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50
JAN 28 1946
Serial Resord Divielon
|" SELECTED AND PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF
i _ UNITED STATES ARMED FORCES INSTITUTE
F p :
a *
id a , 4
- es ay “ woah
ae"
FOR, THE USE OF PERSONNEL OF
Meld — MARINE CORPS — COAST GUARD
EDUCATION MANUAL - EM 884
Growing Tree
and Small Fruats
by H: B. Knapp
State Institute of Applied Agriculture, Farmingdale, N. Y.
and E. C. Auchter
United States Department of Agriculture
PUBLISHED FOR THE UNITED STATES ARMED FORCES
BY JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
ee
Copyright, 1929, 1941 1744
By HALSEY B. KNAPP and EUGENE C AUCHTE
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
NO PART OF THE MATERIAL COVERED BY
THIS COPYRIGHT MAY BE REPRODUCED IN
ANY FORM WITHOUT WRITTEN PERMISSION
OF THE PUBLISHER
The material presented herewith is a reprint of educational mate-
rial taken from existing standard textbook matter now m use m
American schools and colleges. It 1s published for use as an aid
in instruction in certain educational activities for the armed forces.
The statements and opinions contained are those of the authors.
This book is not available for sale by the Superintendent of Docu-
ments nor may it be sold or distributed in this form on the civilian
market.
WAR DEPARTMENT
Washington 25, D. C., 24.June 1944
fA. G. 300.7 (24 June 1944).]
Additional copies should be requisitioned from USAFI, Madison 3,
Wisconsin, or nearest Overseas Branch.
EDUCATIONAL SERVICES SECTION, STANDARDS AND
CURRICULUM DIVISION, TRAINING, BUREAU OF NAVAL
PERSONNEL, NAVY DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON 25, D.C.
Copies for Navy personnel should be requisitioned from Educational
Services Section.
EDUCATION SECTION, WELFARE DIVISION, SPECIAL
SERVICES BRANCH, UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS,
WASHINGTON 25, D.C.
Distributed to Marine Corps personnel by Special Services Branch.
Additional copies, or information, may }e' obtained from unit Special
Services Officers.
TRAINING DIVISION, OFFICE OF PERSONNEL, COAST
GUARD HEADQUARTERS, WASHINGTON 25, D cS
Copies for Coast Guard personnel should be requisitioned from The
Ae ener (PT), U. S. Coast Guard Headquarters, Washington
rae: f
PREFACE
This book is intended to meet the needs of schools and departments
of vocational agriculture. Since these agencies are concerned pri-
marily with the practical phases of fruit growing, it follows that this
book, if it achieves its purpose, should also be useful to those who are
actually engaged in growing fruit.
The activities are arranged on the seasonal basis, beginning with
the harvesting of the crop, since this is the job that faces the grower
at the time students take up their work in the fall. Each enterprise
is broken down into its various operations just about as such opera-
tions would present themselves for consideration in practice. The
community studies at the end of the chapters should tie the instruc-
tion into the practices of the local area.
It is not necessary to begin at the front of the book and follow it
page by page to the final chapter. In some sections of the country
the culture of grapes, the harvesting of peaches, or the installation of
a stationary spray plant may not be matters of commercial signifi-
cance. The parts of the book dealing with such subjects are complete
in themselves and may be omitted outright without detriment to the
subjects that are of importance in any state or section.
It has not seemed worth while to include a detailed treatment of
the life histories of the various insects and diseases of fruit. Such a
treatment would require a book in itself. The student has been re-
ferred to his local experimental station and college of agriculture for
information concerning the insects and diseases of importance in his
community. Emphasis in this book has been placed rather on the
mechanics of the use and application of materials for control, including
a full discussion of machinery.
Likewise, information concerning varieties and variety descriptions
is available from so many authoritative sources that it has not been
included here, other than to enumerate the varieties of commercial
importance in the various fruit-growing sections.
THe AUTHORS AND EDITORS
lil
END-OF-COURSE TESTS
When you have finished this course you are entitled to take a
USAFI End-of-Course Test, and to receive a report of your score
on the test. USAFI End-of-Course Tests may be obtained as
follows:
By students enrolled with USAFI: If you received this book for
individual study through enrollment in the U. 8. Armed Forces
Institute, you may obtain the End-of-Course Test by sending an
Application for Institute Test or Examination (ask your Informa-
_ tion-Education Officer or your Educational Services Officer for an
application blank) to the Commandant, U. 8. Armed Forces
Institute, Madison 3, Wisconsin, or to the nearest overseas In-—
stitute Branch.
By students enrolled in locally organized classes: If you received
this book through enrollment in a locally organized class you may
apply for the End-of-Course Test through your instructor.
By other students: If you obtained this book by any means other
than enrollment with USAFI or in a locally organized class, you
may obtain an application for an End-of-Course Test by writing
to the Commandant, U. 8. Armed Forces Institute, Madison 3,
Wisconsin, or to the nearest overseas Institute Branch.
CERTIFICATES OF COMPLETION
Certificates of Completion, signed by the officers in charge of
local education programs, are frequently issued to students who
satisfactorily complete courses in locally organized classes. Special
USAFI Certificates of Completion are automatically issued by the
U.S. Armed Forces Institute to students who are enrolled in the
Institute and who complete USAFI courses and End-of-Course |
Tests by individual study.
USAFI Certificates of Completion are sometimes required by
civilian schools in connection with applications for academic
credit. If you have a local certificate for work done in a course
based on this book and if a school or eccllege has requested you
to submit in addition a USAFI Certificate of Completion in order
to obtain credit for the course, you must enroll in the Institute
in order to apply for a USAFI Certificate of Completion.
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
PART I: TREE FRUITS
I. HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
I. THE APPLE
Operations.
oT rR WN
. Picking
. Packing :
. Determining fervesine fed markt Hae :
. Storing .
. Marketing .
II. THE PEACH
Operations.
1.
. Selecting packages
. Packing
. Loading cars
. Storing . :
. Canning and drying
. Marketing through cooperative aeotbies
“I & Ore bo
Picking the fruit .
III. THE PEAR
Operations and factors.
1. Picking
2. Packages and waclane be a ekg
Se eam AMET YING 8 oe ie) ke
4. Storage and refrigeration
Pe xOub MATEUS. 46 ee ati
Big CUBIC SN: (hig Rai pe en ee Marea
IV. THE PLUM
Operations and factors.
oP WS DN
MCAD het te ho a he hoe eo ey
. Packing
. Storing .
. Prunes .
. Yields .
PAGE
112
115
116
117
118
118
119
120
121
121
122
123
123
124
125
125
125
127
vil CONTENTS
CHAPTER
V. THE CHERRY
Operations and factors.
de Dellanig ys ee A ee
. Cold storage .
. Frozen fruit
. Yields. . Sic SOR ne Ore
. Picking BE eel i er
2 Packing. 20-0. es tae eee
VI. THE QUINCE
Operations and factors.
1. Picking
2. Packing
3. Storage
4. Yields
General Information.
> Cr Hw & bo
Official standards for the inspection of apples
. United States standard containers . . . .
. Packing apples in barrels
. Modified-atmosphere storage for apples aad eam
. Frozen fruit
or hy 09 bo
Community Studies
Il. PREPARING FOR WINTER AND DETERMINING INJURY FROM
CoLp WEATHER
Operations.
1. List trees to be replaced .
2. Provide soil aaa A
3. Control mice
4. Protect trees from mice aiid mae
5. Determine injury from cold weather
General Information.
1. Necessity of maturing and hardening wood tissues
Community Studies
III. EstasiisHING THE ORCHARD
Operations.
1. Selecting the region :
2. Determining the size of the eritenaiees :
3. Selecting the land to be planted
4. Determining time of planting
PAGE
129
129
129
129
131
132
132
132
132
133
133
141
142
146
148
150
152
152
153
154
157
160
161
162
165
169
173
CONTENTS vil
' CHAPTER PAGE
5. Determining varieties to plant . . . Be iN] 7p
6. Determining planting distances and Sinatinig plan weds
7. Purchasing trees .. Pe mana td tor i. Awa
8. Caring for trees on neal Syl Geek SAE AN aA a aa Rs (6
Seereparmne tela tor planting 0... et ss EOD
10. Planting the trees eT eS SRE na ay eS hoe OE
General Information. |
i Appleresions and varieties 4.2. 3-.5°. ss. e196
Pee TeriOns ANG Varieties 2c." fei os 3 DOF
eo Pear recioneg ane varieties 1 7 se i QOD
AG hermy resions and variebles 7) 2-95... 8 So 208
Rehm Feeons And VaArichles sen DOE
G Guinee reaioms and varieties). 6. hs OA
7 Npricot reeions and varieties. 20.2 2 23 204
See Siac LOM nuns UPCOS 6 0 eee es Oh A DOG
Gemmamnipyeovuaies- te ese re ee Le ot. 206
JV. Tue GRowTH OF THE TREE AND THE FORMING OF FRUIT Bups
Procedure:
(a) Consider different kinds of tree growth . . . . 207
(b) Determine when length growth ceases . . . . 208
(c) Determine when growth in thickness ceases... 208
(d) Study and determine the location of leaf buds, fis
( buds, and fruit spurs: . cea fo 2 Mie
(e) Consider the fruiting habits of idifienent fails Pet hs 74s)
(f) Determine the time and manner of fruit-bud
TOUMEATIOMCG © oe toe ry eee cee oe Rae
ies piycilocy ONG NUtrItION “5 oe eh eo ee DAE
Sammut yolucles® =o at oti ee lt. QBS
_Y. PRUNING
Operations.
1. Deciding when the pruning should be done . . 225
2. Determining how heavily the trees should be aii 226
Ee Sclecume tne priming LOIS) 22 ye se ee 280
4. Pruning the different tree/fruits . . . . .”. 2382
a Wetermining pruning Costs 2.72.0, 05.04... 2 264
General Information.
Removal of trees from the orchard Ser e457
Commo euudies «nts PA ee 8 OPO eee
Vill CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE >
VI. ConTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
Operations.
1. Determining insects and diseases to be controlled . 270
2. Selecting and preparing materials for control. . . 273
3. Determining time of application of materials and
amounts touse . . 291
4. Selecting Cantera and equipment ‘Ac making eppli
; Cations. -*.-.( <>. : ae . 804 —
5. Applying eels bis) eae en Sa a
6. Determining costs of the spraving Gir 2” ke aaa
7. Adopting control measures other than spraying . . 355 |
General Information.
Controlling peach tree borer ... ... 5.5) 43 ee
Community Studies) . . . «@ . 4% oo
VII. Propacatine Frouir PLants
Operations and Factors.
1. Cleft grafting 2 9.6. oo 3s ei el
2: Inlay or bark grafting ..-. °°... 42
s. Whip grafting... 6.0. Se
4.-Shield budding . . . . « 5 «=. 2)
5. Bridge grafting . .
6. Propagating by euhtneee: ersereee te
7, Propagating by layers. . °.) . |... 3) ee
8. Grafting preparations -. . . .. J |= ssc
General Information . ... i . » 9. | 23eeee
Community Studies . . 9. 1s... 1 45) ge
VIII. Po.uuInaTIoN AND FRuIT SETTING
Factors and Operations.
1. How pollination and fertilization take place . . . 390
2. Self-fruitful and self-unfruitful tree fruits en
3. Determining need for cross-pollination . . . . 395
4. Reviewing the case... oe
5. Using bees for cna nolan AGI ae 404
6. Treatment of established orchards in nce a cross-
pollination 9. ;. >... ..>.. % (2°.
Community Studies... 2 | 6) 2 se) Jel) “oe
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
IX. Manacine Orcuarp SoIits AND FERTILIZING THE TREES.
Dracnosinc GrRowtTH CONDITIONS AND PRESCRIBING
TREATMENT
Operations.
Managing Orchard Soils
1. Determining the system of apple-orchard culture
to use .
2. Selecting the Sele gene ap oil RaeericHt
3. Determining culture of other tree fruits
Fertilizing the Trees -
1. Deciding whether fertilizers are needed for apple
trees eee th Boe eek
2. Deciding which feceleers: are heedicd
3. Deciding how much fertilizer to use and when fo
apply it
4. Applying the ferhiioee
5. Determining the cost of daplyine pour
6. Fertilizing other tree fruits ie
Diagnosing growth conditions and prescribing treatment .
Community Studies
X. THINNING FRUIT
Operations.
. Consider conditions under which thinning is advisable
. Consider results that may be expected from thinning.
. Determining time to thin
. Thinning apples
. Thinning peaches .
. Thinning plums
m Ore CO ND
Community Studies
XI. Fruit EXuHIsits AND JUDGING
Operations.
fpelectine fruit for exhibits). oe
2. Setting up the exhibit
3. Judging fruit
How to identify varieties of fruit .
1X
PAGE
410
426
430
432
432
434
436
436
436
439
440
443
445
448
448
451
452
452
454
455
459
465
xX CONTENTS
PART II. GROWING SMALL FRUITS
CHAPTER
XII. GRowING STRAWBERRIES
Operations.
1. Selecting the location and soil
2. Preparing the field
3. Selecting varieties
4, Determining time of pies
5. Determining the planting system
6. Setting the plants Lyeun
7. Managing the soil
8. Controlling insects and dices
9. Protecting the plants in winter .
10. Harvesting and marketing the crop :
11. Determining treatment of plantation after hares
General Information.
1. Everbearing varieties
2. Commercial varieties
Community Studies
XIII. Growina GRAPES
Operations.
1. Determining size of the enterprise .
2. Selecting the location
3. Selecting the soil .
4. Selecting varieties
5. Determining time of ae
6. Determining planting distances
7. Securing the plants
8. Setting the plants
9. Managing the soil
10. Training the vines :
11. Controlling insects and oe
12. Harvesting the crop .
13. Marketing the crop
14. Protecting vines in winter
Growing Muscadine grapes
Community Studies
PAGE ©
468
470
479
472
. A473
475
479°
483
484
485
489
491
492
493
497
498
498
499
500
500
500 |
501
503
509
520
520
522
O27
O27
528
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
XIV. GROWING Boek FRUITS
Section 1 Ceagiie the Brambles
Operations.
. Determining the size of the enterprise
. Selecting the location and soil
. Determining the time of planting
. Securing the plants
. Selecting varieties .
. Preparing the soil .
. Determining the planting Han
. Setting the plants .
. Managing the soil . :
. Pruning and training the plants .
. Controlling diseases and insects .
. Harvesting and marketing the crop .
. Protecting the plants in winter
General Information.
Varieties
Community Studies .
Section IJ].—Growing Currants and Gooseberries
Operations.
. Establishing the plantation
. Pruning and training the plants .
. Managing the soil .
. Controlling diseases and insects .
. Harvesting and marketing the crop .
Community Studies .
Section IJJ.—Growing the Cultivated Blueberry
Operations.
Ls
2.
3.
4.
o.
Selecting the soil
Establishing the plantation
Pruning the plants
Controlling insects, diseases, ane ane
Harvesting and marketing
XI
PAGE
529
532.
532
533
533
535
537
537
539
040
043
ool
553
508
559
o61
562
063
567
568
069
569
571
572
573
573
575
577
579
xii CONTENTS,
CHAPTER 4 | PAGE
XV. Swart I BE a Fruit GROWER?
Factors.
1. Is my interest in fruit growing based on actual experi-
ence! sb a a
2. How does my interest in fruit growing compare with
my interest in other agricultural enterprises? . . 582
3. Would I be willing to undergo cheerfully the limita-
tions connected with fruit production? . . . . 583
Cost of production... 4)... 2°. nL ee
Purchasing power...) 2). Oe we
Diversification: .- 0.0 440 3 le os
Summary ok ee
PUEENIIEN ne nS! ewe De wee ey Pe rr
rpm so; is 2) ORS pe A Se rr
GROWING TREE AND SMALL FRUITS
Part I. TREE FRUITS
CHAPTER I
HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
The grower lays the foundation for a satisfactory harvest
when he prunes, sprays, thins his fruit, and manages the soil -
properly. No attention given at the harvest season itself can
make up for neglect of these essential factors of orchard man-
agement. |
One of the best things the fruit grower can do at the outset
is to take membership in organizations which seek to promote
the industry by which he makes his living. Among these
would be his state horticultural society by whatever name
called, the sectional or local horticultural organizations, and
the county farm bureau. Study the renorts from these organ-
izations, give careful consideration to their suggestions, and
attend their meetings whenever possible. Keep informed
through the United States Department of Agriculture and
other sources regarding crop prospects and yields, cold-storage
holdings, shipments, etc. Such action constitutes the best
investment the grower can make and offers the highest insur-
ance at the cheapest rate that he can have on his business.
I. THE APPLE
In planning for the harvest and all the activities that relate
to the handling of the crop, the grower must give consideration
to the following major factors.
1
2 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
Operations:
1. Picking.
2. Packing.
3. Determining harvesting marketing costs.
4. Storing.
-5. Marketing.
In some seasons and in some sections the grower may not
himself assume responsibility for all these factors. Before he
can decide whether or at what stage he should turn the matter
over to others, he must know what is involved in carrying
through the complete program himself. Ear
1. Picking. Once the fruit is ready to pick there is no
time for matters that should have received attention earlier.
The product is perishable. It must not remain too long on the
trees for it will spoil or freeze. It must not drop to the ground
for it will bruise. The time when it is at its best for handling
is short.
Procedure:
(a) Estimating the yield.
(6) Providing adequate equipment.
(c) Securing an adequate supply of labor.
(d) Determining the proper time for picking.
(e) Picking the crop. |
(a) Estimating the Yield. Many growers and buyers at-
tain great proficiency in estimating yields while the fruit is
still on the trees. This faculty comes only as a result of prac-_
tice based on careful study of the trees and a knowledge of the
bearing habits of varieties. For instance, a Tompkins King
tree seldom measures up in performance to its apparent prom-
ise. It “shows up,” for all and more than it is worth. On the
other hand, McIntosh and York Imperial, which bear all
through the top, will habitually do better than they promise.
Yields per tree or per acre vary with many factors. Among
these are age and variety, number of trees per acre, methods of
management, and the region itself.
PICKING 3
Most published figures on production are of limited value
to the individual orchardist because they are usually based on
all orchards in a certain section. Among these are often or-
_chards receiving poor care, those just coming into bearing, and
those well past their prime.
A yield of 200 to 250 bushels per acre of packed fruit is
probably an average figure for good commercial orchards in
full bearing in New York, the oldest fruit section in the
country. To this must be added a proportion of the crop,
varying with the season and the care, which may be mer-
chantable in the form of by-products, but which does not
justify incurring package and packing costs for it. The good
grower in every region constantly seeks to reduce this propor-
tion of low-grade fruit and to increase the quantity of quality
stock.
The average yield in commercial orchards of the Middle
West is perhaps 175 bushels per acre, the yields showing con-
siderable variation from year to year in some sections, as Mis-
sourl. Yields in Ohio, Michigan, and adjacent territory, as
well as in the New England fruit sections, are similar to those
of New York. Yields in the Atlantic Coast States, especially
those of the Shenandoah-Cumberland section, in full crop
years compare favorably with those of New York, but yields
are more variable, largely owing to frost damage 1 in the spring
when the trees are in bloom.
In the Pacific Northwest yields per acre run higher with a
lower percentage of cull stock than in other orchard sections.
This is due in part to younger trees, a larger number of trees
per acre, and more intensive methods of management. The
Wenatchee Valley of Washington has been producing from 500
to 600 boxes of 40-45 pounds per acre as an average from or-
chards in commercial bearing. The Yakima Valley in the same
state has produced from 400 to 500 boxes and the Hood River
Valley of Oregon 250 to 400 boxes per acre. The trees in these
sections have commonly been set about 20 by 20 feet, account-
ing in part for the higher yields. In many orchards part of the
4 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
trees are now being removed to give more distance between
trees. This will probably reduce the yield per acre for a few
years at least. Although trees come into bearing younger in
the Pacific Northwest than in the Eastern States, it is probable -
that their productive life is considerably less.
Table 1 gives the average annual total and commercial
production of apples in the United States for the 1927-36
period and separately for 1937 and 1938. ‘This table brings
out the marked variations in given years from the long-term
average. Over a long period of time total production is de-
clining while commercial production is being maintained.
This is probably due to better orchard management and the
gradual concentration of the apple industry in the more-
favored fruit regions.
TABLE 1
PRODUCTION OF APPLES IN THE UNITED STATES
Average
ee 1937 1938
} Total: bushels: 3. 7. 2 =: 150,728,000 210,783,000 131,882,000
Commercial,* bushels. . . 92,821,000 115,733,000 82,395,000
*The part of the total crop sold for consumption in the fresh or original state.
The leading commercial states in order of their importance
are listed in Table 2. Note that there are wide fluctuations
from year to year from the long-term average. These fluc-
tuations are less marked in the Pacific Coast States than
elsewhere. Figure 1 also emphasizes this point.
The grower should study his orchards after the crop has
set, after the “June drop,” and at least once more a month
before harvest. He should estimate the probable yield by in-
specting at least 5 trees per acre carefully, taking pains not to
be misled by heavier crops on outside rows or on unimportant
varieties, or by a few trees carrying abnormal loads. If he
PICKING 5
TABLE 2
CoMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF APPLES BY STATES
1927-36
Soy Average 1937 1988 1939
1000 bu. | 1000 bu. | 1000 bu. | 1000 bu.
Washington................ 24,392 | 22,450 | 21,300 | 19,500
WNew Wark-.............:.- 11,444 | 12,863 9,800 | 14,500
Warmest ce nt eo 7,609 10,391 6,800 7,500
CAMEO ON a. eee oe * 4,945 5,529 4,202 4,354
TUS DLD" en Dee te ie eee 4,869 8,500 4,800 7,800
LEO 1 2 Wi A Oe Genre nee 3,759 3,100 2,500 2,150
Premmsy IV aMty 36.2 so ee 3,742 6,500 _ 3,800 6,100
West Virginia.............. 3,410 5,500 3,150 4,000
COS 20 SE al ai ea 2,964 6,000 1,950 5,800
Dremgn en s.8 0. es fens 2,905 2,154 2,500 2,000
fihineig 7s... te aes 2,823 5,900 1,950 4,700
New Jefsey 250.2. b 2,336 3,600 2,750 2,950
Massachusetts... ...0........ 2,081 2,598 | 1,413 2,420
P Oelenne, eer. SS 1,744 1,116 1,700 1,100
icmyiatnd eo. fi. Soe Le. 1,266 1,750 1,350 1,700
Wea WBC! Sw dupe ee ee 1,146 2,144 1,450 1,750
RSTO ee iis Se Ss 1,137 2,200 200 1,400
Gommermout oo. 5.2 = 957 1,500 946 1,030
wNigine 2.2055... iP renee 953 769 523 900
PREMAMGAS ooo. go esa os - 845 1,288 200 625
dna, os Se Oe 812 1,700 633 1,250
Wiinsteers es o g S oe os ak 725 978 500 770
will check these estimates against the final yield, doing this
year aiter year, correcting his figures according to the lessons
of the past, he will eventually be able to make estimates that
will be of very great value to him.
(6) Providing Adequate Equipment. The first thing to do
is to inventory the equipment on hand that is in usable con-
dition. Each picker should have a ladder which he can use
where needed and for which he is responsible. The ladder
6 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
should be light, strong, and well balanced. A flaring base
increases its stability. A ladder which is wide at the bottom
and tapers gradually to a point at the top is popular in many
sections. It can be shoved between the branches and into
small openings without disturbing the fruit and is raised
easily by one man. In other sections the open top pattern
‘COMMERCIAL APPLES: U.S. PRODUCTION BY REGIONS,1919-39
BUSHELS
(MILLIONS ) Centra/ :
Tota/ Western
125 Atlantic Coast
100 ie ne ae ———_—_
75 od — Bs
50 Pe
Be
25 ee
Rev
1919 1921 1923 1925 1927 1929 1931 1933 1935 1937 1939
# AUGUST I FORECAST
(U. 8. D. A.)
Fig. 1. About 60 percent of the total apple crop is commercial apples,
and the commercial crop is only slightly lower than it was 10 years ago.
Of the commercial crop, the Atlantic Coast States produce about 45
percent, the Western States about 35 per cent, and the Central States
about 20 percent. Commercial production fluctuates less in the Western
States than in the Central and Atlantic Coast States.
is preferred. Either type may be desirable or undesirable,
depending upon the man who handles it.
Ladders, of uniform type and length are best in orchards of
a given age. Many growers have adopted a 22-foot ladder for
bearing orchards; ladders of greater length are difficult for
one man to handle. Use as short a ladder as possible, keeping
in mind that pickers cannot work on a ladder in a position too
nearly vertical and that frequent reaching above the head
PICKING 7
because the ladder is too short reduces the quantity of fruit
picked.
The tops of many trees in some of the older sections cannot
be picked with anything shorter than a 28- or 30-foot ladder.
If such trees have a place in the commercial orchards of the
future, a well-balanced extension ladder will meet the need.
Step ladders-are also useful for small trees and those with
bearing surfaces near the
ground. <A _ single leg or
prop in front prevents tip-
ping. See Fig. 3.
In selecting receptacles
for picking, safety of fruit
from injury is the first con-
sideration. The second is
ease and rapidity of ma-
nipulation. Oak-stave bas-
kets, half-bushel or three-
quarter-bushel size, with
drop handles and padded
Inside have been popular Fig. 2. Careful inspection of the trees
in many sections. How- jg essential to a dependable crop
ever, the picker spends so estimate.
much time in moving them
about, even though the handles are equipped with hooks, and
it is so easy to dump the basket by catching it on a branch,
perhaps losing all the fruit in it, that this type of receptacle
is losing favor.
Large pails are preferred by many orchardists. They may
be attached to a strap over the shoulders. They are especi-
ally desirable for tender varieties. The sound of careless
pickers dropping the apples into them may be readily heard.
Picking bags with bottoms that open may answer for harder
varieties and in the hands of careful pickers. The bag enables
the picker to use both hands in picking but he is liable to bruise
the fruit by knocking the bag against the rungs of the ladder.
8 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
A metal picking bucket, with a canvas drop bottom, sus-
pended from the shoulders of the picker is now used almost ex-
clusively on the Pacific Coast and is gaining favor in Eastern
sections (Figs. 4 and 5). The sides have sufficient rigidity to
protect the fruit, and the receptacle is easily carried and
emptied.
|
’
—
eat ond les [EES
———
———J
a
4
\
)
es
i.
—— i ———_—____
| |
pn el ie
——_—————
_—-.
——
ilies
Fic. 3. Types of orchard ladders. The extension ladder at the left is too
cumbersome. The three ladders at the right, in varying lengths depend-
ing on the height of the trees, are most desirable. A distinct flare at
the base increases stability. :
If the trees are low and the crop is heavy, a 16-quart
peach basket makes a very good picking container. It can be
attached to the picker either by a heavy adjustable canvas
strap with hooks on each end of it or by fastening the ends to
a wire ring that will fit under the hoop on the basket.
Any receptacle may be satisfactory when used by a careful
workman; any may be objectionable, if carelessly used.
Receptacles into which the fruit may be emptied by the
PICKING 9
pickers must be provided. Slat crates are convenient to handle
and stack, but the sharp edges may dent and injure the fruit
unless the slats are close enough together to prevent this. Lug
boxes of solid but unfinished lumber, with slots in each end for
the hands and holding about a bushel, make good packages.
Fig. 4. This metal picking bucket, with
padded top and canvas drop bottom hold-
ing 14 bushel, is popular both in the East
and West. It protects the fruit and per-
mits the picker to use both hands. Some
growers prefer a larger receptacle, espe- Fig. 5. The same as Fig. 4 opened
cially for picking trees with high heads. to empty the fruit. The bucket may
be carried under one arm with the
strap over the shoulder, if desired.
_ By nailing strips on the top of each end, they may be stacked
without injury to the fruit.
Trucks, trailers, or wagons should be low to eliminate
as much lifting as possible. They should be equipped with
good springs and rubber tires so that the fruit will be carried
as carefully as possible. To be able to maneuver between the
trees the trucks must turn in a small place. Many fruit
10 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
growers make their orchard trucks from heavy second-hand
cars. Others use equipment which is specially designed by a
manufacturer of farm machinery. Wide racks to hold the
packages should be provided.
Containers in which to pack the fruit are treated later. The
grower will naturally, however, inventory his supply on hand
and order his requirements, including graders or other ma-
_chinery, for the coming season, when he jis arranging for the
equipment for his picking operations. A considerable saving
may usually be made by ordering early in the season.
(c) Securing an Adequate Supply of Labor. In established
_ orchard regions, practically all workers have had experience in
harvesting the crop. In addition to the labor which is resident
in the section throughout the year, hundreds of roving workers,
. both men and women, may come in for the picking season.
Frequently they return year after year and form a valuable
source of supply. The grower should have a nucleus of respon-
sible resident workers on whom he can rely. He may com-
plete his picking gang from this floating help.
In determining the amount of help needed, the grower must
be governed by the normal picking dates of his varieties, the
crop of each variety in a given year, and the amount of time at
his disposal to complete the picking operation. Such factors
as the location of the orchard, on steep or level land, and the
height of the trees will also enter in.
Picking is done by the day or by the piece. Picking by
the bushel will take more fruit from the trees in a given length
of time, but often it results in careless handling and serious
injury to the apples. Where the quantity to be picked is not
great, day labor well supervised will give better results; where
large quantities must be handled, the contract system, even
more carefully supervised, is preferable. The quantity picked
in a day will vary with many factors, as height of trees, how
full trees are, size of fruit, the ease with which it separates
from the spurs, etc. Under the piecework plan in the older
fruit sections with large and high trees, 50 to 60 bushels per
PICKING 11
day is a good average for an experienced picker who does
his work well.
In the younger orchards where trees with low heads and a
broad bearing surface in proportion to their height have been
developed, 75 to 100 bushels per day will be picked by piece-
work under normal conditions.
Day work will yield’ on the average from two-thirds to
three-fourths as much fruit as piecework.
- (d) Determining the Proper Time for Picking. The time
for picking must be determined both by economic and natural
factors. If the crop is large, the grower cannot wait until all
the fruit is in the best natural condition. He must begin his
harvest soon enough so that he may complete it before the
fruit is too long past the most favorable condition. If he has
varieties that mature a few weeks or even days apart, it will
help considerably in organizing his picking operations.
Consult the information on page 177 for the number of
days certain varieties require to mature as determined by the
United States Department of Agriculture. Always keep a
record of the date of full bloom of your varieties, and note
the variation in these dates from year to year.
Early or summer varieties which are moved to market at
once should usually be picked as soon as they reach merchant-
able size and color and while prices are good. ‘Later increases
in size and color usually are not sufficient to offset the rapidly
falling market.
If the fruit is to be held in storage for an indefinite time
after picking, the proper stage for picking becomes of very
great importance. This is especially true of varieties subject
to storage scald. The firmness of the flesh of the apple, the
amount of yellowing or the change in ground color in the
unblushed portions, and the ease with which the fruit separates
from the spurs are among the most important evidences of
proper maturity.
The degree of yellowing in the uncolored portion of the
fruit away from the sun is of considerable significance as an
12 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
indication of proper maturity. Standard color charts are
available from the United States Department of Agriculture.
The development of red color is a factor of great economic
importance. Red varieties should be left on the tree as long as
is possible with safety so that they may attain the highest
possible color. The dark or leaf green of the ground color
should be replaced by a decidedly lighter shade. Apples
picked while dead green, as has often been done with Rhode
Island Greening, are likely to “scald,” or turn brown in
storage.
Apples ripening in warm weather must be picked promptly
since they will deteriorate rapidly; those ripening in the late
fall may be picked over a longer period. The grower shouid
keep in mind that fruit ripens more slowly on the tree under
normal conditions than after picking or when held in common
storage. In other words the best place to keep apples, unless
they can go immediately into cold storage, is often on the tree.
The brown color of the seeds is another indication of ap-
proaching maturity but it is by no means conclusive evidence.
Apples grown in sod will mature more quickly than those grown
under cultivation. Those grown in sandy soils will mature
sooner than those grown in heavy soils. Fruit on the north
side of a tree colors more slowly than that on the south or east
sides.
As a general rule, pick the apples when most of them sepa-
rate easily from the fruit spurs, and before they begin to drop
freely. They will in most cases still be hard and: firm.
With some varieties, as McIntosh, it may be necessary
to make two or even more pickings in order to save the market-
able fruit, as some of the apples will color and drop before
the others are ready. Likewise trees of Wealthy may need
several pickings in order that all the crop may be of good size
and color.. Going over the trees more than once, or “spot
picking,” is becoming general practice in many fruit sections.
It is especially desirable in sections growing and packing high-
quality fruit. It is usually justifiable on the basis both of suffi-
PICKING 13
cient increase in value of the product, and of taking advantage
of the high prices often. prevailing early in the season.
Some varieties naturally “hang” better than others. The
good grower knows this and takes advantage of the fact in his
picking plans. In general, a variety with a long stem may be
-left longer than a variety with a short, clublike stem.
In recent years, to avoid repeated pickings and obtain the
best possible color, experiments have been conducted to see
to what extent apples change color after they have been
picked. With some varieties a much improved color may be
obtained on the green apples left on a mulch under the tree
for a few days. This is especially true of McIntosh. Such
fruit, when placed in storage, does not remain as firm as fruit
freshly stored. If it is watched carefully, however, it may be
placed on the market as of a higher grade than if it lacked
the added color. The fruit should not be placed in direct
sunlight, but in partial shade. Developments in this field
should be watched carefully during the next few years, especi-
ally in sections close to market.
A New Consideration. Efforts are now being made to con-
trol the pre-harvest drop of apples by spraying the fruit with
certain plant hormones or growth substances. Rather re-
markable results have been achieved to date, and the investi-
gations are being continued. Work in this field has thus far
been done by the United States Department of Agriculture
at its horticultural station at Beltsville, Maryland, and in
cooperation with the Department of Pomology of Cornell
University in western New York.
The matter is of great importance to the grower, since any
economical procedure which will both hold the fruit longer on
the trees and increase its color works greatly to his advantage.
The yield of hand-picked fruit will be correspondingly in-
creased, the higher color adds to the value of every bushel,
and the lengthened period of harvest helps the grower with his
labor problem. Some varieties, noticeably McIntosh, drop
freely and almost unpredictably. It so happens that McIntosh
14 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
is one of the varieties most influenced by the treatment. How-
ever, all the twenty odd varieties thus far used in the ex-
periments have responded to a marked degree.
The treatment delays the formation of the abscission layer
between the stem and the spur, and because of this delay
the fruit does not drop. Among the many synthetic growth
substances used, naphthaleneacetic acid and naphthaleneace-
tanide have been most effective with little to choose between
them. Quantities used are exceedingly small, a concentration
of 0.0005 percent or 5 parts per million being effective. This
is about a half teaspoonful to 100 gallons of water. The
materials to date have been dissolved in small quantities of
ethyl or methyl alcohol (merely to hasten solution) and
added directly to water in the spray tank. The use of spreaders
has also seemed desirable. Combinations with the usual
orchard sprays have not been attempted because this is a
harvest or pre-harvest application.
The coverage of the fruit must be thorough. This may
require from 5-8 gallons on small bearing trees to as much
as 20 gallons on large trees carrying heavy crops. The effect
of the application on most varieties is marked for 2 to 3 weeks.
With McIntosh, however, with materials used to date the
effect diminishes sharply after 8 or 9 days. It is probable,
therefore, that the application should be made on McIntosh
just as dropping begins. A second spray may be applied as
the effect of the first wears off if the quantity of fruit to be
harvested and the cost make it advisable. °
McIntosh trees receiving the one treatment ee yielded
nearly 14 bushels of picked fruit against 8 bushels from check
trees. At the end of 8 days after the treatment the percentage
of drop has been 6.8 percent against 35.9 percent on check
trees. To date no undesirable after-effects on fruit or tree
have been noted.
Costs at present are rather high (in 1939, four or five cents
per gallon of spray). It is expected, however, that, with a
large potential market, chemical companies wil] be able
PICKING 15
greatly to reduce these costs and bring them well within the
range of economical procedure for the grower. Substantial
improvements in convenience of handling, probably making
the materials available in units to be added to the spray tank,
are also expected.
It should be kept in mind that these are preliminary find-
ings. Future developments should be watched with the
greatest care. The matter is one of great possibilities and
implications. The grower should keep in touch with the
United States Department of Agriculture, the experimental
stations and colleges, and the usual public service agencies.
(e) Picking the Crop. Begin with the lower branches and
work upward in order to reduce dropping of fruit to a mini-
mum. The stems should not be twisted or torn out, because
appearance and keeping qualities are injured. The spurs
should not be damaged, because on them depends subsequent
crops. The fruit must not be cut with the finger nails or
dropped into the receptacle. It is a ruinous and shortsighted
policy to bring fruit to maturity in a high degree of perfection
and then to depreciate its value in the picking and packing
processes.
Remove the fruit with an upward motion and twist of the
wrist. Harvest it only when dry, if possible, since wet fruit
has a soiled appearance, and, if it goes into a closed packing at
once, provides oo Penciione for development of scab,
mold, ete.
As a rule, put only one or at most two men on a tree, both
because of greater efficiency in the picking process, and because
their work may be carefully checked.
A convenient way for one man to raise a ladder is to irade
one leg or side of the ladder into the ground or against a firm
support and to elevate it sidewise, exerting some pressure down-
ward at the same time to keep the base from slipping. In car-
rying the ladder allow it to tip back over the head slightly out
of the vertical, grasping a rung near the base with one hand and
another rung with a hand extended above the head.
16 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
Place the ladder when possible in such a position that if dis-
lodged it will fall toward the center of the tree, so that its fall -
will be arrested before it has gone far. Most accidents come
from failure to observe this precaution.
The pickers should be relieved of the fruit near the trees
they are picking so that they give all their time to the picking
operation. Other workers may empty the fruit carefully into
crates or lug boxes to be hauled to some central point or
packing shed, or if the fruit is packed in’ the orchard, they
may take it directly to the packing tables. There should
be an adequate supply of picking receptacles so that the
pickers do not have to wait for them.
The rate of picking has been indicated in connection with
securing an adequate supply of labor. The grower may well
give considerable thought to the details of organization of his
picking crew, in order that the job may be well done, with the
greatest possible efficiency under the conditions. With cold
weather approaching, with heavy winds in prospect and the
fruit ready to come off, every hour is. precious.
2. Packing. Whether or not the grower packs his own
fruit will depend upon the method of sale of his crop as pre-
sented under “Marketing.” In any case, the fruit should
either be packed at once after picking, or put in storage where
deterioration will be arrested until the packing is done. Some
growers who have their own cold-storage plants put the fruit
as it comes from the trees directly into storage and pack it out
at their convenience and as they wish to market it, after the
picking season is over. As arule, however, storage costs should
not be incurred on fruit which will be discarded in the packing
operation and by far the larger proportion of the commercial
crop is packed immediately after picking.
Procedure:
(a) Determining type of package to use.
(6b) Determining grades and sizes to be made.
(c) Determining where packing is to be done.
ee ee cs,
PACKING 17
(d) Grading the fruit.
(e) Packing in barrels.
(f) Packing in Western boxes.
(g) Packing in Eastern boxes.
(h) Packing in baskets.
(2) Removing spray residues.
(a) Determining Type of Package to Use. Apples go to
market in many containers. Each has its uses and particular
adaptations.
In making his decision as to the type of package to use the
grower should take into account the following factors:
(1) Varieties.
(2) Quality of the crop.
(3) Market preferences and tendencies.
(4) Size of commercial crop.
(5) Size of individual crop.
(6) Where crop is marketed.
(7) Specifications of packages.
(1) Varieties. Quality apples should go into a package
that means quality to the buyer and consumer. It is equally
true that quality packages should not be used for mediocre
fruit. Quality in fruit is a term which to the consumer means
external attractiveness and finish, as much as or more than
flavor. |
Some varieties are extremely tender. McIntosh is an exam-
ple. Varieties that are commonly regarded as dessert or eat-
ing apples should as a rule be packed in containers that insure
as far as possible freedom from bruising and perfect condition.
Varieties of medium quality purchased for cooking and gen-
eral uses, as Baldwin or York Imperial, may well be packed
in the larger containers. :
_ (2) Quality of the Crop. Owing to the season or to better
management on the part of the grower, the quality of the crop
may be much higher one year than another. This may justify
a change in the type of package used. The appearance and
18 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
finish of the crop may raise it not only to a higher grade but
perhaps to a package representing higher standards. The
grower should not be misled, however, by the presence of a
minor quantity of highly colored and attractive specimens in
the crop. To pack these into the higher grades may so reduce
the appearance of the remainder of the crop as to make the
project uneconomical. The attempt to.pack the whole crop
in a higher grade than the bulk of the crop justi may have-
the same result.
(3) Market Preferences and Tendencies. The grower is
concerned not merely with the disposition of his crop for a
single year. The general trend of the market in its preferences
is of great importance to him.
Market standards and requirements are gradually on the
upgrade. Products, packages, and methods of packing accept-
able to one generation may not satisfy generations that follow:
A few years ago the barrel was a very common package
for domestic use. Now it is limited almost entirely to export
trade. The barrel is a larger package than the fruit trade
or the ultimate consumer of the present generation desires.
It is not a good display package. Careless methods of pack-
ing and its use for mediocre fruit, much of which should not
have been put in closed packages, have destroyed confidence
in it. |
Boxes of one style or another and holding approximately
one bushel are the favored commercial packages of the day.
They vary as to design and type and method of packing ac-
cording to section and use as indicated under (7) Speczfications
of Packages.
Bushel baskets are still used but are losing favor. They
are difficult to stack and store and are not rigid enough to
give the fruit as much protection as is desirable.
Many small containers of family size for roadside stands
and direct to the consumer trade have been developed.
The important thing is to determine which package the
particular trade to be served desires.
PACKING 19
(4) Size of Commercial Crop. When the commercial crop
of the country is short, the proportion of the crop to be put in
closed packages may usually be increased to advantage. When
the crop is average or above, the standards must be raised
correspondingly, only the better fruit being likely to pay the
attendant costs.
This does not mean that the grades themselves should be
changed from year to year. To have value, such grades should
mean the same thing each year to the trade, thus giving sta-
bility to the market. It does mean that fruit which may not
pay in its proper grade in years of heavy production may pay
well when so packed in years of shortage.
(5) Size of Individual Crop. The grower’s procedure with
regard to packages will be governed somewhat by the size of
his own crop. With a short crop, he can give special attention
to his packing, and to training resident laborers in improved
packing practices. Such labor will then be ready to assist him
in years of heavy production.
(6) Where Crop is Marketed. The export trade recognizes
but three packages, the box, the barrel, and the bushel basket.
When the grower uses his own local market, the number and
type of packages that are acceptable increase considerably.
Selection of packages must thus be made with the market in
mind.
(7) Specifications of Packages. Barrel: The standard
apple barrel possesses the following specifications:
Length of stave 284 inches, diameter of head 1714 inches, distance
between heads 26 inches, circumference at center 64 inches outside meas-
urement, capacity 7056 cubic inches. Its capacity is thus somewhat more
than 3 bushels. Federal laws require its branding “Min. Vol. 3 bu.”
A. barrel of like capacity is also standard, though its dimensions may
differ. An apple barrel is made of gum, oak, pine, poplar, birch, etc., the
harder woods being more difficult to work by the cooper and not making
as neat a package. The hoops are usually second-growth elm, six in
number on the American barrel, two at each end and two quarter hoops.
The Canadian barrel has eight hoops. Wire and iron hoops are used to
some extent. The heads are of hard wood, preferably ash. A No. 1
20 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
barrel has 16 staves, free from knots, averaging 4 inches in width at the
bilge, and heads of 2 or 3 pieves.
The barrel comes to the grower set up with heads and hoops
in place, but without nails as a rule, although two nails are
sometimes used to fasten each quarter hoop. The barrel can
thus be stored until needed for use without danger of warping.
Box: ‘The box is usually of spruce or pine and should be
made up from sound, clean stock, dressed on the outer surface.
In the East the most common box is one which, when
properly filled, contains 114 bushels. It is not intended to be
filled higher than the ends of the box or to become a closed
package with a bulge on top and bottom like the Western box.
The New York and New England or Eastern apple box is 16 by 135%
by 11% inches, inside dimensions. The ends and cleats are %g¢ inch thick,
sides 14 inch, and the tops and bottoms %g¢ inch thick.
The Western box is heavier for longer transportation. It is 10% by
1144 by 18 inches, inside measurements. For odd sizes of fruit the —
special box, 10 by 11 by 20 inches, is used. One-piece ends are 34 inch
thick. Tops and bottoms consist of two pieces %4 inch thick; sides of
one piece 3g inch thick. Many firms furnishing box materials outside
the commercial box regions depart from these specifications, but experi-—
ence has demonstrated that changes, if made at all, should be made only
within very narrow limits. Tops and. bottoms must be thin enough to
spring when the box is packed, thus making the bulge which insures a
tight pack, automatically kept so by the tension of top and bottom.
After packing, the boxes are piled on the sides. Boxes should be nailed,
as dovetailed boxes have not proved satisfactory.
Boxes may be purchased either flat (Knocked Down—K.D.)
or nailed ready for use, the first being the usual custom. Many
local dealers in supplies have nailing machines and will nail
the boxes more economically than the grower can do it by hand.
The United States struck bushel (2150.4 cubic inches) is not
adhered to in any type of box. The Western box contains 2173
cubic inches.
Bushel basket: This is a more inexpensive type of con-
tainer which is very good for lower-priced fruit. Various
makes and types of bushel baskets are available, including
PACKING 21
those having flat bottoms, stitched-in bottoms, removable
bottoms, etc. The so-called continuous-stave flat-bottom
baskets are desirable.
Paper and fiber cartons: There is no standard type of
apple carton. Heavy paper or fiber board cartons vary in
size from those which hold six apples to those. which hold a
bushel. Once the fruit is graded and sized these boxes may
be easily packed. Through the use of decorative brands,
colorful labels, and Cellophane tops they can be made very
attractive (Fig. 6).
Some of these cartons have not remained sealed well after
packing, especially when held in cold storage. Under extreme
conditions, such as the presence of excessive moisure, they have
lost their shape. Recent improvements have remedied some
of their defects so that they are satisfactory in dry storage.
Hampers of various shapes and sizes are used for local
trade, but have not met.the requirements of the general
market.
(6) Determining Grades and Sizes to Be Made. Some of
the factors under determining the type of package to use have
a bearing on this question. “Grade” refers to the exterior
quality of the fruit, color, freedom from blemishes, firmness,
and soundness. ‘‘Size” relates to the transverse diameter of
the apple at its point of greatest circumference between stem
and calyx. Size varies with the year and with the variety.
A 2%-inch Jonathan and a 3-inch Stayman may be equally
high in grade.
Many states now have grading and branding laws. The
esrower should become familiar with those of his own state.
Federal grades are also in effect and are now being adopted by
many states and by the apple trade. These grades are known
as U.S. Fancy, U. 8. No. 1, U. 8. Commercial, U. 8. Utility,
U. 8. Hail Grade, and Unclassified. They represent a de-
cided advance over former trade grades and introduce an
element of stability in the market that is of advantage to all.
In the absence of mandatory acts the grower who is intent
HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
(National Container Assn.)
Fic. 6. These cartons make attractive packages and afford opportunity
for advertising.
PACKING 23
upon building a reputation as a dispenser of good fruit will
wish to set high standards for himself. Many associations
have rules and standards much higher than those of the fed-
eral and state grades.
Packing laws in some states require that closed packages
must be labeled with the variety name, the name and address
of the grower or packer, and the grade and minimum size of
the fruit. This information must also be furnished when
packing under the federal grades.
The following are samples of markings, which should ap-
pear on closed packages of apples grown in various states and
packed for sale under some of the United States grades.
Barrel:
New York Apples Ohio Apples
U. 8S. Fancy Uses Nos
Baldwin—2%-in. Min. Min. 2%-in. Rome Beauty
John Jones, Rochester, N. Y. John Jones, Canton, Ohio
UU. 8: Std. Bbl* U. S. Std. Bbl*
Carton: Bushel:
Virginia Apples Maryland—U. S. No. 1
Ue 8S) Novi Delicious—Min. 2% in.
Stayman Winesap John Jones, Frederick, Md.
John Jones Std. Bu*
Winchester, Va.
This package contains
108 2-in. apples
Net weight... lbs.
At the present time only the most tender-skinned fruits are
sized by hand. There are ia number of types of power-
operated machines which size apples very rapidly and ac-
curately (Figs. 7 to 14 inclusive). Uniformity in size as well
as in other qualities plus quantity handling are now matters
of prime importance. At present the tendency is to sort by
means of mechanical devices into lots of several sizes with
si Wi packages are marked by the manufacturer “U. 8. Std. Bbl.” or
“U.S. Std. Bu.” such markings need not be made a part of stencil.
24 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
-¥4- to 14-inch difference between them, all apples being of the
same grade and all uniform in size within narrow limits in a
given package. The finished package looks better, and the
buyer knows what to expect and can make his calculations
better. The selling price is therefore more satisfactory.
The sizer should provide facilities at the hopper end for
sorting the fruit for blemishes before passing it to the sizing
section. Workers may remove defective specimens while the
fruit is moving slowly on the conveyors en route to the vari-
ous compartments. The sizing devices may be diverging belts
= See
(Geo. G. Bates)
Fic. 7. A simple, but effective machine which both cleans and sizes the
fruit. The cleaning device is a flexible bristle brush running over the
top of the fruit. The sizing mechanism, the spiral rollers, directs the
fruit to the various compartments.
or spiral rollers, or rings or cups of varying sizes, dropping out
the culls first, carrying the smaller sizes into side compart-
ments and the largest size for which the machine is set to the
end or the last compartment. The fruit is then packed from
these compartments.
Western boxed apples are graded as Extra Fancy, Fancy,
or C grade. The size is denoted by the number of apples in
the box. Extra Fancy calls for the highest measure of per-
fection that can be attained commercially; Fancy allows for
some tolerance as to color and slight imperfections; C grade
takes fruit of less color and less perfect as to shape, etc.,
though still perfectly sound.
PACKING 20
(Butler Mfg. & Machinery Co.)
Fic. 8. The sizing device here is a series of rubber cups which pass,
from one row of cups to another, apples which are too large to fit, the
largest apples going to the end bins, the smaller ones passing to the
side compartments. All compartments holding fruit are equipped with
sponge rubber pads. Capacity as shown here is 100 to 130 bushels
per hour.
B
(Butler Mfg. é Machinery Oo.)
Fic. 9. A unit of rollers attached to the hopper of the machine shown
in Fig. 8 to permit thorough inspection of the fruit before reaching
the sizing cups. The spirals are soft cord. Revolving slowly, the
rollers turn the apples eight to ten times.
26 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
Eastern growers are seeking to retain the Eastern box for
only high-grade fruit, disposing of the less desirable grades
(The Trescott Oo., Inc.)
Fig. 10. This grader is equipped with a detachable cleaning mechanism.
Small apples are removed as they leave the hopper. The others pass
through the cleaner, on to the elevator and the sizing device, a series
of rings of varying sizes, and thence to the packing bins.
in other ways. This is an effort that merits widespread
support.
(The Trescott Oo., Inc.)
Fic. 11.’ The machine shown in Fig. 10 in actual use in a Virginia
packing house. Tender varieties should not be allowed to accumulate
in such large quantities in the packing compartments.
Two grades and a varying number of sizes are commonly
made of apples packed in baskets.
Table 3 gives the average grading records for a 5-year
PACKING
eriod for certain individual growers selling through a Michi-
an cooperative shipping organization. |
Note the differences in run of crop between No. 13 and
o. 25. Net prices to growers for bushel baskets during this
(Niagara Sprayer & Chemical Oo.)
1G. 12. Another make of sizer equipped with a cleaning section Just
beyond the first sizing unit which removes the cider apples. Hopper
in the foreground.
eriod were: A grade $0.90; B grade $0.56; C grade $0.16.
The causes of the poorer grades of fruit are indicated in
Table 4, showing the percentages of specimens placed in
and C grades because of certain defects as between different
A IEEE, SS TS A a EO: A NAS I
i a
28 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
(John Bean Mfg. Qo.)
Fic. 13. A cleaner and polisher consisting of a combination of brushes
and cloth wipers attached to the sizing mechanism. The apples enter
the cleaner at the left.
(Cutler Mfg. Oo.)
Fic. 14. A battery of rotary bin sizing machines, separating the apples
according to weight. Each machine has forty-four bins, making pos-
sible eleven separations for size in several grades from the standpoint
of quality. At the lower left are two stands mounted on castors. The
packers place their boxes on them, wheel them from bin to bin, wrap-
ping each apple and placing it carefully but rapidly in the box. In the
immediate foreground is a conveyor, the top section taking the packed
boxes away, the lower section bringing the empty boxes back. Boxes
are stamped with variety and grade designations and with the number
of apples in the box. Lidding presses fasten the covers. Each machine
has a capacity of 200 packed boxes per hour.
PACKING 29
TABLE 3
App_Le Grapina Recorp oF MicuigAN GROWERS’
SELLING THROUGH A COOPERATIVE*
(Five-Year Period—in Percentages)
Number A B C Canner Shs Bulk
fied
1 57 22 9 5 6 1
13 74 13 9 0 0 +
25 24 7 10 0 0 09
28 30 30 28 3 2 7
29 22 32 Al 3 0 2
70 70 17 10 1 0 2
* V. R. Gardner, Proceedings, N. Y. State Horticultural Society, 1928. From
Mich. Special Bul. 160, by H. P. Gaston.
TABLE 4
CaussEs oF Low GRADES-oF APPLES*
B Grade C Grade
Variety Injury
Grower 1 | Grower 2 | Grower 1 | Grower 2
Percent Percent Percent Percent
McIntosh... .| Scab 70.3 ak 60.6 6.8
TUNG igs: Stings 45.5 20.2 28.3 10.0
IN. Spy. .2.%.- Bruises 47.3 14.4 44.7 8.4
Greening..... Limb rub 58.7 24.1 73.7 14.5
Baldwin..... Size 94.4 63.0 90.3 44.4
*V. R. Gardner, Proceedings, N. Y. State Horticultural Society, 1928. From
Mich. Special Bul. 160, by H. P. Gaston.
~
a ti eed is
A LAAT ak te
Fe Il Ser
30 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
growers and different varieties. For instance, of all the McIn-
tosh of Grower 1 that were placed in B grade, 70.3: per cent
were so placed because of scab. Cull fruit adds greatly to
packing costs and is worth nothing in itself.
It is evident that most of the causes of off-grade fruit are
preventable by better orchard practices and greater care in
handling. Thinning, care in spraying and handling the fruit,
proper fertilization of the soil, and adequate pruning all have
their influence. |
(c) Determining Where Packing Is to Be Done. » The
grower may pack his fruit (1) in the orchard, (2) in his own
packing house, or (3) in a community packing house.
(1) Orchard packing was at one time the most common
procedure in the East. The operation is subject to interruption
by the weather; it is not possible to have as adequate facili-
ties or those so conveniently arranged as in a stationary plant.
It may not be feasible with the large quantities of fruit now
grown by single individuals.
Something can be said, however, under certain condi-
tions for orchard packing. The emphasis now is on handling
the fruit as little as possible. Some growers of McIntosh
have found it desirable to pack in the orchard directly from
the containers which the pickers have deposited. They set
up their boxes into which the fruit 1s to be packed on port-
able tables of simple design between the tree rows (in the
shade, if the sun is hot), size and grade the fruit by hand,
place the packed boxes in the shade, and move along with
the picking gang. The packed boxes are picked up by truck
and taken to their destination. One or more units of this
type may be set up. The procedure works well if properly
organized.
(2) Use of the grower’s packing house follows the present
general tendency toward packing fruit in central plants rather
than in the orchards. This is a practice long followed in the
West. Work may thus go on in all kinds of weather if a
supply of fruit is picked ahead for such emergencies. More
PACKING 31
suitable packing equipment can be installed, including better
packing tables and mechanical sizers, and the packages may
be kept under cover at all times. With increasing competition
from all sections, greater care in packing becomes absolutely
essential. This factor, together with that of greater rapidity
in grading, has stimulated the development of the packing
house and the use of mechanical devices.
(3) The community packing house is a further develop-
ment. The grower may deliver his fruit and leave the grading
and packing to be done there, at a certain charge, while he
gives all his attention to harvesting the crop. This is the
custom packing house, common in some sections.
Packing houses, operated on a cooperative basis, are now
found in many sections, including Nova Scotia, New York,
Pennsylvania, and other Eastern states, as well as the Pacific
Northwest. They make possible the packing of a large quan-
tity of fruit of a certain standard, which greatly facilitates its
marketing. They allow the individual grower to confine his
attention to getting the crop off the trees in good season and to
the packing house in good condition. They make possible
the growing of a larger quantity of fruit by the individual
because he does not have to concern himself with the packing.
These community houses may be federated into a central
organization which undertakes to handle the marketing, to
purchase supplies, ete.
How a Cooperative Packing House Operates. Though there are vari-
ations in methods, a typical packing house operates as follows: The fruit
is delivered tree-run at the packing house by the grower. Containers
are stamped with the grower’s number, and a receipt is issued to the
grower giving the number of the containers and the varieties delivered
by him. The fruit is graded and sized into 4- or %-inch sizes, and
packed, each grower’s fruit being run separately. The number of pack-
ages of the various grades and sizes and the number of pounds of culls
are entered on the association’s books, after which the fruit frequently
loses its identity from the grower’s standpoint.
In some places, instead of grading all the fruit of an individual
grower separately, a few sample bushels are graded by hand from each
32 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
load which he brings in. The balance of the load is estimated according
to the findings of the sample. This avoids running small lots through
the sizers, recording them, and clearing the machines before starting
with a different lot, thus saving considerable time and increasing the
output of the packing crew.
Returns are usually made on the pool basis, a pool eatenling
through all or part of the season, being made for each variety, grade, and
size. A grower receives the net price after packing charges are deducted,
constituting the average price for the pooling period for the variety,
grade, and size in question. The accounts cannot be completely cleaned
up until the season is over, but advances are made to the grower in the
meantime, only a small balance remaining at the close of the season.
Instead of pooling the fruit, that owned by each grower may be sold
separately and returns made on his own product.
Although the packed fruit is usually sold by the association, it may
be sold by the grower. In any event he pays all the costs. Packing
costs are determined by taking the total cost of labor, supplies, depre-
ciation of buildings and equipment, insurance, and interest on invest-
'ment, and prorating them on the basis of the quantity of fruit brought
to the packing house by each grower. The charge is thus made against
unpacked rather than packed fruit. This is fair, since packing costs are
as high on 100 bushels of tree-run fruit which sort out 50 bushels of
culls and low-grade fruit, as on 100 bushels which pack up 70 bushels or
more of high-grade fruit. This plan also stimulates the growing of
good fruit and the keeping of poor stuff away from the packing house.
It is evident that volume is a very essential factor for successful
cooperative effort. Packing costs decrease very rapidly in every detail
with increase in volume.
Requirements for a Good Packing House. Such a packing
house should have adequate facilities for receiving fruit
without keeping the drivers waiting to unload, and for ac-
cumulating a reasonable supply to pack when the weather
prevents hauling. It must be well lighted over the sizers
and packing tables and efficiently arranged for handling the
fruit. Conveyors should be installed for carrying culls out
of the way, for transporting empty packages, and for moving
the packed fruit. Storage space should be provided for at
least part of the season’s supply of packages and for holding
the packed fruit until a carload is ready, unless the fruit
PACKING do
can be loaded immediately into cars standing on a side track
or can go to cold storage by truck.
A loft for empty packages and supplies, a well-lighted first
floor for the packing operation, and a basement for the packed
fruit make a good arrangement. Such a house would need to
be built on a slope so that the first floor and basement might
both be at ground level. Ventilation in the fruit room is im-
portant. Instead of storing packages in a loft, some growers
prefer to store them in an adjoining building, and through
the use of skylights make more light available to the packing
floor (Fig. 15).
Floor plans of desirable houses for barrel and box packing
may be obtained from the United States Department of Agri-
culture.
(d) Grading. In grading U. 8. No. 1 fruit, whether by
hand or machine, discard all apples showing limb rubs, spray
burn, sun scald, russeting, hail, visible water core, disease, or
insect or mechanical injuries, and fruit which is overripe
or out of condition. A small proportion of these defects is
allowable, but some fruit possessing them will remain even
though the operator removes all that he can find. He should
seek to pack well above the minimum grade standards. Han-
dle the fruit with the greatest care. Do not press or drop it.
Be familiar with the grade requirements (see General In-
formation at the close of this chapter) as to color and size.
Keep sample specimens in view until proficiency is attained.
Use both hands, and strive constantly for greater speed and
accuracy. Look at the apples as they lie on the table. Pick
them up in such manner that as the wrists turn the undisclosed
portions of the fruit come into view. Most mechanical sizers
turn the fruit on the rolls or belts to afford opportunity for
thorough inspection—an opportunity which is often neglected.
(e) Packing in Barrels. Inasmuch as very little fruit is
now packed in barrels and that almost entirely for export, the
subject is treated under General Information at the close of
this chapter.
34 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
(f) Packing in Western Boxes. The box has become the
standard package for apples. In the West and in British
Columbia it has been the universal package for many years.
Fig. 15. (a) A western New York community packing house. The fruit
is received at the left, packed through the house, and loaded on a railroad
siding at the right. Two doors for unloading or for removing culls are
available around the left corner. The lighting arrangement for packing
is very poor. (b) This is a Maryland packing house. The packed fruit
goes onto cars at a lower level on the right. The lighting is excellent.
A storage for packages is just out of the picture on the left.
A large measure of attention to individual trees reduces
to a minimum the proportion of fruit that is medium or below
in size, color and perfection, and increases correspondingly the
proportion of high-grade fruit. This does not mean that culls
PACKING 35
-are unknown in good fruit regions. The disposal of fruit too
poor to box is one of the serious problems confronting the box
apple territory.
(1) Grading the Fruit: The fruit must be very carefully
graded as to size, shape, and color, fruit blemished by insect or
disease being discarded as required by the grade terms. Defi-
nite styles and types of packs based on long experience have
been worked out. The trade desires to know the number of
apples in each box.
Standard numbers have been determined for apples of a
certain size, packed according to a certain style. It is there-
fore evident that there must be little variation in size between
the individual apples.
Mechanical devices are used very extensively for sizing,
though much fruit is still graded by hand. The machines per-
form the work more quickly but unless operated with great
care may injure the fruit more than hand sizing by experi-
enced workers. Machines should provide ample space for
removing inferior fruit before the sizing mechanism is reached.
(2) Supplies and Accessories: Specifications for the box
have already so given in connection with “Determining the
package to use.’
A bench upon which to make the boxes, with nail box, auto-
matic nail stripper to enable the workman to get hold of the
nails, and a box hatchet, will be needed. For the wrapping
paper, a hod that clips to the box or packing stand is necessary.
A clip under spring tension will hold the paper in place and re-
lease one sheet at a time.
Nails—Four- or five-penny, cement coated or waxed, 8 nails for each side,
bottom and top, 32 nails to the box.
Cleats—Used on each end of top and bottom. Drive through cleats when
nailing top and bottom. Soak cleats if inclined to split.
Lining paper—Used for all except poorer grades of fruit. Blue for Extra
Fancy, pink for Fancy, white for C. grade, of 23-pound news grade
or 20-pound sulfide, two pieces per box, each piece 171% by 26
inches. -Put in the pieces, so as to overlap on bottom with a slight
ae ee Set oe _ Ly de a ite a i
aay
D
S
(U
hich to wrap an apple.
thod
in one me
In W
HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
teps employed
hows the various s
There are several satisfactory ways
is s
Th
16
36
Fic
PACKING of
fold along bottom edges to afford slack which will be taken up when
the cover is put on, without tearing the paper. After the box is
packed, the top edges are folded across each other.
(U.S. D. A.)
Fic. 17. Wrapping an apple, continued from Fig. 16.
Wrapping paper—Paper now commonly used is 12- or 14-pound glazed
on surface away from fruit. Wrapped apples pack more easily
than unwrapped, are protected from injury and decay, and give evi-
38 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
dence of care in preparing the package for market. The size of the
paper varies with the size of the fruit. Wraps for the largest apples
are 12 by 12 or 14 by 14 inches; for apples running 64 to 80 to the
box, 11 by 11 inches; 88 to 113, 10 by 10 inches; 125 to 180, 9 by 9
inches, for smaller sizes 8 by 8 inches, though such sizes are some-
times packed without wrappers. The wraps may be stamped with
the brand or trade mark. Oiled wraps are largely used for varieties
that are to be stored, as indicated under “Storage Scald.”
Stamps—After the fruit is packed, the name of the variety, the grade, the
number of apples in the box, and the minimum net weight are
stamped in purple ink on the end of the box above the label.
Assorted stamps will be needed for these purposes. Stamping
machines that ink themselves are used in some packing houses.
Labels—of different colors depending on the grade of the fruit are com-
monly used. Blue for Extra Fancy, pink for Fancy, and white for
C grade are standard colors. These labels have been worked out
in simple and attractive designs and combinations. They are pasted
on the ends of the box, and are of such size as to leave about a
¥%-inch space at the top for the stamping. A high grade of paste
is used. As a matter of economy, many labels are now put on
before the boxes are made up. 7
(3) Wrapping the Apple: No two persons wrap an apple in
exactly the same manner. It should be kept in mind that, since
the whole process has to occur with every apple packed, it is
vital that every unnecessary motion be eliminated. This calls
for much practice and precision. When the operation is com-
pleted, the loose ends of the paper should be folded neatly
under the apple as it lies in the box. See Figs. 16 and 17.
The diagonal pack (Fig. 18) 1s commonly used, because it
is easier to pack, the fruit fits snugly together, the finished pack
remains tight longer, and there is less danger of bruising. In
this style of pack the apples are always placed in spaces be-
tween apples rather than directly over or against them. It
will be found possible by packing the fruit either on the side
or end to use the diagonal pack in nearly all cases. The 2-2 or
3-2 diagonal packs will take most commercial sizes of fruit.
The largest sizes may have to be packed 2-1, and the small
sizes 3-3. Diagrams in Farmers’ Bulletin 1457 illustrate types
f
.
;
q
ae
pied
|
it;
|
:
PACKING a9
of packs, number of layers and of apples in a layer, and the
number of apples in the packed box.
HOW TO START HOW TO START HOW TO START HOW TO START
A 2-1 PACK A 2-2 PACK A 3-2 PACK A 3-3 PACK
Fic. 18. The diagonal pack adapted to apples of varying sizes.
Start the pack against the lower end of the box nearest the
packer, the box being tilted so that the fruit will remain in
(U.S. DA.)
Fig. 19. The upper box illustrates correct height and bulge; the center
box is packed too high; the lower box too low.
place. Great importance attaches to getting the initial layer
in place correctly with no free space between the last apples
40 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
and the end of the box. The medium and small sizes may
be tightened in the layers considerably by pulling the layer
toward the packer, from time to time in the packing process.
The larger sizes should fit well, but should not be tightened
much as the bulge in the finished box may be too high.
Ee
L
p fs
ie
&
is
p
(U; S.D, A.)
Fic. 20. A desirable arrangement for nailing the covers on boxes. The
press is simple and easily operated from the foot pedal. The boxes to be
covered come to the press on a conveyor at the right, and after nailing
are set on the conveyor at the left.
Carry each layer through to completion before starting
another. The packer will need to make adjustments and selec-
tion so as to have the fruit about 4% inch above the ends of the
box and about 1 inch above the sides at the center when the
pack is completed (Fig. 18). The bulge should be gradual
ee
PACKING Al
and uniform with no sags or low apples, reaching its highest
point at the center, so that when the cover is nailed the pack-
age will be springy and tight. With most varieties it will help
to secure the proper bulge if the packer places the apples in
each row and each layer that are adjacent to the ends of the
box on end rather than on the cheek, so that their diameters
build up the height of the pack less than do the apples in the
center.
In addition to nailing the cover, boxes intended for export
should be wired at the ends.
(g) Packing in Eastern Boxes. As a rule the fruit in the
Eastern box is not wrapped. The apples are placed in the
box by hand, the box is shaken several times to settle the fruit,
the top layer is made as orderly as possible, care being taken
not to elevate the fruit. above the ends of the box. A colored
paper cover is placed over the fruit and nailed in place by
slats across the ends. The boxes may then be piled on trucks
or in storage without damage to the fruit.
It is well to use oiled paper if the fruit is to be put into
storage, as indicated under Storage Scald, page 66.
In packing the box, facers are sometimes used on the top ©
of the box. By attaching the facer first, turning the box up-
side down, packing the first layer, filling the box without
placing the fruit in layers, nailing on the bottom, inverting the
box, and removing the facer, it is possible to have a very good-
looking pack with a minimum amount of labor. The use of
a cardboard cover instead of the facer makes a very solid
package. This cover is nailed in place by two narrow slats
and then the box is filled in exactly the same manner as when
an ordinary facer is used.
A successful grower of fine apples in the Hudson Valley
section of New York gives these directions for packing the
box:
In the construction of the box, omit the nailing of the bottom but
instead nail the two slats on the top. Invert the box ready to face
and fill. Place a corrugated paper sheet, 14 by 1634 inches on the slats,
a
eR A TS ne ET a I Le i Pe a a
——
—— ee
42 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
then two pieces of a heavy tough crepe paper, blue in color, or a heavy
white wax paper on the corrugated sheet. Place the paper so that it can
_be folded over the sides, leaving enough margin so that when the box is
filled the paper can be brought back over the fruit before the bottom is
nailed on. Thus the box is lined top, bottom, and sides but not on
the ends.
(New England Box Oo.)
Fic. 21. Types of apple boxes used for Eastern apples. The box in the
center foreground is standard. It has, however, been packed a little too
full. When the paper cover has been placed on the fruit, and the slats
nailed in place, it should be possible to pile the boxes without bruising |
the fruit.
The second part in the process is the facing. The fruit used is as
uniform as to size and color as the grade will permit. The cheek pack ;
is used, keeping the color side up, and the fruit is packed as tightly as is F
possible without bruising. es
As fast as graded, place the fruit on the face, being careful to bring ‘
the fill up level, although not placing the fruit in exact layers. When the ;
box is full, slightly above the ends, fold the paper over the fruit and
PACKING 43
put the bottom board in place. With each hand hold the bottom and
slightly shake the box settling the board in place. Nail the bottom,
turn the box, and the job is done. Pack this box good and tight but
with no bulge whatsoever,
The Eastern box is not intended
to duplicate the one used in West-
ern sections. It is designed to pro-
vide a convenient and attractive
package of fine fruit at a minimum
of cost, the saving being made not
in quality of the fruit but in labor.
It ig growing rapidly in popular- Fic. 22. Placing the apples
ity) fe tiecs need. further stand-', +. the facer for packing in
ardization. baskets. Some facers are
(h) Packing in Baskets. A furrowed or corrugated to
good way to pack a basket of ‘keep the rings of fruit in
: place; see Fig. 23.
apples 1s to prepare the face first
on a metal plate or device which
holds the fruit in place (Figs. 22 and 23). When the face is
completed, slip over it a metal follower inside of which is a
heavy paper liner of the same depth and circumference as the
Fic. 23. At the right is the facer; in the center
is the metal sleeve which sets on the facer and is
run full of fruit; at the left is the paper liner
used inside the metal sleeve and remaining
about the fruit when the sleeve is removed.
interior of the basket. Run this liner full of the apples. Re-
move the metal follower. Slip the basket top down over the
fruit until the edges of the basket are pressed against the metal
ad HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
plate holding the face. Turn the basket over, release the facing
device, and put the cover on the basket.
The whole operation may be performed very quickly. In
large establishments, workers place the facers and send them
along on conveyors to others who place the followers and
fill the baskets. Mechanical devices for reversing the baskets
after they are filled hasten the operation and save hand labor
(Fig. 24).
Fig. 24. The various steps involved in packing a basket and preparing to
attach the cover. Several types of basket turners are available. The
fruit is brought to the turner as indicated at c. Note the paper cap at f.
Facers on their cheeks and in concentric rings make a very
attractive package. Use a corrugated paper pad under the
cover. The finished basket should have sufficient bulge or
spring to the cover to hold the fruit firmly in place and to
constitute a full pack when it reaches the market (Figs. 25
and 26).
(2) Removing Spray Residues. In sections where heavy
applications of arsenicals must be made for the codling moth,
(N. Y. State Gollue of Ley
Fig. 25. A well-faced basket. The fruit is
higher at the center than at the edges of the
basket, insuring a light, springy pack.
PS eso AORN IE ON PEE
_. Fig. 26. Note the strong well-made covers
the bulge of the covers making a tight pack,
and the trade brand inserted in each basket.
45
46 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
especially if these are made late in the season, a considerable
residue of arsenic and lead remains on the fruit at harvest
time. Authentic cases of illness from eating fruit carrying
these residues are difficult to find. Nevertheless, it is to the
advantage of the grower to have his fruit as free as possible
from such residues and to find substitute spray materials
which are effective but of a non-poisonous nature. The present
regulations of the Federal Food and Drug Administration do
not permit more than 0.025 grain of arsenic trioxide, 0.05
grain of lead, or 0.02 grain of fluorine per pound of fruit.
Certificates indicating amounts of residues are now issued by
regulating agencies in the various states. Notices sent to
growers take the following form: - |
STATE OF NEW YORK
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND MARKETS
Hotton V. Noyes, Commissioner
ALBANY
WESTERN DIVISION
STATE OFFICE BUILDING, BUFFALO, N. Y.
Leon D. Spink February 5th, 1940
District Supervisor
H. B. Knapp
Farmingdale
Long Island, New York
Dear Sir:
This 1s to advise that sample A-40436 taken on February 6th
from 400 bushels of McIntosh apples owned by you and stored
mm the Savannah Cold Storage has been found to contain 004
grains of arsenic and 009 grains of lead per pound.
Certificate No. 8355 covering this lot of apples has been mailed
to the Savannah Cold Storage.
Very truly yours,
(Signed) L. D. Spink
District Supervisor
PACKING 47
Intensive efforts and investigations have been under way
for several years to devise solutions for the problem within
the financial means of the grower and not harmful to the fruit.
Further developments should be watched with interest in those
sections where spray residues constitute a serious problem.
It hag been established that dry wiping, whether by hand
or machine with brushes or otherwise, 1s not effective in remov-
ing more than one-third of the residue, even under the best
conditions. Considerable mechanical injury results, and the
residues in the blossom and stem ends cannot be removed in
this manner.
(John Bean Mfg. Oo.)
Fig. 27. A fruit washer (right) connected with the sizer.
The most satisfactory method developed to date is to treat
the fruit (apples and pears) with a bath of dilute hydro-
chloric acid. Machines have been developed for this purpose
(Fig. 27), including satisfactory home-made machines.
One type of machine sprays the fruit with diffused jets of
the solution as it passes through the spray chamber, rinsing the
fruit later with clear water and drying it with a forced draft
of air. A second type floats the fruit directly through the
solution, spraying the fruit from nozzles at the same time,
rinsing and drying later. Other types are in use.
The commercial machines may be too expensive for the
small grower. Some home-made machines costing not more
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i f €
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48 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
than $100 have proved satisfactory. One of the best of these
consists of a tank equipped with paddles which both propel the
fruit and immerse it slightly. This device is not satisfactory
for pears since most varieties sink to the bottom of the tank.
A better device for pears is a belt conveyor which carries the
fruit along, partly immersed in the solution.
It has been possible to remove as high as 90 per cent of
residue under commercial conditions.
Efficiency of the treatment is increased by increasing the
strength of the acid, increasing the time of exposure, and
especially by raising the temperature of the solution. Varie-
ties with oily skins are most difficult to clean. Best results are
secured by treating soon after picking.
Residues of lime, copper, lead, etc., are removed at the
same time. Very slight detrimental effects on appearance or
keeping quality have occurred on sound fruit when the op-
eration is properly performed. Some varieties have calyx
tubes extending well down to the core of the apple. In the
machines submerging the fruit, it has not been possible to
remove the cleaning solution from these tubes, and some dam-
age to the tissues, sometimes followed by decay, has resulted.
Careless cleaning methods may result in arsenical injury
at calyx or stem, or hydrochloric acid burning, or chemical
injury at the core. Any of these injuries may result in storage
rots. All decayed fruit should be kept out of the cleaning
equipment.
The commercial grade of acid testing 20 degrees Baumé is
satisfactory, 3 gallons in 100 gallons of water making approxi-
mately a 1 percent solution, by weight. Solutions containing
about 14 of 1 percent are commonly used except in aggravated
cases. The strength of the acid bath should be maintained by
additions of acid from time to time. Clean the acid tank com-
pletely each day to prevent the accumulation of soluble
arsenic.
Rinsing is very important in preventing injury to the keep-
ing quality of the fruit. Two to 3 gallons of fresh water
PACKING 49
should be used for each bushel of fruit treated. If the
supply of water is limited, the same water may be used re-
peatedly, provided that sufficient lime is added to neutralize
the acid.
(Brogdex Oo.)
Fic. 28. A waxing outfit. The curved metal shield directs a sheet of
wax over the revolving fruit. The machine has a capacity of 300
bushels per hour. |
Complete drying of the fruit does not seem to be necessary.
Alkaline washes have been used and experimental work
done with the application of paraffin and oil following the
treatment, to replace the natural wax removed in the process.
Wax emulsions, diluted with water, are used to advantage if
50 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
the fruit is to be stored for any length of time (Figs. 28
and 29). Developments in this field may well be watched
closely. |
3. Determining Harvesting and Marketing Costs. The
cost of picking apples depends upon the topography of the
ground, the size of the trees, the variety, the yield, the cost
(Brogdex Co.)
Fic. 29. The apples at the right were waxed before going into cold
storage. The others of the same weight and variety from the same
grower were not. The photo was taken after ten days at room tem-
perature. The loss in weight is about 11% pounds per bushel.
of labor, the efficiency of equipment, and whether picking is
done by the box or by the day.
The cost of hauling to storage, grading, packing, stor-
ing, and marketing depends on so many factors that avail-
able figures, though specific for one instance, are merely
approximations for general orchard conditions.
Harvesting and packing in a 20-acre orchard of repre-
sentative varieties and various ages on hilly land in Ohio cost
18 cents per bushel. Packages, trucking, and storage for the
STORING | oO
season cost 24 cents per bushel over a 13-year period. Over a
period of 5 years, on a lot of 15,000 bushels from an orchard
in the same state, it has cost 10.33 cents for picking alone;
3.48 cents per bushel for hauling apples from orchard to the
packing house; 5.92 cents for grading and packing the fruit,
exclusive of wages of the foreman of the crew. In the Hudson
Velley of New York State, for the crop of 1931 it cost 217
growers who operated 509 apple orchards an average of 10
cents a bushel for picking, 7 cents a bushel for packing, and
8 cents a bushel for hauling and marketing. The price of labor
for these 509 orchards varied, some growers paying by the day
and some by the box. See also Table 43, page 354, and
Table 45, page 427.
4, Storing. Storage plays an important part in the fruit
world. Were it not for the development of storage and re-
frigeration systems whereby fruit may be held for extended
periods, the different varieties and kinds would be avail-
able only through their periods of production. Movement
to market would of necessity take place immediately. Stor-
age extends the season and tends to make the supply uniform
throughout the season. It stabilizes both supply and prices.
This has its advantages from both the producing and the con-
suming standpoints.
Factors and Procedure:
(a) Determining advisability of storing.
(6) Forms of storage.
(c) Determining whether to buy storage space or to build.
(d) Factors for successful common storage.
(e) Determining the type of common storage to build.
(f) Operating the storage plant.
(g) Picking and packing fruit for storage.
(a) | Determining Advisability of Storing. It is evident that
some fruit must be stored each year if prices are to be satisfac-
tory. It cannot all be forced on the market in the fall months.
52
HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
TABLE 5
AppLEs: Cotp StorAGE Houpines By Monts In Terms
OF BARRELS, BOXES AND BUSHELS
1934-35 — 1938-39
Barrels
Season | Oct. 1 | Nov. 1} Dec. 1| Jan. 1 | Feb. 1} Mar. 1] Apr.1| May1| Junel
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
barrels | barrels | barrels | barrels | barrels | barrels | barrels | barrels | barrels
1934-35 209 872 797 678 506 338 172 68 17
1935-36 320 979 950 789 637 435 205 86 22
1936-37 66 313 307 233 176 121 42 iB 3
1937-38 135 501 483 411 322 218 83 32 13
1938-39 177 383 320 221 149 81 26 9 5!
Bushel Baskets and Eastern Bozes
1
1934-35 3,370 | 10,858 | 10,555 8,922 | 6,937] 5,084] 3,225) 1557 468
1935-36 3,307 | 12,607 | 12,814 | 11,489 | 9,820] 7,250; 4,640] 2,146 857
1936-37 3,904 | 11,763 | 11,641 9,795 | 7,631 | 5,021 | 2.654)" £226 479 -
1937-38 5,421 | 17,653 | 18,727 | 16,819 | 14,356 | 10,917 | 6,983] 3,365] 1,134
1938~39 6,754 | 16,234 | 15,051 | 12,866 | 10,006} 7,200} 4,089 | 2,082 756
Boxes
Season | Oct. 1 | Nov. 1} Dec. 1 | Jan. 1 | Feb. 1 | Mar. 1] Apr. 1 | May 1} June 1
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
boxes boxes boxes boxes boxes boxes boxes boxes boxes
1934-35 8,279 | 17,750 | 18,037 | 15,713 | 12,329] 7,839] 4,185] 1,804 562
1935-36 3,263 | 15,288 | 17,390 | 15,201 | 12,944 | 9,374] 6,052] 2,946) 1,074
1936-37 3,339 | 12,743 | 13,924 | 11,863 | 9,201] 6,809} 4,580] 2,258 899
1937-38 1,612 | 12,264 | 15,878 | 13,952 | 10,958 | 7,969] 4,807] 2,318 796
1938-39 1,394 | 12,887 | 14,804 | 13,037 | 10,520] 7,959 | 4,972 1 .2,598 | 896
1
Total
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
bushels | bushels | bushels | bushels | bushels | bushels | bushels| bushels| bushels
1934-35 | 12,276 | 31,224 | 30,983 | 26,670 | 20,784 | 13,938 7,926 | 3,564] 1,080
1935-36 7,530 | 30,828 | 33,054 | 29,058 | 24,675 | 17,928 | 11,307 | 5,349] 1,997
1936-37 7,441 | 25,445 } 26,486 } 22,357 | 17,360 | 12,193 7,360 | 3,529 | . 1,387
1937-38 7,438 | 31,420 | 36,054 | 32,004 | 26,280 | 19,540 | 12,039 | 5,779 1,969
1938-39 8,679 | 30,270 | 30,815 | 26,566 | 20,973 | 15,402 | 9,192] 4,707 1,667
Average 8,673 | 29,838 | 31,479 | 27,331 | 20,015 | 15,801 | 9,565] 4,586] 1,620
ee es
SrORING ae
Table 5 indicates that apples are available from cold storage
throughout nine months of the year and gives an idea of the
enormous extent of the storage business. November to March
is the period of heaviest holdings.
The normal market for fresh apples from commercial fruit
sections (the ‘commercial crop” of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture) in the United States is about 75 million
bushels. In other words, this quantity may be marketed over
the season at fairly satisfactory prices. Under normal condi-
tions export markets take about 10 million bushels (not in war
times when major European powers are involved). ‘Thus
there is ordinarily a satisfactory outlet in prospect for about
85 million bushels. When the crop exceeds this figure and
prices in the fall are low, 1t may be well to remember that they
may be lower later with storage costs added to the grower’s
investment.
Many growers make a practice of storing a certain propor-
tion of their crops each year. They do this on the assump-
tion that it is quite as risky to store the entire crop as it is |
to sell all of it at harvest time, that a combination of the two
procedures gives stability to the situation. On the whole, this
is probably sound reasoning. ‘Two exceptions to it may be
made: first, that the financial pressure may be so great as to
compel disposal of the crop at a given time; and, second, that
whenever prices are satisfactory it is a good time to sell, re-
gardless of other factors.
Conditions in a single section do not provide sufficient data
on which to base action. Study the national situation from
the best sources obtainable, including the reports of the United
States Bureau of Agricultural Economics as to volume of
crop and storage holdings. Study also the general economic
situation, including probable foreign demand.
Studies made in New York State which are probably ap-
plicable elsewhere indicate that the two factors which exer-
cise the greatest influence on the farm price of apples are (1)
the purchasing power of consumers and (2) the production
54 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
of apples in Eastern United States. Therefore, the index of
factory payrolls issued by the United States Department of
Commerce and the estimates of the Crop Reporting Board
should be watched.
The volume of citrus fruit production seems to have much
less influence than has been claimed. —
It is evident that only the best grades of fruit represent
good storage risks under normal conditions.
(b) Forms of Storage. The simplest form of storage is
that used by every farmer and by many a townsman, the
family cellar. The special common storage cellar or house
is a step further. Beyond this point are systems of cold stor-
age through the use of ice or by means of mechanical and
electrical refrigeration.
Common storage answers a universal need. For its ef-
fectiveness it depends upon the control of the natural factors
of temperature, ventilation, and humidity. From the com- |
mercial standpoint common storage is of importance in the
northern half of the United States where natural tempera-
tures range low enough to make it feasible. In much of the
Canadian apple belt and in some sections of the United States,
the weather is sharply cool, especially at night, before the
fruit is ready to pick.
“Cold” storage, as it is termed, is provided through the use
of ice or ice and salt, or by a mechanical process which de-
pends on the compression followed by the expansion of gas or
vapor. As gas expands it takes up heat from its surround-
ings, lowering the temperature of a brine pumped through
pipes to the storage room. The material, having expanded
into its gaseous form, is condensed and returned to the com-
pressor to be used over again. Another method known as
the absorption system but not differing in final results is also
used. Ammonia gas is the material commonly employed.
Very low temperatures are secured by mechanical refriger-
ation. Delicate and intricate devices control the tempera-
ture and humidity relations. A detailed discussion of cold
STORING 55
storage cannot be included here, but adequate references are
provided in the bibliography for those seeking further infor-
mation.
Cold-storage plants form a very important link in our
marketing machinery. They are located both in large pro-
ducing centers and at consuming markets. Box apples are
shipped East and held in them until put on the market. These
plants run from 40,000 to 50,000 barrels capacity, or more.
' (N. Y. O. RB. BR. Oo.)
Fig. 30. A modern cold-storage plant in a producing section, with re-
frigerator cars on the switch for loading.
A storage plant at Winchester, Va., said to be the largest in
the world, has a capacity of 300,000 barrels.
Some growers have cold-storage facilities of their own
sufficient to meet their needs as indicated under (c).
(c) Determining Whether to Buy Storage Space or to
Build. In many sections common storage, if properly con-
structed and operated, will care for the crop until it can be
sent to market. Some commercial common storage houses are
found which will rent space, but they are the exception. Asa
rule, the grower must provide his own.
56 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING |
Ordinarily the grower cannot have a private cold-storage
plant because machinery and equipment are expensive and
the size of the business will not warrant the outlay. The
construction costs run from 75 cents to $4.00 per bushel capac-
ity, for plants including buildings and equipment, with higher
figures in a few cases. The commercial storage charge is by
the month or by the season, prices varying with general con-
ditions but approaching 30 cents for the first month for barrels,
and 10 to 15 cents per month thereafter, or about 55 to 65
cents for the season to April 1. The charges at the terminals of
large cities are usually greater. Rates on boxes are from
15 to 20 cents and on bushel baskets about 25 cents for the
season. Fruit may be held later than April 1 at a smal addi-
tional charge.
Products other than apples are also stored in these Roe.
Packing rooms are commonly provided in conjunction with
storages at producing points, and some such plants are co-
operatively owned by growers in the sections tributary to these
shipping points.
Growers near markets and those operating roadside aids
on a large scale are developing small cold-storage plants of
their own, especially in Eastern New York, New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, and other Northeastern states. These plants hold
from 10,000 to 50,000 bushels. They make possible a con-
tinuous supply of high-grade fruit in excellent condition, be-
ginning with the early fruits and extending through the apple
season. The fruit is often stored in open packages, as crates
or boxes, to avoid pressing. This makes an excellent way
to handle the tender dessert varieties.
The plants may be used to store the fruit at harvest, pack-
ing it out after picking is completed. Sometimes old build-
ings are remodeled. Building and equipment costs have run
from 65 to 85 cents or more per bushel; operating costs, from
10 to 12 cents from September 1 to April 1. Volume makes a
great difference in these costs. Advice should be obtained
STORING oO”
from competent refrigeration engineers as to plans and equip-
ment.
Under ordinary circumstances, if cold-storage space is
available to the grower, it is probable that he might better
rent his requirements than construct his own plant. With
his own plant some of his costs go on every year, whether he
Fic. 31. This is a grower-owned packing house and cold storage in the
Hudson Valley Section of New York. The wing at the left is the packing
house, remodeled from a farm building. More light would be desirable.
At the right and connected with the packing house is the cold storage
with a capacity of 10,800 bushels. The storage cost is about $1.00 per
bushel, not including some of the owner’s labor, of which there is no
record. Operating costs average 13 to 15 cents per bushel for a period
extending from about Sept. 1 to June 1. Apples are put in the storage
when picked and are packed out at the grower’s convenience. Much of
the fruit is sold at the door and hauled by motor truck.
uses the space or not. He may, of course, send his crop to the
terminal market storages, but it is questionable whether all
his holdings should be tied up at definite consuming points,
with their higher costs.
(d) Factors for Successful Common Storage. Ventilation,
humidity, and temperature are the three factors of most im-
portance in keeping the fruit. Of these, ventilation appears
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58 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
to be of major importance. The air must change rapidly if the
fruit is to keep well. For this reason as well as because they
are convenient to handle, and rigid enough to protect the
fruit, slat crates and lug boxes have been found to be very
satisfactory containers.
The reason that artificial cold storages are operated suc-
cessfully without ventilation is that the temperature is re-
duced so low that life activities in the fruit are practically at
a standstill.
The humidity, or the moisture content of the air, should
be high to prevent wilting and shrinking. It should range
from 85 to 95 percent. It can be determined by means of the
hygrometer. Earth floors, or concrete floors sprinkled with
water, aid materially in maintaining proper humidity.
The uniformity of the temperature seems more important
in common storage than the exact thermometer reading. With |
good ventilation and the proper humidity, a common storage
temperature between 40° and 50° F., provided the tempera-
ture does not fluctuate violently, has been found to keep
apples in good condition for comparatively long periods.
(e) Determining the Type of Common Storage to Build.
The storage may be above or below ground. The type in most
common use thus far has been the cellar or below-ground
storage. The assumption has been that temperature was the
main factor to control and that the danger of freezing would
be slight in a cellar storage. It is now recognized that venti-
lation is of great importance in the common storage where
the temperature is not low enough to check life processes of
the fruit. It can probably be provided more satisfactorily
and in a more dependable form in the above-ground storage.
By proper insulation the storage above ground may be pro-
tected from freezing. Construction costs do not differ mate-
rially between the two types, running usually from 40 to 75
cents per bushel, depending upon the capacity, building ma-
terials, and labor costs. Barns and various farm buildings
may often be converted into satisfactory storage plants.
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60 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
Cellar storages are commonly constructed in a bank with
access on the exposed ends, or at one side (Fig. 32). The walls
may be of stone, concrete, brick, hollow tile, ete. Such walls,
especially where exposed, may be further insulated with hair,
felt, granulated cork, sawdust, shavings, etc. Drains should
be placed at the back of the walls and shou have proper
outlets.
Ventilation should be provided through ae doors, prefer-
ably one on each end. It has been found by the Pene shana
Station that ventilation ducts and outlets are not so efficient
as large doors and windows. An earth floor is best, with a false
wood rack floor on top, to promote ventilation and care for
the humidity requirements. Cross-pieces should not be placed
at right angles to the movement of the air under such a floor
as they will interfere with circulation. A concrete floor may
be used but will often require sprinkling to keep the air suffi-
ciently moist.
Often such a cellar forms the basement of a building, the
upper floor of which is used for packing and the storage of
packages. The roof construction over the cellar should pro-
vide insulation.
A properly insulated common storage above ground should
give results as good as or better than a cellar storage (Fig. 33).
This is because the former is not influenced by ground tem-
peratures to the extent that the cellar is, and the grower can
control conditions better.
Many types of construction and various matertals have
given satisfaction for storages above ground. Wood con-
struction with proper insulation is both economical and effi-
cient. Of course, it does not reduce the fire hazard as much
as other types of construction.
Studding 2 by 6 inches covered with matched siding sheeted
with building paper will provide a 6-inch insulation space
between the studding. Granulated cork or cork dust is excel-
lent insulating material and is not expensive. For ordinary
temperatures, such as are experienced in southern New York
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62 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
and Pennsylvania, filling the space with this material will
provide adequate insulation. The thickness of the insulating
material should be increased in more severe climates. Other
cheap insulation materials are sawdust and mill shavings.
It is essential that the insulation material, of whatever nature,
be kept dry.
For insulating purposes the followirig information from
the Engineering Department of Pennsylvania State College
is presented. One inch cork board 1s approximately equal in
value to:
1 inch granulated cork. 8 inches dry soil.
1 inch Celotex. 48 inches wet soil.
1 inch insulite or insulex. 12 inches brick.
114 inches sawdust. 12 inches hollow tile.
144 inches shavings. 24 inches concrete.
3144 inches wood. 30 inches stone.
Brick, stone, hollow tile, concrete, etc., do not insulate
sufficiently without interior layers of non-conducting mate-
rials. Interlocking tile waterproofed on the inner and outer
walls provides good insulation at a moderate cost, as well as
protection from fire. Corkboard, wood fiber, hair, asbestos,
mineral wool, cinders, and mica are some of the newer insulat-
ing materials.
The ceiling should have from 4 to 6 inches of insulation.
Frequently it consists of granulated cork spread evenly over the
matched boards, but a foot or more of finely broken or well-
packed straw is also satisfactory.
An earth floor overlain by a wood floor raised 6 to 8 inches
on stringers or concrete sills gives good humidity conditions.
Rodents may be controlled by covering the earth floor with
wire netting or hardware cloth of 14-inch mesh.
A concrete driveway should be provided directly through |
the building so that fruit may be unloaded conveniently at
any point. This driveway may be filled with fruit after the
rest of the house is full.
STORING 63
Large doors should be provided in each end. Refrigerator
doors may be desirable. A vestibule in front of each door
will prevent the sun from shining directly into the storage
and is important in both types of storage. Movable sills
may be placed at the bottom of doorways; they may be raised
or taken out when loads are coming in. Windows should have
double sash, covered by sealed or battened hinged doors.
Some authorities advise a cold-air intake near floor level,
-20 by 30 inches, for each 2500 cubic feet of capacity and warm
air outlets in the roof providing 2 square feet of opening for
each 2500 cubic feet. Such outlets must be insulated and
equipped with closing devices. Two or three outlets would
be sufficient for the usual storage.
A packing or work room may be provided in, the same
building but should be separated from the storage proper.
(f) Operating the Storage Plant. Fruit brought in while
cool is in better condition for storage than. that warmed by
the sun or stored in the heat of the day. A good plan, where
practicable, is to allow it to stand out over night, to be stored
in the morning while cool. A small room equipped with
mechanical refrigeration is useful in reducing the tempera-
ture of the fruit before placing it in the common storage
room. Stack the fruit, preferably in slatted crates, leaving
a space of 6 to 8 inches between the crates and the outer walls;
have corridors wherever needed.
The apple box in common use is a good storage package
if slats are nailed on the tops of the boxes to provide some
ventilation between them.
Ventilate the storage freely. Leave the doors of either type
of storage open whenever the outside temperature is lower
than the inside temperature, until the storage temperature is
close to freezing. In the cellar storage, ventilation should
be provided during the day, even when the weather is warm;
the warm air probably will affect the below-ground cellar
temperature but slightly because of the cool damp walls and
floor, and will provide the much-needed ventilation. Ground
64 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING —
temperatures below the frost line are between 50°-60° F.
If the humidity is low, sprinkle the floor. This will seldom
be necessary except where a concrete floor has been used.
The above-ground storage should be closed on warm days,
but opened at night.
eguansenagesses Ne
sp nrernens oreenrnmpagonnrnenteecnnes tenance ahs ne
SRE :
Seererrers
RNS
Ri. spo
(Mich. State College)
Fig. 34. This frame storage was built in 1922 at a cost of $4,000. It is
40 by 60 feet and has a capacity of 10,000 bushels. A grading room
extends across the front. The second floor is used as a storage for
empty containers. This is one of the few storages in Michigan with a
permanent false floor. A 2-inch thickness of hair felt in the walls pro-
vides excellent insulation. Note the location of air intakes and outlets.
(gq) Picking and Packing Fruit for Storage. This has al-
ready been treated in connection with “Picking the Fruit.”
Store only sound, mature fruit. Fruit lacking maturity
does not keep well. The chief cause of the development of scald
on certain varieties in storage is probably picking at an imma-
STORING 65
ture stage. On the other hand, there is danger in some re-
gions with long picking seasons of leaving the fruit until it is
too soft. Store only good grades of standard varieties, and
do not seek to hold them beyond their natural storage season.
Store immediately after picking. Every day that fruit
remains out of storage after it is picked cuts down the length
of the time that it can be held in storage. A temperature
approaching 30° F. has been found most desirable for apples
(Mich. State Collegey
Fic. 34A. This air-cooled Michigan storage, 36 by 50 feet and 13 feet
from floor to ceiling, accommodates 8,500 bushels. In the outlet flues are
motor-driven fans which can change the air completely seventeen times
in an hour. The storage has a gravel floor.
in cold storage. Excellent results have been secured in com-
mon storage at 40° to 45° F., the important thing, in addition
to ventilation, being to prevent too wide and rapid fluctuation.
Apples will withstand temperatures below 32° F. for short
periods without damage and are sometimes subjected to
lower temperatures before picking in late fall. If frosted,
fruit should not be disturbed and the temperature should rise
very slowly. Apples frosted on trees in the fall often escape
injury if the weather is cloudy as the temperature rises.
66 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
Apples are not usually repacked when taken from cold
storage. In barreled apples, the face may be examined and any
defective apples replaced. If the barrel has become slack,
as frequently occurs, a cushion is inserted.
Storage Scald: Rhode Island Greening, Yellow Newton,
and some red varieties, including Rome, York Imperial,
Stayman Winesap, and Baldwin, often develop a brown skin
in storage (Fig. 35). It sometimes appears very rapidly after
removing the fruit from cold storage and holding it at room
temperature for a few days.
It usually appears on the
green or uncolored sides of
the apples, though it may
be found elsewhere. The
market value of the fruit
is affected and in severe
cases is destroyed. |
It is known that no fun-
pus organism is involved.
The difficulty seems to be
due to the accumulation of
(N. Y. State College of Agr.) ZAaSes derived from the
Fic. 35. Typical storage scald on volatile oils of the fruit.
Rhode Island Greening. These exist only in minute
quantities, yet under cer-
tain conditions they appear to kill the epidermal cells and
cause the browning.
In addition to the selection of sound, mature fruit, stored
at once after picking, use oil wrappers impregnated with 18
percent of a cheap mineral oil for box apples if the specimens
are wrapped individually as in the Western box. For apples
packed without wrapping either in boxes or barrels use
shredded oil paper, distributing it through the package, using
about 14 pound to the bushel. In seasons when it is antici-
pated that scald will be unusually prevalent, or for varieties
that are especially susceptible, 34 pound may be used. Shreds
MARKETING 67
about 14 inch wide, and 3 to 5 inches in length, made of a
paper that does not pack down, are desirable. The exact
quantity of oiled paper used seems less important than to
have a bit of the paper in contact with every apple.
Modified Atmosphere Storage. At the close of this chap-
ter under General Information the possibilities of a modified
atmosphere storage, particularly for apples and pears, are
presented. The term “modified atmosphere” simply means
that the proportions of oxygen and carbon dioxide are changed
from those existing in the normal atmosphere in such a man-
ner as to reduce life processes of the fruit and extend its
period of keeping in a desirable condition. The term “gas
storage” is sometimes applied. Considerable work in this
field has been done in England. Both the California Experi-
ment Station and the New York State College of Agriculture
at Cornell University have conducted investigations in this
country and the findings to date are presented. The possi-
bilities in the process, especially for McIntosh apples, as stud-
ied at Cornell, and pears, as studied both in England and
California, seem very promising.
Developments in this field and their commercial implica-
tions should be watched with close attention.
5. Marketing. The grower is in a real sense attacking his
marketing problem when he is growing his fruit. The market-
ing problem is first of all a production problem. Until some-
thing is produced that someone wants there can be no market-
ing problem. Thus the first and the most essential factor is
to grow superior fruit. It must then be picked carefully,
graded according to rigid standards, and packed in a manner
acceptable to the consuming public.
Procedure:
(a) Consider ways in which apples may be sold.
(6) Consider functions performed in marketing.
(c) Study various marketing agencies.
(d) Secure shipping point inspection.
68 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
(e) Load cars properly.
(f) Consider market preferences and prices.
(g) Consider export markets.
(a) Consider Ways in Which Apples May Be Sold. Large
quantities of apples are sold in some sections to local dealers
acting for themselves, or as agents with outside connections.
In some sections much of the fruit 1s packed by the growers
and sold at the shipping point (f.o.b.) either to local dealers
or agencies outside. F.o.b. sales, with shipping-point inspec-
tion, as described later, are decidedly on the increase in most
sections.
In other sections the fruit is packed by the grower and
consigned to agents at the point of consumption, who sell the
shipment on commission.
The simplest and most direct procedure is found where
the grower deals with the retail grocer in a nearby town or
where he works up a direct-to-the-consumer trade. There is
opportunity in every section for a few growers to supply their
communities in this way. Up to the saturation point for the
community, better returns often prevail than on the general
market, even considering the greater amount of time fre-
quently spent by the grower in marketing his product.
Roadside or wayside stands and markets have developed
with the automobile and good roads. Unsatisfactory prices
at terminal and wholesale markets in recent years and the
necessity for the grower to retain as much of the consumer’s
dollar as possible have hastened this development. The pro-
portion of the crop handled through these channels is small,
but in favorable locations, and with the opportunity to oper-
ate the stands by members of the family, they have presented a
favorable marketing opportunity for many growers.
Certain factors governing the success of roadside markets
are beginning to emerge. Studies made of 316 such markets
during the three-year period 1931-33 and of 153 markets in
1937 by the New York State College of Agriculture indicate
MARKETING ie 69
Fic. 36. (a) An attractive stand on a main high-
way in New York. An awning may be attached
to the projecting bars. This stand is operated
by the grower who handles only his own
products. (b) A Maryland roadside stand, sell-
ing direct to the consumer.
Sunnyside bam a, Market
G rowers of Strawberries, Cherries. Currants,
_ Peaches, Pears, Appl es and Grapes
Private Orders Solicited —
Shp made to all parts of the country
Pores — UD
We guarantee vur- pack of fruit
Pisst National Bank. Marihoraugh, S. ¥.
Pivst, Notional Vouk, Multa, N. x.
‘Herbert Sears, Marlborough, N.Y.
] DRENC ES:
Fia. 37. The business card of the grower whose
stand is shown in Fig. 36(a).
70 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
that the following conditions are either essential or highly de-
sirable.
In order to secure a large number of customers, it is necessary to
locate near a large village or city on a road over which many consumers
pass daily. The possibility of securing a large number of repeat cus-
tomers is important. Tourists buy little more than they will eat in
the car.
A long season of operation is important. A combination of fruits
Fic. 38. This stand is quite attractive. It has good display space and
a variety of products. It is too close to the highway, and includes
products not grown in the section.
with vegetables and perhaps with other products will lengthen the sea-
son of operation.
Regularity of operation helps to build up a repeat trade. A large
amount of business is done over the weekend.
The use of lights increases the length of daily operation and enables
the grower to sell to many customers who would not come during the
day. Water to keep products fresh and as a convenience for motorists
is desirable.
A permanent stand is more attractive and should be used whenever
the volume of sales and the marketing period justify the investment.
However, the grower should not seek to build a store and should keep
his overhead investment down.
MARKETING as
The general appearance of the stand and its surroundings are impor-
tant. In the studies mentioned, sales from unpainted stands amounted
to $81 per week, from painted stands $128 per week. The stand should
be located in a prominent position on a stretch of straight road or on a
broad hilltop and have adequate parking facilities on both sides of the
road, if possible. Traffic hazards should be avoided. The presence of
trees for appearance and shade is a distinct advantage.
A good salesman, neat and courteous, who makes friends readily, is
a most important factor in making sales and building up a repeat trade.
(W. F. Allen Oo.)
Fig. 388A. A most uninviting stand. Compare with Figs. 36 and 38.
A good display of fresh produce of high quality is very desirable.
The produce should be kept fresh and attractive and free from the
appearance of having been sorted over at all times.
Most operators find that prices somewhere between wholesale and
retail result in larger sales and greater income. Price tags may help sell
produce when the salesmen are busy.
An attractive and distinctive name, easily remembered, with some
farm or horticultural or geographical significance, will help.
Plans and estimates for suitable markets are available from various
colleges of agriculture. _
(2 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
Recent studies in the Hudson Valley section of New York
indicate that the grower may receive a greater net return for
tree-run sales when the entire crop is of high quality than
from grading and packing in the usual manner—that returns
when sold locally may be more satisfactory than when trucked
or shipped to New York City. The same situation may be true
in sections adjacent to other large centers of population. This
is a very important con-
sideration to the grower.
The Public Cold Stor-
age as a Selling Agency.
Since the advent of the
motor truck, the public
cold storage has become a
natural meeting place and
general center of informa-
tion for buyers. The stor-
age management now often
sells the fruit for the grower
without any charge in ad-
dition to the normal stor-
age rate. The amount of
fruit sold in this manner
is substantial; returns to
c ; growers have compared
Fic. 39. An attractive stand for the favorably in many cases
sale of cider, freshly made. with those from other meth-
ods of selling, and the prac-
tice is growing. Satisfactory results build business for the
storage management and ease the marketing problem for the
orower.
The grower sets the figure which he desires to receive for
a given lot of fruit and the minimum that he would take for it.
He may revise these figures from time to time as market con-
ditions change. The storage management operates within this
range, keeping in touch with the grower and seeking the most
MARKETING ae.
favorable sale. The management collects from the buyer and
makes the return to the grower.
It is evident that this method depends for its success very
largely upon the personal attributes and the business judg-
ment of the storage operator. |
Collective Selling. The grower may often strengthen his
position materially from the marketing standpoint by pooling
his efforts with those of others engaged in the same line of busi-
ness. This brings up the question of the cooperative packing
association. Chief among its advantages from the marketing
standpoint are:
1. It provides a standardized product.- Perhaps 50 growers
bring fruit to the packing house, where it is packed by disin-
terested parties into the proper grades. ‘Though the grades
may not be entirely uniform owing to variations in the indi-
vidual lots of fruit, particularly as to color, they will be much
more uniform than if packing is done by individual growers.
2. A sufficient volume of standardized produce is pro-
vided to prove an inducement to buyers. Buyers desire a
product to conform to certain specifications. They wish to
be able to obtain it at need and in sufficient quantities. Re-
peat orders are the goal of all business. The individual fruit
grower, as a rule, cannot supply repeat orders; the coopera-
tive packing association can. For this reason, the ability to
supply in carlots, at times needed, the packing association
obtains a foothold in the fruit trade world that is denied to
an individual, unless he is a very large grower.
3. The association can keep in closer touch with market
conditions. It may even have representatives or agents in
some of the larger centers. It is thus in a stronger position
to market its output intelligently and to make a satisfactory
deal with the buyer than the individual grower is.
4. The association can take steps to enlarge and increase
its markets that would be prohibitive to the individual grower
on account of the cost involved. It can carry on extensive ad-
vertising and publicity campaigns.
74 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
California oranges are found in every hamlet in the coun-
try, put there and kept there through the application of the
principles outlined above, absolutely impossible of application
by the individual orange grower, perfectly possible for a strong
well-organized and well-managed association of growers. Com-
parison between citrus growing and apple growing is not en-
tirely safe because of the extreme centralization of the citrus-
producing areas, making organization comparatively simple,
but commercial apple growing is tending’ toward restriction
to well-favored areas of intensive production, and apple
growers may learn a great deal in regard to marketing from
the orange, lemon, and grapefruit growers.
5. The association may, by pooling orders, often purchase
supplies of all kinds needed by its members at a decided sav-
ing to the individual. This item has been one of the strong
inducements in some places to form such an organization.
A GROWER’S ORGANIZATION
The New York and New England Apple Institute is an
illustration of what growers acting jointly may do to help
themselves. It is a branch of the National Apple Institute
incorporated in 1935 as a membership corporation in New
York State. It serves New York and New England and co-
operates with similar agencies in other sections.
It is a growers’ organization, non-profit-making, formed
for the purpose of increasing the sale and consumption of
native-grown apples, to make the public more apple con-
scious, and to assist the apple industry in its marketing
problems. |
The grower members each year elect institute officers from
their own number. They engage a paid manager and neces-
sary office assistance. They derive their financial support
from a voluntary pledge of 1 cent per bushel of their commer-
cial crop of apples, culls and drops excluded. Growers pay
MARKETING 75
one-third of the estimated amount by October the first of the
crop year, the rest from time to time as the crop is sold, mak-
ing full payment not later than the middle of the following
June. Some additional support has also come through con-
tributions by certain state departments, cold storages, and
other allied businesses. Much valuable advertising is effected
by distributing educational literature to schools and con-
sumers’ organizations. Chain stores, independent grocers,
super markets, commission men, and wholesalers do a great
deal to assist the institute in conducting newspaper and other
displays. Monthly confidential bulletins explaining the cur-
rent activities of the institute are sent to 1ts members. At
present the promotion of better grading and packing, the
improvement of apple containers, and the publicizing of the
health values of apples are receiving chief attention.
Since its beginning only five years ago the institute has
accomplished a great deal. Consumer interest and demand
have been stimulated; new outlets for apples have been found;
apples have been listed for sale cooperatively; varieties have
been marketed at their proper season. In the crop year of
1939-40, the institute performed yeoman service in the or-
derly marketing of a very large crop at prices which, under
the conditions, were very good. The institute constitutes a
type of service which growers should support in every apple-
growing section. It demonstrates that growers are not power-
less in the face of adverse marketing conditions, that there is
much which they may do for themselves.
Table 6 and Fig. 40 list the unloads of apples in New York
City from 1932-1939 inclusive by rail, boat and truck in terms
of carloads. Not all the apples unloaded in New York City
are consumed there for the city serves as a distributing center
to smaller communities in the adjoining territory. The aver-
age receipts are 9966 cars, of which shipments by truck now
constitute about 60 percent. Of the 6570 cars received by
76 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
truck in 1939, 5831 cars went to twelve wholesale markets
and 739 cars to three farmers’ markets.
Motor truck shipments are increasing because growers can
load and deliver almost at their option within very narrow
time limits. A serious problem is that the individual grower
does not know the extent of the truck movements and the
supplies available on a given date. Ultimately public au-
‘Title
| | |
1600
"1400
0 :
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Fic. 40. Carloads of apples unloaded in New York City by months
irom 1932 to 1939, inclusive—an 8-year average.
thorities will be expected to provide this information through
some type of forecasts and reports available to all.
Motor truck shipments to New York City originate for the
most part in Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Massachu-
setts, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania,
and Virginia.
It is probable that development of truck transportation in
the New York City area is similar to that taking place in the
territories serving other large centers of population.
MARKETING 77
TABLE 6
AppLES—UNLOADS AT New Yor«kK By Ratu (INcLUDING Boat)
AND TRuCK, 1932-39
Figures given are carlot equivalents.
Year fitch sae t)* Truck Total
1932 ; 9775 3059 12,834
1933 6511 4179 10,690
1934 5567 4412 9,979
1935 4814 4762 9,576
1936 3791 4667 8,458
1937 4113 4152 8,265
1938 3936 7 5372 9,308
1939 4047 6570 10,617
Average 5319 4647 9966
* Boat receipts are insignificant.
Note increase in proportion of truck shipments.
1939 unloads of oranges were 21,646 cars, bananas 11,773 cars, grapefruit 7559 cars.
(b) Consider Functions Performed in Marketing. In
whatever manner fruit may be sold, the marketing of the
crop involves a number of distinct functions. Whether most
of the operations are performed by the grower or some other
agency, they represent a definite service rendered and entail
an unavoidable cost. The operations named below enter into
the marketing of the commercial apple crop and must be per-
formed by someone:
(1) Mobilizing or assembling fruit at local shipping point.
(2) Grading, standardizing, and packing.
(3) Transporting, carting, and delivering.
(4) Storing and warehousing. -
(5) Disseminating or demobilizing at wholesale terminal and
markets.
(6) Financing and assumption of risks.
(7) Final distribution for consumption.
78 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
If the grower or his agent does not perform these functions,
someone else must do so, and the cost of the service must be
deducted from the returns to the grower.
The farther down the line the grower continues control of
his product, the greater the possibility of increased financial
reward, because each agent seeks to protect himself by a safe
JOE GiB
y Wy 4
(Pennsylvania R. R, Cu.)
Fic. 41. Piers of the Penn. R. R. Co. in New York City for handling
fruits and vegetables. Cars are ferried on floats holding 10 cars each.
The piers have unloading space for 190 cars at a time. Their total
capacity is 750 cars, 600 cars being the largest number handled to date.
Nights are the periods of chief activity, preparing for the buyers who
come early in the morning. Negroes and some Portuguese are employed
to unload the cars, since these races appear best able to stand the heavy
jabor. These men work 12 hours on Sunday nights, and 8 hours per
night during the remainder of the week. The railroad provides an
inspection service in addition to that available through State and Fed-
eral sources. Fifty coopers are commonly employed to repair broken
packages; 35 groups of men of 8 men each to unload cars, and 35 tally
clerks. Auctions are held in special rooms, beginning about 8:00 a.m.,
delivery of products occurring immediately thereafter.
margin, but also the greater the risk that the grower runs.
Even community or central packing house associations with
large outputs usually sell their fruit through a commission
house, or broker, indicating that there is a point in the mar-
keting process at which it is desirable for a special agency or
organization closely in touch with market affairs to step in
and take over responsibility.
MARKETING 79
(c) Study Various Marketing Agencies. At destination
the fruit is ordinarily handled by a commission house, selling
to a jobber or a large retailer, for 7 to 10 percent of the gross
sale, depending upon the size of the transaction. The com-
mission man inspects the fruit on arrival, pays transporta-
tion charges, cartage, and storage charges if any, negotiates a
sale, collects the money, deducts all charges plus his commis-
sion, and makes return to the shipper. Some states maintain
lists of bonded and licensed commission merchants for the
protection of shippers. It is well to consult such lists before
establishing a connection.
The Jobber. The jobber purchases the fruit and resells on
his own initiative. He may have a definite outlet in mind
when he buys, or he may match his knowledge and experience
against the turns of the market. He may gain or lose heavily.
The fruit may go through the hands of several jobbers before
it is offered for consumption by the retailer.
The Broker. Brokers are intermediary agents between
buyers and sellers. They are located in the market centers
and as a rule deal only in carlots. The broker seldom has the
goods in his possession. On information from the seller con-
cerning the nature and grade of the product, the broker seeks
a buyer among the trade. He wires the best terms he can
get to the seller for acceptance or rejection. If the terms are
accepted, the broker executes a sales contract, the goods are
supplied, and he receives his commission (brokerage fee). It
requires little in the way of an investment to engage in the
brokerage business. It follows therefore that a broker should
be selected with great care, and from among those who have
established reputations.
Selling by Auction. Thirteen cities in the United States
now maintain 14 fruit auctions. They are: Boston, New
York City (2), Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Cincin-
nati, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Minneapolis, St. Paul, St.
Louis, and New Orleans. With the exception of New Orleans,
all these cities are in the section east of the Mississippi and
80 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
north of the Ohio Rivers. This is the area of greatest density
of population.
A fruit auction is a place with facilities for displaying the
merchandise, where buyers and sellers come together, with an
auctioneer to sell the products. It is conveniently located for
receipt of goods by ship or rail. It has ample unloading and
warehouse facilities, and a selling room for the assembling of
those interested in the auction, and where the selling actually
takes place. The auctioneer conducts the sale from a high
rostrum so that he may see everyone and all may see him.
The seller may withdraw his offering under prescribed condi-
tions, but may not bid himself.
The auction house publishes a catalogue giving essential
information about the quality and grade of goods, terms of
sale, etc. Selling proceeds item by item or line by line. Buyers
are usually wholesale grocers, restaurants, chain stores, hotels,
or brokers. Small lots may be bid in by hucksters and push- —
cart men. The usual selling charge is from 21% to 31% percent
on standard products in quantity. Consignment is not made
direct to the auction company, but to a commission agent in
the usual way, or to some representative of the shipper. The
commission man in such case makes a lower charge, since the
auction company does the selling.
Auctions for the most part serve large organizations. They
handle an enormous volume in a short period. A carload may
be sold in 3 minutes or even less. Few individual growers use
auctions, partly at least because they do not have the neces-
sary volume of produce. Only well-known and carefully stand-
ardized brands are handled.
The auction method of selling is on the increase. Thus far
only foreign fruits, as bananas, the citrus fruits of Florida and
California, and the deciduous fruits of the Far West have been
sold to any great extent by this method. Other fruit growers
nearer the consuming centers have sold in the usual way.
However, farm cooperatives are introducing the auction
method in some producing sections. Their development should
\
MARKETING 81
be watched and aided wherever ee Auctions are used
extensively in Europe.
Retail Agencies. Grocers, delicatessen stores, fruit and
vegetable stands, and hucksters sell the fruit to the ultimate
consumer. Fancy grocers and fruit stands sell in small quan-
tities, by the piece or in small packages, with a large margin.
The general grocer as a rule handles medium goods in
larger quantities with a smaller margin. However, he sells
many lots of a few pounds each, entailing considerable han-
dling; the waste and loss are large items and the margin is
sreater for these reasons than could be justified otherwise.
Hucksters, peddling by pushcarts and otherwise, handle
large quantities in the course of the year. They buy and sell
anything that gives hope of a profit.
Table 7 indicates what actually happened to a shipment
of Virginia apples packed in 50-pound baskets which arrived
in Washington Market, New York City, on January 27, 1937.
TABLE 7
History oF SHIPMENT OF VIRGINIA APPLES To WASHINGTON
Market, New York City, aS Compitep BY NEw Yor«k City
DEPARTMENT OF MARKETS AND WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION
Cartage Percentage
Gross and Net | of House-
Margin | Trans- | Margin wife’s
portation Dollar
Retailer charged housewife $2.50} 0.85 0.07 0.78 5 eZ
Jobber charged retailer.... 1.65] 0.25 0.07 0.18 ban
Wholesaler charged jobber. 1.40] 0.20 pats 0.20 8.0
Shipper received from
woOesmer 120). 1.20 0.20 1.00 40.0
Transportation, cartage, handling 13.6
a i ee
_. eee
82 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
The percentages absorbed by the various agencies disclose that
40 percent of the sum paid by the housewife went to the
shipper. The shipper might be the grower, or a local dealer.
In the latter case, the grower’s percentage would be reduced
still further.
It is estimated by the Department of Markets that savings
of 25¢ could have been effected had the shipment been sent
to the Bronx Terminal Market near the consuming population
rather than to downtown New York with its congestion and
high marketing costs. The savings, it is argued, would elimi-
nate jobbers’ margin and costs, increase the margins of shipper:
and wholesaler and save the housewife money. |
A study of retail outlets for apples and other fruits was
made in the New York Metropolitan area in 1938 by the Co-
operative Research and Service Division of the United States
TABLE 8
RELATIVE QUANTITIES OF SELECTED FRESH FRuITS Sotp ANNUALLY
PER STORE BY 3009 RETAILERS OF VARIOUS TYPES,
New York City, 1937-38
Average Quantity Sold Annually per Outlet
Selected aa Grocery Stores Pushes
Commodity Vege- | &£| jorWagon Deliea- Meat
table | Inde- Chaj Huck- — Markets
in Stores
Stores |pendent sters
No. of Stores....} 1121 479 1219 154 22 14
1000 lb. |1000 Ib. |\1000 lb.| 1000 lb.) 1000 Itb.| 1000 lb.
Ayples y } ness = alee 50.8 | 13.8 120 53.9 8.2 19.0
Bananas: J «tee. 19.4 7.8 6.0 ee 8.5 9.6
ranges.) 3 55% 59) 4s) Qh 2a 22.4 16.5 22.4
Grapefruit....... 29:9. } tet 10.7 9.4 8.7 8.6
Pears). os he ee 1525 ee 4.2 15.2 2.0 4.7
ee’ ns eee
Total fresh fruit} 174.0 | 56.6 | 54.1 104.2 43.9 64.3
MARKETING 33
Farm Credit Administration and the New York State College
of Agriculture. The report of the study, which is to be con-
tinued, 1s preliminary in nature, but some of the findings to
date are worthy of note.
Fruit and vegetable stands are the most important type of
retail outlet for fruits, but pushcart or wagon hucksters lead
for apples. See Table 8.
The relationship of the quantity of apples sold, both East-
ern and Western, to the annual sales of all fruits and vege-
tables and to total sales of all commodities by 370 independent
retail grocers is set forth in Table 9. In stores doing a busi-
ness of $30,000 or less annually, fruits and vegetables account
for about one-third the total sales.
Fruit and vegetable stands sell fruit and vegetables almost
exclusively. Table 10 classifies 976 such stands on the basis
- of gross sales and the quantities of Eastern and Western apples
sold. In general about 14 of the total quantity of apples sold
are Western apples.
It is usually considered that the size of the family income
is the chief factor in determining the consumption of fruits.
This is doubtless true when purchasers are free from the influ-
ence of sales-promotion activities. Table 11 does indicate that
there is a relationship between family income as measured by
rentals charged in the area in which the retail outlet is located
and the sales of apples and other fruits. Note that sales of
all fruits by independent grocers increased rapidly as incomes
- Increased, but that the pushcart and huckster sales were heavi-
est in the low-income areas. When the high-income groups
buy apples from pushcarts, they take the Western apples.
There appear to be some preferences on the basis of nation-
ality in the purchase of apples. Stores catering predominantly
to Jewish trade constituted 25 percent of the retail outlets but -
sold 37 percent of the apples and 35 percent of six other fruits.
Italian customers predominating in 15 percent of the outlets
purchased 7 percent of the apples, Germans 5 percent and
4 percent respectively.
84. HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
TABLE 9
RELATION OF APPLE SALES TO SALES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES AND TO
SALES oF ALL CoMMODITIES, AS REPORTED BY 370 INDEPENDENT
Retait Grocers, New York City, 1937-38
Annual Sales Quantity
Annual Gross Sales | Stores per Outlet of Apples Sold
of All Commodi- |Report- ;
ties per Outlet ing | All Com-|Fruitsand| East- | West-
modities |Vegetables}| ern ern | 1otal
| | | | J
Number| Dollars Dollars | 1000 lb.| 1000 lb.\10001b.
Less than $ 5,000 39 3,000 1,272 3.0 2.6 5.6
$ 5,000 — $ 9,999 BL 7,437 2,691 4.0 3.1 fed
$10,000 — $19,999 81 14,541 5,742 y fi 4.8 | 11.9
$20,000 — $29,999 64 24,712 8,053 8.8 5.4 | 14.2
$30,000 — $49,999 67 38,893 9,804 10.4 Tae PEE
$50,000 — or more 62 89,194 23,294 aL 10.9 | 28.0
TABLE 10
RELATION OF APPLE SALES TO GROSS SALES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
AND OF ALL COMMODITIES, AS REPORTED BY 976 INDEPENDENT
FRUIT AND VEGETABLE STANDS, NEw YorkK City, 1937-88
Quantity of Apples Sold
Annual Gross Sales Stands
of All Commodities Report-
per Fruit Stand se Eastern Western | Total
1000 Ib. | 10001. | 10001.
Less than $ 5,000 116 6.4 4.3 10.7
$ 5,000 — $ 9,999 Zoe 15.7 win 22.9
$10,000 — $19,999 329 29.3 11.4 40.7
$20,000 — $29,999 147 40.8 18.2 59.0
$30,000 — $49,999 93 68 .2 32.9 101.0
$50,000 — or more 69 93.0 49.8 142.7
MARKETING 85
TABLE 11
Famity INcoME AND ANNUAL SALES OF EASTERN AND WESTERN APPLES,
PER RETAIL OUTLET, AS REPORTED BY RETAIL OUTLETS OF
THREE Types, New York City, 1937-38
Average Quantity Sold per Outlet
Income Class ae Apples
Based on Rentals* ee Total for
; 7 Fruitst
Eastern | Western} Total
Number| 1000 lb. | 1000 lb. | 1000 Ib. | 1000 Ib.
479 independent
retail grocers:
$20 — $34 - 136 4.2 3.6 7.8 31.5
$35 — $49 137 (ees 5.2 1267 52.2
$50 — $64 82 10.2 5.6 15.8 68.4
$65 — or more 124 11.9 8.2 20.1 106.8
1121 independent stands:
$20 — $34 202 19.4 15-4 B45 WAAS 7
$35 — $49 314 43.9 15.3 59.2 -| 212.4
$50 — $64 315 35.0 16.6 51.6 | 200.9
$65 — or more 290 33.4 18.8 52.2 | 229.1
154 pushcarts or
wagon peddlers:
$20 — $34 101 41.7 1 ya eo ales
$35 — $49 50 41.2 16.5 aC.4 137.3
$50 — $64 2 1.9 35.2 ov .4 250.1
$65 — or more if ik heey 17 96 .4
* Income class based on average rental of census tract in which store is located,
as shown by United States Census of 1930.
7 Includes apples, as well as fruits listed.
The “margins” taken by city agencies in selling fruit have
long concerned growers. It is to the advantage of growers
that these margins be sufficient to encourage retailers to push
the product and low enough to create volume sales and main-
tain a favorable competitive position with other produets.
86 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
Table 12 shows that more than half the retail agencies re-
ported margins of less than 30 percent and 6 out of 10 push-
cart and wagon hucksters had margins of less than 20 percent.
TABLE 12
VARIATIONS IN Gross REetratt MARGINS ON APPLES,
BY TypPE oF RETAIL OUTLET, AS REPORTED BY
INDEPENDENT RETAILERS, NEw York City, 1937-38
Proportion of Retail Outlets Reporting
Range in Total Total
Average Outlets for
Gross Margin| Report-| Fruit and |Independent| Pusheart | Delica- ieee All
(percent) * ing Vegetable} Grocery or Wagon | tessen Markets| Outlets
Stands Stores Hucksters | Stores
Number| Percent Percent Percent Percent | Percent | Percent
Less than 15 109 3 5 41 7 a 7
15-19 147 8 8 20 oe aS 9
20 — 24 255 16 14 20 14 22 16
25 — 29 389 25 27 1% 36 1l 24
30 — 34 156 i | 9 3 14 ee 10
35 — 39 183 12 13 1 22 34 12
40 — 49 119 9 7 1 7 aap 7
50 — 74 22 14 15 3 ok 22 13
75 —99 LS: 1 1 ee ace ote iF
100 — or more 10 if: 1 ie me 1g 1
* Gross margin — difference between price paid for commodity and the retail
selling price; for example, if a bushel of apples were bought for $1.00 and sold for $1.35,
the gross margin was 35 cents, or 35 percent.
As to the size or unit of sale the report makes the follow-
ing statement:
Practically all the leading fruits were purchased by consumers in
extremely small quantities. In 1790 independent retail outlets in New
York City, sales of 38 percent of the Eastern apples were in quantities
of 3-pound lots, 33 percent in 2-pound lots, and 12 percent in 1-pound
lots, making a total of 83 percent in lots of 3 pounds or less. Sales of an
additional 7 percent were in 4-pound lots, and 3 percent in 5-pound lots.
Sales of Western apples were mostly by number or by the pound. That
is, sales of 35 percent were in 3-pound lots or less, and 31 percent in
units of 4 apples or less. Similar variations were observed among sales
psd
MARKETING 87
of all the leading fruits. The variations in size and type of retail sales
units seriously restrict the field for consumer-size packages.
The spoilage factor influences both the retailer’s margin
and the size of individual sales. The larger the volume of
apples handled, the lower the percentage of spoilage, presum-
ably because the retailer feels that the matter is of sufficient
importance to engage his attention, insuring better care, and
because of a more rapid turnover. The grower should keep
in mind that no one can make the fruit any better than it was
when it left his hands. Spoilage, or the certainty of it, often
begins, not in the city, but in the orchard, on the truck and in
the packing house.
TABLE 13
SPOILAGE AS RELATED TO VOLUME oF APPLES HANDLED
: AS REPORTED BY VARIOUS TYPES OF INDEPENDENT
RETAILERS IN New York Criry, 1937-38
Percentage of Spoilage
Quantity handled annually Eastern Apples Western Apples
Summer Winter Summer | Winter
| |
Less than 50 bushels. ... 13 8.1 10.9 9.1
More than 500 bushels.... 6 as 6.4 aha
More than 2500 bushels.... ee 5.8 | eee 4.3
One reason why apples and other deciduous fruits have
had hard going in competition with citrus fruit and bananas
lies perhaps in the disclosure of the study that, of the fruit
and vegetable stands, 96 percent had oranges, 71 percent had
erapefruit, and 84 percent had bananas on sale every week in
the year against 13 percent for Western apples and about
6. percent for Eastern apples. Of the grocery stores, 28 per-
88 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
cent carried Eastern apples and 11 percent Western apples
throughout the year. Forty-seven percent of the hucksters
carried oranges the year round, but only 5 percent carried
apples.
If modified atmosphere storage or some other device will
make really fine apples as available as oranges everywhere all
the time, this may make a tremendous difference in the present
apple-orange relationship.
TABLE 14
Source or Suppty oF EASTERN AND WESTERN APPLES,
AS REPORTED BY INDEPENDENT RETAILERS,
New Yor«k City, 1937—38*
Proportion Purchased from Each Source by
3 Volume
Source of Supply | Fruit and) Inde: | Fushestt |ycles| Mest) iia
Vegetable|pendent! or Wagon t Markets \:St
Stands /| Grocers) Hucksters Sn as
—
» —
i: es Ce Se = ae ee =a = ——
Percent | Percenit| Percent |Percent | Percent | Percent| Bushes
Eastern apples:
Wholesaler or jobber 89.8 96.2 90.7 100.0 95.5 90.5 | 920,318
Farmer at market. . 7.0 PAT 0.4 see os 4.5 5.7 58,429
Fruit auction. ..... 1.9 es ee et ee 1.6 16,552
Farmer at farm... 1.0 ; ie Se ee eee 1.5 15,390
Wagon peddler or ‘
huckster........ 7 0.9 7 AE Jas, ae 0.4 3,838
Farmer at store. 0.3 0.4 ee Fees 0.3 2,902
2g +) HARES ial eae 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 | 100.0 |1,017,429
Bozes
Western apples:
Wholesaler or jobber 82.7 98.8 93.6 98.5 100.0 85.6 | 456,620
Fruit auction...... 17.2 0.6 Bik) f° te eee 14.0 74,467
Wagon peddler or
haekater’. 7452. T 0.6 a7 L..5 -f ee 0.3 1,690
rieker. 6... gee 0.1 oud o's kk ee 0.1 410
Total ocs ae. 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 | 100.0 100.0 | 533,187
* Of the 1790 independent retailers, 91 did not handle Eastern apples, and 98 did
not handle Wéstern apples.
7 Less than 0.1 percent.
MARKETING 89
Table 14 is interesting as indicating the sources from which
independent retailers secure their apple supplies. From 85
to 90 percent of all apples are obtained from jobbers, but 14
percent of Western apples come through the auction process.
Fruit and vegetable stands secure 7 percent of their Eastern
apples direct from the growers.
TABLE 15
GRADES OF EASTERN APPLES SOLD,
AS REPORTED BY 1699 INDEPENDENT RETAILERS,
New York City, 1937-38*
Retailers Reporting
Sale of Grade
Grade Reported Sold
Percentage
Name of Total
le tre re i A ST lk es 302 18
TER hE ON ate cee era ae rea 249 15
Pret quahityor first grade... 2... ....4..2 197 2
Rept ee oe Pion. 119 <
Dee sey TE Ce SE Ser 102
Mele Pe eee eS Se she a ois o ba edie bs 83 5
ee ers er oe a Ke ee SL 79 5
SEORTES 2 oye oe ee od ee 75 4.
ivestaeleee eh oe a 70 4
ee ee Sec ess Glee 67 4
WaWCeWARICHICS 2 oi). 2 isos Geib oe Sos 39 2
LATE ISIE Et eG eee ee 31 2
eR cee ese che ws 22 1
Cheaper of lower prades..... 2.0.5 ..0.0.... 22 1
RU I tes 8 eda ce aes 20 1
PCG or oo bs dis se\ba we oss ee eke 15 if
* Ninety-one (or 5 percent) of the 1790 retailers surveyed did not handle Eastern
apples. 3
{ Fifteen other grades were mentioned, but no one of them was reported by 1
percent of the retailers.
90 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
There is great confusion as to grades and grade terms or
at least a widespread use of miscellaneous terms (Tables 15
and 16). However, the retail growers know good apples, and
it will be noted that they preponderantly prefer the better
grades. Few handle “seconds,” “ungraded,” “medium,” etc.,
apples from any section.
~
TABLE 16
GRADES OF WESTERN APPLES SOLD,
AS REPORTED BY 1692 INDEPENDENT RETAILERS,
New York City, 1937-38*
Retailers Reporting
Sale of Grade
Grade Reported Sold
Percentage
Na of Total
Mind Ga steey we ike ho sci bebe oe ee 306 18
Rest es. es, aS Fae eae 243 - 14
farat quality or aest orade. 5 0.2 eeeoe 184 11
ey ete ee. ess a as ee 174 10
Mr reek Pid on oe ee eee eg 10
TEESE Pak (aah) een 2 4 a a Op REDE ee ORO ae Tap ies 4
SE CULT er | ea Rs Rae ese canst a I 55 3
Mamed yAtieiicee gs os Sees ee ae 4] 2
ERPS) oo (a ete Macean st Meenas Sel te aoa 21. 2
Misses coe i. ER eee 27 2
ip ade eee. . se ak ee eae 26 2
pleat ss Bene oe... | oe Gen on aie 24 1
TESST ip acca? | ae Ch Saar, eel aetna a 22 1
rormiged: verse... <: ., ekeee ee ee | 17 1
Cheaper or lowet-erade; ... 4. 2 25. | 14 1
oc ee ee 10
Others 7 |
* Ninety-eight (or 5 percent) of the 1790 retaiiers surveyed did not handle Western
apples.
+ Eleven other grades were mentioned, but no one of them was reported by 1 per-
cent of the retailers. {>
MARKETING 91
TABLE 17
VARIETIES OF EASTERN APPLES REPORTED SOLD By 1699
INDEPENDENT RETAILERS, NEw YorK City, 1937-38*
Retailers Reporting Sale of Variety
Variety
Number | Percentage of Total
UREA, Bee ss ores 1425 84
“lo Lt Le 5 es epee ee hier anes 1124 66
MMMM rr es te be 718 42
WER lee 8 ee ee I. 381 Ze
Se et ee ee ae ee 336 20
oe LD ie era 143 8
RT III oe ee 120 7
7725 ST SL Seg ie eel ee 115 7
emit 9 ee 104 6
MRR oe ec oe ee SS 93 5
OD EES 2G 58 3
Se ie ee 42 2
USULUITTT TS 5 SN a SS a ot | 32 2
ETRE eee ee 25 1
eerste so al. ce sf 22, 1
erAcTILIR i RS eo go LS 1
22 DSU 3 le ee ee 17 1
eM IOMERNIS. 2 22 fi)... 15 1
OSE U ArT oe aie ee eee 14 1
Sige a Me IOS Se ee ae eee 14 1
MINI es es a Soe ee 13 1
LE a ee 9 :
Meee a Pan ks ic oe 3 2: 9 1
Others Tf
* Ninety-one (or 5 percent) of the 1790 retailers included in this survey did not
handle Eastern apples.
+ Twenty other varieties were reported as sold, but no one of them was mentioned
by 1 percent of the retailers.
fz]
92 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
As to varieties, though many are handled, only a few are
important or really desired. Tables 17 and 18 indicate the
situation and contrast both the demand for identical varieties
from Eastern and Western sections and, what is more impor-
TABLE 18 |
VARIETIES OF WESTERN APPLES REPORTED SOLD BY 1692
INDEPENDENT RETAILERS, NEw York Ciry, 1937-38*
Retailers Reporting Sale of Variety
Variety
Number __ | Percentage of Total
PIEUCIOUSS. eae eS, cc ss 1546 91
WVINESAD. sete s). . hook aan 694 41
Pippy Settee sg bce es ee 356 21
Rome (Beating. 3 sc ates ere os Ua a ae 16
SPILZEMBUEG asus... od eee yee ee 219 13
NoMathany vies: ss aio eae 189 11
PE WLOWIT DR eR ae: ... be eee eae 96 6
Colden: Melieious: .\.)./.. - see fo. ates 85 5
Gravenstem rye). ce | Ai Be 74 4
iGlatOsi ee es. 2) hae Ae ee ee 46 3
‘oie ea taghats °e 4 & Gay meena eaeatx fis Reet ene 17 1
PNOPCHERT WSPNe. hiss... 0h ’s5 Pecos ge eke 16 1
Winter Banawan ss. os cster Ree ees 15 1
PAT Sa ee oS, . caine ee ea 14 1
Northwestern Greening............. 11 1
Others {
* Ninety-eight (or 5 percent) of the 1790 retailers included in this survey did not
handle Western apples.
t Nine other varieties were reported as sold, but no one of them was mentioned
by 1 percent of the retailers.
tant, the relative standing of varieties in terms of demand.
Michigan, Ohio, and Shenandoah-Cumberland apples are in-
cluded in the Eastern list with those of the Northeastern States.
It is also evident that retail agencies, to say nothing of con-
MARKETING 93
sumers, are still unfamiliar with many varieties. Coddling is
an old variety—probably not a bushel reaches the New York
market; Pippin in the Western list is probably Newtown;
McIntosh, Northern Spy, and Baldwin do not belong in the ©
Western list; Stayman Winesap, a variety of substantial im-
portance, appears on neither list. It may be included with
Winesap, a distinct variety.
Chain-store systems are strong promoters of the sale of
apples, giving a large amount of publicity consistently through-
out the year to the effort. They are cooperating well with
growers’ organizations. In New York City in 1937-88, five
chains sold 345,000 bushels of apples, of which 75 percent
were from Eastern growing sections. Table 19 lists the price
per pound by months of apple varieties handled by these
chains. The figures following the variety names indicate the
number of apples in the package. Prices vary from year to
year ; the relationships between varieties are of interest. Chain
stores know their varieties, because fruits are usually pur-
chased in large quantities by experienced buyers.
In 1938, the United States Department of Labor made a
survey of the incomes of 14,266 families in New York City.
It found that ;
24.2% had a family income of less than $1000
C0 Gann anata ce AN Fg Aker Sage ae $1000 — $1499
a8 Ag ee PE HIS ita eg $1500 — $1999
PEG pate e ere $2000 — $2499
$0207, ¢ 86) - «6 Mens Meets aa 5 $2500 — $2999
Pare ES We ee as as $3000 — $4999
ex i € eat Thee $5000 and more
Granted that this situation may not be normal, owing to
general conditions, it still is evident that the bulk of city fami-
les have very modest incomes, that they must buy with care,
and that it is a major concern of the grower that distributing |
HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
94
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6 WIAV.L
MARKETING 95 .
costs be reduced wherever possible. It also raises the question
as to what grades of fruit the families with incomes of less
than $2000 can really afford to buy and how this fruit may be
got to them at prices which they can pay.
(d) Secure Shipping-Point Inspection. Inspection of ship-
ments by federal or state officials is a forward step in the
' marketing process. Such service is available at nominal cost
at the principal shipping points. In the season of 1938-39 the
Federal Government inspected 46,840 cars of apples at point
of shipment. The demand for the service has increased
steadily.
The inspectors certify the grade and condition of the ship-
ments, and their reports constitute legal evidence. This serv-
ice encourages greater care on the part of shippers and also
reduces the rejection of cars at destination for trivial reasons
when the market is oversupplied. The inspection system im-
parts stability and confidence to the market, and is sure to
develop as its value is better understood. Inspection costs
vary in the different states but average about $4.00 per car.
This is the best kind of insurance that the shipper can take out.
- Inspection at receiving markets is also available. In the
‘season of 1938-39 the Federal Government made 1614 such
inspections. The charge is $4.00 per car for a certificate of
gerade or $2.50 for an examination of condition of the fruit.
Further information relative to inspection may be obtained
from the United States Department of Agriculture, or from
the various state departments of agriculture.
(e) Load Cars Properly. This is an important factor ins
fluencing the condition in which fruit arrives at destination.
Careless loading with open spaces between packages means
loss in transit and depreciation on the entire car (Fig. 42).
Various systems of loading have been developed, but any satis-
factory system requires that the packages be packed firmly
in the first place, that they be firmly stacked against the
car walls and against each other, and that ventilation be pro-
vided to all parts of the car. Any railroad over which fruit 1g
- 96 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
shipped will furnish directions for loading. Broken or defec-
tive packages should not be loaded. The collapse of one such
package may cause the whole load to shift, resulting in very
great damage.
Carloads vary, but will run from 160 to 200 barrels and 360
to 576 bushel baskets. Car capacities are usually figured at
175 barrels and 756 boxes. Barrels and baskets are loaded
four tiers high, as a rule. Summer varieties of apples may
7 pee sgreremiencogprneearannegeeenncennagnentinaneegegt?
(Merchants Despatch)
Fig. 42. (a) A well-loaded car of tub bushels presenting an attractive
appearance at destination. (b) Baskets in an improperly loaded car at
destination.
sometimes carry better if loaded three tiers high. Minimum
carloads are specified by the railroads and take a certain rate.
A smaller quantity in the car must go at a higher rate.
The space about the door may be left open, the packages
being strongly braced and stayed to prevent shucking. If the
packages do not take up all the space in the car, instead of
bracing at the doorway, a bulkhead may be built at one end.
This should be built according to standard specifications for
the packages being loaded.
MARKETING 97
Refrigerator cars are almost essential for shipment except
during the late fall. In warm weather their insulation protects
from high outside temperatures. In cold weather, they pro-
tect the fruit from freezing. Their use has increased
enormously. :
It takes many hours to cool fruit that is put in the car at
warm temperatures. Ordinarily fruit registers about 75° F.
when loaded, or 43° higher than the ice temperature. The
rate at which the fruit cools depends largely on its position
in the car. The warmest area is in the top layer midway
between the door and the bunker. The coldest area is in the
bottom layer adjacent to the bunker. Fruit placed at 75°
to 80° F. in the car may reach about 45° F. in 12 hours in the
bottom layer whereas it may require from 6 to 7 days for the
fruit in the top layer to reach 50° F.
Before the cold air can penetrate to the centers of the pack-
ages and cool the fruit properly in all layers, the car may be
well on the way to its destination and early and soft varieties
of fruit may have ripened considerably. It is desirable, there-
fore, to load the fruit in the cool of the morning, to put it in so
as to facilitate air movement as much as possible, and to ar-
range for re-icing of the car en route as may be necessary.
In some sections it will be necessary in severe weather to
afford additional protection against freezing by lining the car
with paper, putting straw on the floor, and using heaters.
Ventilator cars are available on some railroads. They do
not provide for icing but are built to permit circulation of air
through the car. They are used for fall and winter varieties
shipped after the weather is cool but before temperatures are
severe. Refrigerator cars are used as ventilator cars for the
late and hard varieties of apples when outside temperatures
have become sufficiently cool. In such cases the ice is omitted
from the bunkers and the hatches are opened when the out-
side temperature is cold enough for refrigeration but not low
enough to cause freezing.
Little has been done as yet in pre-cooling apples in special
98 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
storage rooms before loading, as is commonly done with citrus
fruits. Experiments are being conducted in this regard, as*
well as in the use of “dry ice.” ae
Information as to procedure in ordering and billing out
cars may be obtained from the carriers. Cars should be or-
dered in writing at least 48 hours in advance of the time when |
they will be needed. Careful records of all particulars should
APPLES: PRODUCTION AND PRICE IN THE UNITED STATES, 1919-38
INDEX NUMBERS (1924-29=100)
cae Production iC
et
PERCENT
150
125
100
75
Price received by
$0
producers
5
1919 1921 123-1925... 1927. 7929 noon 1933 935° “1937
YEAR BEGINNING JULY
®BASED ON AUGUST I INDIGATIONS
(U.S, DAA
Fic. 43. Apple prices usually vary inversely with production. Since the
beginning of the depression, prices have been low in relation to volume
of production largely because of decreased consumer buying power.
be kept; such information may be valuable in connection with
claims for damages.
(f) Consider Market Preferences and Prices. The yearly
average price received by producers of apples is governed
largely by the size of the crop and by changes in the general
price level. The variations from year to year in average
prices for the season are determined largely by variations in
supply. See Fig. 43.
MARKETING 99
Keeping in mind that the greatest density of population
and chief consuming centers are in the territory north of the
Ohio and east of the Mississippi Rivers, it is evident from
Table 20 that the growers of New England, New York, Mary-
land, Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, and adjoining states have a
favored position with regard to transportation costs. It costs
65.5 cents to put a car of apples with standard ventilation
into New York City from Hood River, Oregon, 16 cents from
Hancock, Maryland, 26.5 cents from Fennville, Michigan, and
15 cents from Brockport, New York. Even as far west as
Omaha the advantage of the Northeastern producing sections
is marked.
TABLE 20
FREIGHT Rates oN AppLes, 1940, In Cents PER BUSHEL
Standard Ventilation Refrigeration
Point of Origin Point of Origin
Destination
Brock- | Han- | Fenn- | Hood | Brock-| Han- | Fenn- | Hood
port, cock, ville, | River, | port, cock, ville, | River,
ING WE Md Mich Ore. Ney Md Mich Ore
Atlanta, Gatun... 39.5 25 36 60.5 | 52.83 | 36.42 | 48.38 | 73.06
Boston, Mass..... 19 21 27 65.5 | 27.57 | 30.04 | 38.42 | 78.72
Chicago, Ill....... 21.5 | 23.5 | 11.5 | 52.5 | 31.02 | 33.97 | 19.11. | 62.68
Detroit, Mich..... 16 19.5 13.5 GD. 5 -| 24757, 1529.02 |-21-11 1-77.40
Louisville, Ky..... 22 DOES 17 56.5 | 32.47 | 32.97 | 26.52 | 67.74
Minneapolis, Minn.| 33.5 abe 23.5 52.5 44.92 | 49.88 | 33.97 | 62.42
New York, N. Y..| 15 *12 26.5 65.5 | 22.61 |*19.61 }f 36.97 | 78.06
+16 $23.61
Omaha, Neb...... 41.5 28 32.5 52.5 | 52.92 | 40.38 | 42.97 | 62.42
Pittsburgh, Pa....| 16 avo 18.5 65.5 /).23.6) | 21.41.) .28.02: | 277340
Portland, Me..... 20.5 23 28 65.5 | 30.02 | 32.04 | 39.42 | 78.72
Washington, D.C..| 18.5 11 24.5 65.5 | 28.02 | 17.66 | 34.92 | 78.06
* Export. + Domestic.
Rates are figured on the basis of 50 pounds per bushel. Rates per bushel from Brock-
port, Hancock, and Fennville are figured on the basis of 175 barrels or 525 bushels per
car. Rates per bushel from Hood River are figured on the basis of 756 bushel boxes per
car.
It is interesting to note that the rates on apples for export
and consigned for that purpose may be less than for domestic
100 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
use, though the fruit passes through the same points, as ship-
ments from Hancock, Maryland, to New York City.
The Pacific Coast region is under a decided handicap in
shipments to all points noted. Refrigeration adds about 20
percent to the rates on long hauls and up to 50 percent on short
hauls.
TABLE 21
RELATIVE WHOLESALE NEw York City AppLtE PrIcES BY VARIETIES
FOR Firty-stx YEARS. BALDWIN TAKEN As 100
1879-80 | 1889-90 | 1899-00 | 1909-10 | 1919-20 | 1928-29
Variety to to to to to to
1888-89 | 1898-99 | 1908-09 | 1918-19 | 1927-28 | 1934-35
Ss | eee eee |
Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent | Percent
Baldwith.h2 totic one 100 100 100 100 100 100
Albemarle Pippin..... ah Pay poy 126 138 135
Alexander... Seuut.::. 120 155 141 125 100 98
Ben Davis. e255... 122 113 99 84 74 75
Pall PIppin Gowan. - 101 172 108 109 103 108
Fameuse (Snow)..... 152 133 121 119 116 99
Gravenstein......... 128 145 130 115 93 93
Hubbardston........ sae 106 95 92 88 86
LUST TS TALES | eg en gs Ao 5a hi 146 137 105 100
Melntosh:. 232s... ° Me, tea 147 142 155 140
Northern Spy=..).-a.... 100 105 104 113 117 121
Re FE) Greening. 523s. 98 110 105 109 115 113
PRGEBeE 5% SO ree 91 88 82 80 75 73
Tompkins King...... 130 130 119 107 99 100
Twenty Ounce....... 113 123 112 109 96 100
Weaken yy ..5.fe. ate e eae ond ee 126 120 100 102
Wires ap ast cS. ak a ye 121 122 117 106 94
Voerk Imperial oo /25° 126 116 107 101 97
| | | | | LT
October to May—
average price per ;
barrel for Baldwin* $2. 59 $2.90 $2.90 $3.62 $4.79 $3.73
* Given in terms of barrel because the barrel has been the prevailing package until
comparatively recent years. For transfer to bushels, allow 3 bushels per barrel.
Tables 21 and 22, issued by the Department of Agricul-
tural Economics and Farm Management of the New York
State College of Agriculture at Cornell University give data
on the relative wholesale prices of 17 varieties of apples on
—. 3s
MARKETING 101
TABLE 22
AvuTUMN PRICES BY VARIETIES WHEN WEALTHY Prices Equa 100 *
Average of Weekly Price Quotations
Variety |
1910 to 1918 to 1927 to
1917 1926 1934
Percent Percent Percent
Ey eh eee 5 ccd bees we Ba 100 100 100
Peer ere sh aie Se Uh is 106 94 95
TO EEOC he Sa elle ne a 79 82 82
BRA ee Ro kG ot 2 es Se 76 84, 103
POI ETANTE RN ee bi oh eee es 78 72 86
OE OR i ae ec Se: yay 102t
OCC i a a ae eee 118 110
USES A hee eo 94 94 112
PANICIISe (ONOW I... ie ee 97 96 104
MP VCTI BCCI fo ios 6 cele s Ce sas 95 90 96
Grimes...... Se A ar SLR Re a a 75 76 94
EPP EEATOSPONE Coe ule biel ice ee ete vs 79 83 94
RIDER eevee lane ig ch a). ne a's t 116 106 106
Le socal e 1.12) eh ie a a 85 86 93
RPE MERCH Se a Te ea Sm 115 134 132
Northwestern Greening......... 115 107 105
Duchess (Oldenburg)........... 93 85 85
Pee Greening 75 yi kid J’. 89 98 113
dies Lea O14) 2a ere 93 97 100
PE WOULVARUIICE 23 iy vio eva eee as 90 95 115
WON MTR 80g Av i cc hives whe we 105 96 99
* For August, September, and October, price relatives were calculated from quota-
tions in the Saturday edition of the Producer’s Price-Current, New York City. Each
quotation in bushel baskets for each grade for each variety was eomparcs with the
Wealthy quotation for the same grade,
7 Prices for 1932 only.
the New York market compared to Baldwin as a standard for
56 years, and on fall prices of 20 varieties with Wealthy at
100 for 25 years. They are worthy of study as indicating
102 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
trends over long periods. It is probable that the situation
is much the same on other markets.
This information should be of value to the grower in select-
ing varieties for commercial planting and may also be valuable
in determining the proper time to sell. In regard to the former,
if the price trend is downward over long periods and if the
variety is difficult to grow or handle, or produces a low pro-
portion of fruit packing in the higher grades, it would not seem
to be a good planting investment. If a variety does not on
the average appreciate in value enough during the storage
season to pay storage and overhead charges and return a
margin of profit from holding, then it would seem to be best
to sell immediately in a normal season. Such factors may,
of course, be upset in years of short crops or abnormal condi-
tions. Cold storage has certainly been a considerable factor
in extending the season for some varieties in recent years, as
many more varieties are at present quoted on the market in
January and May than for the early periods of market reports
when cold storage was not available.
Taking Baldwin and Wealthy as standard, varieties not
selling as well in recent years as formerly are Russet, Ben
Davis, York Imperial, Duchess (Oldenburg), Fameuse, and
Maiden Blush among others. On the other hand, Northern
Spy and Rhode Island Greening have sold relatively better.
McIntosh, not quoted until recent years, and Delicious have
been selling exceptionally well.
Prices in New York City for apples grown in 1932, 1933,
and 1934 averaged about one-third less than the average price
of the five preceding crops, 1927-1931, as indicated by Table
23, from the same source as Tables 21 and 22. The largest
decrease in price was for McIntosh, 39 percent. Delicious
prices decreased only 24 percent. McIntosh prices have de-
creased more than other varieties, probably because of the
increased McIntosh production. Decreases in the main are
no doubt due largely to the general depression of price levels.
MARKETING 103
TABLE 23
Recent DECLINES IN WHOLESALE APPLE Prices IN NEw Yor«K Crty
f
——
Average Price per Bushel for Apples
Graded Good to Fancy
Variety
1927-28 to | 1932-33 to aceaiea
1931-32 1934-35
Cents Cents Percent
RPM M ERE Eye kode. iw o4¥, dk oy ais 259 158 39
Rhode Island Greening.......... 202 132 35
Northwestern Greening......... 167 iW 34
(SSO 2 a6 50 ae Se 227 151 33
TURE sy saCh yc ies elas eed #2 158 106 33
Ne BORE E i Wie) cc iis fin ais 5 dep 150 101 33
mapemanie Pippin™ .. i... sei. ee. 266 184 31
PPO MIC CHUL cree Waites Cs ee et 187 139 26
[LAD isla) ee a a ee a 181 134 26
POMS gig nyo am ld a ein ein oo 187 143 24
POE eS Ue wae « fp) 6: 2 oie vs 198 136 31
* Yellow Newtown.
Studies of Consumers’ Demand. The New York Food
Marketing Research Council in cooperation with the Bureau
of Agricultural Economics of the United States Department
of Agriculture has made a study of the consumers’ demand
for apples in New York City. Some 3100 reports from fami-
lies of the principal nationalities and various income groups
were received. The following results are of interest:
1. The housewife is the buyer of fruit as of other supplies for the
home. It is to her views and desires that the fruit trade must cater.
2. A very large percentage of housewives know apples only in terms
of color—red, green, yellow, etc. This is especially true in the low-
income groups, but is evident in all groups.
Among the poorer classes, purchasers of apples on the average do not
know a single variety of apples by name, the medium-income group,
104 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
representing 970 families, knows 1.69 varieties, the group with annual
incomes above $6000 knows 38 varieties on the average.
3. Appearance is much more significant than variety names. Large
size, high color, and cleanliness of the fruit attract; blemishes, soiled
condition, small size, and poor color repel.
4. Orders were placed for the most part either for “eating” or “cook-
ing” apples. Only 24 per cent ordered by variety names, and of these
only 13 per cent ordered by brand names.
5. For eating purposes, McIntosh, Baldwin, Fameuse (Snow), De-
licious, Northern Spy, Spitzenburg, and Winesap were desired in the
order named, with McIntosh considerably in the lead.
Jewish people were especially partial to McIntosh and gave as their
reason its high quality. The English, American, and Irish groups
favored Delicious and Baldwin. Delicious was the most popular variety
among the high-income families.
For cooking purposes green apples or “Greenings” were pre-eminently
in demand.
6. Apples are purchased in very small quantities. Thirty-eight per-
sent of the families purchased in units of 12 apples. Units of 10 and 6
apples were also popular. Only 13 per cent purchased in units larger —
than 12 apples.
Purchases by the pound are usually made in 3- or 4-pound units.
Almost no fruit is purchased by the barrel, box, or basket.
7. The use of the apples purchased is: 57 percent are used in the raw
state, 15 percent are used for sauce, 13 percent are baked, 11 percent
are made into pies, and 3 percent into salads. Italians use more apples
in the raw state than any other nationality.
As the family income rises, a larger proportion of the ae is used in
the prepared state and less is eaten raw.
8. The chief reason given for the purchase of apples is their health-
giving qualities.
It appears from these studies that attractiveness is the
major factor in sales; that publicity relating to varieties, pack-
ages, or brands has had a minor effect as yet; that the retailer
occupies a position of great significance in influencing pur-
chases; and that the healthful qualities of apples constitute
their greatest appeal.
Results in other consuming centers, especially those with
populations more uniform in nationality and in economic
status, would doubtless be somewhat modihed.
MARKETING 105
By-Products. Dried and canned apples are important by-
products of the apple industry. This is evident from Tables
24, 25, and 26. Table 24 lists the quantities of apples and
other fruits dried for purposes of comparison. Contrary to
the general impression, enormous quantities of apples are
TABLE 24
1923 1929 1935 1937
pounds pounds pounds pounds
Apples....... 19,397,844 44,619,712 71,251,536 52,500,000
Apricots...... 54,029,042 43,089,530 49,176,457 44,000,000
| LE Ae EO ee 28,020,931 44,716,293 57,400,000
Peaches...... 61,616,496 35,849,539 50,695,693 27,000,000
EP PUNES 36-358 + - 245,786,104 | 347,349,407 473,600,870 512,000,000
Basins: 2... : 380,068,441 | 421,203,596 414,129,227 580,000,000
ee er i Nate [el OB hee ag 0s 14,098,736 16,384,376
Other fruits...| 30,903,088 18,565,900 2,885,443 3,748,769
Wotalise.: 3... 791,801,215 | 938,698,615 | 1,120,560,255 | 1,093,033,145
Increase in total production, 1923-37, 38.0 percent.
Increase in production of apples, 1923-37, 170.6 percent.
Decrease in production of apricots, 1923-37, 18.5 percent.
Increase in production of figs, 1929-37, 104.8 percent.
Decrease in production of peaches, 1923-37, 56.1 percent.
Increase in production of prunes, 1923-37, 108.3 percent.
Increase in production of raisins, 1923-37, 52.6 percent.
Increase in production of pears, 1935-37, 16.2 percent.
dried, more than in the case of other tree fruits with the excep-
tion of prunes, and the trend is strongly upward. Under
normal conditions there is a good foreign outlet for them.
Table 25 indicates how the canning of apples and the
making of applesauce are increasing and the states most active
in this connection. The Shenandoah-Cumberland region ig a
106 HARVESTING, STORING, AND. MARKETING
TABLE 25
CANNED APPLES AND APPLESAUCE, PRODUCTION BY PRINCIPAL STATES
1921-38
(National Canners’ Association)
—_——~ =
1921* 1929+ 1937 | 1938
in standard eases
WAMLOTMIT foie wo en 68,092 Included in “other states’’
WOlGEAMO core. ee oes wees 50,987 Included in “other states”
Walaa see so: 38,078 30,244 Rr here,
PUL ERIIVG | Scouse eae es 301,855 31;030 See
Maryland, Pennsylvania,
and AV Iemma... . ks a 202,985 883,611 | 3,285,814 | 1,553,464
Michreat.¢ oe. 1, 141,705 | 166,003 30,009 15,227
ew Ver ke. 5 eee ss <a sce 601,237 176,313 | 1,523,705 | 1,037,263
2 EET SS = RO as 279,751 406,726 280,777 191,714
CHAR eee ee ee a ko 27,383 Included in “other states”
Washinetons 5.5... 3 2). 439,969 | 1,298,147 658,024 462,007
Orner sabes! a wel. wick 87,386 593,877 55,100 22,500
PRORAIS oe ees 2 2,239,428 | 3,592,551 | 5,833,429 | 3,282,175
* Does not include applesauce.
+ Statistics for 1929 do not include applesauce; 903,991 cases of applesauce were
made in this year, but data upon states in which it was produced were not obtained and
cannot now be secured.
very important factor, as is New York State. Table 26 gives
a comparison of apples with other fruits.
A study of all three tables indicates that the processing of
fruits constitutes a tremendous and growing business. It was
felt at one time that the widespread development of cold stor-
age would reduce the by-products industry, perhaps eliminat-
ing the drying phases of it. This has not happened to date.
Vinegar and cider manufactured in factories and commer-
cial establishments are of considerable importance: The value
72,262,634
MARKETING 107
TABLE 26
Packs oF THE More Important FRvITS
1921-38
(Nationa] Canners’ Association)
1921 1929 | 1937 | 1938
in standard cases
Apples and 2,239,428 | 3,592,551 | 2,672,328 | 1,755,624
Applesauce....... 903,991 | 3,161,101 | 1,526,551
ADICOUS. 2. bse. 1,150,514 | 4,267,294 | 5,727,996 | 1,729,486
Blackberries. ....... 499,414 844,066 493,218 534,248
Ppaspletiies. a3 i ae a 608,335 623,654 319,287
Ghetmes, ted sour’: 22\ fo v.c%- 1,123,855 | 2,471,982 | 1,694,813
Cherries, sweet...... 990,090 966,017 518,979 730,232
RACV rede el ac ch i | eee oes 2's 1,174,823 | 4,279,240 | 3,645,697
Pere aMeimie JUNE yi Pl eee cee 115,708 | 6,916,240 | 8,021,828
Menehes, Ck oe. 5,881,327 | 8,723,622 | 13,992,040 | 10,401,016
LAS | Casi aa Gana 1,256,809 | 4,980,978 | 5,115,962 | 4,848,090
AEC dee fo tage iced 206,046 171,044, 288,532 70,086
REUNeS ee) co ile 281,175 | 1,069,134 1,891,364 934,987
COUP T US Cage Migraine ane 54,210 131,542 121,859 93,532
SC pas SN a a | 223,857 412,481 260,299
PICA ef a 5,895,747 9,210,240 | 10,922,883 | 12,203,012
EAMe Ae MICE. Ho} als wleidieieies |) ae sada ss 7,500,000 | 9,000,000
(Estimate)
Fruits for salad and
ree I Apidlkln 84 cia [a pie ginias 4,408,805 | 2,880,269
Blueberries and
Meme perries! ff. ek le 232,024 441,988 185,009
Gooseberries........ 51,851 44,260 57,195 47,287
Loganberries........ 317,146 354,552 66,978 195,786
UP PCTEICR 5 eho als cae we 403,204 126,051 94,860
Lo aa 675,000 |* 635,000 951,758 742,629
108 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
of such products was $10,634,000 in 1933; in 1938 it was
$8,563,000 for 44 million gallons. Filtered and pasteurized
apple juice has increased in popularity during the last few
years. By manufacturing apple jelly, apple flakes, pectin
extracts, apple butter, and some other by-products, apple out-
lets have increased and the low grades appearing on the
market have been correspondingly reduced. Every effort
which takes this low-grade fruit off the fresh-fruit market
would seem to be a movement in the right direction.
(g) Consider Export Markets. The export market is of |
great importance to American growers. The proportion of the
total crop absorbed by it is not great, but if kept at home it
would constitute a surplus which would tend to demoralize
home markets. The quantity exported varies with the size of
the domestic crop and with the crops in Canada and Europe,
particularly in England. Normally from 10 to 12 percent
of the commercial apple crop is exported. In late years this
has meant about 10 million bushels annually from the United
States, though the amount does show substantial variation
from year to year (Fig. 44). Canadian apples are preferred,
largely because the United Kingdom is the chief importer and
gives preference to the products of a member of her family
of nations.
Australia and New Zealand ship apples to the British
- Isles, but as their season is from April to July there is little
competition with American apples.
The British Isles ordinarily lead all other countries in
imports by a wide margin. London, Liverpool, Glasgow,
Manchester, Southampton, Hull, Bristol, and Cardiff are im-
port centers. Transshipment to Ireland takes place from
Liverpool and Glasgow. In normal years Germany, the Neth-
erlands, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden have been good
customers.
The Central and South American countries import some
apples. Argentina, formerly a substantial market, now grows
her own apples in large part and restricts importations from
MARKETING 109
the United States. Brazil buys some apples, Chile almost
none. The entire population of South America is about 90
million. Governments in recent years have not been too
stable, trade restrictions are numerous and exacting, and do-
mestic production is increasing. The outlook for increasing
- export markets in this direction is not promising.
APPLES: U.S. EXPORTS BY TYPE OF CONTAINER, 1922-37
BUSHELS
(MILLIONS)
Barrels and baskets
25
; Boxes
20
10
Pama Paeee 9697 "28-29: 30:31 “32-33 . 34-35 36-37 - °38-39
YEAR BEGINNING JULY
(U.S.D.A.)
Fic. 44. Total exports of apples from the United States have dropped
sharply from the -high levels reached in some years prior to 1932. Al-
though exports from all regions are now at a lower level, the greatest
relative decline has occurred in exports from the eastern areas which
largely pack their export apples in barrels and baskets.
The export outlook in any direction is not hopeful until
international relations are stabilized and trade _ barriers
removed.
Export Requirements. Only standard grades and varieties
are wanted. The smaller sizes are often in demand, being
sold by the pound. The fruit must be firm and tightly packed.
The packages must be stored carefully on board ship. Re-
frigeration is necessary through the fall months. Ventilation
110 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
of unrefrigerated cargoes is essential. The practice of dump-
ing on European markets fruit which 1s of a grade and quality
too poor to sell elsewhere and which these markets do not
want has been the chief obstacle to enlargement of demand.
A steady, uniform, dependable supply of good fruit, hon-
estly packed, is the greatest export need.
Methods of Sale. Shipments may be sent to be sold at
auctions, they may be sent on consignment to European firms,
or f.o.b. sales may be made to representatives of foreign buyers.
Most of the fruit is sold by auction.
Il. THE PEACH
More than half the states in the Union produce peaches in
commercial quantities (Table 27). Note that production from
year to year is very stable
May , June , July , Aug. , Sept , Oct. in California but fluctu-
Georgia : ° ° °
oem | Td oy Stess Yadely eee
Texas Missouri, and in fact all
eionsae | other states. This is due
Tennessee ] ] t ] bl F
fee ces argely to less equable cli-
illinois aan matic conditions in these
~ Washington
states. The figures are
Delaware and Maryland somewhat misleading in.
oil that they do not bring out
Pennsylvania
New Vor: differences in size of the
Ohio _ various states. Thus, New
oe Jersey and Delaware,
small in area, are really
Fic. 45. Peaches: season of major . ;
important producing
shipment from the chief producing
sections. From July 15 to October, states. ; ;
the competition is severe in normal Georgia begins the ship-
seasons, ment of peaches to mar-
ket in May, followed by
California, North Carolina, and Texas. The season of harvest
extends gradually northward until the peaches of Ohio, New
MARKETING 111
TABLE 27
PEACHES — PRODUCTION BY STATES
Average
State 1927-26 1937 1938
1000 bu. 1000 bu. 1000 bu:
Oo Gnmne ne ee eS Ss 22,135 23,252 20,835
COR a eae eB es ee 5,824 2,730 5,320
Neen aro 2. fis. ee ke 1,813 1,984 2,232
is DRS TDG SS 5 1 0s Se eet a 1,584 2,288 2,451
GEE DSO AVS LN 8 Po ie 1507: 2,673 1,842
| DOT Sys 5 2S kc ol ia 1,424 2Al7. 1,425
Deere oe hee ie oa 2 ew 1,354 2,652 1,341
Perm tomlewee Ma ek as 1,348 1,806 1,134
Mew ACRCON ee . e 1,330 1,651 1,172
eerie re, hn Sek eS. 2 ihe2o2 990 1,705
Oe ee a ea 1,219 1,392 _ 964
Tennessee........ ee sh et tore ein 1,214 1,860 586
SCIELO SECC CI ages i eae ea ee 1,095 1,080 1,515
Wechumenont em a on 1,019 935 1,428
Ore ee ie 1,013 1,533 1,388
a se eo he 876 1,296 481
OTE TCT IN as I a ene ee era 767 1,599 1,161
15s TSSSPIS Sere TV ea eg Me a a 750 A474 1,061
TSS GT TTRT Ue Act 1 el ne 672 1,728 116
lt ee eg eck ko. se ER dark 534 72 564
ROKM AMOR SS eo ae ae 494. 1,073 429
Ghoti i ek 456 402 144
Wlemite ay oe ee: 452 1,369 302
Rieiyemab ek ee es 374 448 352
Rie gratia 2 en See 299 528 184
PPE ee a fe oe fae 271 398 304
Permethrin a 240 269 325
Mombeetei oe. ee. 172 EZ¢ 140
Wnigere netics 2 Oe hg. 52,498 59,724 51,945
*About 50 percent of California production are clingstone varieties used for canning,
the remainder are freestone varieties used mainly for drying.
112 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
York, and Michigan are sent to market in September, and a
few late sorts are available in October (Fig. 45).
Elberta, the main crop peach in all sections other than Cali-
fornia, is seule from about the middle of ay until late
September.
Harvesting begins with pruning, spraying, fertilizing, thin-
ning, and general orchard care. The actual picking and pack-
ing represent but final acts of an enterprise that has been in
process since the pruner went forth to prune.
Packages and other supplies should be ordered as soon as
a reasonable idea of the extent of the crop can be determined.
Delay in ordering usually means increased costs and may
mean much difficulty in securing the packages on time.
Operations:
. Picking the fruit.
. Selecting packages.
. Packing.
. Loading cars.
. Storing.
. Canning and drying.
. Marketing through cooperative agencies.
NID OP Ww DHF
1. Picking the Fruit. Picking at the proper stage of ma-
turity is of very great importance in the harvesting of the
crop. The fruit which carries the finest color with large size
and still reaches the consumer in sound condition commands
a premium. With competition from producing sections so
keen, it is in many seasons the only kind of fruit that will sell
at a profit,
Peaches should be picked when just mature enough to
reach market in firm condition, but ready for consumption.
This means that if the market is near by the fruit may be left
longer on the trees than if a day or more must be spent in:
transit. :
PICKING THE FRUIT 113
White-fleshed peaches take on a creamy ground color as
they approach the picking stage. Peaches with yellow flesh
take on a lemon-yellow color away from the sun when ready
for harvesting. For distant shipments, fruit must be picked
before these color changes are too prominent, or the fruit will
be soft on arrival. Beyond this, picking at the proper stage is
a matter of experience and knowledge of the varieties.
The length of the picking season will depend very largely on
the weather: hot days bring the fruit on with a rush; cool days
and nights retard it. In much of the peach belt, the weather
may be warm at harvest time and the grower must be prepared
to handle the entire crop quickly. The Elberta season usually
covers a period of seven to ten days, being reduced in hot, dry
seasons to two or three days.
Several pickings should be made from each tree. ‘Spot’ or
“color” picking is a standard practice with peaches; it takes
into account both size and color. The number of pickings
necessary to secure the fruit in the best possible condition to
sell at the maximum price depends on the season and the varie-
ties. It is usually necessary to go over the trees three or four
times, and some successful growers normally make five or six
pickings.
Pick the fruit by taking it gently in the palm of the hand
and twisting easily sidewise, so as not to tear the flesh about
the stem. Place it carefully in the receptacle. Never press the -
fruit with thumb or fingers to test its firmness, or bruising will
result.
Pickers are engaged by the day under supervision of a
competent foreman, or to pick by the package, the former
_ being the more satisfactory method since, though speed is not
lost sight of, a greater premium is placed on careful handling.
Pickers can usually harvest from 50 to 100 bushels daily,
depending upon’size of crop on trees, height of trees, amount
of “spot” picking necessary, and other factors.
Haul the fruit at once on low spring wagons or motor trucks
to some center for packing. This may be an open shed in the
. a
yh
2 1
114 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
orchard, or a more pretentious and permanent establishment.
There is no time to lose, and the packing arrangements must be
adequate for the crop to be handled.
Picking Equipment. Peach trees are headed low. Much of
the fruit can be picked from the ground. A short step-ladder
will suffice for the remainder.
Round-stave 14-bushel or 54-bushel baskets, padded and
with wood or wire handles, are used extensively as picking
receptacles. The fruit is carried in them to the packing house.
Baskets may be carried under one arm by using a wide strap
passing over the shoulder, with large hooks to attach to the
basket. This permits use of both hands for picking and avoids
(Harrison's Nurseries)
Fic. 46. Three common packages for the peach: from left to right,
bushel basket, Georgia carrier, Jersey basket.
the temptation to set the basket on the ground or to attach it
to a branch at a distance and drop the fruit into it. The strap
may be released easily when the basket is full, and attached to
another.
Drop-bottom baskets, or sacks of canvas stretched on wire
frames, are coming into extensive use in some sections. The
fruit is emptied from them into field boxes holding one bushel
and taken to the packing center. Large pails may be used.
Under the system of wide planting, liberal fertilization, and
moderate pruning now employed, an average yield of 2% to
314 bushels per tree per year may be expected from Elberta.
Some varieties exceed these figures.
ee
>
SELECTING PACKAGES 115
Elberta bears little the third year and moderately at four
years. Some varieties, as Greensboro, may bear marketable
quantities the third year. |
2. Selecting Packages. The bushel basket is gaining favor
as a market package in most sections (Fig. 46). It is the pre-
vailing package in Ohio, Michigan, New York, Texas, Mis-
souri, Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware. It is used exten-
sively in Georgia and other sections, especially for the firmer
varieties, including Elberta. The ease and rapidity with which
it may be packed commend it.
The tub-type bushel basket is used increasingly. Round-
bottom baskets are also used extensively, and half-bushel
baskets to some extent. _ |
The Georgia carrier is suitable for some varieties and in
some markets. On the whole, however, it is being displaced by
the bushel basket. It is especially desirable for tender varie-
ties of fine appearance and high quality and for those shipped
long distances. It is used quite extensively in the Georgia belt,
and to a small extent in some Maryland, Delaware, and Jersey
peach sections. .
The carrier 1s 22 inches long by 11 inches wide and 10 to
1014 inches deep, inside measurements, holding two layers of |
4-quart till baskets, three baskets in each layer or six per
carrier. Ends, sides, and top are each of one piece. The bas-
kets are 11 inches by 5% inches wide at bottom and 714 inches
wide at top, preferably with round corners. A wood divider
separates the layers and relieves the fruit in the lower layer
from the pressure above. When packed, the carrier weighs
from 44 to 50 pounds. The carrier comes from the factory
“knocked down” and must be assembled by the grower.
~ A common package is still the Jersey or Delaware 16-quart
splint basket, though the capacity sometimes varies. It is
acceptable for local trade, but is not satisfactory for other
markets. It is not sufficiently strong or rigid in itself to afford
- much protection to a fruit that needs considerable. It is easily
upset. It is too easily tossed or thrown about, for there is such
116 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
a thing as having a package that is too easily handled. If used |
for local trade, a pink or red tarlatan covering lends attrac-
tiveness. A rigid wood cover is also available.
The Climax basket is.also found in local trade. The box is
used in Utah, Colorado, and on the Pacific Coast. It is 5 by
1114 by 1814 inches, inside measurements.
3. Packing. For extensive orchards, packing houses are
necessary. In southern sections these are in the orchards or on
railroad sidings adjacent to them, cutting the haulage to a
minimum. In other sections, as New York, they are operated
in connection with cold-storage plants, or the houses used for
packing apples are also used for peaches. _
A two-story frame house with the top floor for storage is
typical in the South. The lower floor where the pas | is
done is usually open, with a covered driveway.
The fruit is delivered at one side and moves across the ~
house in the packing operations, going into cars at the opposite
side.
Matters of lighting and ide terncns of equipment must
receive careful study. Mechanical devices doing effective siz-
ing are available and are reaching a high state of perfection.
They should provide opportunity for sorting the fruit before it
goes onto the sizing devices. Mechanical conveyors to save
labor are essential. |
Packing the Bushel Basket. The common style of pack in
the bushel basket is the jumble pack with the top layer faced.
Proceed as in packing apples in baskets as indicated in Fig. 24.
Corrugated paper pads should be placed under the covers, and
the cover may be supported by a wooden peg extending from
the bottom. Fancy fruit is sometimes placed in layers through
the entire basket. :
Packing the Georgia Carrier. The fruit is packed in the
baskets according to a definite plan, the process being very
similar to that of packing apples in boxes, the alternate or
diagonal pack being used as illustrated in Fig. 47. A good
packer under favorable conditions will pack 150 or more
LOADING CARS Le
crates per day. The fruit should be graded as to size and color.
Two or three grades are usually made, the same grade being
; (New Jersey,Exp. Station)
Fic. 47. Showing the method of packing the
baskets in the Georgia carrier.
packed throughout any given package. The carrier, when
packed, should show a decided spring or bulge to hold the
fruit in place and prevent bruising (Fig.
48). It is loaded on the side.
An excelsior pad is placed under the
cover. Corrugated paper pads are some-
times used, but afford less protection.
The package should be labeled.
Grading Laws.’ Peaches are packed in
most states in accordance with United
States grades. Many of the states have
adopted these federal grades as their own.
In the interest of stabilizing the market
and providing a dependable basis for
doing business, peach growers should fol-
low the specifications for such grades care-
fully in packing their fruit epee. SPOW Laas
X nounced spring or
4. Loading Cars. Fresh fruit shipped pulge when the Geor-
several hundred miles should be placed in gia carrier is packed.
well-iced refrigerator cars. Shipping in-
structions on bills of lading usually require that the bunkers
be kept full of ice to destination. As much as 2 percent of salt
(New Jersey Exp. Station)
Fig. 48. The cover
118 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING ©
may be specified to reduce the temperature further. Life
processes and changes take place very rapidly at high tempera-
tures, and even under refrigeration the fruit in the top layer
of packages in a car will go down much more rapidly than that
at the bottom.
Pre-cooling, or cooling before shipment, is now practiced
to some extent in hot weather and for shipment to distant
markets. The fruit is packed quickly after picking. It is
cooled down to about 40° F. either in a central station or in
special chambers in cold storages, or by forcing cold air through
the packed car. The former process gives much better results
and is more economical. The fruit is thus reduced to a tem-
perature at the outset as low as or lower than would be attained
by former methods after the car had been long in transit. The
end-to-end offset style of loading bushel baskets so that the
weight of fruit is on the baskets rather than on the fruit is best.
The baskets are loaded three tiers high, giving 360 or more
baskets per car. About 476 Georgia carriers, loaded on their
sides, are placed in a car. Most railroad companies have
complete instructions and diagrams for loading. It is well to.
secure and follow them. J
5. Storing. Hard and firm peaches, not overgrown, may be
held in cold storage for two to three weeks. Elberta has been
held eight weeks when stored immediately after picking, but
the risk is great. If held too long, the fruit loses flavor and
in any case must be consumed quickly after removal from
storage. The proper storage temperature is from 30 to 32° F.
Owing to the progressive ripening from south to north of all
varieties, the storage of peaches seldom presents an advantage.
In past years this practice had merit in giving the grower an
opportunity to wait for a favorable market. This advantage
is almost entirely dissipated now as the various sections pro-
vide a continuous supply throughout the season.
6. Canning and Drying. Canning factories take large
quantities of peaches in some Eastern sections. In California
the fruit is both canned and dried. Most of the work is done
a
MARKETING THROUGH COOPERATIVE AGENCIES 119
by machinery, including pitting the fruit. The trade de-
mands a firm yellow peach for canning, and a clingstone
variety holds its shape better than a freestone sort. A red
color about the pit discolors the syrup and is aot wanted.
The canning industry in California has reached very large
proportions, 90 percent of the pack being made from yellow
clingstone varieties, such as Tuscan, Orange, Peaks, and
. Phillips.
In the East, thus far the canning factories have taken the
surplus yellow peaches of several kinds. More attention needs
to be paid to the selection and development of proper canning
types. |
The evaporation or drying of peaches is practiced on a
large scale in California, where the climate 1s very favorable
for this purpose. The dried peach is an excellent fruit product.
It is questionable whether Eastern sections where it would be
necessary to work under cover, with artificial heat, can ever
compete in this field.
7. Marketing through Cooperative Agencies. The peach,
like the apple, is packed and marketed extensively through co-
operative organizations, the grower being relieved of all re-
sponsibility after he delivers the fruit at the packing house.
‘All the advantages of cooperative apple marketing hold
here plus the fact that the peach is a fruit that must be mar-
keted without delay. A large enterprise devoting all its atten-
tion to packing and marketing should on the whole and over
a period of years perform this service better for a group of
individuals than each man could do it for himself. The large
grower may constitute an exception.
Custom sheds where packing is done at a price which covers
cost plus a small profit to the operator have given good service
in some sections. The grower may or may not handle the
sale of his own crop.
120 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
III. THE PEAR
The pear must be picked while still hard and firm. Ripened
on the tree, it is likely to be coarse and stringy or sometimes
gritty, and the center may turn brown before the exterior
shows signs of deterioration. Out of storage, and with the
exception of certain winter sorts, 1t reaches its maximum con-
dition and passes on to softening and decay quickly, thus again
emphasizing the necessity for picking at the proper time and
(T. S27, A:)
Fig. 49. Picking Bartlett pears in an Oregon orchard. Note clean cul-
tivation and picking equipment.
for prompt handling. Table 28 indicates the chief producing
areas.
1. Picking. In practice pick pears while green in color, but
with a decided tendency toward a lighter shade. If the fruit
is to go into consumption immediately, it may be permitted to
hang longer than if it must be held for some time. The fruit
often makes a marked increase in size during the late stages of
development, and the grower will wish to get the benefit of this
increase so far as he may without incurring loss in other direc-
CANNING AND DRYING 121
tions. The sugar content is higher in fruit left longer on the
trees than in that picked earlier. Pears picked too green lack
flavor and are likely to shrivel instead of ripening. Shriveling
occurs because the lenticels in the skin of the fruit are not
corked over, so that evaporation takes place rapidly.
When pears picked at too immature a stage finally ripen,
not only are they lacking in sugar content and quality, but also
they break down and decay very quickly. Pears picked at a
later stage remain in good condition for a much longer time
after softening. Bartletts intended for cold storage or for
canning should be a “light green to turning.” Pears picked
very late and canned have an unattractive, chalky color, a
cloudy syrun, and an insipid flavor.
Experience and careful attention each season as the crop
approaches maturity are necessary to determine the proper
picking stage.
Picking methods, equipment and containers resemble those
for the apple. | |
2. Packages and Packing. Packages for the pear are not
well standardized. The bushel basket, the standard pear box,
and the half-box are all used by some growers and for some
varieties. |
The pear box and half-box in which each specimen is
wrapped are used in the West; the bushel basket and Eastern
apple box, in other sections. Bushel crates are also used for
canning factories and for storage. Climax baskets are found
on local markets. Placing the pears in layers and facing them
so improves the appearance of the pack as often to make the
operations worth while, when the fruit is sold in the fresh state.
On account of the shape of the fruit, grading machines have
not found as much favor as for apples and peaches, but peach
graders are used to some extent, as well as machines that size
by weight, for sizing pears.
3. Canning and Drying. Canning factories in some sec-
tions take much of the fruit, providing a dependable outlet
and stabilizing prices. The fruit must be hand-picked and
122 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
TABLE 28
PEARS — PRODUCTION BY STATES 1937-39 *
State 1937 1938 1939 Average
1000 bu. | 1000 bu. | 1000 bu. | 1000 bu.
Coltornia <n ees. . 9,334 11,751 10,334 10,473
Washinetoma) 8... ... 5,600 6,500: |." 5,779 5,960
Orerone tee Se a 3,550 4,249 4,229 4,010
New corkey Gees. ise 1,305 1,960 1,749 - 1,672
Nichia Stars 2.2 as: 1,380 1,411 1,354 1,382
Oiniors 55. aes ss. 992 634 956 861
Pennsylvabias {= .o.s<.. 817 657 918 798
DiMOis: 2a eee SS 999 413 724 712
dnaiawas Seca. ss 630 366 527 508
WeXAS i ee 412 440 406 420
INIASS OT eee arene oe! ek 684 66 426 392
NMisSISSIPpiata cis 2... A: 157 462 348 323
a C25 1 Te RO 2) oO 416 334 189 313
Greoneia ss see eet os ae 244 404 - 281 310
Pela aMa ey eee Se oe 211 383 313 303
Worth-Carolinag: es 6)... 281 364 230 292
Kentucky ase 6 £03 411 135 206 251
Nenmessee 7 ve" eee sos 284 186 244 238
PEANISAS) td eet e es. 00 214 156 211 194
MRAM GHS etre eee ot 282 56 15 163
PullsOLMeTS (eee... oS 1,345 1,546 1,335 1,409
United States. fran. e 29,548 32,473 30,910 30,984
* Source of date: United States Department of Agriculture.
carefully handled, and small sizes are not wanted. Bartlett
and Kieffer are the varieties in greatest demand for canning.
Pears are dried on the Pacific Coast, but not in the East
at the present time.
4. Storage and Refrigeration. Bartlett and other standard
varieties keep well in cold storage, if properly handled. No
time should be lost after the fruit is picked in getting it cooled
YIELDS 123
down and into storage. For best results, Bartlett pears should
be held at a temperature of 28 to 30° F. and Bosc at 30 to
32° F. Fruit picked in proper condition may be held several
months. The desirable cold-storage period for Bartletts in-
tended for canning does not extend beyond 60 days. In any
event Bartletts intended for canning later or for the fresh
market should be removed from the storage before they ac-
quire a pronounced yellow shade, this color change being a
dependable danger signal. When removed from storage, the
fruit should be permitted to ripen at a temperature of 60 to
70° F. in order to develop the highest quality.
Shipment in refrigerator cars is usually necessary except
for late varieties.
Pre-cooling is advisable for long shipments coming from
sections where the fruit has poor carrying qualities.
5. Export Markets. The export demand is not large.
Canada takes a considerable quantity. Some fruit goes to
Central America and Brazil, some also to the British Isles
and Continental Europe. ‘The European countries take
mostly the boxed pears of the West Coast states.
6. Yields. Extensive records of an authentic nature on
pear yields in the Eastern states are not available, but the
trees are less productive and come into bearing more slowly
than in the Pacific Coast states. Bartletts yield 140 to 160
bushels of packed fruit per acre on the average, Seckel about
125 bushels, and Kieffer about 210 bushels.
In California, Bartletts reach commercial production at
6 to 7 years; at 12 years and thereafter, 10 tons or 400 boxes
per acre is a fair average yield, larger yields being quite
common. Bose will yield about 300 boxes per acre; Anjou,
otherwise desirable, is a very light and variable cropper;
Clairgeau yields about the same as Bartlett, and Winter
Nelis produces about 300 boxes per acre, on the average.
124 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
IV. THE PLUM
1. Picking. The fruit should be picked before it is fully
ripe. Many varieties when ripe are soft, bruise easily, and
go down quickly. Brown rot infection is liable to occur in
humid sections and may wipe out most of the crop if the
fruit is left on the trees too long.
On the other hand, there has been a tendency to pick the
fruit before it has much flavor, and these partly grown plums
have seriously injured the demand for a really fine fruit. For
jam and jelly the fruit should not be fully ripe, but for dessert
purposes and for canning more mature fruit is much to be
preferred. The sugar content, color, and quality are much
better. The custom is to pick the Japanese or Salicina
varieties, as Burbank and Abundance, well in advance of
maturity. Such thick-fleshed varieties as Italian prune may
be left much longer; in fact, they are still unripe for some time
after they have colored well.
Picking equipment and methods are much the same as for
other fruits. Care should be exercised not to tear the flesh of
the fruit or to destroy the natural bloom. If the fruit is
jerked in a direct pull from the spur, the stem will be torn
out and the flesh ruptured. The picker should give a slight
upward turn so that the stem separates from the spur and
remains attached to the fruit. Tin pails or small baskets
are suitable picking receptacles. |
It is necessary to make from two to five pickings, de-
pending on the variety and season, to secure the fruit in the
most favorable condition for market. Some varieties, in-
cluding Italian prune, take on considerable color after pick-
ing. In the West, prunes for drying are shaken from the tree
by jarring the branches with padded poles and the fruit is
picked up from the ground. Some American plums are shaken
from the tree, dropping on canvas or cloth covers spread on
the ground.
PRUNES 125
Table 29 indicates the areas of commercial production
of both plums and prunes, whether fresh or dried. There
are, however, many local areas in other states where plums
may be and are grown to advantage.
2. Packing. For the canning trade and for jam, the bushel
basket is the standard package. For the retail market, climax
baskets of varying sizes with slat covers are used.
Plums from California are packed in crates holding four
baskets each. Each basket is about 8 inches square on top,
614 inches square on the bottom, and 4 inches deep, inside
measurements. The sides are therefore sloping. The baskets
are made of thin veneer with a strip of tin fitted about the
top edges. Tissue paper is laid in the bottoms and sometimes
paper or veneer dividers or “shims” are placed between layers.
The fruit is packed much like peaches in till baskets or
apples in boxes.
California and Idaho plums come East in large quantities
. under refrigeration. They are a considerable factor in the
market. 7
3. Storing. Plums may be held for extended periods in
cold storage, if they are free from brown rot, handled care-
fully, and put in storage at once after picking. The extent
of the storage period depends on the variety but ranges from
three to ten or twelve weeks.
The best storage temperature seems to be about 32° F.
4. Prunes. A prune is a plum with flesh thick and meaty
enough to make it an acceptable product when dried. Prunes
in the East are grown for canning or for the retail market, and
harvesting methods do not differ from those for plums.
In the Pacific Coast states prunes are dried, chiefly by the
sun in California, and by artificial heat in Oregon and Wash-
ington. This is a distinct and highly specialized phase of
fruit growing not treated in detail here. It is not probable
that other sections will ever compete in this branch of the
industry with the Pacific Coast, where heavy yields and favor-
able climatic conditions for drying are pronounced.
126
TABLE 29
PLUMS AND PRUNES — PRODUCTION AND USE BY STATES
ee and State Average 1937 1938
1927-36
Tons Tons Tons
Fresh Basis
Plums:
Wise lamers 42. 6s 2, or shee Se 5,600 5,800 2,900
(Caliaeiieeh (> oo... co Seat 60,900 66,000 64,000
SSAC. . eee eee 66,500 71,800 . 66,900
Prunes:
Fresh Use:
IBN Ete...” Ses eae 19,470 12,900 15,400
Washinetan':.. 4.552.412 14,520 10,400 16,200
Orccon: PAG... reas Gae 14,420 11,000 15,000
Sees ke. 22a. 5 oe 48,410 34,300 46,600
Canned: *
Weaishiweiow.! o.oo eee 3,330 4,500 3,000
Orerants ee: oo yp cee 11,270 22,500 18,000
2 PRICE. a eee 14,600 27,000 21,000
Dry Basis
Dried: f
Washington: asc. ..26e: ae 3,780 700 1,100 °
OPREPDRT eee ns 3. ah eter 25,250 6,500 15,000
Calfaraiaee: ea 196,200 249,000 221,000 f
3 Stes se ee ee 225,230 256,200 237,100f
* Includes small quantities for cold packing.
+ To convert California dried prunes to fresh basis, multiply by 2%. In Washington
HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
and Oregon, the ratio ranges from 3 to 4 (fresh) to 1 dried.
t Includes standard and substandard prunes held in reserve pools.
In addition to
the 221,000 tons of dried prunes, an equivalent of 60,000 tons (dry basis) was not
harvested because of market conditions and 4000 tons (dry basis) were lost in the
drying process.
THE CHERRY 127
5. Yields. In the East 3 to 5 tons per acre may be ex-
pected from a mature orchard in good condition, or 1 to 1%
bushels per tree. ‘The average for all orchards is much less.
Prune trees often yield 2 to 3 bushels per tree. The Japanese
or Salicina varieties come into bearing at 3 to 5 years of age;
the Domestic varieties, about 2 years later. The native
American plums require a longer period.
On the Pacific Coast the trees tend to come into bearing
earlier and to produce larger crops than elsewhere.
V. THE CHERRY
The picking period for cherries is usually short. It is
largely determined by the weather, except in the Pacific Coast
states. Varieties also differ greatly in length of picking
season. The soft-fleshed, juicy kinds mature and deteriorate
rapidly. The firmer and drier varieties give the grower more
time to handle them. Among the sour cherries, English
Morello is noted for the extended period that it will hang on
the tree. Some growers in the East have found that, after
being dusted lightly with sulphur just before picking, the
fruit will hang much longer without breaking down, because
of the prevention of brown rot infection.
Table 30 indicates the regions of commercial cherry pro-
duction in the United States. The Pacific Coast states are
the heaviest producers of sweet cherries, though New York
and Michigan have substantial plantings. The latter states,
with Wisconsin and Pennsylvania, produce the bulk of the
sour cherries, mostly of the Montmorency variety.
Most sour cherries go to market without further grading
after picking. Sweet cherries and fancy lots of sour cherries
should be run by putting small quantities on burlap packing
frames or tables and sorting carefully by hand. Women do
this work extensively.
Sour cherries are seldom faced, but sweet cherries of
128 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
TABLE 30
CHERRIES — PRODUCTION, INCLUDING SWEET AND Sour, BY STATES
Average
per 1927-36
Tons
IEW: © OF KGS ref Ss. . ceeeeee 17,275
WOE 8 rch te'c ts os oe 2,188*
OUT OO coe «x toe ae nae eee ae 16,849*
Penns VI VANE 5.5 ls. ie oe eee 7,308 *
nO ea ees ce eee 4,499*
Pubiehar ai ou hie. s cya ie eee 26,838
PVC Ee i.e Eire 5 cs eae ee tata
POET es ht eye Soe fe eee Sh Oe eet Se
WISCONSIN, hae sie ay es ae 7,664
lorrtatird:, fee OO ae a eee 474
ean Ge aso oes Ulm aes Fema 2,775
CSalorsade oer ty ees pak 3,300
(20722) Tapa anti AP aN a ngs Peer ae 3,108
EMashiret on... koe st we eee 14,230
OREROR uhic. Bhd) hee oe es 12,780
aH Oring a uy ep ie eee ee 18,420
fD etateseria see era. eee 116,309
* Short-time average.
1937
Tons
21,750
1,770
19,980
9,890
7,340
35,840
2,287
33,553
13,500
340
1,600
3,460
2,100
13,500 |
13,800
21,600
144,720
1938
Tons
16,360°
1,440
14,920
6,560
3,630
14,940
2,240
12,700
9,440
470
2,490
5,280
4,270
25,500
21,400
28,800
139,140
fancy varieties are turned stems under so that the top of the
package is very attractive.
In large orchards in some sections, movable packing
houses, mounted on skids, are used. These are hauled from
place to place through the orchard as picking progresses.
Delivery is usually made to the canning factory in bushel
or half-bushel baskets without sorting or grading the fruit.
Eight-pound climax baskets are used for this purpose in some
sections. Payment is made by the pound, often on contracts
made in advance.
YIELDS 129
1. Selling. Cherries are sold through the usual market
channels. Fruit from the Pacific Coast is handled through
cooperative organizations; such associations also function in
Wisconsin and Michigan districts. Some shipments of cases
by express direct to thé consumer and retailer occur. Sales
of larger quantities are often made on track at the shipping
point.
A few cherries from the Pacific Coast appearing on the
market very early in the season are shipped, in express cars,
in ice chests holding 10 to 12 standard boxes. Later ship-
ments are made in refrigerator cars.
2. Cold Storage. Sour cherries, as Montmorency, in prime
condition will keep for about two weeks in cold storage.
Beyond this point they are likely to shrivel. Sweet cherries
of the black varieties may be held longer, sometimes four
weeks, though this is variable with the variety and the district
where grown. The light-colored sweet varieties soon discolor.
The proper storage temperature for cherries is about 32° F.
3. Frozen Fruit. Cherries for pies, soda fountains, etc.,
are increasingly stored in the frozen state. They are cooled
in vats of water and ice, pitted by machine, and packed either
with or without sugar in barrels, tubs, pails, or cardboard
containers covered with paraffin. They are frozen at tem-
peratures around zero — then held in a frozen condition
until used.
4. Yields. In the canning sections of the East, 3 to 4
tons per acre of sour cherries is a good yield, 6 tons are occa-
sionally secured, and larger yields are recorded.
Figure 50 indicates the average yield now obtained from
Montmorency cherry trees of different ages in Michigan.
Minor irregularities in the graph should be disregarded, and
the general trend as indicated by the heavy line should be
noted. The period from 17 to 25 years is most productive,
but at best exceeds only slightly 50 pounds per tree, or some-
thing over 5000 pounds per acre. These figures include
orchards on good and poor soils, in good and poor locations. A
130 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
good orchard in the proper location should do much better.
Indeed, the statement is made that “substantial profits can be
realized only where production costs per pound can be kept
low by obtaining yields well over the general average of 50
pounds per tree.” It is interesting to note that orchards
located under favorable conditions and receiving good care
were bearing profitable crops at ages much in excess of 25
years. |
Pounds per Tree per Year
BS
‘s)
N
oO
Age of Trees in Years
(Mich. State College)
Fic. 50. Yields obtained from Montmorency cherry trees at different
ages in Michigan.
Sweet cherries yield less than sour but as a rule bring
a higher price. In the Pacific Coast section sweet cherries
yield much more heavily than in the East.
A critical point in cherry production is the ability to
mobilize a sufficient number of pickers in a short period. The
prospective grower will take this into account in making his
plans, and the grower already in the business will prepare
carefully for the harvest period. Among sour cherries Early
Richmond, Montmorency, and English Morello ripen in the
order given. Girls are often hired for picking. Some large
PICKING eae
growers have established camps in which pickers may live
during the harvest season.
5. Picking. Fruit that goes to the retail market is picked
with the stems on and before it is fully ripe. Since the fruit
improves markedly in size and appearance in the later stages
of maturity, it is advisable not to pick sooner than necessary
to reach the market in good condition. The picker grasps
the stems, rather than the fruit, taking care not to break off
the spurs or the buds. Some growers of fruit for a high-class
trade prefer to use shears to clip the stems. Fancy cherries,
especially the sweet varieties, must be handled with the utmost
care, since they readily show the effects of bruising. Fruit
for market can be picked only when the weather is dry, as wet
cherries mold and rot quickly.
Sour-cherry trees are usually low enough so that the fruit
not reached from the ground may be picked from a tripod lad-
der. For higher-growing sweet varieties the usual orchard
ladders also may be needed. Picking receptables may be
5- to 10-quart pails or baskets holding from 6 to 10 pounds.
Straps run through the handles and tied about the waist, or
books for hanging the receptacle on the branches, permit the
use of both hands for picking. Pickers may be paid by the
day or piece.
The quantity picked in a day depends upon the size of the
crop, the type of tree, and the proficiency of the picker, varying
from 100 to 300 pounds per day in most sections. Probably
200 pounds is an average when the trees are carrying good
crops. Women and girls make good pickers.
Large quantities of cherries go to the canner. ~ For this
purpose the fruit is permitted to hang until fully ripe. It
should be stripped from the trees without stems, if it is to be
canned at once, since this saves the cost of stemming.
However, such fruit will go down almost immediately after
picking and must be processed without delay.
Some growers sell their whole crop to juice manufacturers
or to packers of frozen fruit.
132 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
For canning purposes, only one picking is made as a rule.
For market, several pickings may be necessary, the number
depending on the variety and the season.
6. Packing. The 24- and 32-quart crates such as are used
for berries are common shipping packages, particularly for
sour cherries. Wisconsin uses largely the 16-quart crate, as do
some other sections. The climax grape basket, holding from
4 to 12 quarts, is also a popular package on some markets.
In New Jersey 16- and 20-quart baskets are used extensively.
Western sweet. cherries are packed for Eastern markets in
8- or 10-pound boxes, or flats.
VI. THE QUINCE
1. Picking. The quince is tender and shows bruises readily.
It should be picked carefully into padded baskets or pails,
when the fruit changes in ground color from deep green to a
lighter shade.
The fruit is used chiefly for jellies, for which it is very
popular, for jams, and to some extent for baking and canning.
It is frequently combined with other fruits In various prepara-
tions to lend a distinctive flavor.
2. Packing. The apple barrel is sometimes used, but is
too large a package for so tender a fruit. Climax grape
baskets holding from 8 to 12 quarts are desirable packages.
The bushel basket and the Eastern apple box should make
good packages. a
3. Storage. Though commonly sold in the fall, the quince,
if mature but hard and carefully handled, may be held in cold
storage for several months and in common storage for a shorter
period. Green, immature fruit scalds readily in storage, and
fruit affected with scab is not a good storage risk. No
experimental work to determine proper storage temperatures
has been done, but prevailing opinion indicates that the fruit
should be held at a somewhat higher temperature than most
fruits, probably about 35° F.
GENERAL INFORMATION 35
4, Yields. Some fruit will be borne at five and six years
of age, but a commercial crop cannot be expected before the
trees are eight to ten years old. A half-bushel per tree is
a good crop; in certain years the average may reach a bushel
per tree and individual trees may produce in excess of two
bushels.
The tree is long of life, unless cut off by fire blight or other
factors—from 25 to 50 years, depending on conditions.
GENERAL INFORMATION
I. OFFICIAL U.S. STANDARDS FOR THE INSPECTION
OF APPLES
GraDE REQUIREMENTS
U. S. Fancy shall consist of apples of one variety which are mature
but not overripe, carefully handpicked, clean, fairly well formed; free
from decay, internal browning, internal breakdown, scald, freezing in--
jury, unhealed broken skins, and bruises (except those incident to proper
handling and packing), and visible water core. The apples shall also be.
free from damage caused by russeting, sunburn, spray burn, limb rubs,
hail, drought spot, scars, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means.
Each apple of this grade shall have the amount of color specified herein--
after for the variety. (See Tolerances and Condition after storage or
transit.)
U. S. No. 1. The requirements for this grade are the same as U. S..
Fancy except that less color is required for all varieties except yellow and.
green varieties, for which the requirements for both grades are the same..
Apples of this grade shall be of one variety, mature but not overripe,.
carefully handpicked, clean, fairly well formed; free from decay, inter-.
nal browning, internal breakdown, scald, freezing injury, unhealed broken.
skins, and bruises (except those incident to proper handling and pack--
ing), and visible water core. The apples shall also be free from damage
caused by russeting, sunburn, spray burn, limb rubs, hail, drought spot,
scars, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. Each apple of
this grade shall have the amount of color specified hereinafter for the.
variety. (See Tolerances and Condition after storage or transit.)
U. S. Commercial shall consist of apples of one variety which meet.
the requirements of U.S. No. 1 except as to color. This grade is pro--
134 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
vided for apples which are mature but which do not have sufficient
color to meet the specifications of U. S. No. 1. (See Tolerances and
Condition after storage or transit.)
U. S. No. 1 Early shall consist. of apples of one variety which meet
the requirements of U.S. No. 1 except as to color and maturity. Apples*
of this grade may have no red color and need not be mature. This
grade is provided for early varieties only, such as Oldenburg (Duchess
of Oldenburg), Gravenstein, Lowland Raspberry (Liveland Raspberry),
Red June, Summer Hagloe, Twenty. Ounce, Wealthy, Williams, Bailey
Sweet, Bietigheimer, and other varieties which ripen at the same period
and which are often used for cooking rather than for eating out of hand.
(See Tolerances and Condition after storage or transit.) ,
U. S. Utility shall consist of apples of one variety which are mature
but not overripe, carefully handpicked, not seriously deformed; free
from decay, internal browning, internal breakdown, scald, freezing in-
jury, and unhealed broken skins. The apples shall also be free from
serious damage caused by dirt or other foreign matter, bruises, russet-
ing, sunburn, spray burn, limb rubs, hail, drought spot, scars, visible
water core, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. (See Toler-
ances and Condition after storage or transit.)
U. S. Utility Early shall consist of apples of one variety which meet
the requirements of U. S. Utility except as to maturity. Apples of this
grade need not be mature. This grade is provided for early varieties
only, such as Oldenburg (Duchess of Oldenburg), Gravenstein, Lowland
Raspberry (Liveland Raspberry), Red June, Summer Hagloe, Twenty
Ounce, Wealthy, Williams, Bailey Sweet, Bietigheimer, and other varie-
ties which ripen at the same period and which are often used for cooking
rather than for eating out of hand. (See Tolerances and Condition after
storage or transit.)
Combination Grades. Combinations of the above grades may also
be used as. follows:
Combination U.S. Fancy and U.S. No. 1.
Combination U.S. No. 1 and U. 8. Commercial.
Combination U.S. No. 1 and U.S. Utility.
Combinations other than these are not provided for in connection
with the United States apple grades. When combination grades are
packed, at least 50 per cent of the apples in any container shall meet
the requirements of the higher grade in the combination. (See Toler-
ances and Condition after storage or transit.)
U. S. Hail Grade shall consist of apples which meet the requideernts
of U. S. No. 1 except that hail marks where the skin has not been
GENERAL INFORMATION 135
broken and well-healed hail marks where the skin has been broken
shall be permitted provided the apples are fairly well formed. (See
Tolerances and Condition after storage or transit.)
Unclassified shall consist of apples which are not graded in con-
formity with any of the foregoing grades.
CoLoR
In addition to the foregoing requirements for U.S. Fancy and U. S.
No. 1 each apple of these grades must have the percentage of color
shown in the table on page 136.
For the solid red varieties the percentage stated refers to the area
of the surface which must be covered with a good shade of solid red
characteristic of the variety, except that an apple having color of a
lighter shade of solid red or striped red than that considered as good
shade of red characteristic of the variety may be admitted to a grade,
provided it has sufficient additional area covered so that the apple has
as good an appearance as one with the minimum percentage of good
red characteristic of the variety required for the grade.
For the striped red varieties the percentage stated refers to the area
of the surface in which the stripes of good shade of red characteristic of
the variety shall predominate over the stripes of lighter red, green, or
yellow. However, an apple having color of a lighter shade than that
considered as good shade of red characteristic of the variety may be
admitted to a grade, provided it has sufficient additional area covered
so that the apple has as good an appearance as one with the minimum
percentage of stripes of good red characteristic of the variety required
for the grade. Faded brown stripes shall not be considered as color
except in the case of the Gray Baldwin variety.
DEFINITIONS oF TERMS
As used in these grades:
1. “Mature” means having reached the stage of maturity which will
insure the proper completion of the ripening process.
Before a mature apple becomes overripe it will show varying degrees
of firmness, depending upon the stage of the ripening process. The
following terms are used for describing these different stages of maturity
of apples:
(a) “Hard” means apples with tenacious flesh and starchy flavor.
Apples at this stage are suitable for storage and long-distance shipment.
(6) “Firm” means apples with tenacious flesh but becoming crisp
with a slight starchy flavor, except the Delicious variety. Apples at
136 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
. wis: | US. u.s. | US.
Variety Bene Med Variety Fancy [bet
Percent | Percent . Percent | Percent
Solid red: Striped or partially red—
Aiken Red.i./ccee te’. ¢ - 50 25 Continued
Arkansas Black....... 50 25 Salome... X25 eee 33 15
Black’ Ben: so o2-30< .. « 50 25 Stayman Winesap..... 33 15
Detroit: Red. 2 7a.-. - . 50 25 Sutton .: 420 eee 33 15
Esopus Spitzenburg.... 50 25 Tompkins King....... 33 15
oe Pe ot. Ons eee 50 25 Wagener..... Be tre Si. 33 15
King. David. 222.6... - 50 25 Wealthy.i 3-3 0see 33 15
OWry.> «evecare =< o 50 25 Willowtwig..+.%. Samer 33 "15
Opalescent......... mers 5 50 DS York Imperial) 33 15
Virginia Beauty....... 50 7A Other similar varieties..| 33 15
Winesap. eddies se oss. 50 25 Starkd 2 o'cn ee eee 28 10
Other similar varieties.. 50 25 Hubbardston “7. 2 io 25 10
Striped or partially red: Other similar varieties.| 25 10
Jouathan; 26s -cee. 50 25 Red June... 2 sees 33 (*)
Ramnard:>2s- beeen 50 25 Williams.» ) Sie ae 33 (*)
MelIntosh......------ 50 25 Other similar varieties..| 33 (*)
Missouri Pippin....... 50 25 Gravenstein..2. 25 3224 25 (*)
- Other similar varieties.. 50 25 Jefferies <...°..; 23a 25 (*)
Arkansas (Mammoth Oldenburg (Duchess of
Black Twit) +2. o-ss : 33 15 Oldenbure).). aes 25 (*)
Delicious. .\v 5-2 eae 33 15 Red Astrachan........ 25 (*)
Bald wit). 2. 3% sick= = - 33 15 Shiawassee. ......220¢ 25 (*)
Gray Baldwin......... 33 15 Smokehouse.......... 25 (*)
Ben Davis. 1... 20052 3-1: 33 15 Summer Rambo....... 25 (*)
Boum: 25.526 ele eee 33 15 Twenty Ounce. :...... 25 (*)
Bameusé... \2/is: see 33 15 Other similar varieties..| 25 (*)
Eambertwie.) 52s. as" 33 £5 Red cheeked or blushed:
DGTO 2s :c 5 dite tain nese - 33 15 Hyde Kang. 23) ae (+) None
Northern Spy...------ 33 15 Maiden Blush......... (+) None
Outarioes; 2 ieee ek 33 tS Monmouth (Red
Paragon hier 33 15 Cheeked Pippin)....| (f) None
Ralls (Geneton)....... 33 15 Winter Banana........ (Tt) None
Rater. > os Peo Sse ee 33 15 Other red cheeked or
Rome Beauty......... 33 15 blushed varieties....| (fT) None
Yellow or green varieties.| (f) (D
* Tinge of color. + Blushed cheek. t Characteristic color.
this stage are also suitable for storage and long-distance shipment.
(c) “Firm ripe” means with crisp flesh except that in apples of the
Gano, Ben Davis, and Rome Beauty varieties the flesh may be slightly
mealy. Apples at this stage may be shipped long distances but should
be moved into consumption within a short period of time.
(d) “Ripe” means mealy and soon to become soft for the variety.
Apples at this stage should be moved immediately into consumption.
GENERAL INFORMATION 137
2. “Overripe” means dead ripe, very mealy or soft, past commercial
utility.
3. “Carefully handpicked” means that the apples do not show evi-
dence of rough handling or of having been on the ground.
4. “Clean” means free from excessive dirt, dust, spray residue, or
other foreign material.
5. “Fairly well formed” means that the apples may be slightly abnor-
mal in shape but not to an extent which detracts materially from the
appearance of the fruit.
6. “Seriously deformed” means so badly misshapen that the appear-
ance is severely affected.
7. “Damage” means any injury or defect which materially detracts
from the appearance or keeping quality of the apples.
(a) Russeting which exceeds the following shall be considered as
damage:
Russeting which is excessively rough on Roxbury Russet and other
similar varieties.
Russeting on other varieties which covers a total area of more than
25 per cent of the surface in the aggregate except that—
(1) Smooth, solid russeting which covers an area of more than 10
percent of the surface in the aggregate shall be considered as damage
unless the russeting is within or continuous with that in the stem basin
or calyx cavity, in which case an additional 15 percent shall be per-
mitted provided that the total area covered shall not exceed 25 percent
in the aggregate.
- (2) Slightly rough russeting which covers an area of more than 15
percent of the surface if confined to the stem basin or calyx cavity or
continuous therewith, or such russeting which covers an area of more
than one-half inch in diameter if it is not continuous with the russeting
in the stem basin or calyx cavity, shall be considered as damage.
(3) Rough russeting which is well within the stem basin and is not
readily apparent shall be permitted, but any other rough russeting which
exceeds one-quarter inch in diameter shall be considered as “damage.”
Any one of the following defects, or any combination thereof, the
seriousness of which exceeds the maximum allowed for any one defect,
shall be considered as damage:
(6) Sunburn or spray burn which has caused blistering or cracking
of the skin or when the discolored area does not blend into the normal
color of the fruit unless the injury can be classed as russeting (7a).
(c) Dark brown or black limb rubs which affect a total area of more
than one-half inch in diameter or light brown limb rubs which affect a
total area of more than 1 inch in diameter.
138 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
(d) Hail marks, drought spots, or other similar depressions or scars
which are not superficial or where the injury affects more than one-half
inch of the surface in the aggregate.
(e) Disease. Scab spots which are not corked over or corked-over
scab spots which affect a total area of more than one-fourth inch in
diameter.
Cedar-rust infection which exceeds in the aggregate an area of one-
quarter inch in diameter.
Sooty blotch or fly speck which is thinly scattered over more than
one-tenth of the surface, or dark, heavily concentrated spots which affect
an area of more than one-half inch in diameter.
(f) Insects. More than two healed insect stings or any healed insect
sting which is over one-eighth inch in diameter exclusive of any encircling
discolored ring.
Worm holes.
8. “Serious damage” means any injury or defect which seriously
detracts from the appearance or keeping quality of the apples
(a) Russeting which exceeds the following shall be considered as -
serious damage:
Smooth solid russeting which affects more than one-half of the sur-
face in the aggregate, including any russeting in the stem basin, or rough
or barklike russeting which detracts from the appearance of the fruit
to a greater extent than the smooth solid russeting permitted, provided
that any amount of russeting shall be permitted on Roxbury Russet
and similar varieties.
Any one of the following defects or any combination thereof, the
seriousness of which exceeds the maximum allowed for any one defect
shall be considered as serious damage:
(6) Sunburn or spray burn which seriously detracts from the appear-
ance of the fruit.
(c) Limb rubs which affect more than one-tenth of the surface in
the aggregate.
(d) Hail marks, drought spots or scars, if they materially deform or
disfigure the fruit, or if such defects affect more than one-tenth of the
surface in the aggregate, provided that no hail marks which are un-
healed shall be permitted and not more than an aggregate area of one-
half inch shall be allowed for well-healed hail marks where the skin has
been broken.
(e) Visible water core which affects an area of more than one-half
inch in diameter.
(f) Disease.
. GENERAL INFORMATION 139
Scab spots which are not corked over or corked-over scab spots which
affect a total area of more than three-fourths inch in diameter.
Cedar-rust infection which exceeds in the aggregate an area of three-
fourths inch in diameter.
Sooty blotch or fly speck which affects more than one-third of the
surface.
(g) Insects.
More than five healed insect stings.
Worm holes.
TOLERANCES FOR PRECEDING GRADES
In order to allow for variations incident to proper grading and han-
dling, not more than a total of 10 percent of the apples in any con-
tainer may be below the requirements of the grade, provided that not
more than 5 percent shall be seriously damaged by insects and not
more than one-fifth of this amount, or 1 percent, shall be allowed for
decay or internal breakdown.
When applying the foregoing tolerances to the combination grades
no part of any tolerance shall be used to reduce the percentage of
apples of the higher grade required in the combination.
The tolerances specified for the various grades are placed on a con-
tainer basis. However, any lot of apples shall be considered as meet-
ing the requirements of a specified grade if the entire lot averages
within the tolerances specified, provided that no sample from thé con-
tainers in any lot is found to exceed the following amounts:
For a specified tolerance of 10 percent, not more than one and one-
half times the tolerance shall be allowed in any one package.
For specified tolerances of 5 per cent or less, not more than double
the tolerance shall be allowed in any one package.
CoNDITION AFTER STORAGE OR TRANSIT
Decay, scald, or other deterioration which may have developed on
apples after they have been in storage or transit shall be considered ag
affecting condition and not the grade.
SizE REQUIREMENTS
The numerical count or the minimum size of the apples packed in a
closed container shall be indicated on the package.
When the numerical count is marked on the container the apples
shall not vary more than one-fourth inch in their transverse diameter.
140 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING.
When the numerical count is not shown the minimum size shall be
plainly stamped, stenciled, or otherwise marked on the container in ~
terms of whole inches, whole and half inches, whole and quarter inches,
or whole and eighth inches, as 244 inches minimum, 2% inches minimum,
or 25 inches minimum, in accordance with the facts. It is suggested
that both minimum and maximum sizes be marked on the container,
as 214 to 2% inches, or 2% to 2% inches, as such marking is especially
desirable for apples marketed in the export trade. f
“Size” means the transverse diameter of the apple taken at right
angles to a line running from the stem to the blossom end.
In order to allow for variations incident to proper sizing, not more
than 5 percent of the apples in any container may not meet the size
requirements, provided that when the maximum and minimum sizes
are both stated an additional 10 percent tolerance is provided for apples
which are larger than the maximum size stated.
Pack1nG REQUIREMENTS
Each package shall be packed so that the apples in the shown face
shall be reasonably representative in size, color, and quality of the
contents of the package.
Boxes. Apples packed in the standard northwestern apple ae
shall be arranged in the containers according to the approved and recog-
nized methods with the stems pointing toward the ends of the boxes,
except when jumbled, and all packages shall be well filled but the con-
tents shall not show excessive or unnecessary bruising because of over-
filled packages. Apples packed in the standard northwestern apple
boxes shall show a total bulge (top and bottom) of not less than three-
fourths inch. Each wrapped apple shall be completely enclosed by its
individual wrapper.
Baskets. Apples packed in round-stave bushel baskets or tubs shall
be ring faced and tightly packed with sufficient bulge to prevent any
appreciable movement of the apples within the containers when lidded.
Barrels. Apples in barrels shall be tightly packed.
In order to allow for variations incident to proper packing not more
than 5 percent of the containers in any lot may not meet these require-
ments,
MarkKING
In order to conserve space, abbreviations may be used for marking
the United States grade names on containers. The following abbrevia-
tions are suggested where it is not desired to use the full grade name:
=r
GENERAL INFORMATION 141
1. U.S. Fey. for U.S. Fancy.
2..U. S. No. 1 for U.'S. Number 1.
3. U.S. Com. for U. 8. Commercial.
4507 5, Util. for U.S. Utility.
5. Combination grades may be designated by abbreviations of the
grades preceded by the abbreviation “Comb.” as “Comb. U. 8. Fey —
Ves: No. 1.’
STANDARDS FOR E:XPorRT
As applied to condition factors.
1. The apples in any lot shall be generally tightly packed when in
barrels or baskets and either generally fairly tight or tightly packed
when in boxes.
2. Not more than 5 per cent of the apples in any container shall be
further advanced in maturity than firm ripe.
3. Not more than a total of 5 percent of the apples in any container
shall be damaged by bitter pit, Jonathan spot, scald, internal break-
down, water core, freezing, decay, or other condition factors, except
that—
(a) Not more than 2 percent shall be allowed for apples affected by
Cecay.
(6) Not more than 2 percent shall be allowed for damage by inter-
nal breakdown. |
(c) The apples shall be free from scald unless they are properly
packed in oiled paper or have been especially treated with oil to pre-
vent scald. When so packed or treated, not more than 2 percent of
slight scald shall be permitted.
Any lot of apples shall be considered as meeting the standards for
export if the entire lot averages within the requirements specified, pro-
vided that no sample from the containers in any lot is found to exceed
_ double the percentages specified.
Secure Service and Regulatory Announcements No. 16 from the
United States Department of Agriculture.
II. U. S. STANDARD CONTAINERS
The U. S. Standard barrel contains 7056 cubic inches. Subdivisions
of this barrel are three-fourths barrel, one-half barrel, and one-third
barrel. The standard barrel, commonly called a 3-bushel barrel, actu-
ally holds 3 bushels and 9 quarts. Many states have enacted as state
.. laws the United States standard barrel act.
The cranberry barrel contains 5826 cubic inches.
-~ ——————
142 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
Climax baskets are of three sizes holding 2, 4, or 12 quarts dry
measure.
Berry boxes and till baskets contain one-half pint, one pint, one
quart, and multiples of the quart, all dry measure. The dry quart holds
67.2 cubic inches.
Hampers and round-stave baskets are of the following capacities:
1e, 4, %, 3%, and % bushel, 1 bushel, 14, 1%, and 2 bushels. A bushel,
standard dry measure, holds 2150.42 cubic inches. This is the Winchester
“struck” bushel.
Many states have attempted to define the bushel in terms of weight.
But the bushel is a unit of volume, and it-is impossible to define accu-
rately a unit of volume in terms of weight, as the weight of any given
volume of fruits or vegetables will vary with the size, variety, and con-
dition of the product, and the tightness of the pack.
Standard splint baskets are of the following capacities: 4, 8, 12, 16, 24,
and 32 quarts, dry measure.
III. PACKING APPLES IN BARRELS
The fruit may be packed from a packing table or from compartments
- into which the fruit runs from sizing machines.
(1) Preparing the barrel: Drive down quarter hoops and fasten with
three or four three-penny nails well clinched inside of barrel. Take out
one head, the better of the two, removing the top hoop. The cooper
marks the last head he puts in the barrel. This is always the better
head, with the best croze or groove, in which the beveled edges of the
headpieces fit. Nail the other head, using about six four-penny nails
driven through the hoop, into the headpieces at an angle of about 45
degrees. Nails driven straight down will not hold as well and will often
break the hoops when the barrels are opened for inspection. Nail head
liners (small strips of hoops or other woods moistened to make them
flexible) across edges of head pieces to prevent their pushing out when
the barrel is packed. The second hoops should never be nailed. Mark
the head with the proper terms giving variety, grade, size, and packer’s
number. Some packers merely indicate the essential facts with a pen-
cil and complete the label later. Rubber stamps or stencils are com-
monly used for marking the package. Much of the information, except-
ing the name of the variety and the size, may be put on the head of the
barrel at odd times before the packing season begins. The use of bar-
- rels with hoops of different colors for the different grades will help to
avoid mistakes.
(2) Facing the barrel: Place a corrugated paper pad, with corru-
GENERAL INFORMATION 145
gated side down, in the barrel. Sorters have been selecting “facers”
from the table and placing them in sidepockets on the table or in drop-
handle baskets hung by hooks on the sides of the table. ‘These “facers”
are the apples that are to form the first layer or plate in the barrel.
They should be fairly representative of the whole barrel, and uniform
as to size and color in order to fit well and to make the face look as
attractive as possible when the barrel is opened (Figs. 51 and 52).
(NV. Y. State College of Agr.)
Fig. 52. <A circle of lace
paper is sometimes used to
advantage for a high-class
trade.
Fic. 51. A well-arranged face.
Turn the fruit carefully out of the basket into the barrel and then,
with head and shoulders inside the barrel, turn the apples stem down-
ward, placing them in circles or rings beginning at the outside. If
apples are properly selected, the center of the face will be filled with
one, three, or four apples, depending on the size of the fruit being
packed, of the same size as or a trifle larger than those in the adjacent
ring. The face should never be completed by an apple much larger
or smaller than the others in the face. If this is necessary, it indicates
that apples of the proper size or uniformity were not selected. The face
should be tight and springy when completed. Use the same number of
144. HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
apples for the face in every barrel of the same variety and grade, so
that the appearance is the same no matter what barrel may be opened
for inspection.
Devices are now available for arranging the face before placing the
fruit in the barrel and are used by some growers. The packer inserts
the device in the barrel and releases the fruit when it is in place.
(3) Filling the barrel: “Spotters” or backers are now placed with
colored cheek down over the spaces between the facers, insuring @ very
attractive appearance when the barrel is opened for inspection, and
keeping the face in place until the barrel is packed.
Fill the barrel, running in about one-half bushel of apples at a time
either from compartments of the packing table or from baskets, care-
fully turned into the barrel. If apples are run into the barrel from the
table, use a canvas or burlap apron attached below the gate so that
the fruit may be lowered gently into the barrel. Rack or shake the
barrel quickly and sharply, to settle the fruit into place. Do this regu-
larly when filling the barrel. No amount of pressing after the barrel is
filled is a substitute for racking, and a slack barrel will result after the
fruit has been packed for a short time. Some growers and associations
have devised mechanical shakers which work well.
Shredded oiled paper should be added to barrels that are oher lesl
for storage, especially for those varieties particularly subject to scald.
(See page 66.)
(4) Tailing and heading the barrel: When the barrel lacks about
3 inches of being full, it is ready for “tailing” in preparation for closing
the package. ‘Tailing may consist merely of placing the apples as
evenly as possible without special arrangement, or the barrel may be
“ring tailed,” improving the appearance and facilitating the insertion
of the head. In ring tailing, the packer shculd quickly arrange the
fruit in the last two or three layers so as to insure a fairly even
surface. A follower consisting of a 2-inch plank cut to fit into the
barrel, heavily padded on the lower side, with a handle on the upper
side, should be used in connection with racking the barrel to secure
this even surface. In fact a follower should be used in packing regard-
less of the form of tailing that is practiced. It will level off the pack
and insure a distribution of the pressure of the head uniformly over
the fruit.
In ring tailing, place the last layer of fruit on its side or cheek in con-
centric rings with the stem of one apple next to the blossom end of its
neighbor. The center of the tail should be a little higher than the rest,
but the fruit should project very slightly, if at all, above the staves in
a well-packed barrel. For export trade fill the barrels a little higher
GENERAL INFORMATION 145
than for domestic markets. Rack them thoroughly on a solid base while
filling.
Put on a corrugated paper pad, with the smooth side against the
fruit, place head pieces and top hoop on the barrel, and attach the press,
or roll the barrel on the platform, if one is used in connection with the
press.
Two types of presses are in common use, the screw and lever. Press
the head slowly into place, driving down the top hoop as the head set-
tles into the croze or groove in the staves. Nail the head as before,
four properly driven nails being sufficient. For greater safety, use head
liners. The package should always be handled very carefully after it
has been packed.
(5) Packing tables: The packing table may be a fixed piece of equip-
ment in the shed or packing house, or portable tables may be used. A
good portable packing table, which will hold several barrels, provides a
slatted bottom, beveled on the upper edges, permits refuse to drop
out, the pitch from the back to front makes it easy to work the apples
toward the barrel, and yet they move deliberately enough to permit
careful inspection and to prevent injury. Padded baskets, hung on
the sides of the table, may be used for facers.
A board or hinged device closes the lower end or gate through
which fruit passes to the barrel. The barrel should stand on a hard-
wood plank or concrete for “racking down.” <A canvas or burlap apron
extends from under the gate end of the table out over the barrel, so
that the apples may be lowered gently into the barrel.
Such a table may have chutes or places for filling two barrels at
once and is often mounted on wheels at the back to facilitate move- -
ment from place to place. Specifications of a good table follow:
Table 8 feet by 4 feet with 8-inch sides, slats in bottom 1 inch
Square with beveled upper edges and spaced 1 inch apart, legs 2
inches by 4 inches or 2 inches by 6 inches, lower legs 38 inches long,
upper legs 44 inches long; opening or gate over barrel 8 inches wide—
material soft pine or other dressed lumber. The length may be
increased to permit handling fruit by a larger number of workmen,
but the table should always be narrow enough so that a sorter stand-
ing at either side may reach beyond the center. Sides should be
padded as well as the upper 2 or 3 feet where the apples are turned
onto the table. Chutes for culls may be built in.
A grower with 1000 or more barrels to pack would probably find a
mechanical sizer a good investment, yielding better results than run-
ning the fruit over a packing table.
|
146 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING
Some tender varieties as McIntosh or Northern Spy should prob-
ably not be run over a packing table, but should be sorted from long
tables with canvas bottoms in order to avoid bruising. In fact, such
varieties should not be packed in barrels.
IV. MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE STORAGE FOR APPLES
AND PEARS
As DescrIBED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF PomMoLocy, CoRNELL UNIVERSITY
What Is Modified-Atmosphere Storage? Fruits are living organisms
which carry on the fundamental chemical reaction of respiration. Car-
bohydrates are oxidized in the presence of oxygen with the subsequent
production of water, carbon dioxide, and heat. In addition to the
thermal effect, any chemical reaction is affected by a diminution in
amount of one of the reactants or by allowing one of the end products
to accumulate. Hence respiration is diminished in intensity not only
by lowering the temperature (as in cold storage) but also by reducing
the amount of oxygen or allowing the carbon dioxide to accumulate.
By use of gas-tight structures and controlled ventilation, the de-
sired proportions of carbon dioxide and oxygen can be easily attained
in most cases. For example, suppose that an operator desires an atmos-
phere containing 10 percent carbon dioxide and 11 percent oxygen.
The respiring fruit in a gas-tight, metal-lined storage chamber produces
an accumulation of carbon dioxide which finally reaches the desired
10 percent value. By difference from the normal air figure of 21 percent
oxygen, the oxygen value will now be 11 percent, since during the pro-
duction of carbon dioxide almost an equal volume of oxygen has been
‘consumed. In such a system, frequent determinations of the carbon
dioxide are made on a katharometer outside the chamber, and if the
carbon dioxide exceeds 10 percent, a port in the door is opened until the
proper percentage has been attained.
With some varieties it may be desirable to have independent con-
trol of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Control of these two gases by
regulated ventilation will provide the desired atmosphere only when the
summation of these two gases is 21 percent. For an atmosphere such
as 5 percent carbon dioxide and 2 percent oxygen, the oxygen is reduced,
by respiration, from the normal figure of 21 percent down to 2 percent,
and the excess carbon dioxide is absorbed by means of sodium hydroxide
or calcium hydroxide in an atmospheric “scrubber.” The oxygen is
prevented from falling below 2 percent by ventilation as required,
GENERAL INFORMATION 147
The maximum temperature employed with any variety of apples is
40° F. This requires insulation and refrigeration equipment just as
with cold storage. Modified atmosphere storage should be regarded as a
supplement to cold storage.
Advantages of This Type of Storage. The following advantages are
to be realized in the use of this system:
1. Many varieties of apples are subject to low-temperature troubles
such as brown heart, internal browning, and brown core. By using
temperatures from 38 to 40° F. and the proper atmosphere, these
varieties can be kept just as long.as if not longer than at 32° and will be
free from these disorders.
2. With some apple and pear varieties, temperatures as low as 34° F.
can be employed and storage life is very greatly lengthened. For
example, Kidd and West have shown that Bartlett pears normally can
be kept about eight weeks in cold storage at 34° F. In modified
atmosphere storage they can be kept satisfactorily seven months at
34° Ff. 7
3. A specific effect of carbon dioxide is greatly to retard the normal
green to yellow change in apples and pears. This is of great importance
in storage of varieties of green cooking apples.
4. A marked residual effect of storage is noticed as a result of this
scheme. Fruit removed from storage will remain marketable much
longer than that removed from cold storage. |
5. Because of the inhibitory effect of carbon dioxide on mold growth,
somewhat higher humidities can be used in modified atmosphere stor-
age than in cold storage. This means less fruit shriveling during
storage.
Disadvantages of This Type of Storage. 1. Because of the danger of
suffocation and of loss of the required atmospheric concentrations of
carbon dioxide and oxygen, operators cannot enter the chambers for
inspection of the fruit or manipulation of equipment. Hence, fruit is
periodically examined by reaching through the ventilating port. Since
the chamber cannot be opened until the storage season is over, the fruit
to be marketed in each marketing period is put in separate chambers.
2. It is difficult to construct buildings gas tight. In spite of the sheet-
metal linings and vaseline-sealed joints, in even the best-constructed
modified atmosphere storages, there is a leakage of 6 percent per day,
or more.
3. As has been stated, modified-atmosphere storage is not univer- —
sally applicable to all fruits or all varieties of any one fruit.
4. The double effect of low temperatures plus atmospheric control
cannot always be expected to give the full theoretical benefit that might
148 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING .
be anticipated. With certain varieties, concentrations of carbon dioxide
as low as 2 percent are toxic at a temperature of 32° F. Because of
this toxicity factor, with many varieties of fruit the temperature must
be as high as 40° F. Different apple varieties have different specific
atmospheric and temperature requirements for long-time keeping. This
necessitates the use of different chambers with varieties of different
atmospheric requirements.
5. With apples the scald hazard is increased because of the restricted
ventilation. For this reason, all apples stored in gas-tight chambers
must be treated with oiled papers. .
Applications of Modified-Atmosphere Storage. At Cornell the only
apple varieties studied in detail to date are McIntosh, Cortland, and
Northwestern Greening. Of these three, Cortland is the only one which
has not offered real promise in modified-atmosphere storage. The
scald hazard is so great with this variety even with oiled papers in the
container that it is not recommended for trial in this system of storage
till a better method of scald control is found. Preliminary work indi-
cates that there may be such a control. With both McIntosh and North-
western Greening the best atmospheres have proved to be 5 percent
carbon dioxide and 2 percent oxygen, with a temperature of 40° F. Of
course, the remainder of the atmosphere was nitrogen. To attain such
an atmosphere, it is necessary to reduce the carbon dioxide concentra-
tions with an atmospheric scrubber or washer which contains sodium
hydroxide solution. Such a system is in use with certain varieties in
England.
Pears seem eminently adapted to this type of storage, according to
studies in England and California. Just what are the best atmospheres
for our American-grown varieties for longest keeping is not clear. None
of the stone fruits seems adapted to long-time storage in modified
atmospheres, it would seem from California investigations.
V. FROZEN FRUIT
Freezing methods of fruit preservation make it possible for a house-
wife to serve a wide variety of fruits with fresh qualities on very short
notice at any season of the year. Frozen fruit may be purchased for less
than out-of-season fresh produce of equal quality. Consequently a large
industry has been built up which caters to the discriminating housewife,
confectioner, and dining room. =e
To produce a good frozen product, it is important to select fruit
of proper quality and maturity, and in many cases the proper variety.
Klondike, Blakemore, Marshall, and Dunlap strawberries; Eclipse,
GENERAL INFORMATION 149
Elberta, and South Haven peaches; Cuthbert raspberries; Monitor,
Damson, Italian Prune, and Yellow Egg plums have qualities which
make a better frozen product than other varieties of the same type of
fruit.
Cranberries, blueberries, raspberries, and plums are usually frozen
whole; strawberries and peaches are packed both whole and sliced;
apples, cranberries, cherries, and grapes may be frozen whole or con-
verted into juice which is held fresh for over a year.
Although the freezing of berries in syrup at 10° F. and packing in
kegs and cans have been practiced since 1900 and about 70,000 barrels of
strawberries and raspberries are still packed in the Pacific Northwest each
year, fruit is now made available in tight rectangular cartons or paraffined
cardboard. Commercial companies have taken advantage of research
carried out by the Bureau of Plant Industry at the University of Cali-
fornia and the Georgia Experimental Station. Since a large proportion
of the fruit is eaten raw, they have shown that it is important to prevent
shrinkage, to maintain the flavor, to reduce oxidation, and thereby to
preserve the natural color of the raw fruit.
Various companies differ in the pre-treatments, the minimum tem-
peratures, and the rates of application of temperatures which they use
to produce their particular product. Sharp freezing in fruit chambers
at 0° F., spraying a cold liquid over fresh fruit, moving it through a
cylinder where the air is blown toward it, and placing it in contact
with plates at 40° F. are four of the most common freezing methods.
After the fruit is frozen the finished product must be stored in a freezing
temperature. Facilities for marketing of this product have become
very efficient during the last few years.
Some growers have found it to their advantage to adapt a portion of
their apple cold storage to freeze surplus fruit in heavy-crop years.
This practice of freezing fruit in the home storage stabilizes the mar-
ket and is a new outlet for produce. In 1938, in New York State, 22
million pounds of sour cherries were frozen. Many strawberries are
“cold packed” in North Carolina, Maryland, Louisiana, and Tennessee;
cherries in Michigan and New York; cranberries in Massachusetts; and
other fruits in smaller quantities in limited sections where they are
grown.
In most fruit districts the large cold-storage plants have freezing
lockers which they rent to growers for their own use for as little as
$8.00 a year. In these a large part of the year’s supply of various prod-
ucts may be kept for family use. Some growers install their own
lockers. Lockers are available on the community basis in some sections.
150 HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING -
COMMUNITY STUDIES
Make a survey of the. practices of the growers in your community
as follows. Do this for each fruit of commercial importance.
1. Varieties grown in order of importance.
2. Average picking dates or order of picking.
3. Kinds of ladders used—reasons for selection, where obtained, and
cost.
4, Kinds of picking receptacles—reasons for use, where obtained, cost.
5. How fruit is picked—by day, by package—quantity picked in day
by each method—wages and rates paid.
6. Yields per tree and per acre—make estimate and then check with
actual yields.
7. How fruit is handled after picking—in orchard, in crates or barrels
or other packages and hauled under cover.
8. Is crop packed? If not, how handled?
9. If packed, how soon after picking?
10. What package is used? Why? Cost of package?
11. How many packages packed in day? Cost of packing?
12. What is the proportion of fruit that packs into various gradesf
What disposition is made of fruit not packed?
13. How is fruit held after packing?
14. How and to whom is fruit sold? Prices received?
15. Make sketch of a packing house, and indicate improvements in
lighting, arrangement of equipment, rapidity of handling, and storage.
16. Study the operation of a roadside stand, with reference to location
to invite patronage, attractiveness and convenience, first cost, cost of
attendant at stand, number of days operated during the season, kinds
and grades of fruit desired by patrons, average daily and seasonal sales.
17. Study the methods of construction, loading, and refrigeration of a
refrigerator car.
18. Study the United States grades for packing apples and peaches and
the packing and branding requirements of your own state, if any.
B. Make a survey of the storage facilities of your community. Begin
with the ordinary cellar storage. Follow with the special fruit cellar
and storage building, and finish with a cold-storage plant.
Investigate:
1. Location:
a. Ease of access to orchard and with team or truck.
6b. Access to shipping point.
2. Facilities for unloading
iN)
c CO NT OD Or
COMMUNITY STUDIES 151
. Capacity.
. Construction:
a. Walls.
b. Floor and ceiling.
c. Attic and auxiliary room if any.
. Ventilation provisions.
. Humidity provisions.
. Cost.
. Cost of storing by month and season.
. Get operator’s plan for securing and maintaining desired tem-
peratures,
CHAPTER II
PREPARING FOR WINTER AND DETERMINING
INJURY FROM COLD WEATHER
As the grower works with the fruit plantation during the
summer, he is making note of things that should be done
before winter comes.
Operations:
1. List trees to be replaced.
2. Provide soil drainage.
3. Control mice.
4. Protect trees from mice and rabbits.
5. Determine injury from cold weather.
1. List Trees to Be Replaced. ‘Trees die from various
causes and must be replaced, or they may be so weak as to
make replanting advisable. It is a good practice for the
grower to look for such trees as he goes through the orchard
during the summer. If he waits until the leaves are off, he
may fail to detect them. He should make a record of the
varieties and the number of each that must be replaced and
order them in the fall, even though delivery may not be de-
sired until spring. Growers sometimes become careless with
regard to filling vacant spaces with trees. Since the land is
devoted to the fruit enterprise and since orchard operations
must go on even though some trees are missing, it is poor
business to have only a partial stand of trees.
2. Provide Soil Drainage. Some young trees may stand
in depressions that are settling points for surface water. If
left thus through the cold period, they may suffer from killing
of the roots or trunk near the base of the tree. The depression
152
CONTROL MICE 153
should be filled so that the water drains away from, rather
than toward, the tree.
The area in general may be so flat as to possess poor surface
drainage. The condition is aggravated if the subsoil is heavy
and slow in permitting water to work through it. Under such
conditions, a system of soil management that will ridge up the
tree rows, so that the water runs to the center of the spaces
between the rows, will help the trees through the winter.
Young trees located on such areas should never be left in dead
furrows or out furrows during the winter. All tile drains
should be inspected in the fall to make sure that they are work-
ing properly and that the outlets are in good condition.
3. Control Mice. Mice often damage fruit trees by girdling
them above or below ground. Usually they are more destruc-
tive in orchards under the sod or mulch systems with a heavy
stand of crops, especially if the crop has gone to seed and thus
attracts them. The injury, though greatest in the winter
months, is likely to take place any time in the fall or even
early in the growing season.
Injury above ground is usually caused by the common field
or meadow mouse, that below ground by the pine mouse.
The field mouse is larger and grayer than the pine mouse, which
is reddish brown and resembles the mole. The grower is not
likely to note the damage to the tree by the pine mouse until
it is too late to prevent it.
Poisoning the mice is practicable, especially when the
orchard cannot be cultivated. In using a toxic bait or ro-
denticide the grower should take advantage of his knowledge
of the habits of the tree-girdling mouse. This mouse confines
its movements to small runways which can easily be found
by lifting the mulch under the trees. If a bait is placed di-
rectly in the paths and covered, it is almost certain that good
results will be obtained. Do not place bait where no runways
are to be found. To prepare bait, cut cull apples of a firm
variety into 14-inch pieces, 100 pieces making approximately
a quart of material, and sift over it a white powder which
154 PREPARING FOR WINTER
can be obtained for a small cost from the United States
Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. This bait must be
used on the day it 1s prepared.
One piece of bait is sufficient for every 10 square feet of
-orchard cover, both under and between the trees, and out to
100 feet on every side of the field. The bait must always be
covered. It is effective in 24 hours. This treatment should
be made in late fall after all apples are picked up. Although
the apple cubes make a very good bait and conveniently decay
after a few days’ exposure, a mixture of grain may be used
instead if there are many windfall apples left under the tree.
One treatment a year is satisfactory, provided that no new
mice come in from outside of the orchard. If the orchard is
surrounded by hedgerows, stone walls, etc., it may be advisable
to treat the outer two or three rows several times.
4, Protect Trees from Mice and Rabbits. Grass, litter,
and trash of all kinds should be hoed away from the base of
young trees before winter comes. Mice seldom molest trees
not in sod, if they must come out into the open to do so.
If a mound of clean soil is hoed up about the base of the
trees and thoroughly packed down, this in itself 1s a good
insurance against injury by mice and is the only treatment
given by many fruit growers. It may not be sufficient, how-
ever, for sod orchards or for outside rows in cultivated orchards
surrounded by meadows or hedgerows. Mice sometimes do
damage under such conditions even during the growing season,
especially in the fall.
Protection then best takes the form of some ee
wrapped about the base of the trees and shoved down into
the soil so that there is no vulnerable spot above ground. Tar
paper is effective, but should be removed each spring as there
is sometimes evidence of injury to the bark when it is allowed
to remain. The continued repetition of this operation makes
the practice an expensive one. Wood veneer strips are also
used, and even newspapers or building paper are quite effec-
tive.
PROTECT TREES FROM MICE AND RABBITS
155
Hardware cloth with two to four meshes per inch (Fig. 53)
will give protection against meadow mice during the summer
and autumn.
mouse. This cloth comes in rolls 36 inches
wide. The roll may be cut in two at the
center, making each strip 18 inches wide.
Cut these strips into pieces at about 14-
inch intervals so that pieces 14 by 18
inches are obtained. Roll and bend the
strip about the trunk in such manner that
the long way is up and down the trunk,
and that the edges overlap well. The
lower edges should be pushed well down
into the soil. Twist a small wire loosely
about the center.
The trees are thus protected for several
years without further attention, and at
one operation. When the diameter of the
trunk makes a change necessary, the strip
may be turned so that it is 14 inches high
and 18 inches in circumference, if de-
sired. The objection to the use of this
material lies in its first cost, but once ob-
tained it will last for many years and may
be transferred to younger trees as older
ones outgrow the need for it.
The foregoing measures also constitute
protection against the common wild rabbit.
In addition, repellents, such as lime-sulfur
at full strength with various materials
added, are sometimes applied with a brush
to the tree trunks. ‘These possess value
At no time is it protection against the pine
Y)
Vy 7
Fic. 53. Wire pro-
tectors will usually
prevent injury from
mice. They should
be pushed into the
soil and the cut
edges at the top
should be bent away
from the tree.
but need to be renewed frequently and sometimes are not
sufficient. A repellent wash for rabbits recommended by the
United States Department of Agriculture is:
156 PREPARING FOR WINTER
Right-oil 0. 2. cach. hee eee 1%
Concentrated Jime-sulfur ©... .........%si.25 1
Wate? ....5. 5.043230 8 3. Se 1,
Mix the materials thoroughly, and paint the tree from the
eround well up on the scaffold branches. After each heavy
snowfall pack down the snow about the tree trunks, so
that mice will not burrow beneath or rabbits work over the
top of the snow to damage
the trunk or branches.
If clippings are made
from the branches in late
fall and strewn on the
eround away from the trees,
mice and rabbits will often
feed on them without dis-
turbing the trees.
The jack rabbit, a fa-
mous jumper, also able to
stand on its hind legs and
reach several feet in the air,
constitutes a real problem
in fruit sections where it is
found. Fencing has been
tried with only partial suc-
cess, and it is expensive. A
Fc. 54. Trees grown in sod or under dog, gun, and restrictive
a mulching system are especially liable laws are better measures
to injury from mice. This tree was
sad : The same holds true of
girdled when the snow was on the
ground. The white cloth separates deer, which have done very
the original trunk and the bridge great damage to young
graft on the right. orchards in some sections.
Trees not more than
three years of age may usually best be replaced, if girdled
completely by mice or rabbits. Older trees may be bridge
erafted (Fig. 54) with a considerable measure of success as
described in the chapter “Propagating Fruit Plants.” Areas
DETERMINE INJURY FROM COLD WEATHER 157
from which the cambium has been removed only in part may
be painted with white lead and oil or coated with wax.
5. Determine Injury from Cold Weather. Although many
different factors affect the distribution of the fruit industry,
probably the greatest single factor has been winter tempera-
tures. Minimum temperatures in different sections of the
country have determined the kinds of fruit that can be
grown in such sections. In addition, an occasional winter
of unusually low tem-
peratures 1s experi-
enced in a_ section
where certain fruits
normally thrive and a
large portion of the
trees are seriously in-
jured or killed, caus-
ing large financial
losses. Injury occurs
to various parts of the
tree such as: (a) wood
tissues, (b) leaf and
fruit buds, (c) blos-
soms, (d) roots. _
ba) laguey of
Wood Tissues. The (Mich. Exp. Station)
different tissues with- ye. 55. Cross and longitudinal sections of
in the same plant apple wood showing “black heart” injury.
vary considerably in
their responses to low temperatures. In well-hardened wood,
pith is usually the least-resistant tissue, followed in order by
sap wood, bark, and finally cambium, which is usually the
most resistant. |
Wood injury occurs in many different forms such as: (1)
black heart, (2) crotch injury, (8) crown or collar injury, (4)
sun scald, (5) splitting of the trunk, and (6) killing back
of the twigs and young branches.
158 PREPARING FOR WINTER
(a) (b) (ce) (Indiana Exp. Station)
Fic. 56. Crotch, limb, and trunk injury. (a) Crotch and trunk injury
from cold weather. Note distinct line of demarcation between dead and
live tissues. (b) This tree had two limbs girdled by winter injury.
Crotch and trunk injury has also occurred. The girdled limbs have been
cut off close to the main branch and the dead bark has been removed
from the other injured areas in preparation for painting. (c) Same tree
as b, with injured areas properly painted for protection.
When injury to wood tissues has occurred, the affected
tissues usually become
brown or black in color.
The injury can readily be
noted either by cutting off
small branches, by cutting
through the bark of the
branches, or by splitting
small branches. Figure 55
represents this type of in-
jury.
When injury occurs in
the crotch of the tree or at
the ground or collar, the
Fic. 57. Collar injury from low bark usually is killed and
temperatures at the base of an old
gradually loosens and
apple tree. Note that the injury has “1, es oe
oceurred on the seedling stock juss COMeS off. Such injuries are
below the graft. The top is McIntosh. shown in Figs. 56 and 57,
(Mich. Exp. Station)
DETERMINE INJURY FROM COLD WEATHER 159
Injuries on the trunk, often on the south and southwest sides,
may develop if sudden changes of temperatures have occurred
during the days and nights of winter.
Occasionally the twigs and young branches of fruit trees
are killed during severe winters. Apricots and peaches are
(Indiana Exp. Station)
Fig. 58. Ten-year old Stayman Winesap apple
tree with sparse summer foliage as a result
of winter injury.
usually less resistant to low temperatures than apples and
some species of plums. Cherries and the Japanese plums
are usually intermediate between these other fruits in their
resistance to low temperatures.
When the branches of young apple trees are injured by
160 PREPARING FOR WINTER
cold weather, the foliage is usually weak and sparse the
_ following spring. This condition is shown in Fig. 58.
(6) Killing of Leaf and Fruit Buds. Killing of leaf buds
is not a very common occurrence in fruit trees, unless the whole
twig is killed back. However, fruit buds of such fruits as
peaches, cherries, Japanese plums, and apricots are often
killed by low temperatures. This injury can be determined by
cutting the buds longitudinally. The injured buds will usually
have a black center and the damaged flower parts will be
easily seen.
(c) Killing of Blossoms. Great losses are occasionally in-
curred in fruit sections as a result of freezing temperatures at
blossoming time. ‘The resistance of the blossoms to cold is
generally greater when they are quite small and before the
petals open. This resistance decreases as the petals open and
continues to decrease until the small fruits form. The blossoms
of peaches, plums, cherries, and apricots, which open com-
paratively early, especially if a warm spell occurs early in the
spring, are among those most often killed.
(d) Killing of Roots. The roots of fruit trees are usually
much more tender than the tissues above ground. As a result,
tree roots may be killed when the portions of tree above ground
are uninjured. ‘The internal tissues of injured roots turn
brown or black. Injury is generally worse in light, sandy soils
because such soils are usually drier, fluctuate more widely in
temperature, and become colder than the heavier and more
moist soils. If the trees are on hilly, wind-swept locations
where the snow is likely to be blown away, more root injury
usually occurs.
The use of cover crops or sod is valuable in helping to
prevent root injury.
GENERAL INFORMATION
I. Necessiry oF Maturinc AND HARDENING OF Woop TISSUES
Growing and immature tissues are injured at much higher tempera-
tures than dormant tissue. Most trees which have been caused to grow
COMMUNITY STUDIES 161
late in the fall by certain weather conditions or by certain cultural
practices, such as heavy fertilization and pruning and late soil cultiva-
tion, are less resistant to low temperatures than trees which stop growth
earlier in the season. This is especially true of young trees, although
the difference is not so marked in young peaches.
Apparently an accumulation of carbohydrates in the tissues is one
thing which is associated with maturity, and such trees appear to be
better able to withstand low temperatures. In young trees which grow
vigorously late in the season, and are often severely injured, most of
the carbohydrates apparenly are used in growth so that the accumula-
tion of these materials in the tissues 1s comparatively small.
Trees which lose their foliage early in the summer because of the lack
of proper spraying are usually injured more severely than similar trees
which carry healthy foliage throughout the season.
Growth of the trees should be checked in late summer and the wood
allowed to mature. The use of vigorously growing cover crops which
will compete with the trees late in the season for moisture and nitrates
will assist greatly in checking growth and bringing about this desirable
condition. |
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. After severe winters, make a survey of the winter injury in your
section. Determine:
a. The kinds of fruit injured.
b. The relative resistance of the different fruits.
c. The relative resistance of different varieties of the same fruit.
d. The different types of injury.
2. Were some orchards injured more than others? Determine the
reason if possible.
3. Was the injury worse with vigorous or weak trees?
4. If frosts or freezes occur at blossoming time, keep a record of the
temperatures and determine the percentage of injury of the blossoms of
several varieties by examining the pistils.
5. Make a list of the varieties of the different tree fruits, and arrange
it in order of the smallest percentage of injury to blossoms.
6. If the wood has been injured and the buds of peach trees have been
killed, arrange an experiment to determine the effects of different
amounts of pruning and of nitrate of soda on the subsequent recovery
of the trees.
CHAPTER IIT
ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
A mistake in establishing the orchard is much more serious
than in the case of annual crops, where the error may be re-
paired at the close of a single season. Careful planning and
preparation for an orchard over a reasonable period of time
will pay large dividends.
Operations:
A
. Selecting the region.
. Determining the size of the enterprise.
. Selecting the land to be planted.
. Determining time of planting.
. Determining varieties to plant.
. Determining planting distances and planting plans.
. Purchasing trees.
. Caring for trees on arrival.
. Preparing field for planting.
. Planting the trees.
_
Oo On oO or eR Ww LO
1. Selecting the Region. One of the first things that the
prospective grower must do is to decide upon the region in
which he will carry on his fruit enterprise. Certain areas have
come to be known as favorable to this type of agriculture. The
answer then is to look about you. The best source of in-
formation available about fruit growing is often from those
who are growing fruit successfully. If none such are to be
found in the region, then there is generally a good reason for
it, because the region either is poorly adapted to the fruit
enterprise or is better adapted to some other.
162
SELECTING THE REGION 163
Of course, new transportation facilities may open up un-
developed areas. These new facilities may be railroads or
waterways or truck routes. Competing lines frequently bring
better service and lower transportation costs than a single
line. The advent of the motor truck has done much to ex-
tend the fringes of commercial fruit growing away from the
concentrated centers of the industry and within trucking
distance of towns not well supplied heretofore with good fruit.
Many such places often pay better prices (so long as the
business is not overdone) than can be obtained on the general
market.
Recognized and long-established fruit sections come to be
known as such and enjoy a certain reputation and standing in
the fruit world. Buyers are accustomed to look to them
for their requirements. Interest in improved practices runs
high. Each neighbor is always a possible source of new
information and ideas. Savings on supplies and equipment
are possiole tnrough combined purchases on a large scale;
storage, transportation facilities, and outlets for by-products
are likely to be good. Service from the recognized public
agencies as the experimental stations, farm bureaus, and
agricultural institutions will be largely proportioned to the
net importance of the industry.
Consult Table 20 on transportation charges from producing
to consuming centers on page 99.
Consult records of temperature and rainfall. Scab is more
difficult to control in a very humid region. Codling moth
flourishes in the presence of high temperatures and in sections
where the rainfall is limited. It is more difficult to control
in Niagara County, New York, with an average rainfall of
10 inches during May, June, July, and August than in the
Hudson River Valley with 15 inches.
Temperature governs the geographical range. An increase
in altitude may accomplish the same result as a change in
latitude. Rainfall is a limiting factor in some sections. If
lacking, it must be supplied by irrigation. Winter extremes of
164 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
cold, or violent fluctuations in winter temperatures, even
though the weather may be relatively mild as a whole, and
long, hot summers are not the most desirable for deciduous
fruits. Such fruits succeed well with an uninterrupted and
definite period of winter rest, when life processes are reduced
to a minimum.
Location near large bodies of water is often desirable,
especially in the farther reaches of the industry, from the
temperature standpoint. It is doubtful whether well-known
Fic. 59. Orchards of young apple trees are concentrated in the more
favored sections.
fruit areas in Canada, New York, Ohio, and Michigan would
have developed in the absence of Lakes Ontario, Erie, and
Michigan. Such waters tend to retard spring growth beyond
the date of frost injury, to extend the period for ripening and
development in the fall, and reduce temperature fluctuations
in the dormant period.
Table 31 gives the number of bearing and non-bearing:
apple trees in the various states for 1910, 1920, and 1935 and
the totals for the United States. The total of bearing and
non-bearing trees in 1935 was less than the total of bearing
DETERMINING THE SIZE OF THE ENTERPRISE 165
trees alone in 1920, but
production has been main-
tained. This is due in part
to better management and
also to the fact that the
apple industry is concen-
trating in the more-favored
sections. Figure 59 indi-
cates the sections of the
United States in which the
planting ef young trees is
greatest at the present time.
2. Determining the Size
of the Enterprise. Before
progressing beyond the
point of selecting the region
in which to grow fruit, the
grower must decide upon
the extent of the enterprise
that he proposes to conduct.
(Hardie Mfg. Co.)
10n.,
the Shenandoah-Cumberland reg
°
, in
Procedure:
Tonoloway Ridge, Maryland
(a) Consider market
to be served. 3
(6) Consider supple- sy
mental farm enterprises. Be
2
(a) Consider Market to A
Be Served. This market 3
may be the general market S
at large consuming centers, Ss
at a distance, or the local <
market near by. For the S
general market, the grower 3
should have an enterprise rs
that will enable him to ship
ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
166
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DISTRIBUTION OF APPLE TREES
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168 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
@
fruit in carlots. The larger the quantity which he can supply,
the greater consideration he will receive from marketing
agencies and the more readily he can make a permanent
place for himself in the market.
The local market will not absorb so large a quantity of
fruit at a given time as the general market. It will often
respond well, however, to a continuous supply in smaller
(N. Y. O. Railroad Co.)
Fic. 61. A typical view along the “Shore” rcad in western New York,
showing a Baldwin orchard past middle life, but still producing heavily.
quantities throughout the consuming season. Whether: this
requires as large a producing area as the general market de-
pends upon the extent of the local market to be served. This
calls for a careful survey by the prospective grower before
he determines the size of his orchard.
(b) Consider Supplemental Farm Enterprises. Consider=
able expense must be incurred and carried along from year
to year until the fruit enterprise begins to bring in income.
Commercial production of apples in the East cannot be
SELECTING THE LAND TO BE PLANTED 169
expected before the trees are 9 to 10 years of age, for most
varieties. In Western sections 6 to 7 years will be required
as arule. Prospective growers often underestimate this factor
seriously in making their plans. The grower should consider
the advisability of diversifying his enterprise by growing
other crops the labor requirements of which do not conflict
seriously with those of his orchard. Such crops may often
be grown on areas on the farm not well adapted to fruit. An
animal enterprise of some kind may also fit in well and pro-
vide another source of income.
In the older fruit sections, 1t has been the custom to operate
the orchard as part of a general farm business, combining
with it some annual cash crops and perhaps a livestock en-
terprise. In the newer sections, it is the prevailing custom to
grow fruit in larger units and often to the exclusion of sup-
plemental enterprises. Diversity of enterprises may be ob-
tained by diversifying the kinds of fruit grown. The same
equipment and general facilities are required for all, so
that little additional outlay is involved. Annual crops may
be grown between the trees, or additional land may be rented
for this purpose, to give the grower an income until the fruit
enterprise is ready.
The present tendency in all commercial sections is away
from the 10- to 20-acre orchard on the general farm. It is
increasingly evident that a fruit grower must be a specialist,
centering his abilities chiefly on the production and marketing
of his fruit. Consult Table 33, page 173.
3. Selecting the Land to Be Planted. In selecting the land
for planting, good judgment and intelligent consideration may
largely assure future success; the lack of them may bring
mediocre results or absolute failure.
Procedure:
(a) Consider the elevation and slope.
(6) Consider the type and drainage of the soil.
170 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
(a) Consider the Elevation and Slope. Rolling land, or
up-land acres, or sloping lands not too steep for efficient
orchard practice are usually much better than level areas on
river bottoms or valley floors. There should be land levels
near by lower than that on which the fruit establishment is
located, in order to insure continuous air movement or drain-
(Michigan Exp. Station)
Fic. 62. A Michigan peach orchard in which fruit buds on trees in the
vicinity of X are frequently killed when those on trees about O at a
greater elevation escape,
age, through and away from the planting. Frost pockets and
attendant injury occur where the air is still, and fungus
diseases flourish where the foliage dries off slowly (see Fig.
62). On the level areas of the eastern shore in Maryland and
in Delaware a considerable fruit industry has developed, but
here all the land is on the same general level and across it
the sea and land breezes are frequently in motion.
SELECTING THE LAND TO BE PLANTED 171
Much advice that cannot be justified has been given in the
past concerning slope or exposure. In nearly all fruit regions,
successful orchards may be found sloping toward any point
of the compass. If the section 1s subject to sudden and violent
winds, a slope that will afford some protection is desirable.
The influence of water on the climate disappears rapidly if the
land slopes away from the water. Shallow water has little
effect in any event. If winter injury is a factor, the slope
that in the local experience seems to give the greatest measure
of protection should be selected.
South slopes tend to accelerate development of buds in the
spring; north slopes tend to retard it; east and west exposures
fall in between.
(6b) Consider the Type and Drainage of the Soil. The
soil must be well drained and provide extensive root range.
Fruit trees will thrive on a variety of soil types, but, they
will not tolerate wetness, and if they are to be thrifty and
long of life, their roots must be able to penetrate the soil
thoroughly. Heavy clay subsoil or continuous rock ledges or
formations, near the surface and cutting off access to the soil
areas below, are serious handicaps.
An occasional wet spot in an otherwise desirable field may
be tile drained. Entire orchards have been thus treated with
good results, but it would have been better business had they
been planted on land that did not need artificial drainage.
A good upland corn soil has many of the characteristics of
a good fruit soil, except that trees must root more deeply
than corn. Peaches do best on the lighter types such as sandy
loams, shales, etc. Apples and pears succeed on the loams
containing appreciable quantities of clay and on all the
ranges between them and peach soils.
As an indication of the influence of soils on the grade of
fruit produced, Table 32 gives the grading records for a 5-year
period from two Michigan apple orchards of the same varieties
and about the same age under the same management and with
the same treatment, but located on different soil types:
172 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
TABLE 32
GRADES OF FRUIT IN PERCENTAGE—5-YEAR AVERAGE OF Two MICHIGAN:
APPLE ORCHARDS, SIMILAR IN ALL RESPECTS Except LOCATIONS
ON DIFFERENT SoiL TYPEs *
Orchard A B C Canner Under Bulk
93 45 22 20 8 4
94. 24 12 58 4 2
* V. R. Gardner, Proceedings N. Y. State Horticultural Society, 1928.
The New York State College of Agriculture has published.
a study of factors affecting the income of apple growers.
‘Table 33 indicates the immense importance of the soil-drainage
factor in relation to labor income. The figures relate to an
extensive area in Niagara County. Evidence at hand indicates.
that the comparisons are valid elsewhere. On well-drained.
soils the third of the farms having the largest apple enter-
prise averaged about 1000 apple trees of bearing age, which
- was from 38 to 4 times as many trees per farm as the average:
of the lower third. The labor income, that is what the farmer
had for his year’s work, averaged $1308. ‘These farms paid
3 times as well as the smaller third with an average labor
income of $424. However, the smaller farms on well-drained
soils paid, on the average, better than farms with large
apple enterprises on soils not so well drained.
Sweet cherries seem to thrive best on deep, rich loams of
the lighter types, sour cherries and plums on the somewhat.
heavier loams. ,
The nice adjustments of particular varieties to particular
soil types have not been thoroughly worked out. A red
variety will not color as well on the average, nor will fruit.
mature as early in the season on a clay loam as on a lighter soil
type. The land should possess at least a fair measure of
fertility as judged by ordinary crop requirements and, unless.
DETERMINING TIME OF PLANTING 173
TABLE 33
EFFECT OF SoIL DRAINAGE AND SIZE OF ORCHARD ON LABOR INCOME
Newfane-Olcott, Niagara County
Farms Divided into 3 Groups
According to the Size of Apple
Orchard of Bearing Age
Year
Median Averages
Low Middle High
Third Third Third
Labor income
Well-drained soils
MO Ae ee a $ 516 $1684 $ 912
ee eens tt ec ay SRG 604 640 14388
aera ee. Se’ —214 84 —33
POSGH Ren Oy ke EP 937 1766 4011
POS ee es COS 485 —51 20
AS See ee a eit 216 1083 1502
PEER ARO hs Micon oo Me ach $ 424 $ 868 $1308
Soils not so well drained
Be eG ee Nee le Sie $—69 $—184 $—14
Ree he i 2 i ee 44 —14 262
LS AR ol Sp ON oe Oe —78 — 100 — 227
MORO Pewee tet a So as 2NG 409 790
TES OR Sse rh Sil lag a ee raeetiR —56 —42 — 268
nd Sei ela ON SARE ee —5 —98 141
VE: CO 02 © Oe $ 9 > —9 $ 114
irrigation is to be practiced, should hold moisture in top soil
and subsoil reasonably well.
4, Determining Time of Planting. Early spring is on the
whole the best time to plant, It should be done as soon as
174 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
the soil is in proper condition. There are usually marked
differences in growth between trees planted even two weeks
apart in favor of the earlier planted trees. It is important
that the tree have the opportunity to esablish itself while
moisture is abundant and before the hot dry weather of sum-
‘mer. Trees ought to make a considerable amount of growth
the first season. The grower cannot afford not to have them
do so. But they will not do this unless planted early and
unless completely dormant at planting (see Fig. 63).
In milder sections, fall planting 1s successful if the trees are
mature at digging time, the land is well drained, and the trees
are set with especial care to insure surface drainage away from
them. It is usually safer to plant apples and pears in the
fall than the stone fruits. In the fall planting of peach trees,
it is common practice to hill up the soil about the trees to
protect them, removing it in the spring.
In those sections where either fall or spring planting is
satisfactory, the grower will be governed principally by his
labor schedule in determining the time of year to do the work.
5. Determining Varieties to Plant. The choice of varieties
often constitutes the first serious mistake of the grower.
Procedure:
(a) Consider market to be served.
(6) Consider market tendencies.
(c) Consider variety characters and adaptations to various
regions.
(d) Consider picking dates of varieties.
(e) Consider importance of cross-pollination.
(a) Consider Market to Be Served. This factor has already
been considered in connection with determining the size of the
enterprise. The general or wholesale market knows what it
wants. It is better for the grower to bend his views to meet
the evident desires of that market than to attempt to educate
the trade to accept his personal opinions, though all reason
and logic may appear to be on his side.
om
DETERMINING VARIETIES TO PLANT 175
Fic. 63. (a) Yearling apple trees after one year’s growth in the orchard.
From left to right: trees 1 and 2 planted April 24, roots medium pruned.
Trees 3 and 4 planted April 1, roots medium pruned. Trees 5 and 6
planted April 1, roots heavily pruned. Trees 7 and 8 planted April 1,
roots unpruned. (b) Peach trees after one year in the orchard. All
trees were planted on April 1. The roots of the first two were heavily
pruned; the roots of the next two were unpruned. (c) Peach trees after
one year in the orchard. The first two were planted April 24 after growth
had started; the next two were planted April 1 while still dormant; root
pruning the same. (Maryland Experiments.)
176 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
The local market is more responsive. It will accept varieties
of high quality, even though they may not be well known,
especially if the grower enjoys a reputation in the community
as a skilled and reliable orchardist. ‘This is true also of the
roadside and motor truck demand now ’ existing about the
large centers of population.
(6) Consider Market Tendencies. in planting an orchard
the grower is embarking upon a long-time. enterprise. It is
Important for him to consider not only what the consuming
public wants now, but what it is likely to want when his trees
are in bearing. He should take account of any pronounced
trends or tendencies that will aid in forecasting market de-
mands. See Tables 21, 22 and 23, pages 100, 101, and 103.
The tendency is undoubtedly toward higher inherent
quality. The tremendous and growing popularity of Delicious
and McIntosh apples, for instance, is indicative of this fact.
Growers cannot supply higher quality, however, than the
public is ready to pay for. Some varieties of high quality —
would be grown to a greater extent commercially if they
were not so expensive to grow by.reason of light or tardy
bearing, uneven ripening, high proportion of low-grade fruit;
susceptibility to cold, insect injury, or disease; shortness of
life, tendency toward bruising, or kindred ailments. The
erower must consider all these items in making up his list, but
must give quality a higher rating than in years past. Red
varieties of apples, as a rule, sell better than green or yellow
kinds.
(c) Consider Variety Characters and Adaptations to
Various Regions. The best guide is the experience of the
section in which the fruit is to be grown. Latitude is an
indication, but variations in elevation may nullify the value
of this as a guide.
The length of season required to bring a variety to maturity
seems to be a most important factor 1 in the distribution of apple
varieties.
DETERMINING VARIETIES TO PLANT 177
Studies made by the United States Department of Agri-
culture indicate that the different varieties of apples require
rather definite periods of time following full bloom to reach
the correct stage for picking and that these. periods do not
vary greatly from year to year. For some of the important
commercial varieties these periods, dating from the time the
first petals begin to fall, are:
Days Days
Yellow Transparent ..... G0 G5ray Paldwitn.- i ooh a 145
| ESCs 0) ae ae ee i ieO COSCO: 10s 4 es ss 145-150
ert aid ge SS P30; ene Davis... lees Sk ae 150-155
Rhode Island Greening .. 140-145 Rome Beauty ........... 160-165
Womprehame 3 Se IA Th SheayImia« gis ss Se 165 -
(COST STETES A SS ole meee ae 1402145, Wainesapy Gaines ogee 165-170
This does not mean that the grower of McIntosh, for
instance, should pick his apples in exactly 125 days from
date of full bloom. It does mean that he can compute the
picking period closely in advance, make his plans accordingly,
and then vary the dates in accordance with his own condi-
tions and the other factors affecting the date of picking.
The grower should study the characteristics of the different
varieties that he has under consideration for planting. Some
varieties of superior quality, bring high prices, come into
bearing later than others under the same cultural practices.
Some tend to bear a crop in alternate years (biennial), or are
unusually susceptible to such diseases as scab, cedar rust,
fire blight, etc. Varieties may be hardy and resistant to cold,
or susceptible to it; they may normally mature a large pro-
portion of their crop that will grade well, or that will be in-
ferior in size and color. Some are so tender as to require
the most careful handling to avoid bruising.
New varieties should prove themselves strongly before
the grower permits them to displace the profitable veterans
of years in his planting list.
In case of apples, the summer and early varieties have a
178 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
larger place in some sections than others. In New York
and Ohio, winter varieties hold chief place. In southern
New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, they share honors with
Yellow Transparent, Starr, Oldenburg, Williams, and other
early sorts. In general, summer or early varieties are meet-
ing heavy competition from other fruits. Lists of varieties
for various regions are given under General Information.
(d) Consider Picking Dates of Varieties. ‘The greatest
rush of work in the orchard usually comes at harvest time.
Choose enough varieties to give a good distribution of labor
through the harvest season, but keep in mind that three or
four varieties for 50 acres, making possible quantity ship-
ments of each variety, are much better than ten varieties.
With a larger acreage, or for a local and special trade, the
number might be increased. A common mistake of the be-
ginner is to select too many varieties.
(e) Consider Importance of Cross-Pollination. Some
varieties are self-sterile. Some varieties are intersterile, that
is, the pollen of one variety will not fertilize the blossoms of
the other variety. Other factors, including the weather at
blossoming time, enter in. The matter is presented fully in
Chapter VIII, “Pollination.” It is only necessary to say
here that it is not advisable to plant a single variety in a large
block. It is not necessary or desirable to mix varieties in the
row. Plant several rows of a single variety, probably not
less than two or more than four, and alternate with at least
one row of another variety of the same, or an overlapping,
blooming period.
6. Determining Planting Distances and Planting Plan.
The grower should plant his trees at such distances that they
may have the opportunity for development in accordance
with the best known standards and that he may carry on the
necessary orchard operations to advantage. He should fol-
low a planting plan or arrangement that will conserve the use
of his land, or that will give greatest economy and efficiency
in care and management.
DETERMINING PLANTING DISTANCES AND PLAN 179
Procedure:
(a) Consider size of mature trees.
(6) Consider advisability of fillers.
(c) Consider merits of various planting plans.
(a) Consider Size of Mature Trees. Growers have diffi-
culty in visualizing the amount of space needed by the tree at
maturity. At least 75 percent of the present commercial
orchards are examples of too close planting. What con-
stitutes adequate space may be defined only when the region,
the soil, and the variety are known. Fruit trees grow much
larger in some sections than in others. A Baldwin tree on
strong soil in New York will use 50 feet at maturity. In
the scantier soil of New England, 40 feet or even less is
enough space for it. Wealthy, Yellow Transparent, Ben
Davis, Wagener, or Jonathan do vot require as much space
in any section as do York Imperial, Stayman Winesap, Mc-
Intosh, or Rhode Island Greening. The Morello cherry needs
less space than Montmorency. Table 34 is an approxima-
tion only, with emphasis on the greater distances.
TABLE 34
PLANTING DISTANCES FOR PERMANENT TREES
Feet Feet
1 SLR i ee ...| 385 to 50 SOuwe ENEeryis 3.6% so: 20 to 25
SET es a ee 22 to 30 Sweet cherry........ 25 to 35
IGE aie a cs 18 to 20 Plum and prune..... 18 to 25
Peach and apricot..... 20 to 25
(6) Consider the Advisability of Fillers. A filler is a tree
inserted in the orchard to supplement the income from the
orchard until the permanent trees need all the space. Some
growers prefer to secure this income by growing annual crops
between the permanent trees, instead of using fillers, A filler
180 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
may be of the same kind and variety as the permanent or it
may not.
In sections where the peach may be grown commercially,
it has frequently been used for -interplanting in the apple
orchard. However, sentiment against the plan, based on com-
mercial experience, 1s growing strongly. With increasing use
of sod culture for apples and better methods of fertilization,
pruning, and of borer control, all contributing to longer life,
the peach may best be planted alone.
Sour cherries may be used as fillers. Pears, excepting of
the type of Kieffer, LeConte, or Garber, should not be in-
terplanted with apples because of the danger of fire blight,
difficult enough to control in some varieties of apples at best.
If apple trees are planted at the maximum distances, there
are some apparent advantages in using the same variety as
filler. The first choice for a filler is a desirable variety of
apple that is a small grower and comes into bearing quickly.
Fillers increase the difficulty of cultivation, spraying, and
other orchard operations. The chief objection that may be
urged against them, however, is that they seldom are removed
before they have interfered with and retarded the develop-
ment of the permanent trees. This is a criticism of the grower
rather than the system, but the temptation to leave the filler
“Just another year” is very real and strong, a fact that may well
be faced at the outset.
In general, if there is a profitable market for annual crops,
or a place for them in the system of farm management, and if
land is available at a reasonable figure, the orchardist may
well spread his trees over more acres, adopting an extensive
rather than intensive method of planting. |
Bush and small fruits, as grapes, currants, gooseberries,
and strawberries, are interplanted between trees in certain
sections, permitting high returns per acre and intensive use
of the land. The plan has its disadvantages, among which are
dificulty in spraying and other operations, and frequent over-
crowding and interference before the plantings are removed.
DETERMINING PLANTING DISTANCES AND PLAN 181
(c) Consider Merits of Various Planting Plans. The
grower should decide upon his planting plan before ordering
his trees. Given the distance between the trees, the plan or
arrangement will determine the number required for a given
area. | |
The square system is widely used. The trees are equal
distances apart and at right angles to each other, with a tree
on the corner of each square. Simplicity in laying out and ease
of cultivation and spraying characterize this arrangement. If
the trees are planted too closely, it is easy also to thin them
out by removing alternate trees.
The square system is the most desirable if fillers are to
be used. With a permanent tree on each corner of the square,
a filler or semi-permanent may be placed in the center of the
square. Thus, if the permanent trees are 40 feet apart, the
semi-permanents will be 2814 feet from each permanent. This
is known as the quincunx method. Additional fillers may be
placed in both directions if desired, making all trees 20 feet
apart. :
The square system may be modified by making the rows
farther apart from east to west than from north to south,
permitting the maximum access of sunlight to the trees and
constituting what is sometimes called the rectangular system,
as distinguished from the square method.
The hexagonal or triangular system brings the permanent
trees in the adjacent row not opposite the trees in the first row
adjoining, but opposite the center of the spaces between the
trees. .The trees are the same distance apart as in the square
system, but space is saved and more trees may be planted
per acre. Thus, the square system, 40 by 40, gives 27 trees
per acre, whereas the hexagonal system, 40 by 40, gives 32
trees per acre. This system is a little more difficult to lay out
than the square system and is not so well adapted to the use
of fillers.
Special systems developed to meet local conditions may be
required where the land is steep, the topography irregular, or
182 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
the soil inclined to wash badly. Trees may be planted accord-
ing to the contour of the land, such cultivation as is done
being across the slope rather than up and down it. Such
an arrangement, however, does not contribute to convenience
or efficiency from the commercial standpoint.
Table 35 gives the number of trees per acre at given dis-
tances, depending upon the plan of planting:
TABLE 35
NuMBER OF TREES PER ACRE AT GIVEN DISTANCES
ACCORDING TO PLAN USED
Number of Trees Number of Trees
Distance per Acre * Distance per Acre *
Apart Apart
in Feet | in Feet
Square | Hexagonal Square | Hexagonal
18 134 154 35 35 41
20 108 124 40 27 32
22 90 104 45 22 25
25 70 80 50 17 20
30 48 55
* Obtained by dividing 43,560, the number of square feet in an acre, by the land
area devoted to each tree (in the square system the area of the square, in the hexagonal
system the area of the parallelogram). Slight variations from this table will be encoun-
tered in actual practice, depending on space left at ends, sides, etc. The quincunx sys-
tem will usually accommodate about 75 percent more trees than the square system, or
if the number of rows and trees in the row are the same for fillers as for permanents, the
quincunx system will double the number of trees.
Plenty of space for turning should be reserved at the ends
of all rows. The amount will be influenced by the presence of
fences, hedgerows, etc. Usually more than one-half the dis-
tance between permanent trees, or about 30 to 35 feet, should
be left at the ends of the rows to facilitate orchard operations. —
7. Purchasing Trees. The grower is now ready to place his
order for trees. This should be done well in advance while
PURCHASING TREES 183
the best stock is available. Trees for spring planting should
be ordered during the preceding fall or early winter.
Procedure:
(a) Consider age and grade of trees.
(6) Consider sources from which trees may be obtained.
(a) Consider Age and Grade of Trees. The age of trees is
measured by the age of the top without regard to the age of
the root. Since our standard varieties do not come true from
Co a ae
£2 pd te S vas :
(Washin
gton Nursery Co.)
Fig. 64. Budded Bartlett pear trees beginning their second year of
srowth in a Washington nursery.
the seed, it is necessary to resort to budding or grafting to ob-
tain them. Seedlings are grown from the seed or pit for one
year, either in France or the United States. They may be dug
in the fall, root grafted to the desired variety in the winter,
and set in the nursery row in the spring; or, as is the more
common practice, the seedlings may be transplanted to the
184 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
nursery row in the spring and budded in late July or August
to the desired variety. In the latter case, the bud does not
begin to grow until the following spring. Peaches constitute
an exception in that they are grown from pits in this country
and are budded the first season. In Southern sections, they
are sometimes budded in June, the buds grow at once, and the
resulting trees are known as June buds. The age of trees in
the nursery trade relates to the age
of the graft or bud from the time
it begins to grow on the stock. The
process of budding and grafting is
more fully described in the chapter
entitled “Propagating Fruit Plants.”
Peach trees are sold at one year
of age (Fig. 65), except June buds,
which are younger. Sweet cherry
trees, somewhat difficult to trans-
plant, may best be purchased at one
year of age, though many are sold
, at two years. Apples, pears, ‘sour
Fic. 65. Peach treesshow- cherries and plums are commonly
ing the various sizes avail- .01q when two years old (Fig. 66).
ee ee Older trees should not be purchased
just at the left of the meas- = PEeaese
_ uring stick are popular. for commercial purposes. The shock
| of transplanting them is greater than
for younger trees, and their pr re stay in the nursery row
reduces their vigor.
There is an Increasing demand by growers for Pisce one-
year apple trees, and to a less extent for one-year trees of the
other fruits commonly sold at two years of age. Such trees _
cost a little less than two-year trees, transportation charges
are lower, they stand transplanting better, and start into
growth sooner. It costs less to set them because they can be
handled more easily and do not require so large a hole for
the roots. The chief consideration, however, in the apple
is that, since the one-year tree comes as a straight whip, the
PURCHASING TREES 185
grower may form the head at any height and in any way that
he chooses. The two-year trees, on the other hand, come with
side branches already formed. The grower must either select
the foundation for the head from them, or if the branches are
placed too closely together, he must remove part of them and
CUS. DOA.)
Fic. 66. (a) Well-grown one-year-old Stayman
Winesap apple trees. (b) Good two-year-old
trees of the same variety.
develop the head over again. A nurseryman may develop a
better head on a tree than an inexperienced grower, but the
skillful grower who will give the matter attention may well
purchase the one-year tree. Trees planted side by side at one
and two years of age cannot be distinguished in the orchard
four or five years later, so far as size is concerned.
186 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
Trees are sold as large, medium, and small, or XXX, XX,
and X, respectively, with the height and caliper given. Varie-
- ties differ greatly as to habit of growth and size at a given age.
The XXX is in greatest demand. Nothing less than the medium
size should be selected, as the small trees are often stunted and
lacking in vigor. Abnormally large or overgrown trees have
very little to commend them.
Dwarf trees have little place in the commercial orchard.
‘They have not justified the claims that have been made for
them. Although some of them come into bearing noticeably
varlier than standard trees, they are easily uprooted and
must be planted so closely, in order to obtain a satisfactory
yield per acre, as to interfere seriously with cultural opera-
tions. On small areas and for the amateur they are worth
consideration.
Pedigree trees do not have the virtues implied by the name.
The term implies that nursery trees have been propagated from
selected strains of the variety that possess higher qualities of
color, productivity, etc., than the average of the variety and
that these characters will be transmitted. Such differences
when traced or tested under controlled experimental conditions
seem due to soil or climatic factors, or to variations in man-
agement, and not to characters that can be transmitted by
budding or grafting, except in case of bud sports.
It is well to propagate nursery stock by using buds or scions
from bearing trees, not to perpetuate special characters of the
individual tree but to insure trueness to name.
There are severe limitations on the extent to which nursery-
men can use propagation wood from bearing trees. The an-
nual growths are often short, the buds may be weak, and the
time and effort expended in securing satisfactory propagation
wood may greatly increase the cost of propagation.
Improvement in fruit varieties must come primarily not
through change in existing varieties, but through the discovery
of variants, or sports, and the scientific breeding by crossing
of varieties we already possess. Among the sports or mutations
PURCHASING TREES 187
in apples may be mentioned Gallia Beauty and Red Rome
(both strains of Rome Beauty), Starking (Red Delicious), Red
Gravenstein, Red Duchess, Black Stayman Winesap, and Red
Spy. The origin of some of these is so obscure that they may
be seedlings rather than sports. Among new apple varieties
obtained as the result of scientific breeding programs are the
Cortland, Early McIntosh, and others originated at the New
York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva and many by
Macoun in Canada and by Beach in Iowa. The New Jersey
Station has bred a considerable number of promising peach
varieties, and the Geneva Station has developed the Sheridan
grape and many varieties of small fruits. The United States
Department of Agriculture has done work along similar lines.
Certified Trees. Some nurseries are now advertising “cer-
tified” trees for sale at prices slightly in excess of the regular
charges for trees of the same age and grade. The term as used
here means that these trees have been examined in the nursery
row by official agents and have been certified as being true to
name. |
Some nurserymen and experienced tree growers have long
been able to identify many varieties from their appearance
as they grow in the nursery. The shape and manner of growth
of the tree, color of bark, and appearance of the leaves are
all factors.
The Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station has
made an extended study of the leaves of apple trees. It has
established that leaves on wood of the current season’s growth,
especially those occurring on the middle portions of such wood,
are very important and dependable factors in identification.
Injured or malformed leaves or those growing on interior
shoots or on undernourished trees are not typical.
The appearance of the petiole or leaf stalk and the angle
which it makes with the parent branch are helpful. The size
and shape of the leaf, the shape of the leaf tip, etc., bending
or folding of the leaf blade, and of the margin, and especially
the serrations along the leaf edges are determining factors.
188 KSTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
The thickness of the leaf, its network of veins, its pubescence
or hairiness on the undersurface, and its color are supplemental
factors. |
The Horticultural Experimental Station of Vineland, On-
tario, Canada, has made similar determinations for pears,
plums, peaches, and cherries, and the Minnesota Experimental
Station for plums and raspberries.
(b) Consider Sources from Which Trees. May Be Obtained.
Trees grown north or south, east or west, of the location where
they are to be used are no better and no worse by reason of
that fact. There is no merit, however, in assuming extra trans-
portation charges or inviting loss or damage due to extended
periods or delays in transit.
Purchase from a reputable concern. ‘Trees at bargain
prices are usually expensive investments. Specify a good,
well-grown tree and expect to pay what it is worth. Purchase
subject to inspection before acceptance, and specify that no-
substitutions in the order are to be made without written
consent.
It is good practice to visit the nursery and make a personal
selection where possible. If the nursery is near by, the trees
may be delivered or called for by truck when the field is ready
for planting, avoiding delays in transit and storage of the
trees at the farm.
8. Caring for Trees on Arrival. ee all stock care-
fully on arrival. Check varieties, number, and grade. Reject
all trees showing evidence of crown gall, unless it can be easily
pruned off, hairy root, severe aphis injury on the roots, or of
winter killing as indicated by brittleness of the wood and dis-
coloration of the tissues when branch or trunk is broken.
If the trees are in good condition and are to be planted
within two or three days, they may be put on the cellar bottom
in the basement or storage shed, out of the sun, soaked thor-
oughly with water, and covered with blankets or straw.
If there must be delay in planting, the trees should be
CARING FOR TREES ON ARRIVAL 189
heeled in at once, preferably on the north side of a building,
or on a slope away from the sun to retard development of the
buds (Fig. 67). Plow out a deep furrow or trench, separate
the trees, which come in bundles of ten, and place them in a
sloping position against the furrow side of the trench, plow
a furrow back over the roots, finishing with a shovel to insure
exclusion of air from the base of each tree. Another row of
trees may now be placed in the second furrow and so on.
(Missouri Exp. Statien)
Fic. 67. One-year apple trees heeled in. If they are to be left for an
extended period, the bundles should be opened and the trees distributed
more evenly along the trench.
The roots may be pruned before heeling the trees, avoiding
the necessity of taking time to do this at planting. Torn and
broken ends and long straggling roots may be clipped off.
Root fibers which are so abundant as to prevent thorough
packing of the soil about the roots may be thinned out. There
is evidence, however, that very little root pruning should be
done. That which seems necessary may be done very rapidly
with a pair of hand pruners.
190 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
9. Preparing Field for Planting.
Procedure: |
(a) Preparing the soil.
(6b) Determining location of trees.
(a) Preparing the Soil. Plow orchard land as early in the
spring as soil conditions permit. This will insure both settling
of the ground before planting and conservation of the moisture,
which the trees will need. Plowing in the fall and working the
land in early spring are desirable in many sections. It is
better thatethe land should have been devoted to a tilled crop
the year previous rather than that trees be planted on a freshly
turned sod, though the latter is by no means to be disallowed
under all conditions. If planting on sod, fall plowing is par-
ticularly desirable, so that the soil may settle and disintegra-
gion of the sod may begin before the trees are set.
Peaches should always be set on tilled land. In some sec-
tions extensive apple orchards have been developed under
conditions that do not permit tillage, and some growers use
other systems of soil management through preference. These
are described in the chapter “Managing Orchard Soils.” It is
best to set in tilled land whenever possible, regardless of the
type of soil management followed later. |
(6b) Determining Location of Trees. A simple method of
staking a field that is fairly level is indicated in Fig. 68, show-
ing trees to be set 40 by 40 feet on the square, 30 feet to be
allowed on the ends of the rows beyond the last trees for turn-
ing, given one straight side of the field, as a road or line fence
(which side does not matter). |
Turn a right angle at one corner of straight boundary or base line, as
indicated by m, in the triangle, Fig. 68, by measuring 60 feet along the
base line and parallel with it, and setting stake 1; measure 80 feet
approximately at right angles to m-1, and set stake at n. Then change
the position of n until the distance n-1 is exactly 100 feet without alter-
ing other dimensions (smaller triangles as 30-40-50 may be used, but the
chance for error on the shorter distances is greater).
PREPARING FIELD FOR PLANTING 191
Referring now to the large map of the field and turning the right
angle at point A, project lines on two field lines, but not where trees
are to stand. From point A, set the first stake, 30 feet along the line
A-B, marking the location of the outer row. Set the remaining stakes
40 feet apart. The last stake should be 30 feet from B. Set the first
Highway or Straight Boundary
ar er. |
| bs
=| yN ,
& JS Method of Turning Right Angle
oe
ni”
Highway or Straight Boundary
A x30% «x Re a OS Oe Rae 0) OK x 40'x30% B
x--OQ---O---O---0-- -O-- -O---O-x-0--~-O---O0---Q---0- --O-~-0--%
a
= 1 |
= |W Outer'Tree Row 2
RO } x x
t 1
x 6 | |
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Fic. 68. Method of staking the orchard. Where
two lines of sight cross over the stakes is the place
for a tree. o indicates some of these points.
stake along A-D, 30 feet from A, and all other stakes 40 feet apart,
excepting the last stake which should be 30 feet from D.
At B, erect another right angle, and set line B-C along the boundary.
Close the end C—D, testing to see that A-B and C-D check as to length
and altering points C' and D, until the measurements are the same. This
may make necessary slight adjustments of the stakes in lines A-D and
B-C. Disregard irregular planting areas that fall outside the plan, as
these may be filled in easily after the main area is set.
192 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
The boundaries of the orchard are now determined with no stake that
is in the way of a tree. It is now necessary to put in additional rows of
stakes through the interior of the field so that, standing within the field,
two stakes may be seen in line in each direction.
Set E-F and H-IJ and as many more rows in each direction as may be
necessary, turning right angles as before. Do not set in tree rows, but
- between them as indicated.
Ordinary building lath are very satisfactory for stakes.
For rolling land, they may be spliced together to give greater
height for the hollows. A white cloth may be wrapped around
them or they may be dipped in whitewash when used for long
distances or against a background that makes it difficult to
see them.
Point W indicates the position of a corner tree. Any point
in the field where two lines of sight cross is the place for a tree.
Small stakes may be set where each tree is to go, or the place
may be determined by sighting-in the reversed shovel as a
stake, digging the hole at once. The latter method is satisfac-
tory only with careful men. When a stake is placed a few
inches out of line and is used in turn for sighting, the error
accumulates as the length of the row increases and may be
considerable at the end. In order to reduce the possible error,
it is best to plant the trees or set the interior stakes in one di-
rection only, rather than to work across the field and back,
planting or staking in both directions.
Two men may set the outer stakes. A third man, who can
stay back and do the sighting while the others are measuring
the distances, will save much walking back and forth. Three
are needed for such lines as EH-F and H-—I, two men sighting in
the stakes, one in each direction, while a third sets the stakes
as they indicate. If stakes are to be set at the location of each
tree, three men will do the work much faster and more accu-
rately than a smaller number. Almost any number of gangs
may work without interference in a field so staked, and the
original guide stakes are always in place until the job is done.
There are many variations of the foregoing plan. The outer
PREPARING FIELD FOR PLANTING 193
stakes may be set where the trees are to go and then removed
only after the other trees have been planted. In Southern
sections, a colored man with one mule, given a few stakes to
go by, will plow out furrows and cross furrows very accurately.
A team may be used, sighting between the horses. In large
plantings and on rough land, the plan outlined may be too
laborious and expensive, although the work,
once the boundaries are established, goes
quickly. Wire marked at the proper dis-
tances, or measuring sticks as long as the
distance between trees, may be used. Cord
is not satisfactory for measurements be--
cause of its tendency to stretch with use
or to shrink when wet. Steel or linen tapes
are preferable.
Whatever the plan used, time taken in
the interest of accuracy when planting is
time well spent. Trees much out of line,
as in Fig. 69, are not merely an eyesore,
they interfere seriously with orchard op-
erations, especially in closely planted or-
Fic. 69. Although
chards. A discrepancy of a few inches will
gradually disappear and be “taken up” by
the tree in the course of development.
The planting plan for the hexagonal sys-
tem does not vary except that distances be-
tween rows, not between trees, are different
and the staking must correspond. A wire
triangle, each side representing the distance
between trees, with rings at the corners
help.
this orchard was
planted on level
land, making it
easy to lay out the
rows accurately,
this view along a
row indicates little
effort to do so.
for staking will
In working on uneven ground, keep the measuring tape or
device level rather than following the contour of the ground.
Tt will save time to map the outer boundaries and inner
guide stakes on paper before undertaking to lay out the field.
Use the actual distances of planting adapted to a convenient
194 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
scale, and proceed in accordance with the conditions that must
be met. Every step will then be thoroughly understood be-
fore the work begins.
10. Planting the Trees.
Procedure and Factors:
(a) Preparing the hole.
(6) Handling the trees.
(c) Setting the trees.
(d) Subsequent treatment.
(a) Preparing the Hole. Dig a hole that will aceommo-
date the root system. Even though the rows have been plowed
out, the hole must be finished with a shovel. Make it corre-
spond to the root system of the tree and deep enough so that
the crook at the base of the tree will be just below the ground
level. If the subsoil is poor, dig the hole deep enough so that
some moist and fertile top soil may be put in the bottom.
Keep the top soil separate from the subsoil so that it may be
used about the roots.
Dynamite may have value in orchard planting under some
conditions. It may break up a shallow layer of hardpan,
affording a better medium for the roots. If the hardpan is
deep, dynamite will merely make a pocket where water will
settle. It should not be used when the soil is wet and, in gen-
eral, the hole should be blasted well in advance of planting.
It will take nearly as much time after blasting to prepare the
hole for planting as it would have taken to dig the hole in the
first place. It is thus not a cheap method of putting trees
in the ground. In general, if the soil needs dynamiting to
make it suitable for tree planting, it would be better to plant
on a field that did not need such treatment. If dynamite is
used, follow the directions of the manufacturers.
Recent experiments have shown that, by mixing a 12-quart
pail of wet pulverized peat moss with the soil which is placed
around the roots at planting time, a much more vigorous tree
results at the end of the second year’s growth. This material
PLANTING THE TREES 195
holds moisture in reserve if dry weather follows, and it im-
proves the condition of the soil if the weather is wet. It may
be that this will become standard planting practice, espe-
cially on soils low in organic matter.
Do not put manure or commercial fertilizers in the hole.
Manure may cut off the roots from subsoil moisture and is
used to much better advantage as a mulch on the surface after
the tree is set. Commercial fertilizers may be used most
efficiently as indicated in the chapter “Managing Orchard
Soils.”
(b) Handling the Trees. Keep the roots protected from the
sun and wind by covering them with a wet blanket or by
putting the trees in a tub of water on a wagon or stoneboat.
If the trees are dropped much ahead of the planters, cover
the roots with a little soil to protect them until the planting
gang arrives. Growers who have purchased good trees are
often very careless in protecting the roots during the planting
operation.
(c) Setting the Trees. Set the tree so that the lower
branches which are to be retained for the head, or the crook
of the central leader, are toward the prevailing wind. The
wind will gradually push these branches upward toward the
center of the tree, so that they will not bend toward the
ground. If planting on a slope, the lower branches to be
retained should be on the downward side, to give them as
ereat an elevation from the ground as possible. For one-year
trees which are straight, whips, these directions do not hold
until the head is being formed.
Sight-in the tree, and throw in two or three shovelfuls of
moist top soil. Lift and shake the tree gently to work the first
shovelfuls about the roots. Let one man hold the tree in place,
tramping the soil firmly about the roots as it is thrown in, not
by pressing it with his toe, but by treading solidly around the
tree with both feet in the hole. The most important single
factor in planting a tree is to plant it firmly. Not only is the
tree then well anchored from the physical standpoint but also
196 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
air spaces are reduced and the soil particles and soil moisture
are in intimate contact with the root system. Ii the soil is
wet, less tramping is desirable since the ground will settle
itself. Fill the hole above ground level to allow for settling,
and leave the soil loose on top to prevent drying out.
Often better progress will be made if one gang digs the holes
and another plants the trees. A trial will determine the most
efficient size of the planting gangs. |
(d) Subsequent Treatment. Do not prune the tops until
after the orchard is planted. Some branches may be injured
or broken in the planting operation. Leave them all until the
job is done. Then one man can go through and prune them
very rapidly and according to the same plan and standard.
It may be done any time within two or three weeks after
planting. Directions are given in the chapter on pruning.
Opinion differs as to the advisability of pruning fall-planted
trees before spring. There seems little reason why excess
branches should not be removed at once.
To prevent excess evaporation and thus give the trees a
good start, the young trees are sometimes coated with an
emulsion of wax.
Map the orchard as to varieties and their location when
the planting job is completed. File the map with a copy of the
order and bill. This will be helpful and interesting later and
may also be an aid if varieties prove untrue to name.
GENERAL INFORMATION
1. Appte REGIONS AND VARIETIES
The commercial fruit areas of the United States and Canada are
quite well defined. Since most sections are now well served by trans-
portation facilities, the fruit sections are determined chiefly by climatic
factors and to a less extent by soils. A section may also be adapted to
the growing of fruit, but better adapted to some other crop. Exten-
sions of the industry into such sections may be looked for as economic
GENERAL INFORMATION 197
conditions warrant. In general, however, the commercial areas have
been determined and it is in them or parts of them that most of the
fruit for market will probably be produced in the future.
In naming these regions it must be kept in mind that they are not
adapted in their entirety to fruit production. Local factors enter in, and
much must be left to judgment and local experience.
The deciduous fruit regions have been determined largely on the basis
of apple growing. Although other fruits will not thrive in all the apple
sections, particularly in the ones with low winter temperatures, yet it is
a fact that the growing of the other fruits takes place to a large extent
in the apple regions. Certain peach sections constitute exceptions to
this statement.
As has already been pointed out in the section on selection of
varieties, varieties differ in their adaptation. In defining the fruit sec-
tions it becomes possible to indicate the varieties of commercial promi-
nence or promise for them.
In general, the northeastern states are adapted to fruit growing, and
it is in these states that the industry first took on the aspects of a com-
mercial enterprise. Other sections have since come to the fore and are
providing competition that is both keen and at the same time helpful in
raising the standards of the industry.
The chief fruit regions are outlined here without regard to order of
importance. Commercial rank is somewhat variable, and its emphasis
is shifting. It may be determined for any period in a general way from
the census figures of bearing and non-bearing trees and a study of carlot
shipments.
1. The New England states, excepting the colder sections of Maine,
New Hampshire, and Vermont.
2. New York, comprising the western New York, Hudson Valley,
and Lake Champlain areas.
3. Michigan, in the southern half of the state, but also well distributed
along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan.
4. Ohio, quite generally distributed with large production in the south- —
eastern counties, along the Pennsylvania line, and about Lake Erie.
5. Pennsylvania, about large industrial centers, along Lake Erie, and
in the south-central section forming a part of the Shenandoah-Cumber-
land region.
6. New Jersey-Delaware and eastern shore of Maryland. These areas
are close to large consuming centers. They feature summer and fall
apples but also grow winter apples.
7. Shenandoah-Cumberland region, including south-central Pennsy]-
vania, western Maryland, eastern West Virginia, and Virginia.
198 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
A southern extension of the area reaches into the mountain sections
of North Carolina, north Georgia, and northeastern Alabama. The
Piedmont section, so called, is along the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge
Mountains in Virginia and is mountainous in character.
8. Southern Illinois and Indiana.
9. Ozark region of southwestern Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and
northwestern Arkansas. There is also a small commercial section in
northwestern Missouri.
10. Northwest, including areas in Oregon, Washington, Idaho, western
Montana, and British Columbia. This territory produces more than 80
per cent of all box apples grown in the United States and Canada at the
present time. Well-known sections are the Okanogan of British Colum-
bia, the Wenatchee and Yakima Valleys of Washington, and the Hood
River and Rogue River Valleys of Oregon. Cherries, prunes, and pears
are grown extensively in some areas, in addition to apples.
11. California in the Watsonville district, chiefly in Santa Cruz and
Monterey Counties and in the Sebastopol area in Sonoma County.
There is also a commercial development at Yucaipa in San Bernardino
County. Conditions and varieties in these districts vary greatly. The
box is the market package.
12. Mountain States including limited areas in Colorado, Utah, ed
New Mexico. The box is used for packing.
13. Canada, in addition to the area in British Columbia included in
the Pacific Northwest territory, has important sections in the Annapolis
and other valleys of Nova Scotia and in the Province of Ontario along
the Great Lakes. Other sections occur in the Provinces of New Bruns-
wick and Quebec.
The varieties of apples listed are the major commercial varieties in
the sections named, at the present time, or show promise of becoming so.
In selecting a planting list, check the varieties against local experience
and the recommendations of the local experiment station. .Other
varieties may be worthy of consideration, but may not as yet have
definitely established their qualifications from the commercial standpoint.
The fact that certain varieties are dominant in commercial sections
at the present time is not conclusive evidence that they will remain so.
Inspection of varieties in non-bearing orchards and in those being
planted will indicate the trend. In general, the movement is toward
higher quality as exemplified by the McIntosh and Delicious types in
their respective regions. Red sports or strains of some varieties as
Red Rome and Gallia Beauty, Starking, Red Duchess (Oldenburg), and
Red Gravenstein are available and may be preferable to the older forms
of these varieties. Several introductions of summer apples by the
GENERAL INFORMATION 199
Geneva (New York) Experiment Station, as Milton, Early McIntosh,
and Melba, are worthy of trial, especially for local trade.
A indicates summer and early fall apples, when grown in quantities.
B indicates the late fall and winter varieties. The same variety may
be a fall apple in one section and a winter variety in another section.
Variety descriptions with special notes on local behavior are available
from so many authoritative sources that such descriptions are not in-
cluded here.
Check these lists with the state experiment station or college of
agriculture.
NEW ENGLAND
A—Wealthy, Gravenstein, Oldenburg. B—MclIntosh, Baldwin, lNorth-
ern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Delicious, Fameuse.
NEW YORK
A—Oldenburg, Wealthy. B—MclIntosh, Baldwin, SLL Island
Greening, Northern Spy, Cortland.
The planting of Oldenburg, Wagener, Tompkins King, and
Twenty Ounce is decreasing. Northern Spy, though slow to come
into bearing, is a desirable variety in favored locations.
In the Hudson River Valley the list of varieties is much the same
as for western New York. McIntosh and Cortland, however, have
been planted on a larger scale, and Rome, Delicious, Yellow New-
town, and Red Gravenstein are grown commercially. Jonathan,
while grown, is decreasing in popularity. To lengthen the McIntosh
Season in some sections, the Kendall and Macoun are becoming
quite popular.
In the Champlain Valley, resistance to cold is a prime factor.
McIntosh, Northern Spy, and Fameuse are in the lead. Wealthy,
Alexander, and Wolf River are also grown.
MICHIGAN
Southwestern Michigan
A—Wealthy. B—Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, Baldwin,
McIntosh, Fameuse, Delicious.
Oldenburg or Duchess has been extensively ee in Michigan,
but is not now proving profitable. In northeastern Michigan Northern
Spy, McIntosh, and Fameuse predominate.
200 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
OHIO
A—Yellow Transparent. B—Rome Beauty, Baldwin, Rhode Island
Greening, McIntosh, Delicious, Stayman Winesap.
PENNSYLVANIA
In the northern half of the state, varieties are the same as those in
the western part of New York. Southeastern Pennsylvania forms part
of the Shenandoah-Cumberland belt and grows the varieties listed for
that region.
NEW JERSEY, DELAWARE, AND EASTERN SHORE OF
MARYLAND
A~—Yellow Transparent, Starr, Oldenburg, Wealthy, Williams. B—
Stayman Winesap, Winesap, Delicious, Rome Beauty, Jonathan, Grimes,
York Imperial, Baldwin (northern New Jersey).
- SHENANDOAH-CUMBERLAND REGION
A—Yellow Transparent, Summer Rambo, Williams, Oldenburg,
Wealthy, Northwestern Greening. B—York Imperial, Stayman Wine-
sap, Winesap, Rome or Gallia Beauty, Delicious or Starking, Jonathan,
Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig, or Paragon), Grimes, Ben Davis.
In some sections of the Piedmont region of Virginia the Yellow
Newtown or Albemarle Pippin develops to a high state of perfection.
SOUTHERN ILLINOIS AND INDIANA
A—Yelliow Transparent, Oldenburg, Maiden Blush, Benoni. B—Wine- ~
sap, Stayman Winesap, Jonathan, Kinnard, Rome Beauty, pes oa
Ben Davis.
OZARK REGION.
A—Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg, Ada Red. B—Ben Davis, ae
Jonathan, Stayman Winesap, Delicious.
NORTHWEST
B—Winesap, Jonathan, Stayman Winesap, Rome Beauty, Delicious.
In the Hood River Valley, Yellow Newtown and Esopus Spitzen-
burg are grown extensively. In British Columbia, McIntosh and
Northern Spy are grown to some extent,
GENERAL INFORMATION 2U1
CALIFORNIA
Watsonville District
B—Yellow Newtown, Yellow Bellflower.
Sebastopol District
A—Gravenstein.
Yucaipa District
B—Rome, Winesap, Delicious, King David.
MOUNTAIN STATES
B—Jonathan, Rome, Winesap, Delicious.
In the higher altitudes, Yellow Transparent, Wealthy, North-
western Greening and McIntosh are grown in a limited way.
CANADA
Ontario
A—Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg, Wealthy, Alexander, Melba.
B—Northern Spy, McIntosh, Fameuse, Baldwin, Rhode Island Green-
ing, Delicious, Tolman.
Some of Macoun’s introductions are being tried in a very limited
way.
Nova Scotia
A—Gravenstein. B—Northern Spy, McIntosh, Golden Russet, Wags
ener, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, Fameuse.
New Brunswick and Quebec
A—Oldenburg, Alexander, Wolf River. B—Northern Spy, McIntosh,
Fameuse.
2. PeacH REGIONS AND VARIETIES
Peach districts are identical in many cases with apple districts. They
do not, however, extend into the colder apple sections, and on the other
hand they go beyond the southern reaches of the commercial apple
industry. At the northern limits of peach culture, orchards are ofter
located adjacent to large bodies of water with their tempering climatic
influence. The peach belts of New York along the shores of Lake |
ae ale Su: *
202 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
Ontario and in Michigan bordering the lake of the same name are
illustrations.
Elberta is the main crop peach at the present ies There is great
need of other varieties possessing the good features of Elberta, but of
higher quality and extending the season in both directions. Considerable
effort is being expended to develop such varieties. The New Jersey
Agricultural Experiment Station and the Horticultural Experiment
Station at Vineland, Ontario, Canada, have 7 introduced or devel-
oped several varieties of much promise.
Freestone varieties with yellow flesh are preferred by the public as
fresh fruit.
The Far West prefers yellow clingstone peaches for commercial can-
ning. Many of the early varieties have white flesh. The white-fleshed
varieties as a group appear to be more hardy and resistant to cold than
the yellow varieties.
The usual commercial orchard consists of two or three varieties m
addition to Elberta; an orchard supplying a local market or a roadside
trade requires a more extended list.
With the expansion of the southern peach areas, some of the northern
districts whose crops reach the markets late in the season are declining in
importance.
South Haven, Hiley, Belle of Georgia, J. H. Hale, Golden Jubilee,
Vedette, and Howard Fisher are some of the popular varieties in the
Northeastern section.
California is the largest producer of peaches, both in quantity and
value, of any section of the country. Fruit is grown to be marketed
in the fresh state, as in other sections, but large quantities are also pro-
duced for canning and drying. The bulk of the California crop is
processed in one way or another before being put on the market.
Numerous varieties, however, are grown to be sold in the fresh state.
Although Elberta is grown, it is much less important in California than
in other commercial sections.
In the extreme South, including parts of Florida and Louisiana, con-
ditions are not adapted to the races of peaches to which most commer-
cial varieties belong, the North China and the Persian. Here varieties
of the Peen-to and South China races are grown, but not as factors in a
commercial sense.
3. Pear REGIONS AND VARIETIES
California and New York are the principal pear districts of the coun-
try. Other sections where the industry has attained commercial status
are New Jersey, Michigan, Delaware, Maryland, Colorado, Washington,
GENERAL INFORMATION 203
and Oregon. Fire blight is the chief enemy of pear culture in most
sections, and the industry is dying out in some districts because of its
inroads.
Bartlett is the standard variety both for the fresh-fruit market and
for canning. Clapp Favorite, Anjou, Seckel, Bosc, Angouleme (Duchess),
Clairgeau, Lawrence, and Kieffer are also grown. in New York, New
Jersey, and Michigan, to a limited extent. Kieffer is much more
important in New Jersey than in New York, and is the leading variety
south from New Jersey. Other varieties of the Kieffer type, of com-
mercial importance in the same districts where Kieffer is the leading
variety, are Le Conte and Garber. Gorham is a new New York variety
which is being recommended very highly.
Bartlett is almost the sole variety in California. In Washington and
Oregon the planting list is much the same as in the East, omitting
Seckel but adding Comice, Howell, Hardy and Winter Nelis.
4. CuHerry REGIONS AND VARIETIES
Sour cherries are grown commercially in western New York, the
Hudson Valley in the same state, western Michigan, Ohio along the
shores of Lake Erie, in the Arkansas River Valley in Colorado, in limited
areas in Wisconsin and Iowa, and to a less extent in other states.
_ The industry is built around Montmorency as the main crop variety
with Early Richmond to open the season and English Morello to extend
it beyond Montmorency. Ostheim, Dyehouse, and Large Montmorency
are grown to a limited extent.
Sweet cherries reach their highest perfection and their greatest
yields, and are most largely grown, in the Pacific Coast states. They
are also grown commercially in western Michigan, western New York,
and the Hudson River Valley. They are less hardy than the sour
cherries and short-lived in sections not well adapted for them.
Bing, Lambert, and Napoleon are the chief varieties in the Pacific
Northwest. The first two varieties are shipped as fresh fruit; Napoleon
is sold in the fresh state, but is used more extensively for canning. These
three varieties are both self-sterile and intersterile. They should be
planted in connection with other varities as indicated in Chapter VIII,
“Pollination.”
East of the Rocky Mountains, Black Tartarian, Windsor, Schmidt,
Napoleon, and Yellow Spanish are the leading sweet varieties,
204. ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
5. PLum REGIONS AND VARIETIES
Aside from the prune sections on the Pacific Coast, plum culture is
not carried on in clearly defined areas, but is common in a limited way
to nearly all sections of the country. In the colder sections as the
Dakotas and the Great Plains area, varieties derived from the native
species do best. They are excellent for preserves and cooking, but less
desirable to eat in the fresh state. In the lower Mississippi Valley the
native and Japanese varieties do well. From the Potomac River south
to the Gulf Coast and west in Texas, native, Japanese, and hybrid
varieties occur. The Damson plums are popular in many sections for
culinary use. In the eastern states, the European plums are of major
importance, but Japanese varieties are also grown, among them Abun-
dance and Burbank. In California and to a less extent in other sections
where the climate is suited to peach growing, the Japanese varieties do
well, though European varieties of both plums and prunes are important
in the Pacific Coast states. Secure the recommendations of the local
experiment station. Some promising new varieties have been developed.
6. QuINcE REGIONS AND VARIETIES
New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania are the sections in which the
quince is produced in commercial quantities. The demand is not large.
The fruit is used chiefly for jellies, for which it is highly valued. Some
growers are doing very well with this fruit, but the market may easily
be over-supplied. Fire blight is often destructive, especially to young
plantations.
The chief varieties are Orange, Champion, Rea, Meech, Pineapple,
and Bourgeat. It is probable that Orange is a group rather than a
variety name.
7. Apricot REGIONS AND VARIETIES
California is the seat of commercial apricot culture, though this fruit
is grown in ‘a limited way in many states. The blossoms open early in
the spring, and frosts are often a limiting factor in its culture. Although
the fresh fruit of many varieties is desirable, the apricot is used chiefly
for drying and canning.
Blenheim, Moorpark, Royal, Tilton, and Newcastle are the chief
varieties in California. Breda and Harris are desirable in sections where.
hardiness is a prime factor.
GENERAL INFORMATION 205
8. Stocks For Fruir TREES
There is great variation in stocks for fruit trees, and great need of
studies to determine the best stock to use for given conditions. Some
important experimental work in this field is being done by the New
York Agricultural Experiment Station and should be watched closely.
At present, the wild French Crab furnishes most of the stocks for
apples. It comes not only from France but from all Central Europe
and is exceedingly variable. Many apple seedlings are now grown
in the United States. Dwarf apples are grown on the stock of the wild
Paradise apple, and semi-dwarf trees on stock of the Doucin apple, both
from European sources.
Pears are grown on wild French pear seedlings; Japanese and Chinese
stocks for pears are on trial. Dwarf pear trees are grown on quince roots.
The quince is commonly grown on stock of the Angers quince, a
variety which is worth little except as a stock.
The cherry is budded on stocks of the Mazzard and Mahaleb cherries.
Mazzard stock has come mainly from Europe in the past but is now
being grown extensively in this country also. In some cases seedlings of
cultivated sweet cherries are sold as Mazzard stock. This causes much
variation in the results secured. Under favorable conditions Mazzard.
stock gives a larger tree of longer life than does Mahaleb. The stock
is more susceptible to leaf spot, however, than the Mahaleb. It is
more difficult to secure a good stand of buds in the nursery. Mahaleb
roots are more hardy and will succeed under more diverse conditions
than Mazzard and are less expensive for the nurseryman to grow. In
the East, at least, growers should insist upon sweet cherries on Mazzard
roots and should expect to pay more for them. In the West, the Stock-
ton Morello is used as a dwarfing stock for cherries. Sweet cherries
on Mahaleb roots are often short-lived, and although sour cherries
grow quite satisfactorily on Mahaleb roots, recent evidence indicates
that they also will thrive better on the Mazzard stock.
The peach is grown on stocks from pits of the wild peaches of
Tennessee and the Carolinas, and from the seeds of cultivated varieties.
The former are preferred. Plum stocks are sometimes used for standard
trees to be planted on heavy land.
Myrobalan stock of European origin is used almost entirely in the
Hast for plums. In the colder sections plums are worked on the hardy
native plum species. St. Julien plum stock from France is also used
to some extent for plums, the claim being that it produces longer-lived,
hardier trees. The Marianna plum. stock is used in parts of the South.
Peach stocks are used sometimes for plums on warm sandy soils, espe-
cially for the Japanese or Salicina varieties,
206 ESTABLISHING THE ORCHARD
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Visit several leading growers. Determine:
. Nature of market served.
. Varieties grown in order of importance.
. Varieties used for fillers.
. Ages at which varieties come into commercial bearing.
. Growers’ estimate or records of production and value of
varieties.
. Source from which trees are obtained.
. Age and grade of trees purchased.
. Location of orchards with respect to soil types, elevation with
respect to surrounding area, soil and atmospheric drainage,
and direction of slope.
. Planting season.
. Method of preparation of soil.
. Planting plan and distances.
. Arrangement of labor for planting.
. Method of planting the trees.
. Are varieties set in solid blocks or alternated through the
orchard?
eo Aa oa
~AQ eo
~] 3 m™ Shs, ©,
2. Check varieties grown against recommendations of the local experi-
ment station for the region.
3. Check varieties grown from the standpoint of pollination.
4. Prepare a cost statement for establishing a 50-acre orchard includ-
ing all factors from the preparation of the field to the planting of the
trees.
CHAPTER IV
GROWTH OF THE TREE AND THE FORMING OF
FRUIT BUDS
A thorough knowledge of tree growth, including fruit spurs,
fruit and leaf buds, is necessary in order properly to spray and
prune the trees, thin the fruits, and fertilize and manage the
soil.
Procedure:
- (a) Consider different kinds of tree growth.
(6) Determine when length growth ceases.
(c) Determine when growth in thickness ceases.
(d) Study and determine the location of leaf buds, fruit buds,
and fruit spurs.
(e) Consider the fruiting habits of different fruits.
(f) Determine the time and manner of fruit-bud formation.
(a) Consider Different Kinds of Tree Growth. Growth
takes place following the dormant period in the form of: (1)
new leafy shoots over the tree; (2) blossoms and fruit forma-
tion; (3) new spurs (with such fruits as the apple, pear, cherry,
plum, etc.) ; (4) an increase in growth of the old spurs; (5) bud
formation; (6) an increase in the circumference of the limbs,
branches, roots, and trunk; (7) new root growth.
The large number of new shoots over the tree 1s the most
easily seen evidence of growth. The shoots growing from the
terminal buds are usually called terminal growths. Thus one
often hears growers remark that their trees have made as much
as 6, 10, 12, or more inches of terminal growth during a single
growing season. The number and lengths of terminal growths
207
208 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS
can be used as one measure of tree growth, although their
thickness and also the increase in the diameter of the branches,
spurs, and trunks should also be considered.
(6) Determine When Length Growth Ceases. The time at
which length growth ceases varies with the different fruits and
with several other factors. Thus it is common knowledge that
peach trees normally continue growth in length much later in
the season than apples, pears, or European plums. ‘The
length of the growing period for terminal shoots varies with
many factors such as: (1) age of tree, (2) rainfall, (3) sum-
mer heat, and (4) to some extent with pruning and soil fer-
tility.
Vigorous, young trees normally continue terminal growth
later in the season than old trees. In seasons of abnormally
heavy rainfall growth may continue much later than in years
of normal rainfall. Trees which have been pruned heavily
usually grow later in the season than lightly pruned trees.
“Heavy applications of nitrogenous fertilizers, especially if
moisture is abundant, also generally cause trees to grow much
later than usual.
The rate of terminal growth is very rapid early in the
season; it gradually slows down and finally ceases. In most
years, length growth is completed by the first to the fifteenth
of July, at least in the northeastern and central-eastern states.
(c) Determine When Growth in Thickness Ceases. Limbs,
trunks, roots, and other parts increase in thickness and may
continue such thickening for a considerable period after length
growth of shoots has ceased. As long as the bark will peel
readily, the cambium cells (the thin layer of actively growing
tissue Just inside the bark) are probably still dividing and
erowth is continuing. Branches and roots apparently increase
in thickness even after the cambium cells have ceased to
divide. :
(d) Study and Determine the Location of Leaf Buds,
Fruit Buds, and Frut Spurs. Buds on fruit trees are pro-
duced in the axils of the leaves on the sides of shoots and spurs
HABITS OF GROWTH
209
(lateral buds) and at the tips of shoots, spurs, and branches
(terminal buds).
Leaf buds are those from which a branch
or spur may grow, and are often more slender and pointed
than fruit buds. Fruit buds contain
the. unopened flowers, and often rudi-
mentary leaves as well. Fruit buds of
the peach, apricot, cherry, and plum
contain flower parts only, while those
of the apple, pear, and quince contain
both leaves and flowers.
Fruit buds are frequently borne on
very short growths or branches called
Fig. 71. Four-year-
old apple spur. This
spur fruited at A and
secondary growth from
the cluster base ex-
tended to B, terminat-
ed by a leaf bud. The
next year a straight
growth was made
which formed a ter-
minal fruit bud.
igi spurs’ ~The.
fruit spurs of ap-
ples and pears are
Hie> “70.
Blossoming
apple spur starting its
readily apparent by fourth year’s growth.
reason of their An apple has been
characteristic
borne at A.
short, crooked, and :
roughened: appearance. Fruit spurs of the
apple and pear normally make only a
short growth each year, and the same
spur generally bears fruit only in alter-
nate years. When a spur blossoms, a
thickened cluster base bearing the blos-
soms and several small leaves is formed
(Fig. 70). Five blossoms usually occur
in a cluster, though the number varies
from three to eight. New growth of the
spur then usually proceeds from a leaf
bud in the axil of one of the small leaves
on the side of this cluster base. This
side growth is usually spoken of as a
“secondary growth,” but may consist of only a small side bud.
This then explains the crooked appearance of such fruit spurs.
Usually a leaf bud is formed at the terminal of the secondary
210 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS
or side growth, especially if the blossoms “set” fruit. The
next year this leaf bud, on the secondary growth usually makes
a straight growth, and then a fruit bud which blossoms the
following spring is formed at its terminal (Fig. 71). Thus
the same spur normally bears fruit only. every other year.
Fruit thinning after the June drop then would hardly be
expected to cause fruit buds to form again on such spurs for
the next year’s crop. It will also be seen, later in the chapter,
that by the time most fruit thinning is done,
fruit-bud differentiation for the next year’s
crop is well under way. Fruit spurs generally
complete their growth in length for the year
within two weeks after blossoming, although
Increase In diameter continues over a much
longer period. |
The age of spurs can readily be ascertained
- by observing the “rings” caused by the scars
left where the bud scales have fallen off. It
is easy to determine whether the spurs have
been productive or whether they have never
oS borne by looking for the cluster bases, or for
Fic. 72. A six- sears made where the stems of fruit were re-
year-old — apple moved from the spur. See Fig. 72. To be
spur which has :
never blossomed Productive, spurs should make a fair amount
or borne fruit, Of new growth each year and have a good
supply of healthy foliage.
(e) Consider the Fruiting Habits of Different Fruits.
Apple and Pear. Much of the fruit is borne on spurs in the
apple and pear, although in certain varieties considerable
fruit is often borne laterally and terminally on one-year-old
wood. Fruit spurs are normally produced more abundantly
on certain varieties than on others.
In some apple varieties, as Oldenburg, Jonathan, Rhode
Island Greening, and Wealthy, the spurs often develop fruit
buds during the same year that the spurs are formed. Such
varieties thus bear considerable fruit each year on two-year
wy
x
HABITS OF GROWTH a4
sections of wood (or one-year spurs) even while the trees are
young (Fig. 73). |
Older bearing trees of practically all varieties, at least in
Eastern fruit regions, bear on two-year-old sections of wood
(one-year-old fruit spurs) in the heavy-crop year, but not in
the light-crop year.
Many varieties of apples such as York Imperial, Winesap,
ee Bee Biiclbe WPS mak eses Oe
Fig. 73. Young bearing trees of Oldenburg (left) and Wealthy (right).
Note that spurs of all ages including the one-year-old spurs are blossom-
ing. The lateral buds on the one-year-old shoots and the terminal buds
are also blossoming. Biennial bearing trees as York Imperial and Bald-
win usually blossom in this same way in the heavy-crop year.
Arkansas, Baldwin, Wagener, and Stayman Winesap often
form terminal and lateral fruit buds in the year when the trees
have practically no crop. Such buds blossom the following
year when the whole tree is blossoming heavily, but often do
not set fruit, especially on the lateral buds, unless the blos-
soms on the spurs fail to set. These same varieties, however,
seldom form terminal and lateral fruit buds to any extent in
the crop year.
Seats
-_
212 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS
Other apple varieties as Wealthy, Jonathan, and Olden-
burg, and pear varieties as Bartlett and Winter Nelis, at least
in New York, Maryland, and Oregon, do produce a large
Fic. 74. Peach
shoot showing
triple bud at A.
Other buds
shown are side
views so only
one of the buds
is shown at
each node.
amount of fruit each year from terminal and
axillary or lateral buds on one-year wood, par-
ticularly while the trees are young or are es-
pecially vigorous. Under such conditions fair
annual crops are produced. .
Some apple varieties, as Ben Davis, Gano,
Rome, Winter Banana, Yellow Transparent,
and Golden Delicious bear much of their first
few crops on terminal buds of the shoots unless, -
through incorrect pruning, these buds are re-
moved by “heading in” the terminal growth.
The fruit spurs of pears very closely re-
semble those of apples in growth and bearing
habit. i
Peach and Apricot. The peach and apricot
produce lateral fruit buds on the new shoots and
to some extent on short growths, which are
sometimes called spurs: In the peach most of
the crop is borne on so-called “one-year growth.”
It will be recalled that with apples much of the
fruit is borne on spurs. Of course, as pointed
out previously, the wood of apple spurs, upon
which fruit buds are borne, is also only one
year old. On the vigorous shoots of peach trees,
three buds are generally formed at nearly every
node. See Fig. 74. The two outside buds which
usually are well rounded and plump in appear-
ance are fruit buds, and the center, rather
pointed bud, as a rule, is a leaf bud. Each
bud is formed in the axil of a leaf, so that three leaves appear
to be formed at each node. As a matter of fact a close study
of the true condition will show that the two-fruit bud leaves
are really borne on very short branches in the axil of the main
FRUITING HABITS 213
larger leaf. On weaker growths, only single-fruit buds or leaf
buds may form, and this condition often occurs near the ends
of shoots of low vigor.
Apricots usually produce more fruit on so-called “spurs”
than do peaches. Each fruit bud on the peach and apricot
generally cpens into a single flower.
Plum. The plum produces fruit buds in a lateral position
on shoots and on fruit spurs. The European or Domestica, and
Insititia plums represented by such varieties as Italian prune
and Shropshire Damson, respectively, usually bear most of
their fruit on spurs. In general, the fruit buds are borne
laterally about the spur, and a leaf bud in the axil of a single
leaf is produced approximately at the spur terminal. As a
result, plum spurs generally grow straighter than spurs of
the apple. Some fruit is also borne laterally on the one-year
shoots as with the peach, but this is more common with the
Japanese plums.
With the Japanese varieties such as Abundance and Bur-
bank, fruit buds are borne laterally on both one-year shoots
and on spurs. The tips of both shoots and spurs are generally
terminated with a leaf bud. In contrast to the Domestica and
Insititia plums, these Japanese plums usually bear heavily
on the one-year shoots, like the peach. The fruit buds borne
on the shoots may be single or associated with a leaf bud, or
sometimes with a leaf bud and another fruit bud as in the
peach. Occasionally the fruit buds occur in clusters. Fruit
buds on the spurs occur either singly in the axils of the leaves
or often in lateral clusters similar to the cherry. Each fruit
bud generally produces irom one to three flowers.
Cherry. ‘The cherry produces lateral fruit buds on one-
year shoots and on spurs. Leaf buds terminate the shoots and
nearly always the spurs. As a result, growth of the spurs is
generally continued each year from their terminals, thus re-
sulting in relatively straight spurs. With sweet cherries much
of the crop is borne on spurs, although some fruit is produced
214 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS —
laterally on one-year wood. On trees making a vigorous termi-
nal growth, few lateral fruit buds are found on the one-year
growth, however, and these are generally near the base. The
spur fruit buds may occur singly around the spur, but often are
found in a whorl or cluster about the terminal leaf bud.
With sour cherries, fruit buds are freely produced on both
fruit spurs and one-year wood. On terminal growths up to 7
or 8 inches, nearly every lateral bud is a fruit bud. As a
result, sour cherries produce a great deal of fruit on one-year
wood, like the peach and Japanese plum, although the fruit
buds appear singly in the cherry. If all the lateral buds on
cherry shoots are fruit buds, no leaf buds are then available
from which new spurs can be developed, and this wood remains
bare of spurs and fruits in the future. It is thus advisable to
produce vigorous shoots on the cherry, so that some of the
lateral buds formed will be leaf buds from which fruit spurs
can develop. Trees with a good spur system generally pro-
duce more fruit and the spur buds are more resistant to cold.
Fruit buds on the spurs occur singly or in clusters. Each
fruit bud usually produces from one to three flowers.
Quince. The quince produces terminal and lateral fruit
buds on one year-wood. Growth from the fruit buds 1s some-
what different from that of the fruits previously described.
Instead of opening into a short cluster base with several blos-
soms, like the apple, the terminal fruit bud of the quince,
makes a short, leafy, growth of one to several inches, and a
single flower is then unfolded. Lateral fruit buds formed
on the shoots of the previous season’s growth may also produce
short growths and then blossom. Fruit buds for the next
year’s crop are produced terminally and laterally on short
growths, which arise from either the bearing or non-bearing
shoots. |
(f) Determine the Time and Manner of Frut-Bud Forma-
tion. Fruit buds are formed the year previous to their open-
ing. At some time during the early summer, after the buds
are formed, differentiation occurs inside of the buds which
FRUITING HABITS 215
determines whether a bud will remain a leaf bud or become a
fruit bud. With some fruits, buds may contain both leaves
and flowers.
Apple. In general, differentiation in the apple starts about
the last part of June or the first part of July, but some buds
are differentiated later in the season.
The exact time of differentiation varies somewhat with the
variety, locality, pruning and fertilizer treatment, season, and
other factors. Not all buds on the tree differentiate at the
same time. Normally spur buds are the first to differentiate,
(Virginia Exp. Station)
Fic. 75. Showing differentiation and development of flower buds of the
Oldenburg apple in Virginia. (a) June 30. (6) October 21. (c) January 6.
followed about three weeks later by the lateral buds, and
finally by the terminal buds at the ends of the shoots.
The sepals are generally the first noticeable parts to de-
velop, and these are commonly followed by the petals, stamens,
and pistils in the order named. Thus there is a gradual de-
velopment of the various parts throughout the summer, and
by the latter part of October the various parts of the flower
within the bud are quite distinct (Fig. 75). Only minor
changes occur during the winter, but the cells (pollen mother
cells), from which the pollen is eventually formed, gradually
(Virginia Exp. Station)
Fic. 76. Showing advanced stages in the development of flower buds of
the peach, plum, cherry, and pear: (a) peach bud, January 6; (b) plum
bud, January 20; (c). cherry bud, April 1; (d) pear bud, March 17. Note
that all the flower parts are developed and simply await the opening
of the buds to expand into flowers.
TREE PHYSIOLOGY 217
develop, other changes occur, and toward spring the ovary
enlarges and ovules are formed. By early spring all the
flower parts are developed and simply await the opening. of
the buds to expand into flowers.
Pear. Differentiation in the pear usually starts about te
middle of July and proceeds much the same as in the apple.
The order of differentiation of the different fruit buds is like-
wise quite similar to that of the apple.
Peach. Most investigators report that the first iotionaete
differentiation in the peach occurs in the latter part of July.
Plum and Cherry. The time of differentiation seems to
vary somewhat with the different species of plums. Thus.
varieties of the Americana species differentiate about the first
week in July, those of the Japanese plums about the second
week in July, and one variety at least of the Hortulana
syecies, the Whitaker, -a wild goose plum, showed no sign of
fruit-bud differentiation in Virginia until the first week in
September. Cherry buds seem to differentiate about the first
week in July.
Quince. In Wisconsin, observations seemed to show that
the beginning of flower parts could first be seen in the quince
during late summer or early autumn.
Summary and Conclusions Concerning Fruit-Bud Differen-
tiation. It can be seen that most fruit buds are formed nor-
mally quite early in the season. Thus it seems reasonable that
any treatments such as fertilization, pruning, and soil culture,
designed to influence tree growth and fruit-bud formation,
would be more effective if given in the spring and early
summer.
It should also be kept in mind that the fruit buds are
formed the year preceding that in which the crop is borne.
TREE PHYSIOLOGY AND NUTRITION
Fruit trees as well as other plants grow, thrive, and are pro-
ductive when adequate amounts of water, mineral or soil foods,
_ and air foods are available, provided that other environmental.
218 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING UF FRUIT BUDS
conditions are satisfactory. The plants absorb from the soil,
through the fine root hairs, the various mineral elements.
These, of course, must be dissolved in the soil water before they
can be absorbed, and are taken into the plants through the
roots. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur, iron,
and magnesium seem highly essential for most plants, but other
elements, including silicon, chlorine, sodium, manganese and
aluminum are also used. See also the reference to cases of -
boron deficiency at the close of the chapter on managing
orchard soils and fertilizing the trees, page 440.
What Elements Are Most Often Lacking in the Soil. Al-
though fruit trees do need and use for proper development
all the essential elements, experiments have shown that most
soils are supplied with sufficient available amounts of these
minerals for satisfactory tree growth and fruitfulness. Suffi-
cient nitrogen for best growth and fruiting, however, seems to
be lacking in many soils, and in such cases much better growth
and production result whenever it is added.
How Trees Inve and Function. In the leaves, and to a
small extent in other green tissue, various elaborated or di-
gested foods are formed. This process occurs in the presence
of sunlight in the green parts or chloroplasts of the leaves.
Carbon dioxide of the air enters through small breathing pores
or stomata, and is combined with water to make up certain
elaborated foods called carbohydrates (starches, sugars, etc.).
Since food and water are also combined and digested in the
stomach of a person, the leaves might be called the stomach
of the plant. With these facts in mind the great value to the
plant of having a large, green, and healthy leaf surface can
readily be seen.
The soil foods may be considered as raw ‘oon After
being taken into the plant and combined with the carbohy-
drates, or other elaborated materials formed from them, they
help to make up certain other foods. Of these foods, the carbo-
hydrates and proteins are very important. The carbohydrates,
proteins, and other materials derived from them are formed
TREE PHYSIOLOGY 219
into new tissues and are also used in strengthening other tis-
sues. Thus, in the apple, these materials are used in: (a)
making new terminal growth over the tree; (b) increasing the
diameter of the main limbs, trunks, and roots; (c) the pro-
duction of new root growth; (d) the formation of new fruit
spurs; (e) keeping the old spurs healthy; (f) the formation
of fruit buds for fruit production; and (g) developing the
individual fruits.
Carbohydrates Are ea for Frwut-Bud Formation.
The accumulation of carbohydrates in the tissues is generally
small during rapid growth, since the carbohydrates are largely
used in building and developing new tissues, if the supply of
moisture and nitrates is abundant. When rapid growth ceases,
carbohydrates accumulate and at this time, or shortly there-
after fruit buds begin to differentiate.
Ringing and Notching. Additional evidences showing the
favorable effects of carbohydrate accumulation on fruit-bud
formation is found in ringing and notching. When vigorous
young trees are ringed (a narrow ring of bark removed from
the trunk without injury to the cambium layer) in May or
early in June, such trees usually form a large number of
fruit buds for the next year’s crop, owing to the accumulation
of carbohydrates above the ring. In ringing, a section of the
tissue (phloem) through which the carbohydrates are trans-
located to the lower parts of the tree and roots is removed,
and as a result.the concentration of carbohydrates is greater
in the tops of the trees. \
Where whole trees are ringed by removing a strip of bark
around the trunk, a dwarfing of the trees often results. The
roots are cut off from their full supply of carbohydrates and
accordingly are checked in growth. This, together with the
dwarfing caused by the crop of fruit, makes the practice ques-
tionable when several years are considered.
It is probable that more satisfactory results would oceur
over a period of years if ringing were confined to one main
limb on the tree each year. By this means some fruit would
220 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS
be produced at an earlier age, and the trees would not receive
such a general check in growth.
“On the same principle as ringing, if a notch is cut in the
twig below a bud, carbohydrates accumulate above the bud,
and a fruit bud generally forms. A notch cut above a bud,
thus decreasing carbohydrate accumulation and increasing
the supply of nitrogen in the bud, will force out a shoot from
that bud.
Removal of Leaves Decreases the Carbohydrate Supply
and Reduces Growth. In case of such removal fruit-bud
formation is also decreased, or, if differentiation has already
occurred before the defoliation, the development of the buds is
delayed, and they are often weakened. The removal of leaves
from a spur or from a lateral bud usually prevents the forma-
tion of fruit buds at these places. Thus each bud or spur is
more or less dependent for its carbohydrates upon its own
leaves. No doubt there is some translocation of food ma-
terials, however, from one region to another in a shoot or
branch. It is known, for instance, that apples will develop
normally even though there are no leaves immediately adja-
cent to them.
By Addition of Nitrogen, Tree Growth and Frut-Bud Pro-
duction Are Often Greatly Increased. In many orchards in
which growth has been checked by the lack of nitrogen, even
though an accumulation of carbohydrates has resulted, fruit-
fulness has not prevailed. Under such conditions remarkable
results are secured in growth and fruitfulness from the appli-
cation of nitrogenous fertilizers. When nitrates become avail-
able, the stored carbohydrates are utilized, new growth results
throughout the tree, the foliage becomes larger and greener,
and large numbers of fruit buds are usually formed.
Great Importance of Water in Tree Growth and Successful
Fruit Growing Cannot Be Overemphasized. The absolute de-
pendence of the tree’s welfare on water can readily be seen
from the fact that all soil nutrients must first be dissolved in
water before they can be taken into the plant. These soil
TREE PHYSIOLOGY 22
nutrients, however, do not flow into the plant in a water
stream, but their intake depends upon their solubility and
their relative concentration within and without the plant.
Whenever their concentration is higher in the soil solution,
they diffuse into the plant. If it were not for water, these
foods would not be transported up through the plant. Water,
again, is necessary in the formation of the carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, etc., and their translocation down from the
leaves to all parts of the branches, fruit, trunk, and roots.
Large amounts of water are likewise transpired daily. About
500 pounds of water are transpired for each pound of dry mat-
ter produced, and fruits contain from 85 to 90 pereent. water.
Such troubles as cracking of fruit, water core, fruit pit, cork,
drought spot, and die-back are all exaggerated by improper
water relations. Each vigorous, mature apple tree uses from
15 to 20 tons of water per year when it is making a good
erowth and producing a good crop.
On the other hand, it is possible to have too much soil mois-
ture available for good tree growth and fruitfulness; then trees
‘suffer from what is commonly known as ‘‘wet feet.” Orchards:
planted in ground that remains wet during most of the year,
especially if the water table is close to the surface, grow and.
fruit very poorly, and are easily imjured by cold weather.
Such soils are poorly aerated and do not warm up, bacterial
action in the soil is practically prevented, and the roots of
fruit trees either make very little growth or die. Of course
orchards should not be planted under such conditions, but
they are occasionally found. If the conditions are not too
hopeless, thorough soil drainage will produce wonderful results.
Relation of Amounts of Carbohydrates and Nitrogen. Not
only are the amounts of carbohydrates and nitrogen important
In influencing growth and fruitfulness, but the relative propor-
tions of these in the plant seem to be very important.
In general, plants may be grouped into four classes, de-
pending upon their growth and fruitfulness, and the proportion
of carbohydrates and nitrogen in their tissues.
222 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS
The four classes are as follows:
Class I. If the supply of moisture and nitrogen is abun-
dant, but that of carbohydrates is restricted, growth will be
weak, slender, and feeble, and there will be little or no pro-
duction of flowers. Although this condition is not common in
orchards, it might occur if trees were defoliated yearly by in-
sects, diseases, or spray material. Trees pruned heavily in the
summer would probably fall into this group also.
Class IT. If the supply of moisture and nitrogen is abun-
dant, and there are sufficient carbohydrates to utilize this nitro-
gen supply, a strong, vigorous wood and leaf growth results,
but still very few fruit buds are formed. The carbohydrates
are used in growth, leaving no surplus for fruit-bud formation. —
This condition is well illustrated by vigorous, rather heavily
pruned young orchards, which continue to grow vigorously, on
rich, moist, fertile, cultivated soils, but do not come into
bearing.
Bearing apple trees which have been too heavily pruned and
headed back in the dormant season usually fall into this class
for two or three years after the pruning. The carbohydrates
stored in the limbs, spurs, etc., are cut away in the pruning,
resulting in an unusually large supply of nitrogen and water
for those buds which remain. The removal of so many buds
also reduces greatly the amount of growth and leaves which
normally would have been produced. ‘Thus, less carbohy-
drates would be made and stored. |
Class III. If the moisture and nitrogen supply is ample,
and there is an excess of carbohydrates over and above the
amounts utilized with the nitrogen, there is net only a good
growth of tree, but also an abundant supply of fruit buds.
This is the condition found in healthy, producing orchards.
Class IV. If there is a deficiency of nitrogen and an abun-
dance of carbohydrates, an extremely weak growth, yellowish
foliage, with either few flowers produced or else a production
of flowers too weak to set fruit results. This is the condition
usually found in so-called “starved” or “devitalized orchards.”
7
COMMUNITY STUDIES 223
Old orchards growing under sod conditions, without fertiliza-
tion, are often in this class.
If we were to represent these conditions graphically, illus-
trating the amounts and relations of carbohydrates and ni-
trates by sizes of letters, the chart would look as follows:
Class I. N Poor growth. Small amount of fruit.
Class II. 2 Rank growth. Small amount of fruit.
Class III. e Fair growth. Good fruiting.
Class IV. C Poor growth. Smal] amount of fruit.
It can thus be seen that both carbohydrates and nitrogen
are very important for tree growth and fruit production. An
accumulation of carbohydrates alone, if caused by a lack of
nitrogen or some other limiting factor, would probably not
cause either growth or fruit-bud formation. A supply of nitro-
gen would then be necessary in order to have the carbohy-
drates utilized. Likewise a large supply or accumulation of
nitrogen would not cause growth and fruiting in the absence
of an adequate supply of carbohydrates. Such common orchard
operations as pruning, fertilization, and soil management
should therefore be considered in relation to their effect on
the carbohydrate and nitrogen supply of fruit trees, before
deciding upon any definite practices.
COMMUNITY STUDIES .
1. Inspect several different kinds of fruit trees in your community.
Determine:
(a) Where the fruit buds are formed.
(b) Where the leaf buds are formed.
(c) The average length of terminal growth.
(d) Whether fruit spurs are present.
224 GROWTH OF TREES AND FORMING OF FRUIT BUDS
2. Study a fruit spur. Determine:
(a) Its age.
-(b) How many times it has borne.
(c) The length of growth made each year.
3. Examine an apple tree. Determine:
(a) What percentage of the spurs have never borne any fruit.
(b) What percentage of the spurs are bearing fruit this year.
4, Examine different varieties of apple trees. Determine:
(a) Whether fruit is being borne, (6) terminally on shoots, (c) lat-
erally, or (d) terminally on spurs.
5. How old must a spur be before it will form fruit buds? |
6. Determine at what time of year terminal growth in length ceases.
Determine the same for fruit spurs. |
7. Ring some five-year-old apple trees, and see if they blossom any
sooner than trees which are not so treated.
- 8. Put some nitrate of soda around an old, unproductive apple tree
and determine its effect on:
{a) Color of foliage.
(b) Length of terminal growth.
(c) Length of fruit spur growth.
(dq) Amount of fruit buds formed.
9. Explain the results secured in Studies 7 and 8 from a carbohydrate
and nitrogen relationship within the plant.
CHAPTER V
PRUNING
A certain amount of pruning is desirable with all fruit trees.
The amount of pruning required varies with the kinds of
fruit, their age, fruiting habits, and other factors such as soil
management and fertilization.
Operations:
1. Deciding when the pruning should be done.
2. Determining how heavily the trees should be pruned.
3. Selecting the pruning tools.
4, Pruning the different tree fruits.
5. Determining pruning costs.
1. Deciding When the Pruning Should be Done. Experi-
ments show that pruning may well be done at any time from
leaf fall in the autumn until the buds start to grow in the
spring. In some sections where the winters are unusually
. cold, if there is danger of winter injury to the fresh pruning
wounds, it would be well, especially with peaches and other
stone fruits, to wait until spring before doing the pruning.
In general, 1f one had only a few trees to prune and plenty of
help, the work might well be left until spring; otherwise
pruning should start in the fall or winter. Wounds made just
as growth is starting in the spring heal a little more quickly,
but this would not be of enough importance to delay the
pruning if there is much of it to do. Careful pruning ex-
periments in this and other countries have shown, however,
that, as a general rule, dormant pruning over a period of
years has been more satisfactory, when measured by tree
growth and fruit yields, than summer pruning. Young trees
given approximately the same kind and amount of pruning
225
226 PRUNING
in the summer as that given to similar trees in the winter
have generally produced less new growth and slightly smaller
trunks and root systems and have not borne any earlier or
larger crops. As a matter of fact, in most of the experiments
recorded, the yields from the summer-pruned trees have been
less. |
Certain types of summer pruning may occasionally be
desirable. The pinching out of undesirable shoots just after
srowth starts in newly planted trees may be of advantage in
forming a proper framework in young trees. Water sprouts
or suckers in old trees may well be rubbed off in early spring.
Young trees which appear to be quite dense usually “open
up” well when their first crops are borne. It may be de-
sirable to head back an occasicnal limb on a young tree during
the summer simply to maintain a better-shaped tree.
2. Determining How Heavily the Trees Should Be Pruned.
Although the general principles underlying pruning hold for
trees of all ages, old bearing trees generally require heavier
pruning than young non-bearing trees. Accordingly, it is
well to consider separately the pruning of young and of old
trees.
Procedure:
(a) Prune young non-bearing trees lightly.
(6) Prune young bearing trees lightly.
(c) Prune old bearing trees more heavily.
(a) Prune Young Non-Bearing Trees Lightly. The best
results are usually secured by pruning young trees lightly.
Experiments in this and other countries have shown that with
young trees pruning is a dwarfing process. Such trees pruned
heavily each year have smaller trunks and smaller main
branches, make less total top and root growth, have fewer
fruit spurs, come into bearing later, and bear smaller crops,
at least for the first few years, than trees pruned lightly.
This is illustrated by Table 36 from Michigan Extension
Bulletin 148.
HOW HEAVILY TREES SHOULD BE PRUNED 227
TABLE 36
EFrect oF SEVERITY OF PRUNING ON SIZE AND YIELD OF APPLE TREES
Growth measurements made at 9 years from planting.
Yields are totals per tree for the 9-year period.
Average Size of Trees
: : Yield
Variety and Pruning Treatment staat Tree "Pees: | Dex Tree
forcnae Spread: | Height
inches feet feet bushels
Duchess (Oldenburg):
WIT re oie Wee ake wets ae 14.2 13.8 16.3 2.9
Pai tie ge alain wa aie 137 13.3 17.0 by
EIRGR A 2 Ge ae eee 1252 11.4 15.5 1.1
Grimes:
Lo GIS ee ea pa a oar 15.3 15.3 16.8 4.4
Merete as eh ose overage, s aoe 2 15.1 14.8 16.4 4.9
Lo BBN oc ok Re AOE Rn mr aap ara 15.6 16.3 16.0 3.1
Baldwin
LMG Oe 2 eed er cae aan a aay 17.6 15.6 1.8
Me oe ee Ss eke Seine 17.6 16.5 16.2 0.5
ISA ee yh ho bel hth 16.7 15.4 14.6 0.4
Stayman
A 2h ca dle pgice abies 4 ek Tbs 8 20.9 17.4 Sik
VLA ELI ES go OOS Oe are een 16.4 19.7 17.2 2.8
I 7) Sa ee er 15.0 18.5 16.5 1.8
Northern Spy:
Vari O20 SR eee 17.3 14.9 17.9 0
171) a 15.7 12.4 16.6 0
ae Se oe re 14.1 11.4 15.4 0
Average of all varieties:
PROT eas) Lie ya's Zisiis wlela’ s)uior 16.3 16.5 16.8 2.6
epee 5 ie machi ekein SU pores Ba 15.7 15.3 16.7 2.0
MR cal Gore a te uch einyere. geet sin oie 14.7 14.6 15.6 1.3
228 PRUNING
Pruning, by causing a decrease in leaf area, dwarfs the
tree and reduces fruiting. When some of the branches of a
tree are removed by “thinning out” and those remaining are
“headed back,” a large number of buds which might otherwise
grow are removed. This means that the leaf area of the tree
is reduced in proportion to the severity of the pruning.
With the leaf area reduced, the amount of carbohydrates
and other foods formed is greatly reduced also, and since these
are the materials which cause top and root growth and fruit-
bud formation, as explained in Chapter IV, it is apparent why
heavy pruning would dwarf the trees and decrease fruit pro-
duction.
With the reduced root growth resulting from the pruning,
less top growth would be produced each year in the heavily
pruned trees, and thus the dwarfing, in comparison to the lighter
pruned trees, would be more pronounced each year as the prun-
ing continued, at least until the lightly pruned trees were
bearing heavily. :
In spite of all this, pruning is an essential orchard prac-
tice. The tree cannot be permitted to grow at will. A strong
framework is necessary to carry future crops. Fundamental
weaknesses are best corrected while the tree is small. The
emphasis, therefore, should be on pruning as little as possible in
keeping with known objectives and especially before the tree
has begun to bear. | |
(6) Prune Young Bearing Trees Inghtly. More wood
erowth and fruit are produced, for the same reason as de-
scribed in the preceding section, 1f young bearing trees are
given light rather than heavy pruning. Although the tops
of lightly pruned trees may appear a little thick, while bear-
ing the first few crops, nevertheless the trees usually develop
faster and produce heavier crops than trees pruned more
heavily. On young bearing trees the fruit usually is of good
size and color, even though the trees are lightly pruned.
The amount of pruning may well be increased after two or
three commercial crops have been borne.
HOW HEAVILY TREES SHOULD BE PRUNED 229
(c) Prune Old Bearing Trees More Heavily. Old bearing
trees somewhat low in vigor generally respond better to moder-
ately heavy pruning than to light pruning. The tops of such
trees gradually become filled with numerous branches which
are thickly set with old and weak spurs. Relatively little
new spur or terminal growth occurs, and the leaves are often
small and yellowish in appearance. The buds on the spurs
open into a whorl of leaves each year, but very little extension
erowth is made. The wood of such trees gradually becomes
packed with carbohydrates in proportion to nitrates, and
such trees approach the non-vegetative and unfruitful class
described in Chapter IV. Either many of the fruit spurs
cease forming fruit buds, or, 1f buds are formed, many of
the blossoms fail to set.
With such trees, moderately heavy pruning or much heavier
applications of nitrogen fertilizers have a decidedly invigorat-
ing effect. If larger amounts of fertilizers are not added,
heavy pruning will be especially beneficial. The pruning
should consist primarily of making numerous small cuts
equally distributed over the entire tree, so that all parts will
be invigorated. The lower limbs, especially, should: be well
thinned out and in some trees it will pay to head back hghtly
an occasional slender, weak limb to an upward growing
branch. An attempt should be made to keep these lower
limbs growing and fruiting as well as those in the upper
parts of the tree. The ends of the upper branches, where they
are getting too high, should also be headed back to good
laterals. This will tend to lower the tops and stimulate
growth in the lower as well as upper branches.
As a result of removing numerous small branches contain-
ing large numbers of spurs and buds, the amount of carbohy-
drates will be reduced and more water and nitrates will be
made available for each of the buds left. Terminal growth
becomes longer, and those spurs which remain, including many
which have not borne for years, make a longer growth, have:
larger and greener leaves, and form fruit buds.
230 PRUNING
Regular annual pruning should be practiced, in order to
keep the trees open so that efficient spraying can be done,
so that sunlight can reach all parts of the trees to assist in
carbohydrate manufacture and the coloring of fruit, so that
limb rub of fruit will be reduced, good growth assured in all
parts of the tree, good size of fruit maintained, and so that
the tops of the trees will not get too high.
3. Selecting the Pruning Tools. The kinds of pruning
tools used vary in the different sections of the country. The
tools most commonly found are saws, knives, hand shears,
long-handled shears, and pole pruners.
Saws. In the West the swivel blade or meat saw type of
saw, Fig. 77, C, D, E, is used to a great extent but it has never
been universally adopted. In the East, many growers use a
straight-bladed saw which is somewhat similar to a carpenter’s
saw but not so wide at the butt, with fewer points or teeth,
Fig. 77, G, H, I. <A satisfactory saw for general pruning is
one about 2 feet long, 1 inch wide at the tip, and 4 inches wide
at the butt, containing 6 to 7 teeth per inch. It should have a
handle large enough to accommodate the entire hand with
gloves on. Sueh a saw can be used even in narrow crotches and
will be satisfactory for both small and large limbs. [If it is
necessary to make many large cuts, as often happens when
renovating an old orchard, it will pay to have a forester’s
type of saw, which is heavier and has fewer and larger teeth.
Such a saw cuts through the large limbs more easily and
saves the energy of the man who is doing the sawing. The
crescent-shaped type of saw, which cuts when the saw is pulled
(Fig. 77F), is especially satisfactory for branches of medium
size or where there is little room in which to use a saw. A
two-edged saw should never be used in the orchard, as it is
bound to cause injury to the bark. Shorter and narrower
saws with pointed ends may be of value in young trees.
Frequently, however, one can do as good a job and a much
quicker one with a pair of hand shears.
Knives and Pruning Shears. For small trees, a heavy
SELECTING THE PRUNING TOOLS 231
pruning knife with a long hooked blade is often used. A
good, strong pair of pruning shears is indispensable, however,
_ In pruning young trees (Fig. 77A). Most of the pruning with
all fruits can be done for several years with such shears.
Do not buy cheap shears, which are easily strained and
Fic. 77. Pruning tools used in the orchard. (A) Hand shears; (B) long-
handled shears or “two-foots”; (C', D, and £) different patterns of swivel-
bladed saws, popular in some regions but unpopular in others; (/) small
type of pruning saw liked by many growers—the teeth slant toward the
handle and cut when the saw is pulled; (G) straight-bladed saw, narrow
at the point and not very wide at the handle—well liked by many
growers; (H) ordinary carpenter’s saw, not especially desirable; (J) car-
penter’s type of saw but made with larger, longer, and heavier teeth,
especially valuable because of ease with which large limbs can be re-
moved. A forester’s saw, not shown in the illustration, is desirable, if
many large branches are to be removed.
dulled; select those of good weight, containing the best steel
blades.
Long-Handled Shears. Long-handled shears, commonly
called “two foots” because the handles are about 2 feet in
length, are of great value especially in peach and plum '
orchards. Much of the pruning can be done with such shears
in all bearing orchards. Generally speaking the single-acting —
232 PRUNING
shears with wooden handles are not so satisfactory or power-
ful as the double-acting shears (Fig. 77B). There are, how-
ever, some very powerful, single-acting shears with steel han-
dles and wood hand-grips that give excellent service. Many
large limbs can be removed without the need of a saw and
the work can be done as well and more quickly. The blade
should be kept sharp and riveted down to make a clean,
smooth cut.
Pole Pruners. Pole Pruners have only a limited use in
orchard pruning. For ordinary cuts, which can easily be
made with any of the tools already mentioned, pole pruners
should never be used. They are awkward to handle, and it is
difficult to make a close, smooth cut with them. Only when
it seems desirable on young bearing trees to head back the
centers of certain of the main limbs which cannot be reached
from the ground are pole pruners of much value to the
orchardist. In such eases they may be the most economical
pruning tool that can be used. They should combine light
weight and mechanical strength. Unless used carefully, the
cutting blade becomes strained, or broken, causing much
annoyance and loss of time.
4, Pruning the Different Tree Fruits. Since the amount
and kind of pruning vary somewhat with the different tree
fruits, it is necessary to consider the pruning of each kind
separately. | 3
Tue APPLE
(a) The Tops of Young Trees Should Be Pruned at
Planting Time. When nursery trees are dug, many of the roots
are broken or cut off and left in the ground. Because of this
greatly decreased root system, it will usually pay to prune
the trees moderately after they are set. This will reduce the
early leaf area in the spring and make it more nearly possible
for the greatly diminished root system to supply sufficient
water and mineral nutrients for satisfactory growth.
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 233
If one-year-old whips are planted, head
them back to the height desired. Under most
conditions 24 to 36 inches is a satisfactory
height, but if the trees are to be pruned by
the budding or pinching-out method as de-
scribed under peach pruning, the whips
should be left about 50 inches high. On well-
branched two-year-old trees, all branches
which are not desirable for framework
branches should be removed and the others
should be cut back, the amount depending
to some extent upon the growth that they
have made. Such branches should be left
at least 16 to 18 inches long if possible, so
as to allow plenty of room for secondary
branches to grow and not be too close to
‘the trunk. A higher percentage of the trees
which are headed back usually live the first
year, especially if it happens to be a dry
season, because the roots have an oppor-
tunity to make some growth before much
leaf area is expanded. Unless conditions
are very satisfactory for rapid root growth
and for low transpiration, limbs which are
not headed back usually leaf out but make
very little extension growth.
The principle of dwarfing certain limbs
by heavier cutting is often employed in train-
ing young trees. If two branches of prac-
tically equal size are so arranged as to form
a bad crotch, which eventually might split
if both were allowed to grow equally, one
limb, by heavy pruning, can be dwarfed and
made a side branch of the other (Fig. 79). In
Fic. 78. This apple
tree has been headed
high enough so that
well-spaced scaffold
limbs can be se-
lected by the debud-
ding method soon
after growth starts.
this way a much stronger framework can be built. Likewise,
if it is desired merely to suppress a branch for a few years
234 PRUNING
before removing it, this can be done by pruning it back
more severely. A limb on a young tree can also be dwarfed
(Cornell Exp. Station)
Fic. 79. Unequal cutting corrects a weak crotch.
At the left is a crotch which had two branches
of equal size and length. One branch has been
cut heavily in order to dwarf it in relation to
the other. At the right, the results of pruning
one branch heavily can be seen. One branch
was headed back heavily three years ago as
indicated by the arrow. Note that it has now
become a side branch of the other and that
there is little danger from splitting with a
load of fruit.
or checked in comparison to others by simply thining out
some of its lateral branches, thus reducing the leaf area
rather severely.
(6) A Low-Headed Tree Is Advisable. ‘The region on
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 235
the trunk of the tree where most of the main framework
branches start is spoken of as the “head” of the tree. It is
well to remember that the “head” of a tree does not grow
higher from the ground as the tree gets older. In fact, as
the main limbs increase in diameter, the lower surfaces of the
limbs become somewhat closer to the ground—the center of
the branch remains at the original distance and the upper
part of the branch is somewhat farther away. Thus limbs
5 feet from the ground on old trees were at the same height,
if measured from the center of the branches, when the trees
were young.
A few years ago trees were often headed high—5 or 6 feet
from the ground. It was felt that the ground under such
trees could be cultivated more thoroughly and more easily.
In recent years, however, trees are being headed much lower—
20 to 36 inches. Such trees attain large size earlier than high-
headed trees which must be pruned heavily during the first
two or three years in order to produce a high head. All lower
limbs in high-headed trees have to be removed from the
central stem until a height of 5 or 6 feet is reached, and this
is a dwarfing process. It is evident also that lower-headed trees
can be pruned and sprayed, and the fruit thinned and picked,
much more easily and cheaply. Cultivating tools with ex-
tension sides now permit the orchardist to work the ground
satisfactorily and conveniently under the branches. Low-
headed trees are subjected to less whipping about and bending
by the winds.
(c) The “Modified Leader” Form of Tree Is Recommended.
Apple trees are usually trained to some general form or shape,
such as open head or vase form, center leader, or modified
center leader. The form to which a tree is trained is not so
important, however, as the question of how much and when to
prune. Trees pruned properly by any of the methods will
grow and fruit well.
In the open-head form, the central shoot or leader is re-
moved after one year’s growth, if one-year-old trees are used,
236 PRUNING
or at planting time with two-year trees, and three to five
limbs, spaced as far apart as possible on the trunk, are left.
to form the head of the tree (Fig. 80a). Advocates of this
method claim that it is superior because it allows more sun-
light to enter the tree and because the tree does not become so
tall as trees trained by the center-leader method. As a matter
of fact, the tops and centers of open-headed trees will become:
quite thick if considerable pruning is not done. The main
TAP
Fic. 80. (a) Four-year-old Williams apple tree pruned by the open-
head system. There has been practically no heading back. (6) A tree
of the same variety and age in the same orchard but pruned by the
two-story center leader system. No heading back has been practiced in.
this tree either. This tree will probably make a stronger one than the
tree shown in (a).
disadvantage of this method, however, is the fact that all the
main framework limbs, which are usually equal in size, com=
monly grow out very close to one another on the trunk.
Weak crotches, which tend to split when heavy crops are borne,
often result. |
When the center-leader form of tree 1s used, the center stem
is not removed. Each year additional side branches are
trained from the center stem, which is always pruned less
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS
(Mich. State College)
Fic. 81. An apple tree that has grown two years according to the modi-
fied leader system, before and after pruning. Note that, in addition to
removal of some shoots, the upper right fork has been cut back to make
the left fork dominant and thus avoid a bad crotch.
238 PRUNING
severely than the other branches (Fig. 80b). These branches,
being better spaced and coming out at a wider angle than
those of the open-headed tree, are less liable to split out when
crops are borne. Such trees, however, tend to become quite
thick and to continue upward growth. Unless special atten-
tion is given to these matters, the trees become very high and
the fruit poor in color.
The modified-leader
form affords the advantages
of the other two systems,
with few if any of their dis-
advantages. In this system,
the center or top limb is
left for 3 or 4 years before
it is headed to an outward
growing branch. Thus a
leader 4 or 5 feet in length
is the result. Plenty of
well-spaced limbs coming
out at wide angles from the
trunk can be selected to
form the main framework
of the tree (Fig. 81). This
results generally in a much
m = stronger tree than the open-
(Mich. State College) headed type (Fig. 82).
Fic. 82. There is an excellent distri- Some growers who train
bution of branches in this six-year-old tpoir trees according to
eRe the modified-leader sys-
tem remove all undesir-
able shoots from one-year-old trees a snort time after
growth starts. This method is explained later under peach
pruning. 3
It should always be remembered that each variety of
apples has a characteristic growth, and that as a result, certain
varieties may be more easily trained to a certain form than
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 239
others. In fact it will not be wise to attempt to make all
varieties conform to one ideal in shape. One can work to-
ward the ideal in a general way with all varieties, but to be
exacting might cause so much pruning as to be uneconomical.
Very often corrective pruning can improve the shape of
the tree (Fig. 81).
(d) In Training and Pruning Young Trees, Do as Little
Cutting as Possible Consistent with Building a Strong, Well-
Formed Tree. It is apparent from the preceding paragraphs
that any pruning given the young tree will cause dwarfing
Fig. 83. (a) Lightly pruned five-year-old Stayman Winesap orchard in
West Virginia bearing a crop of fruit. (b) A six-year-old McIntosh tree
which has been pruned heavily each year since planting. Such pruning
dwarfs the tree, reduces fruit spur formation, and seriously delays
bearing.
and will delay and decrease production (Fig. 83).. How-
ever, a certain amount of pruning is necessary in order to
insure a strong and well-formed tree, even if some dwarfing
does occur. Thus in forming the main head of the tree,
branches which will always be undesirable should be removed
at once. Limbs coming out below the head should be re-
moved. Two limbs should not be allowed to parallel each other
closely, since each will partly shade the other. The least
desirable should be removed, at least before too much crowd-
240 PRUNING
ing occurs, The main framework branches should be well
spaced (from 8 to 10 inches or more apart) about the trunk,
and those forming wide angles with the trunk should be
selected (Fig. 84). |
Five to seven branches may be left to form the head of the
tree if the modified-center-leader system is used. The frame-
work branches may be spaced over a distance of 4 to 5 feet.
(Mich. State College)
Fic, 84. The result of permitting three branches of equal size to arise
from a single point.
Often only two or three of these and the center leader are
selected after the first year’s growth. ‘The remainder are
secured in the course of the next two or three years. As pre-
viously indicated, the leader can be directed out into a side
branch at any time by cutting back to an outward-growing
branch.
The main framework branches should be headed back.
during the first two or three years, if they are making long
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 241
growths. No definite amounts of heading back, such as 10
per cent or 20 per cent, can be recommended. If the branches
- are making a length growth of more than 2 feet, it will prob-
ably pay to head back to this length. This will insure the
formation of new secondary branches low enough to prevent
the tree from becoming too “willowy” or “leggy.” If the
limbs are headed too severely, serious crowding of the second-
ary branches will result.
Secondary branches which are selected for continuing the
framework of the tree each year should not be shortened
back equally, if heading back is practiced. When such
branches originate close together, bad crotches will occur as
previously described if one is not dwarfed by reducing the
leaf area through heavier cutting.
As a whole, thinning out lightly should be practiced in
preference to heading back, unless the shoots are unusually
vigorous. It should be remembered, however, that the more
severely a tree is cut back, the longer will be the growths
of the resulting shoots, which may mean heavier pruning
again the next year. 7 |
It is not advisable to thin out non-bearing or young trees
severely. Although the trees may look better to some people
if all growths on the insides of the main limbs are removed,
such pruning will remove large number of leaves which,
unless under badly shaded conditions, would contribute greatly
to the growth and fruiting of the tree. It should be remembered
that each branch with its leaves adds to the tree’s food prob-
ably much more than it uses. As a result, the longer such
branches can be-left, suppressing them with pruning if neces-
sary, before finally removing them, the sooner the tree will
attain large size and profitable bearing (Fig. 85).
Pruning Young and Old Bearing Apple Trees. This sub-
ject has already been treated on pages 226 and 229.
Rejuvenation Pruning of Apple Trees. It will often pay
to attempt to rejuvenate old orchards even though they may
have been neglected for several years, if the orchard is located
242 PRUNING
on good soil with good air and soil drainage, with few missing
trees, with desirable varieties, and if the trees are not mere
skeletons from heartwood decay.
In addition to spraying, fertilization, and proper soil
(Mich. State College)
Fic. 85. The type of young bearing apple tree for which the grower
| should strive.
management, pruning is an important factor in the rejuvena-
tion of such orchards. As a rule, the trees are quite tall, with
very little fruiting wood except at the ends of long, polelike
branches. Many dead limbs and stubs are in evidence. [f the
\
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 243
trees are too close together, part of them, usually alternate
trees, should be removed. One of the first things to do in
pruning is to remove all dead limbs. Cut them off close to the
limbs from which they are growing, or close to the trunk if
they are attached directly to it. If the main scaffold limbs
are too numerous remove some of them. The tops of the trees
will usually need lowering, if vigorous fruiting wood is to be
produced where it can be pruned and the crops thinned,
sprayed, and picked efficiently. In such cases head back to
side branches. It is not necessary or desirable to head back
more than 5 to 10 feet the first season.
All branches left should be thoroughly thinned out by
making many small cuts to reduce competition and to admit
sunlight to all parts.
As a result of such severe pruning, water sprouts or
“suckers” will probably grow in considerable numbers. Where
limbs are needed, the most vigorous of these sprouts can be
- saved, and shortened back the following year. It is surprising
how quickly they will develop, complete the symmetry of the
tree, and bear fruit. |
In removing large limbs, it is advisable first to saw up
from the under side of such limbs. They can then be sawed
through from above so that splitting and tearing of the wood
and bark will not result when the limbs fall.
With fertilization, pruning, spraying, and proper soil man-
agement, such orchards can often be completely reclaimed.
Future pruning should be as indicated for bearing trees.
Protecting Pruning Wounds. It seems unnecessary to
paint wounds smaller than 2 inches in diameter, as they heal
quickly.
When large limbs are removed, the wound should be pro-
tected from disease organisms, sun, wind, and rain by cover-
ing with some suitable material. Coal-tar preparations, as-
phaltum mixtures, grafting wax, zinc paint, water glass, white
lead, and various other materials are used. All these mate-
rials, except grafting wax and possibly the water glass (sodium
244 PRUNING
silicate), injure the cambium to some extent. As a result,
delay painting the wounds for a year until the cambium is
protected by bark, unless wood-decaying organisms are serious.
White lead is a satisfactory covering, but many others are
being used successfully.
Tue PEAR
The pear is so similar in fruiting habit to the apple that
many of the recommendations given in reference to pruning
the apple can be adopted.
(a) The Pear Is Trained Either by the Pyramidal, Open,
Modified-Leader, or Natural Form. In many sections the
pyramidal or center-leader form of tree is used. The open-
headed or vase form seems to have preference in the large
pear-growing regions of the West, since it is easier to control
pear blight in trees pruned by this method. Compared to
the pyramidal form the trees pruned to the open-headed form
have fewer main branches, are not quite so thick as a result,
and consequently blight can be seen and controlled more
easily. It is also easier to keep blight from becoming estab-
lished in the main limbs and trunk when the center leader
is removed. In the more open trees any blighted spurs on
the lower limbs can be seen and removed immediately, and
thus infection at these places can be checked.
The modified-leader type of tree combines many of the
advantages of the other two systems and may well be used
in many sections. Trees allowed to assume a natural form,
no definite effort being made to force them into any one
system, often are very satisfactory.
(b) Young, Non-Bearing Trees Should Be Pruned Lightly.
What has been said relative to pruning young apple trees
applies, for the most part, to the pruning of young pear trees.
If the main branches make too long a growth (more than
30 to 36 inches) during the season, they should be shortened
back, since pear branches are inclined to break off (generally
above the crotch) more than apples. Some growers prune the
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 245
young trees quite heavily each year in an effort to prevent this
breaking of limbs, but such trees become dwarfed and are late
in coming into bearing. Many growers prune very little, how-
ever, in order to get a tree large enough to bear commercial
crops as soon as possible. In such cases several crops might
be secured before a really serious blight year is encountered.
Figure 86 shows a three-year-old pear tree before and after
pruning.
With pear varieties that are very upright growers, it will
pay to cut back to outside buds or branches when heading is
practiced, in order to encourage a more spreading shape.
(c) Bearing Trees Respond Well to a Heavier Type of
Pruning. The “set” of fruit, especially with some varieties
as Bartlett and Anjou, is often increased considerably by prac-
ticing heavier pruning after the trees have come into com-
mercial bearing. Size of fruit, likewise, is often benefited.
It is well to remove the fruit spurs on the lower parts of the
limbs near the trunk, if they have not previously been re-
moved, in order to prevent the entrance of pear blight at these
points. A certain amount of thinning out and some heading
back to outward growing laterals will usually be beneficial.
With old and high pear trees making a very short growth,
and with numerous weak fruit spurs, a thorough thinning out
of many of the small branches and a moderate heading back of
the main limbs are desirable. The spurs on such old trees
normally make only a weak growth each year, blossom ir-
regularly, and often set. very little fruit. A thorough pruning,
by eliminating many of the spurs and buds while the roots
remain the same, results in more water and nutrients being
available to the remaining buds. As a result, terminal growth
is greater, new spurs are formed, tne old spurs make a better
growth, the leaves about each spur become larger and greener,
fruit buds are formed, and more fruit is produced. No doubt
better cultural and fertilizer practices will also be beneficial,
but with these old trees great benefits are derived from a
thorough pruning. ;
246 PRUNING
NAN iy
(Mich. State College)
Fic. 86. A three-year-old pear tree before and after pruning. A lateral
threatening the supremacy of the leader has been checked, and an
attempt has been made to spread the tree by cutting to outward-
growing laterals.
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 247,
Tue PEACH
The fruit of the peach is borne on the previous season’s
growth, or one-year wood. Usually this bearing wood consists
of terminal and lateral shoots which are produced over the
outer surface of the tree, but occasionally these shoots or
twigs are quite short, especially if the trees lack vigor. Such
growths are often called spurs, although they are not the
same as the spurs of the apple and pear.
The sooner a tree of large proportions can be grown, the
sooner it will come into profitable bearing. It can thus be
seen that the less pruning that can be done consistent with
forming a strong well-shaped tree, the better. :
(a) At Transplanting Time the Young Trees Should Be
Headed Back. Well-matured trees of medium to large size
are desirable for planting. The usual practice in most sec-
tions is to cut back these ‘‘whips,” leaving them from 18 to 22
inches high. This allows for a low-headed tree and still leaves
room for working the soil and combating borers. If no buds
or limbs are present below this height, then the trees should
be headed higher. If the buds below this region have grown
out into weak branches in the nursery, these branches should
be cut back to stubs of one bud. New limbs will grow either
from dormant buds at the base of these stubs or from the
buds left on the stubs. If the tree as it comes from the
nursery has numerous strong, well-matured, and well-spaced
branches—which is not usual—these can be thinned out, three
or four being left and shortened back moderately.
A promising method of pruning after transplanting is in-
dicated later in this section.
(b) After the First Season’s Growth the Main Framework
Branches Should Be Selected. During the first season’s
growth, several buds will grow out into branches. The follow-
ing spring three or four of these branches spaced as far apart as
possible and spirally about the trunk should be selected to
form the head of the tree. The remaining branches should
248 PRUNING
be removed. Three limbs are sufficient to make an excellent.
tree, if nothing happens to one of them. If, however, one
of these limbs is broken out during cuitivation by careless
labor, as often happens in some of the large orchards, the
size of the tree becomes seriously decreased for a year or two
until new branches can fill in the space. In many trees at
least four, or possibly five, scaffold limbs are desirable.
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 87. (a) Two-year-old peach tree after being pruned lightly. Main
limbs were headed to -outward-growing branches, but laterals were not
clipped back. Shoots in center of tree were not removed. This tree will
reach large size quickly and bear early and large crops. (b) Two-year-old
peach tree in same orchard as (a). This tree was pruned heavily. Such
pruning dwarfs the tree and delays bearing.
These scaffold limbs should usually be headed back, the
amount depending upon the growth that they have made.
If the limbs selected are not more than 2 feet in length, it
will not be desirable to head them at all. If the scaffold limbs
are 3 feet in length, it will probably pay to head back 6 or 8
inches to the first group of laterals, which usually occur on
such limbs. This will cause the formation of the secondary
scaffold branches far enough out from the trunk to secure
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 249
a large tree quickly without making it too “leggy” or “wil-
lowy.” (In regions where tip injury from the Oriental peach
moth is severe during the middle of the growing season, no
heading back will be necessary.)
(c) After the Second Year’s Growth oe Three or Four
Strong Laterals from Each of the Main Limbs Left the Year
Before to Continue the Framework of the Tree. The remain-
ing shoots should be thinned out moderately, and those left
should be headed back more severely than these framework
branches. This unequal cutting, owing to the resultant de-
creased leaf area, will dwarf such branches in comparison to
those left to form the main framework. It is neither neces-
sary nor wise to clip back all the small laterals on these main
branches, but they should be moderately thinned out (Fig. 87).
(d) Continue Building the Framework Following the Third
Year’s Growth. About three branches should again be se-
lected on each of the main branches left the year before to
continue the framework of the tree. These should be headed
back lightly to outward-growing branches and thinned out
moderately. The shoots in the center of the tree should not
be removed at this age, because a large percentage of the first
crop is borne on these shoots.
This method of light pruning, together with early and
thorough cultivation, and the addition of larger amounts of
available nitrogen fertilizers where needed, should produce a
tree capable of bearing a good commercial crop during the
fourth year.
(e) A Promising Method of Training and Pruning Finding
Favor in Some Sections Is Illustrated in Fig. 88. This has
given a tree of good size, with branches better spaced than
in trees headed according to the usual practice.
(f) Bearing Trees Respond Better to a Somewhat Heavier
Type of Pruning Than That Practiced with Young Trees.
Even with these older trees pruning may easily be too severe
for the largest and best fruit production. Experiments and
observations show that it is not a wise practice to shear off
saunanietanninatanticoe cine Goes a
|
|
———
A
(Ud. Exp. Sta.)'
Fig. 88. Peach trees pruned according to new system. (a) At planting time, the
tree was cut off at about 40 in. and side branches were cut to stubs. (b) After two
weeks of growth. (c) Four well-spaced shoots were selected. (d) After one year’s
growth, note strong well-spaced branches, requiring little pruning. fe) After two
year’s growth. (f) After three years. Such a tree requires little pruning after the
first year.
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 251
uniformly the tops of bearing trees each year. In some sec-
tions every shoot is headed back heavily with very little
thinning out, and the tops of the trees resemble a well-clipped
privet hedge. As a result of this practice, not only are tree
size and total yield reduced but also the fruit produced is
generally of poor color.
The shoots on heavily pruned trees also grow later in the
season and on account of poorer maturity are more subject to
winter injury in regions of low temperature.
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 89. Four-year-old peach tree before (b) and after (a) receiving a
light pruning. This tree has always been pruned lightly. Note that a
light thinning out and a light heading back of the main branches has been
given. This tree has a much larger bearing surface and is capable of
producing a much larger crop than a tree of the same age heavily pruned.
The branches of bearing trees should be headed back
moderately to outward-growing branches (Fig. 89). The cen-
ters of the trees should be kept reasonably open in order that
the fruit will color well and in order to keep up the growth
of new shoots on the main branches (Fig. 90).
After four or five heavy crops have been produced, it is
well to head back more severely than usual for one year and
especially to cut out the higher limbs, which are growing to-
ward the centers of the trees. The tops of the main framework
branches may be headed back into two-year wood, leaving the
252 PRUNING
side branches and laterals to bear the crop. This may reduce
the crop somewhat for the one year, but will cause new
growth to be forced out lower down on the trees, especially
on the inside of the main limbs. Thus new limbs can gradually
be developed and the tree lowered without the loss of a crop.
After moderate pruning again for four or five years, the trees
may again be rebuilt gradually by this method.
Fic. 90. The branches of lightly pruned peach trees bend down or “open
up” with their crop of fruit. Sunlight reaches all parts of the tree, and
the fruit is usually well colored. Practically all the fruit can be picked
from the ground.
(g) When Peach Trees Are Pruned Lightly Each Year,
Other Orchard Operations Must Be Modified. Lightly pruned
trees of course become much wider, and require more space
in the orchard, than heavily pruned trees. As a result many
growers are now planting their trees 22 by 22 feet or 24 by
24 feet instead of the old distance of 18 by 18 feet. With
the advent of paradichlorobenzene for borers and the general
benefit secured from nitrogen applications, together with
pruning rejuvenation practices, many growers are now plant-
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 253
ing peaches in solid blocks with the idea of a comparatively
long-time investment. Although the number of trees per acre
is less because of the greater planting distances, the total
yield per acre, as a result of the larger trees, is higher and
the color of fruit is usually much improved. The initial in-
vestment is less for trees, and pruning costs are likewise
decreased.
It is reasonable to suppose that, if enough more wood and
buds are left on a tree at least to double its yield, more mois-
ture and fertilizers will be needed. Thus the grower who has
been pruning severely, fertilizing little, cultivating moderately
well, and securing an average yield of 114% bushels per tree
will find himself in trouble if he decides to prune lightly and
does not adjust his other practices in proportion. If nitrates
have paid under the heavy pruning system, larger quantities
will be required if lighter pruning is practiced, the fruit should
be thinned more, early and thorough cultivation should be
given, and those cover crops which will make the most organic
matter under the local conditions should be used. In light
soils, especially, large amounts of organic matter should be
turned under, not only from a general fertility standpoint
but also as an aid in increasing the water-holding capacity of
the soil.
Note that in all recommendations given it has e pointed
out that bearing trees should be thinned out moderately, and
that the limbs which are to continue the framework of the
tree should receive a light to moderate heading back.
(h) Pruning Is Very Important in Restoring Old Orchards
to Fruitfulness. Many old peach orchards which have gradu-
ally become unproductive, with long, bare limbs extending
15 to 20 feet high, can be rejuvenated and made productive
by proper methods of spraying, pruning, fertilization, borer
control, and’ soil management.
Many methods of rebuilding such trees have been advo-
cated. Under most conditions it is best to prune the whole tree
moderately the first year (Fig. 91). Trees headed back into
204 PRUNING
three- or four-year wood, leaving the main branches 6 to 8 —
feet long, with stubs of the lateral branches attached, gen-
erally produce shoots of moderate vigor, which form sufficient
fruit buds for a fair crop the next year. Although the trees
are lowered to some extent, their bearing areas (height and
width) are not reduced so severely as in the dehorned trees.
After one year’s growth the bearing surface should nearly equa!
that of normal, healthy, bearing trees. Owing to the absence
Fic. 91. Fourteen-year-old peach tree pruned
moderately heavy. Note that all main leaders
have been headed back to outward-growing
branches but that the remaining shoots have
not been clipped back. Such a type of pruning
on old trees results in a good supply of new
bearing wood each year.
of dense growth, the fruit is also of normal color on such trees.
Experiments at the Maryland Experiment Station have
shown that dehorned trees yielded 114 pecks per tree after the
first year’s growth following the treatment, 114 pecks the sec-
ond year, 934 pecks the third year, and 4 pecks the fourth year
following the pruning. Moderately pruned trees in the same
orchard during the same years yielded 4 pecks per tree after
the first year’s growth, 8 pecks the second year, 18 pecks the
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 200
third year, and 14 pecks the fourth year. Thus the dehorned
trees averaged a little less than 1 bushel per tree per year for
the four years following the pruning, whereas the moderately
heavily pruned trees averaged 234 bushels per tree per year
during the same period.
(1) Proper Pruning Is Especially Important after the
Loss of a Fruit Crop from Frosts or Freezes. When frosts have
destroyed the blossoms or the fruit buds have been killed on
young trees four to six years old by low winter temperatures,
many growers prune such trees very heavily. The theory is
that since the crop is lost the tree can be materially lowered
and a new top produced. It seems unwise, however, to prune
such trees back into three- or four-year-old wood after such
catastrophes. Since the crop has been lost, most trees, even
without nitrogen applications, will make an excellent growth,
unless severe wood killing has resulted. Cutting back into
three- or four-year-old wood will simply decrease the size
of the tree for the next year’s crop, and may cause such a
rank, dense growth that comparatively few fruit buds will be
formed. Sometimes it takes from two to three years for such
trees to regain their original size so that good yields per tree
may be secured. Usually a light thinning and heading back is
all that is needed. |
When the wood of two- or three-year-old trees is badly
winter-killed to the pith, it will probably pay to prune back
the main branches to stubs in order to rebuild a main frame-
work of healthy, sound branches so that future breakage will
be avoided.
Older bearing trees should be pruned more heavily than
young bearing trees after frost or winter injury. An op-
portunity is afforded for lowering to some extent the height of
such trees and rebuilding with new wood. However, even
with these trees it is easy to do too much pruning. It seems
better even with trees frozen severely to prune moderately.
256 PRUNING:
Tur CHERRY
Sweet and sour cherries normally make a somewhat dif-
ferent type of growth and hence require different pruning
treatments. |
(a) Prune Young Sweet Cherry Trees Just Enough to Form
a Desirable Framework. Although sweet cherries are trained
by several different systems, the open-head or modified-
leader type of tree seems to be most satisfactory under most
conditions. Many varieties of sweet cherries tend to produce
upright branches and thus tall trees 1f the center leader is
used.
At planting time, if two-year-old trees are used, four or five
main branches should be selected for the main framework, and
all others, including the central leader, removed if the open-
head system is to be employed. These branches should be
shortened, leaving them 20 to 24 inches long. If the modified
leader tree is desired, the center leader should not be removed,
but should be shortened somewhat in proportion to but not so
much as the main branches. Three or four additional frame-
work branches are then selected during the next two or three
years, after which the leader is suppressed by cutting it back
to an outward-growing branch. If one year-old whips are
planted, these should be cut back to 24 to 30 inches, with
similar treatment as the head develops.
Pruning during the first three or four years should con-
sist of light thinning out, the removal of crossing and inter-
fering limbs, and light heading back to outside buds or branches
in order to encourage a more spreading habit. Most of the
crop is borne laterally on spurs in the sweet cherry. The tree
branches very little as it gets older, and it is consequently
unnecessary to thin out very much to admit light and air. As
the trees increase in age, it may be desirable to do some cut-
ting back of the upper limbs to outward-growing branches
in order to cause additional branching, new spur develop-
ment and an invigoration of the old spurs.
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 257
(b) The Modified Leader System Is Desirable for Training
Sour Cherries. The amount to cut back two-year-old sour
cherry trees at planting time is a debatable question. In
some regions, especially in some southern sections, many trees
die if headed back at transplanting time. However, in parts
of Wisconsin, where a large acreage of sour cherries is grown,
(Mich. State College)
Fic. 92. A two-year-old Montmorency cherry tree before pruning (A),
and after pruning (B); only a few superfluous in-growing shoots have
been removed.
the trees do better if the scaffold limbs selected are headed
back to about 18 inches when the trees are set.
When the modified-leader system of training is used, four
or five of the strongest and best-placed branches should be
selected, the leader should be left, and all other branches
should be removed. The lowest branch is generally 20 to 24
inches from the ground. During the next two or three years
four or five additional framework branches should be selected
and the leader then cut back to an outward-growing branch.
258 PRUNING
Trees pruned by this method are usually spreading, are easy
to pick, and develop good spur systems (Figs. 92 and 93).
Crossing limbs should be removed, and if the laterals grow
more than about 24 inches in length, these should be lightly
tipped back during the first three or four years to cause
branching and to prevent legginess. -
Fic. 98. An Early Richmond sour cherry tree in Wisconsin pruned
according to the modified center leader system.
Contrary to popular belief, recent experiments in Wisconsin
show that bearing sour cherry trees respond well to moderately
heavy pruning. After six or seven years’ growth, care should
be taken to thin the tops, in order to keep the inner spurs and
lower fruiting wood healthy and productive.
Branches growing toward the center of the tree should be re-
moved and the main limbs should be headed back lightly to
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 259
outward-growing branches. This type of pruning, together
with fertilization and good cultural practices, will cause a
stronger growth throughout the whole tree, the old spurs will
be invigorated, more blossoms will set, and larger numbers of
new spurs will be formed.
It will be recalled from Chapter IV, “The Growth of the
Tree and the Forming of Fruit Buds,” that fruit buds of the
sour cherry are producing laterally on one-year shoots and on
spurs. Short terminal and lateral growths 5 to 8 inches in
length usually form fruit buds at each node, and as a result
no leaf buds are available for developing fruit spurs. When -
longer shoots (10 to 18 inches in length) are produced, fewer
lateral fruit ‘buds and more spurs are formed. A tree with
numerous spurs has a much larger fruit-producing system, and
in the Northern regions buds on spurs seem to be more re-
sistant to winter freezing than those on shoots. Under such
conditions it can readily be seen why a heavier type of prun-
ing for increasing terminal and lateral growth, in order to
develop a large spur system, would be desirable.
Tur PLuM
Although there are several different species of plums, the
chief species grown are the Japanese plums (Prunus salicina),
the European plums and prunes (Prunus domestica), and the
Damsons (Prunus insititia). The Japanese varieties usually
make a more spreading growth than the others, and come
into bearing . earlier.
The Japanese varieties usually bear more fruit laterally
on one-year wood, like the peach, than do the other kinds
of plums. Considerable fruit of all plums is borne on spurs.
These spurs are often quite short, causing the lateral buds
to appear in clusters in the Japanese plums.
(a) Young Trees Should Be Pruned Rather Lightly.
Plum trees need very little pruning while young. The Japanese
plums are generally pruned by the open-head system, whereas:
260 PRUNING
the European varieties are more often trained with the center
leader. However, the modified-leader system is satisfactory
for all plums and should be used more widely.
The Japanese varieties should be pruned a little more
heavily than the others in order to obtain trees of good shape
and to cause a good growth of shoots, upon which new spurs
and considerable fruit are
borne the following year.
This heavier cutting is es-
pecially important with the
Burbank, which is a low-
spreading grower. Thinning
out of slender branches
seems especially desirable
with this variety. Other
varieties which make a.
narrow, upright growth,
such as Wickson, should be
headed to outward-growing
branches in order to secure
a more spreading tree.
Most of the European.
varieties develop into trees
of good shape even if very
little pruning is done. It is
Fic. 94. Bearing European or Do- noe eee me centres re
mestica plum tree after pruning. Note the trees thinned sufficiently
that thinning out and light heading to admit sunlight and thus
back have been practiced. maintain a healthy spur
} system on the main limbs.
(b) Bearing Trees Require Heavier Pruning. The Japa-
nese plums bear such heavy crops while young that they soon
need a heavier type of pruning in order to stimulate new
shoot growth, keep the spurs in a healthy condition, and pro-
duce fruit of good size. Owing to the characteristic growth
of the trees, it is usually necessary to do some heading
(Cornell Exp. Station)
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 261
back of the terminals and laterals in addition to cutting back
the main limbs to outward growing branches.
The European plums should be thinned out by removing
some of the small branches and by heading back the main
limbs lightly to outward-
growing branches (Fig.
94). After these trees have
become quite old and have
borne many crops, ter-
minal growth is usually
short and spur growth
very weak unless heavy
pruning, fertilization, and
good soil management are
practiced. With such trees
a thorough thinning of
the small, thickly spurred
branches should be made
and the lower limbs, as
well as the tops of the
main limbs, should be
thinned out and shortened
back to healthy lateral
branches (Figs. 95 and ~
96). This heavier prun- . —
ing will admit more light, Fic. 95. The ends of a lateral branch
invigorate the old spurs, onan old plum tree. The spurs are very
cause a better set of fruit, ee ibs Beast Lane a spur
Mmomrmenece temuinal'f a ee
th h ing, cultivation and fertilization of the
aN so that new spurs soil would promote growth and fruit
will be formed. production.
Tur APRICOT
The fruit-bearing habit of the apricot is in general quite
similar to that of Japanese plums. Much of the fruit is borne
262 PRUNING
on short spurs along the branches, but a portion of the crop is
also produced laterally on the one-year-old shoots.
The pruning of the apricot should be much the same as that
described for the Japanese plum. ‘The fruit spurs of the
Fic. 96. This illustrates the results of prun-
ing an old prune tree. At right, an unpruned
branch; at left, a branch pruned two years
before picture was taken; in center, branch
pruned one year before picture was taken. ~
Pruning has resulted in new growth of wood
and the formation of vigorous spurs.
apricot are shorter-lived, however, than those of plums, and
as a result a slightly heavier pruning should be practiced
with the apricot in order to keep the spur-system renewed.
As the trees become old and especially after several heavy
crops have been produced, it is desirable to increase the amount
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 263
of pruning in order to stimulate growth and increase the size of
fruit.
THE QUINCE
Practically no experimental evidence relative to the best
method of pruning the quince 1s available.
In general the trees are trained to a low-spreading head,
the centers are kept open, and some heading back of the main
limbs is practiced during the first few years.
(Z. W. Mitchell)
Fic. 97. This illustrates an effective home-made type of brush pusher.
The job of gathering and burning brush in a modern orchard is sub-
stantial and difficult. This pusher is tractor operated. Take two
hickory, ash or oak pieces, 2 inches by 6 inches, about 18 feet long;
lay them under the tractor and fasten to drawbar as shown in Fig. 98.
Flare the pieces outward in front of the tractor, but allow clearance
when tractor wheels are cramped. Bolt chains from two points on
the long cross piece to the front axle to permit steering the device,
and bolt on short pieces as shown to make a rigid job. Taper the
prongs on top surfaces; erect a strong well-braced guard for the engine
radiator. Allow space back of guard for cranking the tractor. The
brush packs on firmly and can be pushed directly on to the fire,
ne the tractor away: Do not build large fires. Small fires are
more convenient and safer.
264 | PRUNING
It will be recalled from the chapter on the growth of the
tree and the forming of fruit buds that fruit is borne on the
ends of small shoots which grow from the terminal or lateral
buds formed on the previous season’s growth. Although old
trees generally bear some fruit annually, even without pruning,
this type of fruiting suggests that in addition to thinning out
the bearing tree, some heading back to laterals should be
practiced so that new growth will be stimulated each year.
(BW. Mitchell)
Fig. 98. Showing detail of hitch of brush pusher to tractor.
5. Determining Pruning Costs. The cost of pruning is
influenced by many factors: age of tree, variety, height and
width of tree, kind and amount of previous pruning, and the
type of labor. The New York State Experimental Station at
Cornell has found that for most varieties the cost of pruning
can be reduced by pruning every other year. Its experiments
indicate that equally good yields of quality fruit may be ob-
tained by this biennial practice. This means a considerable
saving in pruning time. Up to picking time in the Hilton area
of New York, from 1928 to 1931, with both sod and cultivated
orchards, labor for pruning made up one-half of the total labor
cost. It was found that in orchards 30 years old or older,
PRUNING THE DIFFERENT TREE FRUITS 265
(B. W. Mitchell)
Fic. 99. The brush pusher (Fig. 97) in operation.
TABLE 37
PERCENTAGE OF TREES PRUNED AND NUMBER PRUNED PER Day,
By Acr, Hitton Ara, 1928 To 1931*
Total Trees {Trees Pruned
Age of Trees in 1930 | Recordst Bearing Trees| Pruned | in 10 Hours
ae
Number Number Percent Number
SinNe@r MOTE Ss. oD 92 18,048 43 6.2
FS C5 eae i ee 71 11,696 46 4.7
7a Ue Le pee, ta 106 18,385 48 6.0
20 40; 29) o:.... aN Scat Se 157 37,040 65 12.8
11 OS 87 nA eh 118 25,873 48 Wat
2) je oe ae 544 111,042 53 9.0
* Adapted from Relation of Soil and Cultural Practices to the Costs and Returns in
Producing Apples, Hilton Area, Monroe County, New York (unpublished thesis for degree
of Ph.D., Cornell University, p. 33, 1934), by C. C. Spence.
7 Includes all cost records taken each year,
266 PRUNING
one man can on the average prune and dispose of the brush
from 6 trees in 10 hours. In younger orchards one man can
care for twice as many trees. (See Table 37.)
In Berrien County, Michigan, in 1935, on 80 farms, where
most of the trees were between the ages of 15 and 30, the total
cost of labor for pruning, for trimming, hauling, and burning
the brush averaged $2.66 per acre. One acre required 15.3
man-hours and 3.4 horse-hours. Man labor was paid at the
rate of 15 cents per hour and horse labor at 11 cents per hour.
Most of these orchards were under partial or complete culti-
vation. |
In 1930 and 1931 in the Piedmont area of Virginia, with
trees of bearing age, the average cost per acre was $4.36 and
$3.02 respectively. (See Table 38.) :
TABLE 38
Cost oF PRUNING AND REMOVING BrusH, PrepMont ArzEA, 1930-3]
Item 1930 1931
Number Number
Records included............ 22 : 17
Total acres, bearing orchard. . 1,476.5 1,160.5
INGFES TUNE). 250, Soars es 1,357.5 893.5
Mreesspruned: «si. os toes. 52,661 36,004
Per Acre | Per Tree | Per Acre | Per Tree
Pruned | Pruned | Pruned | Pruned
Man labor: Number | Number | Number | Number
LEWC UU gorges Meme rt at an 17.0 0.44 14.7 0.36
1B (CLG qs Weenie he een <5 nue Soto aan 4.12 0.106 2.73 0.068
Horse work:
UOUS! ob. See ee 1.9 0.05 2.4 0.06
Wotlars soi. casi ee tee: 0.24 0.006 0.29 0.007
a
Total cost, dollars... .. 4°36. |) OLT12 3.02 0.075
COMMUNITY STUDIES 267
Peach trees may be pruned much more rapidly than apple
trees, both because they are smaller and because the wood is
softer, cutting more readily. In the Shenandoah-Cumberland
region it was found that trees from 7 to 14 years of age could
be given a light but thorough pruning involving thinning and
some heading back of main branches in 10%4 to 14.7 minutes
per tree. Younger trees require correspondingly less time.
GENERAL INFORMATION
REMOVAL OF TREES FROM THE ORCHARD
It is sometimes necessary to remove part of the trees in orchards that
have been planted too closely. Various methods of accomplishing this
are employed.
A good method is to fasten a chain around the main branches several
feet above their point of union with the trunk. Hitch a team or tractor
to the chain about 20 to 25 feet from the tree. As the team pulls,
workmen cut off roots on the opposite side with mattocks or axes.
Change the direction of the pull and cut off other roots until the tree is
loose and leans over so that the remaining roots may be severed. This
plan works very well in light soils but has been used successfully with
large trees on heavy soils. In the latter case, however, a charge of
dynamite under the center of the tree will help to loosen the roots.
Large roots remaining in the soil may be removed quickly by attaching
the chain to them.
A block and tackle is sometimes employed, but is a slower method.
Some growers cut off the top at the base of the main branches and
leave the trunks until they decay. This works quite well with peaches,
the wood of which decays quickly.
In soils that are disked rather than plowed, the soil may be dug away
from the trunk and the trunk sawed off just below ground level.
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Visit several different orchards in the community at pruning time
and secure data on the following questions:
(a) Age and kind of trees being pruned.
(b) Severity of pruning.
(c) Are the trees being headed back? If so, why?
(d) Are the cuts being properly made?
in
(ey, w
CO
PRUNING
(e) Are desirable pruning tools being used?
(f) Do stubs ever heal over?
(g) To what form of head are the trees being trained?
(h) Determine whether certain branches have been dwarfed by
pruning. |
(2) How many minutes does it take one man to prune a tree, and
what is the cost per tree?
(7) Does heavy heading back cause more branches and thus a
denser tree?
(kK) Are the large pruning wounds being protected from the
weather, insects, and diseases?
2. Notice that some varieties normally grow upright whereas others
make a spreading growth. Should an attempt be made by pruning to
make all trees assume the same shape?
3. Secure permission to prune some of the trees in your community as
a demonstration. Keep records on the time and cost of pruning. Leave
some trees unpruned, and note the difference in wood growth and color of
fruit at picking time.
4. Find two orchardists in your community, one who prunes heavily
and one who prunes lightly, and note the comparative size of trees of the
same age and variety in the different orchards. Determine which trees
bear the earliest and most fruit.
5. Select one or two old apple trees in your community, and give them
a rejuvenation pruning; have them fertilized if possible, record the
yields of fruit, and use them as a demonstration to encourage the better
care of old trees.
CHAPTER VI
CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
The control of insects and diseases is one of the major
problems of the fruit grower. The destructive work of these
organisms reduces both the quantity and the quality of the
fruit, the vitality and life of the tree may be impaired, and the
investment in materials, equipment and labor to control them
constitutes one of the chief items of expense in fruit production.
Insects and diseases cause annual losses that run into
staggering sums. First is the direct loss from the work of the
organisms, and then the expense of materials and labor, of
investments in equipment, in order to control them, as well
as the reduction in vitality of the tree or plants, affecting
productivity and perhaps length of life. One authority states
that from 20 to 40 percent of the fruit crop in the United
States is destroyed each year by insects alone. The problem
is not merely to find materials that will control but materials
that the grower can afford to use and that will control the
organisms without injury to the fruit plant.
Most kinds of fruit cannot be changed from one field to
another on a short rotation, as may be done with annual crops.
An apple orchard is fixed for the better part of a lifetime.
The fruit grower cannot employ rotation as one of his major
weapons in insect and disease control, as is frequently done
with annual crops.
There are natural forces which exert a measure of control
over insects and diseases. Late frosts, cold winters, dry
spells all have their effects. Diseases among insects, predaceous
and parasitic insects and even birds may greatly reduce the
269
270 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
numbers of prospective pests. These agencies and factors ©
have a bearing on the situation but the grower cannot ney
upon them to solve his problem.
Spraying involves the application of materials in dust or
liquid form to fruit plants as a preventive and combative
measure against the attacks of insects and disease. How-
ever, though the grower may resort to other measures at
times, his main reliance is found in the spraying program.
Operations:
. Determining insects and diseases to be controlled.
. Selecting and preparing materials for control.
. Determining time of application of materials.
. Selecting machinery and equipment for making applications.
. Applying materials.
. Determining costs of spraying program.
. Adopting control measures other than spraying.
“IO Or BP OO De
1. Determining Insects and Diseases to Be Controlled. The -
grower must know the major organisms that are destructive
and injurious to his fruit enterprise before he may proceed
intelligently with their control. |
He need not know each intimate detail of their life his-
tories. He may well leave such studies to the trained ento-
mologists and plant disease workers attached to the experi-
mental stations that serve his section. Certain pests, however,
are standard in the sense that they are present each year and
sufficiently serious to require control measures. Others are
standard but seasonal, being present and destructive only
under certain conditions. The grower must know these stand-
ard pests and the conditions governing their presence, and he
must be able to recognize the evidences of their presence.
Procedure:
(a) Consider the feeding habits of insect pests.
(6) Consider the nature of disease attacks.
(c) Consult experiment stations and other sources for com-
plete information.
DETERMINING NATURE OF ORGANISMS 271
(a) Consider the Feeding Habits of Insect Pests. Control
of insect pests may best be approached from a study of their
methods of feeding. Chewing insects possess hard mouth
parts with which they bite off portions of the leaves, plant,
fruit, etc., actually taking some of these materials into their
bodies. The tent caterpillar and codling moth are illustra-
tions, both being destructive in the larval stage. The former
Fic. 100. Some insects with biting mouth parts. (a) Grasshopper.
(6 and e) Beetles. (c and d) Sawfly larvae. (f) Caterpillar.
feeds chiefly on the leaves, the latter chiefly on the fruit. See
Fig. 100.
Sucking insects possess mouth parts in the form of a beak
or slender tube which they insert beneath the exterior surface
of the object on which they are feeding, drawing or sucking
the juices from within the tissues. The San José scale and
aphids, or plant lice, are examples. The mosquito illustrates
the same type of feeding on human beings. See Fig. 101.
272 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
Other insects possess mouth parts which permit them to
lap or lick up liquids from the outer surfaces of the object on
which they feed. The adult fly of the apple maggot and the
cherry fruit fly are illustrations.
As the insect passes through different stages of develop-
ment (metamorphosis), it may possess different types of mouth
parts. The larva or worm has biting mouth parts whereas the
adult moth may lap up its food as in case of the apple maggot.
(6b) Consider the Nature of Disease Attacks. Fruit dis-
Fic. 101. Some insects with sucking mouth parts. (a, b, c, d, e) Scale
insects. (f) Leafhopper. (g) Plant Bug. (h) Aphids.
eases, with a few exceptions, are of the fungus type, plant
forms lacking the chlorophyll or green coloring matter of
common plants and existing as parasites in or on the tissues
of living plants. Apple scab and bitter rot are examples.
Propagation takes place by means of the development of seed
forms called spores. The wind—including even light air cur-
rents—rain, insects, and other agents are responsible for
their dissemination. Fungi need moisture for a period in order
to develop from the spore stage and to establish themselves
SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 273
upon the host. The time of application of control measures
is influenced by this fact.
Some fruit diseases, as fire blight of apples, pears, and
quinces, are caused by bacteria rather than fungi. Since they
are already established on the host before their presence is de-
tected, and since any materials that would control them would
also injure the host plant, they must be fought by methods
other than spraying.
Various physiological diseases as bitter pit, drought spot,
and cork are apparently associated with poor moisture con-
ditions, and injury from these troubles is reduced when mois-
ture conditions of the soil are improved.
(c) Consult Experiment Stations and Other Sources for
Complete Information. The experimental stations and colleges
of agriculture are public agencies, established in the various
states. They are prepared to furnish the latest and most de-
pendable information available with regard to the insects and
diseases that trouble the grower. The grower should establish
and maintain contact with these institutions as a safeguard
and insurance.
The commercial grower .cannot afford to turn a business
enterprise into an experimental project. He may, however,
cooperate with public agencies in conducting field laboratories,
tests, and demonstrations that have for their object the ac-
quirement or dissemination of greater knowledge, which in
turn will bring a larger return to the grower.
2. Selecting and Preparing Materials for Control. Ma-
terials suitable for controlling certain insects may be ineffective
against others, and may be useless for the control of diseases.
Some materials possess valuable properties for both insect and
disease control. Some are effective, but cost so much that the
erower cannot afford to use them; others are effective and
acceptable as to cost but cause injury to the plant or fruit
under certain conditions. New materials are continually
being put forward, and the grower must decide whether or
not he will discard the old and adopt the new.
274 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
He should base his decision on known facts in order to
proceed with judgment and with as little risk as possible.
Procedure:
(a) Consider materials for insect control.
(6) Consider materials for disease control.
(c) Consider agents that increase spreading and sticking quali-
ties of materials for insect and disease control.
(d) Consider preparation of materials at home or their pur-
chase from commercial concerns. ©
(e) Select materials for a complete program.
(a) Consider Materials for Insect Control. Materials
used to control insects are termed insecticides. For biting
and chewing insects, a stomach poison is applied to the mate-
rial on which they feed. |
For sucking insects, materials which suffocate, burn, or
paralyze them are used. These are called contact insecticides,
since they are applied directly to the bodies of the insects. It is
evident that a stomach poison applied on the exterior surfaces
of the materials on which sucking insects feed would not prove
effective.
Insects with lapping mouth parts may usually be controlled
with stomach poisons since they take up their food from the
outer surfaces.
STOMACH PoIsons
a: 1. Lead arsenate is the stomach poison in common use.
Its active agent is white arsenic. White arsenic alone will
cause burning of fruit and foliage; it is therefore combined with
lead to reduce this danger.
Lead arsenate is known as “acid,” or “basic,” depending
upon the nature and proportion of the lead-carrying material
combined with the white arsenic. The acid lead arsenate is in
more common use and is sometimes called “standard” arsenate
of lead. Basic lead arsenate contains less arsenic, is more
stable and less likely to cause burning, but is slower in its
SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 279
action than the acid form. However, if used according to
directions, the acid lead arsenate is not likely to cause burn-
ing in most parts of the country. In California it has caused
severe burning, when used with hard or alkaline water.
Lead arsenate may be purchased in either powder or paste
form, the paste form differing from the powder only in con-
taining about 48 percent of water. Most paste arsenates are
of the acid type.
Objections to the paste form of lead arsenate are its bulk
and consequent increased freight and handling costs; the tend-
ency of the water to separate out, making it difficult to mix
before using and affecting the accuracy of the measurements;
the tendency of the water to dry out of the mixture, leaving
it more concentrated than the analysis indicates; and the possi-
bility of leakage and bursting of the package, as a result of
freezing. Consequently the powder form is more commonly
used. It is colored a pale pink by most manufacturers so
that it cannot be mistaken for some non-poisonous compound.
Arsenic in any form is an active and virulent poison when
-taken internally. It should be stored and handled with this
in mind. So far as external effects are concerned, it may be
handled freely by the operator.
a: 2. Calcium Arsenate. Among other stomach poisons for
chewing insects, arsenic in combination with calcium as cal-
cium arsenate is on the market. It is cheaper pound for
pound than lead arsenate and carries a higher arsenic content.
It is available in both paste and powder forms. As con-
stituted at present, it is not safe to use on stone fruits since
it causes severe burning. It also burns apple and pear foliage
in some sections.
In planning a spray program which offers the maximum
of protection against insect pests without leaving excessive
spray residue, calcium arsenate is recommended in some sec-
tions as a substitute for lead arsenate in some of the cover
sprays. Add 3 pounds of hydrated lime to every pound of
calcium arsenate to decrease or prevent burning of the foliage.
276 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
The calcium arsenate should be fresh and of a brand which
is stated by the manufacturer to be suitable for orchard spray-
ing. |
a:3. Zinc arsenate is sometimes used as a substitute for
lead arsenate. It is somewhat safer than calcium arsenate as
long as 1 pound of lime is used for every pound of zine
arsenate.
a:4. Less Common Stomach Poisons. At the present time
experimental work is in process with a group of new stomach
poisons for orchard use. MHellebore, cuprous thiocyanate,
dinitro-o-cresol, and thiodiphenylamine (phenothiazine) are
some of the most promising. As yet none of these materials is
replacing the common arsenic compounds.
It is certain that investigations will continue until ma-
terials both effective and economical, lacking the burning
properties of arsenic compounds and the undesirable accu-
mulation of poisons (spray residues) on the fruit, are devel-
oped. Progress in this direction should be watched carefully.
In the meantime follow the recommendations of your local
experiment station. |
Contact INSECTICIDES
a:5. Lime-sulfur is a standard insecticide for sucking in-
sects which must be fought with a contact application. It is a
solution looking much like a red-brown syrup, obtained by
boiling together fixed amounts of burned or stone lime, sulfur,
and water. It is much used for control of San José scale.
It is one of the safest and best sprays to use in the dormant
season when the foliage is off, and has no bad cumulative
effects from years of use. It is not in common use as a
summer spray for insects, since on most trees it would injure
the foliage, or even cause defoliation, at dilutions strong
enough to be effective. It is used extensively for the summer
control of fungus diseases.
The manufacture of lime-sulfur, or concentrated lime-
SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS ye
sulfur, as it is often called, is well standardized. It is avail-
able from many commercial concerns, being supplied usually
in drums or barrels holding 50 gallons. Its strength is deter-
mined by means of the Baumé test, the instrument employed
being the hydrometer. This records the density or specific
eravity of the solution. The commercial product should test
at least 32° Baumé; it frequently tests 33°. There should
be no sludge or precipitate in the bottom of the barrel.
a:6. Dry lime-sulfur is obtained by dehydrating or ex-
tracting the moisture from concentrated lime-sulfur containing
some stabilizer, like cane sugar. It 1s mixed with water before
using. It is cheaper to transport and easier to handle than
concentrated lime-sulfur. It is not so powerful an insecticide
at the strengths recommended by the manufacturers as con-
centrated lime-sulfur, and at present prices 1s more expensive
on the basis of active ingredients. It seems necessary to use it
in larger amounts for effective results than the manufacturers
recommend at present.
a:7. Tobbacco preparations are valuable contact insecti-
cides. Nicontine is the effective agent. It is a powerful,
quickly acting poison, very toxic to many insects. These
preparations may be used on tender foliage without injury.
They are employed extensively for the control of aphis and
red bug. |
The common commercial form is a concentrated solution
zontaining 40 percent of nicotine sulfate; other preparations
containing different proportions are also available.
The value of nicotine sprays is affected largely by tem-'
perature changes and the hardness of the water used for cilz-
tion. They function best at warm temperatures and when the
air is quiet enough so that the fumes generated do not dissi-
pate rapidly. Hard water increases the toxic effect of the
application. Soap is often added to increase the spreading
properties of the material.
Most nicotine trade names give an indication of the per-
centage of nicotine present, for example “Black Leaf 40.”
278 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
Tobacco preparations in dust form are also available.
They are used extensively on vegetable crops and to some:
extent for fruit. They have been developed recently and their
use is likely to expand as they are further perfected.
Tobacco dusts are obtained by impregnating some suitable
carrier, as hydrated lime, with free nicotine or nicotine sul-
fate, or by grinding tobacco refuse into a fine powder. Tobacco
refuse gives dust of an uncertain strength and -effectiveness.
Some growers make their own dust from hydrated lime and
nicotine sulfate.
Dusts made with free nicotine are more volatile and
quicker in their action than those made from nicotine sulfate
containing 40 percent nicotine. This is an advantage since
insects succumb more readily to the dusts of higher volatility.
Such dusts, however, are more expensive than those of slower
action. The strength of nicotine in these preparations is ex-
pressed either as the percentage of actual nicotine in them, or
the percentage of nicotine sulfate, which is but 40 percent
nicotine. A 2 percent nicotine dust is thus nearly 214 times
as strong as 2 percent nicotine-sulfate dust. (Nicotine is about
95 per cent pure.) This difference should be carefully noted
in making calculations.
Nicotine dusts should be purchased in tight containers. The
containers should be kept closed and as nearly full as possible,
because the dusts lose strength rapidly on exposure to air.
a:8. Oil sprays possess considerable insecticidal value.
They spread well, permeating every crack and crevice. Their
use is limited, however, because of their caustic effect upon the
foliage and tender bark and because they cannot be used in
combination with any sulfur sprays. They do not corrode
metal parts of a sprayer but cause the rubber parts to de-
teriorate rapidly. Oils may not be used in freezing weather,
or upon stone fruits at any season.
Emulsification. So that the oil may mix freely with water
for dilution in a spray tank, a third material, an emulsifier,
is added. Several emulsifying agents are on the market under
SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 279
trade names. They may serve as spreaders and stickers as
well. They are in a liquid or powder form and usually have a
soap or casein base. Bordeaux mixture is an excellent emul-
sifier and may be used as a fungicide in the same application.
A miscible oi is a clear oil which contains an emulsifying
agent and will mix when poured into fresh soft water. An
oil emulsion is a grayish white cream which contains an emul-
sifying agent and consequently may be diluted with water.
These two are the most popular forms of commercial orchard
spraying oils,
KInps oF OIL
Petroleum oil is used to control lecanium, San José, and
scurfy scale; for cleaning up bad outbreaks of leaf roller; to
check pear psylla, European red mite, and probably apple
red-bug eggs. It is used for dormant spraying only, and if
applied for too many years in succession it may injure the tree.
Petroleum oil may be bought as a crude oil, in a miscible
form or as an emulsion. |
Tar owl, a coal-tar creosote product, usually sold as an
emulsion, is used to control aphid eggs, bud. moth, oyster
shell scale, and scurfy scale. It is not effective against San
José scale. This oil is very caustic to the skin, and if the
weather is at all windy during spraying, it must be handled
with care. It is applied during the dormant period.
D.N. oil has been used as a dormant spray with some de-
gree of success. D.N. is an abbreviation for the mixture of
96 percent by weight of lubricating oil and 4 percent of dinitro-
orthocyclohexylphenol. As yet it should be used cautiously
until more experimental werk has been done.
Tar lubricating oil, a mixture of tar oil and petroleum oil
In various proportions, is sold by some manufacturers; it is
used as a complete “clean-up” dormant application. It may
be mixed and diluted so that there will be the proper amount
of each type of oil to control the combination of insects
which are attacking the trees (see Table 40, page 290). Tar
280 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
lubricating oils are very dangerous if the buds have swollen,
if the material is not properly emulsified, or if the mixture
is not fresh. Otherwise they give good results.
White oils are highly refined mineral oils which have
been used on summer foliage and possibly have a place in the
spraying program of the future. Their greatest disadvantage
is that they burn foliage which carries a sulfur residue.
This whole subject of the effectiveness of oil sprays of
various types and the proper time of application is now in
a state of flux. Interest is keen, and developments should
be watched carefully. A report on the subject (Table 39)
issued by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station at
Geneva indicates the present status of oil sprays in early
spring applications. The desire is to use some economical,
safe material that will control as many pests as possible in
the smallest number of applications.
a :9. Soaps in combination with water possess insecticidal
properties. They are seldom used alone but rather as constitu-
ents of oil emulsions or miscible oils, or in nicotine sprays to
increase their spreading properties and liberate the nicotine.
Potash fish-oil soap is the common form. Soda fish-oil soap
will not dissolve so easily. Resin fish oil will not curdle in
hard water.
a:10. Less Common Contact Insecticides. Pyrethrum is
_ a powder made from the flower heads of three species of pyr-
ethrum plants. It is non-poisonous to warm blooded animals,
but it loses its toxic properties upon exposure and It is difficult
to find methods of standardization. Rotenone is both a con-
tact and stomach poison which is harmless to warm-blooded
animals. It is found in the roots of the derris plant in the
Malay Peninsula and in cubé which grows in Peru. Although
it is known to be a very good insecticide, its use is limited
because of the cost of importing the raw material. Elgetol
is a bright yellow dyestuff which is of value as an insecticide
and ovicide and for which claims are made as a fungicide.
It has been used thus far chiefly in the dormant or “bud-break-
SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 281
TABLE 39
EARLY SPRING TREATMENTS FOR APPLE Pests*
New York Agricultural Experimental Station, Geneva
ae Pest To Be Controlled
Materials in ees
Amounts per 100 Euro- Oys-
of San Leaf
Gallons of Spray g pean | 5006 ter |Scurfy| Rosy | Red | Bud Roll-
Mixture Prey | Red | (°° | Shell | Scale | Aphid| Bug | Moth |
Mix- ; Scale r
Mite Scale
tureTt
Dormant Applications
Lubricating oil, 3 gal. | 0.64 E i P P N N P N
Lubricating oil, 5 or | | 1.04 or
SUT CE A Pg 27 {x 2 aay x Pp ay = i
‘ear aly 3 walk... [1.26 N N F F E N P N
Tar oil, 4% gal...... 1.89 N N E G E N Ff N
Tar oil, 2% gal. +
lubricating oil, 3 gal.| 1.70 G E E E P Ff N
Dowspray Dormant | | 1.75 to
214. to 3 gal../..: 2.10 {v1 oe = 2 = = = P
Elgetol, 1 gal....... 2.00 Va VI E E E N E N
Elgetol, 1 gal. + lu-
bricating oil, 3 gal.§ | 2.65 — as == —= EI = — GL.
Breaking-Bud Applications
Elgetol, 1-gal.....:: Pep ee ob a | Nn
Green-Tip Applications
Lubricating oil, 3 gal.
+ nicotine, 1 pint.
ols lel wn
1.56 | E E
Delayed Dormant Applications
Lubricating oil, 3 gal.
+ nicotine, 1 pint
+ Bordeaux....... 1251 E E — — G N G N
Nicotine, 1 pint and
lime-sulfur, 2% gal.,
or wettable sulfur at
manufacturer’s rec-
ommendations..... 0.91 || N N N N G N G N
* The letters represent the following control: E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor;
V, variable (sometimes good or excellent control, in other tests fair to poor); N, not suffi-
ciently effective to be practicable, and I, results based on insufficient evidence to be con-
clusive. A blank space indicates that no data are available.
T Based on the following price per pound, pint, or gallon; Goulac or Binderine (Ib.), 3 We;
lubricating oil (gal.), 20c; tar oil, 83% emulsion (gal.), 35c; nicotine sulfate (pt.), 91c; Dow-
spray Dormant (gal.), 70c; Elgetol (gal.), $2.00.
¢ Should not be used where infestation is severe.
§ Limited tests. Growers might test it experimentally where leaf roller, bud moth, and
aphid occur in the same orchard.
| Cost of insecticide only, as fungicide cost will vary with amount of material used.
282 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
ing” stages. Though its use is as yet exverimental, it is pos-
sible that some of the pre-blossom sprays may be omitted if
Elgetol proves to be effective and desirable. :
(6) Consider Materials for Disease Control. Materials
used to control fungus diseases are termed fungicides. The
active agents in most of these materials are sulfur or copper.
Lime is commonly added to neutralize any caustic action that
might attend their use. Fungicides prevent germination of
the spores and the establishment of the fungus upon the host.
b:1. Lime-sulfur, or concentrated lime-sulfur, is used very
extensively for the control of fungus diseases. It is described
under “Contact Insecticides,” a: 5.
In some sections its use has resulted in a burning of the
leaves and a russeting of the fruit. The advice of the experi-
ment station serving the section in which the fruit enterprise is
located is usually the best guide.
b:2. Bordeaux mixture 1s a combination in certain pro-
portions of copper sulfate (blue stone or blue vitriol), burned
lime or quicklime, and water. Thus a common formula is
A-4—50, i.e., 4 pounds of copper sulfate, 4 pounds of burned
lime, and 50 gallons of water.
There is a decided tendency now in practice to include an
additional unit of lime as a further safeguard against burning.
Thus, 4-5-50 and 84-50 are common formulas among fruit
"growers.
Bordeaux mixture is a stronger fungicide than lime-sulfur
but under some atmospheric conditions may cause severe burn-
ing of fruit and foliage. Some varieties are more susceptible
than others. In apples, the greatest injury occurs while the
apple is young and held erect on the blossom stalk. It is evi-
denced by a russeting of the fruit and in severe cases by sub-
normal or abnormal development. Bordeaux mixture does not
seem safe as an apple spray in New England, New York, or
New Jersey. It is used quite extensively on apples in Nova
Scotia and in Virginia.
SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 283
Commercial forms of Bordeaux, both paste and powder, are
available. In general, these are not so desirable as the freshly
made material. They do not adhere so well to the fruit and
foliage, are usually less effective as fungicides, and their cost
is considerably in excess of that of the home-made prepara-
tion. The commercial forms are useful for the home garden
where small amounts are required.
Bordeaux mixture combined with lead arsenate is also
available commercially as a fungicide and insecticide. Deter-
mine from the analysis the amount of water-soluble arsenic.
It should not exceed 144 of 1 percent, or severe burning may
follow its use. Use the preparation at such strengths as to
give the standard applications of both materials.
b :3. Sulfur used alone in dust form is a good fungicide.
It seldom causes. burning. It should be at least 98 percent
pure, and the particles should pass through a 300-mesh sieve
(300 meshes per inch, 90,000 per square inch). Fineness of
division adds much to its adhesiveness and consequent effec-
tiveness, and coarse dusts should never be used.
Sulfur dust alone, or in combination with powdered lead
arsenate and lime dust, is used quite extensively for the sum-
mer control program on apples, pears, peaches, and cherries.
b:4. Wettable sulfurs possess fungicidal value. They
are mixtures of sulfur with a flux which makes them compat-
ible with water. Dextrin, flour, glue, and calcium caseinate
are some of the materials with which the sulfur is mixed.
Flotation sulfur paste is a good example of this type of
fungicide. Although each manufacturer gives his own direc-
tions, usually the diluted spray should contain from 6 to 8
pounds of actual sulfur in 50 gallons of water and if used in
conjunction with arsenicals about 2 to 4 pounds of lime to
each pound of arsenical. This type of fungicide is much
easier on foliage than lime-sulfur. Not only is it unlikely to
cause burning, but also it allows the tree to develop larger
and more healthy foliage. In other words, it exerts no in-
284 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
hibiting effects. It is not so strong a fungicide as lime-sulfur.
In very wet periods it is not recommended to replace lime-
sulfur. Wettable sulfurs are sold under many different trade
names. Purchase from a concern of established reputation.
b :5. Self-boiled lime-sulfur is effective in the control of
brown rot of the peach and other stone fruits, and is used for
this purpose by many growers in the peach regions from New
England southward. It is a very safe form of sulfur from
the standpoint of injury to fruit or foliage. As the name im-
plies, its preparation is due to the action of the lime when
slaked. The formula is 8-8-50: 8 pounds of burned lime,
8 pounds of sulfur, and 50 gallons of water. The active agent
is the sulfur; the lime reduces the danger of burning.
b:6. Dry mix or New Jersey dry miz is the name given to
a sulfur-lime mixture used as a substitute for self-boiled lime-
sulfur for stone fruits and also as a summer spray for apples
im some sections. It is easier to prepare than self-boiled
lime-sulfur. Dry mix is not so strong a fungicide as concen-
trated lime-sulfur and may not be advisable as an apple spray
for the early applications in some seasons. It does not cause the
burning that sometimes results from lime-sulfur. It is mixed
in the dry state and combined with water before using. In
order to make the mix wettable, calclum caseinate or pow-
dered skim milk is added to the sulfur and lime. The usual
formula is 8 pounds of sulfur, 4 pounds of hydrated lime
. (finely ground finishing lime), and 144 pound of either calcium
caseinate or powdered skim milk to 50 gallons of water. One-
half pound of bread flour may be substituted for the caseinate
or skim milk.
Arsenate of lead or nicotine preparations may be used with
this material. For use with arsenate of lead, double the
amount of lime.
b:7. Other forms of sulfur as colloidal sulfur, barium
tetrasulfide, ete., are available, and still others are being per-
fected and put forward each season. All have some, many
have considerable, value. The grower will do well, however,
SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 285
‘not to displace the standard materials until new ones receive
the endorsement of his experiment station.
b:8. Copper sulfate dust has been used in conjunction
with lime as a fungicide for apple sprays in Canada. Farther
south, severe burning has resulted. It is used extensively by
vegetable growers.
(c) Consider Agents That Increase Spreading and Sticking
Qualities of Materials for Insect and Disease Control. Ma-
terials are sometimes introduced into the spray formula, not
because of their value as effective agents in themselves, but
because they affect favorably the physical properties of in-
secticides and fungicides. They increase the spreading quali-
ties of spray materials, giving greater uniformity in coverage,
or increase the adhesiveness or sticking qualities of the spray
materials, making them effective over longer periods.
Various milk products have been used in recent years in
this connection. Casein is the effective agent in the milk
products. Although most experiment stations make favorable
reports on spreaders, some experimental results have shown
disagreement with these findings. In the meantime, growers
in general are not using these products extensively on account
of their cost and because they have felt that the benefits were
not very marked. Further tests and findings should be con-
sidered carefully.
c:1. Calcium caseinate contains about 20 per cent casein
and 80 per cent of hydrated lime. It is on the market under
various trade names, to be combined with lime-sulfur, Bor-
deaux, and arsenical sprays. Dilutions of 1 to 2 pounds per
100 gallons are recommended.
| c:2. Skim milk has been used as a substitute for calctum
caseinate. General recommendations for all fruits indicate its
use at a rate of 1 gallon to 100 gallons of spray.
c:3. Flour, finely ground and of at least 12 per cent
gluten content, has given excellent results. Any standard
bread flour meets the requirements; pastry flours and the
coarse flours do not. Flour is entirely safe with all materials,
286 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
giving no chemical reaction. It is used at the rate of 1 to 2
pounds to each 100 gallons of spray. Soybean flour and lime
(1 pound of each to 100 gallons of the mixture) have given
good results.
c:4. Lignin pitch is used with lead arsenate and lime-
sulfur combinations and as an emulsifier for home-made
lubrication oil emulsions. It is applied at the rate of 4% pound
to 100 gallons of the mixture.
(d) Consider Preparation of Materials at Home or Their
Purchase from Commercial Concerns. Whether or not mate-
rials for the spraying program should be made at home depends
on the complexity of the processes of manufacture, the quan-
tities of spray materials required, the equipment needed, and
the final saving in cost over the prepared product. Some
materials deteriorate on standing and should be prepared
just prior to their use. Others may be prepared in advance
and stored until needed. It is not feasible to attempt to
manufacture arsenate of lead at home. The same is true
of the tobacco preparations, with the exception of the dusts
which are sometimes prepared by growers using them in large
quantities.
d:1. Consider the preparation of lime-sulfur. Lime-
sulfur may be prepared at home. It is made by large growers
in some sections, especially where the freight rates on the
commercial products are high. The equipment needed is not
extensive.
A common formula is:
Burned or quicklime ..;.....--..-.-2-- 50 pounds
Silas Poss oss 2 See 100 pounds
Wratet 0.6. koa Se eee ee ee 50 gallons
Experiment stations will furnish directions for making.
Commercial forms of lime-sulfur are now so well standard-
ized, however, so uniform in test, and produced in such enor-
mous quantities that many growers prefer to use them.
SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 287
d:2. Consider the preparation of Bordeaux mixture.
This is commonly made by the grower if needed in any quan-
tity. A common formula is 44-50, containing:
Mee lire 52/705 ine aie i eee be 4 pounds
igurned lime or quicklime ..........2..... 4 pounds
ER Sn i ect onl te ic ee 50 gallons
The formula may be 3-3-50 or 5-5—50, etc., varying the
proportion of lime and copper sulfate to the water. One unit
more of lime than of copper sulfate, as 4-5—-50, gives additional
insurance against burning and is frequently used by growers.
Prepare a stock solution by dissolving the required amount of copper
sulfate crystals at the rate of 1 pound of copper sulfate to a gallon of
water. Put the copper sulfate in a sack at the surface of the water,
using a barrel or other wood container for the water. As the chemical
dissolves, being heavier than water, it will work toward the bottom,
keeping water in contact with the sack. If the sack is put in the bottom
of the barrel, the material will dissolve much more slowly. Start the
process at any convenient time before the material is to be used, since
it will keep indefinitely. ,
Slake the required amount of lime, adding water slowly so that the
lime breaks down into a fine powder and then into a smooth milky
mixture. Add water until the proportions are 1 part of lime to 1 gallon
of water. Keep the mixture covered.
It is evident that for a 44-50 formula it is only necessary to take 4
gallons of each stock solution to a 50-gallon unit. For a 200-gallon
spray tank, using this formula, 16 gallons of each stock solution would be
required.
If large amounts of stock solution are needed, prepare the copper
sulfate at the rate of 2 pounds to a gallon of water. If only small
amounts are required, use hot water in slaking the lime, since cold
water on a small quantity of lime may check the slaking process. The
solutions will keep indefinitely so long as they are not mixed. Keep
them covered to prevent evaporation of water from them, since this
would change the strength of the stock solutions and lead to errors in
making dilutions. Put a few drops of oil on the surface of the stock
solutions to prevent evaporation, or replace the water that has evapo-
rated, before using.
In combining the materials for spraying, never put the stock solutions
cogether, as the materials will curdle and settle rapidly in the form of
388 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
coarse particles. “Put the water between” is an axiom in preparing
Bordeaux mixture. A good method is to put the copper sulfate solution
in the tank and add water until the tank is about two-thirds full. Start
the agitator. Stir the lime mixture thoroughly, and strain the correct
amount into the tank, washing it in gently with a hose. Fill the tank
with water and spray out at once, keeping the tank well agitated. If
the mixture must be kept several hours or longer, add a heaping table-
spoonful of ordinary cane sugar dissolved in a littie hot water to each 100
gallons of spray material. This will cause it to keep in good condition
indefinitely.
Unless sufficient lime is present to neutralize the copper, burning of
fruit or foliage may result. The formula is intended to provide the neces-
sary lime content, but nevertheless the grower should test the material.
Hold a clean, polished knife blade in the diluted preparation for a
moment. If no copper is deposited on the blade, the mixture is safe.
The potassium ferrocyanide test may also be used. If a drop in the
spray material gives a brown or red reaction, the lime is insufficient.
If the reaction is yellow, the lime is sufficient to neutralize the copper.
Hydrated copper sulfate in powder form may now be
obtained and poured directly into the tank, adding the lime
as directed. ‘This eliminates making the stock solution of
copper sulfate, and it is claimed that results are equally
satisfactory.
Hydrated lime in a very fine state of division may be sub-
stituted for the burned lime, but is more expensive at the
present time. It requires 66 pounds of hydrated lime to equal
each 50 pounds of the burned lime in the stock solution.
For the preparation of Bordeaux mixture in large quantities
and for rapid work in the spraying season, an ample water
supply is essential. An elevated mixing platform from which
the materials pass by gravity is desirable. The spray tank
should be equipped with a large copper or bronze strainer
with at least 16 meshes to the inch, through which the mate-
rials pass into the tank.
Pines and hose should be at least 2 inches in diameter to
permit the quick performance of all operations. The stock
solution tanks should be large enough to hold materials for a
full day’s spraying.
SELECTING AND PREPARING MATERIALS 289
Another method which may be used without a platform
is to fill the spray tank about three-fourths full with water.
Dilute the copper sulfate stock mixture with part of the re-
maining water, start the agitator, and pour the copper sulfate
into the tank; dilute the stock solution of lime with the balance
of the water, and pour it into the tank.
Bordeaux mixture will attack iron and steel. Use brass,
bronze, or porcelain-lined spraying equipment where possible,
and flush it out with clean water immediately after use.
d :3. Consider the preparation of tank-mixed lubricating-
oil emulsions. The Cornell Experiment Station at Ithaca,
New York, gives the So ONEDe directions for tank mixed
emulsions.
The tank-mixed emulsions are prepared by several formulas. Many
growers prefer to emulsify the oil in the tank, using lignin-pitch as the
emulsifier. With the agitator running, put about 10 gallons of water in
the tank or enough so that pump can work. Wash % pound of lignin-
pitch through the screen by means of the spray gun. When it is thor-
oughly dissolved in the water, add the proper quantity of oil slowly
with the agitator running and with the spray gun turned into the tank.
When it is emulsified, add the full amount of water and spray out at
once. The quantity of lignin-pitch required will depend on the water
used. If the mixture foams too much, reduce the quantity.
Another method is as follows: Place sufficient water in the spray tank
so that the pump can work. Do not start the engine. For each 100
gallons of spray, add 1 pound of copper sulfate dissolved in water, then
add 2 pounds of hydrated lime also in water, stirring meanwhile with a
stick or paddle. Start the engine, and slowly pour in the proper num-
ber of gallons of oil to give the percentage desired in the completed
mixture. Direct the spray gun into the tank and continue the agitation
until the oil is properly emulsified. In a few minutes or as soon as the
oil is thoroughly emulsified, fill the tank with water, keeping the engine
running continuously until the tank has been sprayed out. If it is
necessary to stop the sprayer, and any considerable quantity of oil
Separates out (streaks of free oil floating on the surface), the remainder
in the tank should be discarded unless it can be brought back into an
emulsion. If more copper is desired for fungicidal purposes, use 3 or 4
pounds pf copper sulfate and twice as many pounds of hydrated lime.
290 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
Table 40 gives a dilution table for tar-distillate emulsions.
TABLE 40
DILUTION TABLE FOR TAR-DISTILLATE EMULSIONS*
-
Percentage of Oil in Stock | Number of Gallons of Emulsion to Be Used
Emulsion as Purchased for 100 Gallons of Spray Mixture
For Scurfy Scale,
For Cherry | For Rosy Bud -Mutholar
Tar Oil So pie 1 Sa Oyster-Scale-
Oil (2 per cent |(21% per cent
Shell (41% per
tar oil) tar oil) :
cent tar oil)
95 0 2 2.6 4.8
85 0 2.3 2.9 5.3
83T 0 2.4 3.0 5.4
80 0 2.5 3.1 5.6
75 0 Bet. ' 3.3 6.0
65 15 3.1 3.8 6.9
60 23 3.3 4.2 CH
50 33 4.0 5.0
40 40 5.0 6.3
37t 46 5.4 6.8
36 44 LS ye 6.9
* 0.1 gallon equals approximately %4 pint.
+ These two oils are the ones most commonly offered for sale in New York State.
(e) Select Materials for a Complete Program. From his
knowledge of the insects and diseases to be controlled and of:
the materials used for their control, the grower is in position
to make up his spraying program. He should then decide
which materials he will purchase and in what forms, and which
he will prepare himself.
He knows that certain materials may be combined with-
out detriment, thus controlling more than one pest at a time
and reducing the number of applications needed. Others can-
DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 291
not be combined without changing the materials physically,
making it difficult to apply them, or changing them chemically,
resulting in injury to tree, fruit, or foliage.
The grower will purchase his materials well in advance of
the spraying season at a time when the market 1s most favor-
able. This is usually in early winter. The materials should
be stored in such a way as to make them convenient of access
and to prevent mistakes in identification of materials and the
possible use of the wrong material. Where unskilled help
must be employed, especial precautions should be taken to
prevent such mistakes.
3. Determining Time of Application of Materials and
Amounts to Use. The grower knows that chewing insects are
controlled best with stomach poisons. These may be applied
before the insects appear and within comparatively wide and
somewhat flexible limits.
Sucking insects, on the contrary, requiring contact sprays,
must be fought with materials applied directly to them. The
applications, therefore, may be made only when the insects are
present and usually within narrow time limits.
Fungus diseases require the presence of moisture for an
extended period to enable the spores to germinate and the
organism to establish itself. Since control measures are ineffec-
tive after the fungus is once established on the host, it has
become a rule in fruit growing to apply fungicides before
rainy weather.
Consult Spray Program for the Region. Experiment sta-
tions have developed spray programs or schedules adapted
to certain sections, which through a combination of insecticides
and fungicides will control most of the common insects and
diseases with a minimum number of applications. Become
familiar with the program for your section. Follow it care-
fully. Since new or more complete information is appearing
each year, the program is subject to change, and the grower
must be continually on the watch for better and less expensive
methods of accomplishing his purposes.
CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
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CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
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CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
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DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 297
Typical spray schedules are incorporated herewith. They
are not intended as guides but merely as illustrations. Sched-
ules vary for different regions and for the various fruits. They
vary also for the same regions in different years, depending
upon climatic conditions, the evidence of an epidemic of
disease or insect pests, and the acquirement of greater knowl-
edge with respect to control.
In many schedules the proportions of lime-sulfur are given
s 1-30, 140, 1-50, etc. This means that 1 gallon of a stand-
ard solution is used to 30, 40, or 50 gallons of water.
Proportions of lead arsenate are given in terms of the
powdered form, unless otherwise indicated.
The term nicotine, unless otherwise defined, refers to
nicotine sulfate.
SPRAYING SCHEDULES, NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF
AGRICULTURE, 1939
Cornell Extension Bulletin 314 (revised, 1939)
SPRAY OUTLINE FOR APPLES
Dormant Spray. For the control of rosy aphis, tar-distillate emulsion
containing 2% percent of tar oil in the diluted mixture may be applied
while the buds are dormant. If the amount of tar oil is increased to 4%
percent, it will also control infestations of oyster-shell scale, bud moth,
and scurfy scale.
The different brands of tar-distillate emulsions vary considerably in
composition. ‘Tar-distillate emulsions should be applied in the spring
before the buds show green at the tip and should not be used on trees
that are winter-injured.
For San José scale and red-mite eggs, a 3-percent lubricating-oil
emulsion may be used. Under certain conditions the oil emulsion may
be combined with a tar-distillate emulsion.
For severe infestations of the fruit-tree leaf-roller, lubricating-oil
emulsion diluted to contain from 5 to 6 percent of actual oil in the
spray may be applied. Scurfy scale is held in check by the 6-percent
concentration. The treatment is made after the buds have been to
swell but before they show green at the tip.
298 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
DN oil has been used successfully for several years in the control
of certain pests. The suggested recommendations are 2 gallons of DN
oil to 100 gallons of water for rosy aphis, San José scale, and scurfy
scale, and from 2% to 3 gallons for bud moth and oyster-shell scale.
The material is applied in the spring before the buds show any green.
Green-Tip Spray. The green-tip spray is suggested in large orchards
where it has been difficult to cover the entire orchard for aphis contrul
in the limited time permitted at the regular delayed-dormant stage.
While nicotine sulfate and lime-sulfur 1-50 usually proves more satis-
factory at the delayed-dormant stage than at other times, it has been
found possible to obtain commercial control with nicotine and a 3-percent
lubricating-oil emulsion when the buds are showing green tips and the
aphis eggs are not yet hatched. At this time the eggs are susceptible to
the effect of nicotine sulfate in combination with lubricating-oil emul-
gion as given in the following formula:
Bordeaux: midures ee 24-100
fubricatime ork alta. Sek ese 3 gallons
Nicotme: sulfate}. 222. 2p ee 1 pint
Water torimake soo Fe ace ee ee ee 100 gallons
* The Bordeaux is used to emulsify the oil and will also aid in preventing
early apple-scab infection. If scab is not a problem, % pound of lignin-pitch
may be used instead of the Bordeaux mixture to emulsify the oil.
¥ The nicotine may be omitted if tar distillate emulsion or DN oil has been
used in the dormant spray or on non-aphis-susceptible varieties, such as McIntosh,
unless bud moth is a problem.
San José scale, bud moth, and European red mite are also held in
check by this application.
Delayed-Dormant Spray (when the leaves of the blossom buds are
out from 4 to % inch) -
ame=sulhursy <2 yeas oe cock oho es eee 2 gallons
Lead ‘arsenate? tes. 025 a ae eee 3 pounds
Nicotine. sulfate,.20: oo cls ee 1 pint
Water tov minke 3 sets cc Pes eee 100 gallons
Three pounds of hydrated lime included in the spray mixture tends
to reduce the danger from arsenical injury.
The addition of 4% pound of lignin-pitch improves the spreading
qualities of the spray mixture.
Lime-sulfur is included for the control of apple scab.
Lead arsenate is used for the control of case-bearers, the tent cater-
pillar, and other chewing insects. -It is of vaiue also in the control of
apple scab.
Nicotine sulfate is used primarily against the rosy and green aphids
DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 299
and the bud-moth larvae. If the trees have been sprayed previously
at the dormant or green-tip stage for these pests, the nicotine may be
omitted in the delayed-dormant application. The nicotine may also
be omitted on non-aphis-susceptible varieties, such as McIntosh, unless
bud moth is a problem.
For the nicotine spray to be most effective against the rosy aphis, it
is necessary to delay spraying until nearly all the eggs have hatched.
Under normal weather conditions this has taken place by the time the
opening leaves have reached the stage indicated, and that is usually
early enough for scab control. In exceptional seasons, however, apple-
scab infection may occur before the aphis eggs have hatched. Under
such circumstances Bordeaux mixture in the green-tip application, or an
additional early application of 2 gallons of lime-sulfur, may be re-
quired for scab control before the delayed-dormant spray.
Some growers prefer to apply the oil spray at tne delayed-dormant
stage instead of the dormant or green-tip stage for the control of scale
and red mite. The spray should be completed before the leaves roll
back and expose the blossom buds, to avoid the danger of russeting the
fruit.
Pre-Blossom Sprays
| _LDOPSESS* TUN Sain SA a SN lig ne 2 gallons
Pee mar SeM he, cent OO ote an ay eal od 3 pounds
eructen mr PAE) teh i 8 100 gallons
The same suggestions relative to lime and lignin-pitch as those men-
tioned under the delayed-dormant spray are followed. .
It is advisable to increase the lead arsenate and lime to 6 pounds
each if leaf-roller is a serious problem.
If dust is used, a 90-10 sulfur—lead-arsenate mixture is indicated. If
conditions are favorable for severe scab infection, the grower should
spray as much as possible, using dust to complete the operation on time.
The pre-blossom spray or sprays, applied between the delayed-
dormant spray and the bloom, are timed primarily for scab control.
The points to be considered in timing the applications are: the occur-
rence of rain periods; the amount of new growth; and the stage of
development of the scab fungus. In some seasons two pre-blossom
applications may be required for effective scab control, especially on
extremely susceptible varieties such as McIntosh.
Calyx-Spray (when the last of the petals are falling)
{ESS CUD ae epee aa Gs a 2 gallons
_ A263 UES Sol Chie Ne a i rr 3 pounds
Mimeanine woul ake AS ILA See eel oe es 1 pint
Mirae erste midi eee es 100 gallons
300 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
The same suggestions relative to lime and lignin-pitch as those men-
tioned under the delayed-dormant spray are followed.
If red bugs’ are not present, nicotine sulfate should be omitted.
It is advisable to increase the lead arsenate and lime to 6 pounds
each if leaf-roller is a serious problem.
If wet weather prevails during bloom and if scab control is doubtful,
or if scab spots are present on the leaves, lime-sulfur is preferred. With
dry weather during bloom and no scab present, wettable sulfurs may be
used to reduce the danger of spray injury.
The calyx spray is applied chiefly to control apple scab and to
poison the codling-moth larvae which later enter the blossom end of
the fruit.
In orchards where the plum curculio is a problem, this application also
affords early protection against this pest. :
If dust is used a 90-10 sulfur—lead-arsenate mixture is indicated.
If conditions are favorable for a heavy infection of scab, the grower
should spray as much as possible, using dust as a supplementary
measure. If red bugs are to be controlled, a separate application of a
2-percent nicotine-lime dust is indicated.
Curculio Spray (seven to ten days after the calyx spray)
Intme-so hur ae ae ese ets 2 gallons
lead arsenate. P35 een or i eee 3 pounds
Water to make sey jd ees Oe ee 100 gallons
The same suggestions relative to lime and lignin-pitch as those men-
‘tioned under the delayed-dormant spray are followed.
This spray is timed primarily for the control of the plum curculio,
but it is also very important for the control of apple scab. Protection
will also be afforded against rose leaf-beetle or rose chafer in orchards
where these pests are a problem. The same considerations exist as in
the calyx application with respect to the substitution of wettable sulfurs
for liquid lime-sulfur in this application.
If dust is used, a 90-10 sulfur—lead-arsenate mixture is indieciteal
Summer Sprays. The purpose of the summer sprays is to control
codling moth, apple maggot, and apple scab.
It is the usual practice to include a fungicide in all the summer
sprays for scab control. If a lime-sulfur schedule has been used
through the primary infection and practically all early infections have
been prevented, it is advisable to use one of the wettable sulfurs as a
fungicide in the summer applications to reduce the danger of injury to
foliage and fruit. In seasons when scab is not a problem, the fungi-
cide may be omitted from some of the summer sprays during or pre-
DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 301
ceding hot periods. However, a fungicide should be included in the
last summer application unless a thorough examination of the trees,
especially in the tops, shows that the scab is not a problem.
- In planning a spraying schedule for the summer applications—that
is, after the calyx or the curculio spray—it must be kept in mind that
the regulations of the Federal Food and Drug Administration do not
permit more than 0.01 grain of arsenic trioxide or more than 0.025
grain of lead per pound of fruit. A tolerance of 0.02 grain of fluorine
per pound of fruit is allowed. These requirements may be met either
by removing the residue by washing, or by modifying the schedule to
keep the residue below tolerance. Washing is an additional expense;
a modification of the schedule to keep the residue below tolerance
may result in loss from codling-moth and apple-maggot infestation.
If the grower is in a position to have his crop washed, he can follow
a schedule designed to give adequate protection against these pests.
It is at present impossible to suggest an entirely satisfactory schedule
for those who cannot wash their fruit. The later sprays may be omitted,
the strength of the insecticide reduced, or the materials less likely to
leave excessive residues may be substituted for those ordinarily used,
but these modifications will not invariably insure freedom from exces-
Sive residue.
The experience of growers and investigators over a period of years
indicates that in most orchards representative of Hudson Valley con-
ditions a spray schedule may be designed which offers possibilities of
obtaining a maximum of protection against insect pests without run-
ning into difficulties from excessive spray residues. This program,
referred to as a non-washing schedule, involves the substitution of cal-
cium arsenate or basic zinc arsenate for the lead arsenate ordinarily
used. A program to be followed where the fruit may be washed if
necessary is referred to as a washing schedule. Both these schedules
are given in the following paragraphs: |
Non-WASHING SCHEDULE
(where an effort is being made to avoid washing the fruit)
First Codling-Moth Cover-Spray (about June 10 to 15)
Wettable sulfur (at manufacturer’s: directions)
or
Lime-sulfur (if scab is a problem) ...... 2 gallons
it at CRNA LO ee OP ete 3 pounds
Sere tininer i we ea 100 gallons
302 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES.
The same suggestions relative to lime and lignin-pitch as those men- —
tioned under delayed-dormant spray are followed. Where arsenical
injury has been severe in the past, 2 pounds lime to each pound of lead
arsenate is suggested.
If home-made wettable sulfur 1s being weed, 4 pound of skim milk
powder or 1 pound of soybean flour may be included in the spray
mixture as a spreader.
This application will also afford protection against rose leaf-beetle
or rose chafer in orchards where these pests are a problem.
If dust is used, a 90-10 sulfur-lead-arsenate mixture is indicated.
First Apple-Maggot Spray, or Second pees Moth Spray (about
June 25 to July 1)
1. Formula for varieties ripening later than McIntosh and Cortland.
Wettable sulfur (at manufacturer’s directions)
or .
Lime-sulfur (if scab 1s a problem) ...... 2 gallons
Lead. sarsennte Gi3, 0) oe tisie.ep ee ee 3 pounds
Wratier “(e.,. rieslee 9 51%). dic eat ee 100 gallons
For a spreader at this time, 144 pound of skim milk powder or 1 pound
of soybean flour may be used with lime-sulfur or in home-made wettable
sulfur. If dust is used for this application, a 90-10 sulfur—lead-arsenate
mixture is suggested. One pound of lime is used with each pound of
lead arsenate. Where arsenical injury has been severe in the past,
2 pounds lime to each pound of lead arsenate is suggested.
2. Formula for McIntosh, Cortland, and other early varieties.
Wettable sulfur (at manufacturer’s directions)
or
Lime-sulfur (if scab is a problem) ...... 2 gallons
Caletum arsenated ee: Sos A Fis oe 3 pounds
Hydrated lime .....: Sites CMR aes 9 pounds
Water stocmake - 3)... 35. aogier 100 gallons
The same suggestions relative to spreader as those mentioned in the
first codling-moth cover spray are followed. If dust is used, a 90-10
sulfur-lead-arsenate mixture is indicated.
* Basic zinc arsenate, 3 pounds, may be substituted for calcium
arsenate. One pound of lime is used with each pound of zine arsenate.
DETERMINING TIME OF APPLICATION 303
Second Apple-Maggot Spray, or Third Codling-Moth Cover Spray
(about July 15).
To prevent excessive spray residues, the use of calcium arsenate or
basic zinc arsenate is suggested at this time on all varieties as follows:
Wettable sulfur (at manufacturer’s directions)
matenm arsenate ©...) te ek 2 pounds
Pee Ce Oe. ee ee tcs ose eee ss 6 pounds
iene rer ee Se et i a 2 100 gallons
The same suggestions relative to spreader as those mentioned in first
codling-moth cover spray are followed. If dust is used, a 90-10 sulfur-
lead-arsenate mixture is indicated.
WASHING SCHEDULE
(where fruit may be washed if necessary)
The following formula may be used in all three of the cover sprays
outlined in the non-washing schedule.
Wettable sulfur (at manufacturer’s directions)
or
Lime-sulfur (if scab is a problem) ...... 2 gallons
Me apt SEMA ECG 5 Ao 2 ne cs Beda oes 3 pounds
Witnet in Hamer 2 re, a Sa 100 gallons
For a spreader, 1% pound of lignin-pitch may be used with lime-
sulfur or in home-made wettable sulfur for the first cover spray, and
¥4 pound of skim milk powder or 1 pound of soybean flour in the second
and third cover sprays. One pound of lime is used with each pound of
lead arsenate, or 2 pounds of lime with each pound of lead arsenate if
arsenical injury is a problem.
If dust is used, a 90-10 sulfur—lead-arsenate mixture is indicated.
The same precautions concerning residue should be taken in dusting
as in spraying. During prolonged rain periods, it is advisable to make
dust applications at shorter intervals than are indicated for spray mix-
tures. When there is already some scab on the foliage, control is made
more effective by relying on applications of liquid lime-sulfur spray,
since thorough applications of the material will burn out the scab
lesions and will prevent in large measure the formation and spread
* Basic zinc arsenate, 2 pounds may be substituted for calcaim
arsenate. One pound of lime is used with each pound of zinc arsenate.
304 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
of summer spores. However, the danger from heavy applications of
liquid lime-sulfur during the summer should not be overlooked.
SPRAYS FOR THE SEcoND Broop or Coptinc Mot
In most Hudson Valley orchards treatments for the second brood of
codling moth have not been necessary in past years. In a few orchards,
where codling moth has become a problem, protection from the second
brood may be necessary in some years. For this, one or two applica-
tions of a fixed-nicotine compound may be used in August. Three
quarts of summer oil plus % pint of nicotine may be used instead of
the fixed nicotine.
(New Jersey Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 102. Peach: left, too early to spray for curculio; center, the proper
stage; right, too late.
4. Selecting Machinery and Equipment for Making Appli-
cations. After the grower has studied carefully his insect and
disease problems and has worked out his spraying program, he
must then determine the machinery and equipment he will use
in carrying the program into effect. It must be adequate for
the purpose, and it should not represent an investment of
money beyond the point necessary to accomplish the purpose.
Many kinds and types of machinery and equipment are
available. In considering them the grower should take into
305
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT
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306 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
account definite facts about his fruit enterprise which he him-
self knows, and equally definite information from authorita-
tive sources, concerning machinery and equipment.
Procedure:
(a) Consider the size of the fruit enterprise.
(6) Consider the length of time within which applications
must be made and the number required.
(c) Consider nature of ground over which work must be done.
(d) Consider accessibility of the water supply.
(e) Consider availability of labor.’
(f) Consider comparative merits of spraying and dusting.
(g) Consider important mechanical features of sprayers and
equipment.
(h) Consider important mechanical features of dusters and
equipment. _
(2) Consider advisability of stationary spray plant.
(7) Select machinery and equipment.
(a) Consider the Size of the Frmt Enterprise. This refers
both to the acreage or the number of trees, and to the size
of the trees. A machine of a given capacity can do only a-
certain amount of work even when operating at maximum
efficiency and under the best of conditions. Number of trees
is a more dependable factor than number of acres, since it is
the trees that must be sprayed rather than the ground. How-
ever, acreage ana distance between trees may be important
from the standpoint of the hauling necessary in order.to put
the machine into action.
A power sprayer capable of carrying one gun at full capac-
ity should cover 150 to 225 well-grown trees about 20 years
old in 10 hours. If all conditions are favorable, including
availability of water, the upper figure is possible, but it will
not be attained on the average. A two-gun outfit, if it is
really such in capacity and power and not merely an outfit
to which two guns have been attached, will cover almost double
the number of trees except that time consumed in filling and
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 307
haulage does not change. Small trees require less material
and can be covered more quickly. However, more hauling
and walking are required, and the increase in number sprayed
is hardly proportionate to the decrease in their size.
Small trees may, of course, be cared for with lighter and
less powerful equipment than is needed for large trees.
(6) Consider the Length of Time within Which Applica-
tions Must Be Made and the Number Required. The grower
knows from his study of insects and diseases the stages in their
life histories when they may be controlled. He knows that
he must perform his spraying operations at these times, and
that if he does not do so, the operations will result in failure.
For instance, he knows that, whereas he may control peach
leaf curl by spraying at any time during the dormant season,
he must spray for aphis when the insect is present and in an
exposed situation on the buds. He must cover the orchard
rapidly in a rainy season for scab control. An outfit that might
be adequate to control peach leaf curl would not do at all for
some of the organisms that must be controlled within narrow
time limits during the growing season.
Again, one thorough application each year is sufficient for
peach leaf curl and usually for scale. Three or four applica-
tions may be required for codling moth in regions where there
are several broods each year, and an even larger number of
applications may be required for apple scab. These facts
influence the decision in selecting machinery.
Further allowance must be made for windy or rainy weather
during the period when the organisms may be controlled. This
cuts down the available time and makes it necessary to in-
crease the capacity of the outfit. In most parts of the country,
except the Far West, not more than four days out of each
week are available for effective orchard applications. The
number is often less.
(c) Consider Nature of the Ground over Which Work Must
Be Done. It is evident that level or rolling lands, free from
rocks, offer fewer obstacles to rapid work than rough or moun-
308 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
tain lands. Lighter outfits of less capacity may be necessary
on hilly land than on level land, and the work must conse-
quently go more slowly.
(d) Consider Accessibility of Water Supply. Time spent in
procuring water is time lost in covering the trees. The round
trip to water one-fourth mile distant will require at least 15
minutes with a team, 8 to 10 minutes with a tractor, without
regard to the time spent. in filling the tank. Many orchards
are so poorly located with reference to water supply that nearly
one-half the spraying time is spent merely in getting the
water. Growers operating under such conditions are under
a serious handicap. ‘They need to consider carefully the
feasibility of applying most of their materials without water.
If this does not seem practicable, then they may well expend
a considerable sum to arrange a more accessible supply of
water. The same outfit will then apply a much greater quan-
tity of material in the same period, or the grower may reduce
the equipment needed.
Together with the convenience of the water supply should
go arrangements for mixing materials and filling the tank that
will save time and increase the productive efficiency of the
outfit.
(e) Consider Availability of Labor. This implies both
quantity and quality. Much is involved in the spraying
operation beside the mere application of materials. The
machinery is quite complicated; formulas for mixings and
dilution are exact; the time limits within which effective appli-
cations may be made are often narrow. The man on the spray
outfit should visualize the organisms he seeks to control and
the finished product he hopes to achieve. For these reasons,
growers with small orchards attempt to handle the spraying
job through some member of the family who is vitally inter-
ested. Large growers employ trusted men of more than aver-
age intelligence to supervise and direct the operation. If only
a few capable men are available, then a number of high-class
outfits of large capacitv should be considered.
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 309
(f) Consider Comparative Merits of Spraying and Dusting.
When materials are applied in water as.a carrier, the operation
is termed spraying; when they are applied in the dry state,
with or without a carrier, the operation is termed: dusting.
Spraying is the standard practice in most fruit sections at the
present time. In considering the purchase of machinery and
equipment for insect and disease control, however, the grower
will wish to take account of all the factors in the situation,
including both present practices and probable developments
in the immediate future. His investment in such machinery
and equipment cannot be repeated each season. It is impor-
tant, therefore, that he invest wisely, taking into account both
general facts and his own special conditions and problems.
Certain advantages in dusting are apparent.
_ 1. The work may be done much more rapidly. Dusting 10 acres
before breakfast or after supper is not at all out of the question. Thirty
acres of mature apple orchard and 40 acres of peaches may be dusted in
a 10-hour day with a modern outfit. This is nearly 5 times the average
that can be covered in the same period with an equally modern sprayer.
With a large acreage and a short period within which the application
can be made for the greatest effectiveness, with the period frequently cut
down by bad weather, and with the importance of reducing labor costs
to a minimum, this factor assumes great importance.
2. The labor requirement is less. This relates both to the rapidity
with which the work may be done and to the number of men required
to do it. A large dusting outfit may be operated with one-third less
man power than a large sprayer.
3. The water requirement is eliminated. No time is lost in hauling
water or in filling the tank. Sufficient materials for a half-day’s work
may be carried on the machine, and supplies for the entire day may be
quickly distributed at convenient points throughout the orchard.
4. The equipment is light. It may be used where the heavy liquid
outfit cannot be taken, on soft ground and rough land. As a rule, a
loaded duster weighs less than an empty sprayer.
5. Dust may be applied when the fruit and foliage are damp, whereas
for spraying they should be dry. Time is thus saved in the morning
while the dew is on, or at night after it has fallen, or between showers.
6. Standard dusting materials are less caustic and hence less likely
to cause burning than standard spraying materials. This is of impor-
310 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
tance in those sections where burning frequently results from use of
concentrated lime-sulfur or Bordeaux mixture. Dusted fruit in such
sections often possesses a brighter finish than sprayed fruit.
7. The investment per acre or per number of trees is less with a duster
than with a sprayer. A good dusting outfit with a small first cost will
care for a quantity several times greater than an equally good sprayer.
This materially reduces the overhead costs.
8. The removal of spray residues from fruit when applications late
in the season have been necessary is becoming a problem of consider-
able importance. Dusting materials may on the whole be removed
more easily from the fruit than the materials applied in liquid form.
9. Yur home fruit gardens, the small hand duster is much more con-
venient and usually less expensive than a small sprayer.
Other considerations not favorable to dusting at the present
time are: :
1. Materials for dusting are at present more expensive than for
spraying. The difference is considerable and usually offsets the labor--
saving factor in dusting.
2. Dusts to compare favorably in effectiveness with the spray mate-
rials for dormant applications have not yet been perfected. For in-
stance, dusts are not effective against San José scale at the present
time. Likewise, aphis, largely controlled during the early part of the
growing season by nicotine sprays, cannot be controlled satisfactorily
at present by nicotine or other dusts. |
3. Authorities and growers in various sections disagree sharply con-
cerning the effectiveness of dusts as compared with sprays, chiefly for
apple scab. There is considerable agreement that apple insects, with
the exception of the various scales and aphis, may be controlled effec-
tively by dusts, during the growing season. There is quite general
agreement that dusts are effective for the control of insects and diseases
of the veach during normal growing seasons. :
In New York, Massachusetts, Nova Scotia, Michigan,
Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Virginia, and some other states,
experiments favorable to dusting for summer applications have
been reported. In New York and elsewhere, some large
growers are relying upon dusts exclusively for scab control.
In some of these sections, as well as in Indiana, Connecti-
cut, and New Jersey, other tests have given results in favor of
spraying.
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 311
It should be kept in mind that fruit growers have been
working with liquid sprays and accumulating experience con-
cerning them for a long time. This is not to be lightly cast
aside. However, when the same study and attention have
been accorded the use of dusts, the results may bring about
radical changes in control methods.
With the foregoing facts in mind and with a knowledge of
the comparative results of dusting and spraying attained by
both experimental agencies and growers in the section where
(John Bean Mfg. Oo.)
Fic. 108. The usual method of assembly of a spray outfit, with engine
at the rear, pump in center, and tank in front.
his fruit enterprise is located, the grower is ready to make his
decision between the two methods of application. It is evi-
dent that, though the decision is in favor of spraying as the
usual means of control and at present the exclusive means dur-
ing the dormant season, the duster may still be highly desir-
able as a supplemental agency to cover the planting quickly
when the time factor is all-important or when labor jis scarce.
Thus, although most growers own at least one good sprayer,
using it for dormant and early foliage sprays, many of them
also own a duster, using it extensively for the regular summer
312 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
applications or holding it as an insurance and safety factor
against the time of need.
(g) Consider the Important Mechanical Features of Spray-
ers and Equipment. Spray machines are known as power,
traction, or hand machines, depending on the source of the
power for their operation. The commercial grower is primarily
interested in the power outfit, the term applied to engine-
operated machines. Such outfits are well standardized, and
many good ones are on the market. They provide a high pres-
sure when desired, a uni-
form pressure throughout the
spraying operation, and a
capacity ranging from the
small one-cylinder outfits to
the giant-powered machines
used for forest, street, and
park spraying.
1. The Pump. The spray
machine can be no better
than its pump. Pump ¢ca-
pacity is important. It
should be great enough so
| that it may do the job ex-
(Hardie Mfg. Co.) pected of it with a reserve
Fic. 104. A two-cyclinder pump. left over. A machine oper-
ated to the full limit of its
capabilities is subjected to oe strain and goes to pieces sooner
than more powerful machines operating with an ample reserve.
The capacity of a sprayer is the number of gallons per minute
that the pump will deliver at a stated pressure, usually 600
pounds. Many manufacturers overrate the capacity of their
machines under actual orchard conditions. Many growers, on
the other hand, habitually run their pumps with an overload
that materially reduces their period of service. Allowance must
be made for the capacity losses due to worn valve seats and cyl-
inder packing, smal] leaks, and other minor defects in opera-
—ee—
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 313
tion, which cannot be remedied during the height of the spray-
ing operation, but which nevertheless affect the productive
capacity of the outfit. A 10-gallon per minute outfit is likely
to become a 6- or. 8-gallon outfit before the spraying is done
and repairs may be made.
(Hardie Mfg. Co.)
Fic. 105. A three-cylinder pump.
Power spray pumps have two, three, or four cylinders
(Figs. 104 and 105). Values and efficiency cannot be measured
solely in terms of the number of cylinders. A pump with three
small cylinders and inadequate engine power may be inferior
to a good two-cylinder outfit.
The smallest power outfits have pumps of two cylinders with
a 2-inch bore and a 3-inch stroke. They are driven by 1- to
314 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
3-horsepower engines. Their capacity is from 6 to 10 gallons
per minute. They will carry one lead of hose and rod with
three nozzles maintaining a pressure of 400 pounds. This type
of machine will care for upward of 5 to 10 acres of orchard,
the determining factor being sufficient time to get the spray
on during the period of effective control.
Three- and four-cylinder pumps deliver 15, 35, and as much
as 50 gallons per minute. They are driven by 5- to 25-horse-
power engines or by @
power take-off from the
tractor. Larger outfits will
carry two lines of hose with
6 and 8 nozzles on each and
still maintain a pressure of
600 and 700 pounds. The
orower must decide whether
he is to use one large out-
fit or more smaller ones.
(a) Pump Specifications.
The pump design should be
simple with all parts easily
accessible. Parts subject to
wear should be so designed
| — and located that they can
(John Bean Mfg. Oo.) be quickly replaced. Many
Fic. 106. The ball valve gives long Spray materials are corro-
wear without leakage. sive. Parts in contact with
) them are usually of porce-
lain or brass. Valves of the ball type, made of stainless steel,
with seats that are quickly replaceable, give greatest satisfac-
tion (Fig. 106). Poppet and disk valves do not wear as evenly as
ball valves, and leakage becomes a serious problem with
them.
Pump cylinders (Figs. 107 and 108), are of brass, porce-
lain, or steel, the steel ones being intended for quick and ready
replacement. The plunger within the cylinder may be of an
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 31d
expanding type of material creating suction or pressure as it
works back and forth, or the packing may be stationary at the
end or top of the cylinder, fitting closely about the piston
so as to prevent leakage. In the latter type a smooth metal
plunger is used. In either case, the wear is intended to come
on the soft, expanding material which is easily replaced, rather
than on a hard metal part. Pack-
ing materials may be hemp, com-
position, candlewick, etc., treated
with oil or graphite to soften
them. |
The air or pressure chamber
is an essential feature of the
pump. The spray material en-
ters the chamber under pressure;
the air is compressed and aids in
maintaining an even flow of the
material to the nozzles. The
SHIMS
DIE CAST BEARING
DROP FORGED
CONNECTING ROD
PLUNGER BODY
GUIDE
OIL POCKET
LOCK SCREW
PORCELAIN
size of the air chamber should LINING
increase with the size of the out- ete
fit. The pressure gage is mounted OIL POCKET
STEEL TUBE
on the air chamber. haben
Uniform pressure is further par
; CUP FOLLOWER
insured by the pressure regulator aE
(Figs. 110 and 111). In its best
form it opens when a certain (Hardie Mfg. Co.)
pressure has been reached, re- Fig. 107. The detail of a pump
turning part of the spray ma- cylinder.
terial to the tank, and closes
when the pressure falls below this point. Variation in
pressure is thus taken up in the machine, and the flow of
material at the point of application to the trees remain
uniform. .
The pump may be operated by chain, by belt, by yoke,
or by gear. Gear-driven machines, rigidly mounted, are
standard, though chain and yoke machines have also given
316 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
(John Bean Mfg. Co.)
Fic. 108. Another view of the interior of a pump cylinder and related
parts.
OUTLET.
¥AL¥E
Fic. 109. The hook-up of the cylinders to the source of power.
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 317
satisfaction. Belts frequently slip, stretch, wear, or break.
A belt-driven machine may, however, be stopped quickly in an
emergency.
CAP
VALVE GAGE
STAINLESS STEEL BALL
STAINLESS STEEL -
VALVE SEAT
OVERFLOW TO TANK
DRAIN COCK
PACKING GUIDE
FOR STEM
YOKE
PACKING NUT ©
VALVE STEM
STEM LOCK NUTS
ADJUSTING SCREW
WROUGHT WASHER
SPRING :
DIAPHRAGM DISC
DIAPHRAGM
(Hardie Mfg. Oo.)
Fic. 110. The parts of the pressure-regulator
mechanism.
Pumps require thorough and continuous lubrication. Oil
prevents the grinding and friction of metal parts and keeps the
packing pliable. Oil cups should be readily accessible, and the
oil feeds should be simple and direct.
O18
CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
2. The Engine. Gasoline engines of the vertical type pro-
(John Bean Ufo. Co.)
Fig. 111. A true pressure regulator
has two valves. When the pump is
running, but no spraying is being
done, the upper valve opens to
take the load off pump and engine.
A relief valve merely diverts ex-
cess material back to spray tank,
but does not relieve engine and
pump.
vide the power on most out-
fits. It is better to have an
Over-size engine running well
within its resources than a
smaller one extended con-
stantly to its limit of per-
formance. Seldom, if ever,
should the engine be of less
than 2 horsepower; one of 3
horsepower is necessary for an
outfit of medium capacity.
For duplex and triplex pumps,
successively larger engines
will be required as the ca-
pacity increases. Larger ma-
chines, delivering 15 gallons
or upward per minute, require
engines capable of developing
6 to 10 horsepower, and the
largest machines develop up
to 35 horsepower. The num-
ber of cylinders varies from
one on the small outfits to
four on the giant machines. A
very good source of power and
one very commonly used to-
day is the power take-off from
the tractor. This can drive
pumps ranging in capacity
from 15 gallons per minute up
to the largest built (Fig. 113).
The engine must be hauled
about the orchard. It should
therefore be as light as is compatible with durable and reliable
performance.
Simplicity of operation, a minimum of parts,
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 319
readily accessible parts, and ease of obtaining new parts are
major factors, just as in case of the pump. Water-cooled
engines with a circulatory water system are standard. Air-
(Hardie Mfg. Co.)
Fic. 112. The crankshaft transmits power to
the pump. It should have plenty of reserve
strength.
cooled engines are used by some manufacturers. Magneto
ignition systems are standard equipment on the newer ma-
chines; they do not become deranged as easily as the older
battery systems, but it is well to have a battery system on
(Hardie Mfg. Co.)
Fic. 113. A trailer outfit operating by means of a power take-off from
the tractor.
hand to use in case of emergency, since the magneto system
when deranged may require the attention of an expert.
A governor to control the engine speed as the load varies
is very desirable and makes it unnecessary to watch the engine
closely during the spraying operation.
320 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
A carburetor adjustable at a single point, the needle valve
controlling the gasoline flow, is desirable. When the point
where combustion is best has been located, it should be marked
and changes made only as the temperature varies or as the
engine through prolonged use varies in the internal relation-
ships of its parts.
The oiling system should be thorough but simple, requiring
a minimum number of operations to care for it.
Engines are mounted either in front or rear. On a team-
handled outfit, especially if the horses are uneasy, a front-
mounted engine is inconvenient to start. Turn the front
trucks at right angles so that the engine is more accessible.
On the other hand, the heavy load of material when the tank
is full moves more easily over the rear axle than over the front,
which should turn freely. In a few outfits engines are mounted
on top of the tank, but they are relatively inaccessible, in the
way of branches, and on the whole inconvenient.
3. The Tank. Either wooden or steel tanks are used on
all standard makes of sprayers. The best Western cypress or
fir is not affected by corrosives used in spray mixtures, and
for many years they have been very satisfactory woods for
the manufacture of good spray tanks. Steel tanks are also
strong and tight. They may be made in almost dny shape
and may be electrically welded and treated to give special
corrosion-resisting qualities. Wooden stave tanks of a
U-shape permit the withdrawal of all the material from the
corners. |
The tank may be mounted above the axles on bed pieces,
or underslung with the rear axle passing through the tank.
On hillsides, where it is important to have the center of
gravity as low as possible to reduce the danger of overturning,
the underslung tank, though more expensive, is preferable.
Tank capacity will vary with the topography of the ground
and with the power available to haul the sprayer. The large
tank requires few trips to the filling points and is a time saver.
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 321
Tanks holding 200 gallons are common, though larger ones
- are gaining in popularity. The choice depends on the condi-
tions. A 100-gallon tank may be as large as can be handled
under certain conditions.
4. The Agitator. Many spray materials are in suspension
rather than in solution. Emul-
sions have a tendency to sepa-
rate into their component parts;
two or more solutions may not
mix freely when put together.
For these reasons an effective
system of agitation of the spray
materials in the spray tank
is of great importance. Agita-
tion may be secured by means
of propellers attached to a
shaft running the length of the
tank near the bottom and con-
nected to the pump (Fig. 114).
The number of revolutions nec-
essary per minute will depend
on the size of the propellers, but
should be from 50 to 60 for
large ones and a higher number | 6
for small ones. _ (Hardie Mfg. 00.)
Paddles which sweep the Fic. 114. The agitator operates
entire length of the tank close 2" the bottom of the tank.
to the bottom to prevent sedi- Oe Ae RS a gees
: altering the size of the sprocket
ment from accumulating are ar ge Ae PA
also used.
5. Transfer of Material from Tank to Pump. The transfer
may be by suction or by gravity. Suction feed gives less dan-
ger of clogging and does not carry over heavy or coarse sedi-
ment to the pump. A gravity feed is satisfactory for ma-
terials containing no sediment, but if sediment is present and
the machine goes out of action even for a short period the
4
322 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
connecting pipe may clog. Since both materials carrying sedi-
ment in suspension and those which do not enter into the
normal spraying program, the suction type of feed is preferable.
6. The Truck. A truck with a heavy steel frame rigidly
bolted or riveted is best. Rocking bolsters compensate for
unevenness in the ground, keep the load in proper position,
under the frame are desirable
for close quarters and sharp
turns, as in closely planted
orchards. Wide tires are best
on sandy or soft ground. The
heavier machines are equip-
ped with tires 5 to 8 inches
wide. On the other hand, on
steep, hard ground, narrow
tires will cut in more and
give better footing than wide
tires.
7 Pneumatic tires are being
(Hardie Mjg. Oo.) used on many trucks. There
Fic. 115. The suction strainer in "©©™S i doubt that the life
the tank should be of heavy brass Of equipment mounted on
mesh, and readily accessible for rubber is longer. The ease of
cleaning. handling and all-round gen-
| eral efficiency make it seem
likely that before very long rubber mounting will be standard
equipment.
fer he Tower. A tower mounted on the tank is desirable
for spraying tall trees. With the advent of the spray gun
and the practice of heading trees lower than formerly, the
tower is not so necessary as in the past. However, in many
places the efficiency of the spraying job would be increased by
its use. Where trees are 20 feet or more in height, the tower
should be considered standard equipment.
8. Nozzles. Nozzles are of two general types. The Bor-
deaux nozzles exemplifies the first, giving a flat, fan-shaped
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 323
spray. In the second type, the spray emerges from the nozzle
in the form of a cone. The various disk nozzles and the ver-
morel nozzle belong to this classification. Differences in form
of spray in these two types are obtained by differences in
details of construction of the nozzles. The spray gun shoots a
cone-shaped spray, unless opened wide, when the spray re-
sembles that from the Bordeaux nozzle.
The Bordeaux nozzle gives a direct, driving spray which
can be applied even in the face of a strong wind. The particles
, Co :
(Hayes Pump and Planter Qo.)
Fig. 116. Spray nozzles and accessories taken from a manufacturers’
catalog.
100, 102, 109, 113, Disk nozzles. 106, 107, 108, Vermorel nozzles.
101, 103, 114, Disk angle nozzles. A. Disk nozzle parts.
104, 105, Bordeaux nozzles. B. Nozzle cap parts.
of spray are not so fine as in the disk nozzle, fineness being a
desirable attribute for most purposes. Less surface can be
covered in the same time with the Bordeaux nozzle than with
the disk nozzles, and its construction causes it to catch more
readily in the branches.
Disk nozzles of standard make, designed for the pressure
that the outfit will carry, are desirable. As the hole in the
disk wears larger, the greater is the quantity of spray that
will feed through in a given time, and the more the pressure
will be reduced. Growers often make the mistake of not re-
324 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
placing these disks frequently. A fine driving spray that
spreads into a cone as it comes from the nozzle and goes on to
the fruit and foliage in small globules, rather than one that
washes the tree, is the objective. The Virginia Experiment
Station found that, at 300 pounds pressure and using arsenate
of lead, outer spray disk openings of 14, and 14, inch wore in
about 45 hours of continuous spraying to > and 49 inch,
respectively. It would seem then that the outer disks should
be changed after one week
of use. |
The shape of the spray
is determined in the eddy
chamber, the space between
the inner and outer disks,
created by the insertion of
a washer or gasket from 1%
to 34, inch thick The outer
disk has a single opening
in center. The inner disk,
usually much thicker, has
from two to six holes driven
through at an angle, near
Fig. 117. Nozzles with six holes in the the outer circumference.
disk are favored by some growers. At The deeper the eddy cham-
the left the whirl disk and nozzle base ;
are in one piece; at the right the whirl ber and the straighter the
disk is removable from the nozzle base. holes in the inner disk, the
narrower the cone of. spray
and the greater its driving quality. The spray of greatest fine-
ness is obtained by a shallow eddy chamber, a decided slant
to the holes through the inner disk, and a small aperture in
the outer disk, but its driving or carrying power is reduced.
Nozzles with six holes in the inner disk, and with a spray
apperture of %4¢ to %4» inch, have proved very satisfactory
and throw the spray much farther than nozzles with but two
holes in the disk.
Disk nozzles have capacities ranging from 34 to 21% gal-
(Virginia Exp. Sta.)
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 325
lons per minute at 250 pounds pressure, depending upon the
construction details already mentioned. They are frequently
arranged in pairs or in clusters of three or even more. When
the nozzles are so arranged, the cone of spray
is narrowed and the driving power is in-
creased as the nozzles are brought closer to
each other, the air resistance being decreased.
At least one experiment station recommends
a set of disk nozzles on a spray rod, 8 to 10
feet long, in preference to the spray gun.
When rather coarse materials in suspen-
sion must pass through the nozzle, the larger
sizes of disk apertures should be used. Angle
disk nozzles are helpful in reaching the under
surfaces of the leaves and in giving better
direction to the spray, and they enable the
operator to keep out of the spray himself.
They constitute standard equipment.
9. The Gun. The spray gun is a disk
eae or "ea ae Beat agin aye ee Deane
a see es i ie ae pak na eae Brae er nee
‘ | spray rod with
Eady chanioer mm the form of a plunger. The .. siuminum* core.
gun may be entirely shut off by turning the |
plunger up against the exterior disk. As the plunger is with-
drawn and the eddy chamber increases in depth, the cone of
Fic. 119. A powerful one-nozzle spray-gun of modern design.
spray becomes narrower, with coarser particles and greater
driving range.
The range and type of spray may be changed by a partial
turn of the hand: foliage near at hand may be coated with a
326 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
fine mist; that at a distance may be reached by a driving
spray. The gun is light and easy to carry and handle, being usu-
ally from 18 to 36 inches long and weighing from 3 to 4 pounds.
It is commonly constructed of brass, but aluminum guns with
brass nozzles and brass movable parts are now available. They
are both light and durable.
(Figs. 119 and 120.)
The spray gun has
largely replaced the rod and
nozzle on power outfits. It
makes possible the applica-
tion of large quantities of
material in a short period.
A pressure of 400 pounds
or more is usually needed.
The spray gun saves time,
applying 3 to 6 gallons per
minute, or a larger quantity
with a double gun. It ap-
preciably reduces the labor
| cost of application. It may
(John Bean Mfg. Co.) not save material—that de-
Fic. 120. Spray guns with a battery pends on the agility of the
of nozzles. operator.
Much poor work has
been done with the spray gun, largely because too much was
expected of it. Some growers have returned to the rod and
nozzle. The temptation is great merely to stand on the ground
or spray tank, turn on the pressure, shoot a driving spray at
the tree, and assume that the job is done. It is true that the
force of the spray will turn many of the leaves as it strikes
them, thereby coating the lower leaf surfaces, but this will be
true of only a fraction of the leaves. The gun does not elim-
inate the necessity of spraying from the ground, and where
the trees are headed low, it is difficult to coat the lower leaf
surfaces thoroughly with this device.
_ SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT oat
At low pressures the gun of the usual type will give poor
results, and many growers have made a mistake in attempting
to use two guns on an outfit that could carry but one. The
usual type of sprayer of 314 to 4 horsepower will not carry two
guns of the present types and do a uniformly good job of spray-
ing. This is because the guns, when operating fully, require
more material than the pump can deliver. Studies indicate
that under such conditions the guns will take 4 to 5 gallons
each per minute while the rated capacity of the pump is only
8 to 10 gallons per minute, in practice often falling below this.
Table 41 gives the results of actual orchard tests made by
the Virginia Agricultural: Experiment Station* with various
types of equipment at different pressures. The nozzles listed
were arranged in sets of three or four. Note (a) that 44-inch
spray disk openings are too large to give satisfactory results
at any pressure used, and (b) that the nozzles arranged in a
straight line gave as great a delivery of material and fully as
great a drive of material as the guns.
Modifications of the spray gun under different names are
now available, claiming greater perfection in adjustment and
manipulation. |
10. Spray Rod. Some growers still prefer the spray rod
(Fig. 118). One or more nozzles are mounted at the end. Both
bamboo and iron rods are in use, but the former is much lighter,
of greater diameter, and easier to hold. It is hard work to
manipulate a spray rod all day, so that these factors are of
considerable importance.
An aluminum or brass core extends through the rod, carry-
ing the spray material to the nozzle. The fittings holding the
rod in place must be kept tight or the rod will turn in the
hands independent of the core. Cracks or checks in the rod
should be wound with tape as soon as they appear. A collar
of metal or rubber at the upper end serves as a shield or guard
to prevent the drip from working back along the rod to the
*W.S. Hough, Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 260, 1928.
328 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES —
TABLE 41
MEASUREMENT OF TYPES OF SPRAY PRODUCED By VARIOUS EQUIPMENT
WHEN OPERATED AT Pump PRESSURES OF 250, 300, AND 400 Pounps
Note-—Except as noted, 50-foot lengths of 14-inch hose were used.
Pressure, Pressure, Pressure,
R 250 Pounds 300 Pounds 400 Pounds
pray :
Equipment & — |
pen | Volume Volume Volume
ing - |Spra Spray Spray
Pet | Drive Drive ; Drive
Minute Minute Minute
nr | | | | ee
Inch |Gallons| Feet |Gallons| Feet |Gallons| Feet
1. Fournozzles..| Ke 44 Lp AZ 15 5% 16
2. Fournozzles..| We 614 12 634 15 8ly* 17
3. Mour nezzes: 1. lop. lo acer ee ook 814 15 1014* 18
iD Pour nozzles. (5 Vee ate bs ae ee 13 4%* { (1.3...
5. Three nozzles.| “46 34 10 35% 13 4l4 13
6. Three nozzles.| Yo 414 10 5 13 6 13
fe. Varese nozzles 1 > 2494.4 een loee ee 634 13 734* | 14
6? Three nezzles.| ee oe ee oe 914 ? J es
9
. Double gun..| Ye Aly 11 44 13 5% 15
10. Double gun. .}| Ko 534 11 634* 15 734* 17
11. Double gun..} % 8 11 914 15 | 10444
12. Single gun....| oe 244 9 244 10 2% 12
13. Single gun....| Wo 3 9 338 11 3% 12
14. Single gun....| 54 12 53% 13 614 13
* Five-eighths inch hose, 50-foot length.
}~ Spray coarse and lifeless, drive very weak.
hands of the operator. A wet rod is difficult to handle, and the
material may make the hands sore if they are soaked in it
continuously.
For peaches, sour cherries, and small trees, a rod 6 to 8
feet long is sufficient. A 10-foot rod is needed for apples in
‘bearing, and a 14-foot rod may be required if the trees are
high. Very short rods are sometimes convenient for spraying
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 329
the under sides of leaves on the lower branches and for work
at close quarters.
11. Control. Cut-offs to stop the flow of the material both
at the base of the spray rod and at the pump are advisable.
The former is in use continually as the operator manipulates
the rod and directs the spray. It enables him to save much
material between trees and to make minor adjustments in the
rod or nozzles without stopping the engine. At the pump a Y
connection with a cut-off attached to each prong is best. If
two leads of hose are employed, one may then be shut down
for repairs without interfering with the other.
Cut-offs should resist corrosion, brass being the common
material for them. They should be simple in construction and
easily replaced, and the one at the base of the rod should be so
designed that a partial turn will shut off the flow of material.
12. Spray Hose. Rubber spray hose for carrying the ma-
terial from the pump to the rod or gun should be either 36,
14, or ¥g inch in diameter. The % inch size should be used
when the nozzles discharge more than 4 gallons per. minute;
the 5,-inch hose is best for a discharge exceeding 61% gallons
per minute. The actual inside diameters of °-, %-, and
5¢-inch hose are usually 54¢, 46, and %¢ inch, respectively, but
the former are trade terms.
Hose larger than 1% inch is inconvenient to handle, on
account of its greater weight, and does not wear so well under
orchard conditions as that of smaller diameter.
There is a great variation in quality of hose and no fixed
standard by which its quality may be determined. It is classi-
fied according to the number of layers of canvas used in its
construction, as 3-ply, etc. The quality of these plies varies
greatly from fine duck to cheap sheeting. The greater the
number of plies and the better the material used, the more du-
rable the hose. The best hose usually has from 5 to 9 plies.
The length of hose required depends primarily on the dis-
tance between trees and also on the size of the trees, because
more hose is needed to work about a tree with a top large in cir-
330 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
(Hardie Mfg. Co.)
Fic. 121. A page of accessory parts from a manufacturer’s catalog.
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 331
cumference than one with a small head. The hose should be
sufficient so that at least one operator may always be working
on a tree other than that being sprayed by the man on the
machine, in order that he may stay out of the mist and drip.
The hose should also be long enough so that the machine may
be moved without disturbing the operator until he has finished
his job. Short lengths hurry the operator and are the cause of
Fic. 122. This is a modern type of machine, with center of gravity close
to the ground, all parts covered and mounted on rubber. The tower
on top of the tank is essential equipment.
many incomplete jobs. Hose 50 feet long has been found to be
about the right length for ordinary apple-orchard spraying,
giving freedom of manipulation without being too cumber-
some. For trees planted closely and of small size, 30- to
35-foot lengths may be adequate. If one lead is used con-
stantly from the tank, a length of 15 to 20 feet may be suffi-
cient for this purpose. An outfit of large capacity, 15 gallons
aoL CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
or more, may well be equipped with 5-inch hose for ground
work and 14-inch hose on the tank.
If the hose connections from the pump are at the rear of the
outfit, the hose may be attached conveniently and may easily
be kept out of the way of the wheels.
13. Couplings. Hose couplings should be of brass with
double-length shanks in order to offer plenty of surface for
(John Bean Mfg. Oo.)
Fig. 123. A front mounting of the tank is unusual and puts much
weight over the front axle which may impede turning. On a.- horse-
drawn. outfit it is easier to start the engine.
application of the hose clamps. The channels or waterways
should be large and without obstruction, and the coupling
should offer good wrench grips on both outer (female) and
inner (male) sections. Short and cheap couplings give endless
trouble through bursting or pulling out of the hose.
Brass hose clamps do not rust and resist chemical action.
They should be strong and broad so that they may be well
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 300
tightened without cutting into the fabric. Aluminum and iron
clamps may be used. Wire clamps are difficult to keep tight
and are likely to cut the hose.
The Traction Sprayer. The traction sprayer derives its
power from the turning of the wheels on which the machine is
hauled over the ground. Gears of a proper type transmit this
power to’ the pump, through which the spray material passes.
The pump may possess one, two, or three cylinders (Fig. 125).
It is evident that, when the wheels stop turning, the gen-
(New Jersey College of Agr.)
Fia. 124. The grower has installed an automo-
bile engine of four cylinders in this outfit with a
four-cylinder pump to make a very effective
Spray unit.
eration of power ceases and the pressure soon runs down.
Since in orchard spraying the machine cannot be constantly
In motion, the traction sprayer is not well adapted to the
spraying of trees. It finds its greatest usefulness for the fruit
grower in the spraying of grapes, berries, and other small
fruits, where the machine may continue in motion. The ma-
chine must work rapidly enough to maintain the pressure
and slowly enough to permit thorough coverage. A pressure
chamber helps in this connection
334 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
Hand Sprayers. Small hand sprayers of varying types are
available for the home garden. Among these, the knapsack
sprayer is satisfactory, the operator working the pump and di-
recting the spray at the same time. Much labor is involved,
however; the tank when full is heavy, and the pressure secured
is not great.
The barrel-mounted hand pump is a step in advance. It
will operate one lead of hose and maintain a pressure of 75 te
150 pounds with a discharge of 1 gallon or a little more per
AM
Fic. 125. A traction sprayer, pressure being generated as the wheels turn.
minute through a small-aperture disk nozzle. The cylinder
should be of brass with a diameter of 2 to 214 inches and a
stroke of 3 to 4 inches. It should be equipped with an air
chamber to aid in maintaining uniform pressure. All parts
should be readily accessible. An agitator should be attached
to the pump handle. The common mounting for the pump is on
the head of the barrel as the barrel stands in a vertical posi-
tion. The mounting, however, may be horizontal.
The barrel sprayer may be hauled on skids or a stone boat,
placed on a wagon or mounted on wheels. It will answer for
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 330
perhaps one or two acres of trees. Under the best of condi-
tions, it entails much heavy labor.
A modification of the barrel pump is the one-cylinder
double-action hand pump or the two-cylinder pump, mounted
on a platform, with a vertical handle that the operator moves
back and forth. He can put the weight of his body into the
action and develop higher pressure with greater ease than with
(John Bean Mfg. Oo.)'
Fic. 126. A modern duster. The spring platform on which the operator
stands takes up shocks and Jars and enables the operator to do a steady,
even job.
the barrel-mounted pump. The spray material reaches the
pump through a suction hose irom a barrel or tank. Such a
pump will run one lead of hose at 150 to 175 pounds pressure.
It will handle up to 5 acres of bearing orchard and is the most
satisfactory type of machine if the purchase of a power sprayer
is not warranted. It is especially useful in orchards where the
trees are only two or three years old, and it does the work
rapidly with little waste of material.
336 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
(h) Consider Important Mechanical Features of Duster
and Equipment. The duster is a simple machine compared to
the liquid sprayer. It consists essentially of a gasoline engine,
a hopper for the dusting materials, and a blower or fan which
forces the material through a discharge pipe on to the trees
(Figs. 126 and 127). It is usually mounted on a truck, or on
Fic. 127, This duster operates by means of a power take-off from the
tractor.
skids for easy transfer to wagon trucks. Trailer dusters to
attach to tractors are also available.
The material feeds through small apertures in the bottom
of the hopper into the fan chamber. The fan, propelled by the
engine and revolving rapidly, forces the dust out of the dis-
charge pipe in a strong air blast. The operator manipulates
the discharge pipe to send the materials to all parts of the
trees.
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 337
The body of the duster, including hopper and fan, may be
of light but durable material, as an alloy of aluminum. The
hopper should be airtight to hold the dust which sifts through
very small openings. Its capacity should be at least 100
pounds, equivalent to considerably more liquid spray, to avoid
frequent stops for refilling. The opening for pouring the dust
materials from the sacks into the hopper should be large
enough to make the transfer easy. The machine should have a
_ force feed to insure continuous and uniform delivery, with stiff
revolving brushes inside the hopper to pulverize any small
lumps and to work the material from the hopper through the
openings into the air chamber. Machines are now being
equipped with self-mixers to mix the dusts just prior to ap-
plication.
The fan should be 16 inches in diameter with about six
blades, making 3500 or more revolutions per minute.
A feed control lever, regulating the amount of material
passing from the discharge pipe, should be located so that the
operator may reach it conveniently. The lower section of the
discharge pipe attached to the feed channel should be of rein-
forced rubber to provide flexibility in moving the pipe. For
high trees a third section of pipe should be available. A dis-
charge pipe 4 inches in diameter is standard.
Engines of 8 to 14 horsepower, depending on the size of
the outfit, are required.
Traction dusters are used chiefly for field crops; hand
dusters are very convenient for home gardens.
(1) Consider the Advisability of a Stationary Spray Plant.
Stationary spray plants are in use in the Pacific Coast states,
the Shenandoah-Cumberland region of the South, New Jersey,
Ohio and Canada in orchards varying in size from 5 to 300
acres. Developed primarily to handle spraying problems on
irrigated lands or on areas that, owing to special conditions,
could not be sprayed at the proper time in the usual manner,
they have steadily increased in number and have made a place
for themselves in American fruit growing.
338 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
The stationary plant consists essentially of a pump driven
by electric or gasoline power and a mixing unit for prepara-
tion of the spray materials, at a fixed point, with a pipe system
of mains and laterals extending throughout the orchard,
equipped with risers for hose connections at regular intervals.
The spray material is applied to the trees in the usual manner
by means of hose and rods, or guns, by men who work through
the orchard, connecting the hose at convenient points.
Some of the advantages of such a system are at once ap-
parent:
1. Spraying may proceed on schedule on wet or rough land. In the
West, irrigation and the use of the portable sprayer often present a diffi-
cult problem. In all sections periods of heavy rains often interfere seri-
ously with the spraying operations, because the ground is too soft to haul
the machines over it. In sections where hill orchards and plantings on
rough lands are common, the stationary plant aids in solving the serious
problem of doing a thorough and timely spraying job.
2. The necessity for hauling machines between closely planted trees
and those loaded with fruit is eliminated.
3. Damage to cover crops or intercrops is reduced.
4. The application of materials to the trees goes on without inter-
ruption. There is no time out for refilling. The amount of effective
work accomplished by a given crew of men is increased from 25 to 50
percent over the portable outfit.
5. It releases teams, tractors, and the men to drive them, for other
forms of work.
6. There is less wear and less depreciation on machinery in a fixed
location and on a solid foundation than on that hauled through the
orchard. Its period of service is therefore extended. Some plants have
given satisfactory service for 15 years.
The chief advantage, already implied, is that it makes the
grower almost independent of soil or weather conditions, so far
as his spraying program is concerned.
On small enterprises, especially where teams or tractors
are needed for other work and must be retained whether used
for spraying or not, it is probable that the portable oufit is
:
:
:
:
:
SELECTING MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT 339
more economical. For the large enterprises and where condi-
tions require numerous applications of materials, the sta-
tionary plant is rapidly gaining in favor.
The Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station found in its
own orchard that over a four-year period the cost per 100
gallons of spray material for labor, power, depreciation, and
(Ohio Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 128. The units in a central or stationary spray plant correspond
to those in a portable outfit but provide greater power and capacity.
interest on investment was 15 cents less for the stationary unit
than for a portable outfit.
If it seems wise to consider the installation of the sta-
tionary unit, consult the local experimental station for latest
findings and recommendations.
(j) Select Machinery and Equipment. Basing his judg-
ment on the facts presented in the foregoing sections, the grower
is now ready to make his choice of machinery and equipment.
340 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
He will try to keep his investment and overhead charges as
low as is consistent with satisfactory performance and service.
He will give preference to standard outfits of proved ability
and those for which repairs and service are readily available.
He will keep in mind that outfits that will do what he requires
of them well within their resources and without undue strain
constitute better investments than those constantly crowded
to the limit. The delivery required of the machine should be
2 to 4 gallons less than its actual capacity if it is to have a
long period of satisfactory service. If it requires more
than five to six days to cover the orchard with a liquid
sprayer, the grower needs more machines or machines of
sreater capacity. |
In addition to the facilities actually needed under normal
conditions to do the work at the proper time in the right way is
the question of what facilities the grower ought to have in
reserve as an Insurance against emergencies and seasons when
the weather seriously cuts down the period of effective applica-
tions. He has in mind the actual and probable future labor
supply and its quality, upon which he must depend. His selec-
tion is based on a knowledge of his own orchard conditions
and problems, and on judgment carefully formed in the light of
them.
5. Applying Materials. The control program may break
down at the point of application of the materials. Adequate
machinery and equipment, proper materials, and a careful
observance of the time limits for their effective use may fail
to achieve satisfactory results because of incomplete plans and
faulty methods of application of the materials.
Procedure:
(a) Planning facilities.
(6) Applying spray materials.
(c) Applying dust materials.
(d) Caring for machines and equipment.
APPLYING MATERIALS 341
(a) Planning Facilities. For liquid spraying convenient
and adequate water supply is of first importance. If the water
must be pumped, the reservoir in which it 1s stored should have
ample capacity for at least a full day of spraying, and an even
greater reserve is good insurance against delays and accidents.
A storage that permits filling the spray tank by gravity is best.
Even though the supply is taken from a running stream or
lake, many growers prefer to pump the water at first into
storage tanks from which it may be run quickly into the
sprayers. A central water supply equally distant from all
outer points of the orchard is good for large enterprises. A
man may be located here to mix materials and have them
ready when the sprayers arrive. |
Some growers prefer a number of smaller filling stations
throughout the orchard rather than a single larger central
supply station. This arrangement saves time spent in haulage,
and it permits work to go on even should a supply unit be out
of commission.
If the enterprise is large enough to warrant the extra in-
vestment, a spare outfit at the central point, ready to operate,
will save time. As the empty machine comes in, the crew
simply changes machines and goes on.
Equipment for preparing the formulas that are made up by
the grower has already been described in connection with the
materials themselves. Accurate scales and measuring devices
should be on hand. Stocks of repair parts and extra parts for
the machines should be accumulated before the season begins.
The grower can much better afford to carry the slight extra
investment in such parts than to be compelled to suspend
operations while waiting for them to arrive. Some manufac-
turers attempt to give prompt service on repair parts and ac-
cessories; others do not. All are very busy while the spraying
season is on and cannot handle orders with as much dispatch
as during the slack season. Among extra parts which the
grower should have in reserve are:
042 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
Agitator paddles Pump packing
Cylinder-head gaskets Repair tools
Connecting rods Spark plugs
Disks for nozzles Spray hose
Gaskets for nozzles Spray rods
Hose clamps Stove bolts
Hose connections Suction hose
Hose washers Suction strainer for hose
Nozzles Valve balls
Pistons Valve. seats
Plunger cups Valve springs
Parts should be classified and stored in separate compart-
ments, and those subject to corrosion should be protected by a
coating of heavy oil or grease.
For very extensive operations, a complete extra outfit or an
extra engine and pump with all connections should be held in
reserve.
(6) Applying Spray Materials. The careful orchardist will
plan his organization of labor and the function of each work-
man thoroughly before the machine goes into the orchard. An
outfit capable of carrying one lead of hose will require two
men, one to spray and the other to drive team or tractor. A
boy may do the driving, and many a good workman in the
orchard has served his apprenticeship in this way. With a
large capacity outfit carrying two leads of hose, three persons
will be needed. If the trees are large, one man should spray
from the tank and the other from the ground, making the ap-
plication from both sides of the row. A tower will be needed
for tall trees. The men can alternate work so as to distribute
the more difficult roles fairly between them.
With extra-large machines carrying three leads of hose,
an arrangement of one man to a row on the ground and one
man on the tower, covering the tops of both rows, works well
when the rows are sufficiently close together.
A spraying method that has given satisfaction is for the
man on the ground to spray the inner parts of the tops first.
This eliminates the necessity of walking in under a dripping
APPLYING MATERIALS 343
tree as must be done if the outer parts are covered first. In
using a gun, it is absolutely necessary to get under large trees
to do a good job; in using an extension rod with an angle nozzle,
the operator may move about the exterior circumference of the
head, spraying inward and upward.
Air is seldom completely still in the orchard. The side
(Caterpillar Tractor Co.)
Fic. 129. Both men are spraying from the ground but do not work
on the same tree at the same time. This is a good outfit for hilly land.
The power is from the tractor. This is a Virginia scene.
where the operator must spray against the wind is the most
difficult to cover. The operator should direct the spray through
the tree, making certain that the material carries well through
to the opposite side. The back sweep of the wind will insure
coverage of the windward sides of the leaves and fruit. To
spray only with the wind means that only the surfaces on the
344 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
windward sides will be covered, as the spray will not drift
back against the air currents. In spraying from one position,
however, many more of the leaves will be turned and well
coated with material when high pressures are used than when
ordinary pressures are employed. It is not expected that the
spraying operation will be carried on in the teeth of a strong
wind, but it is seldom that a still day is available for the work,
especially in the early spring. A steady wind from a constant
(Mich. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 130. These men are using two platforms—one improvised at the
front of the sprayer. They are using single-nozzle guns and a pressure
| of 600 pounds. Note how the mist hangs on the tree.
quarter gives less difficulty than a fitful, shifting breeze, whose
antics cannot be anticipated.
A method sometimes employed is to spray only with the
wind; that is, to spray the windward sides of the trees and then
wait for the wind to change before completing the job. This
practice has not given good results and is not recommended.
Careful examination has disclosed many uncoated areas in the
tops, and very poor aphis control has been secured. In sections
where prevailing winds are from one quarter the grower might
APPLYING MATERIALS 345
wait a long time for the wind to change, but the insects and
diseases that he seeks to control are active all the time.
Whatever the particular procedure, which, after all, the
grower must determine in the light of his own conditions, a
fine, driving, cone-shaped spray that penetrates everywhere
and settles on the fruit and foliage in small globules is best for
most purposes.
(John Bean Mfg. Oo.)
Fig. 131. Spraying from the top of the tank alone is not the best
procedure. It is not possible to reach the lower sides of the low branches.
Note bees at left. They should be removed before the Calyx spray
is made.
The orchardist must watch particularly to see that the sur-
faces away from the wind are well coated, those high up in the
top often being left unprotected. He must keep in mind that
the protruding tips of branches on the outer circumference
of the head are easily missed. A spray gun may be doing a
good job at close range but delivering only coarse spattering
drops on the parts farther away. The temptation in using a
346 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
gun is always to increase the drive and decrease the fineness of
the spray, and to hurry the operation too much. On the other
hand, a gun held in one position wastes material and may cause
injury and burning of the foliage and fruit. Burning is espe-
cially likely to occur on very humid, warm days when using
materials that are naturally quite caustic, such as concentrated
lime-sulfur.
(Caterpillar Tractor Co.)
Fig. 182. Note how the spray from the lower gun is driving through
the tree.
A disk nozzle may deliver an uneven spray, heavier on one
side of the cone than on the other, or the cone may be entirely
hollow in the center. This may be due to a partial clogging
of the nozzle or to mechanical imperfections.
In using sprays carrying coarse materials, as self-boiled
lime-sulfur or the wettable sulfurs, a gun will operate with less
clogging than a disk nozzle.
APPLYING MATERIALS 047
The careful operator will cease operations occasionally and
inspect trees that have been covered to determine how well the
job has been done, and to correct practices and change equip-
ment when needed. A beginner can employ his time to no bet-
ter advantage than by watching carefully the spraying methods
(Caterpillar Tractor Qo.)
Fic. 133. An empty line sulfur drum is used as a means of support on
the tank. It is a very satisfactory device. This tree is being well
sprayed. The operator on the rear platform can cover the lower branches
if he is careful.
of a skillful operator who grows good fruit, or better still, by
spraying with him for a time.
The amount of material used is not necessarily an index of
proficiency but may serve as a general guide. A knowledge of
the quantity is also useful in compiling the order. It varies, of
course, with the size of the tree. A tree with thin foliage or
348 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
triangular outline requires less material than one with dense
foliage and a full head circular in outline. The amount of
wind present during the spraying operation causes more varia-
tion in quantity of spray used than any other factor. The
nature of the organism to be fought is also a factor. Aphis
control, for example, requires a thorough drenching of the
affected parts and the consequent use of relatively large quan-
tities of material. For the dormant sprays 6 to 9 gallons, and
for the summer sprays 8 to 14 gallons, constitute standard
applications on mature apple trees in most regions. Since
every part of the trunk and branches must be covered in some
dormant sprays, the amount of material used may be as great
as for a foliage spray. |
(c) Applying Dust Materials. The proper time for dusting
is when the air is still. There is little waste of materials under
such conditions, and the dust hangs in a cloud or dry fog about
the trees for a considerable period. The proper atmospheric
conditions are found as a rule in early morning or late evening.
Most orchard dusting, with the exception of nicotine applica-
tions, is done at these times. The presence of more moisture
on the leaf surfaces at these periods than at midday causes the
dust to stick better. Sulfur dusts adhere well even when the
foliage is dry. Many dusts now in use contain adhesive ma-
terials. Some growers attach lights to the machines and op-
erate them through the night; air conditions are good then, -
and the job is hastened by almost continuous operation of the
machines. |
Nicotine dusts, in order to be effective, should be applied
when the temperature is high. Fumes are generated more
readily then than at lower temperatures, and control is more
effective. For this reason they are best applied at mid-day
when the air is quiet. Breezes dissipate the fumes before they
can be wholly effective. In sections where the air is seldom
quiet at mid-day, early evening is often the best time to make
the applications. It is a waste of time and money to attempt
to control aphis with nicotine dust when the wind is blowing
APPLYING MATERIALS 349
or the temperature is below about 65° F. The higher the tem-
perature, the better.
Dusting before rainy spells is just as important as spraying
ahead of a rain, for the control of fungus diseases. Some of the
dust will be washed off, but enough will remain to inhibit spore
germination.
The arrangement of supplies is simpler than for spraying.
Sufficient materials for a half day may be carried on the
(J
H
|
4
}
8
(Niagara Sprayer & Ohemical Qo.y
Fic. 134. The duster in operation. The discharge pipe is pointed a
little too high so that dust is going over the top of the tree.
machine, or sacks of material may be placed at the ends of
LOWS.
In covering the trees, it is not customary to stop, the ma-
chine moving constantly over the ground. For small trees a
fast-moving team or tractor is best; for large trees, a slow
movement gives more time to cover the trees thoroughly. With
small trees a quick puff made by opening the feed lever as the
discharge pipe passes the tree and then shutting it off again is
sufficient. The discharge pipe must be moved enough so that:
the entire top, including exterior tips, is covered. This is a
300 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
matter of seconds. The operator must be agile in a order both to
do a good job and to conserve material.
Trees not exceeding in size a commercial peach tres may
be dusted from one side of the row when dusting conditions are
good. It is good practice, however, to put on the different
applications from alternate sides of the row. Thus, if the first
application is made from the east side, put on the second from
the west.
Large trees should be dusted from both sides. Split ap-
(Mich. Hap. Station)
Fig. 135. Dusting at twilight. The air is still. Note how the dust
hovers in the tree at the right.
plications are sometimes made, that is, dusting one side when
conditions are right, and dusting the other side a few days
later when the drift of the wind is in the opposite direction.
Under such conditions about half the material needed to cover
the tree completely is used at each application. Nicotine dusts
should be put on in a single application to secure most effective
control.
An upward and downward sweep of the discharge pipe with
a horizontal stroke across the top gives an even coverage. with
APPLYING MATERIALS 351
a minimum of material. To send the material to extreme
heights, give a sudden upward fling or flirt of the pipe at the
top of the regular stroke. For very high trees, an extension
of the discharge pipe may be needed. The parts of the tree
close to the ground and near the machine are most likely to be
missed. These may be covered by a horizontal blast to the
rear as the machine leaves the tree.
Regulate by the feed-control lever the amount of material
(Niagara Sprayer & Chemical Co.)
Fic. 136. A self-directing duster for use on peach and other relatively
small trees, Its adequacy and economy are not yet fully determined.
used. Since dusts are expensive, it is important that as little
as possible be wasted. It is just as important to use enough
to do a good job. A check on the quantity being used may be
obtained by recording the amount of material put in the hopper
and dividing it by the number of trees covered. The quantity
per tree varies with the size of the tree. The Niagara Sprayer
and Chemical Company has compiled the data in Table 42 for
average conditions. The quantities are subject to change to
meet individual requirements.
B52 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
TABLE 42
Quantity oF Dust To Use at Eacn AppPLicaTION
Amount per Tree, Pounds
1 to 5 5to10 |} 10 to 15 | 15 to 20} 20 Years
Years Years Years Years | and Above
AMples... 3 se aiten: K Yyto% 1 1 1% to 2 2 to'3
Cherries ssc 6 es Vy 14 to %& 1 1to1%
Peachesis cf gee kK Yytolk i X% 4%
earned devas haa yy Yytok| bto % 1 1
Plums and Prunes. . Yy yy 14 to %& 1 1
UINCES... ec 4 yy yy 38 to % Vy 4%
(d) Caring for Machinery and Equipment. During the
operating season keep all working parts thoroughly lubricated.
Seek to anticipate difficulties and meke adjustments before
trouble really occurs. “Put all liquids carrying materials in
suspension through a strainer in the top of the spray tank;
wash all materials in powder form through the strainer, to
prevent the entrance of substances that may clog the valves or
nozzles.
At the close of each day of work, put the suction hose from
the pump into clean water and flush the pump, hose, and noz-
zles until only clear water comes from them. The equipment.
will thus be freed of corrosive materials and will be ready for
the next day’s work. |
Drag the hose over the ground as little as possible, except
when actually spraying. Disconnect it at the machine when
going to refill, or coil upon hangers at the end of the machine.
Do not permit kinks to form in it, as these injure the fabric.
When the spraying season is over, flush thoroughly, with
clean water, all parts through which the spray materials move.
Drain the pump, engine, and tank. Run some used lubricating
oil through the pump to prevent rusting during winter. Store
DETERMINING COSTS OF THE SPRAYING PROGRAM 353
the hose in a cool, dark place, since it deteriorates in heat and
light. Coil it over a barrel elevated off the ground, or stretch
it out on a bench or shelf in such a way that it will drain out -
completely. Do not suspend the hose on nails or from a few
points, as cracking is likely to result.
In the spring, get the machine out ahead of time; go over
all the parts and “tune” it up ready for active use.
The care of the duster is simple. Drain the engine at the
end of the season, clean the hopper thoroughly, and coat with
heavy oil or grease all parts subject to corrosion. If dormant
dusts are used which cake on the machine parts, especial care
must be taken to clean the machine well. _
6. Determining Costs of the Spraying Program. Costs of
the spraying program depend upon a number of factors. The
cost of the materials themselves may be easily determined, if
the dilutions used, the number of applications to be made, and
the average amount applied per tree or other unit are known.
_The cost of making the applications is so variable that av-
erage figures are of little value to the individual grower. The
price of labor, the capacity of the outfit, the accessibility of
water and other supplies, and the topography of the land are
among the factors that determine costs of application.
In the Hudson Valley of New York, in 1931, it was found
that the average cost of spraying for the season was $2.57 per
100 gallons of spray applied, or $15.68 per acre, which would
indicate that slightly over 600 gallons of spray material was
applied per acre. It must be stressed that this is not enough
to give complete control of insect and disease injury in a
normal season on full-grown trees. It is merely an average for
509 orchards where the number of applications varied from no
spray on 23 orchards, to six or more sprays on 57 orchards.
Although the trees ranged from newly planted to some over 30
vears of age, the average for trees in the 486 orchards (4319
acres) that were sprayed was 3.8 applications at a rate of
5 gallons per tree per application. To grow a crop of good
quality it is rarely possible to spray less than six times in the
304 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
Hudson Valley. It was figured that each spray cost an
average of 28 cents per tree for trees 28 years of age and over,
and an. average of 9 cents per tree for trees of less age.
These figures include the cost of the spray material, the
cost of labor, sprayer cost, upkeep, depreciation, and the power
for drawing the outfit. It has been shown that the New York
orchards sprayed most often and most thoroughly had yields
of marketable apples sufficiently high to keep production costs
down to an average of 73 cents per bushel. Of this cost about
25 cents was for spraying (see Table 43).
TABLE 43
Cost oF PRopucina APPLES ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF SPRAYS AND
AMOUNT OF SPRAY APPLIED PER TREE PER APPLICATION, WESTERN
New YorRK AND HupsSON VALLEY
Cornell Extension Bulletin 355
Cost per Bushel
Ticks than | Light applications
> SPFaYS | Heavy applications £102
Light applications
Heavy applications HR Fer Se
5 or more
sprays
This emphasizes that few sprays and light applications may
be expensive, whereas more numerous sprays and heavier ap-
plications may, by increasing the marketable product, be
economical.
The cost for material, labor, power for pulling the outfit,
the use of the sprayer, preparing and applying the material,
for 80 fruit growers in Berrien County, Michigan, for 11 ap-
plications in 1935 was $27.16 per acre, 12 cents per bushel of
fruit harvested, or 55 cents per tree. Most of the trees were
between 15 and 30 years of age. Where trees were less than
CONTROL MEASURES OTHER THAN SPRAYING 359
15 years old, the total spraying cost was 44 cents per tree com-
pared to 62 cents per tree in orchards 30 or more years of age.
The total cost per 100 gallons of spray applied averaged
$1.37 in these orchards.
A similar test in 1931, in the valley area of Shenandoah-
Cumberland district, showed spraying and dusting costs to
average $17.30 per acre. Dusting was rarely done, and for all
practical purposes, 6 spraying applications would include the
entire operation. Of the 402 acres of trees studied, 261 acres
were between the ages of 15 and 30. There would be a slight
increase in cost for the 84 acres which were over 30 years of
age and a slight decrease for the 57 acres which were from
10 to 14 years of age.
In the Hudson Valley of New York 4 applications of dust
were applied for the same cost as 3 sprays. In western New
York the cost of applying 8 dusts was about the same as that
for 7 sprays. These costs include the material, labor, and
equipment charges. Materials to spray an acre once cost
24 percent less than dust materials. Interest, depreciation,
repair, gas, and oil for the sprayer were 73 percent more than
the corresponding costs for the duster.
7. Adopting Control Measures Other Than Spraying and
Dusting. Sometimes measures other than the application of
materials to the trees may be employed to advantage by the
orchardist.
The burning of adjacent hedgerows and cleaning up the
boundaries of the orchard aid in control of such insects as
plum curculio and lessen the danger from mice and rabbits.
There is some evidence that thorough spraying of the apple
leaves on the ground in early spring may help in scab control.
The only method known at present for control of cedar rust
is the removal of all cedars within a radius of one mile of the
orchard.
The peach tree borer is controlled best by the use of ethyl-
ene dichloride or paradichlorobenzene, as indicated under
General Information at the close of this chapter. Neither it
356 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
nor the flat-headed and round-headed apple tree borers can be
controlled by spraying or dusting the tree.
Fall and early spring plowing destroys many larvae of the
Oriental fruit moth and aids in scab control by turning under
the old leaves from which the first infection comes in the
spring. The use of parasites, especially macrocentrus, to con-
trol Oriental fruit moth is to be considered.
(N. Y.-Geneva Exp. Station)
Fic. 137. Fruiting bodies (perithecia) of apple
scab on an overwintered apple leaf from which
spores will be discharged during spring rains.
Fire blight of the apple, pear, and quince, a bacterial dis-
ease, does not yield to the spraying or dusting program and
must be fought by different methods. |
Fertilization and special stimulative treatment, including
cultivation of affected trees, are sometimes advisable. By in-—
creasing their vigor their resistance is increased and their recu-
peration is hastened. This method is employed often in cases
of extreme defoliation of the trees in the growing season and
CONTROL MEASURES OTHER THAN SPRAYING 357
in meeting attacks of the fruit tree bark beetle of the peach.
Trees suffering from winter injury may, to their advantage,
recelve a special application of nitrogen-carrying fertilizer.
Some varieties are more resistant to disease and winter in-
jury than others. Thus, Tompkins King, Grimes Golden, and
Twenty Ounce are susceptible to collar rot about the base of
the trunk. Northern Spy and McIntosh are resistant. Grow-
ers may sometimes resort to top-working desirable varieties
with weak trunk charac-
ters, on more hardy and re-
sistant kinds, as indicated
in Chapter VII, “Propagat-
ing Fruit Plants.” Physio-
logical troubles such as bit-
ter pit, drought spot, and
cork are often decreased
by improving the moisture
conditions of the soil.
When the balance be-
tween organisms is de-
stroyed, nature intervenes
to restore it. The San José
scale is the prey of many
species of ladybird beetles, Fic. 138. Cross section of perithecium
some fungi, and at least showing the spores formed, and ready
nine species of Hymenop- to emerge from leaf in Fig. 137.
tera. However, the pests |
are likely to make severe inroads and cause heavy losses for
several years, until natural enemies become abundant. Some
pests yield, either not at all or only in part, to such enemies,
so that the fruit grower may not depend on natural enemies ex-
cept to supplement his own program of control.
It is best to rely on the experiment stations and other public
agencies serving the section in which the fruit enterprise is lo-
cated, for the detailed information on which proper procedure
must be based.
(N. Y.-Geneva Exp. Station)
308 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
It is not possible to include here a complete treatment of the various
insects and diseases that affect fruit trees. Some are serious in one sec-
tion and less so, or not at all, in another. Some are seasonal in their
inroads, being destructive one year and unimportant another. New
and more complete knowledge concerning them and the methods for
their control is constantly being acquired and is available from authori-
tative sources. The enterprising grower will keep in touch with the
experiment stations and government agencies and will study their find-
ings. He will develop a library of good books and publications on the
control of insects and diseases of the orchard and will revise it con-
stantly to keep it up to date.
GENERAL INFORMATION
ConTROLLING PEACH TREE BoRER
The peach tree borer (Sanninodea exitiosa) kills many peach trees —
and destroys the vigor of others. It passes the winter in the larval form:
if small, usually on the bark in silken protective coverings; if larger, in
burrows under the bark. In the far South the larvae feed all winter
instead of hibernating.
In the spring the boring is continued and a cavity is formed several
inches long in the sapwood, just beneath the bark. Gum and sawdust
collect at the openings of the burrows and about the base of the tree.
As many as 50 or more borers may work in a single tree. Most of the
work is done about the trunk just at or below ground level, though
sometimes at a greater depth.
. When full grown, the larva leaves the burrow and pupates in a dark
round cocoon, usually attached to the bark near the ground. The adult
fly emerges in about a month, and eggs are soon laid by the female,
singly or in small clusters on the lower trunk. The eggs hatch in about
ten days, and the larvae start their burrows at once.
Control. Larvae may be dug out with a knife and wire. This
method is not so satisfactory as the use of ethylene dichloride.
Slowly stir 9 parts by volume of ethylene dichioride into 1 part
by volume of potash fish-oil soap. Add 9 parts of water to make a 50
percent stock emulsion. Dilute, and apply as recommended in Table 44.
This material may be sprayed or poured on in the fall, winter, or early
spring as long as the weather is warm. Apply the emulsion about the
base of the tree and on the lower trunk. A knapsack sprayer or a
sprinkling can with a small spout may be used to advantage. Place a
’ f
COMMUNITY STUDIES 359
few shovelfuls of soil around the trunk after the material is applied.
Ethylene dichloride stock emulsion can be bought ready for dilution
according to the manufacturer’s directions.
TABLE 44
ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE Stock EMULSION DILUTIONS
Quantity of Water of Stock Emulsions to Use to Get 10 Gallons of
Diluted Emulsion at the Strength Used
Dosage of
50% Strength of | Diluted
Age and Size of Trees Water Stock Diluted Emulsion
Emulsion | Emulsion for Each
Tree
Percent Pint
6 years and older, average
and larger size........ 5 5 25 8
6 years and older, small..| 6 4 20 v4
#and 5; years. <.2....2.. 6 4 20 Ye
SCAN ce gre he's ts toc, 7 3 15 | Ye
epee ee erie yh rh 3 15 | MY
Resi ee ek 814 1% 7% | %
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Visit several growers of each tree fruit of commercial importance
in the section. Determine:
(a) The acreage and varieties.
(6b) Injurious insects and diseases for which control measures
are employed.
(c) The materials used and proportions.
(d) Cost of materials.
(e) Time, number, and cost of applications.
(f) Method of application.
(g) Acreage or number of trees and age of trees treated per
day or hour.
How much of this time is spent actually in applying the mate-
rials to the trees?
360 CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES
2. Put these control measures together into a schedule or program
for the season. ,
3. Study the spray outfit as to cost, type, power of engine, capacity
of pump, durability, ease of handling, accessibility of parts, ease of
obtaining repair parts, type of gun or nozzle, pressure employed. Inves-
tigate facilities and devices for saving time in mixing materials and
filling spray tank and for keeping machine at work continuously. Ii a
duster is used, get growefs’ opinion of its place in the spray program,
the costs as compared with liquid spraying, and the effectiveness of
control. ;
4. From the foregoing information, compute the actual spraying costs
in the various orchards.
5. Prepare a brief life history of the important insects and diseases
of the section.
Secure from the local state experiment station or college of agricul-
ture the latest information concerning control measures and materials.
6. With this information, suggest improvements in the growers’ pro-
grams as to materials used, method and time of application and refine-
ments in the machine itself that will give more effective service.
7. Work out a complete spray schedule for an average season, with
costs, for a 20-acre unit.
CHAPTER VII
PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
Fruit varieties, with rare exceptions, do not come true from
the seed. Thus the seeds of a Stayman Winesap apple might
give rise to red, green, or striped, sweet or sour, large or small
apples. Some might resemble the parent variety, but many
of them would be worthless, with the chances slight that from
thousands of seeds there would come a single sort that was an
improvement over the parent.
For this reason it is necessary to secure new plants of a
given variety by transferring vegetative parts of that variety
to a stock upon which these parts may grow, or by rooting the
vegetative parts without the use of a stock, or by inducing the
development of roots on the mother plant which may later be
‘separated and used for new plants. The name given to the
process of making the transfer depends upon the nature of the
particular method employed and the vegetative parts used.
Thus we have cleft grafting, whip grafting, shield building,
cuttings, layerage, etc.
It is necessary also at times to resort to one of these proc-
esses to convert undesirable varieties to desirable kinds. Per-
haps the orchard trees have proved untrue to name. The pur-
chaser of McIntosh or Jonathan may find that he has Ben
Davis. He may graft his trees to a more desirable variety.
Again, it has been found that large blocks of a single variety
may prove unproductive, as indicated in the chapter on polli-
nation, or this may be true of two mutually incompatible varie-
ties. The grower resorts to graftage to develop trees, the
blossoms of which will pollenize his orchard and give him a
set of fruit.
361
362 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
Again, a variety may be very desirable in itself, but may
possess poor tree characters in that it may be very susceptible
on the trunk or in the crotch at the base of the main branches
to winter injury, materially reducing the life and fruitfulness
of the tree. By graftage, the trunk of a hardier, more resistant
kind may be substituted, and upon it may be built the top or
head of the variety desired.
New varieties may be induced to bear fruit earlier by graft-
ing them on mature trees than by growing them from nursery
trees. This saves a number of years in testing them to deter-
mine their value.
It is evident, therefore, that the fruit grower should possess
a knowledge of a few simple and effective methods of pro-
cedure under the circumstances outlined. If he lacks it, there
may usually be found in fruit-growing sections a few men who
are very skillful in the various forms of plant propagation and
who may be engaged to do the work. ,
Operations and Factors:
1. Cleft grafting. 5. Bridge grafting.
2. Inlay or bark grafting. 6. Propagating by cuttings.
3. Whip grafting. - 7. Propagating by layers.
4, Shield budding. 8. Grafting preparations.
Since growth takes place in the cambium cells beneath the
inner bark, it is necessary in all forms of grafting and budding
that the cambium tissues of the stock and the part grafted
- upon it be put in contact with each other. This is the funda-
mental consideration whatever the method.
1. Cleft Grafting. Cleft grafting is usually employed when
it is necessary to graft a new top on a tree which is several
years old. Even mature trees may be grafted, but the difficulty
increases with the age of the tree and the size of the branches.
The process of substituting an entire new top of a different
variety is called top-working. The particular method used de-
pends upon the age of the tree and the size of the branches.
CLEFT GRAFTING
363
Cleft grafting is the most common form of top-working em-
ployed by the grower; as the name implies, it consists of mak-
ing a cleft in the stock into which the graft or cion is inserted
(Fig. 139). The operation is feasible upon limbs varying in
size from those just strong
enough to hold the cions firmly
in place to those so large that
the clefts or wedge-shaped open-
ings in the branches can -be
made with difficulty. On trees
set in the orchard only from one
to two or three years, the cions
are usually placed in the trunks;
on older trees they are placed in
the branches.
The tendency of the cions
is to grow directly upward.
If they are inserted in lateral
branches, they will not assume
the same direction as_ these
branches but will turn and grow
upward. In determining the
branches to be grafted, it is
important to select, as far as
possible, those that may be
grafted near the ground. Other-
wise the new head may be very
high, the fruit being borne
at the ends of long, polelike
branches.
aot er
(N. J. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 139. Materials for cleft graft-
ing. (a) Cions. (b) Cleft in stock
ready for insertion of cions. (c)
Cions inserted in cleft. (d) Cleft
and cion tips waxed. (e) Side view
of clon showing wedge shape of cut
portion. (f)- Mallet for making cleft
with chisel. (g) Grafting chisel—
note curved blade which prevents
tearing of the bark. A sharp knife
is also needed for shaping the cions.
Take at least two years to work over trees of considerable
size. All grafts may be set in one year, but part of the top
should be left to be removed later. It is not safe to cut off the
entire tops of such trees in a single year. The trees may die
or the cions may be forced into excessive growth, breaking
out by their own weight or being killed in winter. Also, the
364 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
crotches and main branches, being unduly exposed, may suffer
from winter injury.
It is not necessary to work over every branch of appreciable
size. Select those on which grafts, by proper pruning, will
develop a good top. On small trees, three or four grafted
branches, and, on larger trees, six to eight will usually suffice.
Perform the Operation in the Spring Just as Growth Is
Starting. Life activities promoting union and healing begin as
the buds are opening. However, the operation may be per-
formed a few weeks earlier, or if the cions are kept dormant, a
few weeks later.
Kinds of Trees to Cleft Graft. Apple and pear trees may
be cleft grafted easily. Plum and cherry trees are a little more
difficult to graft as a rule. The bark of the sweet cherry tends
to run in rings around the tree and must be cut ahead of the
cleft. The wood of the peach is too soft for cleft grafting. If
necessary to top-work the peach, it may best be done by
budding some of the small shoots. Mature grape vines may
also be cleft grafted.
Procedure and Factors:
(a) Selecting equipment.
(6) Selecting cions.
(c) Making the cleft.
(d) Preparing the cions.
(e) Inserting the cions.
(f) Modifications of procedure.
(g) Subsequent treatment of cions.
(h) Cleft grafting grape vines.
(a) Selecting Equipment. A sharp knife with a straight
blade, a grafting chisel, a wood mallet for driving in the
chisel to make the wedge or cleft, a pruning saw with teeth
fine enough so that it will not tear the bark at the edges of the
cut, and wax are the items needed in addition to the cions. A
chisel with a curved handle to hang over the branches when not
CLEFT GRAFTING 365
in use, and a mallet with a thong to slip over the wrist or a
spur on the tree will eliminate trips to the ground to pick up
fallen tools. All supplies may be carried in a basket equipped
with a hook for hanging on the branches. A wood mallet is
necessary because the chisel would break under the blows of
an iron or steel hammer.
(6) Selecting Cions. For cions take wood of the previous
season’s growth. This will be the terminal growths or shoots
from trees of the variety desired. Take them from bearing
trees, if possible, to be sure of the variety. Use only well-
developed buds on mature wood. The extreme tips formed late
the previous season are usually soft with poor buds and should
be discarded. Suckers, water sprouts, or young adventitious
growths will do if the wood is mature and the buds well de-
veloped. |
Store the cions in a cool, moist place where they will re-
main dormant until used. Place them in moist sawdust, sand,
or moss, or roll them in a moist cloth. Do not keep them
_ soaked with water, as this softens the bark and may cause
them to decay. A favorite storage place on farms has been in
the sawdust on top of the ice pack in the ice house. Cions cut
early may be buried in a dry sandy knoll out of doors.
If the grafting is done while the trees are entirely dormant,
the cions may be cut as needed. Cions that show injury from
cold, indicated by a browning of the tissue beneath the bark,
should not be used.
(c) Making the Cleft. Select a smooth area on the branch
or stock, free from knots, where the grain is straight, and saw
off the stock just beyond this point. In placing the chisel to
make the cleft, put it in such a position that the cions when
inserted will be in a horizontal rather than a vertical plane. If
the cleft is vertical, the lower cion will grow up directly into
the one above. This of course does not apply to grafting in
the trunk.
Make the cleft with the chisel and mallet from 2 to 4
inches deep, starting the cleft carefully and cutting the bark
366 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
with the knife ahead of the split or check if it does not part
evenly. :
Reverse the chisel; insert the wedge in the center of the
split stock so that when the handle is pressed down the cleft
will open to receive the cions.
(d) Preparing the Cions. Cut off a piece from the cion
(Ud. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 140. A good selection of branches for grafting was made on this tree.
The grafts are beginning to grow. Two or three of the remaining branches
may be grafted the following spring; the others will be cut off. Compare
with Fig. 141.
wood carrying strong buds. The common number of buds on
the cion is three, though this may be reduced if the cion wood
is scarce or especially valuable. Cut off the cion just above
the top bud.
Beginning at the base of the lower bud, with a straight,
even stroke of the knife form a wedge with even sides and
slightly thicker on the outside than on the side which is to be
CLEFT GRAFTING 367
placed toward the center of the stock. Do not make the wedge
too long; from 1 to 2 inches js sufficient. Make it blunt at the
lower end, since if it is drawn to a fine point the bark may
loosen from it when inserted in the cleft. Wuth experience,
two strokes of the knife will prepare the cion for insertion.
(e) Inserting the Cions.
Press down on the handle of
the chisel to open the cleft,
and slip in the cion at the
outer edge in such a way that
the cambium or growing tis-
sue of the cion is in contact
with the cambium of the
stock. This area is just be-
neath the inner bark and,
since the bark on the stock
will be thicker than that of
the young cion, it is best to
tilt the cion slightly outward
at the top to insure contact.
Slip the cion downward
until the lower bud is close
to the cut surface of the
stock. Growth is more ac-
tive at the buds, and union
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
will take place sooner than if Fic. 141. Too much of the original
top remains in this tree. The grafts
there is no bud at this point. will be shaded too much and their
Since no growth epee OC- growth will be weak. Compare with
cur except at the point of Fig. 140.
junction of the cambium tis-
sues of cion and stock, it at once becomes evident why the inner
side of the wedge of the cion must be thinner than the outer side.
If the reverse were true the cambium areas would be held apart
and growth would be impossible The desirability of straight,
even cuts on the ion also becomes evident in order to put the
greatest possible areas of cambium in contact with each other.
368 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS _
If the stock is 2 or more inches in diameter, insert another
cion in the same manner in the cleft on the opposite side. It is
evident that the wedges on both cions must be of about the
same size and design in order that both may fit well in the
same cleft.
Release the pressure on the chisel handle and withdraw the
chisel. The pressure of the stock will clamp the cions firmly
in place. Wax all cut and exposed surfaces carefully to
prevent drying out of the wounds and the entrance of moisture,
insects, or disease organisms. Information on waxes is given
in this chapter under “Grafting Preparations.”
(f) Modifications of Procedure. If the branch to be
grafted is extra large, two clefts may be made at right angles
to each other and four grafts inserted, in order to hasten
healing of the wound. It may be better to resort to inlay or
bark grafting in such circumstances. In some cases the pres-
sure or spring of the stock may be so great as to crush the
cions. Relieve the pressure, in part, by placing a wedge in the
center of the stock. The cions, however, must carry enough
pressure to hold them firmly in nee
In grafting over a young tree only two or three years set,
the branches of which are too small to take the cions, the
trunk may be cut off at the desired point and one or more
cions inserted directly into it (Fig. 142).
(g) Subsequent Treatment of Cions. Permit both cions to
grow for several years (Fig. 143). Usually only one .cion
should be left to form a permanent branch. If both are left,
a bad fork or crotch may result. However, both cions should
be left for a time to hasten the healing process. After the first -
year the cion which is to be removed eventually may be grad-
ually repressed through pruning, so that it may not interfere
with the development of the other. After a period of years it
should be entirely removed.
Prune the permanent graft just as would be done with any
branches, keeping in mind that it will require some heading of
CLEFT..GRAFTING 369
Fig. 142. (a) Cleft grafts inserted in the trunk of a tree which had grown
three years in the orchard. (b) The same tree as the grafts are beginning
their second season of growth. Each shoot grew more than 4 feet. Both
grafts should be left for the present, but all shoots should be headed back
quite heavily, with the exception of one of the center shoots. This
should be headed lightly to encourage development of the scaffold
branches.
370 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
the central or major shoot to induce a lateral growth as near
the ground as possible.
If it is desirable to get some fruit quickly to test the variety,
or for other reasons, prune as little as possible until fruit is
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 148. This grafted top has been growing
three years and is making a good head. The
upright shoot at the left should be topped
lightly to encourage branching.
borne. Grafts frequently bear some fruit the third season and
occasionally the second season.
Young grafts are particularly attractive to plant lice by
reason of their quick, succulent growth. Special care should
be exercised to keep them free in the early stages of their de-
velopment. Thin out the suckers that develop around them
during the season.
INLAY OR BARK GRAFTING 371
The grafts must be given plenty of sunlight if they are to
thrive. On large trees some branches of the parent stock must
be left for a time, but the tree should be completely reworked
as soon as possible and all surplus branches removed.
Inspect the grafts frequently during the first season to
make certain that all cut surfaces remain coated with wax.
Another coating at the beginning of the second season is ad-
visable in case of large stocks.
(h) Cleft Grafting Grape Vines. Grape vines already es-
tablished in the vineyard may be cleft grafted to other varie-
ties. Do the work in the spring before the sap has begun to
move upward, or if this is not possible, wait. until the first ©
flush of sap is over. Keep the cions dormant until used.
Shovel away the soil about the base of the trunk and saw
the trunk off about 2 inches below ground level. Since the
grape trunk will not split readily, saw a slot with a fine hack-
saw, about 114 inches deep, and pry it apart to receive the
cion.
Prepare the cion just as for the tree fruits, and insert in
the same manner. If the size of the stock permits, insert two
cions. Tie with a few turns of soft strong twine. Do not
cover the union with wax or other preparation as air seems
essential to healing.
Mound the soil up loosely about the cion, leaving one or
two buds exposed. If the mound becomes hard, or if it forms
in clods, remove it and hill over again as often as may be neces-
sary to keep a loose, open covering permitting the entrance of
air and the escape of moisture from the wound.
Keep suckers off the stock. Unless roots are desired on the
cion, it will be necessary to hoe the soil away each year for
two or three years and remove with a close clean cut any
roots that may have formed on the cion below ground.
Vines grafted in this manner should fruit extensively the
third season.
2. Inlay or Bark Grafting. For working over trees the
branches of which are of considerable size, inlay or bark
O72 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
grafting is more easily performed than cleft grafting. The
operation is performed at the same time of year as cleft
grafting. |
Equipment. A sharp knife, saw, tack hammer, brads or
wire nails (No. 20, 34-inch), and grafting wax are necessary.
Preparing the Stock. Select the branches in the same man-
ner as for cleft grafting. It is not so necessary that the stock
be free from knots as no cleft
is made in it, but smooth places
should be available on the bark
(Fig. 144).
Preparing the Cion. Take
clon wood in the same manner
as for cleft grafting, preferably
of large size so long as the buds
are good. Cut in pieces, carry-
ing three or four buds and
about 4 inches long. At about
the middle of the cion make an
abrupt cut to the center on one
side, turn the blade, and cut
straight to the lower end. This
will remove a section of the cion
Fic. 144. Inlay or bark grafting. and leave a cut surface that is
(1) Cions prepared for attach- oven and smooth. Make the cut
ment to the stock. (2) Stock : :
OEE ea and (a) eens Oe the side opposite the lower
fastened in place with small nails. bud so that the bud may be re-
(4) All exposed parts waxed. tained and may function when
the cion isin place.
Inserting the Cion. Place the cut surface of the cion lightly
against the bark of the stock where the union is to be made,
and trace the outline of the cion with the knife point. Re-
move the cion and take out the corresponding piece of bark on
the stock. If growth is just beginning, the piece will peel out
readily, leaving the growth or cambium cells exposed. If the
inner bark adheres, remove it carefully.
(NV. Y. State College of Agr.)
WHIP GRAFTING BYE)
Fit the cut surface of the cion against the exposed surface
of the stock, and draw them together tightly by driving two
nails carefully through the cion into the stock. Wax all cut
and exposed surfaces carefully.
Insert two or more cions, depending upon the size of the
stock. The more cions that are used, the quicker the healing
process will be completed. Very large branches or trunks may
be grafted, though the grafts are more likely to break out at
some future time.
Subsequent treatment of cions is the same as in cleft
grafting.
3. Whip Grafting. Whip grafting, or tongue grafting, as
it is sometimes called, is used for parts too small to be cleft
grafted. |
The nurseryman uses it to establish known varieties. on
seedling roots. The fruit grower uses it to graft the trunks
of small trees either after planting or later, and to change the
tops of young trees by working over tne branches to the
variety desired. To use on trees, perform the operation just
as growth is about to start in the spring, continuing if necessary
for ten days or two weeks after growth has begun, provided
that the cions are held in a dormant condition.
Equipment. A sharp knife with a thin straight blade is an
essential. To this add grafting wax and waxed cord prepared
as indicated under “Grafting Preparations.”
Preparing the Stock. Select a smooth, clear place on the
trunk or branch and sever the part with a clean, drawing
motion of the knife, exposing a sloping surface 1 to 2 inches
long (Fig. 145). Start the knife just above the center and
cut toward the center and through it, working the knife down-
ward against the grain to prevent splitting and making an in-
cision about 114 inches deep. This action prepares the tongue.
Preparing the Cion. Take the cion, selected and kept as
for cleft grafting, and sever a piece bearing a number of buds
and usually 4 to 6 inches long. Make a long, even sloping cut
just as in case of the stock, and complete the tongue in the
374
PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
Fig. 145. Whip grafting. (1) Cion and stock
prepared for union by diagonal cuts. (2) The
tongue, made by starting the cut above the
center. (3) Cion and stock united, with cam-
bium layers in contact on one side. (4) Waxed
string aids in holding cion and stock firmly
in place. (5) All exposed surfaces thoroughly
waxed.
WHIP GRAFTING BYES
same manner. Make the tongue on the proper end of the cion
so that when the cion is in place the buds will grow away from
rather than toward the stock.
Uniting Stock and Cion.. Slip the tongue of the cion inside
the tongue of the stock until the cion is firmly in place. Disre-
gard one side of the cut surface of the cion, but make certain
that the cambium of the other side is in contact with the cam-
bium of the stock. It is seldom that cion and stock will be of
the same size. In the effort to match up both sides, there is
danger of missing cambium contact altogether; it is therefore
better to confine attention to but one margin of the cut sur-
faces.
When the cion is in place, wind the place of union with
waxed string without tying and without attempting to cover the
entire union with cord. Wax all cut surfaces thoroughly,
exercising care not to disturb the cion in the slightest degree.
Subsequent Treatment. After union and growth take place,
cut the waxed cord to prevent girdling, unless the cord pulls
apart itself. - ,
Several or all of the buds on the cion may grow. Rub or
cut off those that are not desired and train the top or branch
in the usual manner.
Whip Grafting in the Nursery. As indicated in Chap-
ter III, “Establishing the Orchard,” the nurseryman employs
whip grafting on the roots to establish the desired variety on
the roots of the seedling. Whole roots or pieces of roots are
used as stock. The operation is usually performed in Febru-
ary, following the same procedure as in grafting parts above
ground. The union is bound with waxed cord, but is not cov-
ered with wax. The completed grafts are stored in bundles
of 25 or 50 in moist sand in a cool cellar until spring.
A development of healing tissue about the union, termed a
callus, takes place in the meantime. The grafts are planted
about 6 inches apart in the nursery row and deeply enough so
that only the upper bud appears above ground. One shoot is
permitted to grow to form the tree. At the end of the season
~~ a eet 2
376 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
it is a one-year-old whip and may be sold as such, or it may
be headed back to develop side branches and retained another
year in the nursery row, being sold as a two-year-old tree.
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 146. Whip grafting young orchard trees. (a) Whip grafts after one
season’s growth. (b) A, the waxed string was not removed at the proper
time resulting in a weak union and partial girdling. B and C, good
unions. The side branches above B hasten the healing process.
Own rooted trees are trees that have been grafted onto
pieces of roots, using an unusually long cion. The graft is set
deeply enough so that roots develop from the lower buds of
SHIELD BUDDING aH 34
the cion. When the tree is taken up from the nursery, the
seedling root piece is removed and the tree is thus on its own
roots.
Grapes are also bench grafted or tongue grafted in the dor-
mant season.
4. Shield Budding. On young trees and those with small
branches, budding is very useful in changing the variety. It is
employed by the nurseryman to establish the desired variety
on seedling stock. It is employed by the fruit grower to work
over young trees, on either the trunk or the branches. The
essential considerations are the same as in graftage, except
that a single bud is substituted for the clon. The most common
form is shield budding, taking its name from the shape of the
bit of bark cut off with the bud.
Time of Performing Operation. The bark on normal fruit
trees peels or slips in late summer. The trees are then ready to
bud. The actual time varies with the fruit, the season, and
the section. Ordinarily it occurs in August or early Sep-
tember. |
Selecting the Buds. ‘Take well-developed buds from the
terminal growths of the current season on trees of the desired
variety. Shoots so taken are termed bud sticks. Clip off the
leaves immediately to stop evaporation, but allow part of the
leaf stalks to remain attached to the buds to serve as handles
in manipulating them (Fig. 147). Use the bud sticks at once
or, if that is impossible, put them in a cool, moist place.
Top-Working by Budding. Buds may be inserted in the
trunk if the tree is small. The top will be formed at some point
above the insertion of the bud, and it is well to keep this in
mind in selecting the place on the stock.
It is more common practice to bud the main branches,
usually on the upper side not far from the point of union with
the trunk, at the close of the first season’s growth in the
orchard (Fig. 148).
Select a smooth place on the stock and make a T-shaped
slit through the bark (Fig. 149). If the bark is in good condi-
378 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
tion to work, the flaps will loosen and turn up on the points.
Work the corners loose carefully.
Inserting the Bud. With a thin-bladed knife, cut a bud
(Md. Exp. Sta.) (id. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 147. Bud sticks. (A) Fic. 148. This Stayman Winesap
Before preparation. (B) apple tree was budded in the scaf-
Ready for the budding proc- fold branches at A after one sea-
ess. son’s growth in the orchard. One
year’s growth has been made by
the buds.
from the bud stick with a shield-shaped piece of bark and a
very thin layer of wood under it. Slip the bud by means of
the leaf stalk handle under the loose flaps on the stock and
shove it into position. Make certain that the bud goes in in
SHIELD BUDDING 319
such a direction that it may grow outward or upward, and
push it in far enough so that the bark of the stock completely
envelops it.
The cambium tissues are thus together as in graftage. Tie
the bud securely above and below with raffia. (Fine, soft cord
or elastic will do.)
Subsequent Treatment. In-
spect the bud in about two
weeks. If union has taken
place, cut the raffia on the
side away from the bud to pre-
vent girdling. If the union has
failed, there may still be time
to repeat the operation. If
not, whip grafting may be em-
ployed the following spring.
The bud will remain dor-
mant until the following
spring. At that time cut off
the stock above the bud. The
(N. J. Exp. Sta.)
bud will push out quickly into
a vigorous shoot which may be
trained to the desired form.
Top-W orking Peach Trees.
Peach trees in the orchard
may best be worked over by
budding. The wood of the
peach is too soft and splits too
readily to graft well. Cut back
the top to force the develop-
ment of new shoots near the base of the main branches.
these shoots in late summer.
Budding Nursery Trees. The nurseryman may use shield
budding on his seedling stocks in late summer instead of whip
In fact, the former is the more
common practice at the present time and is the sole practice
erafting them (Fig. 150).
Fic. 149. Shield budding. (a)
Bud stick, method of holding stick
and knife to cut bud shown below.
(6) The incision on the stock.
(c and d) Views of the bud. (d) At
right shows wood removed, not
necessary in ordinary budding of
fruit trees. (e) The bud inserted.
(f) The bud tied in place with
raffia.
Bud
380 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
for peaches. The procedure is the same as outlined hereto-
fore, except that the nurseryman buds the stock close to the
eround. ‘Trees showing a decided crook at ground level have
been budded. The bud remains dormant until the following
spring, when the stock is cut off above the bud.
In southern sections, budding of the peach may be done in
June and is called June budding. The buds start growth at
once, and the trees that de-
velop from them are known
as June buds. In such case,
the stock above the bud is
usually cut off a portion at
. a time, so as not to force
the shoot from the bud too
rapidly.
5. Bridge Grafting. Trees
are frequently girdled by
mice or rabbits. Injuries to
the trunk occur from im-
plements or disease. These
may cause the death of the
trees, or seriously retard
their development. If the
. >*:| trees are very young, it may
(Md. Exp. Sta.) be wiser to put new trees in
Fic. 150. Budding seedling trees in their places than to attempt
the nursery. to save them. \
Injury from mice and
rabbits often occurs on trees of such a size and age that their
death would mean a considerable loss. If such injuries are
discovered in time and if they are not too extensive, the trees
may be saved by bridge grafting. This operation is, as its
name implies, a bridging of the gap between top and roots so
that life functions and processes may go on. It is thus not
a method of propagation, but is included here with other forms
of grafting.
BRIDGE GRAFTING 381
If the bark has been eaten from the roots for a considerable
distance underground, as is sometimes done by the pine mouse,
it will be difficult or impossible to perform the operation and
save the tree. If the injury begins at, or a little below, ground
level and extends up the trunk for greater or less distances,
the operation is entirely feasible. It becomes more difficult as
the area-injured increases in width.
Seedling trees or nursery trees are sometimes set close to
the injured trees and the tops grafted in above the wound.
Watersprouts or suckers below the wound are also grafted in to
bridge the gap. In trees set only two or three years these
sprouts may be used to form a new top, provided that they
spring from a point above that at which the tree was budded
in the nursery.
Time of Performing Operation. Early spring following the
injury, beginning when the buds are swelling and for two or
three weeks thereafter is the best time to do the work. Go
over the orchard well in advance carefully to determine the
trees that need attention, so.that the cions may be cut and
kept dormant and fresh until used. Failures often result from
doing the work too early or too late in the season.
Equipment. A sharp knife, tack hammer, brads % to 1
inch long (No. 18), and some form of grafting wax are needed.
In addition, a light wood wedge to aid in bending the cions
will prove useful.
Preparing the Cions. Use strong cions of the previous sea-
son’s growth that have matured well. Mature watersprouts or
suckers from hardy varieties are good. Do not use weak
shoots. If good one-year cions cannot be found, substitute
strong two-year growths. On large trees use the largest ma-
ture cions that it is possible to secure. For grafting on the
roots, a clon with a curve at the base will be useful.
Determine the width of the space to be bridged (Fig. 151).
_Make the cions from 3 to 4 inches longer than this space. At
about 2 inches from each end of the cion, make a long, sloping
cut to the heart or center and then to the end with edges
382 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
parallel. The cuts on both ends must be in the same plane so
that both may fit evenly against the stock when the cion is in
place. |
Preparing the Stock. Cut slits in the healthy bark of the
stock at the upper and lower edges of the wound to fit the cion.
Lay the cion against the bark
, to get the correct measurements.
@ Take out the bark clean, expos-
f¥44 ing the cambium tissue beneath.
«| The bark will separate readily on
a warm day when growth is
| starting. If any of the bark ad-
4-4) heres to the stock, take it off
4) carefully with the knife, disturb-
a ¢ 4) ing the cambium as little as pos-
Li fta! sible. .
Fried | Inserting the Cions. Place
# one end of the cion in the lower
\‘A groove with the cut surfaces to-
gether. Fasten it in place by
driving one or more brads care-
fully through it into the stock.
(NV. Y. State College of Agr.)
Fic. 151. Bridge Grafting. (1)
Cions ready for nailing. (2) A
natural crook at the base of the Bend the center of the cion over
cion works to advantage in graft- a wedge about an inch in thick- |
ing on a root. (3) The cions are ness to give a spring or bow that
drawn into place by small wire yi]] keep the cion in place as the
ole Cnn? No. 18) 2). the tree sways in the wind and also
cion is less likely to break away at
the top if a wedge is used to give to permit enlar gement in diam-
somewhat ofa bow. (5) Waxall eter of the clon. Press timer
cut surfaces after the cions are set. In the groove at the top and nail
| fast. Remove the wedge.
Place cions about 2 inches apart about the tree over the
girdled area. Wax the ends carefully on the under as well as
outer surfaces where exposed. A coating of wax on the girdled
portion will discourage borers and keep the margins of the
wound from drying out.
PROPAGATING BY CUTTINGS 383
Subsequent Treatment. Buds may start from the cions.
Rub them off so that cions serve only as carriers. If some of
the cions fail, replace them the following spring. The cions
will gradually increase in diameter until they have closed the
spaces between them.
Modifications of the
Operation. Some growers
merely loosen the bark of
the stock and slip the cions
under it, fastening them in
place. This is more diff-
cult to do than to remove
a section of bark entirely
and gives no better results.
6. Propagating by Cut-
tings. The grape, goose-
berry, currant, and blue-
berry may be propagated
from cuttings. Take 8- to
10-inch hardwood cuttings
of the grape, gooseberry,
and currant in the fall, from
vigorous mature wood of
the current season’s growth
(Fig. 153). These cuttings
may either be set in the
nursery row, covered with
a mulch to prevent freezing
and thawing, or placed in
bundles and buried in sandy knolls with the bottom end up.
The butts of the cuttings receive the heat from the late fall
and early spring sun, which induces the formation of a callus
or coating of tissue over them. The cuttings may also be
stored in sand in a cool cellar and kept just moist envugh
to prevent drying out. Cuttings also may be made in early
(CO. 8D. AD
Fic. 152. A bridge graft after the
cions had grown two years.
384 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
spring, but they will not give as high a percentage of rooted
plants.
In the spring place the cuttings 3 to 6 inches apart in the
nursery row, leaving not more than two buds above ground.
They will be ready for removal to the field at the end of one or
two years. If they are kept in the nursery for two years, it is
good practice to transplant them at the beginning of the second
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fig. 153. (A) Straight hardwood cuttings of grape, gooseberry, and cur-
rant. (B) Mallet and heel cuttings of grape. (C) Root cuttings of black-
berry. (D) Tip layer of blackcap raspberry.
season. This gives the plants a close, compact root system that
will be little affected by removal to the field.
As a rule, roots arise most readily from a node, or bud. In
preparing cuttings make the lower cut just below a bud, Cut
off the upper end far enough above the bud to prevent drying
out. The mallet and heel cuttings as shown in Fig. 153B are
also used for propagating some varieties of grapes which do not
root readily from straight cuttings.
PROPAGATING BY CUTTINGS 385
Root cuttings (Fig. 153C) are employed in propagating
some varieties of blackberries and purple raspberries which do
not sucker freely. In the fall, cut off pieces of the roots about
3 to 5 inches long and store in sand until spring, as previously
indicated. The root cuttings develop both tops and roots from
adventitious buds after the cuttings have been planted.
_ Blueberries may be propagated
by softwood cuttings which should
be taken in August. Cuttings are
made about 4 inches long, and all
the leaves except the upper two are
removed (Fig. 154).
Either a solar or box frame is a
satisfactory propagating case. The
former operates on the principle of
supplying bottom heat, which is a
decided advantage, but it is doubtful
whether this will compensate for the
extra cost of construction. Both
types hold movable trays which are
4 inches deep and have a hardware
cloth bottom. Further information
may be obtained from the Michigan
Experiment Station. eee jae ae
German peat moss is the most
; ; : Fic. 154. A softwood blue-
satisfactory rooting medium. Growth- Behe airbhine peat toe
promoting substances are believed to placement in the cutting bed.
Increase initial root development.
The cuttings are placed in a slanting position, in a 4-inch
layer of loose but firm damp moss. They are watered and
the frame is covered with a burlap shading which is held
6 inches from the glass. Very little watering is neces-
sary to keep the cuttings quite moist. Ventilation is
very gradual and is practiced only after rooting has taken
place.
In the fall the plants should be hardened off so that they
ATT "Trin mI)
386 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
will drop their leaves. It is well to store the tray in a cool
cellar for the winter. The plants may be given a permanent
position in the field in the spring.
7. Propagating by Layers. Plants which do not propagate
readily by means of cuttings may sometimes be increased
readily by layerage. Layerage consists of the formation of
roots from a portion of the stem, but differs from cuttings in
that the roots and stems of the new plant are formed while it is
still attached to the old plant. The black raspberry cane bends
over as it attains full length, and the tip, if covered with
earth, roots readily and forms a new plant at that point
(Fig. 153D). |
Where the canes are long and can be laid over on the
ground, as in the grape, the covering of the nodes at various
points on the cane results in the production of roots at the
nodes. Several new plants are thus secured from one cane.
The new plants may be severed from the parent just as soon
as the roots are well formed. This is usually done the follow-
ing spring when the plants are put in the field or nursery row.
Leave a portion of the old cane attached to each root to facili-
tate handling. New canes develop from the buds which form
at the crown of the new plant.
Mound layerage is another method in addition to the use of
cuttings for propagating the gooseberry; it is also used with
the quince and Paradise apple. Cutting back the plants close
to the ground in the spring, leaving a few buds on each stem,
results in the production of vigorous new shoots. In. June
these shoots are mounded up with earth high enough to cover
the lower buds, the soil being worked in well about them.
Roots develop from the nodes. If sufficient growth has been
made by the following fall, the earth may be removed and the
new plants cut off and stored until spring, or they may be
planted in the field at once in southern sections.
In the North, leave the plants attached until spring before
severing them. It may be necessary to leave them attached
through a second season.
GRAFTING PREPARATIONS 387
The process may be repeated on the old plants from time
to time.
8. Grafting Preparations. Several kinds of grafting wax
are used in covering the grafts. Most of these waxes soften
with heat, the soft wax becoming pliable at the temperature
of the hand. Many formulas substitute ounces or pounds for
parts, depending on the quantity to be made.
FoRMULA FOR Sorr Wax
Peneenneny reken) se Se 4 parts
eee mien eee Te Pn Se ee ee ke se 2 parts
LOE Tg ie eR ON RS RS SIR ae aT a Rene cP a 1 part
Melt the tallow first, then add beeswax, and when this is
melted, add the resin. Boil slowly for 30 minutes with occa-
sional stirring; then pour the melted wax into cold water.
Grease the hands, remove the wax, and work it by pulling it
until it becomes straw colored and smooth grained. Twist in
skeins and wrap in oiled paper. It may be kept for long
periods. Grease the hands before applying the wax.
A brush wax, which does away with the inconvenience of
handling the sticky hand wax, is made as follows:
BrusH Wax
era eS. Gert he en ol es 1 part
Rete, Wetieten te Dormer ad Ar Se Real 5 parts
LSE EG SoTL RO ala ge % part
Lampblack or powdered charcoal.............. % part
Melt the beeswax, add and melt the resin, then add the
linseed oil. Remove the mixture from the fire and stir in the
lampblack a little at a time, to avoid boiling over.
As soon as cooking is completed, the wax may be partially
cooled to a point where it flows slowly but easily and can then
be used at once. The orchardist should make up a supply in
advance, however, pouring the wax into shallow pans and
388 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS
allowing it to cool and harden. It is necessary to heat this mix-
ture again for use. Apply with a brush or ladle. ,
Alcoholic wax is used in cold weather in order to avoid
heating the wax in the field.
ALCOHOLIC Wax
Resm 22660022020 ob eee 16 parts
Patlowe yr oe So 1 part
Wood-alcohol :. B00 eee 8 parts
Melt the tallow, then add the pulverized resin and heat
until entirely melted. Remove from the fire and stir until
partially -cooled, then gradually add the alcohol until the
cooled mass has the consistency of paint. The wax will remain
in this form until ready for use if placed in containers such as
fruit jars and sealed to prevent evaporation.
Wazed String and Bandages. Immerse a ball of No. 18
knitting cotton in the hot, soft wax for about 5 minutes. Turn
the ball frequently to insure complete saturation of the string.
Remove the ball, suspend on a wire or stick, and turn it over
‘several times while cooling to prevent the hot wax from settling
in the lower side of the ball. Wrap in oiled paper until ready
for use. Waxed bandages of muslin or cheesecloth may be
prepared in the same manner.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Forms of grafting other than those described in this chapter may occa-
sionally be useful. A form that is sometimes of value is the supporting
of poor crotches through grafting cross-shoots from other branches
at appropriate points on the branches. In such a case one end of the
graft is already attached, and the other may be inlaid on the branch
in need of support. The essential feature is to bring the cambium
tissues In contact and to hold them there until union has taken place.
The branches may need to be kept from spreading by tying or wiring
until the graft has united. Small soft shoots from opposite branches
may be twisted together and tied to serve the same purpose. They
will soon grow together. S
a
COMMUNITY STUDIES 389
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Visit a nursery during February. Inspect the seedlings used for
propagation. Note differences in size, length of root, and other charac-
ters of the seedlings.
Inspect cions used, and watch carefully the operation of root grafting.
2. Visit a nursery in August or early September. Watch the opera-
tion of shield budding. Inspect bud sticks and note especially the
apparent vitality of the buds.
Are buds taken from bearing trees?
What precautions are taken to keep varieties from becoming mixed
in the nursery rows?
Inspect root-grafted and shield-budded trees that have grown for a
season in the nursery. 7
Note varietal differences in rate of growth and size.
| Secure from the nurseryman information regarding the stocks used
* for the various fruits and the source from which they are obtained.
3. In late September, inspect shield-budded trees again. Note that
the buds have set and the raffia has been cut. Why? Have the buds
started to grow? What proportion of buds have “taken”? Does the
proportion vary for the different fruits?
What proportion of budded trees make salable trees of first grade?
4, Visit some growers who have employed cleft grafting and whip
grafting to work over trees. Under what conditions is each method
employed? Note the distribution of the grafts through the trees. How
long before the grafts begin to bear commercial crops?
5. Inspect some trees that have been bridge grafted, and note the pro-
cedure in detail. What proportion of the trees have lived and grown?
What proportion of the grafts that were set? Are the bridge-grafted
trees smaller in size than those not bridge grafted?
Find out from the fruit grower the time and expense involved in
doing the work, and ask him for an estimate of the value of the trees
that he has saved.
6. Perform, first in the laboratory and then on outdoor specimens, as
many as possible of the operations described in this chapter. Prune
and care for the grafts on the outdoor trees for a series of years.
7. Make some of the grafting preparations, including soft wax, and
prepare the waxed cord.
CHAPTER VIII
POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING
In many orchards the lack of proper pollination and fer-
tilization of the blossoms results in poor crops of fruit. The
blossoms of many varieties of fruit will not “set” with their own
pollen. With such varieties even though weather conditions
are satisfactory, poor crops of fruit will result unless provi-
sions are made for cross-pollination.
In some of the older fruit sections where several varieties
were often planted in the same orchard, little trouble has ever
been experienced with the pollination problem, but in the
newer and more recent plantings in the Southern and Western
states, where solid blocks of one variety have often been
planted, lack of proper pollination has frequently been one of
the chief causes of poor yields.
Factors and Operations:
. How pollination and fertilization take place.
. Self-fruitful and self-unfruitful tree fruits.
. Determining need for cross-pollination.
. Reviewing the case.
. Using bees in cross-pollination.
. Treatment of established orchards in me of cross-pollina-
tion.
Oo ork 0 De
1. How Pollination and Fertilization Take Place. The
blossoms of the tree fruits—apples, apricots, peaches, pears,
plums, cherries, and quinces—considered in this book are her-
maphroditic, that is, both stamens and pistils are present in
the same flower. The calyx, composed of sepals, and the
corolla, composed of the petals, are also present, The pistil
390
HOW POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION TAKE PLACE 391
“IOMOW 939)durI09 oy} jo sqred Te SUIMOUS
ulosso[q Jved usdo ue jo uoroas [euIpnyisuoy (9) “HOM [B}UsUTTIEdxe Ul seUUsrys 9y} UO poded aq ued AJOLIVA
foyjo Aue jo usjjod pue paAouis« Mou st ualod JO 9ANOS UMO S}T “WOSso[q ived poyernoseurgy (9) ‘(suoure4s
oy} ‘S}USUIETI s[BUI JO [BAOWIL) Uorepnoseua 1of asv}s ssdoid oy} osye st sty L “ssoupnyyiniyun-jjas snsiaa ssoupny
“JINAJ-J[OS SUIJSOY OF SUISSvq AOJ o8eAS J9doIid 4e UOSso[q pousdouy (v) ‘wossojq aved v JO SSUIMVIG] “GGT ‘DIZ
CELé “Ing “nig ‘deg 100)
iP
J voryjnrsyws ,
39 Wrox Hi
392 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING
(female organ) consists of a stigma, style, and ovary, and the
stamens (male organs) are made up of filaments and anthers
CR ae 155)
_fGerminating Pollen
77
iy oe
Connective =
> Qo9K - ---Anther |,
Pollen Sac- 206 |
| 2 on Stamen
i ----— Filament
Three ee.
= N
Antipedal Cells ~~ ~ + | Sh Ate
j “X
~ Polar Nuclei-~- : | ™ aS
oS . —<—BgeaS—~ ~
> SS »
Inner SSS = Nts
Integument ‘/- LE = <= < igma
Theeoincht as fe =e Lee = ie ‘Style ¢ Pistil
Nucellus -=4--(- 25 = _-’ Ovary
Egg Cell--4-+ 4-3 = oe
: : moe gt = =I -—— , ;
Two Synergids 3 = Se hee
| We ES fo a .
NX FS / |__]-{-/- +--Funiculus
= ~-— Base of
/ Perianth
LS
”~ ~~Nectary
) ~ 77 "> *=-Receptacle
Fic. 156. Diagrammatic lengthwise section of a flower illustrating flower
parts and pollen tube growth, resulting in fertilization of the egg cell
and a set of fruit (redrawn from Holman and Robbins.)
The arrangement, number and structure of the different
flower parts vary with the different fruits. For -instance, in
HOW POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION TAKE PLACE 393
the cherry and peach only one stigma is present in each blos-
som, whereas five are found in the apple and pear.
By pollination is meant the transfer of pollen from the
anthers of the stamens to the stigmas of the pistils. In tree
fruits, when the stigmas are pollinated with pollen from the
same flower or from flowers of the same variety, the process is
called self-pollination; when the pollen is transferred from the
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 157. Apple blossoms covered with paper
bags in pollination experiments.
stamens of a different variety, cross-pollination is said to have
occurred.
Pollination is generally followed rather quickly by ger-
mination of the pollen grain (Fig. 156). Water and possibly
nutrients are absorbed from the surface of the stigma, the
grain swells, and a tube is forced out. The pollen tube grows
down through the style, enters the ovule, or unfertilized seed,
penetrates to the embryo sac, and discharges two male germs
or gametes. One of the male gametes fuses with the egg cell
394 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING
(female gamete), and fertilization is said to have taken place.
As soon as fertilization of the egg cell occurs, the embryo,
ovary, and other adjoining tissues begin to develop, an increase
in size occurs, and the blossom appears to have “set.” If
pollination and fertilization do not occur, the blossoms soon
turn yellow, wither, a drop, either at the time the petals fall
or shortly thereafter.
Although pollination and
fertilization are necessary
for fruit setting, this does
not mean that all blossoms
which are fertilized develop
into fruits. Owing to com-
petition for water and nu-
trients, many of the blos-»
soms fall. Some drop at the
time of petal fall, some two
or three weeks later, and
some at the time of the
“June drop.” After fertiliza-
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fig. 158. By inclosing trees at blos- Hon. thoce see
soming time under muslin or cheese i
cloth tents to exclude insects, studies have the most seeds and
in cross and self-fruitfulness can be Which are borne on the
made. most vigorous spurs, so
that more water, nitrates,
and elaborated foods are available, are the ones most likely
to set.
2. Self-Fruitful and Self-Unfruitful Tree Fruits. Many
varieties of apples, pears, cherries, and plums will not set fruit
if the blossoms are pollinated with their own pollen, or with
pollen taken from another tree of the same variety. Such
varieties are said to be self-unfrwitful. If the pollen of such
varieties is viable, that 1s, capable of germination, and the egg
cells are normal, the varieties are said to be self-incompatible
also. When varieties do set fruit with their own pollen they
are said to be self-fruitful and self-compatible. The term self-
fertile is used if fruits with viable seeds are produced, following
DETERMINING NEED OF CROSS-POLLINATION 395
self-pollination, whereas the term self-sterile is employed if no
viable seeds are produced when self-pollination occurs.
It can thus be seen that a variety may be both self-fruitful
and self-fertile, or self-fruitful and self-sterile. Sometimes
two varieties are found neither of which will fertilize the other.
These are called intersterile.
When the above facts are known, it is apparent that if
certain self-unfruitful and intersterile varieties are planted in
large blocks, and in a section where there are no nearby or-
chards of other varieties, such varieties will bear practically
no fruit, even though they may bloom profusely.
3. Determining Need of Cross-Pollination.
(a) Apples.
(6) Pears.
(c) Plums.
(d) Cherries.
(e) Peaches and apricots.
(f) Quinces.
(a) Apples. ‘The following apple varieties appear to be
self-unfruitful in most states where studies have been made,
and should not be planted alone in solid blocks:
Group I
Akin Roxbury Russet
Arkansas Black Scarlet Pippin
Arkansas (Mammoth Black Stark
Twig) Starking
Cortland _ Stayman Winesap
Delicious Summer Rambo
Golden Delicious Sweet Delicious
King David Tompkins King
McIntosh Twenty Ounce
_Northern Spy White Pearmain
Ohio Nonpareil Williams
Opalescent Winesap
Red June Winter Banana
Red Spy Wolf River
Rhode Island Greening Yellow Bellflower
396 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING
The following apple varieties have been reported by several
investigators to be at least partly self-fruitful:
Group II
Baldwin Oldenburg (Duchess)
Ben Davis Red Astrachan
Cox Orange Red Oldenburg
Early Harvest Red Gravenstein
Esopus (Spitzenburg) Red Rome
Gano Rome Beauty
Gravenstein Wagener
Grimes Wealthy
Jonathan Yellow Newtown
Maiden Blush Yellow Transparent
Milton York Imperial
Northwestern Greening
With some the varieties in Group II a sufficient set has
been secured in some orchards where the blossoms have been
enclosed in bags to give a commercial crop of fruit. Field
observations of large plantings of certain of these varieties also
indicate that good crops will result from self-pollination if
other conditions are satisfactory. This seems to be especially
true of such varieties as Baldwin, Ben Davis, Grimes Golden,
Oldenburg, Wealthy, Rome, Yellow Transparent, Yellow New-
town, and York Imperial. However, even with these varieties,
better crops are generally secured where cross-pollination takes
place. This is especially noticeable in cold, cloudy seasons
unfavorable for pollination purposes.
Since cold, cloudy, and damp weather often occurs in many
fruit sections, at least during part of the blossoming season,
and since the set of fruit is often light in such years, with re-
sultant high fruit prices, it is evident how important it may be
to have additional pollenizers in the orchard to assist in secur-
ing a larger set of fruit.
As a rule, the pollen of one variety of apple will fertilize
the blossom of another variety, provided that the blossoming
periods of the two varieties overlap so as to make an abun-
DETERMINING NEED OF CROSS-POLLINATION 397
dance of pollen available at the proper time. This is not true,
however, of a few varieties. Certain of the Winesap group of
apples, such as Stayman Winesap, Arkansas (Mammoth Black
Twig), and Winesap, are intersterile for all practical purposes.
These varieties are thus not only self-unfruitful, but cross-
unfruitful also, and it is necessary to plant other varieties with
them such as Delicious, Jonathan, Grimes Golden, or Yellow
Transparent, if satisfactory crops are to be had.
Although the pollen of the Grimes Golden is usually excel-
lent to use as a pollenizer, still, when it is applied to Arkansas
(Mammoth Black Twig) pistils, practically no fruit results.
Growers should consult their experiment-station officials and
secure the latest information relative to the cross-compatibility
of the varieties which they wish to plant.
Poor Pollenizers. The results of experiments in various
parts of the country indicate that certain varieties make very
poor pollenizers. Stayman Winesap, Arkansas, and Winesap
pollen appears to be defective and germinates very poorly un-
der controlled conditions. .As a result, these varieties should
not be relied upon to fertilize any of the other varieties. Like-
wise the pollen of Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Graven-
stein, Ohio Nonpareil, and Nero usually germinates poorly and
causes poor sets of fruit when used on other varieties. Fruit
srowers should thus avoid these varieties when selecting a
pollenizer.
Good Pollenizers. Some varieties seem to be unusually
good pollenizers and generally cause excellent sets of fruit.
In this group are found:
Cortland Red June
Delicious Rome Beauty
Golden Delicious Steele Red
Grimes Golden (except for the Wagener
_ Arkansas variety) Wealthy
Jonathan Winter Banana
McIntosh Yellow Transparent
Northern Spy York Imperial
398 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING
(6) Pears. Many Varieties of Pears Set Better Crops if
Pollinated with Other Varieties. In the Eastern sections of the
United States, experiments and field observations indicate that
the following varieties are either entirely self-unfruitful, or
they are self-unfruitful to such a degree that satisfactory crops
will not be produced unless they are pollinated with other
varieties:
Anjou Columbia Mount Vernon
Boussock Easter Beurre ' Sheldon
Clairgeau Howell Superfin
Clapp’s Favorite Lawrence Winter Nelis
Kieffer
In addition to the above varieties, the following varieties
will set much better crops if cross-pollinated, although fair
crops are occasionally produced with their own pollen:
Bartlett Gorham
Buerre Bose Phelps
Cayuga Souvenir du Congress
Ewart
The following varieties set fair crops with their own pollen
but no doubt would be benefited by cross-pollination:
Buffum Manning
Duchess d’Angouleme Seckel
Flemish Beauty Tyson
LeConte
So far as is known, practically all varieties of pears which
bloom at the same time will cross successfully with each other.
(c) Plums. By far the largest percentage of Japanese
plums (Prunus salicina) studied in this country are self-
unfruitful and thus should not be planted in solid blocks. The
following varieties are included in this list:
Abundance ~ El Dorado Ogon
Apex Engre Prize
Burbank Formosa Satsuma
Chabot Gaviota Sultan
Combination Kelsey Upright
Duarte Kerr Wickson
Maru
DETERMINING NEED OF CROSS-POLLINATION 399
The following varieties will set a limited amount of fruit
in certain years with their own pollen, but set much better
crops if pollen of other Japanese varieties 1s available for cross-
pollination purposes.
Beauty Methley
Climax Santa Rosa
Practically all varieties of Japanese plums with the excep-
tion of Formosa and Gaviota are cross-fruitful.
Several of the European varieties of plums are self-un-
fruitful. The European species (Prunus domestica and Prunus
msititia) do not have as high a percentage of self-unfruitful
varieties as the Japanese and American species. Of those
studied, the following are self-unfruitful for all practical pur-
poses and should not be planted in solid blocks:
Bavay Jefferson Sergeant
Clyman Imperial Standard
German Prune McLaughlin Tragedy
Golden Drop President Washington
Quackenboss
The following varieties set fair crops with their own pollen:
Agen Reine Claude
California Blue Sugar
Giant Victoria
Italian Prune Yellow Egg
Certain other varieties set light crops with their own pollen
in some years, but much better crops are produced if pollen
of other varieties is available. This list includes Diamond.
Grand Duke, Pond, and Shropshire. 7
There seems to be practically no-cross-incompatibility
between European varieties of plums; therefore satisfactory
crops should be produced if any two varieties are interplanted,
provided that their blossoming seasons overlap.
Practically all varieties of American species of plums that
have been observed in pollination studies are self-unfruitful.
400 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING
Most of them will intercross satisfactorily. Varieties of these
species are of minor commercial importance in many regions.
Certain Plum Species Do Not Intercross Satisfactorily. Ap-
parently varieties of the Japanese and American species are
interfruitful, and these can be planted together if desired for
cross-pollination purposes. The European species (Prunus
domestica and Prunus insititia) likewise appear to be inter-
fruitful. Varieties of Prunus domestica do not, for the most
part, cross satisfactorily with those of the Japanese and Ameri-
can species.
(d) Cherries. The pollination problem with cherries de-
pends upon whether sweet, sour, or Duke (crosses between
sweet and sour) varieties are grown. . Practically all varieties
of sweet cherries are self-unfruitful. Provision should always
be made for cross-pollination when planting a sweet cherry
orchard. Most varieties produce plenty of viable pollen, but
certain ones appear to be better pollenizers than others. Some
varieties are intersterile. Thus, Napoleon, Bing, and Lambert,
three very important commercial varieties on the Pacific Coast,
will not fertilize each other. However, varieties such as Re-
publican, Black Tartarian, Wood, Early Purple, Rockport,
Windsor, and certain others pollinate these three varieties
successfully.
Sour cherry varieties are self-fruitful in most sections. Ex-
perimental studies and field observations show that in many
sections the common varieties of sour cherries such as Early
Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello, Wragg, and Dye-
house are usually self-fruitful and will set good erops without
cross-pollination. Reports from Oregon, however, indicate
that several varieties, including the Montmorency, are self-un-
fruitful for all practical purposes under local conditions. So
far as is known, varieties of sour cherries blossoming at the
same time pollinate each other readily.
Many varieties of Duke cherries are self-unfruitful. Ex-
perimental evidence available in this country suggests that
much better crops would result in all Duke varieties if at
REVIEWING THE CASE 401
least two varieties are interplanted when planting the orchard.
Sweet, sour, and Duke cherry varieties vary as regards
their interfruitfulness. Varieties of these three groups will
intercross, but, as a rule, pollen of the Duke cherries does not
cause as satisfactory a set on either sweet or sour cherries as
pollen from varieties within their own groups. Pollen of sweet
cherries will cause satisfactory sets on sour cherries, but as a
rule the sweet cherries bloom too early to be satisfactory pollen-
izers for the sour. Sweet cherries will also fertilize the Dukes
satisfactorily if their blossoming periods overlap. Likewise,
pollen of the sour cherries will fertilize both the sweet and Duke
cherries if their blossoming periods coincide. For early-bloom-
ing Dukes, sweet cherries should be satisfactory pollenizers, |
whereas sour cherries should be more satisfactory for the late-
blooming varieties. 3
(e) Peaches and Apricots. With.a few exceptions, all 1m-
portant peach varieties that have been studied have been found
to be self-fruitful. The variety J. H. Hale, however, has been
shown to be self-unfruitful and practically no crops are borne
unless pollen from other varieties is available (Fig. 159). Like-
wise, the June Elberta appears to be self-unfruitful for all
practical purposes, and the Late Crawford is usually bene-
fited by cross-pollination. The pollen of almost any variety
which blossoms at the same time as these varieties causes a
good set.
All varieties of apricots tested, including Blenheim, Lewis,
Montgamet, Moorpark, Royal, and Tilton, appear to be suffi-
ciently self-fruitful to set commercial crops.
(f) Quinces. Although very little evidence has been se-
cured relative to quince pollination, the data available indicate
that the varieties commonly grown such as Champion, Orange,
Meech, and Rea are sufficiently self-fruitful to set satisfactory
crops with their own pollen.
4. Reviewing the Case. From the preceding discussions
of fruit pollination and fertilization, it can be seen that, with
the possible exceptions of sour cherries, quinces, some of the
402 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING
European plums, and most peach varieties, provisions should
be made for proper cross-pollination when planting the orchard.
In addition to the self-unfruitful varieties, many, if not all, of
Fig. 159. Lower, a branch from J. H. Hale peach tree showing one
normal fruit, the result of cross-pollination, and two “buttons” resulting
from self-pollination. Upper, a branch from a tree of the same variety
on which the fruit was cross-pollinated. (Mich. Special Bul. 188.)
the varieties of apples, pears, and plums which are listed as
self-fruitful, or partly so, will usually be benefited by cross-
eibnstion: at least, larger crops usually result and the June
‘drop, especially in bad pollination years, is less.
REVIEWING THE CASE 403
Effect of Pollen on the Size, Shape, and Color of the Fruit.
Fruits of the apple and pear which result from cross-pollina-
tion are often of better shape, size, and color than those result-
ing from self-pollination, but their shape and color are typical
for the variety regardless of the kind of pollen used. For in-
stance, the pollen of a yellow variety like Grimes does not
cause yellow streaks to appear on red apples; neither does the
pollen of a round apple change the shape of an oblong or flat
apple. Fruits which are cross-pollinated generally have more
seeds, appear to set and start into growth sooner, hang on bet-
ter, and, because of increased vigor, generally are of better size
and color at picking time. The better shape often encountered |
in crossed apples and pears is generally due to the fact that all
cells contain seeds and thus develop normally. Seeds are often
missing in some of the cells of self-pollinated fruits, and this
generally results in lopsided or misshapen fruit.
Qualifications of a Good Pollenizer. Several factors should
be considered when selecting a pollenizer for cross-pollination.
1. It is necessary first to be sure that the pollenizer selected
produces plenty of viable pollen, and that it will cause a set
of fruit on the variety to be pollinated. In other words, the
varieties must be cross-compatible.
2. The blooming periods of the two varieties should over-
lap.
3. The pollenizer should come into bearing as early as the
variety to be pollinated.
4. The pollenizer should be an annual bearer, if possible, or
at least should produce some blossoms every year.
5. The pollenizer selected should, if possible, be desirable
commercially. It should not be necessary to select some unde-
sirable market variety just for pollination purposes. There
are usually enough good market varieties which are also good
pollenizers from which to make a selection.
Cortland is an excellent pollenizer for McIntosh; Rome
will pollenize Northern Spy; Delicious and Wealthy will pol-
lenize almost any varieties with overlapping blooming periods.
404. POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING
Determining the Number and Arrangement of Pollenizers in
the Orchard. Not more than four rows of a self-unfruitful
variety should be planted together. If two varieties are being
planted in equal numbers, four rows of one and then four rows
of another can be planted, although practical orchard observa-
tion indicates that two rows of one and then two rows of an-
other often result in larger crops. Orchardists who have been
studying this problem in the Shenandoah-Cumberland Valley
section state that their best crops, especially in bad pollina-
tion years, occur where not more than two rows of the same
variety are planted together. If more of one variety is desired
than another, two or three rows to one, or four to one, can be
planted.
If the least possible number of pollenizers is desired, there
should be at least one pollenizing tree to every thirty trees in
the orchard, or about every fifth tree in every fifth row. It
would be much safer, however, to have at least one tree out of
every nine a pollenizer. This would mean that every third tree
in every third row should be a pollenizer. ©
Whenever two self-unfruitful varieties are planted together,
only one of which is capable of pollinating the other, a third
variety should be planted to pollinate the second one.
For instance, in the case of apples, if Delicious and Stay-
man Winesap were planted together, the Delicious would pol-
linate the Stayman Winesap satisfactorily, but since the Deli-
cious is self-unfruitful, and since the Stayman Winesap pollen
is of no value for fertilizing any variety, it can be seen that
practically no fruit would be borne on the Delicious. Then a
third variety, as Grimes or Jonathan, should be planted to pol-
linate the Delicious. On the other hand if Yellow Transparent
and Stayman Winesap were planted together the Yellow
Transparent would fertilize both the Stayman Winesap and
itself, and satisfactory crops would probably be produced on
both varieties.
5. Using Bees for Cross-Pollination. Bees are of great
value for cross-pollination purposes, and unless wild bees are
USING BEES FOR CROSS-POLLINATION 405
very common, every fruit grower should arrange to have
colonies of bees evenly distributed throughout the orchard at
blossoming time.
It has been shown by different investigators that pollen of
several of our tree fruits is carried only short distances by the
wind and that agency cannot be relied upon to effect satis-
factory cross-pollination. No doubt wind, especially by shak-
Fic. 160. Left, a honey bee with pollen grains on its body as a result of
visiting blossoms; right, a bumble bee, showing pollen grains. (Mich.
Special Bul. 188. Photos by Cornelius Clarke, Grinnell, Iowa.)
ing and jarring the limbs, aids in distributing the pollen from
the anthers to the pistils of the same blossoms, however, and
thus helps to cause better sets on self-fruitful varieties, espe-
cially in peaches and sour cherries.
Insects are the main agencies in effecting cross-pollination
between varieties. In flying from blossom to blossom their
‘bodies become covered with different varieties of pollen, and
this is left on the different stigmas as they crowd down into
the blossom to secure the nectar. Honey bees, because of their
“406 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING
large numbers in many regions, play an important part in
cross-pollination.
When two varieties of tree fruits are inclosed in a tent with
a hive of bees, much better crops are borne than if the same
varieties are inclosed in a tent without bees. It has also been
clearly shown, for certain self-fruitful varieties of different tree
fruits, that the set of fruit is greatly increased, even in such
cases, if bees are present.
The value of bees in carrying pollen has also been strik-
ingly shown, especially in bearing orchards of self-unfruitful
varieties planted in solid blocks, by distributing colonies of
bees in the orchard and then hanging blossoming branches of
other varieties in buckets of water in some of the trees and by
placing some of the branches near the hives. By carrying the
fresh pollen of the different varieties from the blossoming
branches to the blossoms of the tree, bees have caused satis-
factory commercial crops to be produced in large orchards
which previously had borne very little fruit, though blossom-
ing freely each year. It is generally necessary to renew the
blossoming branches once or twice during the blooming period
so that plenty of fresh pollen will be available.
Kinds of Bees and Insects as Pollen Carriers. Although
honey bees are very valuable as pollen carriers, still, in some
regions, other insects, no doubt, aid greatly in cross-pollination.
Bumble bees are considered to render great aid in certain of
the New England states, and various flies are important aids
in other sections.
Number of Hives Required. One colony of seven to nine
pounds of bees to every three or four acres 1s a good invest-
ment, and many growers who realize the value of bees keep
one colony to every one or two acres of orchard.
It is not merely a question of having some colonies of bees
in the orchard. They should be healthy and vigorous. Most
orchardists will prefer to rent colonies from an experienced
beekeeper who will place colonies, care for them, and remove
TREATMENT OF ESTABLISHED ORCHARDS 407
them. The rental charge varies from $3.00 to $5.00 for the
blossoming season. |
Distance Which Bees Will Carry Pollen. It is impossible to
state definitely how far bees will fly and carry pollen. This
will vary, of course, with several factors, such as kind of
weather at blossoming time and the distance of the bloom from |
the hive. In warm, sunny weather, bees may fly long dis-
tances, and so self-unfruitful varieties, even in rather large
blocks, may be satisfactorily pollinated even though other
varieties may be at some distance. However, the value of
bees, and of pollinating varieties, is especially shown in seasons
when the weather is cold, damp, and windy, and when only
occasional short periods are favorable for bee flight. In such
seasons, when the set is génerally poor, and the prices of fruit
high at picking time, the great value of bees for cross-pollina-
tion purposes is clearly evident.
Length of Time to Keep Bees in the Orchards.: It is neces-
sary to have the bees in the orchard only during the blossom-
ing period. As a result some growers place their own hives in
the orchard during this period only, or rent hives during this
time. Most growers remove their bees to other locations as
soon as blossoming is over for the following reasons: (a) more
food will be available for the bees, (b) there will be less danger
of injury to the horses and workmen during the summer, (c)
there will be less chance of the bees spreading fruit diseases
such as brown rot of peaches and fire blight of pears, and (d)
the possible damage to bees from the use of arsenical spray
is eliminated.
6. Treatment of Established Orchards in Need of Cross-
Pollination. As soon as a fruit grower learns that he has a
self-unfruitful variety planted in a solid block, he should top-
work one tree in nine (the third tree in every row) or at least
one tree in thirty (the fifth tree in every fifth row) to a cross-
compatible variety. In addition, he should place several hives
of bees in the orchard and bring in blossoming branches of
408 POLLINATION AND FRUIT SETTING
other varieties each year until the grafts are able to furnish
sufficient pollen for cross-pollination purposes. |
If the grafts are pruned lightly each year, enough blossoms
are often produced during the third or at least the fourth year
Fic. 161. Lower, blossoming branches of a good pollenizer in buckets of
water hung in the branches of a variety in need of cross-pollination.
Upper, colonies of bees on their way to Michigan orchards for pollination
purposes. (Mich. Speciai Bul. 188.)
so that it will not be necessary to continue to bring in the
buckets of blossoming branches. It is very important, how-
ever, that plenty of bees be retained for distributing pollen
from the grafts.
COMMUNITY STUDIES 409
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Visit several orchards and determine whether any provisions have
been made for cross-pollination between varieties.
2. Secure data on the date and length of the blooming period of
several varieties of all tree fruits in the community.
3. From the data obtained from Study 2, determine what varieties
would be suitable for cross-pollination purposes as far as the over-
lapping of their blooming periods is concerned.
4, Determine whether orchards consisting of several varieties ‘‘set”
a higher percentage of their blossoms than orchards of one variety.
5. Which varieties of the different tree fruits appear to “set”? the
highest percentage of blossom, when planted in solid blocks?
6. Is the “set” of fruit as heavy in seasons when the weather is cold,
rainy, and windy during blossoming time as when it is warm, quiet,
and sunny?
7. Determine where beehives should be located in the orchard for
cross-pollination purposes. ;
8. Remove the petals from a few apple blossoms before the petals
open, and determine whether bees visit such blossoms when the showy
attractive petals have been removed.
9. Place some paper bags over several blossoms of the different tree
fruits just before the petals open, and remove the bags after the petals
have fallen. Determine which varieties “set’’ fruit under the bags.
10. Collect and ripen pollen of several varieties of apples, emasculate
a few blossoms of each variety, and make several different cross-pollina-
tions. Determine later which crosses have resulted in the best set of fruit.
11. Collect blossoms of several different kinds of fruit. Study them
carefully, make drawings, and label the different parts.
12. After the “June drop” determine whether there are more or less
good seeds in the apples which have fallen compared to those still
remaining on the tree. :
13. Visit several orchards at blossoming time and determine the
different insects that are visiting the blossoms.
14. What percentage of the blossoms “set” fruit in: (a) a well-cared-
for, vigorous orchard, and (b) a poorly cared-for weak one?
tg. ID
CHAPTER IX
MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING THE
TREES
DIAGNOSING GROWTH CONDITIONS AND PRESCRIBING
TREATMENT
To get satisfactory crops of fruit, good tree growth is neces-
sary. The decision regarding the method of soil management
and the kind and amount of fertilizer to use in an orchard
should be based upon the ability of these procedures to produce
desirable conditions of tree growth. The kind of soil manage-
ment chosen affects both the kind and amount of fertilizer
required.
Operations:
MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS
1. Determining the system of apple-orchard culture to use.
2. Selecting the implements for soil management.
3. Determining culture of other tree fruits.
FERTILIZING THE TREES
. Deciding whether fertilizers are needed for apple trees.
. Deciding which fertilizers are. needed.
. Deciding how much fertilizer to use and when to apply it.
. Applying the fertilizer.
. Determining the cost of applying fertilizers.
. Fertilizing other tree fruits.
Managing Orchard Soils
1. Determining the System of Apple-Orchard Culture to
Use. In deciding which system of orchard soil management to
use, the following factors should be taken into consideration: —
APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE All
(a) Consider the objects sought.
(6) Consider -the different soil-management systems which
might be used. 2
(c) Determine costs of soil management.
(a) Consider the Objects Sought. The final object sought
in all orchard operations is excellent tree growth and the
_ yearly production of large yields per tree of high-quality fruit
at as low a cost as possible. Inasmuch as soil moisture,
nitrates, and organic matter are important factors in securing
these desirable conditions, and since they are decidedly influ-
enced by the manner in which the soil is handled, it will be
well to determine some of the objects sought in orchard soil
management.
Some of these objects are: (1). the conservation of mois-
ture, (2) keeping up a good nitrogen supply, (3) the addition
of organic matter, and (4) maintaining a proper physical con-
dition of the soil. It 1s difficult to separate these four factors,
since it can readily be seen that, 1f a good supply of organic
matter is added, the physical condition of the soil would be
improved, the nitrogen supply probably would be increased,
and the water-holding capacity of the soil would be greater.
The great importance of organic matter in orchard soils can
thus be realized.
Considering these points in relation to orchard culture, it is
evident that certain soil practices might be better than others.
Likewise, a certain practice might be satisfactory under one
set of soil, weather, and topographical conditions and unsatis-
factory under a different set of conditions. Although a system
of clean cultivation and cover crops is very satisfactory on
level land, it might be quite unsatisfactory on steep lands
where soil erosion would occur and where the cost of tilling the
soil would be very great. Although trees might grow well in
rough, rocky land, it would be very expensive to cultivate such
land, even if it was possible to do so.
When organic matter, such as a green manure crop, is
_ plowed into the soil, it is decomposed and most of it is changed
412 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
into nitrates before it is used by the trees or other plants.
Various soil micro-organisms such as fungi, algae, and bacteria
carry on these changes in the soil.
(6) Consider the Dnvrfferent Soil-Management Systems
Which Might Be Used. Many different systems of soil man-
agement have been and are being used in different orchards
of this country. Some of these are:
(1) Sod culture—grass not cut.
(2) Sod culture—grass cut and romoneah or pastured.
(3) Sod mulch—grass or legume cut and raked under limbs. of
young trees, not raked up in old orchard.
(4) Sod mulch plus additional mulch.
(5) Clean cultivation and intercrops while the trees are young.
(6) Clean cultivation, strip cultivation, and alternate-row
cultivation.
(7) Clean cultivation and cover crops.
\
It will be seen that the different systems of soil culture fall into .
two large, general groups: sod versus tillage. In general, the
nitrate content of the soil is found to be much less under a
system of sod culture than where a system of clean cultivation
and cover crops is used, and orchards in sod usually respond
well to applications of a quickly available nitrogen fertilizer.
In addition to the fact that the grass itself uses nitrates, it
has been found that nitrification is much slower and less ex-
tensive under sod than in cultivated soil. Likewise the amount
of soil moisture is usually less in the sod orchard, unless a —
heavy enough sod is produced so that an efficient mulch results
when the grass is cut and left upon the ground. Under that
procedure the moisture content of the soil appears to be about
the same in the sod and cultivated orchard during most of
the year, especially in the deeper and richer soils. Additional
amulching material, such as straw or hay, added to the cut grass
-will usually insure a soil moisture content equal to that of the
cultivated orchard, even under soil conditions unfavorable
for a good growth of grass or permanent legume, The danger
APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 413
of injury to the trees from mice and other rodents and from
fire is greater in the sod than in the tilled orchard.
(1) Sod Culture: In this system, fertilization is usually not prac-
ticed, the sod is thin and poor, and the grass is not cut.
From the standpoint of the effect on the trees, this system is gener-
ally injurious in most orchards. The grass competes with the trees
for both water and nitrates. Practically always the soil in such orchards
contains less water and nitrates for the trees than the soil in orchards
which are cultivated and in which cover crops are plowed under each
year. Trees in such orchards usually have a yellowish foliage, the termi-
nal growth and spur growth are weak, the set of blossoms is usually
poor, the leaves fall early in the autumn, and the yields are small. Heavy
fertilization, especially with nitrogen for the trees and phosphorus for
the grass, is beneficial. The system is not recommended unless the soil is
unusually fertile, and unless some unusual supply of soil water from
springs, seepage, or some other cause is available most of the year. In
irrigated sections, its use might be permissible or even advisable in order
to increase the organic matter of the soil, especially if alfalfa were used
instead of grass. The grass or alfalfa, especially in bearing orchards,
should not be removed.
(2) Sod—Hay, Cut, or Pastured: Under most conditions it will not
be profitable to cut hay from an orchard. Such a practice robs the trees
of both moisture and nitrates and should never be practiced in the
bearing orchard. In commercial orchards it will not pay to pasture
the land. Horses and cattle and even sheep will remove the foliage,
fruit spurs, and apples as high as they can reach. It is possible for a
farmer with two or three acres of orchard to use it as a pig pasture, but,
if more than three or four pigs per acre are placed in the orchard, they
may do considerable damage to the roots of the trees and the sod, unless
care is taken to keep rings in their noses. In any case some protection
should be provided around the trees, especially while the trees are young.
(3) Sod Mulch: This system differs from sod eulture in
that an attempt is made to get a heavy growth of grass by
means of fertilization. The grass is cut at least twice during
the season and piled about the trees, while they are young, to
form a heavy mulch over the roots (see Fig. 162 b,c, f). This
system may prove satisfactory, at least until the roots extend
out and occupy so much soil that enough grass would not be
produced to form a sufficient mulch, Certain experiments
414 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
indicate that a legume sod, such as alfalfa or sweet clover,
would, under most conditions, be more satisfactory than a
mixture of grasses. The sod-mulch system would no doubt be
satisfactory in orchards planted on deep, fertile soils, and this
system, or some modification of it, would be highly desirable
in orchards located on steep or very stony and rocky land, on
land which tended to be too damp because of seepage from
springs, and where there are other special factors. The ap-
plication of sufficient nitrogen fertilizers may make the sod-
mulch system very satisfactory.
(4) Sod Mulch Plus Additional Mulch: Many orchards
are grown satisfactorily under a system of sod mulch plus addi-
tional mulch. In this system, in addition to the grass which is
cut twice a year and piled about the trees, other mulching
material such as straw, hay, or cornstalks is hauled in and piled
under the spread of the branches. About 50 pounds of air-
dried material per tree should be piled around trees ranging
from 1 to 4 years old. This amount should gradually be in-
creased to 100 or 125 pounds around a 10-year-old tree. In
older bearing orchards, from 200 to 300 pounds of such ma-
terial should be spread about each tree. The mulch should
not be placed close to the trunk, since injury from mice is
greater in such cases, but it should extend well out beyond
the spread of the limbs in order to cover the root system of
the tree.
This system on good soils produces approximately the same
effects a8 clean cultivation plus cover crops. The loss of soil
moisture is apparently prevented just as well, and the heavy
mulch kills out the vegetation directly over the roots so that its
growth does not injure the trees.
Trees under such a system make excellent growth and are
quite productive. The fruit is often of better color than in
cultivated orchards, and the apples which drop are protected
and kept clean by falling on the mulch.
Under many conditions a nitrate fertilizer should also be
added to the trees, and it will probably pay to fertilize the grass
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fig. 162. Different soil management systems. (a) Clean cultivation followed with
cow peas as a cover crop. (b) Permanent sod of alfalfa which has just been cut.
The strip in the tree row will be cut next and then the trees will be heavily mulch-
ed with the cut material. (c) Sweet clover sod mulch. Note the thick mulch of
clover piled around the tree. (d) Clean cultivation in a young apple orchid. A
cover crop will be sown in late July. (e) A good cover crop of rye starting in a
young peach orchid. It was sown early in the season—August 1. (f) Sweet clover
as a permanent sod mulch. Note the large amount of organic matter and mulch-
ing material produced by this crop.
416 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
in the center of the rows with nitrogen, phosphorus, and pos-
sibly potash in order to keep up the mulch supply.
Some disadvantages of the additional mulch system: A
sufficient amount of cheap additional mulch may not be avail-
able, and if this has to be purchased, the system may be more
expensive than clean cultivation and cover crops. There is
great danger of fire in orchards where so much mulch 1s used,
(E38 D. A.)
Fic. 163. Beans make a good intercrop in the young orchard.
and it is necessary to take extra precautions against Toot and
trunk injury from mice and other rodents.
It should be said that this system of orchard management
is gaining in favor, especially since low returns in recent years
have compelled growers to decrease costs where possible and
to improve the color of their fruit. They grow their own
mulching material on adjoining areas. Sudan grass is promis-
ing for this purpose.
(5) Clean Cultivation and Intercrops While the Trees Are
Young: While the orchard is young and non-bearing, the trees
will not need all the ground, and so intercrops may sometimes
APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 417
be grown profitably between the trees (Fig. 163). Such crops
should consist of any cultivated crop from which money can be
made. Tomatoes, beans, potatoes, cabbage, corn, or in fact
almost any of the truck crops will be satisfactory. A grain or
hay crop, because of the nitrates and moisture used, is not
recommended under most conditions.
The truck crops, of course, are fertilized and cultivated,
and as a result, conditions
for tree growth are also
good. The rows of crops
should be kept a few feet
from the tree rows, this dis-
tance being increased each
year until intercropping
ceases. A cover crop should
be sown each year at the
last cultivation of the cul-
tivated crop so that the
organic-matter content of
the soil may be increased
when the cover crop is
turned under.
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 164—Strip cultivation. Tree
(6) Clean Cultivation, Strip rows cultivated, with permanent alfalfa
Cultivation and Alternate-row between the rows cut for hay.
Cultivation: The practice of
cultivating orchard soils from early spring until late in the fall with-
out seeding or allowing any cover crop to grow means that, sooner or
later, tree growth and fruit production will seriously diminish. Such
soils gradually become devoid of organic matter and nitrogen, mois-
ture is not absorbed or held, and the soils puddle in winter and bake
and crack in the summer. As a result of such soil conditions, tree
growth is checked, the foliage looks yellow, and smaller crops of poor-
sized fruit result. If such orchards are growing on slopes or hillsides,
soil washing occurs and fertility is lost.
In young orchards, growing on steep land, a combination of culti-
vation and cover crops along the tree rows, with sod mulch in the
center of the rows to prevent washing, is often profitable and satis-
ae
418 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
factory. This system is also occasionally used in young non-bearing
trees on level ground (Fig. 164.) It is very questionable, however,
whether it pays to cultivate the tree rows in orchards on very steep
land. It would, no doubt, be just as satisfactory to use the sod mulch
plus heavy fertilization over the entire area.
With older orchards, alternate cultivation is often used, every other
row being cultivated one year while the remaining rows are in sod
mulch. The following year the systems are reversed and the cultivated
rows are seeded down. By these means erosion is prevented and a part
of the orchard is cultivated each year. In the past this system has often
seemed advisable, but whether it will continue to be so in the future,
in view of the satisfactory responses being obtained in sod-mulch
orchards when heavier applications of nitrogen fertilizers per tree are
used, is questionable.
(7) Clean Cultivation and Cover Crops: Unless the or-
chard is planted on very steep land, the system of clean culti-
vation plus cover crops will generally be found to be very
satisfactory and profitable. On level land, no other system can
quite equal it in many cases, unless a very large supply of
some cheap additional mulch is available for use, as outlined
previously.
The clean cultivation and cover-crop system consists es-
sentially of plowing the grouna early in the spring, harrowing
or disking it several times through the summer in order to kill
weeds and keep a good dust mulch on the surface, and finally
sowing a cover crop, which is to be plowed under later
(Fig. 162 a, d, e). In some of the lighter soils, disking can be
substituted for plowing, but even then it will generally pay to
plow at least once in every three or four years, in order to
prevent the formation of a hardpan layer just beneath -
depth to which the disk reaches.
By cultivation, weeds are destroyed; the soil becomes bet-
ter aerated and warmer; the soil particles are broken up into
smaller pieces, thus presenting a greater feeding area for the
roots; nitrates are produced early in the spring and in large
quantities through increased nitrification; the water of rains
is quickly absorbed, and the loss of water is prevented through
eta
APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 419
weed control and to some degree by the dust mulch kept on the
surface of the soil.
Organic matter is added by plowing under the cover crops,
and nitrogen, in addition to that already in the soil, is incorpo-
rated when legume cover crops are used. The organic matter
of the cover crops improves the physical condition of the soil
and increases its water-holding capacity. The decaying or-
ganic matter liberates carbon dioxide, which makes a stronger
acid soil solution, so that the other mineral foods already in the
soil are more readily dissolved and made available for the
tree’s use. Nitrification normally proceeds much earlier and
faster in cultivated soils, and as a result more nitrates are
available for tree growth than where sod culture or sod mulch
is used.
Plow in the Fall or Early in the Spring. In regions like
southern New York and Pennsylvania where there is little
danger from winter freezing of roots, and where the cover crops
have been sown early enough in the season to produce a large
bulk of organic matter, it will probably pay to plow in the fall
(except in very sandy soils), especially if the orchards are not
on steep land. By fall plowing, earlier cultivation can usually
be performed in the spring, the organic matter will decay
sooner, nitrification will start earlier, and there will be no
danger of the cover crops competing with the trees for water
and nitrates early in the spring.
Jn regions with a climate similar to that of Maryland, Dela-
ware, Virginia, and North Carolina, plowing ean be done
during the fall or in February and March. The important
thing is to have the ground plowed before any tree growth
starts in the spring.
The reason for cultivating early in order to increase the
amount of water and nitrates available for the tree is readily
understood when it is recalled from Chapter IV, “The Growth
of the Tree and the Forming of Fruit Buds,” that fruit spur
~ growth in length is completed for the season about two weeks
after blossoming and that terminal growth (at the ends of the
ct ly
420 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
branches) is completed about the middle of July, in most sec-
tions. This means also that the full leaf area is developed
early in the season, and that large amounts of water are thus
being transpired. It will also be recalled, from Chapter VIII,
“Pollination and Fruit Setting,” that the “set” of blossoms is
influenced considerably by the amount of moisture and nitrates
available at blossoming time.
It is thus evident how essential it is that nothing shall com-
pete with the trees so that the maximum amount possible of
moisture and nitrates will be available early in the season,
when such rapid tree growth and development are taking place.
If the cover crop is allowed to grow in the spring, much of the
water and nitrates is taken from the trees. Early cultivation
not only will prevent moisture loss, but also will help to bring
about such favorable conditions of temperature and aeration
in the soil that nitrification early in the season will be more
rapid and extensive.
Trees will respond better if plowing is done early than if
the plowing is done late, even aoe later cultivation may be
very thorough.
Determining the Cover Crop to Use. There are, in general,
two kinds of cover crops, legumes and non-legumes. ‘The
legumes, through the aid of bacteria which are present in the
nodules. on their roots, are able to fix the nitrogen of the air,
but non-legumes do not have this power. It can thus be seen
that, with legumes, more nitrogen than that which was already
in the soil before the crop was grown is added when the crop
is turned under and nitrification has taken place. On land
where legumes have never been grown, inoculation may be
necessary. If both legumes and non-legumes are used as cover
crops, the soil nitrates which might otherwise leach out of the
soil or be washed away are absorbed by the plants and thus
returned to the soil when the crop is turned under.
Winter vetch, crimson clover, cow peas, soy beans, alfalfa,
and red clover are legumes. Crops such as rye, oats, millet,
APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 421
sorghum, buckwheat, rape, and cowhorn turnips are non<
legumes.
The choice of the cover crop will vary under different con-
ditions. In general, that crop should be selected which will
make the best growth at the lowest cost in the locality where
it is grown. If leguminous crops will thrive and produce
large amounts of organic matter, rich in nitrogen, they should
be used. But remember that a large amount of organic matter
is the important thing in order to improve the physical condi-
Fic. 165. A cover crop of buckwheat.
tion of the soil and especially its moisture-holding capacity.
As a result, if the non-legumes will thrive better under certain
local conditions and thus produce more organic matter, they
should be used, as additional nitrogen can easily and cheaply
be added in the form of some quickly available nitrogen
carrier. |
In the old orchard a cover crop which is least affected by
shade should be given preference. It is usually advisable also
to grow a crop which is not killed by the first frost in the fall.
Thus such crops as rye and vetch will continue growth after
the leaves of the trees have fallen in the autmn and will make
a
422 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
satisfactory crops under such conditions. If late fall plowing
is not practiced, then very early spring plowing should be
done in order to prevent the cover crop from making too much
spring growth and thus competing with the trees for moisture
and nitrates.
Much of the organic matter produced by those cover crops
which are killed by early frosts may be lost by having the
leaves blown away. This is often true with cow peas and soy
beans, for instance, where the orchard is located on an ex-
Fic. 166. A weed cover crop may often be spotted and thus not produce
sufficient organic matter. In such cases a standard cover crop should be
seeded.
posure swept by strong winds. Often only the stalks remain
on the ground in the spring. In orchards where fall or winter
plowing is practiced, this condition is avoided to some extent.
Often a weed cover crop, such as foxtail, chickweed, rag-
weed, quack grass, or partridge pea, will grow quickly and
cover the ground as soon as cultivation is stopped in the late
summer. Such crops will add considerable organic matter and
fulfill many of the functions of a standard cover crop. A
good stand of volunteer grass or weeds is preferable to a poor
stand of certain cover crops and saves money. ‘The use of
weeds is questionable, however, since they often come up
* APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 423
unevenly (Fig. 166) and are a source of spreading obnoxious
weeds about the farm. This last objection would not be as
serious on a specialized fruit farm as it would be on a general
farm.
Winter Vetch. Winter vetch often makes an ideal leguminous cover
crop, and good stands are not difficult to obtain. It will usually grow in a
season too dry for clover, and on soils too acid for good stands of clover
and alfalfa. It grows in cool weather and makes a heavy mat upon the
ground. In combination with rye or oats, it makes an excellent cover
crop. Its main disadvantage in some years is the high price of seed.
Crimson Clover and Red Clover. Crimson clover makes an excellent
cover crop where good stands can be obtained. Many orchardists, how-
ever, have difficulty in getting a good stand. It is rather exacting in its
moisture requirements at seeding time and winter-kills badly in some of
the Northern fruit sections. It will not do well on acid soils.
Red clover and mammoth clover are also popular cover crops where
good stands can be secured. The cost of seed is likely to be high.
Alfalfa and Sweet Clover. Alfalfa is used occasionally as a cover
crop by some fruit growers. Where soil and climatic conditions are
favorable for a good stand and quick growth, it should be a satisfactory
cover crop. In many orchard sections it is very difficult, however, to
obtain a desirable stand and growth during the period when the crop
must be grown. The soil should be well drained, fertile, and limed if
acid. Inoculation is important. Growers usually have much better
success in using alfalfa as a permanent orchard sod than as a cover crop.
The biennial white sweet clover, like alfalfa, gives promise of being
satisfactory as a permanent sod in orchards. It will thrive on poorer soils
than alfalfa. It is quite possible that this clover, and in addition the
white annual variety, may be suitable as cover crops in some orchard
sections.
Soy Beans and Cow Peas. Soy beans and cow peas make good cover '
crops in the South, but are not so popular in the North. The fact that
they are killed at the first frost is an objection. In the South these crops
need to be fertilized on most soils if a sufficient bulk of organic matter
is to be produced.
Rye and Other Grains. Rye is a very satisfactory non-legume cover
crop. It grows well in cool weather and lives over winter. It should be
plowed under in the winter where possible or early in the spring, or it
will compete with the trees for both moisture and nitrates. The fact that
it grows well even on poor and acid soils where a little fertilizer is used,
and produces a large amount of organic matter, makes it a very valuable
ee i
424 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
cover crop in many sections. Oats, barley and wheat are also used as
cover crops.
Buckwheat. Buckwheat makes a good cover crop in many orchards.
It will do quite well on poor soils and thus improve them so that legumes
can be grown. It is particularly good for improving the physical con-
dition of a heavy soil. It is killed by the first frost.
Dwarf Essex Rape and Cowhorn Turnips. 'These have rather large
root systems which penetrate the soil deeply and are thus effective in
improving its physical condition. These crops grow rather late in the
season and generally form a dense mass of leafy material for plowing
under. They thrive exceptionally well on heavier soils in cool climates
and where there is a good moisture supply.
Millet. Millet makes an excellent cover crop in young orchards
where shading is not a factor. Under such conditions it quickly pro-
duces 2 large bulk of organic matter. It does quite well on a wide
range of soils and is not very exacting in its moisture requirements.
Time of Seeding. The time of sowing the cover crop is
influenced by such factors as: locality, age of trees, variety of
fruit (whether summer or winter apples), type of soil, and
size of crop.
If the cover crop is sown too early in an igkaee which is
producing a heavy crop of fruit, the size of fruit may be in-
jured under some conditions. It must be remembered that the
cover crop draws heavily on the moisture supply of the soil.
With a heavy crop of fruit the cover crops should generally
be sown later than if the trees are not bearing.
Cover crops can be sown earlier on heavy soils that are
retentive of moisture than on the lighter soils. Early sowing
of cover crops will check tree growth and thus help to bring
about a satisfactory maturity of young trees, so they will be
in better shape to withstand low winter temperatures.
Under many soil and climatic conditions, and especially in
the Middle Atlantic states, the cover crops should be seeded
early enough (late July) so that a large bulk of organic ma-
terial will be produced and available for plowing under in late
fall, winter, or early spring. A test for lime should be made,
and lime and fertilizers should be added if these are necessary
in order to produce a heavy cover crop. Nitrogen, phosphorus,
APPLE-ORCHARD CULTURE 425
potassium, and lime may all have to be added on some soils to
get a good growth of cover crops. Inoculation may be re-
quired for the leguminous crops.
The first year that cover crops are sown early they may
reduce the soil moisture content to such an extent, especially
in a dry season, as to affect the size of the developing fruit.
The following year and thereafter, however, the soil moisture
content will usually be so much higher because of the organic
matter turned under previously that the growth of the cover
crops will probably not affect the growth of the fruit adversely,
except under unusual drought conditions.
Rate of Seeding. Following are suggested amounts of seed
to use per acre in seeding the orchard cover crops.
It is often advisable to use mixtures of the above cover
crops, reducing somewhat the quantity of seed of each kind.
AMOUNT OF SEED
LEGUMES To USE PER ACRE
UUSTRRS.EIAL GLE 7 LIP JA 2 EN ig a oe Oe rte 15 to 20 pounds
ap tM ee es os oe se ee Bene Cee ae be 12 to 15 pounds
OSLER Dy eir- DS eS a a cca eee 6 pounds
1 CENC FRESE PEPE 6 ed RA ES oe ee ae aa ge va to 1 bushel
UN SEELS a 5 ee Pe eGo ton ce ae og ae 11% to 2 bushels
en ee aaa eee cee eS) ee ag a vidoe e oes os 1 to 1% bushels
NON-LEGUMES
Wee ae re ee i i ie ys ew ow ace a bes 114 to 2 bushels"
ec ee 1 bushel
ORIN id PP ee a ae ahs a vie bolt se ne es w= 25 to 40 pounds -
eerie omens GAITTIIGIS so ee oe 2 to 4 pounds
Thus in many orchards, a mixture of 10 to 15 pounds of winter
vetch and 1 to 114 bushels of rye makes a most excellent cover
crop.
(c) Determine Costs of Soil Management. Cost of orchard
soil management depends upon the size of the orchard, the
type of equipment used, and the kind of soil management
practiced. If an orchard is kept under clean cultivation, it
must be either disk-harrowed or plowed and kept in proper
condition by later harrowings. A sod orchard or one in which
4296 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
each year a system of sod mulch js practiced needs only to be
mown once in June and perhaps again in September. The
grass which is close to the trees may be cut with a scythe.
Soil management undoubtedly costs less in a sod orchard than
in a cultivated one. Table 45 indicates costs of all types in
New York orchards during 1934, 1935, and 1936.
In the Dale View Orchard in Licking County, Ohio, where
an orchard was in sod and mowed twice a year, the grass under
the trees being cut with a scythe, the soil-management cost
was 8 cents per bushel.
In the Germantown-Red Hook and Kinderhook area of the
Hudson Valley in 1931, in 519 orchards where both systems
of soil management were practiced, it cost $4.02 per acre or
4 cents per bushel for soil management.
2. Selecting the Implements for Soil Management. For
sod orchards about the only implement necessary is a good
mowing machine. In young orchards a hay rake is also neces-
sary for raking up the cut material so that it can ns piled
about the trees.
In cultivated orchards, the size of the orchard determines
largely whether a team and ordinary walking plow will be used
or whether a tractor and gang plow can be operated profitably.
Some of the things which will influence the selection of a trac-
tor are: (1) its cost, (2) topography of the land, (3) the type
of soil, and (4) the horsepower developed. On hillside ground,
tractors with a caterpillar tread will usually be found most
satisfactory. If the soil is a heavy one, and particularly if
the grower desires to pull an extra wide (16-foot) orchard
disk, the horsepower developed by the tractor is an important
consideration.
In addition to the above factors, an orchard tractor should
be as low as possible with practically no levers, exhaust pipes,
or other mechanical parts projecting up into the air to catch in
or injure the branches. The wheels should be covered with
fenders to protect the branches, and arrangements for offset
hitches should be made. Implements can then be hooked to
SELECTING IMPLEMENTS FOR SOIL MANAGEMENT 427
TABLE 45]
AppLtes—Costs on New York Farms, 1934, 1935, anp 1936*
“ing eee ie Oe Ee ee ee ee ree
i VRUGTE GES (CLM 21 170 eee A el te @
Bushels marketable apples per acre..........
Acres of apples per farm.......... ‘gael aoe
Growing costs per acre:
Interest, taxes, depreciation on trees, etc...
INitrosenous fertilizer. . 2.0... ec eke:
LUE ISITEK Ss <2 a ae eo Nee a
SURI GIRSIO: 2 Cee ae ae se
Spray andudust materials. 7... 2... ek.
BGAN OT er ire Seis natal pe Ges Rene dela alles
pplayerwand otkerequipment......2....--
MN DISeCIIAIMCONIS 6 Gcio akc. oc eg ee a ee mee ee
!
Oia OLOWING COSH, oo fec. oe. eo.
Costs per bushel:
REO ethos ols ss se Sag ew Gee es
Harvesting:
LiBy C/O te Ace Me See a ed eng enc
SE OU Ale MAIS EIN oes bc ote ee oe os
Storing and selling:
Wai actor Ra eI ON ha kl Be ay
Commission, storage, transportation... ..
WAWORe ee hy ah Se Tee Oe ss
igQMmpIMmiente is. 8d. 5 RI Soe ce ered ee
i Seiaie ULCERS ee Le oe,
RRL ETE a SARE, OP RR ce ee nD ew om
Potanstornne and selling... oo... 6...
WMoumlieost mer UsMy oo ees os os
Less: Packages, commission, storage, transpor-
TV) IDI I le fale es eis Be aS ast ge
igen, woud, pastures 60s. ees.
WeticOstMeIONSNEl 2h ee ss
hevarennems mer bushels 2c. ow sc. Soa ww.
Less: Packages, commission, storage, transpor-
NPM A ew Rta ad ostas one ere ataie aX ane «le ice
Met ME pMEMer per OUSHEL ih. ide i hie ces
ei@mmemuusmel ns te eee. eT SL,
Petula on hourollabor. 3... ee oe
1934
$15.
2.
70
13
.o2
1935 | 1936
24 21
180 155
36/5. | 2a%
$13.59 | $13.90
2.42 2.28
219 2.19
0.10 0.13
ES BAM bee) Sic
11:97" | 39>
1.60 1537
2.02 2.15
6.57 5.04
3.56 499
$05.14 | $55.61
$0.30 | $0.36
0.10 0.10
0.02 0.03
$0:12 | $0.13
0.09 0.08
0.08 0.06
0.04 0.05
0.01 0.01
0.01 0.01
0.02 0.02
$0.25 | $0.23
$0.67 | $0.72
0:17 0.14
0.02 0.03
$0.48 | $0.55
$0.67 | $1.00
0.17 0.14
$0.50 | $0.86
$0.02 | $0.31
$0.34 | $0.79
* Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Manageiment, New York State
College of Agriculture.
> ee i
428 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
the side of the drawbar so that the ground near the trees may
be worked without running the tractor near them. It is more
(Caterpillar Tractor Co.)
Fic. 167. A disk at work in an Oregon pear orchard. +
important to work the soil close to young trees than older ones, _
in which the feeding roots are well out between the rows.
SELECTING IMPLEMENTS FOR SOIL MANAGEMENT 429
The type of plow desirable for orchard use is one of a two-
bottom design with ample clearance and penetration. Disk
plows are satisfactory on many soil types.
In many orchards, on the lighter types of soils, no plowing
is done but a disk harrow is used. Such harrows should be
strongly built, heavy, and durable. Orchard disks 14 to 16
feet in width are especially desirable, since the sides of the
(Caterpillar Tractor Co.)
Fig. 168. Clean cultivation in an Ohio orchard.
harrow will extend under the branches and the soil will be
cultivated, although the tractor need not be driven close enough
to do any damage to the trees (Figs. 167 and 168). For this
reason it’ is usually better not to have the tandem hook up,
or one disk ahead of the other, for orchard work, but rather a
wider implement in one plane of action.
In some orchard sections nothing but plows and disks are
used, but in most sections the spring-tooth harrow is a part
of the orchard equipment. These harrows, as well as the light-
a ee
5 net a Ee
wen
ESL SP i Me oe
Pa
es
es
430 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
draft orchard cultivators (Fig. 169), will pulverize and level
the soil well. |
In some of the heavier and stonier orchard lands, special
orchard cultivators with heavy, rigid frames and teeth are of
ereat value in leveling the ground after plowing and in culti-
vating it during the season.
In addition to the foregoing implements, such tools as the
Fic. 169. This light-draft harrow is a very effective implement on land
free from large stones or rock ledges.
spike-tooth harrow, the acme harrow, and the plank drag are
sometimes seen in orchards. The last two of these are of value
in crushing lumps and in pulverizing the soil in preparation
for seeding the cover crops if the soil is not stony; the spike
tooth is of value in covering the seed after it 1s sown.
3. Determining Culture of Other Tree Fruits. The peach,
plum, apricot, and cherry make excellent growth, produce good
yields, and thrive well under a system of clean cultivation and
- eh
FERTILIZING THE TREES | 431
cover crops. When proper pruning, thinning of the fruit (with
the exception of the cherry), and fertilization, especially with
nitrogen fertilizers, are practiced, in additior to thorough cul-
tivation and the turning under of heavy cover crops, little is
left to be desired.
Peaches and apricots are very shallow-rooted under most
soil conditions, and as a result would probably suffer from
lack of moisture when in competitien with grass much more
than apples would. Although plums and cherries might thrive
better than peaches and apricots under a system of sod mulch,
still it is very questionable whether results equal to those se-
cured under tillage would ever be obtained.
Like all other fruits, the pear thrives well under a system
of clean cultivation and cover crops. Because of the fact that
growth may be vigorous and succulent under cultivated con-
ditions, thus resulting in more injury from fire blight, pear
orchards are often left in sod in order to check such growth.
If proper and thorough methods of blight control are practiced,
however, it is questionable whether it will pay to check growth
too severely, decrease the bearing area, and reduce total yields
by keeping the orchards in sod. ‘A system of sod and cultiva-
tion in alternate years may be desirable. Cease cultivation
earlier in the season than with the apple.
The quince thrives best when the soil is cultivated, but
-appears to do fairly well under sod mulch conditions also. In
some regions the quince is so susceptible to fire blight that it is
almost necessary to practice some system of sod culture in
order to check rapid growth and thus reduce fire-blight injury.
Fertilizing the Trees
THe APPLE
It is practically impossible to consider orchard fertilization
without knowing the system of orchard soil management that
is being used and the kind of soil upon which the orchard 1s
432 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
growing. If the orchard is located on a heavy loam soil, and is
cultivated yearly with cover crops plowed under, it will usually
require a different treatment than if it is growing under sod
conditions. Cultivated orchards on light, shallow, thin soils
often require different and larger amounts of fertilizer than
those on heavy, deep soil.
1. Deciding Whether Fertilizers Are Needed. The decision
whether the orchard needs fertilizer should follow a careful
study of conditions. The color and amount of foliage should
be noted; whether the leaves are large, plentiful and dark
green, or whether they are small, sparse, and yellowish. The
yearly amount of new terminal growth is likewise an index of
whether fertilizers are needed. Though the most desirable
length of new terminal growth varies with the age of the tree,
variety, and seasonal conditions, 14 to 16 inches is usually ~
desirable for bearing trees. The length of terminal growth
on young non-bearing trees should range from 18 to 36 inches,
depending on the age of the trees. Trees from 2 to 5 years of
age should be making the longer growths.
The length and diameter of the new growth produced each
year on fruit spurs should also be determined. Non-bearing
spurs, making new yearly growths of 4% to % inch, especially if
the growths are thick in diameter and are well supplied with
numerous, healthy leaves, can generally be counted upon to
blossom and set fruit, unless the tree as a whole is in a de-
cidedly biennial bearing condition. Spurs making quite short
(44g inch) or slender growths usually form very few. fruit
buds. Likewise spurs which have been forced out into ones
slender growths often become unproductive.
The stockiness of the trunk and the general height and
width of the trees should be taken into consideration.
2. Deciding Which Fertilizers Are Needed. As stated in
Chapter IV, “Growth of the Tree and the Forming of Fruit
Buds,” apple trees need and use for the proper development of
tree and fruit all the essential elements, but experiments have
shown that many soils in this country are supplied at present
DECIDING WHICH FERTILIZERS ARE NEEDED 4833
with sufficient available amounts of these minerals so that
satisfactory tree growth and fruitfulness are produced without
adding them as fertilizers. Sufficient nitrogen for best growth
and fruiting, however, seems to be lacking in many soils and
on them much better growth and production results whenever
it is added (Fig. 170). It is often necessary to add phosphorus,
potassium, and lime for the growing of farm crops on the
same soils where fruit trees will show no apparent improve-
Fig. 170. The row on the left received an application of quickly available
nitrogen fertilizer. The row on the right received none, but was treated
the same otherwise. Note the differences in foliage, growth, and yield.
ment in growth and fruiting from the addition of these fertiliz-
ers. A possible explanation of this may be that the roots of
fruit trees range wider, extend deeper, and penetrate all parts
of the soil more thoroughly.
Sod orchards respond well to applications of a readily avail-
able nitrogen fertilizer. Cultivated orchards also, except on
the heavier and more fertile soils, respond well in many regions.
Though dried blood, tankage, and fish (all organic nitrogen
carriers) are beneficial, still most orchards seem to respond
better to the more quickly available inorganic nitrogen fer-
cts i eee ee
434 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
tilizers such as nitrate of soda or ammonium sulfate. New
nitrogen fertilizers now available may give as good results,
for less money, as can be obtained from nitrate of soda. The
grower should review the fertilizer situation each year and
shop around to determine the best buy.
The addition of phosphorus has been beneficial only in an
indirect way, in that it has seemed to improve the nature and
amount of the sod in many sod orchards, and likewise has
helped in causing a heavier cover crop to be produced in tilled
orchards where it was applied at the seeding of the crop.
The popular notion of a few years ago that potash would
improve the color of fruit has not been borne out in recent
experiments. On the contrary, the development of color seems
to depend more on having the fruit well exposed to sunlight
and other favorable climatic conditions such as the proper
amount of moisture and cool nights, and in having it properly
matured. The lack of some of these conditions explains, in
part, why fruit from orchards fertilized with nitrogen some-
times has the reputation of being somewhat poor in color.
Such fruit is usually produced under more shaded conditions,
unless very thorough detailed pruning is given, since the trees
make a more vigorous growth, and thus have more and larger
leaves. Its maturity is also delayed, and the fruit on vigorous
trees should be allowed to hang on the trees longer in order to
improve in color as much as possible and reach a stage of
maturity equal to that borne on less vigorous trees.
3. Deciding How Much Fertilizer to Use and When to Ap-
ply It. The amount of fertilizer to use will depend on the color
of the foliage and on the amount of new growth being produced.
Each orchard thus presents a different problem. One orchard
may, under certain conditions, need a heavy application of
nitrogen to bring about desirable growth conditions, whereas
another orchard under different conditions may need very little
* OF none.
In orchard sections where it has been found desirable to
fertilize most of the orchards each year, the following ap-
HOW MUCH FERTILIZER TO USE 435
proximate amounts of nitrate of soda, or its equivalent in other
nitrogen carriers, are being used: 44 pound on 1- and 2-year-
old trees, and 1% to 1 pound on 3-year-old trees. These
amounts are then gradually increased until 2 to 4 pounds are
used for 6- to 10-year-old trees, and 5 to 10 pounds for trees
ranging from 15 to 30 years old. These amounts should serve
only as a general guide, however, as the growth and fruiting
of the tree should be used as an index of how much fertilizer
to add.
In general, it is not a good practice to place fertilizer in the
hole at planting time; in fact, severe injury to the tree may
result. Good results are often obtained by applying the fer-
tilizer on top of the soil in a circle 6 to 8 inches from the trunks
after growth of the trees has started.
Since quickly available nitrogen fertilizers are applied to
increase fruit spur and terminal growth and the “set” of blos-
soms, as well as to increase the color and size of foliage and
fruit-bud formation, and to influence other factors, it should
be remembered that fruit-spur growth in length is generally
completed within two weeks after blossoming, and that ter-
minal growth is usually over in most sections and seasons by
July 15. These facts being known, it is at once apparent how
important it is to apply fertilizers early in the spring Geen
one month before blossoming).
In orchards on light, sandy soils where considerable carte
ing may occur, it may pay to split the applications: about
two-thirds of the amount decided upon should be applied before
the terminal buds start to grow, and the other third just after
blossoming when the set has been determined.
Results in some fruit regions indicate that it might be de-
sirable to apply part of the nitrogen in the spring and part in
the fall each year, but further studies are needed before grow-
ers in all regions should adopt such a practice, except in an
experimental way.
Thus far it has not been possible to eliminate biennial bear-
ing through the use of fertilizers.
TI Fh SEED OH
436 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
4, Applying the Fertilizer. When a quickly available
nitrogen fertilizer is used in the spring, it is generally applied
by hand. Before the fertilizer is taken to the orchard it is re-
moved from the sacks, ground or pounded and screened if
necessary, and loaded into a tight wagon box. The wagon is
hauled along between two tree rows, and from two to four men
apply the fertilizer.
In general, spread the fertilizer about each tree in an area
extending from about 3 feet inside of the branches to about
3 feet beyond the spread. Use a cup or small pail previously
weighed and marked with the proper amount of fertilizer to
apply per tree, to measure the material, refilling the buckets
with fertilizer at the wagon as often as necessary. Walk in
a circle about each tree when applying the fertilizer. In old
orchards (especially sod-mulch orchards), it will usually be
best to sow the fertilizer either by hand or with a fertilizer
distributor evenly over all the area between the trees.
5. Determining Cost of Applying Fertilizers. The time
and cost. of applying fertilizer to apple trees varies with such
factors as the amount of material applied per tree, the contour
of the land (whether steep or not), and the speed of the men.
In the Hudson Valley of New York, where the average rate
of fertilizer applied is 5 pounds per tree, the cost of fertilizer
and applications average $4.07 per acre, of which $3.28 is for
fertilizer, 47 cents for labor, and 32 cents for other costs. (See
Tables 45 and 46.)
The average cost per acre for fertilizer and manures ap-
plied on 80 orchards in Berrien County, Michigan, in 1935
was $3.84.
For the Shenandoah-Cumberland region the average cost
per acre over the 3-year period 1929 to 1931 was $4.18.
OTHER TREES
6. Fertilizing the Peach, Apricot, Cherry and Plum. Prac-
tically all fertilizer experiments in this country have shown
that peach trees are benefited by applications of nitrate of
DETERMINING COST OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS 437
TABLE 46 ©
Cost oF Fertiuizine 206 AppLeE OrcHarps oF 2124 AcrEs,
Hupson VALLEY, 1931
Cornel! Extension Bulletin 355
Average per
Acre Fer- sess
tilized
Time and materials:
praia ee ee 155 pounds
ars Pes ee en ny | ae et eh ae wa a 1.4 hours
ELT SES Te oe OS eee oe een gene ae 0.7 hours
Cost per acre: Dollars Percent
rat mee ee ee gS eet ee A 3.28 80
Me er ee eS i Ee ots. 0.47 12
Reha wai e h PEe's, 0.15 4
Paper espana ee) is he 0212 3
Tractor ane 1Mick .......-.... ge San 0.05 1
irre C8 en rN! IT as ris Oh 4.07 100
soda. Larger trees and greater yields have resulted. In the
same experiments, except in one or two cases, practically no
direct benefit has been derived from applications of acid phos-
phate, lime, or potash. Some indirect benefit has sometimes
resulted by increasing the growth of the cover crop. It is pos-
sible, however, that in some of the Southern peach-growing
regions, as Georgia and the sand hill sections of North and
South Carolina, benefits may be derived from a complete
fertilizer.
Sufficient nitrate should be added to cause terminal growths
of 16 to 24 inches in length. If too much is added, ripening
may be delayed, which might be either advantageous or dis-
advantageous, depending upon the market conditions, and so
438 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
much foliage might be produced that the color of the fruit
would be poor.
Early nitrate applications have given excellent results, but
as peach trees bloom earlier and normally grow later in the
season than apple trees, and as early fruit-spur growth 1s not a
factor, it may be wise to delay the application of fertilizer
until after danger of frost is over and the “set” of fruit can be
determined. If the crop should be lost by frosts, less nitrate,
of course, should be applied. It is possible that other nitrogen
carriers will be found to be as satisfactory as nitrate of soda
for peaches.
Very little evidence is available relative to the fertilization
of apricots, but since they are so similar in growth and fruiting
to the peach and Japanese plum, it is reasonable to suppose
that they will respond to similar fertilizer practices.
Sour cherry fertilizer experiments have shown that this
fruit also responds well in growth and production to applica-
tions of quickly available nitrogen. As a rule, no direct benefit
has been derived from the addition of acid phosphate or potash,
except in the very light, sandy soils. Practically no fertilizer
experiments have been conducted with sweet cherries, but it
would appear that nitrogen applications would be beneficial
whenever these trees show the need of fertilization.
Very little experimental evidence is available relative to the
fertilization of plums, but orchard observations indicate that
nitrogen applications will generally be beneficial for all com-
mercial species, if satisfactory growth and yields are not being
secured without them.
The Pear and Quince. Since both these fruits are so sus-
ceptible to fire blight, it is very questionable whether any fer-
tilizer should be added to the cultivated orchard, unless the
soil is so low in fertility that very little growth results. If the
orchards are in sod, it will probably pay to add small amounts
of a quickly available nitrogen carrier, such as nitrate of soda,
about a month before growth starts. This will stimulate early
growth and assist in the setting of fruit. The growth of grass
#
|
_
4
By
DIAGNOSING GROWTH CONDITIONS 439
will tend to check later tree growth and encourage hardening
of the wood, making the trees more resistant to fire blight.
DIAGNOSING GROWTH CONDITIONS AND PRESCRIBING
TREATMENT
The ehnbuy practices to be adopted for each orchard should
be determined only after a careful study of tree growth, yields,
and environmental conditions. In diagnosing individual or-
chards the following factors should be considered: (a) Color of
foliage—is it dark green or yellow and sickly looking? (b)
Height of tree—is it dwarfed for its age or overgrown? (c)
Height and width of tree—is it very tall and narrow, or is it a
well-balanced tree? (d) Total growth—is it making a satis-
factory growth of new wood each year? (e) Length of ter-
minal growth—is the terminal growth 3 inches or 4 feet in
length? (f) Is the tree productive—are the fruit spurs numer-
ous and vigorous, and are fruit buds formed?
With this information the physiological condition of the
tree can be diagnosed and intelligent treatments prescribed.
By referring to Chapter IV, “The Growth of Tree and the
Forming of Fruit Buds,” the four classes in which plants can
be grouped according to the proportion of carbohydrates and
nitrogen within their tissues are evident. With the aid of this
classification, proper treatments can be prescribed. For in-
stance, it is readily apparent that a seven-year-old orchard,
on fertile, moist soil, which is being pruned heavily, cultivated
thoroughly, and nitrated heavily so that a vigorous growth of
wood is produced, but no fruit buds, is in Class II. In this or-
chard, less nitrogen should be applied and lighter pruning of
the tree should be practiced in order to have proportionately
more carbohydrates and less nitrogen in the tissues of the tree.
When this is accomplished, the trees would be in Class III,
producing only a fair growth and good crops.
Let us assume another example. If a middle-aged orchard
is growing under sod conditions on poor soil with no fertiliza-
440 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
tion, growth of fruit spurs and terminals would probably be
very short, and few fruit buds would be formed. Since very
little growth is taking place, carbohydrates would probably
accumulate in the tissues. Such trees would be in Class IV,
and it is readily apparent that heavier applications of nitro-
gen, cultivation of the soil, and a heavier pruning would be
beneficial. Such a treatment would cause such trees to ap-
proach Class III, resulting in better growth and fruiting con-
ditions.
In some sections, especially in parts of New York and New
England, difficulty has been encountered with the development
of what has been termed “internal cork” in the flesh of the
apple—large brown areas not noticeable on the surface. Many
of the affected fruits drop prematurely. The condition is
accentuated by drought conditions during the growing season.
The difficulty seems to lie in a deficiency of boron in the
soil. When the supply falls below a certain level, the symp-
toms described appear.
Treatment of the soil with borax has given almost complete
control. Apply it at about the season of the delayed-dormant
spray application in a circle about 2 feet wide under the outer
tips of the branches. Measure amounts carefully and dis-
tribute them evenly. A treatment once in three years seems
adequate. Do not treat normal trees showing no evidence of
the disease. Amounts for trees of varying sizes are given in
Table 47.
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Make a survey of the orchards in your community and determine
the different methods of soil management being used.
2. Which method of soil management results in best tree growth and
yield?
Which cover crop seems most satisfactory under your conditions? Why?
4. How much organic matter (green weight per acre) is produced by
the different cover crops?
5. How much does the seed of the different cover crops cost per acre?
3. Determine the time of the year when the cover crops are seeded. -
x
COMMUNITY STUDIES 441
TABLE 47
Rates ror Appityina Borax TO TREES OF DIFFERENT SIzEs
Approximate Trunk | Amount of Borax for
Diameter 1 Foot for Ring Application
above Ground on Soil
Inches Ounces
3/2
i)
7
10
14
15 up
6. Does the addition of fertilizer increase the amount of cover crop
produced?
7. Which orchard cultivation implements are being used in your
community?
_ 8. How many orchardists disk instead of plow their orchards in the
spring?
9. Determine the kinds and amounts of different fertilizers being
used in your community. Which fertilizer appears to give the best
results?
10. Do sod orchards appear to show a greater response to fertilization
than cultivated orchards?
11. If part of an orchard is in sod and part in cultivation, determine
which part is making the better growth. Do they respond equally to the
same amounts of fertilizer? |
12. If possible get some orchardist to allow you to apply different
_ kinds and amounts of fertilizers to different rows in his orchard. Note
the color and amount of foliage produced, the length of spurs and
terminals, and the yield of fruit.
13. Which orchardist has the best-colored and largest-sized fruit in
the community? How does he prune, spray, manage the soil, thin the
fruit, and fertilize his orchard?
14. Visit several orchards in your community and diagnose their
conditions. Study:
a. Amount, size, and color of foliage.
b. Length of terminal growth.
442 MANAGING ORCHARD SOILS AND FERTILIZING TREES
c. Number of new spurs being formed each year.
d. Length and thickness of fruit spur growth.
e. Height and width of tree.
f. Total length of growth being produced.
g. Number of trees per acre.
h. Productiveness of trees.
15. In which ereue or class would you place these trees? Refer to
Chapter IV.
16. Note the type and amount of pruning, kind of soil a aaa
and kind and amount of fertilizers being used. ;
17. Determine whether you would change any of the practices being
followed. Support all suggested changes with reasons.
CHAPTER X
THINNING FRUIT
Fruit trees often set more fruit than they are able to bring
to maturity in marketable condition. This is true even after
_the grower has given proper attention to pruning, spraying,
soil management, and other standard orchard practices.
Thinning the fruit on the trees under such conditions is an
operation that has justified itself in many careful tests. It is
now a part of the plan of orchard management of many suc-
cessful growers. Thus far it has been confined primarily to
the apple, peach, and plum.
Operations: :
. Consider conditions under which thinning is advisable.
. Consider results that may be expected from thinning.
. Determining time to thin.
. Thinning apples.
. Thinning peaches.
. Thinning plums.
o> ot em 0 De
1. Consider Conditions under Which Thinning Is Advis-
able. Thinning accomplishes very little unless the tree is carry-
ing at least a moderate crop. It will accomplish relatively more
as the load on the tree approaches a heavy or full crop. Thin-
ning may be worth while if one side of the tree is heavily
loaded and the other side has no crop, because the size of
the fruit 1s largely determined by the leaf surface adjacent to
the individual specimen and available for its development.
Only judgment and experience will indicate the point at which
_the operation becomes sound practice.
443
444 THINNING FRUIT
Varieties naturally medium or small in size will need thin-
ning when varieties naturally above medium or large in size
may not require it. —The Winesap, Wagner, and Wealthy may
require thinning when Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig) and
Fic. 171. When good pollination oc-
curs, the fruit may set so thickly that
it must be thinned to obtain good size
and color.
Tompkins King may not.
Thinning is relatively
more necessary on mature
trees making small annual
erowth or on trees reduced
in vigor with thin leaf sur-
face than on young, vigor-
ous trees of the same varie-
ties; on trees grown on light
soils deficient in moisture
than on trees grown on
heavier loams with an
abundance of moisture; on
trees growing in sod than
on trees grown under a
mulching system or under a
program of tillage and
cover crops.
Thinning is more neces-
sary in growing fruit to be
packed in boxes or Georgia
carriers, or for fancy trade
where it is essential that it
be uniform in size and
color, than if it is to be
packed in containers for a
less discriminating trade. It
is becoming increasingly
apparent, however, that fruit sold in any closed package for
any market must be of a higher standard of excellence and
uniformity than has been acceptable in the past.
RESULTS FROM THINNING 445
2. Consider Results That May Be Expected from Thin-
ning. Thinning under proper conditions gives the following
results:
(a) Increases proportion of high-grade fruit.
(6) Reduces breakage of top.
(c) Reduces handling costs at harvest.
(d) Does not decrease total yield.
(e) Does not insure annual bearing.
-(a) Increases Proportion of High-Grade Fruit. Thinning
- insures a much larger proportion of fruit in the higher grades
by increasing the size of the remaining specimens and by re-
moving defective fruits at the time of the operation. This is
its greatest service to the grower and one which has been estab-
lished and confirmed many times by careful experimental
work.
The fruit on a twelve-year-old Stayman Winesap apple
orchard of medium vigor was thinned in 1926 by the Mary-
land Experiment Station. The results are indicated in
Table 48. |
TABLE 48
INFLUENCE OF THINNING ON SIZE OF STAYMAN WINESAP APPLES
_ (Diameter of Fruit in Inches)
Distance Thinned |———_—————————————— wa
ee 0-214 214-2 24-21% 2% Plus | Yel
bu. | percent| bu. | percent| bu. | percent| bu percent | bushels
ee: 15:0 a ee 8.47
6-8 inches....... 75 2.25 10.5 1235 14.75
0 96 19.4 79.6
9-10 inches...... 0 12 2.38 8.75 12.25
15.28 40.68 AS 2k 81
Unthinned check .| 2.25 6.0 6.38 Bs 14.75
It can be seen that all the thinned trees produced fruit of
much better size than the checks. The total yields on trees
2 gee THINNING FRUIT
thinned 9 to 10 inches apart were somewhat reduced. The
greatest quantity of marketable fruit was produced from those
trees thinned 6 to 8 inches apart. As much marketable fruit
was produced on the trees thinned 9 to 10 inches as on the
checks, and the fact that the fruit from these trees was much
larger than that from either of the other groups resulted in a
greater net return from these trees. On the trees thinned 9 to
10 inches apart, approximately 80 per cent of the fruit was
over 2% inches in diameter
compared to 8.5 per cent in
the 6- to 8-inch group and
less than 1 per cent in the
checks.
The thinned fruit was
also noticeably better in
color, more uniform in shape,
and freer from all blemishes.
Similar results were secured
from eighteen-year-old Stay-
man trees on good soil. They
Fic. 172. When fruit is borne in Ps typical
clusters, the specimens are variable tamed elsewhere.
in size and are especially subject to Michigan studies have
insect and disease attacks. indicated that from one-
third to one-half of the ap-
ples put in B grade rather than A grade are so placed because
of lack of size.
Results equally striking have been secured repeatedly in
increasing the size of peaches and plums and in increasing the
proportion of high-grade fruit.
Thinning also has a favorable influence on color, which is
of great importance from the standpoint of grade. In the
first place, many of the specimens so placed on the tree as to
color poorly are removed in the thinning operation. The crop
that remains is thus more uniform in color. By removing part
of the crop more sun reaches the remaining apples and these
(NV. J. Exp. Sta.)
RESULTS FROM THINNING 447
color better. Beyond this point, however, thinning seems to
accentuate development of color. This is particularly true of
peaches. The net result is a crop running better in size and
color, of greater uniformity, and of more merchantable quality.
(6b) Reduces Breakage of Top. Thinning reduces breakage
of the top, sometimes very serious, and the necessity for prop-
ping with its attendant cost. The weight of the crop as it ap-
proaches maturity is very great, the leverage on the branches
tremendous, and the danger of consequent injury, especially in
the presence of high or sudden winds, is much aggravated.
Thinning insures an even distribution of a crop that the tree is
better able to carry.
(c) Reduces Handling Costs at Harvest. Thinning saves
handling costs at harvest time by reason of the elimination of
the undersized and defective specimens. Growers know that
such fruits increase greatly the costs of grading and packing,
without bringing a corresponding return. A crop 75 per cent
of which will go in the upper grade with almost no culls is
much less expensive to handle than one that runs less than
50 per cent m the upper grade with a large proportion of culls.
The cost of thinning is therefore largely offset by the reduc-
tion in handling costs at harvest time. It is cheaper to pick
at thinning time than at harvest because labor costs less and
because the specimens are dropped as soon as separated from
the stem or spur.
(d) Does Not Decrease Total Yield. Unless carried to ex-
tremes, thinning does not decrease the total yield of fruit.
Many growers claim that it results in an increased yield.
Careful tests have indicated, however, that there is little in-
fluence on total yield, under ordinary conditions. Thinning
increases both the total yield of marketable fruit and the pro-
portion of such fruit that packs in the upper grades. These are
the factors of concern to the grower.
(e) Does Not Insure Annual Bearing. It is often claimed
that thinning promotes or insures annual bearing, and that a
_ biennial bearer may be made to produce a crop each year by
448 THINNING FRUIT
judicious thinning. Evidence to date disproves the assertion,
at least for the apple. Note the statement on this factor under
“Thinning Peaches.” It has been noted, however, that trees
that have borne a moderate crop seem to possess greater resist-
ance to severe winter temperatures than trees that have carried
an excessive crop.
3. Determining Time to Thin. Growers are familiar with
a natural dropping of fruit usually occurring in June and
commonly termed the “June drop.” This-is probably due in
part to lack of sufficient water and food for all the specimens
and in part to diseases on the stem and to insect injuries.
There is little doubt that lack of sufficient water and nitrates
for all the fruit influences the dropping of individuals on weak
spurs and those with few seeds (faulty pollination).
Thinning should preferably follow the June drop while the
fruits are small, but it has been found that the period during
which thinning may be done to advantage is more extended
than previously supposed. Early thinning, however, will
allow the moisture, mineral nutrients, and elaborated foods to
be used by the fruits which are to remain on the tree rather
than by those which are to be removed. The most common
mistake in thinning is to fail to remove enough fruit. Growers
have found that additional thinning later in the season has
given good results, though not so marked results as that done
soon after the June drop.
4. Thinning Apples. Remove the specimens inferior in
size, those malformed and defective, and those so located on
the under sides of the lower branches as not to color well. Take
off in addition enough good specimens so that those that re-
main are at least 6 to 8 inches apart, except that a few apples
close together on a limb with large leaf area will size up well.
The amount of leaf area per apple should be considered. Some
varieties tend to set fruit in clusters. Not more than one
fruit should be left on a spur. This will usually be the center
one if it is a good specimen, since it is in a more favorable
position for growth than the others. Apples should not be
THINNING APPLES 449
allowed to touch, since they afford at the point of contact an
easy means for entrance of the side-worm broods of codling
moth. A few varieties, however, bear in terminal clusters, like
Winter Banana and Cortland. These cannot be thinned so
that no apples are in contact without reducing the crop con-
siderably.
Fic. 173. These Stayman Winesap apples were thinned to 6 to 7 inches
apart. There will be little loss in grading.
Thinning is usually done by hand. Some growers use shears
with slender blades, such as grape picking shears. Care must
be exercised not to break off the spurs. In thinning by hand,
the apple stem is grasped by the thumb and forefinger and the
fruit 1s pushed off the stem with the other fingers. The strain
is put on the stem rather than on the spur. Women often are
450 THINNING FRUIT
more satisfactory for thinning than men, since they do the
work just as well on the average and more rapidly
Cost of Thinning. Thinning costs are influenced by spread
and height of trees, cost and quality of labor, the extent of
crop on the trees, and other factors. The West Virginia Sta-
‘tion found that, with labor at 20 cents per hour and doing the
work very carefully, it took 65.3 minutes per tree to thin Ben
Davis trees 21 years old bearing 12 to 15 bushels each, or an
average of 21.8 cents per tree. It was found that middle-aged
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 174. Effect of thinning old Greensboro peach trees in a dry season.
(A) Yield per tree with fruit thinned 6 to 8 inches apart—2% bushels of
peaches, 214 inches in diameter, and % bushel of peaches 145 inches in
diameter. (B) No thinning, 1 peck of 145 inch peaches and 3 bushels of
culls (less than 1% inches).
trees with low heads, bearing about 15 bushels per tree, could
be thinned on the average for 30 cents per tree. In sections
where the cost of labor exceeds 20 cents per hour, the expense
would be correspondingly increased.
In large orchards in the Shenandoah-Cumberland district,
in 1927, it took on the average 25 minutes per tree to thin
12-year-old Oldenburg (Duchess) trees bearing 414 bushels of
fruit; and 28.2 minutes to thin 15-year-old Wealthy trees
bearing 6 bushels of fruit.
THINNING PEACHES A451
Actual or Net Thinning Costs. It has been found in ex-
perimental work as well as by commercial growers that the
actual cost of thinning is almost negligible. The apples must
be picked at some time. Thinning saves handling culls at
harvest and grading out undersized fruit. The final crop, as
already indicated, is
often as large as
fromunthinned
trees; it is of better
and more uniform
size and color and
therefore a much
more merchantable
product.
a EF hiAn ain g a > a
Peaches. Thinning ~~ i — ae
the fruit on well- | a ro ef
loaded peach trees
is a standard or-
chard practice.
Early varieties,
as Carman and
Greensboro, respond
well to thinning 6 ) :
to 8 inches apart, ae ae ae
removing 50 per cent Fic. 175. (a) An unthinned peach branch. All
or more of the fruit. the fruit will be small. (b) Thinned 4 inches
Later varieties, nat- apart. (c) Thinned 6 inches apart.
urally of larger size,
may be thinned to about 4 inches apart, removing from 30 to
40 per cent of the crop. Thinning is especially important in
dry seasons and on old trees. Even in young trees on strong
soils, the fruit should be thinned so that it does not touch, in
order to retard development of brown rot.
The New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva
found, in experiments covering a 3-year period, that the stage
Se
452 THINNING FRUIT
of development of the young fruits is a much more reliable
index of the proper time to thin than the calendar, and that
the time when the fruits are about 34 inch long with the pits
still soft is the most favorable from aie standpoint of influenc-
ing size and color, favorable effects from the operation de-
creasing gradually beyond that point. It was found also that
thinning at the stage indicated did give over the 3-year period
larger yields than thinning later in the season. The increase
was particularly marked in a light-crop year for peaches in
general so that the returns from the trees thinned as indicated
were substantially greater.
In the Shenandoah-Cumberland region records from vari-
ous commercial orchards indicate that it took 32 to 34 minutes
per tree to thin large Hiley trees 16 years old, from which
3 bushels of fruit were picked at harvest.
6. Thinning Plums. ‘No fruit responds to thinning more
than the plum. This is especially true of the Japanese
varieties such as Abundance or Burbank, which often bear
fruit almost in ropes along the branches. Under normal condi-
tions thinning from 2 to 3 inches apart leads to a marked in-
crease In size of the specimens without affecting the total
yield.
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Visit ten of the leading apple and peach growers in the community.
2. Determine how many have thinned and discontinued the practice,
and the reasons therefor; how many have adopted it as standard orchard
practice.
3. Determine from growers:
a. Conditions justifying operation.
b. Time of operation.
c. Method of thinning.
ad. Results in terms of total crop, proportion in higher grades,
cost of harvesting and packing, prices received.
e. Thinning costs.
f. Taking into account saving in costs at harvest time by reason
of thinning, how much thinning adds to the cost of grow-
ing the crop.
COMMUNITY STUDIES ° 453
4. Compare net income from orchards of growers practicing thinning
with income from orchards of those whe do not, selecting as nearly as
possible orchards having conditions that are similar and comparable in
other regards.
> CHAPTER Xia
FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING
The educational values in fruit exhibits, both to the grower
and the general public, are very great. Such exhibits afford an
opportunity to study varieties and to compare their merits
for various sections. They offer a stimulus to growers to im-
prove quality as a result of the rivalry between them, and, in
case of commercial exhibits, to improve methods of packing.
Progressive growers may be noted at any good exhibit taking
keen interest in the fruit on display.
The publicity or advertising values in creditable exhibitions
are very great. Fruit that is well grown and displayed with
good taste and judgment carries an appeal to which the public
is very susceptible.
Operations:
1. Selecting fruit for exhibit.
2. Setting up the exhibit.
3. Judging fruit.
1. Selecting Fruit for Exhibit. The first essential is to
grow good fruit. The matter thus reverts at once to those
factors that constitute good orchard management. Pruning,
spraying, and proper soil management all play an important.
part. Thinning may be of especial importance in promoting
size and color.
When the time comes to pick the fruit, handle it with ex-
treme care. Pick several times the quantity that will be ex-
hibited in order to give a wide choice and to allow for losses
in handling. The experienced exhibitor will often pick several
bushels of his best fruit in order to select from it a few plates.
454
SETTING UP THE EXHIBIT 4595
Stems should not be broken off or pulled out. Fruit in the top
of the tree, if it has been well sprayed, is likely to be desirable.
_ It is more exposed to sunlight than that on lower branches
and as a result usually has both a higher and more even color.
Early varieties in season before the time of the exhibit may
be picked when they have reached their greatest perfection in
appearance, but while still firm, and held in cold storage.
If the fruit must be shipped to the exhibit, pack it with the
utmost care. For single plates, each specimen should be
wrapped and protected from bruising. In fact,this procedure
should be followed whatever the manner of taking the fruit to
the place of exhibition.
The actual selection of the ‘specimens to be put on exhibi-
tion will be governed by the score cards in use and is con-
sidered under “Judging Fruit.”
2. Setting Up the Exhibit. In making plans to set up the
fruit, all decorations and embellishments should be kept sub-
ordinate to the fruit itself. The fruit is the major attraction.
- The Background. A neutral background that does not
compete for attention with the fruit is best. Subdued tints and
tones on walls and tables are in order.
For exhibits of red fruit, dark green oatmeal paper ee.
a good background on the tables. Greens of various shades
-are in common use for exhibits. Often the tints are too light
and too striking. For light-colored fruit, including pale or
green apples, burlap in a natural color is superior to the green
oatmeal paper. In fact, it is a very satisfactory shade for
use in connection with all fruit. Burlap in a darker tan shade
is also good. Wide tables are desirable if they are not so
wide as to prevent study of the fruit in the centers.
_ Arrange Fruit for Mass Effect. This may be secured by
putting the fruit on the interior tables all on the same level.
Fruit in packages may be banked about the sides of the room
to good advantage. The effect of many exhibits at fairs and
other places of display is greatly lessened by arranging the
fruit on shelves or in tiers so that the eye must be raised from
456 FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING
one level to another, encountering drapes of bunting or paper
in pronounced patterns between.
Plates. Paper plates are less expensive than china aad on
the whole look better, since they lack the gloss of glazed plates.
A papyrus plate with rough finish is more attractive than a
smooth paper plate. A rolled edge adds to the strength of the
plate and lessens danger of breaking it when it is picked up. A
ae State Hort. Soe.)
Fic. 176. Apples packed in “flats” and arranged in -banks produce a
mass effect that 1s very pieasing for exhibit purposes.
plate 8 inches in diameter is desirable unless the fruit is very.
large.
Place all specimens in the same order on every plate. For
instance, the accepted method for displaying a plate of five
apples is to put four apples with stems up on the plate and the
other apple, stem end up, on top of the four, over the center of
the plate and resting on all four apples. Pears are usually -
placed on one cheek, stems to the center of the plate, or with
the fifth pear on top of the others.
SETTING UP THE EXHIBIT 457
Alignment. Place the plates in exact alignment on the
table, and so that the fruit itself on the various plates is in
alignment. To have the apples on one plate form a square,
with one apple in the center, as the observer looks at them, and
to have the apples on the next plate cornerwise or at an angle
is poor alignment and not in the best of taste. Have the angles
(NV. Y. State College of Agr.)
Fic. 177. This exhibit is arranged to give a pleasing effect. The fruit is
on the same plane throughout, there is no crowding, and the alignment of
plates is good. A more extensive bank of “flats” at the rear and plain
drapery for the sides of the tables would improve the appearance of the
exhibit.
of the fruit on the plates parallel with the angles of the table
top. Do not crowd the plates on the table. Leave a small
space between them, not in order that the background may be
evident, but in order to make each plate stand out by itself as
a picture in a frame.
Labels. A major offense in setting up a plate exhibit is to
put the tag or label on top of the uppermost specimen on the
458 FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING
plate. The observer sees not the fruit but a sea of tags that
get between him and the things of interest. Large tags or
tags of different colors put on the plates without order or plan
may spoil an otherwise attractive display.
Use small white cards. Attach them directly to the plate
by means of pins having clips at the top, instead of the usual
head, to hold the cards. Put these cards in the same position
on every plate so that they may be easily seen from the edges
of the table but so that they do not protrude above the level of
the fruit. A good-plan is to place the card on the back edge
of the plate with its long axis parallel to the long axis of the
table.
Fic. 178. This fruit has been carefully selected, correctly arranged, and
properly labeled. The result is pleasing.
The card should give the name of the variety and such other
information as is required by the nature of the exhibit. The
locality or section from which the fruit comes has real educa-
tional value and interest. The grower’s name is also desirable
unless the fruit is entered for competition. -In such case the
name should be inserted after the judging is completed.
Tags giving merely the entry number or other classification
in common use at fairs and competitive displays are mean-
ingless to the general public.
Put all plates of the same variety together where possible,
following an alphabetical arrangement. This makes it easy
to find varieties and to compare different plates of the same
variety.
JUDGING FRUITS 459
Commercial Packages. Commercial packages must be of
the nature required by commercial practice and by the rules.
- The same general principles governing plate exhibits also apply
to them. A very effective exhibit device is the box flat. This
is an apple box cut down so as to hold one layer of fruit. Ar-
ranged in banks, with colors and designs carefully worked out,
these flats are exceedingly attractive.
Polishing Fruit. Polishing the specimens with a dry cloth
gives them a glossier finish than they possess in their natural
state. Many feel that the fruit should not be polished any
more than it should be peeled, since the bloom is a part of the
Fig. 179. Each of these Baldwin apples shown on the same plate is a
good apple in itself, but the specimens are so diverse as to size, shape,
color, and length of stems as to make the plate of no value in a
competitive exhibit.
natural product. However, unpolished fruit may be at a dis-
advantage in competition with that which has been polished.
The matter should be covered in the rules governing the ex-
hibition. |
3. Judging Fruits. Five specimens of apples, pears,
peaches, and quinces, and three clusters of grapes constitute a
plate at most exhibitions. Plums and cherries sufficient to cover
an 8-inch plate are usually required. The smaller fruits, as
berries, are usually exhibited in small packages as pint boxes.
For plate exhibits of tree fruits the American Society for
Horticultural Science has promulgated rules and score cards
which are now generally accepted and used.
460 FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING .
The score card is:
ee ee te, os 15
pre ee ae ca ee Cee 15
Care he eae ae ae ee 20
Unitormaty, . i 2... eee Pee
Donita 36s. ess. eee 30
100
Thus a perfect plate would score 100 points. The terms relate
to the following:
Form. Typical of the variety.
Size. The most acceptable commercial size.
The American Society for Horticultural Science has promul-
gated certain sizes as being acceptable for the different varie-
ties of apples. These sizes are:
DIAMETER DIAMETER
VARIETY IN INCHES VARIETY IN INCHES
oe a or a ae 3 to 3d _Rome ‘....22253e 3 to 3%
eewMpit. oA oc 35 aC sides « 254 to 3% Roxbury .2 22203 2% to 344
em Davie oe 62. os oe 2%, to 3%... Stark ... 2.2223 3 to 3%
ae eee oe oan 2% to 34% Stayman Winesap .... 3 to 3%
RE Pe Se oe. 3 to 3% Tompkins King ...... 344 to 3%
MME te tha crs pe 5 2%, to: 3% . Wagener ..:. eee 234 to 3%
Hubbardston ......... 2% to 3% Wealthy: .. 2-32 Ree 234 to 34%4
OS ST a a 234 to 3 Willams ..::i2:332 252 to 2%
GOSS A a 2% to 3% Winesap ...-... eee 23, to 3
Birt! os . 2%, to 34% j# Winter Banana ....... 312 to 3%
Northern Spy ........ 3% to 34% Yellow Bellflower ..... 3 to 3%
Northwestern Greening 344 to 334 Yellow Newtown ..... 2% to 3%
Rhode Island Greening 3 to 33g York Imperial ........ 3% to 3%
Allowance must also be made for sectional influences. A
New England Jonathan would be considerably smaller than
one from Missouri or the Northwest.
- JUDGING FRUITS 461
The tendency of the inexperienced exhibitor is to select
oversized specimens.
Since oversize specimens are usually not so well colored
as somewhat smaller ones, it is generally a safe rule to select
those that combine the largest size with the highest color.
Color. The most acceptable commercial color for the
variety. Since in red varieties the public shows its prefer-
ence for high color on nearly every occasion, it follows that
pronounced. color is important.
Russet or green varieties should be true to type.
Uniformity. All specimens on the plate should be uniform
with respect to the other factors on the score card. Uni-
formity is of especial importance, because if it is lacking the
plate receives a double cut. For instance, if the form of a
specimen is off type, a cut is made under the heading of form
and another cut is made under uniformity. This is really
double jeopardy but is probably warranted by the importance
of the factor. Exhibitors fail more often on the question of
uniformity than on any other. It is easy to pick out one good
specimen and not difficult to select one or two more like it.
To secure five specimens, each the counterpart of all of the
othcrs, requires a degree of skill and nicety of judgment
possessed by few and then only after long practice.
Condition. This relates to general physical condition and
freedom from blemishes. In regard to the former, the fruit
should be firm, not flabby. In order to determine condition it
is not necessary to indent the flesh with thumb or fingers,
the mark of a novice. Hold the specimen in the palm of the
hand and exert a general pressure by closing the hand over it.
A ‘committee of the American Society for Horticultural
Science has arranged blemishes or defects in four groups,
running from the more serious defects to those of lesser signifi-
cance.* The extent or degree of the blemish is just as im-
portant as its exact nature.
* B.D. Drain, “Report of Committee on Standardizing Intercollegiate
Fruit Judging,” American Society for Horticultural Science, 1925.
— oe
462
FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING
Group I
Codling moth
Apple blotch
Soft rot (caused by Penicillium Bitter rot
expansum) |
Railroad worm Apple scab
Group II
Worm injury (various kinds as
lesser apple worm)
San José scale
Storage scald
Withering (including shop worn)
Unhealed skin punctures
Unhealed growth cracks
Red bug damage
Group III
Baldwin spot
Jonathan spot
Physiological breakdown
Water core
Heavy bruise (skin not broken)
Curculio damage
Black rot.
Sooty fungus
Cedar rust
Over-ripe (slightly)
Group IV
Entire absence of stem
New England fruit-spot (caused
by Phoma pomz)
Fruit spots (unidentified)
Small insect stings (healed)
Hail damage (slight)
Small red spots not caused by
scale
Slight spray russeting
Small rub spots (caused by limbs
and twigs)
Slight russeting (cause unknown)
Small packing bruises
Insect eggs (example, European
red mite eggs)
Another score card in use in some sections is:
era eet ee 15
Rees ee ey teen CLs. eae an 15
ples 2 ces ee ee ie Sa eae 25 °
(SCG ees ans tik aetns oe ee 15
Freedom from blemish. .......... 30
100
The factor of uniformity is not listed but is taken into
account under the headings of form, size, and color.
Condi-
JUDGING FRUITS 463
tion relates to maturity and physical soundness; freedom from
blemishes to mechanical injuries and those caused by insect
or disease.
The standard score card for grapes is
LEGITIEN «CITC LETTS orc en ig een a ae Oe in en Oe a 10
Simerar cluster 0.0 rs.: Piss Be ear ct By eo ak Cre 15
MOIR DET Nera nt ae kate PR ae 10
CODIGIE CR a IR ese Se RE Oe er ae 10
MINN arenes tl pe eee ke ee en Pe 10
JESSOP SSSR 1 2 sant ARI a hut aR) Sie a le RN 5
SOIR oe oe te Hee eae ht ea tae ak Ghee 20
Condition (including bloom and blemishes) ...... 20
100
For commercial packs of apples and pears in boxes, the
following score card was adopted by the American Society
for Horticultural Science: |
Fruit
Mexdmre snide HavOr we, gos 6h ne ‘100°
EI ASwAMC mOMIMne ket ak Gy i 100
loi ae ei ks eee ig 150
‘UES IVONE 0007 5 (2 eegene deen Unik Wee cn es Rane ts Tae ae Te 150
Freedom from Glemiskes Bib pet eigen as 150
— 650
Box
Tif TBy SIE Way Rae eae Cera SE a 30
J), FET pet a a cr sae 10
Bolidisy (nails, cleats, ete.) >. Yas. 6. 10
— 50
Pack
etl Pere nies ihre a aoe 100
PIP ININEMY hee ieee ee Soe re Roe 20
erent, Wolvenads a fa oe ea 60
Attractiveness and style ......... esa
Momipaetnesen ont ser ic oie eter ae 80
— 300
AROUGL Es Ste DS Aiea SPR eel ee a ee
464 FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING
ScorE CARDS FOR COLLECTIONS
(a) With specified number of plates:
Value of varieties for purpose stated .......... 50
Fruit (average of individual plate scores) ...... 50
Total 2 3acek tt becky + o> bubs 100
(b) Largest and best collection:
Number’ of. varieties, 2... . 2.3). 42 ae 100
Value of varieties for purposes stated .......... 100
Fruit (average of individual plate scores) ...... 100
Total: 520056 gee 0 300
A seore card for baskets and hampers has not been worked
out as carefully as for other packages. The following is
suggested:
Package (appearance and workmanship) ......... 15
Bulge or height of pack including compactness .... 15
Fruit:
Form: 22 4 Se eh Bee 10
Size. Sb ss be Wo a ee 10
Color 35 i ee deter ‘ee 20
Condition (including blemishes). ...:2...2223 30
100
Use of Score Card. The exact score of a plate or package
is usually of less importance than its relative rank when
compared with other plates or packages. One judge may
cut or score much more heavily than another; yet if both are |
consistent the final ranking or order of placement will be
the same. The use of the score card for a time impresses the
relative importance of the different items so that the user
unconsciously takes the different points into consideration in
ranking the exhibits in later work, even though the score card
may not actually be used.
It is usually best to do the judging in the comparative
sense. Certain entries may usually be eliminated without tak-
JUDGING FRUITS 465
ing the time to apply the score-card method, because it may
be seen at a glance that they are outclassed.
In using the score card, make cuts on a percentage basis.
Unless this is done, the mind, tending to deal with whole
numbers, will make too heavy cuts on the less important fac-
tors on the score card and too moderate cuts on the more
important factors. Thus, in the usual score card for apples,
a cut of two points on size is a 20 percent cut, while a cut of
two points on color is less than 10 percent.
How to Identify Varieties of Fruit. It is a valuable asset
to be able to identify the major varieties of the various fruits.
It is difficult to put forth a formula by which this ability
may be acquired. Some of the most accurate judges have
dificulty in explaining just how they recognize varieties.
Much, however, can be accomplished in this direction by study.
The suggestions given apply directly to the apple but may be
adapted to other fruits.
Begin with a small number of varieties. Secure specimens
from different regions in order that local variations may not
mislead. Study these varieties several times a week through-
out the season. Increase the list as knowledge increases.
Look for the constant external factors. Shape is much
more reliable as a guide than size or color. The length of the
stem and the depth of the cavity in which it is placed; the
size and appearance of the dots that stand out in the skin on
close inspection; the way the color is laid on, whether in
stripes, splashes, a blush on the cheek, or in a solid effect; the
depth of the basin or depression at the blossom end, whether
the sides of the depression are straight or sloping; the calyx
lobes, whether open and spreading, or closed and folded over
each other—all are points that have bearing and tell their
story to the person who studies them. Likewise, unusual cor-
rugations or enlargement, such as appear characteristically
about the calyx of Delicious, or suture lines running from
stem to calyx over the outer surface as in Tolman or Winter
Banana, are significant.
466 FRUIT EXHIBITS AND JUDGING
Some of these characteristics may be off type in a specimen,
but it is seldom that all or any large number of them will be
misleading. To safeguard the situation further, Judgment
should be based on several specimens rather than on a single
one. |
Interior characters are also significant when they can be
determined. These relate to color of the flesh, colored threads
extending to the core, size and shape of core lines and their
manner of union with the calyx tube, position of core on the
axis from stem to calyx, number of seeds, size of seeds, size
and shape of pits, etc. The flavor and the juiciness of the
flesh in fruit that approaches eating condition are leading
factors. However, most of the work of identification and judg-
ing for general purposes is done with reference to external char-
acters, either in tree or small fruits. External factors then
should be studied with thoroughness and accuracy.
Many identification keys or classifications have been de-
veloped by various individuals, but none of them as yet is
infallible or even very satisfactory for variety identification.
Part II
GROWING SMALL FRUITS
The term “small fruits’ has come to be applied to the
strawberry, the bush fruits, brambles, and sometimes the
grape. So far as these fruits require distinct treatment, they
are discussed separately in this section. .
The turnover as compared with the tree fruits is much
more rapid; one may go into or out of the business quickly.
These fruits, with proper attention to variety adaptations,
may be and are grown over wide areas and, especially the
strawberry, under divergent climatic conditions. Many of
the small fruits are highly perishable and must be harvested
and consumed within narrow time limits. Although this is a
disadvantage in some respects, it gives the opportunity to
develop local areas to meet local demands with satisfactory
returns up to the normal requirements of the community.
Larger producing sections must, of course, find their outlets
on the general market. In either event, an adequate labor
supply must be immediately available when the fruit is ready
to harvest.
Before deciding what fruits to grow or where to grow
them, consult authoritative agencies in the section and the
experience of successful growers.
467
CHAPTER XII
GROWING STRAWBERRIES
The strawberry is grown for home use in every state and
in carlots for commercial purpcses in three-fourths of the
states of the Union. It is at home throughout all the country
east of the Missouri River, in the South, and on the Pacific
Coast. See Table 49.
Operations:
1. Selecting the location and soil.
2. Preparing the field.
3. Selecting varieties.
4, Determining time of planting.
5. Determining the planting system.
6. Setting the plants.
7. Managing the soil.
8. Controlling insects and diseases.
9. Protecting plants in winter.
10. Harvesting and marketing the crop.
11. Determining treatment of plantation after harvest
1. Selecting the Location and Soil. Earliness of ripening >
is usually important. Sandy or gravelly soils and those with
a slope giving the maximum of sunshine help in this regard.
Loams with a good moisture supply will yield more heavily,
with maturity somewhat delayed, than lighter and drier soils.
Sandy or gravelly loams underlain with clay, that are reten-
tive of moisture but loose enough for drainage and easy
tillage, are desirable. Soils with high clay content are likely
to cause loss through freezing and “heaving” in the colder sec-
468
SELECTING THE LOCATION AND SOIL
469
Yield per Acre
ee ee | ee — — |S | en
Sovia foal gapped
TABLE 49
STRAWBERRIES—COMMERCIAL*
Acreage
1938 1939
Acres Acres
3,000 3,600
7,500 9,000
22,000 20,000
360 350
1,950 1,900
35,110 34,850
14,100 16,900
S002. 222,100
400 250
7,200 7,900
250 300
15,600 17,000
Group and State | 10-Year
Acreage
1928-37
Acres
Early:
Pla bAMmiak eis. ss 4,050
Plonida..asiccss <s 8,120
Louisiana. soe: 20,210
Mississippi....... 880
BRAS 2 arc cists 2,360
average ..... 35,620
Second early:
Arkansas........ 19,370
Cahl>s.-dist.. ... 1,700
Georiag 6. cos 490
Ne Carolinas. o. <. 7,910
S: Carolina..< 3. .. 51
Tennessee....... 16,530
Nirsinie 33 c5 3 6,610
Group total or
average . y Bg a £20
Intermediate:
Cali... othebos. *. 2,840
Delaware........ 4,480
ilmers.: . 2 see: 4,910
Kansas: > 22038.5.6. 1,160
Kentucky n...:.. 6,870
Maryland.::.:... 7,040
WNissoarl. S22)2 5... 12,110
- New Jersey...... 3,710
Oklahoma....... 1,620
Group total or
BVELALS. =~ .- 45,240
Late:
indiana) 2%. « 2,560
lower Stee 1,640
Michigan... .... 9,380
New Yorke.) !:. 3,600
OMG. bint cs 5 5 3,820
Oreson.s 8... 10,920
~Pennsylvania.... 3,810
ibaa ace See 1,240
Washington...... 7,660
Wisconsin. ...... 1,820
Group total or
AVETIVE: 6 s.. 46,450
Total, all states. ...| 180,430
3,230 3,320
5,200 5,000
6,200 6,700
1,100 1,300
7,700 8,900
8,100 7,900
9,000 13,500
3,400 4,000
400 900
44,330 51,520
3,100 4,000
800 900
11,600 13,000
3,900 4,300
4,500 4,900
13,400 12,200
,»800 4,800
1,400 1,300
7,700 7,500
2,500 3,000
53,700 59,900
179,790 | 194,420
* Includes undetermined quantities used for processing.
7 Crate (24 quarts) containing approximately 36 pounds.
——S—§ | | | | |
10-Yr.
Av. 1938 1939
1928-37
Crates} | Cratest | Cratesf
75 74 85
68 70 85
65 50 70
53 60 65
56 60 iF)
65a8 4. 572215 74 7
41 60 52
186 175 156
52 60 15
80 52 64
70 60 15
47 45 50
78 70 68
58.5 59.7 60.0
196 | 160 | 164
57 45 45
52 50 65
45 50 45
55 55 60
67 55 60
38 60 35
83 100 rd)
S2 60 45
62.5 65.2 59.5
67 80 80
54 60 15
63 40 105
45 80 85
61 “5 90
66 78 85
68 70 85
63 60 65
71 78 “1
49 80 70
66.1 68.5 86.4
62.8 63 .2 70.1
470 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
tions, the strawberry plant being shallow-rooted with none
too firm a hold on the soil.
Under conditions where the market justifies the expense,
dry soils made rich in organic content may be utilized through
the installation of artificial irrigation. More than most fruits,
the strawberry reflects insufficient moisture supply at the
ripening stage in small individual fruits and reduced total
yield.
The strawberry blooms early. In sections where spring
frosts are a factor, guard against loss by planting on areas ©
insuring air drainage. Avoid wind-swept areas in the colder
latitudes so that the plants may be protected in winter by a
mantle of snow.
2. Preparing the Field. Begin preparations at least one
year in advance. A cultivated crop is usually best to pre-
cede planting. It is important that this crop shall be kept
clean so that the land may be free of weeds and grass before
the strawberries are set. Land in sod harbors the white grub
or larva of the May beetle, often seriously destructive. If
grubs are present in large numbers, cultivated crops should
be grown for two years before setting. Freshly cleared stump
land often gives good results, if free from roots and sprouts.
In the South, select land free from the root knot nematode or
practice a three-year rotation of crops that are not subject to
its attacks.
Make the soil rich. Stable manure is unexcelled for this
purpose, but unless well rotted it should be applied to the
preceding crop so that weeds may be killed. In many sec- .
tions it is practically impossible to secure manure. In other
sections where it can be secured, the quality is often very
poor and it is sometimes full of weed seeds. In such regions
growers have practically discontinued its use and plan to
plow under green manure crops instead. Bring the land to a
high state of tilth before planting.
3. Selecting Varieties. Plant varieties with a record of
success in the region. Try others, no matter how well adver-
SELECTING VARIETIES 471
_tised or recommended, with care. Although the strawberry
may be grown over wide areas under varying conditions, this
is not generally true of its varieties. Results may differ within
a radius of a few miles. Varieties with firm flesh must be
selected if the market to be served necessitates shipment.
Some varieties of good quality are poor plant makers and
return low yields unless this fact is recognized by closer plant-
ing than ordinary, and then the difference frequently cannot
be entirely overcome. In some sections late varieties find the
market in better condition than early or mid-season kinds,
(U.S. D. A.)
Fic. 180. The blossom at the left is perfect, possessing both stamens and
pistils; the one at the right is pistillate or imperfect, having pistils only.
which are subject to greater competition. Take account of
these factors before making up the variety list.
Keep in mind also that some varieties possess perfect
flowers, including stamens and pistils; other varieties produce
flowers with pistils only, or with stamens that are abortive
(Fig. 180). The latter, planted by themselves and lacking
pollination, fail to yield. If the first choice is a variety with
imperfect flowers, select as second choice a perfect variety
and plant it in every third or fourth row. There is evidence
that some varieties with perfect flowers do better in unfa-
vorable seasons if interplanted with others.
472 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
Some of the leading commercial varieties are listed under
“General Information” at the close of the chapter.
4. Determining Time of Planting. Plant in early spring
in all except southern United States. With proper care, this
insures a full crop the next year. August or fall planting is
possible and common in some sections, but experience indi-
cates that it 1s a desirable practice only under special condi-
tions. Losses from dry weather after planting, or from the
oncoming winter, are more severe. A full crop cannot be
Fic. 181. Left, an old plant, undesirable for
setting; right, a young plant with vigorous root
system, desirable for setting.
expected the following season because the plants do not
develop sufficiently before the cold weather to give a wide and
well-filled row. Greater difficulty is experienced in keeping
the plantation clean until full fruitage. |
Only well-grown plants with strong, fibrous root systems
are worth planting (Figs. 181, 182}. There is more difference
between strawberry plants than the public seems to realize.
Many taken from old beds and those from some nurseries are
not worth setting. Use plants which developed the previous |
season, unless planting in late summer or fall, when plants
of the current season’s growth are preferable. Older plants
DETERMINING THE PLANTING SYSTEM 473
are lacking in vigor and do not freely develop runners and
new plants.
5. Determining the Planting System. The matted row
is the prevailing planting system in the Eastern states for
commercial purposes. In it hand labor is reduced to the
minimum. Runners are permitted to develop from the mother
Se
(U.S. D. A.)
Fic. 182. Good plants of different varieties
showing differences in root growth and size.
Klondike at left, Dunlop at right.
plants at will so that by the end of the season a solid row
from 1 to 2 feet wide, or sometimes more, has formed (Figs.
183, 184). Rows 4 feet apart with plants 15 to 24 inches
apart in the row represent average practice, variations there-
from being determined by local conditions and experience. A
sparse plant maker like Chesapeake should be planted more
closely than a profuse plant maker like Aroma. Gandy is
474. GROWING STRAWBERRIES
planted from 18 to 24 inches apart in the row, whereas Catskill
is usually spaced 40 inches.
A space between rows should be retained in which the
pickers may walk. There is danger also of having the rows
so wide that ripe berries in the centers are overlooked. By
having the pickers pick from each side to the center of the row
this difficulty is reduced but
not entirely eliminated, since
workers will not reach in to
pick the centers as carefully
as where the rows are
narrow.
In dry seasons, owing to
the competition between
plants for moisture, the ber-
ries may run small. On the
other hand, under this sys-
tem a full stand is almost
certain, for, although some
mother plants may be lost
and the last runners to de-
velop may kill out, there are
sufficient remaining to give
an even stand. The total
yield over a period of years
will be greater under the
matted row system than any
Fic. 183. The beginning of the
matted row; mother plants in the
center. The soil must oe kept loose
so that the runner plants may root other.
readily. See Fig. 184. Modifications of this sys-
tem are known as hedge
rows. The new plants are spaced according to a definite plan
and extra runners and plants are removed. Good results may
be obtained, but the amount of hand labor is increased.
The hill system is used extensively in Oregon, Washington,
and the far South. It is used to some extent in all sections for
the home garden. Plants are spaced 12 to 15 inches apart in
SETTING THE PLANTS 4795
all directions, or a greater distance may be allowed between
rows on areas large enough to permit horse cultivation. All
runners are removed, and the mother plants make a very
vigorous development, reflected in a crop of uniformly large
fruit. This system of planting is well adapted to the pro-
Fic. 184. The matted row system fully developed.
duction of fruit for a fancy trade. Considerable attention
is required the first. season to restrict the runners. If the
mother plants die, vacant spaces occur in the row.
6. Setting the Plants. After the location of the first or
outside row has been determined, use markers, either hand
or horse drawn, depending upon the area, to complete laying
out the field. Such markers are quickly made—a horizontal
ae ere
ba ee
476 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
piece with holes bored at proper distances to take the legs or
markers, a pair of shafts for the horse or mule, and some
handles extending behind so that the operator may keep the
implement steady. Extra holes may be bored in the bed piece
and the legs made removable to permit changing the distanees.
The persons who do the planting gage distances between plants
(U. S222 AS
Fic. 185. If the plants must be held before set-
ting open the bundle, spread the plants singly
along the side of the trench, and throw the
soil back, pressing it firmly against the roots.
in the row accurately, and usually cross-marking is not
necessary.
Set the plants firmly, at the proper depth and when the
soil is moist. Any planting method that takes account of
these factors will give good results. It follows, therefore, that
the plan which safeguards the situation in these respects and
which is most economical under the conditions that must be
met is the plan to adopt.
Set the crown at ground level. Below ground level it 1s
likely to smother and growth will certainly be retarded; above
SETTING THE PLANTS 477
ground level, the roots are exposed and will either die or be
seriously injured (Fig. 186).
Remove a few of the outer and older leaves before plant-
ing if this has not already been done. Such leaves will have
been removed from nursery plants before shipment. If the
grower obtains his plants from a bed or field, he should
remove these leaves as the plants are dug. If the roots are
long and straggling, clip slightly to aid in planting.
With its root system of many fibers, it is easy to set the
plant loosely even when intentions are the best. A circular
. 8. D. A.)
Fic. 186. The plant at the left has not been set deeply enough, the
entire crown and the top of the root system are exposed; the center
plant has been set at the proper depth; the plant at the right has been
set at too great a depth.
hole such as is made by a round dibble (Fig. 187) does not
permit shaking and spreading the roots but crowds them to-
gether, resulting in a minimum of contact with the soil. Plants
thus set may live in a good season, but if it is dry after plant-
ing, the chances are against them. In any event they will not
make the development that may be expected from plants
properly set.
The flat and pointed trowel of various designs is a good
planting tool (Fig. 187). Press it into the soil to the desired
depth, work it back and forth, withdraw, insert the plant,
shaking the roots apart in a fan shape, and press firmly in
place. —Two men or a man and boy will do this better than one
$e so eg aia eine daeetetyS~ “
478 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
person. It is well to have a boy carry a bucket full of plants,
keeping the roots wet and dropping them just as needed. A
variation of the method is for the person who carries the
plants to press the soil about them with his foot after they
are in place.
The spade is widely
used instead of the trowel,
as it saves some bending
over. The procedure is the
same and, under good con-
ditions, makes rapid set-
ting possible.
Setting is sometimes
done with a paddle, or with
a punch and tongs used
in sweet potata planting.
Some growers prefer a
short-handled hoelike tool.
On level land, cabbage
or tomato planters, skill-
fully operated so as to set
plants at the correct depth,
have given satisfaction.
A patent planter oper-
Fic. 187. oe of ‘ans ai € os ated by hand, which waters
lanting. e two tools a e lower .
a aa round holes, giving little the _— if necessary, ab
opportunity to shake and spread out planting, is now on the
the roots when inserting them in the market. Its introducers
soil. claim that it has given ex-
cellent results and that it is
much more rapid than hand planting. The fibrous root sys-
tem of the strawberry makes it more difficult to set by me-
chanical devices than a plant with a single large root.
The operator must determine the method best suited to the
circumstances. There is always the opportunity for the exer-
cise of individual judgment. Whatever the planting method
(0. &.D2A,)
MANAGING THE SOIL; 479
pursued, remove all large leaves, and pie the roots care-
fully from wind and sun.
It is probable that starter or siiideient solutions now used
in transplanting vegetables would aid-in.getting the plants off
to a quick start. This should prove. very important in ap-
plication to strawberries since the early-formed runners are
much more productive than those formed later in the season,
Watch for further announcements from the experiment stations.
7. Managing the Soil. |
Procedure:
(a) Cultivating the soil.
(6) Fertilizing the plants.
(c) Shall irrigation be practiced?
(a) Cultivating the Soil. Cultivate frequently for best
results. Not only does this keep down weeds and grass and
conserve moisture, but the new plants formed on the runners
establish themselves much more quickly in a loose soil than
in one that 1s hard and baked. Do all cultivation possible by
horse or tractor power. Most of it can be done this way if
directions for treatment of the field previous to planting have
been followed. The hand hoe, however, cannot be entirely
' discarded. A wheel hoe is useful, especially under the hill
system of management. Rolling cutters on the cultivator
help to limit the width of the matted rows. The plants have
shallow roots. The first cultivation may be deep, but later
cultivations close to the plants must be shallow. Adjust the
outer cultivator teeth with this in mind. In many regions,
care is taken during the first summer while hoeing the bed to
space the young plants at regular intervals so that uniform
matted rows are obtained.
Cultivate up to late fall to discourage the weeds that
appear even late in the season and to keep the plants growing.
Remove the first blossom stalks, as the formation of fruit
soon after setting taxes the vitality of the plant severely.
480 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
After the field is well established, it is not worth while to
attempt to remove the relatively few blossoms that appear.
(b) Fertilizing the Plants. Stable manure, when it can be
secured at a reasonable price and when it does not contain
too many weed seeds, is a very valuable fertilizer. From 15
to 20 tons per acre should be applied, preferably to a preced-
ing cultivated crop. Where stable manure cannot be obtained
or where its use is questionable, green manure crops should
always be turned under before planting strawberries. Rye,
cowpeas, soy beans, and the clovers are good green manure
crops. The decaying organic matter of the stable manure and
green manure not only adds humus and plant food but also
improves the mechanical condition and moisture-holding
capacity of the soil. These last two factors are especially
important in strawberry growing.
In addition to the stable or green manures, it has generally
been found profitable to add liberal amounts of commercial
fertilizers in most growing regions.
Of the three fertilizer elements usually applied—nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium—the addition of phosphorus has
seemed to be needed in most regions more than the other ele-
ments. The need of additional nitrogen in some regions is
marked; in others no value can be seen from applying this
material, or, at least, its use in view of its cost and the cost
of application of the material is questionable. The value of
applying potash in many regions is very questionable. The
need for its application has not been as clearly shown as for
phosphorus and nitrogen, except on the lighter soils of the
South.
During the first year, phosphoric acid and some nitrogen
seem especially desirable for causing good growth, numerous
plants, and strong healthy crowns. Potash in addition may be
of value in light, sandy soils. An application of a quickly
available nitrogen fertilizer, just before blossoming in the
crop year, appears to be profitable in increasing the set of
fruit and size of berries in light soils, but its use is question-
MANAGING THE SOIL 481
able on the heavier soils. Wherever this quickly available
nitrogen is used, certain detrimental results may occur, if
applications are too heavy and especially if the early season is
wet. Thus, too vigorous a growth of stems and leaves may
occur, delaying the ripening of the crop and causing the
berries to be soft and green.
Such fruit carries very
poorly if it is shipped long
distances to market.
When the practices of
the best growers and recent
experiment-station investi-
gations are studied, it ap-
pears that, after provision
is made for incorporating
organic matter in the soil,
fertilizers are often applied
at three different times.
These periods vary with
the different regions. Fer-
tilizers may be applied:
(a) at time of planting;
(6) during the first sum-
mer; and (c) just prior to
blossoming in the fruitin
5 ; 5 Fg. 188. Applying fertilizer during the
season. In some regions, eae
.’ growing season. After the application,
Serer S make only appli- a sack is dragged over the row to brush
cation (a), in others, (a) the fertilizer from the foliage.
and (c), and in some sec-
tions all three. A total application of 1000 to 2000 pounds per
acre is customary. Consult the findings of the local experi-
ment station and study the practices of the better growers.
Some fertilizers, as nitrate of soda and muriate of potash,
are caustic and should not be put in actual contact with the
plants, unless the plants are dormant at the time of applica-
tion. It is customary to apply fertilizers by hand (Fig. 188).
482 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
Strawberries seem to prefer an acid soil for best growth
and production. Ordinarily, therefore, the addition of lime
would be detrimental. However, different growers and inves-
tigators have found that strawberries are sometimes benefited
by the addition of some lime on soils which are very acid. In
other words, extreme acidity may sometimes be reduced, but
the soil should still be left in an acid condition for the best
results.
(c) Shall irrigation be practiced? In some of the com-
mercial sections of the Far West the strawberry is grown
commonly under irrigation. Frequently it is an intercrop in
irrigated orchards.
Irrigated strawberry fields in the East are less common than
on the Pacific Coast but are by no means unusual. Quite
extensive irrigation projects occur in southern New Jersey,
and small installations are generally distributed throughout
the Northern states. Their use seems to be increasing.
The strawberry plant with its shallow root system is quickly
affected by lack of moisture in the upper soil. The lighter
soil types, on which this fruit is commonly grown, are natu-
rally affected by drought more quickly than the heavier loams.
Very frequently there is a lack of moisture at harvest time,
especially for the pickings toward the end of the season. This
causes the fruit to run small and materially reduces the yield.
In extreme cases the entire crop, representing a year’s invest-
ment, may be ruined. The strawberry may suffer from lack
of moisture at times other than the harvest season, limiting
the formation of new plants and causing a poor stand in the
TOWS. :
In sections where the natural rainfall is sufficient in normal
seasons, the use of irrigation is questionable. If the land
may be used in rotation for growing other crops which give a
high return per acre, and which also benefit from irrigation,
such as truck and garden crops, then the argument for irriga-
tion is strengthened. .
If the grower possesses a market for large fancy fruit at
CONTROLLING INSECTS AND DISEASES 483
an advance over current quotations, irrigation may be a profit-
able practice. 3
In any case, irrigation should not be made a substitute for
thorough, intensive tillage. Only the best-grown fields are
likely to justify the added investment.
- In the West the furrow system is common. In the East,
the overhead system is commonly employed; it calls for much
the greater investment in pipes, fittings, etc. The furrow sys-
tem cannot be used on steep and irregular lands and functions
“(W. F. Allen Oo.)
Fig. 189. <A field of Dorset grown in Maryland by the matted row
system.
best on rather heavy soils not subject to washing. In either
system an accessible and ample water supply is a necessity.
Trrigation is usually practiced after each picking unless the
natural moisture supply is adequate. The heavier applications
are made late in the season when the fruit naturally begins
to run small. Applications may be advisable at other times
throughout the growing season, especially for everbearing
varieties.
8. Controlling Insects and Diseases. Since strawberries
occupy the land for short periods, in many cases only one crop
oo
ap tne
484 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
being harvested, it is natural that control measures should turn
as far as possible on clean tillage and crop rotation. The
disease and insect problem is therefore not likely to become
as serious a factor as in fruit plantations that occupy the
same ground for years.
Follow the control program of the local experimental sta-
(Mo. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 190. A field of strawberries mulched with
clean straw.
tion, the United States Department of Agriculture, and the
methods of experienced growers.
9. Protecting the Plants in Winter. Mulching the rows in
cold weather is good practice where material is available
(Fig. 190). Do it as soon as possible after the ground first
freezes in the fall. The purpose is not to shield the plants
from cold, but to reduce to a minimum alternate freezing and
thawing of the soil, which loosens the roots.
still a SIE Ry a a Pai le RPM Re oe ap es Bs SEO Ie a ek wee
HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 4895
Mulching is most necessary in wind-swept locations, or on
heavy soils, or in latitudes where the snowfall is light and
where freezing of the soil followed by warm days is a frequent
occurrence. - By delaying slightly the removal of the mulch
in the spring, blossoming may be retarded in sections where
frosts are a factor.
Any material free from seeds that does not mat doa too
closely and yet that is not too coarse to defeat its purpose
will do. The choice will be determined by availability and
cost. Marsh or swale grass, straw, coarse manure, and pine
needles are all serviceable. Cornstalks are rather coarse but
help to hold the snow and are of value. The beginner is
likely to apply a heavier mulch than is necessary. A depth of
2 to 3 inches of the loose material is sufficient.
Rake or fork off the mulch after freezing of the ground
is no longer a factor in the spring and in any case before the
leaves turn yellow. Much of the material will have settled
about the crowns. Leave as much of this as possible to keep
the soil moist and to prevent muddy and soiled berries at
picking time. That which is raked off may remain between
the rows, or, if such material 1s scarce, it may be hauled off
and stored for use another year.
Oats or barley, sown in late summer between the rows,
may contribute a partial mulch, as they go down with the
first frost. However, it is possible that the loss through dis-
continuing cultivation at so early a date is greater than the
gain from the mulch.
10. Harvesting and Marketing the Crop. The Bed sea-
son brings the main harvest, if the field was set the spring of
the preceding year. Thus plants set in March or April one
year will fruit heaviest in May or June of the next year.
Ordinarily, no cultivation is given the second spring until after
harvest. Weeds and grass may be pulled or hoed out, but if
thorough tillage was given during the preceding season there
will be little trouble on this score.
The quart basket and the 24- or 32-quart crate are com-
486 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
monly used. Attractive paper-board quart boxes waxed and
lithographed, with slits in the sides for ventilation, are now
available. Pint baskets are also used to a limited extent.
No general directions as to stage of maturity for picking
can be given; it depends on the variety and the distance to
market. A variety should seldom be picked with the tips still .
green. Soft-fleshed varieties must be picked while still firm,
is ae
(W. F. Allen Oo.)
Fic. 191. The promise of a good crop. The row is full of strong plants,
and the plants are full of blossoms.
unless for local consumption. Pick the fruit as soon as it is
dry in the early part of the day and at as cool a temperature
as possible. It should be marketed, or sent on its way to
market, the same day. For local market some growers have
found it best to pick in the afternoon, keep the berries in a
cool place over night, and deliver early in the morning.
Pinch the stem rather than the fruit, and leave the hulls on
the berries. Pickers should be equipped with carriers holding
HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 487
four to six baskets. Handle the fruit as little as possible and
keep it out of the sun. For these reasons also, larger carriers
should not be used. For some trades it will pay to face the
baskets, turning the berries on their sides with as little of the
(G. MU. Darrow, Fruits and Gardens, June, 1928)
Fig. 192. “A fruit cluster showing the relative
size of berries borne in different positions on a
cluster. The primary berry at A ripens first and
is the largest; the secondary berries at B ripen
second and are next in size; the tertiary berries
at C are much smaller than the secondary while
the quaternary berries at D are still smaller.
Because the berries on any cluster are progres-
sively smaller, the later berries to ripen are the
smallest and the crop is said to ‘run down’ in
size.”
hull showing as possible. Remove all soiled berries and
‘“nubbins” or undersized fruit from the first grade. Fill the
baskets well above the tops to allow for settling, especially
when shipping to market. Ventilated or iced cars will be
488 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
necessary, depending upon the time in transit. The crates
must be well braced and arranged to permit free air circu-
lation. |
Shipments in less than carlots to distant markets are made
from the West and South in heavy refrigerator boxes holding
64 to 80 quarts. These are known as pony refrigerators and
are returned to the shipper. The ice compartments are filled
before shipping.
The strawberry may be held for a short time in cold storage
—apparently as long as a week or ten days if only firm berries
(W. F. Allen Oo.)
Fic. 193. This crate of berries will sell at the top price in any market.
are used, and if they are rushed to storage immediately after
picking. The proper holding temperature is 30° to 32° F. The
holding time is not long, but it may carry the fruit past a
glutted market.
For use by preservers, as crushed fruit and syrups for soda
fountains, the uncooked berries, hulled, washed, and treated
with sugar, are held in casks in cold storage at a temperature
of 30° F. or lower. Consult “Frozen Fruit,” page 148, for
further information on modern methods of freezing.
Yields.: Yields of fruit vary greatly, depending on the
TREATMENT OF PLANTATION AFTER HARVEST 489
general vigor of the plantation, the variety, and the season,
including possible losses from frost injury at blossoming time
and the supply of moisture. A production of 100 crates or
3200 quarts per acre in New York is too low on the average
for a profit. However, in many other regions with cheaper
labor costs a profit can be made on this yield. Consult
Table 49, page 469, for average yields in the various sections.
The successful grower must secure yields substantially higher
than these. Many growers secure 5000 to 6000 quarts per
(W. #. Allen Oo.)
Fic. 194, A field stand in Maryland. The picked fruit must be kept
out of the sun.
acre; and much higher yields, especially under irrigation, are
frequently obtained.
11. Determining Treatment of Plastalion after Harvest.
The grower must decide whether he will pick more than one
crop from his planting. The answer calls for individual judg-
ment based on known facts. The investment in plants and
planting has already been made. If the field is reasonably free
from grass and weeds and if the plants are strong, the planta-
tion may be retained for another season, or possibly more.
The procedure follows: After picking, mow off the tops of the
plants; rake the refuse into winrows, and remove it. If not
abundant, the refuse may be raked between the rows and
490 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
plowed under. If the field has been affected with leaf spot
or other fungus troubles, the material may be burned on
the field in a stiff wind so that the fire travels quickly down
the rows. Do not attempt to burn the material when the
soil is excessively dry or when the leaves are damp, as injury
to the plants will follow.
Plow back the sides of the rows to leave strips 10 to 15
inches wide, depending upon the freedom with which the
Fig. 195. A common scene in strawberry season in southern producing
sections. The grower brings his offering to an auction shed where the
fruit is inspected and buyers bid for it.
variety forms new plants. By plowing one side of the row
only, back to and beyond the original mother plants, the strip
remaining will be composed of young and vigorous plants.
Finish with cultivator, smoothing harrow, and hand hoe,
thinning the plants rather severely but allowing more to remain
than in the original planting, since runners will not form so
freely as in the first year. An application of well-rotted stable
manure or of high-grade commercial fertilizer should be made
GENERAL INFORMATION: 491
at this time. Some growers simply work up the ground be-
tween the rows and then thin out the plants.
| In many parts of the South the old bed is plowed under
immediately after picking, and a crop of cow peas is grown and
plowed under in late July. Rye or crimson clover is then
seeded, and this is plowed under before planting to straw-
berries again the following spring. Thus, two crops of green
manure are plowed under before replanting the field to straw-
berries. If chickweed is abundant, the rye or clover crop is not
grown, but the ground is kept cultivated through the late sum-
mer and fall to eradicate this troublesome weed.
GENERAL INFORMATION
I. EVERBEARING VARIETIES
Everbearing varieties are now well known. The term is somewhat
misleading but is in common use. Such varieties bear at the usual time,
followed by a period of low production or absolute cessation of produc-
tion. In late August and throughout the fall, another crop follows, if
growing conditions are favorable.
It should be kept: in mind that many varieties of strawberries, given
exactly the right conditions of soil and climate, may produce late in the
season without warranting designation as everbearing varieties.
Everbearing varieties as a rule need a very fertile soil to give them
size and to provide their rather exacting moisture requirements. Plant-
ing may be according to the hill or matted row systems, depending
largely upon the freedom with which the varieties form runners. Gen-
eral culture is as indicated for ordinary kinds. The first flower stems
should be removed if practicable. The best berries will be obtained
the first fall, and many fields are kept only one season. The second-
season fruit is borne at the normal time, followed by a rest period and
then by further bearing, but the fruit tends to be small, both as to size
and total yield.
It cannot be claimed that everbearing varieties are profitable for the
general market. They have a place in the home garden, to meet a
special or local demand, and for the sale of plants. They are especially
valuable in the valleys of some Western states including Idaho, where
Jate spring frosts often kill the blossoms of most varieties. In these
valleys, the everbearing varieties are the chief kinds grown. Everbearing
varieties well adapted to the far South have not been developed as yet.
492 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
Varieties
Gem. Most consistent producer of summer and fall berries, recom-
mended for a home garden.
Champion (Progressive). Sweetest everbearer, berries are small but
the plants are productive. ieee
Green Mountain. Later berry, adapted to cool climate and heavy
soil.
Mastodon. Vigorous productive plant; it is the most commonly
grown everbearing variety, fruit is large, irregular in shape, and ships
well. .
II. CoMMERCIAL VARIETIES
There are hundreds of varieties of strawberries. Many of them
possess merit for certain purposes and in some sections. Included in the
following list are those varieties which have assumed commercial im-
portance in areas of greater or Jess extent, for general market use. It is
not put forth as a complete list. New varieties appear and very rapidly
come into prominence. The varieties that do well in Northern United
States are, as a rule, adapted to Ee Varieties have perfect flowers
unless otherwise indicated.
Aroma. The leading commercial variety in a belt extending east
from Missouri to Kentucky.
Belt (William Belt). Late variety, high quality, adapted 18 North-
ern states.
Big Joe. Fancy mid-season berry, especially large fruit, subject to
frost injury, grown commercially in New Jersey and Delaware and to
a less extent in Northern United States.
Blakemore. One of the finest berries of the South and as far north
as Maryland and Virginia; it has proved to be a good shipping variety—
productive, light red, firm, tart flavored.
Catskill. Standard variety in New England, New York, Ohio, and
Pennsylvania. Vigorous, sturdy, hardy plant, good-quality fruit. It has
been known to give higher yields than almost any other variety.
Chesapeake. Late season, large berry of unusual quality, not highly
productive, grown largely in Northeastern United States.
Dorsett. A good early commercial strawberry, high quality, bright
red fruit, large size and large cropper, grown chiefly in Northern states
but popular as far south as Georgia.
Dresden. A new early berry which is adapted to New England, New
York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania.
Fairfax. Noted for its high-quality fruit, very large yields of large
COMMUNITY STUDIES 493
berries, and firm berry, but its color darkens after it is picked; grown
chiefly in Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and in states farther north.
Gandy. Delaware, Maryland, and much of Northern United States.
Late berry which likes low ground or irrigation.
Gibson (Parsons Beauty). Very productive, very good quality, an
old berry which stands up well against many new varieties; grown
chiefly in Michigan, Ohio, New York, and Ontario.
Glen Mary (partially imperfect). New York, New England, Ontario,
and other sections of Canada; highly productive but poor-quality fruit.
Klandyke. Leading berry in parts of Gulf Coast and South Atlantic
states.
Lupton. Late shipping berry, poor flavor, grows well with heavy
fertilization; grown largely in New Jersey, Delaware, and eastern
Maryland. |
Missionary. The standard market variety of central Florida; grown
largely also in eastern North Carolina, the Norfolk Section of Vir-
ginia, and eastern Maryland. __
New York. Grown under many synonyms, very sweet fruit; popular
in Northeastern states.
Premier (Howard). One of the leading varieties, especially in New
England, south to Virginia and west to Illinois; early cropper, frost
resistant, large yielder; even-sized, good-appearing fruit, of good quality
and firm, but flavor is not so good as that of some varieties.
Sample (imperfect). New England and westward to Michigan and
Illinois.
Senator Dunlap. Northern half of area, east of Rocky Mountains;
old variety, good quality, medium size.
Wilson. Grown to a limited extent in western New York and in
Oregon and Washington.
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Visit five or more of the leading growers of the community, in-
cluding at least one grower selling at a roadside stand.
Determine:
a. Market served.
b. Acreage.
c. Location with respect to slope and site.
d. Type of soil.
e. Varieties, cost of plants, and source from which obtained.
494 GROWING STRAWBERRIES
f. Treatment of field for two years before planting.
. Preparation of field for planting.
. Time of planting.
. System of planting used and number of plants per acre.
. Method of planting.
. Subsequent cultivation and care.
. Harvesting plan—source of help.
. Costs of packages.
Wages—day or piece rate; bonus.
. How fruit is delivered and costs of delivery.
. Average yields by varieties if possible.
. Average selling price for'several years.
. Number of crops picked from one planting.
. Treatment of field after picking.
. Winter treatment.
. Fertilizers—kind, rate, cost, time and method of application.
Sen eS BOOS ag PR ee
2. With the foregoing information, prepare an outline including all
necessary operations, costs, yields, and net returns on a field sufficient:
a. To supply. the usual needs of a village of 2000 persons (deter-
| mine requirements from local growers and fruit merchants).
b. To permit shipment of carlots of a single variety to the general
market.
CHAPTER XIII
GROWING GRAPES
The American grape is grown over a wide range for home
use. It is a commercial product as table fruit and for grape-
juice and other by-products in several large but definitely
limited areas in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan and
in the Province of Ontario, Canada. It is also grown commer-
cially in smaller local regions where conditions are satisfac-
tory, in states west to Missouri and south to North Carolina
and in the elevated sections of Georgia and Alabama. See
Table 50.
The term “American grape” refers to the native grape or
its hybrids with the European. The European is the one
grown in California, Vitis vinifera, of which many varieties
have been developed. There are many native species, but the
wild fox grape, Vitzs labrusca, is responsible either directly or
through crossing with Vinifera for the grape as it is known in
most of the country. In the warmer parts of the South, chiefly
on the coastal plains, Muscadine grapes of species Rotundi-
folia, of several colors, with such varieties as Scuppernong,
Thomas, and James, are mostly grown.
The authors are not dealing with the California grape, since
its culture represents a separate and highly specialized enter-
prise in a restricted area. Culture of Muscadine grapes, so
far as it differs from the Labrusca or bunch grapes, is indicated
at the close of this chapter.
Operations:
1. Determining the size of the enterprise.
2. Selecting the location.
495
496 GROWING GRAPES
TABLE 50
Graves, TEN Most Important States, Propuction,* 1937-39,
IN SHORT Tons
United States Department of Agriculture
State 1937 1938 1939 Average
Mew VOT: ses ois ts 89,100 55,600 75,600 73,434
Miiehisan 05s S0eb dos 6, 67,200 16,900 58,100 47,400
MED eK VE eee 37,800 9,800 42,800 30,134
Penns ylValia so < sian + 26,000 15,700 23,200 21,634
LEG Vo Be re he 12,300 6,200 12,500 10,334
PURO Pee Es waite 2 12,800 4,800 8,200 8,600
PS st keke Sas 56 Sone 8,600 6,300 8,800 7,900
mMorth Carolinas)... .. - 8,100 6,600 7,500 7,400
OSB ANU Ae PRSCE Sage na 5,000 5,000 5,800 5,267
CAnOPUia,) Site aise tx: 2,454,000 | 2,531,000 | 2,173,000 | 2,386,000
Wine varieties........ 641,000 641,000 548,000 610,000
Raisin varieties....... 1,407,000 | 1,443,000 | 1,255,000 | 1,035,000
i L425 i ee a ee 246,000 290,000 252,000 162,967
Wot OEICd ine eso: 419,000 283,000 247,000 316,667
Table varieties........ 416,000 447,000 370,000 | 411,000
*For some states, in certain years, production includes some quantities air | on
account of market conditions.
7 Dried basis: 1 ton of dried raisins equivalent to 4 tons of fresh grapes.
3. Selecting the soil.
4. Selecting varieties.
5. Determining time of planting.
6. Determining planting distances.
7. Securing the plants.
8. Setting the plants.
9. Managing the soil.
10. Training the vines.
11. Controlling insects and diseases.
12. Harvesting the crop.
13. Marketing the crop.
14. Protecting vines in winter.
DETERMINING SIZE OF THE ENTERPRISE 497
A: Determining Size of the Enterprise. Many of the fac-
tors of importance here appear under the same heading in
(Mo. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 196. A Missouri vineyard just prior to harvest.
Chapter III on “Establishing the Orchard.” The acreage
must be large enough to carry the investment in special equip-
Fic. 197. A western New York vineyard. The cover crop between the
rows 1s buckwheat.
ment and to attract buyers. Such equipment need not be ex-
tensive, but a spray outfit, horse- or motor-operated, gang
plows, and grape hoes will be needed. If the fruit enterprise is
498 GROWING GRAPES
diversified, then some of this equipment may be used for other
crops, reducing the overhead on the vineyard. Pickers are
more easily secured for a sizable plantation, since longer em-
ployment is provided, than for a small one. The problem
cannot be resolved into a definite number of acres, but this
matter should receive very careful attention at the outset.
2. Selecting the Location. Select a location subject to the
tempering influence of lake or river. The nature of such
influence upon the growing season and the temperature range
is well known. The grape seems especially responsive to it.
Shallow streams or ponds have little effect, the depth of the
water being an important consideration. The slope should be
toward the water. Steep grades complicate cultural opera-
tions and increase the cost thereof.
Air drainage through and away from Hie vineyard is 1m-
portant in the control of many diseases and reduces the danger
from late spring and early fall frosts.
In the southerly extensions of the industry the water in-
fluence is not such an important factor, but air drainage is a
primary consideration.
3. Selecting the Soil. A good upland corn soil is well
adapted to grapes. Light loams of all kinds, with good
drainage, meet the requirements. Clay loams delay ripening of
nearly all fruits and in them the drainage factor is of especial
importance. Moderate fertility and moisture are necessary.
Since the vineyard will, under the proper conditions, occupy
the ground for years, it is not best to plant on naturally poor
soil. On the whole, well-drained, gravelly loams, which are
friable and easy to work, and which warm up early in the
spring, make excellent soils for the grape. On such soils,
evenness of ripening, good yields, and grapes of good size,
color, flavor, and high sugar content may be expected.
The growing of a tilled crop during the year previous to
planting is sound practice, since it tends to eliminate grass and
puts the soil in good condition for planting.
SELECTING VARIETIES 499
4, Selecting Varieties. Select varieties of established repu-
tation and proved adaptability to the region. In a market
grape, growers look for wide soil adaptation, hardiness of
wood, heavy yields, evenness of ripening, freedom from crack-
ing of berries, attractiveness of appearance, ability to stand
handling and shipment, freedom from shelling after picking,
and good quality. In-all but the last two factors, Concord
takes high rank. It does shell after picking, but its quality,
though not superior, is good enough, when the fruit is well
ripened, to suffice. It handles and ships fairly well, vhouge
leaving something to be desired in this regard.
At the present time, build a list of varieties around Con-
cord as the major sort, lengthening the season on both ends
with other kinds as the growing conditions and outlet warrant.
Sheridan, originated by the New York Agricultural Ex-
periment Station at Geneva, should be watched as a possible
successor to Concord. It is about ten days later than Con-
cord.
To precede Concord by about three weeks Fredonia is a
good-quality black grape. It is vigorous, hardy, and produc-
tive with large clusters of medium-sized fruit. Worden is a
black variety of high quality which ripens earlier than Con-
cord. The berries are large but very tender and may ripen
unevenly. Worden does not ship well but is excellent for local
trade. 3
Niagara is the leading white variety. Although it is not so
hardy as Concord, it may be just as vigorous and productive
if it is grown under suitable conditions. It is more subject to
disease. If properly ripened, Niagara is of excellent flavor.
Portland deserves attention as an early white grape. The
bunches are large, and the vines hardy and productive.
Ontario is a golden yellow grape of high quality. The clus-
ters are of medium size and very attractive.
Catawba is the standard red grape. It must be grown
where the season is long enough to mature it properly. The
500 GROWING GRAPES
foliage and fruit are susceptible to disease. Catawba will keep
well. It makes a high-grade, light-colored wine. |
Keuka is a red grape which ripens one week earlier than
Catawba. It has a very good flavor and 1s a new variety of the
European type. Urbana, red, is a good grape but a little later
than Catawba and for that reason its planting districts are
limited. Delaware is a very high-quality American table ~—
grape. The berries are very small. The plants grow slowly
and should be planted closely. The high quality of this grape
makes it useful for wine making and champagne blending.
It grows fairly well if planted in rich soil.
Recently the introduction of European types and seedless
kinds has changed the list of grape varieties for home vine-
yards and roadside markets. It takes many years, however,
to revise the list of standard commercial varieties of any
fruit which has as long a life as the American grape.
Consult the local experiment station before making a final
selection of varieties either for market or home use.
5. Determining Time of Planting. Plant in the spring in
the northern regions of commercial production. Elsewhere,
plant in the fall or spring at the grower’s option. It is im-
portant, as in all fruits, that the plants should be in the ground
early while spring rains are still abundant.
6. Determining Planting Distances. Strong growing vari-
erties on fertile soil need 10 feet of space both in and between
the rows. This is not too much for Coneord grown under
favorable conditions. Set less thrifty varieties 8 feet apart in
the rows, or some, as Delaware, even closer, but ‘the space
between rows should always permit free use of implements,
including tractors. Even though carefully trained, the trunks
of some of the vines, when mature, will arch in such manner
as to lessen materially the available tillage space. At 10 feet
each way 435 plants per acre will be required.
7. Securing the Plants. Grapes may be grown from cut-
tings, or from layers, as described in Chapter VII, “Propaga-
tion.” The commercial grower, however, will usually prefer
" OP ey ee ee ae eS ae, ee ee
SECURING THE PLANTS © 501
to secure his plants from the nurseryman who is a specialist,
and who probably will produce better plants on the average
than the grower. Use
well-rooted one-year
plants (Fig. 198).
On arrival of the
plants from a nursery
open the bundles and
heel them in carefully
until ready to set in the ©
field.
8. Setting the Plants.
Grapes should be set on
tilled land, preferably
that which has grown a
cultivated crop the year
previous to planting so |
that grass and weed Fic. 198. A good one-year vine. It
growth has been de- should be pruned at a-b when planted.
stroyed in large measure.
The land should be plowed and worked deeply so that hand
labor in setting may be reduced to a minimum.
Procedure:
(a) Determining arrangement of the rows.
(b) Marking out rows.
(c) Setting the plants.
(a) Determining Arrangement of the Rows. Run the
rows north and south if the dimensions of the field permit, to
distribute the sunshine to both sides. If prevailing winds
are strong, it is best to avoid running the rows at right angles
to them, since much damage may be done to young shoots and
fruit-bearing canes. However, greater damage usually comes
from sharp squalls in connection with sudden storms than from
steady breezes from a certain quarter.
502 GROWING GRAPES
If the location is steep and uneven, then the contour of the
eround must be followed, but it is a serious question whether
vineyards in the future should be planted on such fields, where
the cost of every operation is greatly increased. —
Many persons get their impressions of American grape
growing, or viticulture, from pictures of the steep, vineclad
slopes of the River Rhine. We are dealing here, however, with
an extensive method of management, where labor costs are at a
maximum, and the efficient use of machines is indispensable
to a high measure of success.
In large plantings, provide driveways at convenient inter-
-vals across the field so that it is not necessary to go to the end
of the rows to take out a load of fruit or to refill the spray tank.
Headlands adequate for turning beyond the end posts are
necessary.
(6) Marking out Rows. Turn right angles where necessary
as indicated in the chapter, “Establishing the Orchard.” Plow
out the rows the long way of the field, setting enough stakes
for the driver to use in sighting. The cross-rows may also be
plowed, or located with a marker, or a light stick of the proper
length may be carried from vine to vine as planting progresses.
Reasonably straight cross-rows are desirable because they
make possible cultivation both ways until the trellis is up.
They will not be obtained on large areas unless marked out
in advance of planting.
Crooked rows with vines out of place are a great nuisance
in all tillage operations. Exposed vines are sure to be torn
out or seriously injured by tillage implements. It is a con- -
tinual game of hide and seek to avoid them. ‘The wires of
the trellis cannot be properly tightened, and the net loss of
efficiency is considerable.
(c) Setting the Plants. Plant in gangs of two persons.
One of these may be a boy or girl, since the work is not heavy
if the rows have been plowed out. Carry the plants with the
roots immersed in a pail of water or covered with a blanket.
The hole may be quickly finished with a shovel by one member
MANAGING THE SOIL 503
of the gang. The other member prunes the top to two or three _
buds and cuts back straggling roots. He then shakes the vine
to spread the root system, presses it against the bottom of the
hole, and packs the soil as it is shoveled in. The whole opera-
tion may be done more quickly than it can be described.
If the rows have not been plowed, extra men must go ahead
to dig the holes or the work must be done as the vines are set.
The more careful the preparation of the field by plowing
and harrowing, the more rapidly will the planting operation
go forward. The best cultivation that may be given any crop
the first year is that which occurs, if the grower is wise, before
the crop goes into the ground. — sats
9. Managing the Soil. Thorough cultivation is the pass-
word to success after planting. The grape comes into leaf late
in the spring. It develops a tremendous foliage in a very short
period, in addition to producing the crop. The need of favor-
able growth conditions is apparent. Grape roots are relatively
close to the surface. Moisture must be abundant and the soil
in excellent physical condition. All this calls for frequent and
thorough tillage.
Procedure:
(a) Cultivating the soil.
(6) Growing intercrops.
(c) Growing cover crops.
(d) Fertilizing the vines.
(a) Cultivating the Soil. In early spring, before the buds
have started, plow away from the rows in order that oppor-
tunity may be given to clean the ground thoroughly beneath
the vines. The three-gang vineyard plow (Fig. 199) meets
the requirements. It should be run no deeper than is necessary
to turn the furrow—from 3 to 4 inches. For the first two or
three years, deeper plowing is permissible in an endeavor to
force the vines to root more deeply, though how much is ac-
complished in this direction is debatable. On light soils free
504 GROWING GRAPES
from stones, the disk harrow may be substituted for the gang
plow, but the plow meets with greater favor for most con-
ditions.
After plowing, cultivate thoroughly with the harrow. Fin-
ish next to the vines with the grape hoe, and even with the
hand hoe. The grape or horse hoe, or “‘take out” (Fig. 200),
is a tool which means much in the saving of time and in finish-
ing cultivation well. about the vines. Once the art of its
manipulation is mastered,
it becomes the grower’s best
friend.
Through the summer,
work the soil gradually
back toward the rows until
the ground is level, using
the spring-tooth and disk
harrows set at shallow
depth. If drainage is a
factor, ridge the soil in the
rows slightly at the last cul-
Fic. 199. The vineyard gang plow is tivation, using the attach-
a very useful implement in grape :
growing. It should usually turn a ment on the ie hoe to ri
furrow from 3 to 4 inches deep. do this. As part of the
Tractor gangs may be used on level final cultivation, the gang
ground. plow may again be used,
this time throwing the soil
toward the vines. In the young vineyard, cultivation may
continue to August 15 or even later, but in the bearing vine-
yard tillage should cease from July 15 to 30, depending on
the season and the crop. If the season is dry and the crop ;
large, prolong cultivation to conserve the moisture. If mois-
ture is abundant, discontinue cultivation to induce maturing :
of wood and fruit. It is essential that the wood shall go into
winter well ripened; otherwise injury from freezing, with its
unfavorable effect on crop prospects of the following year, is
likely to occur.
MANAGING THE SOIL 505
(b) Growing Intercrops. Intercrops that require cultiva-
tion have a place in the vineyard during the first season. Select
the one that fits best in the rotation and the system of farm
management. It may well be field or sweet corn, beans, or
some of the garden crops. Perhaps the best feature of the
intercrop is that it makes probable more thorough cultivation
of the vineyard than would otherwise be given. It should be
recognized, however, that,
from the standpoint of the
vineyard itself, its cultiva-
tion through the cultiva-
tion of intercrops is an
expensive way to get the
job done. The income from
the crop may not make up
the difference in cost, to
say nothing of giving a
profit. The grower must oes” 25
decide which, for his con- rg 900. The grape hoe may be
ditions, is the better way. —_ thrown toward or away from the vines
(c) Growing Cover quickly by manipulating the left
Crops. Many vineyards are handle. The shovel on the right may
productive thirty or forty be reversed to throw the soil toward
ceanetantine and 2 the vines. A spring-tooth attachment
psa P : 8) between the disk and the shovel is
life in excess of sixty years ea Oat
isnot uncommon. ‘This is
a long time for the effects of intensive tillage to accumulate.
One of these effects 1s the gradual exhaustion of the supply
of organic matter. The soil ‘‘burns out,” creating an unfavor-
able medium for crop production. This occurs eventually
even with the best of soils, unless remedial measures are
employed.
Manure may be applied where available, as indicated under
fertilizers. Cover crops can be grown to help keep the soil
loose and friable.
Lt Roe
506 GROWING GRAPES
| |
Fic. 201. The tractor and spring-tooth harrow
make a good combination for tillage where the
land is not too steep for the tractor.
Fie. 202. A tractor pulling a Killefer disk and leveling harrow in a
California vineyard.
MANAGING THE SOIL 507
Conditions differ from those in orchards. For the vineyard
the cover crop must grow quickly and preferably lodge or fall
of its own weight before picking time, and it must not grow
high enough to reduce seriously air movement about the fruit.
Such a reduction encourages the development of fungus dis-
eases and delays the maturing of the fruit.
A crop that lives over winter has some obvious advantages,
but it must be one that can be turned under or worked in by
shallow plowing and cultivation. One difficulty with rye is
that it grows so rapidly in the spring that it may get out of
bounds in this regard.
Soy beans, sown in middle July, have given excellent results
in some New York vineyards. Buckwheat (Fig. 197), oats, rye,
winter vetch, and millet are worth consideration. The clovers
often will not catch in a dry season, the time is too short for a
good stand, and the seed cost is high. A mixture of 1 bushel of
rye and 20 pounds of vetch is often used and is satisfactory if
plowed under early in the spring.
Broadcasting by hand or with a cyclone seeder insures com-
plete coverage, but if the cover crop is one that lives over
winter, it will be easier to turn it under at the proper time if
seeded with a drill, keeping a foot or so away from the rows.
If the crop does not go down of its own accord at harvest, drag
or roll it down while wet to get it out of the way of the
pickers.
An auxiliary effect a the cover crop that is often important
is its influence in hastening maturity of vine and fruit through
cutting down on the supply of moisture available to the vines.
It also reduces erosion of the soil on slopes and uneven ground.
(d) Fertilizing the Vines. Fertilizers should be applied
when sufficient vine growth and fruit production are not secured
without them. In many of the commercial grape regions of
the northeastern United States, satisfactory vine growth and
production are secured, especially on the heavier and more
fertile soils, without the addition of commercial fertilizers or
manure. On the lighter, sandy, or gravelly soils, profitable re-
508 GROWING GRAPES
turns will usually be secured, however, from the addition of
either or both of these materials.
Factors such as good air drainage (freedom from frosts),
soil drainage, proper pruning, thorough cultivation, the addi-
tion of organic matter, the control of insects and diseases, soil
temperature and aeration, and winter injury exert a marked
influence upon vine growth and fruit production. If proper
attention has been given to all these factors, and the vineyard
still makes an unsatisfactory growth with resultant low fruit
production, fertilizers should be added. | |
In many vineyards nitrogen seems to be the fertilizing ele-
ment most often needed. A review of expermment station
recommendations and of experimental evidence shows that in
the Northern states, if satisfactory growth and yields are not
secured, although good. vineyard management is practiced,
then applications of nitrogenous fertilizers will usually be
beneficial.
In such cases, annual applications of 5 to 10 tons of Babi:
yard manure per acre should produce good results. If manure
is not available, about 300 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda
should also produce good results, but under conditions where
vine growth is very weak it will often pay to apply 400 to 500
pounds of nitrate of soda per acre.
In the lighter soils of the South and in some of the northern
vineyards, a profitable response is apparently secured by ap-
plying phosphoric acid and potash as well as nitrogen. Under
such conditions applications of 800 to 1000 pounds of acid
phosphate and 200 to 300 pounds of muriate of potash in addi-
tion to the nitrogen should be made. It is possible, however,
that too frequent and too liberal applications of manure and
nitrogenous fertilizers might cause an excessive wood growth
and diminish the crop. The amount of growth and yields
being secured should thus be considered in deciding on the
fertilizer program.
When manure is to be applied to the vineyard, it should
be spread evenly between the rows before plowing or disking
TRAINING THE VINES 909
in the spring. Commercial fertilizer should be applied two or
three weeks before growth starts. Available nutrients will.
then be present to stimulate early growth and to help cause
a better set of fruit than would be obtained otherwise.
10. Training the Vines. All knowledge of grape culture
points to the absolute necessity from the commercial standpoint
of some system of pruning and training adopted early in the
life of the vine and followed regularly year by year. Other-
wise the vines grow out of bounds and the clusters of fruit
are small and scraggly.
Procedure:
(a) Establishing the trellis.
(6) Determining the system of training.
(c) Pruning and training the vines.
(a) Establishing the Trellis. Where good growth of vines
has occurred, the trellis should be in place ready to support the
- vines at the beginning of the second season, otherwise not later
than the beginning of the third season.
A post between every two vines, or about 20 feet apart,
is good practice. The alternate post may be lighter than its
neighbor, but should still be strong and rigid. All posts should
be from 714 to 814 feet long, preferably sharpened so that they
may be driven into the ground each spring if necessary, and of
wood naturally durable, or treated to make it so.
It is good practice to treat all posts, since their period of
service will be materially increased. Replacement costs on the
trellis form a considerable item and should be reduced to a
minimum by adopting the most improved practices. Do not
set green posts, or those with the bark on. Cedar, locust, oak,
and other good post woods of local reputation represent proper
choices. .
Make certain that the posts align well with the vines in the
row, as a post out of line is a sore thumb throughout its stay
in the vineyard. For the same reason crooked posts are not
desirable.
510 GROWING GRAPES
In regions where snowfall and drifting are not a factor, gal-
vanized-steel posts have given satisfaction. They will not,
however, withstand strong side pressures, breaking off at the
ground. |
The wire trellis is the arbor of commerce. Place strong
posts, firmly anchored and braced, at the ends of the rows
(Fig. 203). At appropriate distances, insert posts in the row
to support the wires, attached to the posts by staples extra
long. These staples are not driven into the wood full length,
as in building a fence, but are left so that the wires may play
freely through them.
This permits the
wires to be tightened
from the ends of the
row, through the use
3 of patent fasteners or
Fig. 203. This is the common method of stretchers which may
bracing the end posts of the trellis. . be turned up as the
wires become slack, or
through the manipulation of hammer and pliers around the end
posts.
Number 10 wire, well galvanized, running about 2000 feet
per hundred pounds, is easily handled and makes a strong
trellis. Some growers prefer the heavier No. 9 wire, and
others No. 11.
Use two wires per row, running the lower from 30 to 36
inches from the ground, depending on the variety and location.
It should be high enough to permit free air circulation beneath
the canes which will be attached to it.
The second or top wire should be about 24 inches above the
first wire. Put the wires on the sides of the posts toward the
prevailing winds, so that pressure may be against the posts
rather than the wires. The strain on the trellis under a heavy
load of foliage and fruit is very great. For the same reason
bring the vines up and train them on the windward side of
the trellis.
TRAINING THE VINES 511
(6) Determining the System of Training. With the trellis
in place, vine training to a definite form begins. Although
many systems have given good results, from the standpoint of
simplicity, economy, and results, the single-trunk, four-cane
Kniffin system takes precedence, and is the only system de-
scribed in detail here. Essentially it consists of a permanent
trunk extending to the top wire. At each wire a cane, renewed
every year, is laid down in each direction. This is the fruiting
wood or cane. There are then two arms
or canes on each wire or four for the
vine as a whole. To these arms coming
directly from the trunk, or near it, are
added short spurs or canes at each wire
from which the canes may be renewed
the succeeding year.
(c) Pruning and Training the Vines.
Cut back the vine to two buds on a single
stub at planting (Fig. 198). Repeat the
operation at the beginning of the second
season. The top is thus no longer at the Fs
outset of the second year than it was the
year before. The plant does have a more
extensive root system and will grow a py 94 A vine
much larger top during the second season pruned after one
than the first. year’s growth in the
Select, early in the second season, the vineyard.
strongest shoot that develops from the
buds on the stub and rub off the others, so that the growth may
be directed into a single shoot. The vines may be staked
during the season to get them off the ground and out of the
way of cultivation, or the lower wire of the trellis may be put
up, tying the vines loosely to it. Frequently, however, they
are allowed to run on the ground during the second season.
The third spring from planting tie the single cane to the
top wire firmly so that it is taut, thus preventing the crooks
and arches in the trunk that later prove so troublesome in
912 GROWING GRAPES
tillage operations (Fig. 205). Cut off the cane just above the
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fre. 205. A vine pruned and
tied after two years in the
vineyard.
top wire, at the same time tying it
loosely to the lower wire for the
sake of support. 3
Leave nothing but this single
upright cane, unless the vine is ex-
ceptionally strong, when short side
arms may be left each way along
the lower wire. From these some
fruit may be borne the third season.
Buds will be present along the en-
tire length of the trunk. As shoots
develop from them near the base
or suckers spring from the ground
level, rub them off, repeating the
operation two or three times during
the season. Side shoots will appear
both to the right and left of the
trunk. These constitute the fruit-
ing wood for the coming season:
Strictly speaking, the fruit is
borne on shoots that develop in the
spring from buds on wood that was
formed the previous season (Fig.
206). If all new wood remains, the
clusters of fruit have the character-
istic loose and scraggly appearance
of those on unpruned grape arbors
or wild vines. From the commer-
cial standpoint the vine ‘‘overbears.”
To prevent this, leave at pruning
time only a fraction of the fruiting .
wood. The part that is permitted
to remain is naturally that adjacent to the wires where it may
be tied.
TRAINING THE VINES ~ 613
Select, therefore, the fourth spring, a single cane each way
from the trunk, on each
wire, making four canes in
all (Fig. 207). Leave canes
at the top wire at the
-“head” of the vine longer
than on the lower wire be-
cause growth is more active
at the upper extremity.
Canes of medium length for
the vine being pruned and
those above the average
in diameter, but not the
largest or overgrown, with
buds well spaced, are pref-
erable. For the Concord,
medium-length canes of
pencil size, or about 14 inch
in diameter and with not
less than 6 inches between
the fifth and sixth buds,
(N. J. Exp. Sta.)
Fig. 206. A grape shoot that has
pushed out from the bud in the
spring. The blossoms are at a.
have thus far given very good results in experimental trials.
(Md. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 207. (a) A bearing vine pruned and trained according to the single
trunk, four-arm Kniffin system. (b) The same vine before pruning.
These specifications would, of course, vary with the vigor of the
variety.
514 GROWING GRAPES
Forty buds are often prescribed as the proper number to
be left. This may do for a general rule, but the intelligent
vineyardist will take into account the variety and the vigor
evidenced by the vine in question. Vines lacking in vigor
require heavy pruning to reduce the fruiting load; strong vines
will carry a proportionately larger amount of fruiting wood. °
The upper arms will each carry two buds more than the
lower arms. In addition to the four arms, leave short spurs
of one or two buds at or near the junction point of each arm
(Cornell Bap. Station)
Fic. 208. The two-arm Kniffin system before pruning.
with the trunk. From these spurs renewal arms, or canes,
will be taken the following year, for it must be kept in mind
that these arms must be replaced each season with wood of the
previous year’s growth.
After pruning, tie the canes along each wire, using soft
twine or willows. Tie just back of the end bud and also back
near the trunk, so that the cane may not pull loose. The fruit
when borne will hang below the wires, easily accessible for
picking, with good aeration, yet protected from sun and frost.
TRAINING THE VINES 515
Shoots that develop during the growing season are permitted
to droop or hang at will, excepting that sprouts or suckers
near the base of the vines should be removed two or three times
a season.
Several other systems of training are used almost exclu-
sively in certain sections. The two-arm Kniffen is similar to
the four-arm Kniffen, the difference being that only the upper
laterals are left to produce fruit. The umbrella Kniffen sys-
tem is a further modification of the two-arm Kniffen. In this
(Cornell Exp. Station)
Fic. 209. The two-arm Kniffin system after pruning. The laterals are
tied to the lower wire.
case the ends of the laterals are tied to the lower wire (Figs.
208, 209). The Chautauqua arm system requires three wires
on the trellis. In this system the upright canes are one-year-
old wood (Figs. 210, 211). The Keuka high renewal system
of training requires three wires and more tying (Figs. 212;
213). In this system the side arms are one-year-old wood
and the uprights are new growth.
Modifications of any of these systems may be used to ad-
vantage in some places. In fact, grape vines may easily be
trained to cover any trellis according to the grower’s wish.
516 | GROWING GRAPES
Bas
(Cornell Exp. Station)
Fig. 210. The Chautauqua system before pruning.
cL SAPP IA LILLE TTT EE
(Cornell Exp. Station)
Fic. 211. The Chautauqua system after pruning.
517
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518 GROWING GRAPES
In pruning, work on the right-hand side cf one row and on
the left-hand side of the adjacent row in such a manner that
the prunings from the two rows may be thrown into the space
between them. In removing the pruned canes from the trellis,
give a quick pull along the wire rather than at right angles
to it, so as not to tear the wires loose and also because less
effort is required to remove them in this manner.
In removing the prunings from the vineyard, a 12- or 14-
foot pole is useful. Hitch a single horse to the larger end of
the pole with the hitch about 2 feet from the end, using a
chain long enough so that the horse walks well ahead of the
pole. The driver may hold the light end of the pole in his
hand, varying the height as necessary. The prunings will
accumulate about the larger end as it is pulled along by the
horse. Some growers prefer to load the prunings on to a
wagon in the adjacent row, with forks; others haul them out
with a spring-tooth harrow.
Results of Recent Pruning Tests. Frequently the first commercial
crop may be secured one year sooner by following the results of recent
investigational work. When free-growing varieties, such as Concord, are
planted on good grape soils, and in addition are manured and fertilized
_ with a quickly available nitrogen fertilizer the first season, sufficient vine
growth is usually made so that one of the canes can be tied to the top
wire of th«: trellis at the beginning of the second season’s growth. In
such cases, it is neither wise nor profitable to cut back the cane to two
buds at tke beginning of the second season as described under the pre-
ceding general recommendations. A little fruit will be produced along
this trunk in the second year, and many new shoots will be formed, so
that the complete four-arm Kniffin system may be established at the
beginning of the third season’s growth. As a result, a full commercial
crop will be secured one year sooner than is customary. When this
method is followed, the trellis should be erected and the vines tied to
it at the beginning of the second year’s growth. This early fruiting
does not appear to dwarf the vine or reduce future crops, if good soil
fertility is maintained.
If the cane is not long enough to tie to the top wire, at the be-
ginning of the second season, it may be tied to the lower wire. At the
beginning of the third season, the trunk may then be continued with
TRAINING THE VINES 019
a new cane to the top wire and two canes may be tied along the lower
wire. A fair crop will result the third season.
Although unusual, it is also possible, when following the
customary training methods previously described, to have a
number of vigorous laterals produced on the long cane which
results from cutting back to two buds after the second year’s
growth. When such conditions of growth do occur, these lat-
erals may be used during the third year for producing a partial
crop.
Cane Renewal. When the main trunk becomes devitalized,
not producing canes of good vigor and location, its renewal is
desirable. Select a sprout or sucker from the base of the trunk
and develop a new trunk gradually, pruning the old vine more
severely than usual in the meantime. After the third year, |
the old cane may be removed, without in the meantime taking
the vine completely out of production.
Time of Pruning. Present information indicates that early
spring is the best time for grape pruning. This means Febru-
ary or early March in most regions. Fall-pruned vines may
show considerable freezing injury in the spring with consequent
reduction of the crop. Grape wood is too brittle to work with
when full of frost. Excessive bleeding results from pruning too
long deferred. The effect of this bleeding has not been fully
determined, but it seems best to avoid it until more definite
information is available.
One exception to the foregoing statement may be desirable.
In regions subject to severe, late frosts, it may pay to delay
pruning until late spring, even though some bleeding may
occur. By delaying the cutting back of the canes, those buds
which will be left eventually do not force out into growth as
early as if the canes had been headed back at the usual time.
The buds at the ends of the canes, which will be removed any-
way, are then the ones which will grow early and no harm to
the crop will result if these are frosted.
Hand shears of a good grade of steel are the most satisfac-
tory tools for pruning. These are shown among orchard prun-
920 GROWING GRAPES
ing tools, page 231. More powerful shears, or a saw, will be
needed to cut out large stubs and old vines.
11. Controlling Insects and Diseases. Since grape foliage
is relatively close to the ground, and since many of the organ-
isms to be controlled work on the under side of the leaves,
movable or flexible booms equipped with nozzles spraying
upward from below as well as downward from above are de-
sirable. Sprayers of the traction type are sometimes used, but
gasoline engine outfits with long leads of hose, or “trailers,”
the men spraying from the ground, are preferable.
Liquid lime-sulfur has not been satisfactory and is not
used in the vineyard. Bordeaux mixture is the standard
fungicide. The ordinary orchard insecticides may be used in
the vineyard.
Among insects, the grape root worm, the grapeberry moth,
the leaf hopper, and the grapevine flea beetle are serious pests.
The rose chafer is occasionally very destructive in sandy areas
or where such areas are nearby. |
Among diseases, black rot is very destructive in humid
sections, in wet years, and on some varieties. Downy mildew
is often serious. Dead arm disease is serious in some sections.
Follow the control program outlined by the local experi-
ment station. A full discussion of materials, machinery, and
methods of application will be found in the chapter entitled
“Controlling Insects and Diseases.”
12. Harvesting the Crop. Pick the fruit when full color has
been reached and when the natural flavor has developed.
Unripe grapes are an abomination to the consumer and sure
parents of a declining demand. Only experience will indicate
the proper stage and appearance for picking. The wood as-
sumes a characteristic red or chocolate appearance. The
bloom on the clusters becomes apparent. Preserve the bloom
carefully by a minimum of handling, as it is evidence of skill
and consideration, a bond between grower and consumer. |
For distant markets and shipments long in transit, pick
earlier than for immediate local consumption where the full
HARVESTING THE CROP 921
quality should be permitted to develop. Some varieties, as
Moore Early, tend to crack if left on the vines too long, espe-
cially if rains have been abundant during the ripening period.
Pointed spring scissors, known as picking shears, serve best.
Clip the stem closely so that the stub may not extend to punc-
ture adjacent clusters (Fig. 214). Remove all defective berries,
taking care not to puncture the skin of the berries that remain.
(Mo. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 214. This illustrates a good method of
handling the cluster when picking, holding the
fruit gently in the open hand and clipping the
stem close to the shoulder.
If the fruit is to be repacked at the packing house, the trim-
ming of the clusters may be done at that time.
The fruit may be picked into trays or lug boxes holding
from 20 to 30 pounds (Fig. 215). Place them on light, mov-
able wooden stands, a little less than waist high,.so that they
may be filled and carried easily. Pick when possible from the
windward side of the vines, since the foliage will be less dense,
and the clusters more evident than on the off side of the trellis.
522 GROWING GRAPES
If supplying a local trade, nearby stores or stands where
the fruit will be sold by the pound, the grapes may well be
trimmed and packed ready for market direct from the vines.
Pack the clusters closely to prevent slack containers, with
stems down and the clusters at an angle in the upper layer to
improve the appearance of the pack.
Set the filled trays under the vines to protect them from the
sun. Haul from the vineyard in narrow, short-turning wagons.
The climax basket is the cus-
tomary retail package. It holds 2,
4, or 12 quarts, with specifications
prescribed by federal statute for
interstate shipment. The 2- and
4-quart sizes are used most for table
stock. Gift crates holding a numbe: —
of baskets are in use in some sec-
tions. The baskets should be neatly
stamped. Attractive labels on the
=} covers may be desirable for some
Fic. 215. The tray on the trades.
stand, ready for picking. The baskets may be packed di-
Both tray and stand are : :
Meter coe, Se BEC from the vines by experienced
workers (Figs. 216, 217, 218, 219).
There is an advantage in the one handling. However, payment
by the basket for picking should not be made in this case,
especially for table stock, as the temptation to fill the baskets
loosely and without careful trimming is great.
Machines now available fasten handles and covers quickly.
Yields in commercial sections run from 2 to 4 tons per acre,
5 to 6 tons occasionally being reported. On the Pacific Coast,
the yield of the Vinifera grape is much greater.
13. Marketing the Crop. Load baskets tightly in carlot or
truck shipments. Failure to do so, taking up all slack space,
results in serious losses (Figs. 221, 222). A car of loose baskets
is a juice factory on wheels. Follow the loading diagrams and
instructions provided by the railroad company.
MARKETING THE CROP §23
Icing may be necessary for distant markets.
The grape-juice factory provides an outlet that has grown
steadily in importance through the years. The juice factories
desire only well-ripened fruit, chiefly Concord, with a high
(U. 8S. D. A.)
Fig. 216. Grapes are often packed
in climax baskets as they are picked
from the vines. This bench shows a
tray below for the second-grade fruit.
(U. 8. D. A.)
Fic. 217. Fill the lower end of
the basket first, keeping the cut
stem ends down and working
the clusters gently together to
give a compact and attractive
pack.
sugar content, attributes that are desirable in any case and
that the grower must provide if the market is to expand.
These factories usually buy the fruit on a standard contract
basis.
024
GROWING GRAPES
(U: S. DL AS
Fic. 218. A well-packed basket with a full,
even surface, ready for the cover.
CU. 8. Daas
Fic. 219. This is a good type of picking
stand. The sloping position of the baskets
facilitates packing. Several grades may be
made.
MARKETING THE CROP
525
Well protected by foliage, grapes will withstand consider-
able cold. Once frosted, however, they shell badly and lose
their flavor.
Marketing processes for the grape are marked by the de-
velopment of numerous cooperative associations in some sec-
tions. In Michigan, this de-
velopment is particularly
marked, with sales on an f.o.b.
basis. A cooperative associa-
tion in the Chautauqua and
Erie grape belt handled 895
ears of table grapes and fur-
nished nearly 10,000 tons to
grape-juice factories in one
season.
Fruit from the chief pro-
ducing areas reaches the far
South and west to the prairie
states. The Pacific Northwest
is supplied chiefly by the state
of Washington, which has de-
veloped a considerable indus-
try. There is need of better
distributive measures to serve
the whole area including the
smaller towns, rather than a
limited number of large cen-
ters.
Storage. Grapes will keep
for some days in cool, dry, and
well-ventilated common storage.
(U. S. D. A.)
Fic. 220. A grape-packing table for
one person when the fruit is not
packed in the vineyard. The grapes
from the field are placed on the table
under the shelf. The packer pulls
them forward, packing on the slop-
ing surface. The tray, or lug, con-
taining cull grapes is pushed through
the hole and taken out at the rear.
The packed baskets are placed on
top of the shelf.
If the weather is sharply
cool, some varieties will keep for several weeks if in good con-
dition.
advent of such weather.
periods.
results.
Usually the market improves considerably with the
Cold storage is desirable for longer
A temperature of 30° F. has given satisfactory
526 GROWING GRAPES |
ES SSS
(Merchants Despatch)
Fig. 221. This illustrates the method
of car loading, including turning the
last row of baskets in diagonal or
“worm” fashion to take up the space.
(Merchants Despatch)
Fic. 222. (a) A poor loading job at the car door. There is too much
space between baskets, one basket handle is already broken. This car is
almost certain to reach destination in-bad condition. (b) These baskets
have been well loaded at the car door.
GROWING MUSCADINE GRAPES 527
14. Protecting Vinesin Winter. Protect the vines in severe
climates by releasing them from the trellis and allowing them
to lie on the ground over winter. They may even be covered
lightly with soil, if the cold is intense. This treatment applies
to non-commercial regions where grapes are desired for home
use, and especially to Vinifera grapes in northeastern United
States.
GROWING MUSCADINE GRAPES
Muscadine (rotundifolia) grapes reach their highest perfection in the
coastal plains region of the South. They are vigorous, long-lived, and
remarkably free from insect and fungus troubles.
They are not adapted to marketing as dessert grapes at a distance,
because the berries are inclined to ripen unevenly, the clusters are as a
rule small, and the berries when ripe shell or drop from the clusters
freely. Most varieties possess a strong musky taste. The fruit is adapted
to home use, for wine making, and culinary purposes.
Propagation. Propagation may be from cuttings, when skillfully
handled, but reproduction from layers is the common procedure. It may
be more satisfactory to purchase the vines from a nursery. Two-year
rooted layers are desirable.
Varieties. Thomas and Luola, black varieties, ripening in late
August; Scuppernong, white, of the same season; Flowers and Hunt,
black, ripening in late September, are the chief varieties.
Planting Distances. Most varieties should be planted in rows about
15 feet apart and 20 to 24 feet apart in the row. They thus require
double the space of varieties of the Labrusca type.
Sterihty. The varieties are for the most part self-sterile, though
some self-fertile strains are now available; pollination takes place from
the male vines, which produce staminate flowers, but no fruit. Male
vines abound as a rule in the woods and hedge rows, but it is best to
plant some rooted layers of staminate vines, which bloom heavily and at
the same time as the pistillate vines, in the vineyard. A satisfactory
arrangement is to have the third vine in every third row a male vine.
Traning and Pruning. A three-wire trellis is commonly used, except
when the vines are trained over arbors. The wires should be about 2
feet apart.
Prune the vines from late October to late November. Later pruning
induces excessive bleeding. The method of pruning and training may
be very similar to that for bunch grapes. Regular pruning each year
should be the rule for the best results.
528 GROWING GRAPES
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Visit three growers—if possible, three that.serve different types of
markets. Prepare in detail a questionnaire before going, seeking the
following information:
a. Types of soil—management previous to planting.
b. Varieties.
c. Cost of establishing vineyard up to four years of age, including
erection of trellis.
Practices and costs on mature vineyard including:
d. Pruning and training (prune at least 3 vines per student).
e. Method of removing prunings from vineyard.
f. Cultivation and cover crops.
g. Fertilization of soil.
h. Insect and disease control program.
2. Picking.
j. Packing.
k. Yield.
l. Method of disposal of crop. :
. Is icing necessary—costs?
S
2. With this information make out a financial statement for a 20-acre
Concord vineyard in a normal year in your section.
3. On the basis of your own studies, make definite recommendations
for the improvement of the grape business.
a. In your section. : .
b. From a national standpoint.
4. Visit local grape-juice factories; learn the manufacturing process;
observe the variety and quality of fruit desired. Study the local coopera-
tive association and score it according to standards promulgated by the
United States Department of Agriculture.
Pe Eee oe Sie ey
“CHAPTER, XIV.
GROWING BUSH FRUITS
The bush fruits of chief commercial importance include the
raspberry, the blackberry, and the dewberry—the brambles,
as they are sometimes called—and the currant, gooseberry,
and blueberry.
SECTION I. GROWING THE BRAMBLES
The red raspberry, black raspberry, purple raspberry,
blackberry, and dewberry are the brambles of commercial im- —
portance for the country as a whole. To them, but not dis-
cussed in detail here, must be added the loganberry and the
so-called Mammoth dewberry of the Pacific Coast, neither at-
taining importance east of the Rockies, owing apparently to
inability to withstand climatic changes.
The red raspberry bears red fruit and possesses erect, rather
slender canes, usually throwing suckers freely from the roots.
Our varieties come from both European sorts and American
wild plants, or crosses between them.
The black raspberry, commonly called “blackeap,” pro-
duces black fruit, more seedy than the red. The canes droop
or arch in late summer, and new plants are formed when the
tips come in contact with the soil. All varieties have been de-
veloped from the wild sorts found commonly in eastern United
States. :
Yellow varieties appear from time to time, variants of the
red or black. Some of these, as Golden Queen, are under
cultivation.
§29
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wa ee SAE OR ee eee eee ee ee ee ei =
Com-—
ibution of acreage in United
wn
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4 a) : rn y ry H ¢
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Fig. 224. Blac
Fig. 223.
530
GROWING THE BRAMBLES 531
The purple varieties are hybrids between the red and black,
resembling the black raspberry in habit of growth and gen-
erally in method of propagation. They are largely used for
canning purposes, and for pies, sauce, jams, etc.
The blackberry grows wild in most parts of the country.
This has retarded its commercial development, but great im-
provement in varieties as to size, quality, length of season, etc.,
has now been accomplished.
The dewberry resembles the blackberry, but is prostrate in
habit as a rule, the vines trailing on the ground. Some varie-
ties, however, are semi-erect in habit. Its range is much the
same as that of the blackberry.
None of the brambles, excepting perhaps the blackberry
and dewberry, possesses the adaptability of the strawberry
over wide areas. ‘The red raspberry succeeds beyond the
northern limit of hardiness of the others. The blackberry and
dewberry succeed better in the South than other members of
the group. The dewberry develops a deep root system and
will thus withstand drought better than other members of the
group.
Virus diseases, or mosaics, have become the chief limiting
factors in raspberry culture. They largely determine the
profitableness of the enterprise. Consult page 551 for further
information.
Operations:
1. Determining the size of the enterprise.
2. Selecting the location and soil.
8. Determining the time of planting.
A. Securing the plants.
5. Selecting varieties.
6. Preparing the soil.
7. Determining the planting plan.
8. Setting the plants.
9. Managing the soil.
10. Pruning and training the plants.
11. Controlling diseases and insects.
532 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
12. Harvesting and marketing the crop.
13. Protecting the plants in winter.
1. Determining the Size of the Enterprise. Although the
brambles are grown in large units for canning factories in some
sections, the prevailing type of planting is a small acreage as a
part of a diversified enterprise, with special attention paid
to local and nearby markets. Up to its capacity, the local
town or city is often the best market. Even the neighboring
countryside will absorb large quantities, if the grower stays
in the business year after year and supplies a good product.
People come to look to him for their requirements, and farmers
will often purchase for family use rather than seek to grow
their own. The advent of good roads and the motor truck
have greatly enlarged the local service area and the possible
market for such growers.
The fruit is a soft and perishable product, ripening over a
brief period. These facts must be kept in mind with regard to
harvesting and marketing and will, of course, influence the size
of the enterprise. |
2. Selecting the Location and Soil. Select a site that pro-
vides good air drainage. This reduces danger from frosts at
blossoming time and winter injury, and helps in disease con-
trol. The berries are lovers of cool temperatures; if a northern
slope otherwise well adapted is available, it should be pre-
ferred. Locations where the snow drifts heavily may result in
broken canes. On the other hand, a moderate amount of snow
protects from freezing and is Peale
Plant on deep, rich loams. A light or medium type Bah oe
lain with clay to hold moisture is probably best. The moisture
requirement is a most important factor. It cannot be met by
planting on wet or heavy land, but rather through the incor-
poration of organic matter, following the same general treat-
ment outline for the strawberry and grape. So far as prefer-
ence is exhibited, the dewberry accepts the light soils; the red
and purple raspberries and the blackberry, the medium loams;
SECURING THE PLANTS 533
and the black raspberry, the heavier types. The terms are
relative, and there are gradations and overlappings that make
it difficult to set limits beyond the necessity of thorough drain-
age and friability, superior moisture-holding capacity, and
abundant fertility. It is possible, however, to overdo the
fertility factor, producing excessive growth that does not
mature properly and is thus subject to more than the usual
danger from winter killing.
3. Determining the Time of Planting. Plant in early
spring. Fall planting for some members of the group will meet
with success, especially in the southern reaches of the indus-
try, but best results on the whole come from spring planting.
This is especially true of the black raspberry. Protect fall-set
plants during the first winter by mounding the soil about the
canes.
4. Securing the Plants. The red raspberry throws suckers
or young plants from the roots of the parent plants. They
may be seen in early spring coming up everywhere along the
rows. The most destructive diseases of this fruit at the present
time are the virus diseases or mosaics. Unless it is known
beyond question that the plantation is free from these diseases,
no plants should be taken from it. It is much better to pur-
chase certified stock from reliable nurserymen or growers who
have followed rigidly the requirements for certification. One-
year shoots are hest, but new sprouts may be used. In the
latter case, take up the plants with a few inches of the parent
root attached. Do the work on a cloudy day and keep the
plants out of the ground the shortest possible time.
The black raspberry roots from the tips of the parent canes
which bend over in late summer until they make contact with
the soil. The process is known as tip layering. If the soil is
loose and moist, roots soon develop. If a large number of
plants is desired, it is best to assist nature not only by provid-
ing a favorable soil medium, but also by throwing a little soil
on the end of the cane, thus holding the tip in place until it
becomes established. A late cultivation will usually accom-
534 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
plish this, but may be supplemented with hand work. Leave.
the tips attached to the parent plants until the following spring.
Anthracnose, crown gall, and mosaics are usually the limiting
factors in the life of the black raspberry. Remove the tip
plants in early spring before they have become infected with
anthracnose from the old canes.
S \
(U0, 8. Dra.)
Fig. 225. Raspberry plants with good root systems desirable for plant-
ing. Ranere (red) at left; Columbian (purple) in center; Cumberland
(black) at right.
The purple raspberry resembles the black raspberry, form-
ing plants at the tip of the new canes. A few varieties, how-
ever, do not form tip plants, and must be propagated from
suckers or root cuttings.
The blackberry, like the red raspberry, propagates from
suckers, one-year plants being best, or, since some varieties
form suckers but sparingly, new plants may be obtained from
SELECTING VARIETIES | See
root cuttings. In the fall take strong roots from vigorous
plants, cut in pieces 2 to 4 inches long, store in sand kept moist,
but not wet, or in sawdust where the temperature is above
freezing. Plant in early spring 4 to 8 inches apart in furrows,
covering with 3 to 4 inches of soil. Keep thoroughly culti-
vated. The plants will usually be large eneneh the following
spring for field planting.
The dewberry propagates either from tips or root cuttings.
Most plants are secured from tips, but both methods give
strong plants.
When buying plants from the nursery, order first-grade
plants of the previous year’s growth. Heel them in promptly
on arrival, unless they are to be set at once.
5. Selecting Varieties.
Procedure:
(a) Consider local adaptations of varieties.
(6) Consider need for cross-pollination.
(a) Consider Local Adaptations of Varieties. Consult the
local state experiment station about varieties. The judgment
of successful growers in the region is valuable. There is great
difference in adaptability and hardiness of varieties in various
sections. There is much room for improvement in varieties,
and doubtless better sorts for certain conditions will appear.
Some of the experiment stations are directing much careful
effort to this matter, and new developments should be watched
closely. The lists given under ‘‘General Information” at the
close of the chapter are guides only. The varieties mentioned
should at least be considered in making selections. Check
them against local experience and judgment.
(6) Consider Need for Cross-Pollination. Practically all
the commercial varieties of raspberries are self-fruitful, and
as a result can be planted in solid blocks. Very little experi-
mental evidence is available on this question for red, purple,
or black raspberries, but the fact that practically all the com-
636 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
mercial varieties of these fruits are productive when planted in
solid blocks, even at great distances from other varieties, is
sufficient evidence that the pollination problem, if any, is a
very minor one with them.
Practically all the common blackberry varieties are self-
fruitful. There are a few hybrid varieties, however, such as
McDonald, Rathbun, Spaulding, and Wilson which do not
“set” well with their own pollen. Such varieties should not be
a
Fic. 226. Red raspberries grown in hedge rows without stakes or trellis.
The canes have been clipped shorter than in Figs. 227 and 228.
planted by themselves, but with some other variety so that
suitable pollen will be available for cross-pollination purposes.
The Mammoth and Cory Thornless varieties have also been
found to be more or less self-unfruitful under Oregon condi-
tions, and it is suggested that provision should be made for
cross-pollination if these varieties are grown.
Most of the commercial varieties of dewberries such as
Lucretia, Mayes (Austin), and Young are self-fruitful, but
certain varieties as Premo, Chestnut, Grandee, Munroe, and
San Jacinto have been found to be self-unfruitful. In these
DETERMINING THE PLANTING PLAN 537
varieties, provision must be made for cross-pollination or poor
crops will result.
6. Preparing the Soil. Grow a tilled crop the year previous
to planting. Prepare the soil deeply and thoroughly. An
abundance of organic matter is desirable. Eliminate all grass
and weeds, such as wild morning-glory and quackgrass, before
planting, since, once the rows are established, it is almost
impossible to combat such growths effectively. Follow the
Fig. 227. Red raspberries grown in hills about 18 inches apart and trained
to a wire trellis.
directions under ‘Fertilizing the Soil” for enrichment of the’
soil.
Have the soil in the best possible tilth for planting. This
will hasten the planting operations, give the plants a better
chance to establish themselves, and reduce later trouble with
erass and weeds.
7. Determining the Planting Plan. Allow plenty of space
for plants. What is plenty of space depends on the type, the
variety, and the soil, but in general there is a tendency to set
too closely, the amount of room the plants will take when
538 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
the plantation is in full bearing not being appreciated. Put
the rows far enough apart to permit team or tractor cultivation
between them in one direction. There may be exceptions to
this rule, but for commercial purposes it is often better to use
more land, permitting quick and economical cultivation, than
to restrict the area and increase the hand labor.
The hill or hedgerow systems (Figs. 226, 227, 228) may be
(0. 8.229
Fic. 228. Red raspberries grown in hills and
trained to stakes in the Hudson Valiey section
of New York.
followed, the latter being in commercial favor. Red rasp-
berries and many varieties of blackberries sucker so freely that
it is difficult to maintain the hill system, growers usually
allowing the row to fill in in one direction, but keeping the
width of the row restricted by plowing and cultivation. The
hill system produces the larger fruits but the smaller total
yield. It is easier to pick the fruit under the hill system. A
modification of both systems sometimes called “linear” is to
SETTING THE PLANTS 039
restrict the width of the row to the parent plants, but to culti-
vate only one way.
Red raspberries at 3 feet by 7 or 8 feet for the hedgerow
system, or 5 to 6 feet apart each way for the hill system, repre-
sent standard practice. The hill system permits cultivation
both ways and may reduce hand labor. At the distances given
for the hill system only a single horse can be used. De-
partures from these recommendations should be governed by
the fertility of the soil and the natural vigor of growth of the
variety.
Black raspberries, although they do not sucker, possess a
spreading and drooping habit of growth and need more space
than might be thought necessary: 4 feet by 8 feet is about
right, but some growers prefer 9 or 10 feet between rows.
The purple varieties are as a rule strong growers and need
the maximum distances accorded the black raspberry. This
also applies to the blackberry. If grown in hills, however, as
it sometimes is, 1t may be set closer in one direction. The
dewberry requires about 3 feet by 7 or 8 feet for the hedgerow
system and 5 or 6 feet apart each way in hills, depending on
the fertility of the soil.
8. Setting the Plants. Furrow the rows out in one direc-
tion. It will save time to cross-mark them the other way to
determine the location of the plants, and to make it possible
to cross-cultivate at least during the first season. Do not
expose the roots to wind or sun. If the roots are puddled or
coated with mud, this gives them added protection. Drop
the plants just ahead of the planters, from pails or buckets
containing a little mud and water. A dull, cloudy day pro-
vides excellent conditions for planting. Put the plants against
the straight side of the furrow, cover the roots with soil, firm-
ing it with the foot, and turn back the remaining soil with
plow or cultivator. It is good practice to set deeply, working
the soil back gradually through the season. Do not cover the
crowns of tip plants, or layers, of the black raspberry and the
purple varieties, as this interferes with their development.
040 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
In setting black and purple varieties of raspberries, com-
munication of anthracnose to the young plants may be pre-
vented by removing and destroying the old stubs or canes
which have no use except convenience in handling, and as
markers for the rows.
The spade may be substituted for the plow in planting.
Push it into the ground, work it forward, and insert the plant
behind it, shaking out the roots. Remove the spade and firm
the soil about the plant with the foot.
If the young plants have started growth, the buds and new
shoots will be very soft and easily broken. Handle them with
great care. It is evident that only strong, well-rooted, healthy
plants should be used. Discard all others.
9. Managing the Soil.
‘Procedure:
(a) Cultivating the soil.
(b) Fertilizing the plants.
(a) Cultivating the Soil. Begin cultivation as soon as the
plants are set. There is no substitute for it in the commercial
plantation. The canes will not make vigorous growth or carry
the crop to maturity without an abundance of moisture. Much
of the root system is close to the surface. Grass and weeds
rob it of water.
Whatever the type of row to be developed, cultivate both
ways during the first season if possible. Finish with the hand
hoe. ‘Tilled or hoed crops between the rows during the first
year may insure thorough care to the brambles themselves,
and bring some return, though of course they increase the ex-
pense of cultivation. Raise crops adapted to the region for
which there is use on the farm, or a market outside, except
crops that necessitate stirring the ground late in the season,
as late potatoes. The latter may induce growth of canes
beyond the normal time limit, and increase the danger of
winter injury.
MANAGING THE SOIL 541
After the first season, cultivation must be shallow, espe-
cially adjacent to the rows. The roots of the black and purple
raspberries are barely beneath the surface, and in the red
raspberry and blackberry, which sucker from the roots, the
more the roots are broken, the more numerous will be the
suckers that come up to plague the grower. With the latter
fruits, the rows must be rigidly restricted in width or the
suckers will gradually preempt the entire area. This can be
done only by frequent and thorough cultivation. In the hill
system the problem and solution are the same, except that the
rows must not fill in between the hills.
The plantation will yield some fruit the second season—a
considerable amount if all conditions have been favorable.
Cultivate each year through the harvesting season to loosen
the soil packed down by picking, and to conserve all moisture
possible for the plants. If the plants droop over the cultivated
area, they must not be disturbed when loaded with ripe fruit,
or much of it will fall to the ground. In such a case, cultivate
immediately after each picking.
Sow a cover crop in late summer, about mid- August in
most sections, keeping the crop well away from the rows if it
is one that lives over winter. Oats and barley, winter vetch,
the clovers, cow peas, and soy beans possess merit, and under
the proper conditions give good results.
Some growers secure good results by plowing toward the
rows just deeply enough to turn the furrow before sowing the
cover crop, and plowing away from the rows in the spring.
Mulching aids in moisture conservation and constitutes
good practice where the cost of the material is not prohibitive.
Irrigation is necessary in some of the arid or semi-arid
sections. The technique and practice relate directly to the
needs of the particular section, and have been developed to
meet them. In the Eastern states, overhead irrigation is valu-
able at times, when, in spite of good care, an abnormally dry
season makes the lack of moisture the limiting factor in pro-
duction. For the most part it is more to the point to maintain
542 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
the supply of humus with its moisture-holding properties, and
to cultivate frequently, than to rely upon irrigation.
(6) Fertilizing the Plants. The addition of organic matter
is especially important in the fertilization of brambles. Mois-
ture is often as much of a limiting factor to cane growth and
fruit production as soil nutrients. Organic matter improves
the physical condition of the soil so that its moisture-holding
capacity is greatly increased.
Before the plants are set, a heavy application of barnyard
manure should be plowed under and the soil thoroughly culti-
vated. Under many conditions the addition of 8 to 10 tons
of manure per year and thé turning under of cover crops will
be sufficient to maintain vigorous canes and heavy fruit pro-
duction.
There is very little experimental evidence relative to the
fertilization of the brambles. Experimental results in New
York, Oregon, and Rhode Island show that red raspberries
respond especially well to applications of nitrate of soda.
When this material is added, not only are more canes pro-
duced but also the individual canes are more vigorous and
have larger leaves. Fruit production is also increased to
some extent. From 150 to 300 pounds of nitrate of soda per
acre are added, depending upon the soil and the growth of
the plants.
The evidence relative to the fertilization of black rasp-
berries, purple raspberries, and blackberries is very meager.
In North Carolina, two applications of fertilizer are gen-
erally made to dewberries after the first year. The first ap-
plication is made Just as soon as the canes have been tied up
in the spring. The formula used varies somewhat in the dif-
ferent sections and with the different growers, but one that is
often used consists of 2 per cent nitrogen, 10 per cent phos-
phoric acid, and 8 per cent potash. From 500 to 700 pounds
per acre are used.
The second application is made immediate after the crop
has been harvested and the canes cut off. Some growers use
PRUNING AND TRAINING THE PLANTS 543
the same formula at this time, but since this applicatior is
intended primarily to stimulate a rapid growth of vigorous
new canes, a large proportion of nitrogen is favored by most
growers. From 500 to 800 pounds of cottonseed meal plus
100 pounds of nitrate of soda, or 10 to 20 tons of manure, are
often applied to the acre. |
Apparently the most important thing to watch, especially
in the North, is the application of too much fertilizer contain-
ing quickly available nitrogen which may result in making
the berries soft and in causing such a late growth that injury
by low temperatures may follow. It has recently been shown
that a late summer cover crop, fertilized if necessary to pro-
duce a heavy growth, will assist materially in hardening the
canes so they will better withstand low temperatures.
10. Pruning and Training the Plants. Pruning and train-
ing vary somewhat with the different varieties and fruits. The
amount and kind of pruning necessary will be understood
better if the method of growth is known. Each season new
canes appear as shoots from the crown or roots and from buds —
near the bases of the previous year’s canes. These new canes
complete their growth the first summer, bear a crop the next
year, and then die. They are then ready to be removed. The
canes are biennial, but the roots live for several years and are
perennial. It can thus be seen that, unless systematic pruning
is practiced each year, the plantation will soon become choked
with dead canes and there will be too many living canes for
best fruit production.
Red Raspberries. The new shoots of the red raspberry
should not be pinched or cut back in early summer. When
these plants are pinched back, the new laterals formed are
generally weak, are not very productive, and are often winter
killed. After the fruit is harvested the old canes should be
removed and burned.
In the spring, just before or as growth is starting, the
weaker canes should be thinned out and those left should be
headed back. If the hill system is used, from five to seven
544 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
vigorous canes should be left per plant, but if the hedgerow
is used about ten canes to every 4 feet of row should be left
for fruiting. The amount of heading back depends upon the
vigor of the canes, the method of training or support, the
moisture-holding capacity of the soil, and the possible amount
of rainfall during the growing season. Usually the canes
should be left 4 to 5 feet
high. The least amount. of
heading that will result in
fruit of good size and still
keep the fruit off the ground
is desirable.
A trellis is more gener-
ally used with red than with
black raspberries. If a trel-
lis is used, less heading back
is practiced and _ greater
yields are generally secured
(Fig. 227). However, on ac-
count of the labor and ex-
pense of trellising, many
erowers prefer to head back
the canes so they will be
st REE stocky enough to stand erect
(U. 8. D. 4.) with the crop and to accept
Fic. 229. Wooden crosslegs with a any decreased yields which
wire on each side at the top held in may result (Fig. 226).
place by bent nails, are used to In some sections where
support the canes in some raspberr :
Balia: eee y the hill system is used, a
: stake or post is set at each
hill, and the canes are tied to it (Fig. 228). The system of
placing 3- or 4-foot posts at intervals of 20 to 30 feet and
stretching two wires along cross-arms is also used where the
narrow hedgerow or linear system is maintained. Other sys-
tems consist of using either one wire attached to posts as a
support for the vines or, In some cases, two or three wires
by
eee
PRUNING AND TRAINING THE PLANTS 545
perpendicular to each other. The canes are then either tied °
or wound around these wires, or bent over and caught between
the canes of the next hill as desired by the grower.
Black and Purple Raspberriés. In order to prevent long,
slender, weak canes, which bend over or break when heavy
crops are borne, the new shoots of black raspberries are usually
Fic. 230. Black raspberries with the new canes
tipped in the summer.
pinched or cut off when they have reached a height of from
18 to 24 inches (Fig. 230). Since the purple raspberries often
grow more vigorously, they are headed from 30 to 36 inches
high. It is necessary to go over the plantation several times
during early summer in order to pinch the different shoots when
they have reached the proper height. The shoots should not be
allowed to grow 4 or 5 feet before the heading back is done.
546 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
4
This heading back produces not only a stockier cane, but a
cane with lower branches. The buds which produce much of
the next year’s fruiting shoots are borne on these branches.
The crop is borne for the most part upon new fruiting
branches which grow in the spring from axillary buds along
the laterals or branches. However, when the laterals are
headed back heavily, considerable fruit is also borne from
shoots which spring from the main cane.
The fruit buds on the laterals are generally so numerous
on healthy plants that it would be impossible for the plants to
develop the crop if all of them were left. As a result it is best
to shorten these laterals in the spring just before or at the
time growth starts.
Standard recommendations 1n the past have been to shorten
these laterals, leaving them 14 to 18 inches in length, but it
has recently been shown that the laterals of black raspberries
can be headed quite severely without greatly reducing the
total crop, while the size of the individual berries will usually
be much better because of such severe pruning. Studies in
- Michigan show that, where laterals are headed back to four
or six buds, excellent fruit 1s produced from these buds and
also many fruiting shoots force out from the main cane. The
individual fruits produced on the shoots which grow from the
main cane are larger than those produced from the laterals.
Other valuable evidence shown in these tests is that the yield
from canes and from laterals, and likewise the size of berry,
are closely associated with diameter or size of cane. Yields
of individual fruiting shoots and likewise the average size of
berry were also found to be closely correlated with the amount
of foliage. It is stated, ‘““The advantages of short pruning are
more pronounced during ripening seasons that are character-
ized by low humidity and high temperature. It is to a degree
an insurance against drought injuries.”
It has also been shown at the Cornell Station that practi-
cally all the buds on black and red raspberry canes are po-
tential fruit buds, although in blackberries there seems to be a
PRUNING AND TRAINING THE PLANTS 547
greater likelihood of the basal buds being undetermined, or if
_ forced into growth, of being vegetative.
Although there is practically no experimental evidence rela-
tive to the heading back of the laterals of the purple rasp-
berries, it has been shown in Missouri that some varieties,
such as Cardinal, produce fewer buds along the basal portions
of the laterals than black raspberries. With such varieties
it seems best to leave the laterals about 18 inches in length.
At the time of the spring pruning any weak canes should
be thinned out. If the canes are vigorous, very little thinning
should be practiced as thinning of vigorous canes will greatly
reduce yields without materially increasing the size of berries.
_ Likewise, laterals should not be thinned out, unless weak or
diseased. }
Usually, after the crop is harvested, the old canes are im-
mediately removed and burned. In some regions where heavy
snows occur the old canes are sometimes left as a protection to
the new ones, but it is generally best to remove and burn them
immediately after fruiting in order to destroy any disease
which might spread to the new shoots.
In many regions no trellises are used for black and purple
raspberries. By shortening the new shoots in the summer and
the resultant laterals in the spring, the plants become stocky
and are able to hold up their crops without additional support.
In some cases the new canes of each plant are bunched to-
gether and tied with a cord just beneath where the laterals
emerge, thus helping to keep the plants erect. Occasionally
trellises are used and then posts about 30 inches in height at
intervals of 25 to 35 feet in the rows are employed. Cross-
arms about 18 inches long are fastened to the posts, and No. 12
galvanized wire is stretched and fastened to the ends of these
arms. This supports the fruiting canes and keeps the fruit
out of the mud and dirt. In some regions, no wire is used, but
stakes are driven into the ground at each plant and the plants
are then tied to these stakes.
Blackberries. The pruning of the plckhienet is quite simi-
548 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
lar to that outlined for the black and purple raspberries. The
old canes should be removed and burned immediately after the
fruit is harvested. The new shoots should be pinched or
headed back early in the summer when they have reached a
height of 24 to 30 inches. If the plantation is unusually vigor-
ous, this height might be increased another foot. It is neces-
sary during the summer to keep cultivating and hoeing out the
new shoots which spring up
between the rows or the
plantation will soon become
a thicket.
In the spring, all weak
and slender canes should be
removed and only the
strongest ones, about 10
inches apart, should be left.
The laterals should also be
headed back at this time.
If there are several vigorous
= laterals on each cane, it will
Fig. 231. Blackberries growing ac- be well to head them back
cording to the hedgerow system. Red quite heavily, leaving them
raspberries are also grown in this 8 to 10Q inches in length,
manner. The young canes have been but if the laterala-aeemmat
tipped at the desired height in the Licht ae
growing season; red raspberry canes “UMETous tenter heading
should not be headed back until the Should be practiced. A re-
following spring. cent Missouri bulletin shows
that there are more basal
fruit buds on the laterals of Early Harvest and Robinson than
on Snyder, Eldorado, Taylor, and Rathbun. As a result it is
suggested that the laterals of Early Harvest and Robinson
should be shortened to 10 to 15 inches, while those of the other
varieties should be left 18 to 24 inches long.
In some regions, no trellis is used, especially with the
stockier varieties and where heavier pruning is practiced.
However, in other regions and especially where the more
PRUNING AND TRAINING THE PLANTS 549
vigorous and trailing varieties are grown, a trellis is always
used. The type of trellis
varies with the particular
conditions or convenience
of grower. Those described
under red raspberries are
also used by blackberry
growers. The Evergreen
Blackberry is trained to a
four-wire trellis in Oregon
and Washington and to a
pole trellis 514 feet high, or
to stakes like dewberries,
in New Jersey.
Dewberries. Pruning
and training of dewberries
vary somewhat in the dif-
ferent sections. In North
Carolina and other middle-
southern sections, the plants
are usually grown in hills
5 feet apart each way. In
these regions both the old
and new canes are cut off
and the tops burned imme-
diately after harvest. With
thorough cultivation and
the application of fertilizer,
new shoots then grow vig-
orously and are allowed to
trail on the ground. The
following spring the canes
are wound spirally about
stakes at each hill and
tied at about three places.
(U. 8. D. A.)
Fig. 232. Pruning hooks, home made,
used to remove old canes after bearing
and to thin the young canes. These
implements are about 34 inches long.
The straps slip over the wrist. Some-
what similar hooks may be purchased.
The stakes are usually driven
590 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
2 feet into the ground and extend 5 to 6 feet above the
ground. ,
Where the rows are from 5 to 6 feet apart and the plants
about 3 feet apart in the rows, two plants are often trained to
one post, which is located about half way between the plants.
In some sections posts are located from 20 to 30 feet apart in
(U. 8. DAL)
Fic. 233. A Lucretia dewberry field in Michigan. The bearing canes
have been tied to a wire and the ends cut off about 6 inches above the
wire.
the rows, and along the tops of the posts is strung a wire to
which the vines are tied up in the spring.
In some of the Gulf states no stakes or wires are used. The
plants are set from 18 to 36 inches apart in the row and are
allowed to form more of a matted row. Just before picking,
the new canes are cut back so that they will not interfere with
the pickers. After the crop is harvested the old and new
canes are mowed as close to the ground as possible and when
CONTROLLING DISEASES AND INSECTS
551
dry are burned without being removed from the field. This
destroys many insects and diseases.
Thorough cultivation is then practiced,
and the new canes make a solid row
for the next year’s crop.
11. Controlling Diseases and Insects.
The diseases and insects that trouble
the brambles are relatively few, but
some are very destructive. The grower
should be familiar with the more im-
portant ones.
These are anthracnose, attacking
all brambles, but especially virulent
on the black raspberry; cane blight,
also severe on black raspberries, but
affecting all raspberries; crown gall,
infecting chiefly red and black rasp-
berries and blackberries; orange rust,
destructive to blackberries and dew-
berries and occasionally to black rasp-
berries; and double blossom, seriously
affecting blackberries and dewberries
in Southern sections. Follow the con-
trol program of the local experiment
station.
The mosiacs and other virus dis-
eases are very destructive to rasp-
berries, especially red varieties in some
sections. In parts of New York the
industry has disappeared. by reason of
the inroads of these diseases. No
parasitic organism has been discovered,
but juices from an infected plant, when
introduced into a healthy plant under
proper conditions, will result in infec-
tion. Thus the term “virus” diseases.
CU SDA»
Fig. 234. These shears
are 1n common use in
some sections for pruning
dewberries. The blades
curve upward so that the
operator may cut the
canes close to the crown
of the plant without
much bending over.
502 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
An affected plant never recovers and parts taken for propaga-
tion are also diseased.
In red varieties the disease appears as a mottling and
puckering of the leaves and dwarfing of the canes (Fig. 235) ;.
in black varieties the growing tips and young leaves are also
killed. Plants of red and purple varieties are seldom killed
outright, but the yield and quality are greatly reduced. Black
raspberries are frequently killed. The diseases, which are ear-
ried by aphids or plant lice,
are disseminated chiefly by
winged forms and ants. They
may also be carried on till-
age implements. The streak
or blue stem of black and
purple raspberries is one of
the virus. diseases. Some
varieties are resistant to the
virus diseases; others are
very susceptible. Cuthbert,
eo Ayes) June, Marlboro, Ranere, Co-
a ¢. Oe ENS as ee " lumbian, and Cumberland
5 ee ee are susceptible. Herbert,
Latham, and Plum Farmer
are less so, at least under
TOS Sow
(W. H. Rankin)
Fic. 235. The red raspberry plant on he
the left shows typical mosaic symp- Wany conditions.
toms; the one on the right is normal. Plant resistant varieties
or those from disease-free
fields. Use “certified” stock, that 1s, stock that has been rogued,
and kept free as attested by competent plant disease inspectors
representing a public agency. In some sections it will pay to
eliminate or rogue the diseased plants during at least the first
two years of the plantation. Take up the affected plants and
remove at once. Do not leave them in the rows or about the
field as the aphids will desert them for other plants as soon
as they begin to wilt. Plant the rows far enough apart so that
horses and tools do not brush the plants in tillage operations.
HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP D093
Tt is not contended that these measures will control in all
sections, but they have been effective in some areas.
Among insects, the tree cricket, puncturing the canes, is
sometimes serious; the cane borer girdles young canes and ©
bores into the roots, the crown borer is very destructive in
some western berry sections. The raspberry sawfly larvae
feed on the leaves in northern sections and west to the Missis-
sippi; the raspberry beetle causes many wormy red raspberries,
and the red spider sometimes infests the brambles, causing the
leaves to look yellow and sick. Each section has worked out
control methods for those insects of local importance. Follow
them, keeping in touch with new findings from year to year.
12. Harvesting and Marketing the Crop. The fruit of all
members of this group is very perishable. It ripens quickly,
reaches its highest point of excellence quickly, and deteriorates
just as rapidly. These natural processes are accentuated by
wet, sultry weather. The red raspberry is especially tender,
and its period of use for consumption is short. Plans must be
made well in advance to handle every detail of the harvesting
and marketing operations promptly and efficiently. Packages
must be on hand, pickers must be available, and the channels
through which marketing is to take place must be clearly in
mind.
Pick raspberries as soon as they separate freely from the
bushes. They will then be firm and will stand handling and
shipping better than if allowed to become fully ripe. Pick
them only when dry; wet fruit goes down within a few hours
from disease, settles greatly in the boxes, and is decidedly un-
attractive. :
Pick the fruit with the greatest care, using the thumb and
two fingers. Unskilled pickers hold quantities of fruit in the
hand after picking, partially crushing it before it reaches the
box. Place the berries gently in the box instead of dropping
them from a distance.
Pick directly into the boxes in which the fruit goes to mar-
ket. For red raspberries, these should be pint baskets, since
o04 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
the fruit is structurally so weak that if quart baskets are used
the weight of the top layers will crush the berries in the
bottom. Quart boxes are standard for black and purple berries
and may also be used for the reds if they are to go at once
to the canning factory. :
Carry only a few boxes, from twe to four, in a container
tied around the waist or, better still, suspended from the
shoulders, so that there is less danger of spilling the fruit as
the picker leans over. A heavy apron folded up and caught
(U Sepa
Fig. 236. These various types of waist carriers and hand carriers, or
stands, are used in picking the fruit.
at the corners with safety pins will hold several baskets... Two
boxes are better than four, as the longer the picker carries
the fruit about, the more it will settle in the boxes, the larger
the quantity that will be required to fill them, and the more
the fruit will depreciate in value. A basket of carefully picked
fruit is largely air. It is poor business to replace this air with
more berries by crude picking and handling methods, when the
consumer desires the fruit in the original state.
Transfer the boxes from the carrier to stands or crates out
of the sun, and keep the fruit in the shade and as cool as
possible from this point until it 1s delivered for consumption
or shipment. Avoid as far as possible picking in the full heat
as
HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 5d0
of the day, as the fruit will stand up much better if put into
the boxes when cool. Do not run or grade the fruit further, as
any gains in so doing are more than lost by added injury from
handling. The picker must discard the over-ripe or undesir-
able berries as he goes along. Some growers have the pickers
carry special boxes in which to place such fruit, putting it into
local consumption the same day. From six to ten pickers per
acre, depending on their proficiency and the picking condi-
tions, will be needed.
Fig. 237. These pint baskets of Cuthbert red
raspberries are the same except that the basket
at the right has been faced by turning the ber-
ries in the top layer. Facing makes a more at-
tractive package, takes little time, and pays
well for some kinds of trade.
Use the standard 32- or 24-quart crate for all except the
red raspberries. The latter go best in pint boxes in crates
holding from 16 to 24 pints.. Use spring wagons or pneumatic
tires for hauling.
Refrigeration is necessary for long shipments, and pre-
cooling is advisable. Red raspberries so handled from the state
of Washington now come as far east as Pittsburgh.
In addition to use as fresh fruit, the berries are canned, or
used for juice, jelly, jams, or syrups for soda fountains. Much |
of the fruit is now stored in casks or barrels after freezing,
either with or without the addition of sugar, for later use. The
La
906 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
flavor, when properly handled, is excellent, and considerable
extension of this method of holding will take place as further
improvements and perfections of the process are made.. See
“Frozen Fruit,” page 148. |
Harvesting methods for the blackberry and dewberry are
essentially the same. Most varieties turn black, however, be-
fore they are ripe. If picked as soon as they turn, they are too
sour to be agreeable, but of course they must come off while
still firm. Keep entirely
away from the sun, as the
fruit becomes bitter when
exposed to it.
Pay pickers by the hour,
for a high-class product.
The cost per basket will
probably be greater, but
the product should be
worth more than enough
additional to make up the
difference. For the can-
ning factory, or if using
the help of neighbors or
(U.S.D.A.) permanent residents of the
Fic. 238. A crate of Southern dew- Community, the piecework
berries, packed for shipment. basis may give satisfaction.
In any event, personal su-
pervision by some one in authority is necessary to insure clean
picking, careful handling, and grading. A bonus payable at the
end of the season will often hold pickers until the job is done.
For recording boxes picked, use the check or punch card
system. A metal check may be given for each box or crate,
to be redeemed on payday. A card properly designated with
numbers may be given the pickers and punched by the super-
intendent upon delivery of the fruit. This system makes:
abuse and fraud easy unless the style of punch is changed fre-
quently. A book record may be kept in lieu of the above sys-
HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 507
tems, but the responsibility is then entirely on the operator,
and misunderstanding and dissatisfaction are likely to ensue.
It is better to make the picker share the responsibility by put-
ting in evidence his check or card when he gets his pay. It is
also evident that frequent paydays will help to keep things
running smoothly.
Dried Frut. In Ontario, Schuyler, and Yates Counties in
New York, blackcaps are grown for drying. For the most part
they are harvested by a special contrivance. A “harvester”
or wide frame covered with burlap or muslin is pushed under
the bush. The operator pulls the canes over the frame with
a wire hook in one hand, and with the other he “bats” the
canes with a light wooden paddle. The ripe fruit falls on to
the frame. The plantation is usually gone over twice by this
method. The leaves, sticks, etc., are blown out by running
the dried product through fanning mills. Three to 4 quarts
of fresh fruit make 1 pound of the dried product, depending
on the variety and the condition of the fruit, whether dry
and seedy or juicy at time of harvest. The dried fruit can of
course be transported long distances and kept indefinitely.
Red raspberries may be dried, but the shrinkage is very great
and they are unattractive. The purple varieties are better for
this purpose. However, with the advent of new and improved
methods of canning and preserving, and storage, it is likely
that the demand for the dried product will diminish rather than
increase.
Infe of Plantation. Berry plantations will last indefinitely
if well tilled and fed, pruned regularly, and kept free from
disease. |
If grass and weeds invade the rows or sod forms about the
roots, cane growth becomes weak and yields quickly fall below
a profitable level. The black raspberry is as a rule the first to
surrender. Winter killing takes a hand now and again. The
prevalence of disease is often the limiting factor. Mosaic,
anthracnose, crown gall, and orange rust will take heavy toll
and must be fought constantly with some members of the group
508 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
and in nearly all sections. By the setting of healthy plants,
constant watchfulness, severe roguing when required, and in-
telligent spraying, the grower adds years to his plantation and
augments his profits.
Yields. Yields vary with the kind of fruit, the season, and
the section, in addition to the factors heretofore mentioned.
The average yield of raspberries for the country is less than
1000 quarts per acre, but this is a poor measure for the good
grower. In most parts of the country to which they are
adapted, purple varieties yield the most, followed by blackcap
and the red varieties in order. Perhaps 2500 quarts for purple
varieties, 2000 quarts for blackcaps, and 1600 to 1800 quarts
per acre for red raspberries represent reasonable standards
under good care. Yields much in excess of these are not at all
uncommon. In marginal territory to which these fruits are not
well adapted, the yields may be much less. Under the special
conditions of the Northwest and in sections of Colorado the
yields of red varieties, chiefly Cuthbert, Antwerp, and Marl-
boro, run from 4000 to 8000 quarts per acre.
Blackberries and dewberries usually run from 2200 quarts
per acre upward, under good management. However, since
they ripen at the hottest and driest season of the year, the
yield may be seriously reduced by unfavorable weather.
13. Protecting the Plants in Winter. Winter protection is
necessary in some sections. Local experience is the guide.
Protection is not occasioned so much by absolute cold as by
frequent drying winds or by sharp temperature changes before
the rest period has been fully established.
As the first and best protective measure, select hardy
varieties. Beyond this, if the plants need partial protection,
plow out a light furrow close to the row on one side. This will
induce the canes to bend over easily. Take forks with long
handles and push the canes steadily toward the side on which
the furrow has been made until the ends of the canes touch
the ground. Reversing the direction, plow another furrow
back, throwing the soil over the ends of the canes to hold them
GENERAL INFORMATION 559
in place. Several men or boys will be needed to assist the
plowman. Perform the operation after warm weather 1s over,
but before the ground is frozen. The canes will still be supple
and will bend with only slight breakage. If complete coverage
is desired, smooth the furrow over the canes, plowing a second
furrow if more soil is needed. Uncover the canes before
growth begins in the spring.
In Idaho, according to the United States Department of
Agriculture, a contrivance has been devised by the growers
by which, if complete coverage is necessary, the work may be
done cheaply and quickly.
GENERAL INFORMATION
I. VARIETIES
The varieties listed are of commercial importance in various sec-
tions. Selections should be based on local experience and the recom-
mendations of competent official agencies.
Red Raspberry
A variety of red raspberry may be adapted to one particular district,
but throughout the raspberry-growing region of the country there are
standard red raspberry varieties. Cuthbert is a standard of quality,
excellent for dessert, cooking, and freezing. Its lack of hardiness in
northern regions, low productivity, small berries, and susceptibility to
mosaic have caused it to be replaced to a large extent by Newburgh and
Marcy, newer varieties which do not have these undesirable character-
istics. Latham is widely grown; Taylor is highly recommended. AlI-
though good in many respects, both may contract mosaic. June is early
and ripens over a long season; Chief, a firm, attractive fruit, is popular
in some localities.
Ranere (St. Regis) ripens over a long season and is inclined to double
bearing. Indian Summer, mosaic free and similar in habit to Ranere,
produces a summer crop inferior to that of most commercial varieties,
but in the autumn it bears another crop on the tips of the new growth.
Golden Queen, of the Cuthbert type but yellow in color, is susceptible
to mosaic.
D900 =)” GROWING BUSH FRUITS
Black Raspberry
Kansas and Plum Farmer are early. Gregg and Cumberland are
mid-season varieties. Shuttleworth is an improved chance seedling of
Plum Farmer which seems to be superior in every way. Bristol and
Naples are two new varieties which are well worth trial. The ripening
of Naples follows Bristol and lengthens the season.
Purple Raspberry
The dull, unattractive appearance of a purple raspberry is offset by
the dark red color and rich flavor of the cooked fruit. Sodus and
Columbian are standard varieties at the present time. Because of
superior qualities Sodus will replace Columbian as soon as sufficient
stock is available.
Blackberry
Eldorado is one of the best commercial varieties; Early Harvest is
popular in the South, but it 1s very susceptible to orange rust; Lawton
is grown on the Pacific Coast. Marvel is one of the leading varieties in
Florida, and is promising for the South. Himalaya is important in
restricted areas on the Pacific Coast, where it 1s very productive. It is
easily injured by cold and difficult to train.
Mammoth, a dewberry hybrid and self-unfruitful, is popular in
California but not hardy in the East. McDonald, another dewberry
hybrid, also self-unfruitful, is grown extensively in Texas, Oklahoma,
and Missouri. It ripens nearly two weeks before the usual blackberry
season.
Evergreen is important in Oregon and Washington. It is only par-
tially hardy in other sections.
Dewberry
Gardena is important in California. Lucretia is the standard in
most sections. Mayes (Austin Mayes) is the leading variety in Texas;
Premo is grown in North Carolina; Young is popular in Louisiana and
worthy of trial in the South and on the Pacific Coast.
The Loganberry is grown extensively in California. It is not known
whether it is a red sport of the dewberry, a hybrid with the blackberry,
or possibly with the red raspberry. In any case it is now the name for
a group rather than that of a particular variety. Members of the group
are vigorous growers and very productive of large red berries. They are
COMMUNITY STUDIES 561
too sensitive to cold to be grown in the East. The fruit is valuable in
the fresh state as well as in the canned and dried forms.
Boysenberry
Boysenberry (Boydsenberry), a result of crosses of the loganberry,
raspberry, and blackberry, is rapidly gaining favor with the canning
industry on the Pacific Coast. Although it was released for public sale
only in 1935, the Boysenberry is being planted in the warmer bramble-
growing sections. It does not seem to be popular in the northeastern
area because of its tender growth. Being very prolific and bearing one
of the largest berries of its type, it is worth trying in the home garden.
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Determine from the census and other available figures the impor-
tant areas in the United States and in your own state for growing the
fruits described in this section. What are the factors that have deter-
mined these areas?
2. Which of these fruits are grown commercially in your community?
What in your opinion are the reasons?
3. Visit several growers. Determine:
a. Market served.
. Soils, and management before planting.
. Preference as to site.
. Varieties and source of plants—whether certified.
. Planting plan and distances—number of plants per acre.
. Time of planting.
. Method of planting.
. Cultivation practices.
. Use of fertilizers—what, when, how?
. Cover crops—kinds, amounts, time of sowing.
. Fruiting habits.
. Method of pruning and training.
. Insects and diseases—eradication or control methods.
. Yield second year—third year—mature plantations.
. Source and type of pickers—number needed.
. Management of pickers—method of payment.
. Field picking practices—containers, carriers, crates, handlin
of fruit. .
. Method of marketing.
s. Returns.
3 Safe Oe Sie LESS Te RS eae Oe ee OOF
2 So Ss
=
562 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
t. Winter protection.
u. Life of plantation—limiting factors.
4. Do the facts as obtained from the survey corroborate your judg-
ment or opinion held before making the survey? Secure if possible com-
plete cost studies and records on these plantations, or get estimates of
growers.
5. Prepare a financial statement for a five-year period, eerie with
the year of planting, for a five-acre planting.
6. List your recommendations for improvement of local practices and
your reasons therefor.
7. Should the producing area in the section be djocheeaa or increased?
Why?
SECTION II. GROWING CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES
Currants and gooseberries are cool-weather and moisture-
loving fruits. Heat and drought of summer are of greater con-
cern than the cold of winter. They are most at home in the
northeastern United States and Canada. In the South the
summers are too hot, west of the 100th meridian to the Sierra
Nevada and Cascade Mountains the rainfall is insufficient,
and in the Southwest it is both too hot and too dry for best
development of these fruits. The producing territory tapers
off without sharp demarcation. Its limits are altered or ex-
tended somewhat through irrigation, higher altitudes, and
special factors.
New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania are
the leaders in currant production, followed by the northern
coast counties of California. The gooseberry may be grown
a little farther south than the currant; the center of production
is in Illinois, Missouri, and the states adjacent to them north
and east. New York and Michigan are also important factors
in production. The fruit of both the currant and gooseberry
hangs well to the bushes, so that the picking season does not
come with such a rush as with the other small fruits.
Jellies, jams, preserves, alone or in combination with other
fruits, constitute the chief contribution of these fruits to our
domestic economy. Gooseberry pies are popular where known.
\
ESTABLISHING THE PLANTATION 563
Currants are famous as a source of pectin and for their jelly-
making properties, but gooseberries are almost as good for
these purposes, though less commonly used.
The red currant is the currant of commerce, but the white
and black types have their special uses.
Because of their relationship to the white pine blister rust
of five-needle pines, these fruits should not be cultivated in
areas where these trees are important, except with most care-
ful safeguards and the observance of governmental restrictions.
Consult the state nursery inspector or the state department
of agriculture before planting currants and gooseberries. Quar-
_ antines and restrictive measures are in effect in various sections
owing to the blister rust situation. ‘These measures are
changed from time to time. The cultivated black currant is
considered a special menace. The problem of saving our
white pines takes front rank as a national issue. Its solution
requires the cooperation of all good citizens,
Operations: |
1. Establishing the plantation.
. Pruning and training the plants.
. Managing the soil.
. Controlling diseases and insects.
. Harvesting and marketing the crop.
Ore & bo
1. Establishing the Plantation. These fruits bloom very
early in the spring. Protect them from frost damage by locat-
ing the plantation where the air circulates freely. This will
also help in disease control, especially with gooseberries. In
the southern extensions of the industry, select silt or clay soils
and the cooler northern exposures to reduce the effect of the
sun. A deep loam, very fertile and retentive of moisture, is
the approved type for best results.
Prepare the soil thoroughly as for garden crops before
planting, eliminating all grass. Manure or green crops to en-
rich the soil will be beneficial.
564 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
Plant in the Fall in Most Sections. As already indicated,
growth starts very early in the spring. Fall-set plants will be
established and ready to grow at the first coming of open
weather. If planting in the fall is impossible, then do the
work at the earliest possible date in the spring. It will often
be wise to plow the land in the fall so that no time may be
lost. In the northern states of the mid-western area, spring
planting may be preferable.
How Plants Are Obtained. Strong one-year plants from a
reliable nursery give excellent results. They may be obtained
at nominal cost, and this is usually the best source from which
to obtain them.
Currants root readily from cuttings. Take strong 8- to
12-inch shoots from the present season’s growth, after the
leaves drop freely in the fall. Set immediately, 4 to 6 inches
apart in the nursery row, tamping the soil firmly about them,
and leaving about two buds above ground. Even better results
may be secured by burying the shoots bottom end up in a
sand hill or storing in a cool cellar in moist sand until spring.
Roots start at the buds underground. Under good conditions
the plants may be transplanted to the field at the end of one
growing season, or they may be left one more year in the
nursery row.
Some American varieties of gooseberries also propagate
readily from cuttings. With others and with the English
varieties, which are also grown in America to some extent,
mound layering gives much: better results. Cut back the
mother plants very severely in the spring. In midsummer a
large number of succulent shoots will have formed about the
base. Cover these shoots half way to the top with clean moist
soil, working it down about the canes and stubs with a spade
until a mound has been formed. These shoots will send out
roots from the base. Remove the rooted shoots at the end of
the season and plant in nursery rows, or allow them to remain
in the mound another year, depending upon the vigor of
growth. Young gooseberry canes will also root if bent down
Pe
ESTABLISHING THE PLANTATION 569
and covered with soil, permitting the top to grow upward. For
home use, the suckers which spring up about the base of the
old plants may be transplanted.
In case of nursery plants, open the bundles on arrival and
heel in, in a cool, sheltered place, until ready for planting. If
fhe plants and roots are dry, soak thoroughly for several hours
before heeling in, and wet the soil thoroughly after the opera-
tion 1s complete. |
Dark Red Varieties of Currants Are in Greatest Demand.
For market purposes select varieties that produce vigorous
bushes of an erect habit of growth, easy to cultivate and pick.
Take into account productiveness, size and firmness of fruit,
and compactness of clusters. Since the entire cluster of fruit
3 removed, instead of stripping the individual berries, it is
esirable that sufficient space for the fingers exist between the
irst fruit on the stem and the parent branch so that the
fingers may grasp the stem without grasping the fruit. Acid
varieties are best for jelly making, but since the fruit is best
picked green for this purpose, nearly any variety picked at the
proper stage will make good jelly. White currants possess
limited market value, but are esteemed for dessert use. The
black currant, so popular in England, has but few devotees
here, owing perhaps to its strong and peculiar flavor.
Wilder, Perfection, and Red Lake are probably the best
commercial varieties grown at present in the Northeastern
states. The Cherry currant is often a misnomer used for all
sorts of red currants for want of a better name. The genuine
Cherry currant, though widely grown, is not so desirable com-
mercially as some other varieties.
To this list may be added London Market for the Midwest
and Pacific Coast. All are hardy, with the exception of Wilder,
even in the coldest sections of the United States.
White Grape and White Imperial are the leading white
varieties. Boskoop Giant, Champion, and Naples are black
varieties.
Practically all commercial varieties of currants and goose-
566 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
berries are self-fruitful and therefore no provision need be
made for cross-pollination. :
Both American and English Gooseberries Are Grown. The
former are, as a rule, more productive, hardier, more resistant
to mildew, and are usually considered to be of better quality.
The fruit of the English varieties runs larger in size, and there-
Fic. 239. This shows the distribution of the
fruit on the currant wood. The largest fruit is
on wood not over three years old.
fore commands a higher price. The custom in this country is to
pick and use gooseberries while green. If permitted to ripen,
many American varieties are of excellent quality. In Europe
the gooseberry is commonly permitted to ripen and is eaten out
of hand as a dessert fruit. Downing, Houghton, and Poorman
among American varieties, and Chautauqua, Columbus, and
Industry of the European sorts have given best results thus
PRUNING AND TRAINING THE PLANTS 567
far. Some Canadian thornless varieties are being tested and
may prove desirable.
Plant at Such Distances as to Permit of Horse or Tractor
Cultivation. This is for economy of labor. Allow 8 feet between
rows for the team or tractor or 6 feet for cultivation with a
single horse. Plants are 4 to 6 feet apart, depending on the
vigor of the variety and its habit of growth, in standard
practice. Set the plants deeply, furrowing out the rows in one
direction and finishing with the shovel. Follow the usual pre-
cautions for protection of the roots from sun and wind.
In the Hudson River Valley in New York, currants are com-
monly set between grape rows and also beneath the vines, all
cultivation being done with a single horse or- by hand. In
other sections, they are frequently planted between fruit trees.
A moderate amount of shade does not seem to interfere with
productivity, as long as the fertility of the soil is maintained.
2. Pruning and Training the Plants. Currants and goose-
berries are usually trained to the bush form. The best fruit
is generally borne on one-, two-, and three-year wood; there-
fore wood older than this should be removed. Fruit is borne
laterally on the one-year shoots and branches and on spurs of
the two- and three-year-old wood. Although fruit is borne on
spurs of older wood, it is generally smaller and poorer in
quality.
After the first year’s growth, any weak, slender, or low-
lying shoots should be removed, leaving from six to eight strong
shoots per plant. After the second year’s growth, thin out the
new shoots, leaving three or four. After the third year’s
growth, leave three or four new shoots and thin out three or
four of the three-year-old branches. After this pruning there
will be three or four three-year-old branches, three or four
two-year-old branches, and three or four one-year-old shoots
to bear the crop during the fourth year. From this time on
remove all branches over three years old or those which have
borne two crops from spurs and replace these by leaving three
or four of the strongest new shoots.
568 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
Gooseberries often bear much more heavily on one-year-old
shoots than currants do, and as a result in some sections the
wood is removed after it is two years old, or after it has borne
one year from spurs. Many growers, however, follow the
pruning methods described for currants.
3. Managing the Soil. Give frequent and shallow cultiva-
tion. The roots are usually close to the surface. Cultivate
more deeply the first year than later. The disk harrow on land
free from stones gives good results. The horse or grape hoe
will reduce hand work.
Crops may be grown between the rows and between the
plants in the rows, if the situation 1s such as to make this a
profitable method. The question is whether the increase in
labor costs in handling the plantation will be more than offset
by the returns from the crops. Unless land is too valuable, it
is probable that such crops might better be grown on a separate
field. On the other hand, it is possible that the fruit will re-
ceive better care if such intercrops are used. Garden crops
require thorough cultivation and those for which there is a
market should be considered.
After the first two years, the fruit plants will need the
space. Continue the frequent cultivations. Follow with a
cover or green manure crop of such nature as to work into the
soil readily, since deep plowing is out of the question. Buck-
wheat, soy beans, oats, barley, and sweet clover are among the
suitable crops.
Mulching may be substituted for cultivation in growing on
a small scale. The mulch keeps the soil moist, which favors
development of the bushes. To be effective, it must be main-
tained from year to year. Mice frequently girdle the shoots.
This fact, in addition to the expense of the mulch, constitutes
the chief disadvantages in its use.
Bush Fruits Usually Respond Well to Applications of
Manure. There is very little experimental evidence available
relative to the kinds or amounts of commercial fertilizer which
should be applied to currants and gooseberries. Wherever
HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE CROP 569
tests have been made, barnyard manure has generally been
equal or superior to commercial fertilizers, especially with
sooseberries. Where manure is applied, from 8 to 10 tons
per acre should be used yearly. If plenty of manure is avail-
able at a low price, it will no doubt pay to use more, but
if cover crops are turned under each year, less manure will
be needed. Many growers add wood ashes, 800 to 1000 pounds,
and 100 pounds of muriate of potash per acre in addition to
the manure. In some sections from 500 to 800 pounds per
acre of a fertilizer analyzing 4 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent
phosphoric acid, and 4 per cent potash are used apparently
with good results.
It may pay bush fruit growers to test the different fertilizer
elements, singly, and in various combinations in a small way on
their own farms. In the absence of specific experimental data
for the various regions general recommendations may not
apply and may involve both waste of time and money.
4, Controlling Diseases and Insects. Leaf Spot and Pow-
dery Mildew are sometimes destructive. Among insects the
San José scale, the currant worm and the currant aphis are
important. Follow the control program for the region in which
the planting is located.
5. Harvesting and Marketing the Crop. Harvest currants
while still somewhat green for jelly, but for other purposes
they should be ripe. The pectin content which promotes the
formation of jelly is higher in the unripe fruit. For other
purposes pick them while still firm and only when dry. The
picking season extends over a longer period than for the other
small fruits. Remove the entire cluster, grasping the stem
between the cane and the first currant on the stem, taking care
not to press the berries. The cluster can usually be removed
best with the thumb and two fingers. Quart baskets and 24-
or 32-quart crates for general market and 6- or 8-pound grape
baskets for the cannery are standard.
The currant may be held a short time in cold storage, but it
soon molds if the air is damp. A dry, airy place is best.
570 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
Pick gooseberries after they reach full size, but before they
are fully ripe. When Americans use them more as a dessert
fruit, then the English method of permitting them to reach full
maturity before harvesting will be followed. Wear leather
gloves for protection from thorns.
Strip the fruit from the bushes for the canning factory.
Run it through an ordinary grain fanning mill to remove
leaves and refuse. Some growers prefer to use a scoop similar
to a cranberry scoop for picking.
For the general market and retail trade, stripping causes
too much injury to the berries. Grow the larger varieties and
pick them by holding the cane in one gloved hand and remov-
ing the fruit with the other, also protected by a glove excepting
the ends of the fingers.
Keep gooseberries out of the sun as they scald or discolor
very quickly. Packages are the same as for currants, except-
ing that third- or half-bushel baskets are commonly used for
canning stock.
Bushes Begin to Bear after the First Year’s Growth ee
Should Reach Full Bearing at Four or Five Years of Age. In
Northern sections on the heavier loams and under good treat-
ment, including regular pruning, plantations yield profitable
crops for ten to twenty years. In the Southern sections, and
on sandy soils—unfavorable conditions of soil and climate—
their life is much less. The grower may expect 100 to 150
bushels per acre from gooseberries, and higher yields in the
best years. Yields of currants are rather less and are often
more variable.
The plants need no winter protection. However, in sec-
tions subject to continuous drying winds, a windbreak is de-
sirable. In regions of heavy snowfall, tie the canes together
in an erect position in the fall so that the snow may not force
them into a prostrate position, inconvenient for tillage and
picking.
GROWING THE CULTIVATED BLUEBERRY 571
COMMUNITY STUDIES
1. Prepare a brief covering the life history and control methods of
white pine blister rust.
2. From this point follow the outline under local studies for the
brambles. |
_ 8. On what age of wood is fruit borne—the best fruit? Prune at least
two currant and two gooseberry bushes.
SECTION III. GROWING THE CULTIVATED BLUEBERRY
Growing blueberries under cultivation is a comparatively
new practice. Unlike most of our common fruits, unimproved
strains of wild blueberries are sold in direct competition with
the cultivated varieties. Cultivated fruit may, however, be
found on almost any wholesale market in Northeastern United
States. Both the high- and low-bush forms of the blueberry
or huckleberry, as it is sometimes called, are found growing
wild in Northeastern United States as well as in Florida,
Michigan, Illinois, and to some extent along the West Coast.
The fruit is used in the fresh state, but one of its chief
values is for blueberry pie, a luxury that to foreign tables
typifies American cooking.
Under the supervision of Dr. Coville, the United States De-
partment of Agriculture began collecting wild strains in 1906.
By cooperating with experienced pickers in blueberry districts,
and with the owners of large patches, he was able to select
several plants which possessed desired qualities. He looked for
stiffness of branch, ease of picking, small dry stem scars,
flavor, seedlessness, and keeping qualities. By controlled
breeding and selecting he eventually concentrated as many as
possible of these qualities in a single plant. At one time
three hundred seedlings which were producing fruit larger
than 34 inch in diameter were destroyed because they lacked
some of the other desired qualities. As a result of this work
we have about ten good varieties. Although some of them are
not so sweet as some wild strains, as a group they constitute
572
GROWING BUSH FRUITS
CD 5
Bennie
(U. 8. D. A)
Fic. 240. A quart of wild blueberries.
(U.S poe
Fic. 241. A quart of hybrid blueberries.
Contrast with Fig. 240.
tk
ESTABLISHING THE PLANTATION 573
a collection of the best qualities which the plant breeders have
obtained in fifty years of plant improvement.
Operations:
1. Selecting the soil.
2. Establishing the plantation.
3. Pruning the plants.
4, Controlling insects, diseases, and birds.
5. Harvesting and marketing.
1. Selecting the Soil. The ideal blueberry soil is fertile,
well drained and aerated, acid, and well supplied with organic
matter, and it has a plentiful water supply. Any soil in which
wild blueberries grow is satisfactory for the cultivated crop.
It may be improved by the addition of peaty material, mois-
ture, or drainage. Any moist sandy loam can be made into
a good blueberry soil with the addition of the proper organic
fertilizers. Heavy clay soils are not satisfactory.
The pH of soils for best growth should be between 4.4 and
5.1. Sulfur, aluminum sulfate, sawdust, apple pomace, rotted
wood, and acid peat have been used to produce acid soil condi-
tions. Some are only good for back yard production. Rotted
oak leaves are used most commonly.
The water table in a blueberry field is of vital importance
to the success of the crop. If the land is wet, it should be
drained so that the water table will remain about 14 inches
below the surface. Lack of moisture reduces fruit bud forma-
tion; too much moisture will cause the leaves to fall off and
the plant to die. The plants will tolerate standing water in
the dormant season, but during the growing season an excess
amount of water is fatal.
2. Establishing the Plantation. The soil should be well
cultivated, the low spots either filled up or drained. If it is
allowed to lie fallow for the first year, disking will help to
control the weeds. |
Two-year-old blueberry plants may be obtained from any
nursery that specializes in growing them. If well grown, they
o¢4 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
should develop fruiting growth in two more years. It is much
cheaper in establishing a large acreage of blueberries, however,
to buy one-year-old plants. The method of propagation is
covered in Chapter VII. |
Cabot is an early variety and a good producer. It has a
spreading habit. Rubel, Rancocas, and Katharine are later
varieties which are more upright in stature. Pioneer, Concord,
(N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.)
Fig. 242. Blueberries, showing planting plan and method of cultivation.
These have been planted about 4 feet apart in rows which are 8 feet
apart.
and Jersey are all worthy of mention. They have a much bet-
ter flavor than Sam, Rubel, and June. Although the varieties
all appear to be self-fertile it is believed that better crops can
be obtained by using more than one variety in the same
planting.
Plant as early as possible in the spring to take advantage
of moisture. Various recommendations are given for distances,
the average being about 6 feet apart on the square (Fig. 242).
PRUNING THE PLANTS 575
The holes should be made large enough so that the root system
will not be disturbed in planting; peat moss may be incorpo-
rated with the soil around the roots of the young plant.
After planting, the area around each plant should be
heavily mulched with peat moss or decayed oak leaves.
An application of mixed fertilizer at the rate of 500 pounds
to the acre is sufficient to promote good growth for the first
few years. Insufficient experiments have been carried out to
obtain any uniform recommendations. Increasing amounts of
balanced fertilizers as the
plants increase in size is all
that can be advised at this
time.
With the use of heavy
applications of mulch three
or four shallow cultivations
are sufficient to keep the
soil in good condition dur-
ing one season.
3. Pruning the Plants.
| Pruning the high-bush blue-
Giegagr nee ci.) berry when it. is grown
Fig. 243. Showing position of fruit under cultivation is a very
and leaf buds and amount of heading important practice because
back needed. Varieties are Cabot this operation very largely
and Sam. } controls the size of the
fruit.
The different habits of growth of different varieties influ-
ence the type of pruning. The fruit is always borne on the
previous season’s growth. The aim, therefore, is to invigorate
new growth, and this is done by removing a great deal of the
old wood.
For the first two years after planting, all that is necessary
is to remove the bushy growth and flower buds. The fourth
year, severe pruning should be started (Figs. 244, 245, 246,
247, 248, 249). One or two of the oldest trunks should be cut
576 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
LBS ee
pe
(N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.) (N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 244. Rancocas after two yearsin Fy g.245. Rancocas pruned.
the field.
(N. J. Agr. Lup. Sta.)
Fig. 246. Cabot in bearing which has been well pruned.
ee Tee TER RS We a ach te I by », 7 x en L rrr 5
3 ie ‘ Re ee Sie ee I Ne nin hs, ey ee
- ‘ ae bie
CONTROLLING INSECTS, DISEASES AND BIRDS 577
back to stumps, about 2 inches long at the crown. This will
cause new shoots to start. Each year about a third of the
oldest wood is removed; thus none of the wood in the bush is
ever more than three or four years old. This is only a general
rule to follow. If heavy sprout growth takes place from the
old wood, a different type of pruning is advised. The low
branches are removed because the fruit may become dirty
from splashing soil during rains or from wind-blown debris.
Crowding branches in the
middle of the bush should
be removed. This will ex-
pose the fruiting wood to
more sunlight and give
more even ripening of the
fruit: as well as _ easier
picking.
The older and larger
blueberry bushes must
have considerable “tip-
ping’ done to the terminal
growth. The fruit buds
are much plumper than |!
the leaf buds. Each bud Sadat gt. Bao
will produce from eight to Fic. 247. Cabot in bearing that has
fourteen berries, if prop- not been pruned. Compare with
erly pollinated. New ae
shoots do not need much
tipping back, but the laterals on the older branches should be
cut back to three or four fruit buds.
If plants are neglected they will reach a stage where no
vigorous growth takes place. Cut back the entire top to the
crown in the spring. A new bush will grow that summer, and
the following year a crop of fruit will be borne.
Prune in early spring.
4, Controlling Insects, Diseases and Birds. If the bushes
are pruned annually and kept growing vigorously, there is
578 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
(Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 248. Pioneer before pruning.
BES OR: :
(Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta.)
Fig. 249. Pioneer after pruning.
very little danger from insect and disease injury. Stem borers
are reported in Massachusetts and New Jersey. ‘They are
controlled by removing and burning affected parts at picking
time. A few other enemies, as the blueberry fruit fly, Japanese
beetle, cranberry fruit worm, red-striped fireworm, red-humped
caterpillars, twig blight, and “mummied fruit” have been
HARVESTING AND MARKETING 579
f known to attack the blueberry. If any of these become serious,
consult the local experiment station.
Birds are very bothersome on small plantings. The only
y satisfactory way to control them is to cover the bushes with
f. cheesecloth. |
(N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.)
Fic. 250. Rubel in its fourth summer in the field.
5. Harvesting and Marketing. Pick the fruit once a week
under normal conditions. The fruit must be blue for about a
week before it is ripe. The ripened fruit is blue close up to the
stem. The clusters ripen unevenly and therefore the season
lasts from three to seven weeks. The average yield for New
Jersey is 1600 quarts per acre.
580 GROWING BUSH FRUITS
Berries are usually picked into pint and quart boxes
(Fig. 250) and packed into crates, like strawberries or rasp-
berries. Sometimes they are picked into pails and later trans-
ferred to boxes for marketing. All the leaves, twigs, and
shriveled berries are removed and the well-rounded boxes
covered with cellophane. Blueberries will keep in cold storage
for about two weeks and can be shipped long distances with-
out deterioration.
CHAPTER: XV
SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER?
Unlike many types of agricultural production, fruit grow-
ing is decidedly a long-term proposition. In contrast, the
individual deriving a major part of his income from annual
crops may usually change to crops other than those which he
has been growing, provided that there is indication that the
change will be more profitable. Such is not the case with the
fruit farmer, for once the fruit plantation is established, only
through a sacrifice of values, capital and effort, can he change
his field of endeavor. Were it possible to look into the future
at sufficient length, many of the problems and hazards asso-
ciated with fruit growing would be eliminated. The long
period which usually exists between the planting and harvest-
ing of a fruit crop tends to intensify the risks which the indi-
vidual engaged in this type of agriculture must take. There
is every need for the closest consideration of the factors which
may affect the profit-making ability of the enterprise. The
multitude of situations over which there is no control serves
but to emphasize the necessity for careful investigation of all
available information in guiding one’s decisions in the selec-
tion of a vocation.
The potential fruit farmer should not be content to base
his decisions in choosing a vocation solely on the probability
of financial return. ‘To be sure, this is very important, but
few men have the will power to make a success of a business
in which they have no personal interest. The following ques-
tions should be answered:
1. Have I a sincere personal interest in the problems con-
cerned with the management and operation of a fruit farm?
581
982 SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER?
2. Can I expect over a long period that the enterprise will
pay me a reasonable return in proportion to the labor and
capital expended?
Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the importance of
the first question. Too often, the anticipation of monetary
income tends to overshadow the personal element involved in
the selection of an occupation. Income takes many forms.
Reasonable satisfaction in the work and the job, the oppor-
tunity to do the things one likes to do are not to be under-
rated. There is not much point in seeking the answer to the
second question until the answer to the first is known. If the
individual is undecided, he would do well to work on a good
fruit farm before going further with his analysis of the sit-
uation.
- Perhaps the individual is faced with the choice of many oc-
cupations. It is possible that he believes that fruit growing is
the thing he likes best. How then, can he be fairly sure that
this is the type of agriculture that he will most enjoy? Per-
haps a fair answer to a series of key questions would assist
in putting him on the right track.
1. Is my interest in fruit growing based on actual ex-
perience?
The chances are that a person who has spent a part or all
of his life on a fruit farm will be in the most advantageous
position when it comes to determining whether or not his
enthusiasm is well founded. However, this does not mean
that the person who has had no great amount of experience
cannot hope to make a success of the enterprise. There is
every reason, however, why he should arrange to spend a sea-
son or better still three of four seasons on an up-to-date fruit
farm to determine his aptitude and liking for the work.
2. How does my interest in fruit growing compare with
my interest in other agricultural enterprises, 1.e., dairy farm=
ing, poultry raising, production of cash crops, etc.?
Here, again, the experience in any given field is likely to
have resulted in certain prejudices for or against certain farm
SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER? _ 083
enterprises. This may be advantageous. The young man
who has a keen dislike for hens certainly would nat be con-
tent raising poultry even though there was considerable
promise of profit in the field. Undoubtedly, many have left
the farm for what appeared to be greater attractions in the city
who would have remained in agriculture could they have found
a phase which held the necessary attraction for them.
3. Would I be willing to undergo cheerfully the limitations
connected with fruit production?
In the cultivation of fruit, as in practically all other agri-
cultural pursuits, there are times when one has to sacrifice
hours of leisure when the majority of the population is at rest
to attend to the needs of the enterprise. While fruit growing
may not be so confining as dairy farming, there are periods
when the hours are as long, the work as hard, and the tasks as
repetitious. The finished product may be beautiful and de-
lightful, but it involves many hours of labor and sweat and
uncertainty.
It has been said that a good teacher can determine a stu-
dent’s aptitude for an enterprise by the manner in which the
student appraises its products. Given an apple, the recipient
is likely to have one of two things in mind—the quality of the
fruit and the care used in producing it, or what it will do for
his stomach. The man with a love of fruit growing in his
heart will see the orchard in bloom and all the various opera-
tions that lie between. He will have a fine regard for the
finished product.
The objective to this point has been primarily to assist
the individual in determining the origin of and subsequently
the soundness of his conclusion as to choice of occupation.
With this analysis completed, it is in order to turn our atten-
tion to the second consideration, “Can I expect to make a
reasonable living through the production of fruit crops?” This
may be considered under several headings and from several
standpoints.
584 - SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER?
The gross income of fruit farmers is often higher than that
of farmers engaged in other types of agriculture (assuming
comparable investments), but so are the expenses. It must be
remembered that it is not the gross return but rather the mar-
gin of profit which determines the final or net income from the
enterprise. As an illustration, the following figures obtained
from New York State farms on which cost accounts were kept
from 1934 to 1937 inclusive are of interest. Compiled by the
New York State College of Agriculture, they show average
gross returns, costs, and margins above costs of various fruits
and of fruits as a whole compared with comparable units of
certain other crops. Apple prices were perhaps unusually low
at the time. Since fruit growing is such a long-time under-
taking, comparsions over a more extended period, perhaps ten
years, would be more reliable.
Gross
Rete Costs Margins
Fruits
PR ne ms ee a cl $126 $117 $ 9
CEE LTTE CRE RSS a ee ape eae 223 118 105
EET Doe sc AR aR tele i ee 66 45 21
AES eee ee eh ae A ghee te 54 52 2
Average, 4 fruits.......... $117 $ 83 $ 34
Cash Crops
aiiisaee Ae seyret 68, Fa $95 $69 $26
(Ge havi slap oles bar ee eae 39 41 —2
PURGES See ec tyke eh eG eet 96 84 12
Canta tomatoes.) 2s. .0..\-/e.: 100 83 17
PORTA! Mat ihe Fs) uate $83 $69 $14
* Three years, 1935-37.
Capital. Planting and caring for an orchard properly until
it begins to yield a return at least sufficient to meet current
CAPITAL 585
expenses require considerable capital as well as patience. The
time which must elapse between planting and bearing will vary
with the type and variety of fruit and with the location of the
- orchard.
TimE ELAPSING BETWEEN PLANTING AND BEARING STAGE OF COMMON
FRUITS
Pes te er ws 7-15 years MRaspberries............ 2-3 years
Perio ee ia Siraw berries. 6.2 1. | eee
@itertics. 8.2. 5-8 * Grapes ee se woe oe: 3-— “*
If the grower plants his own orchard, his capital must be
tied up for some time before he can expect returns. Few
are likely to be so fortunate as to have capital to carry over
to production, which means that some other source of income
must be available during the intervening period.
The preceding paragraph should serve to point out the
need for a considerable amount of capital at the outset or
reasonable assurance that there will be some additional source
of income during the non-bearing stage. Good soil is impera-
tive. It would be folly to buy cheap land with the idea that
costs could be kept down. It has been found that a definite
correlation exists between type of soil, size of orchard, and
labor income. As labor incomes tend to increase with in-
creased acreage on good soil, so does labor income tend to
decrease when an attempt is made to increase acreage on poor
soil.
One point has thus far not been mentioned, namely, the ~
advisability of purchasing an orchard which has already
reached the bearing stage. This has some advantages. Or-
chard land generally has shown some decline in value during
the past ten years. There is some evidence that a young or-
chard surrounded by reasonably good conditions might be an
economical purchase. However, it is essential that the buyer
spend some time in determining the reasons behind an offer for
sale. A desire on the part of an individual to sell may not
586 SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER?
always be caused by failure to make a profit, and, conversely,
it may be that the type of soil, variety of trees, etc., make the
possibility of converting the business into a profitable enter-
prise out of the question. The value of experience behind the
planting of a new orchard or the purchase of a “going concern”
cannot be underestimated. It is most essential if the indi-
vidual is to judge fairly what he is getting for his money.
The original capital investment cannot be neglected in com-
puting the cost of producing the fruit. High land values can
be as instrumental in eating up profits as any other one factor.
While it does not pay to buy poor land, it is equally important
to “get your money’s worth.”
Cost of Production. Though the price which fruit is to
bring can hardly be estimated with any degree of accuracy,
there is some possibility that the cost of producing the fruit
can be determined fairly well. This is true because some ex-
penses will occur each year with little variation. They are as
important as they are unavoidable, and they serve, in more
cases than not, to determine the financial success or failure
of the enterprise. Since they vary little, and certainly, over a
short period, show little relationship to the fluctuations in the
income, the expenses are commonly termed “fixed costs.” They
are
1. Interest on investment.
2. Depreciation.
3. Taxes.
4. Insurance.
Interest on investment reflects the original cost of the
land. While interest rates have shown some decline over the
past 80 years, the value of the land has increased sufficiently
to more than outweigh this advantage. Land is but a part of
the total investment. A significant part of the permanent capi-
tal is tied up in buildings and equipment. It is of equal im-
portance that the interest on the money used to carry these
items also be included.
PURCHASING POWER | 587
Depreciation takes place on the trees after they have
reached maturity as well as on the buildings and equipment.
Conservative rates for estimating these costs are:
Trees: 3-8 percent, depending on the kind of fruit and the
probable length of profitable bearing.
Buildings: 3-5 percent, computed on cost.
Equipment: 10 percent, computed on cost.
While these costs may not necessarily represent an equiva-
lent outlay of cash, they must be considered if a fair estimate
of the net income from the enterprise 1s to be obtained. Re-
member that interest on investment represents only a fair
return on capital if 1t were placed in some other business. It
is intended that charges made for depreciation will, over the
estimated period of useful life, equal the original cost of the
item. It is not fair to consider the purchase of a sprayer as
an expense of the year purchased, and neither is it just to
consider it an expense of the year when it is discarded. The
cost can be allocated fairly only over the period of actual use.
Taxes and insurance, in contrast to interest and deprecia-
tion, represent actual outlays of cash. Neither shows any
short-run relationship to the commodity sold.
The bulk of the variable expenses assumed by the orchard-
ist each year relate to labor, fertilizer and spray materials,
and marketing supplies. Each requires an actual cash outlay.
There is a minimum of expenses below which no orchard can
be kept in condition. It is difficult to determine how much
should be paid out for these items without knowing what the
returns will be. It is not good business to spend more on
packaging the fruit than can be expected in return. On the
other hand, the long-run value of turning out a top pack of
fruit and building a reputation thereby may serve to repay
the grower many fold for a large initial outlay.
Purchasing Power. The fruit farmer, like any business
man who is engaged in the production of products for resale,
can be financially successful only when the relationship be-
588 SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER?
tween the things he sells and the things he buys is to his ad-
vantage. This is known as purchasing power. The apple
producer is not so much interested in the price of the fruit as
he is in the number of bushels of apples or crates of berries
ERREZARESS Oe
tL ee
HA eH
| NG |) | a
BRRRLSeARKe
ft | | Vay A
PT LT A NY WV | Wh eee
| | et A
300
280
260
240
|
0
1910-1912) «1914 = 1916 =: 1918 = 1920-922 = 1924 9=1926 §= 928 )§=1930 91932 «1934 = 1936 «= «1938
Fic. 251. The relationship of apple prices to taxes and wages determines
to a large degree how high these prices really are.
it will take to pay the taxes, to purchase a spray rig, or to
buy a sack of flour. It has been pointed out that there are
certain fixed costs which over a period of a few years do not
vary significantly. It does stand to reason then that the fruit
PURCHASING POWER 089
grower is interested in the price which he can get but only so
far as it will tend to give him a greater advantage in paying
for the things which he buys. Figure 251 will serve to point
this out. It details the relationship between the farm price
of apples, taxes per acre of farm real estate, and farm wage
rates in Pennsylvania for the following periods: apple prices,
1910-38; taxes, 1913-37; wage rates, 1911-38, taking apple
prices and wage rates as 100 from 1910 to 1914 inclusive
and taxes as 100 in 1913. The information was compiled by the
Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station.
Taxes on farm real estate show very little relationship to
the price of apples. It will be noted that in 1921, when apple
prices were at the peak for the 29-year period, taxes were not
comparatively as high. In contrast, taxes reached their high
point in 1931, one year prior to the low point in the price of
apples.
Farm wage rates present a somewhat different. picture.
There is a marked correlation between the cost of farm labor
and apple prices. Wages do not fluctuate so violently and tend
to lag a year or two behind changes in apple prices. It can
be expected that orchardists would use less labor in years fol-
lowing low prices and somewhat more labor in years follow-
ing high prices.
To a significant degree, the relationship existing between
farm wages and apple prices is representative of many vari-
able costs. Conversely, the lack of correlation between tax
rates and apple prices may be considered representative of
fixed costs. The conclusion may be drawn that the constant
expenses in fruit production are the ones which are likely to
create financial problems in the face of low farm prices. This
further emphasizes the need to keep fixed costs at a minimum
through careful planning at the time the young fruit farmer
goes into business.
The purchasing power of individual commodities tends to
be affected more by the price which that product brings than
by the cost of producing the product. That is, there are cer-
590 SHALL I BE A FRUIT GROWER?
tain fixed costs in all the agricultural industries which vary
little, one from the other. On the other hand, the prices which
farmers get for their products may vary considerably among
those items which are produced for sale.
The price of peaches in a given year may be fairly high
because of a late frost in Georgia while a surplus of apples
may have caused the unit value of that crop to be low. Even
more pronounced may be the spread existing between fruit,
truck crops, and dairy products. It must be remembered that
these differences in price are yearly phenomena. All agri-
cultural products tend to follow each other in price relation-
ships over a long period. It is doubtful that any one crop
possesses any particular advantage over a long span of years.
Diversification. This brings us to the consideration of the
advisability of planting more than one crop. The advantages
of such a program are twofold.
1. It gives the young orchardist who is planting his own
orchard an opportunity to derive some cash income until his
trees reach the bearing stage.
2. It contributes considerably to one of income by
reducing the risk of crop failures and low prices.
Diversification tends to take some of the gamble out of
fruit raising. The grower is not “putting all his eggs in one
basket.” However, there are some factors which tend to
limit the number and types of enterprises which a farmer can
handle economically. Care must be taken to choose those
enterprises which do not conflict with one another in receiving
the attention which they demand. The units must be large
enough to permit economical operation. The commodities to
be produced should be ones which can be raised profitably in
the area. Many fruit growers in western New York raise
feeder lambs and beef cattle, not because the return from
these enterprises is high but because they are making a little
money this way that would not be obtained otherwise. In-
direct benefits may be derived even though no actual cash
profit is made.
SUMMARY 591
Summary. It is important, then, that the young man who
is contemplating the production of fruit crops as his life work
consider carefully the following factors:
1. The basis of his interest in the work.
2. The capital requirements.
3. Planting a new orchard vs. purchasing one already
established.
4. Factors affecting the margin of profit.
5. Prices in terms of purchasing power. :
6. Possibilities of diversification, its effects on purchasin
power.
He must line up the fields in which he entertains some
interest squarely before him and subject them to careful
analysis. The age of trial and error is over in establishing
orchards. Unprofitable orchard sites are being abandoned
for those which have proved their worth. With increasing
costs of fruit production, with no corresponding increase in
prices, the margin of profit shows a tendency to diminish.
In spite of this, opportunity remains for him who chooses a
favorable site in a suitable region and farms intelligently to
make a good living from this enterprise.
It is evident that the efforts of the fruit farmer will be
directed toward the type of production which will yield him
the maximum return. He is not interested so much in gross
receipts or expenses taken independently as in the margin
which exists between the two. This is his profit. This is the
thing that can be exchanged for the goods which serve to pro-
vide him with some of the necessities and satisfactions of life.
Before most other things, he must be certain that he will obtain
a maximum degree of enjoyment from the work he is doing.
This last point is worthy of stressing over and over again.
Large profits cannot be expected from agriculture. This makes
it all the more important that the individual find satisfaction
in its pursuits. There will be years when that, in itself, will
constitute the chief return from his labor.
APPENDIX
SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF SOME OF THE SPECIES OF OUR
COMMON FRUITS
Common NAME ScieNTIFIC NAME
Apple Pyrus malus
European or Common American
Pear Pyrus communis
Chinese or Sand Pear Pyrus serotina
Snow Pear (grown somewhat in
Europe for cider) Pyrus nivalis
Quince Cydonia oblonga
Peach Prunus persica
Nectarine _ Prunus persica var nucipersica
Apricot Prunus armeniaca
European Plums
a. The common plum such as
Green Gage and Italian
prune Prunus domestica
b. The Damsons and others Prunus insititia
American Plums
a. Found from Maine to Flor-
ida and east of Rocky
Mountains from Mexico
to Canada. Prunus Amercana
b. Especially suited to south-
ern states but also grown
in North. Prunus hortulana
c. Especially suited to colder
_ Yegions. Prunus nigra
d. Important in South Prunus munsoniana
Japanese Plum Prunus salicina
The Sour Cherry Prunus cerasus
The Sweet Cherry Prunus avium
593
594
Common NAME
The Duke Cherry
The Southern Grape (musca-
dine)
The Eastern Grape
Old World Grape (grown on the
Pacific slope)
European Red Raspberry
American Red Raspberry
Black Raspberry
Purple Raspberry
American Blackberry
Dewberry
a. From Maine westward and
southward
6. Southern Dewberry
c. Western Dewberry
Red Currants
a. Common Red or garden
Currant
6. Northern Red Currant
Black Currant
American Gooseberry
European Gooseberry
Strawberry
High Blueberry
Low Blueberry
Large Cranberry
Small Cranberry
APPENDIX
Screntiric NAME
Prunus cerasus,
crossed with
Prunus avium
Vitis rotundifolia
Vitis labrusca
or
Labrusca crosses
Vitris vinifera
Rubus idaeus
Rubus strigosus
Rubus occidentalis
Rubus neglectus (hybrid red and
black raspberries)
Rubus argutus,
Rubus alleghenensis
and other species
and
Rubus iwmvisus
Rubus trivialis
Rubus vitifolius
| Rubus flagellaris,
Ribes sativum
Ribes rubrum
Ribes nigrum
Ribes hirtellum
Ribes grossularia
Fragaria chiloensis virginiana
Vaccimum corymbosum
Vaccinium pennsylvanicum
Vaccinium macrocarpon
Vaccinium oxycoccus
INDEX
A
Accessories, spraying, 330, 342
Age and grade of trees for plant-
ing, 183
Agencies, marketing, 79
Agitator, sprayer, 321
Air chamber, 315
Annual bearing as affected by thin-
ning fruit, 447
Apple, advisability of storing, 51
autumn prices of varieties in
Ne City; 10
barrel, 18
specifications of, 19
baskets, 18, 20
box, specifications of, 20
boxes, 18
by-products, 105
cartons, 21
chain stores as sellers of, 93
cold-storage holdings of, 32
Community Studies, harvesting,
storing and marketing, 150
comparative retail prices in N. Y.
_ City 1937-38, 94
comparative sales, N. Y. City
1937-38, 85
consumers’ demand for, in N. Y.
City, 103
cooperative sales of, 73
crop, quality of, and package, 17
determining grades and sizes to
be made in packing, 21
595
Apple, determining package to use,
17
direct sales by grower, 72
equipment for harvest, 5
estimating yield, 2
export, by type of container, 109
export markets, 108
export methods of sale, 110
export requirements, 109
fertilizers, 431 ,
formation of fruit buds, 215
freight rates on, from various sec~
tions, 99
fruiting habits, 210
grades of, as affected by soils, 172
grading, 33
grading ahd branding laws, 21
grading records in Michigan
orchards, 26
harvesting costs, 50
income of family and quantities
purchased in N. Y. City
1937-38, 83
Institute, 74
National, 74
labor for harvest, 10
loading cars, 95
margins of retail agencies in sell-
ing in N. Y. City 1937-38,
86
market preferences, and prices,
98
and tendencies as influencing
package, 18
596
Apple, marketing, 67
marketing costs, 50
modified atmosphere storage, 146
orchard, selecting land for, 169
packages, marking, 23
packing, 16
in barrels, 33, 142
in baskets, 43
in community packing house,
31
in Eastern box, 41
in grower’s packing house, 30
in orchard, 30
in Western box, 34 .
picking, 2
for storage, 64
procedures, 15
proper time for, 11
the fruit, 15
precooling, 97
production, and prices in U. S.
1919-38, 98
by states, 5
Os S., 4
pruning, 232
quantities handled by retail out-
lets in N. Y. City 1937-38,
82
quantities purchased by con-
sumers in N. Y. City 1937-
38, 86
recent declines in wholesale
prices in N. Y. City, 103
refrigerator cars for, 97
regions and varieties, 196
sales as related to other retail
sales in N. Y. City 1937-
38, 84
sales by public storage, 72
selling, 68
at wayside stands, 68
collectively, 73
INDEX
Apple, shipping-point inspection,
95
size of crop as influencing pack-
age to use, 19
sizers, 23
sizing machines, 23
soil culture for, 410
sources of supply for N. Y. City
1937-38, 88
spoilage and marketing costs in
N. Y. City 1937-38, 87
spray residues, 44
spray schedule, 292
spurs, 209
storage, form of, 54
temperature for, 65
storage scald, 66
storing, 51
thinning, 448
trees, bearing and non-bearing in
U. S., 164
truck shipments to N. Y. City,
75
U. S. standard grades, 133
unloads in N. Y. City 1932-39, 75 ©
varieties, good pollenizers, 397
length of season to mature, 176
of Eastern and Western on
N. Y. market 1937-38, 91
poor pollenizers, 397
self-fruitful, 396
self-unfruitful, 395
ventilator cars for, 97
where crop is marketed as in-
fluencing package to use,
19
wholesale prices by varieties
N. Y. City
yields, 3
Apples and applesauce, canned,
production by states 1921-
38, 106
INDEX
Application of spray materials,
291, 340
Applying dust materials, 348
Applying fertilizers, 436
Apricot, dried, production 1923-37,
105
fertilizers, 438
fruiting habits, 212
pruning, 261
regions and varieties, 204
soil culture, 430
_ Apricot and peach, self-fruitful va-
rieties, 401
Arsenate, calcium, 275
lead, 274
zinc, 276
Association, collective selling, 73
Auction selling, 79
B
Barium tetrasulfide, 284
Bark grafting, 371
Barrel, apple, specifications of, 19
for apple packing, 18
packing apples in, 142
U. S. Standard, 141
Baskets, climax, U. S. Standard,
142
for apple packing, 18
packing in, 43
picking, apple, 7
splint, U. S. Standard, 142
Bearing apple trees in U. S., 164
Bees, distance pollen carried, 407
for cross-pollination, 404
number colonies required for
cross-pollination, 406
Berry boxes, U. 8. Standard, 142
Black leaf 40, 277
Black raspberry, 529
dried fruit, 557
597
Black raspberry, fertilizers, 542
harvesting and marketing, 553
insects and diseases, 551
life of plantation, 557
planting, 539
planting plans, 538
preparing soil, 537
propagating, 386
pruning and training, 545
securing plants, 533
soil culture, 540
varieties, 560
selecting, 535
yields, 558
Blackberry, 531
determining size of enterprise,
532
fertilizers, 542
harvesting and marketing, 556
insects and diseases, 551
life of plantation, 557
planting, 539
planting plans, 538
preparing soil, 537
pruning and training, 547
securing plants, 534
soil culture, 540
soils for, 532
time of planting, 533
varieties, 560
selecting, 535
yields, 558
Blossoming branches, use of, for
cross-pollination, 409
Blossoms, injury from cold, 160
number in fruit buds, 209
Blueberry, controlling birds, 577
establishing plantation, 573
fertilizers, 575
growing, 571
harvesting and marketing, 579
insects and diseases, 577
598
Blueberry, origin of cultivated, 571
planting, 574
propagating, 383
pruning, 575
soil for, 573
varieties, 574
yields, 580
Borax for soil treatment, 440
Bordeaux mixture, 282
nozzle, 322
preparation, 287
Borer, peach tree, 355, 358
Boron, deficiency in soils, 440
Boxes, berry, U. S. Standard, 142
for apple packing, 18
Boysenberry, 561
Brambles, growing, 529
Bridge grafted trees, treatment of,
383
Bridge grafting, 380
Broker, 79
Brush pusher, 263
Budding, shield, 377
Buds, forming of fruit, 207
injury from cold, 160
location of leaf and fruit, 208
Bush fruits, growing, 529
Bushel basket, types of, for apple
packing, 20
U.S. Standard, 142
By-products, apple, 105
various, 108
C
Calcium arsenate, 275
Calcium caseinate, 285
Canned apples and applesauce, pro-
duction by states 1921-38,
106
Canned fruits, production 1921-38,
107
INDEX
Canning, and drying, peach, 118
pear, 121
cherry, 131
Carbohydrate and nitrogen rela-
tionships, 221
Carbohydrates, as affected by re-
moval of leaves, 220
for fruit bud formation, 219
Caring for spray machinery and
equipment, 352
Carloads, apples, New York City
1932-39, 75
Cars, loading peaches, 117
loading properly, apple, 95
refrigerator, for apples, 97
ventilator, for apples, 97
Cartons for apple packing, 21
Casein, 285
Caseinate, calcium, 285
Cedar rust, 355
Cellar storage, 60
Center-leader tree, 236
Certified nursery stock, brambles,
552
trees, 187
Chain stores as sellers of apples,
93
Chautauqua system, grape train-
ing, 515
Cherry, canning, 131
cold storage for, 129
fertilizers, 438
formation of fruit buds, 217
frozen, 129
fruiting habits, 213
packing, 132
picking, 131
production by states, 127
pruning, 256
regions and varieties, 202
self-fruitful varieties, 400
self-unfruitful varieties, 400
INDEX
Cherry, selling, 129
soil culture, 430
spray program, 295
yields, 129
Cider and vinegar, production and
value 1933 and 1938, 106
Cions, selecting for cleft grafting,
365
treatment of, after cleft grafting,
368
Clean culture, 416
and cover crops, 418
Cleft grafting, 362
equipment for, 364
of grape vines, 371
operations in, 365
treatment of cions after, 368
Climax baskets, U. S. Standard,
142
Cold injury to blossoms, buds,
roots, and wood, 157
in relation to maturity of tissues,
Ls SOO
Cold storage, 54
cherry, 129
holdings, apple, 52
Cold weather injury, 157
Collective selling, 73
Colloidal sulfur, 284
Color as indication of proper time
for picking apple, 11
Commercial crop, apple, 5
Commercial packs, judging, 463
Common storage, 54.
above ground, 60
cellar, 60
construction of, 60
determining type to build, 58
factors for operation, 57
operating, 63
plans, 59, 61
ventilating, 63
599
Community packing house, apple,
31
Community Studies, apple, har-
vesting, storing, and mar-
keting, 150
brambles, 561
controlling insects and diseases,
359
current and gooseberry, 571
establishing orchard, 206
grapes, 528
growth of tree and forming of
fruit buds, 223
injury from cold, 161
managing orchard soils and
fertilizing the trees, 440
pollination and fruit setting, 409
propagating fruit plants, 389
pruning, 267
strawberry, 493
thinning fruit, 452
Concord, 499
Consumers’ demand for apples in
IN ¥: City, 103
Contact insecticides, 276
Containers, U.S. Standard, 141
Control measures other than spray-
ing and dusting, 355
Controlling insects and diseases,
269
Controlling mice, 153
Cooperative agencies for peach
marketing, 119
Cooperative . marketing
tions, grape, 525
Cooperative packing house for
apples, 31
Cooperative selling, 73
Copper sulfate dust, 285
Costs, apple harvesting, 50 —
apple marketing, 50
of applying fertilizers, 436
associa-
600 INDEX
Costs, of shipping point inspection,
95
of soil management systems,
425 |
of spraying program, 353
pruning, 264
storage construction, 56
thinning, 450
Couplings, hose, 332
Cover crops, amounts to use, 425
and clean culture, 418
for grapes, 505
kind to use, 420, 423
legume, 420
natural, 422
non-legume, 420
time of seeding, 424
Cranberry barrel, 141
Crates, apple, 9
Cross-pollination, 393
agencies, 405
as affecting selection of varieties
for planting, 178
bees for, 404
need of, 395
raspberry, blackberry, and dew-
berry, 535
treatment of established orchards
for, 407
Culture, clean, 416
sod, 412
strip, 417
systems of soil, 411
tillage, 412
Currants, and gooseberries, grow-
ing, 562
establishing plantation, 563
harvesting and marketing, 569
insects and diseases, 569
propagating, 383
pruning and training, 567
soil culture, 568
Currants, varieties, 565
yields, 570
Cut-off spray, 329
Cuttings, propagating by, 383
Cylinders, pump, 314
D
Demand by consumers for apples
in N.Y. Gity ee
Dewberry, 531
fertilizers, 542
harvesting and marketing, 556
insects and diseases, 551
life of plantation, 557
planting, 539
planting plans, 538
preparing soil, 527
pruning and training, 549
securing plants, 535
soil culture, 540
soils for, 532
time of planting, 583
varieties, 560
selecting, 535
yields, 558
Dise nozzle, 322
Disease control, materials for, 282
Diseases, and insects, controlling,
269
grapes, controlling, 520
information concerning, 273
strawberries, controlling, 483
nature of, 272
Distances for planting in orchard,
178
D.N. oil, 279
Dormant pruning, 225
Drainage, soil, as factor in select-
ing orchard land, 171
providing, 152
INDEX
Dried fruit, black raspberry, 557
production in U. S. 1923-37, 105
Dry lime-sulfur, 277
Dry mix, 284 :
Drying and canning, peach, 118
“pear, 121
Dust, copper sulfate, 285
materials, applying, 348
quantities to use, 352
tobacco, 278
Duster, 336
mechanical features, 336
Dusting and spraying, comparative
merits, 309
Dwarf trees, 186
Dynamite, value in planting trees,
194
EK
Eastern apple box, grades of fruit
for, 26
specifications of, 20
Eastern apples, on N. Y. market
1937-38, 89, 91
sources of supply, N. Y. City
1937-38, 88
Eastern box, packing in, 41
Eastern and Western apples, com-
parative sales of, N. Y.
City 1937-38, 85
Elements, absorbed from soil, 218
often lacking in soil, 218
Elevation, importance for orchard,
170
- Elgetol, 280
Emulsification, 278
Emulsifier, 278
Emulsion, dilution table for tar-
distillate, 290
oil, 279
Engine, sprayer, 318
601
Enterprises, supplemental to or-
chard, 168
Equipment, apple harvest, 5
mechanical features of spray, 312
Establishing orchard, 162
Exhibit, commercial packages for,
459
fruit, 454
labels for fruit, 458
plates for fruit, 456
polishing fruit for, 459
selecting fruit for, 454
setting up, 455
Export market, apple, 108
pear, 123
Export requirements, apple, 109
Exports of apples, 109, 110
Exposure, importance for orchard,
170
1)
Fall planting of orchards, 174
Fall plowing, 419
Family income and apple pur-
chases in N. Y. City 1937-
38, 83
Family incomes in N. Y. City 1938,
3 93
Farm enterprises supplemental to
orchard, 168
Fertilization of blossoms, method
of, 390, 393
Fertilizers, apple, 431
amounts and time of applica-
tion, 434
applying, 436
apricot, 438
blueberry, 575
-brambles, 542
cherry, 438
costs of applying, 436
602
Fertilizers, grape, 507
kinds for apple, 432
need. for apple, 432
peach, 436
pear, 438
plum, 438
quince, 438
strawberries, 480
use in planting trees, 195
Fertilizing trees, 410
Field, preparing for planting, 190
staking for planting, 190
Figs, dried, production 1923-37,
105
Fillers, advisability of use in or-
chard, 179
Fire blight, 356
Flotation sulfur, 283
Flour, 285
Formation of fruit buds, 214
Forms of storage, apple, 54
Freight rates on apples from vari-
ous sections 1940, 99
Frost, avoidance of, in selecting
orchard lands, 170
Frozen fruit, 148
cherries, 129
strawberries, 148
Fruit and vegetable stands, apple
sales in N. Y. City 1937-
38, 84
Fruit auctions, 79
Fruit bud formation, 214
carbohydrates for, 219
Fruit buds, forming of, 207
injury from cold, 160
location of, 208
Fruit exhibits and judging, 454
Fruit grower, Shall I be a, 581
Fruit growing, selecting region for,
162
Fruit judging, 459
INDEX
Fruit plants, propagating, 361
Fruit setting and pollination, 390
Fruit spurs, location of, 208
Fruit thinning, 443
Fruit trees, stocks for, 205
Fruiting habits of various fruits,
210
Fruits, canned, production 1921-38,
107
dried, production 1923-37, 105
self-fruitful, 394
self-unfruitful, 394
Functions performed in marketing,
77
G
Gas storage, 67, 146 ‘
Georgia carrier for peaches, 115
Girdled trees, treatment of, 156
Gooseberries, establishing planta-
tion, 563 |
harvesting and marketing, 569
insects and diseases, 569
propagating, 383, 386
pruning and training, 567
soil culture, 568
varieties, 565
yields, 570
Gooseberries and currants, grow-
ing, 563
Grade and age of trees for plant-
ing, 183
Grades, apple, 21
as affected by soil types, 172
causes of poor, 26
of Eastern and Western on
N. Y. market 1937-38, 89
U. S. Standard, 133
Western box, 24 |
Grades and sizes, apples, 21
Grading apples, 33
INDEX
Grading laws, apple, 21
peach, 117
Grading records of apples in
Michigan orchards, 26
Grafting, bark or inlay, 371
bridge, 380
cleft, 362
cross shoots, 388
preparations, 387
whip, 373
Grape juice factories, 523
Grape vines, cleft grafting, 371
Grapes, bench grafting, 377
cooperative marketing associa-
tions, 525
cover crop, 505
determining size of enterprise,
497
fertilizers for, 507
growing, 495
harvesting, 520
insects and diseases, 520
intercrops for, 505
marketing, 522
Muscadine, growing, 527
packages for, 522
packing, 522
picking, 520
planting, 501
time of, 500
planting distances, 500
production, 496
propagation, 383
protecting vines in winter, 527
pruning, 511
time of, 519
pruning shears for, 519
pruning tests, results of, 518
renewing canes, 519
securing plants, 500
selecting location for, 498
soil for, 498
603
Grapes, soil management, 503
implements for, 504
storage, 525
training, 509
trellis, establishing, 509
varieties, 499
Growers’ organization, 74
Growing bush fruits, 529
grapes, 495
small fruits, 467
strawberries, 468
Growth, as affected by carbohy-
drates, nitrogen, and
water, 220
in thickness, 208
kinds of tree, 207
length, 208
of tree, 207
Growth conditions, diagnosing, 439
treatment for varying, 439
Gun, spray, 325
H
Hampers and baskets, U.S. Stand-
ard, 142
Hand sprayer, 334
Hardware cloth for tree protection,
155
Harvest, strawberry, treatment
after, 489
Harvesting and marketing, blue-
berry, 579
brambles, 553
costs, apple, 50
currant and gooseberry, 569
strawberries, 485
Harvesting equipment, apple, 5
Harvesting grapes, 520
Heads desirable for apple tree, 234
Hedgerow, strawberries, 474
604
Hedgerow system, planting, bram-
bles, 538
Heeling in trees on arrival from
nursery, 189
Hellebore, 276
Hexagonal system of
planting, 181
High renewal system, grape train-
orchard
ing, 515
Hill system, planting, brambles,
538
strawberries, 474
Hormone sprays, use in apple pick-
ine. 13
Hose couplings, 332
Hose spray, 329
Humidity, common storage, 57
I
Identification of fruit varieties, 465
Implements for soil management,
426
Income as related to consumption
of apples in New York
City 1937-38, 83
Incomes of families in New York
City 1938, 93
Injury from cold weather, 157
Inlay grafting, 371
Insecticides, contact, 276
Insects, feeding habits, 271
materials for controlling, 273
Insects and diseases, blueberry, 577
brambles, 551
controlling, 269
currant and gooseberry, 569
grapes, controlling, 520
information concerning, 273
strawberries, controlling, 483
Inspection, shipping point, 95
INDEX
Institute, New York and New Eng-
land Apple, 74
Intercrops, for grapes, 505
in orchard, 416
Intersterile varieties, 395
Irrigation, brambles, 541
strawberries, 482
J
Jobber, 79
Judging collections of fruit, score
card for, 464 |
Judging commercial pack, 463
Judging fruit, 459
factors in, 460
score card for, 460
June buds, 184
K
Keuka system, grape training, 515
Kniffin system, grape training, 511
Knives, pruning, 230
L
Labor, apple harvest, 10
Labor supply as affecting selection ~
of spray machinery, 308
Ladder, raising for picking, 15
Ladders, apple harvest, 6
Layerage, mound, 386
Layers, propagating by, 386
Lead arsenate, 274
Leaf and fruit buds, injury from
cold, 160
Leaf buds, location of, 208
Leaves, removal as affecting car-
bohydrate supply, 220
INDEX
Legumes for cover crops, 420
Length growth, 208
Lignin pitch, 286
Lime sulfur, 276, 282
dry. 277
preparation, 286
self-boiled, 284
Loading cars, 95
peach, 117
Loganberry, 529
M
Machinery, spray, and size of fruit
enterprise, 306
selection of, 304
Managing orchard soils and fer-
tilizing trees, 410
Manure, use of, in planting trees,
195
Map of orchard after planting, 196
Margins of city agencies in selling
fruit, 85
Market, as affecting size of orchard
enterprise, 165
as determining varieties for
planting, 174
preferences and prices, apple, 98
preferences and tendencies as in-
fluencing _ packages for
apples, 18
tendencies as determining selec-
tion of varieties for plant-
ing, 176
Marketing agencies, 79
retail, 81
Marketing apples, 67
costs, 50
steps in, 67
Marketing cherries, 129
Marketing functions, 77
Marketing grapes, 522
605
Marketing peach, 119
Marketing services, 77
Marketing strawberries, 485
Markets, export, apple, 108
pears, 123
wayside, 68
Marking apple packages, 23
Materials for controlling insects
and diseases, selecting, 273
for spray program, 291
Matted row, strawberries, 473
Maturity of tissues as protection
from cold, 160
McIntosh, picking, 12
Mechanical features of sprayers,
312
Mice, controlling, 153
protecting trees from, 154
Miscible oil, 279
Modified atmosphere storage, 67.
146
| Modified leader tree, 235
Mosaics, 531, 551
Moss, peat, value in planting trees,
194
Motor truck shipments, growth of,
76
of apples to N. Y. City, 75
Mound layerage, 386
Mouse control. 153
Mulch, additional, 414
sod, 413
Muscadine grapes, growing, 527
N
National Apple Institute, 74
New England and New York Apple
Institute, 74
New Jersey dry mix, 284
Nicotine sulfate, 277
606
Nitrogen, and carbohydrate rela-
tionships, 221
as related to tree growth and
fruit bud formation, 220
for orchard soils, 433
Non-bearing apple trees in U. S.,
164
Non-legumes for cover crops, 420
Notching and ringing, effects of, |
219
Nozzles, spray, 322
Nursery, shield budding im, 377, }
379
whip grafting in, 375
Nursery trees, heeling in on arrival,
189
Nutrient solutions,
479
Nutrition, tree, 217
strawberries,
O
Oil emulsion, 279
preparation, 289
Oil sprays, 278
proportions for use, 281
Open-head tree, 235
Operating common storage, 63
Orchard, cross-pollination and se-
lection of varieties, 178
determining size of enterprise,
165
elevation as factor in selecting
land for, 170
elevation and slope as factors in
selecting land for, 170
establishing, 162
mtercrops, 416
location as affected by tempera-
ture, rainfall, and bodies
of water, 163
map of, after planting, 196
INDEX
Orchard, practices as influenced by
nitrogen-carbohydrate re-
lationships, 222
removing trees from, 267
season of planting, 173
selecting land for, 169
selecting region for, 162
size as affected by supplemental
farm enterprises, 168
size as determined by market,
16F
soil as factor in selecting land
for, 17h
systems of soil culture for, 411
treatment for cross-pollination,
407
use of fillers in planting, 179
varieties for planting, 174, 176
Oriental fruit moth, 356
Own rooted trees, 376
a
Packages, for apples, 18
determining type to use, 17
marking, 23
specifications of, 19
for peaches, 115
for pears, 121
Packing, apple, 16
determining grades and sizes
to be made, 21
determining where to do, 30
in barrels, 33, 142
cherry, 132
grapes, 522
house, apple, operated coopera-
tively, 31
owned by grower, 30
requirements, 32
in baskets, 43
INDEX 607
Packing, in Eastern box, 41
in Western box, 34
laws, 21
peach, 116
pear, 121
plums, 125
Packing and storage, quince, 132
Pails, picking, apple, 7
Paradichlorobenzene, 355
Peach, canning and drying, 118
Pear, formation of fruit buds, 217
fruiting habits, 210
modified atmosphere storage, 146
packages and packing, 121
picking, 120
production by states, 122
pruning, 244
regions and varieties, 202
self-fruitful varieties, 398
self-unfruitful varieties, 398
dried, production 1923-37, 105
fertilizers, 436
fruiting habits, 212
grading laws, 117
loading cars, 117 -
marketing, 119
packages for, 115
packing, 116
bushel basket, 116
Georgia carrier, 116
houses for, 116
picking, 112
picking equipment, 114
precooling, 118
production by states, 111
pruning, 247
quantities picked in day, 113
regions and varieties, 201
season of shipment, 110
soil culture, 430
spray schedule, 305
storing, 118
thinning, 451
tree borer, control, 355, 358
trees, topworking, 379
yields, 114
Peach and apricot, self-fruitful va-
rieties, 401
Pear, canning and drying, 121
dried, production 1923-37, 105
export markets, 123
fertalizers, 438
shipment of, 123
soil culture, 431
spray program, 294
storage and refrigeration, 122
yields, 123
Peat moss, use in planting trees,
194
Pedigree trees, 186
Permanent trees, planting distances
for, 179
Petroleum oil, 279
Physiology and nutrition, tree, 217
Picking bucket, apple, 8
cherry, 131
dates of varieties, 178
determining proper time, apple,
if
equipment, peach, 114
grapes, 520
peach, 112
pear, 120
plum, 124
procedures, apple, 15
quince, 132
rate of, apple, 10
receptacles, apple, 7
strawberries, 486
the fruit, apple, 15
use of hormone sprays, 13
Pitch, lignin, 286
Plans, common storage, 59, 61
planting, for orchards. 178
608
Planting, advisability of use of
fillers in, 179
blueberry, 574
brambles, 539
determining location of trees for,
190
distances, and plans, 178
as affected by size of mature
trees, 179
grape, 500
grapes, 501
time of, 500
importance of cross-pollination
in selecting varieties for,
178
picking dates of varieties as af-
fecting lists for, 178
plans, and distances, 178
brambles, 537
preparing field for, 190
preparing soil for, 190
protection of trees while, 195
season of, 173
sources of trees for, 188
staking field for, 190
strawberries, 475
systems, strawberries, 473
time of, brambles, 533
* strawberries, 472
treatment of trees after, 196
trees, 194, 195
use of manure in, 195
value of dynamite in, 194
value of peat moss in, 194
varieties for, 174, 176
Plants, grape, securing, 500
Plowing, fall, 419
spring, 419
Plum fertilizers, 438
formation of fruit buds, 217
fruiting habits, 213
packing, 125
INDEX
Plum fertilizers, picking, 124
pruning, 259
regions and varieties, 204
soil culture, 430
storing, 125
thinning, 452
varieties, self-unfruitful, 398
Plums and prunes, production by
states, 126
yields, 127
Poisons, stomach, 274
Polishing fruit for exhibition, 459
Pollen, effect of, on fruit charac-
ters, 403
Pollenizers, apple, 403
arrangement in orchard, 404
qualifications of good, 403
Pollination, and fruit setting, 390
cross, 393
as affecting selection of va-
rieties, 178
need of, 395
method of, 390
self, 393
strawberries, 471
Power sprayer, 312
Precooling apples, 97
Precooling peaches, 118
Preparations, grafting, 387
Preparing for winter, 152
Pressure chamber, 315
Prices, and production of apples
in U. §. 1919-38, 98
of apples in N. Y. City, 101, 103
retail, 94
wholesale, 100
Production, and prices of apples in
U.S. 1919-38, 98
and value of cider and vinegar
1933 and 1938, 106
apple, by states, 5
Tt
INDEX
609
Production, canned apples and | Pruning. wounds, protecting, 243
applesauce by states 1921-
38, 106
canned fruits 1921-38, 107
cherry, by states, 127
commercial, strawberries, 469
dried fruits in U. 8. 1923-37, 105
grapes, 496
peach, by states, 111
pear, by states, 122
plums and prunes, by states, 126
Programs, spray, 291
Propagating, by cuttings, 383
by layers, 386
Propagating fruit plants, 361
Providing soil drainage, 152
Prunes, 125
and plums, production by states,
126
dried, production 1923-37, 105
Pruning, 225.
and training, brambles, 543
currants and gooseberries, 567
apple, 232
apricot, 261
blueberry, 575
cherry, 256
costs, 264
extent of, 226
grapes, 511
time of, 519
old bearing trees, 229
peach, 247
pear, 244
plum, 259
quince, 263
rejuvenation, 241
roots of nursery trees, 189
shears, grapes, 519
tests, grapes, 518
time of, 225
tools, 230
young pearing trees, 228
young non-bearing trees, 226
Pump, sprayer, 312
Pump cylinders, 314
Pump specifications, 314
Purchasing trees for planting, 182
Purple raspberry, see Raspberry,
purple
Pyrethrum, 280
Q
Quality of apples as influencing
package, 17
Quantity of apples purchased by
consumers in N. Y. City
1937-38, 86
Quince, fertilizers, 438
formation of fruit buds, 217
packing and storage, 132
picking, 132
propagating, 386
pruning, 263
regions and varieties, 204
self-fruitful varieties, 401
soil culture, 431
yields, 133
Quincunx system of orchard plant-
ing, 181
R
Rabbits, protecting trees from, 154
Rainfall as factor in selecting
region for orchard, 163
dried, production 1923-
af, 205
Raspberry, black, 529
determining size of enterprise,
532
fertilizers, 542
Raisins,
610
Raspberry, harvesting and market-
ing, 553
insects and diseases, 551
life of plantation, 557
planting, 539
planting plans, 538
preparing soil, 537
pruning and training, 543
purple, 531
varieties, 560
selecting, 535
yields, 558
red, 529
varieties, 559
selecting, 535
yields, 558
securing plants, 533
soil culture, 540
soils for, 532
time of planting, 533
winter protection, 558
Rectangular system of orchard
planting, 181
Red raspberry, see Raspberry, red
Refrigeration and storage, pear,
122
Refrigerator cars for apples, 97
Region, selecting, for fruit, 162
Regions and varieties, apple, 196
apricot, 204
cherry, 203
peach, 201
pear, 202
plum, 204
quince, 204
Rejuvenation pruning, 241
Removing trees from orchard, 267
Replacing trees, 152
Residues, removing spray, 44
Retail margins in selling apples
in N. Y. City 1937-38, 86
Retail marketing agencies, 81
INDEX
Retail outlets, quantities of apples
handled in N. Y. City,
1937-38, 82
Ringing and notching, effects of,
219
Roadside stands, 68
Rod, spray, 327
Roots, injury from cold, 160
pruning, on arrival from nursery,
189
Rotenone, 280 —
Ss
Sales, apple, as related to other
retail sales in N. Y. City
1937-38, 84
on stands in N. Y. City 1937-
38, 84
cooperative, 73 |
through public cold storage, 72
Saws, pruning, 230
Scald, storage, apple, 66
Score card, for collections of fruits,
464
for judging fruit, 460
use of, in judging, 464
Season of maturity for apples, 176
Self-boiled lime sulfur, 284
Self-compatible varieties, 394
Self-fertile varieties, 394
Self-pollination, 393
Self-sterile varieties, 395
Self-unfruitful fruits, 394
Selling, by auction, 79
methods of, apple, 68
Services, marketing, 79
Setting trees, 195
Shall I be a fruit grower, 581
Shears, pruning, 230
Shield budding, 377
INDEX
Shipments, peach, from producing
sections, 110
pear, 123
Shipping-point inspection, 95
Shipping strawberries, 487
Size of orchard enterprise, 165
Sizing machines, apple, 23
Skim milk, 285
Slope, importance for orchard, 170
Small fruits, growing, 467
Soaps, 280
Sod culture, 412
Sod mulch, 413
Soil, elements absorbed from, 218
elements often lacking in, 218
for grapes, 498
importance of, in selecting or-
chard lands, 171
preparing, for brambles, 537
for planting, 190
Soil culture, apricot, 4380
brambles, 540
cherry, 430
currant and gooseberry, 568
grapes, 503
implements for, 426
peach, 430
pear, 431
plum, 430
quince, 431
strawberries, 479
systems of, 412, 415
Soil drainage, providing, 152
Soil management, costs of, 425
implements for, 426
strawberries, 479
Soils, and location, strawberries,
468
as affecting grades of apples pro-
duced, 172
blackberry and dewberry, 532
raspberry, 532
611
Sources of trees for planting,
188
Spoilage as factor in apple market-
in¢ costs in N. Y. City
1937-38, 87
“Spot” picking, apple, 12
Spray, cut-off, 329
gun, 325
hormone, for apple picking, 13
hose, 329
machinery and equipment, 304
caring for, 352
selecting, 339
materials, applying, 340, 342
time of, 291
nozzles, 322
plant, stationary, 337
programs, 291
cherry, 295
pear, 294
residues, removing, 44
rod, 327
schedule, apple, 292, 297
non-washing, 301
peach, 305
shape of, from nozzles, 324
types, 328
Sprayer, agitator, 321
engine, 318
hand, 334
power, 312
pump, 312
tank, 320
traction, 333
transfer of material from tank
to pump, 321
truck, 322
Sprayers, mechanical features, 312
Spraying, accessories, 330, 342
and dusting, comparative merits,
309
planning facilities for, 341
612
Spraying, program, costs, 353
with the wind, 344
Spreading materials for sprays, 285
Spring planting of orchards, 173
Spring plowing, 419 |
Spurs, fruit, location of, 208
Square system of orchard plant-
ing, 181
Staking field for planting, 190
Stationary spray plant, 337
advantages, 338
Sticking materials for sprays, 285
Stocks for fruit trees, 205
Stomach poisons, 274
Storage, cellar, 60
charges for apple, 56
cold, 54
common, 54
above ground, 60
construction of, 60
determining type to build, 58
operating, 63
plans of, 59, 61
ventilating, 63
cost of constructing, 56
determining whether to buy or
build, 55
factors for operating common, 57
forms of, for apple, 54
gas, 67
grapes, 525
holdings of apples, 52
modified atmosphere, 67, 146
pear, 122
picking apples for, 64
scald, apple, 66
temperature, for apple, 65
for peaches, 118
Storing, apple, 51
determining advisability of, 51
peach, 118
plum, 125
INDEX
Strawberries, commercial produc-
tion, 469 ;
containers, 485
fertilizers, 480
frozen fruit, 148
growing, 468
harvesting and marketing, 485
insects and diseases, 483
irrigation, 482
location and soils, 468
nutrient solutions in planting,
479
picking, 486
planting, 475
planting systems, 473
planting tools, 477
pollination, 471
preparing field, 470
selecting varieties, 470
shipping, 488
soil management, 479
time of planting, 472
treatment after harvest, 489
varieties, commercial, 492
everbearing, 491
winter protection, 484
yields, 488
Strip culture, 417
Sulfate, nicotine, 277
Sulfur, 283
colloidal, 284
wettable, 283
Summer pruning, 225
Supplemental farm enterprises, 168
Systems of training grapes, 511
T
Tank, sprayer, 320
Tar-distillate emulsions, dilution
table, 290
INDEX
Tar lubricating oil, 279
Tar oil, 279
Temperature, common storage, 57
in relation to orchard location,
163
storage, for apple, 65
Thickness, growth in, 208
Thinning, apples, 448
as affecting annual bearing, 447
as affecting harvesting costs,
447
as affecting yield, 447
conditions making advisable, 443
costs, 450
fruit, 443
peaches, 450
plums, 452
results from, 445
time of, 448
Tillage, 412
Tobacco preparations, 277
Tools, pruning, 230
Topworking, by budding, 377
trees, 363
Tower, 322
sprayer, 322
Traction sprayer, 333
Training grapes, 509
systems of, 511
Trees, age and grade for planting,
183
apple, bearing and non-bearing
in U.S. 164
earing for, on arrival
nursery, 188
certified, 187
determining location
planting, 190
dwarf, 186
girdled, treatment of, 156
growth, 207
kinds of, 207
from
of for
613
Trees, how they live and function,
218
number per acre in various
planting plans, 182
on own roots, 376
pedigree, 186
physiology and nutrition, 217
planting, 194, 195
protection from mice and rab-
bits, 154
protection while planting, 195
pruning, old bearing, 229
roots of, on arrival
nursery, 189
young bearing, 228
young non-bearing, 226
purchasing for planting, 182
removing from orchard, 267
replacing, 152
size of mature, as affecting plant-
ing distances, 179
sources for planting, 188
stocks for fruit, 205
topworking, 363
treatment after planting, 196
use of fertilizer in planting, 195
use of manure in planting, 195
value of dynamite in planting,
194
Triangular system of
planting, 181
Truck shipments of apples to New
York City, 75
Truck, sprayer, 322
from
orchard
U
U. S. Grades, apple, 21
U.S. Standard containers, 141
Unloads, apples, New York City
1932-39, 75
614
V
Varieties, blackberry, 560
selecting, 535
black raspberry, 560
blueberry, 574
characters and adaptations as
affecting selections for
planting, 176
commercial, strawberry, 492
cross-pollination as factor in
selections for planting, 178
currants and gooseberries, 565
dewberry, 560
selecting, 535
everbearing strawberry, 491
for orchard planting, 174
for planting, as affected by mar-
ket tendencies, 176
as determined by markets, 174
fruit, how to identify, 465
gooseberries and currants, 565
grapes, selecting, 499
of apples, as influencing package,
17
length of season required to
mature, 176
of Eastern and Western apples
on N. Y. market 1937-38,
91
picking dates of, 178
purple raspberry, 560
raspberry, selecting, 535
red raspberry, 559
strawberry, selecting, 470
Varieties and regions, apple, 196
apricot, 204
cherry, 203
peach, 201
pear, 202
plum, 204
guince, 204
INDEX
Ventilating common storage, 57, 63
Ventilator cars for apples, 97
Vinegar and cider, production and
value 1933 and 1938, 106
Vines, grape, setting, 501
Virus diseases, 531, 551
Vitis, 495
W
Water, as related to tree growth,
220
in relation to orchard location,
164
Water supply as affecting selection
of spray machinery, 308
Wax, alcoholic, 388
brush, 387
soft, 387
Wayside stands, 68
factors for success, 68
Western and Eastern apples, com-
parative sales of N. Y.
City 1937-38, 85
Western apple box, specifications,
20
Western apples, grades of, 24
on N. Y. market 1937-38, 90
sources of supply N. Y. City
1937-38, 88
varieties on N. Y. market 1937-
38, 92
Western boxes, packing in, 34
Wettable sulfur, 283
Whip grafting, 373
White oils, 280
Wholesale prices of apples by va-
rieties N. Y. City for 56
years, 100
Winter, preparing for, 152
protection, brambles, 558
grape vines, 527
strawberries, 484
INDEX | , 615
Wood tissues, injury from cold, | Yields, currant and gooseberry, 570
157 estimating, apple, 2
Wounds, protecting, pruning, 243 peach, 114
pear, 123
Y plums and prunes, 127
quince, 133
Yield and size of apple trees as strawberry, 488
affected by pruning, 227
Yields, blueberry, 580 Z,
brambles, 558
cherry, 129 Zinc arsenate, 276
THOTT
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