The great North-West and the Great Lake region of North America

:;/-\- J. L\\.J

mn THE- GREAT

L.Ai£E-.^-REGION OF
KORTff "AMERICA

AlJt FOUNTAIN

THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

AND THE

GREAT LAKE REGION OF
NORTH AMERICA

BY TEE SAME AUTHOR

THE GREAT DESERTS AND FORESTS
OF NORTH AMERICA

With a Preface by W. H. Hudson

8vo, 9s. 6d. net

THE GREAT MOUNTAINS AND FORESTS
OF SOUTH AMERICA

With Portrait and 7 Illustrations

8vo, 10s. 6d. net

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

LONDON, NEW YORK, AND BOMBAY

'J

THE

GREAT NORTH-WEST

AND THE

GREAT LAKE REGION
OF NORTH AMERICA

BY

PAUL FOUNTAIN

AUTHOR OF "THE GREAT DESERTS AND FORESTS OF NORTH AMERICA," AND
"THE GREAT MOUNTAINS AND FORESTS OF SOUTH AMERICA"

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON

NEW YORK AND BOMBAY

1904

All rights reneri/ed

PREFACE

This work is a sequel to the two former books, " The
Great Deserts and Forests of North America," and " The
Great Mountains and Forests of South America," and is
the last of the series.

I have endeavoured to make the present work as
perfect as possible, and pleasing to the scientific as well
as to the general reader. There are few animals of any
class mentioned or described herein, unless I was in a posi-
tion to give their specific name. I have thus endeavoured
to make the book of as much value as I could to the
professional naturalist, and have striven to avoid giving
him offence. But on this matter I have my own know-
ledge (I do not say opinions, for they are not mere
opinions), and I have not endeavoured, as too many
modern writers have done, to make my facts fit the fads
of the present generation of naturalists.

In the early part of my career I had the advantage
of hearing, from his own lips, the peculiar views of
Mr. Darwin. Darwin was so amiable a man, and of so sfreat
an intellect, that I never think of him without feelings of
reverence ; but I am not one of his converts. Evolution,
the descent of man, natural selection, are for the arm-
chair naturalist ; not that I wish to sneer. I am not a
man of that sort. But I have seen and learned for
myself; therefore, if occasionally I do not agree with
received opinions, I trust it will be remembered by the
reader that I am only stating my own convictions.

I think there is more of personal matter in this than
in either of the two former books. I hope it will be
found of an interesting nature ; at any rate the queer

vi PREFACE

accounts of some queer people are faithful description, if
written in a style of my own.

I gather from what some of my critics have said —
and I am much beholden to them for several valuable
hints which I have tried to act on — that they would like
a freer and more connected use of dates. I regret that
there are circumstances, such as the irregular manner in
which I sometimes made my notes, the intervals of
trading journeys, causing a break in the time, &c., which
make it impossible for me to present a narrative in jour-
nal form. The first half of the book, however, giving my
first experiences in America, when I was a mere boy, is
tolerably connected.

Finally, let me say, that all my books are retrospec-
tive in point of time — a fault that I regret, but one
which it is now too late to remedy. To a great extent I
describe a beautiful past; for the face of the great
American Continent is everywhere changing fast in ap-
pearance— too fast to please those who adore Nature
in her virgin mantle.

CONTENTS

CHAP. PA8B

I. THE WOODLAND LAKE 1

IL MY COMPANIONS . . .... 10

IIL FISHING, AND OTHER SUMMER OCCUPA-
TIONS 18

IV. THE APPROACH OF WINTER .... 25

V. DEER-SHOOTING 41

VI. WINTER AT ITS HEIGHT 51

VII. A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER ... 57

VIII. RED RIVER SETTLEMENT 77

IX. CONTINUATION OF THE VOYAGE IN THE

WINNIPEG REGION 85

X. A MONTH'S ENCAMPMENT IN THE WILDER-
NESS 95

XI. A WINTER IN THE SOLITARY WILDERNESS 113

XIL CONTINUATION OF THE JOURNEY TO FORT

SEVERN 129

XIII. THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE RETURN

JOURNEY TO THE OTTAWA RIVER . .136

XIV. THE COAST OF JAMES BAY TO THE HEAD

OF THE RIVER ABBITIBBE . . . .148

XV. A JOURNEY TO THE GULF OF ST. LAW-
RENCE 162

viii CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

XVI. A WINTER WITH THE LUMBERERS . . 177

XVII. YANKEE-DOODLE 194

XVIIL "BEES" 205

XIX. THE OHIO DISTRICT 213

XX. SHAKERS AND RELIGIOUS MUMMERS IN

AMERICA 231

XXI. MICHIGAN 248

XXII. THE WILD BEES OF THE AMERICAN

FORESTS 261

XXIII. LIFE IN THE WOODS OF NORTH MICHIGAN 269

XXIV. ANIMAL LIFE ABOUT MR. DUNFORD'S

FARM, &c 286

XXV. JOURNEY FROM MR. DUNFORD'S FARM TO

MARQUETTE 300

XXVI. THE SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 314

XXVII. THE NORTH SHORE OF LAKE SUPERIOR . 335

XXVIII. PEDDLING IN THE UNITED STATES . . 343

GLOSSARY . 349

INDEX 350

THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

AND THE GEEAT LAKE EEGION
OF NOKTH AMERICA

CHAPTER I

THE WOODLAND LAKE

Near tlie head-waters of the Ottawa River, and some
twelve miles from Lake Temiscaming, there is a small
lake surrounded with woods. It is about three-quarters
of a mile long and from two to five hundred yards across,
and of irregular form, but of good depth, as nearly all
these small Canadian lakes are. These " ponds," as they
are called by the inhabitants, are numerous in all parts
of the British American possessions, and the term " pond"
is applied to very much larger bodies of water than this.
Lakes of ten or twelve square miles area are " ponds " in
local parlance ; sheets of water, which in other countries
would be esteemed considerable, sinking into insignificance
in the proximity of the vast lakes which are the most
remarkable feature of this part of America.

On the banks of the tiny lake I have mentioned, the
surface of which, I suppose, was about a hundred and
fifty acres in extent, I established myself in the summer
of 1865, being at the time not seventeen years old. I
had as companions two Indians, a half-breed and the
wife and daughter of the latter. The men were hunters,
seeking furs for the Hudson Bay Company, and intended

A

2 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

to trap and hunt in the neighbourhood of this lake
during the ensuing winter ; and I joined with them for
the sake of companionship and mutual help while ex-
ploring this district.

I had intended to take up land in Upper Canada, and
went the length of applying for a quarter section (a
hundred and sixty acres) on a located township ; but my
youth, and the smallness of my capital, telling against
me, induced me to decide to wait a time, and meantime
to see something of the wilder regions of the country
and endeavour to increase my means. Consequently I
took a journey to Moose Factory ; and it was on the
return route that I picked up with my present com-
panions, and agreed to pass a winter with them on Wolf
Pond, as they called it, from the number of wolves they
had trapped in its neighbourhood.

The lake swarmed with fish, as nearly all, even the
smallest, of them do. I have frequently found pools of
only an acre or two in extent crowded with fish ; and no
matter how small these woodland ponds may be, they all
seem to be permanent : I could never find that any of
them dry up, even in the hottest summers.

There are at least a dozen different species of fish
inhabiting the small lakes and ponds. I do not mean
that the ponds are their exclusive habitat, or that all the
species are found in one lake. Many of them are found
only in certain lakes ; and most of them inhabit running
waters as well as lakes.

The most abundant in Wolf Pond was the pickerel.
This fish seems to me to be a species of what the
naturalists call " pike-perches." It resembles the pike in
many particulars, such as shape, taste of the flesh, and
similarity of prey ; but not in size or habits : for it seldom
exceeds three pounds in weight, and it goes in numerous
shoals. It will be found in one or two favourite corners of a
lake, and perhaps in no other part ; but more singular still,
one lake may abound with them but others in the neigh-

THE WOODLAND LAKE 3

bourhood not contain a single pickerel. In a dozen small
lakes scattered over an extent of ten or twelve miles, I
have found pickerel in two or three, the remainder being
destitute of them.

The pickerel is not dainty eating ; but it is a valuable
fish to the Indians and trappers, owing to the facility
with which it may be caught in winter-time. When the
lakes are frozen, if a hole is broken in the ice and a live
bait used, they may be pulled out as fast as the hooks
can be baited ; and it is usual to have many lines in use
at the same time. The great difficulty is to discover the
spot in the water where the fish are lying. To do this
you may have to break a line of holes nearly right round
the lake ; but you may rely on it that the fish will always
be in large shoals, and that if they once commence to bite
you will have good sport. They are not often found in
the middle of the lake, but they like twenty or thirty feet
of water, and therefore do not come inshore. A fragment
of meat may be used as a bait ; but tiny fish, called in
Canada minnows and sticklebacks (which they are not),
are the best and surest bait.

In our pond there were two kinds of " bass." There
are four kinds found in the fresh waters of this resrion.

o

They have received the name " bass " from the colonists,
and I am not aware that they are misnomered ; but I have
not been able to discover the specific name of any of the
species mentioned in this account. The two kmds here
were the white bass and the striped bass, the latter a
handsome fish, but neither running to a greater size than
the pickerel. There were also mullet and grey trout,
which are often called salmon-trout, and the largest of
which that I caught Aveighed about four pounds ; but in
some of the nei<jfhbourincr streams I caught them of more
than double that weight. There were no fish in the pond
of a greater weight than four or five pounds ; but in the
rivers there were fish of vastly greater size, and also in
the large lakes of the district — Temiscaming and Grand.

4 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Wolf Pond was a favourite haunt of my companions
— almost their home in fact — because here they were
always sure of a good supply of fish at all seasons, though
in the winter, when the water was frozen, it was some-
times difficult to get the pickerel to bite, and the other
fish rarely did so. The squaw and her daughter (a girl
of eighteen) performed most of the fishing, and, I am
sorry to say, the greater part of the hard work about the
camp. But this they seemed to think quite their natural
employment, and I never heard either of them miu"mur
or complain.

In many parts of the great North- West, and par-
ticularly in some spots now well known (I am writing of
thirty-seven years ago), as the Red River district, and
the country north of Lake Superior, the Indians had
often to subsist entirely on fish, and but for the supply
of this food they would often have starved. Indeed,
when the fishing failed, as it sometimes did in the
winter-time, deaths from want were often numerous. I
shall have more to say about fish and fishing presently.

Near Wolf Pond (which is not marked on the maps)
game was not plentiful, as it is not in any part of the
British possessions compared with what it is, or used to
be, in the parts of the continent possessing a more genial
climate. Pelt-bearing animals had to be sought for far
and near ; and the Indians, of whom there were several
families near the pond, used to take excursions in all
directions, remaining away many days at a time, leaving
their squaws and children to catch and dry fish, and to
cultivate a little grain during the summer.

The pond was closely surrounded with woods, mostly
composed of pine trees ; but farther back there were
maples, hemlocks, junipers, and many others, and several
cedar swamps, in places with the trees growing so closely
together that it Avas impossible for a man to move about
among them. The gloom in these swamps was so deep
that a watch could not be read unless it was held close

THE WOODLAND LAKE 5

to the eyes. There were also swamps in which no cedars
grew, but the ground was overrun with bushes, and these
were favourite spots for many of the wild fruits which
grow in the Canadian district. Here there were cran-
berries in abundance, a fruit much esteemed in all the
American districts where it orows. Gatherings them was
a ticklish business, for the favourite habitat of the bush
was a treacherous peat-moss into which I more than once
suddenly sank in an alarming manner.

The blackberries which I found here were much finer
than any which I ever saw in old England, and there
were also wild strawberries which were small and of little
worth. I was surprised to find wild cherries in these
woods, and disappointed to discover that they were of
such bad flavour as not to be worth the trouble of
gathering. Of a few other wild fruits found here I must
make the same remark. I was further reminded of the
Avoods and lanes of the dear old country by finding plenty
of hedge-nuts; but on the Avhole this country is not better
provided with berries than England ; and I could quite
realise that a person lost in these forests could easily
starve to death, an opinion the reverse of that I used to
entertain : for I had repeatedly said that I could not
believe that a person keeping his head, and displaying a
little energy, might not easily find the wherewithal to
sustain life for a considerable time in the dreariest forest.
Here, however, it would all depend on his being able to
procure fish from the waters ; for the vegetable products
are very scanty in winter, only a little moss being eatable,
and that difficult to procure when the snow is on the
ground. As to game, he might have to go many days
without seeing anything large enough to kill, even if he
had the fortune to come upon it within range ; for most
of the animals and birds about here, in the summer season
at least, were very wild.

The commonest of the small bu*ds at this time Avas
the Lapland bunting (Calcarius Lapponiciis), which har-

6 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

boured in the swamps where there were few or no trees,
and appeared to breed in such situations; for I found two
nests, both of which were carefully hid in the bottom of
bushes, and resembled sparrows' nests, being constructed
loosely of hay lined with feathers, mostly those of ducks
or geese and grouse. One of the nests contained unfledged
young birds, the other eggs. The eggs were dull grey
in ground colour, thickly blotched and spotted with two
or three shades of brown.

A curious bird frequenting the trees, and often
wandering about the camp in the boldest manner was a
bird called by the employees of the Hudson Bay Company,
the " whisky-jack " ; but for what reason I could not
discover. It greatly resembles the great grey shrike
(Lanius excubiter) of Europe, being about the size of a
missel-thrush ; but the feathers are so loose and abundant
that it looks a much larger bird than it really is. It is
a noisy and a greedy bird, being particularly fond of
scraps of meat and fat; and instructed by one of the
Indians, I lay on the ground, covered with green boughs,
and with the hand extended with a piece of fat in it I
captured many by suddenly closing the fingers when they
came for the bait. They cried loudly and pecked fiercely,
but were not much frightened; for when released they
flew to the nearest trees or bushes, and after shaking and
arranging their feathers, and uttering a few angry notes,
came back to look for more scraps.

Among the most interesting birds harbouring about
this lake was a pair of great northern divers, called
throughout this country, and the north-eastern part of
the United States, loons. The specific name of this bird
is Golymous glacialis and Urinator Imher in America,
Colynibus r/lacialis in England ; an instance of the con-
fusion often engendered by " scientific nomenclature."
Why plain " loon " would not do to designate the bird
all the world over it is difiicult to say ; unless the desire
to mystify is ineradicable in all the " learned." Loon is

THE WOODLAND LAKE 7

a corruption of the Icelandic word loom, which means
a cripple ; applied to the bird on account of its waddling,
lop-sided walk. It scarcely ever attempts to walk, indeed,
so awkward is it on dry land.

From the manner of the pair of loons on Wolf Pond
I thought that they were breeding ; but I could not find
the nest. Towards the end of July, however, they ap-
peared with a young one. Two is the nominal number ;
but probably one Q^g had been destroyed by accident.
By careful watching I discovered that the breeding-place
was in a tunnel formed in the rank grass where a small
runnel left the lake, and so well hid that it could not be
reached without great trouble and the aid of a canoe.

I did not disturb them at this time, but a few weeks
later I tried to shoot the cock bird. This was not an
easy task; for the instant I fired he dived so quickly
that he avoided the shot. I always had to fire at long
range, as the birds would not permit a nearer approach
than about fifty yards. The squaw took me on the lake
in a light hunting canoe, and we had quite an exciting
chase after this bird, lasting nearly three hours. I
marked the cock bird; but the hen, with her chick,
kept at no great distance from him ; and the beautiful
little creature dived as adroitly as its parents.

The old bird displayed great cunning. I believe that
it was frequently under water for as long as four or five
minutes ; but it repeatedly only pushed its beak up, as
high as the nostrils, to breathe, and then dived again
before I could get within shot. At length I shot it with
a rifle bullet as it was so breathing, aiming low so as to
strike it under water. The hen and the chick I left
undisturbed ; but they disappeared about a week after
the death of the cock, probably going to another lake, as
I do not think that the chick was strong enough to fly
far. These birds rise heavily, but fly high and strongly
when once fairly mounted. It is very diSicult to get
them to rise from the water ; for they seem to know that

8 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

they are exceedingly expert swimmers and divers, and
have a better chance of escaping in that element than by

The bird I killed was thirty-four inches m total
length, and weighed seven pounds two ounces. I never
found more than one pair of these birds on the same
lake. Several other lakes within a few miles of Wolf
Pond were frequented by pairs of loons; and I always
saw these birds in couples, but I cannot say whether or
not they pair for life, as they migrate at the approach
of severe weather. On a subsequent occasion I took the
eggs of these birds. The nest, which was scarcely more
than a lair, was situated among thick marginal herbage ;
and the eggs, two in number, were very dark — a greyish
brown sprinkled, rather sparsely, with dusky spots. They
were about the size of those of a goose, and were lying
within a foot of the water.

On the borders of this same pond a couple of ospreys
had also taken up their quarters, having their nest in a
tall pine tree, some eighty feet above the ground. One
of the Indians climbed up and brought down the eggs,
three in number ; but the birds laid again : for they had
two young ones which showed themselves at the end of
July. The eggs were light buffish-grey in ground colour,
much blotched with deep crimson-brown, so that the
larger ends were an unbroken blotch of colour.

The osprey is always called the fish-hawk here, and
in the States ; and they are so plentiful that almost every
little lake which contains fish harbours a pair ; and the
hunter knows, when he sees these birds near the water,
that it is well stocked. There are never two paii's in near
proximity ; and they fight fiercely if an intruder dares to
invade the territory of a neighbour. In such combats
one of the birds is frequently killed.

About the 18 th of September many of the Lapland
buntings had gone, and they all disappeared by the end
of the month. The loons migrated about the same time.

THE WOODLAND LAKE 9

the last being seen on the 2nd October. The Indians
thereupon predicted that the winter would set in within a
day or two ; and accordingly, on the 4th, when we arose
in the morning the pond was found covered with a thin
coat of ice.

The fish-hawks did not forsake us until a month later ;
for an odd bird was seen hovering about as late as 30th
October, at which time the lakes were frozen hard and
the ground covered with snow. It would seem probable,
therefore, that the food of these birds is not confined to
fish, though I never could discover them preying on
other animals.

CHAPTER II

MY COMPANIONS

The half-breed I have mentioned was the son of an
Englishman by a half-breed woman. His name was
Andrew Whitting, and he was married (according to
Indian custom) to an Indian woman named Chompel,
abbreviated colloquially to " Chom." His daughter, Emma,
had been christened a Protestant, and was a charming
ghl. She and her father could read and write a little,
and were Christians. The Indians, Monchuapiganon
(" Deep waters," in the Cree language) and Chuckochil-
gegan (" Cunning polecat "), were elderly men about
fifty and sixty years old respectively. They were Crees
from the shores of Hudson's Bay, and their names being
such awkward ones to pronounce, I took the liberty of
styling them Tom and Sam, familiar names to which
they took kindly enough. These two men were brothers,
and Chuckochilgegan, or Sam, was the father of Whit-
ting's wife. He had had three squaws, one of whom was
drowned in an accident while shooting some rapids ; and
another he told me was starved to death in a hard season ;
deaths from such causes being not an unusual occurrence,
formerly, in the North- West.

Tom, the younger of the two Indians, had never had
a wife ; an unusual circumstance among Red Men. He
was a man of very taciturn disposition ; and though he
liked to hunt, fish, and wander about the woods in my
company, we often spent an entire day together without
speaking a dozen sentences. I think he had met with
some disappointment, or injury, that had soured him ;

10

MY COMPANIONS 11

but an Indian does not like to be questioned on such
matters.

Within four or five miles of our camp there were
several collections of Indian lodges, mostly belonging to
members of the Seauteaux tribe, but with a few Crees
among them. There was also an Englishman living
about two miles from Wolf Pond, having adopted the
habits of the Indians ; but he was a man with whom I
could not associate, though he sometimes wandered over
to my hut to make himself objectionable. He was
not liked by the Indians amongst whom he lived ; and I
wondered that they did not expel him, as, indeed, they
ultimately did; but the Crees are a quiet and amicable
people.

The Seauteaux differ but little from the Crees. Both
tribes are very peaceably inclined, and are not such
physically fine men as the Indians farther south, in the
States. They are of medium height, few of them ex-
ceeding five feet six, and are sparely built, though lithe
and strong. They are nearly all hunters and trappers,
and though possessing some villages, do not congregate
in large assemblages, and spend most of their time
wandering over wide tracts of the country in search of
game. They are affable to strangers, and hospitable ;
but this is a common trait of all Red Men. Those in
my neighbourhood had a curious custom of threading
beads on their hair ; but, like other Indians, they wore
no other headdress than an ornamental one of feathers.
Their dress consisted sometimes of a striped jersey, and
sometimes of a kind of frock and trousers of baize or
coarse flannel. To this was often added a red or a green
blanket, worn cloakwise. They all possessed firearms of
common quality, with butcher's long knives and toma-
hawks or hatchets. Besides the very little cultivation
of the ground performed by the squaws, their sole means
of subsistence depended on the success of the hunters
and an annual allowance of flour, blankets, &c., from the

12 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Government, If they had good success in the winter
months, the price of the skins, received in kind from the
Hudson Bay Company, enabled them to hve in tolerable
comfort throughout the year. But they often sufiered
cruel privations, especially the squaws and the children ;
for game is not always equally abundant, and the price
paid for pelts by the Company was very small. So that it
was only the successful hunter who could do tolerably
well. But I shall have to return to this subject.

I first became acquainted with my party through an
employee of the Hudson Company, and, in the early part
of the summer, performed a journey from Moose Factory
with them. There was nothing remarkable in that
journey ; but it enabled me to become acquainted with
the method of travelling in these regions, and to learn to
paddle a canoe, shoot a rapid, and make a portage. As
the journey was a hurried one, there was no time for
either sport or exploration, and we were back at Wolf
Pond before the summer was half over.

My friends had permanent huts here, like other
Indians in the neighbourhood, built of small logs and
boughs placed in a sloping position against a rough
framework, made air-tight with mud, moss, &c., forced
into the chinks. Such huts are snug and warm in
winter; but these were very low pitched, and I built
myself one, with their assistance, of a more pretentious
elevation, and divided into two compartments. The
Indians' huts had no chimneys, but the smoke was left
to find its way out through a hole in the roof. In fine
weather the fire was made outside, near the door. I,
with considerable trouble, built a fireplace and chimney
of short logs, which added greatly to tho comfort of my
home ; and in this chimney, in the following spring, a
pair of martins built their nest and successfully reared
their young. Strange that these birds should select
such a situation for their nest ! For thousands of gene-
rations they must have been in the habit of selecting a

MY COMPANIONS 13

different site ; for it is certain that there were no chimneys
in America previous to its colonisation by Europeans.

These martins were not seen here till the 4th of
June, and there were no young in the nest till the 13 th
of July. The species greatly resembled ' the Frogne pur-
purea of the States, but I am not sure that it was that
bird. Only two or three pairs were seen in the neigh-
bourhood ; and though I was told that this bird builds
generally in the hollows of trees, I could never find the
nest in such situations, but discovered several in the
clefts of rocks.

Though my companions thought that I was fastidious
to desire so large a residence, they lent me willing hands
to do the rougher parts of the work. The chimney and
the internal fittings I had to do myself ; and being as yet
inexperienced, they were done rather roughly.

There were as many huts as wigwams in this district,
many of the Indians preferring the former class of resi-
dence, especially as they were in the habit of returning
hither to spend each summer. Some of the chiefs were
owners of several huts, but none of them possessed one
so large as that I built. The spare huts were mostly
used as storehouses ; but where chiefs had more than
one squaw (which was exceptional, however), each woman
had a hut to herself.

At this time, and I suppose to a much later period,
there were few persons in North America, either in the
British possessions or the States, who had not in the
course of their lives lived in a log-hut ; and though there
were no log-huts among the Indians I have been speaking
of — that is, regular losf-huts, built in backwoods fashion —
a few words about them will not be out of place, for I
have both lived in, and assisted to build, this kind of
residence.

It was the custom in all parts of North America that
I have had experience of, that when a man arrived at a
township and desired to raise a log-hut, all his neighbours

14 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

should immediately leave their own business, no matter
how pressing it might be, and assist him in the work.
No excuse was accepted, or permitted. The man who
Avould not hasten to put his neighbour under cover would
be ostracised as an ill-conditioned fellow. But I never
knew, or heard of, a refusal. All, farmers and settlers
from miles around, hasten cheerfully to perform this work
of charitable good-neighbourship.

The most onerous part of the work, however, falls upon
the owner of the hut ; for he has to fell the timber and
" clean " the logs — that is, lop off the branches, and cut
the logs of the required length. When he has done this,
he intimates to his neighbours that he is ready to have
the hut erected. The rationale of this assistance is palp-
able : one man could not place the logs in position. It
takes a party of men to do that, and when they start the
work is soon finished. A very good log-hut can be
erected in six hours or less, the logs being previously
prepared. Sometimes the logs have the bottom side
roughly " squared " or cut flat ; if all four sides of the
log are squared, they form a " block-house," in distinction
to a " log-hut." A block-house is considered a superior
sort of residence, and they are seldom erected, except by
people who intend to inhabit them for a great number of
years. For the log-hut is only the preliminary substitute
for a more pretentious house of brick or stone, which
the settler hopes, sooner or later, to have the means of
erecting.

A foundation is generally placed for the lowermost
logs, though not always. Stones or masses of rock, if pro-
curable, are used for this purpose ; otherwise " stumps,"
or the rooted ends of the felled trees, are substituted. If
there is no foundation, the lowest logs soon rot, and this
destroys the whole structure. If the hut is well con-
structed of good timber (beech is the best), it will last at
least thirty years. As to its size, that is a matter of
taste ; but if the new chum cuts his logs of greater

MY COMPANIONS 15

length than some eighteen feet for the sides, and twelve
feet for the ends, he will be looked at with broad stares,
and have to endure a good deal of chaff". The rule is to
add a second hut to the first if more room is required ;
and this is work for time and leisure, not for first
occupancy.

The foundation being prepared, two side logs are first
laid on it and firmly secured, and then notched at the
ends in such a way that when the end logs, also notched,
are fitted to them they are locked fast. Two more side
logs are then laid, then two end ones, and so on alter-
nately, all being carefully notched and fitted, so that the
structure is of great strength, and cannot possibly be dis-
placed by the weight of any lateral pressure. The largest
logs are placed at the bottom, then those of medium size,
and the smallest at the top. The sides are raised to a
height of about ten to fourteen feet, and the sloping roof
is formed of the larger branches from the felled trees,
covered with shingles (the stripped bark of the logs). If
this shingle roof is skilfully constructed, no wet can
penetrate, but it is often covered with turf as an addi-
tional protection.

The corners of the hut, where the logs meet, are not
completely closed, because it is impossible to make the
logs fit tightly at those places. There are, also, usually
many interstices between the logs forming the walls. All
these air-holes have to be closed, and this is usually done
with moss mixed with tenacious mud from the nearest
swamp.

The walls up, the roof on, and the chinks " chunked,"
your friends make themselves merry at your expense
with as much whisky as you choose to provide, shake
hands, and depart. Such fancy bits of architecture as
doors, windows, and chimneys are your work, and you
must do them alone and unassisted, unless you care to
employ somebody to do them for you. This was often
not possible in the back settlements ; and I can say, from

16 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

hard experience, that to saw through the heavy logs for
the purpose of cutting out the doorways and windows is
the hardest and most back-aching work in making a log-
hut. Sometimes no windows are made, on account of
the trouble of glazing them. If you are wide-awake,
you bring up a few sheets of window-glass with you,
which must be carefully packed to avoid breakage ; or
you may nail the skin of a fox or other small animal
over the orifice. If the skin is well stretched, all the
hair scraped off, and the skin rubbed thin with a piece of
broken glass or a knife, it will admit light. But better
still is the skin of a large fish, if you can capture a
muskinongi or a sturgeon.

For the fireplace, the best way is to cut an opening
at the end of the hut, and build the chimney outside of
fragments of rock or stone, using mud for mortar. A
very tenacious mortar may be made with slime from the
swamps, well mingled with deer-hair, feathers, &c. &c.,
from the game killed daily. Moss is excellent for mixing
with mud to form cement, but if used for chimneys is
apt to take fire. There is no danger of this with hair
or feathers.

The floor of the hut is generally the earth beaten
down hard and covered with small spruce branches, and
the furniture consists of roughly made stools and tables.
The bedstead is a low platform, or table, in one corner ;
and the cooking utensils, &c., you will have brought up
country with you.

Settlers with families sometimes make a ceiling with
rough boards, thus forming an upper chamber in the
roof, reached, by means of a ladder, through a trap-door.
In such cases the upper chamber is usually a storeroom
as well as a sleeping- place; and really it is hard to
believe, after witnessing the manner in which these
people " pig " together in the midst of strong-smelling
stores, that overcrowding is dangerous to health. It
certainly is not in the backwoods, for healthier little

MY COMPANIONS 17

rogues than the children of the pioneer settlers it is
impossible to find. When I first went among them I
pitied the sturdy children of my neighbours, seeing them
running about without shoes or stockings, and with
scanty clothing in very sharp weather, and I used to call
them into my hut to share my dinner. That was
accepted as hospitality ; but when I offered the oldest
boy a pair of my shoes and some stocldngs, he drew
himself up with the dignity of a king, and said, " You
are mistaken. We are not beggars," and I soon dis-
covered that his father was rich enough to buy me up
ten times over. A sturdy, independent race are these
Nature-fighters of the great North- West.

Many such huts as those I have attempted to
describe have I assisted to build, and on one or two
occasions I have passed the winter in a log-hut. I may
add that it is usual to peel the bark from the logs before
building; but I am convinced from experience that it is a
bad plan : for after the rain? and snows of winter the
fierce heat of summer will warp peeled logs, but not
those on which the bark has been permitted to remain.

CHAPTER III

FISHING, AND OTHER SUMMER OCCUPATIONS

A GREAT migration of small birds from this district took
place at the approach of winter ; but big game, on the
contrary, seemed to be more abundant when the snow
was on the ground. Very few large animals approached
our camp during the summer ; but they were not much
sought after at this season, the pelts mostly being out
of condition. Fish was much relied on for animal food
till the waters became frozen, and the women spent a
large portion of their time seeking it. The occupations
of the summer months were largely preparations for the
winter huntings, though, on this occasion, the hunters
being back early from the depot had a great deal of spare
time on their hands, which they spent in lounging about
and smoking, when not engaged in snow-shoe and fishing-
line making.

The half-breed imitated the Indians in his treatment
of his women, and his wife and daughter were the
drudges of the camp. When I went fishing the squaw
would usually be commanded to accompany me, either to
carry the catch or to manage the canoe, as the case
might be, and the girl, Emma, would often accompany
us. The women liked these little expeditions, especially
when Andrew was in a bad humour, not an infrequent
occurrence, for he was rather an ill-tempered fellow.
Chom, the squaw, would often say, " Fine .day. Why
not go fish ? Plenty fish to-day," and we would make
an early start, the woman or her daughter carrying the
canoe on her head, and thus we would proceed overland

FISHING, AND OTHER OCCUPATIONS 19

to one of the big streams tributary to the Ottawa, or the
big lakes, where we were tolerably sure of a big catch of
white fish or muskinongi, fish not found in the small
lakes.

The white fish is considered, I think justly, the finest
flavoured of all the fresh-water fish in this region — that
is the great lake district, comprising all the North and
North- West of the British possessions and the United
States. It is found, I believe, in all the great lakes and
most of the rivers ; but I never found it in " ponds," the
reason being, I believe, that it requires rivers to spawn in.
All the great lakes have many streams, feeding or empty-
ing them. White fish are not often found exceeding five
or six pounds in weight.

There are no muskinongis in the ponds either, and
this fish prefers rivers of some size to even the lakes. It
is a huge pike, but of a different species from the English
pike. It grows to an enormous size, and affords excellent
sport. It is fond of haunting the shallows in the big-
streams, and is caught better with a rod from the shore
than from a canoe ; for it is so large and strong that there
is danger of its upsetting the canoe or dragging it under.
The first that I hooked pulled me into the water, as I was
not prepared for such a mighty rush as it made, and I was
nearly drowned : but with the aid of the squaw the fish
was secured. I suppose that it weighed at least sixty
pounds. As I see that a popular work on Natural
History casts doubt on accounts of pike exceeding thirty
or forty pounds' weight,^ I may say that I have actually
seen weighed muskinongis which were nearly double that
weight. One captured in the Red River was seventy-four
pounds, weighed piecemeal, and it is certain that it lost
several pounds' weight in the cutting up. Unfortunately
there was no means of weighing it whole.

^ Note that big fish, like other big auimals, are being rapidly extermi-
nated. I have evidence that there were formerly bigger pike, not only in
America, but iu England also, than can now be foaud.

20 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Muskinongis are as voracious as other pike, and they
capture the wild ducks as they swim. I have taken two
ducks from the stomach of one, and from another thirteen
pounds of fish, most of them about two pounds' weight
each. The Indians say that they also devour musquashs
and bull-frogs ; but they never seem to attack larger
animals, though their jaws present a formidable appear-
ance. Afterwards I adopted the Indian plan of spearing
these fish as they lay basking in the shallow waters. It
is the safest method of capturing them, as they are thus
soon disabled or tired out. When stricken or hooked
they at once make for the deep water, and if they suc-
ceed in reaching it they generally escape. They either
hide under big stones or wrap the line round some
obstacle, and thus succeed in breaking it.

Fishing in the waters of this neighbourhood was very
productive when the fish were in biting mood. Often I
have caught in seven or eight hours as much bass, pickerel,
and white fish as the two Avomen and myself could carry
back to camp — that is, at least, three hundredweight. Our
custom was to place the fish in the canoe and carry the
latter on our shoulders. I say our shoulders, but I
cannot claim much share in the labour, for both the
women were so powerful that they would carry for miles
weights that I could not even lift from the ground. But,
dreadful as it may sound, Indian women are beasts of
burden, and use, I suppose, enables them to carry incred-
ible burdens. In moving from place to place the Avhole
of the wigwam furniture, plus a papoose (child), and perhaps
two, are placed on her shoulders. The squaw has a lord and
master, and knoAvs it, and she is thoroughly coAved. The
Indian Avomen of this district are seldom good-looking, but
they are of very lovable disposition. The half-breeds, on
the contrary, Avhile retaining all the SAveetness of soul of
their Indian ancestors, are exceedingly pretty, particularly
so if their fathers Avcre French- Canadians. The Indian
Avomen have a doAvncast, pensive look; the outcome, no

FISHING, AND OTHER OCCUPATIONS 21

doubt, of oppression ; but I must admit tbat I have seldom
seen their lords use violence towards them.

The men are not very jealous of their squaws, not
so much so as the Red Men of the States. The women
will invariably follow a white man, and if cast off they
often die of broken hearts. The same may be said of
the half-breeds. In my opinion these latter make the
best wives in the world, for with the tenacious love of
the Indian they combine the greater intelligence of the
European. They are also (especially if of French-Canadian
paternity) most thrifty little creatures.

I have heard people who have been to Canada speak
of " the handsome Indian women " of that country. I
think they are mistaken. Native women who can be
called " handsome " are seldom of pure Indian blood.

I was not at this time in funds ; and the little
money I had it was necessary to husband; but I had
brought up country sufficient stores to provision me for
a twelvemonth. I had no locks or bolts, being of
opinion that I could trust my companions, otherwise I
should not have joined in fellowship with them. After
several of my fishing excursions, however, I missed
stores, such as food, ammunition, and clothing ; but
knowing how thin-skinned Indians are in matters affect-
ing their honour, I did not like to mention the matter.
I was surprised, too, beyond expression ; for I believe it
is a thing unknown for an Indian to rob a man with
whom he is living in comradeship. At length my losses
became so serious that I was compelled to mention
them to Chom, the squaw, in the hope that she would
broach the matter to her Indian relatives in a way that
would not give offence. I heard nothing of the subject
for two or three days ; then, one evening, the taciturn
Monchuapiganon, or Tom, as I called him, entered my
hut, and, without a word, squatted on the floor. After
smoking in silence for a long time, he handed me the
pipe — the invariable token of amity among these

22 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

people. I smoked a few whifFs, and handed it back to
him.

" Lose rifle — powder — coat ? " at length he asked.

" Yes," I replied.

" No give present to Big-nose ? "

This was the nickname among the Indians for the
Englishman of no character to whom I have already
referred.

" No ! certainly not," I said.

" Den rascal steal ? "

" If it is he who has my property — yes," I replied.

Without another word Tom arose and left the hut.
In about three hours he returned, brmging the rifle and
many other articles which I had missed. He laid them
down, and went off" without waitins; to be thanked. The
next morning the squaw of Big-nose came to me in
great distress. Her tribe had turned her husband out,
and ordered him to depart. I entreated that he might
be permitted to remain, but my interference was useless ;
these Crees would have him among them no longer. He
had to go, followed by his faithful Avife and her two
poor little children. I relate this anecdote to show the
honour and disposition of the Indians. About two years
afterwards I met " Big-nose " on one of the wharves at
Montreal, and asked after his wife and children. " Well !
you must be a goby if you think I bothered myself
about them," was the reply. " But what became of
them ? " I repeated. " Why, the wench followed me
down till we came to the settlements, and I had to
threalen her to drive her back," replied the miscreant.
I turned on my heel, and went from the horrible wretch
without another word.

As she did not return to her tribe, it is almost cer-
tain that in the fearful agony of her mind she threw
herself and her children into the river.

During the remnant of the summer I spent much of
my time wandering about the forests, studying the ways

FISHING, AND OTHER OCCUPATIONS 23

of bird and mammal. I often tried to induce one of the
Indians to accompany me, but seldom with success.
" What good ? No shoot now. No fox. No deer. No
shoot till snow come." And so they lay about, smoking
and lounging their days away. The women were more
active. Sometimes a squaw would go with me ; and
often Emma, the half-breed's daughter. For so surely
as I asked an Indian to go with me he would send his
squaw to act as my porter, that being the chief use of a
woman in their idea ; and the poor drudge would insist
on easing me of every weighty article. No doubt I had
won their hearts by rendering them any little help in
times of difficulty that I could; and the gratitude of
these poor people is never failing.

My success as a wandering naturalist was not great ;
and the little information which I gleaned will be more
profitably recorded later on. I only say now, that I was
surprised to find such a paucity of animal life here at
this time of year; but no doubt the game had been
much disturbed : for the number of Indians in the
neighbourhood was great, many families collecting to
pass the summer together, and their wigwams and
hamlets being scattered over a wide stretch of country.
They do not hunt much in summer, though any animal
fit for food which comes in their way is taken or shot,
but devote their attention more to fishing. The eggs of
ducks and geese formed a minor article of consumption
among them : for many of these birds bred extensively
in the swamps of the district, parties of the squaws
going as far off as twenty miles to gather them ;
while later in the year they sometimes returned with
as many wild raspberries and blackberries as they could
carry.

The Indians are very wasteful in their habits, per-
mitting much of the fish and fruit to rot, though they
have a method of preserving the former by drying it in
the wind. This dried fish becomes as hard as wood, and

24 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

loses all its flavour ; but, boiled, it forms a meal in
times of scarcity.

The Indians are also dirty as well as wasteful in
their habits, and the ground was soon so filthy around
their huts that I was thankful that I had erected my
shelter at a convenient distance from them. My desire
for cleanliness, and habit of daily bathing, was a source
of amusement to many of the Indians, who seemed to
think me fastidious on those points. They never so
much as wash themselves, but enter the water readily
enough while hunting, or fishing, or to swim to an islet
in search of ducks' eggs.

I have never seen the Crees use nets to capture the
fish, but they are very clever at impaling them with a
kind of dart, called a fish-spear ; and the children would
spend most of the day exercising this art on the banks of
the pond, or embarked in small canoes. They often
upset these canoes ; but as they could all swim, no serious
accident occurred.

Either from continual persecution, or perhaps from
natural instinct, the fish in the pond often disappeared
into the deep water, and none could be hooked or speared
for many days together. At such times, however, they
could often be attracted by burning a torch at the bow
of the canoe at night-time. That the fish really hid
during the day seems to be confirmed by the fact that
at such times I noticed the osprey bring large fish from
other waters.

CHAPTER IV

THE APPROACH OF WINTER

The summer of 1865 was not as hot as usual, according
to the Indians. I, however, was surprised to find so
great a degree of heat in so high a latitude ; but it is to
be reDiembered that at this time I was an inexperienced
boy, knowing nothing of the land whither I had come to
pitch my tent, and every experience was to me new and
striking to the point of the wonderful. According to the
same authority the winter set in late. The lake was
almost completely covered with thin ice on the 4th
October. It is said that fogs are almost unknown to
Canada, but there was a dense one here on the 6 th. It
cleared away at noon, and for a week there was great
heat again ; yet I noticed that nearly every small bird,
and most of the larger ones, had migrated by the first
week of the month. On the night of the 11th there was
a sharp frost, and when I arose in the morning the scene
was one of surprising beauty. The frost had completely
changed the appearance of the forest, the leaves of which
were now rich with every tint of red, yellow, and orange,
presenting a sight which, for richness of colour and variety,
cannot be described. Frost succeeded frost, and in three
days there was a sheet of ice over the pond strong
enough to permit of its being traversed in all directions.
There was no snow till the 23rd, when several light
showers fell, just covering the ground. Thenceforward
there was more daily, till, at the end of the month, it
was perhaps a foot deep, and the Indians prepared to
start on the first of their hunting expeditions.

26 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

The whole of the Red Men in the district broke up,
or perhaps I should rather say assembled (for they were
scattered all over the country), into small parties of four,
five, or .six, generally relations. I knew of no instances
where single Indians went to hunt alone. In many cases
the squaws were taken. Only very old men, women, and
children were left behind in the wigwams. Hand-sleighs
of light construction were taken by many of the parties ;
others, who departed more lightly equipped, deferred
making these sleighs until they had obtained pelts to
load them with. The hand-sleigh is constructed much
on the same principle as the snow-shoes, with the addi-
tion of slight cross and side timbers, and is drawn by
means of skin-ropes, and enables the hunter to draw
burdens of two or three hundredweight with ease.

The hunting-parties did not always stay away from
their homes for any length of time ; but if successful
in their search for game soon returned with their spoils,
and in a day or two made a fresh start. But as the
season advanced, and the snow became firmly frozen,
they were* often away for considerable periods. Game,
also, was not abundant near the encampment, through, no
doubt, having been frightened away by much persecution.
The method of hunting, and providing for the hunter's
necessaries in the forests and wilds, will best be learned
from a description of my own experiences.

I, of course, joined with my friends Andrew Whitting
(the half-breed), Monchuapiganon (Tom), and Chucko-
chilgegan (Sam) ; all of them old hands and much
experienced hunters. Andrew at first thought to take
the squaw and his daughter ; but the two Indians opposed
the intention, as, I need scarcely say, I did myself, think-
ing it cruelty to expose two women to the hardships of
forest life ; though, it is to be noted, I did not at this
time know how hardy the Indian women are, nor that
camping-out in this severe climate is by no means so
trying as it may be imagined.

THE APPROACH OF WINTER 27

Our first expedition was not an important one. It
consisted only of a journey to some extensive pine woods
to the north-east, where we, and several other parties,
were attracted by numerous wolf tracks. I have already
mentioned that this district was noted for its wolves,
whence the Indian name of the pond. The various
parties of hunters kept widely apart ; in fact we saw
none of our neighbours, except in going and returning.

There was but little snow on the ground, and that
little loose, so that snow-shoes were not used. We took
one hand-sleigh ; and I, for my own convenience, carried
a kettle, pot, and some cocoa, and other luxuries ; and
my muzzle-loading Enfield rifie, and a Colt's six-shooter,
a heavy, cumbersome weapon, but of great power. Breech-
loading firearms were scarcely heard of at this period ;
but I have always been in favour of muzzle-loading
weapons for shooting dangerous animals. Referring to
this fact, one of the critics of my first book remarked
that I knew nothing of guns, nor the power of the
breech-loader. Such a remark could only provoke a
smile, and showed that the critic had had no experience.
The breech-loader is the weapon of the dandy pot-shotter.
It is excellent (if you are a marksman) for long-distance
shooting, but is 50 per cent, inferior to a good smooth-
bore musket for close-quarter shooting. The bullet from
an express rifle will go through the heart or brain of
a bear and not stop him ; indeed, if through the heart,
ten to one it gives him no trouble. The wound closes
after the bullet, and no bleeding takes place. But the
spherical bullet from a muzzle-loader, with propelling
charge of eight drams, tears heart or brain to pieces, and
drops your quarry at once. All old hunters know the
value of the muzzle-loader, and none know it better than
Indian tiger-shooters. As a consequence of my experi-
ence during the first year or two of my sojourn in
America, I had a couple of double-barrelled, muzzle-
loading muskets, with plenty of metal in the breeches.

28 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

specially made for me: and they were ever after my
favourite weapons. I used a rifle only for distant shots,
and a breech-loader for birds. I may add that a good
gun, like a good wife, is not to be picked up every day ;
and that gentlemen having arms made for them should
go to Birmingham and make their own arrangements for
their weapons. For all the so-called London guns are
made there ; though, possibly, they are put together in
the City. Pay a maker his price, but insist that the
weapon shall be capable of a pre-arranged performance ;
and then when you And yourself within six paces of
a grizzly or black bear, you will have nothing to fear.

We reached the wood which was our destination
at nightfall. The intervening country was well timbered,
being, in fact, forest land ; but this spot was said to be
a favourite haunt of the wolves, and consisted of an
extensive tract of pine forest, with few or no other trees.
I suppose that the great number of hares here was the
attraction to the wolves. These hares, called wood-hares
by the trappers, presented a motley appearance ; for they
were just beginning to turn white. These were the Lepus
Americanus of the naturalists, and not the wood-hares of
the States, which do not change colour in the winter.
The ground they occupied was hilly; and they were
most abundant on the outskirts of a wood facing nearly
north-east, where there was a tract of ground covered
with thorny bushes with hare tracks between. The hares,
if not actually gregarious, were thickly scattered about ;
and we had a couple of brace, which I shot, for supper ;
but they were as flavourless as the mountain-hare. I
could have shot at least a couple of dozen, for they had
a habit of crouching under the bushes until closely
approached, thus aff'ording a fixed mark for the Colt
revolver, with which I knocked them over, steadjdng my
hand against a tree.

My companions objected to this firing, alleging that
it would alarm the wolves. That the Canadian wolf is

THE APPROACH OF WINTER 29

as cowardly as that found farther south in the States is
certain, and yet it is a vicious and dangerous brute.
There were about here also a number of red foxes, and
these certainly preyed on the hares : for I found bones
and fragments of skin in the lairs of the foxes.

Arriving on the ground where it was intended to pass
the night, my companions cleared away the snow, and
formed a dome-shaped hut about four feet high, capable
of containing the four of us. Loose snow being piled
over this structure, and a good fire made close to the
entrance, we had a Avarm and comfortable sleeping-place
for the night, and many other nights afterwards, in this,
or a similar, hut. No bedroom in an English house
could have been warmer. Of course we had our blankets
with us, and a thick bed of spruce boughs under us.
The hut, I should have said, was constructed of spruce
boughs ; and the trees I have loosely spoken of as pines,
were really the hemlock spruce (Abies Canadensis). The
forests of this tree presented a fine spectacle growing to
a height of sixty or seventy feet, and clustering in the
valleys or ravines between the hills. There were two
other kinds of spruce firs here : the red spruce, growing
in the swamps, and a species I could not identify, growing
in clusters only in very sheltered situations.

The novelty of the situation, I suppose, together with
my over-tired condition, rendered me restless during the
night, and I slept but little. There was a slight breeze
blowing, and this caused a peculiarly sad yet musical
sound among the firs. But this was the only noise that
disturbed the stillness of the night. I listened intently,
hoping to hear the distant howling of the wolves ; but
no animal uttered its cry throughout the hours of dark-
ness. Towards morning a fox sneaked up, and seized a
hare skin. I threw my knife at it, but missed, and the
noise thereby occasioned aroused my companions, who
arose, though it Avas still quite dark, and prepared for the
labours of the day.

30 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

First we had breakfast, consisting of cakes made of
roughly pounded corn, with dried tish, and the cocoa
which I had brought. The breakfast was not a heavy
one ; but the Indians do not eat very heartily in the early
morning. They prefer an evening meal, when the labour
of the day is over; then, indeed, they are first-class
examples of trencher-men.

Before dayligl;it the traps were unpacked, and with
the first streak of dawn we started to set them. We had
a dozen strong steel traps, like those used by keepers to
catch foxes, but larger. These traps are procured from
the Hudson Company's posts, and are, I should think,
made specially for their service. They are furnished with
several yards of strong chain, for they must be secured to a
branch, or tree, to prevent the fox or wolf walking away
with them when caught. And the trap, as well as the
chain itself, must be hid under the moss, or these cun-
ning brutes will not go near it. The bait, in this case
consisting of the entrails and skins of the hares, was not
placed on the trap, but cut up into small pieces and
scattered around it ; so that, in walking about to gather
them, the Avolf or fox should accidentally step upon it.
If the bait is placed in the trap, no wolf or fox would be
caught if you tried till doomsday, so wide-awake are
these creatures.

The Indians, before handling the traps, carefully
rubbed their hands with the entrails, so as to cover the
scent of their fingers, and used every precaution to leave
as few traces of their presence as possible, wiping out the
marks of their feet in the snow Avith a spruce bough.
The traps were placed a considerable distance apart —
perhaps a quarter of a mile — at spots where the Indians
found traces of wolves or foxes. These traces consisted
of the remains of animals preyed upon, and footmarks,
and a few other signs which I could not discern, though
my friends detected them quickly enough. The drop-
pings of a wolf were pointed out to me several times,

THE APPROACH OF WINTER 31

thousrli I could not have distinsruished them ^vith cer-
tainty from chose of a fox or some other animal. But
the general opinion was that there were not yet many
wolves about here.

The selecting of suitable spots and setting the traps
occupied a great part of the day, and we returned to our
temporary hut to partake of the evening meal, having
had nothing to eat during the time we were at work.
On the way back my friends knocked over several hares
with sticks and stones, and these were stewed, or rather
boiled, for supper, and eaten up to the last mouthful.

During our absence the foxes had paid our halting-
place a visit, and wandered all around it. Fortunately
such a visit had been anticipated, and every article
eatable, or made of leather, huncf on the branches of
trees out of their reach ; for these little wretches, and
wolves, are so exceedingly voracious that they will tear
to pieces and eat a pair of boots, or a belt, in a surpris-
ingly few minutes. It is not safe to leave anything of
the kind, or any sort of food, within their reach.

I could have shot several foxes, but my companions
begged me not to fire any more, saying that the shot
would injure the pelt and make it valueless. The real
reason was fear of frightening away the wolves; for it
is a fact that these creatures soon learn to fear the
report of a gun, and a few shots fired within their hear-
ing will often drive them quite but of a neighbourhood.
The skins of wolves are of much more value than those
of the common sorts of foxes.

The second night spent in the forest I slept " like a
top," being completely worn out ; but I was aroused by
my companions at dawn to partake of breakfast, which
they had prepared before disturbing me. They were in
a hurry to visit the traps to see if anything had been
taken duringf the nijjht, at which time the animals, and
wolves especially, prowl about more than during daylight.
Only one of the traps had an occupant — a poor little red

32 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

fox caught by both fore paws, which howled or whined
pitifully as we approached. A single blow on the head
quieted him for ever.

We had visited all the traps and were back at the
camping-place before noon, and the rest of the day was
spent in looking for something to eat. Sam had dis-
covered the tracks of cariboo deer in the snow., and
proposed to follow them up. The tracks, however, were
not fresh ; and considering how few hours of daylight
remained, it was thought better to defer attempting to
stalk them until the following morning. It was arranged
that Tom and myself should undertake this Avork while
the others attended the traps, and we started before
break of day. The tracks were easy enough to follow,
but it was a long time before we found any that had
been recently made, and then we took a circuit of seven
or eight miles to avoid the chance of the deer scenting
us; for these cautious animals are the most easily
alarmed of any American deer, and all are jealous of
the neighbourhood of man.

I watched anxiously for the appearance of the deer,
but the only signs of them that I could perceive were
the marks of their remarkably broad hoofs in the snow.
In reply to a remark of mine that I feared Ave should
not overtake our game, Tom waved his hand towards the
forest below us and said : " Cariboo dare. All right. Hab
shot by-um-by." And so Ave continued on our way so
silently that these Avere almost the only Avords spoken
during the Avhole day. I was dressed much in the
Indian fashion, and Avore moccasins, so that we moved
like ghosts, absolutely Avithout sound.

In the afternoon Tom intimated that it Avould not be
possible to overtake the deer that day, and proposed that
we should camp out, as going back to our companions
would amount to giving up the chase. Though Ave Avere
almost without food, I consented ; for, apart from the
fact that I did not like to appear chicken-hearted before

THE APPROACH OF WINTER 33

an Indian, I was possessed with a boyish anxiety and
excitement to have a shot at a deer, an experience which
I had not yet enjoyed. Among the Indians it is not
unusual for the hunters to go an entue day, or perhaps
two, without food when engaged in the chase ; not from
choice, but through dire necessity.

We constructed a temporary hut, similar to the one
already described, to pass the night in, and our supper
consisted of a few pieces of corn-cake, made of the coarse
flour, ground, or pounded between two stones by the
squaws. As there were no hares here, nor other small
animals or birds, we had to do without meat ; and our
only drink was the bitingly cold water from a small rill,
which we had to break four inches of ice to obtain. We
had the comfort of a famous fire, however, and there is a
surprising amount of cheerfulness to be acquired from a
good fire in these silent wildernesses, as everywhere else.

Another early start, this time without a breakfast,
but with the comfortinof assurance of Tom that we should
" hab plenty venison presently." We toiled, however, for
some six hours through the forest, where, as yet, there
was scarcely any snow, there not having been falls heavy
enough to cover the ground under the trees. There was
no brushwood, or even herbage, in this forest, and the
ground was covered with a thick carpet of fir spines, the
accumulation of many spasons, which was as soft to the
foot as the finest Turkish carpet. Through this dense
forest, where the light was but dim even at noon, the
unerring eye of the Indian traced the course of the
cariboo. So clear were the tracks to his discernment
that our pace was scarcely checked in following them.
I could see myself, here and there, where the carpet of
decayed leaves, or fir spines, had been disturbed, and
also the broken branches and saplings, snapped by the
weight of the animals, or nibbled as they passed.

It was early afternoon before we came up with the
herd, which seemed to number about seventy. They

c

34 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

were scattered about among the trees in an open part of
the forest, and were resting, a few browsing on the tops
of the very young spruce saphngs. Tiiey were some two
hundred yards away, on lower ground than that where
we stood, and had not the slightest suspicion of our
presence. The Indian bad previously cautioned me that
the utmost noiselessness was necessary, for the deer would
bolt the moment they detected us, and in the present state
of the ground it would be impossible to overtake them a
second time.

Using the utmost care to keep ourselves concealed
and avoid noise, we managed to creep fifty yards nearer.
A further advance without discovery was impossible ;
but the nearest deer was quite a hundred and fifty yards
off, double the distance that Tom's common musket would
carry with anything like accuracy. Partly by whisper,
partly by gesture, he intimated that he would move to
the right to a hollow way along which he thought the
deer would fly, and take his chance of a running shot.
I was to give him time to reach his post, and then pick
off the animal I had marked to try my skill on.

My excitement was intense. I actually trembled
with eager anxiety to secure my prize. I had never
yet shot anything bigger than a hare, and I was pos-
sessed with all the enthusiasm of a young sportsman.
When I thought that Tom must have reached the hollow
way, I, crouching behind a bush, took steady aim and
fired. The cariboo fell on his knees and rolled over on
his back, but he immediately strove to rise again, and was
quickly on his legs. I rushed forward, shouting like a
mad fellow, oblivious of everything but the fear of losing
my victim, and never noticed the sound of the shot which
Tom fired as some of the herd rushed past him. My
buck hobbled along on three legs at a good speed, and I
lost sight of him for a minute or two several times ; but
he was badly hurt, and the thick stream of blood on the
ground enabled me to follow him as fast as I could run

THE APPROACH OF WINTER 35

(I was lame, and could not run as fast as an ordinary
man), and presently he fell again, and I came up and
finished him with a shot in the head from the Colt
six-shooter.

This was my first deer, and I believe I fairly danced
with wild joy at my success. I know that I shouted
myself hoarse, and had a sore throat in consequence.

Tom had also had a successful shot, killing his victim
outright, and so we were in possession of two fine deer,
each of which must have weighed nearly three hundred-
weight, for these woodland cariboo are much larger
animals than the barren -land cariboo of farther north.

Tom soon came up and cut the throat of my prize,
and asked me to drink the warm blood which flowed.
With disgust I refused ; but he took a hearty draught
of it, and I afterwards found that this is a usual custom
with the Indian hunters. The warm blood of deer is
said to be most nutritious and supporting. I have heard
that the Esquimaux have the same habit.

The disembowelling and skinning of the two bucks
occupied the whole of the remainder of the day, and we
camped for the night on the spot where we had slain
them. Needless to say that cariboo meat was abundant
enough at supper that evening, and as I was ravenously
hungry, I think I made the heartiest meal I have ever
devoured ; and my sleep after it was profound and
sweet, until I was aroused by the sound of a musket-
shot. The wolves, it seems, had been attracted by the
smell of blood, and Tom had shot one of them that had
been bold enough to come close up.

As it was nearly dawn of day we slept no more ; but
took a breakfast of broiled cariboo steak, and made an
early start to rejoin our companions, carrying as much of
the meat as we conveniently could. The rest, with the
pelts, and that of the wolf, was placed in the lower
branches of the surrounding trees to be out of the way of
the wolves. It must be hung at least seven or eight feet

36 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

from the ground, or these brutes will reach it by leaping.
Bears sometimes discover, and succeed in tearing down
game so deposited ; but the disappointed wolves and
foxes will hover around for days, and the returning hunter
often secures a wolf pelt or two from the would-be robbers.

I should certainly never have been able to find my
way back to the camp ; but the Indian seemed to take
a bee-line to it, and without difficulty found our way.
After experience made me a better woodman ; but without
a careful noting of objects and bearings it is very easy
to become inextricably lost in these vast forests. The
Indians, thouofh seeming to go carelessly along, are really
most acute observers, noting objects that seem very
commonplace to novices, and though making none but
mental notes, never forgetting a mark or sign.

Owing to the character of the ground and other
circumstances, I can give no idea of the distance traversed
on this occasion ; but we did not reach Sam and Andrew
until nearly nightfall. They were somewhat alarmed at
our prolonged absence ; but exceedingly glad of the
supply of meat, for their scanty stock of provisions was
all but exhausted, and very few hares could be knocked
down, those animals, as a result of being disturbed,
having become very shy.

Our companions had had but poor luck with the
traps, only one fox having been captuied during our
absence. The opinion was that the wolves had not yet
come south in any great number. It is not to be
assumed from these words that Canadian wolves make
regular migrations ; but they follow game which does,
long distances (hundreds of miles) locally. Moreover the
wolf is a shifting, restless animal, and much in the habit
of making changes in its hunting-ground.

The next morning Tom and Andrew went for the
rest of the cariboo meat, taking the hand-sleigh with
them, and leaving the care of the traps to Sam and me.
When we made our rounds we found three of the traps

1

THE APPROACH OF WINTER 37

with occupants, two foxes and a badger. All were caught
by the feet. One fox had bled to death ; but the other
two animals were alive and strong, and made desperate
attempts to escape, whining mournfully at their im-
pending fate when we approached.

The position of the traps was altered every day ;
this being a necessity to counteract the cunning of the
animals, who scent danger with remarkable quickness
and intelligence. Now we could bait the traps with
fresh meat, and the effect was seen the following day by
the capture of half-a-dozen animals, three red foxes, a
mottled fox and a wolf, also another badger ; and a fourth
fox had escaped, leaving a severed fore-paw in the trap.
The flesh of the skinned carcasses is used to bait the traps,
but it is not so attractive as deer meat, which is always
used when procurable.

To save time when examining the traps I and Sam
went different ways, each attending to half the traps.
The first that I came to contained a dead, and the second
a living, fox ; then I found the wolf. The cunning brute
was lying on its side quite motionless, and I supposed it
to be dead ; but when I was about to handle it it sprang
at my throat, uttering a savage growl. .Fortunately it
was held firmly by the fore-paw, and it only succeeded in
reaching my leg, which was encased in a strong leather
legging, and further protected with the irons which I was
compelled to wear. The flesh was bruised and grazed,
but I was not actually bitten. The irons were bent, and
bore the mark of the brute's teeth, and the legging torn.
It is said that the wolf bites pieces out of the man or
beast which it seizes, and I know from experience that
they will rip a dog or other small animal to shreds in a
few seconds, so fierce and strong of jaw are they.

I killed my savage foe with a blow from my toma-
hawk. It was the only wolf trapped on this occasion.

The mottled fox alluded to above was what is called
" a cross fox " by the Hudson Company's people. These

38 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

traders recognise no fewer than six varieties of fox, viz.
the red, black, silver, white, cross, and " blue," which
last, I, and many other trappers, call a grey fox. It is the
white, or arctic {Canis lagopus) fox, in its summer coat.
In high latitudes it becomes perfectly white with a black
tip to its tail, and a blackish muzzle. Between grey, or
blue, and absolute white, these foxes may be found of all
shades. Some remain grey, and some white, at all
seasons, summer and winter ; and I have never found any
of them south of the shores of Hudson Bay. They
breed in holes among the stones, cavities of rocks, &c.,
but never, in my experience, form burrows for this
purpose, though they do in the snow for concealment and
repose. They do not hibernate.

The other foxes are all of one species. The contrary
is asserted in many works, and on " scientific authority."
I, however, have found all four varieties in litters of red
foxes ; therefore, without wishing to be offensive to either
critics or " scientists," I say positively that those who
assert that these foxes are distinct varieties are mistaken.
The cross fox is very common. Often half a litter are so
marked. They have a black mark, in the form, more or
less distinct, of a cross, on the back and shoulders ; and
are also often dabbled, or mottk-d, with black. The
silver fox is black, with a great number of white hairs in
its coat, giving it a speckled appearance. When these
hairs are few in number the fox is said to be black. A
perfectly black fox is utterly unknown. They generally
are marked with white in the same manner that a cross
fox is with black ; and the tails of all are tipped with
white.

The red fox breeds in self-made holes, the hollows of
trees and rocks, and similar places. The usual number
in a litter is four or five, but sometimes six or seven.
Seven is the greatest number I have found, but the
Indians say that sometimes there are as many as nine. I
suspect that in this case there may be two litters in one

THE APPROACH OF WINTER 39

hole. In about every third litter you will find either
black, silver, or cross whelps ; and occasionally all three in
a single litter. The whelps are exceedingly beautiful
little creatures, playful, and can be reared up and
rendered as tame as domestic dogs. They will not,
however, submit to the teasing of children, and are
always fonder of their immediate master than other
persons in a house.

When there are but few white hairs in a black fox-
skin, they are picked out by hand, and thus is made the
black skin of commerce. What the price of such a skin
is now I do not know ; but three years after the period I
am writing of (1865), during a flying visit to England
I sold a very fine pair without a white hair in them,^ to
a Bond Street furrier for sixty pounds sterling. For similar
skins the Hudson Company gave the poor Indians from
six to eight castors — that is about twelve to sij:teen shillings
actual value, not paid in money, but kind.

The pelts of the '• blue " and of the white fox are of
but little value. The hair, though thick and long, is
much coarser than that of the red fox and its varieties.
It is certain that these latter foxes never pair with the
former, though the habitat of the one overlaps that of
the other. The white fox is a pelagic species ; and
though it wanders inland sometimes considerable dis-
tances, I have never seen it myself farther away from
the shores of Hudson Bay than eighteen or twenty
miles.

The badger referred to above was the Taxidea Ameri-
cana, an animal that does not diti'er in outward appear-
ances, or habits, from the common badger of Europe.
There are said to be structural differences between the
two animals. Perhaps so ; but they are very slight, if
anybody but the scientific straw-splitter can perceive
them. It has been said to me that the American is

1 Chom and her daughter had picked out the few white hairs which
originaJly disfigured these skins.

40 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

smaller than the English badger. It is not; except
in certain restricted localities. Those about here measure
twenty-six to twenty- eight inches from snout to root of
tail. The latter is six or seven inches long. Like the
English badger, this is a courageous animal, lives in
burrows, and when captured can be rendered exceedingly
tame, and will follow its owner about like a dog. They
pair in autumn before they hibernate, and the young are
brought forth in spring, about May, and perhaps as late
as the end of June. They are three to five in number.
In captivity they show no desire to hibernate ; and even
when wild they seldom retire altogether till the very
severe weather sets in about the end of November. Like
those in Europe, they seldom show themselves during
the day ; but on bright moonlight nights I have watched
them for hours gambolling and playing like dogs.

Tom and the half-breed did not return until the
middle of the third day. In spite of our precaution the
wolves had got down one of the deer-skins and com-
pletely spoiled it ; indeed, devoured the greater part of
It. We had no further luck with the traps; and a heavy
snow-storm setting in, and showing signs of lasting a long
time, we returned to the huts at the lake. The snow
was partially thawed in a day or two, and a sharp frost
ensuing at night, the next morning the trees were covered
with millions of small icicles, forming one of the prettiest
sio-hts I have ever seen, as the bright sun caused them
to glitter and sparkle and emit all the prismatic colours.

CHAPTER V

DEER -SHOOTING

There is a great fascination in tracking and shootino- bio-
game, a fascination that wants a certain amount of check-
ing, or the sportsman degenerates into a common butcher.
Excessive slaughter is, in my opinion, one of the most
selfish of crimes ; for though man has an hereditary
interest in the wild creatures of the world, it is an
entailed, not an absolute, interest, and it is his bounden
duty to remember and guard the interests of his suc-
cessors. He who exterminates all the game on an estate
deprives his descendants of one of the chief pleasures
of possession. On a private estate the mischief may not
be irreparable : on a public one (the waste places of the
world at large) it certainly is. Therefore the man who
would not be considered a public enemy, ought to shoot,
however remote the hunting-ground, with moderation.
There are others to come after him ; and a world denuded
of wild creatures would be a spoiled world.

The fall of my first buck gave me such pleasure that
I was anxious to repeat the exploit. There were, how-
ever, no deer in the immediate neighbourhood of the
huts, and continual falls of snow made distant journeys
undesirable for a time. At length, however, we had fine,
bright weather, with the surface of the snow frozen hard.
This was the condition required for snow-shoe travelling,
and I took my first lessons in this method of progression.
Everybody has read descriptions of snow-shoes ; I need
not therefore waste time here by describing them, or
their use, at length. Suffice it to say that they are a

41

42 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

racket-like contrivance for supporting the weight on the
surface of frozen snow, and that they enable the wearer
to cover twenty-five or thirty miles a day, wliereas with-
out them he would break through the frozen crust, and
probably be unable to walk five miles in the same time.
Heavy animals, such as deer and bears,^ do break through
it, and therefore at such times are completely at the
mercy of the hunter, who can walk round them, and
slaughter them at his convenience, without trouble or
danger, for the poor brutes can make no resistance.

Some deer, as wipiti and moose, often get surrounded
by deep snow, which they tread down for a limited
distance, forming a kind of pit, or hollow, from which
they cannot escape. Such hollows are called moose or
wipiti " yards," and usually contain family parties of three
or four to six or eight deer, and being imprisoned for the
winter have to subsist on the foliage of the trees. Appa-
rently they do this without difficulty, for they are nearly
always in good condition. Deer imprisoned in "yards"
have no more chance of escape or resistance than oxen in
a slaughter-house, and the hunter finding them " pots "
the lot, old and young. I believe that the game-laws of
Canada now forbid this wholesale slaughter ; but at the
time of which I am writing men did their own pleasure,
and never failed to destroy a yard to the last fawn.

It happened that my second experience of deer-
shooting was at the destruction of a moose-yard. I soon
learned to use snow-shoes with facility, and when the
weather became favourable for journeying, I and four
Indians, including Tom and Sam, started on an expedi-
tion in search of game.

Deer-yards are never easy of discovery, because there
are seldom any tracks leading up to them, and the pit is
deep enough to completely hide the occupants. On this
occasion our attention was attracted by a pack of lurking,

1 Note that bears hibernate, but their hibernation is sometimes
interrupted. I have seen them about in the snow.

DEER-SHOOTING 43

snarling wolves, which was hovering round the yards in
hope, I suppose, of a snap at one of the calves. There
were seven moose confined between the snow walls : one
old bull, one young bull, three cows, and two calves, the
latter of a pretty good size. Bulls, cows, and calves, are
the terms applied to these animals, and usually to wipiti
too, by the trappers.

The poor brutes seemed to foresee their impending
fate, for they made desperate attempts to escape. But
they were in a complete trap. The older animals were
shot: for the moose is an ugly customer at close quarters ;
and the calves killed by cutting their throats.

For the flaying and cutting up of these animals help
was required, for they probably produced more than two
tons (over 4000 pounds) of meat. One of the Indians
was therefore sent back to the village while we proceeded
to make shelter huts, and camp in the yard, which was
crimson with blood. Here there was soon a disgusting
spectacle, my companions gorging themselves with flesh
till they were literally unable to swallow more. But this
was nothing to what occurred the next day when our mes-
senger returned with about sixty persons at his heels,
nearly all squaws and children, with Chom and Emma
amongst them (Andrew was away trapping near Grand
Lake). These people were beside themselves with
delight, for their husbands and fathers being away in
the woods shooting and trapping, they were on short
commons, the late severe weather having made it difiicult
to find fish or small game. Here, however, was meat
and to spare, though even the entrails wxre eagerly
sought after as too valuable to be wasted. The wretched
little urchins of the party were soon smothered in blood
from head to foot, and not a few of them, and their
mothers, ate pieces of the meat raw, too hungry, or
impatient, to wait until fires could be lit to cook it.
Plenty of hand-sleighs had been brought, and the meat
was soon all taken away. The women had helped to

44 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

skin and cut it up ; indeed they did the greater part of
the work, laughing, chatting, and rejoicing the mean-
while.

The skins were our property, and as much of the
meat as they could drag away was given to Chom and
her daughter. The rest was divided among the crowd
of squaws, who in return undertook to drag the pelts
back to our huts. All spent one night at the yard,
which was fourteen or fifteen miles from the village, and
many did not depart till the following day was well
advanced, being too intent on feasting to hurry away.
Altoo-ether the scene was one of the most remarkable of

o

savage life which I had yet witnessed.

I have anticipated a little. For our people, seeing
that many wolves had been attracted to this spot by the
scent of the deer, laid traps all round the neighbourhood,
with the result that in the three nights we remained
here, nearly twenty wolves were captured, besides four
which I shot. The Indians might have shot many, but
they prefer to trap them, as the marks of the bullet or
shot depreciate the value of the skin : so they say.

Tlie wolf-skins were distributed equally amongst us,
but lots were drawn for the moose-pelts, as they were of
various sizes and values. The method ,of drawing lots
was that which I think is universal in all countries, viz.
by holding a number of twigs of various lengths concealed
in the hand, he who draws the longest having the first
choice. This happened to fall to me; but as I had taken no
part in the slaughter, I paid in powder and shot for my
share, and in so doing I rose so much in the minds of
these simple people that they raised me to the rank of
a chief, and as such I was ever after treated by this tribe
of Crees whilst I remained amongst them. It may be
worth adding that at this time I dressed as an Indian,
and have more than once been taken for one at the
Hudson Company's posts. Others thought me a half-
breed. Contrary to the rule in this country, where

DEER-SHOOTING 45

Europeans generally lose colour and become pale faced,
exposure to the weather turned my skin a deep red.

We continued our journey, moving in a north-easterly
direction, through country that was mostly covered with
dense spruce or pine forests, with many small lakes or
ponds, all of course frozen hard as iron. There was at
least three feet of snow on the ground at this time, the
surface frozen so hard that I found, by stepping cautiously,
that it was possible to walk on it without breaking through.
But for rapid and safe movement the snow-shoes could
not be dispensed with.

This country was much frequented by cariboo, several
of which we shot, two falling to my rifle. They go in
herds, somewhat scattered at times, of fifty to two
hundred at least, and my companions used to try to kill
two at one shot. This is often done when the animals
stand side to side, the bullet having power to go through
them both.

But the cariboo, which, the reader probably knows, is
the reindeer, is very tenacious of life ; and of all those
shot (m this occasion, not one was killed outright.
Several gave us a long run. Where we caught them in
the snow it was simply murder. They broke through
the frozen snow and could scarcely flounder along, and
the Indians walking up to them, cut their throats or
stabbed them, and saved their powder. But the animals
evidently knew their danger, and on scenting us made
for the lakes, where the snow had either drifted or was
frozen so hard on the ice that they could run with speed.
Here they gave us infinite trouble, some of those wounded
running nearly all day before we could get up to them,
and one or two escaping altogether.

On the larger of the lakes the snow had drifted into
mounds and hillocks before freezing, and these were high
enough to aff'ord complete cover to the fugitive deer. Pro-
bably all those wounded that escaped got away only to die,
for we found the carcass of one which had been shot three

46 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

days previously, and had been given up as lost. Besides
cariboo, the only game of greater size than hares and
grouse that we met with in this little expedition were a
few foxes. We were away from home nearly a month,
when, having collected as much meat as we could drag,
we returned. The meat being hard-frozen will keep all
the winter. It becomes so hard that it can only be cut
with an axe.

Cariboo meat is coarse and flavourless, as nearly all
American venison is. Americans, both Yanks and
Canadians, praise their venison highly, supposing it to
be far superior to English. I suppose that not one
American in ten thousand, and perhaps not one in a
hundred thousand, has ever tasted English venison. At
all events, there is absolutely no comparison between the
two meats. It is as reasonable to compare flaccid, in-
ferior Australian frozen mutton with prime Southdown,
as to place American venison beside English. All
American venison is coarse. That of the cariboo, moose,
and wipiti resembles coarse beef. Wipiti meat is the
best. The word " venison " is but little used in America,
especially among trappers. All venison is called " meat."
The freezing of it certainly does not improve the quality ;
but it is a boon to the poor, often half-starved, people, as
it enables them to keep a stock when a fortunate chance
places it within their reach.

During the winter I made several short excursions,
similar to that which I have just described, sometimes
having several companions, and sometimes accompanied
by Tom only. Tom was quite my chum, but a more
silent pair of friends never associated together. Hours
would pass without the exchange of a word, and Tom
was never, on any occasion, demonstrative. But he
suited me — for I am not a talkative man — and it is
evident that I suited him ; for he was always ready to
accompany me anywhere, and for any length of time.
He took all arrangements into his own hands, and made

DEER-SHOOTING 47

every preparation without comment ; and he would per-
form all the hard work when we were alone together,
though at other times he was prone to spare himself.

Often he would enter my hut, and squatting on the
floor, would remain hours quietly smoking and looking at
my books, for he was exceedingly fond of pictures. He
never uttered any greeting or took his leave, but came and
went abruptly, as is the usual manner of all the Indians ;
and he would answer with a grunt when spoken to, unless
a reply was absolutely necessary. Yet he was a brave
and faithful man. I had abundant evidence of that
before circumstances compelled us to part.

On the excursions I have mentioned, and which were
always performed on snow-shoes, we met with but little
big game during the latter part of the winter. I shot,
altogether, three moose and about a dozen cariboo, but I
met with no adventures in their pursuit. 1 will there-
fore, before changing the subject, make a few remarks
on American deer-shooting generally, and these remarks
apply to the northern parts of the States, as well as to
the British possessions. In the former region there are
small deer which are not found in Canada— at all events,
as far north as most of my wanderings refer to. These
small deer, as well as the cariboo, moose, and wipiti, and
many other animals, are passionately fond of salt, and
they habitually frequent " salt-licks " wherever these are
found.

Salt-hcks are not abundant in this part of America ;
therefore, if you can find one, you are sure of good sport
until the deer become too nmch scared to venture to the
lick. A salt-lick is simply a saline spring. They gene-
rally dry up in the summer-time, but, the earth being
thoroughly impregnated with the salt, they are still
visited by the deer, which lick the ^ound to obtain the
saHne particles. The deer and other animals come from
such great distances to obtain this salt that it is clear
they must retain a very lively recollection of its position.

48 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

At a settlement I visited one day I saw a man give a
horse a piece of salt, which I at first thought was a piece
of loaf-sugar. The animal ate it eagerly, and followed
him for more ; and he told me that he could always
catch the loose horses in the fields easily by offering
them a small lump of salt. This put the idea into my
head of trying to attract the wild deer by placing pieces
of salt in their tracks. During the winter, when there
was snow on the ground, I found this to be of no avail ;
but in the autumn it proved a highly attractive bait, and
many is the moose and cariboo whose destruction I have
compassed by sowing the ground with fragments of salt,
while I lay concealed in a convenient spot to shoot them
down. On one occasion I shot six deer in one day as
the result of this trick.

Salt is scarce, and often unobtainable, in these wilder-
nesses, and the Indians would do or give anything they
possessed to obtain it. They often use powder in lieu of
it, having learned the habit of using it thus from the
trappers. Fortunately I had brought up a large supply
of this necessary article, and was frequently applied to
by my Indian friends for it, and the children would eat
it as children in England do sweetmeats.

Regarding the habits of the deer of this region, the
moose seems to eat the foliage of trees as its principal
food ; the wipiti eats all sorts of vegetation ; and the
cariboo, also, will eat almost anything it can find, but it
certainly prefers mosses to other kinds of green food, and
in summer lives almost entirely on this class of vegeta-
tion. The moose and the wipiti, particularly, devour the
spruce and pine shoots, and, in consequence, their flesh
is often strongly impregnated with the flavour of these
trees. Cariboo and wipiti are fond of feeding in swamps,
but the moose prefers dry ground. All deer take to the
water readily, and are good swimmers, but the wipiti
seems to me to be most often seen in the water. As a
matter of fact, I do not remember to have ever seen a

DEER-SHOOTING 49

moose s-wimming, but that they have the same habit in
this respect as other deer is certain. All trappers and
Indians assert it.

The wipiti is '■ the elk " of Americans ; and it is
almost as bulky an animal as the moose, but it varies
greatly in size — more so than any other species of deer
with which I am acquainted. Sometimes cows do not
weigh much more than three hundredweight, while bulls
will be nearly half a ton. I have shot specimens which
were quite as heavy as the largest bull moose. The
average weight of both moose and wipiti when in good
condition may be safely put at five hundredweight for
cows and eight hundredweight for bulls. They are
therefore magnificent animals, fully three times the
weight of Scottish red deer. In height neither moose
nor wipiti ever exceed by more than an inch or two six
feet at the withers ; though trappers, and especially
American ones, tell of monsters eight and nine feet high.
As a moose, or wipiti, of this height, if proportionate
throughout, must weigh 6000 or 7000 pounds at least,
the exaggeration of this estimate is palpable. I should
state, as a modification of what I have written above,
that the moose is slightly the tallest animal ; and that
on looking over my notes five feet ten inches appears to
have been the greatest height of a wipiti killed by me, and
six feet three or four that of a moose. The usual height

o

for bulls is five feet six for wipiti, five feet nine for moose.

Both these deer bring forth their young in the desert
and most retired thickets they can find ; and so jealous
are they of discovery at this time that it is rare to see a
cow with her calf until it is evidently some weeks, if not
months, old. There is usually but a single calf; but I
have seen both moose and wipiti with two. They pair
in the autumn, and drop their calves in the spring.

The smaller deer, found in the northern parts of the
States, do not seem to reach these high latitudes. At all
events I have never seen any signs of their so doing.

D

50 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Regarding distribution and numbers, that has almost
become matter of past history. At the time of which I
am writing wipiti and moose had aheady begun to show
signs of a serious falHng off in numbers. Cariboo were
still abundant ; but all three had forsaken certain spots
which were much frequented by white trappers from the
settlements. In the United States, wipiti were found, in
places, in large herds. Here I never saw any number
greater than what seemed to be a family party together ;
that is, six or eight. Their habits, in this respect,
resembled those of the moose. Single deer and pairs
were most frequently met with.

I do not think that wolves ever succeed in pulling
down these deer, except, perhaps, old or injured indi-
viduals; but they try to capture the calves; and the
cows have desperate fights in defence of their progeny.
I once witnessed an encounter between a wipiti cow
and about thirty wolves. The poor mother was furious,
and though she did not actually kill any of the wolves,
she tossed one and crippled him. I think it is probable
that the wolves would have ultimately destroyed the calf;
for they were so many that the cow could not keep them
all ensraofed in front of her, and some attacked the calf
while others yelped at the mother's front. At length
one of the wolves made a grab at the calf, inflicting a
severe bite ; and I thought it high time to interfere.
From my place of concealment I shot three of the wolves,
and while the remainder scampered off in one direction,
the cow and her calf retreated in another. The maimed
wolf was unable to follow his comrades, and he also went
to increase the weight of my " bag," though the cow had
mauled him so that his pelt was little worth.

CHAPTER VI

WINTER AT ITS HEIGHT

It was not until about the middle of January that I felt
the cold much. It was then intense ; and I suffered
rather severely from frost-bites. These I soon cured by
rubbmg with snow, and applying vegetable poultices pre-
pared by the sqaaw. The Indian remedies for all kinds
of cuts, sores, and bites are excellent ; and their medicine
men are generally skilful bone-setters. About this time
I suffered much with bowel troubles, not an unusual occur-
rence, I believe, with recent arrivals in the country, and
for six weeks I was too unwell to move about. I owe the
Indian women much gratitude, several of them volunteer-
ing to nurse me ; and Chompol was indefatigable in her
attendance.

At the end of February I was able to get about
again, and make snow-shoe excursions for a few miles
around our huts ; but by this time all the game had been
driven far from our neighbourhood, and the men were all
away seeking it in the great forests to the north.

At this time there were scarcely any small birds to
be found, they having either migrated or sought shelter
in impenetrable cover. The former was most likely to
be the case ; it certainly was in the great majority of cases ;
and thus it would seem that this country is remarkable for
the almost complete migration of all its smaller feathered
animals. Many of the larger ones had also disappeared,
and a few fresh species had arrived from more northern
regions. Amongst the latter were a few ptarmigan. These
were met with on the lake (frozen, remember), and where-

52 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

ever there was a space of open ground. They were in
their white winter plumage, and were remarkable for
their tameness ; for when I shot one the others flew but
a short distance, and sometimes only a few yards, so that
I generally managed to make a pretty fair bag. The so-
called partridge also remained here all the winter, but did
not change its plumage. This bird was even tamer than
the ptarmigan ; for often when I shot one as it sat on a
tree, its companions would only fly a little distance and
then come back to look down upon it, as it lay on the
ground, with an inquiring air, so that I have sometimes
shot five or six from one tree. Other species of grouse
are almost equally tame ; but they become wild enough
when the breeding season and summer approach. During
the winter I on several occasions met with the ruffed
grouse (Bonasa umhellus) in considerable numbers. On
the 17 th March I shot nine brace in about four hours.
There were at least two other species of grouse shot during
the winter. The partridge (Canachites Canadensis of the
English, or Dendragapus Canadensis of American orni-
thologists) and the rufifed grouse both breed in this
neighbourhood. They nest quite early, before the snow
has entirely disappeared. I took the eggs of both in
April. Those of the ruffed grouse were placed amidst
rough, scrubby vegetation in a rocky place, were nine
in number, of a buffy colour with a few specks of light
brown, and were so well concealed that if the hen had sat
close instead of flying off I should not have discovered
them.

The Canadian partridge, also, does not make a nest,
but the herbage is trod down, or flattc ned, in a circular
shape, at the foot of a tree or under a bush, if not in the
woods at least whore there are plenty of trees. I believe
they lay nine or ten eggs, but the number which I took
was six in one clutch, seven in another. The eggs were
a deep buff colour, thickly speckled and spotted with large
spots of rich brown.

i

WINTER AT ITS HEIGHT 53

The only birds of prey that I saw during the winter
were owls, one of which was much like the common barn-
owl of England. A bird of this kind used to frequent the
roof of my hut at evening time, where he found some
kind of small prey under the shingles. I have heard
him hooting between midnight and two o'clock in the
morning ; never later, and seldom sooner. After I took
to placing pieces of meat for him he became a constant
visitor until spring arrived, when I saw him no more.

The great grey owl {Syniium cinereum) was frequently
seen, generally in pairs, from which circumstance I con-
clude that they pair permanently. Like other owls in
this district they are seldom seen during daylight, but
appear pretty early in the evening. Their favourite perch
is on the withered branch of a pine tree, or on such a tree
that is blasted by lightning or other cause. They are
usually a silent bu-d, and prey on all sorts of birds and
small mammals, and the Indians will cook and eat them
without scruple. For the sake of experiment I tried one
roasted myself, with the result that I think that there is
nothing but prejudice to prevent a meal being made of
them. The Indians generally boil them, as they do groiise
and ducks and geese, and I may say that all these birds are
insipid enough so cooked. The ducks, &c., are at best but
poor eating in this country. The owls are caught in traps
without bait ; for the Indians mark where the bird is in the
habit of pitching, and place the trap there. As the owl is
sure to come to its favourite perch, and is quite oblivious
of trap, it is thus caught. Sometimes a pole with a cross-
piece is erected where the owls haunt, and the trap (a
large steel rat-trap) fixed atop. This is also an efficacious
way of catching them, as it is of several other species of
owls, particularly the one next mentioned. The great grey
owl is found, in limited numbers, all the year round, but
the bulk of them retire southwards. as the winter comes
on. As when the cold was very severe and in bad weather
I never saw them about, I conclude that at such times

54 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

they keep to their holes or retire to the dense woods.
They harbour in holes in trees, and, I suppose, breed there,
but I have no certain evidence of this.

A much more numerous,, as well as a much larger
bird, is the snowy owl. The splendid white plumage of
this fine owl (which is as large as a turkey) is spotted
with black, and the expanse of wing is more than five
feet. It is by far the most splendid of all the American
owls, and probably of all others. It is more often seen
solitary than the great grey owl, but is also often in pairs.
Like all the big owls of this district, it is very destructive
to birds of the grouse family, which form the bulk of its
prey. It is not a noisy bird, but occasionally it may be
heard uttering cries at night time. It is less nocturnal
than the other owls, but its favourite preying time is the
dusk of evening, when it captures the ptarmigan and
partridges (Canadian grouse) as they are seeking their
roosting-places. This owl breeds amongst rocks and in
clefts, a httle rough grass, roots, &c., forming the nest ;
and it has the strange habit, for a bird of prey, of laying
its eggs in succession at considerable intervals of time,
so that there are sometimes an egg or two and an un-
fiedo-ed and a fledged young one all in the nest at the
same time. The usual number of eggs laid in one season
seems to be from four to six. I have known the nest to
be placed on the top of a broken tree-stump ; but the
snowy owl is found in the most desolate spots of the great
North- West, and throughout boreal America. It moves
southward to a certain extent in the very severe cold
season, but its migrations are very partial.

Throughout the winter there were no ducks or geese
in this district, and scarcely any small birds. I noticed,
however, a few snow-buntings, here called snow-birds,
snow-finches, or snow-flakes. These pretty little birds
also make partial migrations ; and a spell of cold weather
will cause the few which remain behind to disappear.
They, however, return when the weather moderates.

WINTER AT ITS HEIGHT 55

The cold of Canada and the northern regions is too
hackneyed a subject to permit of much dwelUng on; but
I may just mention that no fire, however roaring, would
warm my hut ; and that water kept within a few feet of
the fireplace often became a solid block of ice. Such
liquids as ink and oil also froze, but spirits did not. My
guns, as they stood in the corner, were covered with a
bright infiovescence of frost, as well as every other metal
article ; and I was always obliged to put on gloves before
venturing to handle them, otherwise the skin of the
fingers would be left adhering to the metal.

As to the effect of the cold on my constitution, it
certainly was trying. For the first time since childhood
I was seriously laid up this winter, and among minor
evils I suffered greatly from chilblains. Otherwise I
found the cold bearable, especially while I kept in motion.
The only severe frost-bites that I experienced I acquired
while fishing at a hole in the ice.

The ice on the lakes was of a great thickness — as
much as three feet on some of the larger lakes and
rivers, and it was no inconsiderable task to cut a hole
through it to the water. The fish generally rose freely
to these holes ; and sometimes thirty or forty of them
were cut within the space of a few hundred yards. The
methods of fishing were various. I used baited hooks,
and sometimes tried the Indian plans, the commonest of
which was spearing. The fish are attracted by a bait,
and as soon as they are perceived are impaled by a light
barbed spear, and sometimes by a trident. At night the
fish are attracted by a bright light, and sometimes an
artificial fish, made of painted wood, is used as a lure.
Much practice is necessary to make a successful spearer
of fish ; but the Indian men and women, and even the
children, are very dexterous at it. In this way sixty or
seventy fish, weighing three or four pound each, are often
taken by a single fisher in a few hours' time. But it is
not always that the fish can be attracted to the holes.

56 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Among other amusements I adopted to wile away the
winter-time was taking snow-shoe journeys to the nearest
outlying settlers. Some of these farmers and gentlemen
lived not more than forty miles away, and I could accom-
plish that distance easily in two short days' travel. To
sleep out in the depths of a Canadian winter may seem
a desperate expedient, but the fact is that a small hovel
of spruce-boughs, well covered with snow, and with a
blazing fire in front of the opening, is warmer to sleep in
than a large log-hut. Of course I had my blanket, and
sometimes dragged a small hand-sleigh after me.
: "^ I was always sure of a warm welcome, and a pressing
invitation to prolong my stay till the winter was over.
Of course all outdoor work is put a stop to in the winter,
but there are many expedients for passing the time pro-
fitably and pleasantly, most of which are borrowed from
the Yankees, to which I shall subsequently make re-
ference.

All the settlers near here were exceedingly prosperous;
and could I have borne the climate, I should certainly
have turned farmer myself, instead of becoming, as I did,
a wanderer in the States. They suffered but from one
serious drawback — an insufficiency of labourers. None
of the Indians, and but few of the half-breeds, can ever
be induced to take to a life of agriculture.

CHAPTER VII

A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER

I TOOK no other extensive ramble witli my Redskin
friends, but spent the remainder of the winter shooting
and fishing in the neighbourhood of Wolf Pond, making
a few excursions to Grand Lake, and other points at no
great distance from my hut, and doing the best I could
to regain my usual health and strength. In this I was
so far successful that I determined to make an unusually
long journey during the approaching summer, for the
purpose of seeing the land and enjoying the sport of
shooting, of which I am passionately fond, though I am
no wholesale slaughterer, holding that to be no sport
which degenerates to animal murder. The tracking of a
single deer, or bear, all day long is to me a delight of
the highest degree, even if, after all, I fail to get the
anticipated shot.

Most of the Indian men had returned to their families
by the end of March, in anticipation of the break up of
the frost. While the frost lasts, the snow is as dry as
sand. All loose particles that cling to your clothing are
easily brushed or shaken off; but everybody knows how
exceedingly penetrating is wet snow. The Indians do not
mind it, nor do they ever seem to suffer much from rheu-
matism— certainly not to the extent of becoming cripples
from it ; but when the thaw has fairly set in, snow-shoes
are no longer of use. It is impossible to drag through
the wet and clogging mass with them ; far less to drag
a burden over it. So the last days of winter are em-
ployed by the Red Men in preparing for the journey to

58 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

the Company's depot, to dispose of the pelts collected
during the winter hunt.

All my friends were in good heart, the collection of
pelts having been a good one, much above the usual
average. But it is not to be supposed that all hunting
ceases with the winter. On the contrary, some of those
animals which yield the most valuable furs hibernate, and,
consequently, can only be captured in the spring and
summer.

The method of travelling and bartering the pelts to
the Hudson Company being of necessity incorporated in
my future narrative, I shall say nothing concerning it
here. Broadly, in winter, snow-shoes are resorted to to
enable the traveller to get over the ground, enabling him
to do twenty or thirty miles per day ; and more than
forty is sometimes covered by Indians when there is
occasion for making a quick journey. In the summer,
canoes and river and lake navigation is the invariable
method of travel, and " portages " is the distinguishing
feature of this kind of journey. The incidents of such
journey ings is a prominent factor in all descriptions of
the British possessions in North America, and will there-
fore, to avoid sameness in my narrative, only receive
such incidental notice as is unavoidable.

My friends were in the habit of taking their pelts to
Moose Factory, on James Bay (an inlet of Hudson Bay),
for the purpose of barter, that being the most easily
reached, though not the nearest, of the Company's
depots; but I, wishing to have Indians whom I knew
and could rely on with me in my journey to Red River,
offered to purchase all their furs. As I gave them double
what the Company would, besides saving them a trouble-
some journey, they readily consented ; and I packed all
the pelts in my possession in my hut, to be disposed of
on a more convenient occasion.

The Indians I selected to accompany me were Tom,
Sam, Natanyan, and Otmasquiloton ; the two latter young

A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER 59

men from the Cree hamlet, who were not yet married.
I thus interfered with no family arrangements in select-
ing my companions; and the remuneration agreed on,
consisting of powder, balls, and articles of particular use
to Indians, was looked forward to by my younger men
as a certain means of enabling them to settle in life on
their return. I thus became the leader of my first ex-
ploring party, if I may be permitted to dignify it with
such a term — a hearty and willing party, who had to
sever no family ties to follow me.

The journey was to be by water, and therefore our
preliminary task was to make a canoe suitable for such
an expedition ; that is, one large enough to contain five
persons and several hundredweight of stores, and yet
light enough to be portable overland on the shoulders of
two men. The task of constructing such a canoe I left
entirely in the hands of the four Indians who were to
accompany me, and they completed the work in less than
three days without exertion, using birch bark, sewn with
sinew, and all seams paid with resin.

During the month of April there were several slight
thaws, followed by sharp frosts, which made the surface
of the snow in may places as smooth as glass. Perhaps
from this cause, there seemed to be much suffering among
the animal inhabitants of the district, many deer, princi-
pally cariboo, coming to the vicinity of the Indian
lodges, followed by wolves and smaller beasts of prey.
The wolves carried away one child, and severely bit a
larger boy; and committed many minor depredations
amongst the dogs and property of the Indians. Many
wolves, foxes, gluttons, and small fur-bearing mammals
Avere trapped or shot in this month.

Early in May the thaw became general, and the ice
on the rivers and lakes broke up; and on the 13th we
made a start by carrying the canoe and stores to the
Ottawa River. This was a very easy stage, as there were
scores of willing hands to help us. My hut, and the

60 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

goods therein stored, I left in charge of Andrew Whitting
and his wife and daughter.

The Ottawa was in a dangerous state, full of huge
blocks of floating ice ; but we were only on it a few hours.
After descending the stream, which had a good current
at this time, for about thirty miles, we landed and pre-
pared to pass the night ashore ; and a bitterly cold night
it proved, with wind and rain, which continued through-
out the following day. The whole of this day was taken
up in making an eleven miles portage to a small stream
which ran into Lake Nipissing, and thence to Lake Huron.
The ice in Nipissing had been drifted to the north-west-
ward by the wind, but the mouth of the river was blocked,
and we were compelled to make a very troublesome por-
tage to avoid it. However, once on the waters of the
lake we found the centre clear of ice, and made a rapid
passage, though not without danger on account of the
strength of the wind. The river discharging the waters
of NipissiDg into Huron was comparatively free of ice,
and there was but little in Huron itself. By the time we
reached Huron the wind was blowing a hurricane, and we
were compelled to lose nearly a week ; for no canoe can
live on the great lakes when a gale is blowing.

It will not be expected that I should give a descrip-
tion of this well-known great lake. That would be
carrying coals to Newcastle. Cursorily I may note that
Huron is one of the deepest of them, being not less than
600 feet deep in places, at least; for I failed to find the
bottom with a line of that length at a spot outside the
Manitoulin Islands. In other places, however, it ap-
peared to average from 400 to 500 as the greatest depth.
Thousands of small islets throng the waters near its
northern shores ; and the Manitoulin group contain
several large islands, one of them about seventy miles
long by twenty broad. The surface of these great lakes,
though the water is quite fresh, is never frozen over, but
there is sometimes a considerable mass of ice round the

A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER 61

shores. The tide is scarcely perceptible: I have been
told that the rise and fall does not exceed eighteen or
twenty inches.

The navigation of these lakes in canoes is a very
ticklish business. The canoe is not adapted for navi-
gating rough water ; but these lakes, like all large inland
bodies of water, are subject to sudden squalls. Unless,
therefore, you have time to reach the land, an upset is
inevitable. Consequently it is necessary to creep round
the shore ; but when a bay or inlet is come to, the crew,
naturally, to save time and labour, like to strike straight
across from headland to headland. In the technical
language of the voyageurs this is termed making a tra-
verse. As some of these traverses are not less than
twenty miles broad, it is necessary to study the weather,
and to be an accurate judge of meteorological probabili-
ties if serious accidents are to be avoided ; for the waves
of Huron and Superior are not inferior in size and power
to those of the ocean, if, indeed, they are not more to be
dreaded. Then, again, there are long stretches on the
northern coasts of these lakes where a landing would be
impossible, or only possible at the cost of the loss of
stores and canoe.

The time required to make a canoe voyage round the
northern shores of Lake Huron is calculated to be not
less than a week, and more often nine or ten days. The
same calculation is made for Superior. But this is the
actual time for paddling. If there is much wind, and
the weather is bad, a week or a fortnight may be lost in
waiting ashore, and occasionally double that time is
wasted. Fifty miles a day is a fair rate of paddling for
a large canoe ; and this can be done day after day with-
out over-exertion. One man, in a light hunting canoe,
can maintain a much higher rate of speed in smooth
water.

The small islands on the north of Huron, and Superior
too, are rocky, with sometimes a pine or two growing on

62 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

them. Some are well wooded, and others pretty well
covered with bushes ; but some of the small rocks have a
barren appearance; nor is the timber on the coast of
Huron, as far as can be seen from the water, remarkable
for either size or abundance. There is plenty of fish in
the waters. Will it ever be exterminated by the waste
of a superabundant population on the shores ? White
fish swarms at present ; and a big trade in it has already
sprung up. It is salted and sent all over Canada and
the Northern States.

Our voyage along the shores of Huron was fairly rapid,
and without incident. On the ninth day we arrived at
St. Mary's River ; and the following day had to make a
portage across St. Mary's Leap, or the St. Mary Rapids
as the maps call it. This is the spot where the waters of
Superior rush into Huron, and it is a dangerous place
where many lives are reported to have been lost. There
is " a fort " on the United States side ; a mere military
post where a few soldiers are kept, most of whom seemed
to me to be Germans or Hollanders, and a village has
sprung up round this military shanty. I think that term
correctly describes it : for it appears to be built of timber,
and about two shots, I, should think, from a gun of
moderate size, would blow it to atoms.

On the Canadian side there is also a hamlet, or a bit
of one. It had a tumble-down appearance; but there
was a fish-curing establishment or two there on a small
scale ; and the Yankee, or German, soldiers seemed to
frequent it a good deal more than their own place, for
the purpose of getting drunk and quarrelling with the
sailors belonging to the police craft on the lakes.

The voyage on Lake Superior took us twelve days, in-
cluding one or two short stoppages ; but here also we
met with no incident worth record until we arrived at
Fort William. Superior is described in a later chapter.

Fort William was once a very important depot of the
North-West Company, the rivals of the Hudson Com-

A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER 63

pany. The former traders ultimately amalgamated with
the Hudson people ; but before this took place, some-
thing very like a pitched battle occurred between em.-
ployees of the rival trades, in which Mr. Semple, a
governor of the Hudson Company, and a number of his
men, were killed. The fighters were mostly half-breeds,
and it is said that their officers could not control them,
when their blood was up.

Fort William is now a Hudson post ; but very little
trade in peltry is done here.'^ It is a great fish-curing
depot, and this trade seems now to give it all its im-
portance. The fish mostly caught are the ever-cele-
brated (in America) white fish, and large trout weighing
twenty or thirty pounds. These two fish are the finest
flavoured in this part of America ; and the trout, not-
withstanding their size, are not coarse, but of a delicious
flavour. They, as well as the white fish, are split open,
salted, and dried in the sun ; and thus cured sent pretty
well to all parts of North America. This kind of salt-
fish is, however, in my opinion, far inferior to the cured
Newfoundland cod.

Before quitting the Great Lakes I should like to
remark that the rocky cliffs of the northern shores, the
immense expanse of the waters, and the heavy, rolling
character of the billows, s^ave me the feeling of beinof on
a sea-coast. The lakes deserve the name of, and ous-ht
to be called, inland seas. They are quite as much seas
as the Caspian, Black Sea, &c. The waters are beauti-
fully clear and pure ; and objects lying on the bottom
can be seen at a great depth ; as can also the fish swim-
ming in immense shoals. The bottom seems to be every-
where, on the north coasts at all events, either sandy or
rocky.

Fort William is not worth two lines of description.
There is absolutely nothing attractive about the place,

^ That is my opinion, and I must let it stand ; but it has been contra-
dicted.

64 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

or the store-houses, which seem huddled together in
designed confusion. The country around, however, is
exceedingly attractive. Looking north and west the eye
wanders over a great stretch of level ground, giving the
first indication of those vast prairies which we are now
approaching ; but the ground here is covered with small
trees, among which willows hold a chief place. The view
is bounded by hills which, seen from here, appear
picturesque and of considerable elevation. The grass
was beautifully green and fresh, and reminded me more
of our dear English meadows than any I had hitherto
seen in Canada. I noticed many small birds about the
trees and under the bushes ; but I had no time to go
after them. I have reason to think that they were of
the same species as those met with on the voyage up to
Red River, and which will be described presently.

Looking eastward and to the south the view was over
the lake, an interminable expanse of glittering water of
a deep blue colour, especially in the distance, quite a
different tint from that of the salt ocean. A great num-
ber of craggy islets rendered the scenery in this direction
as picturesque in its way as the view landward. Seagulls
(or lake gulls) were hovering everywhere over the waters,
and pitching on the rocks ; and there was a sufficient
number of fishing boats, and other craft, to give one the
idea of being at a minor port. The great number of
large canoes, however, could not fail to strike the eye of
a stranger, and convince him at a glance that he was in
a strange country.

Fort William is a depot for canoes; and they may be
purchased here. The canoes used on the lake are larger,
and of a different construction, to the light river canoes
of the Indians and trappers. They are called canotes de
maitre, are paddled by a dozen or fourteen men, and will
carry a ton of cargo in addition to the crew. But they
are too large and heavy for the internal river navigation ;
and the rule is, when the Company's servants arrive here

A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER 65

from the northern and western stations, to transfer the
cargos of several of the smaller canoes to a canote de
maitre for the completion of the journey. The smaller
canoes are called " north canoes " ; it would puzzle a
Philadelphia lawyer to tell why, for they are used south
as much as north.

Fort William is a palisaded structure ; and the two
shots I suggested for the Yankee post at St. Mary's Leap
would be equally efficacious here. In other words, it is
useless as a military post. It is placed at the mouth of
a stream called the Kamenistaquoia, which empties itself
into the lake a little to the southward of Thunder Bay.
There are two other small streams in the neighbourhood;
and in the days of the French these were called " Three
Rivers." and there was a post, or mission, here at a very
early period in the seventeenth century. This " Three
Rivers " must not be confounded with the " Trois Rivers "
of Lower Canada. One of the three streams has been
known for at least two hundred years as the river Long.
They are all shallow, and of no importance for navigating
purposes except by canoes.

This was the Fort William of a quarter of a century
ago. But to-day the place is an electric-lighted township
of, with the suburb of Port Arthur, some 10,000 or
12,000 inhabitants ! There is an electric tramway, a
railway station, and a corporate body who make " bye-
laws." The pleasant tree-covered prairie is converted
into a huge, wide-spreading cornfield ; and the former
fishiDg depot is now an important corn-shipping port
dealing with many million bushels of grain yearly. In a
word, the land that I knew, and describe in this chapter
as a glorious wilderness, is now a civilised region suffering
from all the blessings and curses of that state.

Of the gulls on the lake there were several species,
only one or two of which I could recognise with certainty
from skins afterwards submitted to American naturalists.
According to the people of Fort Willi ain several of these

E

66 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

birds (probably all are not strictly gulls) are only
occasional visitors to that district. Some are said to
breed in the marshes, but I found no eggs myself. The
common tern, Sterna hirundo, was here in considerable
numbers. This is, I suppose, the Sterna Jiuviatilis of the
English. It appears to me to be the same bird. Of the
next most numerous there is no doubt. The kittiwake,
Rissa tridacfyla. as well as the Sterna, is probably not a
permanent inhabitant of the lakes, but visits parts, at all
events, in great numbers. Another numerous gull I
should certainly think to be a mere variety of Larus
canus, the common English gull. There was also a
curlew, Numenius borealis ; but I only saw odd birds of
this species.

After a day or two's rest we paddled up the Kamenis-
taquoia, and resumed our journey on 10th June. The
river had a strong current, and after paddling, as I
suppose, some fourteen or fifteen miles, which took us
five hours, we had to make a portage at the " Mountain
Portage" as it is called by the voyageurs, to whom, of
course, it is well known. The Kamenistaquoia is full of
rapids, and is most difficult of ascent ; but it is to be
noted that one part of a journey is always more trouble-
some than another. Thus, for days you will be ascend-
ing the high grounds, and daily making several portages
at great expense of time and work ; and then for an
equal time be descending, shooting the rapids, and
making portages only where the cataracts are too
dangerous to be shot.

Near Mountain Portage there is a magnificent water-
fall— the " Mountain Fall." It has a sheer fall of about
two hundred feet, is broad and of great volume ; and the
majestic rocks which surround and hem it in are half
obscured by the clouds of spray which arise from its'
basin. Though the roar of its rushing, falling waters is
very loud when you are standing on the brink of the
precipice, it cannot be heard for any great distance.

A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER 67

This seems to be owing to the confined character of the
fall, which is completely surrounded with hus^e pine-clad
rocks. It is one of the finest falls in Canada, and is well
known to the Indians by the name of Keckibecki ; and
they have some weird traditions about it, and consider
the falling and precariously-rooted pines in the abyss to
be the spirits of condemned men.

After leaving the Mountain Portage, rapid-shooting
and portage-making were of almost daily occurrence.
The latter was often a troublesome and time-consuming
operation ; for while two men carried the canoe overland
on their shoulders, the remaining three of us were not
sufficient to carry the whole of our goods in one journey.
We had consequently to make a second, and sometimes a
third, trip. As some of the portages were several miles
in length, it will be easily understood that it frequently
happened that the greater part of a day was taken up in
making them.

The rapid-shooting was performed, I cannot say
wherever it was safe to resort to it, but wherever my reck-
less companions thought that there was a comparative
chance of successfully running the rapid. Reckless ! yes,
that is the word. These Indians seemed to delight in a
haphazard risk of life. Remonstrance on my part was
useless. They simply made no reply, and took no notice
of me ; and rushed down torrents that I should describe
as almost waterfalls. I was often terrorised (I make no
pretence of attempting to conceal the fact) and held my
breath, with a silent prayer at heart, expecting instant
death. But these cool rascals quietly smoked, not even
deigning to notice my terror, and sent the frail canoe
flying, at express- train speed, down frightful -looking
cataracts. After a time I gradually became ashamed
to show my nervousness, and then grew used to it, and
finally took the danger as a matter of course. But we
had several narrow escapes, and it is a wonder that I sur-
vived one of them to write this narrative.

68 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

The Indians are marvellously clever in avoiding the
rocks and shoals that always impede the navigation of
these rapids. Often it seemed to me to be inevitable
that we should dash against one of the rocks, and be
riven to pieces. We seemed to be rushing straight for
the obstacle, and not until we were within two or three
feet of it would a slight, but skilful, turn of an Indian's
wrist cause the canoe to swerve slightly to one side into
safety. By-and-by I attained to some skill in the use
of the paddle myself; but I never dared to rush such
formidable rapids as these men took as a matter of
course. However, my confidence in the Indians ulti-
mately became very great ; and I have seen these men
stand astride on the gunnels of a canoe that was rushing
down a very considerable torrent, and spear the salmon .
in mid- stream as they did so.

At a place called the Rose Portage, which is a very
long and troublesome one, divided into two parts, I saw
a pair of American yellow birds, which seemed to be
breedinsf, but I could not find the nest. I was more
fortunate with another well-known United States bird,
the "' chippy," Spizella domestica, the nest of which I
found in a bush, nine or ten feet from the ground.
There were four very small eggs, light blue in colour,
speckled with red. I am not aware that this bird often
breeds so far north as this ; but I have noted that cases
occur in which single pairs of many American small birds
are found widely out of their habitual haunts. Taking
the " chippy " for example, I have met with this bird
certainly as far south as Florida.

But the commonest small bird in this neighbour-
hood was a grosbeak, Hedymeles virginianus, which bred
amongst the rocks here, apparently in some numbers.
The nest was placed in pine or spruce trees, but not
near the top. Some of the nests were not higher than a
dozen feet above the ground. Thoy were composed of
small roots and coarse grass, and lined with deer hair.

A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER 69

In June and July there were both eggs and young in the
nests, generally four or five, but in some cases only three.
I think that finches, which have five as a normal number
of young, usually lay but three eggs in their first season
of breeding:. Second broods are also small in number.
The eggs referred to above were of a whitish colour,
spotted, and slightly blotched, with two shades of brown.
This bird is the rose-breasted grosbeak, Hahia ludovviana
of American ornithologists : another instance of how
widely specific nomenclature differs in America and
England. The range of this bird is enormous, embrac-
ing nearly the whole of North America ; and I have
found it in several countries of South America, particu-
larly on the lower regions of the Northern Andes. I
may remark that many species of small birds (as well as
those of considerable size) that range as far north as
this, are found quite as far south as the equator. I
should like to be able to prove whether the birds alluded
to migrate all these thousands of miles, or are permanently
settled in some parts of their range. They certainly
leave this region on the approach of Avinter ; in fact
many parts of Canada and the North- West lose all their
small birds before the cold sets in.

There were at least a dozen other species of birds
hereabout, whose size did not exceed that of the common
song- thrush ; but as I cannot speak with certainty of
those whose skins I did not obtain, or succeed in pre-
serving, I need say no more about them than that most
of them were species of Mdospiza and Spizella.

The Canadian grouse, commonly called the " par-
tridge " in this country, was quite abundant, and was
breeding at this time ; many young birds, just able to run,
being about. This bird was stupidly tame, as I have
noticed that it always is during the breeding season.

The heat became very great, often 90° to 100° and
more, in the shade, during the latter half of June, but
the weather was, on the whole, delightful. Scarcely

70 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

a day elapsed that tiiere was not a refreshing breeze
blowing in the morning and evening. From about 1 p.m.
to 4 or 5 o'clock was the oppressive time, and at all
times, day and night, the mosquitoes and other flies
were a terrible plague. They swarmed everywhere in
great numbers, and setting appearance at defiance I Avas
compelled to cover my face and hands thickly with grease
as a protection. Oil or grease is a deadly poison to all
flies, apparently by blocking their breathing apparatus,
and my expedient proved an efficacious protective, the
flies when pitching on the exposed parts being too
troubled at finding themselves sticking to bite.

The appearance of the country on all sides was
beautiful, hilly but not mountainous, well wooded in
many places, but yet there was no tract that could be
called forest. The trees were pines, spruce, birch, maple,
willow, and others that I did not recognise.

At the Dog Portage, from whence there is a very
extensive view over the country, we met a party of
voyageurs travelling towards Fort William. They were
Hudson's Bay people, and there seemed to be something
rather mysterious about their journey. It is too early
in the season for the " brigades," as the canoe parties are
termed, to be moving down to the lakes, and these men,
six in number, kept somewhat aloof from my party. In
crossing the Dog Lake we overtook a party of thirteen
Seauteaux Indians in three canoes who were taking pelts
to Fort Frances, a small depot on the Rain River.

Soon after crossing the Dog Lake we had evidently
come to the apex of the range of hills ; for now instead
of making portages we were continually shooting rapids.
Some of these rapids were very dangerous, others
exceedingly long, and occasionally we were still com-
pelled to make a portage ; and our rate of travelling was
now much faster than it had been during the first part
of the journey. We were daily passing through small
lakes and rivulets, many of the former mere ponds, and

A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER 71

so shallow that we sometimes ran agroimd. Where the
lakes were shallow they were often covered with reeds
and rushes, which prevented us seeing the escape of
the water-fowl which flew away at our approach. I,
however, succeeded in shooting a few ducks and other
birds, which made an agreeable addition to our pro-
vision. The country near the lakes was mostly covered
with a kind of thorn-bush, which it was difficult to move
amongst without tearing the clothes and lacerating the
flesh.

Of the lakes mentioned above many were not noticed
in my map, though evidently permanent ; others had no
name, and some I learned only the Indian or voyageur
designation of. Of those marked on the map, and which
varied in size from two or three miles across to perhaps
twenty or thirty, the principal were the Death, Sturgeon,
Savannah, Cross, and Lake of the Thousand Islands.
The country in which these are situated forms now the
colonies or districts of Winnipeg and Manitoba, and has
become, or is rapidly becoming, the greatest corn-growing
land in the world. There was no sort of cultivation
here when I passed this way, and in fact the country
was uninhabited except by wandering Indians and an
occasional voyageur or trapper; yet the Company's
hunters had so well scoured the land that several kinds
of big game were already becoming scarce, and some of
the smaller sorts were nearly exterminated — the beaver,
for example.

As a rule I could not get an extensive view of the
country in any direction. It appeared to be tolerably
level, but the banks of the rivers were generally high,
and those of the lakes low, or sloping, except in the
case of some of the smallest. Large tracts of ground
were covered with bushes intermingled with trees, and
sometimes the woods were extensive. The scenery, on
the whole, was pleasant, but not grand or striking.
Some of the ponds, however, were very charming spots,

72 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

surrounded with beautiful trees in the most picturesque
way. On these ponds I again saw the loon once or
twice. The beds of the rivers, and the bottoms of the
lakes were generall}^ muddy, and fish abounded in all
of them ; fish of species already mentioned, with the
addition of one or two others.

Of these new fish the most notable was the sturgeon
on account of its size, and the " golden-eye," for its vast
numbers, there being myriads of them in some of the
rivers. It seems to be a kind of perch, and is very good
eating, though it does not grow to any great size. Of
neither of these fish have I anything of interest to record.

During the journey I caused the Indians to travel
at any easy rate, as I was by no means in a hurry to
pass through the land, and endeavoured to make collec-
tions of small birds, eggs, and insects en route. In this
work I was only partially successful. The space to
spare in the canoe was so limited that accidents to my
collections were provokingly frequent, the more so as
my Indian friends had no sympathy with my hobby, and
used but little care. A great deal of what I collected
with great pains was spoilt or lost.

Butterflies, moths, and beetles, as the most attractive
of the insect tribes, were my most eagerly sought victims
in this branch of Natural History, but these are not
particularly striking in this northern region. I was
struck, however, with the fact that there is a small
butterfly here of a blue colour, as there seems to be in
every district of America, North and South, though
differing in species, and another of a bright red, prettily
marked. None of the species are identified, and it is
only possible to give an intelligible idea of them, and the
beetles, by means of coloured plates. Among the dragon-
flies was a very handsome pink and green species with
golden marks.

I made excursions of a few miles in extent into the
country as we passed through it, always returning to

A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER 73

sleep at the spot where the canoe was drawn ashore for
the night. Our bed was the ground, where we lay-
wrapped in our blankets when the heat was not too
great to make that course unendurable. Often the
ground was quite warm from the heat gathered during
the day long after the sun had set. During my excursions
I did not meet with an}^ deer, to look for which was one
of my chief objects ; nor did I see many Indians, most of
them having started on their journeys to the Company's
posts and depots to barter the results of the winter's
hunt. I did, however, meet with a few parties of old
men, women, and children, from whom I obtained a
welcome supply of Indian meal. Five hungry men take
a considerable amount of food daily ; and we had not
met with as much game as had been hoped for. I was
therefore at length compelled to abandon my pleasant
wandering excursions, and hurry on my journey in
order to obtain a food supply at one of the Company's
forts.

The nearest depot was Fort Frances, which we reached
in two days. It is a small building, in a state of decay,
built close to a waterfall of picturesque appearance. It
was occupied by only two men, a " trader," and a half-
breed " labourer " of the Company's service. I may
mention here that the Hudson's Bay men are classed as
labourers, who serve as handy-men, doing the work at
the forts, &c., interpreters, to communicate with the
Indians when necessary, postmasters, whose work is often
more onerous than their title indicates, and who have
great responsibility committed to them. These three
grades are subordinate, though the postmasters are
admitted to associate with the " gentlemen." These
latter are the apprentices, clerks, traders, and factors —
the two last being also shareholders in right of their
office. They are nearly all " canny Scots," and right good-
hearted fellows. The labourer classes are half-breeds and
Indians, rarely pure whites. All alike are generally

74 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

hardy, self- made men, who have often for years led a
monotonous and solitary life. A stranger is always
welcome among them. But there was little to be had at
Fort Frances ; for the Company do not sell provisions ;
or indeed sell at all, all their trade being by barter. So
we pushed on, and two days later arrived at the not
euphoniously named " Rat Portage House," where we
fared no better. The gentleman in charge of the house
had nothing to sell ; but he treated us very hospitably,
and as an act of courtesy, supplied us with a little
salt pork, and a few other necessaries. From some
Indians here we purchased some fresh fish for immediate
use, and as much wipiti venison as we could carry. The
stowage capacity of our canoe was very hmited, and I
desired to take a smaller canoe in tow in which to pack
some of our stores ; but to this arrangement my Red
friends offered so much opposition that I was compelled
to abandon it.

To reach Rat Portage House we had crossed the Lake
of the Woods, and this was, to my mind, the most en-
chanting piece of water we had yet passed over. The
thousands of islets that crowd the bosom of this lake,
rocky and clothed thickly with pines, and trees of
feathery foliage ; the bold rocky shores, rising to moun-
tainous heights, and reflected in the smooth, glass-Hke
waters, made up a scene that for beauty and subhmity I
had not hitherto seen the like of in this country. The
Lake of the Woods is rightly named ; for as far as I
could see it is surrounded with primeval forest. The
waters are the quietest and most unruffled of any we have
passed as yet, and this is probably the result of being
protected, especially on the north, with mountainous
rido-es. I have heard, though, that the lake is subject,
like all others, to sudden and fearful storms. It is of
such size that looking south and south-west, no land is
visible, and the horizontal line resembles that of an ocean.
From this point the scenery became more and more

A JOURNEY TO THE RED RIVER 75

picturesque, and was often grand. Not long after
leaving the Rat Portage we noticed a small churcli or
chapel, built at the bottom of a sort of inlet, under the
rocks. I suppose this has some connection with the
Company; but if there are houses here they are not
visible from the river.

The river now rushed onwards between high rocks,
riven and pine clad. I am sure that we often flew down
the rapids at the rate of fifty or sixty miles an hour ;
and some of these rapids were teti or twelve miles long.
Once or twice even my daring Indians thought the
current too wild to be trusted, and we made some short
portages to avoid dangerous spots.

The rocks, though not remarkably high, were broken
into fantastic shapes, and often seemed to have been
blasted or riven into great fissures and cavern-like open-
ings. The country around was, at this point, thickly
clothed with forest, and here were the tallest pines I had
yet seen. Even the most rapid running rivers every here
and there widened mto small lakes or ponds; and on
most of these small pools, and all of the larger lakes,
gulls were seen of the same species, generally, as those
on Superior ; but on Lake of the Woods, and the lower
corner of Winnipeg, I shot a gull with a beautiful white
plumage lightly tinged with crimson. This gull was
afterwards identified as Pagophila churnea of the English.
It is abundant in Hudson Bay and the boreal regions, and
also in many of the North- West districts in the winter-
time ; for it migrates southward on the approach of cold
weather. The fact that I saw it at this season is a proof
that, like many other gulls, it occasionally, at least, takes
inland journeys at any time of the year.

At the north corner of the Lake of the Woods we
entered the Winnipeg River, and in two days arrived at
Fort Alexander, a small similar depot to those at Fort
Frances and Rat Portage. It is situated a little way up
from the Winnipeg mouth of the river, and though, per-

76 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

haps, of less importance than the other two depots, we
procured here a supply of flour and salt pork, with half
a sheep and some potatoes : so that our nearly exhausted
provision was seasonably replenished.

From this point to Fort Garry, Red River Settlement
is about eighty miles by water; and that distance we
performed in another two days, arriving there on the
13th August, a date that will show that we had dawdled
a good deal on the first part of our journey.

I was compelled, apart from my desire to see the
Settlement, to call here, in order to obtain a guide for
the remainder of my journey, none of my companions
having ever before been beyond Lake of the Woods;
and my experiences, so far, had convinced me that it was
desirable that I should have an older man than myself
of European blood with me. I have no positive complaint
to make against my Red Men ; but it was evident, some-
times, that my extreme youth was against my maintenance
of authority.

CHAPTER Vlfl

RED RIVER SETTLEMENT

Red River Settlement was, at this time, an extremely
isolated colony. It is situated in the fork between the
Red River and the river Assiniboine, and is on the verae
of the immense prairies of Northern America. It was,
even at this time, an exceedingly prosperous place, though
scantily peopled, and is now the centre of the world's
cornfields. It is now merged, I believe, in the political
division of Manitoba. In 1866 the population did not,
according to such information as I could glean, exceed
13,000 or 14,000 souls; and of these the bulk were
foreigners, Scandinavians, Germans, Russians and Yankees,
and half-breeds. The colony was founded by Lord
Selkirk in 1811 or 1812; but there had been a fur-
trading post here from time immemorial. This seems
to have been a free-trading post ; and it was here that
the North- West Company, the rivals of the Hudson
people, had their firmest footing. Just outside Fort
Garry, the capital of the Settlement, the fight took place
in which Governor Semple lost his life ; and the subse-
quent troubles (in 1870) with the Canadian Government,
are remembered by most middle-aged people.

At the time of my visit these troubles were already
brewing. It was known, or feared, that Canada would
certainly purchase, or otherwise become possessed of the
territory before many years had passed ; and I often
heard the threat uttered that there would be aimed
resistance to any such acquirement. The foreign, and
especially the half-breed, element, fomented by certain

77

78 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Yankee agitators, were particularly inveterate against
" English rule," as they termed it. This expression was.
I think, put in their mouths by Irish Fenians, who came
here from the States for the express purpose of having

" a slap at the d d Saxon," as I heard one of them

phrase it. But, beyond incidental mention, this book
has nothing to do with politics; and I do not think
I need say more on this subject.

The entrance to the Red River from Lake Winnipeg
is between very flat, marshy banks, which are covered
with sedge and giant bulrushes, three or four times the
size of those growing in England, but otherwise like them.
The country in all directions that could be seen from the
canoe was very flat, and Winnipeg so shallow that the
rushes grew in the water at a greater distance than a mile
from the actual shore. These rushes gave harbourage to
swarms of ducks, geese, and other wild-fowl ; and for the
first time on our journey I had a day's good sport among
the ducks. I was greatly disappointed, however, to find
at supper that night, that these wild ducks are very poor
eating-. There is nothing remarkable in the flavour of
an English wild duck, but it is far better than the best
of these. In fact, with the exception of the canvas-back
of the States (which is more thought of than it deserves)
and one or two others, all the North American ducks are
of poor quality for the table. Not so the geese; but
more of that hereafter.

I shot thirty-two ducks in the space of a couple
of hours, and lest it should be thought that I indulged
in a wanton slaughter, I may mention that they were all
eaten before we reached Fort Garry, two days later ; any
one of my Indian friends thinking nothing of consuming
a brace of ducks at breakfast or supper, and Tom picked
the bones of two brace at one meal. With the exception
of two species (possibly young birds, for many young were
flying, and the plumage varies much at different stages
of growth), all these ducks greatly resembled those found

RED RIVER SETTLEMENT 79

in the fens of England. The first was the common pintail,
Dajila acuta of English ornithologists. This was tolerably
abundant, and evidently bred in the marshes at the
Winnipeg end of the Red River. I shot one gadwall,
Anas strepera, miscalled a widgeon at Fort Garry, three
dusky ducks, Anas ohscura, and fourteen that were not
distinguishable from the common wild duck, Anas boscas ;
but, as I have said, none of these ducks were equal in
flavour to those of the same species found in England.
In addition to the ducks, I shot five American widg-eon,
JIareca Americana, and these were much superior as food
to the ducks. The geese were so wild that, on this
occasion, I could not get a shot at them.

As we proceeded up the river the country became
less marshy, and before we reached Stone Fort there was
forest on both sides of the river. I afterwards found
that this forest formed a belt from one or two, to five, and
in a few places twelve, miles broad on the banks of the
Red River, Assiniboine, and their tributaries. The
country outside the forest belt was open prairie, the soil
undoubtedly rich, and the climate at this season balmy
and delightful, though hot during the middle of the day.
Al^-eady the timber had been appreciably thinned in many
places, and unless some bye-law is made for its preser-
vation, there seems to be danger of its being speedily
entirely destroyed. The inhabitants were using it reck-
lessly as firewood, and in some instances burning it off
the land to make clearings, a practice common all over
the country at one time, and one which no language is
too strong to condemn. Could I have my way, I would
insist on so much of the timber being left intact ; and I
would punish with the most drastic penalties all wanton
destruction of either trees or animals. I dare say that I am
" behind the times," and a " faddist," but there are other
people besides money-grubbers and merchants to be
considered ; and it is no great demand to ask that a
portion of the world's beautiful surface should be left as

80 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

God made it, for the pleasure of those who love Nature,
and the good of those who are to come after us.

As we Reared Fort Stone we seemed to be approach-
ing civilisation; the unusual sight of a church spire
first attracting attention. This was at the " Indian
settlement." Where we find " Indian settlements " in
America, we may be sure that the march of civilisation
has made rapid strides through the district, and that
there is a religious and moral force at work which is
performing great things — for good or evil, or that terrible
mixture of both which, to my mind, is the source of all
misery, and which is always found in greatest excess when
men congregate in cities and populous colonies.

The settlers' houses seemed to be mostly, if not
entirely, built on the banks of the river facing the water,
and I was much surprised at the substantial manner in
which many of them were built. Some might be truly
called handsome mansions, and the grounds were laid out
with a taste and care that could not be exceeded in any
centre of an old civilisation. Stone was the material
mostly in use, and Stone Fort was the first building of
that description that I had seen in the country, con-
structed of any class of masonry. It is a place of no
great strength, and could be easily taken by escalade ;
but its walls were high and well built, and furnished wiih
demi-bastions at the corners.

Corn-growing seemed to be then, as it certainly is now,
the chief industry of the settlers ; but there was an abundance
of all sorts of domestic animals and poultry. During our
stay we lived on fresh mutton, and I bought a fine hog
and salted it to be eaten when we resumed our journey.
Flour, ground locally, was to be had for a song, so that I
was enabled to replenish all our stores.

We arrived at Fort Garry, the chief post of the
Settlement, on the 15 th, and stayed a week, anxious as
I was to resume our voyage. The colonists treated me
with the greatest hospitality, and I almost made up my

RED RIVER SETTLEMENT 81

mind to return to Red River and become a farmer.
Perhaps it would have been as well if I had done so.

Having borrowed a horse, I rode out some miles on the
prairie to have a look at the country. It is a different sort
of prairie from that of the Mississippi Valley, not being
distinguished by that billowy, rolling appearance that i&
the distinguishing trait of the latter district. Occasionally
there is some undulating ground ; but for the most part
the country, outside the timber region, is almost flat.
Wherever there is a brook or rivulet, there is a narrow
belt of woodland on its banks. At other parts it is
difficult to find so much as a bush, the ground being
covered with a rich growth, of long grass, with flowers as
abundant in summer as on the prairies of the south.

Here and there are shallow lakes and marshes, which,
in many cases, are not permanent, but dry up in summer ;
but they attract enormous numbers of wild-fowl ; and at
evening time I sometimes saw flocks of ducks, &c., that
must have numbered at least tens of thousands. It is
only at certain times, however, that they thus congregate.
Generally they fly in small parties, and the geese and
swans, particularly, will be seen in wedged-shaped parties,
or straight lines, of a dozen to fifty or sixty birds. In a
ride of twenty miles out across the prairie I saw no big
game ; but many small mammals and birds congregate in
the woods. As none of them seemed to be peculiar to
this region, I need not dwell on them here.

Having marked a small shallow lake, partially dry,
which was much frequented by the wild-fowl, I had a day's
shooting there, going alone. The birds were rather
wilder than I should have expected to find them at a spot
situated seven miles from the nearest habitation of man,
and for a long time I despaired of obtaining a swan,
which was the chief object of my wishes. At length,
however, after creeping slowly and painfully for fully
a mile under cover of the reeds, I arrived within fifty or
sixty yards of nine birds which were feeding near the

F

82 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

shore, and fired both barrels just as they arose from the
surface of the water. Up they all went soaring round m a
great circle, and in a wedge-shaped form, not one of them
showing the least sign of being wounded, though my gun
was charged with double B shot. I watched them, with
no slight vexation, ascend to an enormous height till they
looked scarcely bigger than starlings, when suddenly one
dropped as straight as a plummet. The seemingly slow
fall of that bird was really a beautiful sight, and filled my
soul with joy. I saw it strike the ground, and rebound
amidst a cloud of loose feathers, a good half-mile away.

It proved to be a truly magnificent bird, sixty-five
inches in length ; and, I feel sure, was larger than any
tame swan I have ever seen. It was an American
trumpeter swan, Cyipius hcccinator ; and was not much
disfigured by its tremendous fall, which could not have
been much less than a mile. All my efforts on this, and
a subsequent day, to obtain a second specimen were
fruitless.

Nor did I have much better success with the geese.
These cunning birds were as unapproachable as the
swans ; and it was not until I had recourse to the assist-
ance of my Indian friends that I succeeded in obtaining
a shot at them. Lying hid among the rushes, Tom so
cleverly imitated the cry of these birds that a flock of about
twenty was allured to within gun-shot, and I gave them
a right and a left. With the first barrel I killed my
bird, but in the second case the goose was only wounded,
and led my Indian friend a fine chase over the prairie
before it could be secured. It made repeated and most
adroit efforts to get to the water, and it required all
Tom's nimbleness to prevent it effecting its purpose.
Once there it would no doubt have swum out to the
reeds and effectually have hid itself. This trick of
imitating the cry is very common among Indian hunters ;
and some whites learn it sufficiently well to deceive the
birds. Not only geese, but many other birds, and also

RED RIVER SETTLEMENT 83

mammals, are thus allured within easy shot ; but on this
occasion the birds could not be deceived again, and the
brace I secured was all that I obtained at Red River.
They were of the common Canadian kind, Bernida Cana-
densis, which is a large dark-coloured bird, blackish and
dark brown being the prevailing tints of its colour, with
white cheeks and throat, and whitish belly.

The most important object of my visit to Fort Garry
was accomplished by my succeeding in engaging Achil
Quelle, a French Canadian voyageur, to act as guide and
assistant during the remainder of my purposed journey.
He was a man of fifty years, well acquainted with Indian
ways and notions, and highly recommended as a faithful
fellow, who would be prepared to sustain my authority.
Of course the real reason for engaging him was not
revealed to my Indian friends, who would have been
highly offended, and would have probably left me if they
had suspected that I was in any way dissatisfied with
them, or mistrusted their fidelity. I had so managed
down to this point as to avoid all subject of dispute; but,
as I have already hinted, it had become evident to me
that these braves, to a certain extent, despised my youth
and want of experience. This may seem strange to
persons unacquainted with the nature and ways of
Indians, considering that I had been made a complimen-
tary chief; but chiefs among the Crees have no great
authority.

We left Fort Garry on the 2 3rd August, and re-entered
Lake Winnipeg the following day, again taking toll of the
ducks and widgeon, of which Sam and I shot, between us,
nearly fifty. The canoe was now so heavily laden that I
began to fear that she was hardly safe ; but the rapid
consumption of provisions speedily remedied this.

We slept ashore, of course, every night, under the
shelter of bushes and trees, and with a good fire at our feet.
This was scarcely needed, as the heat was so great, even at
night, that I could rarely endure the weight of a blanket

84 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

over me, and lay with it folded under my head in place of a
pillow ; but a fire is always desirable at night. In the first
place, it makes wolves and foxes chary of approaching the
camp ; and though men have nothing to fear from these
animals, they will often make sudden grabs at provisions
and leather articles, even boots and belts, the loss of
which is a great inconvenience to travellers in uninhabited
districts. Moreover the light of a fire may be of great
use in the event of any unforeseen occurrence ; and is in
any event cheerful and comfort inspiring, I should say
that any temporary bivouac is styled " a camp " in the
American wilderness.

CHAPTER IX

CONTINUATION OF THE VOYAGE IN THE
WINNIPEG REGION

There is a marked difference in the appearance of
Winnipeg and those lakes hitherto passed over and
described. I had expected, though I admit from ground-
less preconceived notions, to find it the most picturesque
of all the lakes ; as a matter of fact it is the least so of
any of them. It is a prairie lake ; that is, bare sloping
banks run down to the water, and often form long
stretching peninsulas in it. The ground is covered with
green, bright-lookmg grass, and in the proper season there
are an abundance of wild flowers ; but it is only at places
that there are woods near the water. The water is very
shallow, showing that it is an extensive hollow of the
prairie which is permanently flooded. There are many
islands of small size, some of which are occasionally
covered with the rising water, and on a few of which
there are bushes and a tree or two. Near the shore
there is a dense growth of reeds which harbour enormous
numbers of water-fowl of all kinds — swans, Q-eese, ducks,
widgeon and others. The length of this great lake must
be nearly, or perhaps quite, three hundred miles, and it is
generally from forty to fifty broad ; so, like the other
great lakes, it has the appearance of an inland sea.
There are plenty of fish in its waters, of the same kind as
those in the other lakes; and at some spots near the
shore the mud was black with myriads of fry on which
the gulls and ducks were feasting greedily. There were
myriads of mosquitoes also, and of small green flies which

85

86 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

bit cruelly ; alsol dragon-flies, and other fljmig insects
which seemed to be attractive to a number of small birds,
amongst which I thought I recognised the common
swamp - sparrow, Melospiza georgiana ; but I can say
nothing certain of these small birds, as specimens could
not be obtained, those shot falling amongst the thicket of
reeds where they could not be found. However, it may
be taken for granted that the small passerine birds
described farther on in this, and the next chapter, were
all seen on the banks of Winnipeg.

The gulls were of the same species as those already
mentioned as frequenting the great lakes ; but that most
numerous was the species very closely resembling Larus
canus, insomuch that at most it is but a variety of that
bird.

At certain spots close inshore I almost daily saw
snipe in small parties of three to a dozen. They were
very wild, rising as soon as the canoe got to within a
hundred and fifty yards of them; but I succeeded in
securing three, several others being lost owing to the
nature of the ground where they were shot. These
birds are called by American ornithologists the common
English snipe, Gallinago ddicata. It is " Wilson's snipe "
of English naturalists, and certainly differs from the
" common " snipe. Their breeding - grounds are un-
doubtedly on the shores of this lake, as I am certain
that some of them were young ; but, of course, all
bu-ds have finished their nesting in this region before
the end of August.

We kept along the eastern shore, generally two
or three miles from land, making some forty or fifty
miles a day with the aid of paddles alone. For though
sails are sometimes used in canoes, they are never
safe, and we had none. We slept ashore, as a matter of
course, throughout the journey, generally on the ground,
but, where procurable, on a bed of spruce branches. If
a settler's hut lay in our way we were sure of a friendly

VOYAGE IN THE WINNIPEG REGION 87

reception, and the same may be said of the Indian huts ;
but we usually eschewed these latter on account of the
filth that always made them an abomination inside and
out ; for an Indian has not even an elementary notion of
cleanliness. Should he gut a fish, or a small animal,
for instance, he will throw down the ofFal close to the
entrance to his lodge, and there leave it to ferment and
rot. Not unfrequently his children will amuse them-
selves by scattering the horrible filth all over the place ;
and both they and their parents will handle their food
after mauling the most abominable corruption that can
be conceived. So I need hardly mention that I was
always chary of accepting Indian hospitality, though it
is but just to say that the poor people of this region
were always, not only willing, but anxious, to show
kindness.

Neither settlers nor Indians, however, were often met
with in the wilderness. The latter seem never to have
been very numerous in this northern district; and
yearly they display a greater tendency to congregate
near the townships and settlements, where they some-
times follow similar small trades and professions to those
of the Gypsy vagabonds of Europe. The squaws, or
women, particularly, hawk trjfling articles about the
settlements ; and there is, or used to be, always a
party of them at Niagara, selling moccasins and bead-
work; and not unfrequently winning the hearts of
susceptible trappers and backwoodsmen, who often take
Indian wives.

On the 28th August we passed a deserted post of
the Hudson Company, situated at the bottom of a creek.
The place was in ruins, and the stone-built chimney
standing alone had a weird and saddening effect on the
spirits. We passed the night at this place as it fur-
nished us with a convenient cooking-place ; and just
after dusk I killed a musquash on the bank of the
creek. This was the first of these animals which we

88 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

had seen since commencing our journey on the lakes.
Many of the small mammals are nocturnal in their
habits, which, no doubt, accounts for their being but
seldom seen. The best way of testing their presence
and number in a district, is to set traps overnight,
when, if they are numerous, some are sure to be caught.
Thus, the accidental killing of this musquash set the
Indians to making springes, and placing them before
every likely -looking rat-hole along the banks, with the
result that five more musquash were found captured in
the morning. These springes are made with wire, which
we had with us for this purpose. Many small mammals
and birds were afterwards caught in them, and as they
are usually entangled by the neck, they are almost always
dead when found in the morning. Birds can be caught
with springes made of bents, &c., but rodents, like the
musquash, will bite through these and escape. It is
astonishing what a lot of small pelts will be collected
by a skilful trapper, or Indian, without expending a
smgle charge of powder. I have known some of these
men have nearly two hundred traps, of various sorts,
set about a district a few miles square — as many, in
fact, as he could possibly attend to.

Near the northern end of Winnipeg we entered a
small stream known as the Jack River, though I could
not find it entered on my map by that or any other
name. It is a stream which connects several small
lakes together, and though it was practically currentless,
empties, I suppose, the waters of Winnipeg and these
small lakes into the Nelson River, which carries them
into Hudson Bay.

The same night we arrived at another of the Com-
pany's depots or stations — Norway House, which is
situated at the embouchure of the Jack River. The first
notice we had of the approach to this house was a flag-
staff fixed on a high rock with the Union Jack floating
from it, the house itself being hid in a snug ravine.

VOYAGE IN THE WINNIPEG REGION 89

There was quite a little village here of one-storey huts
ranged in a square, the fort being of the usual gimcrack
construction. Whether any of these depots were ever
seriously attacked by the Indians I do not know, but if
so, it is wonderful that they were not destroyed ; for all
those that I saw, with the exception of Stone Fort and
one or two others, were built of timber, and that in any-
thing but a formidable style of construction. A block-
liouse, skilfully made, is capable of offering a stout
resistance — of enduring a prolonged siege, unless heavy
guns are brought against it ; but these forts of the
Company are without ditches, or proper outward casing
of earth, and their contour and elevation are not of the
best ; nor are any obstructions placed at weak points ;
and trees and other shelter for an enemy are permitted
to remain standing close to their walls. I doubt strongly
if they could hold out twenty-four hours against the
attack of a party of riflemen.

The interior of these forts, or depots, is on a par
with the exterior. The agent, or factor, in charge of one
of these stations has, of course, his private apartments
which, I presume, he furnishes according to his own
taste, and at his own expense ; but the junior clerks are
allotted a common room in which the only furniture I
have ever seen is a few rough plank tables, three-legged
stools, a stove, and similar articles. There is no pretence
at comfort. The young men have usually a gun or two,
and fishing-rods, hung about the walls ; and perhaps the
implements of a few games, such as cricket, croquet, &c.
There is a " labourer " to attend them, if it is a permanent
station ; but when travelling they have to do for them-
selves the best that they can. The general discomfort of
the place is increased, in my opinion, by the custom
of white-washing the rooms inside and out. Even in
summer I consider whitewash an eyesore : in winter it
is simply an abomination. Clean and wholesome ! No
doubt. And carpets on the floor are apt to breed

90 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

disease ! Indeed. But I am too old a bird to swallow
all the medical profession say ; and, moreover, the fleshly
lusts have got such a hold on me that I go in for comfort
even if there is " death in the pot." I have found this
rule of life agree remarkably well with me so far ; and it
is to be noted that a scarecrow often keeps the bird from
a good feed.

Part of every depot consists of offices and storerooms.
The factor receives and values the pelts brought in by the
white trapper, or the Indian. The former rarely troubles
the Company, as he knows that he can take his goods to
a much better market. Payment for the furs is made in
" castors," and all the trade is by barter. A castor is a
small cube of wood used in lieu of money, and its value
is usually reckoned at two shillings. Having received
his castors, the Indian goes to the store, or trading-room,
and the Company's goods are displayed to his longing
eyes. Common guns, butchers' knives, fish-hooks, steel
traps, blankets, cast uniforms, and powder and shot, are
the articles for which there is the greatest demand ; and
these are selected and paid for in castors until the Indian
has expended his season's earnings. It is a slow process :
for the Indian is a cautious dealer ; and child-like, de-
lights to examine the whole glorious stock before making
his choice. Needless to point out that this barter system
gives the Company a double profit. So far as my ex-
perience goes they seem to pay about one-twentieth of
the value of the furs ; and pay in goods which they
reckon on the retail, ndt the wholesale, list of prices. I
have not the slightest ill-feeling against the Hudson Bay
Company ; but I shall speak the plain truth — the more
so as a critic of my first book, treating of North America,
seems to think I failed to give the Company credit for
what they had done for the Indians. I do not know
what particular good they have done for them. I know
that at one time the Indians were seldom sobeo^ when the
bargains were struck ; and I know that the utmost value

VOYAGE IN THE WINNIPEG REGION 91

which an Indian could get for a black bear-skin, in prime
condition, was a common Birmingham gun for which
I should refuse to give thhty shillmgs : while I have
actually sold a black bear-skin in London for fifty pounds
sterling. This may be excellent trading — it is not fair
conduct. On the other hand, I believe that, at a later
date, the Company strictly forbade their servants to
barter rum to the Indians ; but I am under the impres-
sion that they only did so under strong remonstrance
from the Government and public opinion at home.
These impressions of mine were made, and made honestly,
thirty-seven years ago, when I was a mere boy : but I
stick to them now, I say that the Company's policy
was a selfish, if not an absolutely dishonest, one. They
strove to keep a thirtieth part of the earth's surface as a
private hunting-ground for their own profit ; and did not
pay the working part of their employees (that is the
hunters and trappers) anything like a fair price for their
labour. They strove to keep out of this extensive
region all men but their own servants ; and wherever and
whenever they could, treated as intruders all private
hunters and travellers. Like the twelve Hebrew spies
of old, they raised up an evil report of the goodly land —
for a goodly land it is ; and strove to make their brethren
believe that it was a howling wilderness, in which no
settler could prosper. All this is past, and I have done.
Doubtless I shall be told that this is a matter which has
long ago lost its interest. Perhaps so : but it is history,
let me say.

I do not intend to return to this subject of the
Hudson Company, therefore before finally quittmg it, I
think fit to record my own treatment by its servants.
Privately I was treated with great courtesy and hospitality
by several of the chief traders, or factors ; but there was
an evident tendency on the part of the Company's
servants, generally, to discourage my journeys. No
active opposition was in any case offered to me ; but

92 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

discouraging reports were the invariable rule, I was
advised to abandon this, to forego that, and to hasten
back to from whence I came. No stores or supplies
could be sold to me for money. The Company did not
trade in that way. I was offered the Indian rate of
barter for such furs as I had, but no regular purchase
and sale transaction would be entertained. I was even
refused two or three pounds of powder, to replace that
expended, by way of purchase ; though the gentlemen of
the depot afterwards gave me half-a-dozen pounds. And
so with every other class of store. If I asked to purchase
it I was told that the Company were not store-keepers ;
but I was never permitted to depart lacking what I had
asked for. The impression left on my mind was that the
gentlemen of the depots had an ungrateful task to per-
form, which their loyalty to their employers compelled
them to carry out to a certain extent, while their feelings,
as men and gentlemen, refused to let them endanger the
life of a fellow-man by thrusting him forth lacking those
things on which his safety, in great measure, depended.
Discouraging advice I received in abundance, but no
active opposition.

Advice, however, good, bad, or indifferent, is a thing
I have never been much influenced by. I am a born
Bohemian, and the wildernesses of this splendid con-
tinent harbour a siren whose enchantments I never could
resist. Where many men have grumbled at their hard-
ships, and some talked of perishing, I have been in
paradise. Although to some extent a cripple (though
not seriously lame at this time), I have been all through
life a man of Herculean powers of endurance ; and the
solitude of the wilderness has for me the same allure-
ments that the sea is said to have for many natures.
Not but that I love the sea also — what Englishman does
not ? On this, my first extensive journey in the New
World, I was in such a state of delighted excitement
that no fear, no force, could have induced me to abandon

VOYAGE IN THE WINNIPEG REGION 93

it. Somehow, by some means, I would have fulfilled my
will.

Although Norway House lies in a ravine, or hollow,
its foundations are placed on rock, and the whole district
is rocky. The gardens, which are well kept, and sur-
round the stockades of the fort, as well as the huts, seem
to have been made, with great labour, of the sandy mud
of the river. It is impossible to see the fort until you
are just on it, and it is commanded by a huge rock close
to the stockades, so that the place is not tenable from a
military point of view. The river swells into a lake here,
which, although small for this part of the world, is in
reality so extensive that the eye cannot reach the oppo-
site shore by a very long vv^ay. It is called Play-green
Lake, and the scenery about it begins again to become
very picturesque.

At the time of our visit there was much bustle at
Norway House, for in addition to many Indians who
had arrived with their bundles of pelts, there was a
" brigade" of canoes temporarily halting, and waiting to
be joined by others. Many of the voyageurs were well
known to Achil, and for a day or two we had a very
merry party.

The Canadian voyageur is a good chum, as a rule,
and would be a downright fine fellow if it were not for
his confounded political opinions. Whoever imagines
that the majority of the French Canadians are loyal to
the British makes a woeful mistake. Eighty per cent, of
them at least have made up their minds that the Britisher
must go, and they will never lose an opportunity to be a
thorn in our sides, especially should we have a war with
France.

But this feeling apart, the voyageur is, as I say, a
very good fellow — a desperately hard worker, patient and
faithful to his employer. He has usually an exceedingly
pleasant face, is polite, like his French ancestors, and,
though inclined to be penurious, is not so selfish as

94 THE GREAT NORTH-AVEST

Monsieur Crapaud himself. He is willing to live as hard
as he works, and in all canoe management and woodcrafts-
manship is almost as skilful as an Indian.

I made my stay at Norway House as brief as pos-
sible, and, after passing across Play-green Lake and
ascending the stream for about forty miles, we branched
off to the right into a creek, or brook, which led us
another twenty miles into the wilderness. The banks of
this and all other streams in the neighbourhood were
high, often precipitous, so that we could not see the
country we were passing through "without climbing up
them, a height of forty or fifty feet, and sometimes
double that. The country was flat, covered with bushes
in some places and forest in others, and occasionally open
and park-like. It was everywhere well watered with
streams and small lakes. That part which I had selected
for our camp was covered with forest, with open intervals
here and there at distances of a few miles apart. A
beautifully clear brook flowed close to the spot we occu-
pied, and furnished us with the necessary water. As
there was only a foot or two of water in it, it could be
stepped across with ease.

Here I intended to stay a month. The canoe was
carried up to a place of safety and lodged between the
forks of two small trees, and several temporary huts
were made of branches, thatched with twigs and grass,
for sleeping-places and the protection of our stores. In
fact, in a couple of days' time we had made ourselves
quite comfortable, and I was happy, as I believed that
there were no other inhabitants, except a few wandering
Indians, within a hundred miles of us. Norway House,
distant some seventy or eighty miles, was probably the
nearest post of whites.

CHAPTER X

A month's encampment in the wilderness

Our guide, Achil Quelle, knew this district generally,
but could give it no particular name. A few spots he
designated with trapper's nomenclature ; but the place
was, and probably still is, a completely out-of-the-way
wilderness, never visited by any beings but Indians and
hunters, and but by comparatively few of them, for it
was not generally known. According to Achil, however,
it was a splendid spot for game; and so it proved. I
suppose it to be situated about midway between Play-
green Lake and the Hill River, and some fifty miles from
either ; but the map I had was not sufficiently good to
locate the spot with precision.

The night of our arrival I was much struck with the
peculiar cry of some bird which I was told was the whip-
poor-will, and which was answered by another at an
apparently considerable distance. As I had never before
heard the cries of these birds I could not judge for my-
self, but I had not the least doubt that the notes were
those of a crepuscular hawk of some kind, though I had
hitherto thought that the whip-poor-will was confined
to the warmer parts of America. On this and subse-
quent nights I heard the birds calling and answering
for hours, but it was a long time before I caught sight
of them. At length I shot one, and from its skin I sub-
sequently learned it to be the Chordeilcs Virginia) nis of
Americans, Caprimulgus virginianus of the English. I
believe that this bhd has never been found so far north

96

96 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

before, and doubt has been cast on my baving found it
at the spot indicated. There is the skin, however ; and
the fact cannot be disproved, though both American and
English naturahsts have seemed to be incHned to be
sceptical about it. These were not, however, naturalists
of repute. It seems to be local hereabout, although Achil
says he has seen and heard it hundreds of miles to the
eastward. I heard it for the last time on the 27th of
September ; and as it was not seen after that date I pre-
sume that it had migrated south.

The bird called by the trappers the whiskj^-jack. first
seen near Lake Temiscaming, was numerous here. It is
undoubtedly a shrike; but the American naturalist to
whom I sent the skin, with others, never acknowledged
their receipt : I therefore cannot give it specific identifi-
cation. For this reason several small birds of this region
must remain unnoticed ; while others will be described
presently.

The wild fruits about here were similar to those of
Canada proper ; that is, cranberries, raspberries, and black-
berries. But for the first time I met with the wild plum.
Those about here were of the " blue " or purple kind ; but
there is also a " white " sort. They were not ripe on our
first arrival ; and I cannot praise their flavour when at
the best ; but Canadians and Yankees alike think a great
deal of them for making jams. The people of these
countries preserve any sort of wild fruit ; and are never
tired of praising them, so that one would think this the
first country in the world for wild fruits if he depended
only on what he heard. Few parts of the northern half
of the continent, however, are better provided with this
class of productions than England. Americans have the
sweet-tooth highly developed, and resemble children in
their fondness for sweets.

On the very first day of my search in the woods for
game I met with an exciting adventure, and one that
raised me greatly in the esteem of my Indian friends.

ENCAMPMENT IN THE WILDERNESS 97

This was nothing less than the meeting with and killing
my first bear — a huge creature of the black species,
Ursus Americana. It was the skin of this huge beast for
which I received fifty pounds in England; and it was
acknowledged by all the trappers who saw it to be one of
the finest that they had ever examined, and to be in
perfect condition. That I obtained it as easily as I did
was an almost miraculous piece of good fortune, for I was
armed only with a shot gun.

I had been out looking for small game, and was some
distance away from our camping-place in a piece of rocky
ground, with a stream of water in front and a swamp on
the right. I had not expected to meet with any large
animal as there were no tracks of deer in the neighbour-
hood, and bears never entered my thoughts ; yet when re-
turning I came quite suddenl}^ on a very large black bear,
which was busy devouring blackberries, and also beetles :
for I saw him turning over stones and detached pieces of
rock in search of them, and eagerly scratching thera out
of crevices. He was not nearly a hundred yards off when
I first saw him ; and though I was walking rather care-
lessly at the time, he neither saw nor heard me. I came
to a sudden halt, rather startled, I must own, for this Avas
the first wild bear I had ever seen, and it at once occurred
to me that I was very poorly armed for an encounter with
such an animal. I had a twelve-gauge gun loaded with
number 4 shot, and a pair of heavy pistols without
which I never moved ; but pistols were scarcely fit weapons
to attack a bear with, though they carried balls averaging
twenty-five to the pound weight.

The bear was slowly advancing towards me, and I
was compelled to retreat : for the space between the brook
and the swamp was so narrow that I could not risk an
attempt to pass the bear. I tried to ford the brook, but
not only did the water come above the waist before I
reached the middle, but the bottom was a treacherous
quicksand, and I had to get out of it hastily, after a

G

98 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

narrow escape of sticking fast. The swamp was quite
impassable.

The bear continually elevated his muzzle and sniffed
the air, and I thought that he winded two or three ducks
which I had recently killed. I therefore took them from
my belt and threw them down, hoping to gain time ; and
as I retired I drew the shot from my gun, and substi-
tuted two bullets in each barrel, with six drams of powder
behind them. The bullets I fortunately made it a habit
to always carry with me in case I should meet with deer.

I saw the bear stop to maul the ducks, and congratu-
lating myself on the ruse which had succeeded in delaying
him, I hastened to get round the swamp. The bear must
have caught sight of me, for suddenly he came after me
with surprising nimbleness. I cannot say what my feel-
ings were, but a sort of furious fear took possession of
me, and stimulated me to strive to save my life. I fired
full at the bear's chest when he was about twenty paces
distant. He fell, but got up again, as I have noticed
that animals often do when merely shot through the
lungs, and blood was dripping from his mouth. I
suppose I realised, on the spur of the moment, that
nothing but coolness could make my last poor chance a
winning one. I know that fear (I may as well confess it)
made my aim a desperately sure one. The head of the
bear was not six feet from the muzzle of the gun when I
fired the second barrel, and it killed him instantly. In
fact the head was shattered, and part of the brain
blown out. What a sigh of relief I gave ! I think I
realised the feeling of a bird when it escapes the trap;
of a fly when it breaks from the web just in the nick of
time to escape the rushing spider.

I hope I shall be excused for giving such a minute
account of this combat. It was my first serious adven-
ture with a formidable animal, and I was boyishly proud
of my success, and of the astonished praise of my com-
panions.

ENCAMPMENT IN THE WILDERNESS 99

The bear was so heavy that I could not turn it over
or drag its leg from under it, and the skinning of it was
work for the whole party. The length from the snout of
the root of the tail was 6 feet 7 inches ; the weight to
the animal could not have been less than from 800 to
900 pounds. The skin was perfect. My companions
admitted that they had never seen a finer, and it was
glossy black throughout — a rare occurrence.

I will not here add greatly to the remarks I have
made about American bears in a former work, and what
I now say refers to Canadian examples. The average
length of the black bear in this country (Canada and the
North-West) is only a few inches more than 5 feet, and
the weight from 600 to 650 pounds. In particular
localities they grow larger ; in others, without being much
smaller, they are considerably lighter. They also vary in
weight with the season, being lighter after the hiberna-
tion, and heaviest just before it. They vary much in
colour, being sometimes black, and sometimes light
brown, with many intermediate shades. Locality has
sometimes something to do with colour. Some hunters
and naturalists say that the brown is a distinct species.
I do not share that opinion. It is certain that the pelts
are classified as black and brown by the Hudson Company's
people. I have heard that the black bear is no longer
found in any part of Canada or the North-West. I do
not know, as it is more than twenty years since I was in
the country. At the time of which I am writing they
were not abundant anywhere, and in large areas could
not be found at all. In a word, they were already be-
ginning to show signs of a speedy extermination.

The black bear is omnivorous, and will eat anything
from a beetle to a deer, from a blackberry to a cabbage.
They certainly kill cariboo, breaking the neck with a
blow of the paw. Whether they ever attack the larger
deer I do not know, but I can perceive no reason why
they should not. They are enormously strong, and can

100 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

walk oif with a cariboo as easily as a cat with a mouse.
Notwithstanding my first experience, I subsequently con-
vinced myself that they rarely attack men ; but they do
so on rare occasions, and it seems to me more from
caprice than driven to it by hunger. Yet they are always
uncertain-tempered animals. Those captured young, and
brought up by the colonists or hunters, become as
attached as dogs to their masters. In their native
haunts they are very active animals, and no person who
had watched them in the wilds would speak of a bear as
a " clumsy " animal.

In the district where we were camping the bears
were unusually fine. Several were seen during our stay,
and two more were killed. One, measuring five feet
eii^ht inches, was killed by the whole party of us com-
bined, receiving no fewer than fourteen bullets, to the no
small detriment of the pelt. The other, just over six
feet in length, was killed with a single bullet in the head
by Achil, single-handed. This last was whitish about the
muzzle, and had some brownish patches about it. All
were males ; the females are quite a third smaller than
their lords.

There were wolves here, and gluttons ; the first time
I had seen the latter animal ; and I thought that it might
be owing to the abundance of these animals that the deer
had forsaken the neighbourhood. We were soon at work
with the traps, and captured several wolves and a fox or
two, but no glutton was ever captured, though several
were shot. They seemed even more cunning and sus-
picious than the wolves, and even the latter appeared to
soon acquire a suspicion of the fate of their companions ;
for after the first week or two none ventured near the
traps, skilfully as we concealed them under moss and
leaves, or with a light layer of sand over them.

Of the gluttons I shot two myself by lying in wait at
night, for these animals rarely show themselves during
daylight. They are among the fiercest and cruellest of

ENCAMPMENT IN THE WILDERNESS 101

tlie smaller beasts of prey, and are so wily that when
once they have discovered that hunters are established
in a tract they will forsake it. It is useless to try to
shoot them otherwise than by lying in concealment at
places they are supposed to frequent. They cannot be
ferreted out of the caverns and holes which they usually
occupy, for they will kill dogs, and their dens are always
so well selected that they cannot be dug out. Their
habits are just those of bears, but superficially they
strongly resemble hyenas. They are only met with
singly, or in pairs, or a dam with her cubs. The latter
are two or three in number. Like bears, they are almost
omnivorous, and are in the habit of burying their prey ;
but they do not eat fruits that I am aware of. If they
come across the hidden store of a hunter, or sneak into
his hut during his absence, they will devour all sorts of
provisions — biscuit, grease of all kinds, cheese, meat, and
fish. They sometimes catch the latter for themselves.
They are about as big as a medium-sized dog ; that is,
they average thirty inches in length from the snout to
the root of the tail, and the latter is a foot long, and
bushy ; and the hair is very long on the bottom of the
back and on the under parts, so that the legs are half
hidden.

They are very active animals, but capture their prey
as much by artifice as speed, and they lie in wait near the
holes of such creatures as ermines, martens, musquashes,
and minks, which form a large share of their prey. They
also surprise hares, and rob foxes of their captured
prey. The latter susprise many birds of the grouse
and duck family, but I do not know that the glutton
does. If the fox should happen to defend its prey —
which I have known it to do when several are together —
it is ten to one but a fox itself is killed and devoured
by the glutton ; and I have known a case where one
dug down to the buried prey of a bear, and another
instance of a sheep having been destroyed and partially

102 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

eaten ; but no case of deer being pulled down by gluttons
ever came under my notice. It is an exceedingly greedy
animal, but does not deserve the name of glutton more
than some other preying animals. It is not correct
to describe it as gorging itself to the point of helpless-
ness, or to say that it is slow in its movements. Though
it is very bear-like in many of its habits, unlike that
animal, it does not hibernate.

The trappers and colonists in Canada call it the
quickhatch. In the States, and among naturalists, it is
termed the wolverine — Gulo luscus. It is a very local
and scarce animal in the States, where I have only seen
or heard of it on one or two occasions. Like most or all
other animals of this family, it often leaves a strong and
ojffensive scent behind it.

As nearly all the typical small mammals of the
Canadian region were found in this district, this is,
perhaps, a good place in which to mention them.

First, the mink. The skin of this animal forms an
important article of trade of the Hudson Company, and
many thousands of them are annually bartered by the
Indians and trappers. They are always caught in traps,
as shot would injure so small and fine a pelt. The
animal is about the size of a Avild rabbit, but of much
slimmer build ; in fact it is more like a small otter than
any other animal to which I can compare it, and its
habits are those of an otter. It swims and dives with
great facility, and captures fish on which it preys. It
also devours reptiles, and small aquatic birds, which it
surprises while they are swimming or standing in the
shallow water. During our stay here my companions
caught more than a hundred, besides which I shot a
number. As I generally succeeded in hitting them on
the head with small shot, I did not find that the skins
were at all injured. But the trappers will have it
otherwise. These men make a principle of saving
powder whenever they can.

ENCAMPMENT IN THE WILDERNESS 103

They are caught in two ways : first, in steel traps ;
secondly, by means of a poised log of wood, which, falling
on the mink, kills or disables it. These little creatures
are as tenacious of life as an eel. They smell abomin-
ably ; and the carcasses must be skinned with care, other-
wise the bundle of pelts can scarcely be endured while
under transport, and the sweetening process is a long and
troublesome one.

From the numbers mentioned above it will be per-
ceived that the mink was tolerably abundant hereabout ;
but the ermine was by far the most numerous of all the
small mammals that we found here. In this animal,
which is very much smaller than the mink, having the
body some ten to twelve inches long, the fur changes
colour at the approach of winter, becoming snow-white,
with the exception of the end of the tail. But most
persons know the fur of the ermine. We obtained
several hundred skins, nearly all of which I afterwards
brought to England; for the Hudson Company were, at
this time, scarcely giving thanks for them, and many
trappers only captured them in traps set for other small
animals.

Of the other members of the genus Mustela in this
neighbourhood, I am uncertain that my remarks have a
general interest, as I am almost sure to be told they
have not to the professional naturalist. My view is that
they are simply local varieties of animals common to all
countries within certain parallels of the northern hemi-
sphere. Take the common American marten, for instance
{Mustela Americana) : in what does it differ from the
European marten ? or the Asiatic sable ? In nothing, in
my opinion, of sufficient importance to constitute it a
distinct species ; or nothing that would be considered a
remarkable difference in any species of domestic animal
if found occurring in even the same country. I doubt if
it could always be told, by even an experienced naturalist,
which was the European, which was the American marten ;

104 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

for in Upper Canada, at least, a certain amount of variation
occurs in species, though, I admit, it is not great.

What occasions this variation I cannot say. At first
I thought that a seasonal change of fur was going to
take place, but that I soon found was not the case.
Then it occurred to me that the erratic individuals might
be cross-bred. That I noAv think to be extremely un-
likely. It is a strange fact that all these small, car-
nivorous mammals, agreeing, with but little difference
at all events, in their habits, should retain their ordinary
colour of fur at all seasons of the year with one ex-
ception— that of the ermine; and further, that none of
them hibernate. With regard to the latter fact, as far as
my experience goes, no species of marten, polecat, or
weasel ever does hibernate, not even in the polar regions.

With the exception of the mink, all these weasels, as
I will collectively call them for the sake of avoiding con-
fusion, appeared to me to spend part of their time aloft
in the trees. They certainly take readily to trees in
moments of danger ; and all alike are fierce and capable
of attacking and overcoming animals vastly their superior
in size ; for instance, the}'^ destroy numbers of the large
American hare, which is nearly twenty times the weight
of the smallest of these weasels.

Besides those I have already referred to, I shall
mention but one more — the tree-fox, or tree-cat, of the
trappers. This is Mustela pennanti, often called the fish-
marten. It is an animal about the size of a small fox,
of a dark brown colour, with a lighter shade down the
back ; very active in its habits, but spending much of its
time on the ground in damp, swampy situations. Unlike
the mink, it does not seem to often frequent running
water, but prowls about stagnant pools and small, shallow
lakes, preying on reptiles, fresh-water molluscs and crus-
taceans, and small fish, which it beats out of the water
with its fore-paws in the manner of a cat. It also robs
other animals of fish which they have captured, and I

ENCAMPMENT IN THE WILDERNESS 105

have seen one eating the refuse which had been ejected
from the nest of an osprey. All and every small crea-
ture that it succeeds in surprising, bird or mammal,
is also devoured by it, and even other mustela ; but
in this it is not singular, for I have seen a marten
devour an ermine, and have reason to think that
when these little animals fight together, which they
sometimes do, for they are all fierce and bloodthirsty, the
conquerors devour the vanquished, I have also seen the
tree-fox and the common otter {Lutra Canadensis) fight
together, the object of the fox being to obtain the fish
captured by the otter. In this case the fight was not
fatal to either combatant ; for the otter, after a time,
returned to the water, taking its fish with it.

It is probable that these fights would be much more
frequently witnessed if persons taking an interest in
natural history would watch for them, bemg careful to
keep themselves concealed. My own plan was to make
a screen of leafy branches, completely covering myself
with leaves ; and having selected a spot which I knew
that the animal which I wanted to watch frequented, I
have waited for six or eight hours to make my obser-
vations. It is necessary to remain perfectly quiet, not
to smoke, and to take care that the wind is blowing
from the direction in which you expect the animal to
appear.

The otter mentioned above does not differ much from
the species found in England. It is a little larger, of a dark
brown colour, and has the same habits as those of Europe.
It is scarce here, only a few odd ones being seen ; but its
pelt is valuable, fetching from two to five pounds in
England ; while that of the tree-fox is scarcely worth a
charge of powder.

There were small birds here in gfreat numbers, but
only a few species were identified with certainty. Among
them were the American yellow bird, which is a species
of siskin, Chrysomitris tristis, which we had already seen

106 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

on the open prairies, where they are attracted by the
many grass seeds. The ruby-crest, Begulus calendula;
tree-sparrow, Spizella monticola (a single specimen was
shot) ; the pine grosbeak, Finicola enucleator ; and the
rose-breasted grosbeak, Hahia ludoviciana, in America;
Hedymeles virginianus, in England. Besides these we
found several of those small passeres, or finches, known
in the States as pewees, and ground and swamp sparrows ;
but circumstances prevented me from learning their
specific names. It is certain that these birds are migra-
tory, and before we left this region they had all dis-
appeared, having evidently gone south.

So much for the natural history of this district.
Long before the end of September we had collected so
many pelts, great and small, that my Indian companions
became quite excited at our success. They also became
impatient to return home ; and as I had made up my
mind to winter in the wilderness, three of my four Indians
resolved to leave me ; and forthwith set about making a
canoe, a work that is never onerous to an Indian. In
three or four days they had completed it, and on the
18th September, Chuckochilgegan (Sam), and the two
younger men, Natanyan and Otmasquiloton, left me in
the usual phlegmatic Indian fashion. I had expected
that Sam's brother, Monchuapiganon, Tom as I called
him, would have gone too ; but he did not. Taciturn as
he always was, he made no remark, and took no leave
of his brother. He scarcely noticed his departure ; but
what seems cold-hearted and strange behaviour to us,
may not really have been so. It is the Indian way ; and
demonstrativeness is always offensive to an Indian. I
have much reason to think that Tom remained behind
owing to his attachment to me. I have, all through my
career, been very fortunate in this respect with my
followers, and have generally had at least one member of
my party strongly attached to me. Whatever the reason
of Tom's faithfulness, it was not solicitation on my part ;

ENCAMPMENT IN THE WILDERNESS 107

and an Indian must not be questioned as to feelings and
motives.

It may be of interest to detail our daily life. We
did not usually rise before dawn of day. A roaring
fire of logs was always kept in at night in front of our
huts, which was fed with fuel by whoever chanced to
wake, and as early as the beginning of September this
was a great comfort, if not an actual necessary ; for the
nights were frequently bitterly cold, though the days were
quite hot. We had plenty of pelts in addition to our
blankets, so that we really did not suffer from the cold ;
and a bed of spruce boughs spread on the ground is one
of the most comfortable that can be conceived.

Whoever was first on his pins in the morning put a
large iron pot of water on the fire to heat for breakfast.
This meal always consisted largely of game : for we were
so short of flour that dough cakes, baked in the ashes,
had to be sparingly used. The Indians, indeed, ate
scarcely any bread. Tea or cocoa was made in tin cans,
and drunk without sugar as soon as our limited supply of
that article was exhausted. The fat of the bears killed
served us in lieu of butter, and was, indeed, even to my
taste, superior to it; while the meat was excellent, and
some of it, dried in the wind, lasted us for a long time.
Bears' meat is, in America, far superior to the venison of
either wipiti or moose. Of small game, principally hares,
grouse, and ducks, we could daily kill as much as we
wanted, so that there was no lack in the quantity of our
food, though I certainly for a long time greatly missed
the bread and vegetables to which I had been used.
There were plenty of wild fruits at this season, and these
were useful to counteract the eflects of the excessive
quantity of animal food which we consumed. So our
health did not suffer at all ; indeed, we were all in the
very pink of condition.

As soon as our morning meal was over we started to
visit the traps, leaving one of our number to keep the

108 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

foxes, &c., from intruding, and to cook the meat for
dinner. Sometimes we went singly on this duty, some-
times divided into two parties : especially when we dis-
covered by their tracks that bears were numerous in this
place. After the departure of Chuckochilgegan ("Cunning
polecat, or marten ") and his companions, Tom and I
invariably went into the woods in company, leaving Achil
to cook ; for at that business he was an adept. Some-
times it took us many hours to visit the traps ; but if
few animals were caught, and the victims had not to be
killed and skinned, we soon got through with this work,
and I spent the remainder of the day in either shooting
or watching the habits of the animals in the forest. We
ate but two " square " meals per day, but the quantity
of meat consumed at these two meals would have
astounded an easy-working, idle cit. I usually ate a
few mouthfuls of food while wandering in the woods ;
but ultimately I got into the habit of being satisfied with
two full meals per day. We all, however, would eat any
of the wild fruits that we might meet with when wander-
ing about, and I dare say the quantity thus consumed
was considerable.

Of course we all got back to our camp before the
darkness of night set in ; and the evening meal was the
principal one of the day. By the blazing light of the
fire we followed our occupations, or lay idly about and
smoked. On this journey, owing to the need of travel-
ling as lightly as possible, I had but two books with me —
the Bible and my note-book. I jotted down my notes
for the day by firelight, and then read such portions of
the Bible as I thought would be most impressive to the
Indians. We prayed to God, and then retired to rest,
seldom later than seven or eight o'clock. Such was our
daily life.

On subsequent occasions during my long sojourn in
the Americas, I always carried as many books as I could
find room for. I cannot be happy without books, and I

ENCAMPMENT IN THE WILDERNESS 109

always found the rudest followers of my party interested
greatly in the nightly read, provided only that I took
care to select a book that treated of a subject which they
could understand. Masterpieces of fiction were always
favourites. On this particular occasion I suffered so
much in mind (the only discomfort I noticed) for want
of books, that I determined never again to subject myself
to the deprivation. Afterwards I carried with me from
one to several dozens of the paper-covered sixpenny
editions of popular works, such as are published by
several of the leading London firms. These are so easily
packed, and take up so little room, that I found them
invaluable.

May I say a word or two concerning religion ? I
never permitted, in my company, the Supreme Being to
be ignored, and, what is more, I never had in my parties
a man who showed a desire to ignore Him. Often I
selected men of great ignorance and doubtful character,
because I consider that such men, properly handled,
made the best servants for such expeditions as mine.
It is necessary for the leader of a party in the Avilderness
to be a man whom his followers admit and feel to be
markedly their superior in some way or other, or in
some knowledge or other ; otherwise they will so learn
to despise him, and perhaps to ignore him. Now a man
who knows everything, or thinks himself equal to any
occasion, always makes a bad follower, and an even worse
leader. But, nevertheless, the leader must be a man of
superior knowledge to his men, and yet have the art to
let his men find out for themselves that he is a capable
leader. Anything like parade or bounce, and above all,
selfishness, which is injustice, is sure to have a bad in-
fluence on followers. And I have never found a better
way of establishing my position with my men, than by
letting them see that I feared God. I beg that I may
not be misunderstood. I am no advocate for reliofious
argument or for camp-preaching, though I despise not

110 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

those who think they are doing good in this way. But
the state of mind into which I usually led my followers
may be the best illustration of the value of my system,
if I may say so without incurring the charge of self-
conceit. Achil Guelle, and many years afterwards, George
and Joseph in Brazil, besides several other Roman Catho-
lics with whom I associated in my journeyings, fell
heartily into my views on this subject, and resumed
those devotions which they had neglected since child-
hood. The Indians were often indifferent, yet gradually
came to acquiesce in the propriety of daily acknowledging
the Almighty ; while even such a morose and undemon-
strative an individual as Tom exclaimed that "it was
right that the Great Spirit should be thanked." I
mention these matters as incidents of life in the wilder-
ness that may have some interest.

Having made up my mind to spend the coming winter
in the wilds, we, at the end of September, made a move,
and journeyed nearly a hundred miles in a north-easterly
direction. The principal reason for this change of camp
was that we never met with any deer at the place
first selected, and venison was required for our support.
The journey to the new camp took us five days to
accomplish, the first three of which we walked overland,
carrying the canoe with the stores in it on our shoulders.
It is probable that we did not advance more than twenty
miles in those three days, for the ground was rough and
rocky, without being very hilly. At the end of the
third day we came to a stream large enough to float the
canoe, and down this we proceeded in the direction of
Hudson Bay. Our new position was about two hundred
miles north-east of Lake Winnipeg, on a tributary of the
River Severn, and some twenty miles from that river. I
did not follow the tributary right down to the Severn,
because it seemed to me that we had reached a spot
that was in every way fit for our purpose. Achil agree-
ing with me, we commenced at once to make a small

ENCAMPMENT IN THE WILDERNESS 111

low-pitched log-hut, similar to those used by the lum-
berers. The hut was erected in front of a small cave
which served us as an inner chamber and storehouse,
and added greatly to the warmth and comfort of our
dwelling. Outside the hut was overhung by trees grow-
ing on the tops of the rocks ; for we were in the bed of
the stream, about twelve feet above the water, and it was
impossible to conceive of a snugger or more picturesque
site. The cave was large enough to contain the canoe,
besides our beds and all our belongings ; and in winter
when the outside of the hut was completely covered with
snow, the place was so warm that we might have resided
in it without a fire had it been necessary. But we had
taken the precaution to make a substantial fireplace and
chimney of stone within the hut, and every available
space was packed with logs for firing, with several stacks
close at hand to be brought in as occasion required. All
this work was completed by the 12 th October, down to
which time we had had no severe weather, though there
were sharp frosts at night, and one day a few flakes of
snow fell which soon melted when the sun shone.

In our journey hither from our first camp we did not
meet with a living soul, either Indian or trapper, but we
found a dead Indian in a tree. He had been dead so long
that the flesh had shrunk and hardened in a curious way,
giving the corpse a mummy-like appearance. The features
were quite gone, but there is no doubt that the body was
that of an Indian. He was firmly lashed to the boughs
of a tree about sixteen feet from the ground, and we sur-
mised that he had been so placed by his companions to
prevent beasts of prey from devouring him. He had
probably met his death from accident while on a trapping
expedition, or he may have been disposed of in this
manner according to the custom of his tribe. There
were several reasons why he may not have been
buried. The ground was so hard and rocky that
the making of a grave would have been a work of

112 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

much time, and altogetlier impossible if the party had no
proper tools with them, and they were probably in a hurry.
Moreover, many of the Indian tribes dispose of their dead
on platforms erected above the ground, at spots set apart
for that purpose, and held sacred.

During the whole extent of this journey we found the
ground to be a hard rock, with a very shallow coating of
earth on it. It was covered with moss, and trees were
numerous in a succession of woods, with clear and rocky
spots between. The trees were mostly conifers, and were
of small growth, with here and there a fine clump. As
everywhere else in this country, swamps and small lakes
were frequently found.

CHAPTER XI

A WINTER IN THE SOLITARY WILDERNESS

Throughout its entire length tlie nameless stream on tlie
banks of which we were now encamped ran between high
walls of rock, very steep in many places, which were covered
with a curtain of creepers. As the cold weather came on
this mass of creepers made a magnificent display of scarlet,
crimson, yellow, and brown foliage. It must have been a
favourite breeding- place of the small birds, for I found
hundreds of their old nests in it, and greatly surprised
was I to find one or two of these nests lined with hair
from the tails or manes of horses. It was not likely that
there were any horses within two or three hundred miles,
but the hair could not have been fetched by small, short-
winged birds from that distance. Whence, then, did it
come ? It seems unlikely that the wind could have driven
more than a few scattered hairs so far, but it might have
been brought here accidentally by travellers.

In after years I often found substances utilised by
American birds which they could not have obtained
except by mere accident — paper, for instance, in Colo-
rado, in a part then probably fully a hundred miles from
tBe nearest European post. And paper, horse-hair, wood-
shavings, and rags are substances of which American birds
could have known nothing till within the last three or four
centuries, yet they are constantly used now, together with
many other much more incongruous substances. And
American martins now build in chimneys, and other
birds under the eaves and thatch of houses, and that in

a country where there were neither houses nor chinmeys

us „

114 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

till the advent of Europeans, This shows a remarkable
power of adaptability on the part of our little feathered
friends, although there is certainly no great difference
between a hollow tree and a chimney.^

At the time of our arrival on the Severn nearly all
the small birds had gone. There were still a few pine
grosbeaks and swamp sparrows about, but these had all
disappeared before the last day of the month. A pair
of Lapland buntings was seen as late as the 3rd of No-
vember, when there was snow on the ground. After that
date there were no small birds at all about here, though
one or two were met with at odd times during the winter,
as will be noticed presently.

The ducks and geese seen here were of the same
species as those found at Red River and Winnipeg.
They were migrating south during the whole of October,
though a few still lingered during the first week in No-
vember, but the winter this year was again late in appear-
ing. I noticed that neither ducks nor geese went off in
large flocks. It was but seldom that I saw as many as
twenty or thirty geese in one flock. About a dozen or
fourteen was the rule. Sometimes only four or five would
appear while I was watching, coming straight from the
north and flying rapidly in a straight line, sometimes
parallel, sometimes one after the other. The flocks always
had a sort of military formation, either in line or in wedge-
shaped flanks. This latter formation was almost always
adopted by the ducks, if the flock was large. I use the
word large comparatively, for I do not think I saw a flock
here numbering many more than a hundred. Thirty or
forty was the most common number. This is quite contrary
to what I have noticed in the Southern States and South
America, where I have seen tens of thousands of ducks in
a single flock, and almost equally large flights of geese.

^ All kinds of birds seem capable of utilising foreign substances in the
construction of their nests. I yesterday saw a cormorant's nest which had
been built on a wreck, and the seaweed of which it was composed bound
together with fragments of the wire-rigging.

A WINTER IN THE WILDERNESS 115

Yet ducks are quite as numerous here, on the whole, as
in any part of America. Perhaps large flocks find it diflS-
cult to find sufficient food in the boreal regions.

Several parties of both ducks and geese were allured
to mthin gun-shot by Tom, who imitated their calls and
cries so well that I could not tell the difference between
the voice of the man and that of the birds. And they
themselves were deceived, as was sufficiently proved by
the twenty odd victims which we secured.

There were deer in this neighbourhood, for we found
the tracks of both cariboo and moose ; but our efforts to
stalk them were futile until there was snow on the ground.
The animals were very wary and wild, and there is no
doubt but that they had been much persecuted by the
hunters from the Company's posts on the Severn.
Indeed, we found many traces of visits about here by
trappers, including two graves side-by-side, with wooden
crosses at the heads. On one were cut the initials, J. P. A.
1853 : on the other an O only could be deciphered, with
part of the date, thus — . . 8 . . 3. The two men must
therefore have died at the same time, and we may con-
clude that their deaths were violent. The graves were
about four miles from our hut, in the midst of the woods.
The crosses were quite rotten and covered with lichens.
We therefore cut fresh ones, and placed them at the
foot of the graves, with such of the inscriptions as we
could decipher burnt on them, and, of course, left the
remains of the old crosses standing-.

It is very melancholy to meet with these relics of
our dead brethren in the solitude of the wilderness,
especially when there are circumstances that point to
a premature end. Was all well when these men passed
the border ? or did greed or fury have a hand in hasten-
ing their departure ? Had the graves been nearer the
water I should have thought that they were the victims
of a canoe accident, for there is a dangerous rapid nearly
abreast of the graves.

116 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

I have several times had the painful experience of
meeting with human remains far from the haunts of
men — unfortunate creatures who must have perished
without a consoling voice near them, without a friendly
hand to hold the longed-for cup to their parched lips.
On one or two occasions I have found bodies by the
roadside in the States, probably those of poor tramps
wandering from place to place in search of temporary
employment ; and on another occasion, in Texas, I found
the bodies of two men who had evidently fought to death
like savage animals, for they lay opposite to each other,
each clasping a six-shooter. There they lay, a mass of
corruption, in a state too shocking to be described.

At the latter part of October we had a series of
bitterly cold east winds. I never felt the cold more
severely in my life, yet the weather was beautifully
bright. On the 4th of November the wind shifted
several points to the west, and on the afternoon of that
day it commenced to snow heavily. Paradoxical as it
may seem, the shifting and fall of the wind caused the
air to seem quite warm, but by the next morning there
was at least two feet of snow on the ground. This snow
was loose, in which state it is always difficult to move
about in it. Until the surface has become frozen it will
not support the snow-shoes, and to walk far in the deep,
clinging mass is impossible. Moreover, while in this
state, it wets the clothing and boots, and causes great
discomfort ; but as soon as the severe frosts set in, it
seems as dry, and is as easily brushed off as sand ; while
it is easy to travel over its hard surface, on snow-shoes,
twenty to thirty miles a day ; indeed the Indians some-
times do much greater distances than this within the
twenty-four hours.

After snowing for thirty hours there was a cessation
of the fall, and a partial thaw occurred, followed by a
sharp frost at night, Avhich transferred the trees into a
fairy forest, the frozen icicles having the appearance of

A WINTER IN THE WILDERNESS 117

millions of electric sparks, so brilliantly did they glitter
in the bright sun. In a day or two there was more
snow, and on the morning of the 8th it had collected
in such quantities that we could not leave our hut until
we had dug a way out. How suddenly, and with what
severity, the cold had set in may be judged from the fact
that there was now three inches of ice over the brook
with six feet of snow covering it, but the snow had
drifted into the hollow way formed by the rocky banks.
It was quite a morning's work to dig down to the ice,
break it, and obtain water. This necessary can be
obtained by melting snow and ice, but water so obtained
is not very good, and is, moreover, apt to engender
several complaints if regularly drunk. There was six
feet of water in the brook under the ice, but in
mid-winter the ice was quite a foot thick. The
fish, I suppose, had left this shallow water and taken
refuge in the deeps of the Severn or some of the
lakes in its course, for we could never find any during
the winter.

By the second week in November the surface of the
snow was frozen sufiiciently hard to enable us to travel
on snow-shoes. These shoes we had made in anticipa-
tion of the winter, the materials being always at hand.
For all that is needed is tough withes of birch and strips
of raw hide. Sometimes the shoes (which much re-
semble rackets) are made pear-shaped, and sometimes a
pointed ellipse, like a Zulu's shield. I prefer the latter
shape. The loops of hide through which the foot is
passed when the shoe is used, require to be carefully
adjusted, and there is a knack in walking, or rather
gliding, which must be learned, or the wearer will be
continually skinning his instep owing to the friction.
Light sledges are also made on the principle of the
snow-shoe, and enable the traveller to drag a hundred-
weight or more of provisions and pelts behind him. As
either shoe or sledge can be repaired anywhere in a few

118 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

minutes, it will be seen what a boon these articles are to
the wanderer in these lonely wildernesses.

When fresh shoAvers of snow fall on the frozen
surface it often lies there loose for a time ; and it is a
curious sight to see the wind driving it about like dust
on a dry road. Of course it drifts into hollows and
crevasses ; but there is little or no danger of these be-
coming dangerous pitfalls to the unwary wanderer, for
where the snow remains stationary in mid-winter it is
always frozen firmly over in a single night ; and it is
possible that the snow-shoes often carry a person over
spots that Avould be frightful to look down when free of
snow. For here and there about this country there are
crevasses, or cracks, in the ground similar to those found
in Colorado and other parts of the States, though on
nothing like so extensive a scale. Some of these
crevasses are at least thirty feet deep, and so steep and
narrow that a man falling in could not possibly get out
without assistance. The cause of these crevasses is
difficult to conjecture, unless it is owmg to the freezing
of water collected in cracks of the ground. In the deserts
of the Southern and Western States they seem to
origrinate in the extreme drvness of the soil.

As soon as the ground was in a fit state to travel
over we started in pursuit of deer. I am of opinion that
when there is snow on the ground, and deer are not
disturbed, they do not wander much, but spend the
entire winter within a very confined area. I allude to
all species of deer found in the northern regions.
Already the moose-yard has been referred to ; and with
regard to cariboo they seem to take up their quarters
under the shade of a wood and remain there, if not
disturbed by wolves or trappers. That is the case about
here ; but farther north, where there are few trees and
wide areas of open rocky ground, their habits must be
different. During the winter moss forms the chief
food of the cariboo ; but they also browse on the leaves

A WINTER IN THE WILDERNESS 119

of trees and bushes where they can. The wipiti is the
most wandermg of the deer found in this district ; and
we destroyed several while they were helplessly flounder-
ing through the snow, by either stabbing with a pike
or cutting the jugular vein with a knife. For the heavy
deer, breaking through the crust of frozen snow at every
step, is quite incapable of either flight or fight, though they
try to assume an offensive attitude to intimidate when
closely approached. One of those thus killed uttered
a hoarse roar when about to be stabbed. The cry, or
bellow, of the wipiti is difficult to describe. It is a sort
of hoarse blowing sound, low pitched in tone.

Notwithstanding what is written in Natural Histories
of the wonderful adaptability of the hoofs of reindeers for
progress over the snow, cariboo break through the frozen
snow as easily as wipiti, and are destroyed with equal
facility. The best defence of both deer is in their remark-
able acuteness ; for they will scent the approach of the
hunter when he is miles away, and long before he comes
in sight. They must therefore be approached against
the wind, for if time is given them they will move off
to broken ground where they cannot be followed on
snow-shoes, or will gain such a start on a frozen lake
that it is hopeless to try to overtake them. The greatest
part of the snow is always swept from the surface of
lakes by the wind, owing, I suppose, to the smooth hard
ice which affords it little opportunity of drifting and
clinging, as it does on the ground ; and it is on the ice,
probably, that the broad hoof of the reindeer is of use
to him.

When the Indians find a herd of cariboo in difficulties,
they destroy them all. In spite of this dreadful waste,
cariboo were plentiful in many parts of Canada at this
time, and nowhere more so than at this place. A great
many were killed by us in the same way as the wipiti,
by stabbing or cutting their throats, as this method saved
powder. I was vexed that so many were killed, but I

120 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

could not altogether control my companions, neither
Achil nor the Indian being in sympathy with what they
thought silly squeamishness. The hides of the animals
were ceriainly useful to us, and also the grease. From
the last we not only made a large store of candles,
using small rushes for wicks, but the tallow mixed with
wood ashes made an excellent soap.

As to the venison, we might have supplied twenty
or thirty men all the winter with it. Frozen, it remained
good till the spring, and most of it was lost from mere
wantonness. Thrown about near the hut it attracted
numerous wolves and foxes ; insomuch that we trapped,
or shot, forty-nine of the former and a hundred and eight
of the latter during the winter. A solitary glutton was
also trapped, the only occasion on which I knew one of
these cunning brutes to be caught. It was taken in a
steel trap hidden under the loose snow, and its atti-
tude, and expression of its face when approached
were diabolical. It screamed and fought, and tried to
fly at us, and showed far more tenacity of life than a
fox, repeated blows being required to kill it.

An incident occurred early in December (the 5th),
which raises an interesting question. Is the hibernation
of bears continuous throughout the winter? or is it
broken at intervals ? There can be no doubt, I think, that
the latter is the case. I have seen bears about in
the snow ; but am not sure that the hibernation had
commenced in these cases. On the day named we found
the tracks of a bear on the snow, and traced them for a
mile and a half to a cave in the bank of the stream.
Though the tracks did not seem to be very fresh, they
must have been made long after the first heavy fall
of snow, and since the last, or they would have been
covered.

That the bear was in the cave there was no doubt,
and various expedients were tried to arouse it without
success, and at last one of us cautiously ventured in

A WINTER IN THE WILDERNESS 121

witli a torch, and found the animal curled up in a
corner, on a bed of leaves and vine-twigs, evidently torn
from the rocks outside by the bear, and brought here for
the purpose. It gave no signs of life, and it could not be
perceived that it was breathing. It was lying just like a
huge dog, with its snout turned toward the tail. The
muzzle of a Mini*^ rifle was placed to its head, and with
one shot its brains were blown out. It uttered no sound,
but turned instantly on its side and stretched out. Thus
easily was it slain ; but I was sorry afterwards to find
that it was a female with young. Had I suspected this
it should not have been destroyed with my consent, for
I think it is an abominable act to kill animals in this
condition. However, the grease was of great use to us,
for bear's grease passes for butter in the backwoods.

This bear was very much smaller than those pre-
viously described, being only four feet nine inches from
end of snout to root of tail. It was dark, rusty brown
rather than black, and the cave it haunted was only
thirteen or fourteen feet deep, with an entrance which
a man could pass through without stooping, though it
was partly hid by the trailing creepers. Achil, who had
had great experience with bears, said that they often sleep
(hibernate) in dens and hollow trees that give but scant
protection from the cold and weather, though he had
known cases in which they occupied burrows that ran
more than forty feet into the ground. There is never
more than one bear in the same den. I am inclined to
accept this statement with caution, for I have seen a
female bear with two cubs, one of which was certainly
in its second year, and had, therefore, probably hibernated
with its mother.

Concerning a break in the hibernation, or occasional
arousing, I could never glean any certain information.
Achil and the Indian both asserted that they had heard of
bears being sometimes met with in mid-winter, but they
had no experience of such cases themselves, nor did I

122 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

ever meet with a trapper who had. My conviction, how-
ever, is that such instances occur : the case I have just
narrated being an instance in point.

During parts of the months of December and January
1867 I was very unwell, suffering from a stricture of the
bowels, which seems to be a very common complaint
among persons during the first year or two of their
residence in the north of America. Fortunately I had
brought a few medicines with me, and I succeeded in
rallying, but for a time I was so ill that my companions,
as they afterwards admitted, despaired of my recovery.
As a consequence Christmas day passed unnoticed, as
did the first day of the New Year.

When I began to recover I became ravenous for
green food, my great desire being for a boiled cabbage
with pickled pork. This, of course, was not to be had,
but my companions boiled a quantity of the moss from
the rocks, which they gathered at great trouble, for
they had to dig under six feet of snow for it. This
reminds me that we oiten found spots where the cariboo
had scraped away the snow from a tract of land that
often extended to several acres, to get at this same moss,
of which they are exceedingly fond. It seemed to me,
possibly because I was in an erratic state from disease,
to be delicious as a boiled vegetable, and I ever after
greatly relished it, and used it constantly when in the
districts where it grows. It is certainly a highly nutritious
substance, and I believe that in the more northern
regions the cariboo have no other food, at least in the
winter.

By the end of January I had recovered, but I remained
weak for a long time, and should have returned to the
settlements if travelling had been possible. However,
youth has large recuperative powers, and before spring
came round I had entirely recovered, and from that day
forth I had seldom to complain on the score of health
while I remained in America.

A WINTER IN THE WILDERNESS 123

During the early part of the year 1867 the weather
was excessively cold, but there was but seldom a snow
shower, and, as a rule, the sun shone brightly, though
without perceptible power. From the beginning of
November last to the 18th of January in this year small
birds were not seen, except in one or two cases as stated
below. On the 18th a flock of about forty small finches,
or perching birds, flew across in front of the hut. They
were too far off to be fired at, and the species are there-
fore unknown.

On the 11th December a pair of snow buntings,
Plectrophenax nivalis, were observed on the snow near the
hut. They were running about briskly, and examining
the refuse that had been thrown on the dust-heap, and
I saw them picking the fragments of meat from bones.
As there was no doubt about the species they were not
disturbed, and they appeared daily until the 8th of
January. Chopped venison fat and fragments of meat, &c.,
were placed close to the door of the hut, and they came
constantly for it, and became tame enough to permit us
to come within three or four yards of them. They often
uttered a faint twittering cry, and a favourite time for
their appearing was about an hour before darkness set
in, though they came in the morning time too. On
the 7 th and 8 th January, one only appeared, and that
was the last we saw of them. It seems certain that
the solitary bird had lost its mate ; probably it had fallen
a victim to some small beast of prey.

On the 22nd December the Indian brought in a pine
grosbeak, Finicola enucleator, which he had picked up
dead under a tree. Owing to the extreme coldness of the
weather, which had preserved it, it was impossible to tell
how long this bird had been dead, but it seemed quite
fresh.

These instances seem to prove that birds which
undoubtedly migrate in this country, yet leave a few
odd members of their species behind, which may, or

124 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

may not, survive the winter. I am also certain that odd
specimens of many different species often wander very
far out of the limits of their usual habitat. It appears
to be the same in all countries. Birds are found in
England which are only noticed in accidental specimens,
perhaps not oftener than once or twice in a century.
It is clearly the same in America. I have over and over
again found birds which, if museum authorities and
books are to be relied on, must have been hundreds of
miles away from their usual geographical limits. More-
over I am certain that accidental circumstances, such as
the meeting with an abundant supply of a favourite food,
will often induce migrating birds to stay an entire season
short of the usual limits of their migration. I mean,
of course, certain flocks, not the entire body, of a species.
These instances would be oftener noted if naturalists
devoted more of their time to careful outdoor watchings,
and are probably one reason why the numbers of a
migrating species often fall short of the usual number
in their summer haunt.

The great snowy owl, Nyctea scandiaca, haunted this
neighbourhood through the winter. It is not correct,
as is asserted by American naturalists, that this owl
prefers the open desolate plains to any other descrip-
tion of haunt. I have seen it on the outskirts of
woods as frequently as in any other description of
place. It is fond of perching on the extreme tops of
dead trees, branches, &c,, and may often be seen on the
tops of poles about the Company's forts. It visited our
dust-heap several times, feeding on the scraps which were
thrown out, which seems to indicate that it was hard
pressed for food. It was usually alone, but sometimes
pairs were seen. The usual habits of this bird are
solitary. It kills hares and smaller animals, but if it
does not actually eat carrion, will consume the carcasses
of small animals which it has not itself killed. At first
it was shy of approaching the hut, but being unmolested

A WINTER IN THE WILDERNESS 125

grew tamer, and I have seen a pair of them perched on
the roof, which was only seven feet high. They came
forth from their hiding-places early in the afternoon, and
continued out till after midnight, as they were often
heard, and seen, flitting about on moonlight nights. As
the bird has a very wide expanse of wing, they presented
a grand and weird sight, moving about, notwithstanding
their great size, in perfect silence. Not the slightest
flutter of the wing could be heard.

Throughout the winter no moose deer were seen ;
but this was not because they were absent from the
district, for when the frost broke up several were killed.
It would seem that when they are once snowed up
in their " yards " they are prisoners for the whole
winter. It is singular that the wipiti never forms these
yards, or gives up the habit of wandering when the snow
is on the ground ; but wipiti are sometimes accidentally
snowed up in hollows of the ground. Cariboo seem to
escape this accident by going in great herds. The belt
of forest here approaches to within four or five miles of
the shores of Hudson Bay, and both moose and wipiti are
said by the trappers to be found to the limit of the forest,
but not a yard beyond it. The Company's people agree
that these deer are not found on the coasts of the bay.

Besides owls the only bird of prey seen before spring
was a white falcon, Falco candicans of the British, which
I shot on the 28th. This truly magnificent bird is
remarkable for the size and extreme brilliancy and fierce-
ness of its eye. The colour of the plumage is white
covered, on the upper parts, with triangular black spots.
It was an unusually fine specimen, but unfortunately the
skin was much damaged in transit, as were many of my
specimens, for I had no proper cases or appliances for
packing, and my bundles were often thrown about with
little deference to their contents, and not unfrequently
subjected to the wet of a heavy shower, or a bath at the
portages.

126 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

A very remarkable meteorological circumstance was
noticed several times during the winter. At a distance
of about five miles from our hut a belt, or current,
of warm air was observed to frequently blow across
the plain. The wind on such occasions was always
in the west, varying a point or two south, and I inferred
that the current referred to found a passage through the
Rocky Mountains direct from the Pacific. It is difficult
to surmise how otherwise a warm current should be
perceivable in these regions. The warmth was very
perceptible, one appearing to pass right into it at once
from a low temperature. There was often a partial thaw
within the belt affected by this air, which was about ten
miles wide. The temperature within this distance seemed
to be about the same. We noticed when we entered and
when we left it — and that this was no fancy was proved
by the fact that the vegetation showed, in a perceptible
degree, a superiority of development compared with the
forest outside its limits. Doubtless this phenomenon has
been noticed by other travellers, and possibly it is fully
accounted for ; but I have not myself seen it mentioned
in any work I have read. Achil said that he had per-
ceived it much farther to the west, and that there the
belt seemed to be wider, and he had heard from the
Indians accounts of a region to the south-west where the
climate was always more genial than in this or other
parts of the great North- West.

I made several journeys with the object of learning
the extent and direction of this current. It traversed
the district from south-west by south, in a curve, to
about north-east by south, but was only perceptible with
westerly winds. Its longitudinal length it was impossible
to conjecture, but the width was not greater than ten
miles; often it was only four or five. The increase of
temperature was first noticeable just where the graves of
the two trappers (as I presume them to have been) were
made. Within these bounds mosquitoes, or gnats, were

A WINTER IN THE WILDERNESS 127

usually flitting about on fine days, and after the middle
of January were often seen about our hut, and in other
sheltered situations. They were in sparse numbers, and
did not bite at this season ; but it is an interesting
question whether these insects, and other flies, die ofl" in
any number at the fall of the year, or whether they
simply hide away. It seems certain that great numbers
of mosquitoes survive the winter ; how otherwise could
they reappear on fine days ?

I have several times referred to the heap of dust or
refuse at the side of our hut. This was an attraction
to many insects as well as to the animals of higher
organisation already referred to. The mosquitoes were
fond of hovering over it, which seems to confirm the
opinion I have formed that these insects prey on the
juices of decaying animal matter, as well as on the blood
of living mammals.

Of other insects I have little or nothing to record.
During the severe cold none were seen ; but as the
spring approached several species of coleoptera harboured
about the hut. None of them seemed to difier noticeably
from similar species at home, and all were of small size.
There was the usual tiny black beetle with ribbed elytra,
another of shiny bronze and green ; just such as may be
seen in any garden in England. Ladybirds were also
seen in the spring and summer, the commonest kinds
being a red with small black dots, and a black with fine
yellow dots on each elytra.

Of spiders, a class of creatures in which I take some
interest though they inspire me with loathing, and moths
and butterflies, the variety was so small and poor in
specimens as to be scarcely worth noticing. A large
kind of house-spider soon established itself in our hut,
and often took to wandering about at night, sometimes
falling on our food. It may be an error on my part to
call it a house-spider ; but its numbers, and the acumen
with which it occupied corners and angles of the hut

128 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

showed tliat it was quite at home in houses ; and it is a
singular fact that, like the European house-spider, I could
never find this arachnida out of doors. Its natural
habitat is probably caves and holes in rocks. During
mid-winter it hid away, but reappeared before we left
the hut.

There was a very mischievous moth in this district,
similar in appearance to the clothes moth, which com-
pelled us to keep constant watch over our pelts in the
summer and autumn.

CHAPTER XII

CONTINUATION OF THE JOURNEY TO FORT SEVERN

The break-up of the winter was early, according to my
companions, who were well acquainted with the times
and seasons in this region. Throughout February the
weather was bitterly cold, with easterly for the most
prevalent winds ; but in March there was much bright
sunshine, and a few partial thaws which made moving
about deplorable work. At the end of the month the
ice began to break, and we were up to the knees in
slush.

On all the brooks the ice was from about six to twelve
inches thick. Where there were falls or strong rapids it
was of course absent, but in other parts the streams were
frozen quite over. But for the portages it would have
been an easy matter to travel along the waterways; but
the great number of rapids prevented this being done
until the ice broke up and permitted the canoe to be
used. I mention this as the reason why we did not move
sooner, because at this time our dry provisions were quite
exhausted, and we were living on venison and game, and
boiled grass. The want of tea or cocoa was a great
deprivation to me, though my companions, the Indian
especially, treated the loss with but little concern. Other
necessaries also, and particularly ammunition, were run-
ning very short ; and these circumstances induced me to
start at the earliest possible day for one of the Company's
posts for the purpose of trying to replenish our stock.

On the 15 th April the river was open though full of
blocks of ice, which in the neighbourhood of the portages

129 J

130 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

was floating along at a swinging rate, and according to my
companions would make navigation exceedingly dangerous.
But I showed a will of my own on this occasion, and
insisted on a start. A pretty start it proved. We had
scarcely got the canoe launched and loaded, and pushed
off from the shore before over we went into the water,
goods and all. " I told you so ! " said Achil, but the
Indian took the accident quite coolly. However, we had
to go back to the hut and dry ourselves and our be-
longings, and the start was postponed till the following
day.

We got fairly away on the 16th and began our
voyage on the Severn on the I7th April. The dis-
tance to the fort was about 230 miles, the river being
in reality a chain of lakes, some of them of consider-
able size, and nearly all of most picturesque appearance,
being buried in the heart of a great forest.

The journey was a trying experience, as one of us
had to constantly ward off the floating blocks of ice,
which were heavy enough to have smashed in the side
of the canoe. In the lakes we had not tliis difficulty to
contend with as the ice had mostly drifted into the
banks. Both river and lakes were rather shallow ; but
in the former there are a number of what geologists call
pot-holes — deep pits in the bed caused, it is said, by
the current whirling round heavy stones or fragments
of rock.

There are several troublesome portages on the Severn,
as well as dangerous rapids, which, however, we ventured
to shoot, in spite of the blocks of ice which went down
with us, and a collision with which would have been
inevitably fatal. The Severn is connected, with other
streams and a chain of small lakes, with the Albany,
which enters James Bay to the eastward, thus forming a
large island, throe hundred miles across in every direction,
in which there are half a-dozen streams of the magriitude
of rivers, and many lakes.

JOURNEY TO FORT SEVERN 131

On our way we sighted several parties of Indian and
half-breed trappers, with all of which, except one, we had
communication. One party, with a Hebrides man at its
head, occupied a small stockaded post on one of the lakes
under the Company's segis ; and we also passed a deserted
post, or house, with the stockades around it intact. But
there was not a soul there, for we landed in the hopes of
obtaining necessaries. This river seems to be a favourite
one with the trappers, for we found many of their old
camping-places and deserted huts along its banks ; but
we saw no game except a few birds of the grouse family,
and gulls on the larger lakes. A few fish were caught,
and these and dried venison subsisted us till we reached
Fort Severn.

Here we parted with all our pelts except those I
reserved for my own use, receiving in return flour, salt
pork, coffee, tea, sugar, and powder, to the extent of about
(in my opinion) one-thirtieth the value of the furs
parted with. But it was a case of Hobsou's choice ; and,
I must admit, a boon to get the goods at any price.
Starvation is a wonderful depredator of money value.

I need say nothing about Fort Severn. The descrip-
tion of one fort is, almost without exception, the description
of all. My opinion of them as military posts has already
been given. The stockades with which they are sur-
rounded are so badly constructed that they would not keep
a determined enemy outside ten minutes. Fortunately
they never, in any instance, seem to have been put to the
test, for the Indians in these parts are a most inoffensive
race of people. I never heard of a murder or outrage
being committed by them ; but, strange as it may seem,
the half-breeds are very fierce if provoked, though, as
with the Indians, serious crime is almost unknown among
them ; and the solitary white hunter may wander from
one end of the land to the other and be far safer than he
is in a walk through many of your rascally cities. He is
sure of kindness and hospitality, and if he is robbed it

132 THE GREAT NORTHWEST

surely will not be by Indian or half-breed. I have heard
a different account of the Esquimaux of the extreme
North-West, but it is rare for a white to venture among
them.

I did not make a prolonged stay at Fort Severn. We
arrived on the 22nd of April, and left again on the 27th.
I had formed the resolution of coasting round Hudson
and James Bays as far as the mouth of the Abbitibbe
River, but we found the shore fringed with ice as I might
have known it would have been, and ice blocks were still
flowing down the rivers and streams, and these were all
carried inshore by the tide on reaching the sea. A
voyage on the bay would not have been possible in our
frail canoe, and I was told that probably many weeks
would elapse before it would be ; besides which Achil
and Tom absolutely refused to venture on the briny
element at all. So I was reduced to the necessity of
returning the way we came.

I explored the shores of Hudson Bay for many miles
on both sides of the Severn during the four days we were
there. It was everywhere a marine marsh, flat as a pan-
cake, covered with reeds and rushes, and a few scattered
willow trees. I could see no other trees in any direction,
not even inland ; and the country in the latter direction
appeared to be a level, grass-covered plain, with mostly a
very barren look about it. The gardens at the Fort were
the only patches of cultivated ground, and those looked
as if they produced little or nothing, at this time of the
year at all events.

There were already ducks and geese in the marshes,
although these birds are only found in the summer
months. The geese, in pursuit of which I tramped many
a weary mile in the abominable slushy mud, notwith-
standing the short time of our stay, were of a different
species from those inhabiting the Winnipeg district. These
were brent geese, Bcmicla brenta var. glaucogaster. The
Canadian goose, Bernida Canadensis, previously described.

JOURNEY TO FORT SEVERN 133

was not here in April ; but I learned that it comes during
the summer. These two geese are closely allied. As yet
neither ducks nor geese were particularly plentiful, but
they are said to arrive in immense flocks by the end of
May or beginning of June. I secured but five geese.

There were plenty of plover, and among these birds
I had good sport, bringing down thirteen brace one
day and fifteen on another. They are fair eating, though
not equal to the grouse of these regions. The species
differs but little from the common ring-plover of English
downs, but I am informed that it is distinct, and specifically
termed JbJgialitis semijMliitata.

All the ducks and the widgeon found in the neigh-
bourhood of Winnipeg, and described on my visit to
Stone Fort, were found here, and in addition the long-
tailed duck, Harelda gladalis, and the golden-eyed duck,
Vlangula islandica. Of the latter a single specimen was
all that was procured, but I shot sixty ducks altogether,
mostly for food.

No small mammals were noticed here, and no reptiles ;
but the mosquitoes were beginning to be an intolerable
nuisance.

Small birds were still almost absent, but they are
plentiful during the height of summer. My informant
could only give the vernacular names of the species, but
the Lapland bunting, the sparrow of these regions, I saw
myself almost everywhere. Two or three other small
birds haunted the reedy spots in the marshes, and seemed
to belong to the family American naturalists call " ground
sparrows." They are not sparrows, and seem to me to
be the representatives of the European warblers or pipits.
The size, appearance, and habits are much the same ;
while the small eggs are nearly always richly blotched
and clouded with various shades of purple, red, and
brown. The eggs are the same size as those of the
pipits (much less than those of sparrows).

There is much difiiculty in classifying the small birds

134 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

in this country ; and, in my opinion, the professional
naturalists are largely responsible for rendering con-
fusion worse confused. The vast multitude of tiny
birds, ranging in size from that of a sparrow to that
of a tit, cannot, with any degree of clearness, be split
up into scores of families or groups; and I shall take
it upon myself to say, that half-a-dozen families at
most is quite sufficient to relegate them to. The
pipits and warblers are so closely allied to the American
ground and swamp sparrows, that no amount of profes-
sional jargon will prevail upon me to acknowledge any
material difference between them. In fact no other
term than warblers, or better still finches, is wanted
for the whole genus. Then again, take the American
bluebirds. Their appearance, habits, food, and the
colouration, all prove them to be thrushes ; but so
much as hint to an American naturalist that they are
not a distinctly New World group, entirely unallied
to anything European, and you will make him furious.
His European cousin will also do a bit of professional
capering at the assertion. I, however, think that
habit and external appearance count for a great deal ;
and I am not sure that the cut-and-dried specimen-
stuffer, who in all probability has never seen the birds
in their native haunts, or indeed, even alive, is alto-
gether qualified to absolutely classify them. At any
rate I am quite convinced that there is a large
number of small birds in this country (the whole of
America, I mean), split up into families between which
there is no marked difierence, if, indeed, any dilFer-
ence at all, other than the fad of their cataloguers.
And the separating these families from their European
allies is an even more ridiculous anomaly.

This is a digression ; but I have an object in making
it, for I do not accept the classification now in vogue
with European ornithologists, stUl less that of Americans.
Whatever value the professional naturalists may put on

I

JOURNEY TO FORT SEVERN 135

my notes, I have evidence that a considerable number
of my readers read them with pleasure ; and for the
benefit of these readers, it is my intention to give
considerable attention to the ornithology of the British
possessions and northern parts of the United States,
with which I am better acquainted than with that of
any other part, and in doing so I intend to give myself
a free hand. I do not wish to be aggressive ; but the
more I seek information from museum and other " autho-
rities," who have had no what the tailors call " practical
experience," the more I am convinced that I can safely
rely on my own notes and observations. I wish to give
offence to none, and I will therefore say no more than
this : If there are errors in my remarks, they are honest
errors ; and I cannot conceive that any notes can be of
much value if the writer of them is afraid of his own
opinions. I like the trees in my garden to grow as
wildly as they please. I decline to trim them into the
shapes of cocks and pots to please the profession.

CHAPTER XIII

THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE RETURN JOURNEY
TO THE OTTAWA RIVER

Having supplied ourselves with sufficient stores to last
at least six weeks, supplemented, of course, with such
game as we should shoot en route, we started on the
return journey on the afternoon of the 27th, paddling
about nine miles up the river, and passing the night on
the bank. The days were fine, generally; the nights
bitterly cold. On the last day of April there was a snow
shower, but it thawed soon after fallmg, though there
was much snow still lying in sheltered spots. May day
was memorable for a heavy rain, which drenched us to
the skin, and made us as miserable as miserable could be.

I am not going to give a daily relation of the in-
cidents of this journey, because it was too monotonous to
be of general interest. Briefly, it entailed the hardest work
I had as yet performed since arriving in America. The
portages were frequent, and some of them several miles
in length; and those short reaches of the river which
connected two lakes had generally so strong a current
that if a portage was not absolutely necessary the work
of paddling against the stream was most laborious,
especially to a comparative youth, as I was at the time.

The banks of the river were usually of great height —
as much as eighty or ninety feet, quite shutting out a
view of the country; but it was flat for a considerable
distance from the shores of Hudson Bay. The forest
region commenced about seven or eight miles from
the mouth of the Severn ; but it was somewhat broken

RETURN JOURNEY TO OTTAWA RIVER 137

here and there by small savannahs or openings. Along
the river banks we saw places where much timber had
been felled, more than I should have expected in such
an out-of-the-way place. As we approached the higher,
rocky ground, there were spots from which a fine view
of the surrounding country could be obtained. It was
studded with small lakes and ponds, embosomed in the
forest.

Very little small game was to be found on the banks
of the river ; and as game was absolutely necessary for
our subsistence we were compelled to stop to seek it in
the adjacent country. There was large game about, but
it was exceedingly shy ; the result of persecution. For,
as already stated, this district was much frequented by
the trappers. We met a party of Indians, one of whom
had suffered a bad accident through the bursting of his
common Birmingham gun. Two or three of his fingers
were blown off; but he took the deprivation very coolly.
At this time I had not the knowledge of surgery which is
an essential to a wanderer in the wilderness, and which
I afterwards acquired ; but I had a few bandages, &c.,
with me, and these I gave to the injured man. In
return they offered us half of a cariboo deer, which was
the first meat that we obtained. Afterwards we shot a
wipiti, but it led us a long chase, quite ten miles from
the river ; and, consequently, we could save but a small
portion of the meat, the ground not being now in a fit
condition to admit of a hand-sledge being drawn over it.

By-the-bye, it is always called a hand-" sleigh " in
the States, and also in British America ; and I was often
rebuked for persisting in saying sledye. I, however, am
rather obstinate when I know that I am in the right ;
and I have always declined in both speaking and writing
to substitute a Dutch word for an English one, in spite
of the pompous assertion of Fenimore Cooper that the
millions of America are a people who may coin a word if
they see fit. I decline to admit that the conglomeration

138 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

of all nations (not always the cream of the nations either)
have a right to play with the English language, which is
not their exclusive property.

While looking for game on the shores of one of the
small lakes, we suddenly came on a large bear, which
must have been lying asleep amid the bushes. Bruin
went off with such a rush that before we recovered
our startled nerves he had almost got completely under
cover again. Several random shots were sent after him,
but I suspect that he suffered but little hurt. At all
events he got away. Subsequent experience convinced
me that this is the usual conduct of the black bear when
surprised. He bolts, and sometimes cuts a remarkably
comical figure in his haste to escape. On the other hand,
it is beyond question that he does occasionally turn
aggressor, and make attacks on men. I think this only
happens where he has not been much disturbed, and has
not yet learned how formidable an antagonist man is ; or
perhaps the maddening effects of extreme hunger may
account for these occasional displays of rash ferocity. I
think I have forgotten to remark that the black bear
(and I believe all other bears) neither sees nor hears
well ; and yet, by means of some sense or instinct, he can
discover wheh there is a nest of wild bees in a tree, and
will ascend to plunder it, taking absolutely no notice of
the angry owners, which, it is clear, are incapable of
stinging him to any great purpose. I suspect the bear
also climbs trees in search of raccoons ; but, on the
whole, bears in America rarely leave the ground. When
the nest of the bees is placed on a branch, away from the
trunk, the bear will not venture after it unless he is
quite assured that the branch is strong enough to sustain
his weight. If taken when a cub the black bear will become
as tame and attached to its owner as a dog ; and though
apt to be rather rough in play, never develops any of its
natural ferocity. I have known several settlers who kept
such bears for years.

I

RETURN JOURNEY TO OTTAWA RIVER 139

Continuing our voyage we journeyed from eight or
ten to thirty miles a day, according to what I may term
my dead reckoning; for, needless to say, we had no
certain means of recording the distances traversed, I
consider this, allowing for the number of portages, and
the fact that we were paddling against the current, to be
equal to nearly three times the distance that might have
been covered on smooth water.

On the 5th May we branched off into a tributary
of the Severn, called the Owl River by the trappers, but
which was not marked on my map. The reason for
doing so was because we were informed that we should
in this way make a considerable saving of time and
labour by going to the head of this creek and carrying
the canoe overland about twenty miles to the head-
waters of a second creek tributary of the Albany, For
it is to be observed that, having overcome the opposi-
tion of my companions, I had determined to return to
our huts on the Ottawa by way of James Bay and the
Abbitibbe, and not by returning through the great lakes.
Two Indians of the party, which gave us this advice,
volunteered to accompany us and lend a helping hand.
The journey overland may have been only twenty miles;
it seemed to me at least forty. It took us three long
days to perform it, the whole distance being over rocky
hills covered with pine forests ; and we were so exhausted
on reaching the second creek that we had to rest two
days to recover.

This creek is named Peerra by the Indians, and it is
only a brook of a few inches' depth where we struck it,
and we had to drag the canoe five or six miles farther
before there was water enough to float it, with all our
traps in it. However, we had now a downward-running
current, with few rapids, where it was necessary to make
a portage. Some parts of the shallows of this stream
were choked with a growth of yellow-coloured water-lilies.

We entered the Peerra on 12th May, and in three

140 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

days more entered what I supposed to be the upper part
of the Albany ; but on the 1 6th we found this stream to
run into a lake of such dimensions that we could not see
across it. According to our Indian guides, who still
remained with us, we might now easily, in another three
days, reach the Company's post, Osnaburgh House. I
agreed with them to proceed with us so far, as neither of
my companions knew this part of the country, and they
were very useful fellows at the paddles.

The remainder of our journey to Fort Albany is
almost without incident. I therefore propose to pause
here to say something of the natural history of this
region ; and, to commence with, I may say that the
great snowy owl was the most numerous of any bird of
prey seen throughout the entire journey. I do not think
that we failed to see one or more each day since leaving
Fort Severn. About the Fort itself they were very
numerous, but always singly or in pairs. As far as it
was possible for me to ascertain in so short a stay, I
think I may safely say that, as with so many other birds
of prey, each pair had a territory which they jealously
guarded from the intrusion of others, and that they also
kept the smaller hawks at a distance. For its size, how-
ever, which is often equal to that of an eagle, it is not a
courageous bird, and a hawk a fifth of its size is more
than a match for it. Other owls, however, are in abject
terror of it, though I have not often seen the snowy owl
chasing them, but this may be accounted for by the
fact that other species are far more nocturnal than the
snowy.

At the period of which I am writing all the big game
found in Canada and the North- West was abundant in
the area of the big island I have described ; but, of
course, the same must be said of all the adjacent districts,
for there was nothing to prevent the animals crossing the
rivers at almost any point. But I was not the first to
discover that this was a favourite haunt of deer, moose.

RETURN JOURNEY TO OTTAWA RIVER 141

and bear; and these animals were here so wild that it
was actually easier to track them down in the well settled
parts of Canada than in this spot, where the trappers and
Indians had terrified them out of their wits. This is not
an exaggeration, for the very bears fled as soon as they
perceived us ; and easy of approach as they usually are,
we could not get a shot at one of the six or seven we
saw during the voyage from Fort Severn to Albany.
And not more than five deer in all could be killed, badly
as we were in want of meat. Moose was seen, but could
not be approached. I tried to shoot one at a range of
about five hundred yards, but, like the boy who fired at
a sparrow, I had no better evidence that I had hit it
than seeing it wag its tail, which it did at a rate that
precluded the chance of a second shot. Once only did I
come well within range of a moose, and then it was a cow
which undoubtedly risked herself to protect her newly
born calf. The little thing seemed to be scarcely more
than a day old, and the cow faced me in a most deter-
mined manner, pawing the ground and making a sort of
snuffling or blowing sound, indicative, I suppose, of her
anger. The calf could only just toddle along, and I
cannot say that it was in any way pretty. It gave me
the idea of being nearly all head and legs. The cow kept
between it and me, but it moved away so slowly that I
had a thoroughly good look at it and its mother, I am
sure that it was not many hours old, and therefore it
must have been born close at hand. The spot was a
swamp densely overgrown with tall bushes, which were
covered with thorns long and strong as pins. Notwith-
standing the thorns, I have seen moose, in another part
of the country, browsing on similar bushes.

The moose can be \'ery formidable when it makes up
its mind to fight. Cows will always stand by their calves
to the last. They rear on their hind-legs like a horse,
striking downwards with their fore-hoofs, which cut like
an axe. Indians say they sometimes thus kill several of

142 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

a pack of wolves, and that they will even make the bear
fly. The calves, are, however, often destroyed by wolves,
for while part of the pack are engaging the mother's
attention, the rest pull down the defenceless Kttle
creature. But even then the mother sometimes stands
over the carcass and defends it for many hours.

This deer, which should be called the elk, and the
wipiti, which is invariably in North America miscalled
the elk, were found by me in every part of British
America that I visited, with the exception of a few
limited areas where the former animal had been exter-
minated or driven away. I believe that both animals
always avoided the barren, treeless margin around
Hudson Bay, but as soon as the forest Ime was reached
they were found. When America was discovered, and
for two centuries afterwards, the moose was found in
every known part of the Northern division (Mexico to
the Arctic regions), which was well wooded. This
assertion, first made in a former work, has greatly pro-
voked certain American naturalists, who have communi-
cated with me, denying the fact.

It is not my intention to provoke controversy, and I
do not wish to offend any man by contradicting him, but
I must repeat and endorse my statements regarding this
matter. I am thoroughly well acquainted, by actual
experience, with the distribution of big game in America
between the years 1865-80, and have had a partial
experience in more recent dates down to a few years
since. With regard to past periods, I ground my state-
ments partly on the writings of the first great explorers
in North America, partly on the evidences I have myself
discovered that moose and wipiti formerly ranged over
vast districts, from which they have been wiped away for
generations pa«t. How speedily such animals may be
exterminated is shown by the circumstance that since
the journeys I have been doscril;)ing the moose, at least,
has been quite destroyed in four-fifths of the territory it

RETURN JOURNEY TO OTTAWA RIVER 143

then roamed over. Probably there are not a thousand
head left in the entire country I have been treating of.
There are certainly none remaining in Canada proper,
and unless some very stringent laws are passed both
moose and wipiti will speedily become extinct, and the
black bear will go with them. How long the polar bear
and the cariboo will survive them is a question that may
be answered without any great mental strain, though, as
the latter wander to high boreal regions, it is just possible
(and no more) that the man is not yet born who will see
the last of them.

With the exception of a few small birds, many of
which make this district the highest limit of their
summer migrations, and a few only partially so, nearly
all the animals met with in the extensive country I
passed over were everywhere of the same species. I never
remember, in all my extensive travels, to have passed
over such vast tracts without meeting with a much
greater change in the character of the fauna. Deer,
bears, foxes, wolves, small mammals, birds of prey, grouse,
&c., were everywhere the same. The most prominent
exceptions were in species in which I should have least
expected to find a change, viz. ducks, geese, and fish,
and, as I have said, small birds. The latter is not a
strange circumstance.

Certain species of ducks were found in all parts at
the proper season ; but the Canada goose, the brent
goose, the wild swan, and one or two species of ducks
were more or less local. As for the fish, those of the
Western rivers contained species which I never saw east
of about the 86th longitude; notably the " golden- eye,"
which seems to be a perch. Unfortunately I cannot
specifically designate the fish, it being impossible to bring
away specimens ; but I noticed a difference in those
inhabiting the waters of both rivers and lakes, east and
west of the degree I have named, which I should not
have expected to find. But it must be understood that

144 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

I do not say that this difference was universal, though
it was very noticeable. I do not know if eels inhabit
the waters north of the Canadian frontier ; but I never
caught or saw any, nor did I ever see a snake of any
description without the bounds of Canada proper.

Amongst the owls frequenting the banks of the
Albany was one that was even larger than the great
snowy owl. This was the great grey owl, Syrnium
cinereum, odd specimens of which were seen at times all
over the North-West region; but it is much less numerous,
or at least frequently seen, than the snowy. It must be
remembered, however, that it is much more a nocturnal
bird than the latter. I saw a snowy owl attack one of
these grey owls which did not wait to settle the dispute,
but beat an immediate and ridiculous-looking retreat,
hooting and fluttering while the snowy made the feathers
fly in a crowd. I suppose that the grey owl was a tres-
passer on the other's hawking ground; for presently the
snowy came back and took up its perch on the top of
a young spruce tree, staring at me with glaring eyes that
seemed to ask, " What do you think of that ? Mind
your turn doesn't come next." There was no shyness
in this owl, for it was not forty yards from me. I
afterwards saw this same bird devouring a grouse on
its perch ; and it seems that both this, and the grey
species, have all the habits of hawks in seeking their
food. By-the-by, the snowy owl attains a much greater
size than the stuffed specimens I have seen in London.
If these are European snowies, the North-West Territory
bird is probably a distinct variety ; but it is a bird that
varies a good deal in size.

There was another large owl in these forests, and one
or two smaller ones of which I did not learn the specific
name. But in addition to those mentioned I may add,
as being certainly identified, the saw -whet owl, Nydala
acadica, called the Acadian owl by British naturalists,
and the owl called the screech-owl in the United States,

RETURN JOURNEY TO OTTAWA RIVER 145

which appears to be the Scops asio of the British; but
the bird varies so in different parts of the continent
that I cannot speak with certainty about it. There is
no uncertainty, however, about the long-eared owl, Asio
Americanus, or Asio otus of the British, about which there
is an everlasting dispute in the States, the Americans
insisting that their bird is a distinct species, uncontami-
nated by contact, in the most remote degree, with its
European ally. The long-eared and the great grey are
two of the most widely distributed species of owls in
British America, the latter being found throughout the
country wherever there are trees, for it is essentially a
wood-haunting bird. The long-eared owl has an even
greater range; for I have found it nearly everywhere,
from Fort Severn to New Orleans.

Several times in the course of our journey we per-
ceived eagles hovering at a great height ; but they did
not come near enough to be identified. I think, however,
that there can be no doubt that they were the golden
species, Aquila chrysaetus. In Canada I have heard
attempts made to claim this eagle as a distinct species.
Most American ornithologists, however, admit that it is
identical with the European species. If I am not mis-
taken, the golden eagle is found close to the shores of
Hudson Bay. The white-headed eagle, the national
emblem of the United States, certainly is; for I shot
a fine specimen on one of the small lakes not more
than forty miles from the sea, and others were seen.
Notwithstanding the great size of these eagles, I have
never seen any reason to believe that they are courageous
birds. They are certainly not so plucky as some of the
small falcons.

Animals of the pole-cat genus, such as the pine-
marten and fish-marten, were seen in all parts. These
have already been described. A glutton was also seen
near the lake on the banks of which Osnaburgh House is
situated; but this animal, on account of its shy habits,

K

146 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

is seldom seen anywhere ; and it is probably much more
numerous about this region than the seldomness of its
mention might lead one to surmise.

I was often much amused in watching the squirrels
skipping about, not only on the trees of all kinds, pines
and broad leaved, but about the ground also, even when
covered with snow ; for this pretty and lively little
animal certainly does not hibernate — if, indeed, any
squirrels do. The fact that they all seem to lay up
winter stores of food would seem to prove that they
do not. However, the chickaree, as the Yankees call
him, Sciurus hudsonianus, is as lively when the frost is
skinning your nose as when the heat of summer is frying
you alive, and rushes about in little companies, making
the snow fly right and left. One moment he and his
companions are skipping in the snow, often disappearing
quite under it, if it is not frozen hard, the next they are
chasing each other up the trees. Though not gregarious
in a strict interpretation of the term, the chickaree is
fond of company, and several are often seen together,
perhaps a family party. As seldom solitary animals
are seen — that is, at least a couple go together — I
think it is probable that they pair for life. The colour
of the fur is usually a brownish grey, with white on
the chest and abdomen ; but there is much ditference
in individuals. Sometimes there are dark, irregular
markings on the fur ; and often black specimens are
found.

There are several of the Company's posts, or houses
and forts (there is no difference that I could perceive
between a " house " and a " fort "), on the Albany, at one
or two of which we made a temporary stop, and bartered
for those necessaries of which we were in want. The
river is a characteristic Canadian stream, with high banks
and rapid current, necessitating portages here and there ;
and for the purpose of avoiding monotonous descriptions,
I shall not detail the journey to Fort Albany, preferring

RETURN JOURNEY TO OTTAWA RIVER 147

to give more attention to tlie voyage on the coast of
James Bay, and up the Abbitibbe, or Abitibe, as the old,
and, I think, more correct, geographers called it ; but it
is spelt half-a-dozen different ways in old French maps.
The descriptions of country that I must there give would
answer fairly well for the Albany ; at all events, to de-
scribe both rivers would read like a repetition. And the
description of the fauna on the Abbitibbe is precisely that
of the Albany, unless specially noticed to the contrary.
The reader will perhaps kindly bear this in mind while
perusing the next chapter.

CHAPTER XIV

THE COAST OF JAMES BAY TO THE HEAD OF THE
RIVER ABBITIBBE

We arrived at Fort Albany on 1st June, and left again
on the 4tli. The distance from Fort Albany to Moose
Factory is about a hundred miles, and, short-handed as
we were, we paddled that distance in thirty hours' actual
work, arriving on the 6th. The coast-line here is as
different as possible from that about Fort Severn, being
high, bold, and rocky, affording some remarkable scenery,
though barren and inhospitable looking. The sea, at the
time of our voyage, was calm, but it broke on the rocky
shore at places, and we more than once found tides or
currents, I am not sure which, drawing us inshore at a
rate that induced us to give the land a wide berth. On
the first night we landed under the rocks, and slept in
a cavern ; but the cliffs were so precipitous that it was
impossible to climb up them. I have therefore no idea
what the country inland was like. The second night it
was impossible to land on the mainland, and we were
compelled to pass the hours of darkness on a rock about
a quarter of a mile from the shore, drawing the canoe up
after us to prevent accidents, as, if it had happened to
break loose, we should have been in a terrible pHght.

Our temporary possession of this rock, which may
have been an acre in extent, disturbed a large colony of
guillemots, Uria troile. They Avinged their flight to the
main shore, looking not unlike ducks when flying, and
utterincr a tremendous clamour. We saw other flocks
during the three days ; and there was another guillemot

JAMES BAY TO RIVER ABBITIBBE 149

noticed, though in sparse numbers, and keeping strictly
aloof from the other species. This was of a very dark or
blacldsh colour beneath, while the first kind was white
below, as high as the throat. It was much smaller than
the common guillemot, and was probably a variety of
Uria grylle, differing but little from stuffed specimens of
that species which I have examined. No guillemots were
seen on the flat coast about Fort Severn, or inland on the
rivers.

The rock mentioned seemed to be a favourite breed-
ing-place of the common guillemot, for it was covered
with their young, most of which took to the water, and
swam away rapidly towards the shore. The breeding
season appeared to be already well advanced, but there
were still a number of eggs unhatched, some with young-
birds in them, some fresh enough to be eaten. They
were not particularly rank in taste, as sea-birds' eggs
usually are. They were larger than those of a hen, pear-
shaped, and here did not differ so much in colour and
marking as guillemots' eggs are said usually to do. The
bulk of them were of a pale rosy buff in ground colour,
blotched with purple-black, over grey and greenish under-
markings. Some were blotched with dark brown ; others
looked as if they had been smeared with ink.

The eggs were scattered about all over the top of the
rock, which was about thirty feet high, singly and in
clusters. The birds, I believe, lay only one each, so
many must lay close together. Probably there were
(with those which escaped) fifty times as many young
birds as eggs.

Amongst the gulls the following were clearly recog-
nised, if not actually procured : the fulmar petrel,
Fulmarus glacialis, not seen on the flat coasts to the
westward ; a skua, believed to be Stercorarius pomato-
rhimbs, scanty in numbers, and also not seen westward :
the kittiwake, seen in immense numbers; a gvdl very
like the Larus argentatus of Europe, and probably a

150 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

variety of it ; Sabine's gull, Xema sahinei ; and at least
three or four other gulls, which were not identified. It
will thus be seen that this part, at least, of James Bay is
bountifully supplied with gulls ; and as all these were
recognised in a three days' canoe voyage, there are pro-
bably many others which were not seen or noticed.

A sharp lookout for seals and other animals was kept,
but none were seen. I do not know if seals are found
about here, but if so they had probably been pretty well
worried by the hunters from the Company's posts. We
also kept lines towing behind the canoe, but no fish were
caught. Some small finch-like birds were seen flitting
about the rocks of the mainland, but they did not come
near enough to enable me to secure a specimen ; and a
small mammal like a rat was seen to enter a hole half-way
up the face of the cliffs.

At places the cliffs were much broken and jagged, and
of great height — three or four hundred feet, I should con-
jecture. As far as I could see, I should think that there
are but few places where they could be successfully, or at
all events safely, climbed. The most broken and access-
ible places were where streams ran into the sea, and there
were also spots in which the cliffs sank down to a mode-
rate height ; but nowhere did Ave succeed in getting a
glimpse into the interior of the country until we arrived
at Moose Factory, which is situated at the junction of the
Moose and Abbitibbe, on the left bank of the former. It
is the chief or depot post of the " Southern Department "
of the Company's territory.

We were now probably within three hundred miles of
home, but having reached this point in such good time I
was in no haste to hurry over the last stage of the journey.
As a matter of fact I should have liked to see a little more
of James Bay, but my companions had not much liking
for sea travelling, objecting that the canoe was badly
qualified for encountering rough water. To a certain
extent this might bo true, but I have proved that a

JAMES BAY TO RIVER ABBITIBBE 151

canoe will do a great deal even in a sea-way, and in my
opinion there is less danger in a coasting voyage on the
sea-coast than on that of the great lakes. In the latter
case the storms and wind tornadoes come down with such
fearful suddenness that escape is hopeless, even sometimes
when the canoe is close inshore.

However, I was compelled to give in to the older
heads, and compromised the matter by making a halt
of a week's duration to enable me to explore a little of
the coast in a small canoe, either alone or with one com-
panion only. This companion was, on one or two occasions,
a young gentleman from the Factory — a Scot, of course —
who had a liking for natural science , though it seems to
me that Scotchmen seldom devote much of their time to
natural history, however devoted to other branches they
may be. If I mistake not, Scotland has produced but few
good naturalists, though in all other branches of science
her sons are greatly distinguished. My Yankee friends
will think to have me here, and remind me that Wilson
was a Scotchman. Wilson may have been a great lover
of Nature : he is not very reliable as a naturalist.

Our journeys scarcely repaid the time devoted to
them. Conchology attracted my friend more than any
other branch of natural history ; but the few and small
shells he succeeded in collecting made but a sorry show,
and contained nothing worth describing here. I had
hopes of meeting with some of the larger marine mam-
mals. In this I was disappointed, and had to rely on
second-hand information, which was of the meagrest. I
was told at the Factory that several species of whales had
been seen and captured in James Bay, as well as other
parts of Hudson Bay; but the only species .that I suc-
ceeded in establishing was the common Greenland whale,
which at this period (thirty-five years ago) was often seen
in James Bay, and had been known to enter the river. I
gained but a very indifferent account of the size of speci-
mens captured here, but it may be of some interest to

152 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

mention that an ancestor of mine, Captain Gotham, who
had had great experience of" whale-fishing, both in the
Arctic regions and in southern waters, has left it on
record that he has killed Greenland whales of upwards
of sixty feet long and sperm whales of more than eighty
feet. Such giants are never met with now, but from
what is known of the captain's character I am sure he
would not exaggerate. Whalers always attacked the
finest fish (as they insist on miscalling them), and hence,
no doubt, the reason that so few large animals survive.
The whale certainly takes many years to attain its full
size, and I greatly doubt if any whale now lives to reach
full maturity. If the assertion that I find in a certain
work has any foundation in fact — viz. that whales live to
many hundreds of years, possibly to a thousand — it is not
surprising that few or none now attain to the full size.
The steam-whalers see to that, for they can easily single
out and capture the biggest animals.

On this river, and also on the coast near its mouth,
there were many bats, one of which was the silvery bat,
Vesperugo noctivagans. Both on the sea and the river
these bats hawked very near the surface of the water,
on the latter sometimes actually striking the water. They
also flew high in the air, and inland among the trees, and
so rapid and irregularly that I had great difficulty in ob-
taining a specimen, not being used to bat-shooting. Of
the other species of bats in this district I can give no
description. Almost everywhere, from Winnipeg to this
place, bats were seen, generally in scanty numbers, but I
never had the opportunity of securing specimens until
now. I think, however, judging from style and appear-
ance on the wing, that this species is one of the commonest
bats in the Canadian region.

Nearly all the birds of the duck kind hitherto
mentioned were found here, either on the river or the
sea-coast, where countless numbers seemed to be just
finishing the duties of reproduction, and the young birds

JAMES BAY TO RIVER ABBITIBBE 153

were comparatively so tame that almost any number
might have been shot. Not much powder and shot is
wasted on them here, for when ducks are wanted they
are trapped by the score.

Few places visited in this journey afforded a greater
number or variety of birds than the neighbourhood of
Moose Factory. That is in the summer season, for on
the approach of winter, I was told, the birds migrate in
a body, and desolation reigns for many weary months.
Among the rarer birds shot here was a turnstone or
Norfolk plover, Strepsilas interpres, and several other
plovers, the only one of which I identified was Numenius
borealis — the Esquimaux whimbrel. The little grey
phalarope (which is also a plover) was rather numerous,
feeding in flocks on the mud of the river near its mouth.
Wilson's snipe, already referred to, was also seen here ;
and the avocet, Becurvirostra americana. Of the latter I
shot five or six, but it was not abundant here. Higher
up the river, however, flocks of it were seen, numbering
eighty or ninety to a hundred and fifty bh-ds. A few
were seen eastward of Lake Winnipeg, but I did not
then succeed in shooting one.

Continuing our way up the river and moving leisurely,
I made a few excursions into the country on either bank,
and shot a few cariboo and another bear. The latter was
a huge animal with a dark brown coat, and was literally
as " fat as butter." So far from danger or excitement in
the shooting of it, the poor brute made desperate attempts
to get away, and I had to put five balls into it before my
victory was assured. The grease afforded us a welcome
stock of fat for culinary purposes. The pelt was not
nearly so fine a one as that of the first bear I shot. As
to the colour, I notice that many bears in this region
have brown fur, or patches of brown about their coats.
The Company's people classify the pelts into black, brown,
grizzly, and white. The grizzly and the white (Polar)
bear are, of course, distinct species, but I can perceive no

154 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

difference between the black and brown varieties ; in
fact the gradations of colour from black to brown are so
many, and so commonly met with, that it is clear they
are simply variations of the same species. I learn, also,
that some naturalists are inclined to think that the
polar bear is merely a variety of the brown bear. I
remember thinking, more than once, when observing the
two species in America, that there is no great difference
between the two, except in colour and habit.

The river, like most others passed over, has high
banks, and the adjacent country is covered with forests.
Pine or spruce trees often overhung the banks, or grew
in the crevices of the rocks, many of them nodding to
their fall into the water beneath, and the precipitous
banks were often covered with the graceful festoons of
some trailing plant which quite hid the rocks. I do not
know if ivy is found in this country, but I cannot find
any reference to it in any of my note-books, nor do I
remember to have ever seen it growing wild in any part
of America. The creepers on this, and other rivers of the
North- West, though occupying similar sites to those that
would be covered with ivy in England, are certainly not
related to that plant, and, beautiful as they are, are not
so picturesque. Indeed, is there anything in the wide
world of a like nature to be compared to the gallant
British oak, or the creeping, ruin-hallowing ivy ?

There is a singular absence of wild flowers in these
northern woods. In that respect they are much behind
English woods and coppices. What few flowers there
are are small and inconspicuous — mere weeds in fact.
None of them seem to have struck me as being worth
notice, yet I am much given to minute observation, and,
writing from memory, I do not remember anything more
striking than our forget-me-not. There is a small blue
flower, something like the forget-me-not, and a variety of
the same of a white colour, but it is very local. There
is also a pretty little red flower, and also violets and

JAMES BAY TO RIVER ABBITIBBE 155

daisies, but our primroses, buttercups, lady's smocks,
bluebells, and poppies are sadly missed by the man fresh
from the " old country."

Owing, probably, to Moose Factory being the depot,
there is a great deal of traffic on the Abbitibbe, by
trappers and Indians ; but the season for transporting
the pelts had not yet arrived, and we met but few canoes.
There were parties of hunters about the banks, as there
were on the Albany, and among those we communicated
with were some Crees from Tom's village, or our village,
as I think I may call it — the place where my hut was
situated on the Ottawa. These men could tell us that
all was well with our friends ; that Sam and the two
Indians had reached home in safety, and that many con-
jectures were rife among them as to our safety and
probable return, " and," added one of the men, " Chom-
pol's daughter " (the young girl Emma Whitting) " often
goes down to the river and watches for the canoe all day
long." And, he added contemptuously, " Girl always
weeping." Weeping is held in great contempt by Indians
as a mark of weakness, or cowardice ; and even the children
seldom cry. These casual remarks caused me some
uneasiness of mind, for I suddenly remembered many
little kindnesses and attentions on the part of this poor
girl, and how she seemed to anticipate my wishes, and to
be ever on the watch to serve me.

There are generally, if not always, outposts to the
Company's principal stations, and this district is no
exception. There are minor posts at Lakes Temiscaming,
Grand, and Abbitibbe, though 1 did not find that out on
my first arrival at Temiscaming. There are other posts,
but from time to time the smaller posts were abandoned
for better or more convenient sites, and sometimes the
hunters carried their first packages of pelts to the nearest
trading station, and disposed of them at once before the
season was over. The forts and minor posts, some of
which had but one or two men in charge, were so

156 THE GREAT N^ORTH-WEST

distributed as to give the hunters the greatest faciHties
in disposing of their furs when hunting at a distance
from theu" homes.

The head of the river is Lake Abbitibbe, in which it
takes its rise ; and we arrived there at the end of June,
and made preparations for another short stay, as I wished
to still further examine the fauna of the country before
finally quitting it, as I had determined to do. Again
we erected temporary huts at some distance from the
point where the river issues from the lake, but at a point
where a small brook joins it. Some two miles up the
course of this brook there was an old beaver dam. This
is the first time I have mentioned this animal, the
national emblem of Canada, but not the first time I saw
traces of it. However, beavers are rarely seen unless
specially searched for. Their nocturnal habits, and the
fact that they spend their days hidden in their lodges,
account for this ; and beavers are also getting scarce.
The Company have beaver preserves now ; but I forget
if they were already established at this time. At all
events I never saw one.

The beaver is not now of the importance which it
formerly was. The fate of the animal is intimately con-
nected with hats. Before the introduction of the city
gentleman's " silk hat," people with a pretension to re-
spectability wore " beavers," and at one time the export
of beaver pelts far exceeded that of any other class of
skin. More than a million per annum were formerly
sent out of Canada by the Company. Now it is doubt-
ful if fifty thousand are killed annually, and they are
gradually becoming fewer and fewer in number.

The subject of beaver dams and beaver meadows is
too well worn for me to enter on it here. The wonderful
instinct, reason, ingenuity — call it what you will — of
these little animals is surprising enough, but it has been
much exaggerated by most writers. The dams are not
the intricate and elaborate works they are often described

JAMES BAY TO RIVER ABBITIBBE 157

to be, but they are wonderful evidence of the industry
and perseverance of the animals. Traces of them are
found in every part of the country I visited, and the
numbers of the animal must formerly have been enor-
mous. The " beaver meadows " alone can be counted
by thousands. These are generally tracts of from two
to twenty acres which have become damp, grassy swamps
through formerly having been covered with "beaver
ponds " — floods occasioned by the dams.

Beavers are eaten by Indians and trappers. The
flesh, like that of most other rodents, is rather dry and
devoid of fat. There is sometimes a strons; flavour with
it, apparently derived from the castorum, a secretion
which is much sought after as a medicine, though, in my
opinion, it is a mere quack remedy. It is worth about
three shillings an ounce, and it takes several beavers
to furnish an ounce. The castor, or beaver pelt, is the
standard of value of the Hudson Company's bartering
transactions with the trappers, hence the name of the
wooden cubes used in lieu of money. It varies in value
in different districts, being sometimes reckoned at one
shilling, sometimes at two. The value of a beaver pelt,
in the European market, was formerly ten shillings : what
they are worth now I do not know. I could never discover
that beavers eat anything but bark, and principally birch
bark. Afterwards, in some parts of the United States,
I saw more of the beaver than I did in Canada. In some
secluded spots of the New England and Southern States
it was still abundant in the sixties and seventies ; but as
fast as these spots were discovered the animal was exter-
minated by the selfish greed of gain of the discoverers ;
and by the late seventies beavers seemed to be getting
very scarce in all the old States. The beaver is one of
the most easily captured of all animals. By netting the
streams above and below their dams — that is, stretchmg
nets across on stakes — the capture of every individual of
a colony is assured. Escape is impossible, as the animal

158 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

can neither leap nor climb. I never knew them attempt
to bite when dragged by hand from their lodges, though
no doubt their teeth are capable of inflicting severe
wounds.

On the lake there were plenty of ducks, Canadian
geese, and a loon or two. These birds have already been
described, as has also the widgeon, which were here
abundant. There were also flocks of large white gulls,
Larus glaucescens, hovering over the lake ; and I obtained
a specimen of the ivory-gull, Pagophila eburnea. It was
one of a flock of about twenty; but though I kept a
sharp lookout for others, I did not again see them, from
which I conclude that the flock were casual visitors. It
is supposed that during the summer this bird does not
quit the far north. My experience is that nearly all
gulls are great wanderers, and take journeys of thousands
of miles inland. I know certainly that gulls often wander
right across both the northern and southern divisions of
the American continent. The bird referred to above was
a most lovely creature, of a faint rosy-white plumage.

Round about the lake, and especially on a small plain
about four miles to the westward, " rabbits " were nume-
rous. There are no true rabbits native of the American
continent, and these are a species of small hare, Lepus
polarius, very much less in size than the great prairie
hare, Lepus campestris, of the Winnipeg district, already
referred to.

Among the ducks was the pin-tail. Dafila acuta, found
on most of the lakes, but swarmins^ here ; and the " black
duck " of the trappers. I am not certain that I have
identified this species, but it seems to answer to Anas
obscura, which it probably is.

On the 2nd of July, I, while out shooting five or six
miles away from camp, heard a great shouting, with
barking of dogs, in a wood to my right ; and hastening
thither found a party of hunters attacking a bear. There
were more than twenty Indians, some armed with axes

JAMES BAY TO RIVER ABBITIBBE 159

and some with tomahawks, while one had a harpoon and
another a pike. While the dogs attracted the bear by
snapping at his heels, the men alternately attacked him
on all sides. So intent on their work were they, and
withal so noisy, that I did not attract their attention for
fully a quarter of an hour ; and could not shoot for fear
of hitting the men, while they had not a gun among
them. Two of the dogs were slain when I came up, and
two or three more disabled ; and while I was watching
bruin killed another, and making a sudden dash threw
down one of the men. He was beaten off, however,
before much hurt was done, and being now streaming
with blood, was soon after finished off, having killed three
dogs, wounded half-a-dozen, and more or less clawed
several of the men. His hide was so cut and chopped
that I should think it could have been of but little value ;
but the grease is always the chief object with Indians
when they attack a bear.

When I could grain attention I asked how it was that
the hunters were without guns ; every Indian owning
a gun nowadays. " Plenty gun : no powder," was the
reply. This is not an uncommon case, the Indians are
as improvident with their ammunition as with every-
thing else. An Indian often carries his powder loose in
a pouch, and his method of loading is to take a handful
and pour it down the barrel, wasting a portion, and using
twice as much as is necessary for a charge. So it hap-
pens that the hunters are often without powder, and in
such cases devote their entire attention to trapping. If
they come across any large animal they will attack and
destroy it in the manner just described ; but they never
thus tackle bears unless there are at least a dozen men in
their party. Deer they easily track down in the snow
and despatch with a knife ; and I have heard of their
actually running deer down, when the ground is clear
and the latter can run at full speed. The hunter pro-
bably tires the deer by incessant pursuit; for these

160 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Indians are wonderfully enduring, and will pursue an
animal for three or four days at a stretch rather than
lose it.

Their dogs are not much good, though they serve
to attract the attention of bears, &c. They are a sort of
lanky cur, evidently the descendants of wolves. It is
singular that many years afterwards I saw precisely
similar dogs in the possession of a tribe of South
American Indians.

I need not say much more of the Indians them-
selves than what I have already incidentally written in
the course of my narrative; but I may just mention
that I am not at all one with those who term him an
irreclaimable and irredeemable savage. I do not know
what is meant by a " savage " unless it is a brute, in
manner and conduct. If so, the Indian is not a brute,
and therefore not a savage. His chief offence in the eyes
of his conquerors is that he does not want civilisation.
In that I have some sympathy with him. A man bi'ed
in the v/ilds cannot look upon civilisation as an unmixed
blessing; in fact it is not an unmixed blessing to any
man. I have spent so much time myself in the wilder-
nesses of the earth that I am to a great extent unfitted
for a town life. I almost pine for the forests and prairies
that are so speedily disappearing. What then must be
the feelings of a race of men who for countless ages
have roamed the desert, at seeing their hunting grounds
seized by the money-grubber — by the land-grabber?
Put yourself in his place. What would you think of a
conqueror who turned you neck and crop out of your
home, remarking that he was immeasurably your superior
in all things from his mind to his togs ; ^ and demanded
that you should live as he does, worship the Great Spirit
as he does, and believe in him for all things, and in all
things, or be wi2oed out ? That is really what is happen-
ing. And because the Red Man declines compliance

' Togs ! slang for clothes, but evidently derived from the classical toga.

JAMES BAY TO RIVER ABBITIBBE 161

with these demands, his Diaster strikes the attitude of
a saint, and says, " Justice shall be done you. You have
a right to please yourself. But we cannot permit you to
keep us out of your extensive hunting grounds. We
will give you a ten thousandth part of your own pro-
perty as a reserve. Go there and live, and keep there, or
look out for squalls. We will give you a little meal, a
couple of pounds of powder and shot, and a butcher's
knife per annum. We will look after your morals, and
teach your kids how many million miles away the sun
is ; but we won't have you interfere in our politics, or
show your ugly carcasses in our beautiful refined streets."

If I am thought to exaggerate, I shall flatly deny that
I am doing anything of the sort. At the time of which I
have been writing, there were a few Indians making a
precarious living, or loafing, about the townships : now,
I believe, that a Red Man in a Canadian town is as great
a rarity as one in an English street. They have put
him out of the way on his " reservation."

I shall trouble the reader with no further remark on
a subject that I could wTite a volume on : I will simply
conclude by saying that I would fight to the last gasp
before I would tolerate such treatment. Of course the
political economist will be down my throat. " Are we
then to leave a large portion of the earth's surface a
howling wilderness for the pleasure of a few Indians and
hunters ? " Certainly, is my reply. You have no right
to clear forests by the ten thousand square mile at a
stretch, in order to make millionaires. Millionaires can
be spared better than bears and deer ; but I am no
extremist. Leave us a percentage of the forests and
prairies ; but no " parks," no keepers, no hotels, and,
above all, no legal ancients with their wise saws and
preposterous rules. Deal as harshly with the waster
and exterminator as you like ; but no interference with
the true sportsman.

CHAPTER XV

A JOURNEY TO THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE

We crossed Lake Abbitibbe on 8 th July. It is so large a
body of water that when we were about the middle of it
no land could be seen, except a few islets and the tops of
some hills to the north-eastward. On the south, passing
the Company's fort, we entered a small stream, and by
the evening of the next day were less than thirty miles
from home. We had with us four Indians of the bear-
killing party whom I had engaged to carry the canoe
overland to the huts. Next morning, at daylight, I
started with Achil, leaving Tom to look after the Indians,
hoping to walk the thirty miles in one day ; but when we
had covered about two-thirds of the distance my right leg,
always the one from which I suffered most, gave way ;
and I was in a sorry plight in the midst of the woods,
unable to take another step in any direction. Fortunately
the weather was hot ; and it was no hardship to lodge
under the shade of the trees. Next day the Indians came
up, with the canoe on their shoulders, having followed in
our tracks ; and as I was still unable to walk I was placed
in the canoe, and thus carried to the huts.

The surprise of Andrew and his wife, and Chucko-
chilgegan, at seeing us thus return was very great, for
they had expected that we should return the way we went,
vid Lakes Superior, Huron, and Nipissing. As illustrating
the peculiar phlegmatic character of the Indians, I may
mention that Tom's return received not the slightest
notice from either his brother, or his niece Chompol,
Andrew's wife. I am sure this did not proceed from any

JOURNEY TO GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 163

lack of natural feeling. It is tlie custom of the Red Men.
Anything like demonstrativeness is considered childish, if
not positively rude, by an Indian. I noticed that, by-and-
by, Tom went to Andrew's hut, and was soon followed by
his brother Chuckochilgegan, or Sam, as I called him ;
and I saw them all sitting on the floor (the usual seat),
and smoking together ; but I did not observe that much
conversation took place. I have already mentioned the
extreme taciturnity of Tom's disposition.

I had, of course, inquired for Emma, and was told
that she was down at the river fishing ; or watching, as I
suspected, remembering what the Indian hunter on the
Albany had said. She did not return till evening; and
when she came to my hut she threw herself at my feet
weeping for joy, and from that time was scarcely ever
out of my sight. I was very much upset on the poor
girl's account, and determined to hasten away as soon
as possible. I had already decided that the climate of
Canada would not suit me, being too cold in the winter ;
and there were other reasons for inducing a speedy de-
parture into the States, though as yet I had not thought
of bossing a prairie schooner — my ultimate fate, as far
as my wandering inclination would permit of my sticking
to any form of business.

I soon recovered from the sprain of my leg ; and during
the short time of my further sojourn here nothing worthy
of record occurred, unless it be the shooting of a lynx.
This animal, according to my experience, is very scarce.
I have but seldom seen any trace of it ; and in all my
wanderings have obtained but three specimens. This one
was thirty-four inches in length from the nose to the
root of the tail, which was a fair size. For it is an
animal that varies more in size than any other cat I
know of. Some full-grown examples are only two feet,
or even less, in length. The average appears to be about
thirty inches, while large examples run to thirty-eight or
forty, if the accounts of the trappers are to be depended

164 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

on. I have seen larger skins than those I obtained ; but
this is not much criterion, as the trappers have a trick of
stretching pelts to make them appear as fine and large as
possible. The fur is one of those sought by the Hudson
Company/ but it is only occasionally that the hunters
bring in an odd one or two. The animal is not only
scarce, but cunning also, and difficult to find ; and makes
its escape at the slightest alarm.

It has a curious lolloping sort of run, and having
but a very short, stumpy tail looks, at first sight, more
like a dog than a cat. Its legs are very long for a
member of the feline family, which is probably the reason
of its curious gait, which is indescribable on paper. It
is a sort of leaping gallop. It is very expert in climbing
trees ; but its favourite lurking places are holes and caves
among rocks, or under the matted roots of trees. It un-
doubtedly increases the depths of its lurking holes ; and
has generally at least two entrances or exits. I do not
know how a good dog would fare in attacking the lynx,
but the Indian curs are afraid of it. They bark and snap
at it, but do not close ; and unless the hunters are close
at hand the lynx will make rushes among them, and every
dog he catches he kills.

The lynx, however, I am assured by many Indians and
half-breeds, will fly in terror from a very small pack of
wolves. The latter often drive them to the trees, and
sometimes keep them there for days together. The lynx
never kills large animals for prey. The bulk of its prey
consists of birds of the grouse family, which it surprises
when on the ground, and hares ; but it often contents itself
with very small game, rats and mice, and even frogs ; and

^ The following are the articles for which the Company barter: all
kinds of bear, and all kinds of fox skins ; they recognise six varieties of
the last — red, black, wliite, blue, silver, and cross. All kinds of deerskins
— moiuse, wipiti, and cariboo. Skins of the badger, beaver, musquash,
otter, lynx, seal, all martens and pole-cats, wolf and glutton. Also all
kinds of feathers, particularly those of the goose and swan. Seal and
whale oil, and castorum, w.alrus tusks, and dried salt-iish. Formerly
"buffalo-robes"; but these are no longer procurable.

JOURNEY TO GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 165

like the jackal, is not above feasting on the leavings of its
betters. For if the bear neglects to bury the remains of
its prey, and the wolves fail to be the first discoverers of
the feast, the lynx will eat greedily until he is disturbed,
returning again and again while the meat lasts, but
always retiring on the approach of the master of the
prey.

I never could learn anything satisfactory of the
breeding habits of the lynx. It is a very quiet animal.
I never heard it crying at night, as the puma does ; and
it never approaches the solitary camp of the hunter,
which is quite a common habit of the former animal.
The fur of the lynx is of a reddish grey colour, and there
are dark markings indicative of spots on several parts of it.
There is no material difference between the European and
the American lynx.

The time had now arrived for me to move southward.
I had seen enough of Canada and the great North-West to
convince me that it would be a mistake for me to attempt
to settle in the country, dearly as I love the grand old flag
and wished to remain under its segis. It is to be under-
stood that I have no fault to find with the country itself,
which is a magnificent territory; but, though I am no
weakling, I could not stand the Canadian winters.
Excessive cold has the same effect on me that excessive
heat has on most persons — it weakens and it enervates.
This is, no doubt, owing to the infirmity from which
I suffer, the result of an injury during boyhood, to which
I have alluded often enough.

Having made up my mind to remove to the United
States, I was yet in no hurry to leave British territory.
I wished to explore the shores of the splendid Gulf of
St. Lawrence, Circumstances, and the need of husband-
ing my means, prevented my fully gratifying this desire ;
but the results of my partial journeys are now given.

The leaving my Indian friends was a painful affair.
I had lived long and closely enough with them to feel

166 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

acutely the parting with them, especially with the poor
half-breed girl Emma. It was my misfortune to have
made a great impression on this poor girl, and I hesitated
a good deal before finally making up my mind to leave
Canada. But I was not yet twenty years of age, was not
blest with sufficient of this world's goods to provide for a
family, and not at all inclined to settle down in life.
These considerations finally influenced me ; but many
years elapsed before I ceased to think of poor Emma
without a painful sadness of heart.

The parting with my friends was an Indian one.
There was very little said, but evidently a good deal
thought ; and the whole of the Indians in the neighbour-
hood, men, women, and children, stood on the banks of
the river to see the canoe depart ; and I had so many
little presents showered on me that I could scarcely find
room in the tiny skiff to carry them away. The men
stood upright, looking stoical, after the Indian manner,
the surest sign of deep feeling ; the women and children
squatted on the ground behind their husbands and
fathers, while poor Emma made no attempt to conceal
her grief, but, when we stepped into the canoe, was
prostrate in her mother's arms.

Andrew and Monchuapiganon (Tom) paddled the
canoe down the tributary to the Ottawa River, and went
with me as far as the immediate neighbourhood of the city,
where the last parting took place, for I could not persuade
them to go farther. I had intended to send back many
little presents from the shops of civilisation, but I had
to be content with entrusting Andrew with a few trifles
for Chompol and Emma, and one or two others. My
favourite Minii' rifle ^ I gave to Tom, knowing how much
he valued the weapon, with all the cartridges I had left.
Every muscle of his face twitched as he took it; and
I was surer than ever that his morose exterior covered a

^ The so-called Miiiic rifles I used in my early American journeys were
of the Enlield pattern.

J

JOURNEY TO GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 167

heart of deep feeling. After the canoe had put off
for the return journey, he stood up and shouted, " Some
day, come back ; " and that was the last I ever saw or
heard of these friends.

I did not stop at Ottawa longer than a day or two,
but went on to Montreal. There is not a man living less
liable to be impressed by the works of his fellow-men
than the writer. I have absolutely no eye for architecture,
and the meanest shrub is to me a more beautiful object
than the finest building ever erected ; but I certainly was
struck by some of the fine works at Montreal: the
Victoria Bridge of the Canadian Grand Trunk Railway,
for instance, which is 3428 yards long, the central span
alone being 117 yards. It crosses the southern arm of
the St. Lawrence, connecting Canada with the United
States, and is justly considered one of the greatest en-
gineering feats the world has seen. The Prince of Wales
(our present King) was present at its inauguration five
years ago (forty-two ^^ears now, in 1902), and the people
of the city are yet full of praise of His Royal Highness,
and never fail to give strangers a full account of his
visit, down to a minute account of the clothes he wore.
In this fondness for minute description of exalted per-
sonages the Canadians resemble their cousins the Yankees.

Among a multitude of points of interest in the city
is the Roman Catholic cathedral. French Canadians say
that this is the largest church in the whole of America,
and that it will seat more than 10,000 persons. Possibly;
it certainly is a very fine building. The whole appearance
of the city has an air of substantiality that has not its
equal in any other American town — not even in New
York ; and Montreal should certainly be the capital of
the British dominions.

Considerable difficulty arose as to the manner in
which I should perform my proposed exploration of the
gulf. I wished to make a canoe journey similar to that
performed on the great lakes, but there were no Indians

168 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

or trappers here to be hired, and I soon found that the
expense of a properly equipped boat-expedition would be
beyond my means. Ultimately my journeyings about
the gulf were reduced to a few trips along certain
portions of the north shore, and a visit to the great
island (about 2000 square miles in extent) of Anticosti.
My sojourn on the latter was so short that I had ab-
solutely no time to study the natural history of the
country. That portion of it that I visited was low and
swampy, and covered with forests of trees of stunted
growth ; but there were black bears in abundance at
certain spots, which were not at all inferior in size to
those found in other parts of Canada. This seems to me
rather strange, since the larger quadrupeds are usually of
much smaller size on islands ; as may be instanced by
the elephants of Ceylon, which are not a distinct species,
and the tigers of Sumatra, &c. The bears are certainly
of the same species as those on the continent, and they
must have got hither on the ice, since it is impossible to
believe that the breed could exist for untold ages in so
confined a space without degenerating in size, or could
have swam the sea-channel, which is at least thirty or
forty miles wide in the narrowest portion.

Having passed down the river to Quebec, and snow
being by this time on the ground, I made arrangements
with a Mr. Finnock, boss of a party of lumberers, to
journey with him to his station on the gulf. Before
quitting Quebec I went to see the Montmorenci Falls.
I do not think that I have ever read a description of
them in which the epithet " celebrated "' or " famous " was
not used by the writer. There is nothing remarkable
about them ; and after seeing Niagara they are positively
tame, though their height is as great, and appears much
greater, on account of the smallness of their width.
Niagara and Montmorenci are too hackneyed to be
described here ; but there was a singular phenomenon at
the latter which I have never seen referred to, though I

JOURNEY TO GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 169

was informed that it is of annual occurrence. The spray
had formed an ice steeple, nearly a hundred feet high, in
front of the falls ; and this was the only point about them
which could be described as grand or imposing. The
steeple rose sheer from the water, and must have been
grounded on the rock beneath it, since its weight was
many tons. When the thaw sets in this steeple must
fall with a terrific splash, but I could not hear of any one
who had witnessed its fall.

Quebec, the capital of the country, is also the first
town in it, for there is no collection of houses worthy the
name of township below it. For many miles there are
scattered villages and farms, and along the roads there
are inns where the traveller may get good, if occasionally
rough, accommodation. He is sure of a good feed, and
a jovial, hospitable welcome ; and that is more than can
always be said in some lands a great deal nearer the
great centres of civilisation than the outlying portions
of Canada.

Finnock (who was a hard-fisted, sturdy Scot, with a
heart worthy of his great body; and I travelled on a
" sleigh " ; it being almost a solecism to say " sledge " here.
Sleigh travelling is very pleasant on good roads, but
positively devilish where the ruts and holes are frequent
and deep, as is, or was at this time, usually the case when
the immediate neighbourhood of Quebec is passed. The
makers of sleighs, and sleigh- harness, appear to know
well what test their work is likely to undergo, and I admit
they do it well ; for the strain both successfully resist
is simply enormous. Down drops the sleigh into a hole
eighteen inches or two feet deep, but on dash the horses
and bring it out again with a jerk that jolts you, it seems,
a yard up from your seat, and causes a most uncomfortable
sensation to shoot up your body, something between a
pang and a shock. If you complain, those used to the
" sport " laugh ; if the confounded thing upsets and is
dragged over you, they laugh ; if you are shot out into

170 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

a dozen feet of slush and water, they laugh ; if you
lose your temper, they go into ecstasies ; in a word, what-
ever accidents happen, everything seems to be a source
of amusement to those used to this form of travelling ;
and, I am afraid, the point of the game is to "get your
shirt out," as they elegantly phrase it, and which seems
to be synonymous with failing to " keep your hair on."

At places there were very good roads, made, it would
seem, by the private enterprise of the farmers and the
inhabitants of the adjacent hamlets. Sometimes the
road was formed in the old American fashion, by laying
tree trunks side by side ; but this is a frightful sort of
pathway when it is out of repair. When the snow lies
thick, and is hard frozen, filling up the interstices between
the trunks, the sleigh travels well on it, and smoothly ;
but at the first hole ! — mention it not ! It is my opinion
that the very horses enjoy the " spill " that then occurs.
I am sure the dogs do. Strange ; but it is the " new-
chum " that invariably gets the sleigh atop of him ; and
he is the only being, man or beast, that does not seem to
see the fun of the thing. " Never mind, old horse. Get
up. We have all been through the mill. Eh ! ! ! Broken
a bone ! Oh ! I see you want the girls to take you on
their lap." And the guftaw that greets this sorry sally
effectually shuts you up at anything under a broken
back.

On this occasion we got on pretty well until nearing
the village of Ma] Bale, when the sleigh plunged through
the snow into a hole so deep that the horses failed to
pull it out again ; but instead went sprawling with
terrific results. I went up first, and came down with
my legs and wings spread out in elegant cruciform style,
an involuntary " Oh ! " being forced from me as I came
down face undermost ; while behind I heard an energetic

in strong Scotch accents, and a jabber of very

wicked-sounding French from the driver. " There, my
friends," said I, when I had picked myself up, " perhaps

JOURNEY TO GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 171

you see something to laugh at in that." The Scotchman
had as fine a pair of black eyes as ever I saw. Baptiste,
or whatever our French driver was called, was bleeding-
like a bullock from the nose; while I, in spite of my
efforts to carry it off airily, was soon compelled to sit
down and groan. The horses meantime, being used, I
suppose, to this sort of thing, lay as quiet as lambs.

Presently a sleigh came along containing a gentleman
and two most charming French ladies, and immediately
all was sympathy and condolence. The gentleman, hand-
ing the reins to his wife, got out to help us ; the sleigh
was pulled out of the hole, the horses set on theu' feet,
and we invited to refresh at the gentleman's farm, which
was not more than a mile distant. Here we received
such kindly hospitality that we were induced to remain
until the third day. By this time we had pulled our-
selves together somewhat, though it was a week or two
before Finnock ceased to look like a fighting-man who
had got the worst of it. So kind was this hospitable
farmer, and the dear ladies especially, that I quite
regretted having to leave them so hurriedly.

The country hereabout was as flat as a pancake,
though elevated considerably above the river or gulf,
which could be seen on our right hand ; and I am much
mistaken if it is not the bed of an ancient lake which
has eaten through the boundary rocks and emptied itself
into the gulf. This flat valley, which is of great extent,
is highly fertile, and was thickly strewn with farms and
homesteads, being highly cultivated, though there were
patches of forest, reminding me of our English woods,
left standing here and there. The roads, as a rule, are
good through this valley, and the district one of the
best peopled I had seen in any part of Canada. We
daily passed many sleighs, the inhabitants, at this season,
riding about for pleasure ; for all agricultural operations
in Canada are suspended while the ground is covered
with frozen snow, and the people devote their time to

172 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

sleighing, tobogganing, and other outdoor games, and to
social amusements indoors, many of which are borrowed
from the Yankees, and will be described farther on.

The road that we have been travelling over runs
parallel with the river, or nearly so, and at no great
distance from it. Often we got enchanting views of the
water. As to the general appearance of the country, it
varied a great deal, presenting a succession of scenery
from flat plains to rugged mountains. In some spots
the river banks were several hundred feet high, and
very precipitous, but generally covered with trees, which
found a lodgment in the crevices, or on narrow shelves
of rock; at other places the banks were low — almost
level with the water. The ascent to the higher ground
was gradual, by a series of terraces. Inland from the
river the country is hilly, often rising into rugged ranges.
I was told that still farther north the country was very
mountainous, with a bold, rocky outline — in fact a very
similar range to the Rockies of the west ; but this part
of the country was not visited by me. I saw enough,
however, to show me that the country below Quebec,
trending northward, is very mountainous ; and the rivers
have deep, rocky beds, with fierce currents, and a con-
tmuous line of cataracts and falls that make the
navigation, where attempted, most laborious, more than
three-fourths of the men's time being taken up in
making portages; in fact there is practically no navi-
gation on the rivers falling into the gulf. The estuary
of the St. Lawrence is very wide, insomuch that I could
not tell the point where the gulf really commenced.
A great portion of the channel, which is often called,
and marked on the maps as, the River, is, I think, more
properly a portion of the gulf, and is so considered here.
All portions of the river below the mouth of the
Saguenay being not less than thirty miles wide, and
absolutely salt, I look upon as the waters of the gulf.

Below Mai Baie the forests cover large tracts, although

JOURNEY TO GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 173

much of it has been cut down by the lumberers. Higher
up the country, along the road we came, there was com-
paratively little forest, it having been destroyed by the
settlers for fuel, or for farm purposes ; and of big game
we saw none at all. All the deer and bears have been
exterminated near the settlements, and only wanderers
occasionally appear. There are said to be foxes and
gluttons hereabout, and packs of wolves generally appear
during the winter ; but their coming is the signal for a
general assembly of the farmers for a wolf hunt, and all
are destroyed before they have time to do much hurt.
The system of hunting is to form a great circle of men,
who gradually close in on the centre, killing every-
thing that is worth powder and shot. Such a system
is only worthy of savages and pot-hunters. It is not
sport.

About thirty miles beyond Mai Bale the road ceased,
but still there was a track, showing that we had not quite
got to the bounds of tolerably well-inhabited country.
For some time the road had been a very rotten affair,
and we had several spills, but without much damage
done. On this section of our route we passed many
lumberers' huts, and a few small outl}dng farms. We
generally passed the night at one of the latter, where
we were always kindly received, and the best the house
could provide placed before us ; but on one occasion we
had to stop at a lumberer's hut where the accommoda-
tion was simply awful — but of this more presently.

On the 5th December we arrived at the Duck River,
where our sleigh drive terminated, the driver having
only bargained to take us so far. Near here I obtained
a splendid view of the gulf. The water near the shore,
and seemingly for a mile out, was frozen over, presenting
a broad sheet of ice. Beyond, the dark blue line of the
open sea was visible, full of floating masses of loose ice
and small icebergs. A large island could be seen in
mid-channel, but the opposite shore was not visible.

174 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Five or six miles down channel we perceived the masts
of a considerable cluster of shipping.

Although we could not persuade our driver to take
us any farther, he having secured a return fare at one
of the last stages, we succeeded in borrowing horses at
a neighbouring post where lived a supermtendent of the
lumbering trade, and on the 7th we reached Tadoussac,
a trading station of the Hudson Company, but quite
unlike any of their posts or forts I had hitherto seen.
Tadoussac is a scattered hamlet at the mouth of the
river Saguenay, and reminded me of pictures of a Swiss
village ; for the huts are perched here and there, up and
down the precipitous rocks, in such a way as to cause me
to wonder how the inhabitants could reach them.

The country is quite mountainous here, and very
rugged, the rocks being often quite precipitous and
destitute of vegetation. Indeed, just about Tadoussac
the mountains have only a few clumps of pine trees
scattered about them. No doubt most of the trees have
been destroyed, for this is a great lumber depot. There
is no fort at Tadoussac,

A little farther on, and to the right hand of Tadoussac,
is another and larger village, St. Catherine, which owes
its existence to the lumber trade. The Saguenay is a
large, broad river of great depth at its mouth, indeed
said by the ignorant lumber-men to be unfathomable.
The truth seems to be that the current is so strong that
any light sounding weight is forced outward towards the
St. Lawrence before it can reach the bottom. The
leadsman therefore pays out fathom after fathom with-
out finding the bottom. Nevertheless the depth is cer-
tainly very great, and from this cause, and the swiftness
of the current, the river never freezes over near the
mouth. Broad as it is it is hemmed in by gigantic rocks
with wall-like faces in many places, and the view up the
river is cut off by a huge rounded rock, having the form
of a bull's head and shoulders, and hence called " The

JOURNEY TO GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 175

Bull." The mouth of the river forms the Bay of Tadoussac,
said to be the finest and safest harbour in the estuary of
the St. Lawrence. To my surprise, I saw quite a fleet
of sailing ships and small craft in the bay, all frozen in,
and waiting for the spring to load with timber, which
would be floated down the river from the interior as
soon as the thaw set in. Some trade in dried fish also
takes place here. From Tadoussac the opposite shore
of the gulf is visible, showing as blue-gray mountains,
which must be of considerable height. It is only in
clear weather that they can be seen ; but thick weather
is not of frequent occurrence in the gulf at any season
of the year.

I thought it strange that ships should find it con-
venient to pass the whole winter here in idleness, but
the explanation was that ships cannot enter the gulf in
the spring until the heavy ice has cleared away, but by
that time ships which have wintered here have their
cargoes on board and are ready to sail on theh home-
ward voyage. The ice on the rivers up country thaws,
and permits the timber to be floated down, long before
the St. Lawrence is clear of ice.

St. Catherine is quite a seaport on a small scale. Jack
can get drunk there and kick up a bobbery ; and I am
sorry to say that here I, for the first time since I have
been in the country, found Indian women who, like the
sally-port sirens of Portsmouth, make a trade of robbing
Jack of his hard-earned wages.

The ships engaged in the timber trade are woefully
undermanned. Some of the crews make money by
timber felling during their stay ; others, and especially
the ofiicers, go up the river to the big towns to take it
easy till the break-up of the frost recalls them to their
duty.

At Tadoussac there is a big saw-mill, but the post to
which my friend was bound was seventy miles off on a
creek tributary of Saguenay, and it was his intention to

176 TPxE GREAT NORTH-WEST

cover this distance on snow-shoes. I had already come
to look on a little trot of seventy miles as a mere flea-
bite of a journey, and determined to accompany him,
and spend the remainder of the winter in learning the
trade of a lumber-man.

Goose Creek, the spot to which we were bound, was
not Mr. Finnock's usual post. He was going to replace
the gentleman in charge there who had been brought
down to Tadoussac in an apparently dying state. Poor
fellow ! he suffered from that most horrible of diseases,
consumption, and the rough hfe up country had played
sad havoc with him. We heard afterwards that he died
before reaching Quebec.

I was most anxious before leaving the coast to go
out on the water, and I persuaded some of the sailors
to drag a boat over the ice, to gratify my wish. We
launched it and pulled along the edge of the margin
ice, if I may so call it, that next the shore to which
it was attached, and which was at leafet a mile broad,
and much more about a point of land ahead of us,
probably five or six miles. Outside the margin there
was a vast quantity of loose ice, some of the blocks
being large enough to be very formidable to the boat's
safety. I suppose that this loose ice was the result of
the heaving of the waves ; or perhaps the strong current
of the river was the cause of its becoming detached.
The danger from the swirling ice was so great that we
were obliged to give it a great offing. Farther out there
were still greater blocks that must have weighed many
tons, and were an effectual barrier to safe navigation.
We remained on the water but a very short time, as
there was no object to be gained and the danger was
great. I tried fishing with a hook and line, and also
with a cast net, but nothing was captured. The ice
barrier prevented us from landing on other parts of the
coast, so we returned, dragging the boat back with us.

CHAPTER XVI

A WINTER WITH THE LUMBERERS

FiNNOCK having completed bis business at Tadoussac, we
started for Goose Creek, tbe journey of some seventy-
miles being to be performed on foot. Goose Creek is a
local name given by tbe lumberers to tbe spot. The
only map in my possession that appears to indicate tbe
place is an old French one, and according to this the
creek is called the Chekoutimiens River. It is a very
insignificant stream, at the bottom of steep rocky banks
which are, in many places, at least a hundred and fifty
feet high. AVhen the thaws of spring take place, there
is sufficient water to rush the rough logs along to the
Saguenay, whence they are dashed down to Tadoussac.

I use the words " rush " and " dash," for no others
will properly describe the motion of the logs in the water,
so powerfully are they hurried along by the furious
current. It sometimes happens that the logs cross and
intertwine, and form a temporary obstruction at the
heads of the rapids, checking the rush of the water until
sufficient weight has collected against the obstruction to
force it. Then it is burst asunder with a terrific impulse,
and sometimes with a report equal in intensity to that of
a small cannon.

We started, as I have said, on foot, there being no
other available means of travelling; the country being
impossible for sleighs, and there being no means of sub-
sistence for horses. The first day's journey was supposed
to be about fifteen miles, and it took us nearly eight
hours to do it on snow-shoes. These we were often

^" M

178 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

obliged to talse off to enable us to climb the rocks. The
route was the most difficult of access of any I had hitherto
passed over, being steep rocks alternated with deep
gulches. There was no forest; only scattered spruce
trees of small size, and a few bushes. No game was
seen. A few ducks flying in the distance, and a few
small birds were the only living things met with. Of
the small birds the snowflake (snow-bunting already
described) was the only one I recognised with certainty,
for I had no ammunition to spare in shooting specimens ;
all my possessions for the winter's use being what I
carried on my back in a knapsack and a bag at the
waist-belt.

Towards the close of the day we turned inward
toward the river, and passed the night in the hovel of
some lumberers, sleeping (nine of us altogether) so closely
together that there was literally no room to turn.

We started again at daybreak over similar country,
but there was more wood ; and near the river we saw
the stumps of many thousands of felled trees. As we
advanced, the timber became finer, more various, and
in greater quantity. The hovels of the timber-fellers,
also, were pretty numerous, and we stopped at one for
the mid-day meal, consisting of ship's biscuit and salt
pork.

These lumberers' hovels are most wretched affairs.
They are generally a shed of logs erected over a hollow
in the ground, and are so low pitched that it is impossible
to stand upright in them. They are, in fact, like great
dog-kennels, and you have to stoop doubled up to enter
the hole which, by courtesy, is called the door. Inside,
the floor is strewn with spruce boughs which serve for
seat and bed, and there is really no furniture. Some
fastidious fellow may, perhaps, have a rough three-legged
stool to sit on, but anything like a table I never saw.
The cooking is done outside in the open air, no matter
how sharp the weather is ; and at night-time, if a fire is

A WINTER WITH THE LUMBERERS 179

required, it is made opposite the entrance to the hovel ;
but the men depend for warmth mostly on lying close
together, literally heaped in a mass under blankets
and ru<?s.

At such hovels we spent the third and fourth nights,
obtaining food and shelter ; the men in each case being
under Mr. Finnock's direction. We then had the worst
stage of the journey to perform, an unbroken spell of
twenty miles, to be covered in a short winter's day, with
the certainty that we should meet nobody in the whole
distance. We this day had to cross a range of hills of
several hundred feet in height, the path being of the
most rugged and trying description. We sometimes
had to climb almost precipitous ascents, and long before
the day was half over my knees were trembling under
me. Finnock, sturdy Scot as he was, I could see was
considerably distressed, though he would not admit it.
It will be noticed that we had no guide, the river on our
left hand serving the purpose of a directing line. We
often lost sight of it, even for the greater part of the day ;
but the downward dip of the land was sufficient indication
of its trend. It was impossible to keep very near it on
account of the rocky and broken nature of the banks.

As we advanced the forest tracts became more and
more frequent and extensive, intermingled with bare and
forbidding-looking rocks. Some of the hills must, I
think, have been quite two thousand feet above the level
of the gulf. We passed close to a great bear this day,
the first big game we had seen. I wished to shoot it,
a proposal which greatly alarmed Finnock, Avho would
not hear of its being interfered with. " Eh, mon ! they're
vary uncanny beasts when their bristles are up." I was
vexed, as the skin would have been most useful in
present circumstances. I soon found that Finnock was
no sportsman ; but his refusal to interfere with dangerous
animals was probably due to excessive caution, as he was
plucky enough on occasion.

180 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

About two o'clock in the afternoon we ascended an
eminence from which we could see a distance of many
miles in nearly every direction, and from which we hoped
to be able to sight our destination. To our vexation,
however, no signs of the post could be discerned, and it
became evident that it was still many miles off. Soon
after it began to snow heavily, and it became necessary
to seek shelter before darkness set in, if we did not wish
to incur the risk of perishing in the storm. We cut
down spruce boughs with which to form a shelter, and
snow being piled over this, we soon had a tolerable cover-
ing over our heads ; but all our efforts to get a fire to
burn were futile, the wood being too damp to ignite. We
had but a mouthful of food with us, and a small bottle
of rum ; and with this, and huddling close together to
maintain our heat, we contrived to keep alive till the
faint light of approaching day enabled us to resume our
way.

It was still snowing, and as the surface snow was
loose, we could not use our snow-shoes, even where the
ground was tolerably level. Moreover, we met with a
nasty accident soon after starting. In climbing over a
steep rock a huge mass of snow gave way under Finnock.
I happened to be directly under him, and he came right
on to me. Down we both went, rolling thirty feet over
the jagged rocks. Though my gun was at half-cock,
one barrel by some means exploded, the charge passing
close enough to Finnock's head to singe his hair. We
were both much cut and bruised, and my friend so
much lamed that it was with difficulty he could hobble
along.

Under these circumstances it was nearly the close of
the day before we came to the encampment ; and rough
as were the surroundings, I do not know that I ever
beheld a blazing fire and heard the cheery shout of fellow-
men with more pleasure than on this occasion. The boys
were eating roast porcupine, those animals being numer-

A WINTER WITH THE LUMBERERS 181

ous in the neiglibourhood ; and, hungry as I was, I
thought the meat deHcious.

It was a week before Finnock could get about, his
ankle being much swelled. The men lived in the usual
miserable huts, but there was an erection of a rather
better kind for the boss. As it was not equal to my
idea of a comfortable lodging, however, I proceeded to
build a hut of my own, I being,, as the result of past
experience, pretty expert at this kind of work. More-
over, I was soon on chummy terms with several of the
men, who willingly lent me a hand ; so in a few days I
had a very comfortable hut, in which I could at least
stand upright, with a raised bed-place in one corner.

There were twenty men in this camp, the majority, in
about equal numbers, being Scotch and French Canadians.
There was one Irishman, " Mike " O'Neill ; one EngHsh-
man, two Yankee deserters from their ships, and a Nor-
wegian. There was also a " John Chinaman " to cook
for the gentlemen, and do their washing, and who was of
a perpetual mud colour from the effects of the cold ; and
whose life, I am afraid, was rendered wretched by the
tricks the " gentlemen " played with his tail. There
were likewise three Indian women, squaws to some of
the lumberers.

On our first arrival there seemed to have been some
trouble amongst this motley company, for some of them
had black eyes, and others noses that were swollen and
red; and many angry looks, and a great deal too much
swearing, were interchanged between certain individuals.
I heard Finnock, too, complain that a proper amount of
work had not been done ; but even before he could get
about this was remedied. Before daybreak the men
were aroused by Johnny blowing a horn — the most
horrid-toned horn I ever heard. Everybody was on
his pins in an instant, for everybody went to bed in his
clothes ; and breakfast being ready before the horn was
sounded, every man set to at once to consume his cojffee

182 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

and pork and damper. Johnny was an expert at pre-
paring the latter; and nobody troubled that he licked
his fingers every time that he burned them, and forgot
to wipe them before he handled the food. The break-
fast was eaten within the grateful warmth and red light
of huge pine-branch fires, and was a wildly picturesque
scene. Every man had to finish his meal before there
was daylight enough for him to work by, that there
might be no loss of time. By daybreak every man was
wielding his heavy axe as if working against time.

I was not without a little experience, and I determined
to be no idler. But behold the mighty " Irish Mike."
Standing by a pine, two feet in diameter, he raises his
huge felling axe, and brings it down with a thud that
echoes and re-echoes through the dim glades of the
forest. First a cut sloping upwards, then one sloping
downwards, and the wedge-shaped chips fiy about with
a velocity and force that warn the on-looker to stand
clear. Those long, wiry arms of Mike's never cease
motion, but sway up and down with steady beat, " chip,
chop, chip, chop," until the great tree nods to its fall ;
and then, with one powerful horizontal stroke, delivered
strai^fht into the nick, the woodman finishes his work
and slays the tree that has breathed the sweet air of
perfect freedom for centiu-ies. Ah me ! am I poetical
and far-fetched ! The fall of a tree has always seemed
to me strangely like the death of some brave live
creature.

Now I have a try, and the kindly Mike stands by to
give " the bhoy " a word of instruction. In spite of my
attempts to imitate the measured stroke and fah cut of
the true lumber-man, it takes me an hour and a quarter
to fell a tree that Mike would ground in ten minutes.
But I improve as time goes on, and a month after my
arrival in camp, I can fell the tree in twenty-five
minutes, or half-an-hour at most.

Like other trades, there are tricks in that of a lum-

A WINTER WITH THE LUMBERERS 183

berer. The choice of the axe is all-important. There
is as much in the length and proper curve of the handle
as there is in the selection of any other tool ; and the
weight of the head should be proportioned to the
strength of the wielder. The heavier the axe the better,
provided the woodman's strength is not overtasked. Then
again, the cut, though delivered in a sloping direction,
must be perfectly straight in the line of the blow, other-
wise a great part of its effect is lost. Another point is to
hit in the right place ; the lumberer must be a marks-
man— must have a true eye. It takes years to make
a thoroughly good lumberer. Such, however, will fell
a tree two feet in diameter within ten minutes.

The tree once down must be cleared of branches, and
this work I largely engaged in, as do beginners generally,
for the sake of the practice. I may add that my first
day's work gave me a dreadful attack of lumbago ; but
the benign Mike and the heathen Chinee between them,
stripped me and rubbed me for an hour, before a blazing
fire, with bear's grease ; and in a day or two I resumed
work, and ultimately could swing my axe from morn till
night with the hardiest of them. But it is fearful work.
The excessive labour and rough living will, and does,
cripple the most vigorous in a very few years ; yet, once
a lumberer, always a lumberer. The men love the wild
life, and few ever leave it until they leave the world.

At the present day I believe that tree-felling, both in
Canada and other parts of America, is mostly performed
by hand-saws. This must be on account of the scarcity
of skilled axe-men. For a good lumberer will bring
down his tree as speedily, at least, as two men with a
saw. However the tree is felled, the branches, &c., are
always piled in great heaps and destroyed by fire. The
reflection from these burning piles can sometimes be seen
for nearly a hundred miles ; and the odour of the burn-
ing wood can also be perceived at an immense distance.
Sometimes the fire from the burning piles catches the

184 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

standing wood, and then a deplorable waste of timber
takes place, hundreds of square miles being devastated.

There was plenty of whisky and rum in the camp at
the time of my arrival, which was all private property.
It, and the provisions for the season, had been brought up
by the Indians, and others hired for the purpose ; and
from time to time more was brought hither by the same
means ; for all through the winter there Avas occasional
communication with St. Catherine's port. Had I been in
command I should have insisted on the spirits being put
under control at least. As it was, it was no unusual
thing for all hands to be drunk. Even Finnock did not
put that curb on himself which it is particularly desirable
that a leader should.

Some of the men were very quarrelsome when tipsy.
This was particularly the case Avith M'Cullough —
" Fighting Jeamy M'Cullough," as he called himself.
Down to this time I had thought that Scots, however
stubborn and self-assertive some of them are, were all
too cautious to give way to unreasoning temper. Now I
discovered my mistake. I have never met with a more
quarrelsome man than Fighting Jeamy. He was the
author of the black eyes and broken noses before men-
tioned; and before a fortnight elapsed he had fought
with, and beaten, every man in the camp who had the
courage to stand up to him; and in consequence he
became tyrant over all.

He drank immense quantities of whisky while the
spirit lasted, and was seldom sober at night, though it
was only by his excessive quarrelsomeness that his in-
toxication could be discovered. " I'm a mon o' tre-
mendous pheesical powers, Mr. Founteen," he said to me
on one occasion ; and, by way of giving an illustration of
his endurance, he sprang up with the suddenness of a
madman, and beat his breast with appalling force. He
must indeed have been possessed with Herculean strength.
It was not long before his relations with Finnock, the

A WINTER WITH THE LUMBERERS 185

boss, were very much strained. They were both High-
landers, or " Hielandmen," as they termed themselves,
and as such held other Scots in some contempt. To
them a Lowlander was a " Southern carl " and a " loon."
The Lowlanders resented this ; but being in a minority,
and having all felt the weight of Jeamy's fist, they had
to " sing sma'," as Jeamy said. All the Scots here, three
excepted, were Highlanders; and, strange to say, they
seemed to think it an honour, rather than otherwise, to
have been well hammered by their fellow-countryman.
At all events they always sided with him against the rest
of the camp, and fights among the men were of almost
daily occurrence.

M'Cullough professed to doubt that Finnock was a
Highlander. " Feennock's no a Hieland neem," he said,
" It's mee opeenion that yeer just a taramed Edinborough
laddie frae the gutter that's managed to get one foot o'
the steerrup." "And I'll have ye to know that I'm
master here, and I'll no permit ye or any other man to
speak to me in that way. Just gang about yer business,"
retorted Finnock. Angry words passed, but nothing came
of it on that occasion.

One day, however, when I returned from wandering
in the woods, I found the whole camp in great glee.
There had been a scuffle between Finnock and M'Cullough,
and they had agreed to fight it out ; for, as Finnock
said, matters had come to such a pass that he could not
bide in the camp unless M'Cullough was mastered. Be-
sides, work was being neglected on account of the drinking
and quarrelling bouts, and some of the men spent much
of the day gambling for drink and card-playing.

Finnock told me that he had challenged M'Cullough
to a regular set-to ; " for," said he, " I must thrash him
before all the men, or I'll never maintain my authority.
If he is best man I'll have to quit the camp." He asked
me to be his second, or backer-up, and I knew enough of
camp etiquette to be assured that I could not refuse

186 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

without incurring a charge of meanness. For I had
arrived with him, and was considered his chum ; and,
moreover, had let out the fact that I knew something of
the noble art of self-defence. In those days I could
floor my man if occasion required it.

But I was much concerned for poor Finnock. I had
seen enough of Jeamy to perceive that, bully or no bully,
he could make himself a very ugly customer to a novice,
and knew a trick or two in the gentle science. Finnock,
so far from being a fighting man, I thought to be almost
without spirit. He disliked the sight of fire-arms, and never
used them ; nor would he kill any creature, even for food,
but always passed that unpleasant necessity to somebody
else — not the sort of man, one might well think, to prove
much of a fighter. But the unexpected often turns up ;
and quiet men are always dangerous when provoked.

The next day was a Sunday, and all hands were
idlers. There was no respect paid to the day here, not
even by the Scots ; and the ecstasy of those who ex-
pected to see a pleasant spectacle is indescribable. It is
no exaggeration to say that the rascals were one and
all beside themselves with delight at the prospect of
seeing a set-to ; but not one of them believed that the
boss would stand a shadow of a chance against Fighting
Jeamy. It is inexplicable ; for Finnock was a decent
fellow, and no slave-driver, but not one of the men,
except the Chinese cook, seemed at all sorry that their
leader was about to be well whipped. I thought it my
duty to tell my man that I thought he had not any
chance against his antagonist ; for I did not like to see
him run the risk of being terribly mauled ; but he quietly
said, " Never fear, laddie. I've seen better men than him
knocked out. I'll be killed before I give in ; but if I'm
beaten I shall have to leave the camp." That was true
enousrh, without doubt ; for with such men a beaten boss
would have been a mere butt, and his daily life rendered
intolerable.

A WINTER WITH THE LUMBERERS 187

Great preparations were made : a ring roped off in the
regular order, and the freshly fallen snow trod down hard
and levelled ; and plenty of whisky and water, and more
without water, got ready for the refreshment of the com-
batants and spectators ; and about noon the two men
entered the ring, stripped to their waists, in the orthodox
way. M'Cullough at once made a rush at Finnock, clearly
hoping to bear him down and finish the fight off-hand ;
but the latter skilfully gave ground, and held himself
with an easy defence that showed he was no novice, and
surprised as much as it delighted me. Jeamy, seeing it
necessary to mind his p's and q's, altered his tactics, and
went to work more cautiously. There was considerable
sparring between the men ; but at length Jeamy got in
with a nasty blow on the chest that knocked my man flat,
and for a moment I feared that he was done for. How-
ever, I got him on his pins to time, and whispered him to
fight for time to recover his breath. The next round was
a short one. Jeamy again got in on Finnock's left peeper
(eye) and closed it, the blow being again a knock-down
one. Matters began to look very bad for the boss, but
the third round changed the aspect somewhat. Finnock
struck his opponent a heavy blow on the chin. I heard
Jeamy's teeth snap sharply, and blood ran from his mouth,
showing that he was badly cut. Some of the surround-
ing rascals laughed, and Johnny Chinaman clapped his
hands and yelled with delight : " Goee, goee. Master
Finny ! Dat's him ; goee, goee ! "

The next round was a long, roundabout one, both men
fighting cautiously, and evidently afraid of punishment.
Ultimately they closed, and Jeamy threw his opponent
over the ropes, but was himself dragged over among the
spectators. Neither man was much hurt in this round.
In the next, James went down to avoid chastisement.
The blow on his chin had evidently upset him. He
continually mouthed and twisted his lips about ; and I
hinted to my man that if he could land him another in

188 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

the same place it would settle him. However, for another
half-hour the light went on in a very lukewarm manner.
Then Finnock got in with a terrific blow on his antago-
nist's nose, and Jeamy dropped senseless. The bully
was mastered, and it took us an hour, and more, to
bring him back to his senses.

All next day he lay in his hut groaning and grunting,
and I had to make him a little soup myself, for the
vindictive Chinaman would not do it. Jeamy had
offended him past forgiveness by nailing his pigtail so
firmly to his cook's block that Johnny had to sacrifice
some inches of the sublime appendage to get free. As to
his boon companions, like the generality of vulgar minds,
they turned from the defeated tyrant, and were among
the first to give him a bad name.

Acting on my advice, the first use Mr. Finnock made
of his victory was to let the men plainly know that no
more drunken idleness would be tolerated. The huts
were searched, and all the whisky and rum taken
possession of, and, the men only allowed a small quantity
when the day's work was over.

Nothing was seen of Jeamy outside his hut for a few
days. Whether he was as much hurt as he seemed to
be, or whether he was simply shamefaced, I cannot tell ;
but his face was a picture, though in this respect Finnock
was almost as bad. One morning he put his head into
my hut. " There's no pad plud between you and I,
Measter Founteen ? " "Not a di'op," replied I, offering
my hand. " Praps you'd pe goot enough to mak me a
pair o' snoe-shoes ; ye seem to be a bit dapper hand at
that work ? " " Certainly ; with pleasure," I replied.
" Are you going to take a trip in the woods ? " " Yes, I
theenk a walk wod be goot for me health." I offered to
lend him my snow-shoes, saying that I could soon make
another pair. He took them ; and that is the last any of
us saw of Mr. M'Cullough. When he departed no one
knows ; but he went. At first I feared that he might

A WINTER WITH THE LUMBERERS 189

have met with a misadventure lq the forest, but I followed
his trail so far on the road to St. Catherine's as to convince
me that he was making for that settlement, especially as
it was soon discovered that he had taken all the provisions
that he could find in the men's huts. We afterwards
learned that he safely reached the coast, and departed
for Quebec.

I have related this somewhat blackguardly affair, as
it gives a good picture of what camp life in the back-
woods often is. Kid gloves and refined manners must
hold a second place in the wilds of America. The man
who comes here must be able to blister his hands without
a murmur, and if not exactly a fighting man, should be
able to give and take a blow. The Christian precept of
resisting not evil is one that I, in common with all men
who desire to do what is right, respect ; but I take it as
being purely personal in application. The man who has
the safety and welfare of a party in his hands must
defend their interests at any cost ; and is justified, in
such circumstances as those I have narrated, in defend-
ing, even at the cost of some violence, the charge
committed to his care ; that is my view.

The departure of M'Cullough was a good riddance.
The camp became a different place at once. Drunkenness
and gambling ceased, and there were no more fights.
The men admitted that they benefited by having the
spirits placed under control, and served out to them in
moderate quantities when their work was done, the time
when they most needed a little stimulant. Men every-
where must be amused in some form, must have some
relaxation, and if this is not supplied to them they will
fall back on their own resources, and those resources,
unfortunately, of men of toil usually take a mistaken
turn. It is therefore the bounden duty of a man in
charge of others, and who invariably holds his position,
or ought to, on account of his superior intelligence, to
provide proper amusement for those dependent on him.

190 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

It is surprising how easily, at the expenditure of a little
tactful trouble, men can be led. What is required is
contrast. Light upon dark. Men whose physical powers
have been greatly tried, must have mental relaxation, or
the balance is lost, and either health, or morals, are
destroyed. No matter how ignorant, how illiterate, men
may be, healthful literature always has an attraction for
them. If they cannot read, they invariably will listen to
him who can, if he will only be at the trouble to put his
heart into his reading. Nothing is a success that is done
perfunctorily, and discretion is necessary. A man that
has been studying closely all day requires outdoor
amusements, as football or cricket ; he who has been
straining every muscle of his body from daybreak to
sunset, must assist the rest of his tired frame by having
his mind exercised, and that not in a laborious manner.
He is too tired for strong mental exertion. In order to
amuse him he must be interested in such a way that he
entirely forgets exertion of all kinds. In providing the
means of doing this the world's great writers of fiction
have done a grand, a noble work, for which their fellow-
men can never be too grateful to them. What they
have done to prevent crime and lunacy can never be
known on this side of the dark river ; like all true and
good work, theirs is too quiet, too unobtrusive, to be
thoroughly appreciated, even by those who most benefit
by it. I will prose no more on this subject, but I must
record a fact that to my mind is most interesting. There
were four books only in camp — the Bible, " Oliver Twist,"
"The Heart of Midlothian," and "Valentine Vox," and these
books were re-read to the assembled toilers several times
before the winter was over, for the evenings were long ;
and in so great reverence were they held, that any man
who had ventured to tear a leaf from one of them with
which to light his pipe, would have been in some danger
of being lynched ; he certainly would have been chastised.

A WINTER WITH THE LUMBERERS 191

There was not much game in the vicinity of the
camp. Though we saw a bear on our journey up, I
could find no traces of others. The only large game
I killed during the entire time of my stay here was a
couple of moose-deer. There was an abundance of
grouse, ptarmigan and Canadian grouse, already noticed
in another part of the country, but no ducks or geese till
the approach of spring, when the latter were especially
abundant, as may be guessed from the name of the creek.
Throughout the winter there were snow-buntings, or
snow-flakes, as the Canadians invariably call them, about
our neighbourhood, but I saw no other small birds till
March. Then several flocks passed overhead, but I did
not succeed in obtaining specimens and therefore cannot
name the species. Subsequent to their appearance, there
was a heavy fall of snow, and more than a month elapsed
before a general thaw set in. In fact this spot proved
one of the poorest, from a naturalist's point of view, that
I ever stayed at for any length of time ; but it should be
mentioned that I never wandered more than a few miles
from camp, for I suffered excessively from the cold, and
was unwell during much of the time of my stay here.
Also the ground had been much shot over by the men,
who had doubtless thoroughly scared the game.

Once or twice we heard wolves howling at night, and
saw their tracks in the snow ; but I could never catch sight
of any of them, or succeed in trapping them. There were
porcupines here, of the species common over nearly the
whole of North America, viz. Erethizon dorsatus. I have
found this animal on both sides of the continent as far
south as the 35 th parallel, and as far to the north as I
have wandered. Strange as the fact may seem, this
porcupine never hibernates, not even in the most northern
part of its habitat. Though it differs much from the
tree-porcupines of South America, I have, down to a
recent date, considered it to be a tree-porcupine ; but I
now learn that it is not a true tree-porcupine. Never-

192 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

theless, it is almost entirely arboreal in its habits, leaves
of trees forming the chief parts of its food, though it also
eats fruits and nuts, particularly beech mast.

It is by far the largest of American porcupines, and
I suppose of those of the Old World too, the average
weight being eighteen pounds, though individuals have
been captured by me which weighed twenty-three. It
is an uncouth-looking creature, not at all like the
European porcupine, and when huddled up among the
branches of a tree resembles a huge bird's nest. It is
thickly covered with mingled hair and spines, the latter
being short, about three inches in length, on the most
exposed parts of the body. It is said that the animal
can make a formidable defence against such beasts of
prey as the fox and the wolf. I think this is extremely
doubtful, for I know that the pole-cat frequently preys
on it. It is also eaten by Indians and trappers, and I
myself think the flesh superior to that of the rabbit. It
is not a prolific animal, having but one at a birth, and
occasionally two. It feeds and moves about mostly at
night ; but during the day makes no attempt to conceal
itself, lying asleep in the fork of a branch of the tree
where it has been feeding, and may be easily discovered
by those who know how to look for it. Those that I
have handled while alive never made any attempt to
bite ; and it seems to me that their sole attempt at
defence is to erect their bristles, which makes it diffi-
cult for a four-footed animal to attack them. They
do, however, fall a prey to animals and the larger birds
of prey.

The spring thaws began in April, and the men,
abandoning their axes, were busily engaged dragging the
logs to the banks of the stream and throwing them down
to be floated to Tadoussac by the current. Tens of
thousands of logs are thus sent down ; and are
generally sawn into planks at the mill before being
shipped. Indeed the mills are at work all the winter,

A WINTER WITH THE LUMBERERS 193

and the ships are loaded and ready to sail as soon
as the ice breaks up. So the logs of this year will
probably not be shipped until next season.

The throwing the logs down the steep banks is the
hardest, and also the most picturesque, part of the lum-
berers' labour. It is not performed until the ice breaks ;
otherwise the logs would jam, and form barriers in the
narrow parts of the stream, an accident which does some-
times happen, and gives a lot of trouble. Though the
logs have sometimes to float hundreds of miles to the
place where they are formed into rafts, very few, if any,
of them are lost.

In May I returned to Quebec, staying on the road a
short time at the house of a hospitable Frenchman, but
there is nothing in this part of my journey to record, for
I was in no condition to attend to the natural history
of the district, and I soon quitted Quebec for a short
sojourn at home.

On my return to America I went straight to the
States, being convinced that the climate of Canada was
too severe for me ; yet it was not until a year or two
later that I became the proprietor of the prairie schooner
(travelling store-waggon) so frequently alluded to in my
first book. My travels in the northern part of the
United States form the subject of the rest of this book ;
but they were not of such a nature as to admit of a con-
nected narrative. It is rather of the manners and
customs of the people that I now treat, but with an eye
to the natural objects of the districts through which I
passed.

CHAPTER XVII

YANKEE-DOODLE

I HOPE that the heading of this chapter will give none
offence. It ought not to, for " Yankee-Doodle " is the
national air — the " Marseillaise " of America, the " God save
the Stars and Stripes " of this land of liberty and equality.
Every schoolboy knows — no he does not. I beg pardon.
A certain select few know that the air of " Yankee-Doodle "
was originally known as " Moll Rowe in the Morning."
A naughty military saw-bones set the words of " Yankee-
Doodle " to the air of this excessively vulgar song in
ridicule of the poor Yankee militia ; but need I go on ?
Surely everybody knows that the intended ridicule
turned to honour, or was turned to honour.

Now I have a great, but not an unqualified, respect
for cousin Jonathan. He is a brave, hospitable fellow,
full of good qualities, and with plenty of (perhaps a little
too much) go in him. But he has his faults. He thinks
a great deal too much of his Stars and Stripes, for one
thing, and is too irritable under criticism for another.
Nor do I think much of his liberty and equality — not
enough to become a citizen of his country, in spite of the
fact that I have spent nearly two- thirds of my days
there. In fact, in my opinion, an Englishman has double
the personal liberty of a Yankee at home — though
abroad, I admit, he takes liberty enough. But it is not
the institutions of the country so much as the people
that are to blame for this. While pretending to despise
the pride, exclusiveness, and snobbery of the Old World,
there is no country in that Old World where there is

YANKEE-DOODLE 195

more slavery to custom and exclusive opinion, than in
the United States. A Yank, and more particularly a
Southerner, sneers at the aristocracy of birth and blood,
but he is confoundedly anxious to know who was your
great-grandfather. If the old gentleman was hanged for
forgery, you will be an object of interest ; if he was
hung, drawn, and quartered for high treason, you will be
a hero of the first water ; but if he was the village " snip "
you had better not mention the fact, even though he
went to a righteous man's grave.

I shall be told by a certain American critic that I
am perpetuating the usual errors against the American
people. I know that beforehand. The Yankee, like the
Irishman, is never satisfied. The more you concede to
him, the more he wants. He thinks that no one can
comprehend him and his " institutions," and is sure to
quarrel with his criticiser. That I look for ; but as the
gospel-tenter in the backwoods said to " Kernal " Cracker :
" You've got to be converted. You can take it lying
down like a lamb, or you can take it standing up like a
man ; but converted you shall be." So I mean to treat
Jonathan like a spoiled child. I am going to state my
opinion of him, his ways, and his customs, with a free-
dom and a cheek all his own. To paraphrase what is
often said of my own people, the Yankee, as a rule, knows
more of Europe than he knows of his own country. He
needs to learn to view himself as others see him.

To begin, the term " Yankee " is applied to the people
of the five New England States only. I give it a wider
range, and call all people born in the United States Yankees.
I have a perfect right to do so, for the term was origi-
nally given to all white men, settlers in North America.
Everybody has read that the word is supposed to be the
Indian attempt to pronounce the name, English. That is
an error. The term was first applied to the original
Dutch settlers, and " Yanki " is the correct spelling. A
yanki is a small kind of galiot, and the Dutch fur-

196 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

traders used craft of this kind to ascend the rivers in
search of their Indian customers. The latter transferred
the name of the boat to its crew, and called them Yankis,
or Yankees, just as Londoners speak of bargees. All
Indians invariably speak of the English as Ingleese.
There is no y in the Red Man's languages — not in any
of them that I have ever heard. If they use the sylla-
bles ya, ye, yi, yo or yii, or any similar, you may be
sure that the words in which they occur are of foreign
origin, not the pure language of the Indian. He would
not therefore use a 3/ in an attempt to pronounce the
word "English." The Dutch word "yanki" is, I believe, now
obsolete. It is used by many old writers. Its latest use
by an English writer, so far as I have been able to dis-
cover, occurs in a little-known novel by Tobias Smollett,
" The Modern Don Quixote."

Whence the Yankee inherited one of his most pro-
minent characteristics, his excitability, it is difficult to
imagine. He certainly did not derive it from his
English ancestors. There is a great deal of French
blood in the land, but not enough to account for the
almost mad restlessness of the Yankee who can trace
his ancestry, as a citizen, back for three or four or more
generations. There is as much Dutch and German
stock in the country as French ; and it would seem that
a great mixture of races is accountable for the peculiarity.
Be it as it may, it is certain there is not so much that
is purely English left in the American character as is
generally supposed on this side of the herring-pond ; and
though I expect to raise a hornet's-nest by saying it, I
have satisfied myself that there are very few American
families who can trace their descent from a purely
English source.

There are not a more restless and hasty people on
earth than the Americans. I soon got at loggerheads with
them on the point of " grubbing," to put it straight, I
decline to shovel the food into my stomach like coals into a

YANKEE-DOODLE 197

cellar to please any man. Our Dickens told the plain truth
when he described cousin Jonathan as feeding much like
a hog. One of themselves laughingly said that it was a
standing joke in his city that a man rushed into an eating-
saloon, hung up his hat, and before it had ceased to swing
on the nail, had bolted his dinner, and was ready to go
back to business. Now, to my thinking, eating and
drinking is one of the chief businesses of life ; and I
willingly open this weak point to Mr. Critic. Laugh,
joke, sneer as you will, I am convinced that the reason,
now I am getting old and grey, after a life of excessive
hardship, that I have still a hard fist and a jovial temper
is, that I have paid a proper respect to the gentleman
who has kept my arms and legs going. I do not allow
him to be hurried over his work, or to be stinted, or
abused, in any form. He has his hour to breakfast, his
hour to dinner, and his hour to supper, less not one minute,
on any account whatever.

Board is very cheap, or was in my time, in most parts
of the States, as well it might be when the boy or girl
wished to clear the table by the time I had swallowed two
ounces. On this and other accounts I never could endure
life in an American town, and I suppose no man ever spent
so long a time in the States as I have done and knew less
about its big cities. Seriously, I think that the haste with
which food is eaten, the number of hot cakes and sweets,
and the everlasting iced drinks, cocktails, and mint juleps,
are the cause, in great measure, of the dyspepsia and bowel
complaints to which Americans are so subject.

A public lecturer in London is reported to have said
some time ago that gentlemen in America lived in a
perfect fever of hasty business, and the ladies in — clover.
He is quite right. The Yankee is an unqualified idiot over
his womankind. The only time he idles is when he is
listening, with a silly smirk on his face, to the bombastic
gush of his wife. There her ladyship sits, rocking to and
fro, and displaying her elaborate tucks and frills, and a

198 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

long skinny leg, not at all like the elegant instep and
ankle of a sweet English girl. She passes her opinion
on all subjects, feminine or otherwise, and her husband
listens to her as to an oracle. She often looks a mere
child, even when she is the mother of several children,
and her youthful appearance makes her assumption seem
the more ridiculous. Yet, ubiquitous as she is in know-
ledge and self-assertion, you must be cautious in speaking
freely with her. No kind of nakedness must be men-
tioned. I once put my foot into it most terribly by
mentioning that I had met a party of German women
on a religious pilgrimage, walking with naked legs and
feet. Never can I forget the crimson indignation with
which the lady flounced out of the room, nor the fury of
the gentleman to whom she was engaged, who was fool
enough to think 1 had put a deliberate insult on his
fiancee. It seems most ridiculous and childish to an
Englishman to be told that he must not refer, before
ladies, to chanticleer by his ordinary vulgar cognomen.
Nor is there such a thing as a bull in the States. Here
he is a gentleman-cow.

But although there is so much silly squeamishness
among women in America, they often do and say things
that would shock the dear girls of the Old Country —
particularly, they are not at all backward in making
matrimonial proposals. I have myself, on at least seven
or eight occasions, been directly invited to enter the
silken (!) bonds, ungracious brute as I am. Looking
up some papers for purpose of reference, I have just
come across a letter that I may give here. Of course I
withhold name and place, but, extraordinary as the story
may seem to English ears, it is perfectly true.

I received a letter from a Mrs. F. K., who some said
was a widow, others a divorcee, in which she, in very neat
language, proposed that we should join lots. I declined,
in a note which I at the time considered a masterpiece of
polite diplomacy ; yet I must have had some lurking un-

YANKEE-DOODLE 199

easiness of mind, for I started on a round with the waggon
at once. In two or three days I was caught up by one of
those vagabond negroes who are always lurking about
American towns, ready to take a journey to the moon or
anywhere for a dime.

" 'Mornen, Massa Fountain," said this rascal.

" Good morning, Smutball. What do you want ? "

" I'se got somefing for you, Massa Fountain. Can I
hab a whisky ? "

I ordered Cookee, my black servant, to give him half
a tumbler of whisky, which he swallowed at a gulp.

'' Golly, dat's good ! It am delicious."

" Well, what have you got for me, and where is it ? "

" It am a lub-letter from Missis K."

Like a certain countryman, I " felt a great conflobera-
tion," but Cupid was not the exciting cause. Smutball
pulled the lining out of his old hat, and made sundry
dives among his rags in search of the missive, and finally
produced it from the seat-pocket of his small-clothes.
Here it is : —

" Paul Fountain,- — When I catch you I'll cowhide you
till you scream. — Yours, &c., F. K."

It will surprise nobody to learn that I immediately
made tracks for a two thousand miles jaunt in Arizona
and other (then) outlandish parts.

Another characteristic of the pure Yankee is the pre-
posterous tales, not to say lies, which he is fond of telling.
This trait seems to arise from his boastfulness ; he will
not be outdone in anything. Sometimes his lies are
downright and impudent, often they are mere humour.
An Englishman remarked that he had heard they pro-
posed to start a service in London which should take a
passenger round the world in forty days. " Bah ! that
ain't nothing," said a Yankee bystander. " Do you mean
to say you think your country can beat it ? " "I should
think so. Why, there's a shoot-hole down in Alabama
where they drop the passenger in and land 'um on the

200 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

top of Fusi-yama in twenty minutes. There's side-shoots
for Hong-Kong, Calcutta, and a mint o' places, and the
return journey's only fifty cents."

In folly such as this the Yankee, as a rule, will take
and give a joke with great good-humour; and he is far
from wanting sound good sense in the daily relations of
life, as all the world knows; but he is boastful, self-
sufficient, and resentful to a degree. He does not cheer-
fully take a second place when fairly beaten. Take his
rifle-shooting as an instance. There were no shots hke
American shots. They could snuff a candle, drive a naiL
feather an "injun," and perform a thousand other impos-
sibles. As to the British rifleman — Lord help him if
ever he came before the American boys ! Well, Sam
sent his contingent to Wimbledon, and they were badly
whipped. There were the usual excuses. They had not
the pistol-grip to their rifles, were not accustomed to our
poor light, &c. Then we returned the compliment and
sent a team to Rush Bottom. Here, in spite of pistol-
grips and other fads, they were whipped worse than ever,
and we have heard no more of American marksmanship.
But we are scarcely forgiven yet for daring to be best men.

In the early part of my career rifle-clubs were very
prevalent in America, having a military, or semi-military,
organisation ; yet a large part of the community treated
the members with some ridicule, or at least cracked
their little jokes at their expense, particularly in giving
the clubs eccentric sobriquets. Thus, I remember, there
was the Alabama Crab-feet, and the Indiana Smutty-
guard, &c. In this perhaps the vulgar in America
simply resemble ourselves, for during a visit to Plymouth
I noticed a street urchin waddle up behind a somewhat
untidy-looking soldier and exclaim, " Quack ! quack ! "
Inquu'ing why he was so rude, " that be one of the
Mutley ducks " was the reply. This I found was the
sobriquet of the Devon Militia, whose barracks are on
Mutley plain.

YANKEE-DOODLE 201

The American riflemen seldom wore a uniform, and
were more ridiculous from point of numbers and appear-
ance than any other cause that I perceived, for I have
more than once seen cripples in their ranks. Often
there were more bandsmen than riflemen. Thus, one
body consisted of a band of four drums and a dozen
brass instruments, followed by a regiment of two ofl&cers,
four non-coms., and a couple of privates. Remarking on
this paucity of numbers to a neighbour who was some-
thing of a wit, he said, " The company is certainly rather
weak. In my regiment there were thirty generals, fifty
colonels, and a hundred majors." " How about sergeants
and privates ? " " Oh ! we did very well without them.
They would have made us look too much like a nigger
regiment."

Like boys in general, the Yankee boy is precocious.
He becomes a man at a very early age, not only in his
own estimation, but in that of his elders also, with the
result that, like the women, he is too often spoilt. It is
incomprehensible to an Englishman that urchins of
twelve or fourteen should be permitted to carry fire-
arms, and use them, threateningly, at least. On one
occasion a boy of thirteen presented a loaded revolver,
a heavy six-shooter, at me in resentment of a fancied

injury, and threatened to let G — d daylight

through me ; and this in the public street of a town of
some size. I was not slow to disarm him, and give him
a sound flogging; and, will it be believed, I narrowly
escaped being strung up to a lamp-post for so doing.
Murders by boys, and even girls, are not unfrequently
recorded in the American newspapers. It can scarcely
be otherwise where the people are allowed to carry fire-
arms indiscriminately, without either licence or regis-
tration.

In the early years of their lives many Americans
retain a very youthful appearance ; so that it is not
unusual to meet people, who do not seem to be out

202 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

of their teens, who are already the parents of famiUes.
As a rule, I think that Americans marry too young ; and
the results are often deplorable enough. A believer
myself in divorce for other serious causes than the sole
one admitted in England, I yet think that divorce is
deplorably frequent in the States generally. It is a
dreadful thing to bind a man for life to a drunken
woman, and I think the husbands of such creatures
fully entitled to a divorce ; nor would I permit religious
fanatics to bind men on this point; but there are few
drunken women in America. The majority of the
divorces are for incompatibility — that is, in common-
sense parlance, the parties are tired of each other. This
is a cause of separation that should be very cautiously
admitted. It is very easy for Yankees to boast of the
morality of their women when a woman can put away
her husband almost at her sweet will. She is thus called
a wife when, in most countries, she would be considered
simply a mistress.

But apart from this, and in spite of her fantastical
prudery, I doubt if the American woman is the superior
in virtue to the average European woman. It is a
delicate subject, and I shall confine myself here to
saying that the domestic hearth in the United States
is a far less enchanting place of rest than what it is in dear
old England. In fact there very often is no domestic
hearth at all in an American family. The wretched
custom of living in hotels and lodging-houses is very
prevalent in many of the towns of the States ; and even
in the country, when it has been my desire to live under
a roof for a time, I have either kept a bachelor home of
my own, or lodged with German or English emigrants
who had not yet fallen in with the custom of the land.

I have made these few cursory remarks on the
general manners and customs of the people of the United
States by way of preface ; for much of this book will
from this point treat of the Yankees and their peculiar

YANKEE-DOODLE 203

ways. It is one of the foibles of the Yankee that no one
understands him ; that no one is capable of drawing
a truthful picture of him and his country but himself.
This nonsense I refuse to respect. It is from outside
criticism that the truth is to be gleaned ; not from the
self-conceited opinion of a people themselves. No inci-
dent could better illustrate what I mean than one which
occurred after I had penned the bulk of this chapter.

It was announced in a London newspaper that a
company would shortly be registered to provide the
people of this country with American " quick luncheons."
The Yankee gentleman who seems to be the founder
of this scheme is reported to have said, " Londoners
have no idea of what our system is. They think that a
quick lunch is something that is thrown at them. But
they will discover their mistake when they find how
we treat them, and there are pretty well fifty new and
tasty dishes which we can offer them which are almost
unknown in this city."

This is the language of a man who has a concern to
run, and who seems to know very well that the
American mode of eating will never be tolerated in
this country. The quality of the dishes is not in question.
The fact remains that in his own country the average
Yank feeds much like a hog- — that is, his chief object
seems to be to get as much into him as possible in the
shortest space of time ; and the picture drawn by Dickens
of the offensive brute on the river-boat (in " Martin
Chuzzlewit ") is true to this day.

The fact is, as I have already said, that the Yankee
cannot tolerate criticism. He gives no one thanks for
praise, or even for flattery ; and yet his vanity and
self-esteem are such that he imagines himself and his
institutions to be too exalted to be understood by be-
nighted, antiquated Eu-ro^eans.

I set down nothing in mahce, harsh as my language
may seem to those unacquainted with the bounce and

204 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

self-assertion of the men I am writing of. As I do not
withhold my admiration for that in Uncle Sam's character
which is worthy of him ; neither do I feel called on
to conceal his faults. I wish to give none offence ; but I
shall speak plainly since the charge has been made that
I have misrepresented him. I write for those who have not
been able to visit America and see for themselves. A
stranger in the land is sure of a hospitable welcome ;
but that is not true which one of their poets has
said, that the portals of the United States have
never been closed to the " meanest child " of Adam.
Apart from the fact that men have been persecuted in
America, as in other countries, for mere political
or religious opinion, and that Sam's treatment of the
negro down to a comparatively recent date was a dis-
grace to his manhood, the portals of the United States
have been closed, or denied, to all who could not show
the almighty dollar, and are closed at this hour to those
whom misfortune has deprived of the full use of their
limbs. Not a month has elapsed since a man was
expelled the country because he had lost one of his arms,
and it was not until he had shown that he possessed
much property in the country (and then with delay and
difficulty) that he was permitted to enter it at all. It is
to be remembered that, poet or politician, all that Sam
says of himself may not be remarkable for its strict
veracity.

CHAPTER XVIII

" BEES "

At the time of my flying visit to my native land, referred
to at the close of the sixteenth chapter, I found the
country in a state of mild idiotcy regarding one of those
foreign fads that, from time to time, obtain such a hold
of the English people. This was the "spelling-bee," a
Yankee importation ; though I am bound to admit that
" bees " were rife enough in Canada also. In England
there was a mania for spelling-bees, especially at dis-
senting places of worship, and among certain classes of
the swindling fraternity, who for a time reaped a rich
harvest from the proceeds of bogus spelling-bees.

Now, in the States, " bees " were not confined to
spelling competitions ; indeed, the latter was one of the
newest innovations. I have not been able to discover
how, or when, " bees " originated ; but they are nearly and
perhaps quite as old an institution as Independence Day.
A bee is an assemblage of persons to perform some
industrial work for the benefit of a neighbour. That was
the original meaning of the thing. An assembling to
test persons in spelling is not therefore strictly a bee,
as it partakes more of the definition of a competition.
But a bee was designed for amusement, as well as
employment.

The first " bee " that I ever saw was a husking-bee.
I was invited by the lady of the house, who added, in
her note, that she intended to introduce me to one
of the prettiest girls in the neighbourhood. Not know-
ing, as yet, what a bee was, I looked with some suspicion

206 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

at the " husking " ; but the pretty girl was quite another
matter. That bait took, and I went. The house was
a lone farm-house in Ohio, in one of the oldest settled
parts of the States. The owner was well to do, and had
plenty of rich neighbours. There were more than a
hundred persons present; and I noticed that the fun
of the husking was left to the young unmarried people,
few of the elders joining in : these, for the most part,
keeping aloof and occupying themselves with the more
sedate amusements provided. The hostess was one of
the liveliest American ladies that I ever met; and, I
may add, the freest from the humbug of prudery ; but
I was scarcely prepared, considering a recent experience
— that of my unfortunate reference to the naked legs
and feet of the German fraus — for the amount of licence
which was given to the guests on this occasion, or taken
by them. It was the time of the "Indian summer,"
a well-known, and most delightful season in North
America, always eagerly looked for; and the husking
took place in the open air. It frequently is performed
in barns in the winter months; but there is no fixed
time for this " frolic," as it is most generally termed —
the word " bee " being more in use among the lower
classes, as I should call them; but, in my early time
at least, one had better have set a match to a barrel
of gunpowder than have spoken of lower classes in America.
Yet there is no country in the world where there is a
class held in greater contempt than the class that is
dollarless in the States. There are snobs enough in
England; but the man, however poor, who makes a
struggle for existence, is treated with some respect :
in the States he is a " mean white," until he has made
a pile ; then there is little inquiry as to his past, unless
that past has been notorious, which will probably redound
greatly to his credit in the eyes of mammon. The
Yankee is a notoriety worshipper, and he likes the noto-
riety, as an Englishman likes his game — a bit tainted.

"BEES" 207

To come back to tlae huskingf. The ostensible
business was to free the corn of its " cobs." You want
to know what a cob is. I will save you the trouble
of looking at Daniel Webster : here is what he says —
" Cob, n. Literally, a head ; hence, a rounded mass, as
in cohble-stovLQ, cob-coal, &c. ; a thick, strong pony. In
America, a spike of maize." There now ! am I not a
most obliging author ? I dispute Daniel's definition
as to the pony ; but it is with the spike of maize that
I have now to deal. The cobs were piled on the gi'ound
outside the barns in great heaps, and to each heap a
couple of young people were assigned with instructions
to " cob away."

My partner was certainly a very pretty young lady,
but somewhat insipid in manner. There were rugs and
mats on the ground on which we seated ourselves and
commenced operations. Scarcely had we done so when
some obliging friend buried us both in an armful of cobs,
which knocked us into each other's arms ; and other
parties were subjected to the same treatment. There
was much uproarious laughter, screaming, struggling,
kissing, and what not; and a fine display of frilled
stockings. Those that were old hands at a " frolic "
of this kind were in no hurry to release themselves,
and some remained buried an unconscionably long time.
Indeed, some were so quiescent under the heap that
I feared an accident had occurred, and was for rendering-
assistance, until I was politely told to mind my own
business, and informed that the rule was for each couple
to release themselves. I began to see the spirit of the
fun, and perceived that my partner was none too pleased
at the promptitude with which I removed the super-
incumbent cobs. However, a second load was soon over
us, and the surprise with which I had previously noticed
the shabby apparel of the guests vanished. The coats of
some of us were soon almost in tatters, and the dresses
of the ladies in no better plight.

208 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

It should be distinctly understood that there was
no person present at this scene that did not occupy
a more than ordinary good position in life. For the
most part they were rich farmers, or their sons and
daughters — persons with, as a rule, a far better education
than their compeers in the old country. The married
people were those responsible for throwing the cobs over
the young couples. I did not perceive that any married
lady or gentleman was subjected to this very remarkable
— I will not say questionable — proceeding ; but certainly
nobody present was shocked at it. All was merriment
and good-humour, and, coarse as were the proceedings,
there was nothing offensive in the language of the parties
engaged in them. There was not a person of inferior
position present. I dwell on this point, because often as
" the Britisher " is charged with snobbery, his ill-breeding
in this respect fades into nothingness when compared
with that of his Yankee cousin. A gentleman in England
never hesitates to plainly say that he cannot afford a
thing if he is too poor to indulge in it, be it a mere day's
excursion, or the shooting over twenty thousand acres,
or any other luxury ; but the person in the States who
should say he cannot afford this or that, would practically
ruin himself from a social stand-point. The American
is the most thoroughly purse-proud man that I have
ever met ; and hospitable and free as he is with his friends,
he is a thorough snob to his inferiors.

There is no doubt a change, of a sort, in the manners
of the States in recent years ; but it is not sufficiently
marked to make the above charge an unjust one. When
I first set foot on American soil there was scarcely a man
in the land who would wear a livery for love or gold, and
the few who condescended to do so were scouted as dogs
by all classes, even by their employers ; for it was con-
sidered that the man had sunk himself to the level of a
" nigger," the blacks usually furnishing the whole class
of domestic servants, liveried or otherwise. There was

"BEES" 209

no such thing as a white man's master in the land ; and
it is certain that, in the ranks of the army, there are
instances on record of soldiers having punched their
officers' heads, and yet escaped punishment. The word
" boss " was originally a semi-contemptuous one applied to
the leader of a gang or party of workers of any sort.
Some substitute for the word " master " being required by
those who objected to the term, the epithet "boss" was
conferred on an employer. The word is said to be
derived from the Dutch term laas.

The fun was kept up all night at our husking-bee,
there being a somewhat liberal indulgence in wine and
whisky, and more than one gentleman being " merry "
long before the first grey light-streaks of dawning day
warned the company that it was time to disperse. I,
and others who had a long way to go to reach home,
were obligingly provided with beds by our kind host,
but the immediate neighbours returned to their own
houses. No fewer than three of them were kind enough
to invite me to frolics, otherwise bees, that were about to
take place on their farms.

At these frolics there is always a good deal of
drinking. I never attended one at which there was
not a quantity of whisky consumed. Other drink,
consisting of wine, &c., among the well-to-do, and " cider-
royal " among the poorer farmers, is generally as plentiful
as water. This cider-royal is terrible stuff, and will
make a man drunk sooner than strong ale. This is
said to be owing to its having been stored in spirit-
casks to make it keep, but I strongly suspect that spirits
are actually added to it. Strangers to the country should
avoid it, as it is very apt to cause serious bowel-trouble.
Cakes and sweets galore also form an important item of
the feast, the Yankee being as fond of jam as a child.

I have no desire to indulge in persiflage ; but the
Americans themselves say that these frolics are often the
source of trouble in families. Marriages are made up at,

o

210 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

and take place after them ; but these marriages are too
often a necessity to save character. I was myself cog-
nisant of a case in which the lady waited on her beau
with a six-shooter, and informed him that if he did not
at once sign a paper promising to marry her within a
specified time, she would shoot him and herself. The
marriage took place, but it was not a happy one. My
host mentioned a similar incident, and several in which
male relations of the ladies had forced, at the revolver's
muzzle, erring lovers to repair their errors.

Among the most common frolics, after the husking-
bee, are the apple-paring,'and the sewing- and spelling-bees.
The two latter are mostly practised in meeting-houses,
under the auspices of the parson and his wife ; but the
apple-paring is as important an event as the corn-
husking. In America, as every one knows, the apples
intended for storing are skinned, cored, strung upon
strings, and hung up to dry. Invitations are issued
to the apple-paring-bee, as to the corn-husking ; and
there is more real work done here than at any other
kind of frolic. The apples must be pared; but, as a
rule, very few cobs are husked; and at most of the
other bees there is more fun and play than work.

Apart from bees and frolics, there is very little work
about an American homestead that the neighbours will
not willingly assemble to perform at the shortest notice
for the settler who is short-handed or otherwise pressed
for labour. Indeed the services are generally ofifered
without waiting for solicitation, as I have already in-
stanced in the erection of the log-hut. This is one of
the most honourable and beneficent characteristics of the
Yankee, and he deserves the greatest praise for it. No
selfish consideration will induce him to withhold his
hand when the stranger or his neighbour has need
of his help. I have even known men willingly help
neighbours with whom they were on such bad terms
that they scarcely spoke together. But in the hour

"BEES" 211

of need enmity is forgotten; and no man's crops or
cattle are left to be lost because his neighbours are not
on good terms with him.

These offers of services are sometimes rather embar-
rassing to an Englishman. For instance, I rented a
small house for a few months in Ohio State, and pro-
ceeded to "do for" myself in true bachelor fashion.
One night, some hours after darkness had set in, there
came a gentle knock at the door. I should mention
that, quite contrary to the custom of the land, I had
put a lock on my door, and kept it fastened, as I did
not approve of the continual intrusion of my neighbours.
This subjected me to a great deal of chaff and some
sarcasm.

Well, I opened the door, and there stood a bevy
of five buxom lasses, the daughters of my neighbours.
Without ceremony they entered, mentioned that they
had come to set me straight, did my household work,
took charge of my linen to wash — and in a word, did
all that a troop of sisters might, or could, have done.
The kindness of this will be better understood when it is
considered that these girls had already done a long day's
work on their own homesteads, and had come to help me
at a time when they must have been tired and needed
rest ; for women on American farms do work to which
they ought not to be subjected, and which, though often
performed by countrywomen in my native land, is gene-
rally considered, and rightly, to be man's work.

The lock very soon came off my door that these
dear creatures might come in and out at their pleasure,
and do the work at their convenience. No American
girl hesitates to enter the house of a bachelor; even
women of a superior station will call alone on a
gentleman at his hotel or house. No American man
would misunderstand a custom so at variance with our
ideas of propriety, and no American would dream of
attempting to take an advantage of it. In the whole of

212 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

my experience of the country I never so much as heard
of such an attempt. In fact, a woman in America may
go anywhere, and do almost anything, without the least
fear of being subjected to insult or injury. Whatever I
have said, or may think, of some of Uncle Sam's funny
ways, I should be unworthy of the hospitality which I
have received in his land if I failed to acknowledge his
extreme honourableness in this matter. If ever woman
is subjected to outrage or insult in the States, it may at
once be concluded that the offender is either a man of
colour or some recently arrived blackguard from a country
that was glad to get rid of him. What Sam thinks of
such human vermin is shown by the promptitude with
which he strings them up to the lamp-posts — the very
best thing that can be done with such wretches.

By-the-by, I may mention that my habit of speak-
ing of the United States shortly as the States is consonant
with the custom of the country. They are always, except
in official documents, spoken of as the States par excellence,
no other State in the world being at all comparable to
them.

CHAPTER XIX

THE OHIO DISTRICT

It is not part of the plan of this work to give a geo-
graphic description of Ohio or any other of the United
States; but having wandered through the basin of the
great lakes on the Northern or Canadian side, we have
now a similar journey to describe on the Southern or
States side, or rather the results of a series of wanderings
in this district. It is here impossible for me to present a
detailed and consecutive narrative of journeys for several
reasons, the chief of which are, that I do not undertake
to give a description of long settled and thickly inhabited
country, but confine my attention to wilds and wilder-
nesses only ; and secondly, these observations were not all
made at one time, but at several periods, with long inter-
vals of time between them.

Roughly speaking, Ohio appears to me to have
originally presented to the eye three marked descriptions
of ground — prahie, mountain, and swamp. The moun-
tains are to the eastward, being part of the northern
continuation of the Alleghany range. The prairie, in my
time, was a succession of forests and savannahs, differing
from the prairies of the Mississippi Valley, and was, I
think, before the meddlesome hand of man interfered, an
unbroken forest. I am much mistaken if those openings,
now called prairies, were not caused by extensive forest
fires, and, if left to Nature, I am sure the forest would
again gradually cover them. Beech timber predominates
in these forests, and the mast is invaluable for feeding
hogs, of which animal there are enormous numbers in the

214 THE GEE AT NORTH-WEST

State. Many of them have escaped from captivity, and
are hving wild in the woods ; but many also, bred wild,
join the tame herds, and find their way into the pork
and sausage factories of Chicago and other large towns ;
and in the early days of the city there were ownerless
pigs wandering about the streets like pariah dogs. These
were the property of anybody who could catch them ;
and some were made pets of by the citizens, and children
might be seen riding about on their backs. Bacon, or
salt pork, is sometimes the only meat tasted by the out-
lying settlers and backwoodsmen from year's end to year's
end, and there can be no better food for men living a
rough and exposed life. Fat pork is not only a pre-
ventive, but a cure also for muscular rheumatism brought
on by hard work and exposure.

The marshes and swamps in Ohio are rather extensive
in places, the principal being in the neighbourhood of
Lake Erie and along the River Ohio. Many of the
marshes are old beaver-meadows, but the beavers have
long since disappeared, for Ohio is one of the most thickly
peopled of the States. The beaver-meadows contain the
richest soil in the entire region.

The mountains commence abruptly on the east, and
are very steep, but none of them seem to attain a great
height. Judging by the eye, I should say none of
them exceed twelve or thirteen hundred feet in height.
Of course a reference to a gazetteer would settle the
point ; but I set down my impressions, whether they be
right or wrong, without consulting books. The book may
be right, and I wrong, or the reverse : in any case, bor-
rowed information can be of no value.

There are portions of the plains that look to be
absolutely flat. The eye cannot detect the slightest
undulation. In a ride of many miles I did not see a
hillock of a foot in height, nor could I perceive a hollow
that would contain a bucketful of water. This district, I
think, must formerly have been a portion of the bed of

THE OHIO DISTRICT 215

the lake. According to soundings which I have made,
there are portions of Erie and the other great lakes
where there are extensive areas similar to this, for not
the slightest variation in the depth of the soundings could
be detected.

This rough description of the country will suffice.
Only the particular spots I have to describe need a more
minute description. Nearly all the small birds and
mammals mentioned in the account of the North-West
and Canada are found in this State, some more abundantly,
others much less so, than in those regions. But there is
one bird of larger size that was formerly so abundant in
this State, and bred here in such vast numbers, that I
consider that I am justified in considering Ohio as its
headquarters. That bird, so far as its general history, at
all events, is concerned, is one of the most interesting of
all American birds. I refer to the passenger pigeon,
Edopistes migratoi^ius or migratoria, as American natural-
ists spell it. An immense amount of matter about
this bird has been written, and it is famous in both
history and fiction ; and as may well be believed, in
such circumstances, all is not correct that has been
recorded of it. This is my justification for adding my
mite to a subject already almost exhausted ; and the fact
that I cannot find a popular work on Natural History in
which there is a good and correct account of this bird.

In this part of America — that is, the countries border-
ing on the southern shores of Lakes Erie, Huron, and
Michigan ; in other Avords, the northern parts of the States
of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c. — the
woods consist largely, sometimes almost entirely, of
beech trees, and ;the beech mast, as the seeds are called,
attracts immense numbers of birds (as well as small
mammals) which are not found so abundantly in other
parts of the States. Amongst these birds the passenger-
pigeon holds the foremost place.

Probably no bird, large or small, not even starlings,

216 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

or sparrows, ever multiplied so fast as these pigeons used
to do. Certainly no bird ever assembled in such vast
multitudes. A relative of mine, a retired naval captain,
who settled in Ohio, has left it on record that in the year
1835 he saw a flock of these pigeons which was at least
thirty miles long by four or five broad. No total eclipse
of the sun that the captain had ever witnessed threw a
deeper shadow on the earth. Daylight could not be seen
through the flock anywhere except near its margin ; the
birds therefore must have been flying hundreds thick,
one above the other. A very little calculation will show
that the numbers of such a flock could only be estimated
by hundreds of millions. Again in later years, 1837-38—39,
and in 1843-48, the captain has left it on record that he
saw immense numbers of pigeons, but remarks that each
year the flocks were smaller, and accounts for that fact
by saying that the wanton slaughter of the old and young
birds was the cause.

The descriptions of the breeding-places of the passen-
ger-pigeons given in modern books, and of those which I
myself saw, can give no idea of what they were in former
days. Many writers affirm that the great branches of the
trees were broken down so extensively as to cause the
death of hundreds of square miles of forest. Wilson says
that the dung alone of the birds had this effect ; but that
is an assertion that I cannot credit. Now, the nests are
scattered about a certain area of forest, generally two or
three per tree, with here and there a tree containing a
dozen or more. Formerly the trees were crowded with
nests, inasmuch that it paid to fell the trees to obtain the
young birds. Those that were old enough to be eaten
were put in sacks, the younger were wantonly thrown to
the pigs. The old birds were slaughtered in a different
way. Of that presently.

The mast, or beech nuts, lying on the ground, under
the snow, all the winter, is in a swollen condition, ready
to burst into shoot early in the spring — that is, generally

THE OHIO DISTRICT 217

about the beginning of April. It is when in this condition
that it is most acceptable to the pigeons. It is not every
year that there is an abundance of beech nuts. When
they are scanty the birds move to another district when
the first brood of young ones are reared ; but when the
nuts are abundant they raise two or more broods in the
same nests. They always breed several times each
season, and more frequently when food is abundant than
when it is scarce. The number of eggs laid to each
sitting is invariably two, and the eggs are a pure chalk-
white in colour. The hen sits very close, and if she loses
her mate will starve to death rather than leave her eggs ;
but the cock, who feeds her on the nest, does not roost
in the tree with her, or on trees at all. Strange to relate,
the cocks go nightly to the juniper-swamps, and roost
on the bushes, within a dozen or sixteen feet of the
ground, breaking down the bushes by hundreds, as I
have myself witnessed. This habit is a cause of tens of
thousands of them being destroyed by being knocked
down at night with poles. They are also netted in
myriads ; but the killing with poles is the favourite way
with the lower classes of slaughterers, and with rough
boys. Formerly the pigeon-murder was designated, like
the corn-cobbing, " a frolic " ; but now the pigeons are
not in sufficient numbers, and wander so much from
their old breeding-places that there are pigeon-frolics
no more.

At these frolics the slaughter was simply awful ; and
it is marvellous that the Creator of these birds did not
visit with a judgment the wanton murderers. Millions
of the birds were killed from pure love of blood. It must
have been so, for they were left to rot on the ground.
The herds of pigs battened on the carcasses till, in some
instances, they were too much gorged to move, and in
others were driven to another part of the forest lest they
should kill themselves with satiety. Every child who
could handle a gun — and children of nine or ten years

218 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

shoot in America — ran to the frolic; but on the whole
there was but little shooting. The birds were not worth
powder and shot, and could be killed so much more easily
and cheaply, especially those that roosted in the juniper
bushes, though, I should state, their roosts were not
confined exclusively to junipers. For other bushes are
frequently chosen, especially alders, which, for some
reason or other that I have not been able to discover,
invariably flourish greatly in the old beaver-meadows.
Here, besides those that are killed with poles, or netted,
others are suffocated with sulphur, or destroyed by equally
cowardly means ; in a word, formerly the people of the
districts where the pigeons appeared acted as if they held
a special commission to exterminate them in all haste.
During the killing, which always took place at night, the
birds behaved with remarkable stupidity. They never
attempted to escape to the tall trees, but as fast as they
were beaten down fluttered back to the bushes.

The days after the slaughter the slayers would go
" pigeon-peddling," as the hawking of them about the
country to those who were too idle, or lived too far off,
to kill for themselves, was called. In the States all sorts
of itinerant trading is termed peddling, whether performed
on foot or with a waggon. One never hears of such a
thing as a hawker. The birds were sold cheaply enough ;
but I have never heard that their flesh was held in much
esteem. It is much like that of other pigeons ; that is,
of no particular flavour. The majority of those killed on
the bushes are young of the first brood, which the old
ones will not permit to roost on the breeding-trees. Most
of the old cocks, which also roost on the bushes, make
their escape when the attack begins.

Now, according to my experience, the birds both
breed and feed in a more scattered manner than appears
to have been the case in former generations. They still
breed within certain areas; but they, as far as I can
learn, never return to an old breeding-place — at least

THE OHIO DISTRICT 219

until many years have elapsed. Isolated pairs are now
frequently met with : this seems never to have been the
case formerly.

The passenger-pigeon comes from the south to breed
in the beech woods, and returns thither when that duty
is over; but the particular countries whence they come
and whither they go are unknown to me. I have never
seen these birds in flocks in any parts of America but the
districts I have mentioned. I have met with a few in
the Southern parts of the States named, but I never saw
any in Canada or other parts of the British possessions.
The nest is a flimsy construction of straw, scarcely sub-
stantial enough to support the eggs. The passenger-
pigeons are quarrelsome among themselves, like most
other pigeons ; and the cock bird is a great tyrant to his
hen and her young. It is he who forces the young to
leave the nest — often before they are strong enough to
properly look after themselves. In the struggles which
take place many eggs are broken or thrown out of the
nest.

The migrations of the passenger-pigeons are always
followed by great numbers of hawks and owls, which
prey freely on them ; and many also fall victims to small
preying mammals, as raccoons and polecats. It is sur-
prising that birds so much persecuted, and laying so
small a number as two eggs in a clutch, should propagate
in such vast numbers ; and a conclusive piece of evidence
that other causes than those usually surmised by men of
science are at work to regulate the balance of species. It
has been said that the passenger-pigeon is in no immedi-
ate danger of extinction. I hold a difi'erent opinion. It
is, unfortunately, a fact that towards the conclusion of its
existence a species gets wiped out very suddenly. The year
before the last bison was destroyed, to my knowledge it
was asserted that, though the animal required protection,
it was in no immediate danger of disappearing from the
prairies. Thirty years ago the passenger-pigeon was still

220 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

abundant, though the millions of the previous thirty
years were no longer to be found. Thirty years hence
we shall probably have reached the last passenger, unless
something is speedily done to save the race.

The forests of this region deserve a passing notice,
for they are very typical American forests. In the beech
woods I have been describing, as well as in all other
forests in this part of North America, there is no under-
wood, and indeed no undergrowth of any kind, not even
grass. The ground underneath the trees is composed of
the decayed leaves of thousands of years, and in many
parts there is a great depth of pure leaf-mould. I cannot
say to what depth this mould extends in the virgin forest,
but I have dug into it to a depth of sixteen feet in my
search for fossils. No wonder the cleared ground requires
but scratching to prepare it to nourish the most luxuriant
crops. The only encumbrances on the ground are the
remains of trees and branches which have been torn down
in storms and tornadoes. These, and the trunks of the
standing trees, are often covered with moss ; but any sort
of creeping plant in the depths of the forest is very rare.
The seeds of the trees, as beech mast, or nuts, and acorns,
of course fall to the ground every year, and these annu-
ally sprout. They are the children of a year only. The
life is choked out of all except the few which happen to
have fallen where there is a gap in the forest caused by
the death of some ancient tree, or its destruction by a
storm. At such a spot there is a struggle among the
saplings, the strongest winning and occupying the vacant
gap, choking in its growth the life out of its competitors.

Where any one species of tree predominates it holds
its own, usually utterly excluding all others, as in the
beech woods of this region for instance ; but if by any
chance a portion of the forest is destroyed, if only half an
acre in extent, the species of tree which springs up to fill
the gap will be quite different from that of the surrounding
forest. This is a strange circumstance, as is the fact that

THE OHIO DISTRICT 221

if the ground anywhere within the limit of the forest
becomes permanently swampy, the trees die and the
ground falls under the dominion of alder and juniper
bushes. Wherever these are found, however, in this
district, there has been a beaver-dam. In other parts
the cedar tree occupies the swamps, and often grows
so closely together that a man cannot force his body
between the trunks of adjoining trees.

On the whole, the trees here are much finer in
growth than in English close woods ; and beneath them
the light is dim to a degree that I have never noticed in
English woods. The gloom of an American forest is,
indeed, intense ; and there is, as in most close forests,
an almost total absence of animal life.

How it may be at this day I cannot say, but at the
time of which I am writing, now more than thirty years
since, there were still forests of many miles in extent. I
mean unbroken, primeval forest ; the only kind of which
I use the word forest in any of my writings. When man
has violated them with " clearings " they cease to be
forests in my opinion, and become mere parks or woods.
In speaking of the forests generally, I am compelled to
put strong control on my feelings, lest I should be
betrayed into a strength of language which the reader
would find it difficult to understand ; for I look upon the
wanton destruction of trees as a crime, as a sin, of a
heinous character, as I do on the unnecessary and useless
destruction of animal life. To me it is an abomination
for man to consider any of the natural productions of the
earth as an encumbrance thereon. Yet thousands, yea,
at least tens of thousands of square miles of timber have
been destroyed by fire in the States and the British
possessions during the last century alone, the sole object
being to clear the land. This timber, if it could have
been cut, would have produced tens of millions of pounds
in England and other parts of Europe ; and it would have
been felled for use had it not lain far from conveyance by

222 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

water to a port. But this is no excuse for its wanton
destruction ; it ought to have been reserved for future
generations. The prosperity of a few individuals is not
to be weighed against the welfare of coming thousands.
No man should be permitted to take up thousands of
acres to-day because they can be spared now. There
is a future to consider ; and he who selfishly denudes the
earth to the cost of his descendants deserves to be
execrated. Enough : if any man were sentenced to the
gallows for wantonly firing a forest, I, at least, would not
raise a hand to save him.

The mischief was, that a man having a few acres to
clear, and firing them for the purpose, often lost control
of the fire ; and though his neighbours assisted at " the
frolic," it often happened that the flames travelled many
miles in the unclaimed, and unallotted forest, and nobody
cared. In such cases the fire ranged without check until
it came to a watercourse of suflficient breadth to prevent
its passage — that is, one of at least a hundred yards in
width ; for if there happened to be a wind blowing it
would carry sparks, and even sheets of flame, fully that
distance.

Of the trees of these northern forests I can say little
but that next to beech, pine of the sort called white pine
here, is most abundant; then oak, and in much less
quantities, maple, larch, &c., with cedars, alder, and
juniper in the swamps. The two last cannot be called
timber trees, though both grow to a size to be useful for
certain purposes.

On the high grounds which bound the Ohio valley
the forests assume quite a different character. They are
more open, or park like, with brushAvood and grass under
the trees. Here there are many pretty flowers ; but you
will search in vain for wild flowers in the beech woods.
I do not remember ever seeing the smallest flower in the
depth of the gloomy forests. It is evident that neither
flowers nor weeds will flourish where they are deprived of

THE OHIO DISTRICT 223

light. On the heights, in addition to many other trees,
walnuts, chestnuts, oaks, and sycamores are conspicuous ;
and everywhere, even in the forests of the plains, odd
pine trees are found. But it is singular that grow-
ing wild — that is, self-planted — each species of tree as a
rule keeps to its own territory. Many of the pines grow
in what are called pine-barrens. Here the soil is supposed
to be wretchedly poor, and is always waterless ; and you
will look in vain for trees of other species.

Animal life in the depths of the forest is very scanty,
more so even than in the northern Canadian forests, a
fact for which I can advance no probable surmise.
Small birds are quite absent ; not a single species breeds
after you have fairly entered the forest, though a few
haunt the outskirts. Rattlesnakes are still found in out-
lying portions of the State, but neither these nor any
other snakes were ever seen by me in the forests. There
are a few bull-frogs in the cedar swamps ; but these bat-
rachians prefer the woodland ponds where they obtain
plenty of light. They are always found in such ponds
unless there are no fish in them, which sometimes
happens. A few loons haunted the ponds of Ohio at the
time of which I am writing, and there would probably
have been more had they not been so persecuted.

Although there are no small-bird inhabitants actually
in the forest, a few are occasionally seen as they pass on
their way in their migrations. But they never make
more than a temporary halt. The birds which I have
found to frequent the interior of the great primeval
forests are two species of grouse : the Canadian Canach-
ites canadensis, here called the New England partridge ;
and the ruffed grouse, Bonasa umhellus. Neither of
these birds seems to breed within the forest, though they
do on the outskirts ; and the attraction that induces
them to visit the gloom of the interior is a mystery that
I could not fathom. Possibly they feed on some of the
wild fruits of the trees ; for an odd wild plum or wild

224 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

cherry-tree is now and then met with. Moreover these
birds, hke all others found in the like habitat, are very
scarce. It is evidently only a few of them that penetrate
beyond the outskirts of the forest.

There are also woodpeckers in the recesses of the
forest ; yet even these naturally wood-seeking birds do
not seem to be numerous, though they are difficult to
discover. You hear them tapping the trees ; but though
they cannot have been much disturbed by man, they are
so extremely cautious that you may look for a bird that
is close at hand for an hour, and then not discover it.
There are at least a dozen species in these forests, some
green, some grey, and some variegated ; but I obtained,
and therefore identified, but very few of them. Amongst
the best known was the flicker, or golden-winged wood-
pecker, Golaptes auratus, and a bird known locally as " the
marshal," and sometimes " the soldier," the specific name
of which I have not, I find, any record. It is a very
gaudy woodpecker with a great deal of scarlet in the
colour of its plumage.

There are also owls in these forests, the long-eared,
Asio americanus, which does not, in my opinion, differ
from Asio otits. It may be described as a local variety
of that bird. There are several other species, or varieties,
of owls ; but these I cannot identify with certainty, the
gloom of the forest making it exceedingly difficult to
recognise a bird when seen, perhaps, but for a moment.

Among mammals the commonest are squirrels, grey
and black ; most of the other small animals of this
region being nocturnal and therefore rarely seen. The
polecat {Mustda americana) is the most conspicuous of
these. There are also chipmunks {Tamias striahis), but
I am not sure that I have given the absolutely correct
specific name of this little animal, because the chipmunk
of the Ohio forests seemed to vary somewhat from the
common chipmunk found farther south ; also there were
clearly local varieties even in this limited district.

THE OHIO DISTRICT 225

Besides the chipmunks there appeared to be httle for
the polecats to prey on. Probably they rob the nests of
the woodpeckers, and may find some small nocturnals
that escaped my notice. It is almost impossible to
make observations at night in these forests, for even
when the moon is at the full the darkness is almost
absolute. It would have escaped my notice that there
were polecats had I not caught one in a trap. Then by
careful watching in the early evening I discovered others
in the trees. It should be observed, however, that the
polecat is not a strictly nocturnal animpJ.

The chipmunk, which is a ground squirrel, finds an
abundance of food in these forests. I found many of
their stores of winter food, generally under the hollow
roots of trees, and well buried to the depths of five, six,
or even as much as eight feet. There were generally
from two to three quarts of food in a store, but in some
I found five or six quarts, consisting of acorns, hickory
nuts, beech mast, and a few kinds of nuts and seeds
which I could not name. There was nothing of the
nature of grain, but the farmers say that these animals,
in the neighbourhood of homesteads, cause them con-
siderable loss by carrying away the corn. They are
spiteful little animals, and will bite severely if they get
the chance. Though I have been very successful in
taming all sorts of animals and birds, I never succeeded
in winning the least regard from a chipmunk. With a
polecat I have been more successful, since I tamed one
to the degree of noticing my approach, and chmbing
about my person. He would also utter a little, soft-
sounding cry when he wished to attract my attention.

There were said to be a few wolves still surviving in
these forests at this time, but I never saw the least sign
of them, nor do I see how they could have obtained
sustenance in such scantily provided woods. Had any
been there they would certainly have been driven by
hunger to make their appearance among the herds of

P

226 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

swine in the occupied forests, especially as the wolf, like
the bear, is a dear lover of pork.

I have already mentioned the beaver-meadows which
abound everywhere in this country, even in the forests,
where there is now no trace of running water ; while along
the banks of the streams the whole of the land shows
traces of the handiwork of these little animals. It was
also said that a few beavers still survived the persecution
to which they had been subjected ; but though I made a
careful search I could not find a single beaver, or the
recent traces of one. The fact is that had any been
discovered, not many hours would have elapsed before
some prowling " hunter " of the drinking-saloon type had
bagged the lot. At this hour it may safely be prophesied
that not a single wolf or beaver remains in any of the
older States of the Union.

I spent many days wandering about these woods and
the country generally, often lying on the ground at
night in the awe-inspiring gloom of the never, or rarely,
visited forest, but sometimes lodging at isolated farms
and huts, where I was always sure of a hospitable
welcome. There was nothing in this life to warrant
my presenting a narrative to the reader in journal or
any other form. Though I was often many miles from
a habitation of any sort, I never but once met with a
serious adventure. I was one evening approaching a
farm where I intended to ask a night's welcome, when
I perceived two stalwart fellows leave the door and come
in my direction. I had had sufficient experience to per-
ceive that they were tender-feet, or worthless characters,
and I tried to avoid them by making a detour, the house
being still half a mile distant, but they made straight
for me.

" I say, boss, you ain't got a bit of 'bacca, have you ?
A bit as big as a bee 'ul do," began the first rascal.
" I don't smoke," I said shortly.
" Look here, boss," said the first fellow while the other

THE OHIO DISTRICT 227

gave me a wink, which I interpreted to mean, " Iiear
him : he's a knowing one." " Look here, boss, we're a
couple of poor ranchmen down on our kick. Lend us
a couple of dollars."

I hesitated a moment, but I tugged out a couple of
dollars, and threw them to them, for I would not give
them the advantage of coming close enough to take them.
" Thank you for your politeness," said the fellow as he
stooped to pick them up. " Now my mate ain't got a
six-shooter. Suppose you lend him yours."

This impudent proposal brought my blood up in an
instant. I whipped out my six-shooter, exclaiming, " To
the devil with you, you scamps ! If you are not off in
an instant, I will shoot the pair of you."

" Oh, I see you understand the joke," said the
spokesman, and the two rascals went off laughing. I
never felt more wicked in my life, and it is a wonder
that I did not shoot them. Whatever the consequences,
I would never have suffered myself to be disarmed by
such a brace of rogues.

The American tramp is a ticklish scoundrel to deal
with. A few years later a gentleman whom I knew Avell,
residing in Spark Street, Ottawa — almost as noted a
thoroughfare in that city as Regent Street in London
— was stuck up by a tramp in his shop, and coerced
into giving him alms. This fellow frightened several
shopkeepers into " forking out," but he met his match
in the outskirts of the town. There he called on a
young Yankee woman who happened to be alone in
the house engaged in ironing linen. She knocked
Mr. Tramp down with a hot iron, and according to
the policeman who arrested him, " left a remarkably
good trade-mark on his back to show the devil when he
went home." In plainer terms, she noned him out.

The professional tramp is everywhere an impudent
brute, but in the States he surpasses his brethren of
Europe by an immeasurable amount of daring insolence.

228 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

He is always armed, and though he may not draw his
six-shooter at his first demand, a refusal is sure to make
that weapon fly from its case. His demands are out-
rageous. At outlying farms he not only frequently
demands food and drink of the best that the house
contains, but a night's lodgfings as well. I have even
met with an instance where he compelled his involuntary
host to supply him with a suit of clothes, and rejected
the neckcloth because it was not bright enough in colour
to suit his taste. Of course this sort of thing is only
tried on at isolated homesteads, where the tramp's
instinct informs him the boss is not made of fighting
stufl'. He is really as paltry a wretch here as elsewhere,
and when he thinks his bounce will not frighten, he
whines like a young puppy. His " firing-iron " is intended
to intimidate, more than for really bloody work, even in
self-defence ; for your thoroughgoing tramp has a most
wholesome dread of that fictitious legal gentleman, Mr.
Lynch.

The farm where I had the little adventure with the
two tramps happened to be the property of an English-
man, and I was so warmly received by him that I could
not resist his pressing invitation to remain several days
in his house. Part of his land was still covered with
unbroken forest, and while I was with him he " burned
ofi:'" a patch some eighty acres in extent. It was the
height of summer, and the timber burnt with great fury.
All the trees had previously been felled and cleared of
their great limbs, and sawn into sections about twelve
feet long. This had been done the previous year, and
the work must have been laborious and taken much
time. I was surprised that the wood had not been
burned as it stood, not being experienced then ; but if
this is done the charred standing trunks become so hard
that an axe makes scarcely any impression on them, and
it becomes almost impossible to clear the ground of the
debris. Hence, when the ground is wanted for agricul-

THE OHIO DISTRICT 229

tural purposes the trees are always cut down previously
to burning. I discovered afterwards that the calcined
trunks of burned trees will stand for many years. The
burning off of land is supposed to add greatly to its pro-
ductive qualities : I doubt if it does anything of the kind.
My opinion of the proceeding has already been given,

I afterwards became more familiar with these burn-
ings off, and also with those forest conflagrations which
are the result of accident or mischievous desicfn. The
fierceness with which the fires rage is almost incredible.
If there is a wind blowing at the time the rush of flame
completely stops it, and the roar resembles in sound a
continuous deep roll of thunder. It is so loud that the
voice cannot be heard unless one shouts. The flames
shoot up perpendicularly, and great sheets of fire seem
to be flung off in a kind of explosion. Masses of glowing
branches fly about, evidently driven by the combustion
of gases ; and are sometimes projected nearly a hundred
yards. So the danger to houses or stock in the neigh-
bourhood may be conceived. There are nearly always
wild animals in the burning patch, and these and the
birds seem to completely lose their heads with terror.
Hundreds perish which ought to escape; the birds
especially, wheeling round and round, and finally drop-
puag, suff'ocated, into the black smoke, which hangs
heavily around the base of the burning mass.

Such animals as foxes and raccoons will appear at
the edge of the fiery area, and then, appearing to fear
some new danger ahead, crouch paralysed until they are
literally roasted alive. Not one in ten escapes, and of
those which I have picked up under such circumstances
several afterwards died of fright. Few, however, can be
approached on account of the intense heat, which no
doubt is one of the bewildering causes, I have never
seen deer driven from the forests by fire, but on the
prairies they run before it until its near approach causes
them to become paralysed.

230 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

These forest fires have been known to rage for six or
seven weeks at a time, and hundreds of lives have been
lost in a single fire. In a country where there are no big
rivers, and the forest is continuous, only a heavy rain
will stop the fire ; for when it has once got a fair hold on
the timber, man is powerless. It travels so fast that it is
often exceedingly difficult to get out of its way.

CHAPTER XX

SHAKERS AND RELIGIOUS MUMMERS IN AMERICA

An account of Religious fanatics may at first sight appear
to be out of place in a work professing to deal with
the wildernesses of a country ; but the sects of religious
mountebanks in North America are so numerous and so
extraordinary in their antics that even a writer dealing
with the wild natural scenery of the country can easily
be pardoned, if not justified, in dealing with a subject so
interesting, especially in the face of the interest aroused
by the trouble the Doukhobors are giving in Manitoba at
the present moment. Moreover, many of these sects,
driven from among their fellow-men, have sought the
wilderness, like wild things of the earth, and there
prospered and gained their strength.

It may be objected, perhaps, that these sects did not
take their rise in America. That, in some cases, may
be true enough, but they all found a congenial soil there.
The American is excitable in his religion as in most
other things ; and a novelty in religion, or in vice, is
sure to attract his attention, and probably something
more than his attention.

As to the Doukhobors of the present day, I know
nothing of them beside what, in common with the rest
of the public, I have gleaned from the newspapers.
They are said to be Russians by nationality, and have
probably taken root in American soil since I left this
part of America. I think I have read, or heard, some-
thing of their peculiar views many years ago, as being
prevalent among certain Asiatic tribes long before the

232 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

advent of the Christian era ; indeed there is nothing
very new in the doctrines of any of these mummers.

That many of these fanatics, though their state of
mind seems to border on insanity, are perfectly genuine,
so far as their personal conviction is concerned, it would
be unjust to doubt. But I think their leaders, if not
what the law would denominate " incorrigible rogues and
vagabonds," at least have taken advantage of their hold
on their followers to serve their own private ends. It
seems that even fools must have a leader, but I very
much doubt if the fool who leads fools ought not properly
to be considered a cunning rogue. If he can only throw
a little dust in the eyes of the world he is safe, and is
sure of support from Christian bodies in general ; and it
may be seen that the leader of a sect of ranters, even of
the most outrageous class, has generally cunning enough
to perceive this important fact, and act accordingly. In
all these (what shall I call them ? — abnormal Christian
communities ?) there is always one man, at least, who
benefits personally more than the others. Does the
society profess community of goods ? No one individual,
except the leader, can take what he wants from the common
stock without permission of that leader or his adjutants.
Where then is the community of property ? I can best
illustrate the impressions forced on my mind concerning
the Shakers and similar sects in America by giving an
account of one of their communities.

I choose that at Lebanon, in the State of Massa-
chusetts, because it is one of the oldest, though the sect
has branches in Ohio and elsewhere in the States, as well
as at several places in Canada. The Shakers have been
established at Lebanon about a hundred years. They
came from England, where they were first established by
a sort of Lancashire witch, one Mrs. Ann Lee, who. of
course, like Messrs. Joe Smith and Brigham Young, " had
a revelation." It is quite possible that this woman really
believed that she had had a divine revelation ; a certain

SHAKERS AND RELIGIOUS MUMMERS 233

class of minds have the power of persuading themselves,
as well as their followers, that they are, or have been, in
direct communion Avith the Almighty. This assumption
has its birth in spiritual pride. It is often found in
religiously exalted minds, but never &,vaongprofound thinkers.
A certain amount of selfishness, with a vulgar tone of
spirit, are its invariable concomitants.

The members of the sect at Lebanon claim that Mrs.
Lee brought no fewer than 4000 persons to America
with her, and they came to avoid persecution. It is far
more probable that they came hither because land was
cheap and good, and because America has always been
the dust-heap to which all that was abominable in
politics and religion has found its way from the old
countries of Europe. They have no objection to be
called Shakers, but they term themselves the " United
Society of Millennial Christians," Their doctrines, so far
as I could understand them, are Christian love, com-
munity of property, strict industry of every member ;
with regard to the " outer world," peacefulness and law-
abiding; and, in a word, precisely the same rules as
those of the Mormons except on one point, for whereas
the lively Brigham could not do without his forty houris,
even lawful marriage is considered a deadly sin by the
Shakers. I have met with people who have puffed with
the lips on hearing of this rule, and said that they did
not believe that any community of men and women
mingling together in daily life would observe it. To
persons not accustomed to control and self-denial, it may
seem impossible that such a rule should be observed. I,
who have been among them, am quite as convinced of
their purity as I afterwards was of the gross immorality
of the Mormons. Notwithstanding that the sexes mix
together, to a certain extent at all events, I believe their
assertion that it has very rarely happened in their history
that it should become necessary to expel persons from
their community for a breach of this rule.

234 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

The sect therefore, it is needless to say, is maintained
entirely by recruits, and that in face of the fact that men
and women are not easily admitted to it. They guard
jealously against the admission of idle and worthless
characters, and there are none such among them. Their
austerity is awful ; it would certainly deprive some men,
if subjected to it, of reason. Books, which I look upon
as one of the chief delights of life, are rigorously for-
bidden, and their perusal accounted a sinful waste of
time. The Bible, and a few religious works, are the only
books to be found among them. All science, and all
worldly knowledge, is counted as " sin." They do not
smoke, and drink no intoxicants. It is certain that such
abstinence was not always practised among them, but
there has never been excess of any kind. Having ad-
mitted this much, I fear that I must to some extent
discount what I have written by mentioning that it
seemed to be impossible for the younger members to
break any of the rules, that I should say were specially
framed for their control, for want of opportunity. For
instance, should a gallant young Shaker cast sheep's
eyes on a buxom young Shakeress, they would have to
fly the fold before they could the tale of love in sweet
accents softly murmur.

But what there is of loveliness in the Shakeresses,
young or old, they take care to hide under the most
abominably ugly female costume that I have ever seen.
Close-fitting, ungainly caps and gowns transform them
into a sort of living mummies, and effectually hide any
beauty of face or grace of person that they may be pos-
sessed of. The men dress much like Quakers ; but they
do not affect the Quaker mode of speech, though they
strictly obey what they ignorantly consider the Biblical
command to use no other form of asseveration or denial
than " yea " or " nay."

I must not forget to say that these people take a
number of orphans to train up in their peculiar tenets.

SHAKERS AND RELIGIOUS MUMMERS 235

I do not know if the number of orphans so taken is
limited, but I believe that it is ; and the reason is that
most of these young people, when they attain a certain
age, desert their benefactors ; for which they cannot be
blamed, for they are little better than slaves while with
the community.

The estate, or settlement, or farm on which these
people are established at Lebanon, and which is ab-
solutely their own property, consists, if I remember
rightly, of about 7000 acres, and is one of the most
perfectly cultivated pieces of land that I have ever seen.
There does not seem to be a square yard of waste on it,
and the roads which intersect it, especially the main road,
could not be better than they are if constructed by the
best engineer in the country. The land is mostly under
crops, cattle breeding not finding much favour among
the Shakers ; but everything that they consume, whether
food or clothing, is both raised and manufactured within
the limits of their settlement. The women spin, weave,
knit, sew, and make, with even more than housewifely
skill ; and both they and the men are remarkable for the
extreme cleanliness of their appearance, even when en-
gaged on what is usually called dirty work. You see
the men digging in snow-white shirt sleeves, as white as
the caps and aprons of the women, which are spotless.
The laundry-work is performed by the women and girls,
as is the preparation and cooking of the meals ; but the
sexes eat in separate rooms, and they also sit apart in
different houses when performing their evening employ-
ments. Those employments are all of an industrial
character, anything in the shape of recreation or a game
being condemned as sinful ; even conversation, except of
a strictly religious turn, is discountenanced. I say " reli-
gious " ; of a canting turn would be a better term, for,
however genuine the bulk of these people, they are un-
conscious hypocrites. In fact their existence is, in my
opinion, a distinct menace to the public morality of a

236 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

country; for their hateful austerity, combined with their
hostiUty to one of the chief of Nature's laws, and their
utterly unnatural existence in general, is far more dange-
rous to real religion than open immorality. Austerity
causes the young to hate religion ; vice often causes a
disgust that drives men to virtue and piety as a welcome
refuge.

Originally all the houses on the estate were what is
known in America as " frame buildings," i.e. timber houses
constructed of planks nailed to a beam frame-work, and
roofed with shingles. The houses were painted a buff
colour, with red or vermilion shingles, and consequently
presented a gaudy appearance. These frame buildings
are considered superior to log-houses ; but in my opinion
they are neither so comfortable nor so substantial as well-
built log-houses; and they are certainly more infested
with insect and other pests, while in summer the heat in
them is intolerable, and I have seen them warp until
they looked like huge chests which had been partly
crushed. The window-frames, in particular, of a frame
house, are rarely on the square after the first summer of
its erection. At the time of my visit most of the erec-
tions devoted to general purposes were still of this des-
cription; but there were also some built of brick and
stone. The bricks, I was told, had been made by the
saints, as they seemed to have made everything else
which they use.

None of the men and women seemed to be living alone.
A number of men, or a number of women, lived together ;
and a certain band of women waited on a certain band of
men. This was a common, but not a general, arrange-
ment. To my surprise I found certain houses tenanted
by a man, his wife and, sometimes, a large family — all
born before their parents were " converted." Though
they live together the sinful intercourse of the " worldly
married " ceases — they are now simply " brothers " and
" sisters." That this most singular arrangement should

SHAKERS AND RELIGIOUS MUMMERS 237

lay them open to all sorts of evil surmises on the part of
men whose chief guide in life is unlimited self-indulgence,
is not surprising. I believe those evil surmises to be
groundless : these people really live celibate lives. But
there is something wrong somewhere in the community.
The women are a wretched-looking lot of creatures. I
spoke just now of a possible buxom Shakeress. There is
no such thing among them. They are as ugly, without
exception, as their dresses are unbecoming. Moreover,
they all have the look of being out of health. The men,
on the contrary, and the children, are ruddy, well fed, and
cheerful-looking to a high degree. The impression strongly
stamped on my mind was, that if I were compelled to
live among these creatures I should certainly fall into
most of their habits until my reason failed. I could not
possibly fall in love with, or desire to marry any of these
most repulsive specimens of womanhood, if indeed they
deserve to have the revered name of womanhood applied
to them in any form. There is something picturesque in
Macbeth's hags : there is nothing picturesque in a female
Shaker.

Among the Doukhobors of this day (more than thirty
years later than the time of which I have been writing)
it is recorded that no garment made of the wool or hair
of animals or the feathers of birds is used. I do not
think that the Shakers paid any such silly, but pitiful,
respect to the animal creation ; but I remember running
my eye along the clothes-lines (my impudence is bound-
less), and noticing that there were no articles of flannel
suspended to dry, though the time was late autunm,
when the weather was something more than chilly.

Another circumstance that struck me much was that
there were stores on this remarkable estate, stuffed' with
goods which had all been made by this more than remark-
able community, and which were worth many thousands
of dollars. The stock was so extensive that not a fifth
of it could possibly have been consumed by the com-

238 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

mimity ; and on inquiry I found that tlie trading trans-
actions of these people were so extensive that they were
positively rich; and that in no small degree. It was
asserted by outsiders likely to know, and of position not
likely to indulge in idle chatter, that the Lebanon settle-
ment alone was worth more than half a million dollars in
hard cash, besides their land, stock, and cattle. The saints
keep a banking account ; but I did not happen to be in-
quisitive enough to find out whether it was kept in the
name of an individual or was a joint-stock aifair.

The community is governed by two classes of officers,
the religious and the secular ; and both may be of either
sex, though at the time of my visit there was no female
preacher — at least actively engaged as such. The religious
teachers are termed elders, the secular governors, deacons,
or deaconesses if females. There are always deaconesses
in direct charge of the women and girls ; and even in the
families living together I noticed that there was usually,
perhaps always, an old crone of viperish aspect present —
to see that the rules are respected, probably.

There did not appear to be any desire, on the part of
the saints, to raise mystery, or conceal an}^ of their ideas
and doctrines, h'om inquirers ; at the same time there was
no eagerness to give information ; and the answers were
sometimes short, if not off-hand. I thought there was an
intention on the part of my informant to insinuate that
he thought me too inquisitive ; and this acted as a de-
terrent to much questioning on some subjects on which I
should have liked more information. Any person is at
liberty to pass over the ground of these people and ex-
amine their works ; but they certainly do not care to have
many visitors. Their principles resemble those of Quakers
in several respects, though, in my opinion, they lack the
religious genuineness of Quakers. Like the latter people,
they are enemies to warfare and all strivings ; and I think
that it is for this reason, because they will not resist evil
even in trifles, that they tolerate visitors. I may be wrong.

SHAKERS AND RELIGIOUS MUMMERS 239

but the impression was left on my mind tliat they would
much rather be left to themselves; that they dislike
having strangers approach them, but would never say so
for fear of giving offence. They certainly are careful to
"give oflfence to none."

The women avoided coming in contact with me as
much as they could, and in this they were aided by the
men, who drew my attention to other things. I could
not therefore learn much of the daily life of the women,
although I was permitted to look into a building used as
a laundry, and a room where a number of young girls
were busy sewing and making garments. All work seemed
to be going on with the regularity and silence usually
observed in prisons ; and these two rooms reminded me
of pictures I have seen of Dutch industrial schools.
There was no conversation or singing, even of hymns.
Two or three horrible old ogresses seemed to be watching
the young workers, whose ages ranged from about seven
to twenty years; and I supposed that this acted as a
spell on them. The " brother " who showed me round
uttered a word or two of explanation to me about the
work, but did not address or salute any of the women.
Only one of them looked up as we stood on the thres-
hold of the door (we did not pass beyond), and she was
instantly observed by one of the ogresses, who uttered
the single word, " Martha ! " in a tone so awful that it
shocked me more than a torrent of blasphemy would
have done. Mentally I exclaimed, " For God's sake, let us
go ! " and scarcely could refrain from uttering the words
aloud. Certainly it does not require flames to make a
hell. Perhaps the remark can scarcely be understood by a
person who has not visited a place of this kind, perhaps
I am too imaginative ; but the horrible constraint of this
place, with the cool, fiend-like nature of the discipline,
made me feel, long before my inspection was finished,
that it was a sia to live — a wickedness to have a being ;
and so far was the scene from provoking a single holy

240 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

tliought in my mind that I caught myself almost blas-
pheming ; for I could not shake off the thought that if
God wanted, or took pleasure in such service as this, He
must be a monster.

It was the same among the men. Into their work-
shops I passed more freely. There were carpenters, shoe-
makers, tailors, tin workers, and most other trades at
work ; but all was performed with the silence of a peni-
tential establishment. Scarcely an eye glanced toward
me on my entrance, not a word was addressed me, and
when I made an inquiry or two from a man or a boy, my
guide took it upon him to reply, and the person addressed
moved away, or turned his back on me with an air that
could not be mistaken. He did not want to be l)Othered.
Yet one lad spoke to me unbid len.

It was at the blacksmith's forge ; and I shall have
more to say about this youth a page or two farther on.
He was not older than fifteen or sixteen years ; a thin,
sharp-featured lad, with an enormous nose, and the
straight, black hair so frequently found on the head of
the religious fanatic — perhaps because affected by him ;
but I am inclined to think as a peculiarity of his con-
stitution. The youth, who was called John (surnames
are not used, and I think not acknowledged, among the
Shakers), had a habit of scratching or tickling his nose
with his little finger, in a manner so peculiar that it could
not escape observation. When I first saw him he was
swaying a heavy sledge-hammer, while a man of three
times his bulk held the red-hot iron on the anvil ; for
John, if slight in build, was strong of arm, as I soon
discovered.

As I approached the forge he dropped the hammer,
rushed to me and seized my arms, pinning them to my
sides, and screamed, " Come, dear brother, come and be
saved. Leave the sin, and come home to Jesus. Come,
thou dearly beloved of the Lord, come and be saved."
The poor follow Avas undoubtedly mad. He continued to

SHAKERS AND RELIGIOUS MUMMERS 241

yell, in every sentence uttering the request to come to
the Lord, till he fell to the around in an ecstatic fit,
foaming at the mouth, and screaming appallingly. The
bystanders, who seemed to worship the poor wretch,
said that he was " in the spirit " ; and I was informed
that he had " wonderful gifts from the Lord," of which
" the gift of tongues " was not the least. His flying at
me was described as a special Providence, which I was
entreated not to neglect. It was " a call " which I should
commit awful sin in refusing to obey.

I got away from this blasphemous mummery as
quickly as I could.

Of the skill of the workmen engaged in the shops
there could be no question. They were admittedly the
most skilful mechanics in this district of Massachusetts,
and the farmers for many miles round sent all their iron-
work to be done by the saints. They could do anything
— shoe horses, forge a ploughshare, turn out a dozen
miles of iron palings, or make a handsome pair of en-
trance-gates. Other work was also done for outsiders,
all at the most fair prices, for a saint takes advantage
of no man. Only the work must be brought to them.
They will not fetch it, nor will they go off their own land
to work. The stockings and jerseys knitted by the women
are in great demand among the unredeemed outsiders.

It is not to be supposed from what I have said of the
industry of these people that they suffer themselves to
be overworked. That is not the case. All of them have
plenty of spare time, which they seem to idle away or
devote to religious mummery. Everything about the
settlement is kept in such apple-pie order, is always so
neat, prim, clean, that it is child's-play to keep it con-
tinually so. As to outside works, the saints say, truly
enough, that they are under no need to perform them,
but they do not wish to be idle. They have a super-
abundance of everything ; and they look on it as a iavour
done to the outsider if they accept his work — which, as a

Q

242 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

matter of fact, it is ; for many of the farmers of this part
(remember that I am writing of a period long past) would
be put to great straits if the saints refused their work.

With regard to outside charity, I do not think the
saints ever refuse it. They obey all the precepts of
Christ in a literal sense. " Give to him that asketh of
thee, and from him that would borrow of thee turn not
away." I am sure that a Shaker would carry out that
command in a thoroughly literal way. But there are
no beggars in America, except those of the six-shooter,
tender-foot type; and these gentlemen, I ascertained,
never by any chance show their face on the settlement.
Why they do not I cannot tell, but I can guess. A
tender-foot has as much dread of a sermon as he has of
the gallows.^

I did not come to Lebanon in the first place out of
idle curiosity, but was brought here by an eccentric
friend who took a great interest in the community and
ultimately joined it. Perhaps owing to this circum-
stance we were entertained by an elder, who was living
with other officers, in a house that was certainly much
too large for their requirements. The place was well
but plainly furnished ; and though its chief occupant
was one of the principal leaders and preachers of this
society, there was no bookcase,, nor more than half-a-
dozen religious books and Bibles in the house. In reply
to my inquiry if he ever read any of the masterpieces of

1 A tramp whom I met not many miles from Lebanon Springs told the
following anecdote : " I went up to an old slab-sides [Quaker] and told
him that if he didn't give me a new shirt I'd raise hell among his stacks.
He brought me out two good shirts and a pair of breeches, ' for,' said he,
' I see you want them. Come in and have some food ; and here is a trifle
for your future wants.' While I was eating the dinner his old woman
gave me, he said: 'Friend, when thou wast a boy, did thy mother teach
thee to pray ? ' I didn't like that, somehow, and so didn't answer ; and
he continued: ' If she did, try to remember her prayer, and the Lord have
pity on thee.' What he said made me feel so bad that I couldn't take
them things ; and when I was leaving, and he said, ' God bless thee,
friend,' I would have given all I'm worth if he had changed it to ' G —

d thee.' I never was so near six-shootering myself as I was that

night."

SHAKERS AND RELIGIOUS MUMMERS 243

the world's great intellects, he replied that " They that
cultivate the vain rovings of" the mind, like those that
handle the harp and organ, indulge a lust ; and, like the
lusters of old, are swept into hell." On my remarking
that I heard that they themselves indulged in music
at their worship, he answered, " Yea ! even as Miriam
sounded a timbrel over the enemies of the Lord, but not
to gratify the lust of sweet sounds."

We Avere fed here with boiled mutton, bread, and
potatoes, followed b}^ a plain rice pudding. Good whole-
some food, and I quite agreed with our host's remark
that those who desired better deserved to have none,
though I thought the remark out of place, as I am sure
that neither of his guests failed to partake of the fare
with thankfulness to him and to our common Master.

We had intimated that we intended to attend their
public worship the next day, which was a Sunday, but
we were not invited to pass the night in the settlement,
which I could see vexed my friend. We had consequently
to ride six miles the following morning to the Shaker
meeting-house. It was a building without ornament, and
without a pulpit ; and the men sat separate on one side
of the building with the women on the other. The
music was furnished by that most abominable of all
musical instruments, a harmonium, which, we may
justly surmise, was invented by the father of evil for
the special behoof of such orgies as that I now narrate.

The presiding elder called on '• some brother to open
with prayer," and immediately up jumped my young
friend, the blacksmith. Prayer ! I hope I shall never
hear another such ; and the only point in favour of him
that offered the horribly blasphemous incantation — for
such it was — that I can say, is that I am sure he was
raving mad. I shall not attempt to repeat anything
that he said ; but his manner was enough to convince
any impartial observer that he was insane. He jumped
up from the floor, he stood on a bench, then down again ;

244 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

he threw his arms and legs about as if trying to throw
them from him. He screamed and yelled in his piercing
sharp tones till my ears quivered with the horrible noise,
while his brethren and sisters groaned and " amened "
in an agony of ecstasy. Finally he went " into the
spirit," otherwise a foaming fit, on the floor, where he
lay while a hymn was being sung, by which time he had
recovered and resumed his seat. When the hymn was
finished he sang a verse by himself, snapping out the
time with his fingers with a noise like castanets.

Then followed prayers by the elder and a woman, and
another hymn, after which the sermon was delivered.
There was much twaddle in this discourse, but nothing
particularly outrageous, and a few of the remarks were
sensible enough ; but needless to say that the speaker
revealed himself a vulgar, ill-informed man, or that the
sermon was unconnected and without point. It certainly
could not have made any impression on the mind of an
ordinary commonplace man possessed of a grain of
common sense, but it seemed to give immense gratifica-
tion to the brethren, for they groaned themselves — I
was going to write, into a fury of enthusiasm. I do not
know how otherwise to put it.

The sermon over, there was sung another hymn, and
then followed the proceeding to witness which I had
been induced to be present at this orgie. It was com-
menced by the young blacksmith. Stretching his legs
out stifily before him, and throwing his body back so
that he could look straight up to the ceiling, he com-
menced a series of the most horribly blasphemous in-
vocations to the Holy One of God to come down. His
language, even his gestures, are quite indescribable.

While this awful invocation was going on, a woman
arose, quietly enough, and began to shuffle round a space
in front of the platform where the speaker had stood.
She was followed by others in quick succession, till about
a dozen were shuffling around, the benches being pulled

SHAKERS AND RELIGIOUS MUMMERS 245

out of the way to give them room. It was not a dance,
but rather a gliding motion, accompanied by ridiculous
Sfestures of the arms and hands. The feet were raised so
little from the floor that the toes were but rarely visible.
The women uttered a few cries, and worked their features
convulsively ; but the most noise was made by the men,
and the uproar was simply brutal. They shouted and
stamped as badly as the rabble in a low theatre, and
several lashed themselves into a state bordering on furious
madness. The appeals to the Deity or His Son to " come
down " were incessant, and couched in terms that cannot
be repeated.

Meanwhile the women, with one or two girls among
them, continued to glide round in a steady way, not
very fast, and with but little motion except with the
hands. I noticed that all the very old women took part
in this mummery ; and several kept their eyes closed,
finally falling motionless to the floor, where they lay for
some time. The time occupied in this ceremony was
about a quarter of an hour, and the whole proceeding
was inexplicable. I never learned the meaning of it, if it
had one ; and in reply to my inquiries I was told that
these women were under the influence of the Spirit, or
rather " in communion with Him," was, I think, the
phrase used. None of the men took part in this dance,
or whatever ; they call it ; but I quite expected to see
them stamp in the boards of the floor, I should have
noted that while the women were shufiling about, the
harmonium continued to play an indistinguishable tune,
resembling a dirge to my ears, but there was no singing.

By the conclusion of this extraordinary mancBuvre,
John the blacksmith had quieted down, and was tickling
his nose with his little finger, in the ludicrous manner
before mentioned ; an eccentricity constantly indulged in
by him when he had nothing better to do. Unfortu-
nately his eye caught mine as I was observing him, and
instantly he flew towards me, and seized me with such

246 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

fierceness that I was nearly dragged off the bench.
" Come to glory," he yelled. " Come to salvation.
Come to the blessed of the Lord, and learn the Way."
I am anything but a weak man, and at this time was in
the zenith of my strength, weighing over thirteen stone ;
but I was nearly powerless in the clutches of this wiry
youth. He clung to me like a cat, and I could not
shake him off. Pity withheld me from throwing him
roughly, for I was convinced that only insanity could
show the superhuman strength of this miserable stripling.
At length my friend and some of the brethren inter-
fered on my behalf; but it took the united strength of
three or four powerful men to compel the young fanatic
to relinquish his hold of me. Some years afterwards,
being in that neighbourhood, I made inquiries after John,
and learned that he died suddenly in one of his fits of
" communion " when he was about eighteen years of
age — not a surprising fate. Few, I think, will disagree
with me when I describe his end as a case of death from
religious excitement.

I have devoted more space to this strange community
than I intended to do when I commenced the chapter,
and I cannot therefore describe several other strange
relisfious sects as I had intended to do. As is well known,
nearly all denominations in America have " big tents " in
the woods and wastes during the summer months ; and
perhaps it is as well that I do not describe some of the
disgraceful scenes that take place in these religious
picnics, especially in the " coon " tents.

It can well be imagined that where people camp
promiscuously together in the woods for perhaps six or
seven weeks at a time, strange, not to say indecorous,
scenes take place, especially as Uncle Sam is fond of
novelty in his religion as well as in other things.

I have described New Lebanon as being situated in
the State of Massachusetts, It seems, however, to be
in New York. I cannot now say how the mistake

SHAKERS AND RELIGIOUS MUMMERS 247

occurred ; but I have not seen fit to alter my notes,
because I have a clear recollection of the Shakers
describing their estate as being in Massachusetts ; and
they were punningly described, by people living near,
as being " Mercy-choose-sites " ; an allusion to their
general shrewdness in choosing the best of everything,
and a play on the name of the State.

CHAPTER XXI

MICHIGAN

Perhaps it is not generally known to average English-
men that Michigan State is divided into two separate
portions. Michigan proper is the peninsula enclosed by
Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie ; but it also includes a
second, and much smaller peninsula, wedged between the
north of Lake Michigan and the south of Lake Superior.
At the time of which I am writing, this last portion con-
tained very extensive forests, and possibly still does, for
this is not a favourite settling portion of the State,
intending settlers preferring to cross over into the British
dominions ; for what reason I cannot tell ; but so it is.
These forests are as solitary, regarding animal life, as
other densely wooded districts in this region of America ;
but there are spots, particularly in the swamps near the
coasts of the lakes, which abound Avith water-fowl, for the
most part of the same species as those described as found
in the northern portion of this great lake region. See
the account of the Red River Colony, &c.

I need not repeat my description of those birds here,
except when I have something new to say about their
habits; but I think there are more small birds in
Michigan during summer than in Red River and
adjacent parts. I noticed great numbers of ground
sparrows, as they arc called here, and swamp sparrows ;
and I found many of their nests, including that of the
common swamp sparrow. This bird greatly resembles
Melospiza georgiana, but I am not quite sure that it is the
same bird. A confusing circumstance is that the eggs of

248

MICHIGAN 249

nearly all these ground sparrows, including the celebrated
song sparrow, are so much alike that unless the bird is
actually caught on the nest it is often very difficult to
identify them. I formed a complete gradation of these
eggs, showing that in a dozen species any two adjoining
were so much alike that it could not be positively said
that they were not the eggs of the same bird. Generally
the ground colom^ is bluish, speckled and blotched with dull
red and purplish brown. The eggs of all these so-called
sparrows (they are not true sparrows) are very small
and delicate shelled, approximating those of the English
linnet in size. I did not find those of the song sparrow
in Northern Michigan ; but the bird is plentiful enough
a little farther south in Ohio and Massachusetts, &c.
Probably the northern breeding limit of the song sparrow
does not extend beyond the south of Michigan. I never
found the nest farther north, though odd individuals of
all these sparrows sometimes stray very far from then'
normal habitat. The nests of all the ground sparrows
are cunningly hid, and all avoid their nests if they have
the slightest suspicion that they are being watched.

Among the animals noted in Northern Michigan was
the Canadian lynx. I saw a fine specimen of this animal
in the forest, but failed to shoot it, it was so quick in its
movements, and lost not a moment in making its escape.
By-the-by, I heard this lynx plunge into a stream in
making its escape. It could not have got away without
doing so, and it must have swum very quickly, for it had
crossed a distance of fifty yards and disappeared before I
could get up, though I did so promptly.

In this same stream and in the adjacent swamps,
some of which were close to the shores of Superior, the
large rats called musquashes, Fiber zibethicus, were very
abundant, insomuch that I sometimes obtained forty or
fifty of an evening for the sake of the skins, which are of
great use for making rugs, fur coats, &c., though the skin
itself is not much esteemed by the traders. About here

250 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

the musquashes were living amicably in swamps which
swarmed with bull-frogs.

Musquash seems to be an Indian corruption of the
words musk rat. The animal is about the size of a small
rabbit, with a long tail compressed at the sides, and is
aquatic in its habits. It makes lodges under the water
with the entrance above the surface — at least one entrance,
for there are usually several, one or more of which may
be under water. They also burrow in the banks of streams
and ponds to a great depth. The musquash is capable of
being tamed, and shows more affection for its master than
most pet rats ; though, as is well known, there are several
of the family that are capable of evincing a considerable
degree of affection towards those who are kind to them.
Those captured in traps should be handled cautiously, as
they will bite very sharply.

Another animal common in some spots where the
forest was thin, or on the outskirts, near small open plains,
was the North American skunk, Mephitis mephitica. This
animal is also about the size of a rabbit. It is notorious
for its offensive odour, but I think the off'ensiveness of the
smell has been much exaggerated. For instance, I have
heard of people being made ill in their houses when the
skunk was a quarter of a mile away. This is nonsense.
Nor do I believe that the odour could have dangerous
effects on the human subject, as is often asserted. As a
matter of fact the stench of several of the South American
species is far more abominable than that of the North
American skunk. It is bad enough, however, especially
if the animal is old. If the beastly fluid is squirted on
your clothes they must be destroyed, for the odour cannot
be got rid of. It is an indescribable stench — a compound
of putrid-sore odour with the extreme essence of tom-cat,
and of great intensity. There is no doubt but that it
often makes people with weak stomachs very ill, but that
it is so very offensive to the animal creation at large I
strongly doubt. We are told by the professional naturalist

MICHIGAN 251

that the horrid odour is given to the animal by Nature as
a protection, and they strive to make the general habits
of the creature fit in with this view. A protection against
what ? Other beasts of prey ? Carnivorous animals do
not devour each other. I will not go the length of
saying that a preying animal never, under any circum-
stances, devours another predatory creature, but I am
not sure that I should be going too far if I did. I
will say positively that no preying mammal or bird habitu-
ally does so ; and unless it was a common practice, it will
be palpable to any real naturalist that Nature would not
make a special guard against it. Besides, why protect a
skunk more than a stoat or a weasel ? But, says the
advocate of the pet theory, the abominable odour must
be given for some special purpose. I fail to see that. For
some inscrutable reason all created beings are more or
less offensive — man among them, as those who have
sniffed an unwashed nigger are well aware. That they
are so offensive for protective reasons is simply nonsense.
For what reason does a carcass stink ? To frighten the
vultures from it, perhaps ! The horrid odour of many
kinds of deer is only second in offensiveness to that of
the North American skunk.

As a matter of fact most carnivores are possessed of
highly offensive odours. The same applies to birds of prey,
and even to reptiles. No one who has dissected a serpent
can be ignorant of the filthy odour of its intestines, nor
have failed to note that this stench is often powerfully
given oft' by the living animal, especially when terrified.
That, however, does not save them from destruction.

Regarding the skunk, a great deal has been said as to
whether the odour is offensive or not to the animal itself.
It is not, as might be expected. For it is ridiculous to
suppose that the Creator would make any of His creatures
an abomination to itself. The skunk, in common with
such creatures as stoats, weasels, and polecats, to say
nothing of foxes and the larger carnivores as well as other

252 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

classes of animals, probably are gifted with the mal-
odoiirs that distinguish them for sexual reasons. I am
very strongly of that opinion, but I do not see how I can
more than hint at the evidence on which I base it in a
book that will fall into the hands of all sorts and ages of
persons. Moreover, in animal physiology there is almost
always more than one reason for a particular circumstance.
This makes the subject too intricate to be discussed in one
or two paragraphs.

The habits of the skunk are rather sluggish. He is
not timid, and is in no hurry to get out of your way unless
you are accompanied by a dog. The assertion that dogs
will not attack a North American skunk is not correct.
Dogs can be trained to attack anything, a remarkable cir-
cumstance, since wild dogs, like other preying animals, only
attack those creatures on which they feed. Carnivorous
animals sometimes quarrel, and the stronger will slay the
weaker ; but the conqueror never devours the vanquished,
whether of his own species or some other. If there are
any exceptions to this rule, the meal has been made under
pressure of extreme hunger or m captivity, when the
tastes of the confined animals are often abnormal. Even
men and herbivorous animals have been known to devour
each other under stress of starvation.

The skunk moves about slowly; but if put to it, he
can cover the ground at a tolerably quick pace. I have
never seen them climb trees. The trappers say that
they will do so when driven to bay; and also to rob
birds' nests. I strongly doubt the latter part of the
assertion. They rob the nests of birds of the grouse
and partridge family; and, no doubt, those of smaller
birds when built near the ground. The general food
of the skunk consists of any sort of animal food it can
find — rats, mice, chipmunks, young birds, young hares,
every sort of small animal that it can surprise ; and
snakes, lizards, frogs, and even beetles, &c. It is to
be understood that the expression, "every sort of small

MICHIGAN 253

animal," does not include those of its own or allied
families. As I have just said, no beast of prey devours
those of its own kind, except under abnormal circum-
stances.

The fur of the skunk is by no means to be despised.
It is superior to that of many animals which find a ready
market. The skin is not tainted with the fetid odour
of the fundamental glands. The old school of trappers
would not strip a skunk ; but their brethren of the
present day are wiser, and at a time when all sorts of
furs are growing scarce, have found that it pays to
collect skunk skins. I have met with old trappers who
always kill and bury these animals when they meet with
them, alleging that if they get into their traps, no other
animal can afterwards be cauoht in them. I have, over
and over again, proved that this is an error, or perhaps a
superstition.

The fact that the skunk can, and often does, eject
its offensive fluid when dogs or men seize them, is a
strong point in favour of those who believe in the de-
fensive theory. Many animals emit their urine when
captured. The badger, to which the skunk is closely
allied (it is a badger, in my opinion), does so, and so do
many stoats, polecats, &c. ; and I have noticed the same
thing when handling bull-frogs and other batrachians.
The subject of anal secretions is a difficult one, but I
cannot get away from the opinion that sex is the only
reasonable explanation. For instance, why are certain
species of deer, civets, &c., furnished with musk glands,
if not for purely sexual reasons ? No one has ever yet
suggested that the odour of miisk is a defence to the
animal possessing it ; yet musk, which is a pleasant odour
to man, is most offensive to some other animals.

I come now to treat of the American tree-squirrels.
No man can penetrate the American forests far without
noticing the squirrels. They are abundant in many
parts of Canada and the North- West, but I have thought

254 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

fit to wait till I reached this chapter before giving a
detailed account of them.

The trappers say that there are three species of
squirrel — the red, the grey, and the black ; the natu-
ralists acknowledge two — the red, Sciurus hudsonianus,
and the grey, Sciurus carolinensis. The black is an
abnormal, or erratic, colouration of individuals. All these
are met with in the forests of Michigan, but there is
great uncertainty as to where and in what numbers.
There used to be a great migration of these elegant
little mammals, or perhaps it would be better to say a
great invasion, occurring every few years, with an un-
certain interval. A district in which there were very
few squirrels would be invaded by countless thousands,
and the farmers would assemble in defence of their barns
and granaries, and have a week's squirrel-shooting. I
have heard of a party of a dozen guns shooting as many
as 20,000 squirrels in a week. These were of the species
termed grey by the people of the locality ; but they seem
to have been the >S'. hudsonianus of the naturalists ; for
they were the variety known as the chickaree, the most
abundant in the northern districts. Personally I doubt
if there is more than one distinct species ; I am quite
sure that there are more than half-a-dozen local varieties.
Books and naturalists cannot supersede my eyesight.

It would be interesting to know from whence these
great hordes came. They always brought many enemies,
as owls, buzzards, and kites, in their train ; and in the
following years there would be a scarcity of squirrels in
the invested district. Man, and birds of prey, rapacious
as they were, could not account for the disappearance of
hundreds of thousands, perhaps of millions ; and my
opinion is, that the bulk of the horde failed to find
sufficient food to lay up a store for the winter, and
consequently were starved to death. But, apart from
this, great migrations of squirrels frequently took place
to my knowledge, for no discoverable cause; but I

MICHIGAN 255

noticed, after one or two sucli migrations, which almost
denuded an extensive district of squirrels, that the follow-
ing year was a bad one for nuts and beech mast. It
looks, therefore, as if the little animals, by some remark-
able instinct or train of reasoning, were forewarned that
a season of scarcity was approaching. I do not say that
squirrels are the only animals in the American forests
which make these remarkable migrations. Other mam-
mals and many species of birds do so ; but the habit is
more marked in the squirrel than in any other animal
found here. It is the vast number in these migrations
that is so remarkable ; so that it looks as if the horde
had deliberately started on a journey, like a body of
emigrants, to find a new country, the old being no longer
able to supply their wants.

The squirrels hibernate, but I do not consider their
retirement for the winter a true hibernation ; for they
lay up a store of food for use during the winter, which
such animals as bears, which fall into a profound sleep,
resemblmg death, during the season of winter, do not.
This food is taken to their store-holes in their cheek-
pouches, which are capable of holding an acorn. Many
of those which I shot had acorns in their pouches, but
more often it was beech mast, nuts, and, where there
were barns in the neighbourhood, grain of several sorts ;
for these squirrels visit the outhouses of farms, and
have been known to nearly empty corn-bins of their
contents.

The grey squirrel, >S', carolinensis, is said in books to
be distinguished by its superior size, and the absence of
tufts of hair on the ears ; but none of the American
squirrels have such large ear-tufts as the European
species, and size depends on locality, or the supply of
food, in great degree. It is individuals of the grey
variety, however, that are most frequently of a black
colour; and this black colouration is of varying degrees
of intensity. Sometimes it is a dark brown, sometimes

256 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

almost a chestnut, and occasionally the fur is mottled,
brown, black, and grey. In any case, it is absolutely
certain that these abnormally coloured specimens are not
a distinct variety. The numbers in which they occur
are alone a proof of that ; though formerly they seem to
have been much more numerous than at present, if the
accounts I have heard of late years are to be relied on,
of which I have no doubt. At this time they were so
numerous that I obtained a sufficient number to make
an overcoat of. Coats formed of the skins of animals
of small size, or lined with them, seem to be warmer
than those made of the pelts of larger mammals. Such
articles of clothing are very desirable possessions to a
man exposed to a North American winter.

No matter how numerous squirrels were in a district,
I never succeeded in finding many of their storehouses,
probably because they seem to choose holes far up the
trunks of trees, often very near the tops, for this purpose.
Of those I did discover I can record that they did not
contain anything like the quantity of food which I found
in the stores of the chipmunks ; and whereas the chip-
munk's store generally consisted largely of grain, those
of the chickarees consisted mainly of wild-grown nuts, &c.,
and rarely any sort of grain unless the place of storage
was near a farm or barn. It is curious that I never
found wild rice in the winter store of any species of
rodent, though several of them, including the chipmunk,
feed off this grain in marshy districts. Wild rice, I
should mention, grows abimdantly in the head-waters of
the Ohio and other streams of the district, and forms a
principal food, in the season, of several small animals,
and especially of birds. I have raised flocks of ducks
numbering thousands from a patch of wild rice. Small
birds are much attracted by it, clinging to the straw to
pick out the grain : but the larger birds, such as ducks
and other water-fowl, swim among it, and pull the straws
down to get at the head. The rodents nibble the straws

MICHIGAN 257

through, or attack those which are beaten down by the
weather, often venturing into the water after it. Among
the animals to which the rice is a boon is the musquash,
which nibbles the straw as well as the grain.

It is a singular circumstance that among the small
mammals which lay up a store of food for winter use,
those that keep to the ground collect much greater stores
than those with an arboreal habitat. The chipmunk,
for instance, often lays up a food-depot; if I may use the
term, which is at least fifty times its own weight ; while
I have never found the store of a chickaree (tree-squirrel)
to exceed above twelve times its weight.

The native rats and mice of North America belong to
different famihes from those of the Old World. The species
which struck me most was the common jumping mouse.
It is a very small animal, not exceeding the size of a
small English mouse, but the tail is much longer, as are
the hind legs ; otherwise the little creature has a strong
superficial, at all events, likeness to the common house-
mouse, which is the terror and torment of our careful
Enghsh housewives. When disturbed it attempts to
escape by a series of leaps of about six feet each ; but
it is easily run down, appearing to become partially
paralysed with fear when closely pursued, as its leaps then
degenerate into little hops. It trembles violently when
captured, and makes no attempt to bite. Many of those
that I have handled uttered a little squeak of joy or
satisfaction on being released ; and, I may remark, I have
frequently known birds utter cries of joy under similar
circumstances.

The jumping mouse, Zapus hudsonianus, does not
associate in large numbers, but its habitat has an enormous
range, extending, practically, to the whole of the northern
half of the continent. According to books it is found
far within the limit of the 60th parallel, if not as far as
the Arctic circle ; and within my own knowledge it
extends southward as far as the north of Mexico. It

R

258 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

shuns hot plains and valleys, however, in the southern
portions of its habitat, and is evidently fitted for life in a
cold climate. In the north it hibernates ; in the south it
does not, or only partially so. I enter the last clause
by way of caution, as I am not quite sure. I believe,
however, that it is beyond doubt that the little animal
only hibernates when the cold is severe. Its hibernation,
like that of all animals whose diet is of an omnivorous
character, is a true hibernation. It does not lay up a
store of food for the winter, but it makes a nest of hay
in which it buries itself. Like the squirrels, it has
cheek-pouches, which are of considerable size ; but in
spite of this indication that its natural food is of a grani-
vorous kind, it feeds very largely on insects, especially
ants and beetles.

Another little rodent, of omnivorous diet, and true
hibernation habit, is the American flying squirrel. This
animal, in my opinion, approaches very nearly to the
mouse tribe ; and I think that it would be just as correct
to call it a flying rat. Its enormous eye indicates that
its habits are nocturnal ; and it has a bushy tail which
is flattened horizontally to assist its spurious flight. Not-
withstanding its large eye, it is about much in broad
daylight, going, like the red and grey squirrels, in large
parties. It is found in the profound depths of the
forests, which the jumping mouse is not, although the
latter animal is found on almost all descriptions of
ground, except, as I have said, hot plains.

I am not sure that the flying squirrel, Sciuropterus
volucella, inhabits the northern portion of Michigan. My
notes, I find, do not make particular mention of that ;
but it was abundant in Michigan proper, Ohio, Pennsyl-
vania, and other parts which I consider to come within the
basin of the Great Lakes. Though described as a " flying "
squirrel, it is, like all other flying mammals, bats excepted,
simply furnished with a natural parachute, enabling it
to drop great distances without developing a dangerous

MICHIGAN 259

momentum. The skin of the flanks is loose and dilat-
able, and when stretched by means of the limbs en-
ables the animal to drop slowly and gracefully, from
branch to branch, in a slanting direction. The distance
of these so-called flights is sometimes very great when
passing from tree to tree. I have seen them take leaps
which appeared to exceed a hundred feet in actual
length, passing from the top of one tall tree to the
centre of another that stood thirty feet from it. They
alight on the branch for which they are making with
unerring certainty and unsurpassable grace, undulating
the body and tail with elegant motion in mid-flight. In
passing from branch to branch in a perfectly horizontal,
or slightly ascending, direction, they cannot leap farther,
or better, than ordinary squirrels.

They are omnivorous, devouring greedily all kinds of
coleopterous insects and larvae. They also devour birds'
eggs, which, probably, all squirrels do ; but I suspect
them of destroying the young birds as well. I found some
unfledged young under trees inhabited by these squirrels,
which had the skulls bitten open and the brains sucked
out. The marks of the teeth showed that the depredator
was a very small animal ; and it seems certain that the
flying squirrel was that depredator, for different species
of small rodents never occupy the same tree, or in any
case only very temporarily. In this they resemble the
monkeys of South America ; and generally it seems that
mammals, and most birds, having selected a tree for
their special habitation, resent the intrusion of other
species ; and when they are not strong enough to drive
away the intruder, themselves forsake the tree and seek
another.

The large black eye, which is surrounded by a narrow
white, or light- coloured ring, is a very beautiful feature
of these pretty little squirrels.

Of other rodents I shall say nothing more than this,
that the common rats and mice of Europe, such as Miis

260 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

decumanus, Mus Tnusculus, and Mus rattus, he.ve established
themselves in several parts of Canada and the States ;
not only in coast towns., but also in the interior. In
some places they are more abundant than the native
species. Of course they have come to America concealed
in the cargoes of ships ; and several interesting problems
have now to be solved. Will the new species oust the
old ? Will the brown rat drive its black brother out of
the land, or prevent its obtaining a permanent footing
here ? Or will this vast continent find room for all ?
Time only can answer these questions ; meanwhile it is
certain that the three species I have mentioned, and
some others from both Europe and Asia, are propagating
fast, though as yet only locally. I was a little sur-
prised to find both black and brown rats here ; because,
as far as my experience goes, the brown rat is the only
rat found on shipboard. He is master, and seems to
have frightened the black species from maritime adven-
ture. Certainly the two kinds are never, by any chance,
found on the same ship.

CHAPTER XXII

THE WILD BEES OF AMERICAN FORESTS

The insect life of the American backwoods is not very strik-
ing though a portion of it (the mosquito portion, to wit) is
decidedly piercing. The butterfly and moth population
of Canada and the States is not more curious or brilliantly
coloured than that of England. Indeed some of the
butterflies so closely resemble those of England as to
suggest that they have been transplanted here, which it
is quite possible that they have. I think I have already
referred to a small blue butterfly, and remarked that
this appears to be a very common colour for butterflies
in all parts of the world. There are several blue butter-
flies in Europe, in India, and I have heard, in Africa,
and there is a very large and handsome one in South
America.

But I have nothing worth recording concerning the
North American butterflies and moths, and but little
about other insects of this region, with one exception.

During my stay in Michigan I associated for some
time with two professional hunters and trappers, a race
even at that time fast dying out; for the miserable
shack and whisky-bar loafer that now passes by that
name is no more like the old backwoodsman than a
kite is like an eagle.

The two men I refer to had been trappers from boy-
hood and were splendid types of their class. Long, the
elder, by a transposition of his names familiarly called
" Long Jake," was a man in the prime of life, six feet
four inches in height, broad, and loose-limbed, but of

201

262 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

herculean strength and a power of endurance that seemed
to be untirable. Brown was also over six feet in height,
and of muscular power scarcely inferior to that of his
companion. He was known as " Splits " ; where or how
he obtained that inelegant sobriquet I could not learn.
If I questioned either of them on the subject there would
be a hearty laugh, and a sly look pass between them, but
I got no answer. Probably the nickname had been con-
ferred during one of those boisterous orgies in which all
backwoodsmen occasionally indulge.

Long Jake was a taciturn, quiet sort of man, as so
many other trappers are. It would seem that the soli-
tary life they lead, often absolutely alone, seldom with
more than a single companion during the greater part
of the year, has a tendency to teach these men to speak
seldom, and as shortly as they can. Splits, however,
was a strong contrast to his companion. He was a very
lively man, full of joke and fun, and whiling the time
away when he was perforce alone with songs comic, songs
jovial, songs of love, and songs of questionable sentiment.
He was full of anecdote too, and used to tell some funny
as well as some strange tales, for he had seen not only a
great deal of frontier fighting with the Red Men, but had
fought also through the Civil War, in one of Kilpatrick's
cavalry regiments.

With these two men I spent several weeks in the
forests of Northern Michigan, living in a temporary hut,
and spending the days in shooting, fishing, and watching
the habits of the animals. There were still plenty of
foxes and wolves, with deer, at this time in this region,
but the bears had nearly or quite disappeared. The
pelts obtained by my companions, with the exceptions
named above, were all those of small mammals ; and
they both complained that of late years their earnings
had decreased by more than one-half in amount.

Our hut was about three miles from the shore of the
lake, and about thirteen, as far as we knew, from the

WILD BEES OF AMERICAN FORESTS 263

nearest farm. Occasionally visits were paid to this farm
to dispose of venison, &c., and obtain in return eggs, pork,
and flour. These visits were paid by Splits more fre-
quently than was strictly necessary, for there was a
pretty girl or two there that — he made no secret — took
his fancy. One of these young ladies suggested that
he should get her some honey. I thought this was a
joke at the time, but a day or two after I noticed Splits
gazing upward towards the sky like a daft man ; then he
began to run to the forest, dodging about in a most
eccentric manner. I went after him to learn what was
the matter, not a little alarmed, fearing he had been
suddenly smitten with an attack of dementia. " It's a
bee, boy ; don't you see ? " said he ; and looking carefully
I did indeed see a bee high up, sailing about in that
seemingly lumbering, aimless manner to which bees are
often given, but I could see nothing remarkable about
the insect, and asked why it so interested him. Instead
of answering, he rushed on into the interior of the forest,
and I followed him, his sole anxiety being apparently to
avoid losing sight of this solitary insect. Soon we saw
others, and after a chase of nearly a mile, came to a tree,
far up the trunk of which many bees were flying in and
out of a small hole. " That's a bee-stock. Now for a
frolic," said Splits.

This was delayed for the time being, till we should
have Jake with us, and the spot being carefully marked
we went in search of him. It was not until the next
day that the nest was taken. The usual way of getting
at the honey is to fell the tree, and then smoke out the
bees, but this is a clumsy way, much, and sometimes all
the honey being spoilt in the fall of the tree, and as
the honey in this case was the principal object, it was
decided to endeavour to get rid of the bees without
running this risk. To effect this Jake ascended the
tree, and bundles of dry grass being passed up to him
by means of a string, he fixed them to a forked stick,

264 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

and setting fire to them forced them into the entrance
of the hole. The bees were soon all suffocated or driven
away, and the honey-comb cleared out and sent down by
the string. In this way about thirty pounds of honey-
comb was secured, besides some that was spoilt by being
burned, or flavoured with the smoke.

This honey was much prized by the farmer's wife, and
we rose so much in her favour and that of her daughters
that I am afraid we received much more than ten times
the value of the honey during our stay ; for notwithstand-
ing the distance of our camp from the farm, a boy was fre-
quently sent over with eggs, butter, pork, jam, and flour.
On nearly every farm in the New England States, to say
nothing of other parts of the country, bees are kept and
carefully attended to ; but in North Michigan we learned
that bee-keeping was not generally successful. At this
particular farm and others where I made inquiry they
had failed to rear bees in spite of repeated trials. The
wild swarms had been taken, often at great trouble and
expenditure of time, and though they sometimes stopped
in the hives for one season, they always forsook their
new quarters before the second arrived. Sometimes,
from some undiscoverable cause, a great number of the
bees died. They never, under any circumstances, made
an attempt to lay up a store of honey for the second
winter. On some farms, however, bees that had been
brought from a distance succeeded tolerably well, but I
heard of no cases of such heavy hives as are the rule in
Ohio, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, &c., where bees prosper
exceedingly.

The climate of all these States in winter is exceedingly
severe, Michigan particularly so ; yet the wild bees are
numerous. The insect therefore must be very hardy.
With many poor people — mean whites, as they are termed
here — and with negros, bee-hunting is a source of living,
to some extent at least. It is not the honey, however,
but the wax which is the chief object of the search.

WILD BEES OF AMERICAN" FORESTS 265

This "wax always commands a sale at a remimerative
price ; in fact the supply is less than the demand for
it, or was at the tim.e of which I am writing. I did not
satisfactorily ascertain the reason of this, or whether the
consumption was entirely a home one ; but beeswax
seemed to be used for many other purposes than those
to which it is usually applied in England.

The means of collecting it by the bee-hunter is
invariably to fell the tree in which they have found a
nest, as the colony of wild bees is termed. The bees are
then suffocated with thick smoke raised by burning grass,
&c. The weight of comb found in a nest varies from four
or five pounds to as much as forty. I have met a negro
carrying a ball of wax weighing at least half a hundred-
weight, the produce of a single day's labour, and represent-
ing the spoils of half-a-dozen nests.

The discovery of the nests is often a work of some
difficulty, as they are generally placed high up the tree,
and the time of hunting being the summer, when the
trees are in full foliage, they cannot be seen from the
ground. The favom-ite mode of hunting is to follow a
bee. The little creature is sure to make for its home as
soon as it has obtained a sufficient load of nectar. In
following a single bee many ludicrous scenes often occur.
The insect is so small, and flies so hisrh when making for
its nest, that the eye must be kept constantly fixed on it, or
it will be lost sight of, and as it flies at a goodly rate, it is
not an easy task to keep it in view. The hunter often
has to run like a mad fellow, dodofino- and turninsf with
the movements of the bee, and every now and then
stumbling over fallen tree-trunks or clumps of brambles.
At length the bee disappears amid the foliage of a tree,
perhaps sixty or eighty feet above the ground, but it is
by no means certain that the nest is there. The bee may
simply have passed among the branches and flown out
unseen on the opposite side, and the hunter have had
his long and tiring run for nothing ; or the nest may be

266 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

a very small one, not worth the trouble of cutting down
the tree for. To ascertain, if possible, the certainty of
the nest being there, the hunter knocks or kicks the
trunk. This will often cause the bees to swarm out. If
this expedient fails, he watches to see if many bees return
to the nest at nightfall, which they invariably do before
sunset. If this should be the case, or if the nest-hole is
visible, he at once fells the tree. Nearly all the bees fly
out on the fall of the tree ; and this is a moment of great
danger, for the bees are furious and apt to attack any one
standing near. Heaps of grass are at once lighted and
placed before the nest-hole, and this generally confuses
them and prevents an attack on the hunter. Most of
the bees are destroyed, for they fly into the smoke in
their endeavours to reach their home, and are suffocated.
The comb is scraped out, the honey expelled by rough
pressure, and the wax carried away to be refined at
home.

The wild bees sometimes make their nests in the
fissures of rocks, but holes in decayed broad-leaved trees
are the favourite sites. I cannot say positively that they
never select holes in trees of the pine class ; but I have
never seen a nest in a pine-trunk, and some of the
hunters say that few trees but oaks and maples are ever
selected. There are cases of nests being found in holes
in the ground and under roots. The nesting-holes of
woodpeckers and owls are favourite resorts of the wild
bees. The birds are compelled to abandon their homes,
and, once established, the swarm never forsakes its nest.

Bears are very fond of wild honey, and habitually rob
the nests. The bees do not seem to be able to hurt the
robber, whose shaggy hide is impenetrable to theu- short
stings. A bear which I saw rob a nest in another part
of the country repeatedly clapped his paw over his nose,
evidently to dislodge his assailants, but his work was not
interrupted for an instant. The hole in the trunk was
too small to admit his paw ; but he soon enlarged it,

WILD BEES OF AMERICAN FORESTS 267

and scooped out the comb with great coolness, eating it
as he did so, and finally coming down with a great piece
in his jaws, which he carried away with him, an angry
crowd of bees following and buzzing about his ears.
Every now and then he stopped to free himself from
these enemies, but they evidently could give him no
serious annoyance. The scene was a most amusing one,
for the bear, unconscious of my presence among the
bushes, moved most leisurely, stopping to lick the honey
from his paws and the ground, as if loth to lose a single
drop of the luscious fluid. I, being unarmed, felt any-
thing but happy with the huge brute within thirty yards
of me, grunting his satisfaction to himself ; for though I
have now grown to have little or no apprehension of an
unprovoked bear, I had not so much confidence then, and
seized the first opportunity to try and get away. Bruin
saw me, and stared in astonishment. Recovering him-
self, he went off with the air and gait of a thieving dog,
not forgetting to take his honey-comb with him. I did
not laugh at the time, but I have laughed heartily at the
remembrance of the scene.

At the time I made no very minute examination of
the American wild bee ; but I certainly never noticed
any difference between it and the common hive-bee,
Apis melijica, of England ; there is often a peculiar
and not very pleasant flavour with the honey. This
applies also to honey obtained at American farms,
and depends, no doubt, on the source from which the
nectar is gathered. On some farms, with the view of
remedying this defect, large numbers of stocks are grown,
this being a favourite flower with the bees.

When the bees have taken possession of a cavity in a
tree- trunk, they give ofi" no swarms until they have com-
pletely filled it and there is no room for fresh inhabitants.
The swarms are therefore often of enormous numbers, in
some cases amounting to hundreds of thousands. The
age of a nest may approximately be told by the number

268 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

of inhabitants. A freshly formed swarm is always very
small, numbering, perhaps, no more than a few hundred
bees ; but their instinct must inform them of their pro-
bable increase, for they never take possession of a cavity
that will not accommodate many thousands. If disturbed
in their home, but only partially destroyed, the survivors
will return again and again with indomitable persever-
ance.

CHAPTER XXIII

LIFE IN THE WOODS OF NORTH MICHIGAN

The anecdote of a bear in the last chapter is not the
only instance of a similar nature that I have experienced.
On several occasions I have been face to face, or nearly
so, with a bear, under more or less ludicrous circum-
stances; notably in Canada, and in the Sierra Nevada
some years later, and I have always noted that the
astonishment of the bear at being suddenly confronted
with man was very great. There are instances, however,
in which bears suddenly surprised have at once attacked
the intruder; it should therefore be remembered that
no wild animal of a ferocious nature is to be trifled with,
and I should always deprecate anything approaching
foolhardiness. The point is this : that neither bears
nor jaguars, nor pumas, as a rule, voluntarily attack man
unless they think themselves threatened ; but one of the
surest means of provoking an attack is to show signs of
fear, or a desire to get away. It is best to stand your
ground until the animal has retued some distance. If
it finds that you do not move, or interfere with it, it
will presently make off as fast as it can. Attempt to
run yourself, and it is twenty to one that it will imme-
diately spring upon you. It is best, in the backwoods,
never to move about without your firearms, for you
can never tell when you are likely to want them. After
a few years' experience in the wildernesses of America I
adopted this rule myself, and it is a strange circumstance
that on the very few occasions on which I broke it, and

270 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

went abroad without my gun, I nearly always had cause
to regret it.

But bears are not the only animals that I have
surprised, and that have shown an overwhelmed astonish-
ment at my sudden appearance. My habit of moving
cautiously about, and lying concealed in the woods that
I might watch the habits of the birds, has brought me
into some strange adventures and revealed some curious
sights, for animals, like men, behave very differently
when watched from what they do when they think no
eye is upon them. And if it is objected that animals
indulge in ways and habits in the presence of man that
show a carelessness of his opinion, or a lack of bashful-
ness before him, I have simply to say that I have seen
savage men, and some who do not consider themselves
savages, behave with quite as little sense of decency as
any brute. But to get back to the surprise of animals
at suddenly encountering man.

While we were staying in these woods I one day
came right on a wolf. I had moved so softly that it
is evident that the animal did not wake from its sleep
until I almost trode upon it. It sprang up with a savage
growl, but then stood quite still, gazing on me with a
dazed look. While I remained motionless the wolf did
the same, and thus we stood for fully a minute, staring
at each other. The instant, however, that I attempted
to bring my gun to the shoulder it dashed off, uttering
a snappy cry. Not quickly enough, however. I shot it
before it had gone twenty paces. It was a very old and
lanky animal, quite grey about the muzzle, and was
probably a sort of outcast from its horde. I have found
other old wolves, living solitarily, and I feel sure that
they are individuals which have been expelled from the
common herd. It seems to be a habit of all gregarious
mammals to expel certain members from their society,
sometimes on account of age, but more frequently it
would seem because they are " rogues " or " black sheep."

LIFE IN WOODS OF NORTH MICHIGAN 271

Every student of natural history has heard of "rogue
elephants," for instance, and knows that hunters consider
them the most dangerous to meet or attack.

There were wolves in the Michigan woods at this
time, but not in great numbers, and they had been
so harassed by the trappers that it was difficult to find
the few that remained. They evidently scented us miles
before we came up to them, for on one occasion we
followed a wolf trail for three days in succession, and
for the whole of that time they compelled us to follow
them hefore the, tvind so that our scent was sure to reach
them. All our skilful endeavours to alter this were of
no avail. In Europe the fox is the type of cunning : he
is not one whit more crafty than the wolf. Indeed I
should award the wolf the palm for sly craftiness, and
I may say that in following wolves for three days we
showed ourselves very poor foresters ; for this animal is
very rarely tracked down. The only way to shoot him
openly is either to surround a tract of forest with a large
circle of hunters, and gradually close in towards the
centre ; or to lie in wait near a bait, the said bait being
a pig. For the wolf, like the bear, would risk his soul,
if he had one, for pork.

But we had this excuse for following the wolves
mentioned above, that we knew, from the state of the
tracks, that they were not very far ahead, and every
night we set traps hoping to catch some of them. The
traps were of two kinds — large, steel spring-traps, and a
cage-trap, constructed on the principle of a mouse-trap,
but of course of huge size. It seems incredible, but
remarkable as the statement may seem, these ferocious
brutes, while cunningly refusing to enter the traps, actually
tore the back out of one of them, though made of steel
ribbons, breaking the metal, apparently, with the teeth,
and so obtained the bait. It was the opinion of all of
us that the trap was broken from the outside ; certainly
it was done by the wolves as the marks of their teeth

272 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

plainly showed ; and Jake could tell a story of a wolf
breaking a gun-barrel by a sudden snap of the jaws.

The spring-traps, made like a huge rat-trap, must be
concealed, and very craftily too ; indeed the cage-traps
were also covered with grass and small branches, but
without avail, as I have shown. The spring-traps were
disposed around the others in the hopes that the wolves
would step into them while prowling about. This only
happened in a single instance. We found the fore-paw
of a wolf in one of the traps. The spring was very
strong, and it having cut through the bone, the animal
had either gnawed or dragged itself free — not at all an
uncommon occurrence with foxes and wolves. After a
short search we found the body of the wolf not far off
amonof some bushes. It had bled to death.

Afterwards I lay in wait several nights near the traps
hoping to get a shot, but in this I was disappointed. We
ascertained that these cunning brutes always came up
against the wind, and consequently scented the presence
of an enemy. My own opinion is that dogs are necessary
to make wolf-stalking successful; but it is only really
good dogs that will face a wolf; and the old school of
trappers have a prejudice against dogs, holding that they
often do more harm than good in tracking the majority
of wild animals ; as, indeed, I believe they do. In deer
and moose stalking profound silence is necessary ; and it
is only with highly trained dogs that this can be ensured ;
while the scent of dogs causes the smaller mammals to
be very shy and cautious of showing themselves.

Of the pack of wolves we really never got a sight,
though we were often quite close to them. They numbered
about twenty ; and though it is no longer a mystery how
savasres and hunters follow the trails of wild animals and
men, I may mention that it was quite easy to perceive
when the wolves had recently passed, not only by the
disturbance of the dead leaves on the ground, but also
by many other little circumstances, particularly the drop-

LIFE IN WOODS OF NORTH MICHIGAN 273

ping of their dung, &c. Wolves, like dogs, are incessantly
shedding their urine, and it is often easy to follow them
by the rank odour alone. In the pure air of the woods
and prairies, every sense is fully developed and has fair
play. There are not such a number of cross-scents and
confusing odours as mislead the nose in cities and populous
places, and any unusual scent is noticed at once. There
is nothing that the hunter has to more carefully guard
against than letting his scent be borne on the wind
to his prey. The wolves we had been tracking be-
came thoroughly alarmed and soon forsook the neigh-
bourhood, apparently making for the shores of Lake
Superior,

About this time a strange and painful incident oc-
curred. While I was wandering in the forest according
to my usual custom I one day met a man running through
a narrow ravine. At sight of me he drew his six-shooter,
which naturally induced me to place myself behind a tree
and demand what he wanted. He said he had made a
mistake, and begged if I had any food about me for the
love of God to give it to him, for he was starving. No
one could resist such an appeal as that, and I gave him
the small quantity of bread and pork I had brought for
my lunch. He devoured it ravenously and drained my
whisky flask, listening attentively while he was thus
engaged, and holding up his hand for silence when I at-
tempted to question him. I took him for a tender-foot,
or tramp, who had been guilty of some depredation ;
especially when, as he went away, he said the sharks were
after him, and begged me if they came up not to tell
them which direction he had taken. Shortly afterwards
I met several members of a sheriff's posse, and of course
told them this little incident as the man was evidently
a fugitive from justice. Half-an-hour later I heard several
distant shots, and curiosity induced me and my com-
panions, who were now with me, to make for the spot
whence the sound came.

s

274 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

We soon met the posse carrying the unfortunate fugi-
tive in a dying state, for they had shot him through the
body. Two of the posse were also wounded, but not very
severely. It seems the man, who was quite young, had
offered resistance when overtaken, and the officers of
justice had not been slow to return his fire. He was
heaving fearfully for breath, could not speak, and died at
our camp less than an hour afterwards. He was buried
then and there, under a tree in the forest ; and his captors
were somew^hat reticent about his crimes. We learned,
however, that he had taken part in the Fenian irruption
into Canada some time before, and since the failure of
that ridiculous enterprise, had been living as a prowling
depredator on the farmers in this part of America. He
had been guilty of violence towards some of them, and
had actually killed a negro.

At this time the Northern States were full of doubtful
characters, most of whom had taken part in the Fenian
raid referred to, and were lurking about in the hopes of
further troubles in the British dominions. I have already
mentioned that Yankee agitators were fomenting dis-
turbance in the Red River Colony, and it was mostly
Irish Americans or Fenians who were engaged in that
dastardly work. I have only made cursory reference to
this matter, or to the Fenian raid, because I kept far from
the points of agitation, and I do not consider it my busi-
ness, in a book of this class, to deal with the political state
of the countries through which I passed. I may, however,
mention, that I had certain evidence that small gangs of
Fenians were at this time lurking in the woods of North
Michigan and elsewhere, drilling, collecting ammunition,
and evidently preparing for the anticipated trouble in Red
River (now Manitoba) which broke out a year or two later.
For though that attempted rebellion had nothing to do
with the Fenian movement, the Fenians hoped to make
capital out of it ; and it is my opinion that but for their
interference and encouragement there would never have

LIFE IN WOODS OF NORTH MICHIGAN 275

been any attempt at open resistance to colonial authority
in tliat settlement.

Most of these vagabond Fenians were men who had
committed crimes in both Canada and the States, and
were therefore obliged to keep on the outskirts of
civilisation, living by begging, stealing, intimidation —
anything except work. It is also pretty certain that
they were being supplied with funds from both the
States and England. They committed several murders
in this district; and some of them were shot by the
farmers in retaliation. I met several of them myself.
They were mostly American Irish, blackguards of a
revolting type, whose whole conversation was of blood
and rapine. According to many of them any violence,
even the destruction of women and children, was justi-
fiable to obtain their ends — the humiliation of the
" damned Saxon " and the independence of Ireland.
There were some foreigners, and a few native Irish
among them; and many of these had the gaol-taint
on them when they arrived in this country. I am
writing from memory only, now ; but I believe these
men were convicted felons, who had been granted
their liberty on condition of " leaving their country for
their country's good."

I am sorry to have sullied my pages with a reference
to this subject at all. It is quite foreign to the matter
of the book; but I feared that an absolute silence on
a matter that was greatly agitating America and Canada,
as well as the Old Country, at this time would be
misunderstood, and perhaps excite comment. Personally
I was more than once put to inconvenience in Canada,
as all strangers were more or less objects of suspicion.
However, I had friends in the country, and I have
not thought fit to more than cursorily mention these
incidents.

Now and then I spent a day or two on the farm
before mentioned, where I was always most kindly

276 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

entertained, as were also my companions. We made
it a rule, however, for not more than one of us to
stay with Mr. Dunford, as the farmer was called, at a
time ; for his family was large, and as he always
insisted that we should have a bed in the house,
though we would have been very well content with
a shakedown in one of the barns, the presence of more
than one guest must necessarily have upset the family
arrangements. However, I was so heartily pressed to
take up my abode at the farm that, on the whole,
I spent as much time there as with my trapper
friends.

There was a great deal to interest one about the
farm, which was what, I believe, agriculturists in England
call a mixed one ; that is, part was devoted to raising
cattle and poultry, and part to crops. There were some
very fine meadows which had been made of artificial
grasses at great cost and trouble ; but these meadows
were much infested with grasshoppers which, in some
seasons, did so much damage as almost to ruin the
grass, the larvse injuring the roots, while the fully
developed insect devoured the grass. In very wet
seasons there were but few grasshoppers, but in dry
ones, as this summer was, the swarm amounted to a
plague.

There were several species of this insect, but un-
fortunately I cannot give the specific name of any
of them. The first was so like the common English
grasshopper, that I could discover no difference, except
that it was at least twice the size. This was by far
the most numerous and destructive ; but another, and
much larger species, runs it very close in the latter
respect. This is, perhaps, a locust, for its wings are
more developed than in the first-mentioned grass-
hopper, and it flies powerfully. It grows to a very
great size, fine specimens being nearly two and a half
inches long.

LIFE IN WOODS OF NORTH MICHIGAN 277

My attention was first attracted to these grass-
hoppers by their larvae. Seeing a vast number of
some minute, jumping insects among the grass, I at
first thought that they were a kind of flea, or jigger.
That was just their size and superficial appearance.
I soon discovered, however, that they were young
grasshoppers, and on calling my host's attention to
them, his countenance fell, and he exclaimed, " The
varmints have appeared at length ! " According to him
they were very late, notwithstanding the favourableness
of the season ; but the multitude of them was greater
than he had ever seen before, and he anticipated a heavy
loss of his hay-crop.

A patch of grass that has been devastated by grass-
hoppers presents a rather singular appearance. The
fastidious insects do not devour the bents, or hard stems,
but only the tender sprigs or leaves. The bents there-
fore stick up like the short straws in a stubble-field.
The work of destruction goes on steadily, but fast
enough to enable you to mark a change in the field
every morning ; while the chirping, stridulation, or
whatever you like to call it, of the insects is kept up
all night long, and affords one of the best means of
judging of their immense numbers. It is not a loud
or an unpleasant noise ; on the contrary, it is a cheerful
sound ; but it seems to come from every square inch
of the ground, giving the idea of millions of tiny chirpers,
which is probably not an incorrect one. Indeed, on this
farm alone there must have been hundreds of millions.
By passing the hand quickly over the grass I could
capture hundreds of the larvse in a single grasp; but
it is not while the insects are in this stage that a serious
attempt can be made to lessen their numbers — to exter-
minate them is impossible ; and, strange to say, few birds,
in this part of the country at all events, seem to prey
on them to any great extent. Domestic fowls, ducks,
and turkeys like them ; but the ducks, at least, prefer

278 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

to have them killed, and the wmgs and legs shaken ofif
before feedmg on them. Later in the summer the
younger members of my host's family used to gather
a peck or two for the ducks. These were mostly of
the larger sort, which represent a very respectable
beakful for a duck. The bodies are round, plump,
more than two inches long, and of a dirty-brownish
buff colour, greatly resembling those of the locusts of
the south of Em'ope.

When such a plague as that I have described comes
upon the farmers, they are compelled to adopt some
means to diminish its evil effects, or they would be
ruined. The only effectual defence is to destroy as
many of the grasshoppers as possible. The commonest
way of effecting this is to dig a long and pretty deep
trench. A quantity of dried grass and rough herbage is
placed along the outer edge of the trench, and the farm
hands are then turned out, great and small, master and
man alike, and drawn up in a line, as close together as
their numbers will admit of. They start on the side of
the meadow farthest from the trench, and advance to-
wards it slowly, gently sweeping the grass with leafy
boughs of trees. This drives the grasshoppers towards
the trench, into which they fall by thousands. The
dried grass, brush, &c., is then quickly thrown into the
trench on top of them, and set fire to. In this way vast
numbers are destroyed.

The meadow is then left at rest for a day, and after-
wards passed over a second, and perhaps a third time,
which generally destroys the greater part of the grass-
hoppers. In moving across the field, and in making the
sweeping motions with the tree-branches, the quieter the
men go to work the better, so that the grasshoppers may
be induced to keep in front of the line ; for the insects
never leap in a direct line, but always at an angle to the
last leap. That is, their course is a sort of zig-zag one ;
and if they are too much frightened they will leap

LIFE IN WOODS OF NORTH MICHIGAN 279

wildly, many of them breaking back through the line of
sweepers.

In the sweeping of Mr. Dunford's farm about twenty
bushels of grasshoppers were roasted, in addition to a
large number destroyed by other means. They were
given to the poultry and hogs, which devoured them
greedily. In spite of this great slaughter, his grass
suffered severely, his hay-crop being reduced, he calcu-
lated, by at least one-half.

Just before I left this district, Brown, otherwise
" Splits," married Miss Lillie Dunford, and there was the
greatest frolic on the occasion that I ever witnessed, and
that is saying a great deal ; for " frolics " in the States are
a serious business, and never carried out in a half-hearted
way. If a man is well enough off to give a frolic at all,
he does so in a liberal way. It is understood that a
frolic, whether a hunting, corn-husking, or a strictly
pleasure frolic, is intended for enjoyment, and — well, in a
word, they do not spoil the ship for lack of a ha'porth of
paint.

At first there had been some opposition on the part
of Miss Lillie's parents to the intended marriage ; but it
seems that Splits, who was a steady old file, had a
comfortable nest-egg by him ; and having convinced
Mr. Dunford that he had the wherewithal to stock a
small farm, ultimately " all went merry as a wedding
bell."

To give the reader some idea of a backwoods wed-
ding, and the wide area that a man's neighbours are some-
times scattered over in these thinly-peopled districts, I
may mention that there were over a hundred guf^sts at
the wedding, some of them coming from distances of
over a hundred miles to be present. The reverend gen-
tleman who performed the ceremony came from Ann-
Arbor, nearly three hundred miles away (Mrs. Dunford's
native town), performing the journey, both in coming
and going, by canoe, through Lakes Huron and Michigan.

280 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

And yet he was over seventy years of age ! There were
pastors nearer, but this gentleman had married Mrs.
Dunford and many of her relatives — was the family
pastor, in fact — and he came, not only cheerfully, but no
man present enjoyed the frolic better than he.

The actual wedding took place in the dining-room of
the farm-house, which was a wooden frame-building, at
eight o'clock in the evening, quite a usual time for
weddings in Canada and the States ; and I should think
that, among people of the moderately well-to-do, or
middle class, at least, fully two-thirds of the weddings
take place in the private houses of the bride's, or bride-
groom's, relatives. It is the custom of the land. Of
course the festivities had commenced earlier in the day ;
immediately after breakfast indeed, a barn-dance opening
the fun. Wine there was none, but anybody was at
liberty to swim in cider-royal and whisky; and some
did swim, pretty soon too. Here, as is too often the
case in the Old Country among the bulk of the people, a
wedding is made an excuse for excessive drinking ; and
as American whisky is, as a rule, most abominable stuff,
the results are often deplorable. On the present occa-
sion, I am happy to say, there was no quarrelling, but
some of the guests made themselves very ill.

So many guests, most of whom remained two or three
days, and some a week, required a large quantity of food,
and there were slaughtered on the farm for their enter-
tainment half-a-dozen oxen, a few sheep, and I do not
know how many hogs and poultry. All the female
servants, and most members of the family, were engaged
all day long making bread and cakes ; and a hard time
they had of it to keep us supplied with those much-
demanded articles. Like the guests at a certain Welsh
wedding, each man had largely to depend on his own
efforts as cook, for the staff at the farm was not large
enough to provide all the cooked meat that was needed.
And I hope it will not be thought that I am emulating

LIFE IN WOODS OF NORTH MICHIGAN 281

the boastfuhiess of the "Welshman in question when I
record that we had no fewer than seven fiddlers, two
flautists, and two sets of bagpipes, to say nothing of a
gentleman who did wonders with a drum, which he
asserted had been captured at Yorktown when Burgoyne
surrendered, but which bore the number of the 47th
regiment. This, I think, was Wolfe's regiment ; and it
is not at all unlikely that this wonderful drum really had
a history. By-the-by, let me remark that all our musi-
cians were whites — not a black fiddler among them, I
assure you.

Where did so many people sleep ? The most of
them on the floors of the barns, wrapped in blankets,
rugs, and greatcoats ; and lying on sacks, bundles of
straw, &c. One gentleman was placed in a rack by the
lively youths of the party ; and as he was too tipsy to
get down, he passed the night there, comfortably enough
if we may judge from the regularity of his snoring. In
the house, I beheve, they were sleeping five or six in a
bed, placed " heads and tails, Uke sardines in a box,"
according to one gentleman, who had undergone the
experience. The bride and bridegroom, I presume, were
accommodated in a garret ; for when I turned out, the
bagpipes and drums, reinforced by sundry tin-kettles and
old pots, were busy serenading a lofty window ; and I
was just in time to see friend Splits reward their kind
attention with the contents of the water-jug.

The farm our friend had purchased was situated
about nine miles from his father-in-law's place, and on
the third day the bride and bridegroom were carried
the whole distance on the shoulders of their friends, and
after a day's orgies there, they were left in peace, and we
returned to finish the rejoicings at the father's house.

I have thus been minute in an account of this
wedding, because I beheve that the proceedings were
typical of backwoods marriages in general among the
respectable farmers. For if the scenes here may seem

282 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

a little rough and vulgar to some Englisli readers, I can
assure them that they were remarkably quiet and orderly
compared with those that often take place on similar
occasions in the outlying settlements.

Mr. Furgesson, of Scottish descent, the pastor who
united the happy couple, was, I believe, a Baptist by
denomination, and undoubtedly a very good man. Un-
fortunately he discovered one or two of my little weak-
nesses, and it seemed to afford him pleasure to give me
pain thereon. Possibly I was foolishly susceptible ; but
the fact is, that confounded drum of the gallant 47th
led up to a discussion, in the course of which Mr.
Furgesson made such abominable charges against British
soldiers and sailors, that I could not help feeling angry
at him. I should not mention so puerile a matter if
it were not for the fact that the dispute which arose
between us ended in Mr. Furgesson claiming a superiority
for Americans in everything they did or said, particularly
for the purity of the English they speak. " Excuse me,
Mr, Fountain," said the reverend gentleman, " but you
used the word dark for clurk. ' Clerk,' pronounced ' dark '
means a priestly man. You should say ' clurk ' when you
mean a commercial accountant."

I ventured to think there was so such distinction,
and that the word might be pronounced indifferently
either way. " Nay ! " replied Mr. F., " I have had a
collegiate education, and in that I have the advantage of
you. In common with other Britishers I notice that you
mis-pronounce many words. Now we have, singularly
enough, kept the English language remarkably pure.
American-English is the purest in the universe, &c, &c."

American- English I I hope it will interest most English-
men not acquainted with the States to learn a little of
how the Yankees abuse what ought to be their mother-
tongue. As I desire to be perfectly fair, I admit, before
going farther, that the bulk of Americans, even the negroes,
are on the whole better educated than Englishmen. But

LIFE IN WOODS OF NORTH MICHIGAN 283

they are responsible for a great deal of bad English. I took
up my paper yesterday. The first paragraph that met
my eye was to the effect that a club of 'bachelor girls had
been started in New York. This is a distinct and a gross
abuse of the English language. Girls may be spiiisters:
they never can be bachelors — unless they reverse the sexes
as they do with regard to the gentlemen cows, i.e. bulls.

I have said that Americans are, as a rule, better
educated than Englishmen, but this statement requires
some modification. In what I term the A, B, C's of
education, the bulk of the American people are, un-
doubtedly, better grounded than the bulk of the English
nation, but you do not often meet with a really vjell-read
American gentleman. I consider extensive reading the
most important part of an education, as it is undoubtedly
the most mind-expanding. Yet you often meet with
Americans who, while they are very fan classical scholars,
are ludicrously ignorant of modern history. Science,
again, is an American's strong point in his own estima-
tion, but as a matter of fact he holds, generally, a very
inferior place in any branch of science. In philological
learning, again, he considers himself a past-master, and
as Mr. Furgesson claimed, declares that a Yankee is the
only man on earth who speaks pure English in general
conversation.

Any gentleman who has spent some time in the
States, however, knows better than this. Not only do
the Yankees interlard their discourse with many foreign
words (which is the greatest corruption of a language that
can be committed) and much slang, but they also misuse
hundreds of words, giving them quite a new meaning. It
is no use pointing out these inaccuracies to an American.
He will obstinately persist that he is right and you are
wrong, and will appeal to any obscure American lexico-
grapher rather than to Johnson or Walker, at whom
he scoffs.

But it is to the introduction of slang and foreign

284 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

words that I take the greatest exception. In many parts
of the States there are, and have been for more than a
hundred years past, isolated colonies of foreigners who
cannot speak a word of English. These people, who
are principally pure bred Dutch and Germans, live and
keep to themselves, forming isolated communities in the
land. So far, so good. These interfere not with the
English language, but there are other Germans, and
Dutch and Russians, Jews principally, with riff-ratf and
scoundrels from every part of the world, none of whom
speak their mother-tongue correctly. These people have
imported a large number of continental slang words
among a community which delights in slang, and many
of these have, during the last half century, been re-
transported to England to the no small corruption of
the language. Take an example. The East End coster
no longer has a girl. She has become " My donar,"
or donah, an evident corruption of the Italian donna,
or lady.

But a far worse abuse is the use of words of a profane
nature. When I first went to the States I have often
heard American gentlemen use abominable language,
even in the presence of ladies, without arousing the least
symptom of disgust or even surprise ; while to describe
the land as " Well ! this is an infernal country," or, " Well !

I'm jiggered ! this is a h of a track," was a common

figure of speech : track, by-the-by, being used for " tract " ;
and this not in the mouths of vulgar cowboys, but the
everyday language of men of position. The word infernal
is to this day in common use in the sense of had ; as, " This
timber is infernally rotted," " This is an infernal path,"
" The roads are infernal," " He is infernally ill;" the thought
of the infernal regions probably never entering the speaker's
mind. This abuse of the word is becoming common
among the lower and middle classes in England ; while, on
the other hand, the superior classes in America have
during the last twenty years or so greatly improved and

LIFE IN WOODS OF NORTH MICHIGAN 285

have dropped, the use of many objectionable words and
phrases.

Of such words as " skedaddle " for " run away," and
" varmish the ranch " for " abandon a position," and a host
of others which came into use during the Civil War, I need
say nothing, because they were never used by educated
people, except, perhaps, playfully ; and the remembrance
of them is gradually dying out, even in the country of
their birth. Like many vulgar sayings and words in our
own country, they, like some noxious insect, flutter out
their little day, then fall and die.

What I have said applies to the vernacular and not
to the written language. The American classics with few
exceptions are couched in language as pure and elegant
as the average of our own, though I think, considering
her vast population, that the good writers of the United
States are singularly few. There are at least five hundred
English words that are used in a false sense by Americans.

In commercial language it struck me as having an
unpleasant sound to address a firm with the abbreviation
" gents." instead of " gentlemen," or the more cordial
" Dear sirs."

CHAPTER XXIV

ANIMAL LIFE ABOUT MR. DUNFORD's FARM, WITH
AN ACCOUNT OF " MAJOR " SHADLEY, AND TITLES
IN THE UNITED STATES

One afternoon when I returned from a ramble I found
Mr. Dunford chastising one of his younger sons, a boy of
fourteen. The young rascal, it seems, had been out with
a gun without permission, and had not only blazed away
a pound of powder (a very valuable article in the back-
woods), but had shot thirteen robins, a most heinous oftence,
and one which I was surprised to find an American boy
committing ; for the American robin is as much revered
in this part of America as the English robin in the Old
Country. About Boston, however, Chicago, and many
parts of New York State, I have seen boys and men shoot-
ing them, as Cockney sportsmen used to do the sparrows
in my own country. Few farmers will permit them to be
destroyed on their farms, as they say that this bird is a
most useful devourer of noxious insects. My experience
is that, like a thrush, which its habits exactly resemble,
it is omnivorous, with a preference for fruit, of which it is
passionately fond, in this matter emulating the fieldfare
and common song-thrush of Europe, which all observers
must have noticed clustering in hawthorn bushes, moun-
tain-ash, and apple or pear trees in which, by chance, a
few fruit have been left.

Robin is a misnomer ; the bird so called is really a
thrush, Tardus migratorius of the Americans, Turdus
canadensis of Europeans. But I have this to say, with
all due deference to the professional naturalists, that
superficially, at least, and size apart, the English robin is

ANIMAL LIFE ABOUT DUNFORD'S FARM 287

not only remarkably like a thrush in shape, but has also
many of the peculiar habits and contortions of one. The
common song-thrush has a peculiar trick of twisting and
fluttering in the bottom of a hedge which is indescribable
on paper. The robin of .England has a ■precisely similar
trick. The object of the bird in either case I have not
been able to discover. Perhaps it is a case of mimicry.
At all events there is, in my opinion, some excuse for the
vulgar but popular name of T. canadensis; for it is as
much like a robin, size set aside, as a thrush.

The American robin, as we will call it, is about the
size of a blackbird. The upper parts are a bluish grey
colour, the under a sort of orange, or rust colour, which,
no doubt, was the chief reason for bestowing its popular
name upon it. The primaries and head, neck, and tail are
blackish brown ; and the breast and belly of the female
are bufiish brown instead of orange. The plumage of the
bird varies in some de^ee in different localities, and there
is also a seasonal change. I first saw the bird in Red
River Colony (Manitoba) and other parts of the Great
North- West ; and afterwards odd birds, or small flocks, in
nearly every part of Canada visited by me. In the United
States it is very extensively distributed. I saw it in all
the Northern States east of the Rocky Mountains, but it
is not found in any of the Southern States.

It is a sociable bird, often seen about the farms,
homesteads, and villages ; and there were several nests in
Mr. Dunford's orchard, built in fruit-trees close to the
house. Bushes and fruit-trees are its favourite nesting
places, and the nest is usually placed ten or twelve feet
from the ground. It breeds rather early in the spring,
and when I arrived here the nestlings had already taken
wing and were often seen, together with the old birds,
hopping about the farm-yard ; and on one occasion I even
saw a robin in the dairy picking up the crumbs that lay
in the sink. Robins are held in as much favour and awe
by American country-people as redbreasts are by the
peasantry of England ; yet in towns, as in Boston, Trenton,

288 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Providence, Philadelphia, &c., as well as in many smaller
places, they are often exposed for sale as food, the price
being a dollar for two or three dozen, according to their
abundance. Like many other small birds they are deli-
cious eating.

The robin is much given to squabbling with its com-
panions, and attacks other small birds, in this respect
again resembling the English redbreast, which is a fierce
little tyrant. " AVho killed cock-robin ?" says the nursery
rhyme. It should be Who killed cock-sparrow ? for I
have actually seen a redbreast slay a sparrow. I do not
know that the American robin is equally fierce, but it
will not permit other small birds to feed near it.

The robin is gregarious, to some extent at least.
Where you find one, you may be certain there are others
close at hand. It is rare to see single birds ; occasionally
six or eight go together ; but when the breeding season
is over, you will find them often in flocks of eighty or a
hundred, and, more rarely, perhaps two or three hundred
will be seen together. It is when they are in flocks that
they fall victims to the netter.

The robin is one of the few birds which seem to prey
on the kitty-dads or grasshoppers, though cuckoos and
mocking-birds do so also where they are found. Before
swallowing the grasshoppers all these birds nip off" the
legs and wings of the victim. The robins also devour all
sorts of insects, and are as fond of snails and slugs as the
European thrush. They, however, are still more fond of
fruits, and they may, like fieldfares, be shot down in great
numbers by a gunner concealed near any fruit or berry-
bearing tree. The fruits I have most frequently seen
them devouring, in flocks or parties, were the black-
cherry, Ccrasus nigra ; sand-cherry, C. depressa ; elder-
berry, SambiLcus canadensis; gum-berry, Nyssa sylvatica ;
and a bright scarlet berry resembling a hawthorn-berry,
the specific name of which I have failed to learn ; also
blackberries and wild raspberries, and all sorts of culti-
vated fruits. They even peck the apples and pears, and

ANIMAL LIFE ABOUT DUNFORDS FARM 289

I have seen them in American apple-trees, comparatively
hard and tasteless as that fruit is. I am puzzled about
these apples — whence came they ? They are small and
elongated in shape, something like a tiny sausage. They
are not worth the picking, though they are made into
jam by the Yankees, as is everything else that is not as
hard as a cannon-ball. All the fruits mentioned above are
found abundantl}^ in the Michigan forests.

At the risk of being tedious, I must yet say a few
words about the song of the robin. He is not to be
compared to our own beautiful song-thrush, yet his few
notes are sweet and plaintive ; and I have never met the
backwoodsman or hunter who would not stop to listen to
him, as, perched on the top of a tree or bush, he uttered
at intervals his few charming combinations of sweet
sounds — a sort of mellow whistle, not at all like the
song of our thrush. The robin is something of a mock-
ing-bird too. He imitates the songs of other birds, but
not at all so well as the mocking-bird, and I have heard
them evidently striving to repeat the whistle of man. In
captivity they will learn a few notes from the flute, and
they are agreeable cage-birds, becoming very tame, and
recognising their owner. My host had two, one of which
he had in a cage for twenty years. It was so tame that
it would come onto his finger at his call.

The robin leaves Canada and the north of the States
in September and October, though I have seen odd ones
in Michigan as late as the first half of November. They
do not go very far south to winter, certainly not as far
south as Florida, and they are the very first birds to
return in spring, beginning to reappear in March. Their
advent is always joyfully noticed by the farmers and
others as an indication of the return of fine weather.

I will not describe any other l:>ird here ; but nearly all
those noticed in the British territory to the north — that is,
Red River, &c., &c. — are found in this part of the State.
Wild ducks of all sorts are extremely abundant in the
marshes near the shores of the lake, but I did not see

T

290 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

any swans, though I heard that a few had been shot
within a few miles of the farm.

Bats were very plentiful about the barns and the
house itself, passing to and fro to the trees of the forest.
There were at least five species, of which I can name
with certainty the long- eared bat, Plccotus macrotis, which
does not seem to differ materially from the long-eared bat
of the British Isles, P. auritus ; the silver-haired bat, Ves-
perugo noctivagans ; and the brown bat, Vesjocrtilio subulatus.
The last, which is a very small animal, was by far the
most numerous, but the silver-haired bat was the one
about which I learned most. It is brown in colour, but
the longer hairs towards the base of the back are tipped
with white, hence the name. But it is a misnomer, as the
creature cannot be truly called silver haired, and the name
is probably only applied as a distinction. There are a
couple of white spots at the sides of the head, and a
portion of the membrane by which it flies is hairy, a
rather unusual circumstance. It is, on the whole, a
handsome bat, and tolerably plentiful in this region.

I was attracted to it by seeing it hawking over the
meadows, which were infested by the kitty-dads, where it
appeared before sunset, skimming close to the ground.
I have noticed in other parts of the continent that the
silver-haired bat comes forth very early in the evening if
prey is abundant. I have no doubt that on this occasion
it was the grasshoppers that the bat was in pursuit of,
but I could not verify the supposition, I traced the bats
to a hollow tree, just within a clump of forest that bor-
dered on the farm, loss than half a mile from the house,
and, going thither with a ladder in the middle of the day,
found their colony about forty feet above the ground.
The number of bats was considerable ; but as the hollow
was extensive, running up and down the tree, I could only
see and distiu-b a portion of them. Probably there were
from two to three hundred in this one colony.

The cries they uttered on being disturbed were very
faint, as they are when the bat is on the wing. It is a

ANIMAL LIFE ABOUT DUNFORD'S FARM 291

sort of a sharp metallic click, very high pitched, but not
loud. Probably it would not be heard or noticed by a
person standing under the bats when they were flying
high, though I have often heard it while watching them.
Some of those which I handled attempted to bite, but
though the teeth are sharp they are small, and the jaws
weak, and I do not think the little animal could inflict
a very sharp nip — not so sharp as that of a mouse. I
was anxious to learn something of the breeding habits
of this bat, but I could not find any traces of young
ones. There were certainly none at this time of year,
the end of August.

Often when quietly watching the birds in the orchard
I noticed some exceedingly small creature rush over the
ground so quickly that it appeared as a mere shadow,
scarcely larger than a marble. It always started from
a lurking place under a bramble, tuft of grass or tree-
trunk, and disappeared into a similar refuge, so that I
could never get a clear view of it at rest. Its motions
were so sudden and peculiar that I thought it must be
a large ground-spider. After much trouble and many
attempts I caught this little animal in a butterfly net,
and found it to be a shrew-mouse, Sorex cooperi. So
exceedingly minute is this animal that I feel sure it is
much less in size than our English harvest-mouse, and
is therefore the smallest mammal living. It is a most
beautiful and graceful little thing, and that which I
captured w^as so overcome with terror that I feared it
would die with fright, and released it before I had fully
examined it. I soon found others, however, under the
guidance of an old negro, who knew where to look for
them. Their favourite haunt is in rotten timber lying
on the ground. They eat hollows into it, and there
form their nests, seeming to have sometimes as many
as seven or eight young. In every trunk where we
found them, however, there was always a colony, fifty
or sixty at least, which made their escape instantly,
seeming to roll over the ground, leaving their youno-

292 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

behind. Many of the latter were not nearly so big as
humble-bees. The multitude of insects and larvse which
swarm in rotten wood is probably the attraction to these
little animals. The same cause induced them to harbour
in the orchard, for I noticed that a multitude of small
birds frequented the ground under the fruit-trees to pick
up the grubs, &c., which fell from the branches. I could
not discover that these shrew-mice ever touch other food
than insects and their larvse, and I should think that
they are valuable friends to the farmer.

By-the-by, in the southern part of Michigan I found
a much larger shrew, which is certainly the same as
Sorex vuhjaris of England. It docs not seem even to be
a variety. Is it indigenous ? or has it been transplanted
like the rats, mice, and sparroAvs from the Old Country ?

A few evenings before I left the hospitable and kind-
hearted Dunford family we were visited by " a major."
The major was dressed in a pair of green trousers (he
had been in the rifies, perhaps !) which were extensively
patched with brown cloth on that part which was hid
from sight when the major assumed a recumbent posi-
tion. He had no coat, and his red Garibaldi shirt, like
his what-ye-may-call-'ums, had undergone many repairs
with materials of a different colour and texture from the
original. As he, without being invited, took a seat at
the log fire, and complacently crossed one leg over the
other, I noticed that his shoe was nearly soleless. If
one of his eyes had not been knocked entirely out, it
was, at least, out of line with the other. There were
also sundry scars about his face and nose, the marks
of bygone fights during the war, perhaps, or during
drinking-saloon rows. His face and hands were of such
a colour that he might have been any breed, red, black,
grey or brown ; but a glimpse or two of the most exposed
parts of his person obtained through the rents in his
shirt showed that, at all events, he had been lorn white.
From these signs I concluded that the major had lighted
on hard times. I should certainly have taken him for

ANIMAL LIFE ABOUT DUNFORD'S FARM 293

a tramp, and a very dilapidated tramp, but his air of
cool self-possession would have graced a king. It was
afternoon, and Mr. Dunford and I happened to be alone
in the house, Mrs. D. and the girls having gone to
visit the recently-married daughter, and all the males
being still at their work. My host and I were having
a quiet chat and smoke together, the last we thought to
enjoy previously to my departure. Had the lady of the
house been at home, I fancy Major Cornelius K. Shadley
would have had a different reception from that he received
from the quiet and amiable Mr. Dunford.

Cornelius had probably reconnoitred the house and
thought that there were no men about ; for he impudently
entered without knocking. Seeing us he was somewhat
taken aback, but only for an instant. " How do, boss ?
How do, younker ? " he said, nodding to us with the
familiarity of an old acquaintance, and without more ado
he drew a chair near the fire and sat down. As he had
all the appearance of a professional tramp, I expected
that Dunford would order him out, but after glancing at
the two formidable six-shooters in the intruder's belt and
at his own gun hanging over the fireplace not within
immediate reach, he simply asked what he wanted.

It is to be noted that all the tramps and tender-feet,
at this period at least, carried valuable six-shooters that
could not have cost less than twenty-five or thirty dollars
apiece. This fellow had two splendid weapons, bright
and in good order, in addition to a bowie-knife.

In answer to Dunford's inquiry he said that he was
" prospecting for land," an assertion that caused me to
laugh ; though, by-the-bye, it is not safe in the States
to judge of a man's means by his personal appearance.
I have met men who looked as if they had been pulled
out of a chimney who, nevertheless, possessed a very
respectable banking account, and it did not escape our
notice that as yet the major had made no appeal for
charity. As to his abrupt manner and free conduct,
it is very usual in the States. Our host gravely asked

294 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

if he was wanting a big block (the land is sold in
" blocks "), and mentioned some good land that he knew
of. Cornelius said he was game for anything between
thirty and sixty thousand acres. I could not repress a
grunt of astonishment, which drew his eyes on me with a
sharp look. " You was never riz in the States," he said.

" Are you a Britisher ? " I admitted that I

was one of that much-abused yet long-suffering race. " I
thought so," said the major. " You know, I suppose, what

a whipping our Washington gave you a hundred

years ago ? " I replied that I had heard something
about it. " Well, I guess that ain't nothin' to the
whipping you'll get within these next ten years." I
was, of course, sorry to hear this, but ventured to think
that a flag that had braved the battle and the breeze
for a thousand years might still be found floating over
its unhumbled sons for a longer period than ten years.
" You've got to clear out of Canada ; that's what you've
got to do." I thought this notice to quit, like a great
many more, might be disregarded, and remarked that
possession was something more than nine points of the
law when backed by an armed force. " I tell you, you
are going to lose Canada, and you're going to lose Ire-
land," reiterated Major Shadley. " I say, boss, have you
got any cold pork, and a hollow-toothful of whisky ? "

Dunford got up and began to lay the table ; mean-
while the major talked incessantly to me, and in spite of
his brag and big assertions, to say nothing of his down-
right lies, the fellow was most amusing, and of imper-
turbable good-temper. His mouth was the most pleasant
of his features, for the good-natured smile never left it ;
and I wondered if he ever used the formidable six-shooters.
I ventured to ask. " There's twelve lives there," he said,
" for I never miss a shot. I'm none of your blood-
letters ; but, by golly, when I'm riz, I shoot free." " You
are a dead shot ? " I inquired. " Dead shot ! Why,
I've clicked a flea ofl" a doy's nose and never grazed the

ANIMAL LIFE ABOUT DUNFORD'S FARM 295

dog." I thought it unnecessary to inquhe further par-
ticulars of Major Shadley's skill as a marksman.

Of his skill as a trencher- man I was soon left in no
doubt whatever. He was a long, lanky, thin fellow, and
where on earth he found stowage for his food I could not
conjecture. He put junks of pork two inches square into
his capacious mouth, and seemed to swallow them, like
pills, without chewing, helping himself Hberally to whisky ;
but he was not greedy in the latter respect and knew
when he had taken sufficient. The entrance of Tom, Mr.
Dunford's eldest son, upset his equanimity ; for Tom took
after his mother, who was a lady born to rule ; and as he
surveyed the major from head to foot, and foot to head,
in no very friendly glances, the latter shuffled about in
his seat in a way that reminded me of a lobster in a
lobster- pot. I perceived, at once, that the major's six-
shooters were simply the lion's skin with which the ass
had tried to make himself appear formidable.

■•' I 'spose we've got to find you a shakedown," said
Tom. "Jest you come along to one of the barns, and
leave your pipe and lights here. You ain't going to smoke
us out o' our homestead. Come along," and the major
went with the meekness of a sheep to the slaughter, and
with an appealing look towards Mr. Dunford and the fire,
as much as to say, " I should like to sit a little longer."
The weather was chilly, I should say ; for autumn was well
advanced, and the cold in north Michigan sets in early.

Next morning I heard Tom at the major again.
" You can have a breakfast before you go. Then just
you varmish — you understand ? Clear off. I ain't
a-going to have you loafing about the farm." The major
promised that he would make himself scarce without
delay ; but he took advantage of Tom's departure for a
distant part of the farm to induce Mr. Dunford to let him
remain till the midday meal. In the afternoon Mrs.
Dunford returned from her visit, and not a quarter of an
hour elapsed before the major told me that he saw how
the wind blew. " I think I had better be off," he said.

296 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

I agreed with him, as if he lurked about till Tom came
home he would " probably have a flea ' clicked off his
nose,' " and I would not undertake to promise that the bark
would not be raised in the process. The major looked at
me askance, but smiled. He still lingered. " Britain's
a rich country ? " he inquired. " I beheve so." " Plenty
of money there ? " " Yes." " Lend me half-a-dollar for
a riionth or two." Such a trifling favour could not of
course be refused, but the major insisted on making a
note of the transaction with a view to future repayment.
Diving into one of his side pockets, he produced a pocket-
book nearly as dilapidated as himself, and strongly per-
fumed with stale tobacco. As I did not care to give a
business address to such a character, I said I had no fixed
address at present. " Like me," said he ; " but we shall
meet again ; " and, truly enough, we did meet again.

I have given this sketch of an individual of a race of
creatures that are rapidly being stamped out in the modern
United States. Like the swagsman of Australia, he cannot
long survive when the law against rogues and vagabonds
can lay hold of him without over-exerting itself. I hope
the sketch will be of some interest as the correctly recorded
picture of an incident that gave me much amusement at
the time ; though the humour of the major was so very
broad, and disfigured by such strange and terrible pro-
fanity, that it was only in the wild surroundings of the
time and place that it could give amusement, and could
not by any means be too minutely recorded on paper
without giving disgust.

As to the man's title to major, reference may be made
to what I have said in a former chapter on military titles
in America. (See the Index.) But I may add a few words
on titles in general among this strange people ; for while
they profess such a dislike to titles and distinction that
they would not admit the words " master " and " servant "
into their daily life, but substituted " boss " (Dutch fore-
man) for the former, and " help " for the latter, there are
really no greater quality worshippers on earth — not even

ANIMAL LIFE ABOUT DUNFORD'S FARM 297

in Spain or in Germany. A lord ! ! That is a thing to
be scofifed and sneered at while he remains in England,
but let one come out here, and the announcement of his
arrival appear in the papers, and immediately every lady
in the land will have palpitation of the heart, and before
he is fairly settled in his hotel a full description of him,
from the colour of his teeth to the fit of his boots, will
have had a prominent place on the front page of every
journal published in Uncle Sam's territory,

I have said enough about military titles in the States,
especially as it is a hackneyed subject which has long
been a favourite skit of the humorist ; but it is certainly
not so well known generally to Englishmen that every
class in America abounds in titles of honour, to which,
for the most part, they have not the slightest legal claim.

To commence with the legal profession. I knew a
judge who was a slaughterman in a village near Chicago,
and who when work was slack travelled the country as
an itinerant pig-sticker. His honour used to swear and
get drunk; and I have seen him with a black eye on
more than one occasion. I do not know if he ever sat on
the bench; but I am quite sure that he could not adju-
dicate in grammatical language. Who is, or who is not,
a judge in this country it would be difficult to say, for
many members of the learned professions do not think it
beneath their dignity to follow very humble manual
occupations in daily life. For the emoluments of a pro-
fessional man in an outlying and sparsely populated
district are not sufficient to support him ; indeed it seems
to be the honour, rather than the profit, of official position
that is sought after. This remark applies chiefly, if not
solely, to obscure appointments in obscure places. I am
not writing of the great officers of State.

To resume, I knew two other judges who really acted
as such, one of whom was a barber and the other kept a
ver}^ small store, equal perhaps to a huckster's shop in an
English hamlet. I heard one of these gentlemen, in
delivering judgment, tell a defendant that he believed

298 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

he was a b- -y rascal, and if lie did not get out of

court pretty quick he would kick the tails of his coat. I
am putting it as politely as I can.

But the title of judge is so common that certainly
many men must assume it without authority to do so.
For instance, in a township of seven hundred inhabitants
there were five men addressed by this style, the omission
of which in the superscription of a letter, or bill, or even
in colloquial speech, would have given great offence, as it
actually did in one case in which I was personally con-
cerned. Yet the most respectable of these five was a
man who ran a small store, quite a twopenny-ha'penny
affair, while another was a disreputable loafer and
drunkard, who lived I do not know how. A third was
a blacksmith, and the other two were farmers, not so well
off as average English market-gardeners, and certainly
not one whit better educated. I may add that I have
known a duly appointed judge to be drunk when he took
his seat on the bench, and several who threatened prin-
cipals and witnesses with personal violence.

"Professor " is not so common a title as judge ; but
there are few districts in which at least one gentleman
bearing this exalted designation may not be found.
A boy of sixteen, hearing I was making a collection,
brought me some rare eggs. I spoke to him with the
familiarity I might disjjlay to any boy, but he soon
brought me up with a round turn, by informing me that
he was a professor, and expected to be addressed by his
title. " A professor of what ? " I inquired. " A pro-
fessor of Greek," was the reply. He kept a school in a
district where there were about eight persons to the square
mile, had about a dozen scholars, and eked out a miser-
able living by turning his hand to anything it could find
to do. He seized with avidity the few dimes I gave him
for his specimens. I do not remember to have ever met
a professor of law — they are always judges ; but there are
a great many attorneys who are not in practice, never
have been, and never will be. But then every American

ANIMAL LIFE ABOUT DUNFORD'S FARM 299

who has the slightest pretension to learning has studied
the law — so he will tell you. As to general professors,
in some parts of the country I could scarcely find a
schoolmaster who did not lay claim to that title, though
not one of them had been to a university or received a
learned degree of any kind. There were professors of
languages, general and specific ; of the latter, Latin,
Greek, and Hebrew in particular ; professors of history,
of mathematics, of ethics (spelt " etthics " in one case), of
medicine (with three boxes of pills and half-a-dozen vials
in the window of his hut) ; of writing ; of phrenology, and
of mystery and spiritualism. These were not mere trade
designations ; but the bearers of the titles would, one and
all, have looked upon it as a gross insult if they were not
habitually, and on all occasions, addressed as " Professor."

Perhaps the most general of all civil titles is that of
" doctor." A diploma, of a sort, can be picked up for a
song in the States ; but, quite apart from that, the num-
ber of doctors is simply enormous, amounting in some
places I was afterwards in the habit of visiting with my
waggon to ttvelve per cent, of the population. Of all these,
I am sure, not one was a qualified medical man, probably
not one was other than an unqualified quack, though
some pretended to have studied medicine in Europe and
the States, one man exhibiting a full-grown skeleton m
his house, and claiming to be a professor of anatomy as
well as an M.D. Hundreds of persons, however, use the
title of doctor without pretending to practise the medical, or
any other profession, desiring merely to raise their name
above that of the general rag-tag and bobtail of humanity.

Another numerous class of titled personages in the
States are those who have held ofiSce of some sort, and
whose ofiicial designation clings to them for life. Thus
there are no end of Mr. Commissioners, Mr. Sheriffs, Mr.
Deputies, Mr. Senators, and Governors. A man who has
been a deputy, if but for a week, is Deputy Silas P.
Johnston, or whatever his name may be, to the end of
his days.

CHAPTER XXV

JOURNEY FROM MR. DUNFORd's FARM TO
MARQUETTE

I THINK I have mentioned that the number of small
mammals in the forest near Mr. Dimford's farm was con-
siderable both in numbers and species. In addition to
rodents and insectivores, there were also many foxes and
skunks, and these last gave some trouble to my host by
visiting his hen-roosts and killing his poultry, for the
skunks have just the same habits as the foxes in this
respect. To guard himself from these depredators it was
his custom to leave a fierce dog, of mongrel breed, loose
in the yard all night. The dog killed one skunk by nip-
ping it across the loins, thus affording some refutation
of the opinion that dogs are scared away by the abomin-
able stench of this animal. Some dogs will not attack
skunks ; a good dog will do so. It would seem, therefore,
that fear rather than the offensive smell is the deterring
cause. The skunk is a very fierce animal when put on
its defence, and is a match for a bigger animal than itself ;
but it is so rarely attacked that this fact seems to have
escaped observers. I cannot find a single reference to the
pluck of the skunk in any work on natural history within
my reach ; on the contrary, it seems to be the opinion
that it is a mean and cowardly creature, dependent on its
abominable habit for safety. This is quite wrong. It is
quite as plucky as an average dog ; and is, moreover, a
cleanly animal. It is quite as easy to tame a skunk as a
badger, and if taken when young it can be taught to
follow its master like a dog ; but nothing will cure it of
offending, from time to time, with its abominable nuisance.

300

DUNFORD'S FARM TO MARQUETTE 301

Notwithstanding that my friend's dog kept the foxes
out of the farm-yard, these cunning animals contrived to
form a burrow under the boards seven feet long, and com-
ing up through the floor of the hen-roost sometimes killed
as many as a dozen fowls and ducks in a night, carrying
away one or two, and simply eating the heads off the
others. A concealed trap was placed in this burrow. It
caught one fox, and then these remarkable animals formed
a new burrow, avoiding the old one. In a short time
they had destroyed half the poultry on the farm ; and it
became necessary to try other means of driving them
away ; for few could be trapped, even in the forest, and
only a few shot without organising an extensive drive.

The plough was therefore brought out, and four or
five deep furrows ploughed across the ground, converging
on the hen-roost. In these furrows steel spring-traps
were placed covered with earth. Now foxes when abroad,
and especially when foraging round farms or habitations,
will always take advantage of the ground for concealment.
They will run along ditches, the bottom of hedges, and
behind walls, well knowing what excellent protection from
the sisfht of enemies these afford. Ploughed furrows are
particularly used by them. They will go much out of
their way to avoid open meadows, and approach a farm
in the furrows of a ploughed field.

It was a knowledge of this trait of the fox that in-
duced Mr. Dunford to adopt these trenches as a means of
protecting his fowls. The first night after they were
formed, three foxes — two red and a grey — were taken.
They were all caught by the fore-leg, and two of them
simulated death when discovered. The third howled
dreadfully, and made frantic efforts to escape. None of
them attempted to bite. Two nights later another red
fox was caught ; but after this none approached the farm.
They were fairly alarmed, and kept away. The intel-
ligence of these animals must, consequently, be very great.
The men on the farm asserted that after such a lesson as

302 THE GEE AT NORTH-WEST

had been taught them their fright would be so great that
they would not attempt to renew their depredations for
many months.

The time had now come for me to leave my kind
friend and host. The winter was not far off, and I had
determined to pass it in a town previously to leaving the
northern parts of the States permanently. I came to this
resolution reluctantly, and in spite of a lingering desire
to keep near the British frontier. My heart's desire was
to settle in Canada, or failing that, in one of the northern
States ; but by this time I had become convinced that, in
spite of a strong constitution, I could never weather the
severe winters of the North.

After some chilly winds, accompanied by storms of
rain and hail, the weather suddenly cleared up, and the
latter half of October in this year was remarkably fine,
bright, and clear, though with sharp frosts every night.
I had purchased an old horse at this time with a covered
cart (not the waggon in which I afterwards for many
years traversed the Mississippi States), and in this I
determined to proceed to Marquette, where I intended to
pass the winter. Long Jake wished me to go with him
by canoe to Chicago, where he had a market for his pelts,
and proposed that I should take the place of " Splits,"
the benedick, as his chum and partner, so good an opinion
had he of my skill and energy as a trapper. But though
I had discovered that there was a market for " specimens "
in England, my opinion was that fur-hunting, even at this
time, had seen its palmy days go by for ever. Pelts then,
as now, fetched their price, but really good furs had to be
sought for so far distant in the wilds, and the time and
trouble of bringing them in was so great, that it was im-
possible for a trapper to earn more than the wages of a
mechanic ; and he was fortunate who could do that. So
I declined Jake's offer, and we parted with a hearty shake
of the hand and mutual regret, for we had been excellent
comrades.

DUNFORD'S FARM TO MARQUETTE 303

The distance to Marquette from Mr. Dunford's farm
was about eighty miles as the crow flies, but a route was
mapped out for me which, though it increased the length
of the journey by thirty miles, I was assured I should
find an immense advantage in taking, not only on account
of its being a better road, but because I should also have
a succession of farms and other places of call where I
could obtain food and shelter. Mr. Dunford kindly offered
to send either one of his sons or a man with me to show
me the road ; but considering the trouble he would have,
and that he must return alone, I would not agree to it.
My self-confidence at this period was illimitable, and I
would have set out on a thousand miles journey alone
without hesitation. A mere hundred then, I laughed at ;
but I soon found, as all youngsters do, that to resolve
and to execute are two very different things, however
closely they are allied.

The road lay through forests nearly the whole dis-
tance. The first two nights I stopped at hamlets of
small size ; and the third at a large farm, getting rough
but most hearty hospitalit}^ at each place. But the roads
between them were execrable ; in fact there were no roads.
Near the hamlets, for a mile or two, there was a cart track,
but it was in such a bad state from the passage of heavy
wains that I found it better to pick my way through the
forest by the side of it. This road had originally been
made by laying logs side by side ; but these, of course, had
soon rotted, and being repaired piece by piece had left it in
a most treacherous condition. For while a portion of the
road seemed firm and good, and induced me to urge my
old mare into about the best trot she had ever done in her
old age, we suddenly floundered on to rotten logs that
gave way beneath us, and the cart sank in up to the axle-
trees, as did the hind-quarters of the mare till she was
half hid from sight. Finding herself in chancery, she did
a very wise thing — remained quite passive ; but of all the
comical figures she cut ! — there it was no joke to me.

304 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Scrambling out of the cart, I did my best to get her
out of her uncomfortable scrape. I could not get at all
the buckles to release her, and had to cut some of the
harness ; but at length her struggles, and my tuggings
and pullings, got her out of the hole, and she walked to
the side of the road unhurt, I was glad to see, and began
to nibble such leaves and herbage as she could get at,
quite indifferent to my predicament and the efforts I was
making to get the cart up. In vain I unloaded it of all
my effects and strove with all my might : it was firmly
wedged in between the logs, and I could not stir it an
inch.

I was in despair. It would take me quite two hours
to walk back to the hamlet ; and though the forest was
so solitary that I supposed there was not a human being
nearer than eight miles away, I did not like to leave the
horse and my goods, especially as it would probably be
dark before I could get back; for I had wasted three
hours in trying to move the cart.

While I was pondering on what would be my wisest
course, I heard voices approaching, roaring out a song of
anything but delicate sentiment, and presently three very
scabby-looking scamps came up. Of course they were
armed with the inevitable six-shooter, which takes the
place of the walking-stick in this country ; and I marvelled
how much, for brightness and size, two of these weapons
resembled those of the redoubtable Cornelius K. Shadley,
whilom major in the United States army. These men,
however, though undoubtedly tramps, were better dressed
than the major, and appeared better fed. As they came up,
one of them exclaimed, " What the have we here ? "

I explained what had happened and begged their
help in getting the cart out of the hole. They laughed,
and were in no hurry to help me ; and one of them
facetiously offered me a thousand dollars for the mare,
saying that he had been looking for a bit of blood for
breeding purposes for a long time. This bit of pleasantry

DUNFORD'S FARM TO MARQUETTE 305

afforded them immense amusement. I put the best face
on the matter I could, and laughed and joked with them
in the hope that that would prove the best way of winning
their good will, for I could see that they were three very
nasty fellows.

They began to throw my goods about, and to appro-
priate whatever took their fancy. Some cakes and jam,
which Mrs. Dunford had kindly given me for use on the
road, they ate, or wantonly threw away ; and each of them
donned one of my clean shirts, which they certainly
wanted badly enough. Having discovered that I was an
Englishman, they destroyed everything I possessed except
my arms. One scoundrel tried to take my rifle from me,
but I threw him off so vigorously that he fell mto the
hole out of which the mare had scrambled. For a moment
it looked as if there would be murder, for I was deter-
mined to die rather than suffer myself to be disarmed,
though I would not shed blood for the sake of a little
personal property ; but it ended in a laugh at the ridicu-
lous figure their mate cut, with his head in the hole and
his legs sticking up.

When they had satisfied themselves, and plundered
me of all that they could carry, they began to walk away,
but I asking them again to help me pull the cart up they
turned back and did so, assisted me to mend the harness,
and then insisted in riding on to the hamlet in the cart.
Arriving there, I, of course, told the people what had
happened; but though there were twenty able-bodied
men in the place, they were so awed by these three
scoundrels that nobody dared lay a finger on them.
They remained in the place all night, eatmg and drinking
of the best, and treated as hail-fellow-well-met by the
majority of the inhabitants ; and in the morning would
have taken my horse and cart from me, but that by this
time my blood was up, and I threatened to blow the
brains out of the first fellow that touched them. I was
therefore permitted to depart, shorn as I was, but for-

u

306 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

tunately witli some three hundred dollars in gold safely
stowed away in my pockets. I left these rascally tender-
feet in the hamlet, half drunk, although it was scarcely
daylight. All day long I was apprehensive that they
would come after me, but I never saw them again.

My mare not having much go in her, the road, where
road there was, being so bad, and I several times mis-
taking side tracks for the main one, caused so much delay
that I was eight days doing the hundred and ten miles I
was supposed to have to cover. During this long week
I was continually meeting with trifling but vexatious
accidents ; and though the adventure I have just narrated
was one of the most troublesome I ever met with in all
my experience in the States, it was not the only accident
I met with during this journey ; for on the fifth night I
mistook the road to the wood-feller's hut where I expected
to find accommodation, and becoming quite bewildered
passed the night in the depths of the forest.

It was bitterly cold, and the snow fell in slight showers
all night, so that all my efforts to make a fire failed, though
perhaps the recent rains which had made both wood and
ground thoroughly damp had as much to do with this
failure as the snow. Fortunately I was not without food,
for I had already become experienced enough in wild life
to know the wisdom of always providing for a day or two
ahead. At my last resting-place I had procured bread,
cold boiled pork, and a bottle of whisky, and some jam.
Jam is always procurable in a Yankee homestead, for if
there is nothing better to make it of, pumpkins, or even
turnips, are used for this purpose.

I gave the most of the bread to the old horse ; and to
her and the whisky bottle I consider that I owe my life on
this occasion. My friends the teetotalers, I hope, will not
judge me harshly. I have a profound respect for them,
and believe that they mean well, though I cannot sub-
scribe to all that they teach. The Maine liquor laws,
which are downright wicked, and the ladies' whisky war.

DUNFORD'S FARM TO MARQUETTE 307

which was downright comical, established my opinion
about teetotalism long before I had ceased to be a legal
infant ; and I have a confirmed habit, not of getting
drunk, but of sticking to my opinion in spite of evolution-
ists and social reformers; and so I drank so much of the
whisky that I doubled the trees, and doubled the horse,
and doubled the cart, and finally doubled myself up
against the old mare. She found a hollow amongst the
trees and lay down, and I huddled up close to her, and
neither reason nor revelation will persuade me that she
did not know full well that our only chance of life was
the mutual warmth which we communicated to each
other. She curled herself up like a dog, with her nose
pressed close to me, and never moved till morning. I
had a rug or two, which the scoundrelly robbers could not
carry off (they had so well loaded themselves), and these
I spread over myself and her ; and so we managed to sur-
vive the night.

And yet it was not a hard frost, for before midday
the following morning there was scarcely a trace of the
snow left on the ground. But I can say from experience
that it is not degrees of cold which cause suffering and
danger, but the kind of cold. For a damp cold will kill
when three times the degrees of frost can easily be
endured.

It was some time before I could get the mare to move
when daylight came back — she was so stiff. I was in a
miserable plight myself, but the remains of the whisky
pulled me together, and about the middle of the day Ave
reached the timber- fellers' domicile — a small log-hut, with
a shed or two erected round it. There I got some hot
coffee for myself, and some flour-gruel (in lieu of a bran
mash) for the old horse. This was the last bit of hard
work she ever did, for there never was much go in her ;
and the next spring I took her back to Dunford from
whom I had her, and there left her under a solemn pro-
mise that in consideration of her splendid behaviour

308 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

on this occasion she should be permitted to live in clover
the rest of her days, and shuffle off this mortal coil in her
own time and way.

The following day I got on to a track that had more
pretensions to a road than any I had hitherto travelled
over. I met a few of my fellow-men on horseback, one
of whom was polite enough to offer me a cigar. I am
not a habitual smoker, but I can enjoy an occasional weed
just to make myself sociable. This gentleman being free
of speech and opinion like myself, criticised my horse-
flesh and general turn-out with a confident unreserve
that made us friends on the instant. He soon got tired
of my jog-trot pace and went off at a canter, but he gave
me an address near Marquette where I could find him,
and during the following winter I spent many happy
hours with him and his charming daughters — his lady
lying under the trees in Marquette Churchyard.

That night I stopped at a wayside inn — such an inn !
An Irishman would have looked twice before he put a
cow or a pig in such a hovel, and all the world knows
that Pat is not particular about lodgings, either for him-
self or his beast. When I drew up there seemed to be no
wakinsf soul about, though I could hear the stentorian snor-
ing of a sleeper through the half-open door. Kjiowing the
style of such cribs as this, and that I should have to do
everything for myself, I put the mare in the best shed I
could find, and gave her the whole of a small rick of hay
— corn I could find none.

I should explain that there is a custom in parts of
America of piling a small quantity of hay round a stick
driven into the earth, or round the trunk of a fruit-tree.
Such a pile, which is rarely more than a small load in
quantity, often a mere armful, is called a rick. There
may be scores of such ricks on a single farm. The hay
is supposed to dry better in this form of storing ; it also
is supposed to afford a beneficial protection to the tree
trunks. It is a very common method of storing hay in

DUNFORD'S FARM TO MARQUETTE 309

the Southern States; but this was the first occasion on
which I had noticed its adoption in this district.

While I was engaged about the horse, the boss
(landlord, as we should call him) came up with an axe
in his hand and a huge pile of wood on his back.
" Wal ! " he exclaimed, " I guess you are making your-
self at home." I reminded him of the old proverb that
tells us that our friends will love us the better for help-
ing ourselves, and asked if I could sleep there, and have
a meal. A bed, I saw at a glance, it would be preposterous
to ask for in such a place, and I was doubtful about the
meal. The man was good-humoured enough, which
Yankees almost invariably are, in spite of a plain
spokenness which seems rather offensive to a new-
comer, and said I could have a bench and blanket
before the fire, and that he had the never-failing cold
pork and pumpkin-pie. He had also plenty of stuff he
called ale, which much resembled the waters of the
Missouri — that is, yellow mud — and cider and whisky, the
latter the most horrible stuff ever concocted. How its
consumers survived its consumption is a mystery.

The hut consisted of two compartments, a partition of
thin boards having been erected, cutting off a third from
the general apartment, where the chance customers sat,
drank, spat, and swore to then- hearts' content. For-
tunately for my comfort there was but one customer
here at present, and he it was I had heard snoring, for
he was asleep on three chairs in front of the Dutch-stove,
his body being on one, and his two long legs spread wide
apart on others.

Surely I had previously seen those green small-clothes
patched with brown, and that dirty red shirt, mended
with still dirtier grey flannel. It actually was Major
Shadley, sponge and tender-foot, tramp and rogue, all,
or each by turns. He had evidently been sampling the
poisonous "Scotch" (a placard hung on the wall de-
scribed it as "Best Scotch whisky, dhect from the

310 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Highlands, imported by Sam Rankin, wine and spirit
merchant " !), for he was so firmly asleep that shouting
and back-slapping would not rouse him. The sort of
comments Sam Rankin made on this unconscious guest
must be imagined by the reader. I cannot repeat any
two consecutive words of it.

I have said that the major was perched on three
chairs, but the only one of them that retained its back
was the one which supported Mr. Shadley's spinal
column. As mine host wanted that particular chair for
my accommodation, and failed to convey that circum-
stance to the deadened brain of the sleeper, he at last
forcibly pulled it from under him. Down went the
major in a heap on the floor, and the shock having
aroused him, he gathered himself up, swearing horribly.
At sight of me he fairly staggered against the wall.
" Wal, I'm jiggered ! " he exclaimed.

" Why, major, what is the meaning of this ? I thought
you meant to make for the south," I said.

Without a word the major dropped on one of the
backless chairs and sobbed aloud. Hardly knowing
what to make of this conduct, I supposed he was crying-
drunk, and begged the host to bring some strong coffee.

" If you only knowed what I've been through since I
saw you," howled the major. " You remember them
six-shooters ? Two of the loveliest barkers that was
ever belted ! "

" To be sure I do," I replied, noticing now that the
major was no longer armed ; " the splendid weapons with
which you flicked the dog's nose."

" Oh ! cheese that ; don't joke on a poor varmint in

distress. They're gone, Mr. Fountain ; gone by to three

of the dirtiest, sneaking cut-throats that ever went un-
lynched," and the major swore till he exhausted himself.

It flashed on me in an instant that the three rascals
who had overtaken and robbed me four days previously
had a brace of six-shooters in their possession that at the

DUNFORD'S FARM TO MARQUETTE 311

time remmded me of the major's dandy firing-irons, and I
had no doubt that these rogues had also interviewed this
poor tramp. A very few inquiries put it beyond doubt
that this was the case ; and six-shooters, bowie-knife, and
the few cents in possession of this wretched fellow had
all been taken from him by these heartless thieves.

" But, major, you used to boast that you had twelve
lives in your belt (referring to the twelve charges of his
two weapons), how came it then that you permitted only
three men to despoil you ? " I could not help asking.

" That's all very well ; but with two fellows holding
you behind and raising , and another in front spit-
ting blue sulphur down your throat, there ain't much
chance for fancy shooting, I can teil you," continued the
poor major, blubbering afresh. " I had a hard job to
save my skin. They kicked me till I could scarcely
stand, and then strapped me to a tree and left me, and
there I was for eight or nine hours, till a couple of
travelling farriers came by and released me."

Host Sam Rankin seemed to have but little sympathy
with the sufferer ; but the poor man had, no doubt, not
only been robbed of the very little he possessed, but sub-
jected to brutal usage, and was much unnerved. He had
been begging his way from door to door, but without the
moral support of his shining six-shooters, he had found
that but a poor business. However, he plucked up a
little energy when the cold pork and pumpkin-pie were
put on the board ; and after he and I had spent a very
uncomfortable night, sitting in corners near the stove, he
forestalled me, and, without saying a word, neatly curried
the mare, harnessed her to the cart, and brought her
round to the door, a kindness which I took as partaking
strongly of the broad hint.

We had a better breakfast than supper, for a young
woman, Sam's wife, appeared from the inner apartment,
where we had heard her all night long coughing and
trying to comfort a sick child whose restless whining,

312 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

poor little creature, gave me the heartache. The woman
was in the last stage of consumption ; but she tried to
serve up a comfortable meal, having heard our stories of
the robbers, and being sorry for us.

These rascals committed several other outrages in the
district, as we afterwards heard ; but they never showed
themselves at Marquette or any of the larger hamlets in
the district ; and after the posse turned out to look
for them they were heard no more of, having probably
realised that it was time to transfer their wicked persons
to some other and safer district.

From the hostelry of Mr. Sam Rankin we reached
Marquette without further adventure. The roads were
bad to the last ; and when we reached the township,
which is little better or bigger than a village, it was
snowing heavily. The last mile or two of road was
along the shores of Lake Superior ; and the water was
running in and breaking in furious waves on the beach,
like the sea during a storm ; while thousands of gulls
were hovering over the land, evidently driven in by stress
of weather. The number of gulls always to be found
on the Great Lakes is, to me, who have always considered
these birds as purely marine forms, a strange circum-
stance. I should like to know if gulls frequent, spend
their whole lives, or breed, on large inland bodies of
fresh water in other parts of the world. They do all
three here ; for there are some gulls which breed about
the lakes and never leave the fresh water except for
those exceptional inland visits which all gulls make in
bad weather, but these gulls are found on the coasts of
America also. And there are other species which make
annual migrations to the sea — some to the Atlantic,
some to the Pacific. At least one species makes journeys
rio-ht across the continent, from ocean to ocean.

I said we arrived at Marquette. That means that
the major had climbed into the cart at Sam Rankin's,
and duly attached himself to me. At Marquette we had

DUNFORD'S FARM TO MARQUETTE 313

to come to an understanding. I could have no doubtful
characters about me while I was lodging in a respectable
house ; and though I am rather given to employing
what may be called " waifs and strays," as I have often
found these men, under proper treatment, far better
servants than your smoothed-speeched, kid-gloved gentry,
I had yet never engaged a major as " a help " ; and though
I gave Cornelius a trial, I will take remarkable good care
to never again have to do with disbanded mihtary gentle-
men of phantom corps, or Massachusetts Rangers, as
C. K. S. styled his late regiment when pressed to name it.

As I needed a servant, and the major made a pitiful
appeal for " another chance," thereby tacitly admitting
that he had lost a chance or two in the past, I engaged
him, on the understanding that he gave up spitting, swear-
ing, pig-tail smoking, and shiny-six-shootering. All this he
faithfully promised to do, and promised only ; for as soon
as he received his first dollars he got drunk, bought a
fearful-looking weapon at second hand, killed a neigh-
bour's dog in trying " to flea him," and frightened my
landlady half out of her wits. His general beastly
conduct, and the trouble I had to get rid of him, I say
nothing about, for it would not be pleasant reading.

I think I ought to record that the occasion narrated
above was the only one on which I was actually robbed
during the whole time of my sojourn in the States. As
I mentioned in my first book, I have frequently been
''■ rounded up " by rascally cowboys and tenderfeet, and
eased of a few bottles of whisky ; but anything like a
deliberate and cruel robbery, such as that I have just told
about, happened on this one occasion only. Nevertheless
it is certain that there is a class of mean train-wreckers
and cunning thieves prowling about the outlying districts
of the States ; and this class seems of late years to be
greatly on the increase. As the land becomes more thickly
populated, and to obtain an easy living becomes more
difficult, certain classes of men take to dishoncbt courses.

CHAPTER XXVI

THE SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR

In America the terms city, town, &c., have no very
definite meaning. In the early part of my career in the
States I knew many cities that had not a hundred inhabi-
tants ; when I left it one or two of these places could
count its people by tens of thousands. It seems that the
founder of a new settlement, often anticipating great
prosperity for his venture, gives it, prospectively, the
name of a city. If the place fails to attract many
residents, it yet still retains the title originally bestowed
upon it. There are seldom other designations in the
States than towns and cities for collections of buildings.
What we should call a village or a hamlet is a " town-
ship" in America. Places rarely have the name of
village ; and I do not remember to have ever heard of
hamlets or boroughs in any part of the United States.

Marquette, though the chief place in all this region of
North Michigan, was really a small township, but seemed
to do a considerable trade, its situation on the shore of
Superior being much to its advantage. A large propor-
tion, if not the whole, of the trade was coastwise ; and
fish-catching and curing was one of the chief employments
of the inhabitants — that is, of course, apart from its
mining operations ; for Marquette owes its existence
entirely to its proximity to enormous mineral wealth.

It was here, or near here, that the murder of Father
Marquette took place in the early years of the eighteenth
century. Some local antiquarians showed me the exact
spot, as they supposed, where the cruel deed was com-

SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 315

mitted ; but I strongly doubt the correctness of this
information, though it is asserted that tradition has
handed down full particulars of the affair. The accounts
which I heard are somewhat confused and contradictory ;
and though I am acquainted with some of the writings
of Father Marquette, I have not been able to find an
authentic account of his death. This much is certain,
that the French look upon him as a martyr, and the
English and Americans as a meddlesome politician who
provoked his fate.

He was a French priest who, leaving Canada, then a
French colony, established himself alone in the forest,
somewhere in the immediate neighbourhood of the town
which now bears his name. He acquired an extraordinary
influence over the Indians, many of whom he converted
to the Roman Catholic faith. He certainly had no par-
ticular right to establish a mission on English territory,
as it then was ; but considering that the country was a
wilderness inhabited by the Red Men only, it is difficult to
believe that the father had any political motive for his
action. Nor is it usual to forbid men of the Cross from
propagating their views among savages, or to require
them to obtain the permission of the executive authorities
to establish their missions in a wilderness. At least that
has never been the policy of the British people. But Father
Marquette aroused the jealousy of the local authorities,
and his mission was suddenly attacked and himself and
his converts butchered on the spot. I believe that
American militia were the actual murderers, and that the
father was killed by a thrust from a sergeant's halberd.
He is represented as being so killed in an old French
print, and there is a tradition among the Roman Catholics
at many places in Lower Canada that such was his fate.
But other accounts record that he met with a very
different fate. Some of English or American origin assert
that he was slain by Indians, and some that he was not
murdered at all.

316 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Apart from traditions, which may or may not be
erroneous, it is certain that there Avere CathoUc Missions
in this neighbourhood at a very early period in the
history of the country, and that many murders of priests
and converts took place, sometimes by hostile Indians,
who seem to have been instigated to commit the crimes
by whites, and sometimes by the Europeans themselves.
All through the northern countries bordermg the Great
Lakes and alons: the Canadian frontier, the loss of life
among the early w^hite settlers was simply appallmg,
amounting in Maine, it is on record, to five or six per
cent, of the total population. Often when no Indians
were thought to be near, and the settlers were quietly
going, unarmed, about their business, villages and
isolated settlements were suddenly attacked, and every
soul, man, woman, and child, butchered and scalped.
Occasionally women were made prisoners of, but as a
rule the Red Men seem to have had little inclination
for the society of European women. There are but very
few instances of their having been kept for squaws or
wives; there are even fewer instances of children being
taken into captivity. Men were sometimes taken away to
be afterw^ards put to death with exquisite torture, but the
rule was to slay all at the moment of attack.

That the Red Man when on the war-path is a brutal
savage is a fact that cannot be gainsaid, but I have my
own opinion about the amount of provocation he received.
I have not been able to discover that he ever commenced
hostilities without provocation, though there is no doubt
that his reprisals were often visited on innocent victims.
I am sorry to add that there is also no doubt his attacks
were often instigated by both French and English, one
against the other. On the whole, the French got on
much better with the Red Man than any other Em'opean
settlers. This seems to have been the result of careful
policy ; and it is also most certam that those founders of
English settlements who behaved justly to the Indians

SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 317

very seldom, if ever, had any serious trouble with them.
And frightful as it may seem to read of wholesale slaughter-
ing of women and children, this fiendish crime was not
confined to red savages ; it would be interesting to know
if it originated with them. If so, the early settlers re-
taliated in kind, and with no slack hand. A great many
of these men were fellows whom their native land must
have been mighty glad to get rid of. They resembled those
bandits who, three thousand years ago, joined themselves
to Kina: David the Hebrew. He who had a creditor whom
he could not pay, he who had committed an offence against
the laws of his country and feared the consequences, and
he who was naturally of a discontented temperament, be-
came " a pilgrim father," and went to America for liberty
of conscience, and liberty to steal and murder and bum
witches, as they termed several poor imbecile women
whom they sent to the stake after torturing them into a
confession of witchcraft.

I do not wish it to be supposed that I do not think
that many of the founders of America were great and good
men, but it has always been the misfortune of that
country, down to quite modern times, to be a city of
refuge for political agitators, religious impostors, and all
sorts of scamps and reprobates who had made their owti
countries too hot to hold them.

Only a few days after my arrival at Marquette the
winter set in with great vigour, and I was thus prevented
from making any long excursions about the neighbour-
hood as I had wished to do. The country seemed, as
far as I had yet seen it, to be far less desolate than that
on the north side of the lake, but the winter was quite as
severe; indeed, I think I felt the cold more than I did
north of the Red River Settlement. The Great Lakes
never freeze over, as I have already said, but there was
a broad fringe of ice right along the coast, on which
people sleighed to their heart's content all through the
winter ; and though channels were on several occasions

318 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

cut to enable boats to come up to the town, tbey were
always frozen over again within a few hours, and towards
the end of the winter ice to a great thickness was piled up
along the coast. All the small rivers were hard frozen,
but the number of streams that empty themselves into
the lake on this side is very inconsiderable, and they are
all of small size, being mere brooks.

It is singular, or at least worthy of note, that it was
late in the history of the United States that large towns
began to spring up on the shores of the Great Lakes.
Some of those towns promise to rank with the greatest
cities of the New World, and perhaps Marquette will one
day be a second Chicago. At present it has not come up
to expectation. The first settlers established the " city,"
as they called it, much farther eastward, and gave it an
Indian name — Munesing. The mineral wealth of this
neisrhbourhood seems to have been the attraction which
caused the change of site, and the reason for the change
of name I have already given. At this time the country
was certainly not opened up to any great extent. I am
ignorant of the present state of matters, but of the future
I prophesy without hesitation. This is not only one
of the most picturesque but also one of the richest,
from a mineralogical point of view, districts of North
America. Iron, copper, silver, and coal, seem to abound
at many points, though I am not prepared to speak
of the quality of the latter. The iron is probably
responsible for the red, crimson, and purple colour of many
of the cliffs on this side of the lake, and also for the re-
markable coloured cascades which I found on some parts
of the coast. The water in these cascades was coloured
a deep vinous shade, so that it seemed to be wine rather
than water which was rushing over the rocks. The lake
was tinted by the coloured water poured into it, but not
to any great distance from the foot of the falls. These
claret-coloured cascades are far more numerous on the
north side of the lake.

SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 319

The cliffs seemed to be far more rugged and elevated
than those opposite on the Canadian side, but I did not
examine the latter so closely as those east and west of
Marquette. The variety of rock shapes and forms in this
district is simply marvellous, and in fantastic variety is
not to be compared with anything I have seen in North
America, excepting only the Sierra Nevada and the
Yosemite Valley.

The elevation of the rocks is in some cases very con-
siderable, and they often rise sheer from the water, so
that it is impossible to land for a distance of many miles.
There is no beach, not even a ledge broad enough to give
a cat foothold. Of course when the ascent is so steep
there is no vegetation ; the rocks are bare. At the top
there are generally trees, sometimes broad-leaved and
sometimes pines ; and there are places where the rocks
shelve down with a sufficient slope to permit trees and
other vegetation to grow quite down to the water's edge.
At such places there is usually a narrow strip of beach ;
at others there is a broader beach, but it is nowhere of
any great breadth. The nomenclature of these cliffs and
the mountains is of the usual idiotic kind found through-
out the States, and which gives one the idea that some
mdividual has travelled through the land with a certain
list of names and no power of invention. Everywhere we
have Lovers' Leaps, Phantom Rocks, Painted Rocks, and
Old Men's Faces galore, and these designations are re-
peated with a confusing frequency.

I commenced my inspection of these remarkable
cliffs to the eastward of Munesing. They there bear the
title of " Picture Rocks," and there is not a mammal,
bird, or inanimate object that some one or other of
them is not thought to represent — sometimes with truth,
though it too often happens that different persons' ideas
on the supposed resemblance greatly vary ; what one
declares to be an elephant's head, another thinks more
nearly approximates a pig's snout, and so on. My own

320 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

opinion is that the variety of forms and shapes of these
rocks is in the highest degree remarkable, and resembles,
or rather repeats on a small scale, those that so much
excited my wonder in the Sierra Nevada, and which I
have fully described in " The Great Deserts and Forests
of North America " ; but for appalling grandeur and
sublimity of scenery the Sierra is not to be compared
to anything to be found in other parts of the north of
the continent.

AVith regard to the nomenclature of the Superior
Lake cliffs, one difficulty in recognising the " Lions,
Eagles, Panthers," &c., of the popular parlance, arises
from the very remarkable way in which a slight change
of the spectator's position alters the apparent shape of
the viewed rock. That which looks like a rampant
horse from one spot, is changed into something more
nearly resembling a coffin, or long chest, by a move of
a few yards to the left or right. Some few of the
popularly named spots are worthy of their designations,
and some of these I will proceed to mention in rotation,
premising that the great majority of them are not
marked on my map ; and that I have often had to rely
on Indians and uneducated persons for such information
as I give. I have, however, carefully avoided making
any statement which I thought to be unlikely as regards
truth, or careless in fact.

My explorations were mostly made in an Indian
canoe. Sometimes I took an Indian or two to paddle
for me, and sometimes I went alone. It depended on
the weather, and, consequently, on the distance I could
venture, and the time I might be absent from Marquette ;
for the navigation of all the great lakes is dangerous for
small boats, and particularly for canoes. The storms are
frequent, and come on with surprising suddenness, so
that on a coast where there is often no landing-place for
several miles, it is imperative for the humble voyageur
to keep his eye constantly on the watch for impending

SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 321

changes of the weather. I have seen the weather appa-
rently most promising only half-an-hour before a fierce
squall rushed over the surface of the lake, and on several
occasions we have had to literally race the wind to the
nearest landing-place. Two or three times we have only
escaped by the skin of our teeth. With a considerable
experience of the open sea, I am of opinion that it is far
less dangerous to small craft in bad weather than the
waters of these lakes. During storms the waves seemed
to me to be at least as high as those of the ocean, while
they are much shorter, or more choppy. A seaman will
understand, therefore, why they are so dangerous to
small craft. On a long, running swell, a boat may do
very well, however deep the trough of the sea, but it is a
diiferent matter with a short choppy sea, especially as in
these lakes, where there is either no defined current, or
a meeting of aberrant currents, particularly near the
shore, where the danger is greatest. There is also very
deep water, right inshore in many places, the rocks
rising abruptly from the surface. The average depth is
variously stated, but it is nowhere as great as might
be thought, considering the extent of the lake. My
measurements did not always agree with the chart of
the lakes which I used, although as a rule it seemed to
be very correct. I appeared to find some holes, or
narrow gullies, at the bottom of Superior, and other
lakes. The average depth of Superior is about eight
hundred feet, and the water is generally so beautifully
clear that objects can be seen lying on the bottom where
the depth is two or three hundred feet. This is not the
case where streams or falls bring mud or sediment into
it, though, as a rule, the pollution extends to but a very
short distance from the shore.

Near Munesing, according to my measurements, some
of the cliffs exceed, by a few feet, seventy yards in height,
rising so straight from the water that they seemed to be
absolutely verticle, and the measurement was taken by

X

322 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

dropping a line over the edge. Some of the cliffs were
undermined, and others sloped under water ; but at
places, from a boat lying only a few yards from the
rocks, depths of two to four hundred feet were obtained.
Sometimes the bottom was very rough and irregular,
seeming to be a mass of piled-up rocks which had fallen
from the cliffs above.

None of the Picture Rocks showed a red colour, but
almost every other imaginable tint was found in strange
combination, such as a person acquainted only with the
dull-coloured rocks of Europe can have no idea of.
Bright blues and greens were very conspicuous, due
probably to the presence of copper in some form ; and
these various tints have much to do with the fanciful
shapes the cliffs seem to assume. From a distance many
of the bare rocks appear to be covered with luxuriant
forest, among which nestle towns, castles, forts, and
picturesque cottages. As you approach nearer all these
forms change in a wonderfully grotesque way, like the
ever-recurring alterations in a kaleidoscope, often assum-
ing the figures of gigantic men and animals. The
resemblance was often perfect from a certain point of
view, but half-a-dozen strokes of the paddle were enough
to dispel the illusion, or transform it into a greater.
The best, and most grotesque views, perhaps, are obtained
at about a mile from the shore ; but the atmosphere is
usually so beautifully clear that good views are obtained
at much greater distances.

" Chimney-rocks " are very common on this part of
the coast, but none of the pinnacles struck me as being
very extraordinary. I was far more interested in the
caverns and perforations. A remarkable projection, called
the Sail Rock, cannot be passed without notice. This
is one of the least changeable of the rock-objects. It
is such a faithful likeness of a sloop-rigged boat that
strangers have repeatedly believed it to be such. A
short distance beyond is a very remarkable natural per-

SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 323

foration of the rock between two cliflfs, named by the
Canadian voyageurs Le Grande Portail. It is a hundred
and four feet in height, and a hundred and seventy broad,
and forms a kind of entrance to a large cavern, with
curiously rugged sides and roof, the result of the sea's
furious action. The cavern is not otherwise remarkable
in appearance, but during storms the waves rush in
through Le Portail with tremendous force and fury. I
had the gratification of witnessing a tempest at this spot.
The waves came on much quicker than those of a salt
sea, and, rushing straight through the Portals, seemed to
actually fill the cave, breaking with a force that made
the rock perceptibly tremble, and with a noise that can-
not be compared to that of a cannon, for it was far more
deep and sullen in tone. This tremendous sound has
been heard by passing vessels ten miles out on the lake.
The sight of the water bursting into the cave left an
impression on the mind of the first degree of intensity —
one of those impressions which return in moments of
quiet thought with the freshness and reality of yesterday.
The quantity of water which entered the cave it would
be vain to attempt to calculate. It was immense, but it
seemed to be all dashed to foam and spray. The spray
rushed into the air in a million jets, and, though we
stood on rocks nearly two hundred feet high, we were
drenched at each burst. There was very little of that
undersuck, or under-current, which is so prominent a
feature of waves bursting on the shores of a salt sea. In
fact, though a careless observer might not have noticed
much difference, I perceived that in several points the
action of storms on these lakes differed from similar
conditions on the ocean. The tempest seemed fiercer,
the wind was so boisterous that we crouched down, fear-
ful of being blown over the cliffs. The action of the
waves was certainly quicker, and seemingly more powerful
than those of salt water, and never have I seen spray
thrown so high on a sea-coast. There is always a strong

324 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

odour from the sea during a storm, an odour of Neptune
that cannot have escaped the notice of any person who
has seen the ocean. From the lake there was no per-
ceptible smell, though the air had a peculiar freshness
about it, and, being winter time, was piercingly cold.
Neither was there any weed thrown up, or clinging about
the rocks, as would be the case on the sea-coast. Marine
creatures were absent also, except gulls, which hovered
overhead in myriads, screaming loudly. No such flocks
of gulls are ever seen on the British coasts. There are
some insignificant crustaceans and molluscs on the shores
of the lakes, but of these I will defer speaking till I have
done with the cliffs.

At the time of the storm referred to there was no
sign of ice forming on any part of the lake, but the spray
froze on the rocks, making them exceedingly slippery.
Subsequently there was ice on parts of the coast, ex-
tending out some distance from the shore, of sufficient
width to enable people to walk and sleigh on it, until it
packed. This ice was mostly in small sheltered bays.
Where the waves had full action on it, it either was
washed away during storms, or never found at all. The
great lakes are never frozen over. I do not deny that
the reason given by scientific men, the great depth of
the water, is the true one, but I want evidence of it.

It is sad ; but I often find myself doubtful of the
accuracy of much that is called science. It is quite
likely that I am sinning myself as a writer, that I am
provoking punishment by presuming to differ from
" established opinions." Well, I must die in the breach.
I never turn back until I am quite convinced. I do not
say that I think that many of the theories and doctrines
of the modern naturalist and scientist are mere delusions
of fantastic brains. / know it. That goes miles beyond
thinking.

To get back to the ice. A depth of eight hundred
feet may be the reason that Lake Superior never freezes.

SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 325

I think (and I do no more) that the extreme restlessness
of its waters may have something to do with the fact
that there is never more than a narrow fringe of ice on its
margin. All the Great Lakes — that is, Superior, Huron,
Michigan, Erie, and Ontario — are extremely restless bodies
of water. I doubt if some part of their surface, more or
less, is ever free from tempest in some degree, in the
winter season especially. It is certain that a motionless
body of water will freeze much more readily than that
which is agitated. The great lakes farther north, the
Slave Lake, Bear Lake, &c., freeze entirely in the winter;
but I know nothing of them, whether their waters are
deep or shallow, though I think I have heard that they
are of no great depth. I have certainly heard from
trappers that they are not so subject to storms in sum-
mer as Superior and its companions. But the Great
Bear Lake and other northern sheets of water are,
nevertheless, subject to very fierce and dangerous storms.
Continuing our canoe voyage still farther east, past the
Organ and the Cathedral Rocks, which resemble the objects
after which they are named just as much, and no more,
than a thousand other rocks in the neighbourhood, Ave
come to the Ghost, a most striking representation of a
human figure clothed in a long flowing garment, the
hand appearing to point outwards, the lower part of the
face enveloped in a bandage, but the eye and nose visible.
Though this figure is of a yellow colour, it looks from a
distance, when the sunlight is strong upon it, as if it were
enveloped in a phosphorescent light, and the whole object
seemed to me to be one of the most notable on this line
of coast. Nine or ten miles farther on we came to the
Chapel, another cave, not situated at the surface of the
water, but between forty and fifty feet above it. It is reached
by a rugged climb among broken rocks, trailing creepers
and brambles, and sapling trees, which find just enough
soil to support them, but when they grow to any size
lose their roothold, and tumble into the lake beneath.

326 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

The cave has just the same rough, broken appear-
ance which is remarked at Le Portail. Rugged rocks
and huge stones project from the sides and hang from
the roof; and to two of these masses are given the
names of the Altar and the Pulpit. The gulls breed
in this cave, and the bottom was covered with their
droppings ; but the Indians say that the place is begin-
ning to be so frequently visited by holiday-makers from
Marquette, Munesing, and other places, that the birds
are forsaking it. Most of them, however, breed before
boats can venture to navigate the lake. With the ex-
ception of gulls, I saw no birds about here.

There are a few smaller caves near the Chapel, and
some of the rocks look like the balustrades of a terrace,
surmounted by a forest growth of tall trees. There is a
rapid near the Chapel, coming over the rocks in a series
of short falls, beautifully overhung and half-hid with
foliage. The many cascades cannot be enumerated.
Only one or two of them can be dignified with the term,
falls. As I have said, there are no rivers of size empty-
ing into the lake on the south side ; and the rivulets and
brooks, which are shallow, all rush over the cliffs in
babbling cascades, which, though sometimes falling more
than a hundred feet, are mere ribbons of water. Superior
is completely surrounded with a wall of cliffs and moun-
tains ; and is, I am convinced, now some two hundred
feet shallower than it was a few thousand years ago.
For I am convinced that at no great distance of time the
surface of the water was level with the present tops of
the cliffs. My opinion also is that the waters of all the
Great Lakes are slowly, but most surely, decreasing in
depth, though, as there is deep water close inshore, there
is but small perceptible contraction of area as yet.

The Indians look at Chapel Cave with superstitious
fear. It is, they say, the residence of an evil manitou, or
spirit, and my paddle-men would not enter it with me.
They crossed themselves and told their beads while I was

SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 327

examining it ; for they were Roman converts. The spirit
of Father Marquette, whom I beheve to have been a
good man, lives all over the lake ; and hundreds of the
few Indians that still remain on its shores revere his
memory, and are ardent Catholics. There are several
other places on the lake, mostly caves and dangerous
headlands, that are accredited with bad manitous, who
raise the storms and cast the poor fishermen and sailors
away. The whole coast hereabout, and for many miles
east and west, is a most dangerous one. The craft that
is caught with a gale blowing inshore (and it is sure to
blow inshore in seven cases out of ten) is lost ; for there
is no landing-place when a thundering surf is beating
right on to the rocks. The lake navigators therefore
give the Picture Rocks a wide berth : the reason that a
great part of this coast is nearly, or quite, a terra incog-
nita. That is, it was thirty years ago.

Not much farther on are the Silver Falls, the largest,
I believe, on the lake. They drop, in an unbroken line,
a distance of about one hundred and eighty feet. This
height alone makes the fall an imposing one ; but the
volume of water is not great, especially in the middle of
summer, when many of the smaller cascades dry up
altogether. The Silver Fall rushes out above from a
dense forest, and some of the rocks overhang in a threat-
ening way. All along this coast, and, indeed, every part
of the borders of Superior, the rocks are mostly bare of
vegetation. Often there is forest on the top, even over-
hanging the cliffs on the south side ; but, on the face of
the rocks, a clump of bushes, an odd tree or two, perhaps
a mass of creepers or clinging festoons of moss, is the
only vegetation I observed on those parts I visited.

At Chapel Cave, Silver Falls, and other points, there
is what is called " a beach." It is only a few feet wide,
but afifords a convenient landing-place. At such points
there are also huge masses of sunken rocks lying at
the bases of the cliffs, and other rocks show above the

328 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

surface of the lake ; but there is deep water close in-
shore. Fish abound here, as in every other part of the
lake, notwithstanding the enormous numbers that are
caught ; and many wrecks, and a lamentable loss of life,
annually occur at this point during the fishing season.

A great number of the cliffs show the outline of the
human form, both male and female. Those which struck
me as being most happily named, were. The Trapper,
The Voyageur, The Rifleman (a remarkable presentment
of a hunter taking aim). The Belle, The Sleeping Beauty,
and The Empress. All these well represented the figures
they were named after ; the females especially were charm-
ing presentments of beauty. The Empress has a coronet
formed of trees ; but, in each case, a near approach
dispels the illusions their forms occasion at a distance.

The Picture Rocks were the most eastwardly part of
the south coast that I visited. There are but few islands
above the size of rocks lying off the Pictures ; the biggest
of them being miscalled Great Island. There are a dozen
islands in the lake that exceed it in size, one or two of
them having twenty times its area. Seventy or eighty
per cent, of the names of places on the lake are French,
having been bestowed by the voyageurs, who were the
first white men to navigate its waters. In the winter all
navigation has to cease, at least by sailing craft and boats,
on account of the quantity of floating ice, as well as the
impossibility of approaching the shore, in most places, on
account of the frozen field. Returning to Marquette, I
continued my exploration westward during the winter,
with some intervals when the weather was too severe to
permit travelling.

Marquette harbour is a picturesque spot, but not
more so than Munesing, and both are, no doubt, destined
to be greatly disfigured by the useful, but beauty mur-
dering, works of man. At the first-named place these
have already made sad havoc with the natural scenery.
Most persons can realise what " mining-works " mean to

SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 329

scenery ; and wharves are certainly no improvement to
rocks. At both Marquette and Munesing there are strips
of beach, with forest-clad hills overlooking it. At Munes-
ing the forest comes down to the water's edge, and here
the water is comparatively shallow. The few inhabitants
who still remain here are mostly engaged in fishing — the
principal fish, as in all the lakes, being bass, lake trout,
and the celebrated white fish. These are cured and sent
to all parts of Canada and the States.

Eleven or twelve miles from Marquette, and fully in
view from all parts of the district, is the Iron Mountain,
which the Marquette miners declare to contain the richest
iron ore in the world. It may be so ; it is certainly im-
mensely rich in the most useful of all the metals ; and
huge quantities of it are yearly shipped to the great
manufacturing centres of the States. At least three
hundred small vessels (1869) arrive here every summer
to carry cargoes of ore to Cleveland, Ohio, whence it is
sent by land carriage to various places of manufacture.
Now, in December 1902, it is announced that orders
have been placed with British shipbuilders for three
steamers, of between 3000 and 4000 tons each, for the
Great Lakes trade. It is mostly iron ore that goes from
Marquette, but the whole district abounds in several
metals, in a profusion that I can quite believe, as is
asserted here, is unknown in any other part of the world.
In Marquette harbour there is a small island of the same
formation as Iron Mountain. Some specimens, which I
afterwards brought to England, from the rocks of this
island were pronounced by a Dudley ironmaster to be
nearly pure metal; while some samples of copper ore
were declared to contain more than 90 per cent, metal.
This copper was obtained on the peninsula of Keweenaw,
about a hundred miles west of Marquette.

Keweenaw, as it is pronounced, is spelled in old
maps Kioueounan. It is a Huron Indian word, and
means a short cut or passage ; so named because the

330 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

Indian hunters used to pass across the base of the penin-
sula where the Kioueounan Lake (the Portage Lake of the
voyageurs), enabled them to save two days' canoe journey-
ing in coasting along the south of Superior. Kioueounan,
or Keweenaw, is a solid mass of copper ore, and could,
I should think, supply the whole world, even on a waste-
ful scale, for tens of thousands of years to come. Much
of the peninsula, which is, roughly, ninety miles long by
more than a hundred broad, seems to be nearly pure
copper, judging from the specimens which I brought
away, and the reports of the miners. If the accounts of
the latter are to be relied on, masses of pure copper have
been found containing six or seven hundred tons' weight.
I saw, myself, great jagged masses peeping through the
soil, which seemed to be pure copper, but which, as I
have mentioned, prove to contain about one-tenth of
dross.

Keweenaw has been frequented for copper by the
Red Men from time immemorial. Many vestiges of their
old mines still remain, and they came from immense
distances to obtain the metal for making knives, heads
to their spears, and a hundred different purposes. They,
of course, worked only the masses which they found at
the surface of the ground, but the traces of ancient
smelting works of rude construction still remain, showing
that the Indians had probably arrived at some degree of
skill in working the metal. Yet the peninsula was a
place of superstitious dread to them, as they believed it,
like innumerable other points round the lakes, to be the
haunt of an evil spirit. The Indians who resided nearest
to the peninsula were a tribe of Chippeways, while on the
opposite coast were Iroquois, a fierce and quarrelsome
race, and so many different tribes coming for copper,
it naturally came to pass that fierce fights took place
frequently, and perhaps this had something to do with
the superstitious dread in which Keweenaw was held
by all the Red Men. Certainly none ever permanently

SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 331

inhabited the peninsula, and there are traditions of
thousands having been massacred on the coasts near it.
These things are never forgotten among the Red Men,
and the account of them is handed down by tradition
from generation to generation. The medicine men
are the particular custodians of tribal tradition, and
their traditions, I have proved, are quite as reliable as
the white man's histories ; perhaps a little more so
sometimes.

Portage Lake is not the only body of water on
Keweenaw Point. There are several other lakes and
ponds, notwithstanding that the land is hilly and drained
by a great number of brooks and runnels. Several of
them are enchantingly beautiful : so much so that one
has actually been named by the voyageurs the Beautiful
Lake. Unfortunately I could not spare sufficient time
to thoroughly explore either lakes or peninsula, and so
cannot give that minute description of either that I
should like to : neither was my visit paid at a time of
the year favourable to a sight of the full enchantment
of the spot. Most of these small lakes are embosomed
amidst grandly wooded hills, and are very irregular in
shape, having many winding arms, which adds greatly to
their picturesqueness.

The coastline of Keweenaw is, generally, rocky,
rising into abrupt hills several hundred feet high, enclos-
ing fairy-like coves, many of which afforded safe hiding-
places to Indian canoes in former perilous times. In
some places the rocks are pierced with caves, but none
of these, though some were rugged and picturesque, were
of great size, or otherwise remarkable. As there was ice
on the water at the time of my visit, I could walk into
some of the caves on it, and so explore them. There
were also arches, or perforated rocks, but only on a small
scale, and these were not at all to be compared to some
of those on the sea- coast of America.

Moving westward the cliffs were not so remarkable, and

332 THE GREAT NORTH-AVEST

were oftener broken by beach spaces, while the country
inhxnd rapidly grew more mountainous. I cannot, how-
ever, say much of the country, except on the immediate
edge of the lake; for time pressed, and much of my
journey on this occasion was a mere scamper over the
ground. I could only stop to examine some of the more
interesting objects. Contenting myself therefore with a
distant view of the Porcupine Mountains, I hurried on to
the Twelve Apostles, as a group of beautiful islands in
the south-western corner of the lake are called. I do
not know when, or by whom, this name was conferred
upon them, but they are so named on maps which are
two hundred years old, so they must have borne it
from the date of their discovery; for Lake Superior
was almost unknown two hundred years ago. At the
time of my visit, half the coastline was still imperfectly
charted, and the other half to a great extent inaccurately
so. The Apostles are in duplicate here; for there are
twenty-four islands, without reckoning a number of
rocks.

The Apostles were the headquarters of the Father
Marquette mission, and to this day there is a Roman
Catholic church and school on St. Madeline. The
Roman Catholics have always met with great support
from the Indians ; all of whom, in this district, profess
to belong to that body. This is the more remarkable as
Protestant missionaries have met with but very little
success in their endeavours to make converts of the Red
Men. The Indians throughout the northern half of the
continent, as a rule, reject Christianity with disdain and
unanswerable argument, not seeming to be able to com-
prehend the mystery and regenerating influence of faith.

The Apostles are also the headquarters of the renmants
of the Indian tribes, mostly Chippeways, and the United
States Government maintain an Indian agency on the
shore immediately opposite, at the township of Bayfield.
This agency is similar to those established in Canada,

SOUTHERN SHORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR 333

and the Indians receive an annual gratuity of blankets,
ammunition, flour, &e., and their welfare, and protection
generally, are supposed to be looked after, but I have
reason to believe that a great deal of peculation is com-
mitted by the officials in charge of the agency. That
offence, however, is one common to every department of
the American Government,

This is about all of interest that I have to relate
of the southern shore of Lake Superior. A few words
descriptive of the north shore I give in another chapter,
as this has been spun out to an unusual length. On the
whole the coastline of the lake more resembles the
shore of a sea than that of a body of fresh water, and,
indeed, the Americans frequently speak of the Great
Lakes as inland seas.

I have deferred to the end of this chapter the few
remarks I wish to make concerning the natural history
of the south coast, as it is more convenient to say, once
for all, that every bird mentioned in an early chapter,
when I made my first journey on these lakes, was found
here, and also many of the ducks, geese, grouse, &c.,
spoken of as being common in the Red River (or
Manitoba) region. Small birds there were none seen
until the early spring, when the first of the migrants
began to return to their summer haunts, but I left
Marquette too soon to permit me to pay much attention
to them. I observed nothing to call for notice, those
few species I saw being the same as those found in other
parts of the lake district. The pine grosbeak and the
Lapland bunting (see Index) being among the earliest
arrivals, the first being seen March 28, the latter
April 4.

Among water birds on the lake there was a grebe not
seen on the north side. I did not get this bird satis-
factorily identified ; but it appeared to be the horned
grebe of the Americans, Colymhus auritns. I was shown
some egg-shells which were said to be those of this bird.

334 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

They were of a pale grey colour (not white as grebe's
eggs are said to be), and with both ends the same shape ;
that is, they much resembled heron's eggs.

Among the gulls collected I shot a long-tailed skua,
Stercorarius parasiticus. It was one of a small flock ; but
I cannot say whether or not this bird is an habitual fre-
quenter of the lake. I have no record of its having been
seen on the north shore.

There are a number of small crustaceans in the waters
of the lake, but here again I can give no clear descrip-
tion of species. I caught a shrimp, or prawn, exceeding
an inch in length, on the north shore, but it being winter
when I examined the south, animals of this class were
probably buried in the sand. None were seen. The
shells of many small molluscs were found on all the
shores, and the class of water-snails is evidently well re-
presented, though of the species I can say nothing.

The lake is very free of weeds and aquatic plants,
perhaps because there is not much shallow water ; but in
places the sandy mud was covered with them. These
spots seemed to be more abundant on the north than on
the south side. In places free of other growths I could
see what seemed to be a fresh-water sponge ; the little
masses, of a dark colour, varied in size from that of a fist
to that of a marble. They were growing in depths which
I found to be thirty to a hundred feet. Beyond that
depth I could not see objects distinctly.

CHAPTER XXVII

THE NORTH SHORE OF LAKE SUPERIOR

I HAVE already said sometliing of the northern part of
Lake Superior. To make my account of the lake as
complete as possible I add some more particulars gathered
on different occasions, previously, or subsequent, to my
visit to Marquette.

The lake is full of islands, the four largest of which
are Royal, Maurepas, Pontchartrain, and Pheltpaux. All,
large and small, appear to be very beautiful spots of earth,
but as I have only landed on a few of the smallest I can-
not give a description of them. Many of them present a
striking contrast to the rocky shores, having low beaches
with grass as green as that of English meadows, a sight
not to be seen every day in the northern part of the
continent, where the plains are often covered with a
coarse, reedy grass, of a brown or dingy colour. Isle
Royal and Pheltpaux, which I have coasted, appear to be
quite thirty miles long and fifteen broad. I saw several
Indian encampments on the shores, but otherwise they
appear to be uninhabited. There was, however, a deserted
lighthouse on Isle Royal ; and to my intense surprise I
afterwards learned that this island, which is close to the
British side of the lake, is claimed by the United States,
and forms part of Michigan !

The north shore of Superior is considered by
Americans to commence at the St. Louis River, which
enters the lake at its extreme western corner. It is not
nearly so well known as the south coast, though not a
fourth of the latter had been even cursorily explored at

336 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

this time. I do not think I shall be going too far if I say
that six-sevenths of the north line of the lake was known
only to trappers and voyageurs, and, of course, Indians.
Many spots have no record of ever having been visited by
a white man, and others, well known to the voyageurs and
other children of the wilds, have never had their names
jotted on a map.

Commencing at the town of Superior, at the mouth
of the St. Louis, formerly, I believe, called Duluth, after
a voyageur who established himself here (I am writing
this from remembrance — all the guide I have), the coast-
line is of the boldest character to be found on the lake.
I may add that my acquaintance with this part is not
complete. I know but certain spots, as I made a some-
what hurried canoe voyage along this part.

The Great Palisade is the first striking object. It is
a projecting headland almost detached from the shore,
and was, I should think, when the lake was fuller, a
mighty rock standing out of the water, completely isolated
from the shore. This is the appearance it has viewed
from a canoe; but I had not the opportunity to land
here. It is nine hundred or a thousand feet high, and
crowned with trees ; but the rock is columnar, and of a
bright red colour, encrusted with a kind of crystal which
causes it to sparkle in the bright sunlight in a way that
is sometimes painfully dazzling to the eye. I was at
first, on account of its remarkable formation, inclined to
think it a kind of basalt ; as a matter of fact I was not
geologist enough to satisfactorily fix the actual formation,
but I have heard it stated to be a kind of porphyritic
greenstone. The same formation extends for a great
distance ; in fact, with intervals, where other rocks in-
trude, it may possibly extend right round the lake.

Continuing a north-eastward course, wonder follows
on wonder and beauty crowds on beauty so fast that the
eye becomes confused and fails to note the multitude of
objects that deserve attention. Even at this day — thirty

NORTH SHORE OF LAKE SUPERIOR 337

years and more since that of which I am writing — the
marvels of Superior are but little known to civilised man ;
and there are vast tracts of both the lake and the adjoin-
ing country that are wholly unexplored. At this time
those tracts were far more numerous and extensive than
they are at the present day, but Lake Superior lies wide
of all established routes, and is a troublesome spot to
reach from any of the great cities of either Canada or the
States. Were it otherwise, it would undoubtedly be far
more frequently visited by travellers for pleasure.

For many miles beyond the Palisade the coast is ex-
ceedingly rugged and broken, rendered enchanting by
patches of beautiful forest trees clinging to the rocks, and
sometimes coming quite down to the water's edge. Con-
sidering the latitude, and the nature of the country, I
expected to see a far greater profusion of firs and pines.
These trees were often conspicuous by their entire absence.
The great majority of the trees were of broad-leaved
species, sometimes intermingled with firs, and occasionally
the latter held the sway. It is unusual for the two classes
of trees to be much mixed together in American forests.
Even among broad-leaved kinds, one species generally
predominates, ousting and destroying all others.

Here and there torrents rush furiously through
channels in the rocks. Sometimes vistas are obtainable
up these channels, showing a long series of bounding
cataracts, overhung, or entirely arched, by splendid trees ;
and not infrequently huge uprooted trees are whirled
down into the lake. These become a floating danger, and
have been the cause of disaster to small craft when run
foul of in the dark. The largest cascade in this part is that
formed by Beaver River, which, especially in winter, throws
a considerable body of water into the lake. There is a
recess here called Beaver Bay, which is one of the safest
harbours of refuge on all the shores of Superior.

I have already said that no considerable river
empties itself into Superior. The rivers scarcely deserve

Y

338 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

to be considered as more than brooks, or, at most, rivulets,
and I do not know of one of them that can be navigated
from the lake, even by so shallow draft a craft as a canoe.
They one and all, as far as I know, enter the lake as
falls or fierce rapids. I am, of course, exempting from
this description the rivers at Fort William, already
described, and the channels which connect the great
lakes. These latter are scarcely correctly described
as rivers. They are simply straits joining the various
lakes. The Alemipigon River, also, leading to the
lake of the same name, can be navigated by canoes.
This lake has been made a great mystery of in the
past, and its size greatly exaggerated. Thirty years ago
even its correct name was not known to the Canadian
Government, if it is now — a matter on which I presume
to have my doubts. It seems to be officially known as
Nipigon or Neepigon ; the Indians, who, I think, should
know best, pronounce it Al-e'-mip'-i-gon, which means
the " lake of the m5Tiad rocks."

I thought Alemipigon to be about fifty by forty
miles in area; but a Government survey made since I
visited it gives the dimensions as seventy miles long by
fifty broad, a size that alone would make it a remarkable
natural object in any country, but this is the native land
of great lakes. It has bold rocky shores like Superior,
and is crowded with rocky islets. It will, some day, be
the centre of great mining operations ; for silver abounds
in every rock, and the copper ore is perhaps as rich as
that of the Kioueounan peninsula on the south side of
Superior, while, for scenery, it can hold its own with any
lake of this vast region. Alemipigon is about thirty-five
miles, as the crow flies, from the most northerly shore of
Superior.

Continuing along the coast of Superior, the next
point of interest is Pigeon River, which is the boundary
between the United States and the British possessions,
and is remarkable for but little else. Continuing, we

NORTH SHORE OF LAKE SUPERIOR 339

soon come to the three rivers and Fort WilHam, already
described, and immediately afterward to Thunder Bay
only cursorily noticed. Thunder Cape is held in extreme
awe by the Indians, and they do not care to paddle too
near it. When I mention that it is but a few feet short
of fourteen hundred in height, or nearly three times that
of Beachy Head, rising a sheer cliff from the water, it
will easily be comprehended what an imposing sight it
presents to the traveller passing below in his frail
bark canoe. The formation of the rock is undoubtedly
basaltic, and according to my measurements about here is
the deepest part of the lake. It is from this majestic
cliff, or rather mountain, that the furious storm-demon
hurls his blasts across the lake — so say the Indians ; and
they never pass near it without making offerings to pro-
pitiate the good-will of this uncertain-tempered, irascible
manitou.

Red is the prevailing tint of the rocks in the neigh-
bourhood of Thunder Cape, and many of the cliffs have
irregular masses of detached, or semi-detached rocks at
their bases. As we proceed, hundreds of cascades are
seen leaping over the rocks, many of them dyed, by the
soil over which the streams have run, the colour of claret
or port-wine ; others looking like muddy, discoloured
blood. These cliffs abound in several metals, of which,
so far as is yet known, copper and silver are the most
valuable. The latter metal has been extensively worked,
especially at Silver Island off this coast, which is simply
a solid mass of the precious ore, said, by the miners, to
be yielding a thousand pounds' worth of silver to every
ton. No wonder the island is guarded with jealous care
and every precaution taken to prevent waste by the
restless waters chafing its shores.

Of the multitudinous small islands of this lake the
greater number have no name, and others only the
vernacular names of the Indians and voyageurs. Others
again have no certain name ; some have map names not

340 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

recognised by the few men who visit or pass them, and
some bearing a different name from every canoe-crew
which ghdes by. Most of them are rocky, many rising
in abrupt cliffs sheer from the water, and the action of
the waves is very perceptible on some of them. They
are gradually disappearing, though often there is five
or six hundred feet of water ten or twelve yards from the
shore. On several of these islands I found great caves
into which it was possible to paddle the canoe, though
this was sometimes dangerous, as the waves came in
with a rather strong wash, causing strange and mournful
sounds, which are a source of superstitious terror to the
Indians. There were also rocks just awash, or looming
close up to the surface, and these had to be carefully
watched for, as the canoe is a craft which is soon upset
or pierced by a sharp projection. In some of the caves,
however, I found, on heaving the lead, more than four
hundred feet of water. Most of the islands had trees
upon them, some being quite covered with forest growth.
Rocks of only a few square yards surface would yet
support a tree or two.

Other of the islands were perforated by the action of
the waves, forming natural arches such as are found on
most rocky coasts, and all these islands, if inaccessible,
and especially those with caves, were frequented by the
gulls for the purposes of breeding. Some of the rocks
were white, as if covered with snow, from the dung of
the multitude of birds which frequented them. There
were also purple martins breeding in the caves, their
nests being far out of reach, and only just discernible in
the faint light which reached the interior.

In order to check my account of this important lake
and make it as correct as possible (though it is to be
understood that throughout the book, as in this parti-
cular place, I state no fact at second hand, and it is
my own observations, or actual gleanings only that are
recorded), I have been looking up the remarks of other

I

NORTH SHORE OF LAKE SUPERIOR 341

observers. So far as I can discover there is very little
recorded of Superior, and some of that little does not
quite agree with my experience. For instance, an
American writer says that the navigation of Superior
is not so dangerous as that of the other great lakes, and
says that there is more " sea-room " here than in the
other lakes. I can say, from my own experience, that
this is not correct. Superior is certainly by far the
largest of the five great lakes, but its larger islands are
so placed that there is less actual sea-room, as under-
stood by sailors, than in either Michigan or Hm-on. As
to storms, they are as violent, but I think not more so,
as in any of the other lakes : that they are more fre-
quent I am sure. As I have already said, I do not
think that dangerous gales are ever absent, in winter
time, from some part of the lake.

The northern, or British, shore of Superior is more
elevated, on the whole, than the southern, and not
inferior to it in beauty and grandeur. Thunder Cape is
not the only point which rises to an elevation exceeding
a thousand feet, while cliffs and hills of several hundred
feet in height are very numerous. The bays, or harbours,
are not numerous. Nipigon Bay (or Alemipigon, as it
should be called), or the Bay of Clear Waters, as the
Indians name it, is about 500 square miles in extent,
and as it is full of small islands it affords excellent shelter
from winds from every quarter.

The country inland is almost invariably written of as
a desert. I know less of the country to the north-west
than of other parts of the district — too little to venture
on a description of it. I can only say, briefly, that it is
not a forest region, has a barren aspect* for many miles in
some places ; in others is remarkable for the numbers of
shallow reedy ponds, which swarm with swans, geese, and
ducks, and on the whole may be described as a rough,
broken, and often rocky prairie. I doubt strongly that it
is such a desert region as some represent it. On the

342 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

immediate borders of Lake Superior there is a sufficient
groAvth of trees to make the scenery thoroughly pictur-
esque.

The hour has come in which I must lay down my
pen. I do so with regret, as this is probably the last of
my books on America. Though I could say something
on Mexico and other parts of the north not referred to
here, or in my first volume, my remaining notes could
scarcely be extended to form yet another work. From
what I have recorded in my three volumes, the reader
will learn that I have been a very great wanderer. This,
my last book, contains my first experiences in point of
time ; and, after the travels here recorded, I went south
to Tennessee, and commenced my business as a peddler,
or " boss of a prairie schooner," and perhaps it will be of
some interest if I give a few particulars of the business of
peddling in the States in a final chapter.

But let me write a caution. The palmy days
of peddling are over for ever. As the country is
opened up, tJie character of the trade completely
changes, and the facility for obtaining goods of all
kinds is such that there is now no chance of making
three or four hundred per cent, on a " cargo of notions,"
while the gentlemen with the wooden nutmegs have long
since ceased to be in it.

CHAPTER XXVIII

PEDDLING IN THE UNITED STATES

The word peddler is one of those which Yankees misuse
and abuse. It is applied to any person who hawks goods
in any way or form, and not restricted to a travelling
foot-trader, as it should be. A Yankee talks of peddler
and peddling, where an Englishman would say a hawker,
and hawking. The word peddling is but Httle used in
England, while hawking is rarely spoken of in the States.
The peddler in both countries is rapidly dying out.
Railways and quick transition have made it no longer
profitable for a man to wander from place to place with
a small quantity of goods. The prairie schooner, how-
ever, is not yet a thing of the past, and will not be for
years to come, though the expense of running one is
great. A prairie schooner is a waggon furnished with all
sorts of stores likely to be required in outlying stations
and farms, such as medicines, tea, coftee, sugar, medica-
ments for marking sheep, cattle washes, and unguents,
tin and iron ware, cutlery, gunpowder and shot, cartridges,
firearms, all sorts of drapery and wearing apparel, pins,
needles, threads, &c., &c., in a word, any and everything
that there is a demand for in a household. But the
articles which I have pui-posely enumerated were those
that I had the greatest call for, and therefore those that
formed the bulk of my stock. The stock of a prairie
schooner is always spoken of as " a cargo of notions,"
because most traders carry, on speculation, a large number
of articles of doubtful utiHty, on the chance of doing a
brisk trade at a large profit, a chance that seldom failed.

344 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

For instance, I knew a fellow who took into the wilder-
ness a large stock of Birmingham toys, specially brought
out for him, and smuggled into the country. The total
cost to him, as he himself told nie, was under seven
dollars a gross, but he sold them like wild-fire for a
dollar per trinket, and in three days got rid of his entire
stock of a hundred gross. That means that for an outlay
of 700 dollars he made 13,700 dollars clear profit. His
customers for these articles were nearly entirely cow-
boys and women, and the mischief he made can never be
known, for many of these silly fools spent large sums on
this trash, hoping to make a profit in turn among their

acquaintances, for they swallowed all G said about

the value of the articles. By-and-by there were angry
husbands and fathers, furious at the waste of dollars by
their female kind, and the next time I went that round

many were the inquiries by irate cowboys after G .

It was a Yankee peddler who invented the painted
wooden nutmegs, now forgotten, but which caused a great
commotion in the Eastern States at the beginning of the
century just closed. He sold thousands of them at
twentj^-five cents apiece, wandering from district to district,
and always carefully changing his quarters as soon as he
had done a good trade ; but I might write chapter after
chapter narrating the trickery of these rogues, who were
exceptions of their class. For the genuine peddler was a
man much looked and longed for, as will easily be realised
when it is remembered that thirty or forty years ago
many of his customers could not visit a store (shop) of
the meanest class without riding a hundred miles or
more. Such journeys were often taken, even by women,
for the purpose of shopping, so the visit of a genuine
prairie schooner to an outlying ranch or farm was an
event that the news of spread over the adjacent country
with simply marvellous rapidity. "P. F. is at Smith's
ranch. Have you heard the news ? " must have flown
over the country with almost the rapidity of a telegraph.

PEDDLING IN THE UNITED STATES 345

for next day there would be cowboys and farmers ridino-
in from fifty miles around, and even from such articles as
I carried I would sometimes make more than a thousand
dollars in a day's sales. This may seem a large sum to
take in so short a time, but it is to be remembered that
there is five or six days' travelling for one of trading, and
that the expenses are heavy. I always had at least two
men to assist me, and ten or twelve horses and mules ;
and though the latter sometimes picked up a good deal
of forage at the camping place, they had to be kept in
good condition to enable them to perform their heavy
work, often dragging eight or ten tons over trackless
wildernesses.

My headquarters, in the latter part of my career, was
at Memphis, on the lower Mississippi, but often the
round of trading calls I made extended to quite a
thousand miles, which distance, including stoppages,
generally occupied a little more than four months in
performing.

During these wanderings I led a very regular life,
inconsistent as that may seem with, I had nearly written,
perpetual motion. But the waggon was really my home.
I had everything fitted for my comfort as far as that
could be done in such a very limited space, and though,
I must confess, rather cramped till the sale of the greater
part of the goods made room, I contrived to eat, sleep,
and follow my favourite occupations of reading and
writing quite as freely and comfortably as I ever did
in lodgings.

Of course the waggon and its contents were of con-
siderable value, and, naturally enough, might have been
thought to offer a great temptation to dishonest wanderers
or roving Indians, of which there were not a few lurking
about the wilds when I first commenced this life ; but, as
I have already said several times, I never suffered a disaster
of this kind, though, looking back at the many risks I ran,
I wonder that I came oft' so well. The danger was often

346 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

great, but from the first I never was troubled with any
fears on this account, nor went out of my way to avoid it.
The Indians I contrived to overawe ; the whites never at-
tempted to do me harm when on my ordinary travels.

Most men engaged in this peddling trade, if well
enough off to own a waggon, carry a large quantity of
whisky and rum with them, off which they make a great
profit. For the rough cowboys and ranchmen will give
anything that they possess to obtain the horrible spirit
that such traders carry, and which deserves not the name
of whisky. So infatuated with strong drink are these
miserable men that the most abominable concoctions are
often sold to them without raising a protest, and double
and treble the price of good spirit charged. If they are
in possession of money, they will have drink at any price,
and without regard to quality. Personally, I have an
objection to selling drink, though, as the reader knows by
this time, anything but a teetotal fanatic, and I never
carried whisky with me except for my own use ; yet the
quality of my brand was so well known that, over and
over again, the rogues of cowboys would pilfer from my
waggon all that they could find. Often, however, I would
afterwards receive compensation in some form from the
marauders.

Payment for goods sold was made in a great variety
of ways — by cheques and bills on bankers and merchants,
by note, and largely in kind, but very seldom in hard cash.
There was very little gold or silver in circulation in the
wilds ; but many of the outlying farmers and ranchmen
were rich men, and I would often part with coin to them
at a small discount, taking bills in exchange. This was
an advantage to both parties, the coin being much needed
for circulation among themselves and their servants, and
being a source of danger to me; for if by chance I had
been " stuck up " by Indians or other thieves the money
would have been irretrievably lost, but the paper would
be absolutely useless to them, not being payable at sight.

PEDDLING IN THE UNITED STATES 347

Indeed, Indians will not touch paper money. From some
cause, probably through some of them having been brought
to justice through attempting to pass paper, they have
an amusing awe of any kind of bill or note. They will
not accept it in payment for anything they have for sale,
and if they find it in the possession of any traveller they
are plundering they will drop it like a hot brick. I do
not know if superstition has anything to do with this
trait, but probably it has ; for I call to mind three cases
of robbery and murder committed by them in which paper
money was concerned. In two instances they had killed
the men and left notes to a large amount on the ground
beside the corpses, pegging them down to prevent the
wind scattering them; in the other, fortunately for the
victim, they proceeded to plunder him before slaying and
scalping him. Finding a small bundle of notes, they
hastily thrust them into his hand, and rode off* in evident
trepidation, not even taking his arms from him. There
must have been superstition in the last case, at least,
otherwise they would certainly not have abandoned a
scalp, an article quite as precious as gold to an Apache.

Very large fortunes have been made by peddlers in
the United States — that is, by the class who run waggons.
But even foot-peddlers, men with no more stock than they
could carry on their back or across their shoulders, often
did fairly well for their class — that is, they made
more money than they could have done as labourers
or mechanics.

The expense of a waggon and team of horses is, of
course, great; but my plan was to sell the horses or
mules when winter set m and travelling was no longer
safe or possible. Some peddlers harness a team of oxen
to their waggons, but I found mules the best and cheapest
of any draught cattle. Occasionally I have met peddlers
who travelled with a one-horse van or cart, but these men
never took long journeys, and generally dealt in one or
two kinds of goods only. Sometimes a peddler would

348 THE GREAT NORTH-WEST

have a partner ; and I knew one man who was proprietor
of nearly a dozen waggons which took different routes ;
and this man amassed a very large fortune, notwithstand-
ing that he was frequently robbed by his " deputy-bosses,"
who sometimes not only sold his goods but his horses and
wasfSfons as well, and skedaddled with the dollars. The
man I refer to was one of the meanest skinflints I ever
met, and used to cry and hoAvl aloud when he suffered
such a loss as that I have referred to ; yet he told me
himself that he was worth half a million dollars besides
the value of his stock and waggons. When he was nearly
sixty he married a very pretty girl of twenty, and a year
or two afterwards she obtained a divorce from him on the
ground of his meanness. This is really so, and the judge,
in pronouncing the decree, told the defendant that, though
he had plenty of money, " he wasn't worth a carrot." The
beauty and force of this simile need not be pointed out.

The defendant, or respondent as he would be called in
England, then went to live in a mean house, did his own
cooking — I cannot say blacked his own boots, for I do not
think they were ever subjected to that process at all — and
used to threaten any intruders near his door with a gun.
In this miserable way he lived for many years, and was
still alive when I last heard of him, being then over
eighty.

If this is all the happiness that is to be gleaned from
" a pile," I have no cause to reproach myself for having
made one and spent it. For I have at least seen much of
a most beautiful world, and enjoyed more days of unal-
loyed happiness than a certain class of moralists seem to
allow, on the average, to what they call " miserable man."

GLOSSARY

Name. Pronunciation. Meaning,

Abbitibbe, river ab-be'-tib'-by.

Alemipigon a'l-e'mip'-i-gon . . . Million islands.

Anticosti, island anti'-cos'-ti.

AssiNiBoiNE, river as-sin'-i-boi-ne'.

Cariboo, reindeer car'-i-boo'.

Chkkoutimiens, river .... check-oo'-tee-mee'-ens.

Chicago, city ^ she-cau'-go Roaring current.

Chojipel, Indian woman . . . tshom'-pel Sweet voice.

Chuckochilgegan, Indian . . tshuk'-o-tshil-ge-gan . . Cunning polecat.

Erie, lake ee'-ry.

Huron, lake hu'-ron.

Keckibecki, falls kek'-i-bek'-i .... Roaring demon.

Keweenaw, peninsula .... ke-wee'-naw.

Mal Baie, village mal'-ba' False bay.

Manitoba, district ma-nit'-o-bar'.

Manitoulin, island .... man-i-too'-lin .... Storm spirit.
Marquette, village, &c. . . . mar-ket'.

Michigan, lake mish'-i-gan.

Monchuapiganon, Indian . . mon'-clioo-a-pig'-a-non . Deep water.

Moose, deer moose (soft).

Natanyan, Indian nat'-ani-an'^ .... Slow creeper.

NiPissiNG, lake ne-piss'-ing.

Ohio, river and State .... o-hi'-o.

Otmasquiloton, Indian . . . ot-mas'-kwil-o-ton . . Young rogue.

Peerra, rivulet pe'-er-ra Lily brook.

Seauteaux, Indians .... so-to'-so-to' Leapers.

Tadoussac, village and bay . . ta-doo-sack'.

Temiscaming, lake Te-mis'-ca-miug'.

Wipiti, deer we-pee'-te.

1 Correct Indian sound is shak-a-kwau'.

2 No Indian word has sound of "y " as in "yacht," "year," &c.

349

INDEX

Abbitibbe River, 154
Abies canadensis, 29
Acadian owl, 144
jEgialitis semipalmata, 133
Albany River, 146
Alder tree, 221
Alemipigon Lake, 338
Ri%'er, 338
American apple, 289

„ English, 282-285
A "mill" in the backwoods, 186-

188
Anus boscas, 79

,, obscura, 79, 158
,, strepera, 79
Anticosti Island, 168
Apple-paring frolic, 210
Aquila chrysaetus, 145
Arctic fox, 38
Asio amcricanus, 145

,, ottis, 145
Assiniboine, 79
Avocet, 153

Backwoodsmen, 262

Badger, 39-40

Bass, 3

Bats, 152, 290

Bav of Clear Waters, 341

Bear, 97-100, 120, 138, 154, 158-

159, 168, 179
Bear and honey, 266
Beaver, 156-158
Beaver-meadows, 157, 214
Beaver Bay, 337
Beaver River, 337
Bee, wild, 263-268

,, hunting, 265
" Bee," husking, 205-209

,, spelling, 205
Beech woods, 215
Bernicla brenta, var., glaucogaster,

132
Bernicla canadensis^ 83, 132
Black cherry, 288

Block-house, 14
Blood-drinking, 35
Bonasa uvibellus, 52, 223
Boss, origin of the word, 209
Brent goose, 132
Brown bat, 290
Bull, the, 175
Bull-frogs, 223
"Burning off," 228-230^
Butcheries by Indians, 316

Calcarius lapponicus, 5
Canachites canadensis, 52, 223
Canadian goose, 132

,, independence, 17
,, partridge, 52
Canis lagopus, 38
Canoes, 64

,, north, 65
Canotcs de maitre, 64
Caprimulgus virginianus, 95
Cariboo, 45, 48, 119, 122
Castor, 157

Caverns on Superior, 323, 325
Cedar swamp, 221
Celibacy, 233
Cerasus depressa, 288

,, nigra, 288
Chekoutimiens River, 177
Chickaree, 146, 254
Chipmunk, 224-225
Chippy, 68
Chompel, 10
Chordeilcs virginianus, 95
Chrysomitris tristis, 105
Chuckochilgegan, 10
Cider-royal, 209
Cities and towns, terms, 314
Clangula islandica, 133
Cliffs at James Bay, 150
Clothes moth, 128
Colaptus auratus, 224
Coloured rocks, 322

waterfalls, 339
Golymbus auritus, 333

352

INDEX

Colymbus glacialis, 6
Colymous ylacialis, 6
Copper ore, 329-330
Curlew, 66
Cygnus buccinator, 82

Dafila acuta, 79, 158

Dead in the wilderness, 111, 115-116

Death of a tree, 182

Deer-shooting, 84, 45

Dendragopus canadensis, 52

Diminutive hay-ricks, 308

" Doctors" in the States, 299

Dogs, Indian, 160

Drawing lots, 44

Drum, historical, 281

Ducks, 79, 81, 132-133, 158

„ black, 158
Dunford, Mr., kindness of, 276

Eagle, golden, 145

,, white-headed, 145
Ectopistes migratoriut, 215
Eggs, birds', 6, 8, 23, 52, 68, 69,

133, 149, 217, 249, 334
Elderberry, 288
Emma, 10, 155, 163, 166
Empress rock, 328
Erethizon dorsatus, 191-192
Ermine, 103

Esquimaux whimbrel, 153
Extinction of game, 142-143

Falco candicans, 125

Fenian incidents, 273-275

Fiber zibethicus, 249

Fighting Jeamy M'CuUongh, 184,

188
Finnock, Mr., 168, 179
Fish, 3, 19
Fishing, 3, 20, 55
Fish-spearing, 55, 68
Fog, 25

Forest fires, 222, 228-230
Forests in Ohio, 220-223
Fort Alexander, 75

,, Frances, 73

,, Severn, 131

,, Stone, 80

„ William, 62

,, ,, modern, 65

Fox, 38-39, 301

,, varieties of, 38
Frame houses, 236
Frost, 25, 55, 117
Fulmar petrel, 149
Fulmarus glacialis, 149

Geese, 82

Ghost rock, 325

Glutton, 100-102, 120

Golden eagle, 145

Golden-winged woodpecker, 224

Goose creek, 176, 177

Grasshoppers, 276-279

Grease, deadly poison to flies, 70

Great Palisade, 336

Grebe, 333

Grosbeak, 68, 106

pine, 106, 123
„ rose-breasted, 106
Ground sparrows, 133
Guelle, Achil, 83

Gulf of St. Lawrence, 172,173, 176
Guillemots, rock, 148-149
Gulls, 66, 75, 86, 158
G%do luscus, 102
Gum berrv, 288
Guns and rifles, 27-28

Habia ludoviciana, 69, 106

Harelda glacialis, 133

Hares, 158

Hedymcles virginianus, 68, 106

Hemlock spruce, 29

Hibernation. 104, 120-121,255,258

Hogs at Chicago, 213-214

Hospitality, American, 56

French, 171
House spider, 127
Hudson Bay Company's policy, 90-

92
Hudson Bay Company's employees,

73
Hudson Bay, coast-line, 148
„ shores of, 132

Ice, 25, 55, 175, 176, 317, 324

Icicles, 40

Indian character, 21, 22

„ habits, 20, 21. 22, 24. 43, 47,

87, 106, 131, 160-161, 162
Indian companions, 10
Indians, Red, 11, 26, 315, 316, 326-

327, 330, 332, 339, 347^
Interior of a fort or depot, 89
Iron mountain, 329

,, ore, 329
Island of Anticosti, 168

„ in Superior, 335, 340
Ivory gull, 158

Jack River, 88
James Bay, 151
Judge with a black eye, 297

INDEX

353

Jumping-mouse, 257
Juniper bush, 221

Keweenaw peninsula, 229, 331
Kittiwake gull, 66, 149
Kittydads, 276-279, 288

Ladybirds, 127
Lake Abbitibbe, 162
,, Play-green, 93
,, Superior, cliff of , 319
„ „ coast-line, 333, 337

,, Temiscaming, 1
,, Winnipeg, 85
„ of the Woods, 74
Lapland bunting, 5, 114, 333
Larus argentatus, 149
,, glaucesccns, 158
,, canus, 66, 86
Lee, Mrs. Ann, 232
Lepus americanus, 28
„ campestris, 158
,, polarius, 158
Le Grande Portail, 323
Log-felling, 182-184
,, -floating, 177, 192, 193
,, -huts, 12, 13-17
Long-eared bat, 290
,, owl, 145

Long Jake, 261
Long-tailed skua, 334
Loon, 6

Lumberers' camp, 181
„ hovels, 178

Lutra canadensis, 105
Lynx, 163-165, 249

"Major" Shadley, 293-296, 309,

313
Mai Baie, 170
Marcca americana, 79
Marquette, 312, 318, 328
Marquette, Father, 315, 327
Marriage frolic, 279-282
Marten, 103, 225

,, fish, 104-105
Maternal love, 50
Meat, 46

Melospiza georgiana, 248
Mephitis mephitica, 250-253
Migration of birds, 8, 18, 25, 69

106, 114, 123-124, 289
Military titles and humour, 200-201
Mink, 102
Model farm, a, 235
" Moll Rowe in the Morning," 194
Monchuapiganon, 10

Money in the wilderness, 346
Montmorenci Falls, 168
Montreal, 167
Moose deer, 48-50, 141
, , yard, 42-43

Moose Factory, 150
Mosquitoes, 127
Mountain Fall, 66
Mus decumanus, 260

,, musculus, 260

,, rattus, 260
Muskinongi, 19-20
Musquash, 87-88, 249-150, 257
Mustela americana, 103

„ penanti, 104
Muzzle-loaders v. breech-loaders,

27-28

Navigation, canoe, 68

Lake, 61, 321, 341
Neighbourly kindness, 210-211
Nests, birds', 6, 8, 12, 13, 52, 68,

113, 287
New Lebanon, 232
Norway House, 88-89, 93
"Not worth a carrot," 348
Nwmenius borealis, 66, 153
Nyctala acadica, 144
Nyctea scandiaca, 124
Nyssa sylvatica, 288

Offensive odour of animals, 251
Old mare, anecdote of, 307
Osprey, 8
Ottawa River, 1
Otter, 105
Owls, 53

„ acadian, 144

,, great grey, 53, 144

,, long-eared, 145

,, saw-whet, 144

,, screech, 144

„ snowy, 54

Pagophila eburnea, 75, 158
Passenger-pigeon, 215-220

,, ,, disgraceful slaugh-

ter of, 217-218
Peerra, brook of, 139
Phalarope, grey, 153
Phenomenon, curious, 169
Pickerel, 2

Picture rocks, 319, 327
Pigeon River, 338
Pine grosbeak, 123, 126, 333
Pinicola enudcator, 106, 123, 333
Pintail duck, 79

354

INDEX

Plecotus iiiacrotis, 290
Plectrophenax nivalis, 123
Plover, 133, 153

„ Norfolk, 153
Polar bear, 154
Pond, Wolf, 2
Ponds in America, 1
Porcupine, 191-192
Portage Lake, 331
Prairie, Si

,, schooner, 343
Professional jargon, 134
Professor of Greek, a. 298
Progne purpurea, 13, 340
Ptarmigan, 51

Quebec, 169

"Rabbits," 158
Rat-Portage House, 74
Mecurvirostra amcricana, 158
Red River Settlement, 77
Red spruce, 29
Reedy ponds, 341
Regulus calendula, 106
Remarkable phenomenon, 126
Rifleman rock, 328
Rifles and guns, 27-28
River Abbitibbe, 154
River Ottawa, 1
Roads, Canadian, 170
Robin, American, 286-288

song of, 239
Ruby-crest, 106
Ruffed grouse, 52

Sabine's gull, 150
Saguenav River, 174, 179
Sail rock, 322

St. Catherine, village of, 174
Salt, 48
Salt-licks, 47
Sambucus canadensis, 288
Sand cherry, 288
Saw-whet owl, 144
Scared game, 141
Sciuroptcrus voluceUa, 258-259
Sciurus carolinensis, 254

,, hudsonianus, 146, 254
Scops asio, 145
Screech owl, 144
Severn River, 130
Shakers, 232-247
Shrew-mouse, 291
Shooting, deer, 34
Silver Falls, 327
„ -haired bat, 290

Silver island, 339

„ ore, 338
Silvery bat, 152
Skunk, 250-253, 300

„ malodour of, greatly exag-
gerated, 250
Sledge or sleigh ? 137, 169
Sleeping Beauty rock, 328
Smart trade, 344
Snow, 25, 57

„ bunting, 54, 123, 191

„ deer in, 42, 125

„ -drifts, 45

„ -shoes, 41, 117
Snowy owl, 54, 124, 140, 144
Song of American robin, 289
Song sparrow, 249
Sorex cooper i, 291

,, vulyarus, 292
Spiritual pride, 233
Spizella domestica, 68

,, monticola, 106
" Splits " Brown, 262
Squirrel, 146, 253-256

„ flying, 258-259
Stercorarius parasiticus, 334

,, pomatorhinus, 149

Sterna fluviatil is, 66

,, hirundo, 66
Strepsilas interpres, 153
Swamp sparrow, 248
Swan, 82
Syynium cinereum, 53, 144

Tadoussac Bay, 175

„ village, 174
Tamias striatus, 224
Taxidea americana, 39
Temiscaming Lake, 1
Tenderfeet and tramps, 226-228,

292, 304
Three Rivers, 65
Thunder Bay, and Cape, 339
Titles in the States, 296-299
Tom, the Indian, 10
Tracking, 36

Trapping, 36, 88, 103, 271, 301
Tree-sparrow, 106
Turdus canadensis, 286

,, migratorius, 286
Twelve apostles, 332

Ugly female costume, 234
Unconscious hypocrites, 235
"United Society of Millennial

Christians," 233
Ui'ia gryllc, 148

INDEX

355

Uria troile, 148
Urinator imber, 6
Ursus amcricana, 97

Venison, American, 46
Vespertilio noctivagans, 290

,, subulatus, 290

Vesper uf/o noctivagans, 152
Voyageurs, 93

Warm current, 126

Wayside inn, 308

Whales, size of, 152

Whip-poor-will, 95

Whiskv-jack, 6, 96

White falcon, 125

White fish, 19

White-headed eagle, 145

Widgeon, 79

Wild animals reluctant to attack

man, 269
Wild flowers, 154

„ fruits, 5, 96

Wilson's snipe, 86, 153
Wipiti, 48-50, 119
Wolf, 36-37, 271

„ ferocity of, 37
Wolf Pond, 2

Women, Indian and half-breed, 20
Woodpeckers, 224

Xema sabinei, 150

"Yankee-doodle," 194

Yankee, boastfulness, 200
exaggeration, 199
excitability, 196
mode of feeding, 197, 203
offer of marriage, 198
origin of the word, 195-196
precocity, 201
self-conceit, 195
squeamish women, 198

Zapus hudsonianus, 257

THE END

Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson .fr^ Co.
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8vo, ps. 6d. net

THE GREAT

DESERTS AND FORESTS

OF NORTH AMERICA

By PAUL FOUNTAIN

With a Preface by W. H. HUDSON

Author of " The Naturalist in La Plata," &c.

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THE GREAT

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CONTEXTS

CHAP. CHAP.

Introddction. VII. The Poisoned Aerow.

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II. The River Purus. ix. The Highlands and Llanos

III. Continuation of the Voyage ! of New Granada.

ON THE Pdrds. ' X. Mountain and Valley in

IV. Conclusion of the Voyage on • Chili and Peru.

the Purus. xi. A Miscellaneous Chapter—

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Brazilian Forest. i District— Concluding Odds

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Lakes. ' Index.

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20 TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE, THE
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17

38
23

20

30
21

33
12

19

II
31

INDEX

Abbott (Evelvn) 3,

(J. H. M.)

(T. K.) - -

(E. A.) - -

Acland (A. H. D.) -
Acton (Eliza) -
Adelborg (O.) -
iCschylus

Albemarle (Earl of) -
Alcock (C. W.)
Allen (Grant) -
Allgood (G.) -
Alverstone (Lord) -
Angwin (M. C.)
Annandale (N.)
Anstey (F.)
Aristophanes -
Aristotle -
Arnold (Sir Edwin) -

(Dr. T.) - -

Ashbourne (Lord) -
Ashby (H.)
Ashley (W.J.) -
Atkinson (J.J.)
Avebury (Lord)
Ayre (Rev. J.) -
Bacon

Bagehot (W.) - 9,
Bagwell (R.) -
Bailey (H. C.) -
Baillie (A. F.) -
Bain (Alexander)
Baker (J. H.) -

(Sir S. W.)

Baldwin (C.S.)

Page
19, 22

3
17,18

17
3

36

22

17

II, 23

3

3

36

3, 20

21

21

31

9.17

20, 38

3

25

3

17

38

II, 12

17

OF AUTHO

Page
Balfour (A. J.) - 13,21

Ball (John) - - 11
Banks (M. M.) - - 24
Baring-Gould (Rev.

S.) - - -21,38

Barnett(S.A.andH.) 20
Baynes (T. S.) - - 38
Beaconsfield (Earl of) 25
Beaufort (Duke of)

12, 13, 14
Becker (W. A.) - 22
Beesly (A. H.) -
Bell (Mrs. Hugh) -
Bent (J. Theodore) -
Besant (Sir Walter)-
Bickerdyke (J.)
Bird (G.) -
Blackburne (J. H.) ■
Bland (Mrs. Hubert)
Blount (Sir E.^
Boase (Rev. C. W.) -
Boedder (Rev. B.) -
Bonnell (H. H.)
Booth (A. J) -
Bottome (P.) -
Bowen (W. E.)
Brassey (Lady)
Bright (Rev. J. F.) - 3

Broadfoot (Major W.) 13
Brooks (H. J.) - - 17
Brough (J ) - - 17
Brown (.\. F.) - - 32
Bruce (R. I.) - - 3

Buckland (Jas.) - 32
Buckle (H. T.)- - 3

RS AND EDITORS.

9

23
II
3

14. 15
23
15
24
9
6
19
38
38
25
9

Page

Bj11(T.) - . - 36

Burke (U. R.) - - 3

Burne-Jones (Sir E.) 36

Burns (C. L.) - - 36

Burrows (Montagu) 6

Campbell (Rev. Lewis) 21

Casserly (G.) - - 3

Chfesney (Sir G.) - 3
Childe-Pemberton (W.

S.) - - - 9

Chisholm (G. C ) - 31
Cholmondeley-Pennell

(H.) - - - 13

Christie (R. C.) - 38
ChurchilUWinstonS.)4,25 !

Cicero - - - 22 !

Clarke (Rev. R. F.) - 19

Climenson (E. J.) - 10
Clodd (Edward) - 21,30

Clutterbuck (W. J.)- 12

Cochrane (A.) - - 23 [

Cockerel! (C. R.) - 11 1

Colenso (R. J.) - 36

Conington (John) - 23
Conybeare(Rev.W. J.)

& Howson (Dean) 33

Coolidge (W. A. B.) 11

Corbett I Julian S.) - 4

Coutts (W.) - - 22

Cox (Harding) - 13

Crake (Rev. A. D.) - 32

Crawford (J. H.) - 25

Creed (S.) - - 25
Creiehton (Bishop) - 4, 6, 9

Cross (A. L.) - - 5

Crozier(J. B.) -
Cutts (Rev. E. L.) -
Dabney (J. P.) -
Dale (L.) -
Dallinger (F. W.) -
Dauglish (M. G.) -
Davenport (A.)
Davidson (A. M. C.)

(W. L.) - 17,

Davies (J. F.) -
Dent (C. T.) -
De Salis (Mrs.)
De Tocqueville (A.) -
Devas (C. S.) -
Dewey (D. K.) -
Dickinson (W. H.) -
Dougall (L.) -
Dowden (E.) -
Doyle (Sir A. Conan)
Du Bois (W. E. B.)-
Dunbar (Mary F.) -
Dvson (E.)
Ellis (1. H.) -

(R. L.) - -

Erasmus -
Evans (Sir John)
Falkiner (C. L.)
Farrar (Dean) -
FitetW.)-
Fitzmaunce (Lord E
Folkard (H. C.)
Ford (H.) -
Fountain (P
Fowler (Edith H.) -
Francis (Francis)

Page

9. 17

6

23

4

5

9

25

14
36
4

19. 20
20
38
25
40
25

5
25

26

15
17

9
38
4

20, 26
>7

INDEX OF AUTHORS AND KU IT OHS— continued.

Pace\

Page

Page

Francis (M. E.)

26

Jerome (ferome K.) -

27

Nash (V.) -

7

Freeman (Edward A.)

6

Johnson (J. & J. H.)

39

Nesbit (E.)

24

Fremantle (T. F.) -

16

Jones (H. Bence)

31

Nettleship (R. L.) -

17

Frost (G.)-

38

Joyce (P. W.) - 6,

Justinian -

27

39

Newman (Cardinal) -

28

Froude (James A.) 4,9,11

,26

18

Nichols (F. M.)

9

Fuller (F. W.) -

5

Kant (I.) -

18

Oakesmith (J.)-

22

Furneaux (W.)

30

Kaye(Sir I. W.) -

6

Ogilvie (R.) - -

22

Gardiner (Samuel R.)

5

Keary(C. F.) -

23

Oldtield (Hon. Mrs.)

9

Gathorne-Hardy (Hon.

Kelly (E.)- - -

18

Osbourne (L.) -

28

A. E.) - - 15,

16

Kielmansegge (F.) -

9

Packard (A. S.)

21

Geikie (Rev. Cunning-

Killick (Rev. A. H.) -

18

Paget (Sir J.) -
Park (W.)

10

ham) ...

38

Kitchin (Dr. G. W.)

6

16

Gibson (C. H.)-

17

Knight (E. F.) -

II

14

Parker (B.)

40

Gilkes (A. H.) -

38

Kostlin (J.)

10

Payne-Gallwey(SirR.

14,16

Gleig (Rev. G. R.) -

10

Kristeller (P.) -

37

Pears (E.)

7

Graham (A.) -

5

Ladd (G. T.) -

18

Pearse (H. H. S.) -

5

(P. A.) - -15,

16

Lang (Andrew) 6 ,13,

14.

16,

Peek (Hedley) -

14

(G. F.) - -

20

21,22, 23, 27,

32

39

Pemberton (W. S.

Granby (Marquess of)

15

Lapsley(G. T.)

5

Childe-)

9

Grant (Sir A.) -

17

Laurie (S. S.) -

6

Penrose (H. H.)

33

Graves (R. P.) -

9

Lawrence (F. W.) -

20

Phillipps-Wollev(C.)

12,28

(A. F.) - -

23

Lear (H.L.Sidney) -

36

Pierce (A. H.) -

19

Green (T. Hill) - 17

18

Leckv (W. E. H.) 6,

i8

23

Pole (W.) -

17

Greene (E. B.)-

5

Lees (J. A.) -

12

Pollock (W. H.) -

13.40

GreviUe (C. C. F.) -

5

Leighton (J. A.)
Leslie (T. E. Cliffe) -

21

Poole (W. H. and Mrs

) 36

Grose (T. H.) -

18

20

Poore (G. V.) -

40

Gross (C.)

5-

Lieven (Princess) -

6

Portman (L.) -

28

Grove (Lady) -

II

Lillie(A.)-

16

Powell (E.)

7

(Mrs. Lilly)

13

Lindleyd.)

31

Powys (Mrs. P. L.) -

10

Gurnhill (J.) -

18

Locock (C. D.)

16

Praeger (S. Rosamond) 33

Gwilt (J.) -

31

Lodge (H. C.) -

6

Pritchett (R. T.) -

H

Haggard (H. Rider)

Loftie (Rev. W. J.) -

6

Proctor (R. A.) 16,

30,35

II, 26, 27

38

Longman (C. J.)

12

16

Raine (Rev. James) -

6

HalliwelI-Phillipps(J.)

10

(F. W.) - -

16

Ramal (W.) -

24

Hamilton (Col. H. B.)

5

(G.H.) - -

13

15

Randolph (C. F.) -

7

Hamlin (A. U. F.) -

36

(Mrs. C. J.) -

37

Rankin (R.) -

8,25

Harding (S. B.)

5

Lowell (A. L.) -

6

Ransome (Cyril)

3.8

Hardwick (A. A.) -

II

Lucian

22

Reid(S. J.)

9

Harmsworth (A. C.) 13

14

Lutoslawski (W.) -

18

Rhoades(J.) -

23

Harte (Bret) -

27

Lyall (Edna) -

27,32

Rice (S. P.)

12

Halting (J. E,)-

15

Lynch (G.)

6

Rich (A.) -

23

Hartwig (G.) -

30

(H. F.B.)- -

12

Richmond (Ennis) -

19

Hassall (A.)

8

Lytton (Earl of)

24

Rickaby (Rev. John)

19

Haweis (H. R.) - 9

36

Macaulav (Lord) 6,7

I to

>24

■ (Rev. Joseph) -

19

Head (Mrs.) -

37

Macdonald (Dr. G.) -

24

Riley (J. W.) -

24

Heath (D. D.) -

17

Macfarren (Sir G. A.)

37

Roberts (E. P.)

33

Heathcote (J. M.) -

14

MackaiKJ. W.)

10

23

Robertson (W. G.) -

37

(C. G.) - -

14

Mackenzie (C. G.) -

16

Robinson (H. C.) -

21

(N.) - - -

II

Mackinnon (J.)

7

Roget (Peter M.) -

20, 31

Helmholtz (Hermann

Macleod (H. D.) -

20

Romanes (G.J.) 10, 19

,21,24

von) -

30

Macpherson (Rev.H.A.)

15

(Mrs. G.J.) -

10

Henderson (Lieut-

Madden (D. H.)

16

Ronalds (A.) -

17

Col. G. F. R.) -

9

Magnusson (E.)

28

Roosevelt (T.) -

6

Henry (W.) -

14

Maher (Rev. M.)

19

Ross (Martin) -

28

Henty (G. A.) -

32

Mallet (B.) - . -

7

Rossetti (Maria Fran-

Higgins (Mrs. N.) -

9

Malleson (Col. G. B.)

6

cesca) -

40

Hill (Mabel) -

5

Marbot (Baron de) -

10

Rotheram (M. A.) -

36

(S. C.) - -

5

Marchment (A. W.)

27

Rowe (R. P. P.)

14

Hillier (G. Lacy) -

13

Marshman (J. C.) -

9

Russell (Lady) -

10

Hime (H. W. L.) -

22

Maryon (M.) -

39

Sandars (T. C.)

18

Hodgson (Shadworth)

18

Mason (A. E. W.) -

27

Sanders (E. K.)

9

Hoenig (F.)

38

Maskelyne (J. N.) -

16

Savage- Armstrong(G

•F.)25

Hoffmann (J ) -

30

Matthews (B.)

39

Scott (F. J.) -

8

Hogan (J. F.) -

9

Maunder (S.) -

31

Seebohm (F.) -

8, 10

Holmes (R. R.)

10

Max Miiller (F.)

Selous (F. C.) -

12, 17

Homer

22

10, 18, 20, 21, 22

27

. 39

Senior (W.) -

13.15

Hope (Anthony)

27

Mav (Sir T. Erskine'

7

Seton-Karr (Sir H.)-

8

Horace

22

Mekde (L. T.) -

32

Sewell (Elizabeth M.)

28

Houston (D. F.)

5

Melville (G. J. Whyte)

27

Shadwell (A.) -

40

Howard (Lady Mabel)

27

Merivale (Dean)

7

Shakespeare -

25

Howitt (W.) -

II

Merriman 'H. S.)

27

Shaw (W. A.) -

8

Hudson (W. H.) -

30

Mill (John Stuart) -

18

20

Shearman (M.)

12, 13

Huish (M. B.) -

37

Millais (J. G.) -

16

30

Sheehan (P. A.)

28

Hullahd.)

37

Milner (G.)

40

Sheppard (E.) -

8

Hume (David) -

18

Monck (W. H. S.) -

19

Sinclair (A.)

14

(M. A. S.)

3

Montague (F. C.) -

7

Skrine (F. H.) -

9

Hunt (Rev. W.)

6

Moore (T.)

31

Smith (C. Fell)

10

Hunter (Sir W.) -

6

(Rev. Edward) -

17

(R. Bosworth) -

8

Hutchinson (Horace G.)

Moran (T. F.) -

7

(T. C.) - -

5

. , 13, 16, 27

■ 38

Morgan (C. Lloyd) -

21

(W.P. Haskett)

12

Ingelow (Jean)

•23

Morris (W.) - 22,

23

24.

Somerville (E.)

28

Ingram (T. D.)

6

27, 28,

37

40

Sophocles

23

James (W.) - - 18

1 21

Mulhall (M. G.)

20

Soulsby (Lucy H.) -

40

Jameson (Mrs. Anna)
Jefferies (Richard) -

37

Murras- (Hilda)

33

Southey (R.) -

40

38

Myers(F. W. H.) -

19

Spedding(J.) -

9. 17

Jekyll (Gertrude)

38

Nansen (F.)

12

Spender (A. E.)

12

14
14
19

8

19, 40
29
19

Page
Stanley (Bishop) - 31
Stebbing (W.) - - 28
Steel (A. G.) - - 13
Stephen (Leslie) - 12
Stephens (H. Morse) 8

Sternberg (Count

Adalbert) - - 8

Stevens (R. W.) - 40
Stevenson (R. L.) 25,28,33
Storr (F.) - - - 17
Stuart-Wortley (A. J.) 14, 15
Stubbs(J. W.)- - 8

(W.)- - - 8

Suffolk & Berkshire

(Earlol) -
Sullivan (Sir E.)
Sully (James) -
Sutherland (A. and G.)

(Alex.)

Suttner (B. von)
Swinburne (A. J.)
Symes (J. E.) - - 20
Tait(J.) ... 7

Tallentyre (S. G.) - 10
Tappan {E. M.) - 33
Taylor (Col. Meadows) 8
Theophrastus - - 23
Thomas (J. W.) - 19
Thomson (H. C.) - 8

Thornhill (W. J.) - 23
Thornton (T. H.) - 10
Thuillier (H. F.) - 40
Todd (A.)- - - 8

Tout (T. F.) - - 7

Toynbee (A.) - - 20
Trevelyan(SirG.O.)

6, 7. 8, 9, 10

(G. M.) - -7.8

(R. C.) - - 25

Trollope (Anthony)- 29
Turner (ri. G.) - 40

Tyndall (J.) - - 9, 12
Tyrrell (R. Y.) - -22,23
Unwin (R.) - - 40
Upton(F.K. and Bertha) 33
Van Dyke (J. C.) - 37
Vanderpoel (E. N.) - 37
Virgil - - - 23
Wagner (R.) - - 25
Wakeman (H. O.) - 8

Walford (L. B.) - 29
Wallas (Graham) - 10

(Mrs. Graham)- 32

Walpole (Sir Spencer) 8, 10

(Horace) - - 10

Walrond (Col. H.) - 12
Walsingham (Lord)- 14
Ward (Mrs. W.) - 29
Warner (P. F.) - 17
Warwick (Countess of) 40
Watson (A. E. T.) 12, 13, 14
Weathers (J.) - - 40
Webb (Mr. and Mrs.

Sidney) - - 20

(Judge T.) - 40

(T. E.) - - 19

Weber (A.) - - 19
Weir (Capt. R.) - 14
Wellington (Duchess of) 37
Wemyss(M. C. E.)- 33
Weyman (Stanley) - 29
Whately(Archbishop) 17,19

Whitelaw (R.) -
WhittalKSirJ. W.)-
Wilkins (G.) -

(W. H.) -

Willard (A. R.)
Willich(C. M.)
Wood (Rev. J. G.) -
Wood-Martin (W. G.)
Wotton (H.) -
Wyatt (A. J.) -
Wylie (J. H.) -
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MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 25

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26 MESSRS. Longmans & co.*s standard And general works.

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MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 27

Fiction, Humour, &e. — continued.

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Lyall (Edna).
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The a utobiography of a Slander.

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DoREEN. The Story of a Singer.
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Mason and Lang. —Parson Kelly.

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Max Muller. — Deutsche Liebe
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Melville (G. J. Whyte).

The Gladiators.
The Interpreter.
Good for Nothing.
The Queen's Maries.

Crown 8vo., is. 6d. each.

Holmby House.
Kate Coventry.
Digby Grand.
General Bounce.

Merriman. — Flotsam.- A Story of

the Indian Mutiny. By Henry Seton
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Morris (William).
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The Wood Beyond the World.

Crown 8vo., 6s. net.

The Story of the Glittering
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The Roots of the Mountains,
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28 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.

Fiction, Humour, &e. — continued.

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A Tale of the House of the
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A Dream of John Ball, and a
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News from Nowhere ; or, An
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The Story of Grettir the Strong.
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Three Northern Love Stories,
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*»* For Mr. William Morris's other
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Newman (Cardinal).
Loss AND Gain: The Story of a

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Callista : A Tale of the Third

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Phillipps-Wolley. — Snap: a Legend

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Portman. — Station Studies : being
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Sewell (Elizabeth M.).

A Glimpse of the World.
Laneton Parsonage.
Margaret Percival.
Katharine Ashton.
The Earl's Daughter.
The Experience of Life.

Amy Herbert,
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Gertrude.
Home Life.
After Life.
Ursula. Ivors.

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Sheehan. — Luke Delmege. By

the Rev. P. A. Sheehan, P.P., Author of
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Somerville (E. CE.) and Ross

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Some Experiences of an Irish
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Somerville. Crown 8vo., 6s.

All on the Irish Shore : Irish

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The Real Charlotte. Crown
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The Silver Fox. Cr. 8vo., 3.*;. od.

An Irish Cousin. Crown 8vo., 6.s-.

Stebbing. — Rachel Wulfstan, and
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Stevenson (Robert Louis).

The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll
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IS. 6<f. cloth.

The Strange Case of Dr\
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' Silver Library ' Edition. Crown 8vo.
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More New Arabian Nights — Thf
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The Wrong Box. By Robert
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MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 29

Fiction, Humour, &e. — continued.

Suttner.— Z^r Down Your Arms Walford (L. B.)— continued
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Trollope (Anthony).
T/fJi Warden. Cr. 8vo., 15. 6d.
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Walford (L. B.).

Stay-at-homes. Crown 8vo., 65,

Charlotte. Crown 8vo., 65.

One op Ourselves. Cr. 8vo., 6s.

The Intr uders. C ro wn 8 vo . , 25. 6</.

Leddy Marget. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6rf.

IvA KiLDARE : a Matrimonial Pro-
blem. Crown 8vo., 25. 6d.

Mr. Smith : a Part of his Life.
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The Baby's Grandmother. Cr.

Bvo., 2S. 6d.

Cousins. Crown 8vo., 25. 6d.

Troublesome Daughters.
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Cr.

Pauline. Crown 8vo., is. 6d.

Dick Netherby. Cr. 8vo., 25. ^d.

The History of a Week. Cr.
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A Stiff-necked Generation. Cr.
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Nan, and other Stories. Cr. 8vo.,

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The Mischief of Monica.
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Cr.

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2J. 6d.

' Ploughed,' arid other Stories.

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The Ma tchmaker. Cr. Svo., 25. 6(/.

Ward. — One Poor Scruple. By
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Weyman (Stanley).

The House of the Wolf. With
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A Gentleman of France. With
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The Red Cockade. With Frontis-
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. Shrewsbury. With 24 Illustra-
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Sophia. With Frontispiece. Crown
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Yeats (S. Lrvf.tt).

The Chei-alier DAuriac. Crown
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The Traitor's Way. Cr. 8vo., 65.

Yoxall. — The Pommany Stone. By
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30 MESSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.

Popular Science (Natural History, &e.).
Furneaux (W.). Hudson (W. H.).

The Outdoor World; or The
Young Collector's Handbook. With i8
Plates (i6 of which are coloured), and 549
Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo.,
gilt edges, 65. net.

Butterflies and Moths (British).
With 12 coloured Plates and 241 Illus-
trations in the Text. Crown 8vo., gilt
edges, 6s. net.

Life in Ponds and Streams.
With 8 coloured Plates and 331 Illustra-
tions in the Text. Crown 8vo., gilt
edges, 6s. net.

Hartwig (George).

The Sea and its Living Wonders.
With 12 Plates and 303 Woodcuts. Svo.,
gilt top, 7s. net.

The Tropical World. With 8
Plates and 172 Woodcuts. 8vo., gilt
top, 7s. net.

The Polar World. With 3 Maps,
8 Plates and 85 Woodcuts. 8vo., gilt
top, 7s. net.

The Subterranean World. With
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Helmholtz. — Popular Lectures on
Scientific Subjects. By Hermann von
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Cr. 8vo., 3s. 6rf. each.

Hoffmann. — Alpine I^lora : For

Tourists and Amateur Botanists. With
Text descriptive of the most widely dis-
tributed and attractive Alpine Plants. By
Julius Hoffmann. Translated by E. S.
Barton (Mrs. A. Gepi'). With 40 Plates
containing 250 Coloured Figures from
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Friese. 8vo., 7s. td. net.

LiAMPSHiRE Days. With 11 Plates

and 36 Illustrations in the Text from
Drawings by Bryan Hook, etc. 8vo.,
los. 6rf. net.

Birds and Man.

8vo., 6s. net.

Largfe crown

Nature in Dovvnland. With 12
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British Birds. With a Chapter
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of which are Coloured), and over 100 Illus-
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edges, 6s. net.

Millais. — The Natural History of
THE British Surface Feeding-Ducks.
By John Guille Millais, F.Z.S., etc.
With 6 Photogravures and 66 Plates (41 in
Colours) from Drawings by the Author,
Archibald Thorburn, and from Photo-
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Proctor (Richard A.),

Light Science for Leisure Hours.
Familiar Essays on Scientific Subjects.
Crown 8vo., 3s. bd.

Ro UGH Wa ys ma de Smoo th. Fam i -
liar Essays on Scientific Subjects. Crown
8vo., 3s. td.

Pleasant Ways in Science.
8vo., ^s. bd.

Crown

Na ture Studies. By R. A. Proc-
tor, Grant Allen, A. Wilson, T.
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Leisure Readings. By R. A. Proc-
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* ^* For Mr. Proctor'' s other books see pp. 16
and 35, and Messrs. Longmans &• Co 's Cata-
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M£SSRS. LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.

31

Popular Science (Natural History, &e.) — continued.

Stanley.—^ Familiar History of
Birds. By E. Stanley, D.D., formerly
Bishop of Norwich. With 160 Illustrations.
Cr. 8vo., 3s. 6rf.

Wood (Rev. J. G.).

Homes without Hands: A Descrip-
tion of the Habitations of Animals, classed
according to their Principle of Construc-
tion. With 140 Illustrations. 8vo., gilt
top, 7s. net.

Insects at Home : A Popular Ac-
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