*').    See  No.  14. 

58,  Garudah  pannagaih  yatha,  viii,  87,  96 ;  R.  vi,  69,  6,  ®gan  iva, 

where  G.  48, 6,  has  ^'gaiii  yatha;  G.  vi,  46,  3  has  ^gOn  iva. 
Many  var.  lee,  e.  g.,  Garutman  iva. 

59,  garjantau  iva  toyadau,  ix,  ^^  38 ;  ^tam,  G.  vi,  3, 19 ;  garjanti 

na  vrtha  Qura  nirjala  iva  toyadah,  B.  vi,  65,  3.  See  No8. 
77,  217. 

60,  girih  prasravanair  iva,  iii,  279, 5,  with  cakara  rudhiram  bhuvi 

preceding ;  R.  vi,  67,  89,  with  raraja  Qonitotsiktah  preced- 
ing. G.  vi,  46,  75  has  giripra,  an  error.  Compare  Q.  ib, 
109,  girih  prasravanaih  yatha;  R.  vi,  67, 121,  girih  prasra- 
vanair iva.  In  B.  vi,  ^^  55,  gireh  prasravano  yatha,  where 
G.  32,  43  has  jalaiii  prasravanad  iva,  as  in  B.  vi,  45,  21, 
jalaiii  prasravanav  iva,  and  R.  vi,  88,  61. 
gairikam,  No.  318. 

61,  cakara  kadauiani  mahat,  vii,  21,  37;  R.  vi,  86,  24;  95,  50; 

G.  vi,  46,  108 ;  karomi,  M.  iv,  21,  2 ;  kurvanah,  ix,  61,  30 ; 
akari,  G.  vi,  49,  43 ;  krtva  ca,  G.  vi,  110,  50 ;  akarot,  M.  vii, 
32,  41 ;  ix,  44,  3 ;  cakara  kadanam  ghoram  (metre),  R.  vi, 
58,  24;  II.  iii,  60,  3;  kadanam  sumahat  cakruh,  R.  yi| 
55,  32. 

62,  caksurvisayam  agatah :  In  vii,  17,  14,  sa  no  distyft  'strasam- 

pannaQ  caksurvisayam  agatah;   R,  vi,  103,  19,  diftj-fl  'si 


PARALLEL  PHBASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.       411 


mama  mandatmanQ  cakf  umsayam  Agatah  (0. 88, 24,  mama 
durbuddhe). 

63,  candnisQryav  ivo  Mitftu,  ix,  68,  22 ;  O.  t,  S3,  25  =  69,  23 ; 
BQryacamlramas&v  iva,  M«  iii,  288,  26.    See  Nos.  33^  189. 
cay&ttAlaka,  Xo.  186. 

caled  dhi  Himavfln  Bthftnftt,  ii,  77, 35 ;  (jftilah,  ▼,  82,  48;  caled 
api  ca  Mandarah,  O.  v.  58,  9  (R.  59, 14,  Mandarah  pracaled 
api).    See  No.  153. 

65,  cftmlkaravibhQsitilm,  gadilm,  z,  9, 11 ;  e&pam,  K.  iii,  20,  6. 

G6,  cittiipramftthini  (bOla  deTftn&m  api)  fiiiu/arf,  iii,  53,  14;  trfti- 
lokya^9rifu/(frI  (kOntft,  sanra-)  cittapramftthini,  B.  yii,  87, 1, 
29  (compare  R.  ii,  10,  30,  mama  cittapramftthini).  As  said 
above,  the  Uttara  recogmizes  the  Nala,  and  this  (praksipta) 
may  be  imitation.  At  any  rate  it  may  support  pramftthini 
against  the  Mbh.  Bomb,  and  Calc.  reading  here,  cittaprasft- 
dunl,  which,  however,  is  found  in  zii,  133, 13,  janaoittapra- 
sAiIiiil ;  comi»aro  naracittapram&thibhih,  B.  i,  10,  4. 

67,  citraiu  laghu  ca  susthu  ca,  vii,  145^  77 ;  laghu  oitram  oa  sus^hu 
ca,  K.  vi,  88,  65. 

6S,  cintft  iiio  vardhate  'tlva  mumQrsA  eft  'pi  jftyate,  Karnasya 
nidhanaih'qrutvft,  viii,  9, 6;  cintft  me  vartata  tlvrft  mumOr^ 
'pi  ca  jAyato,  bhr&taraih  nihatam  d|s|vft|  B.  vi,  101, 7.  See 
No.  213.  *       • 

69,  cinUU^okaparAyanah,  vii«  1«  6;  xv,  16,  18;  O.  iii,  62, 17;  Tari- 

ants,  viii,  W,  58;  xv,  21,  7.    See  Koe.  27, 116, 161,  293. 

70,  chftye  *va  *nugatil  |iathi,  iii,  65, 57 ;  chftye  'vft  'nugatft  Bftmam, 

U.  vii,  a7,  3,  24,  after  rupenft  'pratimft  loke  (So.  236),  also 
a  Nala  plirose.    Compare  Na  66. 
chinnamnhi  iva  drumah.  No.  248. 

71,  chinnc  *va  kaiiall  vane,  xi,  17,  1,  nyapatad  bhamftn;  G.  vi,  8, 

Ti,  papAta  bhnmftu  (both  of  grief-stunned  woman)  s  B  vi, 

32,  r>,  but  here  jagama  jagatim  bftlA  chinnft  tu  kadall  yathft. 

Si'e  Nos.  Ul\  i;W,  ISO,  248. 
jarjarlkrt:!,  Nofi.  1H4,  235. 
jal.im  Hiuya  ivA  'nqubhih,  vi,  109,  33;  megham  tarya,  O.  ▼!« 

IS  4(»  (K.  43,  29,  karlir  megham  iTft  'nqomfto);  tama^ 

sarya  iva  *n(;ubhih,  M.  vii,  18,  24. 
jalaiii  prasravaiiA*!  iva.  No.  60. 
iriivaIv:iiiKlna«  No.  176. 
jataraiiaiiarifkrta,  No.  335> 


72 


412  APPENDIX  A. 

73,  jimata  iva  bbaskaram,  vi,  64,  44 ;  °tam  iva  ^ah,  G.  vi,  21,  43 ; 

Diharam,  E.  i,  55,  25 ;  toyad^  iva  bhaskarah,  G.  iv,  12,  24 
(papata).     See  No.  326. 

74,  jlrnOih  tvacam  ivo  'ragah,  xiii,  62,  69;  B.  iii.  5,  37;  sarpo 

jlinam  iva  tvacam,  xii,  2(j6y  15 ;  G.  vi,  21, 40 ;  tvacam  sarpa 
iva  'mucya,  M.  v,  40,  2.    See  Nos.  106, 139 ;  PraQ.  v,  5. 
jvalantam  iva  tejasa.  No.  176. 

75,  j valautam  iva  pavakam,  jvalanta  iva  pavakah  (and  jvalitft  iva), 

vi,  16, 12;  18,  6;  xi,  25,  16,  etc.;  R.  iii,  32,  5;  vi,  50,  36; 
70, 19 ;  95,  33 ;  G.  68, 36.  Compare  praj  valitam  ivo  'ikam, 
M.  v,  181,  5;  prajvalantam  iva  'nalam,  G.  iii,  18,  23; 
jvalantam  iva  pannagam,  M.  vi,  82,  36 ;  ix,  13,  21 ;  G.  iii, 
18, 39,  pannagaih  (l)ut  R.  12, 34,  pavakaih) :  also  parvatam, 
M.  vii,  80,  37,  apacyata  (on  fire  as  it  were).  See  Nos.  Ill, 
176,  226,  255.     For  iva  'nalah,  see  Nos.  33,  99, 196,  291. 

76,  jhillikagananaditam,  iii,  64,  i ;  R.  iii,  2,  3.    The  two  descrip- 

tions (of  a  fearful  forest)  are  similar  also  in  the  adjacent 
verses,  e.  g.,  nanapaksiganakirnam,  in  M. ;  nanamigaganiU 
kiniam,  in  R.     I  have  not  entered  others. 

77,  ta  enaih  ^aradharabhir,  dharabhir  iva  toyadah,  vii,  26,  54; 

athai  'naih  qaradharabhir,  dharabhir  iva  toyadah,  R.  vi,  71, 
92  (in  ]M.,  sisicuh ;  in  R.  abhyavarsata)  ;  abhyavarsat  tadft 
Ramaih  dhArabhir  iva  toyadah,  R.  vi,  100,  59;  vavarsa 
qaravarsena  dh.  i.  t.,  ^\.  vi,  58,  26.  Compare  mahendra  iva 
dharabhih  qarair  abhivavarsa  ha,  R.  vi,  56, 11.  See  Nos. 
59,  158,  217,  244. 
tatah  kilakila.  No.  3^1. 

78,  tatah  praj avitaij vena  rathena  rathinarii  varah.    This  hemi- 

stich  H.  3,  59,  5  and  also  G.  vi,  30,  6  (=  R.  56,  6,  but  here 
pracalitl(jvena).  The  prior  pada  in  M.  vii,  116,  30 ;  G.  iii, 
3;5,  27 ;  R.  vi,  95,  42  (with  rathena).     See  No.  287. 

79,  tatah  prabhate  vimale,  viii,  1,  9;  xiv,  64,  16;  R.  vii,  59, 1, 1, 

with  krtva  paurvahniklrh  kriyam  (No.  49) :  68,  2.  Com- 
pare prabhat(j  vimale  stirye,  R.  ii,  86, 24.  The  first  phrase 
is  in  tristubh  as  well  as  in  qloka,  loc.  cit. 

80,  tato  'nyad  dhanur  adaya,  vi,  48,  67;  G.  iii,  34, 16,  and  22.    In 

the  former  of  G.,  followed  by  pradlpta  iva  manjunft  (as  in 
!^^.  iii,  G.S,  13,  pradlpta  Va  ca  manyuna).  The  usual  phrase 
in  M.  begins  with  atha  'nyad,  e.  g.,  vi,  45,  33;  77,68;  114, 
28 ;  vii,  21, 17 ;  ix,  10,  34;  15,  21.    Compare  anyat  kftrmo- 


j 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.        418 

kam  fldaja,  and  so  'nyat  kArmokam  Adftya,  Ti,  45,  29;  110, 
40 ;  ix,  10,  4a,  etc ;  K.  u  cited  loo.  oit,  No.  56. 
tato  muhQrtain,  No.  214. 

81,  tato  halahalAQabdah  pritidah  samajAyata,  i,  58,  9;  tato  halar 

haliU^abdas  tumulah  saxuajAyata,  K  ii,  16, 33;  the  prior  pfida, 
M.  vii,  21,  2 ;  xi V,  74, 26 ;  K.  ii,  81, 14 ;  ?ii,  21, 24 ;  32, 33 ; 
96, 12 ;  G.  iii,  31, 41  followed  by  the  Ute  trait,  puoah  jfco/d- 
hiilo  niah&n  (not  thus  in  M.  or  R.) ;  O.  ii,  82, 13,  followed 
by  sumaliAu  samajftyata.    Compare  Ka  334. 

82,  tatra  'sit  suniahad  yuddliam  tumulam  lomaharsanam,  ri,  58, 

i;{ ;  K.  vi,  43,  16.  For  other  forms,  see  L  c.  Na  10,  p. 
144  fiF.  in  R.,  roma  for  loma,  but  according  to  Wintemitz, 
loc.  cit.,  these  forms  interchange  also  in  MSS.  of  M.  See 
Nos.  23,  83,  84. 

83,  tail  adbhutam  ivA  *bhavat,  iii,  167, 17  and  31 ;  v,  131,  25;  ri, 

47,  28 ;  M,  82;  vii,  7,  53  (with  ahUacakravad  rftjan)  ;  14, 
27  and  38;  21,  14;  ix,  12,  13;  xii,  334,  2  and  4  and  11, 
etc.,  etc  G.  i,  75,  28.  Compare  G.  iii,  33,  22,  tad  abhOd 
adbbutaiii  yuddhaiii  tumulam  lomaharsanam ;  B.  iii,  51,  3, 
tad  kibhOva  'dbhutam  yuddham ;  R.  vi,  102, 18,  tad  babhAu 
cA  'dbhutam  yuddham  .  .  .  romaharsanam ;  If.  zi,  16,  4, 
raiiAjiram  nnrlrAiiAm  adbhutam  lomaharsanam  ;  ix,  15,  28, 
titrA  *dbhutam  a|)a(^*Ama,  and  15, 41,  tatrA  Mbhutam  param 
r:ikro.  In  M.  iii,  76, 41,  tail  adbhutatamam  drstvA;  R.  vii, 
79,  1,  tad  adbhutatamam  vAkyam  qrutvA.  See  also  Kos. 
Sl>,  81,  110. 

H4,  tail  yudilham  abhava<I  ghoram,  vii,  16,  12  (snmahal  loma- 
)i:irs.in:Lin) ;  (i.  vi,  58,  34  (in  R.,  79,  23,  Utra  for  ghoram). 
M.  .'kMh  (b'vAiiAm  iva  dAnavAih,  wherewith  compare  R«  vi, 
71),  1\  t^itah  pravrttaih  snmahat  tad  yuddham  lomaharsanam 
.  .  .  di'van.iiii  (lAnavAir  iva.  See  Nos.  82  and  83. 
t.ij •.111 tain.  No.  175. 

sr».  Ui.t.ikAfl.-;in;ibJiasan.\h,  xii,  326,  34 ;  R-  iv,  17, 2;  G.  v,  24, 24 
(li.'iT.ik.i,  K.  iv,  3,  18);  pr«»ceded  in  M.  by  sOksmaraktAm- 
b:ir-iti)i:ir;ih,  in  G.,  by  raktAmbaradharah  ^rlmAns.  See 
No.  L'so. 

HG^   t.irn  :iiit:ik.im  iva  knijilham,  vii,  8, 11  (Apatantam) ;  R.Tt,56; 
IM  f^alrutam).     See  Nos.  104-105. 
t'i!ii:ili  sOrva  ivA  Virubhih,  No.  72. 

87.   Urn  ApatanUiu  sahasA,  vi,  116,  49  and  80;  B.  TiiflB^SS;  108^ 


414  APPENDIX  A. 

4.  Farther  examples,  1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  141.  regena  in  prior 
pada,  B.  vi,  76,  36,  etc. 

88,  taiii  dlptam  iva  kd.lagQim,  yii,  15,  5 ;  sa  dipta,  R«  ▼,  67,  12. 

Compare  kal&gnir  iva  mtlrtiman,  B.  vi,  95,  3. 

89,  tam  mumocayisur  vajrl,  i,  227,  9;  tarn  mumocayisom  Tirab, 

G.  vi,  80,  2i. 

90,  taninfldityasadrQdih  qanag&uraiQ  ca  vanarftih,  iii,  284, 28 ;  tam- 

nddityavarnd,iQ  ca  QaqigaurOiQ  ca  vanaraih,  B.  iv,  39, 13. 
talam  talena,  No.  163. 

91,  tasthau  girir  iv&  'calah,  vi,  94,  22 ;  vii,  15,  7 ;  sthitam  qftilam 

iva  'calam,  G.  vi,  79,  49 ;  sthitam  qailam  ivft  'suram  and 
V.  1.  sthitam  qailam  iva  'param,  B.  iv,  48, 17  =  G.  48, 18. 
In  M.  another  standing  phrase  is  tasthftu  Menir  ivA  'calah, 
vi,  48,  34;  63,  8.  Another  iva  'calah  phrase  is  ^Ighro 
vayur  iva  'calam  (na  'kampayata),  M.  vii,  14,  36;  TAyuve- 
gair  iva  'calah  (na  prakampante),  B.  iii,  67,  8.  See  Nos. 
218,  240. 

tasthau  mrtyur  iva,  Nos.  104-105. 

tasmin  jite  and  hate,  No.  328. 

92,  tasmin  vimarde  tumule,  i,  101,  9 ;  vimarde  tnmule  tasmin,  B. 

vi,  43,  46 ;  tasmin  pravrtte  tumule  vimarde,  B.  vi,  69,  66. 

93,  tasya  tad  vacanam  Qrutva,  ix,  33,  56;  56,  42;  65,  21,  etc; 

B.  iii,  69,  46,  etc.;  G.  vi,  37,  21,  etc.;  rarer  is  tasya  tad 
bhasitam  qrutva,  M.  vii,  19,  22 ;  G.  iv,  38,  17.  The  first 
and  tac  chrutva  vacanam  tasya  are  found  passim  in  both 
epics  (tasya,  tasyah,  tesam,  tayos,  etc. ;  1.  o.  No.  10,  p.  144). 

94  and  95,  (a)  tasyaih  ratryam  vyatltayara,  iii,  150,  1 ;  176,  1 ; 
299, 1,  etc.;  B.  iv,  64, 11 ;  G.  ii,  82,  1 ;  atha  rfttryam,  6.  ii, 
67,  3;  V,  1,  12;  atha  ratryam  pravrttayOm,  B.  vii,  67,  1; 
atltayaih  ca  qarvaryara  udite  stlryamandale,  M.  v,  35, 12 ; 
vyatltayam  tu  qarvaryam  adityasyo  'daye  tatah,  R.  ii,  67, 
2;  vyatltayara  rajanyaih  tu,  M.  ix,  8,  1;  rajany&m  tu  pra- 
bhauiyam,  K.  vii,  99, 1  (G.  106,  1,  sa  rajanyOm  prabhatft- 
yam)  ;  (b)  prabhatayam  tu  qarvaryam,  M.  iii,  2, 1 ;  B.  ii, 
52,  1 ;  54,  36 ;  vyustayam  cai  'va  qarvaryam,  xv,  10,  63 ; 
tato  raj.  vyust,  11, 1 ;  similar  is  G.  i,  30, 1. 

90,  tarajalam  iva  'mbare,  viii,  27,  35;  G.  vi,  68,  19;  in  M.  of 
decapitation;  in  B.  of  breastplates  I 

97,  tistha  tisthe  'ti  ca  'bravit,  vi.  111,  41  and  45  and  often  (I.e. 
No.  10,  p.  142) ;  B.  vi,  79,  37 ;  ca  'vadat,  M.  iv,  33,  24;  dl 


i 


PARALLEL  PBBASBS  IK  TBB  TWO  EPICS,       416 

'braran,  Q.  i,  4d,  25 1  calcrDc^a,  lb.  il,  39,  M.  United  wtlli 
the  phrase  <No.  ft)  obhidodrATa  rcgena,  in  M.  ri,  lOt,  9. 

98,  tuHflrflvrUunanilaUm,  u,  iSS,  7  (parvBcaodmn  itk  r^omnf)  \ 

tuitOrenflvitaii)  s&bhrftm  pflrpaouidmpnbhfttn  iva,  O.  i,  fiO, 
16  (R.  49,  15,  B&tDsftrftvTUia.  Onupare  por^acamlma  iro 
'liitaiu,  R.  iv,  10, 3.    Compare  Ho.  109. 

99,  totflribjim  ivA  'uUa^  tI,  70,  32  (lyadhaiDat) ;   vii,  ^I,  2.1 

(vyadhamat)  i  B.  vL,  88,  7  (vldhamiajranU) ;  (fN«riU;im  tv« 
'naUh,  O.  vi,  64, 26  (WdhwDifjanti) ;  t^nn-.  ih,  67,  8  (vU 
dbamisyaati)  =  B.  88,  7.  toli"  (abow).  In  the  formor 
paaaage,  B.  has  Um  verb  but  not  tha  aimLlv.  6qo  Koa. 
33,  75, 196,  291. 

100,  trnam  autaiatah  kitrll,  iU,  281,  17  -,  B.  iii.  At,  1  -,  r,  21,  a 

Cunipan)  tnilVrtjaea  Ud  rakaab,  B.  ri,  40, 9;  ■arhgatan, 
M.  i,  !89,  8;  natrA  trnena  tA£j  tuljrkn,  M.  ri,  113,  30) 
tf^arat  tin  apograta,  O.  ir,  48,  19. 
tr^art^m,  ^o.  99. 

101,  tra&il?  kflpa  irft  'rftAl^  lU,  207,  A9;  kilpa  ira,  R.  tU,  46,  10; 

O.  W,  10,  17.  la  H^  adhansa  dharma-rflpRpa ;  in  B. 
(abUaryo  bbavjarflpe^a)  ta  pftpa«  tena  rfliwiua,  aod  dhar- 
tiuTiitanatka^  (tb«  nne,  B.  it,  17, 22,  with  the  bracketed 
worda  alio  In  38).  abo  Khb.  piinae  (fW.J. 

101b,  to  vii  uifayagAuOtw^  xlQ,  33,  60IL;  B.  lanre  n^  Ir,  17, 
36  (Btfflilar  lUt). 

103,  totrft  'rdita  in  dvipal^  vi.  U.  60;  vil,  146,  SS;  U,  SI,  16; 
S3,  21 ;  O.  ii,  39,  43  (v.  1.  in  B.,  tolrUr  auana^).  6m 
Koa.  149,  213. 

103,totrtirifaniah&ilrlpan,<rt.lOI,13;  ix,  13.29;  R.iU,28,10; 
totrtir  ira  mahftcajaiD,  H.  ri,  HI,  7. 
trian  Inkamt,  \o.  252. 

lOi-lUS,  (a)  I  dan^nliaata  irt  'otaka^  (and  aae.),  ri,  303,  36-, 
Tii,  IS,  ft;  *iH.29,30;is,  a36,«te.;  0.vl.aS,S8}  lil. 
S3,  17;  34,  II  (whsra  It.  38,  ]l,  haa  pi^ahMtain);  da^ 
^pi^ir  ivt  'nukab.  M.  \r,  32,  6C;  ri,  48,  90;  62,  66; 
dhanitrdan4am  ir«  'ntakah,  O^  ir,  31,  II  (R.,  dhaanh 
klllntakopaniah).  Kmllar  aod  in  part  intvrchaDfeable 
am  the  phtam  (b) ;  pAqaliaata  i*t  'ntakah,  ri,  ll>9,  II ; 
Tii,  .■«,  S3;  la,  12,  3;  R.  ill,  30^  15;  vl.  53.  2.'.;  G.  ri, 
S9.  30;  Til,  2K,  21.  In  G.  ri,  46,  36,  p4Qaha*to  >atUl 
Vama^  wImm  B.  07,  38^  baa  fi^iTiartB  hft  "tfaka^. 


416  APPENDIX  A. 

The  epithet  is  used  of  Varunay  E.  iii,  12,  19;  iv,  42,  45, 
=  G.,  43,  58  (nilayah  p^Qahastasya  Varunasya).  Com- 
pare M.  vi,  112,  41,  dahati  vfti  mahScamOm  yaddbesu 
sadrqas  t&ta  Yamasya  Varunasya  ca.  Compare  also  sftk- 
sat  kalantakopamah,  M.  iii,  157,  50;  sthitah  k&lftntako- 
pamah,  R.  vi,  88,  2;  qaraih  kalantako®,  G.  vi,  45,  19; 
saksat  kala  iva  'ntakah,  G.  iv,  14,  2o\  tasthaa  mrtyur 
iva  'ntakah,  M.  vii,  16,  38.  For  kaladandam  iva  'ntakah, 
see  Ko.  41.     See  also  Nos.  42,  86,  220,  250,  272. 

106,  dandahata  ivo  'ragah,  ix,  14,  40 ;  B.  vi,  54,  33.  The  Qloka 
in  M.  is  worth  noticing  in  its  entirety:  cukopa  samare 
Drauiiir  |  dandahata  ivo  'ragah  |  triqikham  bhnikutlm 
krtva  I  srkkini  parisamlihan,  where  c  =  ix,  32,  46  a; 
and  srkkini,  etc.,  is  a  frequent  phrase.  No.  320;  that 
is,  the  whole  qloka  consists  of  iterata  except  for  the 
first  words.     See  No.  150,  ad  finem. 

107;  dadarqa  Dvarakaih  viro  mrtanatham  iva  striyam,  xvi,  5,  4; 
dadrqus  te  tada  Lankam  .  .  .  narim  iva  mumOrsatlm, 
G.  vi,  15,  27. 

108,  darqayan  panilaghavam,  vi,  48,  66 ;  54,  73 ;  69,  22 ;  62,  28 

(C.  2,  743,  hastalaghavam) ;  vii,  145,  70 ;  ix,  26,  30 ;  R. 
vi,  99,  20;  G.  36,  55.  Compare  darqayan  viryam  at- 
manah,  M.  vii,  14,  57 ;  d,  svaparakramam,  vi,  100,  34,  etc. 

109,  darqaya  'tmanain  atmana,  iii,  64,  57;   smara  eft  'tmanam 

atmana,  E.  vii,  37,  5,  47.  Better  parallels  might,  I 
think,  be  shown,  but  I  have  at  hand  only  Gita,  6,  5. 

110,  Daqagrlvasya  paqyatah,  iii,  290,  4;   E.  vi,  41,  89.     This 

type,  especially  in  M.,  is  common.  Compare  vii,  17,  7, 
l3rstadyumnasya ;  ix,  11,  13,  Dharmarajasya ;  ix,  16,40, 
Bhimasenasya ;  xi,  14,  19,  Vasudevasya;  E.  vi,  38,  12, 
tasya  Kamasya  paqyatah.  But  the  M.  type  sarvalokasya 
paqyntiih,  which  occurs  repeatedly,  e.  g.,  vi,  48,  69;  58, 
44;  ix,  5,  7,  and  sarvasainyasya  paqyatah,  e.  g.,  vii,  18, 
28 ;  sarvaksatrasya  paqyatali,  ix,  7,  24 ;  14,  37,  is  found 
in  E.,  if  at  all,  only  as  a  rarity.  I  have  noted  G.  vi,  93, 5, 
(Kamam)  lokasya  paqyatah ;  G.  vi,  20f  35,  pa^atam 
sarvaraksasam ;  vi,  121,  16,  sarvesam  eva  qrnvatam.  In 
M.  these  correspond  rather  to  paqyatam  sarvasainyanftm, 
vii,  144,  20;  195,  9;  paqyatarii  sarvayodhanam,  vii,  14^ 
70  (with  dar9.  paniv..  No.  108) ;  sarvalokasya  qrnvatah. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.       417 

ix,  31,  27 ;  pai^jaUm  sarrftiftiiiyaiiAm  (tad  adbhutam  iTA 
'bhavat,  No.  83),  iz,  10,  60. 

111,  didhaksann  iva  pftvakah  vi,  94,  7  (krodhent  'bhiprajaJTila, 

also  phrase  of  M.) ;  didhaksur  iva  pAvakah,  zi,  12*  13 ; 
aco^  G.  iv,  38,  15  (with  jAjvalyamftnam  kopenai  phrase. 
No.  176).    See  also  Nos.  75,  226^  26S. 

112,  divl  'va  'bhrani  m&rutah  (vyadhamat),  vii,  30,  35 ;  mahA* 

bhrAnI  'va  m&rutah  (vidhaman),  &  Yi|  96^  4 ;  the  same 
with  karsan,  G.  vi,  49,  58. 

113,  divyftbharana  (and  sarvAbharana)  bhtl^t&(h) ;  lajjamAne  'ra 

lalanA  diyyAbharanabhOsitA,  i,  152,  22;  diTyaratoAm- 
baradharo  divyAbharanabhQsitah,  ii,  9,  6;  divyamAlyAin- 
baradharo  divyAbharanabhtlsitah,  ▼,  122»  2;  the  prior 
also  vi,  35,  11,  and  here  also  divyagandhAnuIepanah, 
with  which  compare  divyasraganulepana,  in  the  same 
stanza  with  the  titular  pAda,  B.  vi,  60,  44  (also 
G.  vi,  112,  8) ;  divyamAlyavibhOsitftm  divyAmbaiap 
dharaiii  devim,  iv,  6,  4;  krsnaraktAmbaradharA  .  •  • 
div}'akun(.lalasampannA  divyAbharanabhOsitA,  zii,  268^ 
16;  divyarQi>asamAyuktA  divyAbharanabhA^tA^  divya- 
mOlyAmbaradharAh,  zv,  33,  23;  sarvAbharanabhOsitiy 
iii,  53,  12;  277,  19;  in  G.  iii,  15,  14-15,  diVyAbhar^* 
nabhQsit&h  .  .  .  lalanAh  (as  in  H.  above);  divyA*,  G. 
iii,  23,'  42;  R.  i,  16,  13;  v.  24,  26;  vi,  60,  44;  divy. 
AfigaragAih  VAidchlih  divyAbharanabhA^itftm,  114,  7; 
sarva''  11.  i,  73,  9,  where  G.  75,  9  has  mabArhAmbara> 
bhasanAih;  U.  iii,  47,  31;  G.  iii,  25,  15;  B.  vi,  47, 
9;  rA\  44,  without  similar  neighboring  pAdas.  Com- 
pare also  nAnAbharanabhOsite,  H.  vi,  SBS^  0;  sarvA- 
bharananaddhAiigah,  v.  1.  sarvAbharanasarvAngah,  B. 
vi.  To,  ;n,  where  G.  44,  24  has  ^citrflngah;  sarva  ^sam- 
yiikta  and  ^sampanna,  H.  i.  153;  14;  O.  iv,  44,  106, 
n'sjiectivcly.  The  form  with  divyA*,  Baghav*  z,  11. 
H.  is  generally  content  with  the  pAdai  M.  often  adds, 
as  aU)vo,  similar  pAiIas.  See  No.  44. 
divy  ail)  ,aly.ambara.  No.  113. 

114,  dirai;  ra  (pra  and)  vidi^aq  cAi  *va:  ii,  88,  26;  H.  S,  127, 

VJ7;  Ci,  vi.  W,  28  (where  B.  106,  SO  has  pradiqah 
sarvah) ;  vidi<;a8  UthA,  G.  iii,  28,  41  (where  B.  2%  2S 
has  diqah  sapradiqai  talliA){  0.  vi,  M^  98  (wbeve  K 


418  APPENDIX  A. 

79,  28  has  diqaQ  ca  pradiQas  tathft).  The  shorter  ter* 
minal  diQO  daqay  vii,  20,  62  (etc.,  often);  B.  vi,  75,  38; 
G.  V,  ^j  13;  G.  vi,  77,30  (G.  93,  1;  R.  116,18  =  0. 
100,  18,  not  terminal;  the  last,  da^  diqo).  In  C.  to 
ix,  16,  17,  the  same  v.  1.  as  above  in  £.,  namely,  vidi- 
QOQ  c&i  'va  in  BM. ;  pradiqaq  cai  'va  in  C.  769.  See  also 
under  No.  36. 
116,  distya  distye  'ti  ca  'bruvan,  i,  129,  31 ;  abravlt,  G.  iv,  10, 23. 

116,  dlnOQ  cintaparOQ  cdi  Va,  ii,  49,  4 ;  tataQ  cintaparft  dinfi,  iii, 

64, 2 ;  dlnfi^  cintaparftyanfth,  G.  vi,  74, 6  (=  E.  94, 4,  ^pari- 
plutah)  ;  iti  cintaparo  "bhavat,  E.  vii,  79, 12.  See  Kos.  69, 
161,  293. 

117,  diptam  agniqikham  iva,  iii,  63,  36 ;  vii,  14,  78;  E.  i,  49, 14; 

vi,  118, 17 ;  vii,  30, 29 ;  G.  vi,  80, 20,  where  E.  100, 19  has 
pradlptam  aqanlm  iva ;  diptav  iva  hutaQanau,  E.  vi,  97, 
25.    See  No.  33. 

118,  diptasyan  uragan  iva,  v,  151, 26 ;  180, 7 ;  G.  iii,  69, 24  (instr.). 

See  Nos.  74, 106, 141, 160. 

119,  dirgham  usnam  ca  nihqvasya,  ix,  4,  61 ;  32,  8 ;  z,  1,  4 ;  G. 

vi,  34,  1 ;  99,  6,  where  E.  114,  6  has  sa  dirgham  abhinih- 
Qvasya.  This  phrase  appears  in  a  variety  of  forms,  very 
likely  in  more  than  I  have  noted.  The  prevailing  type 
is  the  titular  one  above.  Compare  the  variant  in  C.  238 
to  ix,  4,  51  (above),  dirgham  usnam  ca  ni^vasam  mumoca 
ca  mumoha  ca  (B.  quqoca  ca  mumoha  ca) ;  a  form  not 
unknown  in  E.,  dirgham  usnam  ca  ni^vasam  vimuficantam 
muhur  muhuh,  G.  iv,  33,  41.  This  is  followed  (the  next 
verse  I)  in  M.  by  ix,  5,  1,  nihqvasya  dirgham  nsnam  ca 
tilsnlm  asit ;  sa  for  ca  in  ix,  2,  55  (but  C.  109,  ca) ;  like 
the  form  above  in  E.,  M.  iii,  313,  3,  sa  dirgham  usnam 
nihqvasya,  qokabaspapariplutah  (phrase,  see  Nos.  120, 
190)  ;  E.  V,  34,  13,  abravid  dirgham  ucchvasya,  where  G. 
31,  33  has  dirgh.  us.  ca  nihqvasya;  E.  vi,  96,  2,  sa  ta 
dirgham  vinihqvasya,  where  G.  75,  3,  as  before,  followed 
by  muhartam  dhyanam  asthitah  (phrase,  compare  Na 
214).  The  likeness,  when  given,  is  to  snake  or  elephant. 
Thus  G.  iv,  33,  41  (cited  above)  continues:  knpitam 
saptaqirasaih  jvalaruddham  ivo  'ragam ;  ih.  33,  31-32, 
nihqvasya  dirgham  usnam  ca  kopad  raktftntalocaiiah 
babhava  nara(^ardQlo  vidhtlma  iva  pavakah  (phxasey 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.        419 

No.  255)  tarn  diptam  iva  k«1lilgnim  nftgcndram  iva  kopU 
taiu;  35,  maheudram  iva  durjajam  (a  fine  mixture!). 
The  turn  dirgham  usnaiii  ca  nihqvasan  is  so  common  that 
in  0.  ii,  15,  7  it  stands  for  the  accusative!  uih^vasantaih 
yatha  nagaiu,  dirgham  usiiaiii  ca  nihqvasan  (rectified  with 
V.  1.  in  11.).  For  other  corresponding  phrases,  see  below. 
Nos,  i;W,  141-143,  205. 

120,  duhkhamohapariphitah  (v.  1.  (^okamoha,  duhkha^ka,  <;oka- 

bilspa,  basjjaroka),  U.  ii,  00,  29;  G.  108,26;  10,33;  ('. 
vii,  00,  etc.;  tasthAu  rokapariplutah,  M.  iii,  70,  46;  duh- 
khaookasamanvitah,  M.  iii,  70,  22 ;  xiv,  77, 17;  xv,  21, 1 ; 
xviii,  2,  31  ;  K.  vii,  74,  1 ;  ^pariyanah,  xv,  10,  18.  Th«» 
ending  0(*curs  in  all  sorts  of  phnises,  e.  g.,  (,*onit1ugha- 
j>ariplutah,  vi,  103,  10.  ]Vs  v.  L  for  C.  (above)  is,  vii. 
3,  8,  baspavyakulitlksaram.     See  Nos.  137,  100. 

121,  dustahastl  'va  hastipan,  viii,  53,  17;  R.  vi,  07,  131. 

122,  deva  iva  rataknitum,  iii,  78,  33;  devair  iva  qatakratuh,  <i. 

vi,  02,  80.    The  situation  is  the  same,  king  restored  to 

I)CO]>Ie;  omitted  in  U,  (Komliay). 
dov.lnilm  (ivn)  d.lnavaih  (iva).  No.  84. 
driiv:ini  •  .  .  durritikramam,  No.  43. 

123,  dviKunIkrtavikr.iniah,   vii,    10,  0;    G.  vi,  82,  170.     Them 

follows    IxiddhvA    ca    bhnikutTih    vaktro    (M.   10)  ;    sa 

baddhva  bhnikutiih  vaktn*  (it.  180).    On  these  phrasts 

set'  Nos.  51,  108.    Comjaro  K.  vi,  100,  26,  vimukhlkr 

tavikniin.ih. 
121,   dvitlya  iva  (s"ivrirah,  otc),  ix,  30,  5.j,  etc. ;  IL  vi,  4,  104  ;  20. 

41  :  pAvakah,  ix,  40,  M;  xiii,  14,  27S. 
ilhiLiiunlainlam,  Nos.  1<>4-1<C>. 
llTi,    tlliamirvtMlr  ra  vrdo  co,  i,  U^X  10,  etr. ;  <S.  v,  32,  9,  etc. 

illiArriMiir  iva  tovailali,  N«n  77. 
120,   xi;i  k'llasya  j»riyah  kaf;rin  na  dvcHvah,  Kurusattama,  xi.  -. 

2.'I :  na  k:d;isya  i»riyah  kai^cin  na  «lvesyt)  *sti,  Kaplrvar.i. 

(J.  iv.  IS,  I'S.    (\>m]»are  Giui,  0,  20,  na  me  dvcsyo  'ati,  ua 

i>rivali,  Nos.  43  :inil  131. 
127,  na  ra  tin  yudilhav.ainiukhyaih  rramaih  vilpr  upajagmatuh; 

ropird  H.  1.  51,  40  from  U.  vi,  88,77  =  0.68,37;  almost 

tl;e  sanjo  in  H.  2,  30,  25. 
12^,   na  tvaiii  qocitum  arluisi,  %-i,  20,  27,  etc.;  R.  It,  7,  14  ;  O.  iii. 

71,  10  (v.  L  in  K.»  vyathitam),  etc. ;  numy  oooumnces 


420  APPENDIX  A. 

and  many  v.  1.,  e.  g^  G.  iii,  71, 11,  Qocitum  nftrhase  dera 
(=  Kama),  where  BB.  has  vlra.    See  No.  147. 

129,  nanu  n&ma  mahar&ja,  iii,  63,  4;  mah&bftho,  B.  yi.  111,  3. 

Compare  M.  iii,  64, 19,  nanu  nftmft  'ham  istft  tava,  and  G. 
iv,  24,  37,  tave  'sta  nanu  nSmfli  't&h  (B.  has  nanu  efti  'va). 
Kamuci,  No.  250. 

130,  na  hi  qaksyftmi  jivitum,  iii,  249, 20 ;  nfti  'va  qakyftmi  jivitum, 

G.  ii,  17,  32 ;  na  hi  qaknomi,  G.  v.  26,  23.    See  No.  134. 

131,  nft  'kale  vihito  mrtjuh,  na  'praptakalo  mriyate,  iii,  63,  7 ; 

65,  39 ;  akale  durlabho  mrtyuh,  B.  v,  25,  12 ;  na  'kala- 
mrtyur  bhavati,  G.  v,  28,  3.  Compare  iz,  64, 10  and  xi, 
2,  5,  kalam  prapya  mahabaho  (maharaja)  na  kaQcid  ati- 
vartate.  See  Nos.  43  and  126.  The  (new)  lefeiences 
here  given  to  M.  are  to  be  added  to  those  in  Joum.  Phil., 
vol.  XX,  pp.  25-26,  where  will  be  found  other  parallels. 

132,  nagah  .  .  .  siddhaQ  cakracaras  tatha,  iii,  85, 72 ;  nagah  •  .  . 

cakracara^  ca  siddhah,  B.  v,  48,  23  (^'  the  sun  and  other 
heavenly  bodies  "  are  the  blessed  cyclists). 

133,  nagendra  iva  nihqvasan,  ix,  32,  38 ;  bhujamga  iva,  B.  y,  22, 

30.     See  Nos.  119, 141-143,  205. 

134,  na  'ham  jivitum  utsahe.     This  is  a  commoner  form  than 

that  above  in  No.  130.  It  occurs  repeatedly,  e.  g.  iv,  19, 
13 ;  vii,  24,  11 ;  x,  4,  26 ;  xvi,  8,  23 ;  B.  v,  26,  4  (=  G. 
V,  26,  33,  V.  1.) ;  vi,  116, 18 ;  G.  ii,  80,  9 ;  vi,  24, 18 ;  with 
many  variations,  e.  g.,  katham  jivitum  utsahe,  G.  vi,  34,  8, 
and  above  in  No.  130. 

135,  nikrtta  iva  kimqukah,  xiii,  30,  43;  B.  vi,  67,  29;  padapfth, 

R.  iv,  17,  1 ;  G.  ii,  45,  5 ;  G.  iii,  31,  48 ;  etc.    See  Nos. 

71,  136,  1G8. 
130,   nikrtta  kadall  yatha,  iii,  201,  14 ;  G.  ii,  17,  22  (=  B.  20,  23» 

patitam  kadallin  iva).    See  Nos.  71,  135, 180. 
nityaih  dharmaparakramah.  No.  293. 
nipapata,  No.  148. 

137,  nimagnah  9okasagare,  vii,  1,  11;  193,  34;  B.  iv,  20,  9  (com- 

pare 10,  34);  G.  ii,  37,  22  (B.  prapanna).  Compare 
duhkhasagarasampluta,  G.  vi,  9,  7 ;  patita  t^kasagare,  B. 
vi,  111,  31 ;  G.  vi,  95,  20,  and  34.     See  Nos.  120, 190. 

138,  nimesantaramatrena,  iv,  64,  28;  v,  15,  31;  xii,  334,  21, 

etc. ;  R.  iv,  39, 11 ;  v,  62,  36;  vi,  44,  19;  45,  16;  G.  Ti, 
13,9. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS. 

139,  nirmaktaT  ira  pannagfiu,  vii,  136,  29 ;  inst  pi.,  ix,  IS,  40 ; 

fern.  8g.,  G.  vi,  34,  23 ;  nirmuktftu  bhajagftr  ira,  O.  (ref. 
lost).    See  Nos.  74, 140, 160,  243. 

140,  nirmokam  iva  pannag^  rii,  168,  5;  R.  vi,  83,  33;  G.  t,  3, 

45 ;  pannago  yatbfl,  G.  ii,  91, 12.    See  Noe.  74, 139. 

141,  Dihc^vasann  arago  yatbA,  vi,  121, 10 ;  is,  64|  5 ;  B.  ri,  51, 18 ; 

jihinaga  iva,  iz,  1,  49  (C  pannaga);  iva  pannagah  H.  ii, 
65,  42;  yadvat  for  yathA  (metre),  vii,  193,  70;  papfttsi 
bhuvi  samkruddho  nihQ.  iva  pannagab,  &  ii,  74,  36.    See 
Nos.  118, 119, 133»  139, 142, 143, 150.' 
niflpiHya,  No.  163. 

142,  nihqTasantam  panah  punab,  vii,  16,  30 ;  O.  ri,  66,  77  (dual, 

gajftv  iva)  ;  R.  vi,  76,  81  (v.  1.  of  laat,  gajAv  iva)  nibfva- 
saiitAu  mubur  mubuh;  as  in  G.  ii,  110,  14  (sg.),  wbile 
bere  R.  ii,  101,  15  baa  punab  pnnah.    See  Nos.  141, 143. 

143,  nibqvasaxitaih  yatb&  n&gam,  vi,  106,  71 ;  xii,  224,  1 ;  R.  vi, 

49,  1,  dual ;  G.  ii,  15,  7  (R.  18,  6,  mab&rfljan)  ;  G.  vi,  21, 
5.  The  usual  R.  form  is  qvasantam  iva  pannagam,  vi, 
108,  10 ;  witb  v.  1.,  nihQvasantam  ivo  'ragam,  G.  ii,  19, 1 ; 
"^tftu  ivo  'ragftu,  M.  vii,  77,  1.  C.  vi,  3478,  qvas.;  B., 
jval.     See  Nos.  119,  133,  141,  142,  205. 

144,  nllakuftcitamOrdbajah,  iii,  277,  9;  280,  50;  G.  vi,  37,  61, 

witb  another  phrase,  mattamAtafigagftminam  (No.  208)  ; 
nilakuflcitakeql,  M.  ii,  65,  33. 

145,  iiTlflfijanacayaprakbyab,  vii,  20,  18;  ^prabbnh,  G.  vi,  24, 

43  =  It.  4<J,  32,  but  here  ""eayopamah,  as  in  G.  vi,  91, 
7r=  K.  110,6. 

14G,  nIlot])a1amayhn  mAlAffl,  vii,  139,8  (dhArayan);  mAlAm  nl- 
lotpalamaylm  iva,  G.  vi,  79,  62  (dhArayan),  v.  1.  in  R.; 
in  lK»th  cases  of  a  wreath  of  arrows. 

147,  no  'tkanthaih  kartum  arbasi,  iii,  216,  10;  xii,  170, 11,  etc.; 
G.  V,  Sts  7G  (not  in  R.),  bat  in  R.  ii,  46,  2,  na  co  Hkan- 
thituni  arbasi  (tvam  no  V  in  G.  44,  2)  ;  and  R.  ii,  63,  2, 
tiliii  no  'tkantbitum  arbasi  (nAi  *vo  V  in  G.  63,  3).  R. 
hero  has  the  classical  turn.    See  Na  128. 

14S,  nyaitatinta  mabltale,  ix,  66,  11;  sa  pApAta,  R.  vi,  89,  88  s 
nifci^lLi^  (S.  36,  G7 ;  G.  vii.  111,  47  (not  in  R.)  ;  patatns 
tAu,  K.  vi,  97, 24, 26.  The  nsoal  variant  is  papAta  dhara^ 
nltale,  ix,  27,  46 ;  R.  iii,  62,  26;  66,  U{  O.  iv,  19^8 ; 
passim  in  both  apici.    See  also  No.  167,  MO^  SOB. 


422  APPENDIX  A. 

149,  panke  magna  iva  dvipah,  vi,  100, 9 ;  pafikamagna  iva  dvipah, 

G.  iv,  15,  30 ;  v,  87, 26.  E.  iii,  61, 13  extends  the  phrase, 
X)ankam  asddya  vipulam  sidantam  iva  kufijaram  (=  G. 
68,  2,  sidann  iva  mahfldvipah) ;  a  new  turn  in  ix,  58,  33 
gives  anyonyaiii  jaghnatur  vlrftu  pankasthOu  mahisftr  iva. 
See  Nos.  102,  215. 

150,  paficaqirsa  ivo  'ragah,  iii,  57,  6;  iv,  22,  66;  R.  v,  10,  18; 

vi,  99,  40  (of  arrows,  qvasantah).  Compare  paflcfisyftih 
pannagaiQ  chinnair  Garudene  'va,  vii,  36,  27 ;  pailcasyflv 
iva  panuagau,  G.  iii,  74,  22.  This  variety  of  snakes  is 
recognized  together  with  those  having  four  and  seven 
heads  in  Hariv.  3,  46,  38.  The  seven-headed  variety,  to- 
gether with  those  having  three  and  ten  heads  respectively, 
is  recognized  in  i,  27,  51,  while  the  saptaqlrsa  (qlrsan) 
sort,  paunago  mahdn,  is  taken  as  the  form  of  the  divine 
weapon,  xiii,  14,  257.  G.  iv,  33,  41,  saptaqiras,  has  been 
cited  above  under  No.  119.  For  the  ending  ivo  'ragah. 
See  also  Xos.  74,  106, 118, 141. 

151,  patamgd.  iva  p^vakam,  v,  130,  21 ;   vi,  117,  35 ;  patarngftn 

iva  pavakah,  ib.  37;  R.  iii,  28, 14;  vi,  44,  23;  97,  6;  102, 
62;  G.  V,  38,  36 ;  G.  vi,  54,  53;  patamga  jvalanam  yathfi, 
G.  ix,  152  (where  M.  ix.  3,  27  has  patanigft  iva  pftvakam) ; 
R.  vi,  66,  2(d\  96,  2;  interchanges  with  qalabh&n  iva 
pavakam  (q.  v.  No.  283),  R.  vi,  65,  43  =  G.  44,  38;  pa- 
tariiga  iva  ca  'gnau  te,  xvi,  3,  42  (prior  pada) ;  tristubb, 
yatha  pradlptam  jvalanam  pataihga  viqanti,  M.  vi,  35,  29l 
See  also  Nos.  181,  258,  283. 

152,  patakadvajamalinl  (°nam),  iii,  77,  6  (a^obhayac  ca  naga- 

ram)  ;  G.  ii,  42,  12;  G.  iv,  25,  38;  G.  vi,  14,  20.  The 
corresponding  verses  in  R.  are  stlcchritadhvajamalinl,  ii, 
43,  10 ;  patakadhvajaqobhita,  iv,  26,  41 ;  and  a  complete 
V.  1.,  vi,  38,  11  (G.  V,  9, 17  also  has  patakadhvajaqobhita). 
But  R.  has  the  titular  phrase  at  vi,  47,  14  =  G,  22,  21 
(both  ^malinl)  ;  and  at  vi,  57,  3,  where  G.  31,  4  has 
babudhvajapatakinlm. 
patidarqanalalasa,  No.  165. 

153,  pated  dyaur  himavan  qlryet,  iii,  12, 130;  idem  but  prthivl, 

G.  ii,  15,  29.  In  M.  follows  prthivl  qakall  bhavet  qusyet 
toyauidhih  ;  in  G.,  Qosaiii  jalanidhir  vrajet.  In  ▼,  82,  48, 
dyauh  patec  ca  sauaksatra ;  in  iii,  278,  38,  and  vii,  13|  10, 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  AV  THE   TWO  EPICS.        428 

])rapated  dyftuh  8€'inaksatr&  prthivl  ^kall  bhavet;  in  iii, 
24<J,  31-32,  vidlryot  sakala  bhamir  dyAuq  eft  'pi  qakall 
bhavet  .  .  bimavauq  ca  i>arivrajet  quHyet  toyaiii  samu- 
drcsu  (with  other  like  expressious).    See  Nos.  04,  327. 
153  b,  papAta  ca  uiaiuOra  ca,  jKissim.    See  Nos.  148,  167. 
paraiu  (-am)  v  in  may  am,  Nu.  2G4. 

154,  param  kautahalam  hi  me,  iii,  2%,  26 ;  iz,35,39;  40,2;  xiii, 

75,  7  ;  K.  i,  1,  5,  etc.,  otc;  bhayah  k.  h.  m.,  ix,  47,  3. 

155,  piiraspanijjiyAisinau,  vii,  14,  46;  K.  iv,  11,  42;  vi,  89, 1;  G. 

7r),  32;  (ff.  7*.^  3^).     Interchanges  with  ^jighaiisavah  aud 
^v;iilh;\i>inali,  (i.  v.  below. 

•        •  •  A 

150,  parxsparajighAiisaval.i,  vi,  4r»,  5,  15;  G.  vi,  29,  16,  where  IL 
5.'),  17  has  jighilhsayil,  which  is  found  also  in  G.  vi,  49,  42, 
but  luTo  K.  Oi»,  5^4  has  jayaisinah  (No.  155).  So  G.  i,  77, 
VJ  1i:ls  jighl.siya,  whi*re  K.  has  jayAisinAu;  G.  vi,  77,  27, 
ji^'hai'isinaiii,  w)u*re  H.  *J7,  27  has  jaghnatuq  ca  paraspa* 
ram.     StM*  Noh,  155,  157. 

157,  par.'i8parav;ulh:11sinAu,  vii,  7, 32 ;  ix,  12, 38 ;  55,  23  (with  the 
]>hraso  kruddhAv  iva  mahAdvi]»Aii) ;  and  passim ;  G.  vi, 
Till,  ],  when*  \i.  h9,  1  has  jayAisinftu  (^No.  155);  G.  vi,  67, 
'»*\  ;  7'A  .'»«'{.  (\>mpari*  HnvonvavadhakAnksinaii,  K.  vi,  91^ 
31.  I  havt'  noticed  vadhAisin  onlv  in  G.,  but  cannot  say 
that  it  is  larking  in  the  Homkiy  edition.  N(»s.  15<>-157 
uii^'ht  iN>rhaps  all  U*  put  under  one  hoad  as  simple  vari* 
ants  of  one  phrasi*.     Se«»  I.  c.  No.  10,  p.  143. 

15^.  rar;.i!jya  iva  vrNtiiniln,  vi,  63,  25;  vii,  89,  4;  ix,  12,59;  17, 
•J;  x:i,  Tm,  :\'J\  iVX  32,  rt*-. ;  vrntibhih.  K.  iii,  28,7;  G.  vi, 
51.  :i\ ;  iv.i  jluiut.'i:)!  (metre),  K.  vi,  27,  8;  Parjauyam  iva 
k  irs.ikAh  (vohAiu  d.U.lh  ]iratlk.<<inti*),  xiii,  6ii,  15;  tv.lm 
«  va  hi  pratlk^antf  I'arj.  i.  k.,  K.  ii,  112,  12,  when*  (r.  122, 
12  hxs  tv;im  i*va  pratikilhks;int4*  Tarj.  i.  k.     See  No.  217. 

l.V.»,  I  ir.  I'.i  \:\  iniliiMl.iilhih,  ix,  2#»,  28;  jaLlij-iyali,  G.  ii,  87,  5, 
u'n  ri»  IC.  tSu,  4,  has  s;\;;anisye  *va  parvani. 

\ui\   jMi  V  it.i:i  iva  lilraihlh,  vii,  8'.»,  4  ;  G.  vi,  66,  28,  where  U.  87, 

'J.'i  has  tnyaji.ih. 
ir.l,    j:i:iy.inii..i:;ivanah,  vii,  22,  15;  1«^  32;  192,  8;j,  et«\  ;  G.  T, 
:;.:.  ::i.     S..-  1.  r   No.  U\  p.  ll.i,  and  Nos.  69,  116,  293. 
|-  i.'i  ;.'i:r  iv:i,  Ni».  1«W. 
1(*.2.    1  k;  iiii  ra.;ahay.l  yathA,  iv,  22,  74,  etc. ;  H.  vii,  23,  1,  40. 
]>ai;yat.\m  sarvasAiuyAiiAxu,  Nu.  110. 


424  APPENDIX  A. 

163y  pflnim  p&nfiu  yinispisya,  vii,  73,  19  (with  dantftn  kataka- 
tayya  ca)  ;  E.  ii,  35, 1 ;  vii,  69,  2  (pAnau  pftnim  sa  nispi- 
sya).  Compare  nispisya  panioa  pftnim,  iv,  22,  81 ;  pftn&a 
panim  nipldya  ca  (v.  1.  ha),  iz,  65,  33;  karam  kaiena 
nispisya,  i,  151,  42 ;  karam  karenfl  'bhinipldya  virah,  iii, 
236, 19 ;  talam  talena  nispisya,  vii,  193,  70. 

164,  pOndurena  'tapatrena  dhriyamanena  mOrdhani,  y,  178,  77; 

xiii,  14,  175 ;  xiv,  64,  3 ;  75,  7 ;  xv,  23,  8  5  E.  iv,  ^  13 
(G-.  pandarena)  ;  chatrena  dhriyamOnena  pandorena  yiift- 
jata,  ix,  9,  2.    Four  references  are  here  added  to  those 
cited,  1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  138. 
pa^hasta  iva  'ntakab,  Nos.  41, 104-105. 

165,  putradarqanalalasa,  i,  122,  29 ;  G.  i,  9,  66 ;  bhartidarQana- 

lalasO,  iii,  64,  124 ;  282,  60 ;  G.  ii,  2^  5 ;  BOmadar^ana- 
lalasa,  iii,  289, 27 ;  R.  v,  14, 42 ;  lalasa  as  terminal,  ^ka% 
i,  2,  229 ;  G.  iv,  18, 19 ;  pati%  M.  iii,  65, 1 ;  patidarlsana- 
lalasa,  G.  V,  29,  6,  where  B.  30,  6  has  ^'kanksinl ;  ynddha- 
lalasah,  G.  vi,  27,  25,  where  B.  51,  25  has  nardanto  jaladft 
yatha.    See  also  PW.  s.  v. 

166,  punarjatam  iva  'tmanam  (mene),  viii,  96,  47 ;   B.  vi,  39, 

15 ;  B.  vi,  65,  15,  and  G.  44,  12.  In  B.  vi,  69,  8,  ma- 
nyate  kalacoditah,  where  G.  48,  8  keeps  mene ;  in  B.  vi, 
74,  25,  manyate  plavagottamah,  where  G.  63,  30  keeps 
mene. 

167,  puspavrstih  papata  ha,  iii,  76,  40;  papata  puspavrstiq  ca, 

R.  vii,  116,  6.     See  also  No.  148. 

168,  puspitav  iva  kiihqukau,  iii,  280,  32 ;  vi,  45, 14 ;  ix,  12, 16 ; 

57,  4 ;  dadr^ate  Hiraavati  p.  i.  k.,  ix,  68,  34 ;  plural,  vii, 
19,  14;  ix,  9,24;  B.  vi,  45,  9 ;  80,34;  90,37;  G.  vi,  32, 
33,  where  R.  58, 46  has  prabhinnav  iva  kufijaran,  a  phrase, 
No.  178;  extended  in  M.  vi,  101, 17,  saiiistlrna  iva  parva- 
tah ;  kimQukah  puspavan  iva,  ib.  110,  36 ;  puspitav  iva 
nispatrau,  yatha  qalmalikimqukau,  G.  vi,  68,  31 ;  kimqu- 
kav  iva  puspitau,  viii,  29, 18;  palaqair  iva  puspitaih,  B.  vi, 

58,  28,  where  G.  32,  25  has  puspitair  iva  kimqukaih  as  in 
R.  vi,  75,  27,  and  G.  54,  24.    See  Nos.  177, 178. 

pttrayann  iva.  No.  36. 

169,  purnacandranibhananS,  iii,  68,  26 ;  B.  vii,  33, 14.     See  also 

No.  98,  for  a  similar  phrase. 

170,  parnayatavisrstena  qarena  'nataparvana,  vi,  96,  72;  S.  vi. 


PARALLEl  PHRASES  itf  THE  TWO  EPICS.       426 

71,  72  (G.  ffl,  7S,  karnftjau').  The  hembticli  conaUU  of 
two  iterata,  the  Iiut  pOda  being  oftCD  uwd  indeptnd«Dtlf , 
vi,  M,  r.2j  88,  29;  ii,  10,  39;  G.  !».  IT,  23;  t,  31,30. 
CoiapAru  (lATftih  noiiiiiiitoparTabhil^  M.  rii,  14, 3U;  lliftr^ia- 
pQrDam  llyaiii;&.  It.  iv,  1 1,  91. 
,  pTthivl  aasyaniAllDl,  vi,  3,  19;  It.  iil,  16,  5  (aujrai^Alinl,  io 
tbe  other  textA,  C  vi,  KG  j  0.  ui,  KS,  5)  ;  triffublt,  malitm 
iva  prtvm  saayaiftliDtm,  U.  v,  80,  S\  (Dot  in  It.). 

prthivy&ih  catnnuiUyOm,  iv,  M,  20 ;  IL  v,  31,  4. 

pnUilrna,  No.  251. 
,  pragrhya  »aq&nuh  tlhuiuh.  Ui,  282, 34 ;  28H,  10 ;  O.  v,  93, 14. 
,  pnj&IUm&h  tu  cA  'pr»jah|  ilt,  53,  &;  K.  1,38,  3;  U.  1,  14,  38. 

pnjvmUm,  No.  176l 

pmUpoDtui  Ivft  MityMD,  vU  fi9,  G6 ;  vii,  40,  24 ;  0.  ii,  117, 
16 ;  pntapuitun  Ivt  'di^rua  nudhjrihne  dlptotojuam, 
R.  vi,  138,  9;  madhyimgntam  \r%  'dttywn  pmtApuiUiii 
•ntttfjuO,  M.  vi,  106, 80.  Compora  tapontAm  ira  blitaka- 
nun,  K.  iv,  11,  66. 

pntdlptn  in  nunjnnk,  Ko.  80. 
,  pTadlptam  tva  (c)wft,  R.  iv,  35, 1 ;  O.  iv,  33,  S ;  O.  v,  80^  S 
(\A) :  vi,  46, 87.  Compiire  pnjvaUnu  iva  bsjwo,  xiJ,  325, 
11 ;  jvaUntatn  iva  tojuO,  R.  v),  71,  70 ;  (}.  v,  89,  44 ;  O. 
vi,  46,  130;  pnHlptam  iva  pArakam,  ziv,  73.  4  and  6;  0. 
iv,  44,  53;  pndlpUm  iva  Barvaqal>,  G.  iii.  7ft,  80;  vapoal 
.  .  .  jvalantant  ivn  tejiuilk,  R.  vit,  .^,  2. 8;  jajvalfaottoaia 
vapn«l.  U.  i,  9T,  27 ;  ill,  100,  I'J ;  R.  vi,  10K,  7 ;  O.  vi,  19. 
49;  JtJralyamAaadi  tajobliih  (pAvalt&rkuaiuapmbhsm), 
M.  ill.  188.  108;  JljvBlyamanam  k<)p«na,  M.  iv,  23.  42; 
0.  ir,38,15.    Sm  Not.  16.  75.  80,  111.  177. 

pnphalla  iva  klis^kah,  v,  179, 31 ;  G.  vl,  68, 90t  ptmdtptta 
ira  kidi^kln,  G.  ii.  56,  7 ;  til,  79, 33.    Sm  Koa.  168, 176. 

prabbiUyftn,  >'o.  94 ;  prabhit*.  No.  79. 

pnbhinnaivaktifl}arab,vi.93,4:  vii,2I,K>i  33.4;  99,39; 
ii.  57,62,  etc;  R.vi38.8;  0.ii.ll6.4S;  dual  u  v.  L  in 
R.  vi,  86,  46  for  ptupltav  iva  kimqukAo.  No.  168;  pnt* 
bbinnAv  iv*  aMiilete,  H.  vif,  in,  8,  R.  vl,  A9.  1;  pra- 
bhinaam  fva  iiil>aB|iiii  pariktrruuh  kannabhih,  M.  iv,  19^ 
39;  Ican^nbbir  mksranjrs  patikirno  jatbl  dvipah,  O.  ^ 
14.28. 

piabbatakaiaaJotpall,  Ul,  SSO,  1 1  B.  iv,  34^  10. 


426  APPENDIX  A. 

180,  pravate  kadall  yatha,  v,  13,   8,   prftvepata;    B.   ii,   117, 

18,  pravepiU;  B.  iii,  2,  16;  G.  v,  26, 1.  See  Kos.  71, 
136. 

181,  praviveqa  mahasendm  makarah  sagaram  yathfl,  i,  138,  90 ; 

viii,  77, 10 ;  ix,  18, 10,  etX5. ;  G.  vi,  77,  6  (v.  1.  ripoh  s&in- 
yam) ;  (sainyam)  maharnavam  mina  ivft  'vive^  B.  vi,  69, 
67.  In  B.  vi,  97, 6,  patamga  iva  pavakam  (No.  151)  takes 
the  place  of  makarah  sftgaram  yatha  in  G.  77,  6. 

182,  prasannasalilaiii  qubhain   (nadim),  iii,  64,  112;  prasanna- 

salilam  sarah,  B.  vii,  38,  21. 
182  b,  prasOdam  kartum  arhasi,  ix,  35,  72;  B.  iv,  8,  19;  G.  ii, 
110,  7. 

183,  prahasann  iva,  Bharata,  vi,  45,  23 ;  (uvaca)  prahasann  iva» 

(pratyuvaca)  hasann  iva,  M.  passim ;  B.  iv,  5,  25,  etc ; 
G.  i,  41,  3;  63,  12;  74,  19;  33,  36;  G.  v,  1,  52,  62,  etc 

184,  praharair  jarjarlkrtah,  vii,  94, 60 ;  viii,  56,  28 ;  B.  iv,  12,  22. 

See  No.  236. 

185,  prahrstenantaratmana,  iii,  57,  30 ;  72,  42;  G.  vi,  112,  21  (B. 

128,  18,  prahrsta  putravatsala)  ;  B.  vii,  11, 19. 

186,  prakaratorana,  terminal,  drdha^,  iii,  284,  2 ;  zv,  5, 16 ;  zvi, 

6,  23;  satta^,  G.  v,  36,  35.  Compare  cayattaiakaparyan- 
tam,  G.  i,  72,  3;  cayattalakaqobhina,  M.  iii,  160,  39.  On 
these  terms,  see  my  Baling  Caste,  p.  174,  note. 

187,  pranah  samtvarayanti  mam,  G.  ii,  66,  57  =  G.  iv,  21,  24 

(neither  in  B.)  ;  in  xii,  52,  8  ca  for  mam,  but  the  latter  is 
implied,  as  balam  me  prajahati  'va  precedes.  In  M.  i, 
172,  8,  prana  hi  prajahanti  (sic  I)  mam. 

pravrsi  'va.  No.  217. 

phuliaqoka,  No.  228. 

188,  baddhagodhangulitranau,  and  plural,  iii,  283,  17 ;  iv,  6,  1 ; 

B.  i,  22,  9;  ii,  23,  36;  baddhagodhaSgulitravan,  x,  7,  52; 

khadgagodhangulitravan,  iii,  278, 19, 
baddhva  ca  bhrukutim,  Nos.  61,  123. 
babhava  tumulah  qa'bdah.  No.  23. 

189,  babhau  sttrya  ivo  'tthitah,  vii,  18, 18;  bhati  candra  ivo  *ditah, 

B.  vi,  127,  29 ;  kalasdrya  ivo  'ditah,  M,  vii,  16, 16 ;  divft- 
kara  ivo  'ditah,  R.  vi,  60,  68 ;  jvalan  sarya  ivo  'ditah,  G. 
iii,  69,  1 ;  balasarya  ivo  'ditah,  G.  v.  41,  36;  bOlacandra 
ivo  'ditah,  G.  iii,  38,  16.  See  ivo  'thitah,  ivo  'ditah,  as 
terminals  also  under  No.  63 ;  babhau,  No.  228. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.       427 

189  b,  bahutAlasamutsedliAh,  iii,  158,  91  (wmtarfalls) ;  B.  ri,  26; 
5  (a  palace), 
bftspa,  all  under  Nos.  61, 119, 120, 190;  bifpagadgada,  Ko. 
331. 

190-193»  b&spaTyftkulalocanah,  rii,  1,  3  (also  C.  97)  ;  ix,  65,  81 ; 
XV,  16,  9;  R.  vi,  46,  6;  G.  ii«  68,  51 ;  ri,  46,  27,  where  B. 
46,  30  has  krodhavy Akulalocanah ;  O.  ti,  83,  57,  etc. ;  B. 
vi,  117, 1  =  G.  102,  1 ;  G.  Ti,  103,  1.  This  (a)  is  the 
usual  parallel  among  these  lachrymose  pftdas.  Another 
(b)  is  QokavyAkulalocanAh,  M.  Tii,  78,  14 ;  O.  ii,  83,  81 ; 
and  qokab&spapariplutah,  M.  iii,  313,  3;  O.  t,  66,  20. 
In  U.  the  commonest  form  is  bAfpaparyAkuIek^ana,  O. 
iii,  7,  32;  H.  ri,  114,  3  (G.  99,  3,  with  4,  I^bifpapari- 
plutah) ;  R.  vi,  101,  46  (t.  L  to  G.  83,  57,  abore) ;  G.  ri, 
26, 1'7,  where  R.  50,  45  has  harsa"*  (Na  331).  Varieties 
are  bAspai^kapariplutah,  G.  iv,  26,  9 ;  K.  iii,  2,  22;  qoka* 
vegapariplutah,  G.  ▼,  75,  18;  qokabispasamAkulah,  If. 
vii,  52,  7 ;  biUpaQokasamanTitah,  is,  65,32;  bAfpasaihdig- 
dliaya  vftea  (see  No.  331),  zt,  8,  23.  A  third  (c)  ease  of 
identity  is  found  in  tatah  sA  bAspakalayA  TicA  and  si 
bftAi)akalay&  vftcft,  M.  iii,  61,  25;  iir,  20,  28;  &  ii,  82,  la 
lVrha])s  others  will  be  found,  of  which  I  hare  giren  one 
side  above,  and  finally  in  these :  qokariplutaloeanAh,  O. 
V,  39,  5 ;  bftspopahataoetana,  R.  ir,  27,  32 ;  qokenATista- 
cetanft,  G.  vi,  9,  3;  bAspaviplutalocanah,  G.  ii,  96,  2; 
bA.s|)aila.sitalocanah,  R.  iv,  8,  29;  bAsparyAkolitek^a^ah, 
K.  vii,  98,  2;  bAspapOrnamukhAb  sarre,  &  ii,  40,  21 
Soe  Nos.  51, 119, 120,  290,  and  especially  the  same  com* 
[Kjuiuis  with  A/f r«cf,  No.  331,  where  too  are  pat  the  bA^pi^ 
^.'ul^^aila  compounds. 
l>Ij;im  uptam.  No.  219. 

194-1  ICn   HralimA  lokapitAmahah,  iz,  2524  (ss45,  22;  sarra'',  as 
in  47,  15  and  in  R.  i,  63,  17 ;  Ti,  61, 21) ;  B.  L  87, 4,  ete.{ 
sarvabhota**,  M.  i,  04,  39. 
bluiva^lgada.  No.  331. 
bhartriian,*aiialAlasA,  No.  165. 

190,  bha.Hina(rhanna  ivA  'nalah,  iii^  278,  S2;  R.  ir,  11«  81;  97, 
4n ;  G.  iv,  10,  17 ;  bhasmaochanno  ra  pArako^  Dh.  Pfed% 
71.  Fur  the  terminal  ItA  'nala^  Me  Mot.  SS|  75^  98^  2aL 
A  iiAda  in  the  qloka  preeediag  this  in  Dh.  P^  •■  Pfeof. 


428  APPENDIX  A. 

Hardy  has  reminded  me,  is  also  an  epio  phrase,  kalftm  nft 
'gghati  solasim,  Dh.  P.  70,  kalaxh  nft  'rhanti  sodaqlm,  M. 
i,  100,  68  •  ii,  41,  27;  iii,  257,  4  (kaUUn  arhati) ;  vii,  197, 
17,  yah  kal&m  sodaqlm  parn&m  Dhanamjaya  na  te  *rhati ; 
xii,  174,  46,  and  277,  6,  (ete)  nft  'rhatah  sodaQlm  kalfim ; 
so  Manu  ii,  86. 

197,  bhimo  bhlmaparftkramah,  ii,  30,  30 ;  iii,  63,  6 ;    73,  19 ;  iv, 

22,  85;  ix,  57,  47,  and  61 ;  R.  vi,  58,5;  G.  v,  36,30;  38, 
44 ;  G.  vi,  64,  23 ;  82, 181 ;  bhimam  bhImapratisTanam, 
E.  vi,  107,  19.  Bhismam  bhimapar&kramam,  M.  vi,  14, 
17.    See  No.  206. 

bhujamga  iva,  Ko.  133. 
bhayah  kftutahalam,  No.  154. 

198,  bhnikutlkutilananah,  iii,  150,  5 ;  G.  vi,  65,  33.    See  TSos. 

51,  106, 123. 
makarah  sd^garam  yathfi,  Ko.  181. 

199,  Maghav^n  iva  ^^mbaram  (jahi  rane  9^yam),  ix,  7,  35; 

(^ambaram  Maghav&i  iva  (BSlinam  jahi),  G.  iv,  12,  8. 
Compare  Mahendrene  Va  ^ambarah  (tena  vikramya),  G. 
V,  18,  29. 

200,  mangalyam  mangalam  Visnum,  i,  1,  24 ;  mftfigaljram  mafiga- 

lam  sarvam,  K  vi,  112,  21  (G.  97,  20,  mafigalyam). 

201,  mandalOni  vicitr^ni,  iii,  19,  7 ;  ix,  57,  17,  etc. ;  E.  vi,  40, 

23.  Here  also  gatapraty^lgatani  ca,  as  in  both  cases  in 
M.  and  elsewhere  and  in  E.  vi,  107,  32  (above.  No.  64). 
The  whole  passage  ix,  57, 17  ff.  is  the  same  with  E.  vi, 
40,  23  ff.  (not  in  G.),  with  slight  changes.  See  JAGS., 
vol.  XX,  p.  222,  and  my  Euling  Caste,  p.  253,  note  (the 
gomutraka  there  mentioned  is  found  E.  loc  cit.). 

202,  mandalikrtakarmukah,  i,  133,  3 ;  E.  iii,  25, 16. 

203,  mattamatangagaminam,  iii,  80,  14;  277,9;  E.ii,  3, 28;  G. 

vi,  37,  61.  Compare  matttanftgendravikramah,  M.  i,  188, 
10,  and  mattamatangavikramah,  E.  vi,  3,  43.  See  No« 
314. 

204,  mano  vihvalati  'va  me,  i,  1,  218;  iv,  61,  4;  xi,  14, 14;  G.  ii, 

71,  21. 
martukHma,  No.  213. 

205,  mahanaga  iva  q vasan,  ix,  32,  35 ;  57,  59 ;  G.  ii,  92, 26 ;  mar 

hasarpa,  E.  iv,  16,  13;  krudhah  sarpa,  E.  vi,  88,  38; 
ruddho  naga,  E.  iii,  2,  22.    See  Nos.  119, 133, 141-143. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  TBE  TWO  EPtCS.        429 

mahap&papnnftQanl,  No.  301. 
20C,  mahftbalaparftkmiD&h,  rii,  10,  72 ;  ix,  4S,  49,  «tfi. ;  O.  v,  1, 
49 ;  a  Ti.  70,  6 ;  75,  49 ;  110^  40.    Teminitl,  Not.  273, 
293. 

207,  maholka  patati  yatho,  rii,  15,  20 ;  maholka  in  petatah,  0. 

Yi,  70,  18  {  maholke  'n  nabhaataltt  (apatat),  H.  vi,  48, 
8S;  diryolkfl  'va  nabbaqcyutl,  0.  it,  19,  81;  nyapatad 
dharanlpnthe  maholks  'ra  mabAprabha,  H.  ri,  104,  32; 
8ft  jvalanti  maholke  'va  .  .  .  nipapftta,  U.  Tit,  92,  67. 

208,  inilnsai;oiiitakardama(ni),  ri,  M,  103 ;  rii,  20, 53 ;  21,  43 ;  iz, 

U,  18  i  xi,  IG,  56  {  XTiii,  2.  17;  B.  ri,  42,  47;  69,  70; 
12.'>,  4 ;  O.  Ti,  19, 16 ;  ophenilam.  B.  ri,  69, 148  (compan 
usnlaavarapbenilA,  H.  vii,  14, 11 ;  nAnsaQOuitakardamim 
.  .  .  patakavaBtraphenilAii),  vii,  187, 16-17). 

209,  ma  dbarinjrOu  ntaai^h  pathah,  iii,  62, 16 ;  G.  i,  24,  9. 
2KI,  mOnuwiii  rigrahaih  krtrft,  i,  98,  8  ■,  B.  ir,  66, 10. 

muktara(;n)ir  ira,  No.  25. 

211,  mmU  paramayft  yukUh,  ii.  63,  23,  etc ;  B.  i,  62;  11.    This 

is  a  phrase  of  Tarious  fonna,  yuktah  or  yuta^  aoooiding 
to  ]>OHition  i  muda,  Qiiyfl,  pri^A,  aooording  to  aenae. 
Other  examples  are  given  above,  pp.  267,  269. 

212,  munnyah  >aibi;itarmUll>,  xiii,  6,  41 ;  R.  ir,  13, 18.    Id  O.  it, 

Vt,  24,  ntinAiii  BaiiKjiUUmanAm  =  maharfln  aam^itavntln, 
M.  i,  1,  J.' 

21.'<,  iiiuiiiOrHur  (-Ror)  iva  bheaajam,Ti,  121,  67;  ix,S,S  (oa  mint 
)>rliiflti  tat  sarvaiu) ;  O.  iii,  45, 19 ;  iii»adhaxH  iva,  IL  ii, 
62,  2 ;  martukftma  ivAu  'aadham,  R.  iii,  40^  1 ;  O.  t,  88; 
ti'.  where  It.  vi,  17, 15  baa  ripartta  ivto  'aadhaa.  Com* 
luire  mumQrsar  nafltacetanah,  U.  v,  53,  13;  and  da  prt- 
n:iyati  niAm  bbuktan  apatbjram  iva  bbojanan,  O.  t,  76^  6 
(]>.-in-LikalitA  hi  (tatAjnao  narA  hitam  na  grh^anti,  R.  iii, 
4I,2«i).    See  No.  68. 

211,  luuhflrUm  iva  ca  dhj-AtvA,  iii,  282,  66;  aa  muhOftam  iva 
ahy-ltvA.  It.  ri,  101, 38 ;  la  mnhflrtain  ira  dhjAtrA  bAfpft- 
lurylkulekunah,  two  pAda  pbraaea  (Noa.  190-183,  eon- 
part*  also  s.  No.  119),  O.  v,  19,  2;  tato  mahfirtani  ai 
ahyfttva,ix,5,2. 
mnic  hat4<,  Na  338. 

215,  iiin;!i  vyAdbAir  ivA  'idllib,  zU,  332,  SI  i  mf|A^  kekair  Ivt 
rditah,  a.  ri.  38,  19.    la  M.  onAUy  aant^  ^aij^m 


480  APPENDIX  A. 

iva,  vii,  37,  36 ;  ix,  3^  7 ;  19,  3,  etc. ;  sinhftrdita  iva  dvi- 
pah,  G.  V,  37, 19.     See  Nos.  271,  316. 

216,  mekalaprabhavaq  cdi  'va  (^no  maninibhodhakah,  H.  3,  46, 

44,  perhaps  from  G.  iv,  40, 20  (^'am  ^onam  nadam  mani^), 

the  passage  entire, 
megham  stlrya.  No.  72. 
yaths,  devftsure  yuddhe.  No.  227. 

217,  yatha  pravrsi  toyadah,  vi,  81,  39 ;  B.  iii,  18,  23 ;  prftvrsl  'va 

balahakah,  E.  v,  1,  180 ;  pravrsi  'va  mahameghah,  B.  iT, 
11,  25  (compare  8,  43)  ;  pravrsi  'ya  ca  Parjanyah,  xiii,  68, 
71.     See  Nos.  59,  77, 158. 

218,  yatha  bhamicale  'calau,  C.  ix,  614  (vicious)  ;  *calah,  B.  vi, 

59,  61 ;  77, 13.  In  M.  corresponding  to  614,  ranabhUmi- 
tale  calau.  Both  B.  passages  have  samuddhtlto  preced- 
ing.   See  Nos.  91,  240. 

219,  yatho  'sare  bijam  uptam  (na  rohet),  xiii,  90, 44;  sunisphalam 

bijam  ivo  'ptam  tlsare,  K  ii,  20, 52 ;  bIjam  uptam  ivo  'saie, 
E.  iii,  40,  3.    Compare  Manu,  ii,  112,  Qubham  bijam  ivo 
'sare. 
yantramukta  (cyuta)  iva  dhvajah,  No.  25. 

220,  Yamadandopamam  rane,   vi,  116,  49;   Tamadandopamam 

gurvim  Indra^anim  ivo  'dyatam,  ix,  57, 12 ;  Yamadanda- 
pratlkaQaih  Kalaratrim  ivo  'dyatam  .  .  •  dehantakaianUn 
ati,  ix,  11,  50  (gadam)  ;  Kaladandopamam  gadam,  IL  vii, 
14, 14 ;  27, 48 ;  G.  iii,  35, 43 ;  Yamadandopamam  bhimam, 
E.  vi,  77,  3 ;  Kalapaqopaman  rane,  G.  iii,  31,  16 ;  Kala- 
dandopamam rane,  M.  vi,  45,  8 ;  vajrasparijopama  rane, 
ix,  63,  21.    See  Nos.  42,  104-105. 

221,  yasya  na  'sti  samo  loke,  xi,  23, 14  (qaurye  virye  ca) ;  yasya 

na  'sti  samo  yudhi,  G.  vi,  33,  24;  yesam  nft  'sti  samo 
vIrye,  ib.  49. 

222,  yasya  prasadam  kurute  sa  vai  tarn  drastum  arhati,  M.  xii,  337, 

20 ;  E.  vii,  37,  3, 14  (copied).  This  is  in  the  Qvetadvlpa 
interpolation  of  E. 

223,  yavat  sthasyanti  girayo,  v,  141, 55 ;  E.  i,  2, 36 ;  adding  yftvat 

sthasyanti  sagarah,  xii,  334,  37 ;  G.  vi,  108, 15-16  (afiga- 
rah) ;  in  (^Onti,  correlated  with  tavat  tava  'ksayft  klrti^ 
.  .  .  bhavis3rati ;  in  G.  with  kirtir  esa  bhavisyatL  Com- 
pare No.  224. 

224,  yavad  bhOmir  dharisyati,  ui,  291,  60;  viii,  86,  20;  ix,  SS. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.       481 

21;  R.  Ti,  100,  57;  G.  vi,  9%  76;  112,  102;  Ttval  lokA 
dbariayanti,  R.  i,  60, 29;  Tii,  84, 13;  jrftnd  Uittmir  gin- 
ya^ca  tiBtheyuhfXii,  318,61;  jftnt  prla&dliuiajanti,iz, 
24,  40 ;  jftraa  oa  me  dharifTmnti  (prSni  deb»),  U.  iii,  S7 
(N.  6},32.    See  No.  223. 

225,  yiyflaur  YamuadaDUn,  i,  163»  10 ;  O.  ▼!,  87, 23.    See  "So.  3, 

andl.  o.NalO,p.l43ff. 

226,  yugflntagnir  ivA  'jvalan,  i,  138,  37 ;  B.  iii,  24, 34 ;  t,  21,  25 ; 

O.  vi,  80,  40.  where  R.  101,  38  ha*  yugflnta  in  pAvakah 
(bhftskarah  ia  R.  it,  11,  2).  Compare  yogftnUgnir  ira 
prajah,  R.'v.  fig,  158;  O.  vi,  00,  m,  whue  B.  6%  150  baa 
ivs  jvalao.    See  Nos.  33,  76,  111,  17& 

227,  yiiddham  deTasuropamam,  vii,  16,  2;  yoddhe  deTiituopfti. 

mah,  O.  vi,  4,  3 ;  yatbA  doTOrare  yoddhe,  H.  vi,  116,  36 ; 
rii,  14,  48 ;  purt  deTlnire  yatha,  iii.  286,  IL 
yTKldhe  yuddliaviQaradab,  No.  307. 

228,  raktfli;oka  iva  'babhau,  y\,  103,  10 ;  phoUaqoka  Ivt  iMtbhlii, 

R.  vi,  102,  69.    Compare  babhau  Blmo'^ka  in  iakt»> 
stabokamanditah,  M.  ▼,  179,  31.    See  Ko.  189. 
tajaByam,  Xoe.  91.95. 
rathancmisranena  ca,  No.  247. 
220,  ratliena  'dityaTarcasa,  iii,  290, 12;  291,  61 ;  R.  Ti,  71. 1& 
2i'<.(  b,   rathopaatba  opariQat,  vi,  94, 19,  etc. ;  R.  Ti,  69, 114. 
230,    ratho  me  kalpyaUm  iti.  iii,  289,  39;  kalpyatlm  me  latbab 
(;lgh  ram  and  r.itho  me  yDJyattm  iti,  B.  vi,  96^  21 ;  ii,  110, 7. 
Ramadan^aaalalasa,  No.  165. 

2.11,  H.ama>Kavanayor  iva,  R.  vi,  107,  53;  Bama-Rtvanajoq  eli 

'va.  V-tli'SugrlvayOB  Utha,  iz,  66,  31 ;  Ranw-Btvavijor 
mriUio  (j'adri^aihhi  parAvittam),  U.  vii,96,28.  Compare 
Xos.  2C7.  271. 

2.12,  K-lino  rfljiralocanah,  R.  iii,  61,  39,  et&,  and  paatim ;  H.  ill, 

148. 10;  siii,  81,  31  (Jamadagoyah  Q. 
2ai,    Klvaiiah  krodhamftiochitah,  iii,  277,  47;  284,  17;  R  vi, 

2fs  r>;  90,  57;  O.  i,  1,  61;  vl,  76^  10;  88.  1;  rtkfad 

duhkhamflrrchita,  M.  iii,  277,  4A.      Tlie   terminal   ia 

fouDd  often  in  both  «pioa,  e.  g.  in  U.  iii,  46,  48,  Urviql 

krodhamflrcchita. 
2^,  nikmapnfikhaia  UUladbaatti^  is,  34,  00  (kamlriparimif. 

jitaih);  O.  vi.  94.  34{  flvaifaptfUil^  9nrthinWl»,  li^ 

15,  14.    See  Not.  SI.  UT. 


432  APPENDIX  A.  ^ 

235,  rudhirena  samuksitih,  iii,  287,  14 ;  iv,  22,  92 ;  iz,  66,  4, 

etc. ;  G.  vi,  75,  54 ;  Qonitena  samuksitah,  M.  iii,  12,  62 ; 
jarjarlkrtasarvangaa  rudhirenft  'bhisamplutaa,  ix,  58, 34; 
compare  K.  iv,  12,  22,  klftnto  radhirasiktftngah  pra- 
bard.ir  jarjarlkrtah  (phrase  of  No.  184). 

236,  rflpenft  'pratima  bhuvi,  i,  152,  17;  iii,  62,  25;  ix,  36,  47; 

48,  2;  xiii,  82,  4;  G.  i,  40,  4;  E.  i,  32,  14;  iii,  34^  20, 
Sita;  35,  13;  72,  5,  vu,  58,  7  (last  three,  neuter  with 
kanySr  or  bharySr  dvayam) ;  vii,  80,  4;  87,  26;  with 
loke  for  metre,  xvii,  2,  14 ;  B.  y,  12,  20 ;  Slt&  c&  'prar 
tima  bhuvi,  R.  yi,  110,  22 ;  rtlpena  'sadrQl  bhuyi,  Hariv. 
1, 12,  7 ;  with  bala,  balena  'pratimam  bhuyi,  iii,  275,  7. 
The  prevailing  form  in  both  epics  is  rtlpena  'pratimA 
bhuvi,  as  above  and  in  K.  iv,  66,  9,  here  after  the  pada, 
yikhyata  trisu  lokesu,  with  which  compare  M.  iii,  53^ 
15,  where  Nala  is  lokesy  apratimo  bhuvi,  but  with  rtl- 
pena following,  which  in  turn  takes  the  place  of  mtlr- 
timan  (No.  35)  in  another  K.  phrase.  In  B.  vii,  37,  3^ 
24,  the  phrase  is  united  with  chaye  'va  'nugata,  No.  70, 
and  sarvalaksanalaksita.  No.  303.  It  is  slightly  modified 
on  occasion,  jananty  apratimam  bhuvi,  ix,  42,  20 ;  rtLpenft 
'pratima  rajan,  M.  v.  Zbj  6. 
laghu  citram  ca.  No.  67. 

237,  vacanam  ce  'dam  abravit,  v,  178,  27 ;  G.  v,  23,  24 ;  inter- 

changes with  vakyam  ce  'dam  uvaca  ha,  K.  i,  35,  3  =  G. 
37,  3.     Loc.  cit..  No.  10,  p,  144.    See  No.  24. 

238,  vajranispesagauravam,  iii,  11,  40;  G.   vi,  76,  27;   ^Dihs- 

vanam,  G.  vi,  36,  105  (°nisthuram,  R.  59,  126). 
vajrasparqopama  rane.  No.  220. 

239,  vajrahasta  iva  'suran,  viii,  9,  5  (mohayitva  rane) ;  ^tam  i. 

°ah,  vi,  108,  35 ;  vajrapaner  iva  'surah  (samtrasisyanti), 
vii,  3,  15;  asuran  iva  vasavah,  G.  vi,  14,  8;  vajrene 
'ndra  iva  'suran,  G.  v,  50, 19 ;  vajrahasto  yatha  ^akrah, 
R.  vi,  67,  38 ;  vajravan  vajram  danavesv  iva  vasavi^ 
(krodham  moksye),  R.  vi,  25,  25 ;  suranam  iva  vasavah, 
ib.  26,  37;  nibudhan  iva  vasavah  (patu),  M.  vii,  6,  4; 
tridaqa  iva  vasavam,  ^I.  vi,  97,  24 ;  vasavo  vasavan  yatht 
(v.  1.  iva),  R.  iv,  26,  36,  etc. ;  marutam  (marudbhir)  iva 
vasavah,  G.  v,  31,  57;  R.  ii,  106,  27;  sahasrflksam  iyft 
'marah,  R.  iv,  26,  23.    See  No.  260. 


PARALLEL  PURASBS  W  THE  TWO  SPICS.       488 

Tftjrfl^ani,  Ifo.  27S. 

240,  Tajr&hata  ivA  'calah,  vii,  26, 16  j  B.  ri,  69, 162  (ib.  W,  Tfttbt 

'calo  Tajnnipfttftbbagnab) ;  papUa  nhui  UiOmflo,  t.  l 
Msalah,  B.  rii,  69,  36  (No.  148);  Q.  ir,  48,  22  (B.  48, 
21,  7,  1.,  parysata  in  parvaUh);  T»jnk;tU  !▼&  'oali^ 
R,  Ti,  69,  73.    See  Koe.  91,  218. 

241,  rajr&ir  iva  girir  hAtah,vii,  1^  26;  Tajtwike  Mm  mlblgirpi, 

R.  IT,  16,  23  (oihatah.) 
Tiuiam  agnir,  No.  33. 

242,  vane  van;ena  jlratah,  xit,  1%  10 ;  xt,  11, 23 ;  B.  ii,  37,  3 ; 

63,  27,  and  O.  80, 11 ;  G.  if,  24^  7.  Compare  Taw  Tan. 
yeoa  Tartayan,  KaghuT.  zii,  20. 

243,  Talintka(m)  iTa  pannagflh,  n,  117,43;  ni,  139,  7;  B.  iii, 

20,  21 ;  29, 11.     See  Not.  74, 139  ft..  160. 

244,  vararsa  ^aiaTara&ni  ("sua),  Ti,  47,  20  and  67  ;  iz,  16, 33-34; 

etc.;  R.  Ti,  68,  40,  etc    Compare  qaraTarfam  Tavatya 
sah  (or  ca),  oommoQ  in  U.;  B.  Ti,  93,  18 ;  qaiaTtralii 
avlkint,  M.  Tii,  18.  19}  O.  ti,  SO,  11 ;  B.  vi,  100,  28; 
103,  23.     See  No.  77. 
vasavo.  No.  239. 

H5,  vikyajiio  vOkyakoTidah,  iii,  278,  3;  Q.t,7,40;  B.  71.111, 
97. 

24C,  THkyarii  T&kyavi^aradah,  ii,  16,  10;  ▼,  13,  10;  B.  t,  61, 
4;  C3,  16;  tH,  87,  1 ;  G.  i,  60, 17 ;  O.  Ti,  82,  4&  Gou- 
pan  vikyaiii  T&kyaTid&m  qreafltah,  R.  i,  70^  16 ;  n,  3,  6 ; 
vlkyajfio  and  v&kyaTid  TikyaknqaU^  B.  ir,  3,  34 ;  Ti, 
17.  30 ;  U.  T,  81,  2  (G.  81,  46,  ^trtrid  TlkyakuQalah) ; 
sarvo  vakyavi^jlrail&h,  O.  ti,  27, 11  (t.  L  Tlkjrakovidftb). 
C'<>ii)|>are  No.  307. 

247,  TrnjitLlth  khurai;abdena  nthanamitTanena  oa.  Ix,  9^  14 ;  O. 
vi.  111,  17,  but  with  a^Tftnin  for  TijinAm,  where  B.  127. 
2<l  has  khurac^bda^  ca.  In  O.  ii,  111,  46  (the  aeooad 
jiAiia  only)  khutanemiaTanena  oa,  where  B.  103,40  hai 
ratUani-roisam&hatA;  rathanemisTaaena  oa  ia  oomnwin  in 
SI.,  vii,  ;w,  12.  etc. 

248-249,  (a)  vuanigna  iTa  dinmab,  iii,  286i  4;  C.  si,  611  a  SI, 
9,  where  is  (aaod  'bhagna,  ai  in  tI,  18;  IS ;  14,  10;  tU, 
If*,  4,  hot  *nigna  ooenn  again  in  Tii,  7S;  S6  (0.  bhogna). 
Othrr  forma  ia  M.  are  Tttahata,  TAjsragp^  viii,  9,  0; 
ain>i<)kcdba  (all  with  In  drwna^),  iii,  69^  flBj 


434  APPENDIX  A. 

Qfila  ivft  'driQrfigat,  viii,  85,  38;  iii,  16,  20,  yfttaragna 
iva  ksunno  jlrnamalo  vanaspatih  (yegavftii  nyapatad 
bbuvi).  (b)  Besides  tbese,  chinnamtUa,  iv,  16,  12;  yiii, 
96,  54  (like  cbinne  Va  kadall,  No.  71).  Id  B.  the  laat 
(b)  is  the  favorite  form,  though  in  iii,  20,  21,  bhipnamtllft 
iva  drumdh  stands  for  O.  26,  24  chinnamtllS ;  papftta 
sahasA  bham&u  chinnamOla  i.  d.,  G.  ii,  74, 19 ;  R.  vi,  68, 
54  =  G.  32,  42;  in  R.  iii,  29,  7,  QlrnamOla  (=  G.  36,  8, 
chinna),  etc.  Compare  also  vfttanunna,  M.  vii,  190,  27 
(vfttanunua  ivft  'mbud&h,  viii,  24^  27) ;  chinnas  tarur  ivft 
'ranye,  G.  vi,  82, 115 ;  drum&  bhagnaQikha  iva,  M.  vi,  62, 
44 ;  vajrarugna  iva  'oalah,  xiv,  76,  18.  Other  forms  in 
E.  are  malabhrasta,  bhtlmikampa,  vfttoddhQta,  vajrfthata 
(all  with  iva  drumah) ;  bhagn&  iva  mahftdnimfth.  I 
enter  only  two  as  identical,  bat  there  may  be  more* 
Compare  Nos.  53,  71,  136,  240.  I  add  here  another  like 
interchange  of  ptc. :  bhagnadanstra  ivo  'ragah,  B.  i,  6^  9; 
Qlrna°,  ix,  3,  7  (cf.  19,  3). 

250,  vflsavo  Namuciih  yathft,  ix,  7,  38  (jahi  cai  'nam) ;  G.  vi^ 

51, 102  (jahl  'mam)  ;  Qakrena  Namueir  yathft,  G.  vi,  18, 
16  (compare  30, 17) ;  Namueir  vasavam  yathft,  G.  iii,  31, 
36  (=  K.  25,  31,  kruddham  kruddha  ivft  'ntakah,  Noa. 
104-105) ;  Namueir  yathft  Harim  !  (samabhyadh&vat), 
G.  iii,  32,  36;  sa  vrtra  iva  vajrena  phenena  Namndr 
yathft  Balo  ve  'ndrft^anihatah,  E.  iii,  30,  28  (vft  for  iva, 
as  often) ;  dvandvayuddham  sa  dfttum  te  [samarthah] 
Namucer  ivft  vftsavah,  K.  iv,  11,  22.     See  No.  239. 

251,  viklrni  iva  parvatfth  (and  instr.  pi.),  vi,  116,  39;  iii,  172, 

18;  vii,  20,  50;  G.  iii,  56,  39;  G.  vi,  37,  30;  62,  37; 
interchanges  with  viqlrna,  viii,  27,  38;  G.  iv,  7,  23, 
viQirna  =  R.  iv,  8,  24,  viklrna ;  so  viqlrna  in  G.  v,  87, 
4;  also  praklrna,  R.  iv,  5,  29;  G.  vi,  76,  13.  Compare 
nirdhata  iva,  G  v,  8,  4 ;  patita,  G.  vi,  32,  24  See  Nos. 
75,  111. 

252,  vikhyfttft  trisu  lokesu  (above.  No.  236) ;  trisa  lokesa  viqrata, 

iii,  84,  83;  85,  74 ;  ix,  38,  38,  etc 

253,  vidyut  sftudftmanl  yathft,  iii,  53,  12 ;  96,  22 ;  R.  iii,  62, 14, 

where  G.  38,  19  has  vyomni,  as  in  G.  vi,  80,  24,  where 
the  V.  1.  is  dlptftQanisamaprabhft ;  also  R.  iii,  74,  34  (not 
in  G.) ;  R.  vii,  32,  56  =  G.  21,  57. 


PARALLEL  PHBASES  IN  TBS  TWO  EPICS.       48fi 

2M,  Tidhidntena  karmanfl,  iii,  166,8;  iz,  47,10;  B.  i,4^19; 

Compara  nidnfenk  TidhmA,  ix,  fiO,  12. 
255,  Ttdhama  ira  pftrakab.  vi,  109,  36 ;  117.  48 1  zii,  251,  7 ;  S2S, 

12;  B.iT.  67,7;  vi,  77.7  i  88,20.    8m  Not.  75,  Ul,  226, 

283. 

266,  Tidhflmo'gnir  iva  jvakn,!,  l<^38i  ix,  14,20;  xu,33^3; 

B.  iii,  28, 19.    Bm  Not.  33,  228. 

267,  Tinadfa  jalado  yatbl,  ri,  49,36;  DldaTan  jalado  yathl,  K. 

iii,  70,  10;  vioedo^  .  .  .  jaUdA  in,  G.  vi.  21,  22  (▼.  I. 
jiUadopamfth)  ;  G.  vi,  60,  36;  jaladA  ira  oft  'nedah,  B.  vi, 
60,35. 

258,  vinirdagdham  patatitgam  iva  TabmnA,  ii,  42,  19;  Tioirdag- 
dhab  ^olabho  rahDioA  yathft,  G.  rii,  23^  48,    For  anotfaer 
case  of  iotorobange  betwMO  patamga  and  ylabha  in  tha 
aame  phrase,  see  No.  161. 
vimarde  tumule,  No.  92. 
Timulcktkitarikrama,  No.  123. 

250,  Tirata&m  iva  dhenavah  (dbenokiin),  vii.  78, 18;  R.  ii,41,  7. 
Compare  gftur  viratse  Va  vatsalA,  G.  ii,  66,  28. 

259  h,  viv,irnnv!ulaiia  kr^  iii,  64, 2 ;  R.  ii,  76,  7. 

200,  vivyadha  oiqitflih  ^arAih,  vi,  46,  77 1  and  paaiim;  B,  t,  44, 
6 ;  G.  vi,  10,  65 ;  and  passim.  See  L  o.  No.  10,  p.  141,  for 
\'ariants. 

261,  viqalyakaranlm  ^bhAm,  vi,  81,  10:  O.  ri,  82,  99;  83, 
9,  etc.  The  passage  in  H.  should  be  oompamd  m  a 
whole  with  G.  ri,  71,  23.  In  H. ;  eTam  uktvA  dadAv 
asmfti  vii^alyakaranltb  ^abhAm  oaadhini  Tirjai 
Ti(;al;a4;  cA  'hharaC  tailA;  in  G. :  cram  aktat  ta  , 
Tii^.aljakaranliii  n&ma  . . .  fabhAih  dadAn  nasjam  sa  tasya 
gaudham  ARhrAja  vi^yab  samapadyata  (all  explained 
a;^in  in  G.  H2.  39). 

2r>2,  v^t)<!t.i  iva  akiialan,  lUrir.  C.  4,840  =  ^rasao  in  2,  32, 1;  G. 
ii,  K4.  1.    Compare  madakslba  iva  skbalan,  G.  ii,  84,  & 

202  b,  vi>tm  npuiii  jalaiii  rajjum  AsthAaye  tara  kAmnAt,  iii,  66,  4 
(N'ala,  4,  4),  where  the  situation  is  the  same  aa  in  B.  ii, 
2'.>,  21  (»ut  in  G.);  visam  agnim  jalam  tA  'ham  AsthAaye 
nirtyukAianAb 
viiiphArya  ca,  No.  306. 

2G3,  Titiphflrjitam  ivA'qaaeh,iii,61, 13,aDd  ottaB)  (}.tV(8k24; 
G.  T,  23, 19  (B.  21,  24,  niishofam  •qaMr  ivm). 


436  APPENDIX  A. 

264,  vismayam  paramam  gatah,  ix,  54, 11 ;  R.  iv,  12,  5;  B.  ▼,32, 

3 ;  gatva,  xiii,  14,  368;  yay^u,  M.  iii,  71,  24,  etc. ;  prftpa, 
G.  vi,  16,  95;  jagmuh,  M.  v,  131,  22;  ix,  38,  10,  57,  9, 
etc. ;  E.  vi,  107,  3 ;  G.  99,  45 ;  param  yismayam  Sgatah, 
M.  iv,  22,  93  (sarve)  ;  R.  i,  69, 16;  R.vi,  107,  3  (sarve)  ; 
G.  vi,  4,  44 ;  paramam  vismayam  gatah,  G.  ill,  30,  38 ; 
sarve  vismayam  ftgatah,  G.  vi,  86, 11 ;  qrutva  tu  vismayam 
jagmuh,  R.  vi,  130,  40. 

265,  vismayotphullanayanah,  i,  134,  28 ;  R.  iii,  42,  34 ;  G.  ▼,  9, 

60 ;  °locanah,  M.  i,  136, 1 ;  xiii,  14,  386;  Hariv.  8, 10,  45 ; 
R.  vii,  37,  3,  29 ;  G.  iv,  63, 10 ;  G.  vi,  105,  21,  where  R. 
has  kiih  tv  etad  iti  vismitSh ;  vismay&kulacetasah,  G.  iv, 
50,14.    See  No.  332. 

266,  viro  ranaviqaradah,  vi,  57, 16 ;  G.  vi,  60,  4. 

267,  vrtravasavay or  iva,  vi,  100, 51  (tayoh  samabhavad  yuddham) ; 

R.  vi,  99,  31  (tayor  abhtlD  mahayuddham).  Compare 
Nos,  231,  274. 

268,  vedavedangaparagah,  iii,  64,  81 ;  xiii,  14,  62 ;  G.  ii,  70, 16 ; 

^tattvajfiah,  metrical,  M.  vi,  14,  44,  etc. 

269,  velam  iva  mahodadhih,  vii,  197,  6 ;  R.  vi,  76,  63 ;  118, 16 ; 

G.  ii,  30,  30;  velam  iva  samasadya,  M.  i,  227,  28;  velAm 
iva  'sadya  yatha  samudrah,  R.  vi,  109,  21;  vel&m  iva 
maharnavah,  M.  iv,  19,  22 ;  ix,  3,  18 ;  vele  'va  makarflr 
layam,  iv,  52, 19 ;  vi,  108,  60,  etc. 
vyatltayam,  No.  94. 

270,  vyaghrakesariiiav  iva,  vii,  14,  68 ;  G.  vi,  67,  32. 

271,  vyaghrah  ksudramrgam  yatha,  iii,  10,  25  (jaghana)  ;  vyft- 

ghrat  ksudramrga  iva  (trastah),  G.  iii,  33,  21.  Compare 
(trasayan)  siuhah  ksudramrgan  yatha,  M.  iii,  288,  10; 
(drstva  no  'dvijate),  R.  iii,  28,  13;  sinham  ksudramrgft 
yatha  (samtrastah),  M.  vi,  19, 10 ;  vyadhibhiQ  ca  vimathy- 
ante  vyadhaih  ksudramrga  iva,  xii,  332,  29.  See  also 
Nos.  215,  316.' 

272,  vyattaiianam  iva  'ntakam,  vi,  63,  26 ;  107,  99 ;  R.  iii,  32,  6 ; 

and  G.  iii,  7,  8,  where  R.  iii,  2,  6  has  vyaditasyam ;  which 
phrase  occurs  also  in  M.  vi,  114,  39.  Compare  viii,  91, 
42,  Kalananaih  vyattam  iva  'tighoram.  For  ivft  'ntaka 
see  No.  104. 

vyahartum  upacakrame.  No.  14. 

vyustayam,  Nos.  94-95. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE   TWO  SPICS.        487 

Tyomni  BOadamanl,  No.  253> 

273,  ^kratnlyaparSlcnmah.      The  oommon  tonniiw)   is  parft- 

kramah,  to  which  ia  prefixed  Yama,  V&ja,  (jUita,  etc.,  a§ 
in  ii,  15, 10,  Yama;  G.  vi,  83,  39,  Vftyu ;  O.  vi,  78,  2, 
^akra.  The  last  ia  naturally  the  most  frequent,  Qftkra- 
tulTaparftkntmah,  Ttii,  27,  27,  etc. ;  G.  iii,  42,  19 ;  B.  iv, 
11,43;  32,11;  vi,  69,  10  and  82;  71,1;  gakntnlyabalo 
'pi  san,  a.  iii,  47,  2.  See  Nos.  206,  293. 
QakTadhvaja,  No.  25. 

274,  Qaknu^imbaTayor  iva,  R.  vi,  76,  77 ;  (yathft  yuddhe)  pakra- 

<;ainbaniyoh  purft,  &L  vi,  100, 64.  See  Noe.  231,  267. 
27.%  ^akra^anisamasporq&n  (qar&n),  vi,  108,  35;  G.  ri,  68,  6, 
whore  R.  88,  42  has  sarpan  ira  Tiaolbanftn ;  Indrft^ni", 
ix,  24,  57,  etc.;  R.  Ti,98,  21;  rajrflqani",  B.  vi,  43,  32. 
So  ^akra,  Indra,  and  vajra,  in  QakraqaniMnasvanam, 
Itidni°,  vajri",  H.  vi.  44, 11;  62,  61;  O.  i,  42,  5  (mahA", 
a%  12);  vajra"  also  R.  vi,  100,  82;  O.  iii.  28,  20;  pakrt- 
ijnnisamaprabhil,  R.  vi,  54,  2.  Compare  ^artir  a^anisant- 
Hpar(;.1ih,  M.  vi,  117,  22  with  ^akrft"  vajrlQanisamftih 
i^amih,  R.  vi,  88,  46  =  O.  68,  10;  also  vajiasamspai^a- 
samitn  t^r&n.  O.  vi,  70,  15  (=  90,  44,  vajraspai^asamftn) ; 
^akrArAtiisvnnam,  ib.  61, 1,  etc 

276.  i;ifi).hiu)iindul>hinihsvanah,  i,  69, 6;  onirghovh,  R.  vi,  4%  39. 

277,  •;ata<;o  'tha  Kihaanu^h,  it.  iii,  288,  24 ;  vi,  36,  S ;  57,  23 ; 

.'i9. 10;  vii,  16,6,ete.;  R.  it,  67.9;  O.  i. 56.6;  G.  iii,  34, 
H;  v..  iv,  60.  18;  O.  v,  7.%  23 ;  96,  24 ;  Q.  vi,  99, 14. 
Cnminnn  in  the  terminal  ^ataaahasraqah,  H.  i,  134,  28; 
<;.  ii,  57. 9,  etc 
i;iiravar'«iii  vavarm  ca,  etc..  No.  244. 

27N.  rnruvar.'t.liii  sijanUm  (two  pAdas),  vi,  S9.  66;  106,  S3; 
(irjantaiii  ^aravaniftni,  O.  vi,  18, 36. 

L'T'.i,  <;.-kr:i<;  r.l|>!t<l  iva  cyatah.  R.  iv,  11, 14;  qarf^  o&poganaeyutflh, 
<;.  iii,  .t.1.  iC,  where  R.  27, 13  has  gntdo  oyntln.  M.  has 
cllKi.-ywt.lli  <:arilh.  vi,  48, 79;  116,  «1.  etc  but  not  I  think 
r.l[ai:itiinr,vuUh,  f[nna  for  jyt  being  rare  In  H..  tboagb  it 
ocrurH  a  tew  times,  e.  g.,  viii,  38, 39 ;  26, 90 ;  Ul,  283;  13. 
i;ar<>iia  'nataparva^l,  No.  ITOi 

280,  <;arftihkanakabhamnlih  (Dr«ili),vl,  64,15;  U,  13,43;  B. 
vi,  71,  40;  G.  vi,  18,  4S.  «hn«  B.  kafleuMt  (as  ia  Q.  vi. 
80,30);  G.vi,6B,38t«irtbnsTibh6fttlt^B.far,8,SI; 


438  APPENDIX  A. 

united  with  phrase  No.  87  in  ix^  28,  41.    See  Nos.  86, 336. 

281,  Qarair  a^Ivisopamaih  (or  *>ah),  vii,  37,  12;  ix,  16, 11;  R.  vi, 

88,  42;  G.  vi,  76,  25;  jvalitaQlvisopamOn,  M.  vi,  100,  6. 
For  other  references,  see  1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  146. 

282,  ^araih  sarpavisopamaih  (or  *>ah),  vi,  117,  22 ;  B.  vi,  88,  18. 

283,  Qalabha  iva  pavakam,  vii,  36,  21 ;  viii,  24,  61;  27,  7;  xi,  25, 

14 ;  G.  vi,  44,  38,  where  E.  65,  43  has  patarngftn ;  gala- 
bhan  iva  marutah  (vyadhamat),  M.  vii,  145,  70.  Compare 
also  the  close  resemblance  in  qalabhanam  iva  vrajah  or 
vraja  iva,  M.  ix,  11,  25 ;  13,  42,  where  C.  697  has  qaku- 
nanam  (in  the  former,  one  of  a  group  of  similes  of  arrows, 
bhramaranam  iva  vratah  qalabhanam  iva  vraj&h  hrfidinya 
iva  meghebhyah,  scil.  nyapatan  qarah),  and  in  B.  vi,  41, 
49,  qalabhanam  ivo  'dgamah ;  ix,  18,  41,  iva  ^yatim  (with 
vraja  iva  above),  perhaps  for  Valim?  Compare  hansft- 
vali,  B.  vi,  69,  37.  Another  favorite  simile  is  the  lamp^ 
on  which,  however,  I  have  at  hand,  besides  the  iva  pava- 
kam phrases  above,  only  qalabha  iva  te  diptam  agnim 
prapya  yayuh  ksayam,  M.  vii,  146,  14 ;  te  pavakam  ivft 
'sadya  qalabha  jivitaksaye  jagmur  vinaqam  sarve  vfti,  G. 
V.  39, 12;  qalabha  yatha  dlpam  (pidayeyuh)  mumHrsavah 
(silryain  abhragana  iva),  M.  vii,  22,  26.  See  Nos.  151, 
181,  258. 

284,  eardfila  iva  kmljaram,  vii,  14,  67 ;  also  in  G.,  but  ref.  lost. 

Terminal,  No.  297. 

285,  ^iro  bhrajisnukuiidalam,  iii,  289,  23;  ^iro  jvalitakundalam, 

R.  vi,  100^  15 ;  103,  20.  See  No.  317. 
280,  qlghragtlm  ilrmimalinlm,  B.  ii,  bo.^  22,  of  Yamuna  (cf.  113, 
21)  ;  Vitastam  (for  qlghragani),  xiii,  25,  7 ;  Qrmimalinam 
aksobhyaiii  ksubhyantam  iva  sagaram,  B.  ii,  18,  6 ;  which 
adds  upaplutam  iva  'dityam,  a  phrase  found  also  in  ziv, 
11,  2,  in  the  same  situation. 

287,  qighram  prajavitair  hayaih,  M.  vii,  98, 10 ;  G.  ii,  70,  3,  and 

6,  where  B.  68,  6  has  qighram  qlghrajavair  bayfiilu  See 
No.  78. 

288,  qubharii  va  yadi  va  papam,  v,  34,  4;   B.  iv,  30,  72.    This 

phrase  introduces  in  these  passages  two  different  prov- 
erbs. The  same  occurs  xvii,  3,  31,  etc. ;  B.  ii,  18,  25,  in 
a  general  relation.  The  first  va  is  often  omitted,  in  such 
turns,  as  in  G.  v,  64,  6  =  ^lanu  xi,  233,  ajfianfid  yadi  vt 


PARALLEL  PBSASBS  IN  TBS  TWO  SPICS.       489 

jIUnit  {followed  in  G.  bj  n«  kaQdn  Bt  'paridliTtti  =  B. 
Ti,  113,  iS,  where  O.  98,  34  bu  na  kaqcid  wp*.'). 
^tukam  vuiun,  No.  S3. 

289,  ^rfigftbhy&m  Tnabhftr  in,  ix,  14,  25  (taitekfatas  tadt  'djod- 

yam)  ;  govno  jathi,  O.  iii,  32, 4.  In  the  latter  osm  Uw 
warrior  thus  receives  arrowe  I  The  reading  la  nimllita 
iva  'rsabhah,  R.  iii,  26, 4.  Compave  ^rfiginto  gor^v  iva, 
V.  1.  TraabhftT,  iz,  C7,  2. 
Qoka.ba8p&paripluta  and  some  other  ^ka-fonns,  Nos.  187, 
190.' 

290,  ^kopahatacetao&h,  iii,  09,  14 ;  B.  it,  1, 124 ;  'oetaaam,  IL 

vii,  191, 1  i  ix,  41,  2fi.    These  to  add  to  No.  190. 
qTOsantam  ira,  No.  143. 

291,  Bamrartako  iv&  'oalah,  vi,  95,  M ;  O.  iii,  70, 1 ;  G.  v,  8,  7 ; 

G.  vi,  83,  16.    See  Nos.  S3,  75, 19& 

292,  sakhe  saty^na  t«  ^pe,  i,  131,  46;  O.  iv,  13, 34.     Compare, 

among  other  variants,  Tin  satyena  t«  qape,  G.  ii,  48,  4, 
whcro  K.  51,  4  has  satjen&i  'va  ea  ta  ^pe;  satjsnti  'te 
(japAmy  aliam,  R.  iv,  7,  22 ;  satyena  vli  Qape  deri,  G.  r, 
34,7.    See  No.  294. 

293,  BatyatlharmaparAyanah,  iii,  G4,  83 ;  Tii,  12,  26;  xii,  278,  39 ; 

3.17,  G3 ;  K.  vii,  74, 19  (wbero  Q.  has  pnraskftya) ;  O.  i, 
m,  7 ;  0.  ii,  74,  26 ;  O.  ii,  19, 6,  when  R.  22, 9  baa  ni^ran 
satyaparakromah ;  wherewith  compare  nityam  dhamap»- 
rayaiiah,  O.  iv,  38,  43.  Compare  aatyanat^iaztyanah^ 
M.  i,l<)9,C;xiii,  107,122;O.  ii,21,3.  Compan  alao'iat. 
yaparAknimah,  terminal  after  dhlmftn,  U.  iii,  73^  23 ;  after 
IClHinh,  v..  iii,  33,  10 ;  G.  v.  66,  21 ;  after  satyam,  B.  tI, 
119.12.  For  the  terminals  partyana,  par«kr»ma,  see  Noa. 
C'J.  lift,  10.1.206.273. 

294,  satyam  itail  btavlmi  ta,  i,  73,  17 ;  iii, 00, 14 ;  57,  S3 ;  ziii, 

It,  ITS,  et«.;  G.ii,  15,19;  Q.  v,  0,13;  30,70;  O.  vi,  98, 
l'>;  etat  s.ityam, G.  vi,  23.  32;  tattran  etad,  often  in  R.; 
B:ityt.>i)a  'ham.  U.  v,  38,  G.'J ;  satyam  pratifrpomi  te,  B.  t, 
l,14Hi  vi,  1110,  4H;  satyam  ctan  aibodha  me,  O.  iv,  61. 
4;  s»tyam  et.an  nibodliadhvam,  H.  iii,  298,  13;  MliJUi 
i-Uil  ran>  mama,  ix,  35,  78L    Bee  No.  nS. 

295,  saiiulai^a  da^anAir  osfham,  vi,  91,  31 ;  B.  tI,  &B^  3  (la  IL 

with  the  phrase  srkkini  pariwihlihap ;  io  B^with  kio> 
dhasathrakulocanah) ;  B.  tL  09^  88^  whva  O.  49,  70  hm 


440  APPENDIX  A. 

sampldya  daQan&ir  osth&u ;  ix,  11,  49,  samdaqya  daQana* 
cchadam  (C.  577,  samdasta®). 

296,  sapaks^y  iva  parvatau,  yii,  14,  71 ;  B.  ii,  89, 19.    Compare 

saQTng&y  iva  parvatau,  M.  vii,  14,  25 ;  ix,  12,  22 ;  55,  40 ; 
Kailasam  iva  ^rnginam,  vi,  62,  33;  94,  23.    See  Nos.  75, 
111,  251. 
saptaqlrsan,  Ko.  150. 

297,  samad^y  iya  kufijar^u,  i,  134,  33  and  34;  K.  vi,  66,   9 

(plural)  ;  samada  iya  hastinah,  G.  y,  81,  35. 

298,  samantad  akutobhayah,  xii,  68,  30;  G.  iii,  11,  17;  both 

after  yatbakamam,  but  with  different  application;  that 
of  M.  being  found  elsewhere,  R.  ii,  67,  18  (A.  J.  Phil. 
yoL  XX,  p.  33). 

299,  samudram  saritam  patim,  ix,  50,  15 ;  K.  iy,  11,  8. 

300,  saryakamasamrddhini,  ii,  21,  25;  ix,  38,  7,  ^inft,  etc.;   R. 

iii,  47,  4,  etc. 

301,  saryapapapranSQanam  (parya)  i,  2,  79,  etc. ;  K.  yii,  83,  4 

(dharmaprayacanam) ;  mahapapapranfiQanI  (katha),  B, 
vii,  37,  4,  7. 

302,  sarvabhtlta  (bhayamkara  and)  bhayavaha  (the  former,  ix, 

36,  26 ;  the  latter),  G.  vi,  60,  49,  where  B.  69,  149  has 
sarvabhauma ;  xiii,  14,  259.  Also  Mapu  viii,  347,  sar- 
vabhiltabhayavahan.     See  also  No.  304. 

303,  8arvalaksanalaksita(h),   xii,   337,   35;  R.  vii,  37,  3>   24; 

^sampannam,  ix,  6,  13,  etc    In  E.  with  phrase  No.  236. 
sarvalokapitamahah,  No.  194. 

304,  sarvalokabhayaiiikaram,  iii,  65,  20 ;  R.  iv,  8,  19 ;  G.  vi,  91, 

1,  where  R.  107,  1,  has  sarvalokabhayavaham ;  B.  vi, 
108,  30;  ^bhayavaham  also  in  xii,  68,  38;  B.  i,  9,  9; 
vii,  22,  6 ;  trailokasya  bhay&vahah,  ix,  49,  14.  See  Na 
302. 

305,  sarvalokavigarhitam,  i,  118,  22;  B.  vi,  94,  9;  G.  ii,  76,  6 

and  13;  G.  iii,  75,  15,  etc 
sarvalokasya  paqyatah,  No.  110. 

306,  sarvaqastraviqaradah,  ii,  5,  8;  ii,  73,  16;  vi,  14,  61;  xiii, 

32,  1;  R.  ii,  43,  19;  iii,  5,  32;  iv,  54,  6;  G.  vi,  61,  26 
(where  R.  vi,  71,  28  has  sarvastravidusftm  varah);  Mann, 
vii,  63.  Compare  G.  v,  2,  2,  sarvaQftstrflrthakovidam, 
where  R.  iv,  66,  2  has  sarvaQdstravid&m  varah.  Com- 
pare  No.  266. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE   TWO  EPICS.        441 

sarvSbhaianabhasita,  "So.  118. 

307,  sarve  yaddhavi^ftndAh,  iii,  276,13;  vii,  23,  18;  O.  n,  29, 

2.  Compare  ynddbam  (or  yaddhe)  Tuddh&Ti^radah,  B. 
vi,  65,  10;  G.  vi,  31,  7;  42,  11;  76,  31;  yudhi  y',  ih. 
77,  26.    Compare  No.  246. 

308,  sa  vispharya  mahao  cftpam,  ti,  49,  26 ;  O.  vi,  61,  6 ;  79,  9 

(ib.  43,  visphOiya  ca).  In  R.  vi,  71,  6  (=  O.  61,  6)  tad& 
capam,  where  tm  often,  tlie  fact  maj  be  ramarked  that 
G-,  mahac  cApam,  is  more  stereo^ped  than  R. 

309,  savisphulifig&  nirbhidya  nipapfite    mahltale,  vii,  92,  67; 

Baviaphulifigam  sajv&lam  nipapftta  mahltale,  R.  tI,  67, 23. 
In  M.,  bA  jralantl  moholke  'ra  preoedes.    See  No.  148, 

310,  Bahasrara(;mir  lUlityah,  iii,  3, 62 ;  O.  iii,  62, 13 ;  old  Up.  adj. 
sflkfdt  kiUlntakopama,  Noa.  104-106. 

Batt-i",  No.  186. 
.til,   BAgarA  makar&layfth,  vii,  77,  6;  sg.,  ix,  47,  7;  O.  It,  9,  38L 

312,  sfldhuvAdo  mahUn  abhtlt,  rii,  100,  3 ;  R.  vii,  96,  11 ;  jajSe, 

ix,  13,  3;  Bfldhn  BAdhr  iti  cukrn^h,  U.  rii,  14,  84;  ct 
'bravlt,  R.  ir.  8,  25;  ri,  19,  27;  Q.  t,  66,  35;  rtdha 
BJUlhv  iti  Ramasya  tat  karma  samapojajan,  R.  tI,  93, 
36 ;  sflilhu  sAdhv  iti  te  neduh,  ib.  44,  31 ;  iti  uinhTftA^ 
G.  ii,  88,  22  (with  Ticukra^h) ;  tOdhn  tAdhv  ite  te  wnre 
pflJarAiii  cakrire  tadi,  VL  t,  160,36;  sftdhT  iti  rldinah, 
R.  vii,  32,  66. 

313,  saynkAir  marmabhedibbib.   Til,  21,  10;  G.  iv,  16^  9;  ifo- 

bhir,  G.  vi,  7i>,  65;  nilr&c&ir,  U.  Tii,  16;  7. 

.314,  Biiihakhelagatih  ((;rlmlln).  i,  188,  10;  sinbakbelagatiiii  (vft> 
krain),  G.  i,  79,  10.  Compare  tn  triitobb,  gajakbelft- 
gaiiiin,  XV,  25,  7,  with  mattagajeudragftmin  in  6.  See  No. 
20.x 

.115,  BiiilunAdAiiQ  ea  kurvantah,  vi,  64,  84 ;  knrvatim,  B.  vi,  76, 
41;  G.  vi,  .%!,  13,  where  R.  68,  17  hat  nardatiin;  aib- 
hati.ld.-ui]   nanSila  ca,  ix,  13,  27;  athA  'karot,  ix,  %  3; 
pracakrirc,  ix,  8,  19,  etc. 
sii'ihiih  kHudramrgftn  yathfl  and  sibhiidita.  No*.  210^  271. 

316,  Hii'ili*'iin  'vn  'Ure  mrg&h,  vii,  7,  63;  ainbaa^  *ve  tato 
uifKa^  U.  vi,  79,  13;  ■inhaeje  'va  n(gt  Hjtn,  M.  vi* 
iW,  14.  Compare  alio  the  pair;  ainbMM  Na  mahifijat, 
xi,  18,  27;  R.  vi,  101,  AS;  liolilir  iv»  BaliadTip^  B. 
V).  31,  33.    See  Not.  3Uk  27L 


442  APPENDIX  A. 

31 7^  sumrstamanikandalah,  i,  78,  17;  iv,  18,19;  6.  vi,  37,  56; 
pra^y  M.  iii,  57,  4;  samrstamanitoranam,  O.  ▼,  16,  39. 
See  No.  285. 

318,  susr&va  rudhiram  gfltr&ir  gairikam  parvato  yatbft,  iz,  13, 

14;  susruva  rudhiram  bhari  nagft  gftirikadlifttaYat^  O. 
vi,  59,  13.  With  the  first  pOdd.  of  Q.  here,  oompaie 
cakdxa  rudhiram  bhOri  M.  iii,  279,  5;  and  compare  also 
G.  y,  83,  12,  radhirasravanaih  santa  gairikftp&m  ivA 
'karah. 

319,  stLtamagadhabandinam,  vii,  7,  8 ;  G.  ii,  26, 14,  nom.,  where 

E.  2%  12  has  bandinah  .  .  •  stltamagadh&h. 

320,  srkkini  parisamlihan,  iii,  157,  50;  iv,  21,  51;  yi,  91,  31; 

111,  11 ;  vii,  146,  120 ;  ix,  14,  40,  etc.,  v.  1.,  parilelihan, 
C.  vi,  4,094  =  91,  31;  samlihan  rajan,  ix,  b6^  24;  in  iii, 
124,  24,  lelihan  jihvaya  vaktram  (vyattanano  ghoradr- 
stir  grasann  iva  jagad  balat  sa  bhaksayisyan)  samkmd- 
dhah,  as  in  E.  vi,  8,  22  =  G.  v,  79,  12,  kruddhah 
parilihan  srkkam  (G.  vaktram)  jihvaya.  In  K.  vi,  67, 
140,  jihvaya  parilihyantam  srkkini  Qoniteksite,  where 
G.  46,  86  has  lelihanam  asrg  vaktraj  jihvaya  ^nitoksi- 
tam.  Compare,  also  in  E.,  osthau  parilihan  Quskau 
(netrair  animisair  iva  mrtabhQta  iva  'rtas  tu).  In  M. 
vi,  64,  31,  srkkini,  where  C.  2,840  has  srkkinim;  in 
other  cases,  srkkini  is  the  Bombay  reading,  as  observed 
PW.  s.  V.  where  srkv°  is  preferred.  The  tyi)e  is  not  yet 
stereotyped  in  E.,  as  it  is  in  AL's  titular  phrase.  See 
Nos.  106,  295. 

321,  se  'ndrair  api  surasnraih,  vii,  12,  28,  etc. ;  R.  vi,  48,  30. 

In  M.  preceded  by  na  hi  ^akyo  Yndhisthirah  grahltam 
samare  rajan ;  in  E.  by  ne  'mau  Qakyau  rane  jetum.    The 
phrase  is  not  infrequent, 
sthitaih  qailam,  No.  91. 

322,  sphurate  nayanaih  savyam  bahuq  ca  hrdayam  ca  me,  B.  iii, 

59,  4 ;  sphurate  nayanam  ca  'sya  savyam  bhayanivedanam 
bahuh  prakampate  savyah,  H.  2, 110,  25. 

323,  smitapilrvabhibhasinl,  iii,  55, 19 ;  xii,  326,  35 ;  H.  2,  88,  35; 

E.  vi,  34,  2 ;  G.  iii,  49,  5 ;  ^bhasita,  M.  i,  140,  66 ;  nityam 
susmitabhasini,  E.  v,  16, 21  (G.  sa^) ;  smitaptlrvam  abhft- 
sata,  G.  V,  92, 12 ;  smitapOrvabhibhasinam,  Eaghuv.  xvii, 
31. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.       448 

324,  tTabAhubalam  fi^ritah,  iii,  286, 10 ;  O.  iii»  63, 13;  O.  ri,  84^ 

20 ;  fii^ritya,  M.  i,  140,  38 ;  ▼,  133,  4S.  Com|Mur6  Hadu 
ix,  255,  rftstraih  bfthabalAqritam. 

325,  STab&hubalavIryena,  vii,  4,  5;  O.  vi,  2B«  36. 
svarnapuftkhaih,  Nos.  34,  234. 

326,  svarbhftnur  iva  bhftskaram,  iii,  11,  52,  paryadhATata;  O.  iii, 

30,  44,  abhyadh&vata.    See  No.  73. 

327,  sYftiresT  api  kutah  Qapan  (d&  'ham  mnft  bniTlmy  eTam),  i^ 

42,  2 ;  svftiresv  api  na  tu  brQyftm  anrtam  kaeeid  apy  aham 
(after  pated  dyftuh  No.  153),  O.  ii,  15,  29;  aft  'ham 
mithya  vaco  brQyftm  svftiresv  api  kuto  ^nyathft,  xiii,  51, 
17. 

328,  hate  tasmin  batam  sarvam,  R.  vi,  65,  45;  tasmin  hate  hatam 

aarvam,  ix,  7,  37 ;  mQle  hate,  etc.,  O.  vi,  79,  6 ;  tasmin 
jite  jitaiii  sarvam,  R.  vii,  20,  17 ;  in  trisfubh,  &  vi,  67, 
71,  asmin  hate  sanram  idam  hatam  syftt  (O.  46,  57, 
▼ipannam). 

329,  hanta  te  kathayisyftmi,  i,  94,  4 ;  iii,  201,  9  ;  rii,  12,  1 ;  iz, 

44.  5;  xii,  341,  18;  H.  1,  4,  31,  etc.;  R.  i»  48,  14,  eto. 
Compare  hanta  te  liam  praTaksyftmi,  M.  vi,  101, 5 ;  hanta 
te  klrtayiHy&mi ;  hanta  te  sampraTaksyftmi,  6.  vi,  3,  L 
In  Kath.  Up.  v,  6,  hanta  ta  idam  (te  'dam)  pravakayAmi 
guhyam  brahma  sanfttauam ;  kath.,  OltA,  10, 19. 

X\Of  harlnftiii  vfttaraiihasftm,  iii,  42,  7  (dai^a  vAjiaahasrAni) ;  284, 
23 ;  sahasram  api  eft  'qvftnftih  de^AnAm  vAtaranhaaAm,  O. 
ii,  72,  23. 

331,  harsagailKHulaya  vftcA,  iii,  167,  2 ;  xui,  14,  342;  B.  vii,  33,  9; 
G.  vi,  9H,  13,  109.  There  are  many  harsa^  oomponnds 
like  those  in  bftspa  above,  Nos.  190-193 ;  haraavyAkul»» 
locanah,  K.  iv,  5,  21 ;  harsabftspAkuleksana,  6.  vi,  112, 
1(K);  harnaparyAkuleksaiia,  R.  vi,  50,  45;  harsagadgadam 
uvflca  or  vacanam,  M.  iii,  138,  12;  O.  iii,  3,  13.  The 
common  phrase  of  O.  bAspagadgadayA  vAcA  or  girA  is  fre- 
quently unrepresented  in  the  other  text:  O.  i,  79,  24 ;  ii, 
.Vi,  .K);  bftspaKaclgadabhAsinl,  O.  iv,  19,  29  (bat  this 
occurs  U.  vi,  116.  17);  G.  v]  33,  2;  O.  vi,  101,  19;  also 
]{.  V,  r»7,  ;i.'i,  where  G.  has  samdigvihayA  girA  (noticed  above 
in  Nus.  11M>  193);  but  R.  has  bAspagadgadayA  girA  in 
V.  25,  2;  39,  7;  40,  21;  vi,  US,  16;  with  a  new  torn 
(compare  iv,  8»  16,  harfavyAknlilAkfunm)  in  T|  889  !!• 


444  APPENDIX  A. 

bd,spapragratliit&ksaTam9  where  6.  36,  10  has  bftspagad- 
gadabhasinl ;  both  have  rosagadgadayft  yScfi,  B,  vi,  29,  6, 
=  G.  5,  4.  M.  has  hansagadgadabhasini,  iv,  9, 10;  xi,  18« 
14,  etc.,  as  also  abravid  baspagadgadam,  iii,  259,  12; 
baspasamdigdhayd.  girft  and  vftcfi,  iii,  64, 101 ;  74,  24,  etc 
G.'s  baspagadgadaya  tatah,  after  vaca,  ii,  58,  13,  is  in  B. 
sabaspaparibaddhaya.  Compare  B.  iv,  7,  1  (vakyam) 
sabaspam  baspagadgadah.  In  K.  vii,  6, 3,  bhayagadgada- 
bhasinah.  In  K.  iv,  8,  29,  etavad  uktva  Tacanam  baspa- 
dtlsitalocanah  baspadtlsitaya  vaca  no  'ceaih  qaknoti 
bhasitum.    See  Nos.  190-193.  . 

332,  harsenotphuUanayanah,  vii,  39,  9;  G.  ii,  74,  3;  harsad  ut®, 

ix,  60,  42.    See  No.  265. 

333,  hahakaram  pramuficantah,  iii,  65, 11 ;  yimuflcatam,  G.  vi,  54, 

11.  A  common  form  is  hahakaro  mahan  asit,  vi,  48,  84; 
49,  38 ;  ix,  44,  42,  etc. ;  tad&  'bhavat,  ix,  16,  44 ;  hahfir 
karo  mahan  abhtlt,  E.  vii,  69,  13.  Compare  also  haha- 
bhatam  ca  tat  sarvam  (asid  nagaram),  xiii,  53,  41 ; 
hahabhata  tada  sarva  Lanka,  G.  vi,  93,  4.  The  Hahft- 
huha  pair  of  G.  vi,  82,  50  are  found  xii,  325, 16»  hahfir 
hohaq  ca  gandharvau  tustuvuh. 

334,  haha-kilakila^abdah,  vi,  112,  35;  atah  k%  G.  ▼,  65,  12; 

tatah,  viii,  28, 11 ;  hrstah,  ix,  18,  30,  etc. ;  asIt,  M.  i,  69, 
8 ;  asic  catacataqabdah,  C.  ix,  1,249  =  B.  23,  70,  katakatiL 
Compare  No.  81. 

335,  hemajalapariskrtam,  iii,  312,  44 ;  B.  vi,  102, 11 ;  jatarQpa*, 

ix,  32,  39. 

336,  hemapattavibhtisitam,  ix,  14,  30 ;  G.  vi,  106,  23  (padma  in 

E.  for  patta);  hemapattanibaddhayfi,  ix,  32,  68;  ^paris- 
krta,  viii,  29,  35 ;  usually  of  club  or  car.  The  ending 
hemapariskrtam  is  found  passim,  ix,  16,  39;  21,  22;  57, 
46 ;  G.  iv,  11,  4,  when  B.  12,  4  has  svarna*" ;  G.  vii,  14, 
7 ;  18,  8.    See  No.  280. 

337,  hemapufikhaih  qilaqitaih,  vii,  29,  4;  rukmapufikhaih  Qilfiqi- 

taih,  G.  iii,  8,  7;  cf.  ix,  25,  7;  28,  5,  etc.  For  svarnar 
punkhaih,  see  No.  234. 

In  presenting  this  list,  I  must  again  call  attention  to  what 
has  been  said  on  p.  72.  The  phrases  have  been  collected  at 
haphazard  and  cannot  be  used  to  determine  the  relation  of  one 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.       446 

text  of  one  epic,  but  only  to  show  the  general  baae  of  epic 
phraseology.  A  more  complete  list  would  be  needed  for  spedal 
critical  purposes.  Under  Na  196,  I  have  acknowledged  a  con- 
tribution from  Professor  Hardy.  Eighteen  parallels  were  also 
kindly  sent  me  by  Professor  Jacobi,  two  of  which,  Nos*  163  b 
and  229  b,  I  had  not  previously  enrolled.  The  parallels  were 
slowly  collected  by  memory,  chance,  and  often,  as  I  wish  par* 
ticularly  to  acknowledge,  from  the  ample  store  of  citations  in  the 
Petersburg  Lexicon,  which  has  given  me  many  a  trail  to  follow. 
But  even  in  correcting  the  proofs  I  find  more  cases.  Thus  the 
simile  of  No.  149  is  the  same  as  that  of  Dhammapada  827,  and 
tlie  stanza  on  repentance,  na  tat  kuryftm  punar  iti,  iii,  207,  61,  is 
comparable  in  wording  with  Dh.  P.  306.  But  on  this  field  spe* 
ci;ilists  can  doubtless  find  many  more  cases.  A  long  (omitted) 
}>arallel  is  that  of  M.  xvi,  2,  6,  cIdlkQcI  'U  vftQanti  sArikft  Vrsni* 
vc(*masu,  and  K.  vi,  35,  32,  cIcIkQcI  'ti  vfiqantah  ^Arikft  (sio) 
veqmasu  sthiUlh,  with  the  circumjacent  stanzas.  For  one  begin- 
ning upaplutam  (not  in  place),  see  under  No.  286. 


APPENDIX  B. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  <?LOKA  FORJIS. 

Prior  Pada  of  Epio  91o]La.^ 

The  pathya,  \j ^.    CaBsura  may  be  anywhere,  but  is  uaa- 

ally  after  the  fourth  or  fifth  syllable.  With  the  exception 
of  Nos.  7  and  8  all  these  pathya  forms  are  found  often  in 
both  epics,  though  Nos.  1  and  6  are  less  frequent  than 
the  other  regular  forms,  of  which  Nos.  2  and  3  are  most 
common,  though  No.  5  is  often  preferred  to  Na  3.  See 
pp.  219,  248. 

1,  2^  —  w  —  vy ^,  sShsL  tvaya  gamisyftml ;  ftvighnam  astu  &&• 

vitryah ;  dyate  sa  nirjitaq  cSLi  WSi ;  punyahav&cane  r3jSah. 
For  caesura,  further :  qarilih  kadambaklkrtya,  vii,  146, 124 ; 
SxlOd  bubhuksito  mansam,  R.  vi,  60,  63.  This  measure  is 
found  passim  but  is  less  frequent  than  No.  6,  q.  y. 

2,  ^ vy ^,  kclrisy^lmy  etad  evam  (A ;  k&thftyoge  kathSr 

yoge  ;  ilsid  rajd,  Nimir  nam& ;  tlcus  t&n  vfti  munin  sarrftn. 
To  avoid  third  vipuld,  after  spondee,  yugesv  IsSsu  chatresn 
(sic,  vii,  159,  36  =  7,077).  For  caesura:  madhtlni  drona- 
matron! ;  na  'tah  pftplyasl  kOcId. 

3,  ^\y \j ^,  abhigamyo  ^pasamgrhya ;    bahndeyftQ  ca 

rajanah;  na  'rjuuah  khedam  ayati;  tatra  gacchanti  rajft- 
nah.  For  caesura :  raksasaih  sttlyamanah  san ;  tarn  ajam 
karanatmanam. 

4,  :^ ^w ^,  na  Qastrena  na  qastrena;   tatas  trpta  iti 

jniltva;  bhQtaq  cai  'va  bhavisyaQ  ca;  vedasyo  'panisat 
satyam.  For  caesura :  samgrame  samupodhe  ca  (R.  ii,  75, 
39,  cf.  Aqv.  G.  S.  iii,  12,  1);  rudantau  rudatX  duhkhftt; 

^  Some  of  the  examples,  especially  in  the  case  of  rare  forms,  haTe  already 
been  given  by  Jacobi  in  his  Kamayana,  and  in  the  GampujikiumudL  For 
tlie  following  lists  I  have  sometimes  drawn  also  on  examples  furnished  bj 
Gildernioister,  nnhtlingk,  and  I^enfey.  References  for  usual  cases  are  not 
noresgnry,  and  have  not  been  given.  Sporadic  and  rare  forms,  or  those  of 
special  interest,  arc  referred  to  their  place. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  QLOKA  FORMS.        447 

udftsInaTad  fisino ;  tesftin  ApatatAm  Qabdah ;  mantrafarfthma* 
nakartarah.  This  foot  is  sometimes  duplioatedi  as  it  is  both 
metrically  and  Terbally  in  TinihqTasya  Tinih^vasyay  and 
may  be  repeated  a  third  time,  not  only  with  initial  syllaba 
ancepSy  as  in  viii,  45, 19,  dharmam  PUcanadam  drytTa  dhig 
ity  (Uia  pit&mahah,  but  even  syllable  for  syllable,  as  in  riii 
201,  62,  &nlyahs&m  ftnubhyag  eft  bfhadbhyaQ  eft.  Kot  in- 
frequently, however,  this  measure  seems  to  be  avoided  in 
favor  of  No.  6,  as  in  vasAma  (sic)  susukham  putra,  i«  167, 12. 

5,  '<£.\j^\j\j M,  tvftyi  tisthati  deveqft ;  viditam  bhavatftm 

sarvam ;  sftkrd  &ha  dadftnl  t1  (iii,  294,  26  =  Mann  is,  47)  ; 
k&  'si  devi  kuto  vft  tvam.  For  csesura:  kuru  me  vaea* 
nam  tAta;  jagati  'ndrajid  ity  eva;  dhruvam  Atmajayam 
matvA ;  ksatajoksitasarvAfigAh ;  mntakAficanakonAnAm ; 
l&figalaglapitagrlvAh.  This  arrangement  is  popular,  often 
appearing  in  groups,  as  in  daksinena  ea  mArgena  •  .  •  gaja> 
vAjisamAklrnAm  .  .  .  vAhayasva  mahAbhAga,  R.  ii,  92, 13-14, 
etc  Contrasted  trochaic  and  iambio  opening  is  somewhat 
affectcKl  (Nos.  6  and  3),  as  in :  yo  balAd  anuqAstt  'ha  •  .  • 
mitratAm  anuvrttam  td  .  .  •  pradlpya  yah  pradtptAgnim, 
ii,  64,  9*10.  The  pyrrhio  opening  is  generally  preferred ; 
the  amphimacer,  although  not  shunned  (mA  ^oo,  nara* 
qAnlAla,  ix,  63, 53,  etc.)  is  often  avoided  when  in  one  word, 
as  in  Nala,  5,  8,  musnanti  (sic)  prabhayA  rAjfiAm;  so 
kurvantlm,  ib.  16,  11,  etc.  This  may  be  due,  however,  to 
)<:rammatical  unifying  (p.  250).  Many  examples  give  an 
ana|Ki»Atic  fall  according  to  the  natural  division  of  the 
words,  as  in  vii,  54,  57,  asiuA  gadayA  ^aktyA  dhanufA  ea 
niabArathah.  On  na  bibheti  yadA  cA  'yam,  see  below  the 
not**  to  No.  35. 

6,  ^  ^\j\jyj b^,  Anekai^tabhAnmAnl ;    vAnam   kusamitam 

(IraHtuih;  brOyAnta  janasainsatsQ ;  yat  tao  chrnu  mahl^ 
Klhd.  For  oa'ftura :  dole  'va  muhur  ayAti ;  kim  Abhara^a* 
krtyoiia;  antahpuracarftn  sarvAn;  mA  bhAir  iti  tan  Aha 
'n<lnh.  This  also  is  a  favorite  eombination,  though  less 
fn*r|iu*nt  than  Nos.  4  and  5.    It  appears  in  groups,  as  in 

ix,  12,  14.  where  three  successive  pAdas  begin \jyj 

(v^^  ^  ^);  or  R.  ii,  94,  4-5,  7,  where  three  neighboring 
hoinistiohs  begin  tlius  (the  last,nAnAmrgaganair  dvlpitam* 
kHrrkHaganAir  vftah).    See  Na  4^  ad  finem. 


448  APPENDIX  B. 

7,  ^v/w_v^ ^1  Quktimatim  anangftm  c&,  vi,  ^i  35;  raqmi- 

vatam  iva  'dityah,  v,  156,  12 ;  esa  hi  pftrsato  viro,  C.  vii, 
8,821,  eso  in  B.    Compare  No.  33,  note. 

8,  \j\j\j\j\j v/,  Pa^usakhasahayas  tu,  xiii,  93,  79 ;  phalaka- 

paridhanaq  ca,  xii,  304, 14  (parallel  to  ^inhacarmaparldhft- 
nah,  etc. ;  metrically  bettered  ^  in  C,  phalakam). 
First  vipula,  \j\j\j^.  Csesura  usually  after  the  fourth  or 
fifth.  Final  brevis  not  unusual  even  in  K. ;  and  common 
in  Mbh.  All  forms  are  found  in  both  epics,  except  No.  12, 
which  is  sporadic  in  both,  and  No.  13,  unique.  See  p. 
221. 

9,  ^  —  \j^\j\j\j^,  atho  ^tthitesu  bahusH ;  yatha  yatha  hi 

nrpatih;  na  tvadvaco  ganayati;  gatva,  Sudeva,  nagarlm. 
For  caesura:  sa  kampayann  iva  mahim;  anekavaktranar 
yanam;  danstrakaralavadanam ;  satvam  rajas  tama  iti; 
tvaya  hi  me  bahu  krtam  yad  anyah  (tristubh,  Nala,  18,  20). 
This  combination,  common  in  the  older  and  freer  style^ 
declines  in  Eamayana  and  classical  poetry.  As  an  example 
of  the  refinement  of  G.,  it  is  interesting  in  view  of  tins 
fact  to  notice  that  No.  9  is  often  admitted  even  in  the 
later  E.,  when  omitted  (or  altered)  in  O.  For  example, 
both  apltavarnavadanam,  B.  ii,  76,  4  (not  in  O.) ;  snkho- 
sitah  sma  bhagavan,  B.  iii,  8,  5  (smo  in  6.) ;  mahodaraQ 
ca  qayitah,  B.  v,  48, 8  c  (not  in  G.)  ;  Yibhlsanena  sahito,  K 
vi,  85,  35  (not  in  G.) ;  avaqyam  eva  labhate,  B.  vi,  111,  25 
(not  in  G.) ;  and  also  aham  Yama^  ca  Yarunah,  B.  vii, 
6,  6  (otherwise  G.)  ;  matuh  kulam  pitrkulam,  B.  vii,  9, 
11  (otherwise  G.)  ;  nihatya  tans  tu  samare,  B.  vii,  11, 
17  (otherwise  G.);  sanakramlnamakarasamudrasya,  B.  vii, 
32,  35  (otherwise  G.) ;  tasmat  pura  duhitaram,  B.  vii,  12^ 
10  (otherwise  G.).  But  in  the  (interpolated?)  passage, 
G.  vii,  23,  45  and  46,  the  form  occurs  twice. 

10,  M \j\j\j^y  nSL  hantavyah  striya  itt,  vii,  143,  67 ;  na 

qakya  sa  jarayittim,  B.  iv,  6,  7;  bhaveyur  vedavidusah; 
yog!  yufijlta  satatam;  yah  pUjyah  pUjayasi  mam.  For 
caesura :  tatah  sa  baspakalaya ;  na  ^yam  loko  'sti  na  pare ; 
putraQ  ca  me  vinihatah;  haha  rajann  iti  muhtir;  mrglv- 

^  In  R.  iv,  43, 15  yicinyata  (^tha  in  12)  mahlbhigam  may  be  for  vlciiiiita; 
bat  more  probably  the  verb  was  ab  initio  modernized  to  the  arconjiigatioii, 
like  iny,  jinv,  piny.    The  usual  epic  form  is  middle  ridnudhram. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  QLOKA  FORMS.        449 

otphullanayauft ;  ohAyftsamsaktasalilo ;  kim  kAryam  brdbi 
bhagavan.  To  avoid  second  TipulA  after  tpoiidee,  vayam 
pa<^ama  (sic)  tapasft.    See  p.  248. 

11,  ^  v^ \j\j\j^f  asit&h  smo  ha  TasatTm ;  DftmayantjA  saha 

Nalah ;  yatra  tad  brahma  paraoi&m ;  yena  doao  na  bhaviUL 
For  cassura :  caadralekhAm  iva  navftm ;  annasamskAxam  api 
cA ;  kuAjaradvIpamahisA- ;  brAhmanaksatriyavi^Am ;  Agrato 
vftyuca])al&h ;  SarayOm  punyasalilAm.  When  ending  in 
brevis  often  followed  by  anpther  or  two:  salilatthas  tava 
suta,  idaiiiy  ix,  31,  37;  sa  tatho  'ktrA  munijanam,  arAj-; 
nsitah  smo  ha  vasatim  anujAnAtu,  R«  ii,  64,  87.  Kos.  10 
and  11  prevail  over  Na  9  in  the  later  style.  There  is  no 
general  preference  for  either  of  the  former  two  in  the 
Mbh.,  but  in  K.  No.  11  is  more  common  than  No.  10|  as  it 
often  is  in  parts  of  Mbh.* 

12,  ^ \^  w  vy  v/  :^y  pradlptdQ  ca  qikhimnkhahf  vii,  146,  7 ; 

viddhi  tvaiii  tu  naram  rsTm,  zv,  31,  11 ;  tan  no  jyotir  abhi- 
hataih,  ii,  72,  7 ;  tadA  vartmasu  calitAh,  R.  vii,  16,  30  (v.  L 
in  G.)*  The  last  example  is  peculiar  in  not  having  the 
caesura  after  the  fourth  syllable,  where,  as  Professor  JaooU 
hoA  shown,  irregular  forms  are  usually  (but,  it  may  be 
added,  not  by  any  means  invariably)  cut. 

13,  v/v^v^-..wv>^_,  jalacarAh  sthalacarAh,  O.  i,  13«  29. 
Seofmd  vipulA,  ^v/v^si.    Cipsura  usually  after  fourth  or 

fifth  Bvllahlo ;  final  prevailingly  long  (brevis  quite  rare  in 
K.).  No.  14  is  the  only  form  usually  found  in  R.  but  Not. 
15  and  K»  are  common  enough  in  Mbh.;  all  the  other 
fornift  oxoopt  a  sporadic  No.  18  being  absent  in  R.  and 
8i>oradic  only  in  Mbh.  See  p.  221.  I  give  here  several 
exam]d«*s  of  final  brevis  and  therewith  variant  easuras. 
Thi*  c.if^os  I  uke  chiefly  from  R.,  because  they  are  anon* 
alous  th<*re  and  not  so  easily  found  as  in  V. 

14,  ^  _  ^ v^  ^  ^.  sarAih  surApAh  pibatA,  R.  ii,  91,  82 ;  AnA* 

hitA.:iiir  (^atai^Ar;  }'ato  yato  niijearatl;  Anor  anlJrAn  so* 
ni.'iii.lh,  V,  46,  31  (also  a  tristubh  opening);  Avidhyad 
ftiviryasuto ;  jftgarti  cAi  'va  svapiti ;  rAjAdhirAjo  bhavmtl ; 
dino  yavAu  nflgapnrAm ;  tvAm  eva  sarvam  vi^i;  vtro 

I  .^1  ItiT  «•  I  hmrv  notlcrd.  this  form  of  wl^wU  liail  oflM  hes  iaal  bfevis 
in  U  .  ••  in  iii.  V\,  Ti.  nt  'vaf  ibaatl  mUJSm,  oat  e(  twsagNilae  wkk 
(in  A  thouMnd  TcrMt). 


450  APPENDIX  B. 

jananya  mama  cd,  E.  v,  39,  2;  ba  Karna  h&  Karna  iil; 
somena  s&rdham  ca  tav&;  vfis&nsi  jftvanti  labhe ;  B&m&- 
yanam  vedasamam,  K.  vii,  111,  4 ;  davagnidlptfini  yathft; 
8&  cintay&mfisa  tadft ;  udvejite  me  hrdayam. 

15,   ^ Kj\j}^,  bbavftn  dbarmo  dbarma  Itl ;  ObrtScim 

n&ma  ^psaras&m ;  dttrftyftram  durvisamam,  B.  vi,  90,  66 ; 
tato  y&yub  pradur  abbat ;  ^  tfttab  kmddbo  v&yasutah,  B. 
vi,  59,  112;  pariqrantam  patby  abbavaff,  B.  ii,  72,  9;* 
panftvah  kim  vyftbarase;  sabasravyamA  nrpate;  yavad 
bbamer  ayur  iba ;  ko  mam  namna  kirtayati;  jMtrft  rakso 
bblmabaJam  K.  vi,  60,  15;  praty  adityam  praty  analam; 
drstve  'mam  Vrsnipravaram ;  yedadbyayl  dbarmaparab; 
Viqvamitro  Dirgbatamah,  B.  vii,  96,  2. 

16,  ^\j \j\j^,  apaviddbaiq  ca  'pi  ratbaib,  B.  vi,  43,  43; 

Iti  loke  nirvacanam ;  atmayajl  so  'tmaratir ;  sai  Va  pftpam 
plavayati ;  qrantayugyab  qrantabayo ;  vayuvego  Tayubalo ; 
drdbvadrstir  dbyanapara ;  bemaqrngaraapyakburab;  nitya- 
mala  nityapbalab,  B.  vi,  128,  102 ;  ekasale  stb&namatlm, 
B.  ii,  71,  16;  taryamanan  Vaitaranlm,  O.,  vii,  25,  11; 
kraraqastrab  krOrakrtab.  Tbis  combination  is  found  in 
Manu,  y,  152.  Compare  Oldenberg,  ZDMO.,  xxxy,  183; 
and  Jacobi,  Bamayana,  p.  25;  Garuptlj.,  p.  50.  It  ocean 
oftenest  in  tbe  older  texts,  e.  g.,  four  times  in  Dytlta, 
witb  csBSura  always  after  tbe  fourtb,  as  far  as  I  bave  ob» 
served.  But  it  is  not  necessarily  old  (e.  g.,  B.  ii,  71,  16^ 
is  ''  interpolated").  I  bappen  to  bave  on  band  no  example 
of  two  breves  (initial  and  final). 

17,  ^ \j  ^\j\j^j  grbastbas  tvam  a^raminam,  xiii,  14,  319 ; 

yatba  vartayan  purusab,  xiii,  104,  6;  brahm&  'dityam 
unnayati,  iii,  313,  46;  agrabyo  'mrto  bbavatt,  xiv,  61,  34.* 

18,  ^  v^  _  v>  _  v>  v/  ^,  na  binasti  na  'rabbate,  xii,  269,  31 ;  ftpa- 

krtya  buddbimatab,  v,  38,  8 ;  satato  nivaritavan,  vi,  96, 3; 
Ktlrupandavapravarab,  vii,  137, 16;  visamaccbadai  racitaih, 
iii,  146,  22 ;  dvlpiua  sa  sinba  iva,  B.  vii,  23, 6, 14  (unique 
in    B.).     This  irregular  combination  also  is  found  in 

1  So,  tato  Tarsam  prSdur  abhut ;  tato  Tjomnl  pridnr  abhfit,  etc 
>  Professor  Jacobi  regards  this  as  "  irregular"  and  propoiei  to  tcftn  it  as 
p&rl9rantaTn,  but  in  Tiew  of  the  other  examples  this  seems  luuieoeMary^ 
though  9r  do  not  always  make  position.    Compare  Nos.  26  and  89.    B.  has 
the  same  measure  in  iii,  90,  23 ;  t,  4, 10. 

*  Perhaps  originally  agrahyo  amrto  bharalL 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  QLOKA  FORMS.        451 

^fantL  See  Oldenberg,  1.  c  Jacob!  has  most  of  the 
examples. 

19, \j\j  ^\j\j  \if  samskrtya  ca  bhojajatit  iii,  96,  8.    Also 

in  Manu  y,  47  (cited  by  Oldenberg,  loo.  cit)  and  i,  88,  ad- 
hy&panam  adhyayanam  (cited  by  Oldenberg,  through  an 
oversight,  as  a  first  vipulfl).    Not  in  R. 

20,  — v/w v/v/.,  &jaga7am  nftmadhanuh,  iii,  126,  S4;  dvft- 

da^pQgam  saritam,  v,  40,  7.  Compare  Jacobi,  QumpQj., 
p.  51.  The  type  is  old;  compare  n&  'virato  du^caritftt, 
Katha  Up.  ii,  23.  Not  in  R. 
Third  vipulft, :bf.  Caesura  usually,  and  in  R.  al- 
most invariably,  after  the  fifth  syllable.  The  only  general 
form  is  No.  21,  but  in  Mbh.,  while  not  common,  No.  22 
is  found  more  frequently  than  are  the  last  four  cases. 
Final  syllable  long  or  short.  Except  Nos.  2S,  27,  all  ir> 
regularities  are  found  sporadically  in  R. 

21,  yi.  ^\j ^  tflto  l>ravln  mAm  yAcant&m ;  qlloficha- 

Trttir  dharmatmft;  pftUlyamftno  TsdhyetA,  R.  ii,  7ft,  39; 
s.-iptarsayo  m&m  vaksyaiitl;  na  sthtnakAlo  gaochAmah; 
jane  ca  Kftmara  dharmajfiam,  R.  ii,  90,  22.  For  ossura: 
bhaveyur,  aqvOdhyakso  'si,  Nala,  15«  6;  bharanti  Tlrasyft 
'ksayyah,  iv,  43,  13;  tasmflt  tu  MAmdhflte  'ty  evam,  Tii, 
62,  71;  grhasthadharmenA  'nena,  ziii,  2,  87;  tathii  'te 
viqvodevebhyah,  xiii,  97,  14;  sa  rardhamftaadvArena,  zt, 
10,  3.  This  form  of  third  vipulA  is  more  common  than 
the  second  vipulA  in  later  texts.  It  is  sometimes  groaped, 
as  in  ix,  11,  28-29,  where  occur  three  suocessire  hemi- 
stichs  with  this  oiiening.  In  Nala  18^  21,  the  raading  ia 
sa  evam  ukto  'th&  *qvAqya,  for  which  evam  ukto  ^thA  '{tA* 
c^va  XJXm  is  read  by  some,  an  improbable  change* 

22,  !^ ^.    In  several  oftlie  examples  (sea  p. 242 If.) 

it  i»  ipit*»ti()nable  whether  position  is  made  by  the  lingnal, 
that  is  whether  the  pAda  is  not  pathyA;  hAte  Bhlfne  ca, 
Drone  cA,  ix,  4, 11 ;  iithirA  buddhir  hi  DronasyA,  Tii,  190^ 
43;  uthA  Hhlnmena  HronenA,  ii,  M,  28;  kim  artham 
Van  c\x  *t4>nA,  R.  vii.  35,  11  (v.  1.  VAlighAtena) ;  kfAyam 
\\\  'hhycti  brahniarfie,  R.  vii,  78,  21  (v.  1.  in  Q.);  bhaka* 
y:uii   bhojyaih  ca  brahmarne,  ib.  24  (also  O.,  85,  28);* 

1  (^»^l|Mln•  JacoU,  Kimljt^a.  p.  Sft»  vbo  gives  ake  mA  UlAlfl  Wirtit 
thA.lrani  w,  and  tarn  aaviroltac  Segriva^  R.  t,  61,  A  saA  v|,  M^  •  (wkk  T.  L). 


462  APPENDIX  B. 

SO  *yam  matto  Icsadytltena^  ii,  62,  6 ;  dftivam  hi  prajfiSm 
musnati^  ii,  58,  18 ;  jii&nam  Y£li  nama  pratyaksam,  t,  43, 
48 ;  nitjodyogd^iq  ca  krldadbhih ;  prsthacchinn&n  pfirq- 
yacchinndD,  x,  8^  116;  tasy&  '^u  ksiptftn  bhall&n  hi, 
yii,  92,  9  (short  before  ks  ?) ;  ^  brahman  kim  kurmah 
kirn  kuryftm,  K.  vii,  33,  12  (kurmahe  in  G.).*  In  vi,  16^ 
22  =  629,  B.  has  Qvetosnlsam  Qvetahayam,  where  C.  has 
qvetosiiisaih  qvetaccbatraih.    As  regards  the  licence,  in 

iXf  4,  31,  appears  (after v^  _)  ca  te  bhr&ta  instead 

of  the  ca  bhrAta  te  of  C.  Compare  y,  121,  7,  where  bhr 
may  fail  to  make  position,  munena  bhrastah  syargas  te. 
In  Nala  IG,  37,  both  B.  and  C.  haye  katham  ca  nastft 
jMtibhyah  (for  bhrasta).  The  type  is  antiqne,  withal 
with  ciesura  after  the  fourth  syllable,  as  in  some  of  the 
examples  above,  and  in  Manu  ii,  120  =  Mbh.  y,  88,  1  = 
xiii,  104,  04,  urdhyam  prSna  by  utkr&manti  (y.  1.  yyutkr&- 
manti  in  Mahabhasya,  IS.  xiii,  p.  405). 

23,  2£vjf Jbd,    The  same  question  arises  here  in  re- 

gard to  the  length  of  the  first  syllable  of  the  second  foot. 
Other  examples  are  extremely  rare:  presay&mflsQ  rSjSp 
nam,  i,  141,  14 ;  bhagavan  devarslnam  tyam,  iii,  273,  4 ; 
8arvaq<aucesu  brahmena,  xiii,  104,  112;  kim  ta  B&masya 
prityartham,  K.  y,  53,  13 ;  yam  prftyarteyaih  samgrftmam, 
G.  yii,  38,  12.*  This  combination  also  is  found  in  Manu, 
iy,  98,  ata  urdhvam  tu  cchandaiisi.  In  yii,  6,245,  G.  has 
prapalayantah  samtrastdh,  where  B.  146,  92,  has  pr^lpa- 
layanta.     This  form  occurs  also  B.  ii,  36^  28  (with  y.  1.). 

24,  ^ w J^,  na  ced  v3fichasi  tyani  dyfltani,  Nala,  26^ 

8 ;  Rudrasye  'va  hi  kruddhasya,  vii,  192,  7.  The  form 
given  by  Oldenberg,  loc.  cit,  from  Manu  is  due  to  an 
oversight.  Once  in  R.  y,  23,  17,  with  y.  L  To  avoid  this 
form  and  wrong  caesura,  Nala  16,  18  has  deham  dhftra- 
ya(n)tlni  diiium.  In  hi  (kruddhasya),  hi  is  probably  to 
be  read  as  a  light  syllable. 

*  This  licence  is  Puranic  and  may  Ik*  assumed  here. 

^  iVrhaps  kurma  should  be  read  here  for  kurmah,  as  in  ix,  82,  62,  kiih 
kurma  to  priyam.  In  Mbh.  vii,  52,  45  =  2,(M8,  B.  has  kim  kurma  mnd  C.  hat 
kim  kurmnh  knmani  kamarha. 

s  Perhaps  for  prararteya,  the  middle,  af  in  B.  yii,  96^  80,  eraiiiTidhiiii 
karmani  pravartata  mahabala^ 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  qLOKA  FORMS.        468 

25,  w  w  -.  v/ ^y  diU^a  pafica  ca  prftptAnl,  zii,  819|  21 ;  ftpa- 

karinaiQ  mam  riddhl,  xiii,  96,  7;  y&ju8ftm  rcflm  sAmnAm 
cil,  ill,  26,  3 ;  narakapratiflthfts  te  syuh,  ▼,  45,  8.' 

26, wv/_, ,  adyaprabbrti Qrlvatsah,  xit,  343^  132  (per- 
haps pathya).*  The  only  case  cited  by  Jaoobi  from  R.  is 
i,  05,  13,  also  of  the  same  form,  vinAiQayati  trftilokyaxh. 
Both  are  in  late  additions. 

27,  Js^  w  v> ^,  tvain  iva  yantft  nA  'nyo  'sti,  Nala  20,  18  j 

saptadaqe  'm&n  rftjendrfl,  v,  37,  1.  The  texts  have  eva 
for  iva  in  !Nala,  which  ia  imi)OS8ible.  Odd  ma  are  these 
forms  they  are  not  without  Manavic  authority  and  it  is 
far  more  likely  that  iva  was  changed  to  eva  than  that  eva 
was  written  for  iva.  Oldenberg,  loc.  cit.,  zxzv,  p.  184, 
f^ives  examples  from  Mauu  (iii,  214  ;  iv,  154).  Not  in  R. 
Fourth  vipula,  _  v^  —  ^.  No.  28  is  the  usual  form,  though 
Nos.  29-^32  are  not  uncommon  in  Mbh.  and  are  found  occa- 
Bion:illy  in  K.  On  the  casura,  usually  after  the  fourth 
syllable,  see  Jacobi,  GurupQj.,  p.  51.* 

28,  ^  -.  v/  —  _  v/.  !^,  lirhaspatii^  co  '<^A  cA;   mQhur  muhur 

niuliyamanah;  Anantaraih  rAjadArAh,  R.  ii,  89,  14;  vAy- 
asyatiliu  f>ajayan  me,  U.  iv,  7,  14 ;  so  'vastratAm  Atmanaq 
c'.l;  akHapriyah  satyavAdf;  Vinnoh  padam  preknunAnAh, 
K.  ii,  OS,  1<J.  VaikhAnasA  vAlakhilyAh,  R.  iii,  6^  2. 
(\i*^tira:  tadAi  Va  gantA 'smi  tIrthAny,  iii,  92,  17;  Y'udhi- 
htiiiii'iiAi  'vani  ukto,  iii, 201,8;  YudhisthirasyA  *nuyAtrAmy 
ill,  2'S\  50;  DlianafijayasyAi  'sa  kAmah,  ▼,  77,  19;  rajas 
tainai*  cji  'biiiUiAya,  vi,  «{8,  10. 

20,    -v —  w  —  i/,    iKlriMvnktai^  cA    'rjunenA ;    AnAditvAn 

nirgariatvat;  fiprcrhe   tvAih  svasti  to  *8tQ;  ekah  panthA 

I  Tli«*  f)r*t  i>iamiil«'  \\\%x  In*  pathTl  and  the  thrw  Uit  atp  to  itood  hjprr- 
mi  tfr«  that  tin-  «-liaiiu*«*  may  W  •!  Ii-ftat  •uipected,  yftju^ni  friin  (ca) ;  ipa- 
kannaiii  Ku*.  tiiiriika|»rali*ftiM  t«*  tu  •ruh. 

"  ('«iiii|mri'  ihi*  »ttn»n«l  n*Av  tt>  Ni*.  l'».  ami  p.  242  ff. 

*  .l.i< oM.  i:Aiti<\an«.  p.  *J<\  Ptatra  that  In  K.  U-tI  therp  arp  only  thirty- 
cik''i!  «  3"<'«  «'f  f'Hirih  Ti|iuli.  an*!  nf  th«'tc  all  hut  •rvm  fotlov  V  «  w  _•  In 
tKf  M.kli.iMii(riitA  thf  ■aim*  Tipull  oci-ura  iin  an  avrrafv  aa  many  timrt  aa  thk 
in  m  r.iTti|iA««  liiuiTalt-nt  to  only  half  tlu»  tilth  hook  of  tha  Rlmlyapa.  Thb 
putitiKut  it>4'r«  f<ir«*  niiift  n«tn«*t  tlir  Minu>what  Rlmljanpaqna  nttrraoc*  of 
oM,n)^r/.  viliM  ill  /I>M(f.  toI.  xiiv.  p.  1H|,  IU*mrrkiinirrB  fMf  Throria  dca 
Vl'-kn.  «.!>«  ttiAt  ilii«  mrtrr  in  p'nrral  i«  commoB  in  Mann.  haCmoch  morv 
r«'«iri>  t.  I  in  «iiir  iMH-try.**  a  ttatrment  which  ia  trve  of  Iha  Ua^fSfa sad eC 
juru  uf  thi-  Mahihhiraia.    Compare  ahoT«,  pp.  AM  fl. 


454  APPENDIX  B. 

brahmanftnOm ;  ete  nftgab  kadravejfth,  K,  vi,  50,  49; 
Vidyutkeqad  gaxbham  apa,  B.  vii,  4^  18,  and  23.  The 
measure  is  grouped  in  v,  35,  60-62,  pftpam  korvan  p&paklr- 
tib  .  .  .  punyam  kurvan  punjaklrtib  .  .  .  nastaprajiiah 
papam  ev3^  etc. 

30,  ^vy Kj^^nSk samftno brfibmanasy^ ;  j&tarQpam  drona- 

meyftm;  atra  gatba  kirtayanti;  atra  gfltba  bbOmigltlAL; 
r&japutra  pratyaveksa;  k&ma  esa  krodba  esft;  Dhistake- 
tuQ  Cekitanab  KOQirftjah,  vi,  25, 5 ;  evam  ukte  N&isadhena; 
evam  ukt&  R&vanena,  K.  vii,  23,  5,  34;  ekavarnfln  ek»- 
vesdji  ekarapdn,  ib.  40;  prapnuyftmo  brabmalokam,  B.  tI, 
66,  24.  The  measure  occurs  oftenest  in  such  repetitions 
as  fLrdhvareta  tlrdhvalingah^  lokavrttfld  rajavrttam,  etc.; 
proper  names  (as  above) ;  and  in  some  set  phrases,  of 
which  the  commonest  is  an  instrumental  after  evam  nktah 
or  uktv&  (which  also  is  a  common  tristubh  opening,  evam 
ukte  Vftmadevena,  etc.)  or  the  stereotyped  evam  uktah 
pratyuvaca,  e.  g.,  i,  145,  27 ;  viii,  24,  5 ;  34, 144,  etc 

31,  ^ w  _  w  _  ^,  kamcit  kalam  nsyatSm  vfti,  iii,  216^  12; 

mumocai  'va  pftrthive  'ndrah,  E.  vii,  33, 17  (v.  L  in  G.). 

32,  :^v/  — vy  _  v/ —  :£,  qalabhastram  aqmavarsam,  iii,  167,  33; 

avicdJyam  etad  uktam,  iii,  294,  31 ;  kim  nimittam  icehay& 
me,  R.  vii,  16,  5;  paksiiiaQ  catuspado  vfi,  B.  vii,  30,  10 
(v.  1.  in  6.),  cited  by  Jacobi  for  abhorrent  csBsura.^ 

33,  v^—v^vy  _v^_v^,  yajurmaya  rnmaya^  ca,  C.  xii,  10,400,  cor- 

rected in  B.  285, 126,  to  yajurmayo ' ;  tath&  'qramavfisike 
tu,  G.  XV,  1,105.  This  latter  is  in  a  benedictive  stanza  at 
the  end  of  A9rama  Parvan.  It  is  not  in  B. 
Minor  Ionic,  w  v^  _  .^  These  forms  are  all  separately  spor- 
adic. They  are  found  both  in  the  earlier,  XTpanisbad,  and 
the  later,  Purdna,  qloka.*  I  have  called  the  measure  the 
fifth  vipula  merely  to  indicate  that,  while  each  tpeeial 

1  A  Puranic  measure ;  compare  jitaderayajffabhigah,  Ag.  P.  It^  4,  etc 
'  A  clear  case  of  sacrifice  of  grammar,  sandhi,  to  metre,  as  above  In  No.  7. 
*  For  example,  Af^ii  P*  x,  23,  where  the  pSda  ends  da^a  derUu  Here  too 
is  found  the  major  Ionic,  e.  g.,  ib.  xir,  1,  a  pada  ending  in  Dinryodhani  (to 
Vayu  P.  yii,  27) ;  also  the  diiambus,  e.  g.,  Ag.  P.  ir.  11.  The  older  of  theao 
Puranas  has  three  cases  of  minor  Ionic  in  the  compass  of  two  abort  aectioiia, 
Vlyu,  V,  .'U,  para9  ca  tu  prakrtatvat ;  ri,  16,  sa  vedavidy  npadaAf (m^ ;  and 
a^ain,  ib.,  17.  In  Vayu  Ixi,  108,  rgyajuhsimitharva  (-rfipi^e  brahma^t 
namah),  we  must  read  sama-atharra,  as  minor  Ionic. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  QLOKA   FORMS.        466 

combination  is  sporadic,  the  ending  itself  is  not  a  great 
rarity  in  Mbh.,  Uiough  not  found  in  B.  (except  as  shown 
in  No.  36). 

S4f  M.v/^vyw_v/y  Bhfiglratham  yajamtnAm,  vii,  60,  8;  tato 
'rjuno  Qaravarsaih,  iii,  39,  36;  46,  62;  hajftn  dnpflns 
tvarayanto,  ix,  9,  47 ;  satyavratah  purumitrah,  ri,  IS,  U 
repeated  from  v,  58,  7 ;  yan  m&maJc&ib  pratipannam,  C 
vii,  8,133  (emended  in  B.  179, 20)  ;  tapasvino  dh|timantah, 
xii,  269,  10. 

Jacobi,  GurupOj.,  p.  61,  gives  other  examples  of  this 
and  of  No.  36,  from  the  Mah&bhArata. 

36,   ^ ^v^«^  yftdft  c&  'yam  na  bibhetl,  i,  76^  63;  xii, 

1>6,  14;  262,  6;  263,  16';  gataqrlkftn  hrtarijyOn,  iii,  287, 
17 ;  IcAinaiii  dev&  fsaya^  eft,  xii,  349,  78 ;  svayam  yajfiftir 
yajaniftiiilh,  xii,  341,  60;  etam  dharmam  krtavantah,  xii, 
24o,  18;  maurrlghosastanayituuh,  vi,  14,27;  <^knimQtre 
nivasatvam,  xiii,  82,  24;  Vi^vAmitro  Jamadagnih,  rii, 
VM\  33 ;  xiii,  93,  21 ;  J&rftsandhir  Bhagadattah,  xV,  82, 
10.  Here  belongs  the  mutilated  pftda  of  Naia  24,  IS; 
sAksAd  dev&n  a|)ahflya,  which  now  appears  in  both  texts 
as  apAhaya  (but  a|)abflya  tu  ko  gacchet,  in  ql.  11).  A 
similar  cane  will  be  found  under  No.  36.  The  measure  has 
sufTortHl  the  same  fate  in  lianu  ix,  101,  where  abhicftro 

has  U*i*u  changed  to  abhicftro  (though  \j\j occurs  in 

Manu  ii,  H«5).  The  same  change  may  be  suspected  in  xii, 
:UK),  44,  aHAiihutvaiii  {Nirlvadah  ;  297,  26,  atrft  tesAm  adbl- 
kArah.     »See  No.  «36. 

86,   ^-^ w  ^  .  ^,  l>ariTittih  parirettft  (Manu  iii,  172),  xii, 

.'»!,  4  ;  IGTi,  68 ;  uMtraTftmts  tri^atam  ca,  ii,  61,4 ;  pAnfur^ 
strAil  vasudftuo,  52,  27  ;  KurukartA  KuruTAsl,  xiii,  17, 107. 
IVrhapH  also  amaratvam  apahAya,  texts  apAhAya  as  abore 
ill  No.  :ri.  iii,  167,  48;  >  and  the  pAda  cited  abore,  in  No. 
:r>,  atra  tcHAm  adhlkArah.    It  is  to  be  obsenred,  however, 

1  Tliit  i«  an  u\*\  ftinnaU  InmrpormUd  into  tiM  epke,«hlcli  has  It  also  la  the 
IMthvft  f.»rm.  n«  h\h\\r\\  raill  rl  'jam,  lU.  Sl,4  (No.  6).  Aaothtr  fbm  of 
tlii»  path}  ft  it  found  in  iii.  3:^7, 35,  n«  biblietl  pnro  jsmbIs  |aa  MblMti  parie 
r«  V Jill  I.  rotii|Mirr  vi,  .W.  \\  jrunia  no  'dvijato  loko  lokAa  so  'dvljaio  ca 
yah.  «ith  t.  1.  iti  xii.  :fiU.  24. 

s  s»  II   1.  u.  '»\  -  ;i70.  tc  >am  unln  tpthlja.    The  DbaMMsp.  has  ka^ 
liatii  •Ihannjiin  Tip|»ahljra.    JsoobI  fflTM  snotkef  esaapli^  T.  90^41^ 
kit  |>«titukAia. 


456  APPENDIX  B. 

that  the  analogous  pratlkd,rah  and  parlvflrah  occar  both  in 
Mbh.,  B.,  and  Eaghuv.  (xv,  16;  xvii,  5o)  as  pathj&  forms, 
and  all  these  cases  may  be  such  (but  in  abhic&rah  the 
older  MSS.  have  this  form).  In  vii,  81, 13,  B.  has  apra- 
meyam  pranamato,  where  C.  2,898  has  pranamantftu.  6. 
ii,  5j  24  has  yatprasOdad  abhisiktam  for  yatpras&denft 
(Jacobi,  Earn.,  p.  25) ;  and  G.  vi,  70, 15,  vajrasamspar^asa* 
m&na  trin  (v.  1.  in  E.). 

37,  ^ wwv>-_:^,  drOsta  'sy  adya  vadato  'smftn,  iii,  133, 14; 

adhastao  catiiraqltir,  vi,  6,  11;  yftyftn  artha  udapftne,  vi, 
26,  46  (compare  v,  46,  26,  yatho  'dapftne  mahati). 

38,  — w  —  v>'  \^\j^^,  bhacaraya  bhuvanaya,  xiii,  14,  305. 
Major  Ionic, \j  ^ .    Caesura  after  fourth  or  fifth.    Spor* 

adic  and  only  in  Mbh. 

39,  J^  —  v>' w  i=i,  Umasahayo  vyaladhrk,  iii,  167,  44 ;  ahaq- 

caro  naktaihcarah,  xiii,  17,  47;  atrai  'va  tisthan  ksatriyfl, 
V,  45,  21 ;  tan  preksyamano  'pi  vyatham,  x,  7,  51 ;  etan 
ajitva  sad  rathan,  vii,  75,  29.  In  E.  vi.  111,  93,  vimrQya 
buddhya  praQritaih,  pra  is  light;  t. L  with  third  vipulS, 
dharmajilalL^  In  C.  ii,  2,107,  tadarthak&mah  Pandayftn  m& 
druhah  Kurusattama,  where  B.  62, 14  has  tadarthakftmas 
tad  vat  tvaih  ma  druhah  Pandavan  nrpa,  apparently  changed 
for  the  metre.  Similarly,  in  vii,  2,513,  C.  has  a^rnvatas 
tasya  svaiiaiii,  changed  in  B.  72,  37,  to  svanam  tasya. 

40, ^  ^,  gayanti  tva(m)  gayatrinah,  xii,  285,  78 

(liig  Veda,  i,  10,  1). 

[—^ f ^  —  >  evam  ukto  'tha  'qvagya  tarn  (?),  see  Ko. 

21  (ad  fineui)] 

41,  v^^ ^  —  9  abhijanami  brahmanam,  y,  43,  66^  but 

perhaps  to  be  read  with  diiambic  close  (No.  46). 

42,  \j Kj ^  —  >  adnjyanta  saptarsayah,  iii,  187,  46. 

Diianibus,  w  .  v>  2^.    A  few  sporadic  cases  (identical  with 

posterior  padas).    One  case.  No.  45,  in  E. 

43,  ^  —  v>'—  v^  — w:^^,  sa  cen  mamara  Srfljaya,  vii,  65,  49;  67, 

20;  avisthalaiii,  vrkasthalaih  v,  72,  15;  82,  7;  tasmflt 
SamantapafK^ikam,  ix,  55,  9:  anvalabhe  hiranmayam,  ▼, 
35,  14.  Compare  also  the  long  extract,  described  above 
on  p.  2:58,  from  xii,  322. 

1  Probably  (Jncobi,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  2r>-20)  ^r  fail  to  make  potltioii  hcra 
So  perhaps  tr  and  \y  iu  M. .'    Compare  note  to  No.  15  and  No.  20. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  QLOKA  FORMS.        467 

44»  ^ \j^  \j  ^  Nalam  nftina  'rimaTdanam  (B*  and  0. 

have  damanani),  Nala,  12,  105 ;  tad  v&i  devft  upAsate,  t, 
4C,  1  (but  in  viii,  84, 12,  Doryodhanam  upftsante,  as  else- 
where) ;  brahmftnam  tv&  ^atakratum,  zii,  28fi|  78  (as  in 
No.  40). 

45,  ^v/ v/_«M^^,  yatra gatv&  na  qocatl,  iii,  180, 22;  (sam 

or)  flkHi|)antIni  iva  prabhflui,  Nala,  3,  13.  With  the  first 
(antique)  example  compare  in  the  tristabh  specimens 
lx*low:  yatra  gatvft  ufl  'nu<;ooanti  dhlrfth.  The  case  in 
Nala  has  been  unnecessarily  emended.  It  may  belong 
here,  or  pr  may  fail  to  make  position.  Ka  41  may  be* 
long  here. 

46,  -.  w  —  v/  v/  _  <M^  .,  y&  ca  v&i  bahuySjinftm,  vii,  73,  43  (bat 

in  a  |>as8age  wanting  in  €.)• 

Professor  Jacobins  list  of  '<  metrically  false  **  pAdas  in 
Gurupaj.,  p.  53,  includes  praha  (sic)  vaco  brhattazam, 
which  would  give  another  form;  but  it  has  been  taken 
up  through  an  oversight,  as  the  words  form  part  not  of 
a  (^loka  hut  of  a  jagati,  Yudhisthirah  prftha  vaco  brhatta- 
ranu  viii,  71,  39.  So  from  vi,  23,  8  is  cited  a  *<  metri- 
cally false ''  |)ada,  but  it  is  a  perfectly  regular  posterior 
]KVla. 

Postarlor  Pida  of  Bplo  QloksL 

1,  M.>^_w.w^,  manusyadehagocarfth, etc  (above,  p.  238). 

Also  in  Manu,  ix,  48,  as  posterior  pflda,  \/^\/^\j^\j\j. 

2,  ^ >^.w^,  krAtOnAm  daksinflvaUUn ;  ekfthani  jigaris* 

yati;  sainyak  oM  'va  pnu^AsitA;  sarve  <;rnvantu  dtivatAh 
(^ii!).  K.  ii,  11,  10  ((ievatali  in  G.);  m&hApfasthlnikam 
(r%i(')   viilhim,  K.  vii,  KHJ,  3. 

3,  :.'  w  ..    .  v^  —  w  v..  nfpato  (Uiarmavatsali ;  qviU^ro  me  narot- 

t:iin:i)i :  tnsayisyftmi  bhrfttarftm,  viii,  74,30;  kAraySmAsa- 
tur  nrpAu.  H<'twecn  this  and  No.  5  tjiere  is  sometimes 
crily  a  difTerenco  of  otliting,  as  in  yad  akurvanta  tao 
ihiii\i,  xviii,  3,  where  H.  has  the  grammatically  correct 
form. 

4,  .^^  -  w  ^,  tvAyft  (;rfiga<;atair  nrpah;  bhavailbhir  pra- 
t:'rHHl}i:t:i)i ;  Punyai^luka  iti  ^rutah;  bhidyante  bahava^ 
<   :.  I  riUl^  ]L  vi,  QOf  11. 


458  APPENDIX  B. 

5,  ^\j^\j  K/^\j^  jUgapat  samahanyafA ;  kSIusIkrtalocaxiah ; 

Yirasena  iti  sma  h& ;  ^  oa  svapftmi  niQ&s  tad&  (Nala,  13^  61, 
grammar  sacrificed) ;  mrgay&m  upacakrame  (common  ter« 
minal).  Caesura:  surasflrathir  attamah;  yisnun&  prabha- 
yisnuna,  R.  vii,  11,  17.  Apparently  avoided  in  midnanti 
(sic)  kuQakantakan,  B.  ii,  27,  7;  bruvantim  mantharftm 
tatah,  E.  ii,  8,  13;  12,  57;  tapasfl  sma  for  smahi  S.  i, 
65, 19,  etc. 

6,  ^^\j\j  \j^\j}^^  nlkmtata  nikrntat^;  &kampayata  medi- 

nlm;  yah  pa^yati  sa  paqyatl;  samjlva  qaradah  qatam; 
Yisnutvam  upajagmivftn.  Caesura:  tarn  yfti  naravarotta- 
mam ;  samaQvasihi  mft  qucah;  jagama  diqam  uttarftm ; 
kridapayati  yositah,  E.  vii,  32,  18.  In  B.  vii,  22, 2,  ratho 
me  (sic)  upanlyat&m,  the  metre  seems  as  unnecessarily 
avoided  as  sought  in  the  preceding  example. 

7,  ^\j^— \j  —  \j—j  madhumatim  trivartmagftm,  ziii,  26,  84; 

caturaqltir  ucchritah,  vi,  6, 11  (v.  L  in  C);  Kftu^iki  plta> 
vasini,  vi,  23,  8.  In  R.  the  pflda  pftitrpitamahftir  dhruvftih 
has  a  V.  1.  that  destroys  its  value.* 

Por \j  —  (and  \j )  as  last  foot  of  the  hemi- 
stich, see  above,  p.  242  ff. 

^  N.  1, 1,  sato  ball,  is  a  stereotyped  ending. 

*  These  cases  (except  the  first)  are  cited  bj  Jacobi,  Rimiya^A,  p.  26,  etc 


APPENDIX  C. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TBI8TUBH  F0S1I& 

1,  ^-.vy v/v/— ,  passim,  cssura  after  the  fourth  or  fifth 

syllable,  inclining  to  the  latter  place,  often  irregular  or 
neglected:  ^  himatyaye  kaksagato  yathft  'gnih,  tath&  dahe- 
yaih  sagaii&n  prasahya,  viii,  74,  66-57 ;  na  PAndaTin  qre- 
sthatarftn  nihanti,  i,  1,  188  o;  Qamena  dharmena  najena 
yukta,  ii,  75, 10  a ;  prabrahi  me  kim  karanlyam  adya,  i,  S; 
176  c ;  Bhismflya  gacchftmi  hato  dvifadbhih,  vii,  2,  90  d ; 
yo  veda  ved&n  na  sa  veda  vedyam,  ▼,  43,  52  c ;  Madridhi- 
p&ya  pravarab  KurQnflm,  ix,  17,  41  d ;  sa  ^tim  Apnoti 
na  k&mak&ml,  vi,  26,  70  d.  C«sura  after  second,  in  na 
cen,  nigrhnlHva  sutaih  sukhAya,  iii,  4, 13  d;  after  fourth,  in 
refrain  of  vii,  118,  lid;  140,  15 d;  or  elsewhere  in:  yaiQ 
cittain  anveti  piirasya  rftjan,  virab  karih  srAm  aTamanyn 
drstiin,  ii,  63,  4a-b;  artho  *py  aniQasya  tathii  'va  rftjani 
i,  92,  5  c ;  vasftiisi  di vy&ni  ca  bhAnumanti,  ii,  77,  7  b ;  CTaih 
kari.Hy&mi  yatha  bravisi,  iii,  5,  22  a;  gadAsibAhudniTinam 
ca  te  'sti,  viii,  76,  17  d ;  ye  c&  '^TamedhATabbrthe  platAft* 
gah,  xiii,  102,  41a  In  jagati:  KanAdanAmAnam  ajam 
niahoc^vAram ;  H.  3,85,  16  b;  tarn  dharmarAjo  TimanA  ItA 
'bravlt,  iii,  25,  7  a.  The  only  tristubh  in  Naln  has  this 
form,  iii,  76,  53,  Also  hypermetric. 
In  the  KAmAyana  this  is  the  typical  pAda. 

v/  v/  .^  passim,  cv«ura  after  fourth  or  fifth :  yadA 

qrauHam  Vaii^raTanena  sArdham,i,  1,  166  a;  TimueyA 'rany« 
8vai;arTni(lhat0n.  i,  91,  7d;  bbittrA  'nikam  hiksyaTanuii, 
dharayam,  i,  187,  22  b;  kAuqjAm  bisyAm  Aasra  yatho  'pft> 
jonam,  iii«  111,  10a;  mamAt  'tAu  TAmyAa  parigthya  rAjaa, 
iii,  192.  54  a;  nn  mitradhruA  nAikrtikah  kftaghnah,  «"*, 


o 


\y 


>  On  Um  oMwa  Uf,  tee  above  on  the  mpiilfA 


460  APPENDIX  a 

73,  15  a.  In  jagati:  ayam  jeta  Madra-EalifigarKekayftn, 
viii,  68, 11.    Also  hypermetric    Much  rarer  than  No.  1. 

3|    ^Kj \j\j^,  common,  caesura  after  the  fourth :  yadi 

lokah  Parthiva  santi  me  'tra,  i,  92,  9b;  na  prthivyftm 
tisthati  ua  'ntarikse,  y,  44,  26  e;  tarn  asahyam  Visnum 
anautavlryam,  v,  48,  88  a ;  maghavft  'ham  lokapatham  pra- 
jauam,  xiii,  102,  56  a ;  tarn  jahi  tvam  madvacan&t  pranu- 
nuah,  iii,  192,  63  c ;  na  'sya  varsam  varsati  varsakale,  nft 
'sya  bijam  rohati  kala  uptam,  iii,  197,  12ar-b;  hrlnifevo 
Bharata  rajaputrah,  viii,  7,  18  a;  dyauh  prthivyftm  dhflr 
syati  bhari  vari,  xiii,  159,  41  d.  Change  of  caesura  in 
jagati :  eka  eva  'guir  bahudha  samiddhyate,  iii,  134,  8  a. 
Also  hypermetric. 

\j  \j  \j \j ^ 

4, v>_v>w_,  antique  and  sporadic,  caesura  after  the 

fourth  (with  long  initial,  as  far  as  I  have  observed) :  sar- 

vam  ratrim  adhyayanam  karosi,  iii,  132,  10  c;  Ac&ryena 

atmakrtam  vijanan,  so  to  be  read,  v,  44, 14  a ;  yam  man- 

yeta  tarn   pratihrstabuddhih,  C.  v,  1,697  c  (B.  44,  14o, 

manyate)  ;  aka^e  ca  apsu  ca  te  kramah  syat,  so  to  be  read, 

V,  48,  86,  d. 

\j\j \j  \j \j ^ 

6,  — v-^v> v>v^_,  antique,*  and  I  think  unique:  antavatah 

ksatriya  te  jayanti  (lokan  janah  karmanfl  nirmalena),  v, 
44,  24\a.     See  No.  11. 

Between  Nos.  4  and  5,  in  the  order  of  the  schedule, 
should  be  found  the  tristubh  pada  ^  —  ww  —v-^w—  w  —  ^ 
but  I  am  unable  to  give  any  example  from  the  Bharata, 
and  the  only  case  known  to  me  in  the  Rflmayana,  6.  vii, 
89, 19,  vimanavaram  bahuratnamanditam,  is  added  to  a  late 
book  (not  in  RB.).  It  is,  however,  not  unknown  in  Bud- 
dhistic verse,  e.  g.,  Dh.  P.  144,  pahassatha  dukkham  idam 
anappakam,  with  the  ctesura  to  be  expected  for  such  a 
form.     [The  new  ed.  (not  MSS.)  has  pahassatha.] 

W  v^   «_0 yy  V^ 

6,   ^_v> ^ ,  passim,  often  mixed  with  upajatis,  csesura 

after  the  fourth :  parasparam  spardhaya  preksamftnAh,  i, 

1  £.  g.,  BAU.  iy,  3, 13,  jakuid  ate  'ri  'pi  bhayini  v^gyttn. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRISfUBH  FORMS.     461 

187,  da;  tato  'brarld  Vftsudevo  'bbigamja,  i,  191,  20a; 
devarsajo  guhyakfiQ  cftranAQ  ca»  i,  187,  7  b;  prajU  ca  te 
BhArgavasye  'va  quddhfi,  iii,  4,  2a;  i^truh  ^eh  ^fisater 
va  qyater  vO,  viii,  42,  32o;  Karnoa  tvaran  mftm  upftyftt 
pram&thl,  viii,  67, 12  d ;  yat  tat  Prtbftm  vftg  UTftcft  'ntar- 
ikse,  viii,  68,  10  a,  etc.  In  jagati,  xiii,  102,  44  c,  etc. 
Also  in  hyi)crmetric  form,  atitbiyrat&h  suvratA  ye  janft 
vai,  ib.  19  a ;  sadft  kumftro,  yatra  sa  plaksarftjah,  ix,  43, 
49  d,^  etc.  If  pr  make  position,  divyena  rOpena  ca  prajfi- 
ayA  ca,  iii,  186,  25  c  (but  cssura  indicates  that  eft  is  to 
be  read,  No.  1). 

7,  M w ,  passim,  especially  in  upajAtis,  csssara 

after  the  fourth  or  fifth  when  the  initial  is  short  (light); 
after  the  fourth  when  the  initial  is  long  (heavy)  as  a 
qalini  verse  (pflda),  which  is  even  more  common  than  the 
vAtorml  p«1ila,  both  in  its  full  form  and  in  its  party  shape 

^  ^y^ \j .    In  hypermetric  form  this  pftda  with 

a  heavy  initial  is  a  vftiqvadevl  pAda  (common  as  such  and 
found  also  as  a  complete  vAiisvadevl  stanza) :  rane  qtlram 
dharmarAjena  sOta,  i,  1,  207  b;  nihanml  'mam  vipram 
ailya  pramathya,  iii,  192,  65  b;  Nalo  by  akslir  nirjita^ 
PuskanMia,  viii,  91,  13  b;  satAm  vrttaih  cA  'dadftA  'rya» 
vrttah,  i,  87,  10  d;  hatain  pArthenA  'havesv  apradhrayaoii 
i,  1,  l'05b;  no  'tsraksye  *haih  VAmadevasya  vAmyAo,  iii, 
r.C\  5Sr;  niitram  minder  nandateh  priyater  vA,  viii,  42, 
31  <*;  with  an  unusual  word-<livision,  muniqres^hA  rgbhir 
fliiarrur  1<;am,  xvi,  4,  28  b.  As  vAiqvadevI  also,  pratyAmn* 
flyantu  tvaiii  hi  enani  mA  hihslh,  iii,  197^  17  d,  wher« 
hi:itu!i  nuiiit  Iw  read  (C.  has  prA|Miyantu) ;  rAjA  UAodhAr- 
vAh  !ikandha4l6«;o  'vasajjya,  xv,  15,  9  c  etc.  In  C.  xiii| 
4.Hil'{r,  ye  Mhtyaute  so  'tihAsam  purAnam,  the  grammar  is 
rnrrtM^t'Ml  in  H.  102,  21  (No.  6).  See  also  the  note  follow. 
in.;  No.  11,  where  ^w.w  appears  as  the  seoond  foot  of 
the  hy]>ermotnc  pAila.  With  initial  hypermeter,  krtinam 
viraiii  (V.  1.  dhlraiii)  dAna%'AnAm  ca  bAdham,  U.  2,  72» 
:«  h. 

I  ( »nf  paU.  r.  of  thr  halfTii^TAilevI  ia  R.  T.  631^  89^  !•  of  thIs  foiB,  aigUr 
pnihr>|iih  k&r>  MiJdliixu  TiJit? A.    Set  above,  pw 


462  APPENDIX  C. 

In  the  Eamayana,  samsiddhftrthfth  sarva  evo  'gravlryfth, 
B.  viy  lly  30  b  (with  a  case  of  No.  13),  not  in  G. ;  also 
in  a  proverb,  E.  (6.)  vii,  59,  3,  33  d  (praksipta) :  na  tat 
satyam  yac  ohalen&  'nuviddham,  where  G.  vii,  64,  33,  has 
satyam  na  tad  yac  chalam  abhyupflitL  Mbh.  v,  85,  58  d, 
has  na  tat  satyam  yac  chalenft  'bhyupetam. 

^\j \j \j M 

8,  ^\j \j ,  rather  common,  csesura  after  the  fourthp 

used  chiefly  in  phrases  and  proper  names,  but  often  with- 
out constraint :  pratiknlam  karman&m  pftpam  fthuh,  i,  89, 
4a;  bahuvittan  P&ndav&nQ  cej  jayas  tvam,  ii,  63,  9c; 
paribhate  pauruse  Dhftrtar^stre,  G.  vii,  72  b  (B.  2, 21,  parflp 
bhate) ;  ^  avasam  vfti  br&hmanacchadman&  'ham,  viii,  42, 
4  a,  etc. ;  but  the  long  (heavy)  initial  is  more  common : 
yatra  gatvft  na  'nuqocanti  dhlrah,  i,  93,  8d;  tatra  yOyam 
karma  krtvft  'visahyam,  i,  197,  25  c;  evam  ete  Pflndavfth 
sambabhUvuh,  ib.  35  a;  durvibhftsam  bhasitam  tv&drQena, 
ii,  66,  2a;  ko  hi  divyed  bh^ryayft  rftjaputra,  ib.  67,5b; 
tasya  duhkhe  'py  anQabh&jah  sah&yfth,  iii,  5,  20  b;  nft 
'nuyoga  brfthmanAnam  bhavanti,  iii,  192,  66  a;  evam  ukte 
Yamadevena  r&jan,  ib.  57,  a;  so  ib.  62,  c;  64,  a;  r,  48^ 
96b;  71,  2a;  vi,  20,  Ic;  vii,  2,  31c;  viii,  37,  22o,  etc,; 
Irayantam  bh&ratim  bh&ratln&m,  v,  71,  2a;  brfihman&nftm 
hastibhir  n&  'sti  krtyam,  xiii,  102,  13  a;  duskrtam  ▼& 
kasya  hetor  na  kuryat,  xii,  73,  22  d.  In  jagatT,  sa  mahen- 
drah  stUyate  v&i  mah&dhvare,  xiii,  159,  28  c.  Also  in 
hypermetric  form. 

This  measure  is  often  divided  by  the  words  (aa  in  some 
of  the  examples  above,  or  in  iii,  134,  86  a,  mahad  ftuk- 
thyam  glyate,  s&ma  cfl  'gryam)  in  such  a  way  aa  to  make 
a  second  csesura  after  the  seventh  syllable,  with  the  last 
three  (5-7)  syllables  included  in  one  word.  It  is  an 
antique  measure  of  the  Upanishads  and  Buddhistio  writ- 
ings  ^  and  is  clearly  decadent  in  the  epic,  being  far  less 
common  than  the  two  preceding  combinations,  Nos.  6 
and  7. 

^  The  case  in  yii,  0,468  a,  da^a  ci  'nye  ye  pnram  dhirajaiiti,  if  also  vneer* 
tain,  as  B.  201,  70  c,  has  da9S  'pj  anje. 

^  It  is  the  only  form  found  with  trochaic  opening  in  the  Dhammapada;  vs. 
854,  sabdadSnam  dhammadSnam  JinitL 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRISfUBH  FORMS.     468 

9,  ^ \j  ^\j ,  sporadic,  but  also  found  in  hypennetrio 

form ;  cssura  after  the  fourth :  jadA  'qriufam  Arjunam 
devadeyam,  i,  1,  162  a  (165  a);  na  hi  jfE&nam  alpak&lena 
qakyam,  iii,  133,  10  c;  v&naapatyam  ftyasam  pftrthiTam 
▼ft,  iii,  186,  25  b;  iu  vii,  179,  24Cy  B.  has  apaQyftma  lo. 
hitftbbraprakfl<^in,  where  G.  8,138,  has  tftm  paQyftmah.  The 
corresponding  measure  with  the  Tfttorml  cadenosi  No.  16, 
is  more  frequent 

(9b),  Note:  Between  Nos.  9  and  10  should  stand  examples  of 

^\j^\j  ^\j ,  but  I  hare  only  Hariv.  2,  72,  44  a, 

vyafijano  jano  *tha  vidvAn  samagrah,  and  in  this  case  it 
is  clear  that  we  may  have  a  resolved  semi*Towel  and  hy« 
permeter :  vi-afijano  ja-no  'tha  ridrftn  samagrah.  Similar 
hyi)ermeter8  are  given  in  the  discussion  above,  p.  288. 
Compare  the  resoluUon  ib.  45  a,  tri-ambakam  pusfidam  vo 
bruv&nam  (texts,  also  7,434,  tryambakam). 

10, ww_^^ ,  sporadic,  caesura  after  the  fourth :  yena 

'ccbasi  tena  kftmam  vrajasva,  iii,  133,  2b;  nft  *nlqvara 
Idrqam  jfttu  kuryftt,  iii,  197,  24  o.  Not  rare  in  Yedio 
rhythms.     Sporadic  also  as  hypermeter,  p.  289. 

—  vyw^  «.v/ w— ^(7) 

11,  -.wvyM  ^\j ,  questionable.    The  text  of  r,  44, 25  b  hat 

k  rsnam  athft  'fi  janam  kftdravam  vfl,  which  can  be  read  only 
with  hiatus.  I  suspect  that  originally  atbo  or  athft  stood 
in  the  verse.  Compare  p.  300,  and  the  ehoriambio  opening 
which  precedes  this  passage,  cited  above  as  No.  8.  Pot* 
sibly  the  prose  in  xii,  343,  20  may  have  once  been  verse. 
It  U*f;ins  with  vedapurftnetihftsapramftnyftt. 

Nolo :  To  those  cases  of  party*fonned  ^inl  pftdas  mutt 
be  ailtled  the  hypermetrie  analogue  of  the  qlokft*s  fourth 
vipula  with  final  brevis,  which  from  its  first  foot  belongt 
more  particularly  under  Na  7,  to  wit,  yat  traih  dsvftnftm 
mantravitsu  purodhfth,  xiv,  9, 5  b. 

12,  ^-.w.  WW ,  passim,  ensura  after  fourth,  eommon  ia 

uiiajatis :  sa  eft  *pi  tad  vyadadhftt  tarram  evti  1^  19T,  8Sft| 


464  APPENDIX  C. 

na  hi  trayft  sadrql  kacid  asti,  iii,  186,  23  a;  vfici  ksnro 
Diqitas  tlksnadhOrah,  i,  3, 123  b ;  paqcfid  ayam  Sahaderas 
tarasvT,  i,  191,  9b;  jasm&t  striyam  Tivadadhyam  sabhA- 
yarn,  ii,  71,  17  b;  satye  rato  guniquqiHsayft  ca,  xiii,  73, 
26  b.  In  jagatl,  kaccit  sukham  svapisi  tvam  Brbaspate, 
xiv,  9,  la.  To  this  category  belongs  perhaps  iii,  192, 
58a;  but  see  No.  24.  Not  rare  (e.g.  iii,  197,  lie;  16 d; 
y,  42,   6c;    44,   14 d,   etc.)    are    the  hypermetric  forms 

^  —  w_M,  Kj\j \j^^f  s^  shown  above  (initial  and 

inserted),  pp.  286,  289.* 

^ \j\j \j ^ 

13,  ^ \jyj ,  X)assim,  caesura  after  fourth,  common  in 

upajatis:  idam  qreyah  paramam  manyam&nfth,  also  s&m- 
khya  yogah  paramam  yam  vadanti,  iii,  186,  26  a  and  e; 
svarge  loke  Qvavatam  na  'sti  dhisnyam,  xvii,  3, 10  a.  Other 
examples  under  the  vatorml  stauza  (also  hypermetric). 

In  the  Eamayana,  vi,  11,  80  (with  a  case  of  No.  7) : 
bhartuh  sarve  dadrquQ  ca  'nanam  te,  not  in  G. ;  hyper- 
metric, ib.  V,  63,  33  d. 

14,  ^\j yj\j ,  common,  caesura  after  the  fourth :  naya> 

nltam  hrdayam  brahmanasya,  i,  3, 123  a ;  tata  esftm  bha- 
vitai  'va  'ntakalah,  i,  197,  7d;  yadi  cai  Vam  vihitah 
^aiiikarena,  i,  198, 4  a ;  upasargad  bahudha  sddateq  ca,  viii, 
42,  33  a;  yadi  dandah  sprQate  'punyapapam,  xii,  73,  22  a; 
so  in  xiii,  159,  27,  and  42  (initial  w  and  _) ;  santi  lokft 
bahavas  te  narendra,  i,  92,  15  a;  esa  dharmah  paramo  yat 
svakcna,  iii,  4,  7c;  agnihotrad  aham  abhyagata  'smi,  iii, 
186,  22  a;  tasya  malat  saritah  prasravanti,  ib.  28  c;  nfti 
'va  Qakyaih  vihitasya  'payanam,  C.  i,  7,329  c  (but  B.  198, 
1,  na  vai)  ;  kasya  hetoh  sukrtaih  nama  kuryat,  xii,  73, 
22  c;  sampraharslQ  Cyavanasya  'tighoram,  xiv,  9,  32  b; 
10,  22  a  and  30  b.    Also  hypermetric 

1  I  think  that  this  is  the  way  such  carlj  stanzas  must  be  read  at  appear, 
e.  g.,  ill  Pravnii  iv  (10),  11,  c,  where  l>-c  read :  (b)  prini  bhiitini  |  sampra- 
tis^hanti  yntrn  ;  (e)  tad  akFnrarii  ve- 1  dnyate  jas  tu  somya.    The  altematiTe 

is  a  choriambus  with  the  scollua  ^\j vy;  but  on  this  see  the  remarks 

aboye,  p.  281. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRI^fUBH  FORMS.     486 

15,  M \j  \j\j ,  common,^  omura  after  tba  foarth :  tato 

divyam  ajaram  prftpya  lokam,  i,  89»  17  a;  pturodhftya  to- 
krtam  duskrtam  vfl,  i,  90, 18  b;  tad  eve  'dam  upapannam 
vidhanam,  i,  198,  1  d  ;  tad  evAi  *tad  ayaQasyA  'bbyupftiti, 
ii,  5G,  16  c  ;  pranetAram  nabham  Yfldavauam  and  draflftro 
hi  Kuravas  taiii  sainetfth,  v,  71, 3 b  and  4a;  tad  icchftmi 
na  sa  tarn  yftjayeta,  xi v,  9,  4  d ;  so  iii,  6,  22  b ;  v,  48,  57  c ; 
vii,  145,  94  a,  etc. ;  with  long  or  heavy  initial,  tat  tat  prft> 
pya  ua  vihanyeta  dhlrah,  i,  89,  7e;  prftptam  rftjyam  asa- 
patnam  punas  tAih,  i,  1,  216  d;  taiii  sarvaaya  bhuvanasya 
prasQtih,  i,  232,  14  c;  tatra  dyQtam  abhavan  do  jaghaa- 
yain,  iii,  34,  13  a;  tam  manyeta  pitaram  mAtaram  ca,  t, 
44,  9  c ;  hiiistlvegam  udaropasthavegam  and  nindA  cA  'sya 
hrlayam  no  *i»ahanyAt,  xii,  279, 17  b  and  d ;  durgam  janma 
iiiilhanam  cA  'pi  rAjan,  xii,  319,  110  a;  in  C.  i,  3,662  d, 
kiirvA^l  cva,  where  H.  92,  18  d,  has  evam.  Other  cases  in 
iii,  4.  2'Jb;  197,  9  a  and  16  b;  vii,  2,  21e;  xii,  73»  26e; 
2(k;,  1>7c  and  l'9a;  xiii,  71,  18  d;  94,  43b;  159,  19 d, 
etc.,  all  with  C4Bsura  after  the  fourth  syllable.  Barely 
hyiK»riiu*tric. 

In  xii,  60,  47  c,  the  second  foot  ends  in  brevist  It 
iH,  howfver,  forced  by  the  meaning:  ekam  sAma  |  yajur 
ckani  I  rg  eka.  In  rt'gard  to  uA  'nyah  panthA  ayanAya 
viilyate,  8oe  the  imragraph  on  the  scolius,  p.  279,  where 
III  so  is  cit4Ml  caturtlvAram  purusam  caturmoklianu  and 
another  similar  jiAila. 

16,  —w^vy  v^w ,  cnklam  ekam  a|)ararii  cA  'pi  kmam,  i, 

1D7,  3.  d.    I  have  no  other  examples  of  this  opening. 

17,  l:.-v^w  WW ,  antique  and  sporadic,  csssnim  after  the 

ftMirth:  raniArthinam  ufayAtaiii  KurdnAm,  i,  ltl75b;  rjur 
niriur  aiin;:iiui;ih  kfianiAvAn,  xii,  63,  8o}  ye  tad  vidur 
anirt.\s  to  Miavanti,  v,  44,  31  d ;  45»  18d.  BAU.  iv,  4, 14, 
vU\  (\a  vtad). 

1   I  ( i*  i«  thf  otilr  i'A«e  where  the  foarth  lyUahlt  Is  a  bftvls  la  a 

COnil'lliatl'iD. 


466  APPENDIX  C. 

\J\J\J \J\J v^ ^ 

18;  \j\j\j^  \j\j y  antique  and  unique,  virajaso  vitamaskft 

viQokahy  xiii,  102,  32  b.  The  same  repeated  below  has,  in 
35,  supunjagandha,  virajft  viQok&h  (hypermetric  in  42, 
supunyagandha  virajft  vlta^okAh).  Compare  ib.  38.  Imi« 
tation  of  Chand.  viii,  1,  5 ;  M&itri,  vi,  25,  etc.  With  chori- 
ambic  opening  in  a  sporadic  hjpermeter,  p.  2d4. 

19,  ^— w—  w^ufw—,  com  mon,  csesura  after  fourth  or  fifth :  yu  vain 
diqo  janayatho  daqd^re,  i,  3,  64  a;  ajo  hi  ^tram  agilat 
kilai  'kah,  ii,  66,  8  a ;  (after  iyam  Gange  'ti  niyatam  prati- 
stha,  xiii,  2(j,  %%  a,  No.  20),  ib.  c,  in  hypermetric  form,  prfttas 
trivarga  ghrtavaha  yip&pma,  (the  same  without  cesurat 
ib.  94, 13  d,  below)  ;  te  bhanavo  'py  anusrt&Q  caranti,  i,  3, 
65  c;  te  mam  yatha  vyabhicaranti  uityam,  i,  76,  52  b; 
rdja  'liam  &sam  iha  sarvabh&umah,  i,  89,  15  a;  jflnlmahe 
Vidura  yatpriyas  tvam,  ii,  64,  Ic;  Iqo  "bhavisyad  aparflp 
jitatma,  ii,  71,  18  d ;  brahmadvisaghuam  amrtasya  yonim, 
vii,  201,  67  d  ;  Vaivasvatasya  sadane  mahatman,  xiii,  102, 
14c;  also  i,  90,  6c;  ii,  63,  6c;  iii,  4,  12,  a;  186,  8d; 
186,  25  d;  xiii,  90,  48  a,  etc.  In  jagati:  evam  bruv&nam 
ajin&ir  vivOsitam,  ii,  77,  19  a;  parftjitesu  bharatesu  dur^ 
manah,  vii,  2,  8  c ;  kulambharftn  anaduhah  Qatam  ^tftn, 
xiii,  93,  32  a.  In  i,  90,  24  c-d  =  v,  35,  45  this  measure  is 
combined  with  that  of  the  next  number :  mftnagnihotram 
uta  manamaunam  (etc.,  see  No.  20).  The  tendency  is  to 
give  up  this  measure  for  the  choriamb,  and  so  grammar 
suffers,  as  in  ix,  59,  10  b :  ye  eft  'py  akurvanto  sadasyar 
vastrain.  This  old  metre,  which  is  Vedic  and  is  found  in 
the  Upanishads,  is  already  passing  away  in  the  epic, 
though  it  can  scarcely  be  called  rare.  In  some  parts  it  is 
rarer  than  in  others,  and  it  still  survives  in  the  Purflnas. 
In  the  seventh  book's  three  hundred  odd  tristubhs,  for 
example,  it  occurs  only  in  the  two  places  cited  above ;  the 
fourth  book  in  its  two  hundred  has  only  one  case  (in 
jagati  form),  iv,  14,  51  d ;  the  thirteenth,  with  three 
hundred  odd  tristubhs,  has  eight  cases;  the  second,  in  one 
hundred  and  fifty-odd,  has  five.  Other  jagati  cases  are 
in  i,  197,  20  a;  iii,  134, 10  c;  xiv,  9,  30  c  (all  with  csBSoxa 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRI^fUBH  FORMS.     487 

after  the  fourth);  and  r,  71,  6a,  nim  ■^"^^"ft^Tfant 
vipaQcitam. 

In  the  R&m&yana,  this  metre  ia  found  in  G.  ii,  26^  42, 
and  79,  40,  where  oocur  respectively  the  pAdas : 

ath&i  'vam  a^ ruparipQrnalocanft 
tarn  Artam  aQruparipQrnanetram 

In  the  former  case,  B.  has  ai^rupradpOrna.  This  is  the 
usual  phrase,  as  in  R.  vii,  40,  31,  yiyogajfi^rupratipQrna- 
locanah  (in  <;loka,  aqrupQritalocanfth,  R.  vi,  4a,  27).  The 
latter  of  the  two  pAdas  above  is  not  in  B.  at  all.  There  is 
also  a  varied  reading  in  R.  vii,  77,  21,  sarvam  tadA  cA 
'kathajan  mame  'ti,  for  here  6.  84, 19  has  sarvam  tadA 
kathitav&n  mame  'ti.  The  measure,  however,  is  not  en- 
tircly  confined  to  G.,  though  it  appears  in  B.  only  in  two 
praksipta  passages,  iii,  56,  pr.  25,  IndrAt  pravrttim  upala- 
bhya  JAnakl  or  SitA  (where  G.  has  pratilabbya) ;  vii,  37, 
3,  0;  vidyotati  jvalati  bhAti  lokAn.  In  G.  v,  80,  24,  na 
cc<l  iyaib  nt'u^ati  vAnarArditA  (not  in  B.),  na^yati  is  prob- 
ably to  be  read  (as  usual).  This  measure  is  found  in 
hyiM^rmetric  form  also  in  G.  vi,  43,  37,  qriyam  ca  klrtim 
ca  saniavApnuhi  tvam,  where  B.  has  ^riyarii  oa  kfrtim 
ca  ciram  samac^nuto,  but  perhaps  samApnuhi  ought  to  be 
n'ati  in  (r.  (or  avApnuhi,  as  in  R.  vi,  59,  57,  sthirAm  kfrtim 
av.ipiuihi).  Such  an  hypermeter  is  found  sporadically  in 
Mbh.  xiii,  %,  88  c  (above) ;  also  with  neglected  osBSurm* 

20,  ^ www_,  rather  rare,  o«sura  after  fourth  or  fifth : 

avftA^yA  vAi  |tatisu  kAmavrttih,  ii,  71,  3c ;  Visno  retas  tvam 
amrtasva  nAbhih.  iii,  114,27  b;  mAnenAdhltam  uta  mAna- 
yajnah,  i,  90.  24  <l  =  v,  35,  45 ;  sabhAyAm  yatra  labhate 
'nuv:Vlaiii,  xii,  73,  ir>b;  caturdhA  cAi  'nam  upayAii  vAcA, 
xii.  I'TO.  23 ;  nAi  *8Am  ( 1)  uksA  vahati  no  'ta  vAhAh,  zii,  34S, 
19;  iy.'uh  (lAfit^e  'ti,  etc.  (No.  19,  line  3).  Also  in  hyper- 
metric  furm. 

Like  tht*  laflt  number,  this  is  a  decadent  metre  in  the 
r{ii(\>    Tht>  late  fourth  and  seventh  books  have  no  certain 

1  In  the  I  »hamnia|ia'U.  trittuhht  with  w  w  w  _  M  •fcoaj  fool  srt  aamsf 
irallv  ««)ii;kl  to  th«iM»  with  .  vy  ^  ^  UU|kt  COCh.  M  COatfrtod  Vltk  bIm^ 
•11  with  churiAniliic  middlr). 


468  APPENDIX  C. 

examples.  In  the  former  there  is  none  at  all;  in  the 
latter,  vii,  200, 83  a,  Ssannasya  svaratham  tlvratejfth  stands 
for  C.'s  reading,  9,340,  svaratham  ugratejah,  but  it  may  be 
one  of  B.'s  frequent  improvements. 

I  have   not  noticed   any  epic  pAda   with   the    form 

^\j \jyKj\j^  ^^^f  such  as  is  found  in  the  earlier 

versification,  e.  g.  Qukram  adaya  punar  eti  sthanam,  BAU. 
iv,  3,  11;  nor  with  fourth  brevis,  except  as  hypermeters, 
p.  290,  when  three  breves  follow  (qloka,  Nos.  11, 12). 

Sporadic,  or  at  most  rare,  are  all  the  remaining  forms. 

^  V^ \J \J \J ^ 

21,  ^  —  vy  —  ^u^  —  w  — ,  sporadic,  ciesura  after  fourth  or  fifth: 
pura  jagau  maharsisailgha  esah,*  ▼>  43,  50  b ;  Sanatsujata 
yam  imam  parSjii  tvam  (brahmim  vOcam  vadase  vi^vard- 
pam),  V,  44, 1.  In  iii,  197,  13  a,  and  13,285  (this  has  a 
vdi  which  is  omitted  in  13.,  apparently  because  tadH  in 
B.  is  regarded  as  belonging  to  b)  there  is  a  parallel 
jagati,  which  I  read: 

(a)  jata  hrasva  praja  pramlyate  sada 

(b)  ua  vai  vasam  pitaro  (a)8ya  kurvata 

The  version  of  B.  abandons  a  as  too  unmetrical,  and 
omits  vai,  to  make  of  b  the  pada :  sada  na  vdsam  pitaro 
'sya  kurvata;  while  C.  abandons  b,  and  also  refuses  to 
recognize  the  hiatus,  but  keeps  vai,  which,  however,  with 
hiatus  makes  of  the  hemistich  two  padas,  as  given 
above.  Compare  the  corresponding  form  in  qloka  meas* 
ure.  There  is  a  parallel  in  the  Mahabhasya : 
no  Khandikan  jagftma  no  Kaliiigan, 
but  Weber,  IS.  vol.  xiii,  p.  308,  reads  jagama,  perhaps  a 
warranted  emendation  (compare  jagraha,  ib.  c). 

V-' V^  KJ  M 

^2, ^  —  w  __,  sporadic  or  unique :  svasti  'ty  uktvft 

maharsisiddhasanghah.     I  have  lost  the  reference. 

These  diiambic   middles  appear  to  be  almost  as  rare 
in  other  popular  verse.     Only  one  case  is  found  in  the 

1  The  whole  Rtnnza  runs :  chnndaAsi  nSma  kriatriya  tiny  AtharrS  pvri 
ja^nn  ninbnrMsanprba  efiah,  cliandovidaA  te  vk  uta  nS  'dhitavedi  na  vedare- 
dyasya  vidiir  hi  tattvnm.  Pada  c  is  explained  under  lijpermetcrt.  Both  of 
the  passages  from  which  the  two  first  extracts  are  taken  are  antiqnob 


■  r 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRISJUBII  FORMS.     469 

Dbammapada  and  that  is  rather  doubtful  (vs.  281) : 
kayena  ca  |  aktlsalam  ua  kayirft,  with  kajirft  for  kayri.^ 

^ v>  ..  _  ..v^  _  s/  _  X 

23,  ^_vf vy^y  antique  and  sporadio,  variable  onsura: 

tadvrstimahna  prasthit&u  balasya^  i,  d»  63  d;  vedOn  adh* 
lylta  'nahamkrtah  syftt,  i,  89,  7b;  m&nam  na  kuryfln  nA 
'dadhlta  rosain,  v,  44,  10  c ;  in  hypermetrie  form,  bhayfr* 
hitasya  dflyam  mamft  'ntikAt  tvAm,  iii,  197,  17  o. 

In  the  R&mftyana  G.  iii,  75,  74,  SumeruqrfigAgre  gatfim 
anindiUUn,  where  B.  has  qrftgAgragat&m ;  O.  t,  11,  10, 
mattaprainattAii&m  saniftkulani,  where  B.  has  mattapnu 
niatt&ni;  G.  vi,  46,  74,  sa  bhOtale  nyastah  kapipravlrah, 
where  B.  has  bhimabalft  ^hipistah;  O.  vi,  61,  108,  jagh* 
Ana  (^aktlhhir  vinastacetAh,  where  B.  has  ^iktyntigadA- 
kuthArAih.     I  have  noticed  no  example  in  RB. 

In  the  Dhammapada  this  measure  is  also  rare,  though 
soinctiines  employed,  as  in  No.  143  b:  asso  yathl  bhadro 
kasAnivittho  AtApino  samvegino  bhavAtha. 
[23  b,  See  the  note  to  No.  25.] 

24,  !^  _  w  _  w ,  sporadic  or  unique;  ubhAii  oa  te  jar^ 

mrtya  vyatltAu,  xiv,  9,  5o;  IksvAkavo  yadi  brahman  Dalo 
vA,  iii,  102,  58  a  (or  with  T  before  br.  No.  12.)  Perhape 
hy]MTinotnc  in  Ilariv.  C.  7,442  e,  dhrtAyudhah  sukrtlnAm 
uttaiiiAujAh,  but  B.  2,  72,  53,  has  sukrtTnAm. 

25,  M Kj ,   rare,  e^psura  after  the  fourth :  tadA 

(lt*vTm  ruilantlih  tAm  uvAra,  i,  7.202  b  in  C,  but  nidatim 
ill  B.  VM,  17;  na  eA  *bhakAye  kvacit  kurvanti  buddhim, 
xii.  in,  78 b;  so  "ham  nAi  'vA  *krtam  pArvam  eareyam, 

i.  .'{.rN'iTf*  in  r.,  but  ww in  B.  W,  13;  nA  *cAryasyA 

*n:i!»:\krtya  pravAAam.  v,  44,  15  a:  tosmAd  ettm  darAm 
Avii  ya  f:.sv.i,  i.  107,  24  d  (but  in  C.  7,299«  AviqA  'trAi  'va 
c<'sv:i)  ;  viinuryo  'oeAir  mahAnAilam  hi  sAdho,  zv,  15,  6a* 

>  Ml  in-  {'pitial'lr .  klrriiA  ca  AkflMUm  n«  kAjrIri,  vy  v/v/_  v/^  ^*  |Bo 
\hv  iH  «i  i-l  ,  Imt  with  rm  nl^^alnm  tiiirirrctrd.] 

'  I'^r     1.    __s^w v/-_M.  I  !»▼•  oaly  11.,  loc.  dt.,  p.  187, 

IjM)  i|«T%a  r»iiiirti  Ti^Tadhltryo  (No.  16^  mhttfm  B.  law  Its  hi  after  fftfU^ 
or  A  furm  witli ^j  ^  aftrr ^  w<w)f  thai  K 


470  APPENDIX  C. 

^  —  \J \J  2tZ 

26,  id-«w ,  sporadic : 

samfthyayat  samrambliSc  cSa  'va  kftvyah,  i,  76,  51  b;  mahao 
ca  rapaih  tad  vSi  parvatebhyah,  v,  44,  29  d.  Also 
hyperinetric,  p.  291. 

\j \j ^ 

27,  ^ ,  sporadic  and  questionable :    mahesvft- 

sah  KaikeyOq  eft  'pi  sarve,  C,  iii,  15,654  b,  but  B.  268, 
16,  has  Kek&yS^ ;  rajo  dhvastam  Gflndlvena  pravrttam, 
C.  Y,  1,869,  but  B.  48,  61,  has  Gftndlvena.  At  the  cost 
of  grammatical  nicety,  xii,  24,  27,  avoids  the  cadence  by 
having  caturah  for  catv&rah:  cftturhotram  caturo  vftji- 
mukhy&h.  For  the  hypermeter,  see  p.  291. 
[Note :  etat  sarvam  anirdeqendi  'vam  uktam,  xii,  108, 33  a,  would 

be  hypermeter  of \j  {\j) \j^\j,  but  see 

the  note  on  p.  296.] 


FINAL  NOTES. 

To  pp.  44-45 :  On  the  Mftitri  Upanishod.  Compare  also  xnfttri, 
'^  matter/'  in  ^Iftitri  vi,  6 ;  the  later  Gltfi,  2, 14 ;  and  possibly  xii, 
271,  12.  The  image  of  spirit  as  a  '< smokeless  flame"  is  found  in 
Katha  Up.,  iv,  1.%  jyotir  ivft  'dhOmakah;  MOitri  (i,  2  and)  vi,  17; 
and  the  epic,  xii,  251,  7  (307,  20 ;  325,  12)  :  sarvfttm&nain  maha- 
tm.liiaiii  vidhOinam  iva  pAvakam  ;  as  is  also  the  phrase  t&m  &huh 
paniuirui)  ^atiin,  Katha,  vi,  10;  Maitri,  vi,  30;  GltA,  8,  21.  On  a 
closer  n*seml>lance  to  ^Iftitri  vi,  15,  see  the  note  on  p.  1G7.  The 
tree  of  <lcsiro  is  in  this  jKissage  calleil  the  hrdi  kftmadrumaq  citro 
roohasaiiicayasambhavah,  the  image,  like  that  of  the  following 
''town  of  the  senses,''  being  very  fully  expanded,  xii,  255, 1  if. 
The  *'  wheel  of  transmigration  "  is  found  in  other  passages  also : 
yatha  kasthaih  ca  kastliaih  ca  (R.  ii,  105,  26)  samey&tftm  maho> 
(ladhAu  .  .  .  saiiisaro  ciikravadgatAu;  sukhaduhkhe  manusyflnftm 
cakraviit  parivartatah,  xii,  28,  36-41  (=  174, 16  ff.);  174,  19. 

T>)  ]>.  117:  On  Kapila's  fldya.  Compare  Adyft  prakrtih,  xii, 
'J[)iK  :«. 

To  p.  IIH:  The  reference  to  the  negative  definition  (omitted 
from  the  first  paragraph)  is  xii,  201,  27. 

To  p.  l.VJ:  Cf.  xii,  28,  46:  na  mrtyum  ativartante  velAm  in 
mahfKladhih. 

To  ]).  is:; :  On  Ct(Ml  as  the  Divine  Word.  Compare  xii,  47,  46: 
yam  ahiir  aks:iraiii  d  ivy  aril  tasmlU  vAgfttmane  namah.    8ee  p.  14. 

To  ]>.  isfi:  On  Vama*s  abode.  The  first  note  is  restated,  more 
c:ir«' fully,  on  p.  2M8. 

To  p.  VJ\  :  On  the  help  dorire^l  from  Professor  Cappeller^s 
MS.  By  *Mn  the  epic*'  is  of  course  to  be  understood  in  the 
M.il)Al»h;lrata.  It  should  perhafts  have  been  stated  that  all 
rasis  have  b<M>n  nM'xamined,  and  that  the  MS.  contained  nothing 
in  n-;::ir  I  ti»  rlokas  and  no  discussion  of  the  various  other  netret* 
WitliMut  tpiahfying  my  indebt4*«lness,  I  should  not  wish  to  make 
rnifissnr  (\-\p]M*Ih*r  n*K|Hjnftilile  for  the  further  analysis. 

T<»  p.  'Ji:(:  On  the  scajtegoata.  According  to  xii,  SIS,  fiS| 
Indra*s  sin  was  distributed  over  womeoy  flrti  tititi  and  oowt* 


472  FINAL  NOTES. 

The  distribution  of  this  sin  is  parallel  to  that  of  Nahnsa  (here 
said  to  be  cow-killing),  which  was  divided  into  one  hundred  and 
one  parts  (generally,  but  not  always,  an  inauspicious  number), 
as  diseases  among  men,  xii,  2G3,  49. 

To  p.  217 :  On  the  conversion  of  qlokas  and  tristubhs.  I  ought 
here  to  have  referred  to  the  attempt  at  wholesale  excision  of 
tristubhs  in  the  work  published  in  1883  by  Sdrensen,  Om  Mahft- 
bharata's  Stilling  i  den  indiske  Literatur,  pp.  211  ff.  The  theory, 
despite  the  ingenuity  of  the  author,  never  seemed  to  me  convino- 
ing.  The  early  forms  of  tristubh  found  in  the  epic,  and  the  fact 
that  Patafijali  cites  epic  tristubhs,  seem  to  me  decisive  evidence 
that  the  latter  measure  was  a  primitive  form  of  epic  expression. 

To  p.  238 :  On  Patafijali's  epic  verses.  M.  Barth,  in  his  review 
of  Dahlmann's  first  book,  Journal  des  Savants,  1897,  very  prop- 
erly questions  whether  Professor  Ludwig  is  correct  in  claiming 
that  "  all  citations  in  BhOsya  verses  referring  to  the  epic  are  in 
other  metre  than  that  of  the  epic  "  (p.  8  of  the  study  entitled 
Ueber  das  Verhaltniss  des  mythischen  Elementes  zu  d.  hist. 
Grundlage  d.  Mbh.,  Abh.  d.  B5hm.  Ak.,  1884).  Neither  scholar 
gives  illustrations  in  support  of  his  statement.  The  examples 
given  above,  on  p.  239,  sufficiently  illustrate  the  partial  cor- 
rectness of  Professor  Ludwig's  observation.  At  the  same  time, 
the  half-^loka  cited  above,  on  p.  6,  is  found  in  both  Bhftsya 
and  Bharata,  and  Patailjali's  tristubh  pOda,  asidvitlyo  'nnsasftra 
Pandavam,  is  in  regular  Bhd,rata  metre.  The  truth  seems  to 
be  that  Patafijali's  epic  verse  is  not  wholly  different ;  but  it  is 
on  occasion  freer  than  that  of  the  Bh^ata. 

To  p.  2G3 :  On  the  Prakrit  original  of  the  epic.  Tt  is  possible 
that  the  epic  tales  may  have  been  composed  first  in  patois ;  but 
it  is  not  probable  that  the  philosophical  sections,  for  example,  the 
Gltd  and  parts  of  ^anti,  have  suffered  such  a  transformation. 

To  p.  264 :  On  pseudo-epic  atrocities.  An  early  epic  writer 
would  have  said  (in  prose)  jlvftn  aham  drstavftn.  The  poet  of 
the  pseudo-epic,  just  after  using  the  word  jiva  (masc),  employs, 
in  xii,  280,  20,  not  only  jivani  but  ad  rata  van : 

evaih  samsaramftnani  jlvany  aham  adrstavfln 

From  the  context  it  is  evident  that,  as  Nllakantha  says,  the  real 
meaning  is  ''I  have  seen''  ( ah  am  vedmi),  though  the  commen- 
tator derives  the  sense  through  the  idea  of  not«eeiug  being 


FINAL  NOTES.  47S 

equivalent  tx>  knowing  not  by  sight  bat  by  insight  The  fona, 
however,  is  simply  an  irregularly  augmented  verbal,  and  the 
sentence  means  literally,  **  thus  in  course  of  transmigration  have 
I  seen  spirits/'  The  form  stands  on  a  par  with  the  augmented 
imperative  of  R.  iv,  3,  27,  where  some  late  pedant,  to  avoid  the 
metrical  irregularity  of  an  anap«st  after  the  first  syllable,  has 
handed  down  tarn  abhyabbftsa, ''  speak  to  him,**  as  the  opening 
words  of  a  verse  (just  before  na  kimoid  apa^abditam  I).  The 
differeno^  between  such  freedom  as  this  and  that  found  (for  the 
same  reason)  in  R.  v,  13,  41,  where  occurs  samyag  ftpah  pravek* 
syAmi,  is  that,  whereas  the  later  metricist  employs  an  unheard«of 
liberty,  the  second  poet  simply  harks  back  to  the  legitimate  inter- 
change  of  flpah  and  apah,  which,  to  avoid  another  irregularity, 
are  exchanged  in  the  already  stiffening  verse  of  the  Rig  Veda; 
for  here  also  we  find  in  RV.  x,  121,  8  (to  avoid  in  a  tristubh  an 
oi)oning  choriambus) :  yai^id  Apo  mahinft  paryapa^at  Similarly, 
in  syntax,  we  find  in  the  pseudo^pic  the  genitive  after  a  compar- 
ative, as  in  xiii,  14,  5  (cited  by  Holtzmann),  and  xii,  218,  28; 
na  *nyo  jivah  qarTrasya ;  exactly  as  we  find  it  in  the  later  RAmft- 
yana;  for  G.  vi,  24,  28  merely  indicates  that  the  text  is  late 
(since  the  alternate  text,  R.  vi,  40,  20,  has  the  ablative  here); 
but  the  genitive  occurs  at  R.  i,  47, 22,  nft  'sti  dhanyataro  mama. 
That  the  KamAyana  was  also  influenced  by  Prftkrit  forms,  may 
bo  shown  by  R.  iv,  17,  40:  (mAih  yatli  tvam  acodayah)  HAithillm 
aham  ck.lhna  tava  cA  'nItavAn  bha^eh.  Here  bhaveh  must  be  for 
the  dialectic  optative  bhave  (as  the  commentator  say8,^bhave- 
yain  **).  Whrthcr  <;Adhi,  in  yatra  na  qAdhi  (=  qiksayasi),  is  due 
to  dialectic  form,  I  must  leave  to  experts  to  decide,  R.  ii,  lOB,  10: 

CKo  'i)amA  maliAbAho  tadarthaih  vettum  arhasi 

yatra  tvam  asmAn  vrsabho  bhartA  bhrtyAn  na  ^Adhi  hi 

In  K.  ii,  111,  25,  occurs  anuqAsAmi,  sic,  and  it  is  dilBciilt  to  aee 
why  r.l^asi  is  not  found  here. 

T«>  p.  LTm  :  Notti  on  bharnti  with  the  aecosative  of  speeifieatioo. 
Till*  only  oaiso  of  this  construction  in  respectaUe  Sanskrit  known 
to  mo  i.s  ill  MAitri  Up.  vi,  10:  athe  'ndriyArthAn  pafiea  svidoni 
bhavanti, ''  the  live  (senses)  become  (operative,  as  regards)  the 
ohjocu  of  sonsi*,  in  tasting."  The  preceding  phrase  has  svidnni 
bhav.ititi  without  object,  and  the  scholiast  supplies  prati  with 
iudriy.irthAiu     In  no  circumstances,  howeveri  ooold  the  siitk 


474  FINAL  NOTES. 

chapter  of  Maitri  prove  an  early  use  for  a  construction  otherwise 
unknown  in  good  Sanskrit.  Probably  the  Petersburg  Lexicon  is 
quite  right  in  questioning  the  reading  altogether. 

To  p.  358 :  The  table  is  (revised)  from  Professor  Cappeller's  MS. 

To  p.  373:  On  sauvlra.  For  the  Balhlkas'  (Vahllkas')  sauvira, 
see  IS.  xiii,  p.  3G9.  Both  Bhftrata  and  BhAsya  recognize  Qakala, 
the  chief  town  of  the  Madras. 

To  p.  374 :  On  the  Puiljab.  Compare  the  grouping  of  Kash- 
meer  and  PufijAb  as  places  of  pilgrimage :  KftQmlramandale 
ncdyo  yah  patanti  mah^nadam,  td.  nadlh  sindhum  fis&dya  qllavftn 
svargam  upnuyS.t,  xiii,  25,  8  (with  Candrabhflga  and  Vitastft 
in  7). 

To  p.  378 :  On  human  sacrifices.  The  inferred  antithesis  is, 
of  course,  the  horror  elsewhere  felt  at  the  very  sacrifice  here 
ordered.  So  in  ii,  22,  11,  it  is  said  that  **  human  sacrifice  has 
never  been  recognized"  (seen).  But  ^iva  is  here  worshipped 
with  human  sacrifices,  as  has  always  been  the  case  with  this 
God  and  his  consort.  On  the  "  blamable  vice  "  of  hunting,  com- 
pare also  ii,  (\^^  20 ;  xii,  28,  31. 

To  p.  387:  On  the  denarius.  In  a  passage  published  some 
years  ago  (AJP.  vol.  xix,  p.  24)  I  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that,  though  the  Roman  denarius  is  not  directly  mentioned  in 
the  epic  itsolf,  yet  it  is  mentioned  in  a  later  addition  to  the 
epic,  and  this  addition  is  in  turn  recognized  (so  late  are  some 
parts  of  the  epic  itself)  in  two  (I  might  have  said  three)  books 
of  the  epic ;  whence  followed  the  conclusion  that  those  parts  of 
the  epic  itself  which  recognize  the  addition  that  in  turn  recog- 
nizes the  denarius  must  naturally  be  later  than  the  introduction 
of  the  denarius  into  the  country,  and  this  implies  for  these  parts 
of  the  epic  a  date  later  by  half  a  thousand  years  than  the  date 
assumed  by  the  synthetic  metliod  for  the  whole  epic  in  its  pres- 
ent condition.  When  in  Die  Genesis  des  Mahahhdrata^  p.  45,  the 
author  comes  to  discuss  this  awkward  point,  he  simply  says, 
without  referring  to  the  source  of  his  information  or  to  the 
actual  state  of  the  case  :  "  This  poem  contains  no  such  evidence 
of  late  origin ''  (as  is  implied  in  tlie  recognition  of  the  Roman 
coin),  words  of  especial  significance  when  one  considers  that 
the  author  everywhere  insists  on  regarding  "this  poem"  as  a 
complete  wliolo,  and  that  tliey  are  put  immediately  after  the 
remark :  '*  Xo  book  in  which  it  (the  denarius)  occurs  can  belong 


FINAL  NOTES.  476 

to  a  remote  antiquity."  The  passage  as  a  whole  is  thus  liable  to 
give  readers  unacquainted  with  synthetic  methods  the  erroneous 
impression  that  the  historical  facts,  instead  of  disproving  the 
contention  of  the  author,  favor  the  conclusion  drawn  by  him. 
Compare  i,  213,  34:  na  vyftjena  cared  dharmam. 

To  p.  391,  note :  On  Buddhistic  traits.  The  PAsandas  in  this 
passage  are  set  next  to  those  who  fi^ramesu  vrthflcflrAh  •  .  •  iha 
laukikani  Ihante  m&hsaqonitavardhanam,  iii,  188,  48-49.  The 
last  verso,  bahupasaiulasamklrnAh  par&nnagunavfidinah  Aqramfth 
.  .  .  bhavisyanti,  is  the  converse  of  the  one  cited  above  on  p.  87 
from  iii,  191,  10.  In  the  former  passage.  Professor  L.  de  la 
Vall^c-Poussin  has  just  called  my  attention  to  the  significance 
of  the  worhl-destroying  ^  seven  suns  "  as  a  term  ^  well-known 
in  Pali  and  Ncpalesc  books."  I  had  space  only  to  note  the  item, 
as  his  card  came  while  I  was  correcting  page-proof.  The  |iar* 
ticular  in)|)ortance  of  this  observation  lies  not  in  the  fact  that 
^*  seven  suns  ''  are  Buddhistic  (for  they  are  also  Brahmanistic), 
but  in  these  two  facts  combined,  first  that  (in  distinction  from 
seven  rays)  seven  suns  are  rare  in  Brahmanism  and  common  in 
Buddhism,  and  second  that  they  are  here  associated  with  Pftsan- 
das,  whom  the  epic  scholiast  regards  as  ^unbelievers,  particularly 
Buddhists/*  and  with  vihftras,  another  term  somewhat  more 
closelv  assooiatcMl  with  Buddhists  than  with  Brahmans.    I  have 

m 

I)ointed  out  alN>ve,  p.  49,  that  the  duplicate  form  of  this  section 
is  proUibly  later  than  the  Vflyu  Pur&na.  In  this  section,  the 
fiarent-children  are  a  little  older  than  in  the  parallel  verse  at 
11H»,  49  -  ISS,  60,  the  age  of  the  girls  being  that  of  the  boys 
as  eit<Ml  alM)ve.     The  former  is  the  xodiac  section  (p.  393). 

To  p.  39'J :  On  some  later  traits  in  the  epi&  The  passage  (in 
note  :\)  from  Vana  gives  the  rare  a<ljectival  form  YAvana  nrpflh, 
**  Iniiir  kitii^H  out  of  the  West."  The  same  section,  iii,  2M,  has 
a  virso,  7  a  (not  in  (\)  on  the  kings  of  Nepal,  NepAla-visaya,  a 
name  unkimu-n  in  early  literature  and  presumably  interpolated 
here.  The  Mong(»li:ins,  mentione<l  in  vii,  11,  16,  also  seen  to 
Im^Ioii)*  to  a  late  {leriod,  a  fact  \f.  Barth  has  enphaaiscd.  The 
Hun^,  ttMi,  while  common  in  the  BhArata,  are  strange  to  the 
K.\u);\v:iii.i  (probably  unknown  altogether).  I  really  do  not 
know  ]io\v  the  synthesist  explains  such  cases,  whether  as  dating 
from  ."VNi  H.  r.  or  as  iuterfKilationa.  The  theory  is  so  elaatio» 
with  iu  extrusion  of  unweloomo  data  ud  iUogloal  vsoouM  lo 


476  FINAL  NOTES. 

interpolations  whenever  convenient,  that  it  is  perhaps  otiose 
to  try  to  refute  it  on  historical  grounds.  Again,  in  regard  to 
late  words,  merely  as  words,  any  one  may  say  that  any  word  may 
have  any  age;  but  there  is  still  a  reasonable  suspicion  that  a 
number  of  words  found  in  unique  combination  or  only  in  certain 
parts  of  the  epic  and  in  later  literature  may  indicate  a  somewhat 
close  connection  between  these  parts  and  that  literature:  anva^ 
vaya,  family,  i,  209,  2;  vii,  144,  6;  atyatikrftmat  (rathavarfln), 
vii,  14G,  40;  kamdiqikah  (pradravan),  ix,  8,  9;  x,  8,  102;  n& 
'yam  kllbayitum  kalah,  ix,  5,  27  and  v.  1.  to  vi,  06,  12  =  4,334; 
astapada,  gold,  xii,  299,  40,  etc.  Compare  also  in  mythologyi 
only  three  world-protectors,  xiii,  159,  31  (effect  of  trinity  ?) ; 
Varuna's  wife,  Siddhi,  xii,  301,  59;  Citragupta  (p.  184). 

To  p.  396 :  On  the  date  of  the  Jatakas.  In  respect  of  the 
importance  to  bo  attached  to  the  circumstance  that  epic  tales 
are  recognized  in  the  Jatakas,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  for 
the  form  of  the  Jatakas,  as  we  have  them,  there  is  no  evidence 
whatever  of  a  very  ancient  date,  and  since  the  oldest  sculptured 
tale  does  not  antedate  the  third  century  b.  c^  even  the  matter 
they  offer  can  only  doubtfully  be  referred  to  so  early  a  century* 
It  is  of  course  quite  possible,  and  some  may  think  it  probable^ 
tliat  at  least  the  content,  if  not  the  form,  of  the  extant  Jfltakas, 
is  still  earlier ;  but  in  using  the  tales  for  literary  and  historical 
comparison  it  is  obviously  unsafe  to  base  much  upon  a  double 
uncertainty,  of  date  and  of  form.  The  fact  that  Buddha  always 
appears  in  these  stories  as  a  Bodhisattva  makes  it  possible 
indeed  that  the  Jatakas  may  be  much  later  than  the  third  cen- 
tury. M.  Barth,  in  the  review  referred  to  above,  has  with  his 
usual  clearheadedness  called  attention  to  the  &ct  that  the 
custom,  generally  recognized  in  these  stories,  of  sending  young 
men  to  Taxila  to  complete  their  education^  is  anything  but  an 
antique  trait. 

Correction.  —  On  pages  55  and  57,  prekkhA  (preksa)  is  a 

lapsus  for  pekkha. 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


ABftoimoif,  IMff.,  185. 

AccoiiCfi,  5. 

Airunativtf  with  bhaTiti,  M5y  478. 

Ajfwi,  3. 

AUahAliiil,  M. 

AUtt*Trttii>n.  203  If. 

Annihilation.  b9. 

Aratiinn^,  394. 

Anliory.  II,  IS. 

An*hit(vtiiro.  11,  391  ff. 

Art.  34'.» :  artu  and  •ci«ic«i,T.  UpaTwIa. 

AivtMLinc^.  2U0. 

Antnuioiiiy.  14,  15,399. 

Athemm.  104.  1h9. 

AuKim-nt,  *i4M.  251. 

Auiht»riiv,  <iOff. 

Bactuiax*.  373,394. 

Hanyan.  hi. 

Baril«.  3r>:i  fT. 

lUrth.  Mi.  .ml.  472.  475  It 

Bi-iiff.\.  2:1 1.  272.  446. 

I!I<«mI.  •  irt-nl.fctitm  <if,  11. 

Rl<i<>mti.M.3.  241. 

IIinIv  UTowth  of.  etc.).  153. 173 If.,  177. 

|{«i|itlii>;:k.  246.  247,  249,  256,  446. 

(^otii  llr-t>lkc,  3M. 

Brrathji.  Hw.  M>vf»D.  or  tea,  36,  171  ff. 

Br>wn.  l'.*3.  'i  10,  241.  332. 

Hii|.llii-t*.  ?»7ff.,  123.  147.  176,391  If. 

Butl>l!ii«(i(-  workA.  3H6,  395;  vrrm,  ▼. 
l>hanini.i|>t.l:t.  1%  204,237.291.308, 
343.  37  J  .  tr.Aitii  in  t-pic,  351,  379,  391, 
4:.'» 

BuMt  r.  21,  25,  27,  232,  333,  361,  378. 

(\i.i.>«  r.  2<i7ff.  flOff. 

O-jra,    l-'*«.    21iifr.    216,   3ia      8m 

aU»  iiti  l«r  «'-ii  h  ni«*trvu 
Csk  iiiii.i  Lii«  -.'»;. 

C.i'.:    :.r   :  0.33.1,  334,854,358,471. 

r.irr.;:.  ri    \<. 
L'v\  iuu,  J*0,  323. 


ChliMM.398. 

giTA,  88,  97  ff.,  118  ff..  t43»  188,  t8^ 

189,  474. 
Coint.  387. 

Colebnioke,  S9(^  848, 854. 
CvUiti,  66. 

ColofB.  179;  of  •001,178. 
CreatioiM,  130,  149,  189. 
Cunningham,  83. 
Coslom,  9a 

Dablkajih  (t.  SjratfaMb),  Fntno^  881. 

896. 
DarkU,  Rhj«,  55,  87, 867, 888. 
Death.  184. 
Deaariot,  387,  474. 
Dertnictible.  189. 

Dialectic  forma,  69, 947,  981, 981  ff. 
Didactic  epic«  381. 
Diiambos,  949,  948. 
Dio  ('hrTKMtuOMi,  888. 
Ducnmente,  888. 
Drama,  54  ff.,  89. 
I>ri&kinK,  ^7. 
DnaliMB,  85. 

Echo,  orifia  d  98. 

CkX  (c«mic).  187. 

Eiirhimi  —  rliljla,  17 ;  Parl9M,48. 4f  t 

(fold),  148;  booki,  idaa^  amln» 

etc.,  871. 
Riffhty  ibowaad,  8. 
Elrnmiu,  iva.  83,  148;  laaaitl%  84, 

44,46.199.  I56ff..  179,  178 ff. 
Em»r|[«nt  ■inBwa,  817. 
EverMt,  85. 


Kaia.  188. 
Panlta,  181. 
FaiuUiU.  98a 
Kirk.  55.  3Ha 
Fr«e«ill«  108. 
Fnig^(iab),i87ff. 


478 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


Ganouli,  95. 

Garbe,  174,  178. 

Geography,  81,  371,  373  ff.,  393  ff. 

Ghuts,  392. 

Gildermei8ter,  220.  254, 256  ff.,  326,  446. 

Gods  (v.  B.  uom.).  4,  183,  379. 

Grace  of  God,  188. 

Grammar,  v.  VedaSga. 

Grammatical  forms  (y.  Sanskrit,  Pra- 
krit, dialectic  forms),  of  later  epic, 
264  £f. ;  472  ff . 

Greeks,  87, 387,  397 ;  words,  372, 391  ff., 
399. 

Griersou,  384. 

IIahdy,  428,  44b. 

Heaven  and  hell,  184. 
I  Hemistich,  196. 

Heretics,  80  fF. 

Hiatus,  197,  199. 

Holtzniaun,  Preface,  3,  4,  15,  22,  24  ff., 
26,  27,  46,  47  ff.,  56,  62,  65,  77,  97, 
183,  186,  246-249,  262,  365,  368,  397. 

Homer,  liimlii,  379,  389. 

Horace,  193,  210. 

Huns,  393,  475. 

Hunting,  378. 

Hwen  Thsang,  83. 

Hypermeters,  252  £F.,  275  ff. 

Imperative  future,  196,  247. 
Inscriptions,  metre  of,  333,  355,  361; 

on  rock,  38<^. 
Inspi ration,  plenary,  92. 
Islands,  number  of,  229,  371. 

Jacob,  45.  174. 

Jacohi,  1.^  60,  62  ff.,  78,  79  ff..  84.  215, 

220,  222  ff .,  236  ff.,  242  ff.,  252,  254  ff., 

256,  258  ff.,  326.  335,  337.  354,  356. 

369,  374,  381,  445,  446,  449  ff.,  453  ff., 

456  ff . 
Jains,  87  ff. 

Kambojas,  392  ff. 
Kashmore,  72,  116,  394,  474. 
Kcm.  10. 
Kirste,  399. 
Kielhorn,  262. 
Knowlodgo  and  soul,  40. 
Kuhnau,  296,317. 


Lamp,  42. 

Laud  grants,  388. 

Lao  man,  206,  SSa 

Lassen,  326,  365,  393. 

Letters,  sixty-three,  364. 

L^Ti,  367. 

Literature,  1  ff . 

Logic,  7,  11. 

Lord-spirit  (t.  yoga),  134. 

Lotus,  37  ff.,  ISl ;  lotos-theft,  SSI, 

Lotus  of  True  Law,  389. 

Liiders.  50.  60,  77. 

Lndwig,  376,  385,  47S. 

Maoic,  380. 

Manuscripts  of  epic,  364, 387 

Meat-eating,  377. 

Medicine,  11,  12,  14,  35. 

Megastheues,  389. 

Metaphors,  205  ff. 

Metre,  affects  grammar,  S46ff. 

Metres,  191  ff. ;  tables  of,  193,  358. 

Mind,  33  ff. ;  sixth  sense,  US,  166. 

Mongolians,  475. 

Mora-verse,  259,  343. 

Morals,  376  ff. 

Muir,  46,  84,  368. 

Mullcr,  5,  44,  385. 

Music,  11,  13,  172,365. 

Mute  and  liquid  role,  S4S. 

Name  and  form,  178, 183. 
Nepal,  475. 
Numbers,  206. 


Ocean,  allusions  to,  80ff. 

Oldenberg,  220,  887,  889  ff.,  386, 450  ff., 

452  ff. 
Oldenburg.  381. 
Organs,  34  ff.,  129,  149  ff.,  155  ff.,  166. 

Pali,  S60,  262  ff. 

Pantomime.  55. 

Pathetic  repetition,  205,  S07. 

Pfttna,  392. 

Persian,  392  :  word,  371. 

Philosophy,  85  ff. 

Phvsician,  54. 

Pictures,  388. 

I^'flchel.  67,  S63. 

Plants,  171. 

Poetic  licence,  844  ff.,  S51,  S61  fL 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


479 


Polyandnr,  376,  31>9. 

Prakrit,  'en.  83 ;  metre,  S4S,  S44,  S6S, 

36t'>.  3G0,  472,  473. 
Prinriplcit.    twenty-fifth    and    twentjr* 

sixth.  113fr..  125  ff.,  133  ff.,  189. 
PnwM'-jMH'try,  266  ff. 
]*nivtT(>.^.  75,  83,  245,  260,  261,  266. 
IVutUi-fpic,  260,  etc.,  381,  472. 
Pun.  20 1. 
Punjab,  78,  374,  474. 

Riiai'Hohb.  5.  54,  56,  365. 
Khvnii»,  200  ff. 
Kouiau*.  3U3. 

SACKiKirKii,    pUntu,    beftfts,    homan, 

377(1,  474. 
Saimkrit.  69,  83 ;  grammar,  245  ff. 
Sttiirlii,  .167. 
Satuniian  vrrM*.  332. 
S<'.i|n'j;«atn.  213,  471. 
(von  I  Srlin<>ilfr,  394. 
S<ytlii;uiii.  394. 
K«!f  ♦•xi*t*nt.  4.  18. 
SonMH,  (V.  mind).  35,  40,  42,  129,  132, 

149(1..  155  (T.,  166,  172. 
Seven,    rn'Attini,    142 ;    breathe,    171  *, 

pnim.  .191,  475. 

S'\cnt«H*n.  Ki^'iip*  ^*  ^'  165  ff. 

Shi|.*.  HJ, 
8lii»;i,  V.  Vi\a. 
hilkw'irin.  Vi.  151. 
Si  mill-..  iHr'iff. 
Si\t«-«>ii  (i:nin|iii).  16iL 
Si\tv.  V    L^unaji. 
Si\l\  f"iir  artji,  16. 
S>n-niH  u,  472. 


Soul  (▼.  Pameha),  41. 

Sound,  172 ;  eternal,  gbofa.  188. 

Stadia,  183. 

Stataee,a92. 

Snttee,  81. 

SyUabaancepe,  194  ff.,  314. 

Synthcme,  method.    Preface:    Olnntr^ 

'tiona  of,  106,  124,  184,  877,  381.  389, 

395,  475. 

Taoa,  si  1  ff..  360. 

Taxila.  387  ff .,  47S. 

Telang,  27,  98. 

Terminab,  87. 

Theocritne,  380. 

Thorp,  263. 

Time,  41,  45.  103,182  0. 

Tafirae,394. 

Trinitariao  doctriiMt,  48, 184. 

VALLftK-Poreeiii,  478. 
Vedic  fume,  38a 
Viiihun,  62.  84,  97,  183. 
Vowd-chaagee,  S48i. 

Wkbkb,  a.  8. 14. 28.  58. 82. 84, 107,  tfl^ 
222,  t38ff.«  354.  365  ff.,  888,  873,  a«H 
388,  390,  894.  398. 

Whitee  (white  mea),  78, 118, 144. 

Wtdf>wB.  T.  Sntlea. 

Wiudiech.  79. 

Wintemiti,  is,  6^  115,  834,  391. 

Wirtt.  80. 

Writing.  808, 888. 

Zodiac,  398. 


SANSKRIT  INDEX. 


AKKHlH A,  386. 

•ktaniroh«ncImi,  102,  103,  321. 

•Kraliini,  :t88. 

«tijafc«ti,  HKi,  320. 

«ti(lhrti,  ml 

«tiv«kv«ri,  103. 

Atri.  Krfnitrt*ya,  11,  36i. 

Atliarvan  (v.  ViHimi),  61. 

Ath«rT«yirM,  0,  46. 

«(lhyitnia  (folii'ine),  132. 

Aniruddh*,  143. 

■nuprina,  2(K). 

«nuiiian«.  ^A,  02,  03, 146. 

anuiranyn.  M.  ittW. 

Anuvif^nna,  •t(V4.  .'{08. 

■imravAktra.  IKt,  .'UW,  340  ff.,  368. 

apArarga,  107. 

AfiaiitArutainaii,  3,  07. 

alihiiinva,  «Vi. 

Ari*itaiii  tattvani,  100. 

Arthsi. antra,  l»'..  W».  111. 

anlliM-ainavrtta.   1  *.*:*.  XW;  epic  Yftli- 

atimifi.  IU>*. 
avi.Iya.  i:J»J.  14H. 
B^  \:ikta  {\    IVakrti),  31,  134  ff. 
Avnka,  :M.i».  :ft»V 
Avvajrhn**,  ;?.«.*». 
avva«aiiijfiapatia,  26. 
A^aiimfijii*,  77. 
B«niiil>ii«nia.  IKl.  322. 
AMt.i  l»i  v.i!a.  W,  l.Viff. 

Aaiii  %N  i.  IlliiraU*,  0.  .'tHO;  dharma', 

•  .»!\  .1  ,  'I,  !•>,  «*rf). 
aK'ania  <  %    krt^).  4.  11.  43.  14.\  3a'i ;  of 

•n  t«,   1  1  •'». 

it  .^ra.  «    I  iiMtom 

Btlll.ltl   •  \     liiiUl).  1<)0,  vlv 

ap.it.ilA.i.  •>-'*l. 

iiiiinN\  .1.  fj 

.\\  ':r\<  >ia  (>    Mrdii-inf),  6^1. 

.\  r  .ii;.  ika.  7,  1»  i"  huhk  "),  62. 

an  a,  IV*:;.  .;.\.:.  :;.V4  ft ,  :U0. 368, 300. 


iryigiU.  103, 8M  ff. 
^(▼alijraiia,  47. 
Xsuri,  08.  00. 144. 

ITITf  TTA,  61. 

lUhUa,  4,  7,  ID,  47 IL,  60^  M  (fff«t)» 

111,368. 
Indra,  213. 471. 
indrafaAv',  108, 300. 
indrarajri,  102,  210, 8001 
ladrijra  (from  Indra),  86. 
lyTara  (▼.  Lonl-spirit),  106,  180,  187» 

180. 

CTTABA  (mloiUti),  7. 

opsftiti,  103, 364. 

npajiti.  102, 810, 218. 808. 800.  818. 

UpanUluuU  <y.  VediBU),Off.,  18,8^ 
27,  70;  146 ff.;  wcret,  811;  mecrp, 
837;  Atharra^ru.  40;  IU(ba,SI^  81, 
46. 00,  471 ;  Chiad.,  48.  886 ;  Tillt, 
40;  I*rafiia,  0,  :r7;  BA.,  80,  46,  40; 
cited,  p.  140.  etc. ;  BnihHiabiDda.  46 ; 
Malil,10.48;  MahlBir..87:  lUitri. 
27.  80. 33  ff..  46.  00. 107, 471 ;  Ma^d, 
00.  800;  YogaUttYa,  81;  fJrwU.  88^ 
167. 

opanlfl,  10. 

npami.  806  ff. 

apamiaa,  08b 

rpave<la.7.1Q,lI.  18. 

upaaarga,  181. 

upikhjioa,  60. 

iipi«lhyiya,  380 

TpiAira.  7. 10.  18. 

npeiidraYaJri,  lOQI.  810^  808, 81& 

Tfaaaa  (t.  BfhMpall). 

ft^naii,  168, 171. 

Ba4»Tiii,  143. 
rtl&ka.  40^  801. 

iiriHTA,  48, 61, 14ib 


81 


482 


SANSKUIT  INDEX. 


OJHA,  380. 

lUPACCHAFDASIKA,  103,  341,  3402. 

Kaccit  chapter,  12,  10,  76,  384. 

Kanada,  06,  08. 

kathaka,  64  ff.,  304  ff. 

katha,  60  ff. 

kathaka,  64  ff. 

Kapila,  06,  07  ff.,  117,  360. 

kapha,  12,  36, 122. 

Karma,  lO-O,  140. 

karmcndriyas,  130. 

kalajQana,  16,  16,  168 ;  Bixty-four,  17, 
386 ;  thirty-one  elements,  162. 

kafici,  82. 

Kapila,  00. 

Kamayastra,  16. 

Kala,  V.  Time. 

kalajnaoa,  14, 16. 

Kalayavana,  16,  48,  302. 

Kalidasa,  66,  80,  226. 

Kavya,  63,  70,  80. 

kirtana,  61. 

Kurus,  01,  376. 

ku9ilaYa,  66,  366. 

krtagama,  4. 

krtanta,  00, 146. 

krsna  (age),  3. 

KrVna,  4  (religion  of),  0,  14,  63,  143, 
176,  184,  180;  as  Dvaipayana,  4,  64, 
07 ;  nature  of,  374  ff.,  304  ff. 

Krsnatrcya,  11. 

kevala,  kevalatra,  44, 102, 108. 

kona  V.  tri°. 

kosakara,  •)^(,  161, 161. 

Kosala  and  Videha,  78. 

Kaulika-^astra,  380. 

Kau9ika,  14,  116. 

krama,  6, 14. 

ksetrajna  (v.  jTva),  160. 

Ksemendra,  308. 

KUETAKA,  382. 
<JANACCIIANI)AS,  IJfci,  'm)A  ff. 

|ra(iya,  8,  272. 

(Jay a,  8:1 

Garga,  16  ff. 

(fiiiU'yas,  11;"). 

cltiiji,  r)2,  iJ^M  ff. ;  epic,  386;    verse, 

2:5t>,  244,  204. 
^athin,  300. 


GSndbary  a  ( Veda,  t.  Music),  (istra,  17. 

gayana,  306. 

Gargya,  11, 14. 

Galaya,  6. 

giti,  6. 

guna  for  Jyi,  230, 437  (No.  270). 

gnnas,  (tliree)  34^  (seven  of  Yogin)  30, 

110  ff.,  160  ff.,  162  ff.,  168  ff.,  (sixty) 

163, 164, 173  ff.,  366. 
geha  for  grha,  283. 
Gaudas,  202, 
Gautama,  06,  07. 
Gaura9iras,  18. 
grantha,  16. 
granthika,  306. 

OH09A,  183. 

CAKBAVABTIN,  300. 

caturmiirti,  184. 
campu,  272. 
carana,  6. 
Caranayyiiha,  6. 
citta,'l61. 

Citragupta,  184, 476. 
cetana,  160. 
ciitanya,  46. 
cSitya,  392. 

CDANDAS,  101  ff. 

chayopasevana,  380. 

JAOATI,  102,  103. 

JaUkas,  66,  380, 382,  385, 890, 47&. 
jiva,  07,  137. 146  ff.,  162, 176. 
jiva  and  videha  mukti.  111. 

Jaimini,  07. 
jyes^ba  saman,  368. 

TATTVA,  V.  Principlet. 

tatrabhavant,  08. 

tatstha,  44. 

tanmatras,  t.  Elements. 

tapas,  188. 

tarka^astra,  00, 140. 

tamrapatta,  388. 

tisya  (age), '3. 

TIrthas,  8,  20,  40,  (githa)  62. 

trikona,  rpiymvot^  372.      ^ 

tristubh,  102,  200  ff..  214  ff.,  273  ff. ; 
birdWye  view.  275 ;  of  Ramiyana, 
270;  scolius,  277;  catalectic,  282; 
hypermetric,   280,  290;    defectirr, 


SANSKRIT  INDEX. 


488 


200;  mora-triftubhs,  301  ff.;  tUnia, 
300;  number  of,  366. 
tTamkira,  20. 

Dak^a,  iir». 

iHmiin,  2<)2  ff. 

iHniavanti,  72,  78. 

digTiMis.  88. 

Durgi.  382. 

dera  a«  pannnitmtn,  87. 

druuvilambiu.  10:i.  324, 85& 

DHAHraVKDA,  11  ff. 

dhamanyaa,  lib, 

Dhammapada.  3^  30,  42.  68,  60,  87, 

147,   181;    formt  of,  260  ff.,   263; 

int'tri-  of,  280.  2tU,  343,  466, 460, 462, 

4417.  44^;   parallels  with,  870,  407 

(No.  :17).  427  (No.  100).  446. 

DhnnnA-work*  (t.  Manu),  6, 8;  Xp.,6, 
0;  (iaut.,9;  Biudh.,  2o;  Yij.  6,0; 
Va»..  0;  Vinhna.  8,  9;  Sutraii,  l.'i; 
Dhaniiaviitran.  17  ff. ;  epic,  63,  (au- 
thority) 01. 

dhitavaii,  :V4. 

dhiruka.  :irt7. 

dhiraim.  im»,  181. 

N  A  T  A  ,'>•'),(  ^ utra)  13,  66. 
nnrtaka,  •>!. 
Na!;i.  72. 
Nail ti Ml.  471. 
Nirikrla*.  288. 
iiittakn,  '*-'*  ff. 

t 

ninilivsi'Iva.ihWV 

Nira.lrt.  in.  ll.  :i7.  100,367 ;  pjrtteiDOf, 

i:;.;  IT  :  law  buok.:{8H. 
rt.iftik.i.  **'». 
iiiratiii.in.  tl. 
Ninikta,  14. 
nirvHri.i.  *'*'J. 
nirvana,  >***.  M'x. 
iiir\  t  la.  14*1. 
.Ni!j  H*tra.  11.  12.  17. 
Niiu'haiitiika.  II. 
.\>a>u.  •.*.:. '.»!.  iO  ff  .  IIW. 
N\i\.it.iiiira».  11.  17.  10.  117. 

pa:~i<  tM).ihiikAlikA«  ll'*.  144. 
rAfiras<kli.t.    l«T*.    '.<*  .    •yMclU   o(    142. 

110  ff.  1.V4;  date  uf,  307. 


PaUftJali,  philotophcr,  07, 147. 180  It ; 
grammarian,  300,  800;  owtrt,  180^ 
472. 

pathji.  SIO  ff.,  44& 

padaknMDa,6w 

padjra,  272. 

PiAcaritra,  06, 07. 148. 144  fl. 

pi^haka,  864. 

Pioini,  18, 16,  800, 806. 

pft^iaTanika,  866  ff. 

PindaTaa,  876  ff.,  886, 807. 

piriplaYa,  88& 

Pff  apata,  06, 07, 114  IL,  11& 

pida,  101, 106. 

Pifa^da,  80, 801. 476. 

pitu.  12,  86,  128. 

Pvri^a,  4,  7, 10, 17, 47  ff.,80^  111,868; 
Viyu.  6,  48ff.,  68;  BbaYifjat,  Oa- 
nida,  Viriha,48;  VialiDii,8M;  OM- 
tre  of,  224  ff.,  220,  234,  266  ff.,  814. 

puriYftu,  61. 

Puruiha.  86, 44, 106, 113  ff.,  118;  pi*, 
rality  of,  122;  eternal,  184, 188. 

Purohita,  880. 

pofpitlfri^  108, 886, 810  ff.,  868L 

puataka,  864, 887. 

l^tyamitra,  800. 

Punraviatra,  87. 

piurinika,  ▼.  M<ku. 

lYakrti,  44.  106,  112  ff.,  117  ff.,  181; 
idyl,  471 ;  eight,  120;  etenaU  184, 
17<^  182;  KYen,  146^  170;  colon  of, 
28,180. 

pratibhi,  107. 181. 

pratir&paka,  880. 

pratyakfa,61,02,106,14ib 

pratjibArm.  IW. 

prabhaTif^ntva.  108. 

prami^a,  61.  OU. 

pramiilkfari,  822, 861 

prayojana,  06. 

praTacana,  8. 

praMTa.  128. 

praaida,  42,  188. 

praharapakalitl,  822, 861 

praharflfl.  108.  SW.  861 

IVAkrt,  T.  RaglUh  Index. 

prina.  ▼.  Itn«ika. 

prtlia  (and  pekkhA).  66,  67, 476^ 


BAamv, 

bala.  alBth  orgui,  lAiCi 


484 


SANSKRIT  INDEX. 


I»:ilivr('a,  5. 

Badarayana,  07,  124. 

Balhika,  373,  474. 

Iiuddha  and  budhyamana,  132,  104  ff. 

Iniddlii  (v.  Samkhja),  158;  has  sixty 
gunas.  Ids, 

buddiiindriyas,  130. 

Brimspati  (with  U^anas),  11»  18,  87. 

Brahinajaia  sutta,  65,  57. 

Brahman,  11,  (K),  KM  ff. 

Brahman,  4,  18!),  187. 

brahmasutra  (thread),  3G4  (v.  Siitra). 

Brahmana,  7 ;  Ait.,  20 ;  ^atapatha,  6, 
7,  20,  *3««;  Tandya,  Katha,  Kanva, 
Taittiri,  8 ;  Kalapa  and  Katha,  14. 

Bii.ir.AVADGiTA,  53, 205 ;  metre  of,  210, 

225,  2:W  ff.,  3W.  402. 
Bharata,  11,  57. 
Bharadvaja,  11,  18. 
bhavati  witli  ace,  20.'»,  473. 
bhavo(h)  for  bhaveyam,  473. 
Uha^xavatas,  01,  115,  117. 
Bhilrati  katiia,  54.  04,  380  ff. 
IdmjaiiiKaprayata,  103,  280,  323,  357, 

aw. 

bliutatman,  30,  40. 
blioti,  250. 

Matiu'ra,  305. 

Mann.  8.  0,  18  ff.,  22,  25,  57,  CO,  144, 

manovah.H,  :>5,  181. 

mantra.  4,  11. 

Maya,  :;02. 

malintrnan,  :>0. 

Maliabhfirata,  4.  54;  -krt,  358,  380  ff. ; 

date  of.  307  ff. 
Maliabhasya.  3.  5,  0.  8,  50;  vtTse,  238, 

2.'i8.  3lHi*4(U,408,  472. 
maliabiiuta,  'M^  V]0  IT.,  175. 
luaj^ailhaH,  'M\. 
Ma^'ha,  21*3.  227. 
matrarhaiuia*.  102,  :V;W,  343. 
m a  t  ra sa  n  1  a k a .  1 03,  -V*  1 .  :'.5.3  ff . .  355  ff. 
niayil.  N».  1^1,  llC,  i:fe<,  151.  2;;5. 
marisa,  OK.  204. 
malini,  l',t3,  ;i:W,  357,  358. 
Miiiira.  371. 
nilinansa,  87. 

mrjrrnilraniukha.  10,3,  3-31,  :m. 
mokhadhamia,  51. 


moksa9astra,  16. 
mleccha,  40, 303. 

Yama,  186,  288. 

yamakas,  205. 

Yaranas,  t.  Greeks. 

Yaska,  14. 

yukti9astra,  17. 

Yudbisthira  and  yndhi  sthirah,  381. 

yoga,  '(eightfold)  44,  86  ff..  111.  196, 
150, 188. 

yoga-fSstras,  110, 170. 

yogin,  seyen  gunas,  30 ;  practice,  107 ; 
body  of  eight  gunas,  108;  faults, 
181 ;  discipline,  107,  181, 180. 

RATIIAMTARA,  368. 

rathoddhata,  103,  322,  358. 

rahasya,  0, 10, 13. 

Rama,  64,  78,  70,  305. 

Ramayana,  10,  27,  52,  55,  66,  68-M, 
188;  metre  of,  226,  231,  236  ff.,  242, 
247  ff.,  2W,  316,  317,  340 ff.,  354. 3«il , 
384,  :i05 ;  also  the  Appendices,  pas- 
sim, and  473. 

nicirS,  103, 302  ff.,  326, 368 ;  in  R.,  300. 

Rudra-giva,  116, 184. 

rudras,  108. 

rupaka,  206  ff. 

Romaharsa(na),  47. 

raudrarasa,  204. 

LokIyata,  87,  111. 

VAN^ASTnABlLA,  102,  900. 

Vatsabhatti,  i^,  356. 

vanmvrtta,  102,  321. 

Tasantatilaka,  103,  333^  867,  358. 

vasso,  HM. 

vacaka,  303. 

vani,  172. 

vata,  12,  36, 122. 

vatormi,  102,  304,  317  ff. 

Vamana,  333. 

Valmlki,   thief,  67 ;  poet  and  saint. 

58  ff.,  01  ff. ;  copied,  201,  225,  229, 

204 ;  yajurvedin,  368. 
Vaftudeva.  v.  Krishna, 
va^tuvidya.  v.  Architecture. 
ValiTka,  373. 
vikaran.  eleven,  37, 44 ;  sixteen,  128  fl., 

108  ff. 
Vidarbhas,  203. 


SAJfSKRIT  IXDEX. 


485 


riduitaka,  55  ff. 
Yidyi,  136. 183. 
Tipuii,  rules,  220  ff^  248 ;  examples, 

448  ff. 
Ti90MM,  44,  120, 187. 
TivTi(ni).251. 

Viihnu,  Uw-book.  388  (▼.  KriAhnm). 
Tihira.  88,31)1. 
Tini.  172.  :W5. 
Veda.  2  ff..  101 ;  made.  3;  Tcdakartar. 

4  ;  lost,  ci,  4 ;  «ize  and  branches.  5 ; 

Satiihita.  7.  M;  other  names.  2.  not 

inrlutlin);    Aranyaka.  0;    Atharra. 

2.  3.  r>.   12.  20,'  :SHO:   Brahma  and 

Urahnm.  1».  12,  13 ;  Rk«  2,  5,  23  ff.. 

124.  2<)7.  aVJ;  Vajus,  2,  5,  25,  308; 

Siiimii,  2, 3, 5,  :M» ;  fourfold,  divided, 

IU..3;  (,jikalaka,0;  Ef tli, or  Vyiaa's 

Viwlii,  7.  10,  rA 
VeflariKamT.U,  11.  13.  14. 
ViMUnta,  \K  4:t,  5:$.  Wl  ff.,  HI,  143.  IfiO; 

Srcn-l  of.  iri7. 
VtMl&ntAnira,  ;M,  2^SS. 
Vctlaninvuka,  \^». 
vaitiliku.  •KKt. 
vfiitiliyA.  llKt.  :ui,:M9ff. 
%  Mi^fnika.  \^y 

Mil  %  A.l«vi,  \\K\.  .-VH.  317  ff..  325,  35& 
V it; -MA van.  lli'i. 
%  \  ilkhjbi.  'lit. 
V\i,u;.>.  71.  V£i\,  124.  157. 

f,  iKVARI,  1113. 

VAtApAtha,  V   llrahmana. 

VatAru  iriva.  21.  :tolH. 
Vahilui  A«trA,  17. 
V'tiiihukA,  72. 

rriktar  iir» 

V-tklitt,  V.  VihIa 
(.ItKlihA.  14.  W7. 
SAPluluMkridita.  IIVI,  i*M,  :U>7  ff. 

v'tiiiii.  li«2.  :»M.  aii.oiH 

Valihotra.  12.  W. 

VAMri.  •.♦.  r.».  111.  17 

«.  ik«A.  4  tMvaikfvam),  7,  14. 


(ttkra,  16a. 

^ndrm  (in  later  eplc)»  870. 

gUfaa,  116. 

9lefnian,  12. 

Vloka,  102. 101,  S14  fl.,S10  ff. ;  acheme 

of  metre,  236, 880 ;  prior  pida, 810  ff.; 

iambic  9loka,  838;  poaterior  pida, 

830;  hjpennetric,858ff.;  compared 

with  mitrl,  8G0. 
^▼etadTlpa,  r.  Wliite  men. 

Sastibhaoa,  of  (lYa,  118, 106. 

SAMAJA,  67. 

samidhina,  100. 
saihkhjrina.  180. 
sampraatda,  41, 4tt. 
Simkhya,86ff..83, 110.  111.  184, 1870.; 

scheme,  120,  180;  aixtjr  funas,  154 

and  366. 
Siihkhjrajroga,  00, 00, 101 ;  difference. 

111.  184,  etc. 
siman  (▼.  Veda).  16. 
siddhinta,  117. 
siddhlrtba,  14. 
Kiddhl,  wife  of  Vam^a.  476. 
soniftKi,378. 
HuU,  60, 804  ff. 
Satra,  n.  13. 16, 10,  17;  eptc  Yerae  in. 

885;  mentioB  of  epic.  800;  Veda- 

sStra  and  BnhnMitrm,  16^  16. 
satradhira,  60. 
slnkhjra^jrika,  806. 
Kinras,  116. 
auYira.  373. 474. 
stutlvlAtra.  48. 
Btupa,  802. 
•tobhas.  807. 

HthlpatyaTeda.  ▼.  ArcUteclvfe. 
sma  and  smahe,  840. 
Hmrti,80& 

IlABiorTAa,  68. 

llariYaAfa,  known  in  Cl*!*.  0. 

Ilira^xagmrbha,  00,118. 


409  .    .^  %^!l 


BEFORE  THE  LAST  DATE  STAMPl 
BELO^X^  NON-RECEIPT  OF  OVERDI 
NOTltES  DOES  NOT  EXEMPT  TI 
BORROWER  FROM  OVERDI  E  FEES 


I     7 


g« m 

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■■/^- 


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