Grundriss der Indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde

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»ROPfiRTY or

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1 8 W

ARTES SCIENTIA VERITAS

r

GRUNDRISS DER INDO -ARISCHEN PHILOLOGIE UND ALTERTUMSKUNDE

(ENCYCLOPEOIA OF INDO -ARYAN RESEARCH)
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON G. BÜHLER.

III. BAND^ 1. HEFT A.

VEDIC MYTHOLOGY

•V ' '

BY

AfA. MACDONELL.

STRASSBURG

VERLAG VON KARL J. TRÜBNER

1897.

•

6:

■^. .

1952

3

GRUN0RI88 DER INDO- ARISCHEN PHILOLOGIE UND ALTERTUMSKUNDE

(ENCYCLOPEMA OF INDO-ARTAN RESEARCH)
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON G. BÜHLER.

m. BAND, I. HEFT A.

VEDIC MYTHOLOGY

BY

A. A. MACDONELL.

I. INTRODUCnON.

8 I. Religion and mythology. — Religion in its widest sense includes
on the one hand the conception which men entertain of the divine or
supematural powers and, on the other, that sense of the dependence of human
welfare on those powers which finds its expression in various forms of wor-
ship. Mythology is connected with the former side of religion as fumishing
the whole body of myths or stories which are told about gods and heroes and
which describe their character and origin, their actions and surroundings.
Such m3rths have their source in the attempt of the human mind, in a
primitive and unscientific age^ to explain the various forces and phenomena of
nature with which man is confronted. They represent in fact the conjectural
science of a primitive mental condition. For Statements which to the highly
civilised mind would be merely metaphorical, amount in that early stage to
explanations of the phenomena observed. The intellectual difhculties raised
by the course of the heavenly bodies, by the incidents of the thunderstorm,
by reflexions on the origin and Constitution of the outer world, here receive
their answers in the form of stories. The basis of these myths is the primitive
attitude of mind which regards all nature as an aggregate of animated entities.
A myth actually arises when the imagination interprets a natural event as
the action of a personified being resembling the human agent Thus the
Observation that the moon follows the sun without overtaking it, would have
been transformed into a myth bydescribing the former as a maiden following
a man by whom she is rejected. Such an original myth enters on the further
stage of poetical embellishment, as soon as it becomes the property of people
«ndowed with creative imagination. Various traits are now added according
to the individual fancy of the narrator, as the story passes from mouth to
mouth. The natural phenomenon begins to fade out of the picture as its
place is taken by a detailed representation of human passions. When the natural
basis of the tale is forgotten, new touches totally unconnected with its original
significance may be added or even transferred from other myths. When met
with at a late stage of its development, a myth may be so far overgrown
with secondary accretions unconnected with its original form, that its analysis
may be extremely difficult or even impossible. Thus it would be hard indeed
to discover the primary naturalistic elements in the characters or actions of
the Hellenic gods, if we knew only the highly anthropomorphic deities in the
plays of Euripides.

B. Delbrück, ZVP. 1865, pp. 266—99; Kuhn, Über Entwicklungsstufen der
Mythenbildung, Berliner Ak. der Wissenschaften 1873, pp. 123—51; Max Müller,
Comparative Mythology. Oxford Essays. II; Philosophy of Mythology. Selected
lado-arische Philologie. III. 1a. 1

2 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

Essays. I; Chips from a German Workship, IV», 155 — 201 ; Physical Religion 276— 8 ;
SCHWARTZ, Der Ursprung der Mythologie ; Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte,
Berlin 187 1, Preface; Müllenhoff in preface to Mannhardt's Mythologische For-
schungen, Strassburg 1884; Lang, Mythology. Encyclopaedia Britannica; Gruppe, Die
griechischen Culte und Mythen. Introduction ; Bloomfield, JAOS. XV, 135—6; F. B.
Jevons, Mythology. Chambers' Encyclopaedia ; Introduction to the History of Religion,
London 1896, pp. 23. 32. 249—69.

S 2. Characteristics of Vedic mythology. — Vedic mythology occupies
a very important position in the study of the history of religions. Its oldest
source presents to us an earlier stage in the evolution of beliefs based on the
personification and worship of natural phenomena, than any other literary
monument of the world. To this oldest phase can be traced by uninterrupted
development the germs of the religious beliefs of the great majority of the
modern Indians, the only brauch of the Indo-European race in which its
original nature worship has not been entirely supplanted many centuries ago
by a foreign monotheistic faith. The earliest stage of Vedic mythology is
not so primitive as was at one time supposed*, but it is sufficiently primitive
to enable us to see clearly enough the process of personification by which
natural phenomena developed into gods, a process not apparent in other
literatures. The mythology, no less than the language, is still transparent
enough in many cases to show the connexion both of the god and his name
with a physical basisj nay, in several instances the anthropomorphism is only
incipient. Thus usas, the dawn, is also a goddess wearing but a thin veil of
personification; and when agniy fire, designates the god, the personality of
the deity is thoroughly interpenetrated by the physical element.

The foundation on which Vedic mythology rests, is still the belief,
surviving from a remote antiquity, that all the objects and phenomena of
nature with which man is surrounded, are animate and divine. Everything
that impressed the soul with awe or was regarded as capable of exercising a
good or evil influence on man, might in the Vedic age still become a direct
object not only of adoration but of prayer. Heaven, earth, mountains, rivers^
plants might be supplicated as divine powers; thehorse,thecow,thebirdofomen,
and other animals might be invoked; even objects fashioned by the hand
of man, weapons, the war-car, the drum, the plough, as well as ritual im-
plements, such as the pressing-stones and the sacrificial post, might be adored.

This lower form of worship, however, occupies but a small space in
Vedic religion. The true gods of the Veda are glorified human beings, in-
spired with human motives änd passions, born like men, but immortal. They
are almost without exception the deified representatives of the phenomena or
agencies of nature*. The degree of anthropomorphism to which they have
attained, however, varies considerably. When the name of the god is the
same as that of his natural basis, the personification has not advanced beyond
the rudimentary stage. Such is the case with Dyaus, Heaven, PrthivI, Earth,
Sürya, Sun, U§as, Dawn, whose names represent the double character of
natural phenomena and of the persons presiding over them. Similarly
in the case of the two great ritual deities, Agni and Soma, the personifying
Imagination is held in check by the visible and tangible character of the
element of fire and the sacrificial draught, called by the same names, of
which they are the divine embodiments. When the name of the deity is
difFerent firom that of the physical Substrate, he tends to become dissociated
from the latter, the anthropomorphism being then more developed. Thus the
Manits or Storm-gods are farther removed from their origin than Väyu, Wind,
though the Vedic poets are still conscious of the connexion. Finally, when
in addition to the difference in name, the conception of a god dates from a

2. ChARACTERISTICS OF VeDIC MyTHOLOGY. 3. SOtJRCES OF V. M. 3

ö

pre-Vedic period, the severance may have become complete. Such is the
case with VaruQa, in whom the connexion can only be inferred from mytho-
logical traits surviving from an earlier age. The process of abstraction has
here proceeded so far, that Varuria's character resembles that of the divine
ruler in a monotheistic belief of an exalted type. Personification has, how-
ever, nowhere in Vedic raythology ättained to the individualLzed anthropo-
morphism characteristic of the Hellenic gods. The Vedic deities have but
very few distinguishing features, while many attributes and powers are shared
by all alike. This is partly due to the fact that the departments of nature
which they represent have often much in common, while their anthropomor-
phism is comparatively undeveloped. Thus the activity of a thunder-god, of
the fire-god in his lightning form, and of the storm-gods raight easily be de-
scribed in similar language, their main function in the eyes of the Vedic poets
being the discharge of rain. Again, it cannot be doubted that various Vedic
deities have started from the same source^ but have become differentiated
by an appellative denoting a particular attribute having gradually assumed an
independent character. Such is the case with the solar gods. There is, more-
over, often a want of clearness in the Statements of the Vedic poets about
the deeds of the gods; for owing to the character of the literature, myths
are not related but only alluded to. Nor can thorough consistency be ex-
pected in such mythological allusions when it is remembered that they are
made by a number of different poets, whose productions extend over a pro-
longed literary period.

1 BRI. XIII ff.; P. v. Bradke, Dyaus Asura, Halle 1885, 2— ll; ZDMG. 40,
670. — 2 ORV. 591—4. — 3 I« V. ScHROEDER, WZKM. 9, 125—6; cp. BRI. 25.

Works on Vedic Mythology in general: R. Roth, Die höchsten Götter der
arischen Völker, ZDMG. 6, 67— '77; 7, 607; Böhtlingk and Roth, Sanskritwörter-
buch, 7 vols. , St. Petersburg 1852—75; J. MuiR, Original Sanskrit Texts on the
Origin and History of the People of India, their Religion and Institutions, 5 vols.,
especially vols. 42 revised (1873) and $3 (1884); Grassmann, Wörterbuch zum Rig-
Veda, Leipzig 1873; Rig-Veda übersetzt und mit kritischen und erläuternden An-
merkungen versehen, 2 vols., Leipzig 1876 — 7; W. D. Whitney, Oriental and
Linguistic Studies, 2, 149 ff.; JAOS. 3, 291 ff. 331 ff.; P. Wurm, Geschichte der
indischen Religion, Basel 1874, pp. 21 — 54; A. Bercjaigne, La Religion V^dique
d'apris les Hymnes du Rigveda, 3 vols., Paris 1878 — 83; A. Ludwig, Der
Rigveda oder die heiligen Hymnen der Brähma^a. Zum ersten Male vollständig
ins Deutsche übersetzt. Mit Commentar und Einleitung. Prag, Wien, Leipzig
1876 — 88; F. Max Müller, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion,
London 1878; A. Kaegi, Der Rigveda, 2nd ed., Leipzig 1881; English Translation
by R. Arrowsmith, Boston 1886; A. Barth, The Religions of India, London
1882; A. Kuhn, Mythologische Studien. I^ : Die Herabkunft des Feuers und
des Göttertranks, Gütersloh 1886; L. v. Schröder, Indiens Litteratur und Kultur,
Leipzig 1887, pp. 45 — 145; P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Re-
ligionsgeschichte, Freiburg i.B., 1887, i,pp.346— 69; Pischel and Geldner, Vedische
Studien, vol. I, Stuttgart 1889, vol. II, part I 1892; A. Hillebrandt, Vedische
Mythologie, vol. I, Soma und verwandte Götter, Breslau 1891; P. Regnaud, Le
Rig-V^da et les Origines de la Mythologie indo-europ^enne, Paris 1892 (the author
follows principles of interpretation altogethcr opposed to those generally accepted).
£. Hardy, Die Vedisch-brahmanische Periode der Religion des alten Indiens,
Münster i. W. 1893; H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, Berlin 1894;
P. Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie mit besonderer Berück-
sichtigung der Religionen, vol. I, part i, Philosophie des Veda bis auf die
Upanishad's, Leipzig 1894; E. W. Hopkins, The Religions of India, Boston and
London 1895.

S 3. Sources of Vedic Mythology. — By far the most important
source of Vedic Mythology is the oldest literary monument of India, the
Rigveda. Its m3rthology deals with a number of coördinate nature gods of
varying importance. This polytheism under the influence of an increasing

1*

4 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

tendency to abstraction at the end of the Rigvedic period, exhibits in its latest
book the beginnings of a kind of monotheism and even signs of pantheism.
The hymns of this collection having been composed with a view to the sa-
crificial ritual, especially that of the Soma offering, fumish a disproportionate
presentment of the mythological material of the age. The great gods who
occupy an important position at the Soma sacrifice and in the worship of
the wealthy, stand forth prominently; but the mythology connected with spirits,
with witchcraft, with life after death, is almost a blank, for these spheres of
belief have nothing to do with the poetry of the Soma rite. Moreover, while
the character of the gods is very completely illustrated in these hymns, which
are addressed to them and extol their attributes, their deeds, with the ex-
ception of their leading exploits, are far less definitely described. It is only
natural that a collection of sacrificial poetry containing very little narrative
matter, should supply but a scattered and fragmentary account of this side
of mythology. The defective information given by the rest of the RV. re-
garding spirits, lesser demons, and the future life, is only very partially sup-
plied by its latest book. Thus hardly any reference is made even here to the
fate of the wicked after death. Beside and distinguished from the adoration
of the gods, the worship of dead ancestors, as well as to some extent
the deification of inanimate objects, finds a place in the religion of the
Rigveda.

The Sämaveda, containing but seventy-five verses which do not occur in
the RV., is of no importance in the study of Vedic mythology.

The more populär material of the Atharvaveda deals mainly with dom-
estic and magical rites. In the latter portion it is, along with the ritual text
of the Kausika sütra, a mine of information in regard to the spirit and demon
World. On this lower side of religion the Atharvaveda deals with notions of
greater antiquity than those of the Rigveda. But on the higher side of
religion it represents a more advanced stage. Individual gods exhibit a later
phase of development and some new abstractions are deified, while the general
character of the religion is pantheistic\ Hymns in praise of individual gods
are comparatively rare, while the simultaneous invocation of a number of
deities, in which their essential nature is hardly touched upon, is characteristic.
The deeds of the gods are extolled in the same stereotyped manner as in the
RV.; and the AV. can hardly be said to supply any important mythological
trait which is not to be found in the older collection.

The Yajurveda represents a still later stage. Its formulas being made
for the ritusd, are not directly addressed to the gods, who are but shadowy
beings having only a very loose connexion with the sacrifice. The most salient
features of the mythology of the Yajurveda are the existence of one chief
god, Prajäpati, the greater importance ofVi§^u, and^ the first appearance of an
old god of the Rigveda under the new name of Siva. Owing, however, to
the subordinate - position here occupied by the gods in comparison with the
ritual, this Veda yields but little mythological material.

Between it and^ the Brähmaijas, the most important of which are tlie
Aitareya and the Satapatha, there is no essential difference. The sacrifice
being the main object of interest, the individual traits of the gods have faded,
the general character of certain deities has been modified, and the importance
of others increased or reduced. Otherwise the pantheon of the Brähma^as
is much the same as that of the RV. and the AV., and the worship of in-
animate objects is still recognized. The main difference between the mytho-
logy of the RV. and the Brähmaijas is the recognized position of Prajäpati
or the Father-god as the chief deity in the latter. The pantheism of the

4. Method to be pursued.

Brähmanas is, moreover, explicit. Thus ^Prajäpati is said to be the All (SB.
i> 3» 5*°) or the All and everything (SB. i, 6, 4*; 4, 5, 7*).

The gods having lost their distinctive features, there is apparent a tend-
ency to divide them into groups. Thus it is characteristic of the period that
the supernatural powers form the two hostile camps of the Devas or gods
on the one hand and the Asuras or demons on die other. The gods are
further divided into the three classes of the terrestrial Vasus, the aerial Rudras,
and the celestial Ädityas (8 45). The most significant group is the repre-
sentative triad of Fire, Wind, and Sun. The formalism of these works further
shows itself in the subdivision of individual deities by the personification of
their various attributes. Thus they speak of an 'Agni, lord of food', *Agni,
lord of prayer' and so forth*.

The Brähmanas relate numerous myths in illustration of their main
subject-matter. Some of these are not referred to in the Samhitäs. But where
they do occur in the earlier literature, they appear in the Brähmai?as only as
developments of their older forms, and cannot be said to shed light on their
original forms, but only serve as a link between the m)rthological creations
of the oldest Vedic and of the post-Vedic periods.

« HRI. 153. — 3 BRI. 42; HRI. 182.

84. Method to be pursued. — Vedic mythology is the product of
an age and a country^ of social and climatic conditions far removed and
widely differing from our own. We have, moreover, here to deal not with
direct Statements of fact, but with the imaginative creations of poets whose
mental altitude towards nature was vastly different from that of the men of
to-day. The difficulty involved in dealing with material so complex andre-
presenting so early a stage of thought, is further increased by the character
of the poetry in which this thought is imbedded. There is thus perhaps no
subject capable of scientific treatment, which, in addition to requiring a certain
share of poetical insight, demands caution and sobriety of judgment more
urgently. Yet the stringency of method which is clearly so necessary, has
largely been lacking in the investigation of Vedic mythology. To this defect,
no less than to the inherent obscurity of the material, are doubtless in con-
siderable measure due the many and great divergences of opinion prevailing
among Vedic scholars on a large number of important mythological questions.

In the earlier period of Vedic studies there was a tendency to begin
research at the wrong end. The etymological equations of comparative
mythology were then made the starting point. These identifications, though
now mostly rejected, have continued to influence unduly the inter-
pretation of the mythological creations of the Veda. But even apart from
etymological considerations, theories have frequently been based on general
impressions rather than on the careful sifting of evidence, isolated and second-
ary traits thus sometimes receiving coördinate weight with what is primary.
An unmistakable blas has at the same time shown itself in favour of some
one particular principle of interpretation ^. Thus an unduly large number of
mythological figures have been explained as derived from dawn, lightning,
sun, or moon respectively. An ä priori bias of this kind leads to an un-
consciously partial utilization of the evidence.

Such being the case, it may pove useful to suggest some hints with a
view to encourage the Student in foUowing more cautious methods. On the
principle that scientific investigations should proceed from the better known
to the less known, researches which aim at presenting a true picture of the
character and actions of the Vedic gods, ought to begin not with the meagre

6 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, t a. Vedic Mythology.

and uncertain conclusions of comparative mythology, but with the infonnation
supplied by Indian literature, which contains a practically continuous record
of Indian mythology from its most ancient source in the RV. down to modern
times^ All the material bearing on any deity or myth ought to be collected,
grouped, and sifted by the comparison of parallel passages, before any con-
clusion is drawn^. In this process the primary features which form the basis
of the personification should be separated from later accretions.

As soon as a person has taken the place of a natural force in the
Imagination, the poetical fancy begins to weave a web of secondary myth,
into which may be introduced in the course of time material that has
nothing to do with the original creation, but is borrowed from elsewhere.
Primary and essential features, when the material is not too limited, betray
themselves by constant iteration. Thus in the Indra myth his fight with Vftra,
which is essential, is perpetually insisted on, while the isolated Statement that
he strikes Vftra's mother with his holt (i, 329) is clearly a later touch, added
by an individual poet for dramatic effect. Again, the epithet 'Vjtra-slaying',
without doubt originally appropriate to Indra alone,. is in the RV. several
times applied to the god Soma also. But that it is transferred from the
former to the latter deity, is sufficiently piain from the Statement that Soma
is *the Vftra-slaying intoxicating plant' (6, 17"), the juice of which Indra
regularly drinks before the fray. The transference of such attributes is parti-
cularly easy in the RV. because the poets are fond of celebrating gods in
couples, when both share the characteristic exploits and qualities of each other
(cp. S 44)- Attributes thus acquired must of course be eliminated from the
essential features. A similar remark applies to attributes and cosmic powers
which are predicated, in about equal degree, of many gods. They can have
no cogency as evidence in regard to a particular deity*. It is only when
such attributes and powers are applied in a predominant manner to an in-
dividual god, that they can be adduced with any force. For in such case it
is possible they might have started from the god in question and gradu-
ally extended to others. The fact must, however, be borne in mind in this
connexion, that some gods are celebrated in very many more hymns than
others. The frequency of an attribute applied to* different deities must there-
fore be estimated relatively. Thus an epithet connected as often with Varu^a
as with Indra, would in all probability be more essential to the character of
the former than of the latter. For Indra is invoked in about ten times as
many hymns as Varuna. The value of any particular passage as evidence
may be affected by the relative antiquity of the hymn in which it occurs.
A Statement occurring for the first time in a late passage may of course re-
present an old notion; but if it differs from what has been said on the same
point in a chronologically earlier hymn, it most probably furnishes a later
development. The tenth and the greater part of the first book of the RV.s
are therefore more likely to contain later conceptions than the other books.
Moreover, the exclusive connexion of the ninth book with Soma Pavamäna
may give a different complexion to mythological matter contained in another
book. Thus Vivasvat and Trita are here connected with the preparation of
Soma in quite a special manner (cp. SS 18, 23). As regards the Brähmarias,
great caution should be exercised in discovering historically primitive notions
in them; for they teem with far-fetched fancies, speculations, and identi-
fications^.

In adducing parallel passages as evidence, due regard should be paid
to the context. Their real value can often only be ascertained by a minute
and complex consideration of their surroundings and the association of ideas

5- The Avesta and Vedic Mythology.

which connects them with what precedes and foUows. After a careful estim-
ation of the internal evidence of the Veda, aided by such corroboration
as the later phases of Indian literature may afford, further light should be
sought from the closely allied mythology of the Iranians. Comparison with
it may confirm the results derived from the Indian material^ or when the
Indian evidence is inconclusive, may enable us either to decide what is old and
new or to attain greater definiteness in regard to Vedic conceptions. Thus
without the aid of the Avesta, it woiild be impossible to arrive at anything
like certain conclusions about the original nature of the god Mitra.

The further Step may now be taken of examining the results of com-

parative mythology, in order to ascertain if possible, wherein consists the Vedic

heritage firom the Indo-European period and what is the original significance

of that heritage. Finally, the teachings of ethnology cannot be neglected, when

it becomes necessary to ascertain what elements survive from a still remoter

stage of human development Recourse to all such evidence beyond the ränge of

the Veda itself must prove a safeguard against on the one hand assuming that

various mythological elements are of purely Indian origin, or on the other hand

treating the Indo-European period as the very starting point of all mythological

notions. The latter view would be as far from the trudi as the assumption that

the Indo-European language represents the very beginnings of Aryan speech '.

X Oldenberg, ZDMG. 49, 173. — • PVS. XXVI— VIII. — 3 Bloompield,

ZDMG. 48, 542. — 4 HRI. 51. — 5 Cp. Oldenbero, Die Hymnen des Rigveda I,

Berlin 1888; E. V. Arnold, KZ. 34, 297. 344; Hopkins, JAOS. 17, 23—92. —

6 HRI. 183. 194; v. Schröder, WZKM. 9, 120. — 7 ORV. 26—33.

Cp. also Ludwig, Über Methode bei Interpretation des Rgveda, Prag 1890;
HiLLEBRANDT, Vedainterpretation, Breslau 1895.

S 5. The Avesta and Vedic Mythology. — We have seen that the
evidence of the Avesta cannot be ignored by the Student of Vedic mytho-
logy. The afhnity of the oldest form of the Avestan language with the dialect
of the Vedas is so great in syntax, vocabulary, diction, metre, and general
poetic style, that by the mere application of phonetic laws, whole Avestan
stanzas may be translated word for word into Vedic, so as to produce verses
correct not only in form but in poetic spirit*. The afhnity in the domain of
mythology is by no means so great. For the religious reform of Zarathu$tra
brought about a very considerable displacement and transformation of mytho-
logical conceptions. If therefore we possessed Avestan literature as old as
that of the RV., the approximation would have been much greater in this
respect. Still, the agreements in detail, in mythology no less than in cult,
are surprisingly numerous. Of the many identical terms connected with the
ritual it is here only necessary to mention Vedic yajha »= Avestan yasna,
sacrifice^ hotr = zaotar, priest, atharvan «= athravan, fire-priest, rta = asa order,
rite, and above all soma — haoma, the intoxicating juice of the Soma plant, in
both cults offered as the main libation, pressed, purified by a sieve, mixed
with milk, and described as the lord of plants, as growing on the mountains,
and as brought down by an eagle or eagles (cp. 8 37). It is rather with
the striking correspondences in mythology that we are concemed. In both
religions the term asura «= ahura is applied to the highest gods, who in
both are conceived as mighty kings, drawn through tlie air in their war
chariots by swift steeds, and in character benevolent, almost entirely
free from guile and immoral traits. Both the Iranians and the Indians ob-
served the cult of fire, though under the different names of Agni and Ätar.
The Waters, äpalf. = äpo, were invoked by both, though not frequently*.
The Vedic Mitra is the Avestan Mithra, the sun god. The Äditya Bhaga
corresponds to bagha^ a god in general; Väyu, Wind is vayu^ a genius of

8 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

air; Apäm napät, the Son of Waters = Apäm napät; Gandharva = Gandarewa

and Krsänu = Keresäni are divine beings connected with soma = haoma.

To Trita Äptya correspond two mythical personages named Thrita and Äthwya,

and to Indra Vrtrahan the demon Indra and the genius of victory Verethragna.

Yama, son of Vivasvat, ruler of the dead, is identical with Yima, son of

Vlvanhvant, ruler of paradise. The parallel in character, though not in name,

of the god Varuna is Ahura Mazda, the wise spirit The two religions also have

in common as designations of evil spirits the terms druh = druj and yäiu \

X Bartholomae in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie,
vol. I, p. I. — * Spiegel, Die Arische Periode, Leipzig 1887, p. 155. — 3 Spiegel,
op. cit. 225 — 33; Gruppe, Die griechischen Culte und Mythen, I, 86—97; ORV. 26
-33; HRI, 167-8.

S 6. Comparative Mythology. — In regard to the Indo-European
period we are on far less certain ground. Many equations of name once
made in the first enthusiasm of discovery and generally accepted, have since
been rejected and very few of those that remain rest on a firm foundation.
Dyaüs = Zeo; is the only one which can be said to be beyond the ränge
of doubt Varuna = Oöpavo? though presenting phonetic difficulties, seems
possible. The rain-god Parjanya agrees well in meaning with the Lithuanian
thunder-god Perkunas, but the phonetic objections are here still greater. The
name of Bhaga is identical with the Slavonic bogu as well as the Persian bagha,
but as the latter two words mean only *god', the Indo-European word cannot
have designated any individual deity. Though the name of U§as is radically
cognate to Aurora and 'Ho)?, the cult of Dawn as a goddess is a specially
Indian development. It has been inferred from the identity of mythological
traits in the thunder-gods of the various branches of the Indo-European
family, that a thunder-god existed in the Indo-European period in spite of
the absence of a common name. There are also one or two other not im-
probable equations based on identity of character only. That the conception
of higher gods, whose nature was connected with light ( Ydiv^ to shine) and
heaven {div) had already been arrived at in the Indo-European period, is
shown by the common name deivos (Skt. deva-s^ Lith. dtva-s, Lat deu-s), god.
The conception of Earth as a mother (common to Vedic and Greek mytho-
logy) and of Heaven as a father (Skt. Dyaüs pUar^ Gk. Zeo iratep, Lat
Jupiter) appears to date from a still remoter antiquity. For the idea of
Heaven and Earth being universal parents is familiär to the mythology of
China and New Zealand and may be traced in that of Eg)^t *. The practice
of magical rites and the worship of inanimate objects still surviving in the
Veda, doubtless came down from an equally remote stage in the mental
development of mankind, though the possibility of a certain influence exer-
cised by the primitive aborigines of India on their Aryan conquerors cannot
be altogether excluded.

I Gruppe op. cit. I, 97— 121 ; ORV. 33—8; HRI. 168—9. — a Tylor, Primitive
Culture I, 326; Lang, Mythology. Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 150 — i.

II. VEDIC CONCEPTIONS OF THE WORLD AND ITS ORIGIN.

S 7. Cosmology. — The Universe, the stage on which the actions of
the gods are enacted, is regarded by the Vedic poets as divided into the
three domains* of earth, air or atmosphere, and heaven ^ The sky when
regarded as the whole space above the earth, forms with the latter the entire
universe consisting of the upper and the nether world. The vault {näka) of
the sky is regarded as the limit dividing the visible upper world from the

6. COMPARATIVE MyTHOLOGY. 7. COSMOLOGY.

third or invisible world of heaven, which is the abode of light and the dwelling
place of the gods. Heaven, air, and earth form the favourite triad of the
RV., constantly spoken of explicitly or implicitly (8, lo^ 90^ &c.). The solar
phenomena which appear to take place on the vault of the sky, are referred
to heaven, while those of lightning, rain, and wind belong to the atmosphere.
But when heaven designates the whole space above the earth both classes
of phenomena are spoken of as taking place there. In a passage of the AV.
(4, 143 = VS. 17, 67) the *vault of the sky* comes between the triad of
earth, air, heaven and the world of light, which thus forms a fourth division \
Each of the three worlds is also subdivided. Thus three earths, three atmo-
spheres, three heavens are sometimes mentioned; or when the universe is
looked upon as consisting of two halves, we hear of six worlds or Spaces
irajämsi). This subdivision probably arose from the loose use of the word
prthivi *earth' (i, 108 9- "; 7, 104")^ in the plural to denote the three worlds
(just as the dual pitarau, *two fathers* regularly denotes 'father and mother').

The earth is variously called bhümi, ksam^ ksä, gmä^ the great {ma/n}^
the broad {prthivi or urvt)^ the extended (uttäna)^ the boundless (apära)^ or
the place here (Jdam) as contrasted with the upper sphere (i, 22*7. 154 »'3).

The conception of the earth being a disc surrounded by an ocean does
not appear in the Saiphitäs. But it was naturally regarded as circular, being
compared with a wheel (10, 89*) and expressly called circular (pariman4aid)
in the SB.^

The four points of the compass are already mentioned in the RV. in
an adverbial form (7, 72^; 10, 36*^. 42") and in the AV. as substantives
(AV. 15, 2* ff.). Hence *four quarters' {pradiiah) are spoken of (10, 19*^),
a term also used as synonymous with the whole earth (i, 164^*), and the
earth is described as *four-pointed' (10, 583), Five points are occasionally
mentioned (9, 86^9. AV. 3, 24^ &c.), when that in the middle (10,42";,
where the Speaker Stands, denotes the fifth. The AV. also refers to six (the
zenith being added) and even seven points 5. The same points may be
meant by the seven regions {dUaf^) and the seven places (dMma) of the
earth spoken of in the RV. (9, 1143; i, 22'^).

Heaven or div is also commonly termed vyoman^ sky, or as pervaded
with light, the *luminous space', rocana (with or without divah). Designations
of the dividing firmament besides the *vault' are the 'summit' (säuu), 'surface'
(zris/ap)^ *ridge* {Pfstka)^ as well as the Compound expressions *ridge of the
vaulf (i, 1255 cp. 3, 2*") and 'summit of the vault' (8, 92^)3. Even a 'third
ridge in the luminous space of heaven' is mentioned (9, 86 *7). When three
heavens are distinguished they are very often called the three luminous spaces
{M rocana)^ a highest {uttamd)^ a middle, and a lowest being specified (5, 60^).
The highest is also termed uitara and pärya (4, 26^; 6, 40 5). In this third
or highest heaven (very oflen paratne rocane or vyoman) the gods, the fathers,
and Soma are conceived as abiding.

Heaven and earth are coupled as a dual conception called by the terms
rodasiy ksom, dvyäväprthivi and others (S 44), and spoken of as the two
halves (2, 27 *s). The combination with the semi-spherical sky causes the
notion of the earth's shape to be modified, when the two are called 'the two
great bowls {camva) tumed towards each other' (3, 55'°). Once they are
compared to the wheels at the two ends of an axle (10, 89*).

The RV. makes no reference to the supposed distance between heaven
and earth, except in such vague phrases as that not even the birds can soar
to the abode of Vi§nu (i, 1555). But the AV. (10, 8**) says that *the two
wings of the yellow bird (the sun) flying to heaven are 1000 days* journey

lo III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

apart'. A similar notion is found in the AB., where it is remarked (2, 17*)
that *iooo days' journey for a horse the heavenly world is distant from here'.
Another Brähmana states that the heavenly world is as far from this world
as 1000 cows Standing on each other (PB. 16, 8^; 21, i^).

The air or intermediate Space {antariksa) is hardly susceptible of per-
soniücation. As the region of mists and cloud, it is also called raj'as which
is described as watery (i, 124^ cp. 5, 85*) and is sometimes thought of
as dark, when it is spoken of as *black' (i, 35''^*^; 8,43^). The triple
subdivision is referred to as the three Spaces or rajämsi (4, 53*; 5, 69*).
The highest is then spoken of as uttama (9, 22 5), parama (3, 30*), or trfiya^
the third (9, 74^; 10, 45 3. 123*;, where the waters and Soma are and the
celestial Agni is produced. The two lower Spaces are within the ränge of
our perception, but the third belongs to Vi§Qu (7, 99*cp. 1,1555). The
latter seems to be the *mysterious* space once referred to elsewhere (10, 1057).
The twofold subdivision of the atmosphere is commoner. Then the lower
(uparä) or terrestrial {pärthivä) is contrasted with the heavenly {divyam or
divah) Space (i, 62^; 4, 533). The uppermost Stratum, as being contiguous
with heaven (div) in the twofold as well as the triple division, seems often
to be loosely employed as synonymous wth heaven in the strict sense.
Absolute definiteness or consistency in the Statements of different poets or
even of the same poet could not reasonably be expected in regard to such
matters.

The air being above the earth in the threefold division of the universe,
its subdivisions, whether two or three, would naturally have been regarded
as above it also; and one verse at least (i, 81 ^cp. 90 7) clearly shows that
the 'terrestrial Space' is in this position. Three passages, however, of the
RV. (6,9^; 7,80'; 5, 8i*) have been thought to lend themselves to the
view^ that the lower atmosphere was conceived as under the earth, to account
for the course of the sun during the night. The least indefinite of these
three passages (5, 81^) is to the effect that Savitr, the sun, goes round night
on both sides {ubhayatah), This may, however, mean nothing more than
that night is enclosed between the limits of sunset and sunrise. At any rate,
the view advanced in the AB. (3, 44*) as to the sun's course during the night
is, that the luminary shines upwards at night, while it turns round so as to
shine downwards in the daytime. A similar notion may account for the
Statement of the RV. that the light which the sun's steeds draw is sometimes
bright and sometimes dark (i, 1155), or that the rajas which accompanies
the sun to the east is different from the light with which he rises (10, 373).

There being no direct reference to the sun passing below the earth, the
balance of probabilities seems to favour the view that the luminary was
supposed to retum towards the east the way he came, becoming entirely
darkened during the retum journey. As to what becomes of the stars during
the daytime, a doubt is expressed (i, 24"), but no conjecture is raade.

The atmosphere is often called a sea (samudra) as tlie abode of the
celestial waters. It is also assimilated to the earth, inasmuch as it has
mountains (i, 32* &c.) and seven streams which flow there (i, 32*'&:c.),
when the conflict with the demon of drought takes place. Owing to the
obvious resemblance the term 'mountain' {parvata) thus very often in the
RV. refers to clouds^, the figurative sense being generally clear enough. The
Word *rock* {adri) is further regularly used in a mythological sense for *cloud'
as enclosing the cows released by Indra and other gods^.

The rainclouds as containing the waters, as dripping, moving and roaring,
are peculiarly liable to theriomorphism as cows", whose milk is rain.

8. COSMOGONY. JI

The cosmic order or law prevailing in nature is recognised under the
name of rta " (properly the *course' of things), which is considered to be
under the guardianship of the highest gods. The same word also designates
*order' in the moral world as truth and 'right', and in the religious world as
sacrifice or 'rite'.

» Roth, ZDMG. 6, 68. — 2 Cp. Sp.AP. 122; KRV. 34, notc 118. — 3 Hopkins,
AJP. 4, 189. — 4 BoLLENSEN, ZDMG. 41, 494. — 5 Bloomfield, AJP. 12, 432. —
6 Cp. Weber, IS. lo, 358—64. — 7 AIL. 357—9. — » KHF. 178; Delbrück, ZVP.
1865, pp. 284—5. — 9 KHF. 187; Zft. f. deutsche Mythologie, 3, 378. — »o GW.,
s. V. go\ WVB. 1894, p. 13. — " Ludwig, Religiöse und philosophische Anschau-
ungen des Veda (1875), p. 15; LRV. 3, 284—5; Harlez, JA. (1878), ii, 105—6;
Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman, 13—4; OGR. 198. 243; KRV. 28; BRV. 3, 220 ;
WC. 91—7. 100; Sp.AP. 139; ORV. 196-201; Jackson, Trans, of loüi Or. Con-
gress, 2, 74.

Bruce, Vedic conceptions of the Earth, JRAS. 1862, p. 321 ff.; BRV. I, 1—3;
"Wallis, Cosmology of the Rigveda (London 1887), 111—17.

S 8. Cosmogony. — The cosmogonic mythology of the RV. fluctuates
between two theories, which are not mutually exclusive, but may be found
combined in the same verse. The one regards the universe as the result of
mechanical production, the work of the carpenter's and joiner's skill; the other
represents it as the result of natural generation.

The poets of the RV. often employ the metaphor of building in its
various details, when speaking of the formation of the world. The act of
measuring is constantly referred to. Thus Indra measured the six regions,
made the wide expanse of earth and the high dorne of heaven (6, 47'''*).
Yi$Qu measured out the terrestrial spaces and made fast the abode on high
(i, 154"). The measuring instrument, sometimes mentioned (2, 15^; 3, 38-^),
is the sun, with which Varuiia performs the act (5, 855). The Fathers
measured the two worlds with measuring rods and made them broad (3, 38 -^
cp. I, 190*). The measurement naturally begins in front or the east Thus
Indra measured out as it were a house with measures from the front (2, 15'
cp- 7> 99*)- Connected with this idea is that of spreading out the earth, an
action attributed to Agni, Indra, the Maruts, and others. As the Vedic house
was built of wood, the material is once or twice spoken of as timber. Thus
the poet asks: *What was the wood, what the tree out of which they fashioned
heaven and earth?* (10, 317= 10, 8i*). The answer given to this question
in a Brähmana is that Brahma was the wood and the tree (TB. 2, 8, 9*).
Heaven and earth are very often described as having been supported {skabh
or stabh) with posts (skambha or skambhana), but the sky is said to be
rafterless (2, 15*; 4, 56^; 10, 149*), and that it never falls is a source of
wonder (5, 29*; 6, 17 7; 8, 45^). The framework of a door is called ätä;
in such a frame of heaven Indra fixed the air (i, 56 5). The doors of the
cosmic house are the portals of the east through which the moming light
enters (1,113*; 4,51*; 5,45'). Foundations are sometimes alluded to.
Thus Savitr made fast the earth with bands (10, 149*), Visou fixed it with
pegs (7, 99 3), and Brhaspati supports its ends (4, 50* cp. 10, 89*). The
agents in the construction of the world are either the gods in general or
various individual gods; but where special professional skill seemed to be
required in details, Tva§tr> the divine carpenter, or the deft-handed Rbhus
are mentioned. Little is said as to their motive; but as man builds his house
to live in, so of Vi§Eiu at least it is indicated that he measured or stretched
out the regions as an abode for man (6, 49^^. 695, cp. i, 155*).

The notion of parentage as a creative agency in the universe, chiefly
connected with the birth of the -sun at dawn and with the production of rain

12 IIL Reugion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic M\thology.

after drought, has three principle applications in the RV. The first is tem-
poral, as involving the idea of priority. One phenomenon preceding another
is spoken of as its parent. Thus the daijvns generate (Jan) the sun and the
morning sacrifice (7, 78^), while Dawn herseif is bom of Night (i, 1239).
As the point of view is changed, contradictions wth regard to such relation-
ships naturally arise (q). p. 48). When the rising of the dawn is ascribed
to the sacriüce of the Fathers, the explanation is to be found in this notion
of priority. Secondly, a local apphcation frequently occurs. The Space in
which a thing is contained or produced is its father or mother. Dlustralions
of this are fumished by purely figurative Statements. Thus the quiver is
called the father of the arrows (6, 7 5 5) or the bright steeds of the sun are
terraed the daughters of his car (i, 50^). This idea of local parentage is
especially connected wiih heaven and earth. Patemity is the characteristic
feature in the personification of Dyaus (see S 1 1 )> and Dawn is constantly
called the *daughler of Heaven'. Similarly the Earth, who produces Vegetation
on her broad bosom (5, 84-5), is a mother (i, 89-* &c.J. Heaven and earth
äre, however, more often found coupled as universal parents,*^ cüuception
obvious enough from the fact that heaven fertilizes the earth by the descent
iof moisture and light, and further developed by the Observation that both
supply nourishment to living beings, the one in the form of rain, the other
in that of herbage. They are characteristically the parents of the gods (S 44)-
As the latter are often said to have created heaven and earth, we thus arrive
at the paradox of the Vedic poets that the children produced their own
parents; Indra, for instance, being described as having begotten his father
and mother from his own body (i, 159*; 10, 54^). Again, the raincloud
cow is the mother of the lightning calf, or the heavenly waters, as carrying
the embryo of the aerial fire, are its mothers, for one of the forms of the
fire-god is *the son of waters' (S 24). *Son of the steep' also appears to
be a name of lightning in the AV. (i, 13**^; cp. 26^ and RV. 10, 142-).
Thirdly, the notion of parentage arises from a generic point of view: he
who is the chief, the most prominent member of a group, becomes their
parent Thus Väyu, Wind, is father of the Storm-gods (i, 134*), Rudra,
father of the Maruts or Rudras, Soma, father of plants, while Sarasvati is
mother of rivers.

There are also two minor applications of the idea of patemity in the
RV. As in the Semitic languages, an abstract quality is quite frequently em-
ployed in a figurative sense (which is sometimes mythologically developed)
to represent the parent of sons who possess or bestow that quality in
an eminent degree. Thus the gods in general are sons {sünavah or puträJi)
of immortality* as well as sons of skill, daksa (8, 2 5 5; cp. S 19)- Agni is
the 'son of strength' or of *force' (S 35). Pü§an is the *child of setting
free'*. Indra is the 'son oftruth' (8, 58^), the 'child of cow-getting' (4,32"),
and the 'son- of might' (Javasaijt, 4, 24*; 8, 81 '*, his mother twice being called
iavasij 8, 45^. 66 -j. Mitra-Varuna are the 'children of great might'. Another
application is much less common. As a father transmits his qualities to his
son, his name is also occasionally transferred, something like a modern sur-
name. Thus viJvarupa, an epithet of Tva§tf, becomes the proper name of
his son. Analogously the name of Vivasvat is applied to his son Manu in
the sense of the patronymic Vairasvata (Väl. 4*).

A mythological account of the origin of the universe, involving neither
manufacture nor generation, is given in one of the latest hymns of the RV.,
the well-known furusa-sükta (10, 90). Though several details in this myth
point to the most recent period of the RV., the main idea is very primitive,

8. COSMOGONY. I

»)

as it accounts for the formation of the world from the body of a giant.
With him the gods performed a sacrifice, when his head became the sky,
bis navel the air, and his feet the earth. From his mind sprang the moon,
firom his eye the sun, from his mouth Indra and Agni, from his breath, wind.
The four castes also arose from him. His mouth became the örähmana.
his arms the räjanya or warrior, his thighs the vaUya^ and his feet the
iüdra. The interpretation given in the hymn itcelf is pantheistic, for it is
there said (v. 2) that Puru§a is *all this, both what has become and what
shall be'. In the AV. (10, 17) and the Upani§ads (Mu^>(J- Up. 2, i*°)
Piiru§a is also pantheistically interpreted as identical with the universe. He
is also identified with Brahma (Chänd. Up. i, 7^). In the SB. (11, i, 6*) he
is the same as Prajäpati, the creator.

There are in the last book of the RV. some hymns which treat the
origin of the world philosophically rather than mythologically. Various passages
show that in the cosmological speculation of the RV. the sun was regarded
as an important agent of generation. Thus he is called the soul (ätmä) of
all that moves and Stands (i, 115*)- Statements such as that he is caJled
by many names though one (i, 164*^; 10, 1145 cp. Väl. 10') indicate that his
nature was being tentatively abstracted to that of a supreme god, nearly
approaching that of the later conception of Brahma. In this sense the sun
is once glorified as a great power of the universe under the name of the
*golden embryo', hiranya-garb/ia, in RV. 10, 121. ^ It is he who measures
out Space in the air and shines where the sun rises (vv. ^ % In the last
verse of this hymn, he is called Prajäpati ♦, *lord of created beings*, the name
which became that of the chief god of the Brähmanas. It is significant that
in the only older passage of the RV. in which it occurs (4, 53 *), prajäpati is
an epithel of the solar deity Savitr, who in the same hymn (v. ^) is said to
rule over what moves and Stands 5.

There are two other cosmogonic hymns which both explain the origin
of the universe as a kind of evolution of the existent {sat) from the non-existent
(asat). In IG, 72* it is said that Brahma^aspati forged together this world
^e a smith. From the non-existent the existent was produced. Thence in
succession arose the earth, the spaces, Aditi with Dak$a; and after Aditi the
gods were bom. The gods then brought forward the sun. There were eight
sons of Aditi, but the eighth, Märtä^<}a, she cast away; she brought him to
be bom and to die (i. e. to rise and set). Three stages can be distinguished
in this hymn: first the world is produced, then the gods, and lastly the sun.

In RV. IG, 129, a more abstract and a very sublime hymn, it is affirmed
that nothing existed in the beginning, all being void. Darkness and space
enveloped the undifFerentiated waters (cp. 10, 82^ 121', AV. 2, 8). The
one primordial substance {ekam) was produced by heat Then desire {käma),
the first seed of mind (manas) arose. This is the bond between the non-
existent and the existent. By this emanation the gods came into being. But
here the poet, overcome by his doubts, gives up the riddle of creation as
nnsolvable. A short h3rmn of three stanzas (10, 190) forms a sequel to the
more general evolution of that just described. Here it is stated that from
heat {tapas) was produced order (r/tf); then night, the ocean, the year; the
Creator (dhäta) produced in successiofi sun and moon, heaven and earth,
air and ether.

In a similar strain to RV. 10, 129 a Brähma^a passage declares that
*fonnerly nothing existed, neither heaven nor earth nor atmosphere, which
being non-existent resolved to come into being' (TB. 2, 2, 9 ^ ff.). The regulär
cosmogonic view of the Brähmanas requires the agency of a creator, who is

14 in. Religion, weltu Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

not, however, always the starting point. The creator here is Prajäpati or
the personal Brahma, who is not only father of gods, men, and demons, but
is the All. Prajäpati is here an anthropomorphic representation of the desire
which is the first seed spoken of in RV. lo, 129. In all these accounts the
starting point is either Prajäpati desiring offspring and creating, or eise the
primeval waters, on which floated Hiranyagarbha the cosmic golden eggy
whence is produced the spirit that desires and creates the Universe. This
fundamental contradiction as to the priority of Prajäpati or of the waters
appears to be the result of combining the theory of evolution with that of
creation. Besides this there are many minor conflicts of Statement, as, for,
instance, that the gods create Prajäpati and that Prajäpati creates the gods 7.
The account given in the Chändogya Brähma^a (5, 19) is that not-being
became being; the latter changed into an egg, which alter a year by Splitting
in two became heaven and earth; whatever was produced is the sun, which
is Brahma* (cp. Ch. Up. 3, i9*~*). Again, in the Bfhadäranyaka Upani§ad
(5> 6 0j the Order of evolution is thus stated; In the beginning waters were
this (universe); they produced the real (safyam); from this was produced
Brahma, from Brahma Prajäpati, from Prajäpati the gods.

The AU-god appears as a creator in the AV. under the new names of
Skambha, Support, Präna^, the personified breath of life (AV. 11, 4), Rohita,
as a name of the sun, Käma, Desire, and various others *°. The most notable
cosmogonic myth of the Brähma^as describes the raising of the submerged
earth by a boar, which in post- Vedic mythology developed into an Avatär
of Vi§nu.^\

1 OST. 5, 52. — a OST. 5, 175, notc 271 ; BRV. 2, 422 ff.; Darmesteter, Haur-
vata^ et Amcretät, 83; ORV. 232, note 2.-3 SPH. ^7—8; HRI. 208. — 4 SPH.
29. — 5 OGR. 295; WC. 50—1. — 6 OST. 5, 48. — 7 OST. 4, 20 fr.; HRI. 208-9.
— 8 Weber, IS. i, 261. — 9 SPH. 69—72. — »o HRI. 209. — " Macdonell,
JRAS. 1895, PP- 178—89.

Haug, Die Kosmogonie der Inder, Allgemeine Zeitung, 1873, p. 2373 ff.; Weber, IS.
9, 74; Ludwig, Die philosophischen und religiösen Anschauungen des Veda; AIL.
217; BRI. 30 — i; ScHERMAN, Philosophische Hymnen aus der Rig- und Atharva-
veda Samhitä, München 1887; Lukas, Die Grundbegriffe in den Kosmogonien der
alten Völker, Leipzig 1893, pp. 65—99.

S 9. Origin of gods and men. — As most of the Statements con-
tained in the Vedas about the origin of the gods have already been mentioned,
only a brief summary need here be added. In the philosophical hymns the
origin of the gods is mostly connected with the element of water'. In the
AV. (10, 7^5) they are said to have arisen from the non-existent. According
to one cosmogonic hymn (10, 129^) they were bom after the creation of
the universe. Otherwise tliey are in general described as the children of
Heaven and Earth. In one passage (10, 63^) a triple origin, apparently
corresponding to the triple division of Üie universe, is ascribed to the gods,
when they are said to have been *bom from Aditi, from the waters, from
the earth' (cp. i, 139")- According no doubt to a secondary conception,
certain individual gods are spoken of as having begotten others. Thus the
Dawn is called the mother of the gods (i, 113*^) and Brahmaijiaspati (2, 26 3),
as well as Soma_ (9, 87 *), is said to be their father. A group of seven or
eight gods, the Adityas, are regarded as the sons of Aditi. In the AV. some
gods are spoken of as fathers, others as sons^ (AV. i, 30*).

The Vedic conceptions on the subject of the origin of man are rather
fluctuating, but the human race appear generally to have been regarded as
descended from a first man. The latter is called either Vivasvat's son Manu,
who was the first sacrificer (10, 637) and who is also spoken of as father

9- Origin of gods and men. io. General character and Classification. 15

Manus (1, 80'^); or he is Yama Vaivasvata, Vivasvat's son, who with his

twin sister Yami produced the human race. The origin of men, when thought

of as going back beyond this first ancestor, seems to have been conceived

as celestial. Yivasvat (S 18) is the father of the primeval twins, while once

the celestial Gandharva and the water nymph are designated as their highest

kin (10, IQ*). Men's relationship to the gods is sometimes also alluded to^;

and men must have been thought of as included among the offspring of

Heaven and Earth, the great parents of all that exists. Again, Agni is said

to have begotten the offspring of men (i, 96 ''^), and the Angirases, the

semi-divine ancestors of later priestly families, are described as his sons.

Various other human families are spoken of as independently descended

from the gods through their founders Atri, Ka^va, and others (i, 139^).

Vasi^tha (7, 33**) was miraculously begotten by Mitra and Varupa, Üie divine

nymph Urvasi having been his mother. To quite a different order of ideas

belongs the conception of the origin of various classes of men from parts

of the World giant Puru§a* (S 8, p. 13).

X SPH. 32. — 2 OST. 5, 13 f., 23 f., 38 f. — 3 BRV. I, 36. — 4 ORV. ?75-7.
125—8.

ni. THE VEDIC GODS.

S 10. General character and Classification. — Indefiniteness of out-
line and lack of individuality characterize the Vedic conception of the gods.
This is mainly due to the fact that they are nearer to the physical pheno-
mena which they represent, than the gods of any other Indo-European people.
Thus the ancient Vedic interpreter Yäska' (Nir. 7, 4) speaking of the nature
of the gods, remarks that what is seen of thera is not anthropomorphic at
all, as in the case of the Sun^ the Earth, and others. The natural bases of
the Vedic gods have, to . begin with, but few specific characteristics, while they
share some of the attributes of other phenomena belonging to the same
domain. Thus Dawn, Sun, Fire have the common features of being luminous,
dispelling darkness, appearing in the morning. The absence of distinctiveness
must be still greater when several deities have sprung from different aspects
of one and the same phenomenon. Hence the character of each Vedic god
is made up of only a few essential traits combined with a number of other
features common to all the gods, such as brilliance, power, benefiicence, and
wisdom. Certain great cosmical functions are predicated of nearly every
leading deity individually. The action of supporting or establishing heaven
and earth is so generally attributed to them, that in the AV. (19, 32) it is
even ascribed to a magical bunch of darbha grass. Nearly a dozen gods
are described as having created the two worlds, and rather more are said to
have produced the sun, to have placed it in the sky, or to have prepared
a path for it. Four or fiive are also spoken of as having spread out the
earth, the sky, or the two worlds. Several (Sürya, Savitr, Pü§an, Indra, Pra-
janya, and the Adityas) are lords of all that moves and is stationary.

Such common features tend to obscure what is essential, because in
hymns of prayer and praise they naturally assume special prominence. Again,
gods belonging to dififerent departments, but having prominent functions in
common, are apt to be approximated. Thus Agni, primarily the god of
terrestrial fire, dispels the demons of darkness with his light, whUe Indra, the
aerial god of the thunderstorm, slays them with his lightning. Into the con-
ception of the fire-god further enters his aspect as lightning in the atmosphere.
The assimilation is increased by such gods often being invoked in pairs.

i6 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kun55t. i a. Vedic Mythology.

These combinations result in attributes peculiar to the one god attaching them-
selves to the other, even when the latter appears alone. Thus Agni comes
to be called Soma-drinker, Vrtra-slayer, winner of cows and waters, sun and
dawns, attributes all primarily belonging to Indra.

The indefiniteness of outline caused by the possession of so many com-
mon attributes, coupled with the tendency to wipe out the few distinctive
ones by assigning nearly every power to every god, renders identification of
one god with another easy. Such identifications are as a matter of fact
frequent in the RV.* Thus a poet addressing the fire-god exclaims: *Thou
at thy birth, O Agni, art Varuija; when kindled thou becomest Mitra, in thee,
O son of strength, all gods are centred; thou art Indra to the worshipper'
(5, 3*). Reflexions in particular on the nature of Agni, so important a god
in the eyes of a priesthood devoted to a fire cult, on his many mani-
festations as individual fires on earth, and on his other aspects as atmospheric
fire in lightning and as celestial üre in the sun, aspects which the Vedic
poets are fond of alluding to in riddles, would suggest the idea that various
deities^ are but different forms of a single divine being. This idea is found
in more than one passage of the RV. *The one being priests speak of in
many ways; they call it Agni, Yama, Mätarisvan' (i, 164'*^; cp. AV. 10, 8'^
13» 4*^)« 'Priests and poets with words make into many the bird (= the sun)
that is but one' (10, 1145). Thus it appears that by the end of the Rigvedic
period a kind of polytheistic monotheism had been arrived aL We find there
even the incipient pantheistic conception of a deity representing not only all
the gods but nature as well. For the goddess Aditi is identified not only
with all the gods, but with men, all that has been and shall be born, air,
and heaven (i, 89'°); and Prajäpati is not only the one god above all gods.
but embraces all things (10, 121^-*®). This pantheistic view becomes fully deve-
loped in the AV. (10, 7*4. 25^ ^nd is explicitly accepted in the later Vedic
literature \

In the older parts of the RV. individual gods are often invoked as the
highest, but this notion is not carried out to its logical conclusion. The fact
that the Vedic poets frequently seem to be engrossed in the praise of the
particular deity they happen to be invoking, that they exaggerate his attributes
to the point of inconsistency, has given rise to the much discussed theory
which Max Müller originated and to which he has given the name of Heno-
theism or Kathenotheism \ According to this theory, *the belief in individual
gods alternately regarded as the highest', the Vedic poets attribute to the
god they happen to be addressing all the highest traits of divinity, treating
him for the moment as if he were an absolutely independent and supreme
deity, alone present to the mind. Against this theory it has been urged^
that Vedic deities are not represented *as independent of all the rest', since no
religion brings its gods into more frequent and varied juxtaposition and com-
bination, and that even the mightiest gods of the Veda are made dependent
on others. Thus Varui;La and Sürya are subordinate to Indra (i, loi-^), Va-
luta and the Asvins submit to the power of Vi§i]iu (i, 156 4), and Indra,
Mitra- Varupa, Aryaman, Rudra cannot resist the ordinances of Savitr (2, 38^).
It has been further pointed out that in the frequent hymns addressed to the
viivedcüäf^^ or All-gods, all the deities, even the lesser ones, are praised in
succession, and that as the great mass of the Vedic hymns was composed
for the ritual of the Soma offering, which included the worship of almost
the entire pantheon, the technical priest could not but know the exact rela-
tive Position of each god in that ritual. Even when a god is spoken of as
unique or chief {ekä)^ as is natural enough in laudations, such Statements

The Vedic Gods. lo. General character and Classification. 17

rose their temporarily monotheistic force through the modifications or cor-
lections supplied by the context or even by the same verse. Thus a poet
says that 'Agni alone, like VaruQa, is lord of wealth*. It should also be
remembered that gods are constantly invoked in pairs, triads, and larger groups,
cven the exalted Varuna being mostly addressed in conjunction with one
other god (as in 6, 67) or with several other gods (as in 2, 28). Heno-
theism is therefore an appearance rather than a reality, an appearance pro-
duced by the indefiniteness due to undeveloped anthropomorphism, by the
lack of any Vedic god occupying the position of a Zeus as the constant
head of the pantheon, by the natural tendency of the priest or singer in
extolling a particular god to exaggerate his greatness and to ignore other
gods, and by the growing belief in the unity of the gods (cf the refrain of
3, 55), each of whom raight be regarded as a type of the divine. Heno-
theism might, however, be justified as a term to express the tendency of the
RV. towards a kind of monotheism.

The Vedic gods, as has been shown, had a beginning in the view of
the Vedic poets, since they are described as the offspring of heaven and
earth or sometimes of other gods. This in itself implies different generations
of gods^ but earlier {pürve) gods are also expressly referred to in several
passages (7, 2 1 7 &c.). An earlier or first age of the gods is also spoken of
(10, 72 '•^). The AV. (11, 8*°) speaks of ten gods as having existed before
the resL The gods, too, were originally mortale. This is expressly stated
in the AV. (11, 5*'; 4, 11^). The Brähma^as State this both of all the gods
(SB. IG, 4, 3-J) and of the individual gods Lidra (AB. 8, 14*), Agni (AB. 3, 4),
and Prajäpati (SB. 10, i, 3*)^ That they were originally not immortal is
implied in the RV. For immortality was bestowed on them by Savitr (4, 54'
«= VS. 33, 54) or by Agni (6, 7^; AV. 4, 23^). They are also said to have
obtained it by drinking Soma (9, 106* cp. 109"-^), which is called the prin
ciple of immortality (SB. 9, 5, i*). In another passage of the RV. (10, 53"*),
they are said to have acquired immortality, but by what means is not clear.
According to a later conception Indra is stated to have conquered heaven
by tafas or austerity (10, 167*). The gods are said to have attained divine
nuak by the same means (TB. 3, 12, 3"), or to have overcome death by con-
tinence and austerity (AV. 11, 5*^^ and to have acquired immortality through
Rohita (AV. 13,1 '). Elsewhere the gods are stated to have overcome death
by the Performance of a certain ceremony (TS. 7, 4, 2 '). Indra and several
other gods are said to be unaging (3, 46 ' &c.), but whether the immortality
of the gods was regarded by the Vedic poets as absolute, there is no evi-
dence to show. According to the post-Vedic view their immortality was only
relative, being limited to a cosmic age.

The physical appearance of the gods is anthropomorphic, though only
in a shadowy manner; for it often represents only aspects of their natural
bases figuratively described to illustrate their activities^. Thus head, face,
mouth, cheeks, eyes, hair, Shoulders, breast, belly, arms, hands, fingers, feet
are attributed to various individual gods. Head, breast, arms, and hands are
chiefly mentioned in connexion with the warlike equipment of Indra and the
liiaruts. The arms of the sun are simply his rays, and his eye is intended
to represent his physical aspect The tongue and limbs of Agni merely
denote his flames. The fingers of Trita are referred to only in order to
illustrate his character as a preparer of Soma, and the belly of Indra only
to emphasize his powers of drinking Soma^. Two or three gods are spoken
of as having or assuming all forms {piivarüpci), It is easy to understand
that in the case of deities whose outward shape was so vaguely conceived

Indo-arlsche Philologie. IIL 1a. 2

i8 IIL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. ü. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

and whose connexion with natural phenomena was in many instances stül
clear, no mention of either Images (S 66 cj or temples is found in the RV.

Some of the gods are spoken of as wearing garments. Thus Dawn is
described as decked in gay attire. Some of the gods are equipped with
armour in the shape of coats of mail or helmets. Indra is regularly armed
with a bolt (vajrä), whüe to others spears, battle-axes, bows and arrows are
assigned. The gods in general are described as driving luminous cars, nearly
every individual deity bemg also said to possess one. The car is usually
drawn by steeds, but in the case of Püsan by goats, of the Maruts perhaps by
spotted deer as well as horses, and of U§as, by cows as well as horses.

In their cars the gods are frequently represented as Coming to seat
themselves on the layer of strewn grass at the sacrifice, which, however,
from another point of view, is supposed also to be conveyed to them in
heaven by Agni (S 35). The beverage of the gods is Soma. What they
eat is the favourite food of men and is of course represented by what is
offered to them at the sacrifice. It consists of milk in its varions forms,
butter, barley, and (though perhaps not in the oldest Vedic period) rice;
cattle, goats, and sheep, with a preference for the animal which in some
way is most closely connected wiöi a deity's peculiar qualities. Thus the
buU or the buffalo, to which Indra is so öften compared, is offered to him
and eaten by him, sometimes in extraordinary numbers (S 22). Analogously,
Indra's steeds are supposed to eat grain^. The abode of the gods is vari-
ously described as heaven, the third heaven, or the highest step of Vi^^u,
where they live a joyous life exhilerated by Soma. The gods on the whole
are conceived as dwelling together in harmony and fiiendship*°. The only
one who ever introduces a note of discord is the warlike and overbearing
Indra. He once appears to have fought against the gods in general (4, 30 3*5) ";
he slew his own father {% 22), and shattered the car of Dawn (% 20).
He seems also to have threatened on one occasion to slay his faithful com-
panions the Maruts (S 29).

The gods representing the chief powers of nature, such as fire, sun,
thunderstorm, appeared to the successful and therefore optimistic Vedic
Indian as almost exclusively beneficent beings, bestowers of prosperity. The
only deity in whom injurious features are at all prominent is Rudra. Evils
closely connected with human life, such as disease, proceed fi-om lesser
demons, while the greater evils manifested in nature, such as drought and
darkness, are produced by powerful demons like V^tra. The conquest of
these demons brings out the beneficent nature of the gods all the more pro-
minently. The benevolence of the gods reserables that of human beings.
They are preeminently the receivers of sacrifice, the hymns to them being
recited while the Soma is pressed, the offering is cast in the fire, and priests
attend to the intricate details of the ritual". They are therefore the friends
of the sacrificer, but are angry with and punish the niggard. This is especially
the case with Indra, who at the same time is not altogether free from arbi-
trariness in the distribution of his favours'-J.

The character of the Vedic gods is also moral All the gods** are
'true' and *not deceitfuV, being throughout the friends and guardians of honesty
and righteousness. It is, however, the Ädityas, especially Varuna, who are
the chief upholders of the moral law. The gods are angry with the evil-doer,
but it is Varuna's wrath which is most closely connected with the conception
of guilt and sin. Agni also is invoked to free from guilt, but this is only
one of many prayers addressed to him, not their chief purport as in the
case of Varuija. Indra too is a punisher of sin, but this trait is only super-

The Vedic GoDS. lo. General character and Classification. 19

ficially connected with his character. The Standard of divine morality of
course reflects only an earlier stage of civilization. Thus even the aJliance
of Varui^a with righteousness is not of such a nature as to prevent him from
employing craft against the hostile and deceitful man. But towards the good
and pious the faithfulness of Varui;ia is unswerving. Indra, however, is occa-
sionally not above practising deceitful wiles even without the justification of
a good end'^

Moral elevation does not, however, occupy so high a position as power
among the attributes of the Vedic gods. Epithets such as 'true' and *not
deceitful' are far less prominent than such as *great' and *mighty'. The gods
xan do whatever they will On them depends the fulfilment of wishes. They
have dominion over all creatures; and no one can thwart therr ordinances
or live beyond the time the gods appoint*^.

The RV. as well as the AV. states the gods to be ^^ in number
(3, 69 &c.; AV. 10, 7*^), this total being several times expressed as *thrice
eleven* (8, 35'5&c.). In one passage (1,139") eleven of the gods are
addressed as being in heaven, eleven on earth, and eleven in the waters
(= air). The AV. (10, 9") similarly divides the gods into dwellers in heaven,
air, and earth, but without specifying any number. The aggregate of 33
coiild not always have been regarded as exhaustive, for in a few passages
(I, 34". 45^; 8, 35 3. 3 9 9) other gods are mentioned along with the 33. In
one verse (3, 99 = 10, 52^ = VS. 33, 7) the number of the gods is by way
of a freak stated to be 3339. They are also spoken of in a more general
way as forming three troops (6, 51^). A threefold division is implied when
the gods are connected with heaven, earth, and waters (7, 35**; 19, 49'. 659).
The Brähma^as also give the number of the gods as 33. The SB. and the
AB. agree in dividing them into three main groups of 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras,
12 Ädityas, but while the SB. adds to these either (4, 5, 7^) Dyaus and
P|thivi (Prajäpati being here a 34th) or Indra and Prajäpati (11, 6, 3 5), the
AB. (2, 18**) adds Va§atkära and Prajäpati, to make up the total of 33.

Following the triple Classification of RV. i, 139" Yäska (Nir. 7, 5) divides
the diflferent deities or forms of the same deity enumerated in the fifth chapter
of the Naighantuka, into the three orders of prihivlsthäna, terrestrial (Nir.
7, 14 — 9. 43), antariksasthäna^ madhyamasthäna^ aerial or intermediate (10,
I — II. 50), and dyustMna, celestial (12, i — 46). He further remarks that
in the opinion of his predecessors who expounded the Veda {nairuktäh)
there are only three deities* 7, Agni on earth, Väyu or Indra in air*®, Sürya
in heaven *9. (This view may be based on such passages as RV. 10, 158*:
*May Sörya protect us from heaven, Väta from air, Agni from the earthly
regions'.) Each of these he continues has various appellations according to
differences of function, just as the same person may act in the capacity of
hoir^ adhvaryUy brahmariy udgätr. Yäska himself does not admit that all the
various gods are only forms or manifestations of the three representative
deities, though he allows that those forming each of the three Orders are
allied in sphere and functions. The fifth chapter of the Naighantuka on
which Yäska comments, contains in its enumeration of gods a number of
minor deities and ^cified objects, so that the total far exceeds eleven in each
division. It is worthy of note that in this list of gods the names of Tva§tr
and Pjrthivi appear in all the three spheres, those of Agni and U§as in both
the terrestrial and the aerial, and those of Varuna, Yama, and Savitr in the
aerial as well as the celestial.

An attempt might be made to classify the various Vedic gods according
to their relative greatness. Such a division is in a general way alluded to

20 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

in the RV. where they are spoken of as great and small, young and old
(i, 27*3). It is probable that this Statement represents the settled view of
the Vedic poets as to gradation of rank among the gods (cp. pp. 14. 17).
It is only a seeming contradiction when in one passage (8, 30') it is said
with reference to the gods, *none of you is small or young; you are all
great'; for a poet addressing the gods directly on this point could hardly
have expressed himself differently. It is certain that two gods tower above
the rest as leading deities about equal in power, Indra as the mighty warrior
and Varuna as the supreme moral ruler. The older form of Vanuja became,
owing to the predominance of his ethical qualities, the supreme god of
Zoroastrianism as Ahura Mazda, while in India Indra developed into the
warrior god of the conquering Aryans. Varuna appears as preeminent only
when the supreme laws of the physical and moral world are contemplated,
and cannot be called a populär god. It has been held by various scholars.
that Varuna and the Ädityas were the highest gods of an older period, but
were later displaced by Indra (p. 28). There is at any rate no evidence to
show that Indra even in the oldest Rigvedic period occupied a subordinate
Position. It is true that Ahura Mazda is the highest god and Indra only
a demon in the Avesta. But even if Indra originally possessed coördinate
power with Varuna in the Indo-Iranian period, he was necessarily relegated
to the background when the reform of the Avestan religion made Ahura
Mazda supreme^'' (cp. p. 28). Next to Indra and Varuna come the two great
ritual deities Agni and Soma. These tvvo along with Indra are, judged by
the frequency of the hymns addressed to them, the three most populär deities
of the RV. For, roughly speaking, three-fifths of its hymns are dedicated to
their praise. The fact that the hymns to Agni and Indra always come first
in the family books, while the great majority of the hymns to Soma have a
whole book, the ninth, to themselves, confirms this conclusion^'. FoUowing
the number of the hymns dedicated to each of the remaining deities, com-
bined with the frequency with which their names are mentioned in the RV.,
five classes of gods may be distinguished: i) Indra, Agni, Soma; 2) Asvins,
Maruts, Varuna; 3) U§as, Savitr, Bfhaspati, Sürya, Pü§an; 4) Väyu, Dyävä-
pjthivi, Vi§iju, Rudra; 5) Yama, Parjanya^^ The Statistical Standard can
of course be only a partial guide. For Varuna is celebrated (mostly together
with Mitra) in only about thirty hymns, his name being mentioned altogether
about 250 times, while the Asvins can claim over 50 hymns and are named
over 400 times. Yet they cannot be said to approach Varuria in greatness.
Their relative prominence is doubtless owing to their closer connexion with
the sacrifice as deities of moming light. Again, the importance of the Maruts
is due to their association with Indra. Similar considerations would have to
enter into an estimate of the relative greatness of other deities in the list.
Such an estimate involves considerable difficulties and doubts. A Classification
according to gradations of rank would therefore not afford a satisfactory basis
for an account of the Vedic gods.

Another but still less satisfactory Classification, might take as its basis
the relative age of the mythological conception, according as it dates from
the period of separate national Indian existence, from the Indo-Iranian, or
the Indo-European epoch. Thus Brhaspati, Rudra, Vis^u may be considered
the creations of purely Indian mythology; at least there is no adequate
evidence to show that they go back to an earlier age. It has already been
indicated (S 5) that a number of mythological figures date from the Indo-
Iranian period. But as to whether any of the Vedic gods besides Dyaus may
be traced back to the Indo-European period, considerable doubt is justified.

CeLESTIAL GODS. II. DyAUS. 21

A Classification according to the age of the mythological creation would tliere-
fore rest on too uncertain a foundation.

The stage of personification which the various deities represent, might
fiimish a possible basis of Classification. But the task of drawing a clear
line of demarcation would involve too many difficulties.

On the whole, the Classification of the Vedic deities least open to ob-

jection, is that founded on the natural bases which they represent. For though

in some cases there may be a doubt as to what the physical Substrate really

is, and a risk is therefore involved of describing a particular deity in the

wrong place, this method offers the advantage of bringing together deities of

cognate character and thus facilitating comparison. It has therefore been

adopted in the foUowing pages. The various phenomena have been grouped

according to the triple division suggested by the RV. itself and adhered to

by its oldest commentator.

I OST. 5, 219; BRI. 26; BDA. 12—14; ORV. 100. — 2 hRI. 138—40. — 3 MM.,
ASL. 526. 532. 546; Chips I, 28; OGR. 266. 285. 298 f. 312 ff.; Science of Religion
52; PhR. i8off.; OST. 5. 6 f. 12 f. 125; 00.3,449; Bühler, 00. 1,227; LRV.
3, XXVII f.; KRV. 33; note 113; Zimmer, ZDA. 19(7), 175; Hillebrandt, Varu^a
und Mitra, 105; BRI. 26. — 4 Whitney, PAOS., Oct. 1881; ORV. 101 ; Hopkins,
Henotheism in the Rigveda, in Classical studies in honour of H. Drisler (New York
1894), 75—83; HRI. 139 &c.— 5 SVL, 134; cp. ZDMG. 32, 300.— 6 Muir, JRAS.
20,41—5; OST. 4. 54—8; 5, 14—17; cp. AV. 3, 223; 4, 141; sB. i. 7, 31;
AB. 6, 208; TS. I, 7, i3; 6, 5, 31 ; HRI. 187. — 7 Nirukta 7, 6. 7. — 8 WC. 9. —
9 ORV. 347. 353. 355- 357-8. — lo ORV. 93. — " OST. 5, 18. — " ORV. 238.
— U BRV. 3, 203—4. — »4 BRV. 3, 199. — X5 ORV. 282. — 16 OST. 5, 18—20;
ORV. 97— 101; 281— 7. 293— 301. — 17 Kätyäyana, SarvänukramanT, Introd. $2, 8;
Sflyapa on RV. i, 139". — ** *Indra and Väyu arc closcly allicd' (TS. 6,6, 8 i).
Cp. HRI. 89. — »9 Agni, Väyu, Sürya are sons of Prajapati (MS. 4, 212). — 20 ORV.
94—8. — "* HRI. 90. — 2a These classes and the statistics fournished below in
the account givcn of the Single gods, are based on data derived from LRV., GW\,
GRV. (2,421—3), and Aufrecht's RV. 11«, 668—71.

A. THE CEI.ESTIAL GODS,

Sil. Dyaus. — By far the most frequent use of the word dyaus is as
a designation of the concrete 'sky', in which sense it occurs at least 500
times in the RV. It also means *day'* about 50 times. When personified
as the god of heaven, Dyaus is generally coupled with Earth in the dual
Compound dyäväprthivl^ the universal parents. No Single hymn of the RV.
is addressed to Dyaus alone. When he is mentioned separately the per-
sonification is limited almost entirely to the idea of patemity. The name
then nearly always appears in the nominative or genitive case. The latter
case, occurring about 50 times, is more frequent than all the other cases
together. The genitive is regularly connected with the name of some other
deity who is called the son or daughter of Dyaus. In about three-fourths
of these instances U§as is his daughter, while in the remainder the Asvins
are his ofFspring {nqpätä)^ Agni is his son (sünü) or child (///«), Parjanya,
Sürya, the Ädityas, the Maruts, and the Arigirases are his sons (futra).
Out of its thirty occurrences in the nominative the name appears only eight
times alone, being otherwise generally associated with Pj-thivi or mentioned
with various deities mostly including PrthivT. In these eight passages he is
three times styled a father (i, 90 7. 16/^^^; 4, i '°), once the father of Indra
(4, 72 3), once he is spoken of as rieh in seed {suretäfi) and as having generated
Agni (4, 17*); in the remaining three he is a bull (5, 365) or a red bull that
bellows downwards (5, 58^), and is said to have approved when Vytra was
slain (6, 7 2 3). In the dative the name is found eight times. In these passages

2 2 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

he is mentioned only three times quite alone, once being called the *great
father' (i, 71S), once *lofty' (i, 543), and once the *lofty abode' (5, 47 7).
In two of the four occurrences in the accusative Dyaus is mentioned with
PjthivT, once alone and without any distinctive Statement (i, 174 3), and once
(i, 31*) Agni is Said to have made him roar for man. Thiis it appears
that Dyaus is seldom mentioned independently and in only one-sixth of over
ninety passages is his paternity not expressly stated or implied by association
with Pjthivl. The only essential feature of the personification in the RV.
is in fact his paternity. In a few passages Dyaus is called a bull (1,1 60 3;
5, 36 5) that bellows (5,58^). Here we have a touch of theriomorphisra inas-
much as he is conceived as a roaring animal that fertilizes the earth. Dyaus
is once compared with a black steed decked with pearls (10, 68**), an
obvious allusion to the nocturaal sky. The Statement that Dyaus is fumished
with a holt (asanimat) looks like a touch of anthropomorphism. He is also
spoken of as smiling through the clouds (2, 4^), the allusion being doubtless
to the lightening sky^ Such passages are, however, quite isolated, the con-
ception of Dyaus being practically free from theriomorphism and anthropo-
morphism, excepting the notion of paternity. As a father he is most usually
thought of in combination with Earth as a mother-J. This is indicated by
the fact that his name forms a dual Compound with that of P|thivi oftener
than it is used alone in the singular (S 44), that in a large proportion of
its occurrences in the singular it is accompanied by the name of PfthivI,
and that when regarded separately he is not sufhciently individualized to have
a hymn dedicated to his praise, though in conjunction with Pythivi he is
celebrated in six. Like nearly all the greater gods* Dyaus is sometimes
called asura^ (i, 122*. 131*; 8, 20'') and he is once (6, 51*) invoked in
the vocative as 'Father Heaven* {dyaus pitar) along with 'Mother Earth'
(prthivi mäiar). In about 20 passages the word dyaus is feminine, some-
times even when personified°. Dyaus, as has been pointed out (S 6) goes
back to the Indo-European period. There is no reason to assume that tlie
personification in that pefiod was of a more advanced type and that the RV.
has in this case relapsed to a more primitive stage. On the contrary there
is every ground for supposing the reverse to be the case. Whatever higher
gods may have existed in that remote age must have been of a considerably
more rudimentary type and can hardly in any instance have been conceived
apart from deified natural objects7. As the Universal Father who with Mother
Earth embraced all other deified objects and phenomena, he would have
been the greatest among the deities of a chaotic polytheism. But to speak
of him as the supreme god of the Indo-European age is misleading, because
this suggests a ruler of the type of Zeus and an incipient monotheism for an
extremely remote period, though neither of these conceptions had been
arrived at in the earlier Rigvedic times.

The word is derived from the root div, to shine, thus meaning *the
bright one' and being allied to deva, god^

X V. Schröder. WZKM. 8, 126—7. — ^ PVS. i, iii; SBE. 46, 205. — 3 HRL
171. — 4 BDA. 1 19—23. — 5 BDA. 86. — 6 BDA. 114; cf. GW. s. v. div\ Osthoff,
IF. 5, 286, n. — 7 BDA. III. — 8 Cp. KZ. 27, 187; BB. 15, 17; IF. 3, 301.

OST. 5, 2 1— 3 ; OGR. 209; LRV. 3, 3 12 — 3 ; BRV. 1,4— 5 ; Sp.AP. 160 ; J AOS. 16, CXLV.

S 12. Varuna. — Varuna, as has been shown (p. 20), is by the side of
Indra, the greatest of the gods of the RV. The number of hymns dedicated
to his praise is not a sufficient criterion of his exalted character. Hardly a
dozen hymns celebrate him exclusively. Judged by the Statistical Standard
he would rank only as a third class deity; and even if the two dozen hymns

Celestial GoDS. 12. Varuna. 23

in which he is invoked along with his double Mitra are taken into account,
he would only come fifth in order of priority, ranking considerably below
the Asvins and about on an equality wiüi the Maruts (cp. p. 20).

The anthropomorphism of Vanigia's personality is more fully developed
on the moral than the physical side. The descriptions of his person and
his equipment are scanty, more stress bemg laid on his activity. He has a
face, an eye, arms, hands, and feet He moves his arms, walks, drives, sits,
eats and drinks. The poet regards the face {amkam) of Varuna as that of
Agni (7, 88* cp. 87^). The eye of Mitra and Variugia is the sun (i, 115';
6, 51*; 7, 61*. 63'; 10, 37*). The fact that this is always mentioned in the
first verse of a hymn, suggests that it is one of the first ideas that occur when
Mitra and Varuna are thought of. The eye with which Vani9a is said in
a hymn to Sürya (i, 50^) to observe mankind, is undoubtedly the sun.
Together with Aryaman, Mitra and Varuna are called sun-eyed (7, 66 ^^)^ a
term applied to other gods also. Varuna is far-sighted (i, 255-»^; 8, 90')
and thousand-eyed (7, 34***). Mitra and Varuna Stretch out their arms
(5> 64*; 7, 625) and they drive with the rays of the sun as with arms (8, 90^).
Like Savitr and Tva§tr they are beautiful-handed {supdnt), Mitra and Va-
runa hasten up with their feet (5, 64'), and Varujjia treads down wiles with
shining foot (8, 41^). He sits on the strewn grass at the sacrifice (i, 26^;
5, 72*), and like oüier gods he and Mitra drink Soma (4, 41 ^&c.). Varuna
wears a golden mantle {dräpi) and puts on a shining robe (i, 2S*-J). But
the shining robe of ghee with which he and Mitra are clothed (5, 62 ♦; 7, 64*)
is only a figurative allusion to the sacrificial offering of melted butter. The
glistening garments which they wear (i, 152 *) probably mean the same thing.
In the SB. (13, 3, 6 5) Varuj;La is represented as a fair, bald, yellow-eyed old
man^ The only part of Varuna's equipment which is at all prominent is
his car. It is described as shining like the sun (i, 122*5)^ as having thongs
for a pole (ibid.), a car-seat and a whip (5,627), and as drawn by well-yoked
steeds (5, 62*). Mitra and Varui^a mount their car in the highest heaven
{5> 63 ')• The poet prays that he may see Varuija*s car on the earth (i, 25*^).
Mitra and Varui^'s abode is golden and situated in heaven (5, 67*;
I9 136') äi^d Varuna sits in his mansions {pastyäsu) looking on all deeds
(i, 25*°-**). His and Mitra*s seat {sadas) is great, very lofty, firm with a
thousand columns (5,68^; 2, 41^) and their house has a thousand doors
(7, 88 5). The all-seeing sun rising from his abode, goes to the dwellings of
Mitra and Varuria to report the deeds of men (7, 60 '• 3)^ and enters their
dear dwelling (i, 152*). It is in the highest heaven that the Fathers behold
VanuE^a (10, 14^). According to the SB. (11, 6, i) Varuija, conceived as the
lord of the Universe, is seated in the midst of heaven, from which he surveys
the places of punishment situated all around him^

The spies {spaiah) of Varuna are sometimes mentioned. They sit down
around him (i, 24 '-J). They behold the two worlds; acquainted with sacrifice
they stimulate prayer (7, 87^). Mitra's and Varuija's spies whom they send
separately into houses (7, 61 5), are undeceived and wise (6,675). In the
AV. (4, 16*) it is said that Varuija's messengers descending from heaven,
traverse the world; thousand-eyed they look across the whole world. The
natural basis of these spies is usually assumed to be the stars; but the RV.
yields no evidence in support of this view. The stars are there never said
to watch, nor are the spies connected with night The conception may very
well have been suggested by the spies with whom a strict ruler on earth is
surrounded '. Nor are spies peculiar to Varuna and Mitra, for they are also
attributed to Agni (4, 4^), to Soma (9, 73** '• ^ere perhaps suggested by the

2 4 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

previous mention of Varui^a), to demons combated by Indra (i, s;^^)^ and
to the gods in general (lo, lo*). In one passage the Ädityas are said to
look down like spies from a height (8, 47**). That these spies were primarily
connected with Mitra and Varuna is to be inferred from the fact that the
Iranian Mithra also has spies, who are, moreover, called by the same name
(spas) as in the Veda^. The golden- winged messenger (t/üta) of Vara9a
once mentioned in the RV. (10, 123^), is doubtless the sun.

Varuna alone, or conjointly with Mitra, is often called a king (rä/ä)^
like tlie other leading deities and Yama (i, 247-8 ^c.)-*. He is king of all,
both gods and men (10, 132*; 2, 27'**), of the whole world (5, 85^), and of
all that exists (7, 87^). Varuna is also a self-dependent ruler (2, 28*), a term
generally applied to Indra. Much more frequently Varuna, alone or mostly
in association with Mitra, is called a universal monarch {samräj), This term
is also applied to Agni a few times and oftener to Indra, Counting the
passages in which Varuija and Mitra together are so called, it is connected
with VaruQa nearly twice as often as with Indra. Considering that for every
eight or ten hymns celebrating Indra only one is dedicated to Varuna in the
RV., the epithet may be considered peculiarly appropriate to Varuija.

The attribute of sovereignty (ksatra) is in a predominant manner appro-
priated to Varuija, generally with Mitra and twice with Aryaman also. Other-
wise it is applied only once respectively to Agni, Brhaspati, and the Asvins.
Similarly the term 'ruler* {ksatriya) in four of its five occurrences refers to
Varuna or the Ädityas and once only to the gods in general. The epithet
asura (S 67) is connected with Varuija, alone or accompanied by Mitra,
oftener than with Indra and Agni; and, taking account of the proportion of
hymns, it may be said to be specially applicable to Varuna 5. Mitra and
Varuna are also called the mysterious and noble lords (asurä arya) among
the gods (7, 65O.

The divine dominion of Varuna and Mitra is often referred to with the
Word mäyd^. This term signifies occult power, applicable in a good sense
to gods or in a bad sense to demons. It has an almost exact parallel in
the English word 'craft', which in its old signification meant *occult power,
magic', then *skilfulness, art* on the one hand and 'deceitful skill, wile' on
the other. The good sense of mäyä, like that of asura (which might be
rendered by 'mysterious being') is mainly connected with Varuna and Mitra,
while its bad sense is reserved for demons. By occult power Varuija Standing
in the air measures out the earth with the sun as with a measure (5, 85*),
Vaniiia and Mitra send the dawns (3, 61'), make the sun to cross the sky
and obscure it with cloud and rain, while the honied drops fall (5, 6^^)i
or (ibid. 3- /) they cause heaven to rain and they uphold the ordinances by
the occult power of the Asura (here = Dyaus or Parjanya)^. And so the
epithet mäyifiy 'crafty*, is chiefly applied to Varuna among the gods (6, 48**;
7, 284; IG, 99'°. 147^).

In marked contrast with Indra, Varuija has no myths related of him,
while much is said about him (and Mitra) as upholder of physical and moral
Order. Varuija is a great lord of the laws of nature. He established heaven
and earth and dwells in all the worlds (8, 42 *). The three heavens and the
three earths are deposited within him (7, 875). He and Mitra rule over the
whole World (5, (^2^^) or encompass the two worlds (7, 61 4). They are the
guardians of the whole world (2, 27* &c.). By the law of Varuna heaven
and earth are held apart (6, 70*; 7, 86'; 8, 41**^). With Mitra he supports
earth and heaven (5, 623), or heaven, earth, and air (5, 69 ''4). He made
the golden swing (the sun) to shine in heaven (7, 87*). He placed fire in

CeLESTIAL GODS. I2..VARUNA. 2$

the waters, the sun in the sky, Soma on the rock (5, 85'). He has made a
wide path for the sua (i, 24**; 7, 87*). Varuna, Mitra, and Aryaman open
paths for the sun (7, 6o<). The order (rta) of Mitra and Varuna is established
where the steeds of the sun are loosed (5, 62'). The wind which resounds
through the air is Varui>a*s breath (7, 87';.

By Varu^a's ordinances {vratäni) the moon shining brightly moves at
night, and the stars placed up on high are seen at night but disappear by day
(i, 24'°). In another passage (8, 41-) it is said that Varuna has embraced
(pari sasvaj'e) the nights, and by his occult power has established the mornings
er days {usralt), This can hardly indicate a closer connexion with night than
that he regulates or divides night and day (cp. 7, 66"). In fact it is the sun
that is usually mentioned with him, and not the moon or night Thus in the
oldest Veda Varuna is the lord of light both by day and by night, while Mitra, as
far as can be judged, appears as the god of the celestial light of day only.

In the later Vedic period of the Brähmanas Varupa comes to be specially
connected with the noctumal heaven*. Thus Mitra is said to have produced
the day and Varu9a the night (TS. 6, 4, 8^); and the day is said to belong to
Mitra and the night to Vaniija (TS. 2, i, 7*)^. This view may have arisen
from a desire to contrast Mitra, who was still feit to be related to the sun,
with Varuna whose natural basis was more , obscure. The antithesis between
the two is differently expressed by the SB. (12, 9, 2"), which asserts that
this World is Mitra, that (Üie celestial) world is Varuna.

Varuna is sometiraes referred to as regulating the seasons. He knows
the twelve months (i, 25*)***; and the kings Mitra, Varuija, and Aryaman are
said to have disposed the autumn, the month, day and night (7, 66'*).

Even in the RV. Varuna is often spoken of as a regulator of the waters.
He caused the rivers to flow; they stream unceasingly according to his ord-
inance (2, 28*). By his occult power the rivers swiftly pouring into the ocean
do not fiU it with water (5,85^). Varuija and Mitra are lords of rivers (7,64').
Varmia is already found connected with the sea in the RV^., but very rarely,
perhaps owing to its unimportance in that collection. Varuna going in the
oceanic waters is contrasted with the Maruts in the sky, Agni on earth, and
Väta in air (i, 161 **♦)". The Statement that the seven rivers flow into ihe
jaws of Varupa as into a surging abyss (8, 58"), may refer to the ocean'*.
Vanuja is said to descend into the sea (sindhum) like Dyaus (7, 87**)'-'.
It is rather the aerial waters that he is ordinarily connected with. Varuna
ascends to heaven as a hidden ocean (8, 41*). Beholding the truth and
falsehood of men, he moves in the midst of the waters which drop
sweetness and are clear (7, 49^). Varuna clothes himself in the waters
(9, 90* cp. 8, 69"- "). He and Mitra are among the gods most frequently
thought of and prayed to as bestowers of rain. Varuna makes the in-
verted cask (of the cloud) to pour its waters on heaven, earth, and air,
and to moisten the ground, the mountains then being enveloped in cloud
(5, 853- ♦). Mitra and Varuna have kine yielding refreshment and streams
flowing with honey (5, 69'). They have rainy skies and Streaming waters
(S> 6^^)« They bedew the pasturage with ghee (= rain) and the Spaces
with honey (3, 62'^). They send rain and refreshment from the sky (7, 64*).
Rain abounding in heavenly water comes from them (8, 25^). Indeed, one
entire hymn (5, 63) dwells on their powers of bestowing rain. It is probably
owing to his connexion with the waters and rain, that in the flfth chapter of
the Naighaijutuka Varuna is enumerated among the deities of the atmospheric
as well as those of the celestial world. In the Brähmanas Mitra and Varuna
are also gods of rain'*. In the AV. Varuna appears divested of his powers

2 6 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

as a universal ruler, retaining only the control of the department of waters.
He is connected with the waters as Soma with the mountains (AV. 3, 3^).
As a divine father he sheds rain-waters (AV. 4, i5"J. His golden house is
in the waters (AV. 7, Sy). He is the overlord of waters, he and Mitra are
lords of rain (AV. 5, 244- 5). in the YV. he is spoken of as the child {/i/u)
of waterSj making his abode within the most motherly waters (VS. 10, 7;.
The waters are wives of Varuna (TS. 5, 5, 4'). Mitra and Varu^a are the
leaders of waters (TS. 6, 4, 3*).

Varu^a's ordinances are constantly said to be fixed, the epithet dhrta-
vrata being preeminently appHcable to him, sometimes conjointly with Mitra.
The gods themselves follow Varuna*s ordinances (8, 41 or those of Varuna,
Mitra, and Savitr (10, 36*^). Even the immortal gods cannot obstruct the
fixed ordinances of Mitra and Varuna (5, 69"^ cp. 5, dy), Mitra and Varuna
are lords of order {rta) and light, who by means of order are the upholders
of Order (1^235). The latter epithet is mostly applied either to them and some-
times the Adityas or to the gods in general. They are cherishers of order
or right (i, 2**). Varuna or the Ädityas are sometimes called guardians of
Order {rtasya gopä)^ but this term is also applied to Agni and Soma. The
epithet *observer of order* (rtävan\y predominantly used of Agni, is also
several times connected with Varuna and Mitra.

Varuria's power is so great that neither the birds as they fly nor the
rivers as they flow, can reach the limit of his dominion, his might, and his
wrath (i, 24**j. Neither the skies nor the rivers have reached (the limit of)
the godhead of Mitra and Varuna (i, 151''). He embraces the All and the
abodes of all beings (8, 41^- ^j. The three heavens and the three earths are
deposited in him (7, 875). Varuna is omniscient. He knows the flight of
birds in the sky, the path of ships in the ocean, the course of the far-
travelling wind, and beholds all the secret things that have been or shall be
done (i, 257- 9- "j. He witnesses men's truth and falsehood (7, 49'>). No
creature can even wink without him (2, 28^). The winkings of men*s eyes
are all numbered by Varuna, and whatever man does, thinks, or devises,
Varuna knows (AV. 4, i6^-5). He perceives all that exists within heaven and
earth, and all that is beyond: a man could not escape from Varuna by
fleeing far beyond the sky (AV. 4, lö^S). That Varuna's omniscience is
typical is indicated by the fact that Agni is compared with him in this respect
(10, II').

As a moral governor Vararia Stands far above any other deity. His
wrath is roused by sin, the infringement of his ordinances, which he severely
punishes (7, 86^* 4). The fetters {päsäh) with which he binds sinners, are
often mentioned (i, 24*5. 25*'; 6, 74^; 10, 85**). They are cast sevenfold
and threefold, ensnaring the man who teils lies, passing by him who speaks
truth (AV.4,16^). Mitra and Varuna are barriers, furnished with many fetters,
against falsehood (7, 65^). Once Varuna, coupled with Indra, is said to tie
with bonds not formed of rope (7, 84^). The term päsa is only once used
in connexion with another god, Agni, who is implored to loosen the fetters
of his worshippers (5, 27). It is therefore distinctive of Varuna. According
to Bergaigne the conception of Varuna*s fetters is based on the tying up of
the waters, according to Hillebrandt on the fetters of night ^^ But is seems
to be sufficiently accounted for by the figurative application of the fetters of
criminals to moral guilt. Together with Mitra, Varuiia is said to be a dis-
peller, hater, and punisher of falsehood (i, 152'; 7, 6o5. öö'-J). They afflict
with disease*^ those who neglect their worship (i, 1229). On the other hand,
Varuna is gracious to the penitent. He unties like a rope and removes sin

Celestial GoDS. 12. Varuna. 27

(2, 285; 5, 857-^). He releases not only from the sins which men themselves
commit, but from those committed by their fathers (7, 865). He spares the
suppliant who daily transgresses bis laws (i, 25') and is gracious to those
who have broken his laws by thoughtlessness (7, 895). There is in fact no
hymn to Varuria (and the Ädityas) in which the prayer for forgiveness of
guilt does not occur, as in the hymns to other deities the prayer for worldly
goods.

Varuna has a hundred, a thousand remedies, and drives away death as
well as releases from sin (1,249). He can take away or prolong life (1,24".
25"; 7, 88*. 89*). He is a wise guardian of immortality (8, 42*), and the
righteous hope to see in the next world Varuna and Yama, the two kings
who reign in bliss (10, 14^).

Varuna is on a footing of friendship with his worshipper (7, 88*~^), who
communes with him in his celestial abode and sometimes sees him with the
mental eye (i, 25**^; 7, 88*).

What conclusions as to the natural basis of Varuria can be drawn from
the Vedic evidence which has been adduced? It is clear from this evidence,
in combination with what is said below about Mitra (S 13), that Varuna and
Mitra are closely connected with the sun, but that the former is the much
more important deity. Mitra has in fact been so closely assimilated to the
greater god that he has hardly an independent trait left Mitra must have
lost his individuality through the predominant characteristics of the god with
whom he is almost invariably associated. Now, chiefly on the evidence of
the Avesta, Mitra has been almost unanimously acknowledged to be a solar
deity (S 13). Varuna must therefore have originally represented a different
phenomenon. This according to the generally received opinion, is the en-
compassing sky. The vault of heaven presents a phenomenon far more vast
to the eye of the observer than the sun, which occupies but an extremely
small portion of that expanse during its daily course. The sky would there-
fore appear to the imagination as the greater deity. The sun might very
naturally becorae associated with the sky as the space which it traverses every
day and apart from which it is never seen. The conception of the sun as
the eye of heaven is sußiciently obvious. It could not very appropriately be
termed the eye of Mitra tili the original character of the latter had become
obscured and absorbed in that of Varuna. Yet even the eye of Sörya is several
times spoken of in the RV. (p. 30). The attribute of *far-seeing', appropriate
to the sun, is also appropriate to the sky, which might naturally be conceived
as seeing not only by day but even at night by means of the moon and stars.
No real difficulty is presented by the notion of Varuna, who has become
quite separate from his physical basis *7, mounting a car in the height of
heaven with Mitra. For such a conception is easily explicable from his asso-
ciation with a solar deity; besides every leading deity in the RV. drives in a
car. On the other band, the palace of Varuna in the highest heavens and
his connexion witli rain are particularly appropriate to a deity originally re-
presenting the vault of heaven. Finally, no natural phenomenon would be so
ikely to develope into a sovereign ruler, as the sky. For the personification
of its vast expanse, which encompasses and rises far above the earth and on
which the most striking phenomena of regulär recurrence, the movements of
the luminaries, are enacted, would naturally be conceived as watching by night
and day all the deeds of men and as being the guardian of unswerving law.
This development has indeed actually taken place in the case of the Zeus
(= Dyaus) of Hellenic mythology. What was at first only an appellative of
the sky has here become the supreme ruler of the gods dwelling in the serene

2 8 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mvthology.

heights of heaven, who gathers the clouds, who wields the thunderbolt, and
whose will is law.

The phenoraena with which the Uvo greatest gods of the RV. were
originally connected, largely accounts for the difference in their personality*
Varuija as concerned with the regularly recurring phenomena of celestial light,
is the supreme upholder of law in the moral as well as the physical world. His
character as such afforded no scope for the development of myths. Indra
as the god fighting in the strife of the elements, was conceived by the militant
Vedic Indian as a sovereign of the warrior type. Owing to his close con-
nexion with the meteorological phenomena of the thunderstorm, which are so
irregulär in time and diversified in feature, the character of Indra on the one
hand shows traits of capriciousness, while on the other he becomes the centre
of more myths than any other deity of tlie RV. The theory of Roth as to
the supersession of Varuna by Indra in the Rigvedic period, is dealt with
below (S 22).

With the growth of the conception of Prajäpati (S 39) as a supreme deity,
the characteristics of Varuna as a sovereign god naturally faded away, and
the dominion of the waters, only a part of his original sphere, alone remained
to him. Thus he ultimately became in post-Vedic mythology an Indian
Neptune, god of the Sea.

ITie hypothesis recently advanced by Oldenberg '® that Varuna primarily
represented the moon, cannot be passed over here. Starting from the assertion
that the characteristic number of the Ädityas was seven and that their identity
with the Ame§aspentas of the Avesta is an assured fact, he believes that
Varuna and Mitra were the moon and sun, the lesser Adity^as representing
the five planets, and that they were not Indo-European deities, but were
borrowed during the Indo-Iranian period from a Semitic people more skilled
in astronomy than the Aryans. The character of Varuna when borrowed
must further have lost much of its original significance and have already
possessed a highly ethical aspect. For otherwise a distinctly lunar deity could
hardly have thrown Mitra, who was clearly understood to be the sun, into
the shade in the Indo-Iranian period, or have developed so highly abstract
a character as to account for the supreme position, as a moral ruler, of Ahura
Mazda in the Avesta and of Varuna in the Veda. This hypothesis does not
seem to account at all well for the actual characteristics of Varuna in the RV.
It also requires the absolute rejection of any connection between Varuna and
oöpavo; *9.

It has already been mentioned that Varuna goes back to the Indo-Iranian
period (S S), for the Ahura Mazda of the Avesta agrees with him in character ^'^
though not in name. The name of Vdrtma may even be Indo-European.
At least, the long accepted identification of the word with the Greek oupavo;,
though presenting phonetic difficulties, has not been rejected by some recent
authorities on comparative philology^'.

But whether the word is Indo-European or the formation of a later
period**, it is probably derived from the root var^ to cover^^, thus meaning
*the encompasser\ Säyaija (on RV. i, 893) connects it with this root in the
sense of enveloping or confining the wicked with his bonds^^, or commen-
ting on TS. i, 8, 16*, in that of enveloping 'like darkness' (cp. TS. 2, i, 'j^).
If the word is Indo-European, it may have been an attribute of dyauSy the
ordinary name of *sky', later becoming the regulär appellative of sky in Greece,
but an exalted god of the sky in India*\

I Weber, ZDMG. 9, 242; 18, 268. — - 2 ORV. 286, n. 2. — 3 Cp. Roth»
ZDMG. 6, 72; Eggers, Mitra 54—7; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50, 48. — 4 OST. 5, 60.

Celestial Gods. 13. MiTRA. 29

— 5 BDA. 120—1 ; ORV. 163. — <> BRV. 3, 81 ; v. Bradke, ZDMG. 48, 499—501 ;
(^RV. 163. 294. — 7 Cf. BDA. 55. 60. — « OST. 5, 70; Roth, PW. s. v. Varu^a;
BRV. 3, 116 fif.; V. ScHROEDER, WZKM. 9, 119. — 9 Cf. TB. i, 7, lo»; Säyapa on
RV. I, 893; 2, 388; 7, 87X; TS. I, 8, 161. — 10 Cp. WVB. 1894, IX 38. —
XX BoLLENSEN, OO. 2, 467. — »2 RoTH, Ninikta, Erl. 70—1. — 13 Cp. Roth,
ZDMG. 6, 73. — M HiLiJi:BRANDT, Varuna und Mitra 67, note. — »5 Cp. HRI. 68.

— x6 Vanina's later connexion with dropsy is traced by Hillebrandt, p. 6$ f. and
ORV. 203 even in the RV., a view opposed by BRV. 3, 155. — »7 Cp. Oldenberg,
ZDMG. 50, 61.— x8 ORV. 285—98. — 19 Cp. V. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 116—28;
Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 947—9. — ^° Roth, ZDMG. 6, 69 ff. (cp. OST. 5, 72);
Whitney, JAOS. 3, 327; but Windischmann (Zoroastrische Studien p. 122) held
Ahura Mazda to be purely Iranian, and Spiegel, Av. Transl. 3, introd. iii., sees no
similarity between Ahura Mazda and Varuna; cp. Sp.AP. 181. — ax Brugmann,
Grundriss 2, 154; Prellwitz, Etym. Wörterbuch d. gr. Spr. — 22 Cp. v. Schroe-
der, WZKM. 9, 127. — 23 Hillebrandt 9—14; v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 118,
n. 1; HRI. 66, note; 70; cp. also Sonne, KZ. 12,364—6; ZDMG. 32, 716 f.;
BoLLENSEN, ZDMG. 41, 504f.; Geldner, BB. 11, 329; MM., Chips 4», xxiii f. —
-2| Cp. GVS. 2, 22, note; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50, 60. — 25 Macdonell, JRAS. 26, 628.

Roth, ZDMG. 6, 70—4; 7. 607; JAOS. 3, 341—2. Weber, IS. 17, 212 f.; OST.
S» 58—75; LRV. 3, 314—6; GRV. I, 34; Hillebrandt, Varuna und Mitra, Breslau
1877; BRV. 3, 110-49; M.V., India 197—200; BRI. 16—9; GPVS. I, 142. 188;
WC. 98—103; Kerbaker, Varuna e gli Aditya, Napoli 1889; Bohnenberger, Der
altindische Gott Varuna, Tübingen 1893; ORV. 189 — 95. 202—3. 293—8. 336, n. i;
ZDMG. 50, 43—68; HRI. 61—72; JAOS. 16, cxLviiiff.; 17, 81, note; Foy, Die
königliche Gewalt, Leipzig 1895, p. 80—6 (Die Späher Vaaina'sj.

8 13. Mitra. — The association of Mitxa withVaruria is so predominant
that only one Single hymn of the RV. (3, 59) is addressed to him alone.
The praise of the god is there rather indeftnite, but the first verse at least
contains something distinctive about him. Uttering his voice {bruvänak) he
brings men together {yätayati) and watches the tillers with unwinking eye
(anitnisä^ said also of Mitra- Varuna in 7, 60**).

In another passage (7, 36^ almost the same words are applied to Mitra
who *brings men together, uttering his voice', in contrast with Varuija who is
here cailed 'a mighty, infallible guide*. This seems a tolerably clear reference
to Mitra's solar character, if we compare with it another verse (5, 8 2 9) where
it is said that the sun-god Savitr 'causes all creatures to hear him and impels
them'. In the fifth verse of the hymn to Mitra the god is spoken of as the
great Äditya *bringing men together'. This epithet {yätayaj-jana) is found
in only three other passages of the RV. In one of these it is applied to
Mitra-Varuna in the dual (5,72^), in another to Mitra, Varuna, and Aryaman
(i, 136^), and in the third (8,91") to Agni, who ^brings men together like Mitra'.
The attribute therefore seems to have properly belonged to Mitra. The hymn
to Mitra fiirther adds that he supports heaven and earth, that the five tribes
of men obey him, and that he sustains all the gods. Savitr is once (5,81*)
identified with Mitra because of his laws, and elsewhere (Väl. 43) Visi^u is
said to take his three Steps by the laws of Mitra. These t^'o passages appear
to indicate that Mitra regulates the course of the sun. Agni who goes at
the head of the dawns produces Mitra for himself (10, 8*); Agni when kindled
is Mitra (3, 5*); Agni when bom is Varuna, when kindled is Mitra' (5, 3*).
In the AV. (13, 3*^) Mitra at sunrise is contrasted with Varuna in the evening,
and (AV. 9, 3'*) Mitra is asked to uncover in the moming what has been
covered up by Varuria'. These passages point to the beginning of the view
prevailing in the Brähmajias, that Mitra is connected with day and Varuna
with night That view must have arisen from Mitra having been predominantly
conceived as allied to the sun, Varuna by antithesis becoming god of night^.
The same contrast between Mitra as god of day and Varuna as god of night
is implied in the ritual literature^ when it is prescribed that Mitra should

30 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, ia. Vedic Mythology.

receive a white and Varuna a dark victim at the sacrificial post (TS. 2, i, 7*.

9*; MS. 2, 57)4. The somewhat scanty evidence of the Veda showing that

Mitra is a solar deity, is corroborated by the Avesta and Persian religion in

general. Here Mithra is undoubtedly a sun-god or a god of light specially

connected with the sun^.

The etymology of the name is uncertain^. However, as the word also

often means *friend' in the RV. and the kindly nature of the god is often

referred to in the Veda, Mitra even appearing as a god of peace (TS. 2,

I, 8*) 7, while in the Avesta Mithra is on the ethical side of his character

the guardian of faithfulness ^ it must have originally signified *ally' or 'friend'

and have been applied to the sun-god in his aspect of a beneficent power of

nature.

« Eggers 16 — 19. — 2 Hillebrandt 67. — 3 Oi.denberg tliinks that the
special connexion of Varuna with night is old: ZDMG. 50, 64 — 5, — 4 Hille-
brandt 67. 90; ORV. 192, note. — 5 Sp.AP. 183; ORV. 48. 190; Eggers 6 — 13.
^ Hillebrandt 113—4; Eggers 70. — 7 Eggers 42 — 3. — 8 Eggers 53 — 6.

KHF. 13; Roth, ZDMG. 6, 70 ff.; P\V.; OST. 5, 69—71; WiiNDiscHMANX,
Mithra, Leipzig 1859; GW. s. v. Mitra; Huxebrandt, Varuna und Mitra 11 1 — 36;
BRV. 3, 110—29; BoLLENSEN, ZDMG. 41, 503—4; Weber, IS. 17, 212; BRI. 17;
ORV. 190—2; Boiinenberger 85; A. Eggers, Der arische Gott Mitra, Dorpat 1894
(Dissertation); v. SchRoeder, WZKM. 9, 1 iS; HRI. 71 ; Oldenberg, SBE.46, 241. 287.

S 14. Sürya. — Ten entire hymns of the RV. may be said to be de-
voted to the celebration of Sürya specifically. It is impossible to say how
often the name of the god occurs, it being in many cases doubtfiil whether
only the natural phenomenon is meant or its personification. Since his name
designates the orb of the sun as well, Sürya is the most concrete of the solar
deities, his connexion with the luminary never being lost sight of. The
adorable light of Sürya in the sky is as the face (anlka) of great Agni
(10, 7^). The eye of Sürya is mentioned several times (5, 40* &c.), but he
is himself equally often called the eye of Mitra and Varuna (p. 23) or of
Agni as well (i, 115*); and once (7, 77^) Dawn is said to bring the eye of
the gods. The affinity of the eye and the sun is indicated in a passage
where the eye of the dead man is conceived as going to Sürya (10, lö^cp.
90 \ 1583- 4). In the AV. he is called the *lord of eyes* (AV. 5, 24^) and is
said to be the one eye of created beings and to see beyond the sky, the
earth, and the waters (AV. 13, i*^). He is far-seeing (7, 35^; lo, 37*), all-
seeing (i, 50^), is the spy {sj>as) of the whole world (4, 13 3), beholds all
beings and the good and bad deeds of mortals (1,507; 6, 51*; 7, 6o^6i\
63'- 4). Aroused by Sürya men pursue their objects and perform their work
(7> 634). Common to all men, he rises as their rouser (7, 63*- 3). He is the
soul or the guardian of all that moves or is stationary (i, 115*; 7, 60*). He
has a car which is drawn by one steed, called etasa (7, 63^), or by an in-
definite number of steeds (1,115^; io^37^. 49^) or mares (5,295) or by seven
horses (5, 45^) or mares called haritah (i, 50^« ^\ 7, öo^) or by seven swift
mares (4, 13^).

Sürya's path is prepared for him by *Varuija (i, 24^; 7, 87^) or by the
Ädityas Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman (7, 60^). Püsan is his messenger (6, 583).
The Dawn or Dawns reveal or produce Sürya as well as Agni and the sacii-
fice (7, 8o^ 78^). He shines forth from the lap of the dawns (7, 633). But
from another point of view Dawn is Sürya's wife (7, 755).

He also bears the metronymic Äditya, son ofAditi (1,50". 1919; 8,90**)
or Äditeya (10, 88"), but he is elsewhere distinguished from the Adityas
(8, 35'^-'5). His father is Dyaus (10, 37 0- He is god-bom (ibid.). The gods
raised him who had been hidden in the ocean (10, 727). As a form of Agni

CeLESTIAL GODS. 14. SÜRYA. 3I

he was placed by the gods in heaven (lo, 88")« According to another order
of ideas he is said to have arisen from the eye of the world-giant Puni§a
(lo, 9o3). In the AV. (4, lo^) the sun (diväkara) is even described as having
Sprung from Vitra.

Various individual gods are said to have produced the sun. Indra
generated him (2, 12* &c.), caused him to shine or raised him to heaven
(3, 44*; 8, 787). Indra- Vi§iiu generated him (7, 99*). Indra-Soma brought up
Sürya with light (6, 72*); Indra-Varuija raised him to heaven (7, 8 2 3). Mitra-
Varui^a raised or placed him in heaven (4, 13'; 5, 63*' '^), Soma placed Hght
in the Sun (6, 44'-';. 9, 97*'), generated Surya (9, 965. iio^), caused him to
shine (9, 63^), or raised him in heaven (9, 1077). Agni establishes the
brightness of the sun on high (10, 3') and caused him to ascend to heaven
(10, 156*). Dhätr, the creator, fashioned the sun as well as the moon (10,
1903). The Angirases by their rites caused him to ascend the sky (lOj 623).
In all these passages referring to the generation of Surya the notion of the
simple luminary doubtless predominates.

In various passages Sürya is conceived as a bird traversing space. He
is a bird (10, 177** '), or a ruddy bird (5, 47^), is represented as flying (i,
191^), is compared with a flying eagle (7, 635) and seems to be directly
called an eagle (5, 45^)'. He is in one passage called a bull as well as a
bird (5, 473) and in another a mottled bulP (10, 189' cp. 5, 47^). He is once
alluded to as a white and brilliant steed^ brought by U§as (7, 7 7 3). Sürya's
horses represent his rays (which are seven in number; 8, 61'*), for the latter
(kdavah)y it is said, bring {vahanti) him. His seven mares are called the
daughters of his car (i, 509).

Elsewhere Sürya is occasionally spoken of as an inanimate object He
is a gern of the sky (7, 63* cp. 6, 51') and is ^alluded to as the variegated
stone placed in the midst of heaven (5, 473 cp. SB. 6, i, 2'). He is a brilliant
weapon (äyudhd) which Mitra-Varuna conceal with cloud and rain (5, (^2^^)^
he is the felly {pavi) of Mitra-Varuna (5, 62*), or a brilliant car placed in
heaven by Mitra-Varuna (5, 637). The sun is also called a wheel (i, 175'*;
4» 30*) or the *wheel of the sun* is spoken of (4, 28'; 5, 29*°).

Sürya shines for all the world (7, 63'), for men and gods (i, 5o5). He
dispels the darkness with his light (10, 37*). He rolls up the darkness as a
skin (7, 63'). His rays throw off the darkness as a skin into the waters
(4, 13*). He triumphs over beings of darkness and witches (i, 191*- 9 cp.
7, 104*^). There are only two or three allusions to the sun's burning heat
(7, 34*'; 9, 107*"); for in the RV. the sun is not a maleficent power*, and
for this aspect of the luminary only passages from the AV. and the literature
of the Brähmai^as can be quoted'.

Sürya measures the days (i, 50^) and prolongs the days of life (8,487).
He drives away sickness, disease, and every evil dream (10, 37*). To live is
to see the Sun rise (4,25*; 6,525). AU creatures depend on Sürya (1,164'*).
and the sky is upheld by him (10, 85'). The epithet *all-creating* {viiva-
karman) is also applied to him (10, 170*; cp. % 39). By his greatness he
is the divine priest (asuryai purohitafy) of the gods (8, 90'*). At his rising
he is prayed to declare men sinless to Mitra-Varuna and other gods (7, 60'.
62'). He is said, when rising, to go to the Vitra-slayer Indra and is even
styled a Vjtra-slayer himself when invoked with Indra (8, 82'- *• *).

The only myth told about Sürya is that Indra vanquished him (10, 435)
and stole his wheel (i, 175*; 4, 30*). This may allude to the obscuration of
the sun by a thunderstorm.

In the Avesta, the sun, hvare (= Vedic svar^ of which sürya^ is a de-

32 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

rivative and to which Gk. YjeXio^^ is allied) has swift horses, like Sürya, and
is called the eye of Ahura Mazda ^

« Cp. ZDMG. 7, 475—6. — * Otherwise HVM. i, 345, note 3.-3 Cp. ZDMG.
2 223; 7, 82. — 4 BRV. 1, 6; 2, 2. — 5 Ehni, Yama 134. — 6 KZ. 12, 358;
J. Schmidt, KZ. 26, 9. — 7 Brugmann, Grundriss i, 218. — 8 Sp.AP. 1, 190 — i;
cp. Oldenberg» ZDMG. 50, 49.

Nirukta 12. 14—16; OST. 5, 151— 6i; GKR. 55—6; BRL 20; KRV. 54—5.
145; BRV. 1, 7; HVM. 1, 45; HVBP. 29—30; ORV. 240—1; HRI. 40—6.

8 15. Savitf. — Savitf is celebrated in eleven whole hymns of the RV.
and in parts of others, his name being mentioned about 170 times. Eight or
nine of these are in the family books, while all but three of those to Sürya
are in the first and tenth. Savitr is preeminently a golden deity, nearly all
his membcrs and his equipment being described by that epithet. He is golden-
eyed (i, 35^), goiden-handed (i, 35^- ^°), golden- tongued (6, 71^), all these
epithets being peculiar to him. He has golden arms (6, 71** S; 7, 45^), and
is broad-handed (2, 38^; or beautifal-handed (3, 33^). He is also pleasant-
tongued (6, 71*) or beautiful-tongued (3, 54")» and is once cailed iron-jawed
(6, 71*). He is yellow-haired (10, 139*), an attribute of Agni and Indra also.
He puts on a tawny garment (4, 53*). He has a golden car with a golden
pole (i, 35*- 5), which is omniform (i, 353), just as he himself assumes all
forms (5, Si^j. His car is drawn by two radiant steeds or by two or more
brown, white-footed horses (i, 35^' ^j 7, 45').

Mighty splendour (amati) is preeminently attributed to Savitr, and mighty
golden splendour to him only (3, 38^; 7, 38*). This splendour he Stretches
out or diffuses. He illumines the air, heaven and earth, the world, the Spaces
of the earth, the vault of heaven (i, 357- ®; 4, 14*. 53*; 5, 81"). He raises
aloft his strong golden arms, with which he blesses and arouses all beings
and which extend to the ends of the earth (2,38'; 4,53**; 6, 71*- 5; 7,45*). The
raising of his arms is characteristic, for the action of other gods is compared
with it. Agni is said to raise his arms like Savitr (i, 95'); the dawns extend
light as Savitr his arms (7, 79^), and Bfhaspati is implored to raise hymns of
praise as Savitr his arms (1, 190^). He moves in his golden car, seeing all
creatures, on a down ward and an upward path (i, 35** 3). He impels the
car of the Asvins before dawn (i, 34*°). He shines after the path of the
dawn (5, 8i^J. He has measured out the earthly Spaces, he goes to the three
bright realms of heaven and is united with the rays of the sun (5, 81^ *).
The only time the epithet sürya-raimi is used in the RV. it is applied to
Savitr: *Shining with the rays of the sun, yellow-haired, Savitr raises up his
light continually from the east' (10, 139*). He thrice surrounds the air, the
three Spaces, the three bright realms of heaven (4, 53^: cp. Vi§i;iu, 8 i?)-
His ancient paths in the air are dustless and easy to traverse, on them he
is besought to protect his worshippers (i, 35"). He is prayed to convey the
departed spirit to where the righteous dvvell (10, 17^). He bestows immort-
ality on the gods as well as length of life on man (4, 54'). He also bestowed
immortality on the Rbhus, who by the greatness of their deeds went to his
house (i, iio^- 3j. Like Sürya, he is implored to remove evil dreams (5, 82*)
and to make nien sinless (4, 54^). He drives away evil spirits and sorcerers

(i, 35\^ 7, 38O.

Like many other gods Savitr is called asura (4, 53*). He observes fixed

laws (4, 53*; 10, 34®. 139^). The waters and the wind are subject to his or-

dinance (2, 38';. He leads the waters and by his propulsion they flow broadly

(3> 33^ cp. Nir. 2, 26). The other gods foUow his lead (5, 81^). No being, not

even Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, Rudra, can resist his will and independent

Celestial GoDS. 15. Savitfl 33

dominion (2, 38'. 9; 5, 82*). His praises are celebrated by the Vasus, Aditi,
Yaru^a, Mitra and Aryaman (7, 38-- ^). Like Pü$an and Surya, he is lord of
that which moves and is stationary (4, 53^). He is lord of all desirable things,
and sends blessings from heaven, air, earth (i^ 24^; 2, s^^^). He is twice
(i, 1233; 6, 71*) even spoken of as 'domestic' {damünas), an epithet other-
wise almost endrely limited to Agni Like other gods, he is a supporter
of the sky (4, 53*; 10, 149*). He Supports the whole world (4, 54*). He
fixed the earth with bonds and made firm the sky in the rafterless space
(10, 149O.

Savitf is at least once (i, 22^) called *child of Waters' {apäfft napät)^
an epithet otherwise exclusively belonging to Agni. It is probably also applied
to him in IG, 149' *. Yäska (Nir. 10, 32) commenting on this verse regards
Savitr here as belonging to the middle region (or atmosphere) because he
causes rain, adding that the sun {Äditya, who is in heaven) is also called
Savitr-^. It is probably owing to this epithet and because Savitr's paths are
once (i, 35") said to be in the atmosphere, that this deity occurs among the
gods of the middle region as well as among those of heaven in the Nai-
ghaj;;ituka. Savitr is once called the prajäpati of the world (4, 53*). In the SB.
(12, 3, 5*) people are said to identify Savitr with Prajäpati; and in the TB.
(i, 6, 4*) it is stated that Prajäpati becoming Savitr created living beings^.
Savitr is alone lord of vivifymg power and by his movements (yämabhifi)
becomes Pö$an (5, 82*). In his vivifying power Pü§an marches, beholding all
beings as a guardian (10, 139*). In two consecutive verses (3, 62'>**°) Pü§an
and Savitr are thought of as connected. In the first the favour of Pü§an who
sees all beings is invoked, and in the second, Savitr is besought to stimultae
(cp. Pü$an, p. 36) the thoughts of worshippers who desire to think of the
•excellent briUiance of god Savitr. The latter verse is the celebrated Sävitrt,
with which Savitr was in later times invoked at the beginning of Vedic study s.
Savitr is also said to become Mitra by reason of his laws (5, 81*). Savitr
seems sometimes (5, 82'- ^\ 7, 38*- ^) to be identified with Bhaga also, unless
the latter word is here only an epithet of Savitr. The name of Bhaga (the
good god bestowing benefits) is indeed of^en added to that of Savitr so as
to form the single expression Savitä Bhaga)^ or Bhagah Savitä^, In other
tezts, however, Savitr is distinguished from Mitra, Pü$an, and Bhaga. In
seveial passages Savitr and Sürya appear to be spoken of indiscriminately
to denote the same deity. Thus a poet says: 'God Savitr has raised aloft
his brilliance, making light for the whole world; Sürya shining brightly has
ülled heaven and earth and air with his rays* (4, 14*). In another hymn
(7> 63) Sürya is (in verses z. 2. 4) spoken of in terms (e. g. prasavitr, vivi-
fier) usually applied to Savitr, and in the third verse Savitr is apparently
mentioned as the same god. In other hymns also (10, 158*"'*; i, 35*"".
124') it is hardly possible to keep the two deities apart. In passages such as
the following, Savitr is, however, distinguished from Sürya. *Savitr moves
bctween both heaven and earth, drives away disease, impels iveti) the sun'
(if 35^)- Savitr declares men sinless to the sun (i, 123^). He combines
with the rays of the sun (s,8i*) or shines with the rays of the sun (10,139*
cp. 181^; I, 157*; 7, 35*' *"). With Mitra, Aryaman, Bhaga, Savitr is besought
to vivify the worshipper when the sun has risen (7, 66*).

According to Yäska (Nir. 12, 12), the time of Savitr's appearance is
when darkness has been removed. Säyaijia (on RV. 5, 81*) remarks that be-
fore his rising the sun is called Savitr, but from his rising to his setting, Sürya.
But Savitr is also sometimes spoken of as sending to sleep (4>S3^;7>45*)> and
jnust therefore be connected with evening as well as moming. He is, indeed,

lado-arische Philologie. IIL 1 A. 3

34 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

extolled as the setting sun in one hymn (2, 38); and there are indications
that most of the hymns addressed to him are meant for either a moming or
an evening sacrifice^. He brings all two-footed and four-footed beings to
rest and awakens them (6, 71* cp. 4, 53^; 7, 45»). He unyokes his steeds,
brings the wanderer to rest; at his command night comes; the weaver roUs
up her web and the skilful •ban lays down his unfinished work (2, 38^* *).
Later the west was wont to be assigned to him (SB. 3, 2, 3^®), as üie east to
Agni and the south to Soma.

The name Savitr has all the appearance of being a word of purely
Indian formation. This is borae out by the fact that the root sü, from which
it is derived, is continually used along with it in a manner which is unique
in the RV. Some other verb would nearly always be used to express the
same action in connexion with any other god. In the case of Savitr not
only is the root itself used, but aJso several derivatives (such as prasavUr
and prasavd) constituting a perpetual play on the name®. These frequent
combinations show clearly that the root has the sense of stimulating, arousing,
vivifying. A few examples may here be given in illustration of this peculiar
usage. 'God Savitr has aroused {präsäint) each moving thing* (i, 157M.
*Thou alone art the lord of Stimulation' {prasavasya: 5, 81 5). *Savitr bestowed
{äsuvat) that immortality on you' (i,iio3). *God Savitr has arisen to arouse
(saväya) us' (2, 38'). *Thrice a day Savitr sends down (sosavtH) boons from
the sky* (3, 56^). 'Do thou, o Savitr, constitute {suvatät) us sinless* (4, 54^).
'May we being sinless towards Aditi through the influence {save) of Savitr
possess all boons' (5, 82^). *Send away {parä sava) evil dream, send away
all calamities, bestow {äsuva) what is good (ib. ^- 5). *May Savitr remove
{apa sävisat) sickness' (10, 100®). With this verb Savitr is speciaJly often
besought to bestow wealth (2, 56^ &c.). This use of sü is almost' peculiar to
Savitr; but it is two or three times applied to Sürya (7, 63'- *; 10, 37^). It
also occurs with U§as (7,77*), with Vanuja (2,28^), with the Ädityas (8,18'),
and with Mitra, Aryaman coupled with Savitr (7, 66*). This employment
being so frequent, Yäska (Nir. 10, 31) defines Savitr as sarvasya prasavita,
*the stimulator of everything*.

The fact that in nearly half its occurrences the name is accompanied by
deva^ god, seems to show that is has not yet lost the nature of an epithet,
meaning *the stimulator god'. At any rate, the word appears to be an epithet
of Tva§tr in two passages (3, 5 5 '9; 10, lo^), where the juxtaposition of the
words devas tiasfä savitä viharüpa and the coUocation with dcva indicate
that Savitr is here identical with Tva§tr-

We may therefore conclude that Savitr was originally an epithet of Indian
origin applied to the sun as the great stimulator of life and motion in
the World, representing tlie most important movement which dominates all
others in the universe, but that as differentiated from Sürya he is a more
abstract deity. He is in the eyes of the Vedic poets the divine power of
the sun personified, while Sürya is the more concrete deity, in the conception
of whom the out^vard form of the sun-body is never absent owing to the
identity of his name with that of the orb (cp. 1,359. 124').

Oldenberg^, reversing the order of development generally recognized,
thinks that Savitr represents an abstraction of the idea of Stimulation and
that the notion of the sun, or of the sun in a particular direction, is only
secondary in his character*°.

« HRI. 44. — - Cp. v. Bradke, ZDMG. 40. 355; HRI. 48. — 3 Cp. Roth,
Nirukta Erl. 143; OST. 4, 96. in. — 4 Weber, Omina und Portenta 386. 392. —
5 Whitney in Colebrooke's essays. rev. cd. 2, ui. — 6 BRV. 3, 39. — 7 HRL

Celestial Gods. i6. Pusan. 35

46. — 3 Roth, op. cit 76. — 9 ORV. 64—5. — «o Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 951 -—2;

V. SCHROEDER, WZKM. 9, I25.

Whitney, JAOS. 3, 324; OST. 5, 162—70; Roth, FSV.; ZDMG. 24, 306-8;
GRV. I, 49; GW. s.v.; KRV. 56; BRV. 3, 38—64; HVBP. 33.

S 16. Pü§an. — The name of PO§an is mentipned about 120 times in
the RV. and he is celebrated in eight hymns t^ve of them occurring in the
sixth, two in the first, and one in the tenüi book). He is also lauded as a dual
divinity in one hymn (6, 57) with Indra and in another with Soma (2, 40).
Thus statistically he occupies a somewhat higher position than Vi§iju (S 17).
In the later Vedic and the post-Vedic periods his name is mentioned with
increasing rareness. His individuality is indistinct and his anthropomorphic
traits are scanty. His foot is referred to when he is asked to trample on
the brand of the wicked. His right hand is also mentioned (6, 54"). He
has (like Rudra) braided hair (6, 55*) and a beard (10, 26'). He wields a
golden spear (i, 42^) and carries an awl (6, 53-- ^' *) or a goad (53^. 58^^
llie wheel, the felly, and the seat of bis car (6, 54^) are spoken of and he
is called the best charioteer (6, 56'- ^). His car is drawn by goats* {ajäivd)
instead of horses (i, 38*; 6, 55^- *). He eats, for his food is gruel (6, 56*
cp. 3, 52^). It is probably for this reason that he is said to be toothless in
the SB. (i, 7, 47).

Pü$an sees all creatures clearly and at once (3, 629), these identical
words being applied to Agni also (10, 187*). He is *the lord of all things
moving and stationary' almost the same words with which Süry^i is described
(i, 115*; 7, 60"). He is the wooer of his mother (6, 55^) or the lover of his
sister (ib. *• *), similar expressions being used ofSürya (i, 115*) and ofAgni
(10, 33). The gods are said to have given him, subdued by love, to the sun-
maiden Süryä in marriage (6, 58*). Probably as the husband of Süryä, Pü§an
is connected with the marriage ceremonial in the wedding hymn (10, 85),
being besought to take the bride's hand and lead her away and to bless her
in her conjugal relation^ (v. 37). In another passage (9, 67'°) he is besought
to give his worshippers their share of maidens. With his golden ships which
move in the aerial ocean, subdued by love he acts as the messenger ^ of Sürya
(6, 58-^). He moves onward beholding the universe (2, 40^; 6, 58^) and
makes his abode in heaven (2, 40*). He is a guardian, who goes at the in-
stigation of Savitr, knowing and beholding all creatures. In a hymn devoted
to his praise, Pü^an is said as best of charioteers to have driven downwards
the golden wheel of the sun (6, 56^), but the connexion is obscure (cp. Nir.
2, 6). A frequent and exclusive epithet of Pu§an is *glowing' {ägkrni). He
is once termed agohya^ *not to be concealed', an attribute almost peculiar
to Savitr.

Pü§an is bom on the far path of paths, on the far path of heaven and
of earth; he goes to and retums from both the beloved abodes, knowing
ihem (6, 1 7^). Owing to this familiarity he conducts the dead on the far path to
the Fathers, as Agni and Savitr take them to where the righteous have gone
and where they and the gods abide, and leads his worshippers thither in
safety, showing them the way (10, 17^"^). The AV. also speaks of Pü§an
as conducting to the world of the righteous, the beautiful world of the gods
CAV. 16, 9*; 18, 2^3). So Pü§an's goat conducts the sacrificial horse (1,1 62*- 3).
Perhaps to Pü§an's familiarity with the (steep) paths is due the notion that
his car is drawn by the sure-footed goat.

As knower of paths, Pü§an is conceived as a guardian of roads. He is
besought to remove dangers, the wolf, the waylayer, from the path (1,42 *~5;.
In this connexion he is called vimuco napät^ *son of deliverance'*. The same

36 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

epithet is applied to him in another passage (6,55') and he is twice (8,4*5-«^)
called vimocana, *deliverer*. As vimuco napät he is invoked to deliver from
sin* (AV. 6, 112^). PQ§an is prayed to disperse foes and make the paths
lead to booty (6,53*), to remove foes, to make the paths good, and to lead
to good pasture (i, 42^- •). He is invoked to protect from härm on his path
(6, 549) and to grant an auspicious path (10, 597). He is the guardian of
every path (6, 49**) and lord of the road (6, 53"). He is a guide {prapatkya)
on roads (VS. 22, 20). So in the Sütras, whoever is starting on a joumey
makes an offering to PQsan, the road-maker, while reciting RV. 6, 53; and
whoever loses his way, tums to Pü§an (AGS. 3, y'*- 9; SSS. 3, 49). Moreover,
in the moming and evening offerings to all gods and beings, Pü§an the road-
maker receives his on the threshold of the house (SGS. 2, 14^).

As knower of ways he can make hidden goods manifest and easy
to find (6, 48*5). He is in one passage (i, 23''»- '^ cp. TS. 3, 3, 9*) said to
have fomid the king who was lost and hidden in secret (probably Soma), and
asked to bring him like a lost beast So in the Sütras, Pü§an is sacrificed
to when anything lost is sought (AGS. 3, 79). Similarly, it is characteristic of
Pü§an that he follows and protects cattle (6, 545- ^- *®. 58* cp. lo, 26^). He
preserves them from injury by falling into a pit, brings them home imhurt,
and drives back the lost (6, 547- *°). His goad directs cattle straight (6,539).
Perhaps connected with the idea of guiding straight is the notion that he
directs the furrow (4, 577). Püsan also protects horses (6, 54^) and weaves
and smooths the clothing of sheep (10, 26^). Hence beasts are said to be
sacred to Püsan (i, 5*-'), and he is called the producer of cattie (MS. 4, 3^;
TB. I, 7, 2*). In the Sütras verses to Püsan are prescribed to be recited
when CO WS are driven to pasture or stray (SGS. 3, 9).

Pü^an has various attributes in common with other gods. He is called
^^^^ra (5, 51"). He is strong (5, 43^), vigorous (8, 4*^^), nimble (6, 54®),
powerful (i, 138*), resistless (6, 48*5). He transcends mortals and is equal
to the gods in glory (6, 48*9). He is a ruler of heroes (i, 106+), an uncon-
querable protector and defender (i, 89^), and assists in battle (6, 48^9). He
is a protector of the world (10, 17^ cp. 2, 40'). He is a seer, a protecting
friend of the priest, the unshaken friend bom of old, of every suppliant (10,
265- ®). He is wise (i, 42») and liberal ^ (2, 31*). His bounty is particularly
often mentioned. He possesses all wealth (i, 89^), abounds in weaJth (8, 4**),
gives increase of wealth (i, 89^), is beneficent (i, 138^), bountiful (6, 58*;
8, 4**), and bestows all blessings (i, 42^). He is the strong friend of
abundance, the strong lord and increaser of nourishment (10, 267- 8). The
term dasra^ *wonder-working', distinctive of the Asvins, is a few times (1,42'*^;
6, 56*) applied to him, as well as dasma, Svondrous' (i, 42'**. 138^) and
dasma-varcas^ *of wondrous splendour' (6, 58^), usually said of Agni and Indra.
He is also twice (i, 106*; 10, 64-5) called Naräsarnsa 'praised of men', an
epithet otherwise exclusively limited to Agni. He is once spoken of as *all-
pervading' (2, 40^). He is termed 'devotion-stimulating* (9, ^^^)y is invoked
to quicken devotion (2, 40^), and his awl is spoken of as *prayer-instigating'

(6, 53^ cp. Savitr, p. 33)-

The epithets exclusively connected with Püsan are äghrni, ajäiva, mmo-
cana^ vimuco napät^ and once QTioh pustimbhara^ *bringing prosperity*, anasia-
paiu^ *losing no cattle', anastavedas^ *losing no goods', karambhdd^ *eating
gruer. The latter attribute seems to have been a cause for despising Pü§an
by some (cp. 6, 56'; i, 138^)^ Karamb/ia, mentioned three times in the RV.,
is Pü§an's distinctive food, being contrasted with Soma as Indra's (6, 57*).
Indra, however, shares it (3,527), and in the only t\vo passages in which the

Celestial GoDS. 17. ViSNU. 37

adjective karatnbhin *mixed with grueF occurs, it applies to the libation of
Indra (3, 52*; 8, 80*). Pö§an is the only god who receives the epithet
paiupä^ *protector of cattle* (6, 58*) directly (and not in comparisons).

The only deities with whom Pü§an is invoked conjointly in the dual are
Soma (2, 40) and Indra (6, 57), whose brother he is once called (6, 55*).
Next to these two, Pü§an is mqst frequently addressed with Bhaga (i, 90^;

4, 30'^; 5, 41*. 46*; IG, 125*; cp. SB. II, 4, 33; KSS. 5, 13O and Vi§i)u (1,90^^;

5, 463; 6, 2i9; 7, 44»; 10, (>(i^\ his name in all these passages of the RV.
being in juxtaposition with theirs. He is occasionally addressed with various
other deities also.

The evidence adduced does not show clearly that Pü§an represents a
phenomenon of nature. But a large number of passages quoted at the
beginning point to his being closely connected with the sun. Yäska, too,
(Nir. 7, 9) explains Pü?an to be *the sun {Ääitya\ the preserver of all beings*,
and in post-Vedic literature Pü§an occasionally occurs as a name of the sun.
The path of the sun which leads from earth to heaven, the abode of the
gods and the pious dead, might account for a solar deity being both a con-
ductor of departed souls (like Savitr) and a guardian of paths in general.
The latter aspect of his character would explain his special bucolic features
as a guide and protector of cattle, which form a part of his general nature
as a Promoter of prosperity. Mithra, the solar deity of the Avesta, has the
bucolic traits of increasing cattle and bringing back beasts that have strayed^.

Etymologically the word means *prosperer' as derived from the rooX. pus^
*to cause to thrive'. This side of his character is conspicuous both in his
epithets viivavedaSy anasfavedaSy purOvasu, fusümbharay and in the frequent
invocations to him to bestow wealth and protection (6, 48 '* &c.). He is lord
of great wealth, a stream of wealth, a heap of riches (6, 55'- 3). But the
prosperitiy he confers is not, as in the case of Indra, Parjanya, and the
Maruts, connected with rain, but with light, which is emphasized by his ex-
clusive epithet *glowing*. The welfare which he bestows results from the
protection he extends to men and cattle on earth, and from his guidance of
men to the abodes of bliss in the next world. Thus the conception which
seems to underhe the character of Pü?an, is the beneficent power of the sun
manifested chiefly as a pastoral deity.

» KRV. note 120. — » IS. 5, 186. 190. — 3 GGA. 1889, p. 8. — 4 OST. 5,
I7S; GW.; LRV. 4, 444; HVBP. 34, and BRV. (who explains the original meaning
diffcrenüy); «Sohn der Einkehr* (— unyoking): Roth, PW. und ORV. 232; «Son
of the cloud': Säyaiia and Griffith on RV. i, 42". — 5 Puranidhi according to
Hu-LZBRANDT, WZKM. 3, 192— 3, means *active, zealous*. — ^ HRI. 51. —
7 Sp.AP. 184.

Whitney, JAOS. 3, 325; OST. 5, 171—80; Gubernatis, Letture 82; BRV. 2^
420—30; KRV. S5; PVS. 1, 11; HVM. 1, 456; HVBP. 34; ORV. 230—3 (cp. WZKM.
9, 252}; Perry, Drisler Memorial 241—3; HRI. 50—3.

817. Vi§iiu. — Vi§i;iu, though a deity of capital importance in the mytho-
logy of the Brähmai^as, occupies but a subordinate position in the RV. His
Personality is at the same time more important there than would appear from
the Statistical Standard alone. According to that he would be a deity only
of the foiirth rank, for he is celebrated in not more than five whole hymns
and in part of another, while his name occurs only about 100 times alto-
gether in the RV. The only anthropomorphic traits of Vi§uu are the fre-
quently mentioned strides which he takes, and his being a youth vast in body,
who is no longer a child (i, 155^). The essential feature of his character is
that he takes (generally expressed by vi-kram) three strides, which are referred
to about a dozen times. His epithets urugäya^ 'wide-going' and urukrama^

38 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

Svide-striding*, which also occur about a dozen times, allude to the same
action. With these three Steps Vi^ijiu is described as traversing the earth or
the terrestrial Spaces. Two of these Steps or Spaces are visible to men, but
the third or highest Step is beyond the flight of birds or mortal ken (1,155^;
7, 99*). The same notion seems to be mystically expressed (i, 155^) when
he is Said to bear his third name in the bright realm of heaven. The highest
place of Vi§^u is regarded as identical with the highest place of Agni, for
Vi§pu guards the highest, the third place of Agni (10, 1^) and Agni with the
loftiest Station of Vißnu guards the mysterious cows (probably = clouds:
5, 3 3). The highest Step of Vi§nu is seen by the liberal like an eye fixed in
heaven (i, 22^°). It is his dear abode, where pious men rejoice and where
there is a well of honey (i, 154'), and where the gods rejoice (8, 29^;.
This highest Step * shines down brightly and is the dwelling of Indra and Vi^igiu,
where are the many-horned swiftly moving cows^ (probably = clouds), and
which the singer desires to attain (i, 154^). Within these three footsteps all
beings dwell (i, 154*)» and they are füll of honey (1,154*), probably because
the third and most important is füll of it^. Vi§i>u guards the highest abode
(J>äthas)^^ which implies his favourite dwelling-place (3, 55^**) and is else-
where expressly stated to be so (i, 1545). In another passage (7, loo^)
Vi§^u is less definitely said to dwell far from this space. He is once spoken
of (1,156^) as having three abodes, trisadhastha^ an epithet primarily appro-
priate to Agni (S 35)-

The opinion that Vi§nu*s three Steps refer to the course of the sun is
almost unanimous. But what did they originally represent? The purely
naturaUstic interpretation favoured by most European scholars* and by Yäska's
predecessor Aurriaväbha (Nir. 12, 19) takes the three steps to mean the rising,
culminating, and setting of the sun. The alternative view, which prevails
throughout the younger Vedas, the Brähmanas, as well as post- Vedic litera-
ture, and was supported by Yäska's predecessor Säkapüni and is favoured by
Bergaigne and the present writer^ interprets the three steps as the course of
the solar deity through the three divisions of the universe. With the former
interpretation is at variance the fact that the third step of Vi§^u shows no trace
of being connected with sunset, but on the contrary is identical with the
highest Step. The alternative view does not conflict with what evidence the
RV. itself supplies, and is supported by the practically unvarying tradition
in India beginning with the later Vedas.

That the idea of motion is characteristic of Vi§nu is shown by other
expressions besides the three steps. The epithets *wide-going' and Vide-
striding* are almost entirely limited to Vi§nu, as well as the verb vi-kram.
The latter is also employed in allusion to the sun, spoken of as the varie-
gated stone placed in the midst of heaven, which took strides (5, 47 «5). Vi§nu
is also swift £sa (otherwise said only once of Brhaspati) or 'swift-going* evayäj
evayOvan (otherwise connected only with the Maruts). Coupled with the con-
stant idea of swift and far-extending motion is that of regularity. In taking
his three strides Vi§Eiu observes laws (i, 22*^). Like other deities typical of
regulär recurrence (Agni, Soma, Sürya, Usas), Vi§ciu is the *ancient gemi of
Order', and an ordainer, who (like Agni, Sürya, U§as) is both ancient and
recent (i, 156*"*). In the same words as the sun-god Savitr (5, 81^), he is
said (i, 154'; 6, 49*-^) to have measured out the earthly spaces. With this
may also be compared the Statement that Varuna measured out the spaces
with the sun (p. 11). Vi§j3iu is in one passage (i, 155^ cp. i, 164^- **) de-
scribed as setting in motion like a revolving wheel his 90 steeds (= days)
with their four names (= seasons). This can hardly refer to anything but

Celestial GoDs. 17. ViSNu. 39

the solar year of 360 days. In the AV. (5, 2 60 Vi?fliu is besought to bestow
heat on the sacrifice. In the Brähmaijas Vi§nu's head when cut ofFbecomes
the sun. In post-Vedic literature one of Vi§i;iu's weapons is a rolling wheel*
which is represented like the sun (cp. RV. 5, 6^^\ and his vehicle is Garu(}a,
Chief of birds, who is of brilliant lustre like Agni, and is also called garutmat
and suparna^ two terms already applied to the sun-bird in the RV. Finally
the post-Vedic kaustubha or breast-jewel of Vi^ijiu has been explained as the
sun by Kxjhn^. Thus though Vi§nu is no longer clearly connected with a
natural phenomenon^ the evidence appears to justify the inference that he
was originally conceived as the sun, not in his general character, but as the
personified swiftly moving luminary, which with vast strides traverses the whole
universe. This explanation would be bome out by the derivation from the
root wf *°, which is used tolerably often in the RV. and primarily means *to
be active' (PW.). According to this, Vi§i]iu would be the *active one' as re-
presenting solar motion. Oldenberg, however, thinks that every definite trace
of solar character is lacking in Vi§iju, that he was from the beginning con-
ceived only as a traverser of wide space, and that no concrete natural con-
ception corresponded to the three Steps. The number of the steps he attri-
butes simply to the fondness for triads in mythology.

Vi^Qu's highest step^ as has been indicated, is conceived as his distinctive
abode. The sun would naturally be thought of as stationary in the meridian
rather than anywhere eise. So we find the name of the zenith in Yäska to
be visnupada^ the Step or place of Vi§^u. Probably connected with the same
ränge of ideas are the epithets *mountain-dwelling' (jgiriksit) and *mountain-
abiding* {girisßä) applied to Vi§^u in the same hymn (i, 154'* 3); for in the
next hymn (i, 155») Vi^iju and Indra are conjointly called 'the two undeceivable
ones, who have stood on the summit (sänuni) of the mountains, as it were with
an unerring steed'. This would allude to the sun looking down from the
height of the cloud mountains" (cp. 5, 87*). It is probably owing to such
expressions in the RV. that Vi§au is later called *lord of mountains' (TS. 3,

4, SO-

The reason why Vi§i>u took his three steps is a secondary trait He

thrice traversed the earthly Spaces for man in distress (6, 49'^; he traversed

the earth to bestow it on man for a dwelling (7, loo*); he traversed the

eardily spaces for wide-stepping existence (i, 155*); with Indra he took vast

strides and stretched out the worlds for our existence (6, 69s- ^). To this

feature in the RV. may ultimately be traced the myth of Vi§riu's dwarf in-

camation which appears in, the Epic and the Puränas. The intermediate stage

is found in the Brähma^as (SB. i, 2, 58; TS. 2, i, 3^; TB. i, 6, i^), where Vi§nu

already assumes the form of a dwarf, in order by artifice to recover the

earth for the gods from the Asuras by taking his three strides '-J.

The most prominent secondary characteristic of Vi§Qu is his friendship

for Indra, with whom he is frequently allied in the fight with Vftra. This is

indicated by the fact that one whole hymn (6, 69) is dedicated to the two

deities conjointly, and that Indra's name is coupled with that of Vi§iju in the

dual as often as with that of Soma, though the name of the latter occurs

vastly oftener in the RV. The closeness of their alliance is also indicated

by the fact that in hymns extolling Vi^iju alone, Indra is the only other deity

mcidentally associated with him either explicitly (7, 995*^; i, 155^) or im-

plicitly (7, 99*; I, 154^ 15s*; cp. I, 6i7)'*. Vi§nu strode his three steps by

tha energy (q/asa) of Indra (8, i2'7), who in the preceding verse is described

as slaying Vrtra, or for Indra (Väl.43). Indra about to slay Vrtra says, *friend

Vi.5nu, stride out vastly' (4, i8*0- ^^ Company with Vi§nu, Indra slew Vftra

40 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

(6, 20^). Vi§riu and Indra together triumphed over the Däsa, destroyed Sam-
bara's 99 casties and conquered the hosts of Varcin (7, 99** s). Vi§i]iu is
Indra's intimate friend (i, 22*9). Vi§nu accompanied by his friend opens the
cows' stall (i, 156^). In the SB. (5, 5, 5') Indra is described as shooting
the thunderbolt at Vrtra, while Vi§nu follows him (cp. TS. 6, 5, i''). Vi§nu is
also invoked with Indra in various Single verses (4, 2*. 55*; 8, 10'; 10, 66*),
When associated with Indra as a dual divinity, Vi^riu shares Indra's powers
of drinking Soma (6,69) as well as his victories (7, 99*"^), Indra conversely
participating in Vi§^u's power of striding (6, 69'; 7, 99^). To both conjointly
is attributed the action of creating the wide air and of spreading out the
Spaces (6, 695) and of producing Sürya, U§as, and Agni (7, 99*). Owing
to this friendship Indra drinks Soma beside Vi§nu (8, 3**. 12'^) and thereby
increases his strength (8, 3^; 10, 113^. Indra drank the Soma pressed by
Vi9^u in three cups (2, 22' cp. 6, 17"), which recall Vi§nu's three footsteps
filled with honey (1,1544). Vi§nu also cooks for Indra 100 bufFaloes (6,17")
or IOC buffaloes and a brew of milk (8, 66'** cp. i, 61 7). Along with Mitra,
Vanyja, and the Maruts, Vi§^u celebrates Indra with songs (8, 15^).

Indra's constant attendants in the Vrtra-fight, the Maruts, are also drawn
into association with Vi§nu. When Vi§nu favoured the exhilerating Soma, the
Maruts like birds sat down on their beloved altar (1,857)^5. The Maruts are
invoked at the ofFering of the swift Vi§nu (2, 34'' cp. 7, 405). They are the
bountiful ones of the swift Vi§nu (8,2o3). The Maruts supported Indra, while
Pü§an Vi§pu cooked 100 buffaloe? for him (6, 17**). Vi§i>u is the ordainer
associated with the Maruts {märutä)^ whose will Varuna and the Asvins foUow
(i, 156*). Throughout one hymn (5, 87, especially verses *• 5) he is associated
with the Maruts, with whom, when he Starts, he speeds along '^

Among stray references to Visnu in the RV. may be mentioned one
(7, IOC*) in which different forms of Vi§nu are spoken of: *Do not conceal
from US this form, since thou didst assume another form in battle'. He is
further said to be a protector of embryos (7,369) and is invoked along with
other deities to promote conception (10, 184*). In the third verse of the
Khila after 10, 184*7^ Vi^ijiu is, according to one reading, called upon to
place in the womb a male child with a most beautiful form, or, according
to another, a male child with Vi§nu's most beautiful form is prayed for*®.

Other traits of Vi§nu are applicable to the gods in general. He is bene-
ficent (i, 1565), is innocuous and bountiful (8, 25"), liberal (7, 40*), a
guardian (3, 55"), who is undeceivable (i, 22*®), and an innoxious and generous
deliverer (1,155*). He alone sustains the threefold (world), heaven and earth,
and all beings (1,154*). He fastened the world all about with pegs (7,99^).
He is an ordainer (i, 156*).

In the Brähmaijas Vi§iju is conceived as taking his three Steps in earth,
air, and heaven (SB. i, 9, 3'; TB. 3, i, 2'). These three strides are imitated
by the sacrificer, who takes three Vi§iju strides beginning with earth and
ending with heaven *9, for that is the goal, the safe refuge, which is the sun
(SB. I, 9, 3'**- *5)- The three steps of the Am§aspands taken from earth to
the sphere of the sun, are similarly imitated in the ritual of the Avesta**.
A special feature of the Brähmaijas is the constant identification of Vi^i^u
with the sacrifice.

Two myths connected with Vi^ijiu, the source of which can be traced
to the RV., are further developed in the BrähmaQas. Vi?iiu in alliance with
Indra is in the RV. described as vanquishing demons. In the Brähmai^as
the gods and demons commonly appear as two hostile hosts, the former not,
as in the RV., uniformly victorious, but often worsted. They therefore have

Celestial GoDS. 17. VisNu. 41

recourse to artifice, in Order to recover the supremacy. In the AB. (6, 15)
it is related that Indra and Vi$QU, engaged in conflict with the Asuras, agreed
with the latter that as much as Vi§9u could stride over in three Steps should
belong to the two deities. Vi§nu accordingly strode over these worlds, the
Vedas, and Speech. The SB. (i, 2, 5) teils how the Asuras having overcorae
the gods began dividing the earth. The gods placing Vi§iju, the sacrifice, at
their head, came and asked for a share in the earth. The Asuras agreed to
give up as much as Vi§i;iu, who was a dwarf, could lie on. Then the gods
by sacrificing with Vi§iju, who was equal in size to sacrifice, gained the whole
earth. The three Steps are not mentioned here, but in another passage (SB.
I » 9» 3^)» Vi§iju is Said to have acquired for the gods the all-pervading power
which they now possess, by striding through the three worlds. It is further
stated in TS. 2, i, 3', that Vi§iju, by assuming the form of a dwarf whom he
had Seen, conquered the three worlds (cp. TB. i, 6, i5). The introduction of
the dwarf as a disguise of Vi$nu is naturally to be accounted for as a
stratagem to avert the suspicion of the Asuras**. This Brähmaria story forms
the transition to the myth of Vi§iju's Dwarf Incarnation in post-Vedic
literature *'.

Another myth of the Brähmanas has its origin in two passages of the
RV. (i, 61 7; 8, 66'°). Their purport is that Vi§^u having drunk Soma and
being urged by Indra, carried off 100 buffaloes and a brew of milk belonging
to tiüe boar (=» Vftra), while Indra shooting across the (cloud) mountain,
slew the fierce {emusam) boar. This myth is in the TS. (6, 2, 4^* ^) developed
as foUows. A boar, the plunderer of wealth, kept the goods of the Asuras
on the other side of seven hüls. Indra plucking up a bunch of kus'a grass
and Piercing through these hüls, slew the boar. Vi§iju, the sacrifice, carried
the boar off as a sacrifice for the gods. So the gods obtained the goods of
the Asuras. In the corresponding passage of the Käthaka (IS. XI. p. 161)
the boar is called Emü^a. The same story with slight variations is told in
the Caraka Brähma^a (quoted by Säyaija on RV. 8,66'°). This boar appears
in a cosmogonic character in the SB. (14, i, 2") where under the name of
£mä$a he is stated to have raised up the earth from the waters. In the TS.
(7» I» 5O this cosmogonic boar, which raised the earth from the primeval
waters, is described as a form of Prajäpati. This modification of the myth
is fiirther expanded in the TB. (1,1,35). In the post-Vedic mythology of the
Rämäya^a and the Puräqas, the boar which raises the earth, has become one
of the Avatärs of Vi§i>u.

The germs of two other Avatärs ofVi§iju are to be found in the Bräh-
manas, but not as yet connected with Vi^iju. The fish which in the SB.
(i, 8, V) delivers Manu firom the flood, appears in the Mahäbhärata as a
form of Prajäpati, becoming in the Purä^as an incarnation of Vi^^u. In the
SB. (7, 5, i5, cp. TA. I, 233) Prajäpati about to create offepring becomes a
tortoise moving in the primeval waters. In the Purä^as this tortoise is an
Avatär of Vi§9U, who assumes this form to recover various objects lost in the
deluge*^. ,

The SB. (14, I, i) teils a myth of how Vi^^u, the sacrifice, by first
comprehending the issue of the sacrifice, became the most eminent among
the gods, and how his head, by his bow starting asunder, was cut off and
became the sun {ääitya). To this story the TA. (5, i, i — 7) adds the trait
that the Asvins as physicians replaced the head of the sacrifice and that the
gods now able to offer it in its complete form conquered heaven (cp. PB.

7. 5')-

In the AB. (i, i) Vi$QU as the locally highest of the gods is contrasted

42 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunsi\ i a. Vedic Mythology.

with Agni the lowest, all the other deities being placed between them. The
same Brähmana (i, 30) in quoting RV. i, 156*, where 'Vi§iju accompanied
by bis friend opens the stall', states that Vi§nu is the doorkeeper of the gods.

X The moon according to HVßP. 33. — ' Stars according to PW., HVBP. and
others. — 3 Cp. BRV. 2, 416. — 4 Otherwise Sieg in FaW. (Leipzig 1896), 97—100.
— 5 Whitney, Max Müller, Haug, Kaegi, Deussen, and others. — ^ BRV.
2,414—5. — 7 Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 170—5. — 8 KHF. 222. — 9 Entwicklungsstufen,
1 16. _ xo Other derivations in ORV. 229, HRI. 580, BB. 21,205. — »« ORV. 228 — 30. —
J2 Cp. ORV. 230, note 2 ; Macdonell, JRAS. 27, p. 1 74, note 2. — «3 JRAS. 27, 188—9. —
»4 Ibid. 184. — 15 Bergaigne, JA. 1884, p. 472.— »6 MM., SBE. 32, p. 127. 133—7. —
»7 Aufrecht, RV. II 2, 687. — *8 Winternitz, JRAS. 27, 150—1. — »9 Hillebrandt,
Neu- und Vollmondsopfer, 171 f. — 20 Dakmesteter, French Tr. of the Avesta
1, 401 ; ORV. 227. — 21 Otherwise A. Kuhn, Entwicklungsstufen der Mvthenbildung,
128. — 22 JRAS. 27, 168—177. — 23 Ibid. 166—8.

Whitney, JAOS. 3,325; OST. 4, 63— 98. 121—9. 298; Weber, IStr. 2, 226 f.;
Omina und Portenta 338; BRV. 2, 414— 8; ORV. 227— 30; Hopkins, PAOS. 1894,
cXLVii f. ; HRI. 56 f.

S 18. Vivasvat. — Vivasvat is not celebrated in any single hymn of the
RV., but his name occurs there about thirty times, generally as Vivasvat, five
times also as Vivasvat. He is the father of the Asvins (10, 17 ^ and of Yama
(10, 145. 17*). As in post- Vedic literature he is already also in the Vedas
the father of Manu (S 50), the ancestor of the human race, who is once
(VäL 4*) called Vivasvat (== Vaivasvata, p. 12) and receives the patronymic
Vaivasvata in the AV. and the SB. Men are also directly stated to be the
progeny of Vivasvän Ädityah (TS. 6, 5, 6'; SB. 3, i, 3*). The gods are also
once spoken of as the offspring (Janimä) of Vivasvat (10, 63*;. Vivasvat's
wife is Saranyü, daughter of Tva§tr (io> i7*' *)•

It was to Vivasvat as well as Mätarisvan that Agni was first manifested
(1,31-). Vivasvat's messenger is once (6,8*) stated to be Mätarisvan, but
is otherwise Agni (i, 58*; 4, 7*; 8, 39^; 10, 2x5). Agni is once said to be
produced from his parents (the fire-sticks) as the sage of Vivasvat (5, 11^'.

The seat (sadanä) of Vivasvat is mentioned five times. The gods (10, 12 7)
and Indra delight in it (3, 5 1 «J) and there singers extol the greatness of Indra
{I7 53'> 3)34') or of the waters (10, 75'). Perhaps the same notion is
referred to when a new hymn is said (i, 139') to be placed in Vivasvat as
a centre {iiäbhä),

Indra is connected with Vivasvat in several passages of the RV. He rejoices
in the prayer of Vivasvat (8, 6^9) and placed his treasure beside Vivasvat (2,
13^). With the ten' (fingers) of Vivasvat Indra pours out the pail from heaven
(8, 61 ^ cp. 5, 53^). Indra being so closely associated with the abode of Vi-
vasvat, Soma is likely to be there. And indeed Soma is in the ninth book
brought into intimate relation to Vivasvat. Soma dwells with Vivasvat (9, 26 *)
and is cleansed by the daughters (= fingers) of Vivasvat (9, 14 5). The prayers
of Vivasvat urge the tawny Soma to flow (9, 99 ^). The seven sisters (= waters)
urge the wise Soma on the course of Vivasvat (9, 66^). The streams of
Soma flow through the sieve having obtained (the blessing) of Vivasvat and
producing the blessing {bhagam) of dawn (9, 10 5).

The Asvins who dwell with Vivasvat are besought to come to the offering
{i, 46 '3). At the yoking of the Asvins* car the daughter of the sky is bom
and, the two bright days (probably day and night) of Vivasvat (10,39";
cp. SB. IG, 5, 2*).

Vivasvat is also mentioned along wilh Varucia and the gods as an object
of worship (10, 65^). In one passage Vivasvat shows a hostile trait, when
the worshippers of the Adityas pray that the missile, the well-wrought arrow

Celestial Gods. i8. Vivasvat. 19. Adityas. 43

of Vivasvat, may not slay them before old age^ (8, 56^°, cp. AV. 19, 97). On
the other hand, Vivasvat preserves from Yama (AV. 1*8, 3^^).

The Word vivasvat occurs a few times as an adjective meaning *brilliant'
in connexion with Agni and U§as. Agni is said to have produced the children
of men and by brilliant sheen heaven and the waters (i, 96*). Agni is the
wise, boundless, brilliant sage who shines at the beginning of dawn (7, 9 ^).
Agni is besought to bring the brilliant gift of dawn (1,44*), and men desire
to see the shining face of brilliant dawn (3, 30*^). The etyraological meaning
'shining forth' {^i 4- V vas) is peculiarly appropriate in relation to U§as,
whose name is derived from the same root and in connexion with whom the
words vius and viusti, *shining forth, dawning' are neariy always used. The
derivation is given in the SB. where it is said that Äditya Vivasvat illumines
{vi-vasU) night and day (SB. 10, 5, 2*).

In the YV. (VS. 8, 5; MS. i, 6") and the Brähma^as Vivasvat is called
Aditya and in the post-Vedic literature is a common name of the sun.

He goes back to the Indo-Iranian period, being identical with Vivanhvant
(the father of Yima), who is described as the first man that prepared Haoma,
Äthwya being the second, and Thrita the third (Yasna, 9, 10). The first and
third of these are found connected in the RV. also (Väl. 4*), where Indra
is said to have drunk Soma beside Manu Vivasvat and Trita.

As a mythological figure Vivasvat seems to have faded by the time of

the RV. like Trita 3. Considering the etymology, the connexion with the

Aivins, Agni, and Soma, the fact that his seat is the place of sacrifice^, the

most probable interpretation of Vivasvat seems to be that he originally

represented the rising sun 5. Most scholars^ explain him simply as the sun.

Some take him to be the god of the bright sky' or the heaven of the

sun*. Bergaigne (1,88) thinks that Agni alone, of whom the sun is a form,

can be responsible for the character of a sacrificer which is prominent in

Vivasvat Öldenberg^ comparing the Avestan Vivanhvant, the first mortal

tiiat prepared Haoma, believes that the reasons for considering Vivasvat a

god of light, are insufficient and that he represents simply the first sacrificer,

the ancestor of the human race.

X Cp. LRV. 4, 386. — a SVL. 148. — 3 RoTH, ZDMG. 4, 424. — * PW., BRV.
I, 87, ORV. 275; PVS. I, 242 ('chapel of V.*); Fov, KZ. 34, 228. — -5 The later view of
Roth, PW. (*Morgensonne*); cp. ZDMG. 4, 425 (Mas Licht der Himmelshöhe*). —
6 A, Kuhn, Sp.AP. 248 ff., HVM. i, 488, HRI. 128. 130, and others. — 7 LRV. 3, 333;
5, 392; Ehni, Yama, 19. 24. — « BRL 9—10.— 9 ORV. 122, ZDMG. 49, 173, SBK
46, 392. Cp. also Roth, ZDMG. 4i 432; BRV. i, 86-8; HVM. 1, 474-88; Bloom-
FiELD, JAOS. 15, 176—7.

S 19. Ädityas. — The group of gods called Ädityas is celebrated in six
whole hymns and in parts of two others in the RV. It is rather indefinite
both as to the names of the gods it includes and as to their number. Not
more than six are any where enuraerated and that only once: Mitra, Aryaman,
Bhaga, Vaniija, Dak$a^ Amsa (2, 27*). In the last books of the RV. the
number is once (9, 114^) stated to be seven and once (10, 72^) eight, Aditi
at first presenting only seven to the gods and bringing the eighth, Märtä^^a-S
afterwards (ibid. 9). The names of the Ädityas are not specified in either of
these passages. The AV. states that Aditi had eight sons (8, 9 **), and the
TB. (i, I, 9') mentions these eight by name as Mitra, Variina, Aryaman,
Amsa, Bhaga, Dhätr, Indra, Vivasvat (the first five occur in RV. 2, 27*), and
the same list is quoted by Säyaija (on RV. 2, 27») as found in another
passage of the Taittirlya branch of the Veda, The SB. in one passage speaks
of the Ädityas as having become eight by the addition of Märtä^tja, while
in two others (6, i, 2^; 11, 6, 3^) they are said to be tvvelve in number and

44 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythologv.

are identified with the twelve months. In post-Vedic literature they are
regularly twelve sun-gods, evidentiy connected with the twelve months, Vi§nu
being one of them and tiie greatest^. In addition to _the six Ädityas men-
tioned in RV. 2, 27% Sürya is a few times tenned an Aditya (p. 30), which
is a common name for the sun in the Brähmanas and later. Under the
name of Äditya, identified with Agni, Sürya is said to have been placed by
the gods in the sky (10, 88"). Savitr is also once mentioned in an enumer-
ation with the four ÄdityasBhaga, Vanina, Mitra, Aryaman (8, 18^). If there-
fore the number of the Ädityas was regarded by the poets of the RV. to
have been definitely seven, the sun must have been the seventh, the eighth
Märtärida whom Aditi throws away and brings back (10, 72^-9) probably
being the setting sun. In the AV. (13, 2 9-37) the sun is called the son of
Aditi, the sun and moon Ädityas (8, 2*^), and_Vi§nu is invoked in an enu-
meration containing gods who in the RV. are Ädityas: Varuna, Mitra, Vi§i^u,
Bhaga, Arpsa besides Vivasvat (11, 6^). The mother of the Ädityas is here
once (9, I *) said to be not Aditi but the golden-hued Madhukasä, daughter
of the Vasus.

Indra is, however, in the RV. once coupled in the dual as an Aditya
with Varuna the chief of the Ädityas (7, 85^), and in Väl. 4' he is directly
invoked as the fourth Äditya. In MS. 2, i " Indra is a son of Aditi, but in
the SB. (11, 6, 3 5) he is distinguished from the 12 Ädityas. When one god
alone is mentioned as an Äditya, it is generally Varuna, their chief; but in
Üie hymn in which Mitra is celebrated alone (3, 59), that deity is called an
Äditya, as well as Sürya. When two are mentioned, they are Varuna and
Mitra, once Varuna and Indra; when three, Varuiia, Mitra, and Aryaman^;
when five, which is only once the case, the same three together wiüi Savitr
and Bhaga. Dak^a occurs only in the enumeration of six mentioned above.
The Ädityas are often invoked as a group, the names of Mitra and Varuria
being generally mentioned at the same time. They also appear frequently
along with other groups (S 45) Vasus, Rudras, Maruts, Angirases, Rbhus,.
Visvedevas. The term Ädityas seems not infrequently to be used in a wider
sense, as an equivalent for the gods generally*. Their nature as a class in
fact resembles that of the gods in general, not being specifically characterized
like that of their two chiefs, Mitra and Varuna. In the aggregate sense they
are the gods of celestial light, without representing any particular manifestation
of that light, such as sun, moon, and stars, or dawn. The hypothesis of
Oldenberg that the Ädityas originally represented sun, moon, and the five
planets, is based on their abstract nature and names (such as Bhaga, Amsa,
Dak$a) and the supposition that their characteristic number is seven^, which
is also the number of the Iranian Ame§aspentas^. It is here to be noted that
the two groups have not a single name in common, even Mithra not being
an Ame§aspenta; that the belief in the Ädityas being seven in numberis not
distinctiy characteristic and old^; and that though the identity of the Ädityas
and Ame§aspentas has been generally accepted since Roth's essay*, it is
rejected by some distinguished Avestan scholars^.

In some of the hymns of the RV. in which the Ädityas are celebrated
(especially in 2, 27), only the three most frequently mentioned together, Mitra,.
Varuija, and Aryaman, seem to be meant. What is distant is near to them;
they Support all that moves and is stationary, as gods who protect the uni-
verse (2, 2 7 3* 4). They see what is good and evil in men's hearts and
distinguish the honest man from the deceitful {2, 27^; 8, 18 '5). They
are haters of falsehood and punish sin (2, 27*; 7, 52 ^ 60 5. 66'^). They
are besought to forgive sin (2, 27'*. 2 9 5), to avert its consequences or to

Celestial Gods. 19. Adityas. 45

transfer them to Trita Äptya (5, 52*; 8, 47®). They spread fetters for their
eoemies (2, 27'^), but protect their worshippers as birds spread their wings
over their young (8, 47^). Their servants are protected as with armour, so
that no shaft can strike them (ib. 7- ^), They ward off sickness and distress
(8, 18"*), and bestow various boons such as light, long life, offspring, guidance
(2,27; 8, 18« 56^5.20)^

The epithets which describe them are : bright (^ud)j golden {hiranyaya),
many-eyed {b/türyaksa), unwinking (animisa)^ sleepless (asvapnaj\ far-observing
{dirghadht). They are kings, mighty (ksairiya), vast {uru\ deep {gabhträ),
inviolable (aristo) , having fixed ordinances {ährtavrata), blameless {anavadya),
sinless (avrjina\ pure (dhärapüta), holy (rtävan),

The name is clearly a metronymic formation from that of their mother
Aditi, with whom they are naturally oflen invoked. This is also one of the
three derivations given by Yäska (Nir. 2, 13, cp. TA. i, 14*).

The greater gods belonging to the group have already been dealt with
separately, but the lesser Adityas having hardly any individuality may best
be described here in succession.

Aryaman '** though mentioned about 100 times in the RV. is so destitute
of individual characteristics, that in the Naighai^tuka he is passed over in the
list of gods. Except in two passages, he is always mentioned with other
deities, in the great majority of cases with Mitra and Varui;ia. In less than
a dozen passages the word has only the appellative senses of 'comrade' and
*groomsman', which are occasionally also connected with the god. Thus Agni
is once addressed with the words: *Thou art Aryaman when (the wooer) of
maidens' (5, 3*). The derivative adjective aryamya, *relating to a comrade',
once occurs as a parallel to mitrya, *relating to a friend' (5, 85^). Thus
the conception of Aryaman seems to have differed but little from Üiat of the
greater Äditya Mitra, *the Friend'. The name goes back to the Indo-Iranian
period, as it occurs in the Avesta.

One hymn of the RV. (7, 41) is devoted chiefiy to the praise of Bhaga*',
though some other deities are invoked in it as well; and the name of the
god occurs over sixty times. The word means *dispenser, giver* and appears
to be used in this sense more than a score of times attributively, in several
cases with the name of Savitr'^ The god is also regularly conceived in the
Vedic hymns as a distributor of wealth, comparisons with Bhaga being generally
intended to express glorification of Indra's and Agni's bounty. The word
bhaga also occurs about twenty times in the RV. with the sense of *bounty,
wealth, fortune', and the ambiguity is sometimes played upon. Thus in one
passage (7, 41 *) where Bhaga is called the distributor {vid/iartä), it is stated
that men say of the god, *May I share in Bhaga' {bhagam bhaksi). In another
verse (5, 46^) in which he is termed the *dispenser' {vibhaktä, derived from
the same root bhaj), he is invoked to be füll of bounty (phagavän) to his
worshippers.

Dawn is Bhaga's sister (i, 1235). Bhaga's eye is adomed with rays
(i, 136'), and hymns rise up to Vi§nu as on Bhaga's path (3, 54'^). Yäska
describes Bhaga as presiding over the forenoon (Nir. 12, 13). The Iranian
form of the name is bagha^ *god', which occurs as an epithel of Ahura Mazda.
The Word is even Indo-European '3, since it occurs in Old Church Slavonic
as bogü in the sense of *god\ There is no reason to suppose that it designated
any individual god in the Indo-European period, for it cannot have attained
a more specialized sense than 'bountiful god', if indeed it meant more than
merely 'bountiful giver'.

The word Amsa, which occurs less than a dozen times in the RV., is

46 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

almost synonymous with bhaga^ expressing both the concrete sense of 'share,

portion* and that of *apportioner*. It is found but three times as the name

of a god'*, only one of these passages stating anything about him besides

bis name. Agni is here said to be Arpsa, a bountiful {bhäjayü) god at the

feast* (2, \<),

Dak§a*5 js mentioned hardly more than half a dozen times in the

RV. as the name of a god. The word occurs more frequently as an adjective

meaning *dexteroiis, strong, clever, intelligent', applied to Agni (3, 147) and

Soma (9, 61*^ &c.), or as a Substantive in the sense of *dexterity, strength,

clevemess, understanding*. The name of the personification therefore appears

to mean the 'dexterous' or *clever' god. Excepting the verse (2, 27*) which

enumerates the six Adityas, he is mentioned only in the first and tenth books.

In one passage (i, 89^) he is referred to with other Ädityas, and in another

(10, 64 5) with Mitra, Vanuja, and Aryaman, Aditi also being spoken of in

connexion with bis birth. In a cosmogonic hymn (10, 72^-5) Dak§a is said

to have sprang from Aditi, when it is immediately added that Aditi sprang

from him and is bis daughter, the gods being bom afterw^ards. In another

verse (10, 57) it is stated that the existent and non-existent were in the womb

of Aditi, in the birthplace of Dak§a. Thus the last two passages seem to

regard Aditi and Dak$a as universal parents. The paradox of children pro-

ducing their own parents has been shown (p. 12) to be not unfamiliar to

the poets of the RV. The manner in which it came to be applied in this

particular case seems to be as follows. The Ädityas are spoken of as *gods

who have intelligence for their father' (6, 50 *), the epithet (daksapitarä) being

also applied to Mitra- Vanuja, who in the same verse (7, 66 *) are called Very

intelligent' {sudaksd), The expression is made clearer by another passage

(8, 2 5 5), where Mitra- Varana are termed *sons of intelligence' (sünü daksasyä)

as well as *children of great might' {napätä savaso mahah), The juxtaposition

of the latter epithets shows that daksa is here not a personification but the

abstract word used as in Agni's epithets *father of skiir (daksasyä pitr: 3, 279)

or *son of strength' (SS 8, 35). This conclusion is confirmed by the fact that

ordinary human sacrificers are called daksdpitarah, *having skill for their father*

(S> 52 ***). Such expressions probably brought about the personification of

Dak$a as the father of the Ädityas and his association with Aditi. In the

TS. the gods in general are called daksapitarah^ and in the SB. (2, 4, 4*)

Dak^a is identified with the creator Prajapati.

X Bloomfield, JAOS. 15, 176 note; SPH. 31. -— * OST. 4, 117— 21. — 3 Bol-
LENSEN, ZDMG. 41, 503. — 4 Cp. GW., s. V. Aditya. — 5 Cp. v. Schroeder,
WZKM. 9, 122. — 6 On the Ame§aspentas see Darmesteter, Haurvatät et AmeretAc
(Paris 1875), 1 f-; Bartholomae, AF. 3, 26. — 7 Cp. Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 948. —
« ZDMG. 6, 69 f. — 9 Sp.AR 199 ; Harlez, JA. 1878 (i i), 129 ff. — »o Roth, ZDMG. 6, 74 ;
Bollensen, ibid. 41, 503; HVBP. 55—6. — ix Roth, 1. c; WC. 11— 12; Baynes,
The Biography of Bhaga. Transactions of the 8th Oriental Congress, II, l, 85 — 9;
HRL 53—6. — " Cp. GW. s. V. bhaga, — u v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 127. —
X4 Roth, ZDMG. 6, 75; BRI. 19. — '5 OST. 5, 51—2; BRV. 3, 93. 99; W^C. 45-

Whitney, JAOS. 3, 323—6; OST. 5, 54-7; MM., SBE. 32,252— 4; ORV. 185—9.
286—7; ZDMG. 49, 177—8; 50, 50—4; SBE. 48, 190; Hopkins, JAOS. 17, 28; IF. 6, 1 16.

S 20. U§as. — Usas, goddess of Dawn, is celebrated in about 20 hymns
of the RV. and mentioned more than 300 times. Owing to the identity of
name, the personification is but sh'ght, the physical phenomenon of dawn
never being absent from the poet's mind, when the goddess is addressed.
U§as is the most graceful creation of Vedic poetry and there is no more
charming figure in the descriptive religious lyrics of any other literature. The
brightness of her form has not been obscured by priestly speculation nor
has the imagery as a rule been marred by references to the sacrifice. Arraying

Celestial Gods. 2o. Usas. 47

herseif in gay attire, like a dancer, she displays her bosom (i, 92^, cp, 6, 64').
Like a maiden decked by her mother she shows her form (i, 123*'). Clothed
in light the maiden appears in the east, and unveils her charms (i, 1243-4).
Effulgent in peerless beauty she withholds her light from neither small nor
great (ib. ^). Rising resplendent as from a bath, showing her charms she
comes with light, driving away the darkness (5, 80 5-^). She is young, being
bom again and again, though ancient; shining with an uniform hue, she
wastes away the life of mortals (i, 92"). As she has shone in former days,
so she shines now and will shine in ftiture, never aging, immortal (i, 113 '3- »5).
The maiden Coming again awakes before all the world (i, 123"). Ever
shortening the ages of men, she shines forth, the last of the dawns that have
always gone, the first of those to come* (i, 124*). Like a wheel she revolves
ever anew (3, 6 1 3). She awakens creatures that have feet and makes the
birds to fly up: she is the breath and life of everything (i, 48^ *"• 49 3). She
awakens every living being to motion (i, 92^; 7, 77'). The Dawns waken
the sleeping and urge the living, the two-footed and the four-footed, to
motion (4, 5 1 5). When U§as shines forth, the birds fly up from their nests,
and men seek nourishment (i, 124'^). She reveals the paths of men, waken-
ing the five tribes (7, 79 0- She manifests all beings and bestows new life
(7,80'-*). She drives away evil dreams to Trita Äptya (8,47'^''^). She
removes the black robe of night (i, ii3*0« She dispels the darkness (6, 643.
65'). She wards off evil spirits and the hated darkness (7, 75'). She dis-
closes the treasures concealed by darkness and distributes them bountifully
(i, 123^-^). She illumines the ends of the sky when she awakes (i, 92").
She opens the gates of heaven (i, 48*^. 113*). She opens the doors of
darkness as the cows their stall (i, 92^). Her radiant beams appear like
herds of cattle (4, 52^"*). She is visible afar, spreading out cattle {paiüti)
as it were (i, 92"). The ruddy beams fly up, the ruddy cows yoke them-
selves, the ruddy dawns weave their web (of light) as of old (ib. 0« Thus
ü§as comes to be called *mother of kine'' (4, 52'- 3; 7, 77«).

Day by day appearing at the appointed place, she never infringes the
ordinance of order and of the gods (i, 92". 123*^. 124*; 7, 76*); she goes
straight along the path of order, knowing the way she never loses her direc-
tion (5, 80*). She renders good Service to the gods by causing all wor-
shippers to awake and the sacrificial fires to be kindled (i, 113^). She is
besought to arouse only the devout and liberal worshipper, leaving the un-
godly niggard to sleep on (i, 124*°; 4, 513). Worshippers are however
sometimes spoken of as wakening her instead of being awakened by her
(4, 52^ &c.), and the Vasi§thas claim to have first wakened her with their
hymns (7, 80'). She is once asked not to delay, that the sun may not
scorch her as a thief or an enemy (5, 79*5). She is besought to bring the
gods to drink Soma (i, 48'*). Hence probably, the gods are often described
as Vaking with U§as' (i, 14^ &c.).

U§as is bome on a car which is shining (7,78'), brilliant (i, 23'),
bright (3, 61 *)> well-adomed (i, 49 "), all-adorning (7, 75^), massive (i, 48 *° &c.)^
and spontaneously-yoked (7, 78*). She is also said to arrive on a hundred
chariots (i, 480« She is drawn by steeds which are ruddy (7, 75^ &c.),
easily guided (3, 61*), regularly-yoked (4, 51 5), or is said to be resplendent
with steeds (5, 79*""'°). She is also described as being drawn by ruddy
kine or bulls {go: i, 92 ^ 124**; 5, 80 3). Both the horses and the cows
probably represent the ruddy rays of morning light 3; but the cows are generally
explained as the red morning clouds. The distance the dawns traverse in
a day is 30 yojanas (i, 123®).

48 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

As is to be expected, U^as is closely associated with the sun. She has
opened paths for Sürya to travel (i, 113'^). She brings the eye of the gods
and leads on the beautiful white horse (7, 77^). She shines with the light
of the sun (i, 1139), with the light of her lover (i, 92"). Savitr shines after
the path of U§as (5, 81*), Sürya foUows her as a young man a maiden
{i, 115*). She meets the god who desires her (1, 123'^). She is the wife
of Sürya (7, 7 5 5); the Dawns are the wives of the Sun (4, 5*^). Thus as
followed in space by the sun, she is conceived as his wife or mistress. But
as preceding the sun in time she is occasionally thought of as his mother
(cp. p. 35). She has generated Sürya, sacrifice, Agni (7, 78^). She has been
produced {prasütä) for the production {saväyct) of Savitr, and arrives with a
bright child (i, 113*-'). U§as is the sister of the Äditya Bhaga (i, 123 5;
cp. p. 45) and the kinswoman (Jämi) of Varuija (1, 1235). She is also the
sister (i, ii3*'3; 10, 127^) or the eider sister (i, 124^) of Night; and the
names of Dawn and Night are often conjoined as a dual Compound {usäsä-
naktä or naktosOsä). U§as is bom in the sky (7, 75')j ^md the place of
her birth suggests the relationship most frequently mentioned in the RV. : she
is constantly called the daughter of heaven (i, 30^* &c.)*. She is once also
spoken of as the beloved (priyä) of heaven (i, 46')-

The sacrificial iire being regularly kindled at dawn, Agni is naturally
often associated with Usas in this connexion, sometimes not without a side-
glance at the sun, the manifestation of Agni which appears simultaneously with
the kindling of the sacrificial fire (i, 124'* " &c.)^ Agni appears with or
before the Dawn. U§as causes Agni to be kindled (1,1139). He is thus
like the sun sometimes called her lover (i, 69*; 7, 10', cp. 10, 33). He goes
to meet the shining U§as as she comes, asking her for fair riches {3, 61^).
U§as is naturally also often connected with the twin gods of the early morning,
the Asvins (i, 44* Ä:c.). They accompany her (i, 183^) and she is their
friend (4, 52 ^-^j. She is invoked to arouse them (8, 9*'), and her hymn is
said to have awakened them (3, 58*). When the Asvins' car is yoked, the
-daughter of the sky is bom (10, 39")- U§as is once associated with the
moon, which being bom ever anew goes before the dawns as harbinger of
day (10, 85^9).

Various gods are described as having produced or discovered the dawns.
Indra who is characteristically a winner of light, is said to have generated
or lighted up U§as (2, 12 7 ^c.). But he is sometimes also hostile to her,
being described as shattering her wain (S 22). Soma made the dawns bright
at their birth (6, 3 9 3) and constituted them the wives of a good husband
(6, 44*^), as Agni does (7, 65). Brhaspati discovered the Dawn, the sky
{svar)f and Agni, repelling the darkness with light (10, 68 9). The ancient
Fathers, companions of the gods, by efficacious hymns discovered the hidden
light and generated Ußas (7, 76*).

The goddess is often implored to dawn on the worshipper or bring to
him wealth and children, to bestow protection and long life (i, 30^*. 48' &c.),
to confer renown and glory on all the liberal benefactors of the poet (5, 79%
cp. I, 48*). Her adorers ask from her riches and desire to be to her as
sons to a mother (7, 8i*). The soul of the dead man goes to the sun and
to U§as (10, 58^), and by the ruddy ones in whose lap the Fathers are said
to be seated, the Dawns are doubtless meant (10, isO-

Besides the sixteen enumerated in the Naighan^uka (i, 8) U§as has
many other epithets. She is resplendent, shining, bright, white, ruddy, golden-
hued, of brilliant bounty, born in law, most Indra-like, divine,! immortal^
She is characteristically bountiful (7naghoni\ ZDMG. 50, 440).

Celestial GoDS. 21. Asvms. 49

The name of U§as is derived from the root vas to shine and is radically
cognate to Aurora and *H(oc (p. 8)7,

« GVS. I, 265 — 6. — * Cp. Kuhn, Entwicklungsstufen, 131. — 3 See the passages
quoted above, where the rays of dawn are compared with cattle or cows. — 4 OST.
5, 190; cp. above p. 21. — 5 Ibid. 191. ' — 6 ibid. 193—4- — 7 Sonne, KZ. 10,416.

Whitney, JAOS. 3, 321—2; OST. 5, 181—98; MM., LSL. 2, 583—4; GKR. 35—6;
KRV. 52—4; BRV. 1, 241—50; Brandes, U§as (Copenhagen 1879, pp. 123).

S 21. A^vins. — Next to Indra, Agni, and Soma, the twin deities named
the Asvins are the most prominent in the RV. judged by the frequency
with which they are invoked. They are celebrated in more than fifty entire
hymns and in parts of several others, while their name occurs more than
400 dmes. Though they hold a distinct position among the deities of light
and their appellation is Indian, their connexion with any definite phenomenon
of light is so obscure, that their original nature has been a puzzle to Vedic
Interpreters from the earliest times. This obscurity makes it probable that
the origin of these gods is to be sought in a pre- Vedic period. They are
twins (3,39^; 10, 17') and inseparable. The sole purpose of one hyran
(*i 39) is to compare them with diflferent twin objects such as eyes, hands,
feet^ wings, or with animals and birds going in pairs, such as dogs and goats
or swans and eagles (cp. 5, 78' — ^\ 8, 35 ' — 9; 10, 106' — *°). There are,
however, a few passages which may perhaps point to their originally having
been separate. Thus they are spoken of as bom separately (nänä: 5, 73^)
and as bom here and there {ihehä)^ one being called a victorious prince,
and the other the son of heaven (i, 181^). Yäska also quotes a passage
stating that 'one is called the son of night, the other the son of dawn' (Nir.
12, 2). The RV., moreover, in another passage (4, 3^) mentions alone *the
encompassing Näsatya', a frequent epithet otherwise only designating both
ASvins in the dual.

The Asvins are young (7, 67*®), the TS. (7, 2, 7') even describing them
as the youngest of the gods. They are at the same time ancient (7, 62 ^j.
They are bright (7, 68*), lords of lustre (8, 22'*; 10, 93^), of golden brilliancy
(8, 8*;, and honey-hued (8, 26*). They possess many forms (i, 117'). They
are beautiful (6, 62 5. 63*) and wear lotus-garlands (10, 184'; AV. 3, 22*;
§B. 4, I, 5**). They are agile (6, 63 5), fleet as thought (8, 22*^), or as an
cagle (5,78^). They are strong (10, 24^), very mighty (6,62 5), and are
several times called 'red** {rudrä, 5, 753&C.). They possess profound wis-
dom (8, 8*) and occult power (6, 63 S; 10, 93 7). The two most distinctive
and frequent epithets of the Asvins are dasra, 'wondrous', which is almost
entirely limited to them, and näsatya, which is generally explained to mean
*not untrue* {na-asatya), but other etymologies^ such as *the savers* have
been proposed. The latter word occurs as the name of a demon in the
Avesta^, which, however, sheds no further light on it These two epithets
in later dmes became the separate proper names of the Asvins*. The attri-
bute rudravartani 'having a red path' ^ is peculiar to them, and they are the
only gods called 'golden-pathed' {hiranyavartani)^ an epithet otherwise only
used (twice) of rivers.*

Of all the gods 7 the Aävins are most closely connected with honey
{madAu\ with which they are mentioned in many passages. They have a
skin filled with honey, and the birds which draw them abound in it (4, 453-*).
They poured out 100 jars of honey (i, 117^). Their honey-goad (i, 1223.
157*) with which they bestrew the sacrifice and the worshipper^, is peculiar
to them. Only the car of the A§vins is described as honey-hued {madhU'
varnd) or Oioney-bearing' {madhu-väkana), They only are said to be fond

Indo-arische Philologie, m. lA. 4

so in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

of honey {mad/iüyu, mädhvt) or drinkers of it {madhupa). The priest to
whom they are invited to come is called honey-handed (lo, 4i3). They give
honey to the bee (i, 112 "' cp. lo, 40^) and are compared with bees (10, 106***).
They are, however, like other gods, fond of Soma (3, 587- 9 &c.) and are
invited to drink it with U§as and Sürya (8, 35*). Hillebrandt (VM. i, 241),
however, finds traces showing that the Asvins were at first excluded from the
circle of the Soma-worshipped gods.

The car of the Asvins is sun-like (8, 8') or golden (4, 44^*5), and all
its parts, such as wheels, axle, feilies, reins are golden (i, 180*; 8, 5*^. 225).
It has a thousand rays (i, 119') or Ornaments (8, 8"- '♦). It is peculiar in
construction, being threefold, having three wheels, three fellies, and some
other parts triple (i, 118'*^ &c.). It moves lightly (8,9^), is swifter than
thought (i, ii7*&c.) or than the twinkling of an eye (8,62*). It was
fashioned by the Rbhus (10, 39"). The Asvins' car is the only one which
is three-wheeled. One of its wheels is said to have been lost when the
Asvins came to the wedding of Sürya (10, 85*5. cp. % 37).

The Asvins' name implies only the possession of horses, there being no
evidence to show that they are so called because they ride on horses*'*.
Their car is drawn by horses (i, 117' &c.), more commonly by birds (z7,
6, 63^ &c. Ol patatrin, 10, 143^^ swans (4, 45*), eagles (i, 118*), bird steeds
(6, 63 7) or eagle steeds (8, 5 0. It is sometimes described as drawn by a
bufFalo {kakuhd) or buffaloes (5, 73 7; i, 1843 &c.) or by a single ass {rasa-
bha: i, 34^. 116'; 8, 74'). In the AB. (4, 7 — 9) the Asvins are said at the
marriage of Soma and Süryä to have won a race in a car drawn by asses'*
(cp. RV. I, 116 7 and Säyai^a's comm.). Their car touches the ends of heaven
and extends over the five countries (7, 63 ^* -3). It moves round heaven
(i, 180"). It traverses heaven and earth in a single day (3, 58®), as the
car of the sun (i, 115^) and that of U§as (4, 515) are also said to do. It
goes round the sun in the distance (i, H2'3). Frequent mention is also
made of their course {vartis)^ a word which with one exception is applicable
to them only. The word parijman, 'going round' is several tiraes connected
with the Asvins or their car, as it is also with Väta, Agni, and Sürya.

The locality of the Asvins is variously described They come from afar
(8, 53°), from heaven (8, 87)» heaven and earth (i, 440» ^ova heaven and
air (8, 8*. 9O» frona air (8, 8 3), earth, heaven, and ocean (8, ioO> from the
air, from far and near (5, 73 0« They abide in the sea of heaven (8, 26 ^^j^
in the floods of heaven, plants, houses, the mountain top* (7, 70 ^)» They
come from behind, before, below, above (7, 725). Sometimes their locality
is inquired about as if unknown'* (5, 74*' -^j 6, 63*; 8, 62*). They are once
(8, 8*3) said to have three places {padäni)^ possibly because invoked three
times a day.

The time of tlieir appearance is often said to be the early dawn*^, when
'darkness still Stands among the ruddy cows' (10, 61*) and they yoke their
car to descend to earth and receive the offerings of worshippers (i, 22^ &c.).
U§as awakes them (8, 9 '7). They follow after U§as in their car (8, 5*). At
the yoking of their car U§as is bom (10, 39 '0- Thus their relative time
seems to have been between dawn and sunrise. But Savitr is once said to
set their car in motion before the dawn (i, 34^"). Occasionally the appearance
of the Asvins'*, the kindling of the sacrificial fire, the breai. of dawn, and
sunrise seem to be spoken of as simultaneous (i, 157'; 7, 72*). The ASvins
are invoked to come to the offering not only at their natural time, but also
in the evening (8, 22**) or at moming, noon, and sunset (5, 7 6 3). The
appearance of the Asvins at the three daily sacrifices may have been the

•• •

', • • • •
, • • • *

CeLESTIAL GODS. 21. ASVINS. Si

starting-point of the continual play on the word 'three' in the whole of a
hymn devoted to their praise (i, 34). As deities of the moming, the Asvins
dispel darkness (3, 3 9 3) and are sometimes said to chase away evil spirits
(7> 73^; 8> 35^^)- In the AB. (2, 15), the Asvins as well as U§as and Agni
are stated to be gods ojf dawn; and in the Vedic ritual they are connected
with sunrise'5. In the SB. (5, 5, 4') the Asvins are described as red-white
in colour and therefore a red-white goat is offered to them'^

The Asvins are children of Heaven (i, 182*. 184'; 10, 61*), one of
them alone being once said to be a son of Heaven (i, 184*). They are
once (i, 46 ') said to have the ocean as their mother {sindhumätarä), Other-
wise they are in one passage (10, 17") said to be the twin sons of Vivasvat
and Tva§tr's daughter Saraijyu (p. 42), who appear to represent the rising
sun and dawn. On the other hand the solar deity Pü$an claims them as his
fathers (10, 85'*) ^7. ßy their sister (1,180*) Dawn seeras to be meant
(cp. p. 48). They are, as male deities of moming light, often associated
w^ith the sun conceived as a female called either Süryä or more commonly
the daughter of Sürya'. They are Süryä's two husbands (4, 43^ cp. i, 119^),
whom she chose (7, 69*). Süryä (5, 73^) or the maiden (8, 8'°) ascended
their car. The daughter of the sun mounts their car (i, 345. ii6*7. 118 5;

6, 6^^ or chose it (i, 117*^; 4, 43 0- They possess Süryä as their own
(7, 68 ^), and the fact that Süryä accompanies them on their car is character-

.istic (8, 29^. She must be meant by the goddess called Asvini and men-
tioned with others in 5,46*. In a late hymn (10, 8 5 9) it is said that when
Savitj: gave Süryä to her husband {j>atye) Soma was wooer {vadhüyu) while
the Asvins were groomsmen (j'tfrä). In another passage (6, 58^) the gods
are said to have given Pü§an to Süryä. Owing to their connexion with Süryä
the Asvins are invoked to conduct the bride home on their chariot (lo, 85'^).
They are also besought along with several other deities to bestow fertility on
the bride (10, 184*). They give the wife of the eunuch a chüd and make
the barren cow yield milk (i, 112 3). They give a husband to the old maid
(10, 393) and bestowed a wife on one of their favourites (i, 116* &c.). In
the AV. (2, 30' &c.) they are said to bring lovers together*^

The Asvins may originally have been conceived as finding and restoring
or rescuing the vanished light of the sun '9. In the RV. they have come to
be typically succotuing divinities. They are the speediest helpers and
deliverers from distress in general (i, 112*. 118-^). They are constantly
praised for such deeds. In particular, they rescue from the ocean in a ship
or ships. They are also invoked to bring treasures from the ocean or from
heaven (i, 47^) and their car approaches from the ocean (4, 43 0; here,
however, the celestial ocean appears to be intended. Their rescue from all
kinds of distress is a peaceful manifestation of divine grace, not a deliverance
from foes in battle, as is generally the case with Indra (with whom, however,
they are^once associated in fight, even receiving the epithet of Vrtra-slayers) *°.
They are thus also characteristically divine physicians (8, 1 8 '^ &:c.), who heal
diseases with their remedies (8, 2 2'°&c.), restoring sight (i, 116*^), curing
the blind, sick, and maimed (10, 393). They are the physicians of the gods
and guardians of immortality, who ward off death from the worshipper (AV,

7, 53'; TB. 3, I, 2")- Apart from their character as helpers, healers, and
wonder-workers, their general beneficence is often praised. They bring their
worshipper to old age with seeing eye and reward him with riches and
abundance of children (i, ii6*5; 8, 8*-^ &c.).

Quite a number of legends illustrating the succouring power of the Asvins
are referred to in the RV, The sage Cyaväna, grown old and deserted,

4*

52 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

they released from his decrepit body; they prolonged his life, restored him
to youth, rendered him desirable to his wife and made him the husband of
maidens (i, ii6'° &c. : OST. 5, 143). A detailed story of how Cyaväna was
restored to youth by the Asvins is given in the SB. {4, i, 5)". They also
renewed the youth of the aged Kali (10, 39^) and befriended him when he
had taken a wife (i, 11 2*5). They brought on a car to the youthful Vimada
wives (i, 112^9) or a wife (i, 116') naraed Kamadyü (10, 65*^), who seems
to have been the beautifiil spouse of Punimitra (i. 117*®; 10, 39^). They
restored Vi§^äpü, like a lost animal, to the sight of their worshipper Visvaka,
son of Kj:§i;ia (i, 116'^. 117^; 10, 65"), who according to the commentator
was his father. The story most often referred to is that of the rescue of
Bhujyu, son of Tugra, who was abandoned in the midst of the ocean {sam-
udre) or in the water-cloud (udameghe) and who tossed about in darkness
invoked the aid of the youthful heroes. In the ocean which is without
Support they took him home in a hundred-oared ship. They rescued him
with animated, water-tight ships, which traversed the air, with four ships,
with an animated winged boat, with three flying cars having a hundred
feet and six horses, with their headlong flying steeds, ivith their well-
yoked chariot svvift as thought. In one passage Bhujyu is described as
clinging to a log {vrksa) for support in the midst of the waves*'. The sage
Rebha, stabbed, bound, hidden by the malignant, overwhelmed in the waters
for ten nights and nine days, abandoned as dead, was by the Asvins revived and
drawn out as Soma is raised with a ladle *^. They delivered Vandana from
calamity and restored him to the light of the sun (i, 112 5. 116". 117 5. 118^),
raising him up from a pit in which he lay hidden away as one dead (10,39*)
or restoring him from decrepitude (i, 119^-7)24. They succoured the sage
Atri Saptavadhri who along with his companions was plunged in a buming
pit by the wiles of a demon. They brought him a cooling and refreshing
draught, protected him from the flames, and finally released him in youthful
strength. They are also said to have delivered him from darkness. WTien
Agni is spoken of as having rescued Atri from heat (10, 30 3), the meaning
probably is that Agni spared him through the intervention of the Asvins *s. The
Asvins even rescued from the jaws of a wolf a quail which invoked their aid*^.
To Rijräsva who had been blinded by his father for killing one hundred
and one sheep and giving them to a she-wolf to devour, they restored his
eyesight at the prayer of the she-wolf (i, ii6*^ 117*7. ««); and cured Parävrj
of blindness and lameness (i, 112®). When Vispalä's leg had been cut off in
battle like the wing of a bird, the Asvins gave her an iron one instead*^.
They befriended Gho§ä when she was growing old in her father's house by
giving her a husband (i, 117'; 10, 39'* ^ 405). To the wife of a eunuch
they gave a son called Hiraijyahasta (i, 116*^. 117**; 6,^627; 10, 397), who
is, however, once called Syäva (10, 65'^). The cow of Sayu, which had left
off bearing they caused to give milk (i, ii6**&:c.). They gave to Pedu a
swift, strong, white, incomparable, dragon-slaying steed impelled by Indra,
which won him unbounded spoils (i, 116^ &:.). To Kak§!vat of the family
of Pajra they granted blessings in abundance, causing a hundred jars of wine
{surä) or of honey to flow from a strong horse's hoof, as from a sieve
(i, II 67. 117^)**. Another miraculous deed of theirs is connected with honey
or mead. They placed a horse's head on Dadhyanc, son of Atharvan, who
then told them where was the mead (mad/m) of Tva§tr (S 53) ^''. Besides
the persons referred to above, many others are mentioned as having been suc-
coured or befriended by the Asvins in RV. i, 112 and 116 — 19. These may
be largely the names of actual persons who were saved or cured in a

Celestial Gods. 21. AsviNS. 53

remarkable manner. Their rescue or eure would easily have been attributed
to the Asvins, who having acquired the character of divine deliverers and
healers, naturally attracted to themselves all stories connected with such mira-
culous powers. The opinion of Bergaigne and others that the various miracles
attributed to the Asvins are anthropomorphized forms of solar phenomena
(the healing of the blind man thus meaning the release of the sun from
darkness), seems to lack probability-J®. At the same time the legend ofAtri
(cp. S 56) may be a reminiscence of a myth explaining the restoration of the
vanished sun.

As to the physical basis of the Asvins, the language of the R§is is so
vague that they themselves do not seem to have understood what phenomenon
diese deities represented. The other gods of the moming, the night-dispelling
Agni, the man-waking U§as, and the risingSürya are much more vividly ad-
dressed. They may be called possessors of horses, because the latter are
symbolical of rays of light, especially the sun's. But what they actually re-
presented puzzled even the oldest commentators mentioned by Yaska. That
Scholar remarks (Nir. 12, i) that some regarded them as Heaven and Earth
(as does also the SB. 4, i, 5'^), others, as Day and Night, others, as sun and
moon, while the *legendary writers* took them to be *t\vo kings, performers of
holy acts'.

Yäska's own opinion is obscure. Roth thinks he means Indra and the
sun, GoLDSTücKER, that he means the transition from darkness to light, which
represents an inseparable duality corresponding to their twin nature, and agrees
with this view. This is also the opinion of Myrlantheus as well as of Hopkins,
who considers it probable that the inseparable twins represent the twin-lights
or tw^ilight before dawn, half dark, half light, so that one of them could be
spoken of alone as the son ofDyaus, the bright sky. Other scholars^* favour
the identification of the Asvins with sun and moon. Oldenberg following
Mannhardt3' and Bollexsen (ZDMG. 41, 496) believes the natural basis
of the Asvins must be the moming star, that being the only moming light
beside fire, dawn, and sun. The time, the luminous nature, and the course of
the Asvins round the heavens suit, but not their duality.

The moming star would indeed naturally be thought of in connexion
with the evening star, but they are etemally separate, while the Asvins are
joined. The latter are, however, in one or two passages of the RV. spoken
of separately; and though the morning in Vedic worship is so important,
while sunset plays no part (5, 77*), the Asvins are nevertheless sometimes
(8, 2 2*^; io> 39^ 40*) invoked moming and evening 33. The Asvins, sons of
Dyaus, who drive across the sky with their steeds and possess a sister, have
a parallel in the two famous horsemen of Greek mythology, sons of Zeus
(iiiö? xoüpoi)34^ brothers of Helena, and in the two Lettic God^s sons who
come riding on their steeds to woo the daughter of the sun, either for them-
selves or the moon. In the Lettic myth the morning star is said to have
come to look at the daughter of the sun 35. As the two Asvins wed the one
Süiyä, so the tvi'o Lettic god-sons wed the one daughter of the sun; they
too are (like the Aiooxoupoi) rescuers from the ocean, delivering the daughter
of the sun or the sun himself3^. If this theory is correct, the character of
the Asvins as rescuers may have been derived from the idea of the moming
Star being a harbinger of deliverance from the distress of darkness. Weber
is also of opinion that the Asvins represent two stars, the twin constellation
of the Gemini 37. Finally Geldner thinks that the Asvins do not represent
any natural phenomenon, but are simply succouring saints (Notheilige) of
purely Indian origin3*.

54 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

The twilight and the moming star theory seem the most probable. In
any case, it appears not unlikely that the Asvins date frora the Indo-Europeaa
period in character though not in name.

I According to PVS. I, 56—8; variously interpreted by others; cp. BRV. 3, 3S
note. — i a Bri'NNHOFER, (*savers* from ^nas in Gothic nasyan), Vom Aral bis zur
Gangä, p. 99; BRV. 2, 434; IIRI. 83. — 3 Sp.AP. 207; Collnet, BOR. 3, 193. —
4 KRV. note 172. — 5 PVS. i, 55. — 6 pvS. 56—7, gives a list of the epithets
of the Asvins. — 7 HVM. i, 237. — 8 According to Oldenberg, this refers to
moming dew; cp. BRV. 2, 433. — 9 Haug, GGA, 1875, p. 93. — »o Bollensen,
ZDMG. 41, 496; HRI. 80. — " On the car and steeds of the Aivins cp. Hopkins,
JAOS. 15, 269—71. — " PVS. 2, 105. — »3 OST. 5, 238—9; URL 82. — »4 BRV.
2, 432. — '5 ORV. 208. — 16 HRI. 83. — »7 Cp. IS. 5, 183. 187; Ehni, ZDMG.
33, 168—70. — x8 Weber, IS. 5. 218. 227. 234. — »9 v. Schröder, WZFCM. 9, 131 ;
HRL 83. — 20 OST. s, 248—9. — 21 OST. 5, 250—3; SBE. XXVI, 273 ff; Benfey,
00. 3, 160; Myriantheus p. 93 (=a sun which has set restored in the moming);
HVBP. 112. — »2 References in OST. 5, 244—5; Sonne, KZ. 10,335—6; Benfey,
OO- 3» 159; Myriantheus 158; HVBP. 112. — 23 OST. 5, 246; Benfey, OO. 3,
162. 164; Myriantheus 174; Baun\ck, ZDMG. 50, 264—6. — H Baunack, ibid.
263—4. — 25 Ibid. 268; Sonne, KZ. 10, 331 (Atri — sun); OST, 5, 247; cp.
V. Bradke, ZDMG. 45, 482—4. — »6 MM, LSL. 2,525—6; OST. 5, 248; Myrian-
theus 78—^1.— 27 OST. 5, 245; Myriantheus 100—12; PVS. i, 171— 3 (Vi^palä,
name of a racing mare). Vispalä is variously interpreted. — 28 Myri\ntheus I49f. ;
KRV. note 185. — 29 Benfey, OO. 2, 245; Myriantheus 142—3; HVBP. 113. —
30 OST. 5, 248; HVBP. 112. — 3« LRV. 3, 334; HVM. i, 535 (against Zimmer,
Archiv f. slav. Philol. 2, 669 ff.); HVBI*. 47—9. — 3« Zft. f. Ethnologie 7, 3i2f. —
33 BRV. 2, 500. — 34 HRI. 78. 80; JRAS. 27, 953—4. — 35 ORV. 212 n. 3. —
36 V. Schröder, WZKM. 9, 133—1. — 57 Weber, IS. 5, 234; RäjasQya 100. —
38 GVS. 2, 31 cp. I. xxvii.

Roth, ZDMG, 4, 425; Whitney, JAOS. 3,322; Max Müller, LSL, 2, 607 — 9 ;
Benfey, 00. 2, 245; OST. 5, 234—54: Goldstücker, ibid. 255—7; GRV. i, 150;
Myriantheus, Die Asvins oder Arischen Dioskuren, München 1876; BRV. 2, 431
— 510; KRV. 49—52, notes 171. 179. 180; HVßP.47— 49. in— 13; ORV. 209— 15;
HRL 80-6.

B. THE ATMOSPHERIC GODS.

S 2 2. Indra. — Indra is the favourite national god of the Vedic Indians.
His iraportance is indicated by the fact that about 250 hymns celebrate his
greatness, more than those devoted to any other god and very nearly one-
fourth of the total number of hymns in the RV. If the hymns in parts of
which he is praised or in which he is associated with other gods, are taken
into account, the aggregate is brought up to at least 300. As the name,
which dates from the Indo-Iranian period and is of uncertain meaning, does
not designate any phenomenon of nature, the figure of Indra has become
very anthropomorphic and much surrounded by mythological imagery, more
so indeed than that of any other god in the Veda. The significance of his
character is, however, sufficiently clear. He is primarily the thunder-god, the
conquest of the demons of drought or darkness and the consequent liberation
of the waters or the winning of light forming his mythological essence. Se-
condarily Indra is the god of battle, who aids the victorious Aryan in the
conquest of the aboriginal inhabitants of India.

He is the dominant deity of the middle region. He pervades the air
(i, 51"). He occurs among the gods of the air alone in the Naighan^uka
(5, 4), and is the representative of the air in the triadAgni, Indra (or Vayu),
Sürya.

Many of Indra*s physical features are mentioned. He has a body, a
head, arms, and hands (2, 16*; 8, 85^). His belly is often spoken of in
connexion with his powers of drinking Soma (2, 16' &c.). It is compared

AtMOSPHERIC GoDS. 2 2. Indra. 55

when- füll of Soma to a lake (3, 36^). His ups (the probable meaning of
Jipra) are often referred to, the frequent attributes suiipra or üpririy 'fair-
lipped', being almost peculiar to him. He agitates his jaws after drinking Soma
(8, 65'°). His beard is violently agitated when he is exhilerated or puts
himself in motion (2, ii*7. jo, 23*). He is tawny-haired (10, 965-®) and
tawny-bearded (10, 23*). His whole appearance is tawny, the changes being
ning on that word {hart) in every vet^e of an entire hymn (10, 96) with
reference to Indra. He is a few times described as golden (i, 7'; 8, 55^),
an attribute distinctive of Savity (p. 32), as golden-armed (7, 34*), and as
iron-like (i, 5 6 3; 10, 96^- *). His arms as wielding the thunderbolt are men-
tioned particularly often. They are long, far-extended, great (6, 19^; 8. 32*^
70^, strong and well-shaped (SV. 2, 12 19). Indra assumes the most beautiful
forms and the ruddy brightness of the sun (10,112^) and takes many different
forms at will (3, 48*. 53«; 6, 47*8).

The thunderbolt {vajra) ' is the weapon exclusively appropriate to Indra.
It is the regulär mythological name of the lightning stroke (cp. p. 59). It is
generally described as fashioned for him by Tva§tr (i, 32' &c.), but Kävya
Usanä is also said to have made it and given it to him (i, 121"; 5, 34').
In the AB. (4, i) it is the gods who are said to have provided Indra with
his bolt It lies in the ocean enveloped in water (8,899). Its place is below
that of the sun (10, 27'*). It is generally described as äyasa or metallic
(i, 52* &c.), but sometimes as golden (i, 57* &c.), tawny (3, 44*; 10, 96^)
or bright (3,44^. It is four-angled (4,22'), hundred-angled (4,17*"), hundred-
jointed (8,6^&c.), and thousand-pointed (i,8o"&c.). It is sharp (7, i8**&c.).
Indra whets it like a knife or as a bull his homs' (i, 130*. 55*). It is spoken
of as a stone {aiman) or rock {parvata: 7, 104*9). The bolt in Indra's hand
is compared with the sun in the sky (8,59*). Epithets derived from or com-
pounded with vajra ^ some of which are very frequent, are almost entirely
limited to Indra. Vajrabhrt^ Tjearing the bolt*, vajrivat^ *armed with the bolt*,
and vajradaksina^ *holding the bolt in his right hand* are applied to him
exclusively, while vajrabähu or -hasta, 'holding the bolt in his arm or hand*,
and the commonest derivative vajrin^ *armed with the bolt*, otherwise occur
as attributes of Rudra, the Maruts, and Manyu only once each respectively.

Indra is sometimes said to be armed with a bow and arrows (8, 45^.
66^" "; IG, 103*- 3). The latter are golden, hundred-pointed, and winged
with a thousand feathers (8, 667' "). He also carries a hook (ankuid) witli
which he bestows wealth (8, 17***; AV. 6, 82 3) or which he uses as a weapon
(10, 449). A net with which he overwhelms all his foes is also attributed to
him (AV. 8, 8s-»).

Indra is bome on a car which is golden (6, 2 9'&c.) and is swifter than
thought (10, 112"). The epithet *car-fighter* (rathestha) is exclusively appro-
priated to Indra. His car is drawn by two tawny steeds {hart) \ a term very
frequently used and in the great majority of instances referring to Indra's
horses. In a few passages a greater number than two, up to a hundred and
even a thousand or eleven hundred are mentioned (2, i8*~7. 4. 46^; 6,47'';
S,i9-»«). These steeds are sun-eyed (i,i6*-*). They snort and neigh (1,30'*)-
They have flowing manes (i, lo^ &c.) or golden raanes (8,32*9. 82*0- Their
hair is like peacocks' feathers or tails (3, 45'; 8, i'*). They swiftly traverse
vast distances and Indra is transported by thera as an eagle is bome by its
wings (2, i63; 8, 349). They are yoked by prayer (2, 18^ &c.), which doubt-
less means that invocations bring Indra to the sacrifice. Indra is a few times
said to be drawn by the horses of Sürya (10, 49^) or by those of Väta (10,
^2^"*), and Väyu has Indra for his charioteer (4, 46'. 48 ^ or his car-com-

56 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

panion (7, 91^). Indra's car and his steeds were fashioned by the Rbhus (i,
m'i 5> 3^*)- Indra is once said to be provided with a golden goad ifiaiäi

8, 33").

Though the gods in general are fond of Soma (8, 2". 58"), Indra is

preeminently addicted to it (i, 1049&C.). He even stole it in order to drink

it (3, 48^; 8, 4^). He is the one Soma-drinker among gods and men (8, 2*),

only Väyu, his companion, Coming near him in this respect*. It is his favourite

nutriment (8, 4"). The frequent epithet ^Soma-drinker* {soma-pa, -pOvan) is

characteristic of him, being otherwise only applied a few times to Agni and

Brhaspati when associated with Indra, and once besides to Väyu alone.

Soma is sometimes said to stimulate Indra to perform great cosmic
actions such as supporting earth and sky or spreading out the earth (2,15*).
But it characteristically exhilerates him to carry out his warlike deeds, the
slaughter of the dragon or Vftra (2, i5\ 19^; 6, 47'- *) or the conquest of
foes (6, 27; 7, 22*; 8, 81^). So essential is Soma to Indra that his mother
gave it to him or he drank it on the very day of his birth (3, 48'- ^' 32^*'**;
6, 40*; 7, 98^). For the slaughter of Vitra he drank three lakes^ of Soma
(5> 297 cp. 6, 17"), and he is even said to have drunk at a single draught
thirty lakes of the beverage (8, 66<). One entire hymn (10, 119) consists of
a monologue in which Indra describes his sensations after a draught of Soma.
But just as too much Soma is said to produce disease in men, so Indra him-
seif is described as sufFering from excessive indulgence in it and having to be
cured by the gods with the Sauträma^i ceremony^ Indra also drinks mük
mixed with honey^ (8, 4^),

He at the same time eats the flesh of bulls (10, 28->), of one (10,27^,
of twenty (10, 86'^), or of a hundred buffaloes (6, 17"; 8, 66"), or 300
buffaloes roasted by Agni (5, 29'). At the sacrifice he also eats an offering
of cake (3, 527- ^), as well as of grain (3, 35^. 43*; i, 16^), and the latter his
steeds are supposed to eat as well (3, 3 5 7. 5 2 7).

Indra is often spoken of as having been born. Two whole hymns (3, 48;
4, 18) deal with the subject of his birth. Once (4, i8'- *) he is represented
as wishing to be bom in an unnatural way through the side of his mother*.
This trait may possibly be derived from the notion of lightning breaking from
the side of the storm-cloud. On being bom he illuminates the sky (3, 44^).
Scarcely bom he set the wheel of the sun in motion (i, 130^^). He was a
warrior as soon as bom (3, 51®; 5, 3o5; 8, 45^ 66*; 10, 113^) and was irre-
sistible from birth (i, 102"; 10, 133*). Through fear of him when he is bom,
the firm mountains, heaven and earth are agitated (i, 61'*). At his birth
heaven and earth trembled through fear of his wrath (4, 17*) and all the
gods feared him (5, 3o5)9. His mother is often mentioned (3, 48^* ^ &c.)***.
She is once (4, 18*^) spoken of as a cow {grsü\ he being her calf; and he
is spoken (10, 11 1*) of as a bull, the offspring of a cow {garste) ä). He is
once (10, loi'') called the. son of Ni§tign, whom Säyaria regards as sjmony-
mous with Aditi (cp. S 41). According to the AV. (3, lo"* 'j) Indra^s (and
Agni's) mother is Ekä§takä, daughter of Prajäpati. Indra has the same father
as Agni (6, 59^, who is the son of Dyaus and Pfthivi (S 35). According to
one interpretation of a verse in a hymn (4,17^ i^ which his father is twice
mentioned, the latter is Dyaus. A similar inference may be drawn from a
verse in an Indra hymn (10, 120*) where it is said that *among the worlds
that was the highest from which this fierce (god) was bom*, and from a few
other passages (cp. 6, 308; 8, 36* with 10, 54^, and 10, 138^ with i, 164")-
His father is said to have made his thunderbolt (2, 17^), which is elsewhere
generally described as fashioned by Tva§ft* -(S 38). Indra drank Soma in

AtMOSPH£RIC GODS. 2 2. Indra. 57

the house of his father, where it was given to him by bis motber (3, 48 0.
He drank Soma in tbe house of Tva§tr (4> 18^)1 Indra baving at bis birth
overcome Tva§tr and baving stolen the Soma, drank it in the cups (3, 48*).
Indra seizing his father by the foot cnished bim, and he is asked in tbe
same verse who made his motber a widow (4, 18'^). From these passages
it is clearly to be inferred that Indra's father whom he slays in order to
obtain the Soma, is Tva^fr" (cp. i, 80'^). The bostility of the gods, who in
one passage (4, 30^) are said to have fought against him^ is perbaps con-
nected witb the notion of bis trying to obtain Soma forcibly.".

A few different accounts are given of tbe origin of Indra. He is said
to bave been generated by tbe gods as a destroyer of fiends (3, 49*), but
tbe verb jan is here no doubt only used in tbe figurative sense of *to con-
stitute' (cp. 2, 13 5; 3, 51^). Soma is once spoken of as tbe generator of Indra
and some other gods (9^96^). In the Puru$a hymn Indra and Agni are said
to have spning from the moutb of the world-giant (10, 90'-). According to
the SB. (11, I, 6^*) Indra, as well as Agni, Soma, and Parame§thin, is said to
bave been created from Prajäpati. The TB. (2, 2, 10*) states that Prajäpati
created Indra last of tbe gods.

Agni is Indra*s twin brotber (6,59*) and Pü§an is also his brother (6. 555).
Tbe sons of Indra's brother are once mentioned (10,55*), but who are meant
by them is uncertain.

Indra's wife is several times referred to (i, 825- ^; 3, 534» 6. jq, Sö^* "').
Her name is Indrä^i in a hymn in which she is represented as conversing
witb Indra (10, 86"' '*) and occurs in a few other passages which contain
enumerations of goddesses (i, 22*'; 2, 32^; 5, 46^). The SB. expressly states
IndräQl to be Indra's wife (14, 2, i®). Tbe AB. (3, 2 2 7), however, mentions
Präsahä and Senä as Indra's wives*3. These two are identified witb Indräiji
(TB. 2, 4, 27- 8; MS. 3, 8S 4, 12')'*. PiscHEL (VS. 2, 52) thinks tbat Saci is
tbe Proper name of Indra's wife in tbe RV. as well as in post-Vedic litera-
ture*5. Tbe AV, (7, 38*) refers to an Asura female who drew Indra down
from among tbe gods; and the Käthaka (IS. 3, 479) states that Indra en-
amoured of a Dänavl named Vilistengä, went to live among tbe Asuras,
assuming tbe form of a female among females and of a male among males.

Indra is associated witb various other gods. His chief friends and allies
are tbe Maruts, who in innumerable passages are described as assisting him
in bis warlike exploits (S 29). His connexion witb these deities is so close tbat
the epitbet tnarutvaty *accompanied by the Maruts', thougb sometimes applied
to other gods, is cbaracteristic of Indra, tbis epitbet, as well as marudgana
*attended by the Marut host', being sufbcient to designate him (5,42^; 9,65").
Witb Agni Indra is more frequently coupled as a dual divinity than witb any
other god (8 44) '^. Tbis is natural, as ligbtning is a form of fire. Indra is
also said to have produced Agni between two stones (2, 12J) or to bave
found Agni bidden in the waters (10, 32^). Indra is furtber often coupled
witb Varuna and Väyu, less frequently witb Soma, Brhaspati, Pü$an, and
Vi§9U (8 44). Tbe latter is a faithful friend of Indra and sometimes attends
him in his conflict witb tbe demons (SS 17. 44)'^.

Indra is in tbree or four passages more or less distinctly identified witb
Sürya*^ Speaking in the first person (4, 26*) Indra asserts that he was once
Manu and Sürya. He is once directly called Sürya (10, 89^); and Sürya and
Indra are botb invoked in anotber verse (8, 82^) as if they were the same
person. In one passage Indra receives the epitbet Savitr (2, 30*). Tbe SB,
(i, 6, 4**), too, once identifies Indra witb tbe sun, Vj-tra being the moon.

The gigantic size of Indra is dwelt upon in many passages. When Indra

5 8 IlL Religion, weltl. VVissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

grasped the two boundless worlds, they were but a handfiil to him (3, ßo^).
He suij)asses in greatness heaven, earth, and air (3, 463). The two worlds
are but equal to the half of him (6, 30'; 10, 119")- Heaven and earth do
not suffice for his girdle (i, 173^). If the earth were ten times as large,
Indra would be equal to it (i, 52"). If Indra had a hundred heavens and
a hundred earths, a thousand suns would not equal him nor both worlds

(3, 595).

His greatness and power are lauded in the most unstinted terms. He has
no parallel among those born or to be born (4, 18*). No one, celestial or
terrestrial, has been born or shall be born, like to him (7, 32*^). No one,
god or man, either surpasses or equals him (6, 30*). Neither former, later,
nor recent beings have attained to his valour (5, 42^). Neither gods nor men
nor waters have attained to the limit of his might (i, 100 ^5). No one like
him is known among the gods; no one born, past or present, can rival him
(i, 165^). He surpasses the gods (3, 46^). All the gods yield to him in
might and strength (8,517). Even the former gods subordinated their powers
to his divine glory and kingly dignity (7, 21 7). AU the gods are unable to
frustrate his deeds and counsels (2, 32^). Even Varuna and Sürya are sub-
ject to his command (i, loi^ cp. 2, 38^ p. 16). He is besought to destroy
the foes of Mitra, Aryaman, and Varuna (10, 89^- 9) and is said to have
acquired by battle ample space for the gods (7, 98^). Indra alone is king of
the whole world (3, 46'). He is the lord of all that moves and breathes
(i, ioi5). He is the king of things moving and of men (5, 30^); he is the
eye of all that moves and sees (10, 102"). He is the leader of human
races and divine (3, 34*). He is several times called a universal monarch
(4, i9*iS:c.) and still oftener a self-dependent sovereign (3,46*&c.; cp.p. 24).
He is also said to rule alone {eka) by his might as an ancient seer (8, 6**).
A few times he receives the epithet asura (i, 174'; ^8, 79^). Indra bears
several characteristic attributes expressive of power. Sakra 'mighty' applies
to Indra about 40 times and only about five times to other gods. Sacwatj
*possessed of might* describes Indra some fifteen times and other deities only
twice. The epithet iacipati *lord of might', occurring eleven times in the RV.
belongs to Indra with only one exception (7, 67 5), when the Asvins as *lords
of might* are besought to strengthen their worshippers with might (iaäbhih).
In one of these passages (10,24^) Indra is pleonastically invoked as *mighty
lord of might* {saäpaU s'aclnäm). This epithet survives in post-Vedic literature
as a designation of Indra in the sense of *husband of Sacl' (a sense claimed
for it by Pischel even in the RV.). The very frequent attribute iatakratu^
'having a hundred powers*, occurring some 60 times in the RV. is with two
exceptions entirely limited to Indra, In the great majority of instances saipati^
'strong lord* is appropriated to Indra. Indra's strength and valour are also
described with various other epithets. He is strong {tavas)^ nimble {nrtu),
victorious {tura), heroic (sura), of unbounded force (i,ii^ 102^), of irresistible
might (i» S4'). He is clothed in might like the elephant and bears weapons
like the terrible lion (4, 16'*). He is also young (i, 11* &c.) and unaging
{tvani)^ as well as ancient {/ünya),

Having dealt with Indra's personal traits and his character, we now come
to the great myth which is the basis of his nature. Exhilerated by Soma and
generally escorted by the Maruts he enters upon the fray with the chief
demon of drought, most frequently called by the name of Vftra, the Obstnictor
^S 68^ and also very often styled aAi the 'Serpenf or 'Dragon' (S 64). The
conflict is terrible» Heaven and earth tremble with fear when Indra strikes
Vitra with his bolt (i, 80*': 2. ii"** *"'; 6, i;^^; even Tvastr who forged the

Atmospheric Gods. 2 2. Indra. 59

bolt trembles at Indra's anger (i, 80**). Indra shatters Vj-tra with his bolt

(i, 325. 6i^°; 10, 897). He strikes Vrtra with his bolt on his back (i, 327.

8o5), strikes his face with his pointed weapon (i, 52'*), and finds his

vulnerable parts (3, 32*; 5, 32S). He smote Vj-tra who encompassed the

waters (6, 20* &c.) or the dragon that lay around {pari^ayänam) the waters

C4, 19'); he overcame the dragon lying on the waters (5, 30^). He slew

the dragon hidden in the waters and obstructing the waters and the sky

(2, II 5), and smote Vitra, who enclosed the waters, like a tree with the bolt

(2, 14'). Thus 'conquering in the waters' {apsujii) is his exclusive attribute.

Indra being frequently described as slaying Vrtra in the present or being in-

voked to do so, is regarded as constantly renewing the combat, which

mythically represents the constant renewal of the natural phenomena. For

many dawns and autumns Indra has let loose the streams after slaying Vrtra

(4, 19*) or he is invoked to do so in the future (8, 78*). He cleaves the

inountain, making the streams flow or taking the cows (i, 57^; 10,890, cven

with the sound of his bolt (6, 27*). When he laid open the great mountain,

he let loose the torrents and slew the Dänava, he set free the pent up

Springs, the udder of the moimtain (5,32'-'). He slew the Dänava, shattered

the great mountain, broke open the well, set free the pent up waters (1,57^;

5, 33'). He releases the streams which are like imprisoned cows (i, 6i*°J or

which, like lowing cows, flow to the ocean (1,32*). He won the cows and Soma

and made the seven rivers to flow (1,32"; 2, 12"). He releases the imprisoned

waters (i, 57^ 103'), released the streams pent up by the dragon (2, 11*),

-dug out Channels for the streams with his bolt (2, 153), let the flood of waters

flow in the sea (2,193), caused the waters pent up by Vrtra to flow (3,26^;

4, 17^. Having slain Vrtra, he opened the orifice of the waters which had

been closed (i, 32"). His bolts are dispersed over ninety rivers (i, 80*).

References to this conflict with Vrtra and the release of the waters are ex-

tremely frequent in the RV. The changes on the myth are rung throughout

the whole of one hymn (i, 80). Another deals with the details of the Vrtra

^g^t (i, 32). That this exploit is Indra's chief characteristic, is shown by the

manner in which the poet epitomizes the myth in the two first verses of the

latter hymn: *I will proclaim the heroic deeds of Indra, which the wielder of

the bolt first performed: he slew the dragon lying on the mountain, released

the waters, pierced the belly of the mountains'. The physical Clements are

nearly always indicated by the stereotyped figurative terms *bolt', *mountain',

*waters or rivers', while lightning, thunder, cloud, rain (z^rjr//, varsa, or the verb

vrs) are seldom direcüy named (i, 525- 6- ^* &c.)'^. The rivers caused to

flow are of course often terrestrial (BRV. 2, 184), but it cannot be doubted

that waters and rivers are in the RV. very often conceived as aerial or

<:elestial (i, 10«; 2, 20I 22* cp. BRV. 2, 187). Apart from a desire to ex-

press the Vrtra myth in phraseology differing from that applied to other gods,

the large stores of water (cp. arnas, flood) released by Indra would encourage

the use of words like 'streams' rather than *rain'. The 'cows' released by

Indra may in many cases refer to the waters, for we have seen that the latter

are occasionally compared with lowing cows. Thus Indra is said to have

found the cows for man when he slew the dragon (5, 293 cp. i, 52®). The

context seems to shew that the waters are meant when Indra is described as

having, with his bolt for an ally, extracted the cows with light from darkness

0> 33***)- ßut the cows may also in other cases be conceived as connected

with Indra's winning of light, for the ruddy beams of dawn issuing from the

blackness of night are compared with cattle coming out of their dark stalls

<p. 47). Again, though clouds play no great part in the RV." under their

6o ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythologv.

literal name {abhra &c) it can hardly be denied that, as containing the waters,
they figure mythologically to a considerable extent under the name of cow
{go\ % 6i), as well as udder {fidhar)^ spring (utsa)^ cask (kavandhd)^ pail
{koid) and others. Thus the rain-clouds are probably meant when it is said
that the cows roared at the birth of Indra (8, 59^).

It is however rather as mountains (j>arvatay giri: p. 10) that they appear
in the Indra myth. They are the mountains (i, 32*) on which the demons
dwell (i, 32'; 2, 12"), or from which he casts them down (i, 130^; 4, 30**;
6,265). Indra shoots forth his well-aimed arrow from these mountains {ß^66^).
He cleft wide the mountain to release the cows (8, 45^^). Or the cloud is
a rock {adri) which encompasses the cows and which Indra moves from its
place (6, 175). He loosened the rock and made the cows easy to obtain
(10, 112^). He released the cows which were fast within the stone (6, 43^
cp. 5, 30^). The cloud rocks or mountains would seem to represent the
stationary rainless clouds seen during drought, while the cloud cows would
rather be the moving and roaring rain-cloud (p. 10). Oldenberg (ORV.
140 f.) thinks that to the poets of tlie RV. the mountains as well as the rivers
in the Vrtra-myth are terrestrial, though he admits that they were originally
aerial and at a later period also were understood as such.

In the mythical imagery of the thunderstorm the clouds also very fre-
quently become the fortresses (Jmrah)^^ of the aerial demons. They are spoken
of as ninety, ninety-nine, or a hundred in number (2, 14^. 19^; 8, 17'^ 87^).
These fortresses are 'moving' (8, i*^), autumnal (i, 1307. 131*. 174*; 6, 20'"),
made of metal (2, 20^) or stone (4, 30***)". Indra shatters them (1,515 &€.),
and so the epithet 'fort-shatterer* (pürbhid) is peculiar to him. In one verse
(10, iii'°) he is spoken of as a fort-shatterer and lover of waters at the
same time. In another the various features of the myth are mentioned
together: he slew Vftra, broke the Castles, made a Channel for the rivers,
pierced the mountain, and made over the cows to his friends (10, 89').

Owing to the importance of the Vftra-myth the chief and specific epithet
of Indra is Vrtrahan^ 'Vjtra-slayer' '^. It is applied about 70 times to him
in the RV. The only other deily who receives it with any frequency is Agni;
but this is due to Agni*s frequent association with Indra as a dual divinity.
The few applications of the epithet to Soma are also clearly secondary
(S 37)**. Though Indra is sometimes expressly stated to have slain Vitra
by his own might alone (i, 165^; 7, 21^; 10, 138^) other deities are very
often associated with him in the conflict. The gods in general are said to
have placed him in the van for action or battle (i, 55^; 6, 17*) or the
slaughter of Vjtra (8, 12"). They are also said to have increased his vigour
for the fray with Vitra (10, 113®), or to have infused might or valour into
him (i, 80*5 • 6, 20*; IG, 48-5. 120'), or to have placed the holt in his hands
(2, 20^), But most frequently he is urged on and fortified by the Maruts
(3> 32*; 10, 73'- * &:c. S 29). Even when the other gods terrified by Vftra
fled away (8, 857 cp. 4, 18"; AB. 3, 20), they stood by him; but the Maruts
themselves are in one passage said to have deserted him (8, 7^*)' Agni,
Soma, and Vi§iiu are often also allied with Indra in the fight ^vith Vftra.
Even priests on earth sometimes associate themselves with Indra in his com-
bats (5, 30*; 8, 51"; 10, 449). The worshipper {jarita) is said to have
placed the holt in Indra*s hands (i, 63'), and the sacrifice is spoken of as
having assisted the holt at the slaughter ' of the dragon (3,32**). Hymns,
prayers, and worship, as well as Soma, are also often described as increasing
i^YvrdK) the vigour of Indra ^5.

Besides Vitra, Indra engages in conflict with many minor demons also

Atmospheric Gods. 2 2. Indra. 6i

(S 69). One of these, Urai^a, mentioned only once (2, 14*) is described
as having 99 arms, while another, Visvarüpa, is three-headed and six-eyed
(10, 99^). He does not always slay them with his holt Thus one of them^
Arbuda, he crushes with his foot or pierces with ice (i, 51^; 8, 32*^). Some-
times Indra is described as destroying demons in generaL Thus he is said
to sweep away the Asuras with his wheel (8, 85'), to consiime the Rak$ases
with his bolt as fire a dry forest (6, i8*°) and to overcome the druhaff. or
malignant spirits (4, 237. 28*).

With the liberation of the waters is connected the winning of light, sun,
and dawn. Indra won light and the divine waters (3, 34*). The god is in-
voked to slay Vftra and win the light (8, 78*). When Indra had slain the
dragon Vftra with his metallic bolt, releasing the waters for man, he placed
the sun visibly in the heavens (i, 51^. 52*). Indra, the dragon-slayer, set in
motion the flood of waters to the sea, generated the sun, and found the
cows (2, 193). He gained the sun and the waters after slaying the demons
(3, 34®- 9). When Indra slew the chief of the dragons and released the
waters from the mountain, he generated the sun, the sky and the dawn (i,
32^; 6, 30^. The sun shone forth when Indra blew the dragon from the
^ (8, 3"). Though the sun is usually the prize of the conflict, it also
appears as Indra's weapon, for he bums the demon with the rays of the sim
(8, 129). Without any reference to the Vjtra fight, Indra is said to find
the light (3, 34^; 8, 15^; 10, 43*) in the darkness (i, 108®; 4, i6*). Indra is
the generator of the sun (3, 49*). He placed the sun, the brilliant light, in
the sky (8, i2 3<»). He made the sim to shine (8,3^87*), and made it mount
in the sky (i, 73). He gained the sun (i, loo^- '*; 3, 349) or found it in the
darkness in which it abode (3, 39^) and made a path for it (10, 11 1^).

Indra produces the dawn as well as the sun (2, i27, 21^; 3, 31*5; 32*.
49*). He has made the dawns and the sun to shine (3, 44*). He has
opened the darkness with the dawn and the sun (i, 625). He steals the
dawn with the sun (2, 2o5). The cows which are mentioned along with
sun and dawn (i, 62^; 2, 12^; 6, 17^) or with the sun alone (i, 7^; 2, 193;
3> 34'; 6, 173. 32'; 10, 138*) as found, delivered, or won by Indra, probably
do not so much represent the waters ^ or rainclouds, as the moming beams
(S 61) or, according to Bergaigne (BRV. i, 245) and others, the red clouds
of dawn. The waters are probably meant by the ruddy watery {apyä) cows
(9, 108*), but the moming beams or clouds in the following passages. The
dawns on seeing Indra went to meet him, when he became the lord of the
cows (3, 31^). When he overcame Vrtra he made visible the cows {dhmäJ^)
of the nights (3, 34^ cp. BRV. 2, 200). Dawn is in some passages spoken of
in expressions reminding of the winning of the cows. Thus *Dawn opens the
darkness as cows their stall* (i, 92*). Dawn opens the doors of the firm rock
(7» 79*)- The cows low towards the dawns (7,75^). The Angirases burst
open Üie cowstalls of U§as on the heights (6, 655). The dawn is sometimes
said to have been produced along with the sun in the same passages in
which the conquest of the waters is celebrated (i,32'-*-^; 6,30^; 10, i38*'*).
Thus there appears to be a confusion between the notion of the restoration
of the sun after the darkness of the thunderstorm and the recovery of the
sun from the darkness of night at da\vn. The latter trait is in the Indra
myth most probably only an extension of the former.

Indra's activity in the thunderstorm is sometimes more directly expressed.
Thus he is said to have created the lightnings of heaven (2, 13^) and to have
directed the action of the waters downwards (2, 1 7^),

With the Vjtra fight, with the winning of Üie cows and of the sun, is

62 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vldic M\thologv.

also connected that of Soma. When Indra drove the dragon from the air, fires,
the sun, and Soma, Indra's juice, shone forth (8,3^^). After his victory over
the demon, he chose Soma for his drink (3, 36^). After he conquered the
demons, Soma becarae his own property (7,98^); he became thekingofthe
Soma mead (6, 20^). Indra disclosed the juice pressed with stones and
'drove out the cows (3, 445). He won Soma at the sarae time as the cows
(i> 32"). He found in heaven the hidden nectar (6, 44^0- He found the
honey accumulated in the ruddy cow {usriyäyäm\ 3, 39^). The raw cow goes
with ripe milk, in the ruddy cow is accumulated all sweetness, which Indra
placed there for enjoyment (3, 30*^). Indra places ripe milk in the cows
(8,32^5), which are raw (8,787) black or red (1,629), and for which he opens
the gates (6, 17^). These passages seem to have primarily at least a mytho-
logical reference to rainclouds, as the context in most cases describes the
great cosmical actions of Indra.

Indra is said to have settled the quaking mountains and plains (2, 12';
IG, 44^). In a later text Indra is said to have cut off the wings of the
mountains, which originally alighted wherever they pleased and thus made the
earth unsteady. The wings became the thunder clouds (MS. i, 10*^). This
is a favourite myth in post-Vedic literature. Pischel (VS. i, 174) traces its
origin to a verse of the RV. (4, 54^). Indra also fixed the bright realms of
the sky (8, 14^). He supported the earth and propped the sky (2, 175&C.;.
He holds asunder heaven and earth as two wheels are kept apart by the
axle (10,89^). He Stretches out heaven and earth (8,3^) like a hide (8,65;.
He is the generator of heaven and earth (8, 36* cp. 6, 47*). He generated
that which is and shall be by his great secret name (10,55*) ^.nd made the non-
existent into the existent in a moment (6,245). The Separation and supporting
of heaven and earth are sometimes described as the result of Indra's victory
over a demon (5,29*), who held them together (8,6''). When he was born
for the Vrtra fight, Indra spread out the earth and fixed the sky (8, 7 8 5).
The dragon-slayer made earth visible to heaven, when he opened a path for
the streams (2, 13^). Similarly he is said to have found heaven and eartli
which were hidden (8,85*^) or to have won them along with light and waters
(3,34^). Possibly the effect of light extending the ränge of vision and seeming
to separate heaven and earth apparently pressed together by darkness, may
have been the starting point of such conceptions.

Indra, the wielder of the tliunderbolt, who destroys the aerial demons
in battle, is constantly invoked by warriors (4, 243&:c.). As the great god
of battle he is more frequently called upon than any other deity as the
helper of the Aryans in their conflicts with earthly enemies. He protects the
Aryan colour and subjects the black skin (3, 34^; i, 130^). He dispersed
50000 of the black race and rent their citadels (4, 16*^). He subjected the
Dasyus to the Aryan (6, 18^) and gave land to the Aryan (4,26'). He tums
away from the Ärya the weapon of the Dasyu in the land of the seven rivers
(8, 24*7). Other deities are only occasionally referred to as protectors of
the Aryas, as the Asvins (i, 11 7^0» Agni (8, 92'), or the gods in general
(6, 21").

More generally Indra is spoken of as the one compassionate helper
(i, 84*9^ 8, 55*3. 69*), as the deliverer and advocate of his worshippers
(8,85*°), as their strength (7,31^), and as a wall of defence (8,69^). His friend
is never slain or conquered (10, 152*). Indra is very often called the friend
of his worshippers ^7^ sometimes even a brother (3, 53^), a father (4, 17*';
10, 48 or a father and mother in one (8, 87"). He was also the friend of
the fathers in the olden time (6,2i^cp. 7,33^), and the epithet Kausika which

Atmospheric Gods. 2 2. Indra. 63

he once receives (1,10"), implies that he particularly favoured the family of
the Kusikas'®. Indra does not desire the friendship of him who ofFers
no libations (10, 42^). £ut he bestows goods and wealth on the pious
man (2, 19*. 22^; 7, 2 7 3), and is implored not to be diverted by other
worshippers (2, 18^ &c.)'^. All men share his benefits (8,54'). Both his
hands are füll of riches (7, 37-^). He is a treasury fiUed with wealth
(10, 42*). He can shower satisfying wealth on his worshippers as a
man with a hook shakes down ripe fruit from a tree (3, 45^). Gods and
mortals can no more stop him wishing to give than a terrific bull (8,
70^). He is an ocean of riches (i, 51*), and all the paths of wealth lead
to him as the rivers to the sea (6,195). One entireh)rmn in particular (10,47)
dwells on the manifold wealth which Indra bestows. Cows and horses are
the goods which Indra, like other gods, is most oflen asked to bestow (lyiö*^.
10 1* &c.), and it is chiefly to him that the epithet gopati^ *lord of cows' is
applied. His combats are frequently called gavisfi, literally *desire of cows*
(8, 245&C.) and his gifts are considered the result of victories (4, i7*"-"&c. :
cp. BRV. 2, 178). Indra also bestows wives (4, 17*^) and male children
(i,535&c.). His liberality is so characteristic that the very frequent attribute
maghavariy 'bountiful' is almost entirely monopolized by him in the RV. (cp.
p. 48) and in post-Vedic literature remains his exclusive epithet. The epithet
vasupatij %rd of wealth', is also predominantly applicable to Indra.

Though the main myth concerning Indra is his combat with Vjtra,
various other stories attached themselves to him as the performer of heroic
deeds. Some passages describe Indra as Coming into conflict with U^as. He
Struck down the wain (anas) of Dawn (10, 73^). He shattered the wain of
U$as with his holt and rent her slow (steeds) with his swift (mares: 2, 15^).
Terrified at the holt of Indra, U§as abandoned her wain (10, 1385), Indra
performed the heroic manly exploit of striking and crushing the female medi-
tating evil, Ußas, the daughter of the sky; her wain lay shattered in the river
Vipäs and U§as fled away in terror (4, 30®"""). The obscuration of the
dawn by a thunderstorm is usually regarded as the basis of this myth.
Against such an interpretation Bergaigne urges that it is not Indra who
obscures the sky but a demon, and that the application of the holt, Indra's
characteristic weapon, need not be restricted to the V|tra-fight. He concludes
that the sunrise overcoming the delaying dawn (cp. 2, 15*^; 5, 79^) is here
conceived as a victory of Indra bringing the sun3°.

Indra comes in conflict with the sun in the obscure myth about a race
run between the swift steed Etasa, who draws a car, and the sun drawn by
his yellow steeds. The sun being ahead is hindered by Indra. His car
loses a wheel, a loss which in some way seems to have been caused by
Indra (8 60 D). With this myth is probably connected the Statement that Indra
stopped the tawny steeds of the sun (10, 92^). Indra is also associated with
the myth of the rape of Soma. For it is to him that the eagle brings the
draught of immortality (S 37). Another myth which is not often mentioned
and the details of which chiefly occur in a single hymn (10, 108) is that of
the capture by Indra of the cows of the Pa^is (S 67). These demons, who
here seem to be the mythical representatives of the niggards who withhold
cows from the pious sacrificer, possess herds of cows which they keep hidden
in a cave fax away beyond Üie Rasa, a mythical river. Saramä, Indra's
messenger, tracks the cows and asks for them in Indra's name, but is mocked
by the Pai^is. In another passage (6,39*) Indra desiring the cows around the
rock is Said to have pierced Vala's unbroken ridge and to have overcome
the Faijis. Elsewhere the cows are spoken of as confined by the demon

64 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

Vala without reference to the Pai^, and driven out by Indra (2,123; 3,30^®).
In various passages the Angirases are associated with Indra in piercing Vala,
shattering his strongholds, and releasing the cows (S 54).

Fragmentary references, often in enumerations, are frequenüy made to
the victory of Indra over Däsas or Dasyus. These are primarily human foes
whose skin is black (i, 130"* cp. 2, 20^), who are noseless (5, 29*°), are god-
less and de not sacriüce. Though mythological elements are no doubt laxgely
mingled in the account of his victory over individual Däsas, the foundation
of these myths seems to be terrestrial and human. For while Vitra is slain
for the good of man in general, individual human beings are mendoned for
whom or with whom Indra overcame the Däsa or Däsas. These protegis
of Indra are not as a rule ancestors of priests but are princes or warriors
who seem to have been historical. Thus Divodäsa Atithigva^* is the father
of the famous king Sudäs, his Däsa foe being Sambara, the son of Kulitara
(S 69 B). But when the term däsa is applied to the dragon {ahi)^ firom whom
Indra wrests the waters (2, 11*) or to the three-headed six-eyed monster
whom Trita combats (10, 99^) or to Vyaipsa who Struck oflf Indra's jaws
(4, i89), it ünmistakably designates regulär demons. An account of Namuci
and other Däsas vanquished by Indra will be found in the chapter on demons.

A myth which seems to have no general significance but to be simply
the invention of a later poet of the RV., is that of Indra and Vr$äkapi, the
details of which are given somewhat obscurely in RV. 10, 86. This hymn
describes a dispute between Indra and his wife Indrä9i about the monkey
Vj^äkapi, who is the favourite of the former and has damaged the property
of the latter. Vr§äkapi is soundly threshed and escapes, but afterwards retums,
when a reconciliation takes place, v. Bradke considers the story a satire,
in which under the names of Indra and Indräijl a certain prince and his
wife are intended^*.

Among stories preserving historical traits is that of Indra having safely
brought Turvaia and Yadu across the rivers (i, 174^ &c). They are the
eponymous heroes of two closely connected Aryan tribes, which are, however,
sometimes mentioned by the poets in a hostile sense. This varying attitude
is a tolerably sure indication of historical matter. Here the national warrior
god appears as the patron of Aryan migrations. In another passage Indra
is Said with Susravas to have crushed twenty Chiefs and their 60099 warriors
with fatal chariot wheel. The accounts of the conflicts of king Sudäs have
all the appearence of a historical character. Thus Indra is said to have
helped him in the battle of the ten kings (7, 333), to have aided him in
answer to the prayers of his priests the Trtsus (among whom VasisUia is
prominent), and to have drowned his foes in the river Paru§ijl (7, iS^- *3).

Finally, a hymn of the RV. (8, 80) relates how a maiden named Apälä
having found Soma beside a river and having pressed it with her teeth, de-
dicates it to Indra who approaches and from whom she receives as a reward
the fulfilment of certain desires33.

Regarded as a whole the attributes of Indra are chiefly those of physical
superiority and of dominion over the physical world. Energetic action is
characteristic of him, while passive sway is distinctive of Varu^a. Indra is a
universal monarch, not as the applier of the etemal laws of the universe nor
as a moral ruler, but as an irresistible warrior whose mighty arm wins victory,
whose inexhaustible liberality bestows the highest goods on mankind, and who
delighting in the exhileration of magnificent Soma sacrifices, confers rieh re-
wards on the hosts of priests offtciating in his worship. The numerous
hymns which celebrate him dwell on these features in more or less Stereo-

Atmospheric Gods. 2 2. Indra. 65

typed terms and are seldom free from references to the Soma offermg. He
is not usually described as possessing the moral elevation and grandeur of
Vani^a, There are, however, several passages which ascribe to Indra actions
characteristic of Varu^a34. There are also a few, mostly in the later books,
in which an ethical character is attributed to him and faith in him is con-
fessed or enjoined (i, 55* &c.), faith in the reality of his existence being
sometimes expressed as against the disbelief of sceptics (2, 12* &.)^\ Once
he is said in a late passage of the RV. to have attained heaven by austere
fervour (10, 167' cp .159*).

To the more intense anthropomorphism of Indra's nature are doubtless
due certain sensual and immoral traits which are at variance with the moral
perfection elsewhere attributed to him and essential to the character of the
Vedic gods. This incongruity cannot be accounted for by different passages
representing chronologically different stages in the development of his char-
acter, for it is apparent in the words of the same poet, sometimes even in
the same verse. It is chiefly connected with his excessive fondness for Soma.
In one passage (8, 67^^ ^) he is said to hear and see everything, viewing
the zeal of mortals^ and in the next verse his belly is described as füll of the
vigorous draught One entire hymn (10, 119) consists of a monologue in
which Indra is intoxicated with Soma, boasting of his greatness and capricious
power. It is even indicated that he once suffered from the effects of ex-
cessive drinking (S 69). His love of Soma is even represented as having
driven him to parricide (4, 18^*). In judging morally of Indra's immoderate
indulgence in Soma, it must be bome in mind that the exhilaration of Soma
partook of a religious character in the eyes of the Vedic poets and that the
intoxicating influence of Soma itself led to its being regarded as the drink
of immortality. It is probably from the latter point of view that Indra is
conceived as having performed his grandest cosmical feats^ such as üxing
heaven and earth, under the influence of Soma (2, 15"). And the evident
sympathy of the poets with the effect of Soma on the god but reflects the
moral Standard to the age. Amorous adventures, on the other band, are
entirely absent from the exploits of Indra in the RV. and there is hardly a
trace of such even in the lirähmai^as, except that he is spoken of as the
paramour of Ahalyä the wife of Gautama^^. It is only natural that the
poetry of the Soma offering should have dwelt on the thirsty aspect of his
nature.

It has been maintained by Roth37 foUowed by Whitney (JAOS. 3, 327)
that the preeminence of Varuna as belonging to an older order of gods was
in the course of the Rigvedic period transferred to Indra. This view is based
partly on the fact that not a Single entire hymn in the tenth book is addressed
to Vanma, while Indra is celebrated in forty-five. There are, however, two
hymns (126, 185) of book X, in which Varuna is lauded with two other
Ädityas, and in many single verses of that book Varuna is invoked or re-
ferred to along with other deities. The argument from the number of hymns
is not very cogent, as in all the earlier books of the RV. far more hymns
are addressed to Indra than to Varuna. In book III no hymn is devoted to
Varuna but 22 to Indra, and in book II there is only one to Varuna and
23 to Indra. Moreover, these two books added together are considerably
shorter than the tenth alone. It is, however, true that Varuna is much less
frequently mentioned in the last book than in the earlier books of the RV.
Beyond this fact there seems to be no direct and decisive proof of the super-
session of Varuija by Indra during the composition of the RV. One hymn
(4, 42) of the earlier part, describing in the form of a dialogue the rivaliy

lado-arUche Philologie. lU. 1 a. 5

66 IIL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

between Indra and Varuna has, however, been regarded (GKR. 27) as char-
acteristically indicating a transition from an older period in the relative im-
portance of the two gods. The conclusion is perhaps hardly justified by the
Statements of another (cp. GRV. 2, 401) of the last book (10, 124)3*. At
the same time it must be remembered that on the one hand Vani^a seems
to have occupied a more important position than Indra in the Indo-Iranian
period, while on the other, Indra in the Brähmaijas (AB. 8, 12) and in the
epics has become chief of the Indian heaven and even maintains this Posi-
tion under the Puränic triad Brahma- Vi§nu-Siva, though of course subordinate
to themJ9. Varuna meanwhile had become divested of his supreme powers
by the time of the AV. fp. 26). Thus there must have been at least a
gradually increasing popularity of Indra even in the Rigvedic age. By Benfev
(00. I, 48) and Br^^ial (Hercule et Cacus loi) Indra in the Vedas is con-
sidered rather to have superseded the ancient Dyaus. This may perhaps
with greater probability be maintained with regard to the Indo-Iranian Trita
Äptya. For Trita though rarely mentioned in the RV. is there described as
performing the same exploits as Indra, occasionally appearing even as the
more important personage in the myth (S 23).

The name of Indra occurs only twice in the Avesta*®. Beyond the fact
of his being no god, but only a demon, his character tliere is uncertain*'.
Indra's distinctive Vedic epithet vrtrahan also occurs in the Avesta in the
form of verethraghna^ which is, however, unconnected with Indra or the
thunderstorm myth, designating merely the God of Victory**. Thus it is
probable that the Indo-Iranian period possessed a god approaching to the Vedic
form of the Vjtra-slaying Indra. It is even possible that beside the thundering
god of heaven, the Indo-European period may have known as a distinct con-
ception a thundergod gigantic in size, a mighty eater and drinker, who slays
the dragon with his lightning bolt^^. The etymology •^'* of Indra is doubtful,

but that the root is connected with that in itiduy drop, seems likely.

I ZDMG. 32, 296—7; WZKM. 9, 232. — ^ HVM. i, 44, note. — 3 ZDMG.
1, 67. — 4 HVM. I, 119. -- 5 Koni on Nir. 5, 1 1 ; KHF. 138—9. — 6 SB. $, 5, 49;
12, 7, i»«; TS. 2, 3, 2, cp. llVAr. I, 266; Zimmer, Ail. 275. — 7 HVM. 238. —

8 PVS- 2, 242—53; Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion i, 183; 2, 113 f. 244. —

9 PVS. 2, 249. — >o Ibid. 2, 51—4; Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 183. — I« BRV 3.
58—62; PVS. I, 44. — " Ibid. I, 211. — »3 Cp. ibid. 2, 38, note I. — '4 Bloom-
FiELD, ZDMO. 48, 549—51. — »5 Ibid. 548. — x6 Macdonell, JRAS. 25,470—1;
27, 175. — '7 Ibid. 27, 175. — 18 HRr. 92. — 19 Other passages 1, 8o4' »4; 2, 134;

4, 26-«; 8, 3x9-20. 6«; 10, 92'*. 1249; AV. 13,441. — 20 HVM. i, 313.— 21 Zimmer,
AiL 42. — 22 Also Käthaka IS. 12, 161 ; JRAS. 27, 181. — 23 ZDMG. 8, 460. —
24 Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 472. — 25 osT. 5, 91—2. — 20 Aufrecht, ZDMG. 13,
497; BRV. I, 259; KRV. 42 (raincloud), — 27 OST. 5. 104—5. — 28 OST. 5, 348—9.
29 OST. 5, 106—7. — 30 BRV. 2, 193; cp. Sonne, KZ. 10, 416—7; MM. Chips 2,
91 f.; ORV. 169; HRI. 77, note. — Ji BRV. 2, 209; HVM. i, 96. 107. — 3» ZDMG.
46, 465 cp. ORV. 172—4. — II AiFRECHT, IS. 4, 1—8; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39,
76—7. — 34 BR\'. 3, 143. — 35 OS'P. 5, 103—4. — 30 Weber, Sitzungsberichte
der Berliner Akad. 1887, p. 903. — J7 ZDMG. 6, 73; PW.; cp. BRI. 27. — 3« ORV.
95—7; OST. 5, 121—6. — 39 ZDMG. 6, 77; 25, 31. — 4o Spiegel, Av. Tr. III,
Lxxxi; Sp.AP. 195; OST. 5, 121, note 212. — 4^ Darmesteter, SBE. IV«, lxxii;
JliLLEBRANDT, ZDMG. 48, 422. — 42 Sp.AP. 195. — 43 ORV. 34, note I; 134;
V. Schröder, WZKM. 9, 230. — 44 YN. 10, 8; Säyapa on RV, i, 34; Benfe\,
00. I, 49; Roth, PW.; MM., LSL. (1891)2,543, note; OGR. 218; AR. 396; OSr.

5, 119, note. 208; GW.; BB. 1,342; BRV. 2, 166; Bollensen, ZDMG. 41, 505 — 7;
Jacobi, KZ. 31, 316; IF. 3, 235.

KHF. 8; Roth, ZDMG. 1, 72; Whitney, JAOS. 3, 319—21; Delbrück, ZVP.
1865, 277-9; OST. 5, 77— 139; 4, 99— 108; LRV. 3, 317; KRV. 40-7; I5RI. 12—3;
BRV. 2, 159—96; Perry, Indra in the Rigveda, JAOS. 11, 117 — 208; Hillebrandt,
Literaturblatt f. Or. Philol. 1884—5, P- ^^S; Die Sonnwendfeste in Altindien ( 1889),
16; Sp. AP. 194—7; HVBP. 60—80; ORV. 134—75; ZDMG. 49, 174—5; HRI.
91—6; V. Schröder, WZKM. 9, 230—4.

Atmospheric Gods. 23. Trita äptya. 67

$23. Trita Äptya, — Trita Äptya is not celebrated in any entire
hymn of the RV. but is only incidentally mentioned there in forty passages
occurring in twenty-nine hymns. The epithet Aptya accompanies or alternates
with Trita seven times in four hymns of the RV. (i, 109; 5, 41; 8, 47;
10, 8). He is oftenest mentioned or associated with Indra; he is seven times
connected or identified with Agni, is several times spoken of with the Maruts,
and ten times with Soma either as the beverage or the deity. Trita is
mentioned alone as having rent Vrtra by the power of the Soma draught

The Maruts aided Trita and Indra in the victory over Vrtra (8, 7^*).
Such action must have been regarded as characteristic of Trita, for it is
mentioned as an illustration. When Indra in the Vrtra fight strove against
the withholder of rain, he cleft him as Trita cleaves the fences of Vala (i,
52<'5). So again the man who is aided by Indra- Agni, pierces rieh strong-
holds like Trita (5, 86*). Trita Äptya knowing his paternal weapons and
urged by Indra fought against and slew the three-headed son of Tva§tr and
released the cows (10, 8'*). In the foUowing stanza Indra performs exactly
the same feat; for he strikes oflf the three heads of Visvarüpa the son of
Tva^tr and takes possession of the cows. Indra (or perhaps Agni) subdued
the loiidly roaring three-headed six-eyed demon and Trita strengthened by
his might slew the boar (i. e. the demon, cp. i, 121") with iron-pointed holt
(10,99®). Here the feat performed by the two gods is again identical. Indra
produced cows for Trita from the dragon (10, 48'). Indra delivered over
Visvarüpa the son of Tva§tr to Trita (2, 11 '9), Indra strengthened by the
Soma-pressing Trita, cast down Arbuda and with the Angirases rent Vala
(2, II**). When the mighty Maruts go forth and the lightnings flash, Trita
thunders and the waters roar (5, 54*). In two obscure passages of a Marut
hymn (2, 34) the bright path of the Maruts is said to shine forth when Trita
appears (v. 10) and Trita seems to be conceived as bringing the Maruts on
his car (v. 14). In an Agni hymn the winds are said to have found Trita,
instructing him to help them (10,115*). The flames of Agni rise when Trita
in the sky blows upon him like a smelter and sharpens him as in a smelting
fumace (5,9^). Trita eagerly seeking him (Agni) found him on the head of
the cow; he when bom in houses becomes as a youth the centre of bright-
ness, establishing himself in dwellings. Trita enveloped (in flames) seated
himself within his place (10,463-^). Trita is spoken of as in heaven (5,9^).
His abode is secret (9, 102'). It is remote; for the Ädityas and U§as are
prayed to remove ill deeds and evil dreams to Trita Äptya (8, 47 '^'*7), it
seems to be in the region of the sun. For the poet says: *Where those seven
rays are, there my origin is extended; Trita Äptya knows that; he speaks for
kinship': which seems to mean that he Claims kinship with it (i, 1059), In
the same hymn (v. 17) Trita is described as buried in a well (küpe) and
praying to the gods for help; Brhaspati heard him and released him from
his distress. In another passage (10, V) Trita within a pit {vavre) prays to
his father and goes forth claiming his patemal weapons; and in the next
stanza (10,8') he figh^ with Visvarüpa. Indra is said to drink Soma beside
Vi§mi, Trita Äptya, or the Maruts (8, 12*^) and to delight in a hymn of
praise beside Trita (Väl. 4*). In the ninth book, doubtless owing to its
peculiar character, Trita appears in the special capacity of a preparer of
Soma, a feature alluded to only once in the rest of the RV. (2, 11^).
Soma is purified by Trita (9, 34*). Trita's maidens (the fingers) urge the
tawny drop with stones for Lidra to drink (9, 32'. 38'). Soma occupies the
secret place near the two pressing stones of Trita (9, 102') and is besought

5*

68 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

to bring wealth in a stream on the ridges {prsthesti) ofTrita (9,1023). Soma
caused the sun along with the sisters to shine on the summit (sänü) of Trita
(9» 37*)- They press out the stalk, the bull that dwells on the mountains,
who, like a buffalo, is purified on the summit; hymns accompany him as he
roars; Trita cherishes (him who is like) Van^la in the ocean (9,95*). When
Soma pours the mead, he calls up the name of Trita (9, 86*°).

There are several passages from which little or nothing can be gathered
as to Trita*s original nature. Thus his name occurs in some enumerations
which furnish no information (2, 31^; 5, 4i*i 10, 64^). In two other verses
(5, 41 9- *°) the interpretation is uncertain, as the text seems to be corrupt
In one passage in the middle of a Varuna hymn Trita is described as one
in whom all wisdom is centred, as the nave in the wheel (8,41^). In another
passage Trita is said to have hamessed a celestial steed fashioned from the
sun and given by Yama, this steed being in the following stanza said to be
identical with Yama, the Sun, and with Trita *by secret Operation' (i, 163^-^).
The half dozen passages of the AV. ' which mention Trita, add no definite
information about him. They suggest only the idea of a remote god, to
whom guilt or dream is transferred (i, 113'-^; 19, 56*). The TS. (i, 8, 10*)
describes Trita as a bestower of long life. This is no doubt a secondary
trait* accruing to Trita as the preparer of Soma, the draught of immortality.
The Brähmanas speak of Trita as one of three deities, the ^ other two being
Ekata and Dvita, sons of Agni and bom from the waters (SB.^i, 2, 3'« '; TB.
3, 2, 8*°- "). Säyaria on RV. i, 105 quotes a story of the Sätyäyanins, in
which the same three brothers are R§is, Trita being cast into a well by the
other two. It is clear that here the three names have a numerical sense.
Dvita already occurs in the RV., once along with Trita (8, 47'^) and once
alone in an Agni hymn (5, 18*) and apparently identified with Agni, The
name of Trita is not mentioned in the list of deities in the Naighanituka.
Ytäska (Nir. 4, 6) explains the word to mean Very proficient in wisdom'
(deriving it from Ytr\ or as a numeral referring to the three brothers Ekata,
Dvita, Trita. In another passage (Nir. 9, 25) he explains Trita as Tndra in
three abodes' (i. e. heaven, earth, air).

In examining the evidence of the RV. we find that Indra and Trita in
three or four passages perform the same feat, that of slaying a demon. Trita
in one is impelled by Indra, while in another Indra is inspired by Trita; and
twice Indra is said to have acted for Trita. Further, Trita is associated with
the Maruts in the thunderstorm. Moreover, he finds Agni, kindles Agni in
heaven, and takes up his abode in human dwellings, cleariy as a form of
Agni. His abode is remote and hidden, and Soma is there. In the ninth
book Trita as the preparer of Soma diverges more firom Indra, who is only
a drinker of Soma. Corresponding to Trita in the Avesta we find Thrita,
who is a man (as Trita becomes in the Indian Epic). He is once (Yasna
9, 10) described aj the third man who prepared Haoma (= Soma) for the
corporeal world (Athwya = Äptya being the second) and once (Vend.20,2)
as the first healer who received from Ahura Mazda ten thousand healing
plants which grow round, the white Haoma, the tree of immortality. Thrita
is also called the son of Sayuzhdri in two passages (Yasht 5, 72; 13, 113) in
one of which he is said to have dwelt in Apam napät (as a locality on earth) 3.
This shows that Trita was connected with Soma as early as the Indo-Iranian
period. The other side of Trita's activity, the slaughter of the three-headed
six-eyed demon or dragon we find in the Avesta transferred to a cognate
personage, Thraetaona, who slays the fiendish serpent {Azi dahäka)^ the three-
mouthed, three-headed, six-eyed demon, It is noteworthy that Thraetaona in

Atmospheric Gk)DS. 24, Apäm napät. 69

his expedition against Dahäka is accompanied by two brothers who seek to
slav him on the way*. The word tritd phonetically corresponds to the Greek
tptT0?5j the third. That it was feit to have the meaning of %e third', is
shown by the occurrence beside it of Dvita in the RV. and by the invention
of Ekata beside these two in the Brähmaijas. The coUocation of tnni, three,
with Trita (RV. 9, io23; AV. 5, i*) points in the same direction. Finally,
it is highly probable that in one passage of the RV. (6, 44^^)^ the word trita
in the plural means *third\

Trita's regulär epithet Aptya seems to be derived from ä/, water, and
hence to be practically equivaJent in sense to Apärp napät 7. Säyaria (on
RV. 8, 47'*) explains it as *son {putrd) of waters'. Another epithet of Trita,
raibhüvasay which is formed like a patronymic and only occurs once (10,
46^) may be connected with Soma®.

The above evidence may perhaps justify the conclusion that Trita was
a god of lightning, the third or aerial form of fire, originally the middle
member of the triad Agni, Väyu or Indra, Sürya. By a process of natural
selection Indra seems to have ousted this god originally almost identical in
character with himself, with tlie result that Trita occupies but an obscure
Position even in the RV. If this interpretation be correct, Trita's original
connexion with Soma would signify the bringing of Soma from heaven by
lightning (as in the Soma-eagle myth: % 37). The paucity of the evidence
has led to many divergent views^. Only some of these need be mentioned
here. Roth (ZDMG. 2, 224) considered Trita a water and wind god. Hille-
BRANDT*® regards him as a deity of the bright sky. Perry believes him to
be a god of the storm, older than Indra". Pischel who formerly (PVS. i,
186) thought him to be *a god of the sea and of the waters' has recently
(GGA. 1894, p.428) expressed the opinion that Trita was originally a human
healer who was later deified. Hardy thinks Trita is a moon god".

» See Whitney's AV. Index verborum, s. v. Tfta. — 2 Otherwise Pischel,
GGA. 1894, p. 427. — 3 Sp. AP. 193. — 4 Sp. AP. 271. — 5 Brugmann, Grundriss 2, 229;
according to FiCK, Vergleichendes Wörterbuch 14, d"^, 229, Trita originally meant
sea. — 6 ORV. 183, n.; cp. Pott, KZ. 4, 441. — 7 Cp. Johansson, IF. 4, 136.
143. — 8 JRAS. 25, 450. — 9 Stated up to date in JRAS. 25, 4, 19—23. —
10 Vanina und Mitra 94—5. — »» JAOS. 11, 142—5. — " HVBP. 35—8.

Macdonell, The god Trita; JRAS. 25, 419—96. To the authorities here
quoted may be added: LRV. 3, 355 — 7; KRV. 33, note 112 d; BRI. ii; BDA. 82,
n. 3; Sp.AP. 262 — 71 ; Bloomfield, AJP. 1 1, 341 ; PAOS. 1894, cxix — cxxiii; Ludwig,
Kgveda-Forschung 117—9; Fay, PAOS. 1894, CLXXiv; AJP. 17, 13; ORV. 143;
SBE. 46, 406; HRI. 104; Oertel, JAOS. 18, 18—20.

S 24. Apäm napät — The deity called Apäm napät is celebrated in
one whole hymn (2, 35), is invoked in two verses of a hymn to the waters
(10, 30^- ^), and is mentioned by name nearly thirty times altogether in the
RV. The waters stood around the brilliant Son of waters; the youthful waters
go around him the youthful; three divine females desire to give food to him
the divine; he sucks the miÜc of the first mothers (2, 35^"^). He, the bull,
engendered the embryo in them; he the child, sucks and they kiss him
(v. '3); the Son of waters growing strong within the waters, shines forth (v. 7).
He shines without fiiel in the waters (v. ^; 10, 30*). Clothed in lightning
the Son of waters has mounted upright the lap of the slanting (waters);
cairying him the swift (waters) golden in colour go around him (v. ^\ cp.
Agni in i, 95^- 5). The Son of waters is golden in form, appearance and
colour; Coming from a golden womb he sits down and gives food to his
worshipper (v. *°). Standing in the highest place he always shines with un-
dimmed (splendour); the swift waters carrying ghee as food to their son, fly

70 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

around with their garments (v. ^). The face of the Son of waters, whom the
maidens kindle, whose colour is golden, and whose food is ghee, increases
in secret (v. "). He has a cow which in his own house gives good milk
(v. 7). Steeds {iTsana/i) swift as thought carry the son of waters (i, i865).
The son of waters is connected with rivers (nädya\ v. *), The son of waters
has engendered all beings, who are merely branches of him (v. *• *). In the
last stanza of the Apäm napät hymn, the deity is invoked as Agni and miist
be identified with him. Conversely Agni is in some hymns addressed to him,
spoken of as Apäm napät (cp. VS. 8, 24). Agni is the Son of waters (3,9*).
He is the Son of waters who sat down on earth as a dear priest (i, 143^).
But they are also distinguished. Agni, accordant with the Son of waters,
confers victory over Vrtra (6, 13^). The Son of waters unites here with the
body of another as it were (2,35*^). The epithet äiuhematty *swiftly speeding*',
applied three times to Apärp napät, is in its only other occurrence used
of Agni.

Apäm napät is mentioned in various enumerations, especially with Aja
ekapäd (2, 31^; 7, 35'^, Ahi budhnya (i, 186S; 2,31^; 7, 35*0» and Savitr
(2, 31^; 6, 50*^). The epithet is directly applied to Savitr at least once
(p. 33), perhaps because Savitr represents another fertilizing form of Agni.

Apäm napät, who is golden, is clothed in lightning, dwells in the highest
place, grows in concealment, shines forth, is tlie offspring of the waters,
comes do>vn to earth, and is identified with Agni, appears to represent the
lightning form of Agni which is concealed in the cloud. For Agni, besides
being directly called Apäm napät, is also termed the embryo {garbha) of the
waters (7, 9^; i^ 7o^)« As such he has been deposited in human dwellings
(3» 5^)j ^is abode is in the waters (8, 439) and the two fire-sticks engender
Agni who is the embryo both of plants and of waters (3, 1 ^^), Agni is also
called the *son of the rock' (10, 20^ cp. 6, 48*), which can hardly refer to
anything but the lightning which issues from the cloud mountain. As con-
trasted with his celestial and terrestrial forms, the third form of Agni is de-
scribed as kindled in the waters, the ocean, the udder of heaven, the lap of
the waters (10,45^""^). In fact the abode of the celestial Agni in the waters
is one of the best established points in Vedic mythology ^ The term Äptya
applied to Trita appears to bear a similar interpretation (§ 23).

Apäm napät is not a creation of Indian mythology, but goes back to
the Indo-Iranian period. In the Avesta Apäm napät is a spirit of the waters,
who lives in their depths, is surrounded by females and is often invoked
with them, drives with swift steeds, and is said to have seized the brightness
in the depth of the ocean ^. Spiegel* thinks this deity shows indications of
an igneous nature in the Avesta, and DARMr':sTETER considers him to be the
fire-god as born from the cloud in lightning s. L. v. Schroeder agrees with
this view^; some scholars, however, dissent from it Oldenberg' is of opinion
that Apäm napät was originally a water genius pure and simple, who became
confused with the water-bom Agni, a totally different being. His grounds
are, that one of the two hymns in which he is celebrated (10, 30), is con-
nected in the ritual with ceremonies exclusively concerned with water, while
even in 2, 35 his aqueous nature predominates**. Hillebrandt^, on the other
band, followed by Hardv'°, thinks Apäm napät is the moon, and Max
Müller" that he is the sun or lightning.

« Wlndisch, FaR. 144. — ^ Cp. especially RV. 3, l (GVS. i, 157—70); aJso
5» 852; 7, 49^; 10, 96. — 3 Cp. HVM. 1, 377—8. — 4 Sp.AP. 192—3. — 5 SBE.
4«, LXiii ; l'Avesta traduit 2, 630, note, 3, 82 (cp. Ormazd et Ahriman 34); but see

IIlLLEBRANDT, ZDMG. 48, 422. •— 6 WZKM. 9, 227—8. — 7 ORV. Il8-20, q>.

Atmosphertc Gods. 25. Mätarisvan. 71

357« — * Cp. V. ScHROEDER, WZKM. 1. c; Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 955—6. —
9HVM. 1,365— 80; ZDMG.48,422f, — «o HVBP. 38f. — " Chips, 42, 410; NR. 500.
RiALLE, Revue de lAng. 3, 49ff. ; Windischmann in Spiegel*s Zoroastrische
Studien 177—86; Spiegel, Avesta Tr. 3, xix. Liv; GRV. I, 45; BRV. 2, 17—19.
36 — 7; 3, 45; Manuel pour Studier le Sanscrit v^dique, s. v. apämnapät; LRV. 4,
181; Gruppe, Die griech. Culte 1,89; BDA. 82, note 2; LRF. 93; Macdonell,
JRAS. 25, 475—6; HRI. 106.

S 25. Mätarisvan. — Mätarisvan is not celebrated in any hymn ofthe
RV., and the name is found there only twenty-seven times, occurring twenty-
one times in the latest portions of that Veda and otherwise only five times
in the third and once in the sixth book. In these six older passages
Mätarisvan is always either identified with Agni or is the producer of fire.
Though the myth of Mätarisvan is based on the distinction between fire and
a personification which produces it, the analysis of the myth shows these
two to be identical. Nothing even in any of the later books of the RV.,
can be said to show clearly that the conception of Mätarisvan prevailing in
the other Vedas and in the post-Vedic period, had begun to appear in
that Veda.

Mätarisvan is a name of Agni in three passages (3, 5^. 26'; i, 96^).
This is probably also the case where the name occurs in Üie vocative at the
end of an Agni hymn (9, 88*9). in another verse, where an etymological
explanation of the name is given, he is spoken of as one of the forms of
Agni: *As heavenly germ he is called Tanünapät, he becomes Naräsaipsa
when he is bom; when as Mätarisvan he was fashioned in his mother (ami-
mtia mäiari; cp. i, I4i5), he became the swift flight of wind* (3, 29"), It
is further said elsewhere: 'One being the wise call variously: they speak of
Agni, Yama, Mätarisvan' (i, 164*^). Once MätariSvan is also a form of
Bfhaspati, who is several times identified with Agni (S 36): *That Brhaspati
appeared {sam abhavat) at the rite as Mätarisvan* (i, 190').

Elsewhere Mätarisvan is distinguished from Agni. 'He (Agni) being
bom in the highest heavens appeared to Mätarisvan* (i, 143^). 'Agni first
appeared to Mätarisvan and Vivasvat; the two worlds trembled at the choosing
of the priest' (1,31-^). 'Agni being the highest ofthe luminaries has supported
with his flame the firmament, when Mätarisvan kindled the oblation-bearer
who was concealed' (3,5"). This verse foUows one in which Agni is directly
called Mätarisvan. The only explanation of such a discrepancy in contiguous
verses of the same hymn, seems to be that the name of a specific personi-
fication of Agni in the latter verse is used as an epithet of the generic Agni
in the former. MätariSvan brought to Bhrgu as a gut the glorious offerer,
the banner of the sacrificial gathering, the messenger who has two births
(i, 60*). MätariSvan brought the one (Agni) from the sky, the eagle wrested
the other (Soma) firom the rock (i, 93^). MätariSvan brought Agni the
adorable priest, the dweller in heaven (3, 2}^), MätariSvan (and) the gods
fashioned Agni, whom the Bhrgus produced, as the first adorable (priest) for
man (10, 46^). Him, the god, Mätarisvan has brought from afar for man
fi, 128'). Mätarisvan, the messenger of Vivasvat, brought hither firom afar
Agni Vaisvänara, whom the mighty seized in the lap of the waters (6, 8^).
Mätarisvan brought from afar the hidden Agni, produced by fiiction, fipom
the gods (3, 95), Mätarisvan produced by friction the hidden Agni (1,141^).
Agni was produced with friction by Mätarisvan and was set up in human
abodes (i, 71^. 148*). Indra produced cows for Trita from the dragon and
delivered the cowstalls to Dadhyanc (and) MätariSvan (10, 48').

There are a few obscure passages in late hymns which hardly shed any
further light on the character of MätariSvan. In two of these he seems to

72 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kxjnst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

be regarded 'as . purifying "and enjoying Soma (9, 67^^; 10, 114O; su^d in
another, he is mentioned in an enumeration of Fathers beside whom Indra
drank Soma (Väl. 4*). Indra is once compared with him as with a skilful
artificer (10, 105^), probably in allusion to Mätarisvan's skill in producing
Agni (cp. IG, 46^, where the same verb taks is used). This notion of skill
is probably also present in a verse of the wedding hymn (10, 85*7), where
Mätarisvan is invoked along with other deities to join the hearts of two
lovers (cp. Tva§tr, S 38)- Finally, in a very obscure verse (10, 109*) Mätari-
svan is spoken of as 'boundless' and Vandering* (salila^ an adjective several
times used with väta in the AV.), attributes which possibly already represent
the conception of Mätarisvan to be found in later times.

Mätarisvan would thus appear to be a personification of a celestial form
of Agni, who at the same time is thought of as having like Prometheus
brought down the hidden fire from heaven to earth. Hardly anything but
lightning can be his natural basis. This would account for his being the
messenger of Vivasvat from heaven to earth (6,8*), just as Agni himself
is a messenger of Vivasvat (S 3S) between the two worlds *. In the AV.
Mätarisvan is still found as a mystic name of Agni (AV. 10, S^^- 4«)- 5ut
generally in that (AV. 12, i^* &c.) and other Sarnhitäs, the Brähma^as and
all the subsequent literature, the name is a designation of wind. The transition
to this conception is to be found in a passage already quoted (3, 29"):
'Agni, when as Mätarisvan he was formed in his mother, became the swift
flight of wind'*, and Agni in the air as a raging serpent is elsewhere com-
pared with the rushing wind (i, 79*). Such a Statement might easily have
been taken later to interpret Mätarisvan as the A^ind.

The Word mätarUvan, which is without a cognate in any other Indo-
European language, has every appearance of being a purely Indian Compound
(like mätaribhvariy rjUvan^ durgrbhisvan), The Rigvedic poet's explanation
of the name as ^e who is formed in his mother* can hardly be dismissed
as an etymological conceit, since the word in all likelihood dates from a
contemporary phase of language. It probably means *growing in his mother*
(V^/ß, to swell, from which we have ///i/, child, and other derivatives) 3, Agni
being also said to grow {Yvrdh) in his mothers (i, 1415). There is a change
of accent from the second to the third syllable, probably due to the influence
of numerous words in -van (like prätaritvan). By the mother either the
lower ararit or the thundercloud might be meant; but the latter is the more
probable, as Mätarisvan comes from heaven. Yäska (Nir. 7, 26), who regards
Mätarisvan as a designation of Väyu, analyzes the Compound into mätari
(= antarikse) and svan (from ivas to breathe or diu an to breathe quickly),
so as to mean the wind that breathes in the air.

» ORV. 122, n. I thinks the frequently expressed opinion that MatariSvan is
nothing but a form of Agni, has no sure foundation, and regards MfttarUvan
simply as the Prometheus of the RV.; cp. ORV. 108, n. I, and SBE. 46, 123. —
2 Cp. BRV. I, 27; BDA. 51; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 306. — - 3 Cp. Whitney,
Sanskrit Roots p. 176; Roth, Nirukta 111—3; Weber, IS. i, 416; Reuter, KZ.

31, 544-5.

KHF. 8. 14; MuiR, JRAS. 20, 416, note; OST. 5,204, note ; Schwartz, KZ. 20,210;
GW. s. V.; BRV. i, 52-7; BRI. 9; KRV. 35; HVBP. iio; Eggeung, SBE. 12, 186,
note 2; ORV. 122—3.

S 26. Ahi budhnya. — The serpent of the Deep, Ahi budhnya, whose
name is mentioned solely in hymns to the Visvedevas, is spoken of only
twelve times in the RV. and hardly ever alone. He is associated five times
with Aja ekapäd, three times with Apärp napät, three times with the ocean
(samuära\ and twice with Savity. There are only three verses (5, 41*^;

Atmospherfc Gk)DS. 26. Ahi budhnya. 27. Aja ekapäd. 73

7, 34"*- *7) in which he is invoked alone. When only one other deity is

referred to with him, it is either Apäip napät (i, i865) or Aja ekapäd (10,

64*). When Ahi budhnya and Aja ekapäd are mentioned together in the

same verse, they are always (with the slight exception of 10, 66") in juxta-

position. The most characteristic enumerations in which the name is invoked

are: Aja ekapäd, Ahi budhnya, the ocean, Apäip napät, Prsni (7, 35*^); Ahi

budhnya, Aja ekapäd, Trita, Rbhuk§an, Savitj*, Apäm napät (2, 31^); the ocean,

the^stream, the space {rajas)^ the air, Aja ekapäd, the thundering flood, Ahi

budhnya, and all the gods (10, 66'*)- Judged by these associates Ahi

budhnya would seem to be an atmospheric deity, and he is enumerated in

the Naigha^tuka (5, 4) among the divinities of the middle or aerial region.

But it is only where he is mentioned alone that anything more definite than

this can be gathered. In the verse which gives most information about him,

the poet exclaims: ^I praise with songs the serpent born in water {abjäm)^

sitting in the bottom (budhfU) of the streams in the spaces' (7, 34*^; cp. 10,

935). This indicates that he dwells in the atmospheric ocean, and Yäska

explains budhna as air (Nir. 10, 44). In the verse immediately foUowing he

is besought not to give his worshippers over to injury, and these identical

words are addressed to him in another passage also (5, 41'^). This suggests

that there is something hurtful in his nature. Ahi is otherwise a term com-

monly applied to Vjtra (S 68), and Vjtra enclosing the waters is described

as overflowed by the waters or lying in them (ibid.) or at the bottom (budhna)

of the air (i, 52*). Agni in the space of air is called a raging ahi (i, 79*)

and is also said to have been produced in the depth (budhne) of the great

space (4, ii')« Thus it may be surmised that Ahi budhnya was originally

not different from Ahi Vjtra, though he is invoked as a divine being, who

resembles Apäip napät, his baleful aspect only being hinted at In later Vedic

texts Ahi budhnya is allegorically connected with Agni Gärhapatya (VS. 5, 33;

AB. 3, 36; TB. I, I, io3). In post- Vedic literature Ahi budhnya is the name

of a Rudra as well as an epithet of Siva.

Weber, IS. i, 96; Roth, PW. s. v. budhnya; OST. 5, 336; BRV. 2, 205—6,
401; 3, 24—5; HVBP. 41 (as a name of the moon).

827. Aja ekapäd. — This being is closely connected with Ahi budhnya,
his name occurring five times in juxtaposition with that of the latter and
only once unaccompanied by it (10, 65*-*). The deities invoked in the latter
passage, *the thundering PävTravi (*daughter of lightning': PW.), Ekapäd aja,
the supporter of the sky, the stream, the oceanic waters, all the gods, Sara-
svaö', are, however, almost identical with those enumerated in the foUowing
hjrmn: *the ocean, the stream, the aerial space, Aja ekapäd, the thundering
flood, Ahi budhnya, and all the gods' (10, 66^^), These two passages suggest
that Aja ekapäd is an aerial deity. He is, however, enumerated in the
Naighaotuka (5, 6) among the deities of the celestial region. In the AV.
Aja ekapäda is said to have made firm the two worlds (AV. 13, i^). The
TB. (3,1,2*) speaks of Aja ekapäd as having risen in the east The commen-
tator on his passage defines Aja ekapäd as a kind of Agni, and Durga on
Ninikta 12, 29 interprets him as the sun. Yäska himself does not express an
opinion as to what Aja ekapäd represents, merely explaining Aja as ajana,
driving, and ekapäd as *he who has one foot' or Tie who protects or drinks
with one foot*. Though hardly any longer an independent deity, Aja ekapäd
as well as Ahi budhnya receives a libation in the domestic ritual (Pärask.
2, 15*). In the Epic Ajaikapäd is both the name of one of the eleven Rudras
and an epithet of Siva.

Roth*, with whom Grassbiann agrees*, regards Aja ekapäd as a genius

74 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

of the Storni, translating the name as the 'one-footed Driver or Stornier'.
Bloomfield^ and Victor Henry* think he represents a solar deity. Hardv-''
believes that %e goat who goes alone* is the moon. Bergaigne^, interpreting
the name as *the unbom {a-ja) who has only one foot', thinks tiiis means he
who inhabits the one isolated mysterious world. If another conjecture may
be added, the name, meaning *the one-footed goat' 7, was originally a figurative
designation of lightning, the 'goat' alluding to its agile swiftness in the cloud-
mountains, and the one foot to the single streak which strikes^^the earth.

X PW. s. V. aja\ Nirukta, Erl. 165— 6 (cp. OST. 5, 336). — 2 GW. s.v. i aja\
cp. Fav, AJP. 17, 24—5. — 3 AJP. 12, 443; SBE. 42, 664. — 4 Lcs hymncs Rohita, Paris
1891, p. 24. — 5 HVBP. 41—2. — 6 BRV. 3, 23. — 7 ORV. 71—2; cp. BRL 24.

Weber, IS. i, 96.

S 28. Rudra. — This god occupies a subordinate position in the RV.,
being celebrated in only three entire hymns, in part of another, and in one
conjointly with Soma, while his name occurs about 75 times.

His physical features in the RV. are the foUowing. He has a band
^2, 33' &c.), arms (2,333;VS. 16,1), and firm limbs (2,33**). He has beautiful ups
(2, 33^) and (like Pü§an) wears braided hair (i, 11 4'- 5), His colour is brown
{babhru: 2, 335 &c.). His shape is dazzling (i, 114^), and he is multiform
(^» 33^)- He shines like the brilliant sun, like gold (i, 43^). He is arrayed
with golden Ornaments (2, 33^) and wears a glorious multiform necklace*
{niska-. 2, 33*"). He sits on a car-seat (2, 33*). The later Saiphitäs fespe-
cially VS. 16) add a number of other traits. He is thousand-eyed (AV. 11,
2'* 7, VS. 16, 7). He has a belly, a mouth, a tongue, and teeth (AV. 11, 2^).
His belly is black and his back red (AV. 15, i?-*). He is blue-necked (VS.
16, 7) and blue-tufted (AV. 2, 27^). He is copper-coloured and red (VS.
16, 7). He is clothed in a skin (VS. 3, 61; 16, 51) and dwells in mountains
(VS. 16, 2—4).

The RV. often mentions Rudra's weapons of offence. He is once said
to hold the thunderbolt in his arm (2, 333). His lightning shaft {didyut) dis-
charged from the sky traverses the earth (7, 46 3). He is usually said to be
armed with a bow and arrows (2, 33'°* "; 5, 42"; 10, 125^), which are
strong and swift (7, 46*). He is invoked with Kfsänu (S 48) and the archers
(10, 64®); and seems to be intended when Indra is compared with the archer
on the car-seat (6, 20**, cp. 2, 33")- I^^ ^^ AV. he is also called an archer
(i, 28*; 6, 93'; 15, S*"'^- In that and other later Vedic texts his bow,
arrow, weapon, holt, or club are fi-equently referred to (AV. i, 28^ &c.; SB.

One of the points most frequently mentioned about Rudra is his rela-
tionship to the Maruts. He is their father (i, 114^- 9; 2, 33'); or they are
more frequently spoken of as his sons and are also several times called
Rudras or Rudriyas^ He is said to have generated them from the shining
udder of Pfsni (2, 34^) 3. But Rudra is never associated, as Indra is, with
the warlike exploits of the Maruts, for he does not engage in conflict with
the demons. Tryambaka^ a common epithet of Siva in^ post-Vedic literature,
is akeady applied to Rudra in Vedic texts (VS. 3, 58; SB. 2, 6, 2') and seems
to refer to him once even in the RV. (7, 59**). The meaning appears to be
'he who has three mothers' (cp. 3, 565) in allusion to the tlureefold division
of the universe (cp. GRV. i, 555). Ambikä, a post-Vedic name of Siva's
wife, is mentioned for the first time in VS. 3, 5, appearing here, however,
not as Rudra's wife, but as his sister. Umä and PärvaG, regulär names of
Siva's wife, seem first to occur in the TA. and the Kena Upani^ad.

In a passage of the RV. (2, i^) Rudra is one of several deities identified

AtMOSPHERTC GODS. 28. RUDRA. 75

with Agni. He is also identified with Agni in the AV. (7, 87*), in the TS.
(5» 4, 3"; 5> 5. 7*), and the SB. (6, i, 3", cp. 9, i, i'). The word ruära
often occurs as an adjective, in several cases as an attri})ute of Agni^ (though
rather oftener as an attribute of the Asvins (S 21). Sarva and Bhava are,
among several others, two new names assigned to Rudra in VS. (16, 18. 28).
These two also occur in the AV. where their destructive arrows and lightnings
are referred to (2, 27^; 6, 93'; 10, i'^; 11, 2'- "); but they seem here to
have been regarded as deities distinct from one another and from Rudra.
Bhava and Sarva are in a Sütra passage^ spoken of as sons of Rudra and
are compared with wolves eager for prey (SSS. 4, 20*). In VS.39,8 Agni, Asani,
Pasupati^ Bhava, Sarva, Isana, Mahädeva, Ugradeva, and others are enumerated
as gods or forms of one god. Rudra, Sarva, Pasupati, Ugra, Asani, Bhava,
Mahän devah are names given to represent eight different forms of Agni
(SB. 6, I, 37; cp. Särikh. Br. 6, 1 &c.), and Sarva, Bhava, Pasupati, and Rudra
are said to be all names of Agni (SB.^i, 7, 3^). Asani, one of the above
names assigned to AgniKumära in the SB. (6, i, 3"), is there explained to
mean lightning (viäyut) but in the Sänkh. Br. it is interpreted as Indra. The
epithet paiupati^ *lord of beasts', which Rudra often receives in the VS., AV.,
and later, is doubtless assigned to him because unhoused cattle are peculiarly
exposed to his attacks and are therefore especially consigned to his care.

Rudra is described in the RV. as fierce C2, 339- **; 10, 126*) and de-
structive like a terrible beast (2, 33")- He is the ruddys (arusa) boar of
heaven (i, 1145). He is a bull (2, 337- *• *5). He is exalted (7, 10*), strong
(i,4S\ 114')» strongest of the strong (2,33^), unassailable (7,46*), unsurpassed
in might (2, 33***), rapid (10, 92*), and swift (i, 114*). He is young (2, 33';
5, 6o5) and unaging (6, 49"). He is called asura (5, 42 ") or the great
asura of heaven ° (2, i^). He is self-glorious (i, 129^; 10, 92^), rules heroes
(i, II4'* * &c.), and is a lord (i^äna) of this vast world (2, 33^) and father
of the World (6, 49*°). He is an ordainer (6, 46'), and by his rule and uni-
versal dominion he is aware of the doings of men and gods (7, 46*). He makes
the streams flow over the earth and, roaring, moistens everything (10, 9 2 5).
He is intelligent (i, 43'), wise (i, 114*), and beneficent (2, 33^; 6, 49'®). He
is several times called 'bountiful', muihvas (i, 114^), and in the later Vedas
the comparative and Superlative of this word have only been found in con-
nexion with Rudra '. He is easily invoked (2, 33^) and is auspicious, iiva
(10, 92^), an epithet which is not even in the AV. as yet peculiar to any
particular deity.

Malevolence is frequently attributed to Rudra in the RV.; for the hymns
addressed to him chiefly express fear of his terrible shafts and deprecation
of his wrath. He is implored not to slay or injure, in his anger, his wor-
shippers, their parents, children, men, cattle, or horses (i, 1147-*), but to
spare their horses (2, 33*), to avert his great malevolence and his holt from
his worshippers, and to prostrate others with them (2, 33"- '♦). He is besought
to avert his bolt when he is incensed and not to injure his adorers, their
children, and their cows (6, 28^. 46^"**), and to keep from them his cow-
slaying, man-slaying missile (2, 33*). His ill-will and anger are deprecated
(2, 33^"^" '^, and he is besought to be merciful to the Walking food (10,
169'). His worshippers pray that they may be unharmed and obtain his
favour (2, 33*' *). He once even receives the epithet 'man-slaying* (4, 3*),
and in a Sütra passage it is said that this god seeks to slay men (AG.
4, 8^*). Rudra's malevolence is still more prominent in the later Vedic texts.
His wrath is frequently deprecated (VS. 3,61 &c.; AV. i, 285 &c.). He is invoked
not to assail his worshippers with celestial fire and to cause the lightning to

76 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, t a. Vedic Mythology.

descend elsewhere (AV. ii, 2^; 10, i'3). He is even said to assail with
fever, cough, and poison® (AV. 11, 2"'- ^; 6, 90 cp. 93). Rudra's wide-
mouthed, howling dogs, who swallow their prey unchewed, are also spoken
of (AV. IG, i3°, cp. VS. 16, 28). Even the gods were afraid ,of the stning
bow and the arrows of Rudra, lest he should destroy them (SB. 9, i, i'- ^),
Under the name of Mahädeva he is said to slay cattle (TMB. 6, g^). In
another Brähmaija passage he is said to have been formed of a Compound
of all the most terrible substances (AB. 3, 33*). It is probably owing to bis
formidable characteristics that in the Brähmanas and Sütras Rudra is regarded
as isolated from the other gods. When the gods attained heaven, Rudra
remained behind (SB. i, 7, 3^). In the Vedic ritual after offerings to other
gods, a remainder is not uncommonly assigned to Rudra (Gobh. GS. i, 8*^;
Ap. Dh. S. 2, 4*3). His hosts, which attack man and beast with disease and
death, receive the bloody entrails of the victim (SSS. 4, 19^), just as blood
is poured out to demons as their peculiar share of the sacrifice^ (AB. 2, 7*).
The abode of Rudra in these later texts is commonly regarded as in the
north '**, while that of the other gods is in the east. It is perhaps due to
his formidable nature that in the RV. Rudra only appears once associated
with another deity (Soma: S 44) as a dual divinity in one short hymn of
four stanzas.

In the VS., besides many other epithets too numerous to repeat, several
disgraceful attributes of Rudra are mentioned. Thus he is called a 'robber,
cheat, deceiver, lord of pilferers and robbers' (16, 20 — i). In fact, his
character as shown by the various epithets occurring here, approximates to
the fierce, terrific, impure, and repulsive nature of the post- Vedic Siva.

Rudra is, however, not purely maleficent like a demon. He is also
supplicated in the RV. to avert the anger or the evil that comes from the
gods (i, 114*; 2, 337). He is besought not only to preserve from calamity
(5» 51'^)» b"t to bestow blessings (i, 114'- *; 2, 33^), and produce welfare for
man and beast (i, 43^). His healing powers are mentioned with especial
frequency. He grants remedies (2,33'*), he commands every remedy (5,42"),
and has a thousand remedies (7, 46^). He carries in his band choice reme-
dies (i, 114^), and his band is restorative and healing (2, 33^). He raises
up heroes by his remedies, for he is the greatest physician of physicians
(2, 33*}, and by his auspicious remedies his worshipper hopes to live a hundred
winters (2, ^^^). He is besought to remove sickness from his worshippers'
offspring (7, 46^) and to be favourable to man and beast, that all in the
village may be well-fed and free from disease (i, 114*). In this connexion
Rudra has two epithets which are peculiar to him, ja/äsa, (perhaps) *healing'
und ja/äsa-d^esq/ay *possessing healing remedies (i, 43^; AV. 2, 27^). These
medicines against sickness are probably rains" (cp. 5, 53*^; 10, 599). That
this attribute was essential to his nature, appears from a verse of a hymn in
which various deities are characterized without being named (8, 29^): *One
bright, fierce, possessing healing remedies, holds a sharp weapon in his band'.
Rudra's lightning and his remedies are also mentioned together in another
verse (7, 46^). The healing Rudra with the Rudras is invoked to be favour-
able (7. 35^). The Maruts are also in another verse associated with Rudra
as possessing pure and beneficent remedies (2, 33'^). The healing power of
Rudra is sometimes referred to in the other Samhitäs (VS. 3, 59; 16, 5. 49;
AV. 2, 27^); but much less frequently than his destructive activity. In the
Sütras, sacrifices to him are prescribed for removing or preventing disease in
cattle (AG. 4, 8^°; Kaus. S. 51, 7 &c.).

The evidence of the RV. does not distincüy show with what physical

Atmospheric Gods. 28. RuDRA. 29. The Maruts. 77

basis Rudra is connected. He is generally regarded as a storm-god. But
his missile is maleficent, unlike that of Indra, which is directed only against
the enemies of his worshippers. Rudra appears therefore to have originally
represented not the storm pure and simple, but rather its baleful side in the
destnictive agency of lightning". This would account for his deadly shafts
and for his being the father or chief of the Maruts or Storm-gods, who are
armed with lightning and who are said to have been bom *from the laughter
of lightning* (i, 23"). His beneficent and healing powers would be based
partly on the fertilizing and purifying action of the thunderstorm and partly
on the indirect action of sparing those whom he might slay. Thus the de-
precations of his wrath gave rise to the euphemistic epithet 'auspicious' (^iva),
which became the regulär name of Rudra's historical successor in post-Vedic
mythology. This explanation would also account for Rudra*s close connexion
with Agni in the RV.

Weber '-5 expresses the view that this deity in the earliest period speci-
ally designated the howling of the Storm (the plural therefore meaning the
Maruts), but that as the roaring of fire is analogous, Storm and Fire com-
bined to form a god of rage and destruction, the epithets of the Satarudriya
being derived partly from Rudra = Storm and partly from Agni = Fire.
H. H. Wilson thought that Rudra was *evidently a form of either Agni or
Indra''*. L. v. Schroeder'5 regards Rudra as originally the chief of the
souls of the dead conceived as storming along in the wind (cp. p. 81).
Oldenberg is of opinion that Rudra probably represented in his origin a god
of mountain and forest, whence the shafts of disease attack mankind'^.

The etymology of the word rudra is somewhat uncertain as regards the
meaning. It is generally derived from the root rud, to cry, and interpreted
as the Howler*7. This is the Indian derivation**. By Grassmann '9 it is
connected with a root rud having the conjectural meaning of *to shine* or,
according to Pischel, *to be ruddy''°. Rudra would thus raean the *bright'
or the *red one'*'.

« Cp. Pischel, ZDMG.40, 120—1. — » i, 642- 12. 85"; 5, 42^5; 6, 504. 66";
8, 20 «7 (cp. 5, 598; 7, 56«. 585). — 3 Väyu is once said to have generated the
Maruts from the sky (i, 1344) and Vata is approximated to Rudra in 10, 169«. —

4 I, 27x0 (cp. Nir. lo, 8; Erl. 136); 3, 25; 4, 3 »; 5, 33; 8, 61 3. — 5 Cp. Bloom-
FiELD, AJP. 12, 429; rVS. 1, 57; ORV. 359, note 4.-6 Cp. BDA. 46. 54;
Geldner, FaW. 20. — 7 Bloomfield, AJP. 12, 428—9. — 8 cp. Bloomfield's
explanation (AJP. 7, 469—72) of AV. I, 12 as a prayer to lightning conceived as
the cause of fever, headache, and coughs (otherwise Weber, IS. 4, 405). — 9 IIRI.
250, note 2; cp. ORV. 488. 302—3. 334—5- 458. — ^^ Cp. ORV. 335, note 3. —
I« The remedy is explained by BRV. 3, 32 as Soma, the draught of immortality,
and by Bloomfield (AJP. 12, 425—9) foUowed by HVBP. 83—4, and Hopkins,
PAOS. Dec. 1894, CLff., as rain Ualasa = the mütra of Rudra).— " Macdonell,
JRAS. 27, 957; Hopkins, PAOS. Dec. 1894, p. cn; HRI. 112; cp. KRV. 38,
note 133. — »3 IS. 2, 19 — 22. — »4 Translation of the RV., introductions to vol.
I, 26—7. 37—8; cp. vol. 2, 9 — 10. — «5 WZKM. 9, 248. — »6 ORV. 216—24
(cp. Hopkins, PAOS. 1. c). — »7 Kuhn, Herabkunft 177; KZ. 2, 278; 3, 335;
Weber, IS. 2, 19—22; MM., OGR. 216; otherwise v. Bradke, ZDMG. 40, 359— 61.

— Jd TS. I, 5, IM SB. 6, I, 3 10; YN. 10, 5; Säyana on RV. 1, 1141. — «9 GW.

— 20 PVS. I, 57; ZDMG. 40, 120. — ai Cp. BRI. 14; HVBP. 83.

Roth, ZDMG. 2, 222; Whitney, JAOS. 3, 318—9; Oriental and Linguistic
Studiesl873, p.34— 5; OST. 4, 299-363. 420—3; LRV. 3.320-2; BRV. 3, 31-8.
152—4; V. ScHROEDER, WZKM. 9, 233—8. 248—52; HRI. 99. 578.

5 29. The Maruts. — These are prominent deities in the RV., thirty-
three hymns being dedicated to them alone, seven at least to them conjointly
with Indra, and one each to them with Agni and Pü§an. They form a troop,
gana (a word generally used in connexion with them) or iardhas (i,37*-5&c.),

78 III. Religion, weltu Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

of deities mentioned only in the plural. Their number is thrice sixty (8, 85*)
or thrice seven (i, 133**; AV. 13, i^3), Their birth is often referred to (5,
575 &c.). They are the sons of Rudra (p. 74), being also often called Rudras
(i, 39^- 7 &c.) and sometimes Rudriyas (i, 38^; 2, 34" &c.), and of Prsni
(2, 34*; s, 52'^ 6o5; 6, 66^), often also receiving the epithet prJnimätarah,
*having Pfsni for their mother' (i, 23*** &c.; AV. 5, 21"). The cow Prsni
(5, 52*^), or simply a cow is their mother (8, 83*) and they bear the epithet
gomätarah^ *having a cow for their mother' (i, 85^, cp. 8, 20*). This cow
presumably represents the mottled storm-cloud (SS43. 61B.); and the flaming
cows having distended udders with whom they come (2, 34^), can hardly
refer to anything but the clouds charged with rain and lightning. When bom
from Pfsni the Maruts are compared with fires (6, 66*""^). They are also
said to have been bom from the laughter of lightning (i, 23*', cp. 38*^.
Agni is said to have fashioned or begotten them (6, 3**; i, 71**). Väyu is
once said to have engendered them in the wombs of heaven (i, 134*), and
once they are called the sons of heaven (10, 77*), being also referred to as
the heroes {vJrdh) of heaven (i, 64*. 122*; 5, 54*°) or as the males {maryä/t)
of heaven (3, 54* «J; 5, 59^). Once they are said to have the ocean for their
mother, sindhumätarah (10, 78^ cp. p. 51). Elsewhere they are said to be
self-bom (i, 168^3 5, 87').

They are brothers among whom none is eldest or youngest (5, 59^. 6o5),
for they are equal in age (i, 165'). They have grown together (5, 56*;

7, 58^) and are of one mind (8, 20*- *'). They have the same birthplace
(5j 53^) 2md the same abode (i, 165'; 7, 56O. They are spoken of as having
grown on earth, in air, and heaven (5, 55O or as dwelling in the three
heavens (5, 60^). They are also once described as dwelling in the mountains

(8,83'*).

They are associated with the goddess Indräni, who is their friend (10,
86'*), and with Sarasvati (7, 96*, cp. 39^). Their connexion is, however,
dosest with the goddess Rodasi; who is described as Standing with them on
their car bringing enjoyments (5, 56*^) or simply as Standing beside them (6,
66^). In all the five passages in which her name occurs, she is mentioned
with them (cp. i, 167*. s). She therefore appears to have been regarded as
their bride (like Süryä as the bride of the Asvins). It is probably to this
connexion that they owe the epithet bhadrajänayah^ *having a beautiful wife'
(5, 61*) and their coraparison with bridegrooms (5, 60^) or youthful wooers
(10, 78^).

The brilliance of the Maruts is constantly referred to. They are golden,
of sun-like brightness, Hke blazing fires, of ruddy aspect (6, 66*; 7, 59";

8, 70- They shine like tongues of fire (10, 78-^). They have the form or
the brilliance of Agni (10, 84'; 3, 26^), with whom they are compared in
brightness (10, 78'J. They are like fires (2, 34') or kindled fires (6, 66*)
and are expressly called fires (3, 26*). They have the brilliance of serpents
(ahibhänavah\ i, 172'). They shine in the mountains (8, 7'). They are
self-luminous (i,37*&c.), an epithet almost exclusively applied to them. They
are frequently spoken of in a more general way as shining and brilliant
(i, i65'*&c.).

They are particularly often associated with lightning, vidyut (5, S4**^"";
I, 64*). The lightnings smile down on earth when the Maruts shed their
ghee (i, 168^, cp. 5, 52^). The lightning lows like a cow, as a mother
foUowing her calf, when they shed their rain (1,38*). They are like lightnings
shining with rain (7, 56'^). Lightning is so characteristic of them that all
the five Compounds of vidyut in the RV. are connected with the Maruts and,

Atmospheric Gods. 29. The Maruts. 79

excepting a Single instance, with them only. They hold lightnings in their
hands (8,7*5; 5, 54"), they delight in lightnings and cast a stone (5, 54^).
Their lances (rsfi) are often mentioned, and that these represent the lightning
is shown by their epithet rf AwV/k«/, *lightning-speared' (i, 168*; 5, 52*^). Less
frequently they are spoken of as having axes (i, 37'. 88^; 5, ^^^, 57*; 8, 20*),
which are golden (8,7-^*). Once (ibid.) they are said to bear the holt {vajra)^
Indra's peculiar weapon, in their hands. Sometimes they are said to be
armed with bows and arrows (5, 53*. 57*; 8, 20** "), once being termed
archers shooting an arrow; but as this trait is rare in the numerous hymns
addressed to them, it may be borrowed from their father Rudra. The Maruts
are decorated with garlands and other Ornaments (5, 53*). They wear golden
mantles (5, 55^). Like rieh woo^rs they deck their bodies with golden oma-
ments (5, 60*). Armlets or anklets {khädi) are an omament peculiar to them.
With these they shine like the sky with stars and glitter like showers from
the clouds (2, 34*). One verse describes their appearance more fiilly than
usuaL They have spears on their Shoulders, anklets on their feet, golden
Ornaments on their breasts, fiery lightnings in their hands, golden helmets
upon their heads (5, 54")»

y The Maruts ride on cars which gleam with lightning (i, 88'; 3, 54'^),
which are golden (S, 57O1 which have golden wheels or fellies (1,64". 885),
in which are weapons (5, 57^), and which have buckets Standing in them
(i, 87**). The coursers which draw their cars are ruddy or tawny (i, 88*;
5» S7^)> golden-footed (8, 7*7), and swift as thought (i, 85*). These coursers
are spotted, as appears from the epithet prsadaiva^ *having spotted steeds',
which is several times and exclusively connected with the Maruts. More fre-
quently the animals which draw their car are spoken of in the feminine as
prsafih (i, 39^ &c.). These are in two passages (5, 55^. 58^), mentioned
with the masculine aiväfy. The Maruts are also described as having yoked
the winds as steeds to their pole (5, 58').

llie Maruts are great as the sky (5, 57*), they surpass heaven and earth
(10, 773), are immeasurable in greatness (5, 58*), and no others can reach
the limit of their might (i, 167^). The Maruts are young (i, 64*. 165*; 5,
42 '5) and unaging (i, 64^;. They are divine (asura), vigorous, impetuous,
without soil (1,64--") and dustless (6,66*). They are fierce (1,19*), irascible
{7, 56*), terrible (5, 56*- ^; 7, 58*), of terrible aspect (5, 56*), of fearful form
(i, 195. 64*), and are terrible like wild beasts (2, 34'; cp. p. 75). They are
playful like children or calves (i, 166*; 7, 56'^; 10, 78^). They are like
black-backed swans (7, 597). They are iron-tusked boars (i, 88^); they are
like lions (i, 64®).

The noise which they make is often referred to (i, 169^ &c.) and is
expressly called thunder (i, 23"); but it is also the roaring of the winds (7,
56^). At their Coming heaven as it were roars with fear (8, 7*^). They are
often described as causing the mountains to quake as well as making the
earth or the two worlds tremble '. With the fellies of their cars they rend the
momitains or the rock (i, 64**; 5, 52^). It is when they come with the winds
that they cause the mountains to quake (8, 7*). They rend trees and like
wild elephants devour the forests (i, 39^. 64^. The forests bow down before
them through fear (s, 60*). Resistless as mountains they cast down terrestrial
and celestial creatures (i, 64^). All creatures are afraid of them (i, 85^).
They speed like boisterous winds (10, 78^) and whirl up dust(i, 64"). They
make tiie winds or the noise of the winds (7, 563). They come with the
winds (8, 73- 4. «7) and take them as their steeds (5, 587).

One of the main functions of the Maruts is to shed rain. They are

8o III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

clothed with rain (5, 57^). They rise from the ocean and shed rain (1,389).
Milking the unfailing well, they blow through the two worlds with rain (i,*
64^; S, 7*^). Rain foUows them (5, 53*°). They bring water and impel rain
(5, 533). They obscure their brilliance with rain (5, 59'). They cover the
eye of the sun with rain (5, 5 9 5). They create darkness with the cloud when
they shed rain (1,389). They scatter mist when they speed with winds (8,7^).
They cause the heavenly pail (5, 53^ 59®) and the streams of the mountains
to pour (5, 597). When they hurry on, the waters flow (5, 58^). A terrestrial
river receives its name, Marudvrddhä, 'swelled by the Manits' (10,75^), from
this action. The sweat of the sons of Rudra became rain (5, 58'). The
rain shed by the Maruts is also figuratively referred to as milk (i, i663),
ghee (i, 853; 10, 78*), milk and ghee (i, 64^); or they are said to pour out
the spring (i, 85") or to wet the earth wiüi honey (5, 54^)*. They raise
waters from sea to sky and discharge them from the sky upon the earth
(AV. 4, 27*). The waters which they shed are often clearly connected with
the thunderstorm. Desiring to give water, whirling hail, violent, they rush
on with thunder (5, 54^). They cause winds and lightnings with their might,
milk heavenly gifts from the udder, and fill the earth with milk (i, 64^).
The spring which they milk, thunders (i, 64^). The sky, the ruddy bull,
bellows when they shed the waters (5, 58^). They cause the stallion to make
water (i, 64^). They bestow the rain of heaven and shed abundantly the
streams of the stallion (5, 83^). They assume a golden colour when they
make water with the steed (2, 34* J). The streams resound with the fellies
of the Maruts, when they raise the voice of the cloud (i, 168^). The waters
which Indra sheds are called marutz'anh, *attended by the Maruts' (i, 80*).
In connexion with their character as shedders of rain, the Maruts receive the
epithets purudrapsäh (5, 5 7 5) or drapsinah (1,64^) *abounding in drops' and
the frequent sudänavah^ 'dripping welF. They also avert heat (5, 54'). Bat
they likewise dispel darkness (7, 56^°), produce light (i, 86"), and prepare
a path for the sun (8, 7^). They are also said to have measured out the
air (5, 55^), stretched out the terrestrial regions as well as the bright realms
of heaven, and held apart the two worlds (8, Zt^*- ").

Doubtless in allusion to the sound of the wind, the Maruts are several
times called singers (5, 52'. 60^; 7, 35'). They are the singers of heaven
(5» 57^)- They sing a song (i, 19*. 166^). While singing they made the sun
to shine (8, 29") and while blowing their pipe they cleft the mountain
(i> 85"). For Indra when he slew the dragon, they sang a song and pressed
Soma (5, 29^ 30^). In singing a song they created Indra-might (i, 85^).
Though their song must primarily have represented the sound of the winds
(cp. 4, 22*), it is also conceived as a hymn of praise (3, 14*). Thus they
come to be addressed as priests when in the Company of Indra (5, 29^), and
are compared with priests (10, 78*). They were the first to perform the
sacrifice as Dasagvas (2, 36^), and they purified Agni in the house of the
pious, while the Bh^gus kindled him (10, 1225). Like the other gods they
are several times also spoken of as drinkers ofSoma (2,36^; 8, 83^—^^ &c.).

Being identified with the phenomena of the thunderstorm, the Maruts are
naturally intimate associates of Indra, appearing as his friends and allies in
innumerable passages. They increase his strength and prowess (3, 35^; 6, 17"),
with their prayers, hymns, and songs^ (i, 165" &c.). They generally assist
Indra in the Vftra fight (8, 65*- ^\ 10, 113^). They help Trita as well as
Indra in slaying Vrtra (8, 7'^). They are besought to sing a Vrtra-slaying
hymn^ (8, 78' "-i). They helped Indra in the conflict with the dragon and
with Sambara (3, 47 > 4). With them Indra gains the light (8, 65*), found

Atmospheric Gods. 30. Väyu-Väta. 8x

the cows (i, 65) and supported the sky (7, 475). In fact Indra accomplishes
^ his celestial exploits in their Company (i, 100. loi. 165; 10, 65). Some-
times the Manits appear more independent in these exploits, Thus they
strike Vftra, assisted by Indra (i, 23'') and are even spoken of alone as having
rent Vjtra Joint frora Joint (8, 7'^) or as having disclosed the cows (2, 34*).
They (like the gods in general) have Indra as their chief (i, 23^ &c.) and
are accompanied by Indra (10, 128^). They are like sons to Indra (i, 100^)
-and are called his brothers (i, 170^). The Maruts are, however two or three
times Said to have left Indra in the lurch. They involved him alone in the
£ght with the dragon (i, 165^) and they abandoned him (8,7^'). One verse
■even gives evidence of hostility between Indra and the Maruts, when the
latter say to him: *Why dost thou seek to kill us, Indra? Do not kill us in
the fray' (i, 170* cp. 171^)*. A Brähmana passage (TB. 2, 7, 11') also refers
to a conflict between the Maruts and Indra.

AMien not associated with Indra, the Maruts occasionally exhibit male-
volent traits. They then to some extent participate in the maleficent nature
of their father Rudra. They are implored to ward ofif the lightning from
their worshippers nor to let their ill-will reach them (7,56^), and are besought
to avert their arrow and the stone which they hurl (i, 172'), their lightning
-(7, 57*), and their cow- and man-slaying holt (7, 56*7). Evil can comefrom
them (i, 39®), their anger is deprecated (i, 171*; 7, 58^), and they are said
to have the wrath of the serpent (i, 64^-9). But like their father Rudra, the
Maruts are supplicated to bring healing remedies, which abide in the Sindhu,
the Asikni, the seas, and mountains (8, 20^-*"^), and once they are associated
with Rudra in the possession of pure, salutary^ and benehcent remedies
(2, 33^'^). The remedies appear to be the waters, for the Maruts bestow
medicine by raining (5, 53'*). Like Agni, they are several times also said
to be pure or purifying, pävaka (7, 56" &c.).

From the constant association of the Maruts with lightning, thunder, wind,
and rain, as well as from other traits mentioned above, it seems clear that
they are Storm-gods in the RV. According to the native interpreters the
Maruts represent the winds, and the post-Vedic meaning of the word is simply
*wind*. But in the RV. they hardly represent the winds pure and simple,
as some of their attributes are borrowed from cloud and lightning as welL
A. Kuhn and Benfey^ held the Maruts to be personifications of the souls
of the dead (cp. p. 77), and with this view Meyer^ and v. Schroeder^ sub-
stantially agree. This origin is historically possible, but the RV. furnishes
no evidence in support of it. The etymology* being imcertain can throw no
additional light on the beginnings of the conception. The root appears to
be mar^ but whether in the sense of 'to die', *to crush*, or *to shine', it is
hard to decide. The latter meaning, however, seems to accord best with the
'description given of the Maruts in the RV.

X PVS. 2, 73. — a On the various names for rain in the RV. see Boilnen-
BERGER, op. cit. 43—4. — 3 BRV. 2, 391. — 4 PVS. 1, 59. — 5 00. on RV. 1,64.
— 6 Indogermanische Mythen i, 218. — 7 WZKM. 9, 248—9. — 8 Niruktali, 13;
Grassmann, KZ. i6, i6i— 4; BDA. 112 — 3; ZDMG. 40, 349—60; KRV. note 136;
MM., Vedic Hymns, SBE. 32, xxiv— xxv; HRL 97.

Roth, ZDMG. 2, 222; Whitney, JAOS. 3, 319; OST. 5, 147—54; GRV.
I, 44; BRV. 2, 369—402; BRI. 14; KRV. 39; MMPhR. 317—20; HVBP. 83—5;
V. Bradke, FaR. 117—25; ORV. 224—5. 283; HRL 96—9.

S 30. Väyu-Väta. — Each of the two names of wind Väyu and Väta
•is used to express both the physical phenomenon and its divine personi-
fication. But Väyu is chiefly the god and Väta the element Väyu is cele-
brated alone in one whole hymn besides parts of others^ and in about half

Indo-amche Philologie. UL 1 a. 6

82 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

a dozen others conjointly with Indra. Väta is invoked only in two short
h)niins (i68 and i86) at the end of the tenth book of the RV. The names
of both sometimes occur in the same verse (6, 50"; 10, 92^^). The difference
between the two is illustrated by the fact that Väyu aJone is as a god associated
with Indra, the two deities being then often invoked as Indraväyü. This
couple was regarded as so closely connected by the ancient native inter-
preters, that either of them might represent the deities of the atmospheric
region in the Vedic triad (Nir. 7, 5). Väta on the other hand, being less
fully personified, is only associated with Parjanya (8 31), whose connexion
with the thunderstorm is much more vivid than that of Indra. DifFerent sets
of epithets are applied to the two wind-gods, those belonging to Väta being
chiefly expressive of the physical attributes of swiftness and violence.

Few references are made to Väyu's origin. The two worlds are said to
have generated him for wealth (7, 90^). He is once spoken of as the son-
in-law of Tva§tr (8, 26""^), though his wife's name is not mentioned (cp.
S 38). In the Paru§a hymn he is said to have Sprung from the breath of
the world-giant (10, 90*3). Väyu is rarely connected with the Maruts. He is,
however, once said to have generated them from the wombs of heaven
(i, 134*) and to be accompanied by them (i, 142**) as well as by Pü§an
and the Visvedevas. His personal attributes are rather indefinite. He is
beautiful (i, 2*) and with Indra is spoken of as touching the sky, swift as
thought, and thousand-eyed (i, 23^ ^). He is once said to have roaring
velocity (10, 100^). Väyu has a shining car drawn by a team or by a pair
of red {rohitd) or ruddy {arunä) steeds. His team consists of 99 (4, 48*),
100 or even 1000 (4, 46^) horses yoked by his will. The attribute niyutvaty
*drawn by a team', often occurs with reference to Väyu or his car, being
otherwise used only once or twice in each case with reference to Indra, Agni,
Püsan, or the Maruts. Väyu's car, in which Indra is his companion (4, 46^.
48*; 7, 91^), has a golden seat and touches the sky (4, 46*). Like the oüier
gods, Väyu is fond of Soma, to which he is often invited to come with his
teams and the first draught of which he obtains as his share* (also in Com-
pany with Indra: 1,135^), for he is the swiftest of the gods (SB. 13, i, 2'&c.)^
The AB. (2, 25) teils a story of how in a race which the gods ran for the
first draught of Soma, Väyu reached the goal first and Indra second. He is
in the RV. also called a protector of Soma (10, 8 5 5) and has the characteristic
epithet sucipä^ *drinking the clear (Soma draught/, an epithet which Indra
once shares with him. He is also once connected with the *nectar-yielding'
{sabardugha) cow^ (i, 134'*). Väyu grants fame, offspring, wealth in steeds,
oxen, and gold (7, 90*- ^). He disperses foes (4, 48*) and is invoked for
protection by the weak (i, 134^).

Väta, as the ordinary name of wind, is celebrated in a more concreto
manner. His name is frequently connected with the root vä^ to blow, from
which it is derived. One of the hymns devoted to his praise (10, 168) de-
scribes him as follows. Shattering everything and thundering, his din presses
on; he goes along whirling up the dust of the earth; he wanders in the air
on his paths; he does not rest even a day. Firstbom, he is a friend of the
waters; but the place of his birth is unknown. This deity wanders where he
lists; one hears his roaring, but his form one does not see (cp. i, i64'*'*).
He is the breath of the gods (cp. 7, 87*; 10, 92*^) and is worshipped with
oblations.

Väta, like Rudra, also wafts healing and prolongs life, for he has the
treasure of immortality in his house (10, 186). This healing power of wind
doubtless represents its purifying character (cp. p. 77). The activity of wind

Atmospheric Gods. 31. Parjanya. 83

is chiefly mentioned in connexion with the thunderstorm (4, 17"; 5, S^*;
10, i68'' ^). Blasts of wind being coincident with the appeaxance of lightnings
and preceding the reappearance of the sun, Vfita is spoken of as producing
niddy lights (10, 168'; and of making the dawns to shine (i, 134^). The
swiftness of wind often supplies a comparison for the speed of the gods
(4» 17"; 5» 41^; 9» 97^^) or of mythical steeds (i, 163"; 4, ;^S^). Its noise
is also frequently mentioned (4, 22*; 8, 91^; 10, i68*- "♦). The name of Väta
has been identified wich that of the Germanic god of storm and battle, Odhin
er Wodan*, which is explained as formed with a derivative suffix from the
cognate base. But this identification seems to be very doubtfuis.

I I, 134«. I3SM 4, 46s 5» 43-5; 7i 92M 8, 89a. — 2 Oldenberg, ZDMG.39,
55, note 1; HVM. 1, 260. — 3 Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 244. — 4 Grohmann,
KZ. 10,274; Zimmer, ZDA. 19, 170 — 2. 179—80; Mannhardt, ibid. 22, 4; Mogk in
Paul's Gnindriss 1075; Stokes, BB. 19, 74; Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 488;
V. ScHROEDER, WZKM. 9, 239. — 5 Cp. BDA. p. X; IF. 5, 272.

OST. 5, 143-6; KRV. 38; BRV. 1, 24-8; Sp.AP. 156-8; UVB?. 82—3;
ORV. 225-6.

S31. Parjanya. — This god plays a very subordinate part among the
deities of the RV., being celebrated in only three hymns, while the name is
mentioned less than thirty times. His praises are also sung in one hjrmn of
the AV. (4, 15), which, however, chiefly consists of verses from the RV. In
the follo\ving passages the word parjanya can only have the appellative sense
of 'rain-cloud'. 'This same v/ater rises and descends day by day; the rain-
clouds [parjanyäh) quicken the earth, the fires quicken heaven' (i, 1645').
The Manits *even during the day cause darkness by the water- carrying rain-
cloud, when they inundate the earth' (i, 38^); *they poured out the pail of
heaven, they discharge the raincloud through the two worlds, the rain pervades
the dry places' (5, 53^). Brhaspati is besought to cause the cloud to rain
and to send the rain-charged {vrsfimantam) cloud (10, 98*' ^). Soma flows
'like the rain-charged cloud' (9, 2 9) and the drops of Soma speed *like the
rains of the cloud' (9, 22^). In the AV. the rain-shedding cow Vasä is thus
addressed: 'The rain-cloud is thy udder, o excellent goddess, the lightnings
are thy teats, O Vasä' (AV. 10, lo^). In all such passages the native com-
mentators explain parjanya by meg/ia^ *cloud'. On the other hand^ parjanya
is used to explain dyaus in VS. 12, 6 and stanayitnu^ 'thunder* in SB. (14, 5,
5")'. In some cases it is hard to say whether we have the appellative or
the personified meaning. Thus the might of Agni is said to resound like
parjanya (8, 91 5); and the frogs are spoken of as uttering their voices when
roused by parjanya (7, 103'). In most passages, however, the word clearly
represents the personification which presides over the rain-cloud, while generally
retaining the attributes belonging to the phenomenon. The latter then becomes
an udder, a pail {ko^a) or water-skin {drti\ 5, 83*- 9. y^ loi*). The personi-
fication is to a considerable extent theriomorphic, Parjanya being often spoken
of as a bull, though with a certain confusion of gender (probably because
clouds are otherwise cows). He is a roaring bull with swift-flowing drops,
who places his seed in the plants as a germ (5, 83% cp. 7- 9^ AV. 4, 15*).
The clouds {abhräni) impelled by the wind come together, and the roaring
waters of the great bellowing aqueous {nabhasvatah) bull delight the earth (AV.
4, 15*). Sometimes Parjanya is like a barren cow, sometimes he is productive,
disposing of his body according to his wish (7, loi^).

The shedding of rain is his most prominent characteristic. He flies
around with a watery car and loosens and draws downwards the water-skin
(5, 83')« Like a charioteer urging on his horses, he displays his rainy mess-
engers: when he sheds rain water, the roar of the lion resounds from afar;

6*

84 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic M\thology.

with thunder he comes shedding rain-water as our divine {asura) father
(5» 83^- ^). He is besought for rains (7, loi^) and is implored to withhold
rain after shedding it (5, ^i^°). It is, however, implied that the action of
Paijanya, as well as of the Maruts, in shedding rain is subordinate to that
of Mitra and Varuna (5, 63^"^). He is several times said to thunder (5,83).
Thundering he strikes down trees, demons, evil-doers; the whole world is
terrified at his mighty weapon (5, 83'). He and Väta are the wielders of
mighty thunder (10, 66*°). Parjanya is also associated with lightning, though
less frequently than with thunder. The winds blow forth, the lightnings fall,
when Parjanya quickens the earth with his seed (5, 83*). Parjanya thunders
with lightning in the (aerial) ocean (AV. 19, 30'). He also appears to be
meant, in a hymn of the RV. to the Visvedevas, by the god who thunders
and roars, rieh in clouds and water, who with lightning excites the two worlds,
besprinkling them (5, 42'*).

As the shedder of rain Parjanya is naturally in a special degree the
producer and nourisher of Vegetation. When he quickens the earth witli
his seed, the plants spring up; in his activity are plants of every form; he
has produced plants for nourishment (5, 83^- 5- «<>, cp. 6, 52^; AV. 4, 152.3- »5.
8, 7*'). He is the fructifier and increaser of plants; protected by the god
they bear good fruit (7, loi^-^j^ Reeds and grass are produced by his action
(7, 102', cp. 5, 75*5; AV. I, 2*. 3*; 19, 3o5). Parjanya places the germ not
only in plants but.in cows, mares, and women (7, 102^;, and is invoked to
bestow fertility (5, 837 cp. 6, 52*^). He is the bull that impregnates everything: in
him is the soul of what moves and Stands (7, loi^; cp. i, 115*). He is even
described as a self-dependent sovereign, who rules over the whole world,
in whom all beings and the three heavens are established, and in whom the
threefold waters flow (7, ioi*-<-s). Owing to his generative activity Parjanya
several times receives the epithet of *falher* (7, 10 1 3; 9, 8 2 3; AV. 4, 15**;
12, i"). He is once called *our divine {asura) father* (5, ^2f*)\ and in an-
other passage 'the occult power of the Asura' (5,63^*7) perhaps refers to him.

His wife is by implication the Earth (5, 83*; 7, loi^, cp. i, 160^). The
AV. (12, i") States that Earth is the mother, Parjanya the father*, but else-
where explicitly calls Vasä his wife (10, 10^). In these respects as well as
the theriomorphic conception of him as a bull, his relation to thunder,
lightning, and rain, he approximates to the character of Dyaus (cp. 10,45*;
2, 4^ 27*5) whose son he is once called (7, 102*). Parjanya himself is said
to produce a calf {vatsam), the germ of plants (7, loi*, cp. v. «J; 5, 83*),
who perhaps represents lightning. Soma may, however, be meant, for his father
is once (9, 82') said to be Parjanya 3, and he is spoken of as 'increased by
Parjanya' (9, 113^).

Paijanya is associated with various other deities. His connexion is dosest
with Väta, who, with the single exception of Agni in one passage, is the only
god forming a dual divinity with him (S 44). The Maruts are also a few
times invoked with Parjanya (5, 63^ 83^) and are called upon to sing his
praises (AV.4, 15*). Agni is celebrated with him in two verses of one hymn
(6, 52^- '^; cp. S 44)« Indra has much in common with the 'rainy' Parjanya,
being compared with him in this respect (8, 6'). The two gods have in fact
much the same natural basis, the connexion with which is, however, much
clearer in the case of Parjanya (cp. p. 82).

I jj Parjanya's name is of uncertain derivation. But it is still usually identi-
fied, owing to the similarity of character, with that of the Lithuanian thundergod
Perkünas*, though the phonetic difficulties of the identification cannot be ex-
plained. The freshness of the conception in the RV. renders it probable tliat

Atmospheric Gods. 32. Apah. 85

if the two naraes are really connected, their Indo-European form was still an
. appellative. It seems clear that in the RV. the word is an appellative of
the thundering rain-cloud as well as the proper nauie of its personification,
the god who actually sheds the rain. The senses of rain-cloud and rain-god
both survive through the Brähma^as into the later langiiage. The native
dictionaries explain the appellative as *thunder-cloud* {garjanmegha &c.), while
the deity is sometimes found identiüed with Indra in the Mahäbhärata.

« Cp. 00. I, 223. — 2 The TA. 1, 10, l» says that Bhümi or Earth is the wife
and Vyoman or Sky is the husband. — 3 Cp. Bloomfield, FaR. 153. — 4 00.
I, 223; Zimmer, ZDA. 19, 164 f., cp. AIL. 42 f.; LRV. 3, 322 f.; ZDMG. 32, 3 14 f.;
KRV. note 139; HlRT, IF. I, 48 [—2.

BOhler, 00. I, 214—29; Delbrück, ZVP. 1865, p. 275 f.; Roth, ZDMG« 24,
302— 5 (on RV. I, 165); OST. 5, 140-2; BRV. 3, 25—30; KRV. 40; BRL 14;
WC 56 f.; HVBP. 80—2; ORV. 226; SBE. 46, 105; HRI. 103-4.

S 32. Äpah. — The Waters, Apah, are lauded in foiir h)rmns oftheRV.
^7» 47- 49; 10» 9« 30)» 2is well as in a few scattered verses. They are also
invoked in many detached verses along with other deities. The personification
is only incipient, hardly extending beyond the notion of their being mothers,
young wives, and goddesses who bestow boons and come to the sacrifice.
They are goddesses who foUow the path of the gods (7, 473). Indra armed
with the bolt dug out a Channel for them (7, 47*. 49^), and they never in-
fringe his ordinances (7, 473). They are also said to be und er the commands
of Savitr (p. 32). They are celestial. as well as flowing in Channels, and have
the sea for their goal (7,49*). It is implied that they abide where the gods
are and the seat of Mitra and Varuija is (10,30"). They are beside the sun
and the sun is with them f i, 23*7). King Varuija moves in their midst, looking
down on the truth and falsehood of men (7,493). In such passages at least,
the rain- waters must be meant (HRL99). But the Naighaijituka (5,3) enumerates
the waters among the terrestrial deities only (cp. YN. 9, 26).

Agni is oflen described as dwelling in the waters (p 92). He is said to
have entered into them (7, 49*). As mothers they produce Agni (10, 91^,
cp. 2^; AV. I, 33'), one of whose forms is called *Son of VVaters' (S24). The
waters are mothers (10,17'°; i>23*^)> who are the wives of the world, equal
in age and origin (10,30*°). They are besought to give their auspicious fluid
like loving mothers (10, 9'). They are most motherly, the producers of all
that is fixed and moves (6, 50').

The waters cleanse and purify; these goddesses bear away defilement;
the worshipper comes up out of them pure and cleansed (10, 17*°). They
are even invoked to cleanse from moral guilt, the sins of violence, cursing,
and Ijring (i, 23*'= 10,9^). They are remedial (6, 50'), bestowing remedies
and long life, for all remedies, immortality and healing are contained in them
(10, 95""7; i^ 23*9"*'). They watch over man's health in the house (HGS.
2, 4*). They dispose of boons and wealth and bestow excellent strength and
immortality (10, 9^. 30"). Their blessing and aid is often implored (7, 47*.
49*""*; 10, 9. 30"), and they are invited lo seat themselves along with the
Son of waters on the sacrificial grass at the oifering of the soma-priest (10,

The waters are several times associated with honey. As mothers they
mix their milk with honey (1,23*^). The wave of the waters is rieh in honey;
dripping with ghee it became the drink of Indra, whom it exhilerated (7,47'* 0.
Apäip napät is besought to give waters rieh in honey, by which Indra grew
to heroic strength (10, 30*). The waters are invoked to pour the wave, rieh
in honey and gladdening the gods, for Indra who released them from con-
finement; the wave which intoxicates, the draught of Indra, which is produced

86 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

in the sky (lo, 30^— ?). These passages appear to show that sometimes at
least the celestial waters were regarded as containing or identical with the
heavenly Soma, the beverage of Indra. In other passages the waters used in
preparing the terrestrial Soma seem to be meant. When they appear bearing
ghee, milk, and honey, they are accordant with the priests, bearing well-
pressed Soma for Indra (10, 30'^). Soma delights in them as a young man
in lovely maidens; he approaches them as a lover; they are maidens who
bow down before the youth (10, 3o5-^).

OST. 5, 24, note. 343. 345; BRV. 1, 260; D.vrmesteter, Ilaurvatät et Ameretät
73—4; WC. 56; Sp.AP. 153—5; ORV. 242.

C. TERRESTRIAL GODS.

S 33« Rivers. — Beside the divine Waters, deified rivers occupy a not
unimportant position in the RV. The whole of one hymn (10,75) celebrates
the Sindhu or Indus with the exception of the fifth verse, in which several
of its tributaries are invoked besides other streams, while in the sixth verse
a number of other rivers are mentioned as affluents of the Indus. Another
entire hymn (3, 33), is devoted to the invocation and praise of the sister
streams Vipäs and SutudrI.

The SarasvatI is, however, more greatly celebrated than any other river.
But though the personification in this case goes much further than in the
others, the connexion of the goddess with the river is in the RV. always
present to the minds of the poets. Sarasvati is lauded in three h)rmns of
the RV. and in numerous detached verses. SarasvatI, Sarayu, and Sindhu
are invoked as great streams (10, 649) and elsewhere (10, 755) Gangä,
Yamunä, Sarasvati, SutudrI, Paru§nl, and others known and unknown, altogether
twenty-one, are addressed. Kings and peoples living on the banks of the
Sarasvati are referred to (7, 96'; 8, 21**). SarasvatI, an iron fort, flows with
fertile flood, a stream (sindhu) surpassing all other waters in greatness; she
alone of rivers appeared pure, flowing from the mountains, from * the (celestial)
ocean (7, 95^* ^, cp. 5, 43**)- She tears away with her mighty waves the
peaks of mountains, and her immense and impetuous flood moves roaring
(6, 6i'' ®). She is distinguished by greatness among the great, she is the
most active of the active, and is implored not to withhold her milk (6, 6 1 ^^).
The poet prays that he may not be removed from her to fields which are
Strange (6, 61**). She has seven sisters and is sevenfold (6, 6i*°-"). She is
one of seven, a mother of streams^ (7» 36^). She is the best of mothers, of
rivers, and of goddesses (2,41'^). She is q2^^A pävlravl^ an epithet (applied
also to tanyatUy ^thunder*, in 10, 65*3) probably meaning *daughter of light-
ning'-^, and is said (6, 49^) to be the wife of a hero (probably Sarasvat).
She fills the terrestrial regions and the wide atmospheric Space and occupies
three abodes (6,6i"**'^). Sheis invoked to descend from the sky, from the great
mountain, to the sacrifice (5, 43")- The last three passages (cp. also 7,95*)
seem to allude to the notion of a celestial origin, like that of Gangä in post-
Vedic mythology. She is once called asuryä or divine (7,96*). The goddess
comes to the sacrifice on the same chariot as the Fathers and seats herseif
on the sacrificial grass (10, 17^*9). Even here she must be conceived as the
river goddess, for in the foUowing two verses the waters are invoked to cleanse
from defilement

She herseif is a purifier (i, 3'°). She is besought to come *swelling with
streams' (6,52^) and, along with the waters, the bestowers of wealth, progeny.

Terrestrial Gods. 33. SarasvatI. 87

and immortality, to grant vitality (10,30"). She beste ws vitality and offspring
(2,41^7) and is associated with deities who assist procreation (10, 184*). She
is also Said to have given a son named Divodäsa to Vadhryasva (6, 6i')-
Her unfailing breast (cp. AB. 4, i) yields riches of every kind (i, 164^9). She
is often said to bestow wealth, plenty, and nourishment (7, 95*; 8, 21*7.
9, 67^; 10, 17^*9), and several times receives the epithet subhaga^ *bountifur
(i, 893; 7, 95*- ^; 8, 21 '7). As a mother {ambä) she grants reputation to the
unrenowned (2, 41*^). She stimulates, directs, and prospers the devotions of
her worshippers (i, 3^^- "; 2, 3^; 6, 61*). She is invoked along with the
goddesses of prayer (7, 37"; 10, 65'^). She destroys the revilers of the gods,
is terrible, and a Vrtra-slayer (6, 61^- O» ß^t to her worshippers she affords
protection and conquers their enemies (7, 95^- 5j 2, 30^; 6, 49^).

SarasvatI is often invoked with other deities. Besides Pü$an and Indra,
she is particularly associated with the Maruts (3, 54*^; 7, 95. 39^. 403) and is
said to be accompanied by them (2, 30*) or to have them as her friends^
(7, 96 0. She is also once in the RV. connected with the Asvins. When the
latter aided Indra, SarasvatI is said to have refreshed him (10, 1315). With
reference to the same myth the VS. (19, 12) states that when the gods cele-
brated a healing sacriüce, the Asvins as physicians and SarasvatI through
Speech (väcä) communicated vigour to Indra 5. The VS. even speaks of
SarasvatI as the wife of the Asvins (19, 94). SarasvatI is several times asso-
ciated in the eighth and ninth verses of the äpri and äpra hymns with the
sacrificial goddesses Icjä and BhäratI (with whom she forms a triad), and
sometimes also with Mahl and Hoträ. This association may have been due
to the sacred character of the river. Allusion is made to Agni being kindled
for sacrifice on the banks of the SarasvatI and Dr§advatl (3, 23*)^; and the
AB. (2, 19) refers to a sacrifice performed by R§is on the SarasvatI. Hence
on the banks of the SarasvatI there were perhaps places of worship of the
Bharatas j in that case, BhäratI, the personiüed offering of the Bharatas, would
naturally find a fixed place along with SarasvatI in the Äprl litany which
accompanied the animal sacrifice 7.

Though there is nothing to show distinctly (cp. 7, 35") that SarasvatI is
cver anything more^ in the RV. than a river goddess, we find her identified
in the Brähma^as (SB. 3, 9, i7; AB. 3, i***), with Väc, Speech, and in post-
Vedic mythology she has become goddess of eloquence and wisdom^ invoked
as a muse and regarded as the wife of Brahma^. The transition from the
older to the later conception is perhaps to be found in passages like VS.
19, 12 quoted above.

There has been much controversy as to the identity of the stream
of which the goddess SarasvatI is a personification. The name is identical
with that of the Avestan river Haraqaiti in Afghanistan 9, and it may
have been the latter river which was first lauded as the SarasvatI***. But
Roth (PW.), Grassmann (GW.), Ludwig", and Zimmer (AIL. 10) are of
opinion, that in the RV. SarasvatI usually and originally meant a mighty
stream, probably the Indus (SarasvatI being the sacred and Sindhu the secular
name), but that it occasionally designates the small stream in Madhyadesa,
to which both its name and its sacred character were in later times trans-
ferred. Max Müller'* believes it to be identical with this small river
SarasvatI, which with the Dr§advatl formed the boundaries of the sacred
region Brahmävarta and which loses itself in the sands of the desert, but
in Vedic times reached the sea. According to Oldham*^ a survey of
ancient river;beds affords evidence that the SarasvatI was originally a tribu-
tary of the SutudrI (the modern Sutlej)'*, and that when the latter left its

88 IIL Reugion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

old bed and joined the Vipäs, the Sarasvati continued to flow in the old
bed of the Sutudri.

Sarasvati has a male correlative named Sarasvat^ who after the praises
of the river goddess have been sung in three verses of one h)rmn (7, 96)^
is invoked in the next three by worshippers desiring wives and oflfepring,
protection and plenty. Here his fertilizing waters and even his exuberant
breast are referred to. In another passage (i, 1645*), Sarasvat, here appar-
ently a name of the bird Agni^^^ is spoken of as refreshing with rain. Roth
(PW.) regards him as a guardian of the celestial waters who bestows fertility.
Hillebrandt'^ identifies Sarasvat with Apäm napät (=» Soma, the moon)
and Hardy*7 expresses a similar view.

X Cp. BRV. I, 326. — 2 According to Bergaigne (ibid.) *having the (celestial)
ocean for her mother', owing to the accent. — 3 Roth, Nir. i65f. ; PW. ; BRV. I, 327.

— 4 Cp. Marudv|"ddha as the name of a river (10, 755). — 5 Cp. OB. 12, 7, 3*;
OST. 5, 94 note. — 6 Cp. Mänavadharmasästra II, 17?.; Oldenberg, Buddha 413 f»

— 7 ORV. 243. — 8 Cp. ZDMG. I, 84; 27, 705. — 9 Sp.AP. 105 f. — «0HRI.31.
»^ Nachrichten des RV. und AV. über Geographie etc., Prag 1875—6, p. 13; cp,
PVS. 2, 86. — " Vedic Hymns SBE, 32, 60. — 13 JRAS. 25, 49—76. — M OST..
2. 345- — ^5 BRV. I, 144; 2, 47- — *^ HVM. i, 380—2. — 17 HVBP. 42—3.

OST. 5, 337—43; BRV. 1, 325—8; BoLLENSEN, ZDMG. 41, 499; HVM. u
382—3 (celestial Sarasvati ■= milky way); HVBP. 98; ORV. 243.

S 34. PrthivT. — The Earth, PfthivI, being, as has been sho\Mi (p. 22)^
generally celebrated conjointiy with Dyaus, is lauded alone in only one short
hymn of three stanzas in the RV. (5, 84) and in a long and beautiful one
in the AV. (12, i). The personification is but slight, the attributes of the
goddess being chiefly those of the physical earth. According to the RV. she
abounds in heights, bears the bürden of the mountains, and Supports the
trees of the forest in the ground {ksmä), She quickens the soil, for she
scatters rain, and the showers of heaven are shed from the lightning of her
cloud. She is great (maAt), firm {drlhd) and shining {arjum),

The meaning of Prthivi is *the broad one'; and a poet of the RV. (2, 15*)
alludes to the etymology when he says that Indra upheld the earth (J>rthivt)
and spread it out {paprathat). The TS. (7, i, 5) and TB. (i, i, 3^ in de-
scribing the origin of the earth, expressly derive the name of Pfthivi from
the root prath^ to extend, because she is extended.

Pfthivi is spoken of as *kindly Mother Earth', to whom the dead man in
a funeral hymn (10, i8*°), is exhorted to go. When mentioned wirb Dyaus»
PrthivT frequently receives the epithet of *mother' (cp. SS n- 44)-

Bruce, JRAS. 1862, p. 321; OST. 5, 21-2; BRV. i, 4—5; BDA. 48; BoL»
LENSEN, ZDMG. 41» 494—5; HVBP. 25—6; Thurneysen, IF. 4, 84.

S 35. Agni. — The chief terrestrial deity is Agni, being naturally of
primary importance as the personification of the sacrificial fire, which is the
centre of the ritual poetry of the Veda. Next to Indra he is the most
prominent of the Vedic gods. He is celebrated in at least 200 hymns of
the RV., and in several besides he is invoked conjointiy with other deities..

As his name is also the regulär designation of fire, the anthropomorphism
of his physical appearance is only rudimentary, his bodily parts having a
clear reference to the phenomena of terrestrial fire mainly in its sacrificial
aspect. He is butter-backed (5,4^&c.), butter-faced (3, i**&c.) and beautiful-
tongued (i, 147). He is butter-haired (8, 49*), flame-haired (i, 45^ &c.) or
tawny-haired (3, 2*3), and has a tawny beard (5,7^). He has sharp (8, 49^&c.>
or buming jaws (i, 58^ &c.), golden (5, 2^) or shining teeth (5, 7^ and iron
grinders (10, 87'). He is once described as footless and headless (4, i")»

Terrestrial Gods. 34. PrthivT. 35. Agni. 89

but ekewhere he is said to have a burning head (7, 3') or three heads and
seven rays (i, 146'; 2, 53). He faces in all directions (2, 3" &c.). His tongue
is often mentioned (8, 6i"* &c.). He is also said to have three tongue»
(3, 2o*) or seven (VS. 17, 79), his steeds also being seven-tongued (3, 6').
A name was later given to each of these seven tongues^ Butter is Agni's
eye (3, 26^; he is four-eyed (i, 31*^, thousand-eyed (i, 79"), and thousand-
homed (6, i*). In his hand he bears many gifts for men (i, 72"). Like
Indra, he has the epithet sahasra-muska (8, 19^'). He is called an archer
(4, 4*) or is compared with an archer (i, 70*')» ^^o sharpens his flame like
a blade of iron (6, 38).

He is often likened to various animals, in most cases doubtless with a
view to indicating his Functions rather than representing his personal form.
He is frequently called a bull (i, 588 &c.). He is a strong bull with a mighty
neck (5, 2"). As such he bellows (10, 8^), abounds in seed (4, 5 5), and i»
provided with homs (5, i*; 6, 16^), which he sharpens (8, 49*'^), which he
shakes^ and which make him difficult to seize (i, 140^). He is many times
spoken of or alluded to when bom as a calf (patsa). He is also often com-
pared with (i, 58* &c.) or directly called a steed (i, 149^; 6, 12^)'. The
tail which he agitates like a horse (2, 4*) is doubtless his flame. When puri-
fied by sacrificers he is compared with a groomed horse (i, 6o5 &c.). Sacri-
ficers lead (3, 2>), excite, and set him in motion like a horse (7, 7*&c.)-
He is the horse they seek to tame and direct (2, 5'; 3, 27^). He is kindled
like a horse that brings the gods (3, 27'*). He is attached to the pole at
places of sacrifice (2, 2") or to the pole of the rite (i, 143^). He is yoked
in Order to waft the sacrifice to the gods (10, 51 7). He is also compared
with (3, 26^) or directly called a neighing steed (i, 36*). He is further likened
to a horse as conquering (8,91") or causing to escape from dangers (4, 2**).
Agni is, moreover, like a bird. He is the eagle of the sky (7, 15*) and a
divine bird (i, 1645^). As dwelling in the waters he resembles the aquatic
bird harfisa (i, 659). He takes possession of the wood as a bird perches on
a tree (i, 66^; 6, 3^; 10, 91*). He is winged (i, 58*; 2, 2*), his course \%
a flight (6, 3^ 4^ &c.), and he darts with rapid flight to the gods (10, 6*)*
He is once described as a raging serpent (i, 790»

Agni is besides frequently compared with inanimate objects. Like the
sun, he resembles gold (2, 2*; 7, 3*). When he Stretches out his tongue
(6| 3*) he is like a hatchet, to which he is elsewhere also several times com-
pared (i, 1273 &c.). He resembles (i, 141^ &c.) or is directly called a car
(3, 11^), as bringing riches (i, 58^; 3, 155) or as being formidable in battle
(i, 6(fi\ He seems to be thought of as a car directed by others, for he i»
conducted to the sacrifice like a laden car (10,1763). He is even compared
to wealth (i, s8^ 60') or to wealth acquired by inheritance (i, 73*).

Wood (2, 7^) or ghee (7, 3*) is his food, melted butter is his beverage
(2, 7^; 10, 69*). He is nourished by ghee poured into his mouth (3, 21*;
5, ii3&c.) and is an eater of oil (AV. i,7*)- He eats and chews the forest»
with Sharp tooth (1,1 43^) or eats and blackens them with his tongue (6,60";
10» 79')« He is all-devouring (8, 44**). He is nourished three times a day
(4, 12', cp. I, 140*; 7, II 3). He is sometimes spoken of as the mouth and the
tongue by which the gods eat the sacrifice (2,i*3» «4); and his flames are spoon»
with which he besprinkles or honours the gods (i, 76^; 10, 6*). But he is
more frequently asked to eat the offerings himself (3, 2i""*. 28'"*). With
uprighty god-ward form he strives after the ghee that is offered (i, 127')»
Though the regulär offering to him is fuel or buttert, he is sometimes, and
then nearly always with other gods, invited to drink the Soma juice (1,14***»

90 HL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. ü. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

199. 21*- 3; 2, 36*). In one hymn he is called somagopä^ 'guardian ofSoma'
(10, 455- *^). He is invited to come to the sacrifice (10, 98^) and is often
spoken of as sitting down on the sacrificial grass along with the gods (3, 14*;
5, II». 265; 7, II», cp. 433).

Agni's brightness is naturally much dwelt upon. He is of brilliant lustre
(2, IG» &c.), brilliant-flamed (6, lo^), bright-flamed (7, 15*° &c.), clear-flamed
(8, 43^0, and bright-coloured (i, 140*; 5, 23). He has a golden form (4, 3'
IG, 2o9). He shines like the sun (i, 149^; 7, 3^). His lustre is like the rays
of the dawn and the sun and like the lightnings of the rain-cloud (ig, 91 ♦•5).
He shines even at night (5, 7*). Like the sun he dispels the darkness with
his rays (8, 43^*). He is a destroyer of darkness and sees through the gloom
of the night (i, 94^; 7, 9^). Kindled he opens the gates of darkness (3, 5*).
The earth enveloped in darkness and the sky become visible when Agni is
bom (ig, 88»). For he is kindled at dawn and is the only individual god
who is described as Vaking at dawn', usarbudh (though the gods collectively
sometimes receive this epithet).

On the other hand, Agni's course, path, or track, and his fellies are
black (i, I4i7; 2, 4^- 7; 6, 6*; 7, 8»; 8, 23*9), and his steeds make black
furrows (1,140^). Driven by the wind he rushes through the wood (1,58*- 5),
invades the forests and shears the hairs of the earth (i, 65*), shaving the
earth as a barber a beard (10, 142*).

His flames are like the roaring waves of the sea (i, 44*'). His sound
is like the Wind or the thunder of Heaven (5, 25^; 7, 3^). He roars like
the thundering Dyaus (10,45*), or Paijanya (8, 91 5), or a lion (3,2'*). He
bellows like a bull when he invades the forest trees, and the birds are terri-
fied at the noise when his grass-devouring sparks arise (i, 94'**' **). He
cannot be checked any more than the sound of the Maruts, an army let
loose, or the bolt of heaven (i, 1435).

Agni flames upwards (6,15»). Driven by the wind his flames shoot into
the sky (8, 43*). His smoke wavers and his flame cannot be seized (8,23').
His red smoke rises up to heaven (7, 3^ 16 3). His smoke spreads in the
sky (6, 2^). Like the erector of a post {fnetr), he Supports the sky with his
smoke (4, 6»). He touches the ridge of heaven with his crest and mingles
with the rays of the sun (7, 2'). He encompasses heaven with his tongue
(8, 61*^) and goes to the flood of heaven, to the waters in the bright space
above and below the sun (3, 222). The Agni of Divodäsa spread sdong
mother earth towards the gods and stood on the ridge of the sky (8, 92»).
'Smoke-bannered' {dhümaketu) is a frequent epithet exclusively connected
with Agni.

Agni is borne on an lightning car (3, 14'), on a car that is luminous
(i, 14G*), bright (i, 141"), shining (5, i"), brilliant (ig, i^), golden (4, i*;
or beautiful (4, 2*). It is drawn by two or more horses^, which are butter-
backed (i, 14^), ruddy (rohita^ arusd)^ tawny and ruddy (7, 42'), beautiful
(4,2»), omniform (10,70-), active (2, 4^), wind-impelled (i, 94'°), mind-yoked
(i, 14^). He yokes them to summon the gods (i, 14"; 3, 6^; 8, 64'). For
he is a charioteer (i, 25^ &c.) of the sacrifice (ig, 92' &c.). With his steeds
he brings the gods on his car (3, ö''). He comes seated on the same car as
the gods (3, 4"; 7, II') or in advance of them (ig, 70»). He brings Varuria
to the offiering, Indra from the sky, the Maruts from the air (ig, 70").

According to the ordinary view of the Vedic poets, Agni's father is
Dyaus, who generated him (ig, 45^). He is the child {siiu) of Dyaus (4,15^;
6,49») and is said to have been bom from the belly of the AsuraS (3,29*).
He is often called the son of Dyaus and PfthivI (3, 2». 3". 25'; ig, i». 2?.

Terrestrial Gods. 35. Agni. 91

140*). He is also spoken of as the offspring of Tva§tr and the Waters, as
well as of Heaven and Earth (10, 2^. 469), or even simply of Tva§tr (1,95^) or
of the Waters (10, 91^; AV. i, 33'). It is otherwise incidentally said that the
Dawns generated Agni as well as the Sun and Sacrifice (7, 78^) or Indra-
Visiju generated Agni besides Sun and Dawn (7, 99*), or Indra generated
Agni between two stones (2, i23, cp. i'). Agni is also described as the son
of IIa (3, 293) or as the embryo of the rite (6, 48s). The gods, it is some-
times said, generated him (6, 7'; 8, 91 '0» a-s a light for the Aryan (i, 59*),
or simply fashioned him for man (10,46'') or placed him among men (1,36*°;
2,4^; 6,16'; 8,73^). At the same time Agni is the father of the gods (1,69',
cp. p. 1 2). The different points of view which give rise to these seemingly
contradictory Statements, are sufficiently clear.

Owing to his slightly developed anthropomorphism, the myths of Agni have
little to say about his deeds, being, outside his main activity as sacrificial
fire, chiefly concerned with his various births, forms, and abodes.

The divergent accounts given of the births of Agni are not inconsistent,
because they refer to different places of origin. His daily terrestrial birth by
friction from the two aratüs or firesticks^ is often referred to (3,29'. 23'* 3;
7, i'; 10, 79). In this connexion they are his parents, the upper being the
male and the lower the female (3, 29^). Or they are his mothers, for he is
said to have two mothers (i, 31^)'. The two sticks produce him as a new-
bom infant, who is hard to catch (5, 9^*). From the dry (wood) the god
is born living (i, 68^). The child as soon as born devours the parents (10,
79*). He is born of a mother who cannot suckle him (10, 11 5')- With
reference to this production by friction, men are said to have generated him
(i, 6o3; 4, I*; 7, i'), the ten maidens® that produce him (i, 95*) being the
ten üngers (cp. 3, 23') employed in twirling the upright drill, which is the
Upper aranu Framantha, the name of this fire-drill, occuring for the first
time in a late metrical Smrti work^, the Karmapradlpa (i,75)»°has, owing to
a superficial resemblance, been connected with npojitjÖsi;". The latter word
has, however, every appearance of being a purely Greek formation, while the
Indian verb math^ to twirl, is found compounded only with nis^ never with
pra, to express the act of producing fire by friction.

The powerful friction necessary to produce fire is probably the reason
why Agni is frequently called the *son {sünUj putra^ once yuvan) of strength'
{sahasaJjLy^. This explanation is supported by a passage of the RV. stating
that Agni *rubbed with strength {sahasa) is produced {/dyate) by men on the
surface of the earth' (6,485). According to a later text, the kindling of Agni
by friction must not take place before sunrise (MS. i, 6*°). Being produced
every moming for the sacrifice Agni appropriately receives the very frequent
epithet, exclusively connected with him, of 'youngest* {yavisthay yavisthya), His
new büths are opposed to his old (3, i^**). Having grown old he is born
again as a youth (2, 4^). In this sense, he does not grow old (i, 128*), his
new light being like his old (6, 16"). Like some other gods, Agni is also
spoken of simply as 'young*. At the same time he is old. There is no sacri-
ficer older than Agni (5, 3^), for he conducted the first sacrifice (3, 15^. He
shone forth after former dawns (1,44*°), and the part played by Agni in the
sacrifices of ancestors is often referred to (8, 43*3 &c.). He is thus sometimes
in the same passage paradoxically called both *ancient* and Very young'

<io, 4^- %

More generally Agni is spoken of as born in wood (6, 3'; 10, 79^), as
the embryo of plants (2, i^*; 3, i*3) or as distributed in plants (10, i*). He
ii, also said to have entered into all plants or to strive after them (8, 439).

92 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythologv.

When he is called Ihe embryo of trees (i, 70*) or of trees as well as plants
(2, I*), there may be a side-glance at the fire produced in forests by the
friction of the boughs of trees.

The terrestrial existence of Agni is further indicated by his being called
Ihe *navel of the earth' (i, 59*). This expression appears, in the many
passages in which it occurs, to allude to the receptacle of the sacrificial Agni
on the excavated altar or vedi^^. In the Vedic ritual näbhi or *naver is the
technical term designating the hollow in the uttarä vedi^ in which Agni is
deposited^*. The earlier use of the term probably suggested the figure, that
the gods made Agni the 'naveP or centre of immortality (3, 17-»). The only
two occurrences in the RV. of the atlribute vedisad^ 'sitting on the altar*,
refer to Agni.

Agni's origin in the aerial waters is often referred to. The 'Son of
waters' has, as has been shown (S 24), become a distinct deity. Agni is also
the *embryo' {garbhd) of the waters (3, i*'- *^); he is kindled in the waters
(10, 45^; AV. 13, i5*>); he is a bull who has grown in the lap of the waters
(10, 80; he is ocean-girt (8, 91 5). He is also said to descend from the dhanu
or cloud-island (i, 144^; 10, 4*) and to be the shining thunder dwelling in
the bright space (6, 6^. In such passages the lightning form of Agni must
be meant Some of the later hymns of the RV. (10, 51 — 3. 124)^5 teil a
legend of Agni hiding in the waters and plants and being found by the gods.
This legend is also often related in the Brähmai^as *^. In the AV. the Agais
in the waters are distinguished from those that go on the path of lightning
er from the celestial Agni with the lightning (AV. 3, 21'* 7; 8, i") and are
Said to have dwelt on earth (AV. 12, i-^'). In one passage of the RV. also
it is stated that Agni rests in all streams (8, 39**, cp. Ap. SS. 5, 2*); and in
tfie later ritual texts Agni in the waters is invoked in connexion with ponds
and water-vessels. Thus even in the oldest Vedic period, the waters in which
Agni is latent, though not those from which he is produced, may in various
passages have been regarded as terrestrial. Oldenberg*' thinks that the
terrestrial waters are chiefly meant in this connexion and doubts whether the
lightning Agni is intended even in the first hymn of the third book **. In any
case, the notion of Agni in the waters is prominent throughout the Vedas.
Water is Agni's home, as heaven is that of the sun (5, 85*: cp. AV. 13,1-'";
'9> 33')- The waters are also often mentioned along with the plants or wood
as his abode'9 (2, i* &c.).

Agni's origin in heaven is moreover frequently spoken of. He is bom
in the highest heavens (i, 143'; 6, 8^. He existed potentially though not
actually in the highest heavens (10,5'), and was brought from heaven, from
afar by Mätarisvan (S 25). In such passages Agni doubtless represents lightm'ng;
for lightning is regarded as coming from heaven as well as from the waters
XAV. 3, 2V' T\ 8, I**), and in a Brähmana passage (AB. 7, 7^ it is spoktn
of as both celestial {divycL) and aqueous {apsumat\ When lightning is mentioned
by its proper name vidyut (which occurs hardly 30 times in the RV.) alorg
with Agni, it is commonly compared with and thereby distinguished froui
him*°, doubtless as a concrete phenomenon in contrast with the god. The
myth, too, of the descent of fire from heaven to earth, due undoubtedly to
the actual Observation of conflagrations caused by the stroke of lightning^
ünplies the identity of the celestial Agni and lightning. The heavenly origin
of Agni is ftirther implied in the fact that the acquisition of fire by man is
regarded as a gift of the gods as well as a production of Mätarisvan; and
Agni's frequent epithet ot *guest (atitht) of men' may allude to the same
notion (5, i^&c).

Terrestrial Gods. 35. Agni. 93

In other passages, agviin, Agni is to be identified with the sun; for the
conception of the sun as a form ofAgni, is an undoubted Vedic belief. Thus
Agni is the light of heaven in the bright sky, waking at dawn, the head of
heaven (3,2**). He was born on the other side of the air and sees all things
(10, 187*- 5), He is born as the sun rising in the moming (10, 88^) *\ The
AB. (8, 28^- *-J) remarks that the sun when setting enters into Agni and is
produced from him. The same identiücatlon is probably alluded to in passages
stating that Agni unites with the light or the rays of the sun (5, 37*; 7, 2*),
that when men light Agni on earth, the celestials light him (6, 23), or that
Agni shines in heaven (3, 27"; 8, 44^^). Sometimes, however, it is diflicult
to decide whether lightning or the sun is intended. The solar aspect of
Agni's nature is not often mentioned, the sun being too individual a pheno-
menon to be generally conceived as a form of fire. Agni is usually tiiought
of in his terrestrial form, being compared rather than identified with the sun.
Thus the poet says that the minds of the godly are turned to Agni as eyes
towards the sun (5, i*). At the same time there is frequently a side-glance
at Agni*s other forms, it being therefore in many cases doubtful which of his
aspects is intended.

Owing to the diverse births above described, Agni is often regarded as
having a triple character^', which in many passages is expressly referred to
with some form of the numeral 'three'. This earliest Indian trinity is important,
for on it is based much of the mystical speculation of the Vedic age*-J.
Agni's births are three or tlireefold (i, 95^; 4, i'). The gods made him
threefold (10, SS^*^). He is threefold light (3, 26'), has three heads (1,146'),
three tongues, three bodies, three stations (3, 20*). The epithet trisadhastha^
'having three stations', is predominantly connected with Agni**, and the only
passage in which the word tripastya^ *having three dwellings', occurs (8, 39®), it
is an attribute of Agni. The triad is not always understood in exactly the same
way or mentioned in the same order. Thus one poet says: Trom heaven
first Agni was born, the second time from us (= men), thirdly in the waters
(10, 45*, cp. vv. *• 3). The Order of Agni's abodes is also heaven, earth,
waters in other passages (8, 44*^; 10, 27. 46^), while one verse (i, 95^) has
the Variation: ocean, heaven, waters. Sometimes the terrestrial Agni comes
first: 'He was first bom in houses, at the base of great heaven, in the womb
of this atmosphere' (4, i'*); *the immortals kindled three fiames of Agni: of
these they placed one with man, for use, and two went to the sister-world'
(3, 2'^). A Sütra passage (Äp. SS. 5, 16*) distinguishes a terrestrial Agni in
animals, an aerial one in the waters, and a celestial one in the sun. Occa-
sionally the terrestrial Agni comes third. He is one of three brothers of
whom 'the middlemost brother is lightning {ainalj) and the third is butter-
backed' (1,164', cp. 141*). *Agni glows from the sky, to god Agni belongs the
broad air, men kindle Agni, bearer of oblations, lover of ghee' (A V. 1 2, i *°, cp*

13,3"; 18,4").

The third form of Agni is once spoken of as the highest (10, i^; cp.

5> 3^i i> 72** *). Yäska (Nir. 7, 28) mentions that his predecessor Säkapüiji

regarded the threefold existence of Agni referred to in 10, 88'° as being in

earth^ air, and heaven, a certain Brähmana considering Agni's third mani-

festation, which is in heaven, to be the sun (cp. Nir. 12, 19). This threefold

nature of Agni, so clearly recognised in the RV., was probably the prototype

not only of the posterior triad of Sun, Wind, Fire (8, i8'9), which is spoken

of as distributed in the three worlds (10, 158'; AV. 4, 39*) and is implied

in another verse (i, 164'*^), but also of the triad of Sun, Indra, Fire, which

though not Rigvedic is still ancient Here Väta or Väyu and Indra have

94 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

taken the place of Agni Vaidyuta, the lightning Agni, as the Brähmanas and
commentators call him. This Substitution is perhaps partly due to the transient
nature of lightning and partly to the lack of any name other than Agni for
the personified lightning, which could therefore be expressed only by epithets
or allusions. The triad of Agnis niay have suggested and would explain the
division of the sacrificial fire into the three sacrificial fires'5 which in the
Vedic ritual are kept distinct from the domestic fire** and which form aa
essential feature of the cult in the Brähmanas ^7. The ritual may have then
reacted on the myth. At any rate, later Hindu literature took the three fires
as representative of the three forms of Agni known to the RV.'^ The three
sacrificial fires may go back to the time of the RV., possibly even to an
anterior period*^. Thus Agni is besought to bring the gods and to seat
himself in the three receptacles {yonisu: 2, 36S cp. 5, 11*; 10, 1059).

Doubtless on the basis of the twofold division of the Universe into heaven
and earth, Agni is in several passages said to have two births, being the
only Single god spoken of as dvijanman (i, 60*. 140*. 149^- O- An upper
and a lower birth are mentioned (2, 9^), his abode in lower and upper spheres
is referred to (i, 128^), and the Opposition is generally between terrestrial
and celestial fire (3, 54'; 10,45*°), though in one passage at least (8, 43''*^>
the contrast is between his birth in heaven and in the waters. Agni is sum-
moned from his supreme abode (8, 1 1 7) and comes thence to the lower ones
(8,64'*^). When he is brought from the highest father he rises into the plants
(i, 141*). Here Agni is conceived as Coming down in rain and then entering
the plants, out of which he is again produced. The fires, like water, after
descending to earth again rise to heaven (i, 1645'). On this distinction of
two forms of fire are based such prayers as that Agni should sacrifice to
himself (10, 7^), that he should bring Agni (7,39^» or that he should descend
with the gods to the sacrifice (3, 69 &c.). AUied to this distinction is the
notion that Agni was kindled by the gods as contrasted with men^° (6, 2 3).
The latter notion is due to the assumption that celestial fires must be kindled
by some one and gods must sacrifice like men (cp. AB. 2, 34).

From another point of view, Agni is said to have many births (10, 5*).
This multiplicity no doubt primarily refers to the numerous fires kindled on
terrestrial altars. For Agni is very frequently said to abide in every family,
house, or abode (4, 6^ 7*' ^; 5, i^. 6^ Are). He is produced in many places
(3, 54*9) and has many bodies (10, 98'°). Scattered in many places, he is
one and the same king (3, 55^). Kindled in many places, he is but one
(Väl. 10*). Other fires are attached to him as branches to a tree (8, i9^->).
Thus he comes to be invoked with the Agnis (7, 3*; 8, i89. 49»; 10, 141^)
or all the Agnis (i, 26*°; 6, 12^).

The accounts given of Agni's abodes or birthplaces sometimes involve
cross divisions. Thus his brilliance in heaven, earth, air, waters, and plants
is referred to (3, 22'') or he is said to be born from the heavens, the waters,
stone, woods, and plants (2, i*). Longer enumeratipns of a similar kind
occasionally occur elsewhere (AV. 3,21; 1 2, i '9; Äp. SS. 5, 1 6*). When Agni
is said (i, 70*, cp. 6, 48^) to dwell in a rock {adrau) the reference is probably
to the lightning latent in the cloud (cp. p. 10). The same is probably the
case when he is said (2, i^) to be produced from a stone {a^manaiji) or to
have been generated by Indra between two stones (2, 12^); but here there
may lurk an allusion to the production of fire from flint Animal heat is of
course meant when Agni is said to be in the heart of man (10, 5*), or in
beasts, horses, birds, bipeds and quadrupeds (AV. 3, 21'; 12, i'9. 2^^] TS.
4, 6, i^). As being the spark of vitality and so widely diffused in nature.

Terrestrial Gods. 35. Agni. 95

Agni naturally comes to be described as the germ {garhha) of what is
stationary or moves and of all that exists (i, 7o3; AV. 5, 257).

The triple nature of Agni gave rise to the notion of three brothers
(i, 164'); while the multiplicity of sacrificial fires may have suggested the
idea of Agni's eider brothers who are spoken of in the plural (10, 51*). The
number of these is later stated to be three (TS. 2, 6, 6^. The same are
probably meant by the four Hotys of the gods, of whom the first three died
(Käth. 25, 7)^^ Varuna is once spoken of as Agni's brother (4, i^J. Else-
where Indra is said to be his twin brother (6,59')3^ Indra is indeed oftener
associated with Agni than with any other god and is, with two slight exceptions,
the only god with whom Agni forras a dual divinity (S 44). It is doubtless
owing to this association that Agni is described as bursting the rock with
heat (8, 46'^) and vanquishing the unbelieving Paijis (7, 6-*). In one entire
hymn (i, 93) Agni is also coupled with Soma (8 44).

Agni is occasionally identified with other gods, especially with Varupa
and Mitra33 (2, i^; 3, 5*; 7, i23). He is Varuna when he goes to the sacri-
fice (10, 85). He is Varuna when he is born and Mitra when he is kindled
(5, 3'). Agni in the evening becomes Varuria, rising in the morning he be-
comes Mitra; becoming Savitr he traverses the air, becoming Indra he illumines
the sky in the midst (AV. 13, 3*3). In one passage of the RV. (2, i3-7) he
is successively identified with about a dozen gods besides five goddesses. He
assumes various divine forms (3, 38^) and has many names (3, 20 3). In him
are comprehended all the gods (5, 3'), whom he surrounds as a felly the
spokes (5, 13^).

What is probably the oldest function of fire in regard to its cult, that
of buming and dispelling evil spirits and hostile magic, still survives in the
Veda, Agni drives away the goblins with his light (3, 1 5 * &c.) 34 and receives
the epithel raksokan, *goblin-slayer' (10, 87*). When kindled he consumes
with iron teeth and scorches with heat the sorcerers as well as the goblins
Cid, 87** 5' '<), protecting the sacrifice with keen glance (ib. 9). He knows
the races of the sorcerers and destroys them (AV. 1,8*). Though this function
of dispelling terrestrial demons is shared with Agni by Indra (as well as by
Bfhaspati, the Asvins, and especially Soma), it must primarily have belonged
to Agni alone, just as, conversely, that of slaying Asuras or aerial demons is
transferred to Agni (7, 13') though properly peculiar to Indra. This is bome
out by the fact that Agni is undoubtedly more prominent as a goblin-slayer
than Indra, both in the hymns and in the ritual35.

Agni is more closely connected with human life than any other god.
His association with the dwellings of men is peculiarly intimate. He is the
only god to whom the frequent epithet grhapati^ lord of the house', is
applied He dwells in every abode (7,15^), never leaving his home (8,49*9).
The attribute *domestic' {damünas) is generally connected with him (i,6o*&c.).
This household deity probably represents an old order of ideas; for in the
later elaborate ritual of the three sacrificial fires, the one from which the
other two (the ähavamya or eastem and the daksina or southern) were taken,
is called the gärhapatya or that which belongs to grhapati. In this connexion
it is interesting to observe that even as early as Rigvedic times there are
traces of the sacrificial fire having been transported3^. For Agni is led round
(4» 9^- i5*)i strides round the offerings (4, 153) or goes round the sacrifice
three times (4, 6*' 5. i^^)\ and as soon as he is released from his parents,
he is led to the east and again to the west (i, 31^).

He is fiirther constantly designated a 'guest* {atiihi) in human abodes.
He is a guest in every house (10,91*), the first guest of settlers (S,8*). For

96 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

he is an immortal (a terra much more commonly applied to Agni than to
any other god), who has taken up his abode among morlals (8, 60*). He
has been established or settled among human habitations (3, 5^; 4, 6*). It is
the domestic Agni who caused mortals to settle (3, i^^). He is a leader
(3, 2 5) and a protector of settlers (i, 96*), and the epithet vUpati^ *lord of
settlers' is mainly connected with him.

Thus Agni comes to be called the nearest kinsman of man (7, 15*;
8, 49'°), or simply a kinsman (i, 26^ &c.) or a friend (i, 75* &c.). But he
is oftenest described as a father (6, is &c.), sometimes also as a brother
(S, 43'^; 10, 7^ &c.), and even as a son (2, i^) or mother (6, i5), of his
worshippers. Such terms seem to point to an older Order of things, when
Agni was less sacrificial and, as the centre of domestic life, produced an
intimaie relation such as is not easily found in the worship of other gods^?.

The continuity of Agni's presence in the house would naturally connect
him more closely than any other god with the past Hence the ancestral
friendship of Agni with his worshipper (i, 71*°) is probably more typical of
him than of any other deity. He is the god whom the forefathers kindled,
to whom they prayed. Thus mention is made of an Agni of Bharata (2,7*;
7,8^&c.), ofVadhryasva (10,69*), of Devaväta (3,233), of Divodäsa (8,92'),
and of Trasadasyu (8, 193*) 38. The names of ancestors sometimes identified
with Agni are in part those of families to which composers of the RV. be-
longed. Some of these, like Vasi§tha, seem to have had a historical origin,
whüe others, like Angiras (S 54) and Bhrgu (S 51), are probably mythical

(cp. S 58)-

Agni is further brought into close relations with the daily life of man
in the sacrifice. He is, however, not merely a passive receiver of the oflfering,
but is an intermediary between heaven and earth. He transmits the oblation
to the gods, who do not get exhilarated without him (7,11*). On the other
hand, he brings the gods (3, 14^) to the sacrifice as well as takes it to them
(7, II 5). He seats them on the strewn grass (i, 31*^; 8, 44^), to eat the
offering (5, i"&c.). He goes on the paths leading both to the gods (10,98")
and to earth (8, 7"), knowing these paths (6, 16 3). He is therefore constantly
and characteristically called a messenger {dütd)^ who knows the paths and
conveys the sacrifice (i, 72^) or visits all abodes (4, i^); who flies swiftly
(10, 6*), moving between heaven and earth (4, 7^ 8*; 10, 4'), or the two
races, gods and men (4, 2 '-3); who has been appointed by the gods (5,8^&c.)
and by men (10, 46'°), to be an oblation-bearer {havya-vah or -vähana,
terms always connected with Agni) and to announce the hymn of the wor-
shipper (i, 27*) or to bring the gods to the place of sacrifice (4, 8*). He is
the messenger of the gods (6, 15^) and of Vivasvat (p. 42); but as knowing
the innermost recesses of heaven, as conveying the sacrifice, and bringing
the gods (4, 7^ 8') he is mainly to be considered the messenger of men.
A later text states that Agni is the messenger of the gods, and Kävya Usanas
or Daivya that of the Asuras (TS. 2, 5, 8*. 11*). Another describes Agni not as
the messenger of, but as the path leading to, the gods, by which the summit
of heaven may be reached (TB. 2, 4, i^).

In consequence of his main function in the Veda of officiating at the
sacrifice, Agni comes to be celebrated as the divine counterpart of the earthly
priesthood. He is therefore often called generically the 'priest' {rti'i;\ vipra)
or specifically the 'domestic priest* {purohita)^ and constantly, more frequently
in fact than by any other name, the *offerer' (fioif) or chief priest, who is
poet and spokesman in one. He is a Hotr appointed by men (8, 49*; 10, 7^)
and by gods (6, 16'). He is the most adorable, the most eminent of Hotfs

Terrestrial Gods. 35. Agni. 97

(10, 2\ 91*). He is also terraed an adhvaryu (3, 5*) and (li^e Brhaspati,
Soma, and Indra) a brahman or praying priest (4, 9*). He combines in himself
the fiinctions, in a higher sense, of the various human priests called by the
above and other specific names (1,94^; 2, i'&c). He is constantly invoked
to honour or worship the gods (3, 25'; 7, ii^ &c.), while they in their tum
are said to honour Agni three times a day (3^ 4^). He is the accomplisher
of the rite or sacrifice (3,3^. 27'), promoting it by his occult power (3, 277),
making the oblations firagrant (10, 15"), and causing the offering which he
protects to reach the gods (i, i*). He is the father i^z^z**)^ the king (4,30i
the ruler (10, 6^), the superintendant (8, 43^*), the banner (3, 3^ lo*; 6, 2^;
10, i*), of sacrifice. In one hymn (10, 51) it is related that Agni grew
weary of the service and refused to fulfil his sacrificial offices, but on being
granted the remuneration he required fi-om the gods^ continued to act as
high priest of men^^. Agni's priesthood is the most salient feature of his
character. He is in fact the great priest, as Indra is the great warrior. But
though this phase of Agni's character is so prominent from the beginning to
the end of the RV., it is of course from a historical point of view compara-
tively recent, due to those mystical sacerdotal speculations which ultimately
led to the endless sacrificial symbolism of the later ritual texts. From the
ordinary sacrificial Agni who conveys the offering (havya-vah or -väkand) is
distinguished the form of Fire which is called *corpse-devouring' {kravyOd:
cp. S 71). The VS. distinguishes three forms, as the Agni who devours raw-
flesh (ßmää\ the corpse-devouring or funereal, and the sacrificial Agni (VS.
I, 17, cp. 18, 51). The TS. (2, 5, 8^) also distinguishes three, the Agni that
bears the oblation {havyavahana), as belonging to the gods, the Agni that
bears the fiineral offering {kavyavähand)^ as belonging to the Fathers, and the
Agni associated with goblins (saharaksas) as belonging to the Asuras.

Agni is a seer (r//") as well as a priest (9, 66*°); he is kindled as an
eminent seer (3, 21 3); he is the most gracious seer (6, 14O; he is the first
seer Angiras (i, 31'). He is the divine one (asurä) among the sages (3,3*).
Agni knows the sacrifice exactly (10, iio*') and knows all rites (10, 122*).
ELnowing the proper seasons he rectifies the mistakes which men commit
through ignorance of the sacrificial ordinances of the gods (10, 2*- 5) He
knows the recesses of heaven (4, 8*- *). He knows everything (10, 11*) by
his wisdom (10,913). He has all wisdom (3, i*7j 10, 21^), which he embraces
as the felly the wheel (2,53) and which he acquired as soon as bom (1,96').
He is 'all-knowing* (viA/aviä); and the epithets *possessed of all knowledge'
(vi/vaz'ddas), *sage' {kavt)^ and 'possessing the intelligence of a sage' {kavikratu)
are predominantly applicable to him. He exclusively bears the epithety^/öz/Ä/aj,
whidi occurs upwards of 120 times in the RV. and is there (6, 15*3) ex-
plained as meaning *he who knows all generations* {viivä veda janimä)^^.
He knows the divine ordinances and the generations of men (i, 70*' 3). He
knows and sees all creatures (3, 55'**; 10, 187^) and hears the invocations
addressed to him (8, 43*3). Agni is also a producer of wisdom (8, 91^).
Wisdom and prayers arise from him (4, 11^). He is an inspirer (10,465),
an inventor of bnlliant speech (2, 9*), the first inventor of prayer (6, i').
He is also said to be eloquent (6, 4^) and a singer {jaritr),

Agni is a great benefactor of his worshippers. He protects them with a
hundred iron walls (7, 3^. i6*°, cp. 6, 48*; i, 189'). He preserves them from
calamities or takes them across calamities as in a ship over the sea (3,20^;
5,4^; 7, 12';. He is a deliverer (8, 49^) and a friend of the man who
entertains him as a guest (4, 4'°). He grants protection to the worshipper
who sweats to bring him fuel (4, 2^). He watches with a thousand eyes the

Indo>arische Philologe. TU. 1a. 7

98 IIL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

man who brings him food and nourishes him with oblations (lo, 795). He
consumes bis worsbippers' enemies like dry busbes (4, 4*) and strikes down
tbe malevolent as a tree is destroyed by lightning (6, 8^ cp. AV. 3, 2* &c.).
He is therefore invoked in battle (8,43'*), in wbicb be leads tbe van (8,73^).
Tbe man wbom be protects and inspires in batde wins abundant food and
can never be overcome (1,277). All blessings issue from him as brancbes from
a tree (6,13*). He gives ricbes, wbicb be abundantly commands (i,!-*. 31***.
36*). All treasures are coUected in bim (10, 6^) and be opens tbe door of
ricbes (i, 68*°). He commands all ricbes in beaven and eartb (4, 5*') or in
eartb, beaven, and ocean (7, 6^; 10, 91 3). He gives rain from beaven (2,65)
and is like a water-trougb in tbe desert (10, 4*). He is tberefore constantly
besougbt to bestow every kind of boon: food, ricbes, deliverance from poverty,
cbildlessness, enemies, and demons^'. Tbe boons wbicb Agni bestows are
ratber domestic welfare, offspring, and prosperity, wbile Indra for tbe most
part gives power, victory, and glory. Agni also forgives sin*^ committed
tbrougb foUy, makes guiltless before Aditi (4, 12*; 7, 93?, cp. p. 121), and averts
Varuija's wratb (4, i*). He even frees from guilt committed by a man's
fatber and motber (AV. 5, 30^*; TB. 3, 7, i23' 4)

Agni is a divine (asura) monarcb (samrdj), strong as Indra (7, 6*). His
greatness surpasses tbat of migbty beaven (1,59^). He is greater tban beaven
and eartb (3, 6^; 10, 88*4), tban all tbe worlds, wbicb be filled wben bom
(3» 3'°)- He is superior to all tbe otber gods in greatness (i, 68"). All tbe
gods fear and do bomage to bim wben be abides in darkness (6, 9 7). He
is celebrated and worsbipped by Vanugia, Mitra, tbe Maruts, and all tbe gods
(3, 9®. 144; 10, 69"^). Agni performed great deeds of old (7, 6*). Men tremble
at bis migbty deeds (8,92^). In battle be procured space for tbe gods (1,590
and be delivered tbem from curse (7, 13*). He is a conqueror of tbousands
{sahasrajit\ more commonly an attribute of Soma). He drives away tbe
Dasyus from tbe bouse, tbus creating a wide ligbt for tbe Ärya (7, 5^). He
is a Promoter of tbe Ärya (8,92') and a vanquisber of irreligious Panis (7,6^.
He receives witb some frequency tbe epitbet of *Vrtra-slayer', and two or
tbree times tbat of *fort-destroyer' {puramdard)^ attributes primarily appro-
priate to Indra (p. 60). Sucb warlike qualities, tbougb suitable to Agni in
bis ligbtning form, are doubtless derived by bim from Indra, witb wbom be
is so frequently associated (p. 127).

Altbougb Agni is tbe son of Heaven and Eartb be is nevertbeless called
tbe generator of tbe two w^orlds (i, 96^ cp. 7,5^), bis ordinance, wbicb does
not perisb (2, 8^), being followed by beaven and eartb (7, 5*). He stretcbed
tbem out (3, 65; 7, 54) or spread tbem out like two skins (6, 8^). Witb bis
flame or bis smoke be supported tbe vault of beaven (3, 5^°; 4, 6*). He kept
asunder tbe two worlds (6, 8^). He supported eartb and beaven witb true
bymns (i, 67^). He Stands at tbe bead of tbe world or is tbe bead of tbe
eartb at night (10, 885- ^), but be is also tbe bead and summit {kakud) of
tbe sky (i, 59^; 6, 7'; 8, 44*^). He measured out tbe air and touched tbe
vault of beaven witb bis greatness (6, 8^). He measured out tbe aerial spaces
and tbe brigbt realms of heaven (6, 7O. He caused tbe sun to ascend tbe
sky (10, 156"*). Tbe notion tbat tbe kindling of Agni exercised a magical
influence on tbe sunrise seems not to be entirely absent in tbe RV.-*3. Such
appears to be tbe meaning of tbe poet wben be exclaims: * Let us ligbt Agni,
tbat tby wondrous brand may shine in beaven* (5,6*). Tbis notion is clearly
stated in a Bräbmaija passage: *By ^sacrificing before sunrise be produces him
(tbe sun), eise be would not rise' (SB. 2, 3, i5, cp. TS. 4, 7, 13^. Otherwise
tbe kindling of Agni and tbe sunrise are represented merely as simultaneous

Terrestrial Gods. 35. Agni. 99

in the RV.: *The sun became visible when Agni was born' (4, 3"). This
txait of the Agni myth resembles the winning of the sun in the Indra myth,
but the original point of view in the two cases is clearly difFerent Agni is
fiirther said to have adomed the sky with stars (i, 685). He created all that
flies, walks, Stands, or moves (10, 88*). He placed the germ in these beings
iSf 2"), in plants, in all beings, and engendered oflfspring in the earth and
in women (10, 183^). Agni is once spoken of as having generated these
children of men (1,96'); but this is a mere incidental extension of the notion
expressed in the same stanza, that he created heaven, earth, and the waters,
and cannot be interpreted as a general belief in Agni as father of the human
race**. Finally, Agni is the guardian (7, 7*) and lord (7, 4^) of immortality,
which he confers on mortal men (i, 31?).

Though agni is an Indo-European word (Lat i^i-Sy Slavonic o^nt), the
worship of fire under this name is purely Indian. In the Indo-Iranian period the
sacrificial fire is already found as the centre of a developed ritual, tended by a
priestly class probably called Atharvan; personified and worshipped as a strong,
pure, wise god, giver of food, oflfepring, intellectual power, fame; friendly to
the house, but a destroyer of foes; probably even thought ofas having diflferent
forms like lightning or the fire produced from wood*»*. The sacrificial fire
seems to have been an Indo-European institution also*^, since the Italiansand
Greeks, as well as the Iranians and Indians had the custom of offering gifts
to the gods in fire. But the personification of this fire, if it then existed,
must have been extremely shadowy^^.

The word ag-ni may possibly be derived from the root which in Sanskrit
appears as q/*^, to drive (ä/ami, Lat. ago, Gk. aYoi), meaning *nimble', with
reference to the agility of the element.

Besides epithets of celestial fire which, like Apäip napät, have become
separate names, some epithets of Agni exhibit a semi-independent character.
The epithet Vaisvänara*^, occurring about sixty times in the RV. and with
two exceptions restricted to Agni, is, apart from some five detached verses,
to be found in fourteen hymns of the RV., in nearly all of which, according
to the native tradition of the Anukrama^i, Agni Vaisvänara is the deity ad-
dressed. The attribute is never in the RV. unaccompanied by the name of
Agni It means *belonging to all men' and seems to designate 'Universal
Agni', fire in all its aspects, celestial as well as terrestrial. Thus the hymns
addressed to this form of Agni sometimes refer to the myth of Mätarisvan
and the Bhrgus, which is connected with the descent of celestial fire to earth
(3, 2^; 6, 8*), and Agni Vaisvänara is once even directly styled Mätarisvan
(3, 26*). In the Naigha^tuka (5, i) Vaisvänara is given as one of the names
of Agni. Yäska in commenting on the epithet states (Nir. 7, 23)^ that ancient
ritualists {yäjhikäfi) took Agni Vaisvänara to be the sun, while Säkapüiii con-
sidered him to be this Agni5°. Later on (Nir. 7, 31), he states as his own
opinion that the Agni Vaisvänara who receives praise and sacrifice is this
(i. e. terrestrial) Agni, while the two higher {uttare) lights (i. e. the aerial and
the celestial) only occasionally share this designation. ^ In the ritual texts
Vaisvänara is distinguished as a special form of Agni (ÄSS.i,3*3; KSS. 23,3";
(PB. 21, 10"; SB. 1,5, i'^).

The epithet Tanünapät, generally unaccompanied by the name of Agni,
occurs eight times in the RV. and, with two exceptions (3, 29**; 10, 92')
always in the second verse of the Aprl hymns, which are litiu-gical invitations
introducing the animal sacrifice and in which fire under various names and
forms is invoked**. The word occurs as an independent name in the Nai-
ghantuka (5, 2). The explanations given by Yäska (Nir. 8, 5) are artificial

loo III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

and improbable ^^ It seems to mean 'son of himself, as spontaneously
generated in wood and cloud. According to Bergaigne's interpretation, it
signifies *the bodily (L e. own) son' of the divine father53. Tanünapät as con-
trasted with Mätarisvan and Naräsamsa is said to be 'the divine (äsura)
embiyo' (3, 29"). The dawns are said to kiss Agni *the domestic priest, the
Tanünapät of the niddy one* (10, 92', cp. 5, 58^). Tanünapät is beautiful-
tongued (10,110'). He is besought to take the sacrifice to the gods (1,13*;
10, iio^); he distributes the sacrifice rieh in ghee and mead (i, 142*, cp.
188*). The gods honour him three times a day, Va^u^a, Mitra, Agni, every
day (3, 4^). Hillebrandt54 (comparing 9, 5*) identifies Agni Tanünapät with
Agni Somagopä or the lunar Fire, which he assumes to be a special form of
Agni 55.

The somewhat more frequent epithel Nar äs arnsa which is given as an
independent appellation in the Naighanjuka (5, 3) and is unaccompanied by
the name of Agni in the RV., is not restricted to Agni, being twice connected
with Pü§an (i, 106*; 10, 643)56. it hasthe third verse as its fixed place in
the Apri hymns and the second in those which are technically called Äpra.
Naräsaipsa is *four-limbed* (10, 92") and is the *lord of a celestial wife
{gnäspatii 2, 38^"). With honey on his tongue and in his band, he perfomis
Üie sacrifice (i, 13V 5, 5*). Three times a day he besprinkles the sacrifice
with honey (i, 1423). He anoints the three heavens and the gods (2, 3*).
He comes at the head of the gods and makes the sacrifice pleasant for them
(10,70'). Through his sacrifices worshippers praise the greatness of the gods
(7, 2'). Soma is said to go between Naräsamsa and the celestial {daivyä)
one (9,86^*), which seems to mean, between the terrestrial and the celestial
Agni. As contrasted with Tanünapät and Mätarisvan, Agni is called Narä-
samsa when he is bom (3, 29"). In one hymn to Brhaspati (10, 182*)
Naräsamsa is invoked for protection, and in another he is spoken of as the
sacrificer of the seat of heaven (i, i89). He thus seems in these two passages
to be identified with Brhaspati. The word närä-idmsa is apparently an im-
proper Compound (in which the m of the genitive plural has disappeared),
having a double accent and having its parts separated by particles in two
passages (9, 86*'; 10, 64^). As the expressions naräm ^amsa and droänävi
ianisa occur (2, 34^; i, 141") and a poet once calls Agni iamsam äyoh,
*Praise of Äyu* (4, 6"), Naräsamsa appears to mean * Praise of men' in the
sense of 'he who is the object of men's praise'. Bergaigne expresses the
opinion57 that the exact aspect of Agni represented by Naräsamsa, is that of
a god of human prayer, like a second Brhaspati.

1 Mund. Up. I, 2 4; cp. ZDMG. 35, 552. — 2 Cp. Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50,
425—6; SBE. 46, 159. 207. — 3 ORV. 104; SBE. 46, 128. — 4 Cp. BRV. i, 143; SBE.
46, 144. — 5 BDA. 50 — I ; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39, 69. — 6 Schwab, Das alt-
indische Tieropfer 77 — 8; Roth, Indisches Feuerzeug, ZDMG. 43, 590 — 5. — 7 BRV.
2, 52; PVS. 2, 50. — 8 Roth, Nirukta, Erl. 120; PW. s.v. yuvati and tvastr; OO.
2, 510. — 9 JoLLY in this Encyclopaedia II, 8, p. 25. — »o KHF. ed. Schrader (1889)
37-9; cp. ZDMG. 35, 561. — " KHF. 18; KRV. note 121; HRL 107. —
" Roth, ZDMG. 43i 593; ORV. 121. — »3 Cp. HVM. i, 179 note 4. — »4 Haug,
AB. 2, p. 62. — 15 Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39, 68 — 72; Macdonell, JRAS. 26, 16 ff.

— x6 LRV. 5, 504. — 17 ORV. 115. — 18 Cp. GVS. i, 157—70. — »9 ORV. 113
note 2. — 20 Ibid. 112. — «x Other passages are 3, 144; 8, 565; 10, 88 »x* x«;
AV. 13, 113; TS. 4, 2, 94. — 22 OST. 5, 206; BRV. i, 21—5; Macdonell, JRAS.
25, 468—70; ORV. 106; SBE. 46, 231. — 23 Cp. HRI. 105. — 24 See GW. s. v.

— 25 LRV. 3, 356; BRV. I, 23. — 26 ORV. 348. — »7 Cp. SB. 2, 1 and Egge-
LiNG, SBE. 12, 274ff. — 28 HRI. 106; cp. LRV. 3, 356. — 29 BRV. i, 23; LRV.
3» 355; Oldenberg, SBE. 30, x, note i; 46, 362; ORV. 348. — 3° BRV. 1, 103.

— 3» LRV. 5, 504—5. — 32 Cp. Säyaija; Roth, Nirukta, Erl. 140 ; MM., LSL. 2,
614. — ii Cp. BRV. 3, 134 f. — 34 BRV. 2, 217. — 35 ORV. 128. 36 SBE. 46, 361. —

Terrestriat, Gods. 36. Brhaspati. IOI

37 ORV. 132—3- 38 OST. I, 348-9; cp. SBE. 46, 123. 211. — 39 Mao

DONELi^ JRAS. 26, 12—22. — 4© WHITNEY, AJP. 3, 409; othcrwise PVS. 1, 94
and Bloomfield, JAOS. i6, l6. — 4« OST. 5, 218. — 4» Cp. ORV. 299—300. —
43 Cp. BRV. I, 140 ff.; ORV, 109; SBE. 46, 330. — 44 The view of KHF. 69 ff.
— 45 ORV. 103. — 46 Knauer, FaR. 64. — 47 ORV. 102. — 48 PW.; MM.PhR.
117 (cp. KiRSTE, WZKM. 7, 97); rejected by Bartholomae, IF. 5, 222. — 49 BRV.
153 __6. — 50 Roth, Nir. Erl. 7, 19. — s« Roth, Nirukta, Introd. 36 f.; ErL 117—8.
121— 4; MM.ASL. 463—6; Weber, IS. 10, 89—95; GRV. i, 6. — 5« Roth, Nir.
Erl. 117; cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 10. — 53 BRV. 2, 99 f. — 54 HVM. i, 339.—
55 Ibid. 330—6. — 56 Roth, Erl. 117 f.; cp. Sp.AP. 209 f. — 57 BRV. i, 305—8.
KHF. I— 105; Whitney, JAOS. 3, 317—8; OST. 199—220; LRV. 3, 324—5;
KRV. 35—7; BRV. i, 11— 31. 38—45. 70—4. 100— i. 139—45; BRI. 9— li; Sp.AP.
147—53; V. Schroeder, KZ. 29, 193 ff. (cp. BB. 19, 230); WZKM. 225—30;
MM.PhR. 144-203. 252—302; HVBP. 63—8; ORV. 102—33; HRI. 105—12.

S 36. Brhaspati. — This god occupies a position of considerable pro-
minence in the RV., eleven entire hymns being dedicated to bis praise. He
also forms a pair with Indra in two hymns (4, 49; 7, 97). His name occurs
about 120 times and in the form of Brahmai^as pati about 50 times besides.
The two forms of the name altemate in different verses of the same hymn
(e. g. in 2, 23). The physical features of Brhaspati are few. He is seven-
mouthed and seven-rayed (4, 50*), beautiful-tongued (i, 190"; 4, 50'), sharp-
homed (10, 155'), blue-backed (5, 43"), and hundred-winged (7, 977). He
is golden-coloured and ruddy (5, 43")i bright (3, 62^; 7, 977)^ pure (7, 97O1
and clear-voiced (7, 975). He has a bow, the string of which is the rite
{rta), and good arrows (2, 24*; cp. AV. 5, i8*-9). He also wields a golden
hatchet (7, 97') and is armed with an iron axe, which Tva§tr sharpens (10,
53^). He has a car (10, 103^) and Stands on the car of the rite, which slays
the goblins, bursts the cowstalls, and wins the light (2, 233). He is drawn
by ruddy steeds (7, 97*).

Brhaspati was first bom from great light in the highest heaven and with
thunder (ravena) drove away darkness (4, 50*; cp. 10, 68"). He is the off-
spring of the two worlds (7, 97*), but is also said to have been generated
by Tva§tr (2, 23*0« On the other band, he is called the father of the gods
(2, 2 63), being said to have blown forth the births of the gods like a black-
smith (10, 72').

Brhaspati is a domestic priest* (2, 24^; VS. 20, 11; TS. 6, 4, 10; AB.
8, 26*), a term almost peculiar to Agni (p. 96). The ancient seers placed
him at their head {puro-dhä) (4, 50^. He is Soma's purohita (SB. 4, i, 2*).
He is also a brahman or praying priest' (2, i^; 4, 50^), once probably in the
technical sense (10, 141 3). In later Vedic texts Brhaspati is the brahman
priest (in the technical sense) of the gods 3. He is even called the prayer or
devotion {prahtna) of the gods (TS. 2, 2, 9" &c.) Brhaspati promotes the
yoking of devotion, and without him sacrifice does not succeed (i, 18^. As
a pathmaker he makes good the access to the feast of the gods (2, 23^- O-
From him even the gods obtained their share of sacrifice (2,23*). He awakens
the gods with sacrifice (AV. 19, 63"). He himself pronounces the hymn in which
Indra, Varujgia, Mitra, Aryaman, the gods take pleasure (i, 405). He sings
chants (10, 36*). His song (Jloka) goes to heaven (i, 190*) and metre
(chandas) belongs to him (MS. i, 9*). He is associated with singers (7, 10*;
10,143). He sings with his 'friends that cry like Harpsas* (io,67«>), by whom
the Angirases* (S 54) mentioned in the preceding verse (10,67^) seem to be
meant He is also said to be accompanied by a singing {rkvatY host
(ganai 4, soS). This is doubtless the reason why he is CBÜed gana/atty 'lord
of a hosf (2, 23*), a term once applied to Indra also (10, ii29).

As the name Brahmai^as pati shows, the god is a *lord of prayer*. He

I07 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

is also described as the supreme king of prayers, the most famous sage of
sages (2, 23'). Mounting the car of the rite he conquers the enemies of
prayer and of the gods (2,233-^). He is the generator of all prayers (1,190*).
He utters prayer (i, 405) and communicates prayers to the human priest
(10, 98*0- Thus he comes later to be called a *lord of speech', väcaspati
(MS. 2, 6^ cp, SB. 14, 4, 1*3), a term specially applied to Brhaspati as god of
eloquence and wisdom in post-Vedic literature.^

There are several passages in which Brhaspati appears identified with
Agni. Thus *the lord of prayer, Agni, handsome like Mitra* is .invoked
(i, 38'3). In another passage (2, i3 ff.) Agni, though identified with other
gods as well, is clearly more intimately connected with Brahmanaspati^ as
only these two names are in the vocative. In one verse (3, 26*) both Mä-
tarisvan and * Brhaspati the wise priest, the guest, the swiftly-moving' seem to
be epithets of Agni, while in another (i, 190*) Mätarisvan seems to be an
epithet of Brhaspati. Again, by Brhaspati, who is blue-backed, takes up his
abode in the house, shines brightly, is golden-coloured and ruddy (5, 43"),
Agni must be meant In two other verses (i, i8*9; 10, 182^) Brhaspati seems
to be the sarae as Naräsaipsa, a form of Agni (p. 100). Like Agni, Brhaspati
is a priest, is called 'Son of strength' (i, 40') and Angiras (2, 23*^) as well
(the epithet ängirasa belonging to him exclusively), and bums the goblins
(2, 23'*) or slays them (10, 103*). Brhaspati is also spoken of as ascending
to heaven, to tiie upper abodes (10, 67*°). Like Agni, Brhaspati has three
abodes (4, 50*); he is the adorable one of houses (7, 97^), and *lord of the
dwelling*, sadasas pati"^ (1,18^; Indra-Agni are once cdXliQ^. sadaspatJ^ 1,21 5).
On the other hand, Agni is called brahmanas kavi^ *sage of prayer* (6, 1 63*»)
and is besought (2, 2 7) to make heaven and earth favourable by prayer
(prahmana), But Brhaspati is much more commonly distinguished from Agni
(2, 253; 7, 10*; 10, 689), chiefly by being invoked or named along with him
in enumerations (3, 20* &c.)^

Like Agni, Brhaspati has been drawn into and has obtained a firm
footing in the Indra myth of the release of the cows. The mountain yielded
to his splendour, when Brhaspati, the Angiras, opened the cowstall and with
Indra as his companion let loose the flood of water enveloped by darkness
(2, 23 '^ cp. I, 56^. 899). Accompanied by his singing host (cp. S 54) he
with a roar rent Vala; shouting he drove out the lowing cows (4, so^. He
won treasures and the great Stalls fiill of cows; desiring waters and light,
the irresistible Brhaspati slays his foe with flames (6, 733). What was firm
was loosened, what was strong yielded to him; he drove out the cows, he
cleft Vala with prayer; he covered up the darkness and made heaven visible;
the stone-mouthed well filled with honey, which Brhaspati pierced with might,
that the celestials drank, while they poured out together abundantly the
watery fountain (2,243-4). When Brhaspati with fiery gleams rent the defences
of Vala, he revealed the treasures of the cows; as if Splitting open eggs, he
drove out the cows of the mountain; he beheld the honey enclosed by the
stone; he brought it out, having cloven (Vala) with his roar; he smote forth
as it were the marrow of Vala (10, 68*~9). He drove out the cows and
distributed them in heaven (2, 24**). Brhaspati fetched the cows out of the
rock; seizing the cows of Vala, he took possession of them (10, 685). His
conquest of Vala is so characteristic that it became proverbial (AV. 9, 3*).
Being in the clouds {abhriya) he shouts aloud after the many cows (10,68*',
cp. 673). These cows may represent the waters, which are expressly mentioned
(2, 23'®; 6, 733) or possibly the rays of dawn (cp. 10, 67^. 689).

In releasing the cows Brhaspati seeks light in darkness and finds the

TERRES-miAL GoDS. 36. Brhaspati. 103

light; he found the Dawn, light, and Agni, and dispelled the darkness (lo,
68*- 9). In shattering the fort, he found the Dawn, the Sun, the Cow (lo,
675). He hid or dispelled the darkness and made visible the light (2, 24^;
4, 50*). Brhaspati thus comes to acquire more general warlike traits. , He
penetrated the mountain füll of riches and split open the strongholds of Sam-
bara (2, 24'). Brhaspati Angirasa, the first-born holy one, cleaver of rocks,
roars as a bull at the two worlds, slays Vrtras {vrträni), shatters forts, over-
comes foes (6, 73*- % He disperses foes and wins victory (10, 103^). No
one can overcome him in great fight or small (i, 40^). He vanquishes the
enemy in battle (2, 23"). He is to be invoked in combats (2, 23'^) and is
a priest *much praised in conflict (2, 249).

Being the companion and ally of Indra (2, 23**. 24»; 8, 85*^), he is
often invoked with that deity (4, 50*°- " &c.). With Indra he is a soma-
drinker (4, 49^ 50'°) and, like hira, is styled maghavan^ 'bountiful' (2, 24").
Indra, too, is the only god with whom he forms a pair (2, 24"; 4, 49^"*).
Thus he comes to be styled vaj'rin^ *wielder of the bolt' (i, 40®) and to be
described as^hurling the bolt, the Asura-slaying missile (AV. 11, 10 ^3). He is
also invoked with the Maruts at the same time as Indra (i, 40*) and is once
besought to come accompanied by the Maruts, whether he be Mitra, Varuiia
or Pö§an (10, 98'). In one passage he is said to have heard the prayer of
Trita buried in a well and to have delivered hira (i, 105*7).

Brhaspati favours the man who offers prayer (2, 25*) but scourges the
hater of prayer (2, 23*). He protects the pious man from all dangers
and calamities, from curse and malignity, and blesses him with wealth and
prosperity (i, i83; 2, 23*"*°). Possessed of all desirable things (7, lo*. 97*),
he is opulent, a procurer of wealth, and an increaser of prosperity (i, 18').
He is a prolonger of life and a remover of disease (i, 18*). Having such
benevolent traits he is called a father (4, 50^; 6, 73O.

He is asurya^ *divine' (2, 23'), belongs to all the gods (3, 62*; 4, 50^),
and is the most god-like of the gods (2, 243). As a god he widely extended
to the gods and embraces all things (2, 24", cp. 8, 61'*). Mightily he holds
asunder the ends of the earth with his roar (4, 50*). It is his inimitable
deed that sun and moon rise altemately (10, 68'°). He is also spoken of
as stimulating the growth of plants (10, 97*5- '9 j, Later Brhaspati is brought
into connexion with certain stars. Thus in the TS. (4, 4, 10*) he is stated to
be the deity of the constellation Ti§ya9, and in post-Vedic literature he is
regarded as the regent of the planet Jupiter.

Brhaspati is a purely Indian deity. Both forms of the name occur
throughout the older as well as the later books of the RV. But since appella-
tions formed with pati (like vOcas pati, västos pati, ksärasya pati) to designate
deities presiding over a particular domain, must be comparatively recent as
products of reflexion*°, this mythological creation can hardly go much fiirther
back than the beginning of the Rigvedic period. The accentuation of the
Word brhaspati shows it to be an improper Compound. The prior member
might possibly be a neuter noun in -öj", but the contemporaneous form
brdhmanas pati, which is a kind of explanation, indicates that the poets of
the RV. regarded it as the genitive" of a noun brh, from the same root as
brahman,

The evidence adduced above seems to favour the view that Brhaspati
was originally an aspect of Agni as a divine priest presiding over devotion,
an aspect which (unlike other epithets of Agni formed with pati, such as
vi^äm pati, grhapati, sadaspatt) had attained an independent character by
the beginning of the Rigvedic period, though the connexion with Agni was

L

I04 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

not entirely severed Langlois'3, H. H. Wilson'*, Max Müller *s agree in
regarding Efhaspati as a variety of Agni. Roth'^ was of opinion that this
sacerdotal god is a direct impersonation of the power of devotion. Similarly
Kaegi*7 and Oldenberg'* think him to be an abstraction of priestly action,
which has appropriated the deeds of earlier gods. Weber *9 considers Brhaspati
to be a priestly abstraction of Indra, and is foUowed in this by Hopkins *°
Finally, Hillebrandt'' holds him to be a lord of plants and a personification
of the moon^% representing predominantly the igneous side of that luminary.
As the divine brahman priest, Brhaspati seems to have been the proto-
type of Brahma, the chief of the Hindu triad, while the neuter form of the
word, brahrnüy developed into the Absolute of the Vedänta philosophy*^.

X Cp. ZDMG. 32, 316. — a ORV. 396, note i ; SBE. 46, 190. — 3 ORV. 382. —
4 Roth thinks they are the Maruts: ZDMG. i, 77. — 5 Stars, HVM. i, 416;
Maruts, Vedainterpretation 10. — 6 ZDMG. 1, 77. — 7 Cp. Hillebrandt, Vedaint
10. — 8 OST. 5, 283. — 9 Weber, Die Nak§atra 2, 371. — ><» Roth, ZDMG. i,
72. — »» HVM. I, 409. — " Macdonell, KZ. 34, 292—6. — »3 RV. Trans. 1,
249. 254. 578. — «4 RV. Trans, i, xxxvii. — »5 Vedic Hymns, SBE. 32, 94. —
x6 ZDMG. I, 73; PW. — 17 KRV. 32. — 18 ORV. 66-8. 381—2; SBE. 46, 94-
19 Väjapeya 15.-20 hRI. 136; cp. Wilson, RV. Tr. 2, ix; BDA. xi. — " HVM,
I, 404. 418—9 (cp. 277); cp. O1.DENBERG, ZDMG. 49, 173. — *2 Also HVBP. 46— 7.
— 23 BRV. I, 304; HRI. 136.

Roth, ZDMG. i, 72—80; OST. 5, 272—83; BRV. i, 299—304; KRV. 73—4;
BRI. 15—6; HVM. I, 404—25; LRF. 97—8; Pischel, GGA. 1894, p. 420.

S37. Soma. — Since the Soma sacrifice forms the main feature of the
ritual of the RV. ', the god Soma is naturally one of the most important deities
of that Veda. All the 114 hjrmns of the ninth besides 6 in other books, are
dedicated to his praise. He is also celebrated in portions of four or five other
hymns, and as a dual divinity with Indra, Agni, Püsan, or Rudra, in about
six more. The name of Soma, in its simple form and in Compounds, occurs
hundreds of times in the RV. Judged by the Standard of frequency, Soma
therefore comes third in order of importance among the Vedic gods. Soma
is much less anthropomorphic than Indra or Varuiia, the constant presence
of the plant and its juice setting limits to the imagination of the poets who
describe its personification. Consequently little is said of his human form
or action. The marvellous and heroic deeds attributed to him are either
colourless, because common to almost all the greater gods, or eise only
secondarily belong to him. Like other gods, he is, under the name of Indu
as well as Soma, invoked to come to the sacrifice and receive the offerings
on the strewn grass*. The ninth book mainly consists of incantations sung
over the tangible Soma while it is pressed by the stones, flows through the
woolen strainer into the wooden vats, in which it is finally offered on a
litter of grass to the gods as a beverage, sometimes in fire (i, 94**; 5,5*;
8, 43^* &c.) or drunk by the priests. The processes to which it is subjected
are overlaid with the most varied and chaotic imagery and with mystical
fancies often incapable of certain interpretation.

In Order to make intelligible the mythology of Soma, the basis of which
are the concrete terrestrial plant and the intoxicating juice extracted there-
from, it is necessary briefly to describe these as well as the treatment they
undergo. The part of the Soma plant which is pressed is called antiUy 'shoot
or stalk' (9,67*'*). The shoots swelling give milk like cows with their udders
(8,9*9). As distinguished from the stalk, the whole Soma plant seems tobe
intended by andhas (8,32**; 10,94* &c.), which is said to have come from
heaven (9,61'°) and to have been brought by the eagle (5,45^; 9,68^; 10,144s).
The same term is applied to the juice also^ and is distinguished from Indu
the god (9, 51^; 10, 115^). The juice is also designated by soma (which

Terrestrial Gods. 37. SoMA. 105

means the plant as well) and generally by rasa^ fluid In one hymn (i, 187)
the Juice is called pitu, the 'beverage*; and it is often styled tnada^ 'intoxi-
cating draughf*. Soma is occasionally also referred to with anna^ *food* (7, 98';
8, 4*'; SB. i; 6, 4S). The terra madhu^ which in connexion with the Asvins
means 'honey* or *mead*, coraes to be applied, in the general sense of 'sweet
draughf, not only to milk {payas) and ghee {ghrta\ but especially to the
Soma Juice (4, 27S; 8, 69^). Myüiologically tnadhu is the equivalent of Soma
when the latter means tiie celestial ambrosia {amrtd)K Conversely, amrta
is frequently used as an equivalent of ordinary Soma (s, 2-5; 6, 373 &c.; VS.
6, 34; SB. 9, s, i^^. King Soma when pressed is amrta (VS. 19, 72).
Another expression is somyam madhu^ 'Soma mead' (4, 2 6 5; 6, 2o3). Figu-
ratively the Soma juice is called piyüsa (3, 48' &c.), milk (9, 107")» the wave
of the stalk (9, 96®) or the juice of honey (5, 43*). The most frequent figur-
ative name applied to Soma is indu^ the *bright drop', another terra of
similar meaning, drapsa, 'drop*^ being rauch less coramon.

The extraction of the juice is generally described by the root su, *to
press* (9, 624 &c.), but often also by duh *to milk' (3, 36^- 7 &c.). The juice
is intoxicating (i, 1253; 6, 17". 20^) and lionied', madhumat (9, 97**). The
latter expression simply means 'sweet^, but as applied to Soma originally
seems to have meant *sweetened with honey*, sorae passages pointing to
this admixture (9, 17^ 86^^ 97". 109*^)7. As flowing from the press, Soma
is compared with the wave of a stream (9, 80^) and directly called a wave
(9, 64** &c.) or a wave of honey (3, 47*). With reference to the juice collected
in the vat, Soma is spoken of as a sea (arnava: 10, 1153) and frequently
as an ocean (samudrai 5,47^; 9,64* &c.). The heavenly Soma is also called
a well (ufsa), which is in the highest place of the cows (5, 45®), which is
placed in the cows and guided with ten reins (i. e. fingers: 6, 44'*), or a
well of honey in the highest Step of Vi§iju (i, 154^).

The colour of the plant and juice, as well as of the god, is described
as brown {babhru) or ruddy (aruna), but most frequently as tawny {hari),
Thus Soma is the brauch of a ruddy tree (10, 94^); it is a ruddy milked
shoot (7, 98O; the tawny shoot is pressed into the strainer (9, 92*). The
colour of the Soraa plant or its Substitute prescribed in the Brähmanas is
ruddy (SB. 4, 5, 10*); and in the ritual the cow which is the price paid in
the purchase of Soma, must be brown or ruddy because that is Soraa's colour
(TS. 6, i,67;SB. 3, 3, iM)8.

Soraa is described as purified with the hands (9, 8634), by the ten fin-
gers (9, 84. 15® &c.), or, figuratively, by the ten raaidens who are sisters
(9, i'. 65), or by the daughters (nqptt) of Vivasvat (9, 14^). Similarly, the
raaidens of Trita are said to urge on the tawny one with stones as a drop
for Indra to drink (9, 32'. 38^). Soma is also spoken of as purified or
brought by the daughter of the sun (9, i^ 7 2 3. 1133)9. Sometimes it is said
to be purified by prayer (9, 96*3. 1135). The priests who press Soraa are
Adhvaryus" (8, 4").

The shoot is crushed with a stone (9, 67*9) or pressed with stones
(g, 107***); the plant is pounded to produce the Soraa draught (10, 853).
The stones tear its skin (TB. 3, 7, 13^. The stones lie on a skin; for they
*chew hira on the hide of the cow' (9, 79*). They are placed on the vedi
or altar (5, 31")' a practice differing fi*ora that of the later ritual". They
are held with hands or arras (7, 22*; 9, 79^; AV. 11, i'°). The two arras
and the ten fingers yoke the stone (5, 434). Hence the stones are said to
be guided by ten reins (10, 94*). Being spoken of as yoked, they are com-
pared with horses (10, 94^). The usual name for the pressing stones is adri

io6 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

(generally used with the verb su^ to press) or grävan (generally connected
with vad, to speak, or verbs of cognate meaning, and hence showing a greater
tendency to personification " than adri), Both terms nearly always occur
either in the singular or the plural, and not in the dual. The stones are
also once respectively called aina {^^ 2^\ bharitra {^^ ^6"^)^ parvata (3,35®)
and parvatä adraya^ (10, 94'). The pressing of Soma by means of stones
was the usual method in the period of the RV. But the extraction of the
Juice by mortar and pestle, which is also sanctioned by the ritual texts, was
already known to the RV. (i, 28*~*); and as this method is in use among
the Parsis, it may gp back to the Indo-Iranian age.

The pressed drops are poured upon (9, 63*° &c.) and pass over the
strainer of sheep's wool (9, 699). For it removes Soma's impurity, so that
he goes cleansed to the feast of the gods (9, 78^). This strainer, which is
very frequently mentioned, passes under various names. It is called a skin
{tvac)^ hair (roman), wool (vära), filter {pavitrd)^ or ridge {sänu^ as the top
of the contrivance). All these terms are used with or without an adjective
formed from aviy sheep. The word avi itself is sometimes figuratively em-
ployed in this sense. As passing through the strainer Soma is usually called
pavamäna or punäna, 'flowing clear' (from j//«). The more general term
mrj\ 'to cleanse', is not only applied to the purification of Soma with the
strainer, but also to the addition of water and milk (9, 86". 91*). The
purified (unmixed) Soma juice is sometimes called ^uddha^ *pure*, but much
oftener iukra or iuci^ *bright* (8, 2***; 9, 33'; i, 55. 30*). This unmixed Soma
is offered almost exclusively to Väyu and Indra, the epithet ^ucipäy *drinking
clear (Soma)* being distinctive of Väyu (p. 82). This agrees with the later
ritual, where, in the Grahas or draughts for dual divinities, clear Soma is
offered to Väyu and Indra-Väyu, but is mixed with milk for Mitra-Varurjia,
and with honey for the Asvins'-^.

After passing the filter, Soma flows into jars (kalaia^ 9, 60^ &c.) or
vats {dronaY^, The streams of Soma rush to the forest of the vats like
buffaloes (9, 33'. 92^); the god flies like a bird to settle in the vats (9, 3O;
like a bird sitting on a tree, the tawny one settles in the bowls {camü:
9, 725). Soma is mixed with water in the vat United with the wave, the
stalk'roars (9, 745). Like a bull on the herd, he rushes on the vat, into
the lap of the waters, a roaring bull; clothing himself in waters, Indu rushes
around the vat, impeÜed by the singers (9, 76^. 107'^). The wise milk him
into the waters with their hands (9, 79*). Having passed over the wool and
playing in the wood, he is cleansed by the ten maidens (9, 65). Several
other passages refer to the admixture of water with Soma (9, 305. 534. ^6^-^^).
The Soma drops are said to spread brightness in the streams (9, 76*).
Besides the verb mrj\ 'to cleanse*, which is commonly used to express the
admixture of water (e. g. 9, 63*7), ä-dhäVy *to wash', is also employed (8, \^^y
In the preparation of Soma^ the pressing ( Ysu) comes first, then the mixing
with water (7, 32^; 8, i*7. 315^ AV. 6, 2*), just as in the later ritual the
savana^ 'pressure', precedes the ädhävana^ *washing'. In the bowls Soma is
mixed with milk (9, 8^ &c.)^5^ which is said to sweeten it (8,23)*^ In several
passages the addition of both water and milk is mentioned. Thus it is said
that Soma clothes himself in waters, that streams of water flow after him,
when he desires to clothe himself in cows (i. e. milk; 9, 23-4). They press
him with stones, they wash him in water, clothing him as it were in cow-garments,
men milk him out of the stalks (8, i*7; cp. 2, 36*; 6, 40*; 9, Zd''^-^. 96'^).

Soma is recognised in the RV. as having three kinds of admixture
(tryäür\ 5, 275), with milk {gaväür\ sour milk {dadhyäär), and barley {yavä-

Terrestrial Gods. 37. SoMA. 107

//>). The admixture is figuratively called a garment {vastra, väsas^ atka)^^
or a shining robe {nirnij: 9, 145), the latter terra being applied to the strainer
also (9, 70"). Hence Soma is spoken of as decked with beauty (9, 34* &c.)
and as richly adomed (9, 81*). Mention is also made, though rarely, ot
mixture with ghee (9, 82'); but neither this addition nor that of water, is a
regulär ä^ir^\

In the ritual there is a ceremony called äpyäyana or causing the half-
pressed Soma stalks to swell by moistening them with water afresh. The
beginnings of it are found in the MS. (4, 5 5). The verb ä-pyäy *to swell',
occurs in the RV. in connexion with Soma (1,91*^""*); 10, 8s5)*9; but here
it seems to refer to Soma as identified with the moon. In one other passage,
however, (9, 31*) it may have a ritual application. Soma is also said in the
RV. to swell {piy pinv\ like a sea or river (9, 64^ 107")-

Soma is described in the RV. as pressed three times in the day. Thus
the Rbhus are invited to the evening pressing (4, 33" &c.)'°, Indra to the
midday pressing (3, 32^* ^\ 8, 37^), which is his alone (4,367), while the mor-
ning libation is his first drink (10, 112*).

The abode {sadhastha) of Soma is often referred to**; once, however,
mention is made of three, which he occupies when purified (9, 103*), the
epithet trisadhastha, *having three abodes*, being also applied to him in another
passage (8, 835). These three abodes may already designate the three tubs
used at the Soma sacrifice of the later ritual (TS. 3, 2, 1*; KSS. 9, 5*7. 74^ cp.
RV. 8, 2^); but Bergaigne (BRV, i, 179) regards them as purely mytholo-
gicaL A similar remark applies to the three lakes of Soma which Indra
drinks (5, 297-^ 6, 17"; 8, 7*"*)". The epithet triprsfha, 'three-backed', is
peculiar to Soma. Being applied to the juice at least once (7,37*) it probably
refers (as Säya9a thinks) to the three admixtures, much as the Agni's epithet
ghrtaprsjha alludes to ghee being thrown on the fire'^.

Based on the mixture of water with the juice, the connexion of Soma
with the waters is expressed in the most varied ways. Streams flow for him
(9» 31^)« Th^ waters follow his ordinance (9, 825). He flows at the head
of streams (9, 86"). He is lord and king of streams (9, 155. 86^^. 89*),
lord of spouses (9, 86^^), an oceanic isamudriya) king and god (9, 107*^).
The waters are his sisters (9, 823). As leader of waters, Soma rules over
rain (9, 74^). He produces waters and causes heaven anid earth to rain
(9, 96^. He streams rains from heaven (9, 8^ 49*. 97*7. io89-»®). The Soma
drops themselves are several times compared with rain (9, 41^. 89^ 1 06^)^4
and Soma is said to flow clearly with a stream of honey like the rain-charged
cloud (9, 2 9). So too the Pavamäna drops are said to have streamed from
heaven, from air, on the ridge of earth (9, 63^7). There are some other
passages in which the soma that is milked appears to refer to rain (8, 7***;
9, 744, cp. 10, 30*) 'S. The SB. (11, 5, 4^) identifies the amrta with the
waters. This identification may have given rise to the myth of Soma brought
down to man by an eagle (p. iii)^^ But the celestial Soma descending
to earth was doubtless usually regarded as only mixed with rain, and not
confounded with it*7.

The waters are invoked to set in motion the exhilerating wave, the
draught of Indra, the sky-bom well (10, 30^). Soma is the drop which grows
in the waters (9,85*". 89*). Hence he is the embryo of the waters (9,97**;
SB. 4, 4, 5*0 or their child, for seven sisters as mothers are around the child,
the newly bom, the Gandharva of the waters (9, 86^^; cp. 10, 13*), and the
waters are directly called his mothers (9, 61^). Soma is also spoken of as
a youth among the waters or cows (5, 459 ; 9, 95).

io8 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

The sound made by the Soma juice as it is being purified and rushes
into the vats or bowls, is often referred to. It is compared with that of rain
(9,41^). But the language is generally hyperbolical. Thus the sweet drop
is Said to flow over the filter like the din of combatants (9, 69*). The noise
is constantly designated by various verbs meaning to roar or bellow {krand^
nady mä^ ru^ väi\ 9, 91 3. 95* &c.). Even the verb stan^ *to thunder', is used
(9, 869) and the wise are described as *milking the thundering unfailing stalk'
(9> 72^). Lightning also is in some verses connected with the purification
of Soma (9, 41 3. 80*. 84^. 87*); this in all probability alludes to the purifi-
cation of the celestial Soma and may have referred to the phenomena of
the thunderstorm *^

When Soma is said to roar he is commonly compared with or directly
called a bull. *As a bull he bellows in the wood' (9, 7 5); *the tawny bull
bellows and shines with the Sun' (9, 2^). As the waters, added with or with-
out milk, ^9 are figuratively called cows, the relation of Soma to them is
usually that of a bull to cows. He is a bull among the cows (9, i6^ 69*.
96O or is lord of the cows (9, 72*). He bellows like a bull traversing the
cows (9, 71 9) or like a bull towards the cows (9, 7i7)> the cows also bellowing
towards him (9, 80' &c.). He is the bull of heaven as well as of the earth
and the streams (6, 44^0- The impetuosity of Soma is also several times
illustrated by comparison with a bufFalo (mahisä), Thus he even comes to
be called an animal {J>aiu\ 9, 86*'^). Being a bull among the cow-waters,
Soma is the fertilizer of the waters (lo, 36^ cp. 9, 195). He is also (9,8639)
an impregnator {räodha)^ an epithet especially appHed to the moon in the
YV. (e. g. MS. 1,6'^). Hence he is a bestower of fertility (9,60*. 74^). Soma
being so frequently called a bull {uksan, vrsan, vrsabhd) is sharp-homed
[figmairngd)^ an epithet which in five of its six occurrences in the RV. is
accompanied by a word meaning TduIF. Thus the brewed drink {manthd) of
Indra is hke a sharp-homed bull (10, Zd^^). Soma is also said (like Agni)
to sharpen his homs (9, 15*. 707)3°.

Soma is swift (i, 47) and, in illustration of the speed with which the
pressed juice flows, is very often compared with or designated a steed. Thus
the ten maidens are said to cleanse him like a swift steed (9, 6 5). The drop
which intoxicates Indra is a tawny steed (9, 63*7). Soma flowing into the
vats is sometimes also compared with a bird flying to the wood (9, 72S &c).

Owing to the yellow colour of the juice, the physical quality of Soma
mainly dwelt on by the poels, is his brilliance. His rays are often referred
to and he is frequently assimilated to the sun. He shines like or with the
sun or clothes himself in its rays (9, 76*. 86^*; cp. 7i9). He ascends the car
of the sun and Stands above all beings like the sun^'- He fiUs heaven and
earth with rays like the sun (9, 41 5). When bom a bright son, he caused
his parents to shine (9, 93). The daughter of the sun purifies him (9, i^).
Thus it comes to be said of him that he combats the darkness (9, 97), wards
it off with light (9, 86"), or creates bright light, dispelling the darkness
(9, 66 "^ IOC». 108" &c.).

Its mysteriously exhilerating and invigorating action, surpassing that of
ordinary food or drink and prompting to deeds beyond the natural powers,
led to Soma being regarded as a divine drink which bestows immortal life.
Hence it is mythologically called amrta^ the draught of immortality. It is an
immortal stimulant (i, 84^), which the gods love (9,85*) and of which, when
pressed by men and mixed with milk, all the gods drink (9, 109^«); for they
hasten to exhileration (8, 2'^) and become exhilerated (8, 58"). Soma is
immortal (i, 43^; 8, 48"; 9,3' &c.); and the gods drank him for immortality

Terrestrial Gods. 37. SoMA. 109

(9, 106®). He confers immortality on the gods (1,91^; 9, 108^) and on men
(i, 91*; 8,48^). He places his worshipper in the everlasting and impeiishable
World where there is eternal light and glory, and makes him immortal where
king Vaivasvata lives (9, ii3''**)^'.

Thus Soma naturally has medicinal power also. It is medicine for a
sick man (8, 61 '7)- Hence the god Soma heals whatever is sick, making
the blind to see and the lame to walk (8,68*; 10,25"). He is the guardian
of men's bodies and occupies their every limb (8, 48^), bestowing length of
life in this world (i, 91^; 8, 48<''; 9, 4^. 91^). The Soma draught is even
Said to dispel sin from the heart, to destroy falsehood and to promote truth.

When imbibed Soma stimulates the voice (6,47^; 9» 84*. 95^. 97^^), which
he impels as the rower his boat (9, 95"). This is doubtless the reason why
Soma is called *lord of speech* vOcas pati^^ (9, 26^. loiS) or leader of speech,
vOco agriya or agre (9, 7^. 62'*""^ 86". io6'°). He is also said to raise his
voice from heaven (9, 68*). In the BrähmaQas vdc^ *speech', is described as
the price paid by the gods for Soma^*. Soma also awakens eager thought
(6,473). So his worshippers exclaim: *We have drunk Soma, we have become
immortal, we have entered into light, we have known the gods' (8, 48 3). Thus
he is also spoken of as a lord of thought and as a father, leader, or gener-
ator of hymns^s. He is a leader of poets, a seer among priests (9, 96^).
He has the mind of seers, is a maker of seers (9, 96**) and a protector of
prayer (6, 5 2 3). He is the *soul of sacrifice' (9, 2^^ 6*), a priest {prahma)
among the gods (9, 96^), and apportions to them their share of sacrifice
(lo, 8 5 '9). Soma's wisdom thus comes to be predominantly dwelt upon^^.
He is a wise seer (8, 68'). He knows the races of the gods (9, 8I^ 95*.
977. 108^). He is a wise man-seeing wave (9, 78'). Soma with intelligence
surveys creatures (9, 719). Hence he is many-eyed (9, 265) and thousand-
eyed (9, 60').

Soma stimulated the Fathers to deeds (9, 96"); through him the Fathers
found the light and the cows (9, 9 7 ■'9). Soma is also said to be united with
the fathers (8, 48^^) or to be accompanied by them (AV. 18, 4**; SB. 2, 6,
I*, &c.), the Fathers, conversely, being called soma-loving, {somya: lo, 14^;

AV. 2, 125).

The exhilerating effect of the draught on man was naturally transferred
to the gods, to whom the Soma was oflfered. The main application of its
intoxicating power is its stimulating efifect on. Indra in his conflict with the
hostile powers of the air. That Soma strengthens Indra for the fight with
Vjtra, is mentioned in innumerable passages of the RV. (8, 8i*7 &c.), jn
the intoxication of Soma Indra slays all foes (9, i'°) and no one can resist
him in battle when he has drunk it (6, 47'). Soma is the soul of Indra
(9, 853), the auspicious friend of Indra (10, 25''), whose vigour he stimulates
(9, 76*) and whom he aids in slaying Vjtra (9, 61*^). With Soma as a com-
panion Indra made the waters to flow for man and slew the dragon (4, 28').
Thus Soma is sometimes even called the hoW. (pajra) of Indra (9. 72'. 77'
iii^). Soma, Indra's juice, becomes a thousand-winning holt (9, 47^). It
is the intoxicating draught which destroys a hundred forts (9, 48*) and is a
V|tra-slaying intoxicating stalk (6, 17")- Thus the god Soma is said to be
*like Indra a slayer of Vj-tras and a fort-destroyer* (9, ^Z*') and comes to
receive half a dozen times the epithet vrirahatty 'V^tra-slaying', which pri-
marily belongs to Indra ^ 7.

When drunk by Indra Soma caused the sun to rise in heaven (9, 86'*).
So this cosmic action comes to be attributed to Soma independently. He
caused the sun to shine (9, 28*. 37*), caused the lights of the sky to shine

HO ni. Religion, weltl, Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a, Vedic Mythülugy.

(9, 85^), and produced the sun in the waters (9, 42^)^^. He caused the sun
to rise, impelled it, obtained and bestowed it, and caused the dawns to
shine-59. He makes his worshippers participate in the sun (9, 4^ and finds
light for them (9, 35"). He found the light (9, 59*) and wins light and
heaven (9, 3^). Just as even the sacrificial butter is spoken of as the *navel
of immortality', on which rests the whole world (4, 58'-"), the conception
of Soma comes to be extended to that of a being of universal dominion
(9, S6'^''^), who is *lord of the quarters' (9, 113*)^ who performs the great
cosmic actions of generating the two worlds (9, 90*), of creating or estab-
lishing heaven and earth, of supporting heaven, and of placing light in the

sun (6, 44*^"'*. 47^"*)*°.

Being so intimately connected with Indra in the conflict with Vrtra,
Soma comes to be spoken of independently as a great fighter. He is a victor,
unconquered in fight, born for battle (i, 91*')- He is the most heroic of
heroes, the fiercest of the terrible, ever victorious (9, 66 '^"'7). He conquers
for his worshippers cows, chariots, horses, gold, heaven, water, a thousand
boons (9, 78*), and everything (8, 68'). Without reference to his warlike
character, he is constantly said to bestow all the wealth of heaven and
earth, food, cattle, horses, and so forth (9, 45^. 49*. 52* &c.). Soma himself
is^ occasionally called a treasure (rqyi: 9, 48^) or the wealth of the gods
(SB. I, 6, 45). Soma can also afford protection from foes (10, 257). He
drives away goblins (9, 495) and, like some other deities but more frequently,
receives the epithet of goblin-slayer {raksohan), Soma is the only god who
is called a slayer of the wicked (9, 28^ &c.). In the later Vedic literature
the Statement occurs that Brähmans who drink Soma are able to slay at a
glance (MS. 4, 8*)4\

Being a warrior, Soma is said to have weapons (9, 96'^), which like a
hero he grasps in his hand (9, 76^) and which are terrible and sharp (9,61^**.
903). In one passage he is said to have obtained his weapons by robbing
his malignant father of them (6, 44 '0« He is described as armed with a
thousand-pointed shaft (9, 83^ 86^°) and his bow is swift (9, 90^).

Soma rides in the same chariot as Indra (9, 879. 96*. 1035). He is
charioteer to the car-fighter Indra (AV. 8, 8^^). He drives in a car (9, 3^),
which is heavenly (9, 1 1 1 ^). He has light (9, 86^5) or a filter for his car
(9> ^S^). He is the best of charioteers (9, 66^^). He has well-winged mares
of his own (9, 86^^; and a team like Väyu (9, ^^^),

Soma is naturally sometimes connected with Indra's intimate associates,
the Maruts. They are said to milk the bull of heaven (9, 108", cp. 54*)
and to adorn the child when born (9, 96*7). Like Indra, Soma is attended
by the Maruts (6, 475) or the troop of the Maruts (9, 66**). The Winds,
too, are said to be gladdening to Soma (9, 31^) and Väyu is his guardian
(10, 855). Soma forms a pair with Agni, Pü§an, and Rudra respectively
(p. 128 — 9). A few times he is mystically indentified with Varuna (9, 775. 954 ;

cp. 73^-'; 8, 41^).

The Soma plant is once in the RV. (10,34^) described as maujavata^
which according to later Statements** would mean 'produced on Mount
Müjavat'. Soma is also several times described as dwelÜng in the mountains
{giristhäY'^ or growing in the mountains*^ {parvatävrdh: 9, 46*). Mountains
are also called *Soma-backed* (AV. 3,21*°), a term which, perhaps by sacri-
ficial symbolism, is applied to the pressing stones {adrayah) in RV. 8, 52*.
All these terms point to the abode of the Soma plant being on terrestrial
mountains (cp. especially 9,823). This is confirmed by the Statement ofthe
Avesta that Haoma grows on the mountains^s. Since the Soma plant actually

TeRRESTRIAL GODS. 37. SOMA. III

grew on mountains, it is probable that this fact is present to the mind of
the poet even when he says that *on the vault of heaven sweet-tongued
friends milk the mountain-dwelling bull' (9, 85*® cp. 95*). Terrestrial hüls may
also be intended when it is said that *VaruQa has placed Agni in the waters,
the sun in heaven, and Soma on the rock' (5, 85*), or that 'Mätarisvan brought
the one (Agni) from heaven, while the eagle carried off the other (Soma)
from the rock' (i, 93^); but here there is more doubt, as *mountain* and
'rock' mythologically often mean 'cloud' (p. 10).

Though Soma is a terrestrial plant, it is also celestial (10, ii63); in fact
its true origin and abode are regarded as in heaven. Thus it is said that
the birth of the plant is on high; being in heaven it has been received by
earth (9, 6i*°). The *intoxicating juice' is the *child of heaven' (9, 38^), an
epithet frequently applied to Soma. In one passage, however, he is called
the offspring (jäh) of the sun (9, 93') and in another Parjanya is spoken of
as the father of the mighty bird (9, 823 cp. 113^). In the AV. the origin
of amrta is also traced to the seed of Parjanya (AV. 8, 7**). When Soma
is called a child {siiü) simply (9, 96*7) or a youth {yuvan)^ this is doubtless
in allusion to the fact that, like Agni, he is continually produced anew*^.
Soma is the milk (piyüsd) of heaven (9, 51' &c.), is purified in heaven
(9» 83 ^ 86^^ &c.). He flows with his stream to the dear places of heaven
(9, 12*). He runs through heaven across the^ spaces with his stream (9, 3').
He occupies heaven (9, 85^), is in heaven (SB. 3, 4, 3'^), or is the lord of
heaven (9, 86"-33). As bird of heaven he looks down on earth and regards
all beings (9, 719). He Stands above all worlds like god Sürya (9, 543).
The drops being purified have been poured from heaven, from the air, on
the surface of the earth (9, (i2i^'^)^T\ for he is a traverser of space {rajastur:
4, 48^ io87). Fingers rub him surrounded with milk 'on the third ridge, in
the bright realm of heaven' (9, 86*7). His place is in the highest heaven
(3, 32*"; 4, 26*^; 9, 86 «5) or in the third heaven (TS. 3, S, 7' &c.)4». *Heaven',
however, also seems to be frequently a mystical name of the strainer of
sheep^'s wooH^. This seems to be the case when Soma is spoken of as
being *on the navel of heaven, on the sheep-filter* (9, 12*), as traversing
the lights of heaven, the sheep-filter (9, 373), as running with Sürya in heaven,
on the filter (9, 2 7 5); or when it is said that *the bull has occupied heaven,
the king goes soaring over the strainer* (9, 859 cp. 86*), The term sänUy
'summif , so frequently applied to the filter, is suggestive of divaJ^ sänuy *the
summit of heaven*. Such terms would naturally come to be connected with
the terrestrial Soma, because heaven is the abode of the celestial Soma or
amrta (6, 44*3).

Soma has been brought from heaven (9, 63*7. 663°). The myth most
commonly expressive of this belief is that of Soma and the eagle. It was
brought by the eagle (i, 80*). The bird brought Soma from that highest
heaven (4, 26^). The eagle brought the Soma or mead {madhu) to Indra
(3> 43^ j 4» i8'3). The swift eagle flew to the Soma plant (5, 459); the eagle
tore off the sweet stalk for Indra (4, 20^). The eagle brought it for Indra
through the air with his foot (8, 71 9). Flying swift as thought, the bird
broke through the iron castle (cp. 4, 27^), going to heaven he brought the
Soma for the wielder of the holt (8, 89*). The eagle bore the plant from
afar, fi-om heaven (9, 68^ 77\ 86'^j 10, ii*. 99^ 144*). The myth is most
fiilly dealt with in RV. 4, 26 and 27S0. in the Brähma^as it is Gäyatn, a
mystical sacerdotal name of Agni^^ that carries off the Soma, In the RV.
the eagle is constantly distinguished from Indra as bringing the Soma to him.
There is only one passage (unconnected with this myth) in which Indra seated

112 in, Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kxjnst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

at the Soma offering is called an eagle (lo, 99®). *Eagle of heaven' is an
epithet applied to Agni (7, 15^: otherwise twice said of the Manits), the term
eagle is connected with Agni Vaidyuta or lightning (TB. 3, 10, 5" cp. 12,1'),
and Agni is often called a bird in Üie RV. (p. 89). On this evidence Bloom-
FiELD, who subjects his predecessors' interpretations of RV. 4, 2 7 to a search-
ing criticism, with much plausibility explains the carrpng off of Soma by
the eagle as a mythological account of the simple phenomenon of the
descent of lightning, darting from the cloud (i. e. the iron castle) and causing
the fall of the ambrosial fluid Soma (i. e. the water of the cloud). At the
same time he refers to a passage of the RV. (i, 93^) in which the descent
of fire and of Soma are mentioned together^. A detail of the myth (pro-
bably a mere embellishment added by the individual poet) is the trait that
as the eagle carried away Soma, the archer KfsänuS^ shot at him knocking
out a feather (4, 273-^; cp. AB. 3, 25). This trait is related with greater
detail in the Brähmaiias. Either a feather or a claw is here stated to have
been shot off. Falling to the ground, it became a parna {paläid) or a
ialyaka tree. The tree hereby acquired a specially sacred character in conne-
xion with the rituals*.

Being the most important of herbs Soma is said to have been bom as
the lord of plants (9, 114*), which are also said to have Soma as their king^s
(9> 97*®""*)- He receives the epithet vanaspati^ *lord of the wood' (i, 91^;
9, 127) and is said to have generated all plants (i, 91*'). In the Brahma^as
plants are connected with Soma, being styled saumya (SB. 12, i, i*)5ö.
Irrespectively of his being lord of plants, Soma is often, like other leading
gods, called a king57. He is also a king of rivers (9, 89*), a king of the
whole earth (9,97**^), a king or father of the gods (9,86*^. 87^ 109*) a king
of gods and mortals (9,97*^), and a king of Brähmans (VS. 9, 40; TS. i,8'°;
MS. 2, 69). He is of course often called a god; but in one passage he is
described as 'a god pressed for the gods* (9, 3^- 7).

In the post- Vedic literature Soma is a regulär name of the moon, which
is regarded as being drunk up by the gods and so waning, tili it is fiUed up
again by the sun. In the Chändogya Upani§ad (5, 10*) the Statement is
found that the moon is king Soma, the food of the gods, and is drunk up
by thems^. Even in the Brähmanas the identification of Soma with the moon
is already a common-place59. Thus the AB. (7,11) remarks that the moon
is the Soma of the gods; the SB. (i, 6, 4^), that king Soma, the food of
the gods, is the moon; and in the Kau§itaki Br. (7, 10; 4, 4) the sacrificial
plant or juice is symbohcal of the moon-god. The mythology of the Bräh-
maijas already explains the phases of the moon as due to the gods and
Fathers eating its substance, which consists of ambrosia^°. Soma, as the
moon, is in the YV. also conceived as having the lunar asterisms, the daughters
of Prajäpati, for his wives^^ In the AV., moreover, Soma several times
means the moon (7,8x3-4. n^ 57^ &c.). A large number of scholars agree
that even in a few of the latest hymns of the RV. (in the first and tenth
books) Soma is already identified with the moon^*. Most of them, however,
hold that Soma as a god is celebrated in the Vedic hymns only as a per-
sonification of the beverage, regarding his identification with the moon as
merely a secondary mythological growth^'J. The most important of the
passages in which the identification is generally admitted, is that which de-
scribes the wedding of Soma and the sun-maiden Süryä (10, 85)^*. Here
Soma is spoken of as *in the lap of the stars', (v.^), and it is said that no
one eats of that Soma which the priests know and which is contrasted with
that which they crush (v. 3). The Soma nature of the moon being referred

Terrestrial GoDS. 37. SoMA. 113

to as a secret known to Brähmans only, shows that it cannot yet have been
a populär notion. The process by which the celestial Soma gradually coa-
lesced with the moon is not düBcult to understand. Soma is^ on the one
hand, continually thought of as celestial and bright^ soinetimes as dispelling
darkness and swelling in the waters; on the other hand, it is very often
called a *drop', indu (6, 44**) ^s. Comparison with the moon would there-
fore easily suggest itself. Thus Soma in the bowls is said in one passage to
appear like the moon in the waters (8, 71**; cp. i, 105*); and in another,
Soma being described as the drop {drapsd) which goes to the ocean, looking
with the eye of a vulture (10,123®), is generally admitted to allude to the moon.

HiLLEBRANDT, howcver, in his Vedische Mythologie not only claims this
identification for a number of other passages in the RV., but asserts that in
the whole of the ninth book Soma is the moon (p. 309) and nowhere the
ordinary plant (p. 326), the ninth book in fact being a book of hymns to
the moon^^. Soma, he maintains, means, in the earliest as well as the latest
parts of the whole RV., only the Soma plant or juice on the one hand, and,
as a deity, only the moon on the other (pp. 274. 340. 450). According to
his view, the moon is a receptacle of Soma or amrta and is the god whom
the worshipper means when he presses the draught, which is part of the
lunar ambrosia. Hillebrandt goes even further than this complete Iden-
tification of Soma and the moon in the RV. He also asserts that the moon-
god as Soma forms the centre of Vedic belief and cult (p. 277), bemg the
creator and ruler of the world much more than the sun (p. 313), while Indra
is the most populär Vedic god only next to the moon*^ (p. 315).

In Opposition to this h3rpothesis, it has been argued that, in the vast
majority of the references to Soma in the RV., the character of the god as
a personification of the plant and juice is clear and obvious. On the other
hand, while the identification of Soma and the moon is perfectly clear in
the later literature, there is in the whole of the RV. no single distinct and
explicit instance either of the identification or of the conception that the
moon is the food of the gods. It is only in passages where the brilliance
of Soma, so constantly connected with the sun, is vaguely expressed, that
references to the moon can be found. At the same time it is possible that
amid the chaotic details of the imagery of the Soma hymns, there may
occasionally lurk a veiled identification of ambrosia and the moon. Here
and there passages celebrating the luminous nature of Soma or referring to
his swelling {äpyäyana), which affords a parallel to the swelling of the moon,
may allude to such a notion. But on the whole, with the few late excep-
tions generally admitted, it appears to be certain that to the seers of the
RV. the god Soma is a personification of the terrestrial plant and juice ^®.
It is, moreover, hardly conceivable that all the Vedic commentators, in whose
day Soma and the moon were believed to be one, should not know that
Soma means the moon in the RV. also ^9.

It is an undoubted fact that Soma, the Avestan Haoma, was already
prepared and celebrated in the Indo-Iranian period. In the RV. Soma is
described as growing on the mountains or a particular mountain; in the
Avesta it is said to grow on a certain mountain. In the RV. Varu^a places
it on the rock; in the Avesta it is placed on the great mountain Haraiti by
a skilful god. In the RV. it is brought by an eagle; in the Avesta it is
distributed from its native mountain by certain auspicious birds. In both it
is king of plants. In both it is a medicine which gives health, long life, and
removes death. As Soma grows in the waters, so Haoma in the waters of
Ardvi-süra?**. The pressing and offering of Soma was already an important

Indo-amche Philologie. IIL 1a. g

114 DL Reugion, weltl. Wisseksch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythologv.

feature of Indo-IraniaD woiship. But wbile three dafly pressings are refeired
to in tfae RV., only two are mentioned in the Avesta (Yasna lo, 2). In both
it is stated that Üie stalks (afft/u = äsu) were pressed, that tfae juice was
yellow and was mixed witfa mük (Yasna 10, 13). In botfa the cele^ial Soma
is distinguished from tiie terrestiia], and tiie beverage firom tfae god. In both
tfae mythical home of Soma is faeaven, whence it comes down to eaith. In
both tiie Soma draught (like the sacrificial fire) had already become a mighty
god and is called a king. As Soma is vrtrahany so Haoma is verethrajan
and casts missües {vadare = Vedic vadAar). Botfa are light-winning (szarsd
■= kvaresa) and wise {sukratu «= hukhratu). Both remove the machinations
of tfae wicked, bestow victoiy over foes, and confer tfae celestial worldL Botfa
grant steeds and excellent cfaildren. Tfae RV. and tfae Avesta even agree in
tfae names of ancient preparers of Soma, Vivasvat and Trita Äpt}'a on the
one faand, and Yivanhvant, Atfawya, and Thrita on the other''. The belief
in an intoxicating divine beverage^ tfae faome of which was faeaven, may be
Indo-European. If so, it must have been regaided as a kind of faoney-mead
(Skt mddhu^ Gk. {&edu, As. medü) brought down to earth from its guardian demon
by an eagle (tfae Soma-bringing eagle of Indra agreeing witfa tfae nectar-bring-
ing eagle of Zeus and witfa the eagle wfaicfa, as a metamorphosis of Odhin,
carried off tfae mead)?^. Tfais madhu or faoney-mead, \i Indo-European, was
replaced in the Indo-Iranian period by Soma; but may have survived into
the Yedic period, by amalgamating ^ith Soma 7^.

Etymologically Soma = Haoma means 'pressed juice', being derived from
tfae root SU = hu^ 'to press'.

I Oldexberg, ZDMG. 42, 241. — a BRV. I, 182. — 3 HVM. 1, 47. — 4 Anna
=- surä SB. 12, 7, 38; cp. HV>L I, 264, — 5 HVM. 1, 518. — kHF. 12S f.;
ZDMG. 32, 301. — 7 HVM. I, 243—4. — Ä Op. CiL 28. — 9 Op. ciL 46S ff.;
ORV. 389. — »o HiLLXBRANDT, Vedaintcrprctation 16. — «« HVM. i, 182. —
" Op. cit. 151. — iJ Op. CiL 206 — 7. — 14 Windisch, FaR. 141. — «5 H\'M.
1, 186. — »6 LRV. 3. 378—9. — »; HVM. I, 210. — X* Op. CiL 229. — »9 Op.
CiL 195. — 20 Op. CiL 256, note 3. — a» Op. cit. 1S9. — »^ LRV. 5, 200. —
»3 Othenrise H\'M. i, 392—3. — '* Windisch, FaR. 140. — «5 PVS. I, 87— 8;
KHF. 129. 142. 227; KZ. I, 521 ff.; GGH. 70. 115; W\'B. 1894,4. »S- — ^ HRL
123 — 4. — 27 BRV. I, 165. — 2* Op. CiL 1, 170; lightning is associated with rain
in I, 399; 5* ^^; 7f 56'3; 10, 915 cp. 5, S34; Bloomfield, AJP. 7. 470. —
29 BRV. 1, 204 — y HVM. I, 340 thinks the homs arc those of the moon. —
3« References in HVNL i, 601. — l^ KRV. note 308; BRV. i, 192. — II BRV.
1, 185; HVM. I, 349. — 34 Roth, ZDMG. 35, 6S7; Webek, IS. 10, 360; HVM.
I, 79. — 35 BRV. 1, 300, note 2; HVM. 1, 403. — 3«» BRV. 1, 185—6. — 37 KHF.
105; Macdonell, TRAS. 25, 472. — 3» HVM. i, 3S7— S. — 39 References in HVM.
1, 3S8. — 40 Cp Haug, ZDMG. 7, 511. — 41 ZDMG. 7, 331. 375. — 4* VS. 3,61
and comm-, Ap. öS. 12, 5, ii; YN. 9, 8; cp. AIL. 20; HVM. 1, 63 ff. — 43 Twice,
also Said of Vi§nu, once of the Marats. — 44* Bergfroh*, Hillebrandt, Vcda-
interpretation 15. — 45 On the habitat of the Soma plant, scc Roth, ZDMG. 38.
134 — 9; MM., Biographies of Woriis »London, iSSS"" 222 — 42, — 40 JRAS. 25, 437.

— 47 Wlvdisch, FaR. 140. — 4* Also 6, i, 6»; Karh. 23, 10 in IS 8, 31 ; \S. I,
211; TB. I, 1, 3«o; 3, 2, i«. — 49 HVM. i, 361, note z. — ^ Roth, ZDMG. 36,
353 — 60. 3S4; Ll'DWIg, Nfethode 30. 66; Koi^likovski, Revue de lingnistique 18,
1—9; BRV. 3, 322 ff.; PVS. 1, 207—16; HVM. i, 27S— 9; Bloomfield, FaR- 149 — 55;
ORV. 180— 1; WVB. 1S94, p. 5. — 5« Cp. >B. 3, 9, 4»o; KHF. 130 f. 144! 172.

— « Bloomfield, JAOS. 16, 1—24; ORV. 176. iSo thinks there is no reason to
see a natural agent in the bird, or to assume any connexion between the Soma
and the water of clonds. — 53 Sp.AP. 224. — 54 KHF. 159 f. 170. 209; W\^B.
1S94, p. 5- — 55 Cp. ZD>fG. 25, 647. — 50 HV>L 1, 390, note 4, — 57 Op. ciL
317— S. — 5* Delssen, System des Vedinta 415 ff. — 59 W\'B. 1894, p. 16— 7. —
CO HV>L I, 296. — 0« WEBEi, Naksatra 2, 274 ff ; OLDE.NBERG, ZDMG. 49, 470;
on Soma dwelünsj with Rohini, cp. TvcoBi, FaR. 71, note; R. Brown jil, Academy
42, 439. — -^ HVM. I, 269 — 03 BRV. 1, 160. — 14 Weber, IS. 5, 178 ff.; W\'B.
1094, p. 34; OST. 5, 237; Ehni, Zl>MG. 33, 167—8; JvroBi, ib. 49, 227; Olden-
BERG, ib. 478. — ci Ejini, L c. — ^^ Cp. Bloomfield, AJP. 14, 491—3; MM.

Abstract GoDS. 38 A. Various Agent GoDS. 115

Fortnightly Review, Oct. 1893, 443 ff- H Chips 4«, 328—67) — 67 Gubernatis, Myth.
des Plantes 2, 351, Letture sopra la mitol. vedica 106, and PVS. i, 80 (cp. 2, 242)
had called for a complete identification, but without attempting to prove the pro-
position (cp. GGA. 1889, p. 10). — 68 Whitney, PAOS. 1894, p. xcixf.; ORV.
599 — 612. — 69 HRL 1 17. — 70 Spiegel, Av. Tr. 2, lxxii f. ; D armesteter, Ormazd et
Ahriman 140. — 7» Yasna ix— x; cp. Sp.AP. 172; HVM. i, 121. 265. 450; ORV.
178; Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 485. — 7» ORV. 176. — 73 Op. cit 178.

Windischmann, Ueber den Somakultus der Arier, Abb. d. Münchner Akad.
1846, p. 127 ff.; KHF. 10$ fL; Whitney, JAOS. 3, 299; Weber, IS. 3, 466; WVB.
1894, p. 3. 13—17; Haug, ab. Introd. p. 61—2; OST. 5, 258—71; BRV. i, 148
--225 &c.; BRT. 24; Roth, ZDMG. 35,680—92; Sp.AP. 168—78; HVM.I; ZDMG.
48, 419 f.; E.H. Meyer, IF. 2, 161 ; Knaübr, Vedische Fragen, FaR.61— 7; HVBP.
68—74.

D. ABSTRACT GODS.

S 38. Two Classes. — There are in the RV. two classes of deities
whose natura is founded on abstraction. The one class consisting of the
direct personücations of abstract notions such as 'desire' is rare^ occurring
only in the very latest hymns of the RV. and due to that growth of specu-
lation which is so plainly traceable in the course of the Vedic age. The
other and more numerous class comprises deities whose names primarily either
denote an agent, in the form of a noun derived from a root with the suffix
-/r, such as Dhätr, 'Creator*, or designate some attribute, such as Prajäpati,
'Lord of Creatures'. This class^ judged by the evolution of the mythological
creations of the Veda, does not represent direct abstractions, but appears in
each case to be derived from an epithet applied to one or more deities and
illustrating a particular aspect of activity or character. Such epithets gradually
becoming detached finally attained to an independent position. Thus Rohita,
'the Red One' (whose female form is Rohipi), originally an epithet of the
sun, figures in the AV. as a separate deity in the capacity of a Creator*.

A. Various Agent Gods. — The most important of the gods whose
names denote an agent in -/r, is Savitr, who has already been treated
among the solar deities (S 1 5). Most of the others are of rare occurrence in
the RV. Dhätr> found in a few passages as an appellative designating priests
as 'establishers' of the sacrifice, occurs as the name of a deity about a dozen
times and, with the exception of one indefinite mention in Company with a
number of other gods (7, 35^), only in the tenth book. In one of these
passages the name is an epithet of Indra (10, 167^) and in another of
Vi^vakarman (10, 82'). The frequent ascription of the action of establishing
(ydAä) the phenomena of the world to difFerent gods, gradually led to the
conception of a separate deity exercising this particular activity. Thus Dhätr
generally has the independent character of a god who creates sun, moon,
heaven, earth, and air (10, 1903), and is lord of the world (10, 128'). In a
hymn to the Sun, Dhätr is invoked to grant a clear eye (10, 1583). He is
besought with Vi§iju, Tva§tr, Prajäpati, to grant ofFspring (10, 184*) and, by
himself, to bestow length of days (10, iS^). He is also prayed to indefinitely
with Vi§9U and Savitr (10, 181*""^) or with Mätarisvan and De§tri (10, 85*^).
In the Naigha^t^ika (5, 5) Dhätr is enumerated among the gods of the middle
region and by Yäska (Nir. 11, 10) explained as the 'ordainer of everything*.
In the post-Vedic period, Dhätr is the Creator and Preserver of the world,
being the equivalent of Prajäpati or Brahma. The rare name Vi dhätr, the
'Disposer' is in two passages an epithet, beside Dhätr, once of Indra (10,
1673) and once of Visvakarman (lo, 82"); but appears twice in enumerations
of deities to bave an independent character (6, 50**; 9,8i5). Dhartr, 'Supporter*,

8*

ii6 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

frequently used (almost exclusively with the genitive of that which is supported)
as an epithet of Indra and other gods, occurs once as an independent name
along with Dhätj* and other deities (7, 35^). Similarly, Trätr, the 'Protector',
mostly employed as an epithet of Agni or Indra and, in the plural, of the
Ädityas, occurs independently as *the Protector God' in five passages along
with other deities (i, 106"; 4, 55^- 7; 8, i8^°; 10, 128^), In Roth's opinion,
Savitr especially and also Bhaga are intended by this god'. A *Leader
God' (d^a netr) is invoked two or three times in one hymn (5, 50) as a
guide to prosperity in life.

B. Tva^tr- — The only deity bearing a name of this type, who besides
Savitr is mentioned with any frequency, is Tva§tr- His name occurs about
65 times in the RV., pretty uniformly in the family books (though rarely in
the seventh as well as the eighth), but relatively oftenest in the first and
tenth. No hymn is, however, devoted to his praise.

No part of Tva^tr's physical form is mentioned except his arm or hand,
it being characteristic of him to hold an iron axe in his hand (8, 29^). He
is once described as yoking his two steeds to his chariot and shining greatiy
(6, 47*9). Tva§ti: is beautiful-armed {sugabhasH\ 6, 499), or beautiful-handed
(supäni\ predominantiy applied to him and Savitr).

He is a skilful workman (i, 85^; 3, 54"), producmg various objects
showing the skill of an artificer. He is in fact the most skilful of workmen,
versed in crafty contrivances (lo, 539). He is several times said (5, 31* &c.)
to have fashioned ( Ytaks) the bolt of Indra. He also sharpens Üie iron axe
of Brahmaijiaspati (10, 539). He formed a new cup (i, 20^) which contained
the food of the asura (i,iio3) or the beverage of the gods (i,i6i5; 3,355).
He thus possesses vessels out of which the gods drink (10, 539). The AV.
(9> 4^'^) describes him as an old man bearing a bowl of wealth, a cup füll
of Soma, From Tva§tr the swift horse was produced (VS. 29, 9), and he
gives speed to the horse (AV. 6, 92*).

The RV. further states that Tva§tr adomed all beings with form (10,
iio9). He developes the germ in the womb and is the shaper of all forms,
human and animal (1,1 889; 8,91®; 10, 184*). Similar Statements are frequently
made in later Vedic texts (AV. 2, 26', &c.), where he is characteristically a
Creator of forms (SB. 11, 4, 3^; TB. 1, 4, 7*)>5. He himself is called omniform
{visvarüpä) oftener than any other deity in the RV. As fashioner of living
forms, he is frequently described as presiding over generation and bestowing
oflfspring (3, 49 &c.). Thus he is said to have fashioned husband and wife
for each other from the womb (10, lo^; AV. 6, 78^). He has produced aiid
nourishes a great variety of creatures (3, 55*9). Beasts belong toTva§tr (SB.
3> 1i 3"- S> 3")- He is indeed a universal father, for he produced the whole
World (VS. 29, 9).

He is also the anceslor of the human race in so far as his daughter
Sara^yü, wife of Vivasvat, becomes the mother of the primeval twins Yama
and YamI (10, 17*' ', cp. 5, 42*-5). Väyu is once said to be his son-in-law
(8, 26"). Tva§tr begot Brhaspati (2, 23*7). Agni produced by the ten fingers,
is the offspring of Tva§tr (i, 95^), who, along with Heaven and Earth, the
Waters, and the Bhrgus, generated him (10, 2 7. 469). It is to be inferred
that Tva§tr was also the father of Indra (p. 57). Tvastr is especially a guardian
of Soma, which is called *the mead of Tva$tr' (i, 117^*). It is in his house
that Indra drinks Soma and presumately steals it, even slaying his father in
Order to obtain it (p. 57). The *omniform' Tva§^ has a son named Visvarüpä
(the Omniform), who is a guardian of cows. The hostility of Indra is directed
against the son in Order to win these cows, just as against the father in

AbSTRACT GODS. 38B. TVASTR. 117

Order to gain possession of the Soma. Even Tva$tr himself is said to tremble
with fear at the wrath of Indra (i, 8o**) and is represented as inferior to
Indra, inasmuch as not even he was able to perform a feat done by Indra
(10, 49'®). The TS. (2, 4, 12') teils a story of how Tva§tr, whose son had
been slain by Indra, refused to allow the latter to assist at his Soma sacri-
üce^ but Indra came and drank off the Soma by force. The Brähmai^as often
relate a simüar tale (SB. i, 6, 3^ &c.).

Probably because of his creative agency in the womb*, Tva§tr is closely
allied with celestial females {gnäJ^^ janayahL) or the wives of the gods, who
are his most frequent attendants (i, 22^ &c.)5. Tva§tr is chiefly mentioned
with gods of cognate activity, Pü§an, Savitr, Dhätr, Prajäpati. *Savitj"' is indeed
an attribute of Tva§tr in two passages (3, 55*^; 10, iqs) in which occurs the
identical collocation devas tvasfä savitä viivarüpafy^y 'god Tva§tr> the omni-
form vivifier', and in both of which the generative or creative faculty of the
deity is referred to. In the Kausika SQtra, Tva?tr is identified with Savitr
and Prajäpati 7, and in the Märka^cji^y^^ Purä^a, with Vi^vakarman and
Prajäpati. In the later mythology Tva§tr is one of the twelve Ädityas
and in the Mahäbhärata and the Bhägavata Purä^a is once or twice a form
of the sun.

The RV. adds a few rather indefinite traits, which throw no light on
Tva^tr's character. He is said to be the first (i, 13'°) or the first-bom
(agrajä) and one who goes before (9, 5^). As a companion of the Angirases
he knows the region of the gods (10, 70'), goes to the place of the gods
(2, i^) between heaven and earth (MS. 4, 14^). He is a bestower of blessings
and is possessed of excellent wealth (10, 70^. 92"). He is supplicated to
grant riches to his worshippers and to delight in their hymns (7, 34"^.
Tva§tr also confers long life (10, 18**; AV. 6, 78^).

The Word is derived from a rare root tvaks, of which only one verbal
form, besides some nominal derivatives, occurs in the RV., and the cognate
of which, tkwaksy is found in the Avesta. It appears to be identical in
meaning with the common root taks^ which is used with the name of Tva^tr
in referring to the fashioning of Indra's bolt The meaning therefore appears
to be the 'Fashioner' or *Artificer'.

Tva§tr is one of the obscurest members of the Vedic pantheon®. The
obscurity of the conception is explained by Kaegi^ as due to Tva§tr, like
Trita and others, having belonged to an earlier race of gods who were ousted
by later ones; while Hillebrandt thinks Tva§tr was derived from a mythical
cycle outside the ränge of the Vedic tribes. Different explanations have been
offered of Tva§tr's original nature. Owing to Tva^fr being called Savitj-,
A. Kuhn" thought that he meant the sun, but seems later" to have with-
drawn this view. Ludwig** regards him as a god of the year, while Olden-
BERG believes him to be a pure abstraction expressing a definite characteristic
activity*^. Hillebrandt holds Kuhn's earlier view that Tva§tr represents the
sun, to be probable '^ Hardy also considers him a solar deity *5. it does
not indeed seem unlikely that this god, in a period anterior to the RV.,
represented the creative aspect of the sun's nature. If such was the case the
Rigvedic poets themselves were only very dimly conscious of it The name
itself would have encouraged the growth of mythical accretions illustrative
of creative skill, the desire to supply the«pantheon with a regulär divine
artificer being natural enough. Much in the same way it was supplied with
a divine priest in the person of Bfhaspati.

The cup of Tva§tT has been explained as the 'bowl of the year* or the
noctumal sky. But neither of these could well have been conceived as füll

1 1 8 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

of Soma and drunk by the gods. Hillebrandt's interpretation of it as the
mooh is more plausible (cp. p. 133).

» OST. 5, 395—6; V. Henry, Les Hymnes Rohitas, Paris 1891; Bloomfield,
AJP. 12, 429—44; HRI. 209, n. I. — a Roth, PW.; cp. GW.; WC. 9— lo. — jCp.
PW. s. V. tvasir, — 4 Ibid. — 5 OST. $, 229. — 6 Roth, Nir. Erl. 144. — 7 Weber,
Omina und Portenta 391—2. — 8 GGH. 113— 6. — 9 KRV. note 131. — »o KZ.
I, 448. — " KHF. 109. — " LRV. 3, 333—5. — »3 ORV. 233. — H HVM. I,
517. — 15 HVBP. 30—1.

ZDMG. I, 522; Geiger, Ostiranische Kultur 304; BRL 22; BRV. 3, 38—64;
HVM. I, 513-35; IF. 1, 8; Ehni, Yama 4—16; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 416 f. 248.

S 39. Visvakarman, PrajäpatL — A few other abstract deities originating
in Compound epithets and all representing the supreme god who was being
evolved at the end of the Rigvedic period, are found in the RV. As the
name of a god Visvakarman occurs only five times in the RV. and always
in the tenth book. Two whole hymns (10, 81. 82) are dedicated to his praise.
The Word also occurs as an attribute once (8, 87*) of Indra and once (10,
170*) of the Sun as the 'all-creating'. It is not uncommon as an adjective
in the later Vedas, where it also appears as an attribute of Prajäpati (VS.
12, 61). The two hymns of the RV. describe Visvakarman thus. He is all-
seeing, having eyes, as well as a face, arms, and feet, on every side. (In
this the Brahma of later mythology, who is four-faced and four-armed, resembles
him.) He is also provided with wings. He is a seer, a priest, our father. He
is a lord of speech {väcas pati)^ swift as thought, beneficent, the source of
all prosperity. He knows all places and beings, and he alone gives their
names to the gods. He is wise and energetic, the highest apparition {paramä
samdrk). He is an establisher {dhätf) and a disposer {viähätr), having pro-
duced the earth and disclosed the sky. It seems likely that the word was
at first attached as an epithet chiefly to the sun-god, but in the later Rigvedic
period became one of the almost synonymous names given to the one god
(10, 81^) the conception of whom was then being tentatively evolved, and
who as Visvakarman was, owing to the name, mainly thought of in his archi-
techtonic aspect*. Visvakarman in the Brähmanas is expressly identified with
the Creator Prajäpati (SB. 8, 2, i*°. 3*^, cp. AB. 4, 22). In post- Vedic times
he was conceived as the artificer of the gods.

Prajäpati occurs in one passage of the RV. (4, 53') as an epithet of
Savitr, who is spoken of as a supporter of heaven and prajäpati of the
World ^ and in another, as an epithet of Soma compared with Tva§tr and
Indra (9, 59). Otherwise the word is found four times as the name of a
distinct deity, always in the tenth book. The god Prajäpati is invoked (10,
85*^) to bestow abundant offspring {prajäm)^ is besought, along with Vi§au,
Tva§tr, and Dhätr, to grant offspring (10, 184*), and is spoken of as making
cows prolific (10, 169*). As a protector of generation and living beings
Prajäpati is also often invoked in the AV.3 In the one hymn devoted to
his praise in the RV. (10, 121), he is invoked by this name only in the last
verse. In this hymn he is celebrated as the creator of heaven and earth,
of the waters and of all that lives; who was bom ijätä) as the one lord
{pati) of all that is, the one king of all that breathes and moves, the one
god above the gods; whose ordinances all beings and the gods follow; who
established heaven and earth; who traverses Space in the atmosphere; who
embraces with his arms the whQle world and all creatures. Here Prajäpati is
clearly the name of the supreme god. Though only mentioned once in the
RV. in this sense, he is commonly in the AV. and VS., and regularly in the
Brähmanas, recognized as the chief god. He is the father of the gods, (SB.
II, I, 6**; TB. 8, I, 3^ &c.), having existed alone in the beginning (SB. 2

AbSTRACT GODS. 39. ViSVAKARMAN, PrAJÄPATI. 40. MaNYU, SrADDHÄ. II9

2, 4*). He created the, Asuras as well (TB. 2, 2, 23)*. He is also described
as the first sacrificer (SB. 2, 4, 4'; 6, 2, 3'). In the Sütras Prajäpati is identi-
fied with Brahma (AGS. 3, 4, &c.). In the place of this chief god of the
later Vedic theology, the philosophy of the Upani$ads put the ünpersonal
Brahma, the universal soul or the Absolute.

A myth is told in the MS. (4, 2'') of Prajäpati being enamoured of his
daughter U$as. She transformed herseif into a gazelle; whereupon he trans-
formed himself into the corresponding male. Rudra incensed at this aimed
his arrow at him, when Prajäpati promised to make him lord of beasts if he
did not shoot (cp. RV. 10, ,61 7). The story is several times referred to in
the Brähmaijas (AB. 3, 33; SB. i, 7, 4*; PB. 8, 2*^)5. The basis of this myth
seem to be two passages of the RV. (i, 71 5; 10, 6i5"7) in which the incest
of a father (who seems to be Dyaus) . with his daughter (here apparently the
Earth) is referred to and an archer is mentioned^.

In the refrain of the first nine verses of RV. 10, 121 the supreme god
is referred to as unknown by the interrogative pronoun -äTö, Who? The answer
given in the tenth verse, is that Prajäpati alone embraces all beings. This
later led to the emplo3rment of J^a not only as an epithet of Prajäpati (AB.

3, 2 2 7), but as a name, used by itself, of the supreme god (MS. 3, i25). In
the TS. (i, 7, 6^) Ka is expressly identified with Prajäpati ^

In the first verse of RV. 10, 121 the supreme god is referred to as
Hira^yagarbha^ the 'Germ of Gold'^ the one lord of what exists. This is
the only occurrence of the name in the RV., but it is mentioned several
times in the AV. and the literature of the Brähma^a period (cp. p. 13).
Hirapyagarbha is also alluded to in a passage of the AV. (4, 2^) where it is
stated that the waters produced an embryo, which as it was being bom, was
enveloped in a golden covering. In the TS. (5, 5, i') Hira^yagarbha is ex-
pressly identified with Prajäpati. In the later literature he is chiefiy a desig-
nation of the personal Brahma^.

X OST. 4, 5—11; S, 354—5; WC. 80—5; SPH. 33—40. — « Cp. Bloomfield,
AJP. 14, 493. — 3 See FW. s. v. prajäpati. ^^ Cp. OST. 5, 80— i. — 5 ASL. 529;
OST. 4, 45; SBE. 12, 284, n. i; Delb&ück, FaB. 24; WVB. 1894, p. 34; Geldner,
FaW. 21. — 6 Cp. BRV. 2, 109 f.; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 78 f. — 7 SPH. 27,11.2;
ASL. 433; IS. 2, 94; SBE. 12, 8.-8 ASL. 569 f.; OGR. 295; OST. 4, 15—18;
5f 352. 355; WC. 50— i; HVM. i, 380, n. 1; HRL 141—2; Geldner, 1. c.

S 40. Manyu^ Sraddhä &c. — We have yet to deal with the deifica-
tions of abstract nouns. Manyu, Wrath, a personification suggested chiefly
by the fierce anger of Indra, is invoked in two hymns of the RV. (10, 83.
84). He is of irresistible might and self-existent. He glows like fire, is a
god, who is Indra, Varupa, Jätavedas. He slays Vjtra, is accompanied by
the Maruts, grants victory like Indra, and bestows wealth. United with
Tapas, Ardour, he protects his adorers and slays their^foes. One short
hymn of the RV. (10, 151) is devoted to the praise of Sraddhä, Faith*.
She is Said to be invoked morning, noon, and night Through Faith üre is
kindled and ghee offered. Through Faith wealth is obtained. In the Brähma^as
Sraddhä is the daughter of the Sun (SB. 12,7,3") or of Prajäpati (TB. 2, 3,
io')> Her relationships are still further worked out in the Epics and Purä^as.
Anumati, Favour (of the gods), occurs twice as a personification in the
RV. She is besought to be gracious and let her worshippers long see the
sun (10, 59^) and her protection is referred to (10, 167^). In the AV. and
VS. she becomes a goddess of love and presides over propagation. The
later ritual connected her with the moon, regarding her as representing the
day before full-moon ^ Aramati, Devotion, Piety, is occasionally personiüed

I20 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

in the RV. The name has a counterpart in the Avestic Ännaiti, a genius of
earth as well as wisdom^^ but the personification can hardly go back to the
Indo-Iranian period. Sünrtä, Bounty^, appears to be personified as a goddess
two or three times in the RV. (i, 40^; 10, 141^). Asuniti, Spirit-life, is
personified in one passage of the RV. (10,595-6), being besought to prolong
life and grant strength and nourishment^. Niirti, Decease, Dissolution, appears
about twelve times in the RV. as a personification presiding over death.

Other personifications appear for the first time in the later Vedas. Käma,
Desire, is deified in the AV. (9, 2; 19, 52). Here he is not, as in post-Vedic
literature, a god of love, but a deity who fulfils all desires. His arrows, with
which he pierces hearts, are already referred to (AV. 3, 25*). He is described
as the first who was bom (AV. 9,2*9). The origin of the conception is most
probably to be traced to the käma *desire', which in a cosmogonic hymn
(p. 13) of the RV. (10, 129*), is called 'the first seed of mind'^. Kala,
Time, is personified as a cosmogonic force in the AV. (19, 53. 54) 7, and
Skambha, Support, an abstraction postulated by the speculation of the AV.
to uphold the universe created by Prajäpati, comes to be praised as the AU-
god (AV. 10, 8')^ Präijia, Breaüi, is also deified and identified with Prajä-
pati (AV. II, 4" &c)9. Other personified abstractions of a like nature are
to be found in the AV." Sri as a personification of Beauty or Fortune
first appears in the SB. (11, 4, 3*)".

I Cp. Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50, 450 f. — 2 ZDMG. 7. 608; IS. 5, 229. — 3 ZDMG. 7,
519; 8, 770; 9, 690—2; Sp.AP. 151. 200—3; HVBP. 91; HRL 136. — 4 Olden-
berg, ZDMG. 50, 4+0. — 5 But cp. MM., JRAS. 2, 460, n. 2. — 6 Weber, IS. 5,
224; 17, 290; ZDMG. 14, 269; OST. 5, 402; BPH. 76—7. — 7 SPH. 78—82;
HVBP. 88. — 8 SPH. 50—9; HRL 209. — 9 SPH. 35. — ^ SPH. 14. — » GGH. 4.

S41. Aditi. — There is one deity who, if rightly interpreted as the
personification of a pure abstraction, like those treated in the preceding
Paragraph, occupies an anomalous position in the RV. For the name is not
limited to the latest portion, but occurs throughout the collection. This would
be accounted for by the peculiar manner in which the personification came
about, supposing the explanation ofFered below to be correct. Otherwise this
deity would have to be classed with abstractions of the epithet type (S 39).

The goddess Aditi is not Ihe subject of any separate hymn, but is often
incidentally celebrated in the RV., her name occurring nearly eighty times.
Very rarely mentioned alone (8, 19^*), she is constantly invoked with her
sons, the Adityas.

She has no definite physical features. She is often called a goddess
{devt), who is sometimes styled anarvä, 'intact' (2, 40^; 7, 40*). She is widely
expanded (5, 46^), extensive, a mistress of wide Stalls (8, 67"). She is bright
and luminous, a supporter of creatures (i, 136^: otherwise said of Mitra-
Varuna only), and belongs to all men (7, 10*: also said of Heaven and Earth).
She is invoked at moming, noon, and sunset (5, 693)*.

Aditi is the mother of Mitra and Varuna (8,25^:10,363.132^) as well as of
Aryaman (8, 479). Hence she is called the mother of kings (2, 27', cp. v. *),
of excellent sons (3,4")» o^ powerful sons (8,56")» o^ heroic sons (AV.3,83;
II, i"), or of eight sons (10, 72^; AV. 8, 9^*)- She is once said to be the
mother of the Rudras, being the daughter of the Vasus and (stränge to say)
sister of the Ädityas (8, 90*5), and the AV. (6, 4^ mentions her brothers as
well as her sons. In another passage of the AV. (7, 6^ = VS. 21, 5) she is
invoked as the great mother of the devout, the mistress of r/a, strong in
might, undecaying, widely extended, protecting, skilfuUy guiding. Such passages
and the constant invocation of Aditi along with the Ädityas, her sons, show

AbSTRACT GODS. 41. AdITI. 121

that her motherhood is an essential and characteristic trait. Her epithet
pasiyä^ housewife (4, 55^; 8, 27*) may possibly also allude to her mother-
hood. In the Epic and Puränic mythology Aditi is the daughter of Dak^a
and mother of the gods in general, and expressly of Vivasvat, the Sun, and
of Vi§^u in his dwarf incaraation. She is said to be the wife of Vi§i;iu in
VS. (29, 60 = TS. 7, 5*4).

Aditi is several times spoken of as protecting from distress {anihas), and
she is said to grant complete welfare or safety (10, 100; i, 94*^), but she is
more frequently invoked to release from guilt or sin. Thus Varuija (i, 24'*),
Agni (4, 12*), and Savitr (5, 82^), are besought to free from guilt against
Aditi. Aditi, Mitra, and Varu^a are implored to forgive sin (2, 27'*), Aditi
and Aryaman, to loosen (the bonds ofj sin (7, 937). Worshippers beseech
Aditi to make them sinless (1,162'*); praying that by fulfilling her ordinances
they may be without sin towards Varuija (7, 87O and that evildoers may be cüt
off from Aditi (10, 87'*). Hence though other gods, Agni (3, 54"), Savitj*
(4, 543), Sun, Dawn, Heaven and Earth (10, 35*- 3) are petitioned to pardon
sin, the notion of releasing from it is much more closely connected with
Aditi and her son Varupa, whose fetters that bind sinners are characteristic,
and who unties sin like a rope and removes it (p. 26).

This notion is nearly allied to the etymology of the name. The word
aditi is primarily a noun meaning 'unbinding*, *bondlessness', from di-H *binding'
(■= Gk. Be-di-c), derived from the root dä^ *to bind'. The past passive parti-
ciple of this verb is employed to describe Sunahsepa *bound' {di-td) to the
stake (5, 27). Hence as a goddess Aditi is naturally invoked to release her
worshippers like a tied {baddhd) thief (8, 67**). The original unpersonified
meaning of *freedom' seems to survive in a few passages of the RV. Thus
a worshipper exclaims, *who gives us back to great €tditi^ that I may see
üither and mother'? (i, 24*). The Ädityas are besought (7, 51*) to *place
the offering in guiltlessness {anägästve) and freedom (adiHtve)\ The poet
perhaps means the same thing when he prays to Heaven and Earth for 'the
secure and unlimited gift of adiH^ (i, 1853). The word aditi also occurs
several times in the adjectival sense of ^boundless'. It is thus used as an
attribute twice of Dyaus (5, 59*; 10, 63^) and more frequently of Agni (1,94*5;

4, i*»; 7, 9^; 8, 19'*).

The indefiniteness of the name would easily have lent itself to mystical
identifications, and the conception was naturally affected by the theogonic and
cosmogonic speculations found in the more recent portions of the RV. Thus
the gods are said to have been bom from Aditi, the Waters, and Earth (10,
63*; cp. p. 14). In the verse immediately foUowing, the *boundless' Sky (dyaur
aditi)^ their mother, is said to supply the gods with honied milk. Here there-
fore she appears to be identified with the sky'. Elsewhere (i,729;AV.i3, i^*)
Aditi seems to be identified with the Earth, and this identification is frequent
in the TS. and SB. In the Naighaptuka the name is given as a synonym of
earth, and, in the dual, of Heaven and Earth 3. In many passages of the
RV., however, she is distinguished from Heaven and Earth by being mentioned
separately along with them (io,63"&c.)». In another passage (1,89*'') Aditi
represents a personification of Universal Nature: *Aditi is the sky; Aditi is
the air; Aditi is the mother, and father, and son; Aditi is all the gods and
the five tribes; Aditi is whatever has been bom; Aditi is whatever shall be
bom' (p. 16; cp. Katha Up. 4, 7).

Though according to the older mythology of the RV. Aditi is the mother
of Dak§a as an Äditya (2, 27*), she is in a cosmogonic hymn (10, 72*' 5)
said to be his daughter as well as his mother by the reciprocal generation

122 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

which is a notion not unfamiliar to the RV. fp. 12; cp. 10,90^). In two other
hymns of the tenth book (5'. 645) these deities are connected in such a
way that Aditi can scarcely be the mother of Dak^a, but seems rather to be
subordinate to him. Though Aditi is the mother of some of the leading
deities, she plays an inferior part in a few other passages also. Thus she
celebrates, along with her sons Vam^a, Mitra, Aryaman, the praises of Savitr
(7> 3^0 and is said to have produced a hymn for Indra (8, 12*% cp. 5,31*).

Probably as the mother of the luminous Adityas, Aditi is sometimes
connected with light. She is asked for light (4, 25^, cp. 10, 363), her im-
perishable light is celebrated (7, 82*°), and Dawn is called the face of Aditi
(i, 113^9). Occasionally Aditi is referred to in general terms which might
apply to other deities. Thus she is implored to protect or bless her wor-
shippers, their children, and their cattle (8, i8^* 7; i, 43»), She is prayed to
for wealth (7, 40*), her pure, intact, celestial, imperishable gifts are suppli-
cated (i, 185^), and the large blessings bestowed by the Maruts are com-
pared with the beneficent deeds of Aditi (i, i66"j.

In some passages of the RV. (i, 153^; 8, 90' 5; 10, 11* &c.) as well as
in later Vedic texts (VS. 13, 43. 49), Aditi is spoken of as a cow, and, in
the ritual, a ceremonial cow is commonly addressed as Aditi 5. Terrestrial
Soma is compared to the milk of Aditi (9, 96'*); and milk only can be
meant^ by the daughter of Aditi who yields to Soma as he flows to the vat
(9, 693). There may be a similar allusion when priests with their ten fingers
are said to purify Soma on the lap of Aditi (9, 26\ 71 5).

A review of the evidence indicates that Aditi has two and only two
prominent characteristics. The first is her motherhood. She is the mother
of a group of gods whose name represents a metronymic formation from hers.
Her second main characteristic, in conformity with the etymological meaning
of the name, is her power of releasing from the bonds of physical suffering
and moral guilt. Mystical speculation on the name would lead to her being
styled a cow, as representing boundless plenty, or to her being identified with
the boundless earth, heaven, or universe. But how are we to account for so
early a personification of such an abstract idea, and in particular for Aditi
becoming the mother of theÄdityas? Bergaigne^ thinks the transition to Aditi's
motherhood is to be found in such an expression as dyaur aditih, the *bound-
less sky', the mother who supplies the gods with milk (10, 63 j). According
to this view, the rare and secondary adjectival meaning 'boundless' would have
developed from being an epithet of the sky, otherwise characteristically regarded
as a father, into an independent female deity. Nor does this explanation
seem to account satisfactorily for the conception of Aditi releasing from
bondage. Another explanation is possible. _ The expression aditeh puträJi^
sons of Aditi, several times applied to the Ädityas in the RV., may in the
pre- Vedic period have simply meant *sons of freedom' (like sahasaff, piärah^
'son of strength': p. 12) as describing a prominent quality of Vanmia and
cognate gods. Such an expression^ would easily lead to the personification
of Aditi as a mother. Similarly Savasi wa5 evolved as a name of Indra's
mother in the RV. itself from his epithet *Son of Might' {^avasaJ^: p. 12)
and Indra's epithet saclpati^ *lord of might*, later led to iaä being personi-
fied as the wife of that god, the Compound being interpreted as *husband of
Sacf . The formation of a metronymic Aditya, son of Aditi, would tend to
the limitation of the group comprising her sons. The deified personification
would naturally retain a connexion with the original meaning of existence
free from all fetters, but would assume a few additional fluctuating attributes,
such as brightness, from the Ädityas. As mother of some of the leading gods

Abstract GODS. 42. DiTI. 123

or of the gods in general, she might occasionally be identified with Heaven
and Earth, the universal parents, and the meaning of the word would en-
courage cosmogonic speciüations. Thus Aditi, an entirely Indian goddess, is
histoiically yoimger than some at least of her sons.

The opinion that Aditi is a personification of the idea of 'freedom from
bondage' is favoured by Wallis** and Oldenberg^. Max Möller*® thinks
that Aditi, an ancient god or goddess, is the earliest name invented to ex-
press the infinite as visible to the naked eye, the endless expanse beyond
the earth, the clouds, and the sky. Roth at first" interpreted Aditi to mean
'inviolability, imperishableness', denoting as a personification the goddess of
etemity. Later he explained her as 'eternity*, the principle which sustains
the Ädityas, or imperishable celestial light*'. He regards her not as a definite
but only an incipient personification. In the St. Petersburg Dictionary, how-
ever, he explains Aditi as a personification of the boundlessness of heaven
as opposed to the finite earth. Pischel, on the other hand believes Aditi re-
presents the earth *3. This is also Hardy's opinion'^. Colinet considers
Aditi the female counterpart of Dyaus^s. The Naighaijt^uka gives aditi as a
synonym oiprihivt (earth), väc (speech), go (cow), and, in the dual, of dyävä-
prthivi (heaven and earth). Yäska defines Aditi as 'the mighty mother of
the gods'^ and foUowing üie Naigha^t^ka (5,5) locates her in the atmospheric
region, while the Ädityas are assigned to the celestial, and Varu^a to both *^.

» OST. 5, 36, note 68. — 2 op. cit. 5, 39, note 73. — 3 According to BRV.
3, 90, Aditi in 4, 55^^ ■■ 7, 624 a is synonymous with dyäväprthivT. — 4 Keferences
in OST. 5, 40 f. — 5 ORV. 206 cp. 72. — 6 Othcrwise BRV. 3, 94- — 7 BRV. 3,
90. — 8 WC 45 f. — 9 ORV. 204—7 cp. SBE. 46, 329. — «o Vedic Hymns, SBE.
32, 241; cp. LSL 2, 619; Hopkins, JAOS. 17, 91. — " Nirukta, ErL 150— i. —
" ZDMG. 6, 68 f.; so also KRV. 59, Hillebrandt, Aditi p. 20. — xj pvS. 2, 86.
— X4 HVBP. 94. — IS Trans, of the ^^ Or. Congress i, 396—410. -— »6 Roth on
Nir. 10, 4.

Benfey, Hymnen des Sämaveda 218 (■■ Unteilbarkeit); OST. i, 26; 5, 35—53.
55; BRV. 3, 88—98; Hillebrandt, Ueber die Göttin Aditi, Breslau 1876; BRI. 19;
Darmesteter, Ormazd p. 82; Colinet, Etüde sur le mot Aditi, Museon 12, 81 — 90;
Roth, IS. 14, 392—3; Bloomfield, ZDMG. 48, 552, note i; HRI. 72—3.

S 42. Diti. — The name of Diti occurs only three times in the RV.,

twice along with that of Aditi. Mitra and Vani^a are said to behold from

their car Aditi and Diti (5, 62^). Säyaija here explains the two as the in-

divisible earth and the separate creatures on it, Roth", as *the etemal and

the perishable', and Muir* as *the entire aggregate of visible nature'. In a

second passage (4, 2"*), Agni is besought to grant diti and preserve from

aditi, Here Säyaria interprets the two words as ^liberal giver* and 'illiberal

giver', Roth as 'wealth' and 'penury*. Bergaigne^ takes the words to de-

signate the goddesses of the previous passage; but it is more likely that they

are here quite different words, derived from dä^ *to give', and thus meaning

'giving* and 'non-giving*. This view seems to be favoured by both the con-

text and the order in which the words occur. In the third passage (7, 15")

Diti is mentioned without Aditi, but along with Agni, Savitr, and Bhaga, being

said to give {jia) what is desirable {väryam). Diti is named along with Aditi

as a goddess in the later Saiphitas also (VS. 18, 22; AV. 15, 18^; i6, 6').

Her sons are mentioned in AV. 7, 7'. These are the Daityas, who in post-

Vedic mythology are the enemies of the gods. The name of Diti as a

goddess seems to be merely an antithesis to that of Aditi ^, formed from the

latter to express a positive sense, as sura^ 'god', was later (by false etjrmo-

logy) evolved from asura^ *demon*.

X ZDMG. 6, 71. — a OST. 5, 42. — 3 BRV. 3, 97. — 4 MM., SBE. 32, 256;
q>. WC. 46.

124 m» Religion, weltu Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

£. GODDESSES.

S 43. Goddesses. — Goddesses occupy a very subordinate position in
Vedic belief and worship. They play hardly any part as rulers of the world.
The only one of any importance is U^as, who judged by the Statistical Stan-
dard ranks as a deity of the third class (p. 20). But, unlike nearly all the
gods, she received no share in the Soma offering'. Next to her comes Sa-
rasvatl (S 33), who, however, only ranks with the lowest class of deities. A
few other goddesses are praised in one hymn each. Prthivi, hardly sepa-
rable frora Dyaus, is praised in one short hymn of three stanzas (S 34).
RätrI, Night, is also invoked in one hymn (10, 127). Like her sister Dawn,
she is called the daughter of Heaven. She is not conceived as the dark,
but as the bright starlit night She shines manifoldly with her eyes. Decked
with all splendour, she fills the Valleys and heights, driving away the darkness
with light. At her approach men retum home like birds to their nests.
She is invoked to keep away the wolf and the thief, guiding her worshippers
to safety. Night probably became a goddess by way of antithesis to Dawn,
with whom she is invoked in several verses as a dual divinity* (pp. 48. 129).
Väc, personified Speech, is celebrated in one hymn (10, 125 cp. 71), in
which she describes herseif. She accompanies all the gods and Supports
Mitra-Varuiia, Indra-Agni, and the Asvins. She bends Rudra's bow against
the unbeliever. Her place is in the waters, the sea. She encompasses all
beings. In another passage (8, 89^"- ") she is called queen of the gods and
divine^. In the Naighaijtuka (5, 5) Väc is enumerated among the deities
of the atmosphere; and thunder, or mädhyamikä väc, *the voice of the middle
region', in the terminology of the commentators (Nir. 11, 27), may have
been the starting point of the personification. A legend about Väc frequently
referred to in the Brähma^as is that of Soma being bought back from the
Gandharvas at the price of Väc transformed into a woman (AB. i, 27).
Puramdhi, whose name occurs about nine times in the RV., is goddess of
Plenty*. She is nearly always mentioned with Bhaga^, two or three times
also with Pü§an and Savitf, and once with Vi§i3iu and Agni. Pärendi, com-
monly regarded as identical with Puraipdhi, is generally considered a goddess
of riches and abundance (cp. Ya§t 8, 38) in the Avesta^ Hillebrandt,
however, thinks Puraindhi is a goddess of Activity^. Another goddess of
abundance is Dhi^ai^ä, mentioned nearly a dozen times in the RV*. IIa,
Nourishment, is the personification (mentioned less than a dozen times in the
RV.) of the offering of milk and butter, thus representing plenty derived
from the cow. Hence Itjä is in the Brähmanas frequently connected with,
though never an actual name of, the cow; and in the Naighaijtuka (2, 11)
it occurs as one of the synonyms of cow. Owing to the nature of the
offering IIa is called butter-handed (7, 16®) and butter-footed (10, 70®). As
a personification she generally appears in the Äpri hymns, in which she
usually forms a triad with Sarasvatl and Mahl or Bhärati^. It is doubtful
whether the literal or the personified sense is intended by the phrase iläyäs
fade^ *in the place of nourishment* (i. e. of the sacrificial fire). Agni is once
called the son of IIa, clearly in allusion to the place of his production
(3, 299« '°). Purüravas is also said to be her son (10, 95'®). She is once
called the mother of the herd (yüthä) and connected with UrvasT (5, 41*9).
She is once mentioned with Dadhikrävan and the Asvins in reference to the
morning sacrifice (7, 44^). In the SB. she is called the daughter pf Manu
(i, 8, I**; II, 5, 35) as well as of Mitra-Varuna (1,8, 1^7- 14^ 9, 4*^; ASS. i, 77).
The name of the goddess Byhaddivä occurs four times in hymns to the

43* GODDESSES. 125

Visvedevas. She is called a mother (10, 64") and is mentioned with IIa
(2, 31^; 5, 41^^), Sarasvatl and Räkä (5, 42"). Räkä (probably from Yrä^
to give) is mentioned only twice in the RV. as a rieh and boimtiful goddess,
who is invoked with others (2, 32 7; 5, 42'^). Siniväll is referred to in two
hymns of the RV. (2, 32; 10, 184). She is a sister of the gods, broad-
hipped, fair-armed, fair-fingered, prolific, a mistress of the family, and is
implored to grant oflspring. She is invoked with Sarasvatl, Räkä, as well
as Gungü (who is only mentioned here). In the AV. (8, 463) Siniväli is
called the wife of Vi^Qii. The later Saiphitäs and the Brähmaijias also men-
tion a goddess Kuhü^ a personification of the new moon'°. Räkä and
Siniväll are in later Vedic texts connected with phases of the moon, the former
being the presiding deity of the actual day of fall moon, and the latter, of
the first day of new moon. There is nothing to show that any such connexion
is to be found in the RV".

A few other goddesses occasionally mentioned in the RV. have already
been incidentally referred to. Pr§ni, the mother of the Manits (p. 78) pre-
sumably represents the mottled storm-cloud **. The word is also used as an
adjective in the sense of speckled (cp. 7, 103^* ^^)y in the singular as an
attribute of both bull and cow, and in the plural, of the cows which milk
Soma for Indra (1,84*°-*'; 8,6*9. 7x0 ^33^ j^ ^^^ came to mean 'speckled
cow*, and finally *speckled cloud'. Sarai^yü occurs once in the RV. (10, 17*)
as the name of Tva§ft-'s daughter, wedded to Vivasvat. The most likely
interpretation seems to be that which identifies her with the sun-maiden
Süryä or U§as, the Dawn*3. The word also occurs four times as an adjec-
tive in the RV. meaning *swift'. It is an ordinary Sanskrit formation, derived
with the suffix -yu from saranUy speed {Yfr, to run), like caran-yu
and others.

Goddesses as wives of the great gods similarly play an insignificant
part in the Veda. They are altogether without independent character, simply
representing the spouses whom such gods as Indra must have had. Hardly
anything about them is mentioned but their names, which are simply formed
from those of the gods with the feminine suffix -äni, Thus Indränt is simply
Vife of Indra'**. Varujjiäni and Agnäyi also occur in the RV., but rarely.
Rudrä^i is not found tili the Sütras, but she plays a decidedly more import-
ant part in the cult than any of the other goddesses in -äni^^, The wife of
the Asvins is once in the RV. called AsvinI (= Süryä: p. 51) *^ The Vives
of the gods' {devänäm patnii) occasionally mentioned in the RV. have in
the Brähma^as an established place assigned to them in the cult apart from
the gods (SB. i, 9, 2")''.

X Bergaigne, Recherches sur l'histoire de la liturgie v^dique, p. 9. — 2 OST.
5, 191; HRI. 79 f. — 3 Weber, IS. 9, 473 ff.; BRI. 16; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39,
58—9; WC. 85—6; HRI. 142—3. 226. — 4 PVS. 2, 202—16; Bloomfield, JAOS.
16, 19; ORV. 63. — 5 Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 190. — 6 Darmesteter, Ormazd
et Ahriman 25; SBE. 4, LXX; 23, 11; Mills, SBE. 31, 25; PVS. i, 202; Sp.AP.
207 — 9; COLINET, BOR. 2, 245; 4, 121 ; Trans. Or. Cong. 1892, i, 396—420. — 7 Hille-
BRANDT, WZKM. 3, 188—94. 259 — 73; cp. also V.Henry, Vedica, i«"« s^rie, p. 1 ff.,
Memoires de la Soci^te de ling. 9. — 8 pvS. 2, 82 ff.; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 120—2.
— 9 Weber, IS. 1, 168—9; BRV. i, 325; GGH. 51; ORV. 238. 326; SBE. 46, 11.
156. 191. 288; Baunack, KZ. 34, 563. — 10 ZDMG. 9, lviil — »» IS. $, 228 ff. —
>* Cp. Roth on Nir. 10, 39, p. 145. — ^3 Bloomfield, JAOS. 15, 172 — 88, whcre
the opinions of his predecessors are stated. — »4 ORV. 172; cp. Leumann, KZ.
32, 299, — »5 ORV. 219. — »6 KRV. n. 148; on Süryä and the Aivins cp. Weber,
IS. 5, 178—89; BRV. 2, 486; PVS. I, 13—29; Oldenberg, GGA. 1889, 7—8;
ORV. 241. — »7 On female di viniti es cp. Hopkins, PAOS. 1889, p. clxu; onSaramä
(abovc pp. 63 — 4) sec below, S 62.

V

126 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

F. DUAL DIVINITIES.

S. 44. A peculiar feature of Vedic mythology is the celebration in
pairs of a number of deities whose names are joined in the form of a special
kind of dual Compound in which both members are dual, accented, and
occasionally separable*. About a dozen gods are thus conjointly praised in
at least sixty hymns of the RV. The name of Indra enters into seven or
more than half of these combinations, but by far the largest number of
hymns — twenty-three, and parts of several others — is addressed, to the pair
Mitravdrunä. Eleven are dedicated to Inärägni, nine to Indrä-vdrunäj
about seven to Jndra-väyu, six to Dyävä-prthivty ^ two each to Indrä-sömä
and indrä'brhaspdfi^ and one each to Inärävisnü, Indrä-püsdnä^ Somd-füsdnä^
Somä-rudrä, and jignt-sömä, A few other couples, including the names of
nine or ten deities not mentioned above, are invoked in detached verses.
These are Indra-näsatyä, Indrä-parvatäy Indrä-marutaJ^, Agnt'parjanyäy Far-
jdnyä-vätä (once Vätä'parjanyä)^ Usäsändktä or (less often) Ndktosäsä,
Säryä-mäsä or Süryä-candramdsä,

There can be little doubt that the analogy for this favourite formation
was ftimished by Dyäväprthivl, Heaven and Earth% the pair which to
early thought appeared so indissolubly connected in nature, that the myth of
their conjugal union is found widely diflfused among primitive peoples^ and
has therefore probably come down to the Veda from a period anterior to
that immediately preceding the Separation of the Indo-European nations. In
the RV. itself this couple is so closely associated that while they are invoked
as a pair in six hymns, not one is devoted to the praise of Dyaus alone
and only one of three verses to that of Pfthivl. So hard was it for the
poets to dissociate the two, that even in this hymn Pfthivi is praised for send-
ing the rain of heaven from her cloud (5, 843). The dual Compound, moreover,
occurs much more frequently than the name of Dyaus as a god. It occurs, in-
cluding the comparatively rare Synonyms Dyäväksdmä and Dyäväbhümt,
about a hundred times, or more frequently than the name of any other pair.
Heaven and Earth are also called rodast, the two worlds (spoken of as sisters,
I, 1855, owing to the gender of the word), an expression occurring at least
a hundred times in the RV. Heaven and Earth are parents, being often
styled pitarä^ mätaräy janitrJ, and also separately addressed as father and
mother (i, 159'""^. 160'). They are primeval parents (7, 53*; 10, 65*). Their
marriage is referred to in the AB. (4, 275—^)*. They have made and sustain
all creatures (i, 159*. 160*. 185*)- Though themselves footless, they support
much offspring with feet (i, 185^). They are the parents of the gods also;
for to them exclusively belongs the epithet devdputre, Tiaving the gods as
sons'. They are in particular said to be the parents of Bjrhaspati (7, 97*)
and, with the Waters and Tva§fc to have begotten Agni (10, 2 7). At the
same time they are in different passages spoken of as themselves created by
individual gods. Thus a poet observes that he who produced heaven and
earth must have been the most skilful artisan of all the gods (i, i6o*j 4, 56^).
Indra is said to have generated or fashioned them (6, 30^; 8, 36*; 10, 29^ 54^).
Visvakarman produced them (10,81^ cp. AV. 12, i^**)5. They received their
fonns from Tva§tr (10, iio9). They sprang from the head and feetofPuru§a
(10,90**). But one poet is puzzled as to how they were produced and which
of the two first came into being (i, 185'; cp. p. I3)^ Many of the epithets
applied to Dyäväprthivl are suggested by their physical characteristics. The
one is a prolific bull, the other a variegated cow (i, i6o3). They are both
rieh in seed (i, 159*; 6, 70'-*). They yield milk, ghee, and honey abundantly

44- Dual DiviNrriES. 127

(6, 7o*"'5), and produce amrta (i, 159*. 185^). They never grow old (6, 70*).
They are great (i, 159O ^nd wide-extended (i, 160*). They are broad and
great abodes (i, 185^). They are fair-faced, wide, manifold, with ends which
are far away (i, 185*- 7). Sometimes, however, moral qualities are attributed
to them. They are wise and promote righteousness (i, i590- As father
and mother they guard beings (i, 160") and protect from disgrace and mis-
fortune (i, 185*°). They grant food and wealth (6, 70^; i, 159^) or bestow
great fame and dominion (i, 160*). They are sufficiently personified to be
called leaders of the sacrifice and to be conceived as seating themselves
around the sacrifice (4, Sö**?), as coming to their worshippers along with the
heavenly folk (7,53^), or taking the sacrifice to the gods (2,41*°). But
Heaven and Earth never attained to a living personification or importance
in worship. These two deities are quite coördinate. But in most of the
other couples one of the two greatly predominates, his characteristic qualities
being shared by his companion. Thus Indra-Agni are conjointly called *wielders
of the bolf and *Vjtra-slayers'. Occasionally an attribute of the lesser deity
is predicated of both. Thus Indra-Vi§riu are together said to have taken
wide strides (6, 695). Frequent association of this kind may lead to a deity
receiving by himself an epithet to which he originally had no right Thus
Agni when mentioned alone is often called a 'Vrtra-slayer*. The characteristics
of each member of the pair are, however, in some passages distinguished ".

Next to Heaven and Earth, the pair most frequently named is Mitra-
Varu^a, These two deities are invoked conjointiy in many more hymns than
are dedicated to their separate praise. As Mitra has hardly any individual
traits, the same attributes and functions belong to the pair conjointly as to
Vanipa alone. Scarcely anything need therefore be here added to what
has abready been said about Varupa. The couple are conceived as young
nQCJi (3» 54***> 7>625). Like various other gods, they are spoken of as shining
{candrd)y bright ißuct)^ sunlike {svardr/), ruddy {rudra\ and terrible {ghora),
The priority of the name of Mitra in the Compound might seem to indicate
that he was originally the more important deity; it is, however, probably due
simply to the tendency to make the shorter word the first member of a Com-
pound. This dual invocation goes back to the Indo-Iranian period, for Ahura
and Mithra are thus coupled in the Avesta®.

Indra-Varu9a, the two universal monarchs (i, 17'), hoUowed out the
Channels of the waters and set the sun in motion in the sky (7, 823). They
are vanquishers of Vjtra (6, 68"), aid in battie (4, 41"), and grant victory
(i, 17^). They cast their mighty bolt against the wicked (4, 4i*). They
bestow protection and prosperity (i, 177-^), fame, wealth, and abundance of
steeds (4, 41**'°; 6, 68^). They are drinkers of tiie pressed Soma, their car
comes to the sacrifice, and they are invoked to exhilerate themselves seated
on the sacrificial grass (6, 68"-"). In some passages the characteristics of
each member of the pair are distinguished. Thus Varuijia is besought to
divert his wrath fi"om his worshippers, and Indra to procure them wide space
(7, 84'). Indra is contrasted as the warlike god who slays Vj-tra, with Varu^a
who Supports men in peace and wisdom (6, 68^; 7, 825-^ 853). The asso-
ciation of the couple Indra-Agni^ is very intimate; for Indra is invoked
conjointly with Agni in more hymns than with any other deity '°, while Agni
is otherwise addressed as a dual divinity only in one hymn and two detached
verses with Soma and in one verse with Paijanya. Indra-Agni, the best of
Soma-drinkers (i, 21*), come on their car to drink Soma (i, 108O, and are
invited together to come and drink it (7, 93^; 8, 38** 7-9)^ to sit down on
the sacrificial grass at the offering, and to exhilerate themselves with the

128 IIL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

pressed draught (i, ioqS). They are often called Vj-tra-slayers. They are
armed with the bolt (6, 59^ &c.), and their lightning is sharp (5, 86^). They
are fort-destroyers who aid in battle (i, 1097-^), They together demolished
the 99 forts of the Däsa (3, 12^) and are invincible in battle (5,86^). They
released the rivers from their imprisonment (8,48^) and accomplished heroic
deeds together (i, loS^). They are bountiful (5, 86^). All these are traits
characteristic of Indra. Indra-Agni are also called the two priests of sacri-
fice (8, 38^), and are wise (8, 403). They are lords of the abode {sadaspaft)
and drive away the goblins (i, 21 5). These features are more appropriate
to Agni. The two gods are t\vin brothers who have one father (6, 59*).
They are once called Asvins** (i, 109*), possibly in allusion to this close
relationship. They bestow food, wealth, strength, cattie, steeds (4, 60*^""*^).
They are greater than heaven and earth, rivers, and mountains (i, 109^).
The two gods are once contrasted, though not when addressed as a pair;
Indra being said to slay, but Agni to bum, the Dasyus (6, 28-*). The two
hymns (4, 49; 7, 97) addressed to Indra-Bjrhaspati consist chiefly of invi-
tations to drink Soma and of prayers to bestow great wealth abounding in
steeds and to promote devotion. Indra-Väyu are constantly invited to
come and drink Soma (i, 23*"* &c.), little eise being said about them. They
come to the offering with their teams (4, 47"""*) or in their golden-seated car
(4, 46*) and seat themselves on the sacrificial litter (7, 91^). They are
thousand-eyed, lords of devotion {dhiyas pati: i, 23O, and lords of might
(Javasas pati\ 4, 473). They help in battle (7, 92*) and bestow wealth in
steeds, cattie, and gold (7, 90^). Indra-Soma perform the warlike exploits
characteristic of Indra or the great cosraic actions so often ascribed to hira.
They made the waters flow for man, released the seven rivers, slew the
dragon, depressed the wheel of the sun (4, 28*-^; 6, 72^). The true work
of the two bountiful gods was that they destroyed their foes and broke open
what was enclosed in the rock (4, 28*- 5). They performed the first great
deeds in finding the sun and light, dispelling the darkness, causing the sun
to shine, supporting heaven, and spreading out the earth (6, 72'* *). They
too placed ripe milk in the raw bodies of cows (ib.^). They grant victorious
might to men (ib.^). Indra- Vi §riu, who are receptacles of Soma, lords of
intoxication (madapcUi)^ are invited to come with their steeds, to drink Soma,
and to fiU their belly with it. The two gods strode out widely in the in-
toxication of Soma, made the air broader, and spread out the spaces for
existence. Ever victorious, they grant wealth, and conduct safely across
dangers. As generators of all prayers, they are besought to hear the in-
vocations of their worshippers (6,69)". Indra-Pü§an are invoked con-
jointly in only one short hymn (6, 57), and their names form a dual Com-
pound only twice. When Indra made the great waters flow, Pü§an was his
companion. With him as a friend, Indra slays Vitras (6, 56^). One of them
drinks Soma and is drawn by two steeds with which he slays Vjtras, while
the other desires gruel {karambha) and is drawn by goats. Mention is once
(i, 162^) made of the abode {päthas) of Indra-Pü§an, to which a goat con-
ducts the sacrificial horse. The two gods are as usual also besought to confer
welfare and booty.

Soma-Pü§an (2, 40) drive away darkness and are invoked to quicken
the seven-wheeled five-reined car, yoked by thought, which measures out
Space. They are generators of wealth, of heaven and earth, and protectors
of the World (cp. 10, 17^), whom the gods made the centre of immortality.
For them Indra is invoked to produce ripe milk in the raw cow^s. Together
they bestow victory over foes and grant abundance of wealth and food.

44- Dual DiviNiTiES. 129

But they are also contrasted. One of them has made his abode high in
heaven, while the other dwells on earth and in air; one generated all beings,
while the other moves seeing everything'^. Soma-Rudra (6, 74) are in-
voked to drive away sickness and decay from the house^ to place all remedies
in the bodies of their worshippers, to remove from them all sin, and to
free from the fetter of Vanma. Wielding sharp weapons, they are besought
to have mercy and are implored for prosperity to man and beast Agni-
Soma are celebrated together for having released the confined streams,
obtained the light, and set the luminaries in the sky. At the same time they
are distinguished, Mätarisvan being said to have brought the one from heaven,
and the eagle the other from the rock (i, 93). Their Joint help and pro-
tection are invoked, and they are besought to grant cattle, horses^ offspring,
health, happiness, and wealth (10, 19*. 667). This pair is mentioned several
times in the AV. In the MS. (3, 7*) they are spoken of as *two eyes'. The
SB. refers to them as brothers (11, i, 6 '9), also stating that the sun belongs
to Agni and the moon to Soma (i, 6, 3**). In the ritual Agni-Soma seem
never to receive a share in the Soma offering, but only cakes and animal
sacrifices. It is somewhat remarkable that the two great ritual deities, who
form a very frequent couple in the sacriücial literature, should, outside the
one hymn (i, 93) devoted to their praise, be mentioned only twice as a
pair, and that only in the most recent part of the RV.'^

A few other pairs are invoked in detached verses only. Agni-Parjanya
are mentioned in one passage (6, 52*^). They are together besought to
bestow food and progeny, but are at the same time contrasted, the one being
said to have produced the oblation {tläm) and the other offepring (garbham),
Parjanya-Väta are invoked in four passages. * As buUs of earth they are
besought (6, 49^) to impel the watery vapours (purtsäni), Along with Indra-
Vä)ru and oliier gods, they are invoked as vaporous {purtsind) bulls (10,659).
In another enumeration they are entreated to bestow abundant food (6, 50*').
They are also once (10, 66*** cp. Nir. 7, 10) invoked as connected with 'the
thundering buffalo' (probably Dyaus**). Dawn and Night are invoked several
times- They are mentioned almost exclusively in Vi§vedeva or Äprl hymns.
They are rieh goddesses (2, 3i5; 10, 70*), divine maidens (7, 2^; 10, iio*),
daughters of heaven (5, 41^; 10, 70^). They are like two wives (i, 122*)
and abound in milk (2, 3*). Changing their colour they suckle a Single
child who beams between heaven and earth (i, 965). They are two sisters
who are of one mind but of diflferent colour, whose path is the same and
endless, who, taught by the gods, move altemately and never clash or stand
still (1,1133). They are the shining mothers of order (i, 1427); they con-
duct with bright rays every offering (5, 4x7) and weave the web of sacrifice
(2, 3^). They are bountiful, much invoked, and sit on the sacrificial grass
(7, 2^). They are great and well-adomed (10, 36\ iio^; i, 137. 1427).
Appearing altemately they arouse all living things (2, 31*)**. Sun and Moon
are mentioned five times in the form of siryämäsä and three times in that
of süryäcandramdsä, These are the only dual Compounds formed with the
name of Sürya'7. in most cases the concrete luminaries only are meant.
Thus they are said to move altemately so that we may see (i, 102^). It is
the act of Brhaspati that sun and moon rise altemately (10, 68*°). The
Creator fashioned sun and moon (10, 1903). A poet says, *let us go on our
path like sun and moon' (5, 51*^). There is, however, an incipient personi-
fication when the pair is invoked with other deities (10, 64^. 92". 935). Ina
few passages sun and moon, though not expressly mentioned, are evidently
thought of in their dual character. The two go round the sacrifice like

lodo-arische Philolo|fie. IIL 1a. 9

130 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

playing children; the one surveys all beings, the other is bom again, ordering

the seasons' (10,85*®). There is no doubt that they are meant by the two

bright eyes of Vanujia (8, 41 9) and by the two eyes of heaven made by the

immortals (i, 72'°).

I KHF. 161 f.; OGR. 297 f.; HVM. i, 98. — 2 Sp.AP. 159; cp. ORV. 93.
240. — 3 Tylor, Primitive Culture 322 — 8 (Chapter on Mythology). — 4 Haug
Translation of the AB., vol. 2, 308. — 5 Cp. ibid. 2, 299. — 6 Cp. Nirukta 3, 22 ;
MM., LSL. 2, 606. — 7 RV. 2, 404- 5; 6, 52*6. 57a. 683; 7, 362. 825*6. 839.
842. 853. — 8 OST. 5, 70; Eggers, Mitra 29—31; Oldenberg, ZDMG.
5c, 46. — 9 OST. S, 220; Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 470. — xo Cp. Fay, AJP. 17,
14. — " LSL. 2, 614. — " Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 175. — 13 OST. 5, 180; HVM.
I, 456. — »4 Oldenberg, Die Hymnen des Rigveda I, 267; Hillebrandt, GGA.
1890, p. 401; HVM. I, 458—61. -- »5 Cp. LRV. 4, 228. — »6 KRV. 52; Olden-
berg, ZDMG. 39, 89; HRI. 79. — *7 Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50, 63.

G. CROUPS OF GODS.

S 45« The mythology of the Veda recognised a certain number of more
or less definite groups of divine beings, generally associated with some par-
ticular god. The largest and most important of these, the Maruts, whose
number in the RV. is variously stated to be 21 or 180 (p. 78), is, as has
been shown, constantly described as attending Indra in his warlike exploits
(p. 57). The same group under the name of Rudras is occasionally asso-
ciated with their father Rudra (7^ 10*. 35^). The number of the Rudras,
treated as^ a separate class in the Brähmanas, is stated to be eleven in the
AB. and SB. (p.^ 19) but is thirty-three in the TS. (i, 4, 11*). The smaller
group of the Adityas, whose number in two passages of the RV. is
seven or eight (p. 43) and in^ the Brähmanas becomes twelve, is in the RV.
constantly associated either with their mother Aditi (7, lo* &c.) or with their
Chief Varuija (7, 35^ &c.). This group is more definite than that of the
Maruts inasmuch as its members have separate names. A third group fre-
quently mentioned in the RV. is more vague than the other two, for they
are neither characterized nor is their number mentioned. That they were
conceived as specially connected with Indra, is shown by two passages in
which Varuna or Aditi with the Ädityas, Rudra with the Rudras, and Indra
with the Vasus, are invoked (7, lo*. 35^). But in later Vedic texts Agni is the
leader of the Vasus*. They are regarded as eight in number in the AB. and
SB. (p. 19), but in the TS. (5, 5, 2^) become 333. The three groups of the
Ädityas, Rudras and Vasus are invoked together in a few passages of the
RV. (2, 31*; IG, 66*^ cp. 7, lo*. 35^) ^ The Brähmanas distinguish, as three
kinds of ^ gods, the Vasus of earth, the Rudras of air, and the Ädityas of
heaven (SB. i, 3, 4"; 4, 3, 5*). In the Chändogya Upani§ad (3, 6 — 10) five
groups are mentioned, the Vasus being connected with Agni, the Rudras with
Indra, the Ädityas with Varuna, the Maruts with Soma, and the Sädhyas with
Brahma (cp. RV. 10, 97- »^)3. There is besides the group of the semi-divine
Angirases who are chiefly connected with Brhaspati (SS 36, 54) and the
small one of the three Rbhus who are nearly always associated with Indra
(S 46). Finally, a comprehensive group is formed of the Visvedeväh or
AU-gods, who occupy an important position in the sacrifice, for at least forty
entire hymns of the RV. are devoted to their praise. It is a factitious sacri-
ficial group meant to represent all the gods in order that none should be
excluded in laudations intended to be addressed to alL But the AU-gods
are sometimes conceived as a narrower group, being invoked with other
groups, such as the Vasus and Ädityas (2, 3*)*.

I IS. 5, 240; BRV. 2, 370; Bloomfield, FaR. 151. — 2 LRV. 6, 147; cp.
Perry, JAOS. 16, 178. — 3 Weber, IS. 9, 6; SPH. 23. — 4 HRI. 137. 143, note i. 182.

45- Groups or GoDS* — H. Lower Deities. 46. Rbhus. 131

H. LOWER DEITIES.

8 46. Rbhus. — Besides the higher gods of the Veda there are a
number of mythical beings not regarded as having the divine nature fully
and originally. The most important of these are the Rbhus. They are cele-
brated in eleven hymns of the RV. and are mentioned by name over a
hundred times. They form a triad. Their individual names, which often
occur, are Rbhu or less commonly Rbhuk§an (*chief of the Rbhus'), Väja,
and Vibhvan. These three names are several times mentioned together,
sometimes only two of them, while occasionally Rbhu is referred to alone.
They are most often spoken of in the pUiral as rbhava/t, but the plural of
each of their names may designate the triad. Sometimes tlie plurals of all
three (4, 36^; 8, 48O or of only two {VäJä Rbhuksanah or Väja RbhavaH)
appear to be used together pleonastically to indicate the trio. Once the com-
bination Väjo Vibhväh Rbhavafy occiurs (4, z^^)- Occasionally an indefinite
group seems to be meant, as all {viive) the Rbhus (7, 513), or Rbhu with
the Rbhus, Vibhvan with the Vibhus (7, 48*) are invoked. In the latter passage
Rbhu and Vibhvan are evidently thought of as chiefe of groups of the same
name. The three Rbhus are once distinguished as eldest, younger, and
youngest (4, 335).

The Rhbus are about a dozen times called by the patronymic name of
Saudhanvana, sons of Sudhanvan, *the good archer'. They are also once
coUectively addressed as the son {süno) of Indra (4, 37^). In the same verse
they are invoked as *children of might* (Javaso napäta)f)^ as if a play on the
meaning of napät (also *grandson') were intended, in contrast with the epithet
*son of might' {^avasaJ^ sünü), which is applied exclusively to Indra. The
epithet iavaso napätah is almost peculiar to them^ being applied to them
five times and otherwise only once to Mitra-Varui^a. In one passage (3,6o3)
they are spoken of as 'children of Manu' {manor napätah) and their parents
(pitarä) are several times mentioned. In one hymn they address Agni as
their brother (i, i6i*' 3).

They are very frequently invoked to come to the sacrifice (4,34^*3, 37')
and to drink the Soma juice (4, 34^. 36^; 7, 48O. Being high in heaven they
are besought to come to the Soma in the lower abodes (4, 37^). In this they
are generally associated with Indra (3, 60*"^; 4, 333. 34^ 357), a few times
with the Maruts (i, 20S. iii^j 4, 34"), and once with the Ädityas, Savitr,
Mountains, and Rivers (4, 34^). In other respects also they are closely connected
with Indra. They are Indra-like (4,37^) and Rbhu is like a new Indra (i, iio7).
With Indra they help mortals to victory (4, 37^) and are invoked with him
to crush foes (7, 483). They are said to have obtained the friendship of
Indra by their skilfiü work (3, 6o3; 4, 357-9); for it is they who fashioned
his steeds. In the hymns devoted to their praise, they are rarely invoked
with gods other than Indra, there being only one such passage (4, 34^) in
which Indra is not mentioned as well. Indra's connexion with them is indeed
so characteristic, that he is, like the eldest of the triad, called 'chief of the
Rbhus' {rbhuksan\ a term also two or three times applied to Indra's asso-
ciates, the Maruts. In some of the Visvedeva hymns they are brought into
connexion with a few other gods, chiefly Tva§tr.

The references to the physical aspect or the equipment of the Rbhus
are scanty. They are of sunlike appearance (i, iio*). They have a car
(1,161")» which is drawn by steeds (7, 48O. Their car is bright, their steeds
are fat; they wear metal helmets and fair necklaces (4, 37^). Rbhu is a
possessor of steeds {aivin\ 4, 375). The Rbhus are characteristically deft-

9*

132 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

handed {suhastäh) and skilful {apds^ suapas: 4, 33*'* &c.), their skilful deeds
being incomparable (3, 60*). They are frequentiy said to have acquired the
rank of gods in consequence of their marvellous skill. Through their wondrous
deeds they obtained divinity (3, 60'). By their skilful deeds they became
gods and immortal, alighting like eagles in heaven (4, 35^). They are men
of the air who by their energy mounted to heaven (i, iio^). For their
skilful Services they went the path of immortality to the host of the gods
(4, 353), obtaining immortality among the gods and their friendship (4,33**.
35^- 36^)- But they were originally mortals, children of Manu, who by their
industry acquired immortality (3, 6o3; i, iio*). The AB. (3, 30') speaks of
them as men who by austerity (tapas) obtained a right to partake of Soma
among the gods. The gods rejoiced so greatly in their work, that Vaja
became the artificer of the gods, Rbhuk§an of Indra, and Vibhvan of Vanuia
(4^ 33')* They went to the gods and obtained the sacrifice, or a share of
the sacrifice, among the gods through their skilful work (i, 20''^. 121^* 7).
Thus the third or evening pressing or libation (savanä) belongs to them,
they having obtained it by their skilful work (i, 161®; 4, 33*'. 34*. 35^).
They are thus sometimes expressly invoked as gods (4, 365. 37').

Like the higher gods, they are besought to give prosperity and wealth
(4> 33^' 37^)> ii^ cattle, horses, heroes (4, 34^°), and to grant vigour, noiuish-
ment, offspring, dexterity (i,iii*). They grant treasures to the Soma presser
(i,2o7; 4,35^). He whom they help is invincible in fight (4, 36°), and Rbhu
and Väja are besought to give aid and booty in battle (i, 1155).

The same verb taks^ to fashion, is generally used with reference to the
manual skill of the Rbhus as to that of Tva§tr. The five great feats of dexterity
by which they became gods, are spoken of with pretty uniform frequency
and are all or most of them mentioned in nearly every hymn dedicated to
their praise. They fashioned or made a car (i, iii*. 16 1^; 4, 33^ 36*),
which is horseless, reinless, three-wheeled, and traverses space (4, 360« The
car which goes round they fashioned for the Asvins (i, 2o3. 161^; 10» 39'^)«
When in a verse (4, 34^) which enumerates each of their feats with a single
Word, they are said to have fashioned the Asvins themselves, this appears
to be only a loose way of referring to the same exploit

For Indra they fashioned the two bay steeds {hart) which waft him
(4> 33*° &c.). It appears to be only a varied reference to the same feat
when the Rbhus are represented as desiring to make a horse or as having
made one horse after another (i, löi^-^).

They further fashioned or made a cow (i, 161^; 4, 34^), which yields
nectar (i, 2o3) and is all-stimulating and omniform (4, 33®). This cow they
formed out of hide (i, iio®) or extracted (arinlta) from a hide (i, 161^ &c.;.
They guarded her and formed her flesh (4,33*). That they formed this cow
for Brhaspati may be inferred from a verse (i, 161^) which states that Indra
yoked the two bay steeds and the Asvins the car, while Bfhaspati drove up
the omniform (cow). A minor feat, only twice referred to and perhaps con-
nected with the foregoing one, consists in their having re-united the mother
with her calf (i, iio^ iii').

The Rbhus also rejuvenated their parents (i, 20*. iii*; 4, 35^), who
were frail and lay like decaying posts (i, iio®; 4, 33*'^). They made the
two who were old young again (i, löi^- 7). When in the brief enumeration
of their feats already referred to (4, 34^), they are simply said to have
fashioned their parents, the same feat is doubtless meant. It was their laudable
fame among the gods, that they made their frail and very old parents young
again so as to walk (4, 36^). In the first verse of the same h3rmn it is said

LowER Deities. 46. Rbhus. 133

to have been the great proclamation of their divine power, that they made
heaven and earth to thrive. The latter thus seem to be intended by their
parents.

The exhibition of skill which is most frequently mentioned and appears
to have been thought the greatest, as showing the Rbhus in the character of
successfiil rivals of Tva§tr, consists in their having made the one cup, the
work of Tva§tr, into four (i, 20^ iio^; 4, 35*- \ 36*). This cup is the
drinking vessel of the gods (i, löi^; 4, 355) or of the Asura (i, iio3). The
Rbhus were commissioned by the gods through their messenger Agni, to make
the one cup, which was of wood, into four, promising as a reward that they
should receive worship equally with the gods (i, i6i''*). Tva§tr praised
{p€Mayat) the proposal of the Rbhus to make two, three, or four cups, and
acquiesced {avenat) when he saw the four shining cups (4, 33'* ^). But in
another passage it is said that Tva^tT» on seeing the four cups, hid himself
among the females and desired to kill the Rbhus for desecrating the drinking
vessel of the gods (i, i6i*- *), though the Rbhus in a previous verse of the
same hymn (v. *) disclaim any wish to desecrate it They are described as
measuring out like a field the one wide drinking vessel {pätra)^ desiring
fame among the immortals (i,iio5). The same feat is less definitely referred
to when they are said to have formed or fashioned cups (i, i6i9; 3, 60*

cp. 4, 35*)-

The skill of the Rbhus is incidentally exemplified by the Statement

that they fashioned prayer (10, So'), sacrifice (3, 54"), and the two worlds

(4, 349), or that they are supporters of the sky (10, 66").

Another myth connects the Rbhus with Savitr. They are said to have
been round the sky, wind-sped, in swift course (4, 33* cp. i, 161"). After
much wandering they came to the house of Savitr, who conferred immortality
on them when they came to Agohya (i, iio*'^). When, slumbering for
twelve days, they had rejoiced in the hospitality of Agohya, they made fair
fields and directed the streams, plants occupied the arid ground and waters
the lowlands (4, 33'). By their skill they made grass on the heights and
waters in the depths, when they slumbered in the house of Agohya (i, 161").
Having slept, they asked Agohya as to who had awakened them; in a year
they looked around (ib. *5).

The Word rbhu^ is apparently derived from the root rabh^ to grasp (cp.
2, 3*)*, thus meaning 'handy', *dexterous'. It frequently occurs in the RV,
as an adjective and is several times thus used as an attribute of Indra, Agni,
and the Adityas. It seems to be identical with the German elbe and the
English ei/^, Väja (from the root vaj) means the *vigorous one'^ and
Vibhvan^ (from vi and the root bhü)^ *the eminent' (artist). Thus both the
name of the Rbhus and the account given of them in the RV. indicate that
their essential character is that of skilful artificers.

It IS clear that they were regarded as not having been gods from the
beginning. Whether their close connexion with Indra has in any way to do
with their original nature is doubtful. It is also uncertain who is meant by
their patronymic Saudhanvana, since the word sudhanvan occurs only twice
in the RV. as an attribute of Rudra and of the Maruts. It is, however, most
probable that their parents who are mentioned so often, represent heaven
and earth 5. The notion that they produce fertility is connected with their
sojoum of twelve days in the house of Savitr or Agohya, the sun *who
cannot be concealed'^ They have therefore by various scholars' been taken
to be genii of the three seasons*, which are at a stand-still during the twelve
days of the winter solstice. The cup of Tva§tr possibly represents the moon,

134 IH- KjiLIGION, WELTL. WiSSENSCH. U. KuNST. I A. VeDIC MyTHOLOGY.

and the four into which it was transformed by the Rbhus, its four phases.
On the whole it seems probable that the Rbhus were originally terrestrial or
aerial elves, whose dexterity gradually attracted to them various myths illu-
strative of marvelous skill. But the evidence fumished by the RV. is hardly
sufficient to Warrant any certain conclusion.

» Cp. Wackernagel, Altind. Gr. p. 70. — » Brugmann, Grundriss 2, 298 ; cp.
A. Kuhn, KZ. 4, 103—20; Wackernagel, KZ. 24, 297. — 3 'Riches' according to
BRV. 2, 407. — 4 Cp. Oldenberg, SEE. 46, 191. — 5 A. Kuhn, Entwicklungs-
stufen 134; AIL. 366. — 6 WVB. 1894, 37, note 3; according to BRV. 3, 52, «from
whom nothing is concealed'. — 7 AIL. 1- c; LRV. 3, 335; KRV. 53 — 4; HVM.
I, 515; HVBP. 100. — 8 According to Weber, 1. c, they are genii of creative
time, past, present, and future; according to BRV. 2, 412, three ancient skilful
sacrificers who acquired immortality and whose number is connected with the triad
of sacrificial fires.

N^VE, Essai sur le Mythe des Ribhavas, Paris 1847; cp. Roth, ZDMG. 2,
126; OST. 5, 226—7; GKR. 119; GRV. I, 103; BRV. 2, 403—13; 3. 51—5;
GGH. 108. 110; WC. 24—6; K H. Meyer, Germanische Mythologie 124; An-
zeiger für deutsches Altertum 13, 31—5; ORV. 235—6 (cp. L. v. Schroeder,
WZKM. 9, 253).

S 47. The Apsarases. — Apsaras denotes a kind of nymph that even
in the RV. appears almost completely separated from her physical basis.
The Information there obtainable is very scanty, as the name occurs only
five times. The Apsaras smiles at her beloved (the Gandharva mentioned in
the preceding verse) in the highest heaven (10, 1235). Vasi§tha was born
of the Apsaras (7, 33") and the Vasi§thas are said to have sat dose to the
Apsarases (ibid. ^). The Apsarases of the sea are described as flowing to
Soma (9, 78-^), with reference to the water which is mixed with the juice.
The long-haired ascetic with semi-divine powers is spoken of as able to move
on the path of the Apsarases and the Gandharvas (10, 136^). The Apsaras
is also doubtless meant by the aqueous nymph (a/yä yosä)y the wife of the
Gandharva in the waters (10, 10*).

More is said about the Apsarases in the AV. Their abode is in the
waters, whence they come and go in a trice (AV. 2,2^); and they are besought
to depart from the vicinity of men to the river and the bank of the waters
(AV. 4, 373). The goddesses accompanying the Gandharva Visvävasu are
described as connected with clouds, lightning, and stars (AV. 2, 2*). They
are expressly called wives of the Gandharvas (AV. 2, 25), and their connexion
with the latter has assumed the character of a formula in the later Samhitäs
(VS. 30, 8; AV. 8, 99, &c.)'. In the SB. (11, 5, i^) the Apsarases are de-
scribed as transforming themselves into a kind of aquatic bird {ätaya^\ cp.
RV. 9, 59). In the post-Vedic literature they are very often spoken of as
frequenting forest lakes and rivers, espescially the Ganges, and they are found
in Vanu;ia's palace in the ocean ^. The etymological meaning of the word is
most probably 'moving in the waters* 3.

The above evidence indicates that the oldest conception of the Apsaras
is that of a celestial water nymph, already regarded in Öie RV. as the con-
sort of a genius named Gandharva. In the later Samhitäs the sphere of the
Apsarases extends to the earth and in particular to trees. They are spoken
of as inhabiting banyans {nyagrodha) and sacred fig-trees {aivattha\ in which
their cymbals and lutes resound (AV. 4, 37*). Elsewhere the same trees as
well as other varieties of the fig-tree {udumbara and plaksd) are said to be
the houses of Gandharvas and Apsarases (TS. 3, 4, 80- The Gandharvas and
Apsarases in such trees are entreated to be propitious to a passing wedding
procession (AV. 14, 2^)4. In the SB. (11, 6, i) the Apsarases are described
as engaged in dance, song, and play. Post-Vedic texts even speak of mount-

LowER Deities. 47. The Apsarases. 135

ains, both mythical and actual, as favourite resorts of these two classes of
beings^. The AV. adds the traits that the Apsarases are fond of dice and
bestow luck at play (AV. 2, 2 5 &c.), but that they are feared especially as
causing mental derangement, magic therefore beqxg employed against Üiem
(AV. 2, sS &C.).

The love of the Apsarases, who are of the great beauty* (cp. SB. 13, 4
37. *), is enjoyed not only by the Gandharvas, but occasionally even by men
(cp. 10, 959). A myth tuming on such a union is related of at least one
individual Apsaras in Vedic literature. The names only of several other
Apsarases are there mentioned. The AV. refers to three, Ugrajit, Ugrarp-
pasyä, and Rä$trabhrt (AV. 16, ii8*-*), while theVS., am9ng several others,
speaks of Urvasi and Menakä (VS. 15, 15 — 19). The SB. (3, 4, i") also
specifies Sakuntalä, the ancestress of the royal family of the Bharatas^ (SB.
13, 5, 4'^), as well as UrvasT (SB. 11, 5, i*).

The only one of these names occurring in the RV. is that of UrvasT.
That she was there regarded as an Apsaras, appears from the fact that
Vasi§tha is said in one verse to have been bom of Urvasi and, in the next,
of an Apsaras (7,33"* "). She is once invoked with the streams (5, 41*^).
Her name is otherwise only mentioned^ twice in a late and obscure hymn
(10, 95***' '7)j which consists of a dialogue between her and her lover Purü-
ravas^ son of IIa. She is there described as aqueous (apyä), as filling the
atmosphere, and traversing space (the latter expression is also applied to the
celestial Gandharva in 10, 139^). She is said to have spent four autumns
among mortals (v. ^^) and is besought to return (v. 'O- The request is ap-
parently refused; but Purüravas receives the promise that his oflfspring shall
worship the gods with the offering, while he himself shall enjoy bliss in
heaven {svargai v. ^^). Several verses of this hymn find their setting in a
continous story told in the SB. (11, 5, i), which fiUs in details partly based
on a misunderstanding of the text of RV. It is there related that the Apsaras
Urvasi joins herseif with Purüravas, son of IIa, in an alliance, the permanence
of which depends on the condition that she shall never see him naked. The
Gandharvas by a stratagem produce a noise during the night Purüravas
Springs up naked, when he is seen by Urvasi illuminated by a flash of light-
ning. Urvasi vanishes forthwith. Purüravas wanders about in search of her,
tili he at last observes*her swimming in a lotus lake with other Apsarases
in the form of an aquatic bird. Urvasi discovers herseif to him and, in
response to his entreaties, consents to receive him for one night a year later^.
He returns at the appointed time, and on the following day the Gandharvas
grant him the boon of becoming one of themselves by producing fire in a
particular way. Excepting 10, 95, the name of Purüravas, which means
'calling aloud', occurs only in one passage of the RV. (i, 31*), where Agni
is said to have caused the sky to thunder {väJaya) for the righteous man
{manave) Purüravas. The word may here, however, have the adjectival
sense. Purüravas and Urvasi have by some scholars^® been interpreted as
sun and dawn.

« See PW. s. V. gandharva, — a Holtzmann, ZDMG. 33, 635. 641. — 3 Ex-
plained by YN. 5, 13 by ap-särim; cp. Meyer, Indogermanische Mythen i, 183;
GGH. 10; PVS. I, 79 cp. 183 ff.*; Ludwig, Methode 91; otherwise Weber, IS. 13,
135» GW., BuRY, BB. 7, 339. — 4 Haas, IS. 5, 394; 13» 136; E. H. Meyer, op.
cit. 13. — 5 Holtzmann, ZDMG. 33, 640 f.; v, Schroeder, op. cit. 67; Mann-
HARDT, Wald- und Feldkulte l, 99 ff. — 6 in the Epic period the Apsarases have
become regulär celestial courtesans. — 7 Cp. Weber, IS. i, 198 — 201 ; Holtzmann,
ZDMG. 33, 635 f.; Leumann, ZDMG. 48, 80—2; v. Bradke, ibid. 498 ff. — « Cp.
Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 323. — 9 They have a son named Ayu: cp. KHF. 65. 71;

136 IIL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 1 a. Vedic Mythology.

IS. I, 197; GVS. I, 283; BRV. 2, 324; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 28. — " Weber,
IS. I» 196; MM., Oxford Essays p. 61; Essays i, 408—10; Chips 4S 109 f.

Lassen, Indische Alterthumskande 1,432, note2; KHF. 71 — 8; Roth, Nirukta
155—6; GRV. 2, 488; BRV. 2, 90—6; V. ScHROEDER, op. cit. 1, 23—39 (cp. WZKM.
9f 253); Oldenberg, ZDMG. 37, 81; 39, 52 n. 4. 73—6; GGA. 1890, 420 ff.;
GVS. I, 243—95; SiECKE, Die Liebesgeschichte des Himmels» Strassburg 1892
(Urvail — moon); HRI. 137.

S48. Gandharvas. — With the Apsaras or Apsarases are associated
even in the RV., as has been shown, a male being or beings named Gan-
dharva. Of the twenty occurrences of the word in the RV. only three are
in the plural, while of the thirty-two occurrences in the AV. half are in the
pluraL The name is found a few times in the Avesta as Gandarewa* (a
dragon-like monster) and only in the singular. This points to the Gandharvas
as a class having been gradually developed from a single being. In the later
Saqihitäs they are spoken of as forming a distinct class by the side of Gods^
Fathers and Asuras (AV. 11, 5*; TS. 7, 8, 25*). Their number is fixed as 27
in some Yajus texts and is even said to be 6333 in the AV. (11, 5')*.
The fact that the conception goes back to the Indo-Iranian period, accounts
to some extent for its obscurity. The evidence of the RV. is, moreover, so
scanty - and vague that no certain result as to its definite original character
is attainable. It is worthy of note that the name is found only once in
books II to VII, while in book Vni it occurs twice as that of a being hostile
to Indra. The word seems sometimes to be only an appellative^. It is
occasionally accompanied by the epithet viivävasu, 'possessing all goods'
(9, 86^^; 10, 139*' *; AV. 2, 2*; VS. 2, 3). This epithet is in one hymn
used alone to designate Gandharva (10, 85"- *^ cp. *°' ^*); and in the later
Saqihitäs, the Brähmapas, and the post- Vedic literature, it frequently occurs
as the name of an individual Gandharva.

In the RV. Gandharva seems to be localized in the high region of air
or sky. He is a measurer of space (10, 139^). He is found in the fathom-
less Spaces of air (8, dd^). He is heavenly (divyd) and Stands erect on the
vault of heaven (10, 123'). He is the lover on whom the Apsaras smiles
(ib. *). His abode is in heaven (AV. 2, 2*- *) and the Biest live with the
Gandharvas (AV. 4, 343). In several passages Gandharva is closely connected with
some form of celestial light Thus he is brought into relation with the sun,
*the golden- winged bird, the messenger of Varuna' (10, 123^), with the sun-
bird (10, 177*), with the sun-steed (i, 163*), with Soma likened to the sun
(9» ^5*0* He is further connected with the 27 stars of the moon's orbit
(VS. 9, 7) and in particular with Rohiijii (AV. 13, i*^). He is possibly also
associated with the rainbow* in one hymn of the RV. (10, 123). In the VS.
(18, 38 ff.) the Gandharvas are enumerated with Agni, Sun, Moon, and Wind.
In post- Vedic literature one of the names of the mirage is *city of the
Gandharvas' s.

Gandharva is, moreover, in the RV. often associated (chiefly in the ninth
book) with Soma. He guards the place of Soma and protects the races of
the gods (9, 83^ cp. I, 22**). Observing all the forms of Soma, he Stands
on the vault of heaven (9, 85"). Together with Parjanya and the daughter
of the sun, the Gandharvas cherish Soma (9, 113^). Through Gandharva's
mouth the gods drink their draught (AV. 7, 73^). The MS. (3, 8*°) states
that the Gandharvas kept Soma for the gods, but having allowed it to be
Stolen, were as a punishment excluded from the Soma draught. Doubtless
owing to this association with Soma, Gandharva is described as knowing
plants (AV. 4, 4'). It is probably as a jealous guardian of Soma that Gan-
dharva in the RV. appears as a hostile being, who is pierced by Indra in

LowER Deities. 48. Gandharvas. 137

the regions of air (8, 665) or whom Indra is invoked to overcome (8, i").
For in a later text Soma is besought to elude the Gandharva Visvävasu in
the form of an eagle (TS. 1,2,9^). Soma is further said to have dwelt among
the Gandharvas or to have been stolen by the Gandharva Visvävasu, but to
have been bought from the Gandharvas, as they were fond of females, at the
price of the goddess VäC (AB. i, 27; TS. 6, i, 65;* MS. 3, 7^). The trait of
hostility appears to be old, for in the Avesta (Yt 5, 38) the hostile Ganda-
rewa, dwelling in the sea Vouruka^a, the abode of the white Haoma, is fought
with and * overcome by Keresäspa. Moreover, the archer Krsänu, who shoots
at the eagle that carries off the Soma (RV. 4, 273), appears to be a Gan-
dharva^, being expressly said to be one in TA. i, 9'.

Gandharva is sometimes connected with the waters. 'Gandharva in the
waters' and the *aqueous nymph' are alluded to as the parents of Yama and
Yaml (10, IC*). Soma poured into water is called *the Gandharva of the
waters' (9, 863*). Gandharva, connected with the Apsarases, is also said to
dweU in the waters in the AV. (2, 2^; 4, 37"). In the Avesta Gandarewa is
a lord of the abyss who dwells in the waters (Yt 15, 28).

The miion of Gandharva with the water nymph is typical of marriage.
He is therefore connected with the wedding ceremony, and the unmarried
maiden is said to belong to Gandharva as well as to Soma and Agni (10,
^S^*^')« The Gandharva Visvävasu in the first days of wedlock is regarded
as a rival of the husband (ib. "'), and the Gandharvas' love of women is
prominent in later texts (cp. MS. 3, 7^). The Gandharvas and Apsarases thus
preside over fertility and are prayed to by those who desire ofFspring (PB.

i9>3')-

Of the conception of the Gandharvas being celestial singers, which appears

in the Epics and later, there seems to be no distinct trace in the RV. (cp.
IG, 177^ ii')«

There are only two or three references to their physical appearance in
the RV. They are wind-haired (3, 38^) and Gandharva has brilliant weapons
(10, 1237). The AV. is more definite (especially 4, 37; 8, 6* ff.). Here they
are said to be shaggy and to have half animaJ forms^ being in many ways
dangerous to men. Elsewhere, however, they are spoken of as handsome
(SB. 13, 4, 3^' *). The RV. adds the touch that Gandharva wears a fragrant
{surabhi) garment (10, 123 7), while in the AV. (12, i*3) the odour {gandha)
of the earth is said to rise to the Gandharvas.

This suggests the derivation from gandha as possible. But such an ety-

mology, even if true, would seem to shed no light on the original conception.

The name has even been identified with Kevxaopoc; but in order to justify

this equation the aid of populär etymology has to be called in^ as well as

the doubtful epenthesis of u assumed in the Greek word*. The two con-

ceptions, moreover, appear to have nothing in common. The utmost, from

a review of the evidence, it seems possible to say about the original nature

of the Gandharva is, that he was a bright celestial being, sometimes thought

of as dwelling in the waters with his spouse the Apsaras. Various conjectures

have, however, been made by different scholars. Some regard the Gandharvas

as wind-spirits9, others think that Gandharva represents the rainbow*°, or a

genius of the moon", or Soma", or the rising sun^3, or a cloud-spirit**.

« Yasht 5, 37; 19, 41 ; cp. SpAP. 276; Bartholomae, ZDMG. 42, 158. —
2 WVB. 1894, p. 34. — 3 HVM. 1, 427. — 4 Disputed by Bergaigne and HU-LE-
brandt; cp. ORV. 246, note l. — 5 See PW. s. v. gandharva-nagara^ -pura, —
6 KHF. 151 — 2; WVB. 1894, 7—9 (cp. 1888, p. 13, n.); as to Kriänu, cp. also
Weber, IS. 2, 313—4; Kuhn in KZ. i, 523; Roth, ZDMG. 36, 359; BRV. 3, 30fr.;
Sp.AP. 223— 4; Bloomfield, JAOS. 16,20; ORV. 181. — 7 v. Schroeder, GGH. 73;

138 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mytholcx;y.

Meyer, Indog. Mythen 164 f. — 8 Cp. Brugmann, Grundriss i, 481. — 9 Mann-
HARDT 201; Meyer, op. cit. 1, 219 f.; v. Schroeder, op. cit. 71; HVM. i, 446. —
10 Roth, Nir. Erl. 145; GRV. 2, 400; DPV. 253; Kirste, WZKM. 9, 164, —
" PW.; LRV. 4, 158; HRI. 157. — «2 BRV. 2, 38 ff. — »3 WC 34. 36 q>.
LRF. 101. — X4 KHF. 153.

A. Kuhn, KZ. i, 513 ff.; Weber, IS. i, 90; 5, 185. 210; 13, 134 f.; Meyer,
op. cit 11—2. 16—8.23.55. 179; BRV. 3, 64—7; PVS. I, 77—81; Sp.AP. 210—15;
HVM. I, 427—66; ORV. 244—9; ZDMG. 49, 178-^9.

S 49. Tutelary Deities. — The name of V^sto§ pdti occurs only
seven times in the RV., and one hymn of three stanzas (7, 54) is devoted
to his praise. He is there invoked to grant a favourable entry, to remove
disease, to bless man and beast, to confer prosperity in cattle and horses,
and always to afford protection. In the first verse of the hymn immediately
following (7, 55*) he is described as a destroyer of disease, who assumes all
forms. He is once (7, 54*) identified with Soma, being addressed as Indu.
In a verse of a hymn to the All-gods (5, 41®) he is invoked in immediate
juxtaposition with Tva§tr and is perhaps identified with him as the great
artificer. In another verse (8, i7**) he is called a firm pillar, a cuirass of
Soma-pressers, and seems to be identified with Indra. In the only passage
of the tenth book which mentions him, he is spoken of as the observer of
ordinances who, along with prayer {brahmä), was fashioned by the gods (10,
61 7). According to Geldner* Rudra is here meant, Västo§pati being an
epithet ofthat god in TS. 3,40, lo^. Though identified with various deities in
the above passages, there seems no sufficient reason to suppose that the
name was originally attached to any one particular greater deity as an epithet
(like grhapati to Agni). The Grhya Sütras (ÄGS. 2, 99; SGS. 3, 4; POS.
3, 4') prescribe that Västo§pati is to be propitiated when a new house is to
be entered. This, together with the contents of the hymn devoted to his
praise, points to his having been simply a tutelary deity of the house*, as
the name itself *Lord of the dwelling' implies. He thus seems to be one of
the lower order of deities which in primitive beliefs animate, inhabit, or preside
over natural objects such as trees and mountains.

To the same order belongs K§etrasya pati the tutelary deity of the
field. He is invoked, in the nrst three verses of 4, 57, to grant cattle and
horses as well as to fill heaven and earth, plants and waters with sweetness-J.
In a verse of a h>Tnn to the All-gods (7, 35*") he is besought, along with
Savitr, the Dawns, and Parjanya, to bestow prosperity. In a similar hymn
(10, 66*3), worshippers express a desire to have him as a neighbour. The
Grhya Sütras State that ^ he is sacrificed to or worshipped when a field is
ploughed (AGS. 2, 10*; SGS. 4, 135), In one verse of a hymn addressed to
agricultural deities (4,57^) Sita, the Furrow, is invoked to grant rieh blessings
and crops. Sita later appears (PGS. 2, 179) as the wife of Indra (perhaps
because that god is once in the RV. called urvaräpati^ *lord of the field':
8, 2i3 cp. 4, 577) and bears the patronymic Sävitri (TB. 2, 3, 10'). In the
Sütra passage just mentioned the blessings of Urvarä, the arable Field, de-
scribed as *having a garland of threshing-floors*, are invoked.

I FaW. 21; V. = Agni, WC. 22. — 2 Cp. Bloomfield, SBE. 42, 343—4. —
3 Perry, Drisler Memorial 241, thinks Pü§an is probably meant Cp. WiNDiscH,
Berichte der k. sächs. Gesellschaft 1892, p. 174; ORV. 254—5.

IV. MYTHICAL PRIESTS AND HEROES.

S 50. Manu. — As the appellation Manu or Manus is often used in
the sense of 'man', there is sometimes an uncertainty as to when it has the
value of a proper name in the RV. It appears to have the latter signification

49- TUTELARY DEITIES. — IV. MyTHICAL PrIESTS AND HeROES. 50. MaNU. I39

nearly twenty times in the form of Manu and almost as often in that of
Manus. Manu is üve times styled a father, and in two of these passages
more definitely as *our father* (2, 33 '^ &c., cp. S 9). Sacrificers are spoken
of as the people (vi/af) of Manus (4, 37' &c.) and Agni is said to abide
among the ofl&pring of Manu (i, 68*). Manu was the institutor of sacrifice.
For when he had kindled the fire, he presented the first oflfering with the
seven priests to the gods (10, 637). The sacrifice of Manu is the prototjrpe
of the present sacrifice. For the latter is compared to the sacrifice which
Manus oflfered to the gods (i, 76^). Such comparisons are firequently made
with the adverb manusvat, *like Manus*. Worshippers make Agni the accom-
plisher of sacrifice, as Manus did (i, 44"). They kindle Agni like Manus
(5, 21' &c.). Like Manus, they invoke Agni who was kindled by Manu (7, 2^).
They oflfer Soma as Manus did (4, 37-*). Soma is prayed to flow as he once
flowed for Manu (9,96"). Manu established Agni as a light for all people (1,36*^).
Manu is also mentioned with other ancient sacrificers, with Angiras and Yayäti
(i, 3i*0j with Bhrgu and Angiras (8, 43*-'), with Atharvan and Dadhyafic
(i, 80^*), with Dadhyafic, Angiras, Atri and Ka^va (i, 139^). The gods
(1,36*°), Mätarisvan (1,128^), Mätarisvan and the gods (10,469), and Kävya
Usanä* (8, 23*') are said to have given Agni to Manu or to have instituted
him a sacrificer for Manu. In the last four passages the word has perhaps
only the appellative meaning of *man'.

Indra is said to have drunk Soma beside Manu Vivasvat (Väl. 4') or
Manu Säqivaraijii (VäL 3^, and to have drunk the Soma of Manus, three
lakes, to strengthen himself for the Vjtra-fight (5, 29'). Soma is said to have
been brought to Manu by the bird (4, 26*). In the TS. and the SB. Manu
is also frequently described as a celebrator of religious ceremonies.

Manu appears to have been regarded as the son of Vivasvat even in
the RV.; for he is once (Väl. 4* cp. 3*) called Manu Vivasvat (cp. p. 42). In
the AV. (8, 10*^) and the SB. (13,4,3^), as well as in post-Vedic literature,
he bears the regulär patronymic Vaivasvata. Yama also is a son of Vivasvat,
and the first of mortals. Manu is thus a doublet of Yama as ancestor of
the human race'. But Manu is regarded as the first of men living on earth,
while Yama, as first of men who died, became the king of the dead in the
other World. Hence in the SB. (13, 4, 3^"^ Manu Vaivasvata is described
as ruler of men, and Yama Vaivasvata as ruler of the Manes. Yäska (Nir.
12, 10) explains Manu to be the son of Vivasvat, the sun (Ääitya), and of
SavaxQä the Substitute of Sara^yü (cp. 10, 17^; p. 125), counting him (Nir.
12, 34) among the divine beings of the celestial region (Naigh. 5, 6).

The SB. (i, 8, i^-***) relates a legend of how Manu was saved in a ship
firom a deluge, which swept away all other creatures, by a fish (in post-Vedic
mythology an Avatär of Vi§i3iu). Manu is then said to have become the
progenitor of mankind through his daughter Idä, who was produced from his
offerings. That the story of the flood was known as early as the time of
the AV. is implied in a passage of that Saiphitä (19, 39^)^. The myth of the
deluge occurs in the Avesta also, and may be Indo-European*. It is generally
regarded as borrowed firom a Semitic sources, but this seems to be an un-
necessary hypothesis^.

z An ancient sage and sacrificer, see $ 58B. — 2 Possibly ancestor of the Äryans
only, as he is in several passages contrasted with Dasyus, cp. OST. i, 174; Sp.AP.
272. — 3 HRI. 160. — 4 Lindner, Die iranische Flutsage, FaR. 213—6. —
5 BURNOUF, Bhägavata Puräija, preface, Li— Liv; Weber, IS. i, 160 ff.; Sp.AP. 271—4;
ORV. 276 note. — 6 MM., India 133—8; HRI. 160.

KHF. 21; KZ. 4, 91; CoRSSEN, KZ. 2,32; Weber, IS. i, 194; ZDMG. 4,302;
18, 286; Roth, ZDMG. 4, 430; ZDMG. 5, 525 ff.; KZ. 12, 293; 19, 156; Ascou,

14© in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

KZ. 17, 334; MuiR, JRAS. 1863, 410—16; 1865, 287 ff.; OST. I, 162—96; BRV.
I, 62—70; ORV, 275—6; HRL 143.

851. Bhrgus. — Bhrgu is a name met with twenty-one times in the
RV., besides two occurrences in the adverbial form bhrguvat, It is found
only once in the Singular; and appears therefore to have properly designated
a group of mythical beings. Mentioned twelve times in Agni hymns, they
are chiefly connected with the communication of fire to men. Mätarisvan
brought Agni as a treasure to Bhrgu (i, 60^) or kindled the hidden Agni
for* the Bhrgus (3, 5'^). Mätarisvan and the gods fashioned Agni for Manu,
while the Bhrgus with might produced him {10, 469). The Bhrgus found
Agni lurking in the waters (10, 46^); worshipping him in the waters, they
placed him in the abodes of Äyu or man (2, 4* cp. ^). They established Agni
like a friend well-deposited in the wood (6,15') or as a treasure among men
(i, 58^). For Agni is the Bhrgus' gift (3, 2^). Rubbing him they invoked
him with prayer (i, 1277). With songs of praise they caused him to shine
forth (10, 1225) in wood (4, 7^. They brought him to the navel (cp. p. 92)
of the earth (i, 143^). While Atharvan established rites with sacrifices, the
Bhrgus showed themselves as gods with their dexterity (10, 92*°). Their skill,
primarily manifested in producing fire, is incidentaUy spoken of as artistic. For
worshippers make a prayer for Indra or the Asvins as the Bhrgus (made) a
car (4, i6*°; 10, 39'*).

They are an ancient race. For sacrificers speak of them, together with
the Angirases and Atharvans, as their Soma-loving fathers (10, 14^) and in-
voke Agni as the Bhrgus {öhrguvat\ the Angirases, and Manu did (8,43*^).
They implore Indra to hear their prayer like those of the Yatis and Bhrgus
(8, 6*®), or to aid them as he did the Yatis, Bhrgus, and Praskanva (8, 39).
The Bhrgus are mentioned, along with the Druhyus and Turvasa, as the foes
of king Sudäs (7, 18°). In the last three passages their name appears in
the historical character of the designation of a tribe. The Bhrgus are in-
voked to drink soma with all the thirty-three gods, the Maruts, the Waters,
the Asvins, U§as, and Sürya (8, ZS^). They are compared with suns and
said to have gained all their desires (8, 3^^). In one passage (9, ioi'3) they
are connected with an unknown myth, when worshippers express a wish to
drive away the niggardly, as the Bhrgus the demon {makham).

Thus the Bhrgus never designate actually existing priests in the RV., but
only a group of ancient sacrificers and ancestors, to which Bhrgu bears the
relation of chief, just as Angiras does to the group of the Angirases, or
Vasi§tha to that of the Vasi§thas.

The myth of the descent of fire and its communication to man is chiefly
connected with Mätarisvan and the Bhrgus. But while Mätarisvan brings it
from heaven as lightning, the Bhrgus do not fetch it, but are rather regarded
as kindling it for the establishment and diffusion of the sacrifice on earth.

In the later Vedic literature Bhrgu occurs as the name of a seer re-
presenting a tribe (AV. 5, 19*; AB. 2, 2o7). He arises as a spark from Pra-
jäpati*s seed and being adopted by Vanujia receives the patron3rmic Väru^i
(AB. 3, 34^ cp. FB. 18, 9*) and is expressly called a son of Varu^a (SB.
II, 6, i^)^

Etymologically the word b/irgu means *shining' from the root bhrä;\ *to
shine*. Bergaigne^ thinks there can hardly be a doubt that bhrgu was
originally a name of fire, while Kuhn* and Barths agree in the opinion that
the form of fire it represents is lightning. Kuhn^ and Weber ^ further identify
the Bhrgus as fire-priests with the Greek cpXsYüai.

» Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 243. — 2 Weber, ZDMG. 9, 240 ff. — 3 BRV. 1,

Mythical Priests &c. 51. Bhrgus. 52. Atharvan. 53. Dadhyanc. 141

52—6; cp. Hopkins, JAOS. 16, 280. — 4 KHF. 9—14. — 5 BRI. 10. — 6 KHF.
21—2. — 7 ZDMG. 9, 242. — OST. I, 170; ORV. 123; HRI. 168.

S 52. Atharvan. — The name of Atharvan occurs fourteen times in
the RV., thrice in the plural, and is also several times found in the AV.
Atharvan generally appears in the character of an ancient priest He rubbed
Agni forth (6, i6*3) and priests rub Agni as Atharvan did (6, i5*0- Agni
produced by Atharvan became the messenger ofVivasvat (10, 2i5), Atharvan
first established (order) by sacrifices, while the Bhj-gus showed themselves
gods by their skill (10, 92'''). By sacrifices Atharvan first extended the paths;
then the sun was produced (i, 835). Atharvan along with Father Manu and
Dadhyanc practised devotion (i, 80*^). Indra is the helper of Atharvan as
well as of Trita, Dadhyanc and Mätarisvan (10, 48'). The goblin-destroying
Agni is invoked to bum down the fool with divine flame like Atharvan
(10, 87"). The AV. adds some further traits. Atharvan brought a cup of
Soma to Indra (AV. 18, $^*), A miraculous cow was given to him by Varu^a
(AV. 5, 11; 7, 104). Atharvan is a companion of the gods, is related to them,
and dwells in heaven (AV. 4, i7, &c.). In the SB. Atharvan is spoken of
as an ancient teacher (14, 5, 5*'. 7, 3'^).

In the plural the Atiiarvans are enumerated as Fathers along with the
Angirases, Navagvas, and Bhrgus (10, 14^). They dwell in heaven and are
called gods (AV. 11, 6*^). They destroy goblins with a magical herb (AV.

4, 370.

In a few passages of the RV. the word atharvan appears to have the

appellative meaning of *priesf . Thus it is an attribute of Bfhaddiva, the

composer of a hymn (10, 120^ cp. *). In this sense it seems to be an epithet

of Agni, when a seer is described as pouring the libation on the Atharvan

(8, 9'). The word also means priest when it is said that the Atharvans mix

Soma (9, 4*) or that they receive a hundred cows from a patron (6, 47'*).

That this is the original sense is bome out by the fact that the cognate

Avestan word äthravan signifies *fire-priest', which is also the etjrmological sense ;

for atar (for äthar)^ fire, is the same as the Vedic athar-^^ which also occurs

in athar-yü, flaming (said of Agni, 7, i*). This old name must then have

been mythologically applied to designate an ancient priestly race of a semi-

divine character, generally represented in the singular by their chief.

X Brugmann, Grundriss 2, 360; cp. Bloomfield, SBE. 42, xxiu, n. 2; Bar-
THOLOMAE, IF. 5, 221, rejccts the connexion of äiar with atharvan. — Cp. also
Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde 1,523; KHF. 10; IS. i, 2890".; OST. i, 160;
BRV.i, 49; HRI. 160, n. 1.

S 53. Dadhyanc. — Dadhyanc, who is the son of Atharvan (6, 16'*;
I, ii6*^ 117**), is mentioned nine times in the RV. and, with one exception,
only in the ninth, the tenth, and especially the first book. He is a seer who
kindled Agni (6, i6**) and is mentioned with Atharvan, Angiras, Manu, and
other ancient sacrificers (i, 8o^^ 139*^).

The Asvins gave a horse's head to Atharvan's son Dadhyanc, who then
proclaimed to them the (place of the) mead {madhü) of Tva§tr (i| ii7*0-
With the head of a horse Dadhyaiic proclaimed to the A§vins the (place of
the) mead (i, 116"). The Asvins won the heart of Dadhyanc; then the
horse's head spoke to them (i, 119*'). Indra is also connected with this
myth. For it is said that, when seeking the head of the horse hidden in
the mountaios, he found it in Sarya^ävat and slew with the bones of Da-
dhyanc ninety-nine Vjtras (i, 84*^- '*). Indra, besides producing cows from
the dragon for Trita, gave cowstalls to Dadhyanc (and) Mätarisvan (10,48").
These are probably the cowstalls which Dadhyanc opens by the power of

142 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

Soma (9, io8*). It is noteworthy that in the only older passage (6, i6*<) in

which the name of Dadhyanc occurs, he is the son of the ancient fire-priest

Atharvan and is himself a kindler of fire. Otherwise he is chiefly connected

with the secret abode of Soma and with Indra in the release of the cows.

Owing to his horse's head and his name he can hardly be altogether disso-

ciated from the steed Dadhikrä. The etymological sense of dadhi-anc^ 'curd-

ward' might signify either 'possessing' " or *fond of *curdled milk'. In Ber-

gaigne's opinion Dadhyanc does not differ essentially in origin from Soma*.

The evidence is, however, insufficient to justify any certain conclusion. But

it does not seem an altogether improbable conjecture that Dadhyafic originally

represented the lightning form of fire. The horse's head wonld indicate its

speed, the voice with which it speaks, the thunder, its bones, the thimderbolt.

His connexion with the secret abode of Soma, would resemble that of the

eagle with the celestial Soma. The name, too, suggests the curdling effect

of the thunderstorm. In post- Vedic literature the name generally occurs in

the form of Dadhica, and in the Mahäbhärata the thunderbolt for slaying

V|tra is said to have been fashioned out of his bones ^

I «Uni au lait', BRV. 2, 457. — 2 BRV. 2, 458. — 3 PW. s. v. — Cp. also BRV.
2,456— 60; GRV. 2, 84; PerryJAOS. ii, 138; LRF. 120— 2; Oertel,JAOS.i8,i6— 18.

S 54. Angirases. * — Of the more than sixty occurrences of this name
in the RV. about two-thirds are in the plural. Derivatives of the word are
also found there about thirty times. The whole of one hymn (10, 62) is
voted to the praise of the Angirases as a group.

The Angirases are sons of heaven' (3, 537; 10, 67* cp. 4, 2 '5). They
are seers who are sons of the gods (10, 62^). A single Angiras being
regarded as their ancestor, they are also termed *sons of Aiigiras' (10, 6 2 5).
Poets speak of them as 'fathers' (ib. 'j, *our fathers' (i, 71*), or *our ancient
fathers' (i, 62^). They are once mentioned as fathers with the Athar\'ans
and Bhfgus (10, 14^), being especially associated with Yama (ib.-5~"S). They
are also in a more general way connected with other groups of divine beings,
the Ädityas, Vasus, Maruts (7, 44'*; 8, 35'^), or the Ädityas, Rudras, Vasus,
as well as the Atharvans (AV. 11, 8'^j. Soma is offered to them (9, 629),
and they are invoked like gods (3, 537; 10, 62). They are brahman priests
(7, 42'). They found Agni hidden in the wood (5, 11^) and thought of the
first ordinance of sacrifice (10, 67^). It is by sacrifice that they obtained
immortality as well as the friendship of Indra (10,62').

With the latter deity the Angirases are closely associated. To them Indra
disclosed the cows (8, 52^), for them he opened the stall (i, 5i-\ 134*), and
drove out the cows which were hidden, casting down Vala (8, 14*). Accom-
panied by them Indra pierced Vala (2, 11*') and drove out the cows (6, 17^).
As their leader Indra is twice called af'igirastama, chief Angiras (i, loo^ 130^).
Soma (as inspiring Indra) is also once said to have opened the cowstall for
the Angirases (9, 86^^). In connexion with the myth of the deliverance of
the cows the song of the Angirases is characteristic. Praised by them Indra
pierced Vala (2, 15®), and burst the cowstalls (4, 16*®), slew Vala and opened
bis citadels (6, i85), or dispelled the darkness, spread out the earth, and
established the lower space of heaven (i, 62^). So characteristic is their
singing that the Maruts with their varied songs are said to be like the An-
girases (10, 78^), and the gods are invoked to the offering with the chants
of the Angirases (i, 107*). Hymns addressed by actual priests to Indra are
also several times compared with those of the Angirases (1,62'** 6:cJ.
Incidentally Indra assumes a less prominent position than the Angirases in
the myth of the cows. Tlius the Angirases are said to have emptied the

Mythical Priests &c. 54, Angirases. 55. Viröpas &c. • 143

stall contaimng cows and horses, with Indra as their companion (10^ 627).
Here we have the transition to the Omission of Indra altogether, his char-
acteristic action bemg directly attributed to the Angirases themselves. By the
rite they drove out the cows and pierced Vala (ib. *), caused the sun to
mount the sky, and spread out mother earth (ib. 3). By the rite they cleft
the rock and shouted with the cows (4, 3"). Singing they found the cows
(i, 62'). They burst the rock with their songs and found the light (i, 72').
The Angirases are further connected with the finding of the cows of the
Papis for Indra by Saramä (10, 108^* "), who is said to have assisted Indra
and the Angirases in tracking them (i, 62^ cp. 72®). The Angirases are
also described alone as having found the cows and steeds of Pa^i (i, 83*).
Brhaspati, who is connected with the same myth (10, io8^*"), receives the
epithet Ängirasa when piercing the rock and capturing the cows (6, 73') or
giving cows like Bhaga (10, 68^).

Brhaspati is even directly called Angiras when he drives out the cows
and releases the waters with Indra (2, 23*®). Otherwise in nearly all the
occurrences of the word in the singular, Angiras is an epithet of Agni, who
is the first seer Angiras (i, 31*), the ancient Angiras (10, 92*5) or the oldest
(i, 127*) and the most inspired (6, ii^) of the Angirases. Agni is several
times also called the chief Angiras (i, 75* &c.). This terra is, however, once
or twice applied to Indra, U$as, and Soma. Sometimes Angiras only desig-
nates an ancient priest without direct allusion to Agni, as when 'the ancient
Angiras' is mentioned in an enumeration of ancestors (i, 139') or when
the context shows that in the form ahgirasvat the singular sense *like Angiras'
is meant (i, 453). In one passage (i, 3i*0> 1^ which the poet exclaims, *0
Agni, come to us as to Manus, as to Angiras, o Angiras', the name designates
both the ancestor and Agni.

According to the tradition found in the AnukramapT of the RV., the
Angirases must have been regarded as an actual priestly family, as the com-
Position of the ninth book is attributed to members of it^. Priestly families
also seem to be alluded to in the Compound Atharva-angirasah, which occurs
as a designation of the AV. in that Veda itself (AV. 10, 7*°) and later (SB.
II, 5, 67 &c.)^

On the whole it seems probable that the Angirases were originally con-
ceived as a race of higher beings intermediate between gods and men, as
attendants of Agni, who is so often described as a messenger between heaven
and earth (p. 96), and that their priestly character was a later development*
They may possibly have been personifications of the flames offire as messengers
to heaven (cp. RV. 7, 33). This view is bome out by the etymological connexion
of angiras with the Greek aififeXo?, *messenger'^ Weber, however, is of
opinion that they were originally priests of the Indo-Iranian period^.

I KHF. 10; OST. 5, 23; GW.; BRV. 1, 47—8; 2, 308—21; WC. 69—72;
ORV. 127—8. — a Cp. BDA. 45. — 3 Cp. Weber, History of Ind. Lit., Engl. tr.

p. 31. — 4 Cp. BIOOMFIELD, JAOS. I7, 180— 2; SEE. 42, XVU— XXVII. — 5 Cp.

Roth, PW.; BRV. 2, 309; cp. HVBP. 109; ORV. 127. — 6 Brugmann, Gnindriss
2, 188; HRl. 167. — 7 IS. I, 291 ff.

S 55. A. Virüpas'. — Closely connected with the Angirases are the
Virüpas, whose name is mentioned three times in the plural. The Angirases,
the Virüpas, are sons of heaven (3, 5 3 7). The Virüpas are seers, sons of
Angiras, bom from Agni, from heaven (10, 62 5-6). Virüpa once occurs as
the name of a single being, who sings the praises of Agni, in a sranza (8, 64^)
immediately foUowing one in which Angiras is invoked. The name also has
the singular sense in the adverb virüpavat^ *like Virüpa', as is indicated by

144 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch, u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

the occurrence in the saroe stanza (i, 45^) oi Priyamedhavat, Atrivaty besides
Angirasvat The word once occurs in its patronymic form in a verse (10, 145)
in which Yama is invoked with the Angirases and the Vairüpas. As the word
is most usually a simple adjective meaning 'of variable form* and, when a
name, is always found in. Company with that of Angiras or the Angirases, it
would seem to have been hardly more than an epithet of the latter.

B. Navagvas^ The name of these beings occurs altogether fourteen
times in the RV., six times in association with that of the Angirases. The
Navagvas are spoken of as *our ancient fathers* (6, 22^), or as *our fathers'
along with the Angirases, the Atharvans, and the Bhrgus (10, 14^). Like the
Angirases, they are connected with the myth of Indra^ Saramä, and the cows
of the Paijds (i, 623* 4- 5^ 457- 10, 108^). Indra with the Navagvas as his
friends sought the cows (3, 395). Pressing Soma they laud Indra with songs;
they broke open the stall of the cows (5, 29"). In one hymn they are
described as having sung with the pressing stones for ten months (5, 45^* ").
In two of its occurrences in the plural the word navagva is a simple adjective,
being in one of these cases an attribute of the rays of Agni (6, 6'). It is
also found three times in the singular, when it appears to be an epithet of
Angiras (4, 51*; 10, 62^) or of Dadhyanc (9, 108*). It apparently means
'going in (a Company of) nine'^, designating as a plural noun a group of
nine ancient priestly ancestors.

C. Dasagvas*. This name occurs seven times in the RV., three times
in the singular, and only twice unassociated with that of the Navagvas. The
Dasagvas were the first who offered sacrifice (2, 34"). Indra with the Nava-
gvas sought the cows and with the ten Dasagvas found the sun (3, 395).
With the Navagvas and the Dasagvas Indra rent the rock and Vala (1,62*).
The Navagvas and Dasagvas praise Indra and broke open the stall of the
cows (5, 29"). The dawns shine on the Navagva Angira and the seven-
mouthed Dasagva (4, 51*). Dasagva, mentioned with Navagva, is once spoken
of as Chief Angiras (10, 62^). Dasagva is described in one passage as having
been succoured by Indra (8, 12"). The name, being merely a numerical
Variation of Navagva, was most probably suggested by the latter.

D. The seven R§is^ The ancient seers are represented by a definite
numerical group as 'the seven R§is', who are, however, only mentioned four
times in the RV. One poet speaks of them as *our fathers, the seven seers'
(4,42®). They are called divine (10, 13 o^), and in another passage (10, 109^)
the *seven ancient seers' are associated with the gods. The number may
have been suggested by that of the seven technical priests (enumerated in
2, I*), of whom they would, in that case, have been regarded as the proto-
types. In the SB. they become individualized by each receiving a name (SB.
i4> 5* 2^; Bfhadär. Up. 2, 2^). In the same Brähmaijia (2, i, 2^ cp. 8, i, 10)
they are also regarded as the seven stars in the constellation of the Great
Bear and are stated to have been originally bears^. This identification is
doubtless due partly to the sameness of the number in the two cases and
partly to the similarity of sound between rj/, *seer', and rksa, which in the
RV, means both *star' (i, 24") and *bear' (5, 563),

Probably the same ancient sacrificers are referred to as the seven priests
{vipräf}) who with the Navagvas praise Indra (6, 22' cp. 3, 3i5; 4, 2*5), or
the seven Hotfs^ with whom Manu made the first offering to the gods (10, 63').
Similarly the 'two divine Sacrificers' {daiiyä hotärd) mentioned nearly a dozen
times in the RV. seem to have been the celestial counterpart of two tech-
nical priests 7.

I GW. s. V. virtipa\ BRV, 2, 307, note 4. — 2 BRV. 2, I45— 6. 307—8. —

Mythical Priests &c. 56. Atri. 57. Kanva. 145

3 Cp. YN. II, 19; BRV. 2, 145: 'having nine cows\ —4 Roth, PW,; Oldenberg,
ZDMG, 42, 236; ORV. 276—8. — 5 Weber, IS. i, 167; Eggeling, SBE. 12,
282, n. 2. — 6 Cp. Hopkins, JAOS. 16, 277; ORV. 383—4; SBE. 46, 189. 322. —
7 ORV. 391; SBE. 46, 11; cp. BRV. 1, 234—5.

S 56. Atri. — This is one of the seers of ancient days most frequently
mentioned in the RV. The name occurs there about forty times in the Sin-
gular and six times in the plural as a designation of his descendants. Atri
is spoken of as a seer belonging to the five tribes (i, 117^) and is mentioned
along with Manu and other ancestors of the human race (i, 39^).

Agni is Said to have helped Atri (7,15^) as a well as other ancient
seers (i, 45^; 10, 1505). Indra also heard the prayer of Atri (8,360 and
opened the cowstall for him and the Aiigirases (i, 51 3). Atri is, however,
chiefly represented as the proteg6 of the Asvins, and the characteristic myth
about him is connected with them. They delivered Atri firom the darkness
(6, 50"; 7, 7x5). They rescued him out of a chasm (5,78^) with all his host
(i, ii6^ 117^), when they destroyed the wiles of the malignant demon (i, 117^.
The chasm into which he has fallen and from which they deliver him is a
buming one, but they gave him a strengthening draught (i, 116®. iiS^). They
made the buming chasm {rbJsä) or his abode {grhä) agreeable for him
(10, 39^; 8,62'); they prevent the fire from burning him (8, 62^). They res-
cued Atri who was in the heat (10, 8o3), they protected him from the heat
with coolness (i, 119^; 8, 6 2 3)^ and made the buming heat agreeable for him
(1,112^. Once they are said to have rejuvenated Atri, who had grown
old (10, 143»-").

In one hymn Atri is said to have found the sun when it was hidden
by the demon Svarbhänu and to have placed it in the sky (5, 40^- *). But
in the very next verse (9) this deed is attributed to the Atris collectively.
The AV. also refers, to Atri finding and placing the sun in the sky (AV. 13,
24. 12. ßy jjj jjjg SB. Atri is a priest who dispelled darkness (4, 3, 4**),
originated from Väc (1,4, 5 '-5), and is even identical with her (14, 5, 2 5).

The plural form of the name in the RV. regularly occurs in the last
or one of the last verses of a hymn. The Atris here designate the family
of seers who are the composers of the hymns (5, 39* &c.). The whole of
the fifth book is attributed to the family of the Atris, and about one-fourth
of the occurrences of the name in the singular or plural are found in that book.

The name is perhaps derived from the root ctdy to eat, in the sense of

'devouring*, as the cognate word atrin, a frequent adjective in the RV. used

to describe demons, seems to have this raeaning. The word atii} itself is

once employed as an attribute of Agni, probably with this signification (2, 85).

Bergaigne' is even of opinion that, though Atri has become a priest, he

originally represented some form of Agni. The name of Atri is four times

accompanied or, in the next verse, followed by that of Saptavadhri. The

latter is a proteg6 of the Asvins, a seer whom they are invoked to release

from captivity (5, 785-^), and who is said to have sharpened the blade of

Agni with his prayer (8, 62^). For Atri Saptavadhri the Asvins made the

buming chasm agreeable (10, 399). The two are therefore probably identical 3.

» Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 35. 214. — a BRV. 2, 467—72. — 3 Op. cit. 467;
Baunack, ZDMG. 50, 266. — Cp. also PW., s. v. Atri; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42,
213; Baunack, ZDMG. 50, 266—87.

S57. Kativa &c. — The name of Ka^va occurs about sixty times in
the RV. as that of an ancient seer and of his descendants, the occurrences
in the singular and plural being nearly equally divided. Kai^va is spoken
of as the son of Nr§ad (10, 31") and bears the patronymic När§ada (i, 117*;

Indo-arische Philologie. III. !▲. 10

146 IIL Religion, weltu Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

AV. 4, 19*). He is mentioned in an enumeration of ancient ancestors such
as Manu and Angiras (i, 139^). The gods gave Agni to Ka^va and others,
who kindled him and were blessed by him (i, 36'**- "• *7). Agni helped
Ka^va, as well as Atri, Trasadasyu, and others, in battle (10, 50^), and is
spoken of as a friend and chief of the Kaijivas (10, 115 5). Indra conferred
gold and cattle on Kaniva, Trasadasyu, and others (Väl. i"* 2'°). The Maruts
bestowed wealth on Kaj^va along with Turvasa and Yadu (8, 7 '^. The Asvins
are several times said to have helped Kaijiva (1,475. 112*; 8, 5*5. S^), He
was blind when succoured by the Asvins (8, 5'^), who restored his sight

(l, II 87).

Most of the hymns of the eighth book of the RV. are attributed to the
family of Kapva, and poets there speak of themselves as KaQvas. The name
as that of a family is therefore historical. But the ancestor whose name was
transferred to them in reality^ never appears in the RV. as that of a con-
temporary. Roth thinks his origin may have been mythical like that of
Angiras^; and Bergaigne is of opinion that the blind Kapva represents the
sun during the night or, more generally. the hidden Agni or Soma^.

Medhyätithi, a descendant of Ka^va, being called by the patronymic
Känva (8, 2^**), is mentioned nine times in the RV., occasionally with Kajgiva
in enumerations of ancestors (i. 36'**- "• ^7). The name seems to mean *he
who has a sacrificial guest (i. e. Agni)'. Priyamedha, whose name occurs
four or five times and is found beside that of Kapva (8, 5*^)^ belongs to
the past, but his descendants oflen speak of themselves in the plural as
Priyamedhas*.

X Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42, 216—7. — ^ PW- s. v. Ka?iva. — 3 BRV. 2, 465. —

4 Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42, 217.

5 58. A. Kutsa\ This warlike hero belonging to the Indra myth is
mentioned nearly forty times in the RV. The name occurs only once in
the plural as a designation of a family of singers who address a hymn to
Indra (7, 25^). Kutsa is four times called by the patronymic Aijuneya, son
of Arjuna (i, 11 2*^ &c.). Mention is made of a son of his, whom Indra
aided in fight against a Dasyu (10, 105''). Kutsa is young and brilliant
(i, 63^). He is a seer, who called upon Indra for aid when plunged in a
pit (i, 106^). Kutsa rides on the same car as Indra (4, 16"; 5, 299;, who
wafts him (5, 31®; 8, i") or takes him as his charioteer (2, 19^; 6, 2o5).
Kutsa is similar to Indra (4, 16^**) and is even invoked with him in a dual
Compound as Indräkutsä^ the pair being besought to come on their car (5, 31^).

The foe against whom Kutsa is associated with Indra is Su$i)a. Indra
smote Su§^a for Kutsa (i, 63^. 1 2x9; 4, 16"; 6, 26^), aided Kutsa against
Su§^a (i, 51^), subjected Su§oa to him (7, 19'), or, associated with Kutsa
and the ^gods, vanquished Su§na (5, 299). Indra is invoked to fight with Kutsa
against Su§^a (6, 31^) or to bring Kutsa as a slayer of Su§^a (i, 175*).
Indra fights for Kutsa even against the gods (4, 30*"^) or against Gandharva
(8, i")- The conflict with Su§pa results in the stealing of the wheel of the
sun (i, 175*; 6,31^). For Kutsa pressed by his foes Indra tore off the wheel
of the sun (4,30^) while the other he gave to Kutsa to drive on with (5, 29'°).
This miracle of stopping the sun (cp. i, 121'°; 10, 138^) seems to be a
transference of the myth of Indra gaining the sun for human happiness, to
the reminiscence of a semi-historical battle. In winning the sun Indra is said
to have made wide space for his charioteer Kutsa (6, 2o5). He is invoked
to crush the fiends with Kutsa and to roll forward the wheel of the sun
(4, 16*^). In one passage Indra is said to have subjected other foes than Su§ija
to Kutsa, viz. Tugra, Smadibha, and the Vetasus (10, 494).

58. KuTSA &c. — V. Animals and Inanimate Objects. 59. General Traits. 147

Kutsa, whom Indra aided and loved (i, 33'^), nevertheless sometimes
appears as his enemy. Thus Indra Struck down the heroes of Kutsa, Ä)ai,
and Atithigva (2, 147), harassed Äyu, Kutsa, and Atithigva (Väl. 5'), delivered
these three into the band of the young king Türvayäj^a (i, 53'**), or smote
them to the earth for him (6, 18*^). This seems to indicate the historical
character of Kutsa. For a deity of light would naturally have been regarded
by the Vedic poets as always a friend, and a demon of darkness always as
a foe. Tradition also attributes a number of the hymns of the first and ninth
book of the RV. to a seer Kutsa of the family of the Angirases. Bergaigne,
however, thinks that Kutsa is purely mythical, originally a form of Agni (or
Soma), sometimes seeming to represent the sun. In the Naigha^tuka (2, 20)
kutsa appears as one of the synonyms of thunderbolt (vqfra).

B. Kävya Usanä^ The ancient seer Usanä is mentioned eleven times
in the RV. He is twice called a sage {kavi) and five times receives the
epithet Kävya. He is characteristically wise; for Soma uttering wisdom is
compared (9, 9 7 7) and, owing to his wisdom, is identified with Usanä (9, 873).
Kävya Usanä established Agni as the hotr of sacrifice (8, 23'7)- He is said
to have driven hither the cows, in the same verse in which Atharvan, the
institutor of sacrifice, is referred to as having prepared the path of the sun
(i> 835). He was a protege of Indra (6, 20"), who rejoiced with him (i, 51")
and who is represented as identifying himself with Usanä as well as Kutsa
and others (4, 26*). He was associated with Indra when the latter, along
with Kutsa, vanquished Su§^a (5, 299). Usanä also fashioned for Indra the
bolt for slaying Vytra (i, 121"; 5, 34' cp. i, 51'**).

C. Several other ancient seers of a historical or semi-historical character
are mentioned in the RV. Such are Gotama, Visvämitra, Vämadeva, Bharad-
väja and Vasi^tha^ to whom, or to whose families, the composition of the
second, third, fourth, sixth, and seventh books are respectively attributed.
Agastya is another seer mentioned several times in the RV.*. More or less
historical warriors of the olden time are king Sudäs, Purukutsa and his son
Trasadasyu, as well as Divodäsa Atithigva s.

Even the most mythical of the ancestors of man or of particular families
treated of in this chapter seem, with perhaps two or three exceptions, to
have been either actual men of bygone days or to have been projected into the
past to represent the first progenitors of actually living men. The deeds attri-
buted to them are parüy historical reminiscences, parüy aetiological myths,
and parüy poetical creations. By association with the gods they are oflen
drawn into participation in the mythological actions, such as the winning of
the sun, on which the order of nature is founded Most of what is told
about the priestly ancestors, is intended to fumish evidence of sacerdotal art
and power, which are therefore treated supematurally. It is not likely that
they represent powers of nature and are faded gods come down to earth*.

» KHF. 54 ff.; BRV. 2, 333-8; Perry, JAOS. II, 181; PVS. i, 24; GVS. 2,
35. 163 ff.; ZDMG. 42, 211 ; ORV. 158—60; JAOS. i8, 31—3. — a BRV. 2, 338—41 ;
Sp.AP. 281—7. — 3 Cp. BRV. I, 50—2; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42, 203 ff.; Oertel,
JAOS. 18, 47—8. — 4 Cp. ZDMG. 34, 589 ff.; 39. 65—8. — 5 Oldenberg, ZDMG.
42, 199—247; HRI. III. — 6 Cp. Gruppe, Die griechischen Culte i, 298 ff.; ORV.
273—4.

V. ANIMALS AND INANIMATE OBJECTS.

S 59. General Traits. — Animals enter to a considerable extent into
the mythological creations of the Veda. There are still numerous traces
surviving from a more primitive age, when the line dividing men from animals

10*

148 IIL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

was not definitely drawn (S 65) and gods might be conceived as having
animal forms also. The higher Vedic gods themselves being anthropomorphic
in character, the supematural beings of the Veda which have an animal form
belong to a lower order, being semi-divine only or demoniac according as
the animal is useful to man, as the cow, or injurious, as the serpenL More-
over, just as man has attached to him various animaJs which are serviceable
to him, so the great anthropomorphic gods are naturally surroimded by a
celestial animal world of a similar character. Lastly, actual animals are in
the ritual connected with mythological conceptions of the gods. They are
symbolical representatives intended only as an instrument for the time being
to influence Üie gods they in some respect resemble. This fetishistic point
of view is probably the faded remnant of a more primitive identification of
gods with visible objects. The part which such animal fetishes play in Vedic
times is, however, no longer great, since the representation of deities by
animals conflicted with the higher conception prevaüing of the gods as mighty
men dwelling in heaven and Coming invisibly to the sacrifice.

S 60. TheHorse*. — A. Dadhikrä. Besides the celestial horses which
draw the cars of the gods, various individual divine steeds occur in Vedic
mythology. One of the most notable of these is Dadhikrä, who is celebrated in
four rather late* h>mns of the RV. (4, 38 — 40; 7, 44). The name is men-
tioned there twelve times, interchanging with the extended form Dadhikrävan,
which is found ten times. The name hardly ever occurs in other Vedic texts.
Dadhikrä is so characteristically a steed that the word is given in the Nai-
gha^tuka (i, 14) as a synonym of horse. He is swift (4, 38** 9. 39»)^ being
the first steed at the head of chariots (7, 44*) and a vanquisher of chariots
{rathatur)^ who speeds like the wind (4, 38^). The people praise his swift-
ness and every Püru praises him as he runs on a precipice as it were (ib. 9* 3).
He bounds along the curves of the paths (4, 40^). He is also conceived as
winged. For he is called bird-like, his wing being compared with that of
a bird and of a speeding eagle (4, 40**^). He is likened to a swooping
eagle and even directly called an eagle (4, 385« »). In one passage (4, 40^)
he is spoken of as the swan (hamsd) dwelling in light, as well as the Vasu
in the air, the priest at the altar, the guest in the house — all epithets
appropriate to various forms of Agni.

Dadhikrä is a hero, smites the Dasyus, and is victorious (4, 38*"'^ 7).
His adversaries fear him as the thunder of heaven, when he fights against
a thousand; he wins booty in combats and the tribes cry after him in con-
tests (ib. *• ^ ♦). Making himself {krnvänd) a garland, he tosses the dust and
scatters it from his brows (ib. ^' ^)» He belongs to all the tribes, pervades
the five tribes with his power, as Sürya the waters with his light, and observes
the assemblies (ib. *• '°' *). Mitra-Varuija gave him, the victorious steed, like
shining Agni, to the Pürus (4, 39^ cp. 38*' ^); they gave us the horse Da-
dhikrä as a blessing for the mortal (ib. 5).

The steed Dadhikrävan is praised when Agni is kindled at the dawning
of U§as (4, 39-5). He is invoked with the Dawns (ib.^. 40')» who are prayed
to tum to the sacrifice like Dadhikrävan (7, 41^). He is regularly invoked
with U§as, nearly as often with Agni, less frequently with the Asvins and
Sürya, sometimes with other deities also (3, 20'* 5; 7, 44»— 4; 10, loi^); but
Dadhikrä is invoked first (7, 44').

The etymological meaning, being uncertain^, cannot be said to throw
any additional light on the original nature of Dadhikrä. The second part
of the Compound may be a by-form of the root ^r, *to scatter', and the
word would then mean *scattering curdled milk*, in allusion to the dew or

Animals and Inanimate Objects. 6o. The Horse. 149

rime appearing at sunrise, according to Roth and Grassmann^, who both
think that Dadhikrä represents in the fonn of a steed the circling ball of
the sun. This view is supported by the fact that the deity with whom
Dadhikrä is most closely connected is U^as, that the sun is often conceived
as a steed or bird (p.31) and that he is sometimes regarded as warlike (ib.)-
The Statement that Dadhikrä was given by Mitra and Varuna might be
connected with the notion of the sun being the eye of those deities. Ber-
GAiGNE thinks that the name of Dadhikrä refers rather to lightning, but that
he represents Agni in general, including his solar and lightning formst.
Ludwig*, Pischel^, v. Bradke®, and Oldenberg«, however, agree in the
opinion that Dadhikrä was not a deity, but an actual horse, famous as a
racer or charger, which received divine honours.

It has already been remarked (p. 142) that Dadhyafic is allied to Da-
dhikrä in name^ and possibly in nature, since he is spoken of as having a
horse's head,

B. Tärk§ya. Nearly related to Dadhikrä is Tärk§ya, whose name is
mentioned only twice in the RV. (i, 89^; 10, 178'). One late hymn, con-
sisting of three stanzas (10, 178), is devoted to his praise. He is there
described as a god-impelled mighty steed (väjin)^ a vanquisher of chariots
(cp. 6, 44*), swift, and speeding to battle. He is invoked as a gift of Indra.
In the identical words applied to Dadhikrä (4, 38*°), he is said to have per-
vaded the five tribes with his power, as Surya the waters with his light That
he was primarily conceived as a steed is shown (v.*; i, 89*) by his epithet
arisfanemi^ *whose fellies are intacf (which in VS. 15, 18 appears as an in-
dependent name beside Tärk§ya and Garuda). In the Naighaptuka (i, 14)
the Word tärksya occurs as a synonym of *horse'. In one or two later
Vedic texts Tärk§ya is, however, referred to as a bird; and in the Epic and
subsequent literature, he is identical with the swift bird Garuda, the vehicle
of Vi§^u, It seems on the whole probable that Tärk§ya originally represented
the sun in the form of a divine steed '°. The word seems to be derived
from Trk§i, the name of a man, with the patronymic Träsadasyava, once
mentioned in the RV. (8, 22^). This derivation leads Fov** to believe that
Tärk§ya was an actual race horse (like Dadhikrä), belonging to Trk§i of the
family of Trasadasyu.

C. Paidva. Another mythical steed is that which the Asvins are said
to have brought to Pedu (i, 119'°; 7, 71*) and which is therefore called
Paidva (i, 116*; 9, 88*). The object of the gift was to replace an inferior
horse, as may be inferred from the description of Pedu as aghä^a, *he who
has a bad horse' (i, 116*). This steed is several times spoken of as 'white',
sveta (i, ii6^ &c.). He is praiseworthy (i, 119"; 10, 39"; cp. 4, 38*) and
is to be invoked (i, 116*) by men, like Bhaga (10, 39'°). He is compared
with Indra (i, 119*'*) and is called a 'dragon-slayer*, ahihan (i, 117 9. 11 8^
cp. 9, 88^), an epithet otherwise peculiar to Indra. He is a conqueror in-
vincible in battles, seeking heaven (i, 119*°). Here again the evidence, as
far as it goes, appears to favour the interpretation of the steed of Pedu as
symbolical of the sun".

D. EtaSa. The word etaia^ which occurs a few times as an adjective
meaning 'swiff , more frequently signifies 'steed' in the RV. In the plural it
designates the horses of the sun (7, 62^; 10, 37^. 497). It occurs about a
dozen times as a proper name in the singular, always connected with the
sun, often with reference to the wheel of the sun. Savitj* is the steed {etaia)
who nieasured out the terrestrial regions (5, 81 3). The swift god Etasa draws
the bright form of the sun (7, 66'^J. Yoked to the pole, Etasa moves the

150 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

wheel of the sun (7, 63'); he brought the wheel of the sun (i, i2i'3; 5, 31").
Indra urged on the steed {etaiä) of the sun (8, i" cp. 9,63®). Indrahelped
Etasa contending in a race with Sürya (i, 61 '5). It may be gathered from
stray references to this mythical contest, that Etasa being at first behind takes
up the lost wheel of the sun and fixes it to the car of Sürya; he has now
gained the lead, and in the end Sürya seems to concede to him the place
of honour before his own car '3. It appears to be impossible to suggest any
satisfactory Interpretation of this myth. It can, however, hardly be doubted
that Etasa lepresents the steed of the sun.

E. The Horse symbolical of Sun and Fire. That the horse is sym-
bolical of the sun, is indicated by a passage of the RV. in which Dawn is
Said to lead a white steed (7, 77^), and is suggested by another (i, 163*) in
which the sacrificial steed is said to have been fashioned by the gods out of
the sun^^. In a particular form of the Soma ritual, the horse also appears to
be symbolical of the sun'*.

Agni, the swift and agile god, is often, as has been shown (p. 89), spoken
of as a steed. In the ritual the horse is symbolical of AgnL A horse is
stationed so as to look at the place where fire is produced by friction.
When the fire is borne towards the east, it is deposited in the track of the
horse which goes in front '^ In the ceremony of piling the fire-altar, the
horse is addressed with the verse: *In heaven is thy highest birth, in air thy
navel, on earth thy home' (VS. 11, 12). Such a rite is explained in the SB.
as bringing Agni together with himself'^. The same Brähma^a speaks of
lightning as a horse descended from the waters or the clouds (SB. 5, i, 4^;
7, 5, 2'«).

X cp. GuBERNATis, Zoological Mythology i, 283 ff. — « E. V. Arnold, KZ.
34» 303. — 3 Cp. Wackernagel, Ahind. Gr. p. 15. — 4 Roth, PW.; GW. s. v. ;
cp. HRI. 55, note 5.-5 BRV. 2, 456-7; cp. Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 471; MM.,
SBE. 46, 282. — 6 LRV. 4, 79. — 7 PVS. I, 124; cp. HiLLEBRANDT, Vcdaintcr-
pretation 17—18. — 8 ZDMG. 42, 447—9. 462—3. — 9 ORV. 71; SBE. 46, 282.
— »o FW.; BRV. 2, 498; HiRZEL, Gleichnisse und Metaphern im RV. (1890) 27.
62-3; Griffith, Transl. of SV. 69, note i. — " KZ. 34, 366—7. — " Cp.
BRV. 2, 51-2. — x3 BRV. 2, 330 — 3; ORV. 169 f.; cp.PVS. I, 42; GVS. 2, 161 ff.
»4 Cp. AB. 6, 35 &c.; KHF. $2; Weber, IS. 13, 247, n. 3; Die Nak§atra 2, 270.
- X5 ORV. 8i. — »6 ORV. 77. — 17 ORV. 80.

S 61. A. The Bull. — Indra is in the RV. constanüy designated a
bull, a term applied much less frequently to Agni, and occasionally to other
gods, such as Dyaus (p. 22). In the AV. (9, 4^) a bull is addressed as Indra,
and in the SB. (2, 5, 3^**) the bull is stated to be Indra's fo^m^ In the Avesta
the bull appears as one of the incamations of Verethraghna, the Avestan
Indra*. In one of the sacrifices of the Vedic ritual, a bull also represents
the god Rudra3. A bull plays a part in the obscure and much discussed
myth of Mudgala and Mudgaläni (RV. 10, 102)*.

B. The Cow. — Owing to its great Utility on earth, the cow naturally
enters largely into the conceptions of Vedic mythology. The beams of Dawn
are personified as cows^, which draw her car (p. 47). The rain-cloud is
personified as a cow, the mother of a (lightning) calf (pp. 10. 12). This
cloud-cow is individualized as Prsni^, the mother of the Maruts (VS. 2, 16),
her milk (6, 48") and udder being several times referred to (cp. p. 125). The
bountiful clouds are doubtless the prototypes of the many-coloured cows
which yield all desires (kämadughä) in the heaven of the Biest (AV. 4, 34*)
and which are the forerunners of the Cow of Plenty {kämaduh) so often
mentioned in post- Vedic poetry^. I^ä, the personification of the offering of
milk and butter, has a tendency to be regarded as a cow (p. 124). Aditi

Animals and Inanimate Objects. 6i. The Bull &c. 62. The Goat &c. 151

also is sometimes spoken of as a cow (p. 122). The gods are sometimes
called cow-bom, gojätäJ^. The most frequent application of the cow is, how-
ever, in the myth of the kine released from the rock by Indra (pp. 59. 61).
The terrestrial cow herseif has akeady acquired a certain sanctity in
the RV., being addressed as Aditi and a goddess, while the poet impresses
on his hearers that she should not be killed (8, 90*5. «6 ^p^ ys, 4^ i^. 20).
The inviolabüity of the cow is further indicated by her designation aghnyä^
*not to be slain', which occurs sixteen times in the RV. (the corresponding
masculine form aghnya being found only three times). In the AV. the worship
of the cow as a sacred animal is fully recognised (AV. 12, 4. 5.)*. In the
SB. (3, I, 2*') he who eats beef is said to be bom again (on earth) as a
man of evil fame; though beef is allowed to be cooked for guests (SB. 3, 4, i ') ^.

» Cp. MS. I, 10x6; TB. I, 6, 74; Äp. äs. 8, II «9. — 2 ORV. 76, notc 2. —
3 ORV. 82. — 4 Last treated of by V. Henry (with reference to his predecessors)
in JA 1895 (6), 516 —48. — 5 Cp. Gruppe, op. cit. i, 77. — 6 cp. Roth, Nir.
Erl. 145; PW. s v. — 7 KHF. 188. — 8 HRI. 156; cp. Bloobäfield, SBE. 42,
656. — 9 WVB. 1894, p. 36; HRL 189; cp. WiNTERNiTZ, HochzeitsritucU 33.

S 62. The Goat &c — In the RV. the goat is specially connected
with Pü$an as drawing his car (p. 35). It also appears there as a divine
being in the form of Aja ekapäd, the one-footed Goat (S 27)^. In the
the later Vedic literature the goat is several times connected or identified
with Agni^

The ass appears in Vedic mythology mainly as drawing the car of the
Asvins (p. 50)3.

The dog* is found in the RV. mythologically in the form of the two
brindled hounds of Yaraa, called Särameya (p. 173). This name indicates that.
they were regarded as descendants* of Saramä* (p. 63), the messenger of
Incka. There is nothing in the RV. directly showing that Saramä was there
conceived as a bitch, though in the later Vedic literature she is regarded as
such and by Yäska (Nir. u, 25) is described as the 'bitch of the gods'

The boar occurs in the RV. as a figurative designation of Rudra, the
Maruts, and Vrtra^. In the TS. and TB. this animal appears in a cosmo-
gonic character as the form assumed by the Creator Prajäpati when he raised
the earth out of the waters. A later development of it is the boar incar-
nation of Vi§^u^

In the later Saiphitäs the tortoise is raised to a semi-divine position
as *lord of waters' (VS. 13, 31)^ or, as Kasyapa, often appears beside or
identical with Prajäpati in the AV., where he receives the epithet svayambhü^
*self-existent' (AV. 19, 53'°)'°. In the AB. (8, 21**») the earth is said to have
been promised to Ka^yapa by Visvakarman. In the SB. Prajäpati is described
as changing himself into a tortoise (7, 4, 3 5), in which form he produced all
creatures (7, 5, i*)". This assumed form of the creator became in post-
Vedic mythology the tortoise incamation of Vi§nu'*. In the TS. (2, 6, 3 3)
the sacrificial cake {puro4äi<i) is said to become a tortoise.

A monkey appears in a late hymn of the RV. (10, 86) as Indra's
favourite, who is expelled for his mischievousness by Indrä^I, but is finally
restored to favour (S 22, p. 64).

Frogs awakened by the rains are in RV. 7, 103 the objecls of a pane-
gyric as bestowing cows and long life, and seem to be conceived as possessing
magical powers*^. This hymn has, however, been interpreted by Max Müller**
as a Satire on Brahmans. Bergaigne interprets the frogs as meteorological
phenomena'S.

152 in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

X ORV. 72; SBE. 46, 62; Bloomfield, SEE. 42, 625. 664, who thinks Aja
ekapfid is undoubtedly the Sun, with reference to TB. 3, i, 2^ ('Aja ekapad bas
risen in the east', &c.), a passage which, however, is not cogent for the Rigvedic
conception. — » ORV. 78. — 3 WVB. 1894, p- 26, n. 2. — 4 Cp. Hopkins, The
Dog in the RV., AJP. 1894, IS4— 5; Bloomfield, SBE. 42, 500. — 5 Cp. Whitney,
Sanskrit Grammar», 1216. — 6 Op. cit. II 66 b; Wackernagel, Altind. Gr. S 52 Jt.;
KRV. n. 149; ZDMG. 13, 493—9; H, 583. — 7 Cp. KHF. 177—8; Entwicklungs-
stufen 136; IS. I, 272, note; Hopkins, JAOS. 17, 67. — » Macdonell, JRAS. 27,
178—89. — 9 Cp. IS. 13, 250. — 10 Cp. SPH. 81. — " Cp. IS. I, 187. — " Mac-
donell, JRAS. 27, 166—7. ■— '3 ORV. 70; Bloomfield, JAOS. 17, 173—9- —
14 ASL. 494—5; cp. OST. 5, 436. — »5 BRV. i, 292 &c.; cp. HRL 100— i.

S 63. The Bird. — Birds figure lairgely in Vedic mythology. Soma is
often compared with or called a bird^ (p. 106). Agni in particular is frequently
likened to or directly designated a bird ^ once being spoken of as the eagle
of the sky (p. 89) 3. The sun is also sometimes conceived as a bird (p. 31)*,
twice under the name of garuimat^. The fact that Vi§^u's vehicle in post-
Vedic mythology is Garucja, the chief of the birds, is probably based on the
sarae notion (cp. p. 39). The main application of the bird in the Veda is
as the eagle which carries off the Soma for Indra and which appears to
represent lightning^. In the Kä^haka it is Indra himself who in the form of
an eagle captures the Soma or amrta, Similarly in the Avesta, Verethraghna
assumes the form of Väraghna, the swiftest of birds, and in Germanic mythology,
the god Odhin transforming himself into an eagle, flies with the mead to the
realm of the gods (p. 114)7.

Ominous birds as well as beasts are occasionally connected with certain

gods by whom they are supposed to be sent Thus in the RV, the owl and

the pigeon are spoken of as messengers of Yama (S 77)*. In the Sütras

the owl is 'the messenger of evil spirits'; while the beast of prey besmeared

with blood and the Carrion vulture are called messengers of Yama 9. In the

RV. a bird of omen is once invoked to give auspicious signs (2, 42^3).

X Cp. Benfey, SV. glossary, s. v. syena. — * Bloomfield, FaR. 152. — 3 KHF.
29. — 4 V. Bradke, ZDMG. 40, 356. — 5 GW.; HRL 45. — ^ BRL 11. — 7 ORV.
75. — 8 Cp. ZDMG. 31, 352 ff.; Bloomfield, SBE. 42, 474. — 9 ORV. 76.

S 64. Noxious Animals. — These generally appear as demons or
show demoniac traits. Demons are sometimes in the RV. referred to with
the generic term mrga^ *wild beast' (i, So^; 5, 29*. 32^). One demon who
is mentioned three times (2, 11*®; 8, 32*^ 66*; is called Aunjaväbha, *Spider-
brood'; another referred to only once (2, 14*) is named Urana, *Ram\

The most common animal form applied in this way is the serpent*
{ahi = Av. azhi) *. This is generally only another designation of the demon
Vrtra, who probably received his name (cp. S 68) as a formidable enemy of
mankind enveloping his prey like a serpent in his coils^. The Vjtra-slayer
Indra, who is also called the serpent-slayer, is said to have slain the serpent
(8, 82* cp. 4, i7^j; the identity of Ahi and Vitra is clear where the terms
interchange (i, 32''*-7-^4). and by the *first-bom of the serpents' (ib.^' ♦) no
other can be meant than *Vrtra, the most Vftra' (ib.s). In several passages,
too, the words are in apposition and may be translated *the serpent Vjtra'*.
When Ahi is mentioned alone, the results of Indra's victory over him are
the same as in the case of Vftra, the god causing the waters to flow, deli-
vering the seven streams, or winning the cows^. The waters are also des-
cribed as encompassed by the serpent, the action being expressed by the
root vr (2, 19*) among others. They are similarly said to be swallowed
iVgras) by the serpent (4, 17*; 10, 11 1^). Ahi is armed with lightning
thunder and hail (i, 32^^). He is bright, for the Maruts are called ahi-
bhanavah^ *shining like Ahi' (i, 172'); and the term ahi is applied to Agni,

63. The BiRD. 64. Noxious Animals. 65. Prehistoric Notions. 153

who is described as a *raging serpent, like the rushing wind' (i, 79*)^. Soma
is once besought to deliver an enemy to Ahi (7, 1049). The pliiral of the
Word is occasionally used to express a race of demons (9, 88^; 10, 139^), of
whom the Ahi is the first-bom (i, 32^^).

The serpent, however, also appears as a divine being in the form ot
Ahi budhnya (S 26), who seems to represent the beneficent side ofthechar-
acter of Ahi Vftra.

In the later Saqihitäs the serpents {sarpäJ^) are found as a class of
semi-divine beings beside the Gandharvas and others. They are spoken of
as being in earüi, air, and heaven (VS. 13, 6; cp. TB. 3, i, i^). They are
often mentioned in the AV.^, one hymn of which (11, 9) is sometimes inter-
preted as an invocation of certain serpent divinities'. In the Sütras offerings
to the serpents of earth, air, and heaven (AGS. 2, i9; POS. 2, 14^) are^pre-
scribed; serpents are satiated along with gods, plants, demons, &c. (SGS.
4, 9^. 15**; AGS. 3, 4O, and blood is poured out for them (AGS. 4, 8*0- ^
this worship the serpent, owing to its hurtfiilness, is naturally regarded as
having a demoniac natnre, which has to be propitiated. In a similar sense
offerings are sometimes made to ants (KS. 116).

X Cp. Benfey, GGA. 1847, p. 1484; GuBERNATis, Zoological Mythology 2,

392—7; WiNTERNlTZ, Der Sarpabali, Vicnna 1888. — » Sp.AP. 257. — 3 Cp. Sp.AP.

261. — 4 BRV. 2, 204. — 5 GwFFiTH, RV. Transl. i, 133, note i; Macdonell,

_ JRAS. 25, 429. — 6 Weber, Jyoti§a 94; P\V. s. v. sarpa, — 7 Cp. Bloomfield,

SBE. 42, 631—4.

S 65. Survival of prehistoric notions. — The primitive conception
that man does not düfer essentially from beast, has left a few traces in the
form of a belief in beings pf the werewolf order. These are represented by
the man-tigers (VS. 30, 8; SB. 13, 2, 4')* and by the Nägas, human beings
in appearance but in reality serpents, which are first mentioned under this
name in the Sütras* (AGS. 3, 4*). It does not seem likely that the later
serpent worship had any connexion with the myth of the Vjtra serpent, but
its development was probably due rather to the influence of the aborigines.
For on the one band there is no trace of it in the RV., and on the other
it has been found prevailing very widely among the non-Aryan Indians. The
Aryans doubtiess found the cult extensively diffused among the natives when
they spread over India, the land of serpents^.

Similarly, there are possibly in the RV. some survivals of totemism or
the belief in the descent of the human race or of individual tribes or families
from animals or plants. Ka^yapa, Tortoise', the name of a seer (9^ 114^)
and of a priestiy family (AB. 7, 27), is also frequently found in the AV. and
the later Vedic literature* as that of a cosmogonic power nearly related to
or identified with the Creator Prajäpati. In a passage of the SB, (7, 5, i*)
Prajäpati appears in the form of a tortoise (kürma), Here it is remarked
that, as kürma is identical with kaiyapa^ 'therefore men say: all beings are the
children of the \,oxX.o\^^ (Jtaiyapä)'. The RV. (7, i8^'/^) mentions as tribal
names the Matsyas (Fishes)*, the Ajas (Goats), and the Sigrus (Horse-radishes).
As names of Vedic ^ priestiy families also occur the Gotamas* (Oxen), the
Vatsas (Calves), the Sunakas (Dogs), the Kausikas (Owls), and Mä^cjukeyas '
(Frog-sons). The father of Saipvara^a (a name occurring in RV. 5, 53***),
from whom the kings of the Kurus claimed descent, is in the Epic called
Rk$a (Bear)*. Hopkins, however, expresses a doubt whether the names of
animals ever point to totemism in the RV.9

» Cp. the Man-lion incarnation of Vi§^iu. — » Cp. Winternitz, Sarpabali 43.
— 3 ORV. 69, note 2.-4 PW. s. v.; IS. 3, 457. 459, — 5 Also mentioned in

154 ni. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

Manu 2, 19. — 6 Superlative oi go. — 7 See PW. sub vocibus. — 8 ORV. 85—6;
Bloomfield, JAOS. 15, 178, note. — 9 PAOS. 1894, p. cuv.

S 66. Deified Terrestrial Objects. — A. Besides the phenomena and
forces of nature, mostly aerial and celestial, and the earth itself (S 34)» various
natural features of the earth's surface, as well as artificial objects, are treated
as deities in the RV. It is the worship of inanimate things chiefly regarded
as useful to man\ It is not pantheistic, since each object is regarded as a
separate divinity*, but is rather fetishistic in its character.

Rivers personified as goddesses have already been dealt with (S 33).

Mountains {parvata) are often in the RV. conceived as divinely animate,
being invoked as deities nearly twenty times in the plural and four times in
the Singular. In this capacity they never appear alone, but only with other
natural objects such as waters, rivers, plants, trees, heaven and earth (7,34*^,&c.),
or with gods like Savitr, Indra, and others (6, 49'*, &c.). They are invoked
as manly, firmly fixed, rejoicing in plenty (3, 54"-'). Parvata is even three
times lauded with Indra in the dual Compound Ini/räparvata (i, 1223. 132*).
The pair are spoken of as driving in a great car and are besought to come
to the offering (3, 53*;. Here Parvata seems to be a mountain god, conceived
anthropomorphically as a corapanion of Indra.

Plants (osadhi) are also personified as divine. The whole of a long
hymn of the RV. (10, 97) ^ is devoted to their praise, mainly with reference
to their healing powers*. They are called mothers and goddesses (v. ^), and
Soma, to whom trees are subject, is described as their king. In another text
a herb to be used medicinally is spoken of as a *goddess born on the
goddess earth' (AV. 6, 136*). An animal sacrifice is even offered to plants in
Order to remove their obstruction to the attainment of offspring (TS. 2, 1,5 5).

Large trees, called vanaspati^ *lord of the forest', are a few times
addressed as deities either in the plural (7, 34*^; 10, 64^) or the Singular
(i, 90*; Väl. 6^), chiefly along with Waters and Mountains. Later texts refer
to the adoration paid to large trees passed in marriage processions^ (cp. p. 134).

The forest as a whole appears as a deity under the name of AraQyäni,
the jungle goddess, who is invoked in RV. 10, 146. Here she is called the
mother of beasts, abounding in food without tillage; and the various uncanny
sounds heard in her dark solitudes are weirdly described. The plant, tree,
and forest deities, however, play a very insignificant part not only in the
RV., but even in the AV. and in the ritual of the lesser domestic sacrifices;
while in the Buddhist literature they seem to have been more closely con-
nected with human life than any other lower deities^.

B. Implements. Another group of inanimate objects susceptible of
personification and worship is formed by various implements of sacrifice. The
deification of these is by Barth 7 called by the rather misleading name of
ritualistic pantheism^ The most important of these objects is the sacrificial
post, which under the name of vanaspati and svaru is deified and invoked
in RV. 3, 8. The tree is here described as well-lopped with the axe, as
anointed and adomed by priests; and the posts set up by priests are gods,
and as gods go to the gods (vv. ^- 9). In the tenth or eleventh verses of the
Äprl hymns'°, the post is described as thrice anointed with ghee and being
set up beside the fire is invoked to let the offering go to the gods. In other
Verses of the same hymns the sacrificial grass {barhis) is twice (2,3*; 10,70*)
addressed as a god, and more frequently the doors leading to the place of
sacrifice, as goddesses (devlr dvärah),

The pressing stones {grävan, also adri) are deified in three hymns
(10, 76. 94. 175). They are spoken of as immortal, unaging, and more

66. Deified Terrestrial Objects. 155

mighty even than heaven". When pressing they are like steeds or buUs and
the sound of their voice reaches to heaven. They are invoked to drive away
demons and destniction, and to bestow wealth and ofl&pring. In two verses
of the RV. (i, 285' ^) the mortar and pestle are invoked to resound aloud
and to press Soma for Indra.

The AV. ascribes divine power of the highest order to Ucchi§ta, the
*remnant' of the sacrifice (AV. 11, 7)" as well as to different sacrificial ladles*3.

Agricultural implements named Suna and Sirä, probably the ploughshare
and the plough, are invoked in a few verses of the RV. (4, 575~®), and a
cake is assigned to them at the sacriüce in the ritual (SB. 2, 6, 3^).

Weapons, finally, are sometimes deified. The whole of RV. 6, 75 is
devoted to the praise of various implements of war, armour, bow, quiver,
and arrows. The arrow is adored as divine and is besought to grant pro-
tection and to attack the foe (w. "• '5- »6^. The drum (dundubhi) is invoked
to drive away dangers, foes, and demons (vv. *^— 31). and a whole hymn of
the AV. (5, 20) celebrates its praises'^.

C. Symbols. Material objects are occasionally mentioned in the later
Vedic literature as symbols representing deities. Something of this kind
(possibly an image) must be meant even in a passage of the RV., in which
the poet asks, *Who will buy this my Indra for ten cows? When he has
slain his foes he may give him back to me' (4, 24'**; cp. 8, i^). References
to Idols *^ begin to appear in the later additions to the Brähmapas and in
the Sütras*^.

The wheel is in various ritual Performances employed as a symbol of
the sun, as representing both its shape and its motion. It is thus used in
the Väjapeya sacrifice '7, in the ceremony of laying the sacrificial fire, and
at the solstitial festival'*. In post- Vedic mythology, moreover, one of the
weapons of Vi§^u is a wheel (cakrd) *9.

Gold or a firebrand was employed as a symbol of the sun, when drawing
water after sunset (SB. 3, 9, 2 9); gold served the same purpose when the
sacrificial fire was made up after sunset instead of before (SB. 12,4,4^); and
in piling the firealtar, a disc of gold was placed on it to represent the sun

(SB. 7, 4, i'")'^

A symbol must have been used, as at a later period, in the phallic wor-
ship which was known in the earliest Vedic period, as is shown by the
occurrence in two passages of the word iiinddeüäh^ *those who have a phallus
for their deity*. Such worship was, however, repugnant to the religious ideas
of the RV.; for Indra is besought not to let the üinadci^äh approach the
sacrifice (7, 21 5), and he is said to have slain the iUnadevähy when he won
the treasure of the hundred-gated fort (10, 99-^). In the post- Vedic period
the phallus or linga became symbolical of Siva's generative power and its
worship is widely diffused in India even at the present day*^

» HRI. 166. — 2 HRI. 135. — J Cp. Roth, ZDMG. 25, 645—8. -- 4 Cp.
DaRmesteter, Haurvatat et Ameretät 74—6. — 5 ORV. 252; tree-worship also appears
in the Sfltras, where a newly married couple are said to bring ofterings to the
udumbara and to invoke its Messing: Winternitz, Hochzeitsrituell 101—2. — 6 ORV.
259—61.— 7 BRI. 37, note. — 8 HRI. 135. — 9 Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 12. 253—5. —
10 Cp. Roth, Nir. xxxvi, Eri. 117— 8. 121-4; ASL. 463— 6; Weber, IS. 10,89—95;
GRV. 1,6; KRV.n. 126; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 9-10. — " HVM. i, 151. — " OST.
5. 396; SPH. 87-8. — X3 OST. 5, 398. — M Roth, Faß. 99. — »5 The aJlu-
sion to idols of Agni, seen in RV. i, 1454' 5 by Bollensen (ZDMG. 47, 586), is
inconclusive. — «6 Weber, Omina und Portenta 337. 367 f.; IS. 5, 149; KRV.
note 79 a; HRI. 251. — »7 Weber, Väjapeya 20. 34 f. — «8 ORV. 88, note 4. —
»9 v. Bradke, ZDMG. 40, 356. — 20 ORV. 255—61. 87—92. — at v. Schroeder
WZKM. 9, 237; HRI. 150.

156 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kxjnst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

VI. DEMONS AND FIENDS.

S 67. A. Asuras. — Opposed to the beneficent gods is a body of male-
volent beings called by various designations. Asura is throughout the Vedic
literature the name of the celestial demons who are regarded as the regulär
adversaries of the gods in their mythical conflicts and who only rarely appear
as present foes of men (e. g. AV. 8, 65; KS. 87*^; 88'). The term, however,
occurs only a few times in the RV. with the later sense of demon. It is
there found only four times in the plural with this meaning. Indra is invoked
to scatter the godless Asuras (8, 859). Otherwise they are only mentioned in
the tenth book, always as opposed to the gods in general. The gods, it is
Said, smote the Asuras (10, 157*;. Agni promises to devise a hymn by which
the gods may vanquish the Asuras (10, 53*;. The gods are even said to
have placed faith in the formidable Asuras (10, 151^). The word also occurs
three times as the designation of an individual demon. Brhaspati is besought
to pierce with a buming stone the heroes of the wolfish Asura (2,30*). Indra
shattered the forts of the crafty Asura Pipru (10, 1383) and Indra- Vi§^u smote
the IOC 000 heroes of the Asura Varcin (7, 995). The sense of *demon' is
also found in the epithet asurahan^ *Asura-slayer', which occurs three times
and is applied to Indra (6, 22*), to Agni (7, 13'), and to the Sun (10, 170*).
The older Rigvedic notion of the conflict of a single god with a Single demon,
mainly exemplified by Indra and Vftra, gradually developed into that of the
gods and the Asuras in general being arrayed against each other in two
hostile camps. This is the regulär view of the Brähma^as. A new and
frequent feature of the conflicts constantly described in these works is that
the gods are worsted at the outset and only win by artifice. The most
notable Illustration of this notion is the myth of Vi§nu taking his three strides
in the form of a dwarf on behalf of the gods*.

In the Brähmapas the Asuras are associated with darkness (SB. 2,4, 2-^) ^
Day belongs to the gods, night to the Asuras (TS. i, 5, 9*). They are, how-
ever, constantly spoken of as being the offspring of Prajäpati and as having
originally been equal to and like the gods^. It is perhaps for this reason
that malignant spirits are sometimes included by the term droa (TS. 3, 5,4*;
AV. 3, 155).

In the AV. and later asura means *demon' only; but in the RV. the
Word is predominantly a designation of gods, and in the Avesta Ahura
(= asura) is the name of the highest god. Thus the sense of *god' is clearly
the older. An attempt has been made to explain the transition from this
meaning to that of *devir, from national conflicts in consequence of which
the Asuras or gods of extra- Vedic tribes became *demons* to the Vedic Indian*.
There is, however, no traditional evidence in support of this view. The ex-
planation seems rather to be found in the foUowing development within the
Veda itself 5. Asura as compared with deva has in its older sense a peculiar
shade of meaning. It is especially applied to Varu^a or Mitra-Varuaa*,
whose mäyä or *occult power' is particularly dwelt upon^. But the word
mäyä in the sense of *craft' is also applied to hostile beings* and is closely
connected with the bad sense of asura (10, 1245. 138^) 9. To the Vedic poets
asura must therefore have meant *possessor of occult power' '** and as such
would have been potentially applicable to hostile beings. In one h)rmn of
the RV. (10, 124) both senses seem to occur". Towards the end of the
Rigvedic period the application of the word to the gods began to fall into
disuse. This tendency was perhaps aided by the want of a general word to

DeMONS AND FlENDS. 67. ASURAS, PaNIS, DÄSAS. 157

denote the higher hostile demoniac power and by an incipient populär etymo-
logy«2 recognising a negative in the word and leading to the invention of
sura^ *god' (first found in the Upani§ads) *^.

B. PaQis. — A group of demons of the upper air, primarily the enemies
of Indra (6, 20*. 39'), secondarily also of his allies Soma, Agni, Brhaspati,
and the Angirases, are the Paais. In nearly all the passages in which these
demons are naraed, their cows are either expressly mentioned (10, 108;
6, 39^) or alluded to as the treasure or wealth of the Paais (2, 24^; 9, iii').
There is a similar reference when Agni is said to have opened the doors of
the Paijiis (7, 9*). In one passage the gods are described as having found in
the cow the ghee hidden by the Pa^is (4, 58*). The Pa^is are comparatively
powerful, for they are said to be surpassed in might by Indra (7, 56") and
not to have attained to the greatness of Mitra-VariMia (i, isi').

The name occurs in the RV. about sixteen times in the plural, but is
also found four times in the singular as representative of the group. Thus
Indra or Agni-Soma are described as having robbed the cows from Pa^i
(10, 67^; I, 93*), or Soma is invoked to strike down the voracious Pa^i who
is a wolf (6, 51'*).

The word pani occurs with considerably greater frequency, and here
oftener as a singular than a plural, in the sense of 'niggard', especially with
regard to sacrificial gifts. From this signification it developed the mythological
meaning of demons similar to those who primarily withhold the treasures of
heaven*^.

C. The word ääsa or its equivalent dasyu^ is also used to designate
atmospheric demons. Its history is the converse of that of Vjtra (S 68).
Primarily signifying the dark aborigines of India contrasted with their fair
Aryan conquerors, it frequently rises to mythological rank in the RV. as the
line between what is historical and mythical is not clearly drawn. This is
especially the case with individual Däsas, some of whose names even (e. g.
Su^^a) lend themselves to a mythological interpretation, though others seem
to be those of non- Aryan men (e. g. Ilibisa)'*.

Thus both the singular (2, 12", &c.) and (mostly of dasyü) the plural
(i, loiS) are frequently used to designate foes vanquished by Indra, some-
times beside the name of Vjtra (6, 23 ^ &c.). Hence Indra is sometimes
called dasyuhan^ ^Dasyu-slayer* (i, 100", &c.) and the combat is several
times referred to as dasyuhatya (i, ^\^ ^, &c.). In favour of individual
proteg^s Indra *sent to sleep' (i, e. slew) 30000 Däsas (4, 30**), bound a
thousand Dasyus (2, 13^), or won cowstalls from the Dasyus for Dadhyafic
(and) Mätarisvan (10, 48"). When Indra's aid is invoked against both Ärya
and Däsa foes (10, 38^, &c.) or when he is spoken of as discriminating
between Äryas and Dasyus or Däsas (i, 51®; 10, 86'*'), terrestrial foes are
undoubtedly meant This is probably also the case when Indra fights against
the Dasyus in favour of the Äryas (6, i8\ 25*). Owing to the Däsas being
so frequently taken captive by the conquering Aryans, the word däsa comes
to be used two or three times in the RV. (7, 86'; Väl. 8^) in the sense of
'servant*, *slave', its ordinary meaning in post-Vedic Sanskrit '^. On the other
hand, the Dasyus who endeavouring to scale heaven are cast down by Indra
(8, 14*^ cp. 2, 12"), the Dasyu whom he burnt down from heaven (i, 33^),
whom he vanquished from birth (i, 51^; 8, 66*""3)j or against whom he aids
the gods (10, 54*), must be demons. This is also the case, when Indra
attacks the Dasyu, scattering the mist and darkness (10, 7 3 5), or wins the
sun and the waters after slaying the Dasyus (i, 100^*), and when the gods
and the Dasyus are contrasted as foes (3, 299). A demon must be meant

158 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

by the Däsa who is the husband of the waters (i, 32"; 5, 30*; 8, 85*^,

which by bis victory Indra makes the wives of a noble husband (10, 43®).

The seven forts of the Däsas, which, like those of Vitra (i, 174*), are called

autumnal (6, 20'° cp. 7, 1039), are doubtless atmospheric.

As the words däsa and dasyu primarily mean 'malignant foe' and then

*demon' "^^ it seems convenient to render them by *fiend*. They are frequently

added as a generic term to the names of individual fiends combated by

Indra, being most commonly thus applied to Namuci (5,3o^""9,&a), Sambara

(4> 30^*» &cO> Su§ija (7, 19^ &c.), sometimes to Pipru (8, 32'; 10, 138^),

Cumuri and Dhuni (2, 15'; 7, 194), Varcin (4, 30'S^ 6,47**)» Navavästva (10,

49^' 0» oi^ce to Tvä§tra (2, 11 ^9) and to the dragon Ahi (2, ii^j.

X Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 168-77. — * HRL 187. — 3 OST. 4, 52. 58—62;
5, 15. 18. 22. 230. — 4 Cp. BDA. 109. — 5 Otherwisc BDA. 106. — 6 Op. cit.
120 ff. — 7 PRV. 3, 81 cp. GVS. I, 142. — 8 BRV. 3, 80. — 9 AV. passim; cp.
ORV. 164, note 2. — »o ORV. 162 — 5; cp. D armesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman
269 f. The Indo-Iranian meaning was according to BDA. 86 'Herr' (lord). —
" Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39, 70, note 2. — xa On the etymology cp. v. Bradke,
ZDMG. 40, 347—9. — ^3 Cp. PW. s. V. sura, — »4 Cp ORV. 145; otherwise
HVM. I, 83 ff. — X5 Cp. Wackernagel, Altindische Grammatik i, xxu. —
16 Cp. *Slave', originally = *captive Slav*. — »7 Cp. AIL. 109—13.

8 68. A. Vrtra\ — Of the individual atmospheric demons by far the
most important and the most frequently mentioned is Vitra, who is the chief
adversary of Indra and for whose slaughter that deity is said to have been
bom or grown (8, 78^; 10, 55). Hence the most distinctive epithet of Indra
is vrtrahan^ 'Vrtra-slayer*. This Compound is analyzed in two passages of
the RV.: *May the Vrtra-slayer slay Vrtra' (8, 78^) and 'Vrtra-slayer, slay the
Vjtras' (8,179). Indra*s conflict with Vrtra is also frequently referred to with
vrtrahatya, *slaughter of Vjtra' and sometimes with vrtratürya^ *conquest
of Vrtra'.

It has already been shown that Vftra is conceived as having the form
of a serpent (S 64). Hence he is without feet or hands (i, 32^; 3, 30^) ^
His head, which Indra pierces, is mentioned several times (i, 52*"; 8, 6°.
65*), as well as his jaws, into which Indra strikes his holt (i, 52^). His
hissing or snorting is sometimes referred to (8, 85^; 5, 29* cp. i, 52*^ 6i*°;
6,17'°). He has thunder at his disposal (i, 80"), as well as lightning, mist,
and hail (i, 32*3).

Vjtra's mother is called Dänu and is compared with a cow (i, 32*^).
This nrme seems to be identical with the word dänu^ which is several times
used as a neuter meaning *stream' and once as a feminine to designate the
waters of heaven^. The same term is applied as a masculine, apparently in
the sense of a metronymic, to Vjtra or the dragon (2, 12"; 4, 30^), as well
as to the demon Aurriaväbha (2,11^^), and to seven demons slain by Indra
(10, 120^). The regulär metronymic Dänava is used five times to designate
a demon combated by Indra and doubtless identical with Vjtra. Indra cast
down the wiles of the wily Dänava (2, ii'°), he Struck down the snorting
Dänava (5, 29^;, to release the waters (5, 32').

Vrtra has a hidden {ninyd) abode, whence the waters, when released by
Indra, escape overflowing the demon (i, 32'°). Vrtra lies on the waters
(i, 121"; 2, 11^9) or enveloped by waters at the bottom {budhna) of the
rajas or aerial space (i, 52^). He is also described as lying on a summit
(sänu), when Indra made the waters to flow (i, 80^), or as having been cast
down by Indra from lofty heights (8, 3*9). Vrtra has fortresses, which Indra
shatters when he slays him (10, 89^) and which are ninety-nine in number
(7, 19^; 8, 82O.

Demons and Fiends. 68. Vrtra, Vala &c. 159

There can be no doubt that the word vr-tra is derived from the root vr,
*to Cover or encompass'*. Poets several times speak of Vitra as having en-
compassed the waters, apo variväifisam (2, 14', &c.) or vrtvi (i, 52*;, or as
being an encompasser of rivers, nadi-vrt (i, 52*; 8, 12*^ cp. 6, 30^; 7, 2i3),
These are clearly allusions to the etymology of the name. There is also
evidently a play on the derivation when it is said that Indra *encompassed
the encompasser', vrtram avrnot (3, 433), or that in slaying Vjtra he uncovered
{apa vf) the prison of the waters (i, 32". 51*). A similar notion is implied
in a passage in which the (cloud) mountain {parvatä) is described as being
within the belly of Vitra and Indra strikes the streams, placed in a covering
{vavrt), down declivities (cp. 1, 57^). Vrtra is also said to be an encloser
(paridhi) of the streams (3, 33*;.

It has been shown above that Indra's epithet vrtrahan was understood
by the Vedic poets to mean not only *slayer of Vj-tra* but also as *slayer of
Vitras*. This plural, which is of frequent occurrence in the RV. and is
always neuter, sometimes appears in passages mentioning the names of various
individual fiends (7, 19*; 10, 49^). The result of Indra's conflict with the
Vitras is the release of the waters (7, 34^) or of the rivers (8, 85'®) which
are *encompassed*, vrtän (4, 427). It is the Vitras which, as well as the
fiends, he is to smite as soon as born (6^ 29^) and to destroy which he has
been produced by the gods (3, 49 0. With the bones of Dadhyanc he slew
99 Vitras (i, 84'^) just as he shatters the ninety-nine forts of Vitra (7,195).

The term Vitras, which is regularly employed with the verb han^ 'to
slay', also refers to terrestrial foes, as when Aryas and Däsas are distinguished
as two kinds of Vitras (6, 22'®. 33>>). There are, moreover, many passages
in which it is quite as applicable to human enemies as to celestial demons.
Then, however, it does not mean simply *enemy*, which is amitra (= inimicus)
or iatru (cp. 6, 73'), but is employed with a side-glance at the demon Vitra,
much as the English word 'fiend' in its present use, when applied to men^
is suggestive of *devil'. This relation of meaning is the converse of that in
däsa or dasyu^ which first meant 'foe* and then *fiend\ The use of vrtra in
the plural, as it is then always neuter, can hardly be derived from a generali-
zation of the proper name Vrtra, but must be based on an earlier meaning
such as 'obstruction', then *obstructor*. In the Avesta verähra means *victory',
which is, however, a secondary development of *obstruction'.

In the Brähma^as Vrtra is interpreted as the moon, which is swallowed
by Indra identified with the sun, at new moon 5.

B. Vala*. This word occurs about twenty-four times in the RV. and
is regularly connected with the release of the cows by Indra or his allies,
espedally the Angirases (S 54). Vala is a guardian of cows, whom Indra
rent when he robbed Pa^i of his cows (10, 67* cp. 6, 39'). He laments for
his cows when taken by Brhaspati (10, 68*** cp. 67*). He has Castles which
were forced open by Indra (6, i8'5), fences which were pierced by Indra
(i, 5 2 5), and an unbroken summit which was broken by Indra (6, 39*). The
TS. (2, I, 5*) speaks of Indra having opened the hole {bild) of Vala and
cast out the best beast in it, a thousand others foUowing. There are, how-
ever, several passages in which the word is still unpersonified. The primary
meaning in these cases seems to have been *covering* or *cave* (from the
root vr^ to cover). Thus the word is twice (i, 62*; 4, 50^) used in appo-
sition with phaliga^ the receptacle of the (atmospheric) waters (8, 32*^) and
appears in the Naigha^tuka (i, 10) as a synonym of megha^ *cloud'. Indra
is said to have driven out the cows and opened {apa var) the vala (2, 14^)
or to have opened (apävar) the aperture (cp. 1,32^*) of the vala containing

i6o HL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mvthology.

cows (i, 1x5). The PB. (19, 7) speaks of the cave {valä) of the Asuras
being closed with a stone. In several passages the word may have either
the primary or ihe personified sense (i, 52*; 2, 12^; 3, 34*°). It has probably
the latter in Indra*s epithet valamruja^ *breaker of Vala', which occurs imme-
diately after vrtrakhääa, 'destroyer of Vitra' (3, 45* cp. 2, i23). The transition
to the personified meaning appears in a passage (3, 30**') in which Vala is
spoken of as the stable {vraja) of the cow and as having opened {vi ärä)
for fear before Ladra strikes. That the personification is not fully developed,
is indicated by the action of Indra and others, when they attack Vala, being
generally expressed by bhiä^ *to pierce', sometimes by //r, *to cleave', OTruj\
'to break', but not (as in the case of Vrtra) by han^ 'to slay*. The connexion
of the verb bhid with the name of Vala is preserved in valabkid^ which is a
frequent epithet of Indra in post- Vedic literature. Here Vala is regarded as
the brother of Vjtra, and the two are associated in Indra's Compound epithet
vala-vrtra-han, *Slayer of Vala and Vjtra'.

C. Other demon foes of Indra. Arbuda is mentioned seven times
(twice oxytone, five times proparoxytone) in the RV., always as an adversary
of Indra. He is a wily beast, whose cows Indra drove out (8, 3*^). Indra
cast him down (2,11^°. 14^ cp. 8, 3 2 3), trod him down with his foot (1,51*),
pierced him with ice (8, 32') or Struck oflf his head (10, 67"). He is men-
tioned two or three times with Vrtra (or Ahi) and appears to be cognate in
nature to him 7.

Visvarüpa^, the son ofTva§tr, is a three-headed demon slain by both
Trita and Indra, who seize his cows (10, 8^- 9). He is mentioned simply by
his patronymic Tvä§tra in two or three other passages, in which he is de-
scribed as rieh in horses and cattle (10, 76^) and is said to have been delivered
over by Indra to Trita (2, ii'^^ cp. pp. 61. 67). In the TS. (2, 5, i*) Visva-
rüpa, though related to the Asuras, is spoken of as Purohita of the gods*?.
In the Mahäbhärata (5, 22 f.) the three-heated son of Tva§tr and Vitra
are identical.

Svarbhänu'^ is a demoniac {äsura) being mentioned four times in one
hymn of the RV. (5, 40). He is described as eclipsing the sun with dark-
ness. Indra fought against his wiles and Atri put the eye of the sun (back)
in heaven. This demon is also mentioned several times in the Brähma^as.
In post- Vedic mythology his place is taken by Rähu. The name appears to
mean Vithholding the light of the sun'.

Uraija, a demon slain by Indra and described as having ninety-nine

arms, is mentioned only once (2, 14*).

» Breal, Hercule 87—99; BRV. 2, 196—208; ORV. 135—6; ZDMG. 50, 665 f. —
3 Cp. Agni in 4, i II cp. 2, 2 3. — 3 BRV. 2, 220 ; cp. Oldenberg, SB£. 46, 123 ; according
to PW. and GW. the words are distinct. — 4 Cp. Perrv, JAOS. ii, 135; Vjtra
« 'Restrainer* HRL 94. — 5 HRI. 197. — 6 PW.; GW. s. v. vala\ ßRV. 2, 319
—21. — 7 Cp. GW. — 8 Cp. HVM. I, 519. 531—2. — 9 Cp. OST. 5, 230—2.—
10 IS. 3, 164 f.; LRV. 5, 508; BRV. 2, 468; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42, 213; HVM.
I, 464. 507, n. I; Lanman, FaR. 187—90.

S 69. Individual Däsas. — A. Su§na'. This fiend, who is mentioned
about forty times in the RV., is the chief enemy of Kutsa, for or with whom
Indra vanquishes him (4, 16"; 5, 299, &c.). He is homed (i, 33'*). He has
cggs (8, 40"- '^), i. e. a brood (cp. 10, 22"), from which it may be inferred
that he is a serpent. He is described as hissing iivasana: i, 54^^ He is
six times spoken of as asusa^ a term which is otherwise only once applied
to Agni and perhaps means 'devouring' ^. He has strong forts (i, 51") or a
fort (4,3o*«>), which is moving (8,1^^). Indra releases the waters in shattering
Sn§i;ia's forts (i, 51"), obtains the receptacle of waters (krivt) in smiting

Demons and Fiends. 69. SusNA, Sambara, &a 161

— ^^ „

Su$^a (Väj. 3^), or wins heavenly {svarvaftJji) waters when he destroys the
brood of Sii§i^ (8, 40'°). The name of Su§pa is four times accompanied by
the epithet kuyava^ 'causing bad com or harvesf . In the two passages in
which this word is used independently as the name of a demon (i, 103^
104J), it may refer to Sii§aa. The result of the conflict between Indra and
Su^^a is not always the release of the waters^ but is als9 the Unding of the
cows (8, 85*7), or the winning of the sun (cp. $ 58). Su§i^a in his conflict
with Indra moves in darkness, is a *son 9f mist', miho napät, and a Dänava
(5) 32^). In the Käthaka (IS. 3^ 466) Su^^a is called a Dänava who is
in possession of the amrta,

The above evidence seems to point to Su^^a having been a demon of
drought from the beginning rather than a reminiscence of some historical
human foe. This view is supported by the etymological meaning which must
be either 'hisser' (from the root ivas^ ius) or *scorcher* (from ius^ 'to dry').

B. Sambara. The name of this fiend occurs about twenty times in
the RV. He is mentioned along with others, chiefly Su^^a, Pipru (i, loi*.
103*; 2, i9^j 6, 18*), and Varcin., Indra was re-inforced by the Maruts in
the fight against the dragon and Sambara (3, 47^). Indra shook the summit
of heaven when he cut down Sambara (1,54^). He found Sambara dwelling
in the moimtains (2, 12") and Struck him down from the mountain (i, 130^;
6, 26^). He Struck down from the great mountain the Däsa Sambara, the
son of Kulitara (4, 30'*). He Struck dpwn from the height Sambara, who
thought himself a little god (7, 18^^). Sambara is often said to have forts,
ninety (1,130'), generally ninety-nine (2, 19^ &c.), or a hundred (2,14^, &c.).
The word iambara once occurs in the neuter plural, meaning *the forts of
Sambara'^. These Brhaspati is said to have cleft and then to have entered
the mountain rieh in treasure (2, 24'). Indra vanquishes Sambara in the
interest of Atithigva (i, 51^), but generally of Divodäsa (2, 19^, &c.), and
sometimes of both (i, 130'; 4, 26^). The two names are usually thought s to
refer to the same person, but this is doubted by Bergaigne^.

C Pipru. This fiend, mentioned eleven times in the RV., is the enemy
of Indra's proteg6 (Väl. i*°) Rjisvan, who ofTers Soma to Indra and is aided
by him in the conflict (5, 29"; 10, 99**). Indra with ^jisvan (i, loi'- *; 10,
138^) or for him (4, 16'^; 6, 20') conquered Pipru. The fiend, who has the
wiles of Ahi, possesses forts which are shattered by Indra (i, 51*; 6, 2o7).
When Indra slew the Däsa Pipru as well as some other raxely mentioned
beings, he shed the waters (8, 32^). When the sun unyoked his chariot in
the midst of the sky, the Aryan found a match for the Däsa: Ind/a acting
with Rijisvan, shattered the strong forts of the wily Asura Pipru (10, 1383).
He delivered the wild beast {mrgayd) Pipru to Rjisvan, overthrew 50000
blacks, and rent the forts (4, 16 '3). With Rjisvan he drove out those who
have a black brood ' (i, 10 1'). Since Pipru is called an Asura as well as
a Däsa, it is doubtful whether he represents a human foe with a historical
foundation, as some scholars think^. The name has the appearance of a
Sanskrit word as a reduplicated derivative of the root par or pr (like si-sn-u
from y/'san)^^ possibly meaning 'resister*, 'antagonist*.

D. Namuci^^is mentioned nine times in the RV. besides several times
in the VS., TB., and SB. He once receives the epithet äsura^ *demoniac',
in the RV. (10, 131*; SB. 12, 7, i*°) and is called an Asura in later Vedic
texts. He is also spoken of as a Däsa in three or four passages of the RV.
(5» 30^' ^ &c.) and once as 'wily* (i, 53'). In vanquishing Namuci Indra is
twice associated with NamT Säpya as his protege (i, 53 '; 6, 20^). Namuci is
slain like several other demons {2, 14*; 7, 195) or Struck down (i, 53") by

Indo^arische Philologie. IQ. 1 a. \\

i62 IIL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

Indra. Indra destroyed a hundred Castles, slaying Vitra and Namuci (7, 19 5).
The characteristic feature about the conflict is that Indra twirls {Ytnatfi) oflf
the head of Namuci (5, 30^; 6, 20^), while he is said to pierce Ybhid) that
of Vftra. Otherwise Indra is described as having twisted {vartaya) the head
of Namuci (5, 3o7) or to have twisted it off with the foamofwater (8,14^3). The
Brähmaoas also refer to Indra's cutting ofif Namuci's head with the foam of
the waters". In one passage of the RV. (10. ißi^'S) Indra is described as
having drunk wine beside the demoniac Namuci, when the Asvins aided and
Sarasvati cured him (cp. p. 87).

The etymology of the name is aocording to Pä^ini (6, 3, 75) na-muci^
*not letting go*. In that case it would mean 'the demon withholding the waters' ".

E. Dhuni and Cumuri^^. The Däsa Cumuri is mentioned six times,
with one exception always along with Dhuni. The closeness of the association
of these two is shown by their names once appearing as a dual Compound
(6, 2o'3). Indra sent them to sleep (2, 15^;, 6, 2o*3; 7, 194), the same being
said of Cumuri alone (6, 26^). Along with Sambara, Pipru, Su§^a, they were
crushed by Indra, so that their Castles were destroyed (6, 18^). They were
sent to sleep or overcome by Indra (10, 11 3^) in favour of Dabhiti, who
pressed Soma for him (6, 20*3) and who was rewarded by the god for his
faith (6, 26^). Without any mention of the two fiends, Indra is also said to
have sent to sleep for Dabhiti 30000 Däsas (4, 30") and to have bound
the Dasyus for him without cords (2, 13*').

Dhuni means 'Roarer* {Yä/tvan\ the word being frequently also used
in the RV. as an adjective in the sense of *roaringy raging*. Cumuri on the
other band looks like a borrowed aboriginal name*^.

F. Varcin and others. Varcin is mentioned four times, always with
Sambara. He is called an Asura (7, 99^), but he and Sambara together are
termed Däsas (6, 47'*)- Indra is said to have shattered the hundred forts
of Sambara and to have dispersed or slain the 1 00 000 warriors of the Däsa
Varcin (2, 14^; 4, 30*5). The name appears to mean 'shining*, from varcas^
*brilliance'.

Several others, whose names occur only once, are mentioned, along with
Vala, Su§ija, Namuci and other fiends, as vanquished by Indra. Such are
Drbhika, Rudhikrä (2,14^"*), Anarsani'5, Srbinda (8,32*), and Hibisa (1,33").
They probably preserve a historical reminiscence of prominent terrestrial foes.
For the last two of these names have an un-Aryan appearance; nor does it
seem likely that original individual demons should have received names which
do not designate a demoniac attribute like the appellations Vrtra, Vala,
and Su$i;ia.

I KHF. 52 ff.; BRV. 2, 333—8; GVS. 2, 163 ff.; HVM. i, 516; ORV. 155.
158 — 61. — 2 Cp. l/fi/flj and svasatka applied to Vjrtra. — 3 Cp. ORV. 159. —

4 Perhaps through the influence of the neut. pl. vriräni, — 5 PVV., GW., Olden-
BERG, ZDMG. 42, 210. — 6 BRV. 2, 342 — 3. — 7 Acc. pl. fem.: =» waters, GW.
s. V. krsnagarbha, — 8 LRV. 3, 149; BDA. 95; ORV. 155. — 9 BRV. 2, 349, but
with the sense of 'filier' or *rescuer'. — «o I>RV. 5, 145; BRV. 2, 345—7; Lanman,
JAS. Bengal 58, 28—30; Sanskrit Reader 375 b; Bloomfield, JAOS. 15, 143—63;
Oldenberg, Göttinger Nachrichten 1893, 342—9; ORV. 161. — «« Bloomfield,
JAOS. 15, 155—6. — " Cp. Kuhn, KZ. 8, 80. — »3 BRV. 2, 350; ORV. 157. —
14 Wackernagel, Altind. Gr. i, xxu. — »5 Cp. Johansson, 1F. 2,45; Perry, who
treats of all the demons combated by Indra, JAOS. 11, 199 — 205.

5 70. A. Rak§ases. — By far the most frequent generic name in the
RV. for terrestrial demons or goblins% enemies of mankind, is raksas, It is
mentioned (upwards of fifty times) both in the singular and plural, nearly
always in connexion with a god, who is invoked to destroy or praised for

Demons and Fiends. 70. Raksases. 163

having destroyed these demons. In two hymns of the RV. (7, 104; 10, 87)
which deal with the Rak$ases^ the much less common terms yätu or yätu-
dhäna (strictly speaking *sorcerer') * altemate with, and in some verses appear
to be used in the same sense as, raksas, As the latter word designates evil
spirits in general (especially in the YV.), raksas here perhaps expresses the
genus and yätu the species^.

These demons have the form of dogs, vultures, owls, and other birds
(7, 104. *>—«*), Becoming birds they fly about at night (ib. *^). Assuming
the form of a brother, husband, or lover, they approach women and desire
to destroy their offspring (10, 162*). They also lie in wait for women in
the shape of a dog or an ape (AV. 4, 37")- Thus they are dangerous during
pregnancy and childbirth (AV. 8, 6). They prowl around the bride at wed-
dings, and little staves are therefore shot into the air to pierce the eye of
the Rak$ases (MGS. i, 10). The AV. gives the most detailed account of the
appearance of the Rak$ases. They have mostly human form, their head,
eyes, heart, and other parts being mentioned; but they have frequently some
kind of monstrous deformity, being three-headed, two-mouthed, bear-necked,
four-eyed, five-footed, fingerless, with feet tumed backwards, or with homs on
their hands (AV. 8, 6; HGS. 2, 3^). Blue and yellow or green demons are
also spoken of (AV. 19, 22** 5)4, They are fiirther described as male and
female, having families and even kings (AV. 5, 22"; HGS. 2, 3"); and they
are mortal (AV. 6, 32' &.).

The Yätudhänas eat the flesh of men and horses, and drink up the
mük of cows (10, 87*^- ^^), In Order to satisfy their greed for flesh and blood
the Rak$ases attack men, usually by entering them. Agni is besought not to
let the Raksas enter {ä vil) into his worshippers (8, 49'°), and the AV. des-
cribes a demon of disease, which flies about, as entering into a man (AV.
7, 76*). These evil spirits seem chiefly to have been regarded as entering
by the mouth, especially in the process of eating and drinking (AV. 5, 29^"*),
but also by other entrances (AV. 8, 6^). When once within they eat and
lacerate a man's flesh and cause disease (AV.s, 295-"**). The Raksases are also
Said to produce madness and take away the power of eloquence (AV. 6, iii^;
HGS. 1,155). Human dwellings are invaded by them (KS. 135^). Some of
these spirits are described as dancing round houses in the evening, braying
like donkeys, making a noise in the forest, laughing aloud, or drinking out
of skuUs (AV. 8, 6"°- "• '^; HGS. 2, 3O.

The time of the Raksases is the evening or night (7, 104*^).* In the
east they have no power, because they are dispersed by the rising sun
(TS. 2, 6, 6^). A falÜng meteor is regarded as an embodiment of a Raksas
(KS. 1269). It is especially the dark time of new moon that belongs to evil
spirits, as to the souls of the dead (AV. i, 16*; 4, 36^).

The sacrifice is peculiarly exposed to their attacks. Thus the RV. speaks
of Rak$ases that have produced taints in the divine sacrifice and of Yätus
that throw the offering into confusion (7,104*^-"). They are haters of prayer
(10, 182^). Agni is besought to bum them in Order to protect the sacrifice
from curse (i, 763). The AV. contains a spell meant to nullify the sacrifice
of an enemy through the wiles of Yätudhänas and of the Rak§as (AV. 7,70*).
These evil spirits also obtrude themselves at the sacrifice to the dead in the
form of the souls of ancestors (AV. 18, 2'^ cp. VS. 2, 29)^ In post-Vedic
literature this notion of the Rak§ases (there often also called räksasa) dis-
turbing the sacrifice is still familiär.

Agni, being the dispeller of darkness as well as the officiator at the
sacrifice, is naturally the god who is oftenest opposed to them and who is

11»

•i64 IIL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

frequently invoked to burn, ward oflf or destroy them (lo, 87*^ &c.)^ In
this capacity he (as well as some other deities) receives the epithet of
raksohan^ *Rak§as-slayer\

These evil spirits injure not only spontaneously but also at the insti-
gation of men. Thus the RV. speaks of the 'yoker of Rak$ases'^ raksayuj
(6,62''), and refers to the Rak§as and the Yätu of sorcerers (7,104^3;
8, 60*°). One sufFering from hostile sorcery drives away the Rak^ases by
sacrificing to Agni Yavi§tha (TS. 2, 2, 3*), and in a hymn of the AV. (2, 24)
demons are called upon to devour him who sent them.

As a designation of demons raksas is both masculine as an oxytone and
neuter as paroxytone (in the latter case meaning also ^injury*). It may be
derived from the root raks to injure ^ which occurs in only one verbal form
in the AV. (cp. also rksa, *injurious'). It is, however, possibly connected
with the ordinary root raks to protect^. In this case it must have meant
*that which is to be warded off'. Bergaigne, however, thinks it may originally
have signified (avaricious) *giiardian* of celestial treasure.

B. PiSäcas. A third and important class of goblins are the Pisäcas.
The name occurs only once in the RV. as a singular in the form of piiäci
(ij ^33^)- Indra is here invoked to crush the yellow-peaked {piiangabhrsfim)
watery \ambhrnatn) Pisäci and to strike down every Raksas. In the TS.
(2, 4, I*) the three hostile groups of Asuras, Rak$ases, and Pisäcas are opposed
to the three classes of gods, men, and Pitrs. The Pisäcas would therefore
seem to have been specially connected with the dead. They are frequently
spoken of as kravyäd, eaters of raw flesh or corpses (AV. 5, 29^ &c), a
term which may be regarded as a synonym of Pisäca*°. Agni is besought
to restore to Üie sick man the flesh which the Pisäcas have eaten away
(AV. 5, 295). They were thus apparently a kind of ghoul. Pisäcas are also
spoken of as shining in water (AV. 4, 20^. 37*°)", or infesting human
dwellings and villages (AV. 4, 36®).

A lesser group of demons, mentioned about a dozen times in the RV.
and frequently in later Vedic texts, are the Arätis", a personification of
illiberality (a-rää) and, owing to the gender of the word, always feminine.
A group of *injurious* demons, the Druhs, both male and female, is referred
to about twelve times in the RV. They are Indo-Iranian, their name occurring
in the Avesta as äruj (% 5, p. 8).

Goblins of various kinds are usually conceived as forming an indefinite
crowd, but are sometimes thought of as pairs. The latter constitute a class
named Kimidin, already mentioned in the RV. (7, 104' 3; 10, Sy^)^K

The nature of the spirits which Surround the everyday life of man con-
sists in injury, and that of their various species in a particular kind of injury
usually indicated by their names. They are as a whole unconnected with
phenomena or forces of nature, seeming partly at least to be derived from
the spirits of dead enemies'^ Less personal than the demons mentioned
above and probably due to a more advanced order of thought, are the hostile
powers which are conceived as a kind of impalpable substance of disease,
childlessness, guilt, and so forth, which flying about in the air produce in-
fection, and to deflect which to enemies is one of the chief tasks of sorcery '5.

Some of these terrestrial spirits are, however, not injurious, but are
regarded as helping at the harvest or weaving long life for the bride, while
others, with Arbudi at their head, assist in battle by striking terror into the
foe (AV. 3,24. 25»; 14, 1*5; II, 9").

I BRV. 2, 216—19; ORV. 262—73. — * y^^" ii^ the Avesta« 'sorcery' and
'sorccrer': Sp.AP. 218—22. — 3 Cp. ORV. 263, note i. — 4 Hopkins, AJP. 1883,

ESCHATOLOGY. 71. DiSPOSAL OF THE DeAD. 165

p. 178. — 5 ORV. 269. — 6 Cp. Caland, Altindischer Ahncncult, Leiden 1893,
p. 3. 4. — 7 Cp. HiLLEBRANDT, ZDMG. 33, 248— 5 1. — » PW., GW. — 9 Cp.
BRV, 2, 218; Whitney, Sanskrit Roots, s. v. raks — x» ORV. 264 note. — " Cp.
Roth, Faß. 97—8. — " Cp. Hillebrandt, 1. c. — »3 Weber, IS. 13, 183 flf. —
M ORV. 60—2; cp. Roth, Faß. 98. — »5 Cp. RV. 10, 103x2; KS. 14, 22; IS. 17, 269.

Vn. ESCHATOLOGY.

S 71. Disposal of the Dead. — In the Vedic hymns there is little
reference to death. When the seers mention it, they generally express a
desire that it should overtake their enemies, while for themselves they wish
long life on earth. It is chiefly at funerals that the future life engages their
thoughts. Burial and cremation were concurrent. One hymn of the RV.
(10, 16) describes a funeral by burning, and part of another (lo, i8'°""'^)*,
one by burial. The 'house of clay' is also once spoken of (7, 89*). Fathers
bumt with fire and those not bumt with fire (i. e. buried) are referred to
(10, 15*4. AV. 18, 2^4). But cremation was the usual way for the dead to
reach the next world. The later ritual (cp. AGS. 4, i) practically knew only
this method; for besides the bones and ashes of adults, only young children
and ascetics were buried*.

With the rite of cremation therefore the mythology of the future life
was specially connected. Agni takes the corpse to the other world, the fathers,
and the gods (10, i6*~*. 173). He places the mortal in the highest immor-
taHty (i, 31 7). Through Agni, the divine bird, men go to the highest place
of the sun, to the highest heaven, to the world of the righteous, whither the
ancient, earliest-bom seers have gone (VS. 18, 51 — 2). Agni Gärhapatya
conducts the dead man to the world of righteousness (AV. 6, 120^). Agni
bums his body and then places him in the world of the righteous (AV. 18, 37*).
The Agni that devours the body {kravyäd) is distinguished from the Agni
that takes the offering to the gods (10, i69). Agni is besought to preserve
the corpse intact and to bum the goat (<?/a)^which is his portion (10, 16^).
A goat is also immolated with the sacrificial horse to go before, as the
first portion for Pü§an, and announce the offering to the gods ere^ it reaches
the highest abode (i, 162^4. 163"- '3). in the ritual (AGS. 4. tz; KSS. 25, 7*9)
the corpse is laid on the skin of a black goat, and when an animal is sacri-
ficed, it is a cow or a goat^. During the cremation Agni and Soma are
also prayed to heal any injury that bird, beast, ant, or serpent may have
inflicted on it (10, 16^).

The dead man was supposed to go with the smoke to the heavenly
world (AGS. 4, 47)^. The way thither is a distant path on which Pü§an
protects and Savitr conducts the dead (10, 17*). The sacrificial goat which
precedes and announces the deceased to the fathers, passes through a gulf
of thick darkness before reaching the third vault of heaven (AV. 9, 5*-3;
cp. 8, 1*).

The dead man was provided with Ornaments and clothing for use in
the next life, the object of the custom being still understood in the Veda
(AV. 18, 4"^'). Traces even survive (RV. 10, i8^-9j which indicate that his
widow and his v/eapons were once burnt wiüi the body of the husband'. A
bündle of faggots {küdi) was attached to the corpse of the departed to wipe
out his track and thus to hinder death from finding its way back to the
world of the living (AV. 5, 19*' cp. RV. 10, \%\ 97 •^)^

1 Roth, ZDMG. 8,467—75; cp. BRI. 23—4; v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 112—3;
Hopkins, PAOS. 1894, p. cliiii; Caland, Die altindischen Todten- und Bcstattungs-

i66 UI. Religion, weltl. Wissenscil u. Kunst, i a. Vedic M\thology.

gebrauche, Amsterdam 1896, S 49— 50. — * Roth, ZDMG. 9, 471; Max Muller,
ibid. I — Lxxxu; HRL 271 — 3. — 3 Aja is by some taken to mean the 'unbom*
{a-ja) part. — 4 Hillebrandt, ZDMG. 37, 521. — 5 MM., ZDMG. 9, iv. v. xxx.
xxxu. — 6 Cp. Chftnd. Up. S, 103; Brhadär. Up. 6, 1 »9. — 7 Weber, IStr. 1,66;
Hillebrandt, ZDMG. 40, 711 ; ORV. 586—7. — 8 Roth, FaB. 98 — 9; Bloomfield,
AJP. II, 355; 12, 416.

S 72. The Soul. — Fire or the grave are believed to destroy the body
only. But the real personality of the deceased is regarded as imperishable.
This Vedic conception is based on the primitive belief that the soul was
capable of Separation from the body, even during iinconsciousness, and of
continued existence after death. Thus in a whole hymn (10, 58), the soul
(manas) of one who is lying apparentiy dead is besought to return from the
distance where it is wandering. There is no indication in the Vedas of the
later doctrine of transmigration; but in a Brähma^a the Statement occurs that
those who do not perform rites with correct knowledge, are bpm again after
their decease and repeatedly become the food of death (SB. 10, 4, 3*°).
Besides pränay 'respiration', and ättnan^ *breath* (several times the express
parallel of väta^ Svind'), the usual terms denoting tiie animating principle are
asu^ *spirit', expressing physical vitality (i, 11 3'*- 140*), even of animals
(AB. 2, 6), and manaSy 'soul', as the seat of thought and emotion, which
already in the RV. (8, 89*) seems to be regarded as dwelling in the heart
i^hrdy, Many passages, especially in the AV., show that life and death
depend on the continuance or departure of asu or tnanas\ and the terms
asuniti^ asunitay *spirit-leading' refer to the conduct by Agni of the souls of
the dead on the path between this and the other world (10, 15^. 16')*.
Funeral ritual texts never invoke the asu or tnanas of the deceased, but only
the individual himself as *father*, 'grandfather', and so forth. Hence the
soul is not a mere shadow, but is regarded as retaining its pers9nal identity.
Though men obtain immortality only after parting from the body (SB. 10, 4, 3^),
the corpse plays an important part in the myth of the future State, which is
corporeal. For the body shares in the existence of the other world (10, 16^;
AV. 18, 2^^). A body, however, from which all imperfections are absent
(AV. 6, i2o3), can hardly have been regarded as a gross material body, but
rather as one refined by the power of Agni (cp. 10, 16^), something like the
'subtile' body of later Indian speculation. An indication of the importance
of the corpse in connexion with the future life, is the fact that the loss of
a dead man's bones, which according to the Sütras were collected after
cremation, was a severe punishment (SB. 11, 6, 3"; 14, 6, 9'®). In one passage
of the RV. (10, 16^) the eye of the dead man is called upon to go to the
sun and his breath {ätmä) to the wind. But this notion, occurring in the
midst of verses which refer to Agni as conducting the deceased to the other
world, can only be an incidental fancy, suggested perhaps by the speculations
about Puru§a (10, 90*^), where the eye of the latter becomes the sun and
his breath the wind. In the same passage (also in 10, 58') the soul is
spoken of as going to the waters or the plants, a conception which perhaps
contains the germ of the theory of metempsychosis ^.

Proceeding by the path which the fathers trod (10, 14'), the spirit of
the deceased goes to the realm of etemal light (9, 113^), being invested with
lustre like that of the gods (AV. 11, i^^)^ in a car or on wings (AV. 4, 34*;,
on the wings with which Agni slays the Rak§ases (VS. 18, 52). Wafted up-
ward by the Maruts, fanned by soft breezes, cooled by showers, he recovers
his ancient body in a complete form (AV. 18, 2*'~^), and glorified meets
with the fathers who revel with Yaraa in the highest heaven (10, 14***°. 15 4*- 5).
This is spoken of as a retum home (astam\ 10, 14®). From Yama he

ESCHATOLOGY. 72. ThE SoUL. 73. HeAVEN. 74. HeAVENLY BlISS. 167

obtains a resting place (lo, 149), when recognized by Yama as his own
(AV. 18, 237).

According to the SB., the ordinary belief is that the dead leaving this
World pass between two fires, which bum the wicked but let the good go
by*. The latter proceed, either by the path leading to the Fathers or by
that leading to the sun (SB. i, 9, 3', &c.)5. In the Upani§ads there are two
paths for those who know the Absolute, the one (as a consequence of com-
plete knowledge) leading to Brahma, the other to the world of heaven,
whence after the fruit of good works has been exhausted, the spirit retums
to earth for rebirth. Those ignorant of the *Seir, on the other hand, go to
the dark world of evil spirits or are rebom on earth like the wicked^.

« ORV. 525. — a The AV. is already acquainted with the breaths or vital
airs familiär to post-Vedic literature: HRI. 153.— 3 BRI. 23. — 4 Cp. Kuhn, KZ.
2, 318. — 5 Weber, ZDMG.9, 237; IStr. 1,20—1; OST. 5,314—5; SVL. 121; HRI.
206. — 6 HRI. 227.

S 73- Heaven. — The abode where the Fathers and Yama dwell, is
situated in the midst of the sky (10, 15**), in the highest heaven (10, 14^),
in the third heaven, the inmost recess of the sky, where is etemal light
(9,1137-9). The AV. also speaks of it as the highest (11,4"), luminous
world (4, 34*), the ridge of the firmament (18, 2^7), the third firmament
(9> 5'"®; 18, 43), and the third heaven (18, 2*8). In the MS. (i, ig*»; 2, 3^)
the abode of the Fathers is said to be the third world*. The abode of the
Fathers b in the RV. also spoken of as the highest point of the sun (9, 113^).
The Fathers are united with or guard the sun (10, Io7^ 1545), or are connected
with the rays of the sun (i, 1097; cp. SB. i, 9, 3*°)', and suns shine for
them in heaven (i, 125^). They are connected with the Step of Vi^iju
(10, 153), and pious men are said to rejoice in the dear abode, the highest
Step of Vi§i;iu (i, 154^). As Vi§^u took his three Steps to where the gods
are exhilerated^, so the sun foUows the Dawn to where pious men offer
sacrifice^.

Stars are also said to be the lights of virtuous men who go to the
heavenly world (TS. 5, 4, i^; SB. 6, 5, 4^), and ancient men, especially the
seven R§is, besides Atri and Agastya, are said to have been raised to the
Stars (TA. i, 11, i*)5

The RV. mentions a tree beside which Yama drinks with the gods
(10, 135')- This according to the AV. (5, 43) is a fig-tree where the gods
abide in the third heaven (no mention being made of Yama).

I PVS. I, 211. — a JAOS. 16, 27. — 3 Cp. Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 172. —

4 Windisch, Faß. 118. — - 5 Weber, Naksatra 2, 269; KRV. note 286.

5 74. The most distinct and prominent references to the future life are
in the ninth and tenth books of the RV., but it is also sometimes referred
to in the first Heaven is regarded as the reward of those who practise
rigorous penance (tapas\ of heroes who risk their lives in battle (10, i54*""5)j
but above all of those who bestow liberal sacrificial gifts (ib.3; i, 125^; 10, 107*).
The AV. is füll of references to the blessings accruing to the latter.

In heaven the deceased enter upon a delectable life (10, 14^. 15*^ lö*-^)^
in which all desires are fulfiUed (9, ii39*"), and which is passed among the
gods (10, 14'*), particularly in the presence of the two kings Yama and
Vaniga (10, 147). There they unswervingly overcome old age (10, 27^*).
Uniting with a glorious body they are dear and welcome to the gods
(10, 14^ i65. 56*). There they see father, mother, and sons (AV. 6, 120^),
and unite with wives and chil(h:en (AV. 12, 3*7). The life is free from imper-
fections and bodily frailties (10, 14^; AV, 6, i2o3). Sickness is left behind

i68 m. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

and limbs are not lame or crooked (AV. 3, 2 8 5). It is often said in
the AV. and SB. that the deceased are in that world complete in body
and limbs'.

The dead are in the RV. often spoken of in general terms (madanti^
mädayante) as enjoying bliss (10, 14*°. 15'*, &c.). The most detailed accounl
of the joys of the life in heaven is given in RV. 9, 11 37-". There are
etemal light and swift waters; there movement is unrestrained (cp. TB. 3, 12, 29);
there is spirit food and satiety; there joy, glee, gladness, and the fulfilment
of all desires. The joys here indefinitely referred to, are later explained to
be those of love (TB. 2, 4, 6^ cp. SB. 10, 4, 4* ); and the AV. (4, 34*) states
that in the heavenly world there is abundance of sexual gratification. Accord-
ing to the SB.' the joys of the Biest are a hundred times as great as the
highest on earth (14, 7, i32~3). in the heaven of the Biest, the RV. further
says, the sound of the flute and of songs is heard (10, 135O'; Soma, ghee,
and honey flow for them (10, i540- There are ponds filled with ghee and
streams flowing with milk, honey, and wine (AV. 4, 345*^; SB. 11, 5, 6^).
There are at hand bright, many-coloured cows yielding all desires (käma-
dughäh'. AV. 4, 34^). There are neither rieh nor poor, neither powerful nor
oppressed (AV. 3, 29^). To the celestial Hfe of the Biest in Üie Saiphitäs
and BrähmaQas corresponds in the Upani^ads the lower and transient bliss
of the heaven of the gods which is followed by rebirth, only those who know
the truth attaining to immortality and the changeless joy of unending peace
by absorption into the world-souP. Thus the life of the righteous dead in
heaven was clearly regarded as one of indolent, material bliss, in which freed
from all frailties they were united with the gods, and which was devoted to
music, drinking, and sensual joys (such as the gods themselves are occasionally
alluded to as indulging in: cp. 3, 53^).

Heaven is a glorified world of material joys as pictured by the ima-
gination not of warriors but of priests*. It is the world of the righteous
(10, 16*), where righteous and godly men, familiär with rites {rtd) dwell in
bliss 5. There they are united with what they have sacrificed and given
{isfäpürta)^, especially reaping the reward of their pious gifts to priests
(10, 1543 &c.)7. In the Brähmai^as it is said that those who sacrifice properly
above all attain union and identity of abode with the sun {flditya) and with
Agni, but also with Väyu, Indra, Varuija, Brhaspati, Prajäpati and Brahma
(SB. 2, 6, 4^; II, 4, 4^\ 6, 2*- 3; TB. 3, IG, 11^). A certain sage is described
as having through his knowledge become a golden swan, gone to heaven,
and obtained union with the sun TB. (3, 10, 9"). In the TS. (6, 6, 9*) the notion
occurs that a man by the Performance of certain rites can reach heaven
without dying (pvan)^,

One who reads the Veda in a particular way is said to be freed from
dying again and to attain identity of nature (sätmata) with Brahma (SB. 10,
S, 6^). As a reward for knowing a certain myster^^' a man is bom again,
in this world (SB. i, 5, 3**). Thus we have in the SB. the beginnings of the
doctrine of retribution and transmigration. That doctrine (as well as the
doctrine of hell) is not only to be found in the earliest Sütras^, but appears
fuUy developed in the later Brähma^a period, that is to say, in the oldest
Upani$ads, the Chändogya, the Brhadärai^yaka, and especially the Katha
Upani§ad*^ In the latter Upani§ad the story is related of Naciketas, who
pays a visit to the realm of Death and is told by the latter, that those who
have not sufücient merit for heaven and immortality, fall again and again
into the power of death and enter upon the cycle of existence {safftsdrd)^
being bom again and again with a body or as a stationary object He who

ESCHATOLOGY. 74. HeAVENLY BuSS. 75. HeLL. 169

Controls himself reaches Vi$Qu's highest place. On the other band, there is

no hell for those not found worthy".

« References in OST. 5, 315; cp. AIL. 411; HRI. 205. — 2 At the sacrifice
to the Manes music was performed, lutes (vJnS) being played (KS. 84, 8). — 3 HRL
239. — 4 ORV. 532. — 5 I, 115a. 1545; 10/15». 174. 154^-5; AV. 6, 95«. I203;
VS. 15, 50. — 6 Windisch, FaB, 115 — 8. — 7 For references to the same idea in
the AV, see OST. 5, 293, note 433; cp. IStr. i, 20 flf. — 8 Weber, ZDMG. 9,
237 flf.; OST. 5, 317; HRI, 204. — 9 HRI. 175. — w HRL 145, note 4; cp.
V. ScHROEDER, Indiens Litt. u. Kultur 245 ; Garbe in this encyclopedia 3,4, p. 1 5.
— " Origin of the myth, TB. 3, 118; cp. SVL. 10, n. i; BRI. 78.

S 75. Hell. — If in the opinion of the composers of the RV. the vir-
tuous received their reward in the fiiture life, it is natural that they should
have believed at least in some kind of abode^ if not in fiiture punishment,*
for the wicked, as is the case in the Avesta*. As far as the AV. and the
Katha Upani§ad are concemed, the belief in hell is beyond doubt The AV.
(2, 143; 5, 193) speaks of the house below, the abode offemale goblins and
sorceresses, called näraka ioka^, in contrast with svarga ioka, the heavenly
world, the realm of Yama (12, 43^). To this hell the murderer is consigned
(VS. 30, 5). It is in the AV. several times described as *lowest darkness*
(8, 2** &c,), as well as 'black darkness' (5, 30") and *blind darkness' (18,33).
The torments of hell are also once described in the AV. (5, 19) and with
greater detail in the SB. (11, 6, i)^; for it is not tili the period of the
BrähmaQas that the notion of fiiture punishment appears plainly developed^.
The same Brähma^a further states that every one is bom again after death
and is weighed in a balance^,^ receiving reward or punishment according as
his works are good or bad (SB 11, 2, 733 j cp. 12, 9, i'). This idea is also
Iranian. ^ Roth ^ favours the view that the religion of the RV. knows nothing
of hell, the wicked being supposed to be annihilated by death. Evidence
of the belief in some kind of hell is^ however, not altogether wanting in
the RV. Thus, *this deep place' is said to have been produced for those who
are evil, false, and untrue (4, 5^). Indra-Soma are besought to 'dash the
evil-doers into the abyss (vavre), into bottomless darkness, so that not even
one of them may get out* (7, 1043); and the poet prays that *she (the
demoness) who malignantly wanders about like an owl concealing herseif,
may fall into the endless abysses' (ib. *7), and that the enemy and robber
may lie below all the three earths (ib."). But such references are few and
the evidence cannot be said to go beyond showing belief in a hell as an
imderground darkness. The thoughts of the poets of the RV., intent on the
happiness of this earth, appear to have rarely dwelt on the joys of the next
life, still less on its possible punishments^. The doctrine of the Brähma^as
is that after death, all, both good and bad, are bpm again in the next world
and are recompensed according to their deeds (SB. 6, 2, 2*7- 10, 6, 3*), but
nothing is said as to the etemity of reward or punishment ". The notion
also occurs there that those who do not rightly understand and practise the
rites of sacrifice, depart to the next world before the natural term of their
terrestrial life (SB. 11, 2, 733).

The idea of a formal judgment to which all the dead must submit,
seems hardly traceable to the Vedic period. One or two passages of the
RV. in which reference to it has been found", are too indefinite to justify
such an interpretation. In the TA. (6, 5 '3) it is said that the truthflil and
untruthful are separated before Yama, but that he acts in the capacity of a
judge, is not implied".

That the belief in a hell goes back even to the Indo-European period,
has been argued by Weber ^3 on the strength of the equation Bhrgu = cpXeyüai ^*

170 HL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

and the fact that the former is described in the SB. as sent by his father
Varuna for pride to see the tortures of hell, and the latter are condemned for
pride to undergo severe tortures in hell. But the similarity of the two legends
b probably only a coincidence, as belief in the torments of hell seems to be
a later developraent in India^^.

X Zimmer and Scherman, but Hopkins considers this conclusion pedantic. —
a Roth, JAOS. 3, 345; Geldner, FaW. 22, thinks that hell is directly referred to
in RV. 10, 106 by the word vlci, — 3 Naraka in AV. and Brähmanas: Whitney,
JAOS. 13, civ. — 4 Weber, ZDMG. 9, 240 ff. — 5 HRI. 175. — 6 Weber, ZDMG.
9, 238; OST. 5, 314—5. — 7 Jackson, Trans, of the loth Or. Congress 2, 67—73.
— 8 Roth, JAOS. 3, 329-47; cp. also Weber, ZDMG. 9, 238 f. — 9 Cp. AIL.
418 ff.; ScHERMAN, Romanische Forschungen 5, 569 ff.; SVL. 122 ff.; KRV. n.287a;
ORV. 538 ff.; HRI. 147. — »o Weber, ZDMG. 9, 237—43. — " SVL. 152—3. —
" ORV. 541-2. — 13 ZDMG. 9, 242. — M KHF. 23; WVB. 1894, p. 3. — «5 Cp.
Jaiminiya Er. ed. Burnell i, 42—4; Oertel, JAOS. 15, 234—8; SVL. 5—8; Spiegel,
Eranische Altertumskunde i, 458; HRL 206.

S 76. The Pitrs. — The blessed dead who dwell in the third heaven
are called Pitrs or Fathers. By this term are generally meant the early or
first ancestors (10, 15*"*°), who foUowed the ancient paths, seers who made
the paths by which the recent dead go to join them (10, 14** '• *5), They
are connected with the (third) Step of Vi§^u (10, 15^ cp. i, 154^). Two
hymns of the RV. are devoted to their praise (10, 15. 54).

Their different races are mentioned by name as Navagvas, Vairüpas,
Angirases, Atharvans, Bhrgus, Vasi§thas (10, 14*"^ 15*), the last four being
identical with the names of priestly families, to whom tradition attributed the
composition of the AV.* and of books n and VII of the RV. Among these
the Angirases are particularly associated with Yama (10, 14^ ^). The Pitrs
are spoken of as lower, higher, and middle, as earlier and later, and though
not all known to their descendants, they are known to Agni (10, 15** *• *^).
The AV. speaks of the Pitrs as inhabiting air, earth, and heaven (AV. 18, 2*9
cp. RV. IG, 15*).

The ancient fathers themselves once offered the Soma libation (10, 15®).
They revel with Yama (10, 14'° cp. 135*; AV. 18, 4"), and feast with the
gods (7, 76*). Leading the same life as the gods, they receive almost divine
honours. They come on the same car as Indra and the gods (10, 15'**).
They are fond of Soma (sotnya\ 10, 15** 5 &c.) and sitting on the sacrificial
grass to the south, they drink the pressed draught (ib. 5-^). They thirst for
the libations prepared for them on earth, and are invited to come with
Yama, his father Vivasvat, and Agni, and to eat the offerings along with
Yama (ib. ^~". 14*- 5). Arriving in thousands they ränge themselves in order
on the sacrificial ground (10, 15'°- "). When the Pitrs come to the sacrifice,
evil spirits sometimes intrude into their society in the guise of firiends accord-
ing to the AV. (18, 2^),

The Fathers receive oblations as their food, which in one passage
(10, 143) is referred to with the term svadhä as contrasted with svähä^ the
call to the gods*; so too in the later ritual the portion of the gods at the
daily pressings was strictiy distinguished from that of the Pitrs (SB. 4,
4, 22). They receive worship, are entreated to hear, intercede for and pro-
tect their votaries, and invoked not to injure their descendants for any sin
humanly committed against them (10, 15*- 5.6 cp. 3, 55*). Their favour is im-
plored along with that of the dawns, streams, mountains, heaven and earth,
Pü§an and the Rbhus (6, 52*. 75***; 7, 35"; i, 106^). They are besought
to give riches, offepring, and long life to their sons (10, is^-"; AV. 18, 3'*.
4^'), who desire to be in their good graces (10, 14^). The Vasi§thas collec-

ESCHATOLOGY. 76. ThE PiTRS. 77. YaMA. 171

tively are called upon to help their descendants (7, 33* cp. 10, 15^); and
individual ancestors^ as Turvasa, Yadu, and Ugrädeva, are invoked (1,36**).

The Fathers are immortal (AV. 6, 41 3) and are even spoken of as gods
(10^ 56^)3. In the Angirases and similar groups the divine character is com-
bined with that of ancient priests. Cosmical actions like those of the gods
are sometimes attributed to the Fathers. Thus they are said to have adomed
the sky with stars and placed darkness in the night and light in the day
(10, 68"), to have found the hidden light and generated the dawn (7, 76*
cp. 10, 107'), and in concert with Soma to have extended heaven and
earth (8, 48*3).

Just as the corpse-devouring Agni is distinguished from the Agni who
wafts the sacrifice to the gods (10, i69), so the path of the Fathers is dis-
tinguished from that of the gods (10, 27. 18' cp. 88*5)4. Similarly in the SB.
the heavenly world {svarga loka) is contrasted with that of the fathers ipitrioka)^
the door of the former being said to be in the north-east (SB. 6, 6, 2*),
and that of the latter in the south-east (13, 8, i^)^. The fathers are also
spoken of as a class distinct from men, having been created separately
(TB. 2, 3, 8»).

* The attribution of the AV. to fire-priests, the Atharvans and Angirases, is
historically justified, as the cult of fire is still associated with the AV. in the epic:
cp. Weber, History of Ind. Lit. 148; HRI. 159. — « Haug, GGA. 1875, 94? SBE. 42,
660; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 162. — 3 Otherwise HRI. 145, n. i. — 4 Cp. Hiraij-
yakeii Pitrmadhhsatra, ed. Cala.nd, Leipzig 1896, p. 55; HRL 145, n. 4. —
5 The South is in general the quarter of the Manes (SB. 1, 2, 5*7): this is Indo-
Iranian, cp. Kern, Buddhismus i, 359; Caland, Altindischer Ahnencult, Leiden
1893, P« 178. 180; ORV. 342, n. 2; ZDMG. 49, 471, n. 1; HRL 190.

S 77. Yama. — The chief of the blessed dead is Yama. Reflexion on
the future life being remote from the thoughts of the poets of the RV., only
three hymns (10, 14. 135. 154) are addressed to Yama. There is besides one
other (10, 10) consisting of a dialogue between Yama and his sister Yami.
Yama's name occurs about 50 times in the RV. but almost exclusively in
the first and (fax oftener) in the tenth book.

He revels with the gods (7, 76*; 10, 1350- Individual gods with whom
he is referred to, are Varuna (10, 147), Brhaspati (10, 13*. 14^), and especially
Agni, who as conductor of the dead would naturally be in close relations
with him. Agni is the friend {kätnya) of Yama (10, 21^) and his priest
(10, 5 2 3). A god (10, 51*) and Yama (who by implication are identical)
found the hiding Agni (ib. ^). Agni, Yama, Mätarisvan are mentioned together
as the names of the one being (1,164^^). Yama is also mentioned in enumer-
ations of gods including Agni (10, 64^. 92").

Thus it b implied that Yama is a god. He is, however, not expressly
called a god, but only a king (9, 113^; 10, 14 passim), who rules the dead
iyamäräjnai: 10, lö^). Yama and god Va^^la are the two kings whom
the dead man sees on reaching heaven (10, 14^). Throughout one of the
hymns devoted to his praise (10, 14) he is associated with the departed
fathers, particularly with the Angirases (w.^* s). With them he comes to the
sacrifice and is exhilerated (w. ^•<. 15®). Later texts (TA. 6, 5*; Ap. SS. 16, 6)
make mention of the steeds of Yama, which are described as golden-eyed
and iron-hoofed. He is a gatherer of the people (10, 14'), gives the dead
man a resting place (10, 14^; AV. 18, 237) and prepares an abode for him
(10, 18 '3).

Yama's dwelling is in the remote recess of the sky (9,113®). Of the
three heavens two belong to Savitr and one to Yama* (1,35^ cp. 10, 123^),
this being the third and highest (cp. % 73). The VS. (12,63) speaks of

172 III. Religion, weltu Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

him along with Yaml as being in the highest heaven. In his abode (sädana^)
which is the home of the gods (devamänd) Yama is surrounded by songs
and the sound of the flute (lo, 1357).

Soma is pressed for Yama, ghee is ofiered to him (10, 14*^ '*), and he
is besought to come to the sacrifice and place himself on the seat (10, 14*).
He is invoked to lead his worshippers to the gods and to prolong life (10, 14'^).

His father is Vivasvat (10, 145) with whom Sa^a^yü is mentioned as his
mother (10, 17^). He is also several times called by the patronymic Vai-
vasvata (10, 14*, &c.). This trait is Indo-Iranian, for in the Avesta Vivanhvant,
as the first man who pressed Soma, is said to have received Yima as a son^
in reward. In the AV. (18, 23* cp. 3^*"^) Yama is described as superior to
Vivasvat^ being himself surpassed by none.

In their dialogue in the RV. (10, 10*) Yama and Yaml call themselves
children of Gandharva and the water nymph {apyäyosäY' Yami fiirther speaks
of Yama (v. <3) as the *only mortal*. In another hymn Yama is said to have
chosen death and abandoned his body (10, 13*)^ He passed^ to the other
World, finding out the path for many, to where the ancient fathers passed
away (10, 14'' '). He was the first of mortals that died (AV. 18, 3*3). Hete
'mortals' can only mean 'men', though later even gods are spoken of as
mortaP. As first and oldest of the dead he would easily be regarded as
the Chief of the dead that followed him^ He is called *lord of settlers*
{ifUj>ati)^^ *our father* (10, 135'). Through Yama men come in later texts
to be described as descendants of Vivasvän ädityah^** (TS. 6, 5, 6* cp. SB.
3, I, 3*; RV. I, 1059). Even in the RV. Yama seems to be connected with
the sun; for the heavenly courser (the sun) *given by Yama' probably means
the solar abode granted by Yama to those who become immortal (i, 163'
cp. 835).

Death is the path of Yama (i, 38^) and once (i, 165*; cp. MS. 2, 5^;
AV. 6, 283\ 93*) he appears to be identified with death imrtyuY^, Yama's
foot-fetter {pa4hli<i) is spoken of as parallel to the bond of Varu^a" (10,
97^^). Owing to such traits and also to his messengers, Yama must to a certain
extent have been an object of fear in the RV. But in the AV. and the
later mythology Yama, being more closely associated with the terrors of death,
came to be the god of death (though even in the Epic his sphere is by no
means limited to hell)'-^. In the later Saiphitäs Yama is mentioned beside
Antaka, the Ender, Mrtyu, Death (VS. 39, 13), and Ninti, Decease (AV. 6,
293; MS. 2, 5^), and Mjtyu is his messenger (AV. 5, 30"; 18, 2^7^ &c.). In
the AV. Death is said to be the lord of men, Yama of the Manes (AV.
5, 24*3-4)^ and Sleep comes from Yama's realm (19, 56* &c.).

The Word yamd has also the appellative meaning of *twin' '*, in which
sense it occurs several times in the RV. (generally in the dual masculine or
feminine), while ydma, which is found a few times in the RV., means 'rein'
or guide'. Yama actually is a twin with Yaml in the RV. (10, 10) ^s, The
sense of ^twin' also seems to belong to Yima in the Avesta (Yasna 30, 3).
A sister of Yima is mentioned, not in the Avesta, but in the later literature '*
only, as Yimeh, who with her brother produces the first human couple. At
a later period of Indian literature, when Yama had become the god of
death who punishes the wicked, the name was understood to be derived
from yam^ 'to restrain' ^ ^^ but this derivation is not in keeping with the ideas
of the Vedic age.

A bird, either the owl (ulükä) or the pigeon {kapotä)^ is said to be the
messenger (10, 165* cp. 123^)'^ of Yama apparently identified with death.
The messenger of Yama and of death would therefore appear to be the

ESCHATOLOGY. 77. YaMA. 173

same (AV. 8, 8*'). Yama's regulär messengers, however, of whom a fuller
account is given (lo, 14"""), are two dogs. They are four-eyed, broad-
nosed, brindled (Jabala)^ brown {udumbala\ sons of Saramä (särarruya). They
are guardiaas that guard the path (10,14") or sit on the path (AV. 18, 2").
The dead man is exhorted to hasten straight past these two dogs and to
join the fathers who rejoice with Yaraa (10, 14"); and Yama is besought to
deliver him to them and to grant him welfare and freedom from disease.
Delighting in lives (asutrp) they watch men and wander about among the
peoples as Yama's messengers. They are entreated to grant continued en-
joyment of the light of the sun. Their functions therefore seem to consist
in tracking out among men those who are to die, and in keeping guard on
the path over those who enter the realm of Yama. In the Avesta a four-
eyed yellow-eared dog keeps watch at the head of the Cinvat bridge '^, which
leads from this world to the next, and with his barking scares away the fiend
from the souls of the holy ones, lest he should drag them to hell*®. There
does not seem to be sufficient evidence for supposing that the two dogs of
Yama were regarded as keeping out the souls of the wicked, though it is
quite possible that they were so regarded'*. If, however. RV. 7, 55*"^ is
rightly interpreted by Aufrecht", the object of the dogs was to exclude the
wicked. In the AV. the messengers of Yama, sent by him among men, are
spoken of both in the plural (AV. 8, 2". 8"; and the dual (AV. 5, 30^). Of
the two dogs one is described as iabala^ 'brindled' and the other as iyämay
'dark' (AV. 8, i^). The word iabala has been identified with Kspßapo;»^,
but this equation has been called in question'*. Bergaigne (i, 93) thinks
the two dogs are simply another form of Yama (as fire) and Yaml; and the
trait of the later mythology, which represents Yama as Coming to fetch the
dead himself, is regarded by him as primary (1,92). Bloomfield^s identifies
Yama's two dogs with sun and moon^^

The most probable conclusion to be drawn from all the available evidence
seems to be, that Yama represents a mythological type found among the most
diverse peoples, that of the chief of the souls of the departed. This would
naturally foUow from his being the mythical first father of mankind and the
first of those that died. The rayth of the primeval twins that produced the
human race, Yama and Yami «= Yima and Yimeh*^^ seems to be Indo-Iranian.
The attempt to clear Yama of the guilt of incest in RV. 10, 10, shows that
the belief in that incest already existed*®. Yama himself may have been
regarded in the Indo-Iranian period as a king of a golden age, since in the
Avesta he is the ruler of an earthly*^, and in RV. öiat of a heavenly para-
dise. That Yama was originally conceived as a man, is the view of Roth
and other scholars^®. E. H. Meyer, thinking Yami to be a later creation
like Indrä^i and others, believes that Yama, the twin, originally represented
the soul as the alter ^(?^\ A number of other scholars believe that Yama
originally represented a phenomenon of nature. Some think he was a form
of AgniJ*, the sun 3^, the parting day^*, or the setting sun and thus god of
the dead 35. Hillebrandt ^* thinks Yama is the moon, in which dying is
typical, and thus the mortal child of the sun and closely connected with the
Manes. He considers him, however, to have been a moon-god in the Indo-
Iranian period only, but no longer so in either the Avesta or the Veda,
where he is merely king of a terrestrial paradise or of the realm of the Biest.

> By LRV. 4, 134 regarded as a hell. — * This abode (also AV. 2, 12 7; 18
256. 370^, which seems always to mean the world of Yama or the place of burial
TA. 6, 7, 26 cp. RV. 10, i8»3) is understood by PVS. i, 242 to refer to a 'chapel
of Yama*. A harmya of Yama, spoken of in AV. 18, 455, is understood by Ehni

174 DL Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

to mean *tomb* (cp, SVL. 138). — 3 Cp. Roth, ZDMG. 2, 218. — 4 MM., with
Säyapa, regards these two as identical with Vivasvat and Sara^yfl. — 5 The Inter-
pretation is doubtful, qp. SVL. 146. — 6 Cp. Roth, Nir. Erl. 138; SVL. 113. —
7 HRL 128. — 8 KHF. 21; SVL. 137. — 9ViipaH is often said of Agni, oncc
er twice of Indra and Varupa. — »o Cp. Roth, IS. 14, 393. — " But the passage
may mean *Yama (and) Death*. — i» Cp. Bloomfield, AJP. 11, 354—5. — »3 SVL.
155. — »4 Op. cit 142, note i. — »5 Yaxna and YamI mentioned together as in
heaven: TS. 4, 2, 5 3; VS. 12, 63; SB. 7, 2, ixo; TA. 6, 42. — x6 Spiegel, Era-
nische Altertumskunde i, 527. — ^7 This is also the explanation of Grassmakn,
KZ. II, 13; Leumann, KZ. 32, 30L — «« SVL. 130, note 3. — »9 There is no
reason to assume such a bridge in RV. 9, 412 (cp. SVL. 110) nor a river (Weber,
Indische Skizzen 10) in RV. 10, 63x0 (cp. SVL. in). — 20 SBK 4», LXXiv. —
2» AIL. 419; SVL. 127. 152; ORV. 538. — " IS. 4. 341 ff.; cp. AIL. 421; KRV.
note 274. — «3 Benfev, Vedica und Verwandtes 149—64; Kuhn, KZ. 2, 314;
Weber, IS. 2, 298; MM., Chips 43, 250; LSL. (1891), 2, 595; Selected Essays
(1881), 1, 494; KRV. note 274 a; van den Gheyn, Cerb^re, Brüssels 1883. —
»4 Cp. RoHDE, Psyche i, 280, note i. — »5 JAOS. 1893, P- 163—72., — «6 Käth.
37, 14 (MS. p. 101, note 2), Kau§lt. Br. 11, 9 (= day and night); SB. ii, i, 51
(moon a heavenly dog); on the dogs of Yama cp. also RAjendralAla Mitra, PRASB.
May 1881, pp. 94. 96; Indo-Aryans, Calcutta 1881, 2, 156—65; Sp.AP. 239—40;
HVM. I, 225. 510— i; Casartelli, Dog of Death, BOR. 4, 269 f. — «7 Sp.AP.
246. — »8 Roth, JAOS. 3, 335; Darmesteter, Onnazd et Ahriman 106. — «9 Roth,
ZDMG. 4, 420; on traces of Yima having been the first man in the Avesta, cp.
SVL. 148 n. I. — 30 Roth, ZDMG. 4, 425 ff.; IS. 14, 392; Scherman, Festschrift
für K. Hofman, Erlangen 1890, p. 573 ff.; Hopkins, PAOS. May 1881. — 3» Indo-
germanische Mythen i, 229. 232. — 3« KHF. 208; BRV. i, 89; cp. Weber, RAja-
süya 15, n. I; YN. 12, 10 (Yama = lightning Agni, YamI = voicc of thunder);
SVL. 132, n. 2. — II BRI. 22—3; Ehni, Die urspr. Gotth. d. vcd. Yama, p. 26 &c.
— 34 WVB. 1894, p. I (YamI = night). — 35 MM., LSL. 2, 634—7; India 224;
AR. 297—8; Bergaigne, Manuel V^dique 283 (sun that has set). — j6 HVM. i, 394ff. ;
IF. I, 7; also HVBP. 43.

On this chapter cp. also Roth, ZDMG. 4, 417—33; JAOS. 342—5; Whitney,
JAOS. 3, 327—8; 13, cm— viii; OLS. i, 46—63; Westergaard, IS. 3, 402—40;
OST. 5, 284—335; Donner, Pipdapitryajna, 10—14. 28; AIL. 408— 22; BRV. 1,85-94;
2,96; KRV. 69—71; Sp. AP. 243—56; Lanman, Sanskrit Reader 377—85; SVI^
122—61; HVM. I, 489—513; ZDMG. 48, 421; Ehni, Der vedische Mythus des
Yama, Strassburg 1890; Die ursprüngliche Gottheit des vedischen Yama, Leipzig
1896; Hopkins, PAOS. i89i,xciv— v; HRL 128—50. 204—7; MM., PsR. 177—207;
ORV. 524—43; SBE. 46, 29; Jackson, JAOS. 17, 185.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

AB. = Aitareya Brfthmapa.

AF. = Arische Forschungen.

AGS. SS Äivaläyana Gfhya Sfltra.

AIL. =s Zimmer's Altindisches Leben.

AJP. ^ American Journal of Philology.

Ap. sss Apastamba.

AR. =: Max Müller^s Anthropological Reli

gion.
ASL, =a Max Müller's History of Ancient

Sanskrit Literature.
ASS. S3 ASvaläyana ^rauta Stltra.
AV. = Atharvaveda.
BB. =» Bezzenberger's Beiträge.
BDA. = Bradke, Dyaus Asura.
BOR. s» Babylonian and Oriental Record.
Br. -s Brahma^a.

BRV. = Bergaigne, La Religion Vddique.
Dh. S. es Dharma Sfltra.
DPV. = Deussen, Philosophie des Veda.
FaB. s= Festgruss an Böhtlingk.
FaR. = Festgruss an Roth.
FaW. = Festschrift an. Weber (Gurupüjä-

kaumudl).
GGA- =s Göttinger Gelehrte Anzeigen.
GGH. = ScHROEDER*s Griechische Götter

und Heroen.
GKR. = Geldner, Kaegi, Roth, Siebenzig

Lieder des Rigveda.
GRV. =3 Grassmann 's Translation of the

Rigveda.
GS. — Grhya Sfltra.
GVS. = Geldner, Vedische Studien.
GW. = Grassmann, Wörterbuch (Rigveda

Lexicon).
HGS. =! Hira^yakeSi Gfhya Sfltra.
HRL == Hopkins, Religions of India.
HVBP. = Hardy, Vedisch-brahmanische

Periode.
HVM. = HiLLEBRANDT, Vedische Mytho-
logie.
IF. = Indogermanische Forschungen.
IS. = Indische Studien.
IStr. SB Indische Streifen.
JA = Journal Asiatique.
JAOS. = Journal of the American Oriental

Society.
JRAS. = Journal of the Royal Asiatic

Society.
Kaui. S. a» Kau^ika Sütra.
KHF. = Kuhn, Herabkunft des Feuers und

des Göttertranks.
KRV. = Kaegi, Der Rigveda (quoted from

Arrowsmith's translation).
KS. = KauSika Sfltra.
K^S. « Kätyäyana Srauta Sfltra.
KZ. = Kuhn's Zeitschrift.
LRF. = Ludwig, Ueber die neuesten arbeiten

auf dem gebiete der Rgveda-forschung

(1893).

LRV. = Ludwig, Rigveda Translation.

LSL. = Max MOller*s Lectures on the
Science of Language (ed. 1891).

MGS. = Mftnava Gyhya Sfltra.

MM. = Max Müller,

MS. ^ Maiträyapl Samhitfl.

NR. = Max Müller's Natural Religion.

Nir. = Nirukta.

OGR. = Max Müller's Origin and Growth
of Religion.

ÖLS. = Whitney's Oriental and Linguistic
Studies.

00. « Benfey's Orient und Occident.

ORV. = Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda.

OST. «= MuiR's Original Sanskrit Texts.

PAOS. s= Proceedings of the American
Oriental Society.

PB. «= PahcavimSa Brähma^a (== TMB.)

PGS. •=■ Pflraskara Gfhya Sfltra.

PhR. = Max Müller's Physical Religion.

Ps.R. = Max Müller's Psychological Reli-
gion.

PRASB. == Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Bengtd.

PVS. — PiscHEL, Vedische Studien.

PW. = Petersburger Wörterbuch (Böht-
lingk and Roth's larger Sanskrit
Dictionary).

RV. = Rigveda.

^B. = äatapatha Brähmaiia.

SBE. SS Sacred Books of the Fast.

Sp.AP. = Spiegel, Die Arische Periode.

SPH. = Scherman, Philosophische Hymnen.

SV. San Sämaveda.

SVL. = Scherman, Visionslitteratur.

S<^S. 8» äänkhäyana Srauta Sfltra.

TA. = Taittirlya Ära^yaka.

TB. = Taittirlya Brähmana.

TMB. s= Täpdya Mahabrfthmapa (= PB).

TS. = Taittirlya Samhitä.

Up. = Upani§ad.

Väl. - Välakhilya.

VS. == Väjasaneyi Samhitä.

WC. = Wallis, Cosmology of the Rigveda.

WVB.-=» Weber, Vedische Beiträge (Sitzungs-
berichte der Berliner Akademie).

WZKM. = Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde
des Morgenlandes (Vienna Oriental
Journal).

YN. = Yäska's Nirukta.

YV. = Yajurveda.

ZDA. = Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum.

ZDMG. = Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen-
ländischen Gesellschaft.

ZVP. = Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie.

N.B. The figures in parentheses without an added abbreviation refer to the
Rigveda.

CONTENTS.

Page
I

L INTRODUCTIOX ....

S I. Religion and Mythology
S 2. CharacteristicsofVedic myth-
ology

S 3. Sources of Vedic Mythology
S 4. Method to be pursued .
S 5. The Avesta and Vedic mytho-
logy

S 6. Comparative Mythology

n. VEDIC CONCEPTIONS OF THE
WORLD AND ITS ORIGIN .

S 7. Cosmology

S 8. Cosmogony 11

S 9- Origin of Gods and Men . 14

m. THE VEDIC GODS .... 15

S 10. General character and Classi-
fication 15

A. Celestial Gods 21

S II. Dyaus .21

S 12. Varui^a 22

S 13. Mitra 29

S 14- Sürya 30

S 15. Savitr 32

S 16. Püian 35

S 17- Vi§nu 37

S 18. Vivasvat 42

S 19. Ädityas 43

S 20. U§as 46

S 21. Aivins 49

B. Atmospheric Gods .... 54

S 22. Indra 54

S 23. Trita Äptya 67

S 24. Apäm napat 69

S 25. MatariSvan 71

S 26. Ahi budhnya 72

S 27. Aja ekapad 73

S 28. Rudra 74

S 29. The Maruts 77

S 30. Väyu-Vata 81

S 31. Parjanya 83

S 32- Äpah
C. Terrestrial Gods
S 33« Rivers. SarasvatI
S 34- Prthivi . . .
S 35- Agni . . . .

85
86

86

88

88

S 36. Bfhaspati loi

104

115

115
116

118
119

S 37» Soma
D. Abstract Gods
S 38. Two Classes .

A. Various Agent Gods

B. Tva§tr ....
S 39. Viävakarman, Prajapati
S 40- Manyu, Sraddha&c. .

S 41. Aditi

S 42. Diti

£• S 43- GODDESSES . . . .

F. S 44. Dual Divinities . . .

G. S 45- Croups of Deities . .
H. LowER Deities

S 46. Rbhus

S 47. Apsarases. Urvail
S 48. Gandharvas . . . .
S 49- Tutelajy Deities: Vasto$
pati, &c

IV. MYTHICAL PRIESTS AND
HEROES . . .

Page

20

23
24
26

30
31
31
34
36

38

:38

38
L40

[41
[41
142

43

145

i45
146

S 50. Manu

S Sl. Bhjrgus

S 52. Atharvan

S 53. Dadhyahc

S 54. Angirases

S 55. Virüpas, Navagvas, DaSagvas,
Seven Rsis ....

S 56. Atri . '.

S 57. Ka^va &c

S 58. Kutsa, Kavya Uiana &c. .

V. ANIMALS AND INANIMATE OB-

JECTS ..... .147

S 59. General Traits . . . .147
S 60. The Horse: Dadhikra, Tftrk-

$ya, PaidvA, Etaia, &c. . 148
S 61. A. The Bull. B. The Cow . 150
S 62. The goat, boar, dog, monkey,

tortoise, frogs . . .151
S 63. The Bird . .... 1 52

S 64. Noxiousanimals; serpent,&c. 152
S 65. Survivalsofprehistoricnotions

about animals . . .153
S 66. Deified terrestrial objects . 154

VI. DEMONS AND FIENDS . . .156

S 67. Aerial demons : Asuras, Pa^is,

Dasas 156

S 68. Vrtra, Vala &c 158

S 69. äu^^a, Sambara, Namuci, &c. 160
S 70. RaJc^ases, Pisacas and other

terrestrial demons . .162

Vn. ESCHATOLOGY 165

S 71. Disposal of the dead . .165

S 72. The Soul 166

S 73. Heaven 167

S 74- Joys of the future life . .167

S 75- Hell 169

S 76. The Pitfs or Manes . . .170
S 77. Yama, King of the Dead . 171

NB. The Manuscript was sent in on September 23, 1896.

ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA.

P. I, ast \inc,/or Oxford Essays II r/öd? Oxford Essays, 1856 (~ Chips 42, i— 154).

— P. 2, 1. 1 aää Contributions to the Science of Mythology, 2 vols. London, 1897. —
P. 5, 1.5 from helovr /or pove r^•fl</ prove. — P. 8, 1. 4 y^Verethragna r^'fliVerethraghna.

— P. 12, 1. 7 from below, for viivaru/>a read visvarüpa\ 1. 23: on this paradox cp. WC
41. — P. 15, 1. 10 from below y^r Prajanya read Parjanya. — P. 17, 1. 14 from below
addi The notion of an infinite number of cosmic ages is already to be found in the
AV. (10, 839-40), cp. Jacobi, GGA. 1895, p. 210; Garbe in this Encyclopedia 3, 4 p. 16.

— P. 21, note ^^ /or foumished read furnished. — P. 22, 1. 14 asanimai'. cp. PAOS.
1895, P- 138. — P. 28, note 2 adJ but cp. RV. 10, 1271 and Bloomfield, JAOS. 15,
170; SBE. 42, 391. — P. 29, note ai add JoH. Schmidt writes to the effect that tili the
relation of the Aeolic opavo; and dipavoc to 0'jpav6c has been detennined, it is im-
possible to say whether Varupa is connected with O'ipavo? or not. — P. 29, S iSi !• 4
for brtfvänal read i>ruüänah, — P. 33, 1, 25 for stimultae read stimulate. — P. 35, 1. 4
add Bloomfield, AJP. 14, 493. -— P. 37, % 16, last line of notes, aßer Perry add
JAOS. 11, 190 — I. — P. 39, 1. i^ for mythology read mythology»». — P. 41, 1. 2% for
IS. XI read IS. XII. — P. 42, \. 5, note 4 add cp. Macdonell, GGA. 1897, p. 47 — 8. —
P. 42, 1. 17 add On Vi§i;iu's obscure epithet sip'wista cp. OST. 4, 87 f.; LRV. 1, 162;
4, 153; KRV. note 214. — P. 44, 1. 6: On Sürya and Savitr as an Äditya cp. JAOS.
18, 28. — P. 44, 1. 21 for Adityas read Ädityas. — P. 46, note 9 add Cp. WuRM, Gesch.
d. ind. Rel. p. 29. — P. 46, 1. 5 for feast* read feast. — P. 50, delete note 9. —
P. 54, note aa add cp. JAOS. 16, 2I-— 2; 1. 33 add Hopkins, PAOS. 1894, cxlix— cl. —
P- 55» 1- *5* On Indra*s weapons cp. Perry, JAOS. 11, 138. 198. — P. 55, 1. 21 : on äyasa
cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 278. — P. 66, note " add cp. LRF, 142-— 3; note l'S add cp.
WiNTERNiTZ, Hochzeitsrituell 43. 46; Oertel, JAOS. 18, 26—31; note 3 add BRV. 3,
200—7; note 42 add cp. ZDMG. 9, 687. — P. 69, note w add cp. Hillebrandt, Veda-
Interpretation 13. 19; and two lines below before LRV. 3, 355—7 add Westergaard,
IS. 3, 414—24. — P. 80, 1. ^ for Marudvrddhä read Marudvfdhä (also p. 88, note 4). —
P. 84, 1 8 from below: On points of resemblance between Indra and Parjanya cp.
Hopkins, PAOS. 1894 (Dec), 36-9. — P. 85, note 4 add Jon. Schmidt writes that he
regards the equation Parjanya = Perkünas as quite wrong, since Lith. ü can only corre-
spond to Sansk. ». Leskien also considers this equation untenable (communication through
Böhtlixgk). It is, bowever, accepted by Wackernagel, Altindische Grammatik SS 5^-
loob. — P. 88, note Ji add cp. Bollensen, ZDMG. 41, 499. — P. 114 delele note 4». —
P. 169, note 6 add Haug, GGA. 1875, p. 96.

Indo-arische Philologie. IIL lA.

12

I. SANSKRIT INDEX.

The references in both Indexes, unless accompanied by S, are to pages.

Am^a 43» 45» 46.

amSu 104, 1 14.

amhas 121.

Agastya 147, 167.

agohya, 35, 133.

Agnäyl 125.

Agni S 35 188—100); 2, 7, 10,
11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22,
23, 24, 25. 26, 29, 30, 32,
33» 35» 36, 38, 40, 42, 43.
44. 45. 46, 48, 92, 94, 97.
99, 116, 121, 123, 124, 126,

130.139.141,142,145,^7»
148,151,152,156,168,170,

171.
Agni kumSra 75, gärhaspatya
165, yavistha 164, vaidyuta

94, 112.
Agni's aerial form 92; his
ancestral friendship 96 ; as
a benefactor 97> 98; as a
bird 88; his births 91; his
three births 93; his many
births 94 ; his brothers 95 ;
bums goblins 163—164; his
car and steeds 90; his ce-
lestial form 92; compared
with inanimate objects 89 ;
conductor of the dead 165,
166; corpse-dcvouring 171;
his cosmical actions 98 —
99 ; demon-dispelling 95 ;
domestic 95, 96; etymology
of the name 99 ; his father
90; his food 89; is foot-
less and headless 88; for-
gives sin 98; his vtfious
forms 5, 6; his gvtEatness
98; hidden 140^ 146; hymns
to Agni 140; identified 'witU
other gods 95 ; is Indra's
twin brother 57; contrasted
with Indra 97, 98. 99; his
lightning form g' 'üs lunar
form 100; as a nicssenger
96; as a priest 96, 97; ?
a raksas-slayer 166 ; his ro'
ing 90; his seven ton
89; as a serpent 153; 4

Indo-arische Philologie. III.

of Dyaus 21; son of strength
12; as the sun 129; his ter-
restrial form 91. 92; in the
waters 57, 70; his wisdom
97 ; his youth 91.

Agni associated with Atri 145,
' 146; with Kaijiva 145; with
Parjanya 84, 129; with
Soma 95; contrasted with
Parjanya 129; with Soma
129.

Agni-parjanyä 126.

Agni-somä 126.

agrajä 117.

agriya 109.

agre 109.

aiikusa 55.

Angira 144.

Afigiras 96, 97, 102, 139; as
an epithet of Agni 143, 146.

AngirasahS 54(142— 143); 15»
44, 61, 64, 67, 101, 117,

130, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145,

147, 159, 170, 171; as an-
cient fathers i.|2; as foes
of the Panis 157 ; their song
142; are sons of Dyaus 21.

angirastama 142.

angirasvat 143, 144.

aghaiva 149.

aghnyä 151.

ya] 99.

aja 74.

Aja ekapäd S 27 (73—74); 7o,
72, 151.

ajana 73.

ajara 58.

Ajäh 153.

ajäsva ^6,

.vjaikapäd 73.

atithi 92, 95.

Atithigva 64, 147.

atkj» 107.

-'^ 145.

S56 (145); 15. 53, 139,
160, 167 ; finds the sun 145 ;
etymology of the name 145.
I atrin 145.

atrivat 144.
atharyu 141.

Atharvan S 52 (141); 139, 147 ;
identified with Agni 141.

Atharvaveda 4.

Atharvängirasah 143.

Atharvänah 140, 141, 142, 170.

V^ad 145.

Aditi 541(120-123); 13, 14,
16, 33.44. 45.46, 56. 121,
I 123, 130, 150, 151; her two
main characteristics 122;
associated with Dak^a 121,
122; etymology of her name
121; frees from guilt 121;
identified with the universe
121; her motherhood 122;
her sons 13,

adititva 121.

Aditeh puträh 122.

adri 10, 60, 94, 105, 106, 154.

adhvaryu 97, 105.

anarvä 120.

AnarSani 162.

anavadya 45.

ana;^apa£u 36.

ana^iavedas 36, 37.

anas 63.

anägästva 121.

animi^a 45.

Anukramani 99, 143.

Anumati 119.

Antaka 172.

antariksa 10, 72.

andhas IO4.

anna IC^.

ap 69," 159.
: apäs 132.

Apäm napat S24 (69—70); 72,
73. 85, 88, 99; identified
with Agni 70, with Savitf
33; is the Avestic Apäm
napät 8.

Apälä 64.
! apya 61.

apyä 35; — yosä 134, 172.
i Apsaras 136, 137.
; Apsarasah S 47 (^34— I3S)-
' apsujit 59.

lyS in. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, ia. Vedic Mythology.

apsumat 92.

abjä 73.

abhra 60, 83.

abhriya 102.

amati 32.

amitra 159.

amrta 105, 107, 108, iii, 113,

127, 151, 161.
amba 87.
Ambika 74.
ambbfna 164.
arani 72, 91.
Arapyänl 154.
Aramati 119.
Arätayah 164.
aräti 164.
ari§ta 45.
aristanemi 149.
aruna 82, 105.
aru§a 75.
kijuna 88.
Arjuna 146.
arnava 105.
arnas 59.
Arbuda 61, 67, 160; bis cows

160.
Arbudi 164.
Aryaman S ^9 (43); J^6, 23,

24, 25i 29, 30» 33. 34, 44,

45, 46, 120.
aryamya 45.
avi icüS.
avjjina 45.
Asani 75.
aäu^a 160.
aSna 93, 106.
aSman 55, 94.
a.4va 79.
aSvattba 134.
asvin 131.
AivinI 51, 128.
Aävinau S 21 (49— 54); 16, 20,

asu 166. '

asutfp 173.

asunita 166.

asuniti 166.

Asuniti 120.

asura 22, 24, 32. 36, 5^, 75f

79, 84, 97, 98, 116. 1^3.
156; means both god and

demon 156; identical with

the Avestic abura 7.

Asura 90, 133, 161, 162.

asurahan 156.

Asuräb S67A; 5,39, 41, 57,

61. 95, 96. 97, 119, 136,
160; ofTspring of Prajäpati
156; connected with dark-
ness 156.

Ahalyä 65.

ahi 58, 64, 73, ^52, 153.

Ahi 158, 160, 161; identical
with Vrtra 73.

Ahi budhnya 70, 72, 153.

ahibhanu 78, 152.

abihan 149.

Äghr^i 35, 36.

ähgirasa 102, 103, 143.

ätayah 134.

ata li.

atman 166; connected with
wind 166,

aditeya 30.

Äditya 29, 42, 139, 188.

Ädityäh S 19 (43—46); 5, 14.
15, 18, 20, 24, 26, 27, 28,
30, 34, 42, 116, 117, 120,1
121, 130, 142; sons of
Dyaus 21.

ä-dhav 106.

adhävana 106.

Äpah 532(85—86); identical
with Avestic äpo 7.
24,32,36,40,41,42,43,48, Äptya 70; etymology of the
106, 124, 125, 132, 141, 149, word 69.
151, 162; their physical ä-pya 107.
basis 53; their locality 50; äpyäyana 107, 113.
are red-white 51 ; originally 1 äpra 87, loo.
perhaps separate 49; are , aprl 87, 99, loo, 124, 129, 154.
matutinal gods 51 ; perhaps ämad 97.
moming and evening star ayasa 55.
53; are succouring gods 51 ; , Äyu 100, 135 n. 9, 140, 147.
are divine physicians 51 ; äyudha = sun 31.
come to the sacrifice three Arjuneya 146.
times a day 50; ancient arya 62, 98.
explanations of their nature aSir 107.
53; are sons of Dyaus 21, äsuheman 70.
51: sons of Vivasvat and | asura 100, 160, 161.
Saranyu 5 1 ; their wife 5 1 ; ahavanlya 95.
their sister5i; their ships
orboat52; associated with Ida 139, 150.
Atri 145, with Ka^va 146, ' indu 66, 105, 113.
with Savitr 50, with Usas 1 Indu 104, 106, 138.
50; identiiied with Indra- Indra S 22 (54— 66j; 6, 10, 11,

Agni 128.
asat 13.
Asiknl 81.

12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 24, 26,

31, 35» 36, 37, 38, 39, 41,
42, 43.45.48, 53» 115» 116,

118,119,126, 130, 131,138,

141, 142,144,147,149,151,
154,155,156, 159,160, 161,
162, 168, 170; associated
with Agni 57, 60, 67, 9s,

102, 124, 126, 127, 128,
with the Aävins 126, with
Kutsa 146, with Parvata
126, with Pa^an 37, 126,
128, with Brhaspati loi,

103, 126, 128, with the
Maruts 57, 60, 126, with
Varu^a 126, 127, with Vayu
82, 106, 126, 128; with
Vi?nu 57, 60, 91, 126, 127,
128, 156, with Soma 60,
126, 128, 169; as an Aditya
44; god of battle 62 ; be-
stower cf riches 63 ; bis birth
56 ; bis holt 6, 56, 5 7 ; brother
of Agni 57, of Pa§an 57;
bis car 55 ; bis leading char-
acteristics64— 65 ; contrast-
ed with Agni 128; contrast-
cd with Varuna 20, 64, 65,
127; as a demon in the
Avesta 8, 66; etymology of
the name 66; bis father 56;
slays bis father l8, 57; bis
physical features 54 — 55 ;
bis food 56 ; fights against
the gods 18, 57, 146; bis
gigantic size 57—58; bis
greatness 58; as a belper
62 ; immoral and capricious
traits 18, 19, 65; bis intoxi-
cation 65; identified with
Manu57; bis steeds55 ; threa-
tens the Maruts 18, 81 ; bis
mother56; clipsthewingsof
the mountains62; settlesthe
mountains 62; bis parents
12; releases the cows of
the Panis 59; produces Agni
57; produces heaven and
earth 62 ; produces the sun
61 ; is produced from the
mouth of Puru§a 57; scep-
ticism as to bis existence
65; son of truth 12; his
steeds 55; releases the
streams 59; Supports heaven
and earth 62; identified
with Sürya 57; transference
to bim of Varu^a's preemin-
ence 20, 65 — 66; shatters
the car of Usas 18, 48, 63;
bis weapons 55; his wheel
61, 64; his wife 57, 125;
as winner of light 61 ; as
winner of Soma 62.

Indra-nasatya 126.
Indra-väyö 126.
Indra-kutsa 146.
Indragnl 126.
Indra-parvata 126, 154.

I. Sanskrit Index.

179

Indrä-pü^driä 126.
Indrä-br'haspatl 126.
Indrä-väru^k 126.
Indrä-vi^nü 126.
Indrä-sömä 126.

Indräni S 7, 64, 78, 1 25, 1 5 1 , 1 73-

Ulbi^a 157, 162.

ista-pürta 168.

ila 129.

IIa 87, 91, 124, 135.

iläyäs pade 124.

liäna 75.

Uk^an 108.
Ugrajit 135.
Ugradcva 75.
Ugrampaiyä 135.
Ugrädeva 171.
ucchi^ta 155.
uttara 99.
utsa 60, 105.
udamegha 52.
udumbara 134.
udumbala 173.
Umä 74.
Ura^a 61, 152, 160.

um 45-

urukrama 37.

urugAya 37.

Urvarä 138.

urvaräpati 138.

UrvaSi 15, 124, 135.

ulüka 172. ,

u$arbudh 90. l

U§as S 20 (46—49); 2, 8, 19, ;
20, 21, 31, 34, 38, 40, 43»,
124, 125, 148,150; daughter \
of heaven 21, 48; etymo- |
logy of the name 49; her
kine and steeds 18, 47; as-
sociated with Sürya 48.

U^asänaktä 48, 126.

asriyä 62.

Udhar 60.

|/r with vi 160.

rkvat 101.

rksa 144, 164.

Rksa 153.

Rgveda 3.

ijiivan 72.

RjiSvan 161.

Rjräiva 52.

jia II, 13, 26, 101, 120, 168;
= a§a 7.

ftävan 45.

ftvij 96.

rbtsa 145.

Rbhavah % 46 (131— 134); n,
32, 44, 50, 56, 107, 130,
170; associated with Agni
131 ; with Indra 131, 132,
with other deities, ibid.,
with Savitri33, withTva§tf
131, 132, 133; thcir car

and steeds 131 ; became im- ' yicp 148

mortal 132; their origini33; Kr^änu 74, 112, 137 » Kere-

thcir parents 131, 132

133; thcir skill 132.
Rbhu 131.

fbhu, etymology of 133.
rbhuk^an 131.
Rbhuksan 73, 131, 132.
Rsayah, sapta 144.

r§i 97» 144-
r§ti 79-

Ekata 68, 69.
ekapad 73.
Ekä§takä 56.
Eta^a 30, 149—150.
emu.^a 41.
Emtlsa 41.
evayä 38.
evayävan 38.
e§a 38.

Aitareya Brähmana 4.

Ojas 39.
o^adhi 154.

Aurnaväbha 38, 152.

Ka = Prajäpati 119.
kakud 98.
kakuha 50.
Kak^lvat 52.

Kanva8S7(H5-l46);i5,i39.

kapota 172.

Kamadyu 52.

karambha 36, 128.

karambhad 36.

karambhin 37.

Karmapradlpa 91.

kalaSa 106.

Kali 52.

kavandha 60.

kavi 97, 102, 147.

kavikratu 97.

kavyavähana 97.

Ka^ä 56.

Kasyapa 151, 153.

Käthaka 41, 57.

Käma 13, 14, 120; his arrows

120.
kämadugha 150, 168.
kämaduh 150.
kämya 171.
Kala 120.

KävyaUSanä 55, 96, 139, 147. j Gotama 147.
kimidin 164. Gotamäh 153.

Kutsa S 58 (146 — 147); i6o;|gopati 63.

associated with Indra 146. gomätr 78.

iäni 8.
Kr§na 52.
koSa 60, 83.
KauSika 62.
Kauäikasütra 4, 117.
Kau^ikäh 153.
kaustubha 39.
Vlcrand io8.
j kravyäd 97, 164, 165.
krivi 160.
k^atriya 45.
k§am 9.
k^a 9.

k^etrasya pati 138.
k$onI 9.
k$m'ä 88.

Khädi 79.
khila 40.

Gangä 86.

gana 77, 101.

ganapati 101.

gandha 137.

Gandharva 8, 15, 134, 146,
172; his hostility 137; as-
sociated with Soma 136;
with the Waters 137.

gandharva-nagara 137, note 5.

Gandharväh S 48 (136 — I37j;
107, 124, 135, 153; their
appearance 137; connected
with marriage 137; as guar-
dians of Soma 136.

Garuda 39, 149, 152.

garutmat 39, 152.

garjanmegha 85.

garbha 70, 92, 95, 129.
; gavä^ir 106.

gavi§ti 63.

Gayatn, as a name of Agni 1 1 1 .

gär§teya 56.

gärhapatya 95; agni —73.

giri 60.

girik?it 39.

giri§thä 39, HO.

Gungfl 125.

gr§U 56.

grha 145.

grhapati 95» 1^3» ^l^-

go 60, 123.

gojäta 151.

kuyava i6i.

Kuravah 153.

Kulitara, son of 64, 161.

kuSa 41.

Kuäikäh 63.

Kuhn 125.

küdl 165.

küpa 67.

kürma 153.

Gautama 65.
gnäh 117.
gnäspati loo.
gmä 9.
ygras 152.
grävan 106, 154.

Ghj-ta 105.
ghftapr^^ha 107.

i8o III. Religion, weltu Wissensch. u. Kunst, ia. Vedic M\thology.

ghora 127.
Gho§ä 52.

Cakra 155.

candra 127.

camfl J06.

Caraka Brähmana 41.

caranyu 125.

Cumuri 158, 162; associated

with Dhuni 162.
Cyaväna 51.

Chandas 101.
Chändogyopanisad 14,

Vjan 57.
janayah 117.
janitrl 126.
janima 97.
jaritf 60, 97.
jalä^a 76.
jalflsabhe§aja 76.
ja III.
jata 118.

jatavedas 97, 1 19.
jämi 48.
jlvan 168.

V'tak§ 72, 116, 117, 132.

Tanünapät 71, 99—100.

tanyatu 86.

tapas 13, 17, 132, 167.

Tapas 119.

tavas 58.

Tärk^ya 149.

tigmasfiiga 108.

Tisya 103.

Tugra 52, 146.

tura 58.

Turva^a 64, 140, 146, 171.

Türvayäna 147.

\ tr 68. '

•\j (suffix) 115.

Trk§i 149-

Tftsavah 64.

Trasadasyu 146, 147; Agni
of — 96.

Trätf 116.

Träsadasyava 149.

trita 69.

Trita S 23 (67-69); 6. 43,
64, 71. 73. 80, 103, 117,
141; — Äptya 8, 14, 45»
47, 66, 67; associated
with Agni 67; his abode
67; his fingcrs 17; his
maidens67, 105; associated
with the Maruls 67; is
remote 68; as a Soma-
presser 67.

tripastya 93.

triprstha 107.

tri§adhastha 38, 93, 107.

trini 69.

Tryambaka 74»

tryäsir 106.

ytvaks 117.

tvac 106.

iTvasir S 38 B; ii, 12, 19,

23» 34, 55, 56, 58, 82, 91,
101, 115, 118^ 126, 138,
141; associated with Indra
116, 117, with the Kbhus

I 133; his cup 116, 117* 13^;
his daughter 125; etymo-

I loßy of the name 117; his

mead 52; as a shaper of

forms 116; his skill 116;

his son 160; hissteeds Ii6.

Tväs^ra 158.

Daksa 12, 13,43,44,46,121.

daksa 12, 46.

dak^apitr 46.

dak^asya pitf 46.

daksina 95.

Dadhikrä 142, 148, 149.

DadhikrAvan 124, 148.

Dadhica 142.

Dadhyanc S 53 (142-143)
52, 71, 139, 141. 144. 149
157; his bones 159; ety
mology of the name 142
as an ancient fire-priesti42.

dadhyäsir 106.

Dabhiti 162.

damünas 33, 95.

darbha 15.

Dasagväh 80, 144.

dasma 2^-

dasmavarcas 36.

Dasyavah 62, 64, 98, 148, 162.

dasyu 146, 157, 158, 159-
dasyuhatya 157.
dasyuhan 157.
dasra 36, 49.
\ da 121, 123.
Dänava 59, 15S, 16 1.
Dänavi 57.
dänu 158.
Dänu 158.
däsa 157, 158, 159.
Dasa 40, 158, 161, 162.
DäsähS69(i6o— 162); 64,157.
' dita 121.
diti 121, 123.
Diti S 42 (123^.
div 8, 9, 10.

Divodasa 87, 90, 161 ; Agni
of — 96 ; — Atithigva 147.
divya 92, 136.
disah 9.
dirghadhi 45.
dundubhi 155.
Durga 73.
(iurgfbhisvan 72.
] duh 105.
düta 96.
] df 160.
dr Iha 8S.
drti 83.
Drbhika 162.
Drsadvatl 87.
deva 8, 34, 156.

devaputra 126.

devamäna 172.

Devaväta, Agni of 96.

devasuni 151.

deväh 5.

de vi 120.

de vir dvärah 154.

De§tri 115

Daityäh 123.

daivva 100.

Daivva 96.

daivyä hotärä 144.

Dyäväksämä 126.

Dyäväpjrthivi 9, 20, 21, 123,
126.

DyäväbhümT 126.

dyaur aditih 121, 122.

Dyaü§ pitar 8.

Dyaus S U (21—22); 2, 12,
19, 25, 27, 28, 30, 53, 61,
83, 88, 121, 123, 124,126,
129; has a boh 22; as a
bull 21; as a father 8, 21,
22 ; as father of Indra
21; conceived as feminine
22; his incest 119; associ«
ated with PythivI 90 ; roars
21, 22; thunders 90; iden-
tical with Zeus 8.

drapsa 105, 113.

d rapsin 80.

druh = druj 8,

Dnih 164.

druhah 61.

•

Druhyavah 140.
dro^a 106.

Dhanu 92.

Dhartr I15.

\dhä 115.

dhätir 118.

Dhätr 13, 43, 116, 117, »18.

dhiyas pati 128.

Dhisaijiä 124.

Dhuni 158, 162.

dhümaketu 90.

dhftavrata 45.

dhena 61.

] dhvan 162.

Nakto^äsä 48, 126.
Naciketas, story of i68.
nadlvft 159.
napät 131.
napätä savasah 46.
naptl 105.
nabhasvat 83.
NamI Säpya 161.
Namuci 64, 158, 161 — 2; ety-
mology of the name 162.
naräsamsa loo.
NardSamsa 36, 71, loo, 102.
navagva 144.
Navagväh 141, 144, 170.
Navavästva 158.
näka 8.
Nägäh 153.

I. Sanskrit Index.

i8i

nädya 70.

näbhi 42, 92.

näraka loka 169.

NäTsada 145.

Näsatya 49.

ninya 158.

niyutvat 82.

NiiTti 172.

nirnij I07>

ni^ka 74*

Nis^igrt 56.

nftu 58.

Nr§ad 145*

netr 116.

Naighanluka 19, 25, 33, 45»
48, 54,68,73,99,100, 115,
121, 123,124,147.148, 149,

159.
nyagrodha 134.

Pajra 52.

padblia 172.

Panayah 95, 98, 143, 144, 157 ;
their cows 63; as foes of
Bj-haspati 157; as foes of
Indra 157.

pa^i 157.

Pani 157, 159.

patatrin 50.

pati 51, 118; names formed
with 103, 138.

patnir devänäm 125.

pada 50.

Vpan 133.

payas 105.

Parame^thin 57.

Parftvrj 52.

parijman 50.

paridhi 159.

pariSayäna 59.

Panisnl 64, 86.

Parjariya S 3^; ^S» 20, 37,
90, 136, 138, addenda, line
30; bis car 83; etymology
of the name 84 ; as father
84; as father of Soma 1 1 1 ;
as fnictifier 84; his identity
with Perkunas doubtful 8;
resembles Indra 84 ; resem-
blesDyaus 84 ; son of Dyaus
2 1 ; subordinate to Mitra-
Varuna 84; his wife 84.

Parjanyä-vätä 126.

parna (tree) 112.

parvata 10, 55, 60, 106, 159. j

Parvata 154.

parvatävrdh HO. I

palä^a 112.

pavamäna 106.

Pavamäna 107.

pavitra 106.

paiu 47; == Soma 108.

Paiupati 75. I

paiupä 37.

pastyä 121.

Pänixii 162.

pätra 133.
I päthas 38, 128.

PärvatI 74.

pävaka 81.

päviravl bö.

Paviravi 73.

päSa 26.

V'pi 107.

Pitarah $ 76; 164; classes of
170; cosmical actions of
171; worship of 1 70.

pitarä 126, 131.

pitu 105.

pitfloka 171.

pinv 107.

Pipru 156, 158, 161, 162; ety-
mology of the name 161 ;
his forts 161.

piSarigabhi-^ti 164.

PiSlcäh 164.

piiäci 164.

plya$a 105, III.

putra 69.

punäna 106.

pur 60.

puramdara 98.

puramdhi 37, n. 5.

Puramdhi 124.

purlsa 129.

pun^in 129.

Purukutsa 147.

purudrapsa 80.

Purumitra 52.

Purusa 13, 15, 31, 166; hymn
to 82.

puru^asükta 12, 57.

Purüravas 124, 135.

purüvasu 37.

purodäsa 151-

purohita 96; = the sun 31.

Purohita 160.

Vpus 37.

pu§timbhara 36, 37.

J,.pü io6.

Püru 148.

pürbhid 60.

pürvya 58.

Püsan S 16; 12, 15, 20, 33,
40, 82, 100, 117, 124,151,
165, 170; his car 35; con-
ducts the dead 35 ; protects
the dead 165; etymology
of the name 37 ; his goats
18; is son of the ASvins
51; is Sürya's messenger
30; is toothless 35.

Ypx 161.

prthivl 9, 123.

Prthivi S 34; 2, 19, 21, 22,

124, 126.
Pr^ni 73, 74, 78, »25, 150.
prsnimätr 78.
pr§atl 79.
prsada^va 79«
pr§tha 9, 68.
Pedu 52, 149.

Paidva 149.

prajä 118.

prajäpati 118; == Savitr 33.

Prajäpati S 39; 4, 5. '3, I4^
16, 17, 19, 28, 41, 46, 56,
57» 115» 117, 120,140,151,.
153, 168; identified with
Savitr 33; and Usas 119»

|/prath 88.

pradi§ah 9.

prapathya 36.

pramantha 91.

prasava 34.

prasavitr 33» 34-
prasfita 48.
Praskanva 140.
präna 166.
PräQa 14, 120.
prätaritvan 72.
Präsahä 57.
Priyamedha 146.
priyamedhavat 144.
priyä (U§äh) 48.
plaksa 134.

Phaliga 159.

Baddha 121.

Babhru 74, 105.

barhis (deified) 154.

bila 159.

budhna 73, 158.

Brhadära];iyakopani§ad 14.

Brhaddiva 141.

Brhaddivä 124.

bfhaspati, etymology of 103.

Brhaspati S 36; u, 13, 20,
24, 32, 38, 48, 71, 83, 100,
117,126,129,130,132, 143,
156, 159, 161, 168, 171 ; his
three abodes 102 ; identified
with Agni 102; his car and
steeds 101; his cosmical
actions 103; releases the
cows 102; as a light-winner
103; his origin 103; asso-
ciated with the Maruts 103 ;
associated with Singers 101,
102; hissong 101 ; as apuro-
hita 101 ; his weapons 10 1.

brahma 138.

Brahma II, 13, 14, loi, 104,
119, 167.

brahman 97, 10 1, 102, 103,
104, 142.

Brahmanas pati S 36; 13* 14,
101.

Brahma 87, 104, 115, Il8,

119, 130» 168.
Brahmävarta 87.
Brähmana 81, 93, 94-

Bhaga S 19; 37. 44, 45» 48,
116, 123, 124, 149; his eye
45; hispath 45; his sister
45; = bagha 7, 8.

bhaga 45, 46.

i82 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, i a. Vedic Mythology.

bhagavat 45.

|bhaj 45- I

bhadrajäni 78.

Bharata 96.

BharaläK 87, 135.

Bharadväja 147.

bharitra 106.

Bhava 75.

Bhägavata Purä9a 117.

bhäjayu 46.

Bhäratl 87, 124.

Vbhid 160, 162.

Bhujyu 52.

ybhü with vi 133.

bhümi 9.

bhüryak^a 45.

Bhrgavah S SM 80, 99, 1 16,

141, 142, 170; ancient fire-

priests 140.

Bhrgu 71, 96, 139. 140;

= ^Xe^uai 169.
bhrgu vat 140.
ybhräj 140.

Makha 140.

maghavan 63, 103.

maghoni 48.

Matsyäh 153.

y/math 91, 162.

j/mad 168.

tnada 105.

madapati 128.

madhu 49, 52, 105, 111, 114,

141.

Madhuka§ä 44.

madhupa 50.

madhumat 105.

madhuvähana 49.

madhüyu 50.

MadhyadeSa 87.

manas 13, 166.

manu 135.

Manu S 50; 12, 15, 41, 42,
43, 140, 141,144, 145. 146;
as first anccstor 139; as
first man 14; as first sac-
rificeri39; calledVivasvat

139.
manu§vat 139.

Manus 138, 143.

Manor napätah 131.

mantha 108.

Manyu S 4^.

ymar 81.

Marutali $ 29; 2, ii, 12, 18,
20, 23, 25, 37, 38, 40, 44,
76, 119, 122, 130, 142, 146,

150. 151» »52, 161, 166;
their brilliance 78; their
cars 79» etymology of the
name 8 1 ; as allies of Indra
80—81 ; as hostile to Indra
81 ; associated with light-
ning 78; malevolent traits
in their character 8i ; as
priests 80; as shedders of

rain 79, 80; their remedies
81; their roaring 79; as
Soma drinkers 80; sons of
Dyaus 21; sons of Rudra
78; their steeds 18, 79;
associated with Trita 67.

marutvat 57.

marutvata 80.

manidga^a 57.

Marudvfdhä 80, 88.

marya 78.

Mahädeva 75, 76.

Mahäbhärata 41, 85, 117, 142,
160.

mahisa (~ Soma) 108.

mahl 88.

Mahl 87, 124.

V'mä 71, 108.

Mändükcyäh 153.

mätarä 126.

mätaribhvari 72.

MätariSvan S 25; 16, 42, 92,
99, 100, 102,111,115,129,

139, »40, 141, 157, 171;

etymology of the name 71 ;

as a name of Agni 71, 72.
mätj- 71, 72.
mädhyamikä väc 124.
mädhvl 50.
mäyä 24, 156.
mäyin 24.
märuta 40

Märkandeya Puräija 117.
Märtända 13, 43» 44-
Mitra S 13; 7, 16, 20, 23, 24,

25» 27, 33, 34, 40, 43, 44,

45» 46 ; etymology the name

30; identical with the Aves-

tan Mithra 7.
Mitra-Varuna 12, 15, i6, 85,

106, 120, 124, 127, 131, 148,

i'56, 157; their eye 23;

associated with other gods

3I;
Mitravdrunä 126.

mitrya 45.

miho napat 161.

mldhvas 75.

Mudgala 150.

Mudgalänl 150.

Müjavat HO.

mrga 152.

mrgaya 161.

mrj 106.

mftyu 172.

megha 83, 159.

metf 90.

Medhyätithi 146.

Menakä 135.

maujavata 1 10.

Yajurveda 4, 26.
yajna (= yasna) 7.
Yatayah 140.
Yadu 64, 146, 171.
] yam 1 72.

yima 172.

yama 172.

Yama S 77; 16, 19, 20, 27,
42,43,68,71, 139» 142, 144,
151,152,166,167,169,170;
his abode 1 7 1 ; his foot-fetter
172; his messengers 152;
1 72, 1 73 ; the first mortal that
died 172; hispath 172; his
steeds 171 ; connected with
thesun 172; associated with
Yami 116, 137, 171, 172,
173; identical wnth the
Avestan Yima 8; has the
patronymic Vaivasvata 15.

yamaräjan 171.

Yamunä 86.

Yayäti 139.

yaväiir 106.

yavis^ha 91.

yavi^thya 91.

yäjiiika 99.

yätayajjana 29.

yätu 8, 163, 164.

yätudhäna 163.

Yäska 15, 19, 33, 34,37,38,

39, 45» 49, 53. 68, 72, 73,

I 93. 99, 115. 123, 139,151-

yuvan (= Soma) iii.
I yfitha 124,
I yojana 47.
' yoni 94.

( rak§ 164.

rak$as 162, 164.

Rak§a§ah S 7o; 61 ; their
appearance 163.

raksoyuj 164.

raksohan 95; HO, 164.

rajas 9, 10, 73, 158.

raj astur lii.
^ rathatur 148.

rathe§tha 55.

yrabh' 133.

rayi 1 10.
[ rava loi.

rasa 105.

Rasa 63.

V'rä 125.

Räkä 125.

räksasa 163.

Räjanya 13.

Rätri 124.

Rlmäyaoa 41.

Rästrabhrt 135.

räsabha 50.

Rähu 160.

] ru 108.

|/ruj 160.

] rud 77.

rudra 49, 75» 77. 127.

Rudra S 28; 12, 16, 20, 35,
73, 74, ii9, 124, 130,138,
151; identified with Agni
75, 77; liis colour 74; his
injurious features 18; con-

L Sanskrit Index.

183

trasted with Indra 77 ; his '
malevolence 75 ; as fäther '
of the Maruts 74, 78; is
mountain-dwelling 74; his ;
physical features 74; his
remedies 76; is clothed in
a skin 74; his repulsive !
traits 76; his weapons 74.

nidra-vartani 49.

Rudra-Soma 76, 129.

Rudränl 125.

Rudräh 5, 44, 74, 120, 130,
142; are eleven in number '

19.
Rudriyäh 74, 78.

Rudhikrä 162.

retodhä 108.

Rebha 52.

rocana 9.

rodasT 9, 126.

Rodasi 78.

roman 106.

Rohiiil 115, 136.

rohita 82.

Rohita 14, 17, 115.

Linga 155.

yvaj 133.

vajra 55, 79, 109, 147.

vajradak§ina 55.

vajrabähu 55.

vajrabhrt 55.

vajrahasta 55.

vajrin 55, 103.

vajrivat 55.

vatsa 84.

Vatsäh 153.

vadhar 114.

vadhflyu 51.

Vadhrya5va87 ; Agni of — 96.

vanaspati 154; (=Soma) 112.

Vandana 52.

vara 51.

VarunaSl2; 3, 6, ii, 16, 17,
18, 19, 29, 30, 33, 34, 40,
42, 43. 44,46,48, 119,130,
168, 171, 172; his abode
23; identical with the
Avestan Ahura Mazda 8;
his car 23; etymology of
the name 28 ; bis face 23 ;
as father of Bbygu 170;
his fetters 26; contrasted
with Indra 28 ; he and Sürya
subordinate to Indra 58;
his messenger 136; his
natural basis 27; connected
with night 25, 29, with rain
25, with waters 25, 26;
his omniscience 26; as up-
holder of order 24; iden-
tical with Uupav6c 8; as a
punisher of sin 26; his spies
23,24;associatedwithYama ,

167.
Vanipänl 125. j

varcas 162.

Varcin 40, 156, 158, 161, 162.

vartaya 162.

vartis 50.

var^a 59.

Vala S 68 B ; 63, 64, 102, 142,

143, 144, 159, 162; his

Castles 159.
valamnij 160.
valabhid 160.
valavftrahan 160.
vavra 67, 169.
vavri 159.
Va5ä 83, 84.
Va^atkära 19.
Vasavah 5, 33, 44, «20, 130,

1 42 ; are eight in number 1 9.
Vasi§tha 15, 64, 96, 134, 135,

140, 147.
Vasi§thäh 47, 170.
Vasu 148.
vasupati 63.
vastra 107.
]/vä S2.
väc 109, 123.

Väc 87, 124, 137, 145.

väcas pati 109, 118.

Väja 131, 132, 133.

Väjapeya 155.

väjin 149.

väta 72, 166.

Väta 25 ; as a healer 82 ; his
steeds 55.

Väta-Parjanya 82, 84.

Vätä-parjanyä 126.

Vämadeva 147.

Väyu 2, 12, 20, 72, 78, 110,
116, 168; his car and steeds
82; as Indra's charioteer
55; as a soma-drinker 56;
identical with the Avestan
vayu 7.

Väyu- Väta S 30 (81—83).

vära 106.

Väru^i 140.

värya 123.

]/vä5 108, 135.

väsas 107.

Västo§pati 138.

vi-kram 37, 38.

vidyut 78, 92.

vidhartf 45.

vidhätr 118.

Vidhätr 115.

Vipää 6^, 86, 88.

vipra 96, 144.

vibhaktf 45.
vibhavah 131.
Vibhvan 131, 132, 133.
Vimada 52.
vimuco napät 35, 36.
vimocana 36.
virüpavat 143.
Virupäh S 55-
Vilistengä 57.
vi-vas 43.

Vivasvat S 18; 6, 12, 14, 15,
43, 44, 71. 114, 116, 121,
125, 139, 170, 172; his
arrow 42, 43 ; his daughters
42, 105; his mesjenger 42,
72; his messengers 96, 141 ;
identical with the Avestan
Vivanhvant 8,

vi5 39, 139.

viSpati 96, 172.

ViSpalä 52.

Vi^vaka 52.

viSvakarman 31.

ViSvakarman S 39; 115, 117,

118, 126, 151.
viSvartlpa 34, 116, 117.
Viävarüpa 12, 61, Ii6, 160;

his cows 160 ; as son of

Tva§tr 67.
viSvavid 97.
viSvavedas 37, 97.
ViSvftmitra 147.
viSvävasu 136.
ViSvävasu 134, 136, 137.
Viäve devähS 26; 14, 16, 72,

82, 84, ' 125, 130, 131;

hymns to the — 129.
vi§tap 9.
Vi§9äpü 52.
Vi§9u S 17; 4, 9, 10, ", 16,

20, 35» 37, 44, 45, 115, nS,

121, 124, 149, 151; Ava-

tärsof— 14, 41, 139, 151;
as a dwarf 39, 41, 156;
his friendship for Indra 39 ;
his head becomes the sun

39, 41 ; as lord of mountains
39; identified with the sa-
criBce 40, 41 ; his highest
place 169; his highest Step
18, 105; his highest Step
as abode of the fathers 167 ;
his Steps 38 ; his three Steps
29, 156; his third step 170;
his wife 125.

vi^Qupada 39.
vlra 78.

Vvr 152, 159; with apa 159.
vrk§a 52.
vrta 159.

vftra (masc.) 159, (neut)l59;

etymology of the word 159.

Vftra S 68; 6, 18,21,31,39,

40, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67,
73, 80, 81. 119, 127, 147,
151,152,153,156,157,158,
160, 162; his belly 159;
his forts 158, 159; his
mother 6; identified with
the moon 57, 159; asso-
ciated with Indra 158.

vj-trakhäda 160.
vftratürya 158.
vrtrahatya 158.
vrtrahan6o, 66, 109, 114, 158,

159.

i84 in. Reugion^ weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst, ia. Vedic Mythology.

Vrträh 103, 141, 158, 159.
vrtvl 159.
I'vrdh 60, 72.

Wr? 59.

vrsan 108.

vr$abha 108.

Vi'§äkapi 64.

vr§ti 59.

vr^timat 83.

Vetasavah 146.

Vedänta 104.

vedi 92, 105.

vedi§ad 92.

|/ven 133.

vaibhavasa 69.

Vairüpäh 144, 170.

Vaivasvata 12, 42, 109, 139,

172.
Vaiäya 13.
VaUvänara 71, 99.
Vyaniia 64.
vyoman 9.
vraja 160.

Samsa ICX).
Sakuntalä 135.
Sakra 58.
Sacl 58.
SacT 57, 122.
Saclpati 58, 122.
Sacivat 58.
Satakratu 58.
Satapatha Brähmaiia 4.
Satanidriya 77.
5atni 159.
Sabala 173.
sambara (neuter) 161.
Sambara 40, 64, 80, 103, 158,
161, 162; his forts 161, 162.
Sayu, cow of 52.
sardhas 77.
Saryanävat 141.
äarva 75.
ialyaka 112.
Savasah putrah 122.
savasah sünuh 131.
savasas patT 128.
savasT 12, 122.
savaso napätah 131.
Säkapüni 38, 93, 99.
Sätyäyaninah 68,
Sigravah 153.
sipra 55.
siprin 55.
siva 75, 77.

Siva 4, 73» 74, 76, 155.

i\iM 72, 90; («■ Soma) 111.

sisnadeväh 155.

sukra 106.

suci 45, 126, 127.

sucipä 82, 106.

Sutudrl 86, 87, 88.

suddha 106.

Suna 155.

Sunahsepa 121.

] sus 161.

SusnaS69A; 146, 147, »57,
158, 162; his brood 160,
]6i ; his eggs 160; his forts
16O} his homs 160.

Südra 13.

Süra 58.

Syäma 173.

syäva 52.

Sraddhä 119.

6rt 120.

Svas 72, i6i.

Svasana 160.

sveta 149.

Samvara^a 153.

Samsära 168.

sat 13.

satpati 58.

sadana (of Vivasvat) 42.

sadasas pati 102.

sadaspati 102, 103.

sadaspatl 128.

sadhastha 107.

samdi-k (paramä) 1 1 8.

Saptavadhri (Atri) 52, 145.

sabardughä 82.

samudra 52, 72, 105; sscele-

stial waters 10.
samudriya 107.
samräj 98.
sarana 125.
SaranyO 42, 51, Il6, 125, 139,

172'.
Saramä 63, i25(note iy\ 143,

144, 151, 173.
Saravu 86.
Sarasvat 86, SS.
Sarasvati 12, 73, 78, 86—88;

124, 125; associated with

the A§vins and Indra 87;

associated with Indra 162 ;

associated with the Maruts

87; as a sacred river 87.
sarpäh 153.
salila 72.
sava 34, 48.
savana 106, 132.
Savarnä 139.

Savitr S 15; 10. 1«, 15» 16,
17, 19, 20, 23, 26, 29, 35,

37, 38, 44, 45, 48, S5t 57,
70,72,73,85,115, 116, 117,
118, 122, 123, 124, 138, 149,
154, 171; his arms 32; his
car and steeds 32 ; conducts
the dead 165; connected
with evening as well as
morning 34; etymology of
the name 34; he is golden
32; play on the name 34;
is called prajäpati 13; iden-
tified with Bhaga ^^y with
Prajäpati 117, Sürya 33,
Tvastr 1 1 7,Visvakarman 1 1 7.

saharaksas 97.

sahas 91.

sahasah putrah 9, 122.
' sahasrajit 98.
sahasramu^ka 89.
sätmatä 168.
sädana 172.
sädhya 130.

sänu 39, 68, lo5, iii, 158.
Sämaveda 4.
Säyana 28, 33, 41, 43» 68, 69,

107, 123.
Särameya 151, 173.
Sinivälf 125.
sindhu 86, 87.
Sindhu 81, 86.
sindhumätf 51, 78.
Sirä 155.
si§nu 161.
I SU 105, 106, 114.
sukratu 114.
sugabhasti 116.
sudak$a 46.
sudänu 80.
sudäs 64, 140, 147.
sudhanvan 133.
Sudhanvan 131.
suparna 39.
supäni 116.
subhaga 87.
sura 123, 157.
surabhi 137.
suSipra 55.
susravas 64.
suhasta 132.
Vsü 34, 72.
sünü daksasya 46.
sünftiL 120.
Sarya S H; 2, 15,16,20,23,

33, 34, 35. 38, 40, 44, 48,
148, 149, 150 ; as a form
of Agni 30; his daughter
51 ; is a son ofDyaus 21;
his eye 30; vanquished by
Indra 31 ; measures days
31 ; his messenger 35 ; is a
spy 30; his steeds 30, 55;
his wife 30.

süryarasmi 32.

Süryä 50, 51, 125; associated
with Soma 112.

Süryäcandramasä 126, 129.

Süryämäsä 126, 129.

Srbinda 162.

Sita 138.

Senä 57.

soma 104.

Soma S 37; 2, 6, 9, 10, 12,
14, 17, 18, 20, 23, 25, 26,
35, 38, 40. 42, 43, 46, 47,
48. 50, 72, 125, 130, 134,

137' 138, 139, 146, 147, 152,
153, 162, 168, 170,171,172;
as bestower of wealth 110;
bought with Väc 109; as
a brahmä priest 109; his
brilliance 108; brought by
an eagle 111 — 112; his car

I. Sanskrit Index.

185

and steeds 1 10; is celestial
111; bis colour 105 ; his ;
cosmical actions 109 — 110;
etymology of name 114;,
as drink of immortality '
108; as a fighter 110; first ,
draught of — 82 ; as food '
of the gods 112; the gods '
fond of — 108; Indra*s ex-
cessive indulgencein — 56; |
his healing power 109; as a
king 112, as king of plants
154; magical power of — |
ito; mixed with milk 106;
mixed with water 106;;
identified with the moon
107, 112, 113, 129; grows
on mountains iio, lii;i

— offering 16, 124; rape ,
of — 6^; his roaring 108; '

— sacriiice 4, ( 8 ; stimulates
Indra 56, 109; stimulates
thought 109; stimulates the i
voice 109; three or thirty-
threelakesof — 56; hiswea-
pons HO; his wives 112;
associated with the Fathers

i09,withtheMaruts i io,with
Parjanya 84 , with Pfl§an
37, 128, 129, with rain 107,
withRudra 129, with waters
86, 107; eompared with
rain 83, with Sürya 108,
III; identified with Vani^a
iio; identical with the
Avestan haoma 7 ; — Pava-
mäna 6.

somagopä (Agni) 90, lio.

somapfl 56.

somapävan 56.

Somä-pü^anä 126.

Somä-rudra 126.

somya 105, 109, 170.

Saudhanvana 13 [, 133.

SaQtrama^T 56.

saumya 112.

skambha u.

Skambha 14, 120.

Skambhana ll.

)/stan 108.

stanayitnu 83.

Smadjbha 146.

svadhä 170.

svapas 132.

! svayambhü 151.
I svar 31, 48.
' svaru- 154.

svarga 135.
I svarga loka 169, 171.

svardfS 127.
, svarbhänu 145, 160.

svarvat 161.

svarga 114.

svaha 170.

Hamsa 10 1, 148; — »Agni 89.
|/han 159, 160.
hari 55, 105.
haritah 30.
han 55, 132.
havyavah 96, 97.
havyavfthana 96, 97.
Hirai^yagarbha 13, 14;— «Pra-

japati 119.
hirariyaya 45.
hirai^yavartani 49.
Hirai;iyahasta 52.
hfd 166.

Hotarah (of the gods) 95.
hotr 96, 147; »s zaotar 7.
Holrä 87.

n

II. GENERAL INDEX.

Aborigines of India 153, 157.
agricttltural implements dei-

fied 155.
Abura 156; — Mazda 20, 28,

32. 45. 68.

alter ego 173.

Ame§a spentas 28.

Am^aspands 40.

agent gods S 38 (iiS— Ii8).

5-)fYeXo; 143.

ancestors 141, 142, 170.

ancestor-worsbip 4.

animal-sacrifice 154.

animalsy mytbological $ 59—
64(l47— 153); noxiousS64
152 — 3); symbolical 148.

antbropomorpbism 1 7, 88, 9 1 ,
104, 148 ; degrees of — 2.

ants 153, 165.

Apam napät 68, 70.

ape 163.

archer 116, 119, 137; as a
designation of Agni 89.

arcbers 74, 79.

Ardvi-äüra 113.

Armaiti 121.

armour 155.

arrows deified 155.

Äryan 161.

Äryans 157.

Aryas and Däsas 157, 159.

ascetic 134.

ass 151 ; — of the Aivins 50.

äsu 114.

asura-slaying 103.

Atar 7, 141.

athravan 141.

Äthwya 8, 43, 68, 114.

atmospheric gods 54 — 86.

attributes transferred 127. —

Aufrecht 173.

Aurora 8, 49.

avatär of Vi.snu 41.

Avesta 7, 20, 27, 28, 30, 31,
37» 40, 45. 49. 66, 68, 70,
87, 113, 114,117, 124, 127,
136,137,139,141, 152,156,
159, 164, 169, 172, 173;
its relation to Vedic mytho-
logy S 5 (7-8).

axe, of Brahmanas pati 116;
of Tva-^tf 116.

Azhi 152; — dahäka 68.

Bagha 7, 45.

balance, in which the dead

are weighed 169.
Barth 140, 154.
bear 144, 153.
beast 165.
bce 50.
beef 151.
Benfey 66, 81.
Bergaigne 26, 38, 43, 53, 61,

63, 74, 100, 107, 122, 123,

140, 145, 146, 147, 149. 151,

161.
Bird 139, 148, 149, 152, 163,

172; «Agni 89, 152, 165;

= Soma 106, 108, 152;

— sun 9, 31, 152.
Birds, aquatic 134, 135; as

steeds 50.
Bloomfield 74, 112, 173.
boar67, 75, 151; cosmogonic

— 14,41, 151; — Vrtra4i.
boars 79.

body in heaven 166.

bogu 45.

Bollensen 53.

bolt, Indra's 18.

bones, of Dadhyahc 142; of
the dead 165, 166.

bow 55; deified 155.

V. Bradke 64, 66, 149.

Brähman 13.

Brähmans, secret of II3.

Brahmanas 4, 5, 6, 13, 17,
25. 29, 31, 33, 37, 38, 39,
40, 41, 43, 44, 68, 69, 72,
76, 87, 92, 109, 111, 112,
117, 118, 119,124,125,130,
136,155,156,159,160,168,
169.

-Buddhist literature 154.

buffalo 18, 129.

buflfaloes 40, 41, 56, 106.

bull 75, 80, 83, 84, 125;
= Agni 88, 90, 92, 150;
= Dyaus 120, 150; ^Indra
150, connected with Indra
18; =Rudra 150; = Soma
106, loS; = sun 31 ; — in
mythology S 61 A (150).

buUs 56, 129.

burial 165.

Cake, offering of 56.
calf = Agni 89 ; = lightning
12, 150.

car, of the Aivins 50, 51, 52,
of Indra 55, of Usas 18,47,
of the gods 18; SS the sun
31 ; three-wheeled — 50.

castes, four 13.

cave 159, 160.

Cinvat bridge 173.

claw of the Soma eagle 112.

clothing of the dead 165.

cloud 88, 107, 112.

clouds 10, 59, 60, 78, 134,

cloud'Spirit 137.

COUNET 123.

commentators 124.

Comparative Mythology $ 6
(8).

cosmical functions of Vedic
gods 15.

cosmogonic hymns 13, 46.

cosmogonic paradox 12, 46.

Cosmogony S 8 fii — 14).

Cosmology S 7 (8—11).

cow 56, 70, 78, 82, 122, 124,
125, 148; »» Aditi 122;
=■ PfthivI 126; s=s raincloud
10, 12, 150; sacrificial —
165; sanctity of — 151 ;

— ofPlenty 150; — of Rbhns
132; — in mythology 150;
raw — 62.

cows 10, 107, 116, 141, 142,
144, 147, 152, 157, 159, 161,
1 68 ; « beams of dawn 5 9,6 1 ,
150; aa waters 59,61, 108;

— of light 47, of Vala 102.
craft 156.

cremation 165.
cymbals 134.

Dahäka 69.

D ARMESTETER 70.

Dawn 14, 15, 30, 45; asso-
ciated with Aditi 122, with
cows 61, with Indra 61,
with night 129; her car 18.

dawns 138.

dead, souls of the 163, 164.

death l6S.

deities, lower 131 — 138; agri-
cultural 138; tutelary S 49

(138).
deluge 139.
demons 4, 18, 152, 156— 164;

— of the mountains 6a
descent of fire 140.

n. General Index.

187

OIOK 121.

devil 156, 1S9-
dew 148.
dicc 135.
Ato€ xoOpot 53.
dog 151; four-eyed — 173.
dogs 163, 173; — ofRudra76.
donkeys 163.
doors, sacrificial 154.
dnij 8, 164.
dnim, deified 155.
dual divinities 544(126— 130),
15--16.

Eagle 71, 104, 111,113, 137,
148; = Agni 89, 112;
«Indra 112, 152; ==Ma-
ruts 112; = sun 31; car-
ries ofrSoma63, 112» 152;

— of Zeus 114,

Earth 15, 121; is circular 9;

as a mother 8, 12.
east, connected with Agni

34 ; as region of the gods 76.
*HIXio; 32.
egg» cosmogonic 14.
clbc 133.
elephants 58, 79.
elf 133.
elves 134.
'Hib; 8, 49.
epenthesis 137.

Epic 39, 149» 153, 172.
Epics 119, 121, 137.
eschatalogy 165 — 173.
eternity of reward and punish-

ment 169.
etymological equations in my-

thology 5.
etymology, populär 157.
evtl dreams 47.
evil spirits 47.
extra- Vedic tribes 156.
eye «« sun 38; associated

with the sun 166; — of

Mitra and Varuna 23, 149;

— of the gods (-a sun) 48.

Father Heaven 22.

Fathers ii, 12, 48, 86, 136,
165, 166, 167, 170; as a
distinct class 171 ; path of
the — 171.

feather of the Soma eagle 112.

fcUy =3 the sun 31.

fetishistic animals 148.

fetishistic worship 154.

fiend 158.

fingers iii.

fire 15; domestic — 94.

fire-altar 155.

fire-cult 7.

fire-drill 91.

fires that bum the wicked 167.

fish 41» 139«
ilesh-eating goblins 163.

flood 41; Indo-Iranian 139.

flute 168, 172.

forest, deified 154.

forts, autumnal 158.

fort-destroyer 109; 127.

FoY 149.

friction, fire produced by 91.

frogs 83, 151.

funerals 165.

future life 165, 171.

Gandarewa 8, 136, 137.

Ganges 134.

garland 148.

Geldner 53, 138.

gern = the sun 31.

Gemini 53.

Germanic mythology 152.

ghee 107, 168, 172; = rain 25.

goat 74, 1 5 1 ; sacrificial — 1 65 ;
skin of — 165.

goats 128; — of Pa^an 35.

goblins 162.

god of battle 54.

gods 5; abode of the — 18;
abstract— 115 — 123; — and
Asuras 156; — and Dasyus
157; — and demons 40;
equipment of the — i8;
food of — 18; generations
of — 17; gradation in rank
of — 20; groups of — S45
(130); number of — 19;
offspring of Vivasvat 42;
origin of — S 9 (14); re-
lative importance of — 20 ;
— come to the sacrifice 18.

gold = sun 155.

Goldstücker 53.

grain, offering of 56.

Grassmann 73, 77, 87, 149.

Great Bear 144.

groups of gods 5.

Hau 158.

Haoma 43, 6S, 113, 114, 137-

Haraiti 113.

Haraqaiti 87.

Hardy69,7o,74, 88, 117, 123.

heaven S 73 (167); 150; as
abode of Soma in, 114;
highest — 165, 166, 167;
path to — 166, 167; — of
priests 168; as reward of
virtue 167; third — 167,
171.

Heaven and earth 1 1 6, 1 2 1 , 1 23,
154; distance between —
9, IG; as universal parents
8, 14, 15, 126.

Heavenly bliss S 74 (167—8).

Helena 53.

hell S 75 (169—170); 172,
173; darkness of — 169;
doctrine of — 1 68 ; torments
of — 169, 170.

henotheism 16 — 17.
Henry 74.

HlLLEBRANDT 26, 69, 70, 88,

100,104, 117, 118,124,173;

his lunar theory 113.
honey 102, 168; associated

with the A^vins 49, with

the waters 85.
Hopkins 53, 104, 153.
horns of Soma 108.
horse 132; head of a —

141, 149; — in mythology
S 60 (148—50); sacrificial —
165; »= sun 48.

horses of the ASvins 50.
j/^hu 114.
hukhratu 114.
hvare 31.

Ice 160.

identifications of different

gods 16.
idols 155.
ignis 99.
image 155.
Images 18.
immortality, acquired by the

gods 17; navel of — uo,
implements, deified 154.
inanimate objects, deification

of 2, 4.
incest 173.
Indo-European period 8, 20,

45, 66, 85, 169.
Indo-Iranian period 7, 20, 28,

43, 45» 66, 68, 70, 106,

113-114, 120, 127, 136,

143, 173.
Indus 86.

iron leg of Vi^palA 52.

Judgment 169.
Jupiter (planet) 103.

Kaegi 104, 117.
Kathenotheism 16.
KivTaupoc 137.
Kipßepo; 173.
Kuhn 39, 81, 117, 140.

Langlois 104.

Lettic myth 53.

life after death 4.

lightning 12, 15, 16, 56, 59,
61, 67, 69, 70, 73, 75» 76,
77, 78, 8i, 83, 84, 88, 90,
92, 112, 128, 134, 135, 140,

142, 149» 152, 158; as a
form of Agni 92, 93, 94;
associated with Soma 108.

lion 58, 79, 83, 90.
Ludwig 87, 117, 149.
lutes 134.

Magical effect of kindling
fire 98.

i88 in. Religion, WELTL. WissENSCH. u. Kunst ia. Vedic Mythology.

magical rites 8.
man and beast 153.
man-tigers 153.
Manes 172, 173.
Mannhaädt 53.
marriage processions 154.
Max Müller 16, 70, 87, 104»

123, 151.
mead, Indo-European 114.
measuring the earth li.
medu 114.

men and animals 148.
men, origin of 14.
messengcrs 143» 172, 173-
metamorphoses 1 34, 1 5 1 , 1 63.
metempsychosis, germ of 166.
meteor 163.
method in mythology S 4

(5-7).
\t.i^'j 114.

Meyer 81, 173.

milk 168; = rain 10, 80;

= water 86; ripe — 62.
milky way 88.
mirage 136.
mist 158.

Mithra 30, 37, 44, 127.
monkey 64, 151.
monotheism, a kind of 4;

polytheistic — 16, 17.
moon 31, 48, 69, 70, 73, 74,

88, 104, 108, 111, 118, 136,

137. 159» 173; = Soma
112; phases of the — 112,
125, 133, 134; waning of
the — 112.

morning star 53.

mortar and pestle 106; dei-
fied ISS.

mother earth 22, 88, 90.

mothers, Agni's two 91 ;
Waters as — 85.

mountain ■- cloud iii, 1S9.

mountains 135, 161 ; aerial —
lo; — deified IS4.

Mi'iR 123.

Myriantheus 53.

mythological conceptions, re-
lative ages of 20.

mythology, comparative S 6
(8); definition of — S 1 '»
characteristics of Vedic —
S 2 (2 — 3); post-Vedic —
86, 87.

myths, primaryand secondary
traits in 6.

Names, un-Aryan 162.

niggard 157.

night 12, 48; time of goblins
163; associated with morn-
ing 124.

north, region of Rudra 76.

north- east 171.

Odhin83,i52; as aneagleii4.

ogni 39.

Oldenberg 28, 34, 39, 43»

44» 53» 60, 70, 77, 92, 104,

117, 123, 149.
Oldham 87.
omen, birds and beasts of

152.
origin of various deities iden-

tical 3, 15.

Ornaments of the dead 165.

Oupavo;, 28, addenda, line 10.

owl IS 2, 163, 169. 172.

Pantheism 4, 13, 16, 1S4;

'ritualistic' — 154.
paradise, earthly 1 73 ; heaven-

ly 173.

paradox 12,46,91,121, 122.

Pärendi 124.

parentage, mythological appli-
cations of 11, 12.

Parsis 106.

Perkünas 84, addenda, line 31.

Perry 69.

phallic worship 155.

cpÄsY'jai 140.

pigeon 152, 172.

Pjschel 57, 58, 62, 69, 77,
123, 149.

plants 84» 154; deified IS4- <

points of the compass 9.

post-Vedic literature 102, 136, '
139» 142, 160, 163; — raytho- '
logyii8,i5S; — poetryiso;
— period 155; — Sanskrit
157; — Soma 112.

prehistoric notions about ani-
mals S 6s (153).

pressing-stones 10s» iio, 144,

154.
pressings of Soma 1 14.

priest, Atharvan 7, 141 ;

Adhvaryu 107; Hotf 7,96,

147.
priests and heroes, mythical

137—147.
Prometheus 72, 91.

punishment, future 169.

Puränas 39, 41, I19, 121.

Quail 52.

quiver, deified i SS-
Rain 24, 59, S^, 88; names

of — 81, n. 2.
rainbow 136, 137.
rain-cloud S^^ 85, 90; names

of — 83.
rain-clouds 60.
rain-god 85.
rain-waters 8s.
rays =* steeds of the sun 31.
rebirth 167, 168.
religion, defmition of S I (1).
retribution, doctrine of 168.

rivers, deified S33 (86—88);

154-
rock ^ cloud lii.

Roth 28, 44, 53» ^s, 69, 73,
87, 88, 104, 116, 123, 146,
149. 169, 173.

Sacrifice, attacked by goblins

163; celestial — 167.
sacrificial fire99; — fircs47;

— gifts 1 67, 1 68 ; — horse3S ;

— implements 1 54 ; — ladles
»55; — post 154.

.^atires on Brähmans isi>

Säyuzhdri 68.

Schmidt, JoH., addenda, L 10,

29.
V. Schroeder 70, 77, 81.
Semitic legend 139.
scrpcnt 72, 148, 152, IS 3,

158, 160, 16s; = Agni 89.
serpent-slayer 152, 1S3.
seven, hotrs 144; — priests

139» 144; — R§is 144, 167;

— Stars 144.

sheep 36; wool of — 106.
sin, pardoned by various gods

121.
sleep 172.
solar year 39.
solstitial festival IS 5.
soma-backed 11 o.
soma-drinker (Agni) 16.
soma-drinkers 127.
soma-eagle 69, 107, 114, 142,

152.
soma-strainer 106, iii.
soma vat 106.
son, figurative use of the word

12; — of strength 102 ; — of

waters 8s.
songi68,i72; — oftheAngiras-

es 142 ; — of the Maruts8o.
sorcerers 95.
Souls 72 (166— 167); — of the

dead 48, 81.
south, connected with the

Fathers 170, with Soma 34.
south-east 171.
Spiegel 70.
spirits, friendly 164; dark

World of evil — 167.
stallion 80.
Stars IG, 103, 112, 134, 136,

144, 167, 171.
steed i48;=Agni89;=light-

ning ISO; = Soma 108;

= sun 31.
steeds of Indra $^; of Apäni

napät 70.
Steps of Vi§nu 37, 38, 39.
stone, burning 156; = sun 31.
storm-cloud 12s.
storm-gods 81.
strainer, Soma 106, III.
stratagem of the gods is6.

II. General Index.

sun 15, 148; as a cosmogonic
agent 13; as a form of
Agni 93; daughterofthe —
53» 105. 108, 119; eye of
the — i6o; as abode of
the Fathers 167; coupled
with the moon 129, 173;
its whereabouts at night
10; restoration of the —
51, 53, 61; rising — 43,
137; stecds of the — 12;
wheel of the — 56, 63.

sun-bird 39, 136.

sunrise, Agni produced at 91.

sunset 155; unimportant in
Vedic worship 53.

sun-steed 136.

supersession of Varui^a by
Indra 28.

Sutlej 87.

Sütras 36, 75, 76, 119, 125,
152, 153, 155. 166, 168.

svan, golden 168.

symbolical steed 150.

Symbols 155. j

Temples, unknown in Kgveda
18. " !

ten fingers 105, 116, 122. '

ten maidens = fingers 91, 106.

terrestrial gods 86—114.

terrestrial objects deified 154.

third daily Soma pressing 132.

Thraetaona 68.

three Agnis 94; — classes of
beings 164; — daily invoca- 1
tionsii9,l20; — daily offer- ,
ings89; — daily Somapress-
ings 107; — earths 169;

— lakes of Soma 107, 139;

— sacrificial fires 94, 95 ; —
Soma-tubs 139;— worlds 4 1 .

three-headed demon 61, 64,
67,68, 160; — goblins 163.

three-wheeled car 132.

Thrita 8, 43, 68, 114.

thunder 59f 84 ; — of the Mar-
uts 80.

thunder-god 54.

thunderstorm 108.

Thwak§ 117.

time of the ASvins' appearing
50.

tortoise 41, 151, 153.

totemism 153.

track of death 165.

transmigration 166, 16S, 169.

tree, celestial 167.

trees 134, 154.

triad of gods 5, 19, 54, 69,
93; — of sacrificial god-
desses 87; — of worlds 9.

triple character of Agni 93.

Tf;(To; 69.

twin 172.

twins, Aivins 49; primaeval

173.
two births of Agni 94 ;

— classes of abstract gods

115; — eyes ■- sun and

moon 130.

Universe, mechanical produc-
tion of 11; three divisions
of 8, II, 14.

Upanisads 119, 167, 168.

Vadare 114.

Väraghna 152.

Vedic commentators 113.

Vedic gods, beneficent 18;
their character S 10 (15 —
19); classified 19 — 21; their
common features 15; their
number 17, 19; originally
mortal 17; subordinate to
one another 16.

Vedic mythology, sources of

S 3 (3—5).
verethra 159.

Verethraghna 8, 66, 150, 152.

verethrajan 114.

Vivanhvant 43, 114, 172.

Vouruka^a 137.

Vrtra-slayer 87, 98, 109, 152;

« Agni 16; -■ §un 31.

189

Ai-

Vrtra-slayers 127, 128;

vins 51.
Vrtra-slaying 6, 80.
vulture 152.
vultures 163.

Wallis 123.

water-nymph 15, 134, 137,

172.
Waters 10, 91, 116, 121, 126,

152, iS4t 158, 159. 161;

aerial 59; associated with

Agni 92; in cosmogony 14;

as mothers 12, 69, 85, 107;

purifying and healing 85,

son of — 12; as wives of

VarUEia 26.
Weapons, deified 155; — of the

d ead 1 65 ; — of the Maruts 79.
Weber 53, 77, 104, 140, 143,

169.
wedding hymn 35
wedding procession 134.
weddings 163.
were-wolf 153.
west, connected with Savitf 34.
wheel =■ sun 31, 155; — of

the sun 146 ; — of Vifpu 155.
Whitney 65.
widow-buming 165.
Wilson 77, 104.
wind 72.
wind-spirits 137.
wine 168.
winged steed 148.
Wodan 83.
wolf 52, 157.
wolves 75.

wood, cosmogonic ll.
world-giant 13, 15, 82.
world-soul 168.

Yima 43« »72, 173-
Yimeh 172, 173.

Zarathu^tra 7.
Ze6; 27.
Zimmer 87.

^

GRUNDRISS DER INDO-ARISCHEN PHILOLOGIE UND ALTERTUMSKUNDE

(ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDO-ARYAN RESEARCH)

BEGRÜNDET VON G. BÜHLER, FORTGESETZT VON F. KIELHORN,

HERAUSGEGEBEN VON H. LODERS UND J. WACKERNAGEL.

in. BAND, 6. HEFT.

^•^

VAISNAVISM, SAIVISM

AND MINOR RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS

BY

SIR R. G. BHANDARKAR

STRASSBURG

VERLAG VON KARL J. TRÜBNER

1913

Druck Ton Georg Reimer in Berlin W. 10

GRUNDRISS DER INDO-ARISCHEN PHILOLOGIE UND ALTERTUMSKUNDE

(ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDO-ARYAN RESEARCH)

BEGRÜNDET VON G. BOHLER, FORTGESETZT VON F. KIELHORN,
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON H. LUDERS UND J. WACKERNAGEL.

m. BAND, 6. HEFT.

VAISNAVISM, SAIVISM AND
MINOR RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS

BY

R. G. BHANDARKAR.

Part. I.
VAISNAVISM.
I. Introductory.

§ I. The old Vedic gods became indissolubly involved in the
elaborate and mechanical System of worship that had grown up.
Speculations as regards the appropriateness of the rules and modes
of worship and their efficacy as regards man*s good in this world
and the next became prevalent. But all this did not satisfy the
religious spirit of the people. Religious speculation of a more natural
Order came to be established about the close of the Hymn-period
and was continued into that of the Upani^ads. The various problems
about God, man and the world engaged the attention of many thinkers
and a variety of Solutions was arrived at. It is generally believed
that the Upani$ads teach a System of Pantheism; but a close examina-
tion will show that they teach not one, but various Systems of doctrines
as regards the nature of God, man and the world and the relations
between them. The religio-philosophic Systems of modern times,
which are mutually inconsistent, quote texts from the Upani$ads as
an authority for their special doctrines. These references to the
old books are correct in the most prominent cases, but when the ad-
vocates of the Systems force into other texts of an opposite nature a
meaning consistent with their own special doctrines, they are mani-
festly wrong. That the Upani§ads teach not one but various Systems
must follow from the fact that they are compilations just as the
Rgveda-Samhitä is. The speculations of the old seers were clothed
by them in words, and these were handed down orally and came to
form a large floating mass. When the idea of coUecting these specula-
tions arose, they were incorporated into books for the use of individual
Vedic schools. Hence it is that we find certain verses, passages and
whole sections occurring in one Upani$ad reproduced in another ').

No doubt, the idea of the immanence of God in the world is very

') See the passage about the superiority of Prä^a and other bodily elements which
occurs in ChU. (V, i, i) and in BU. (VI, i, i); that about the Pancai:nividy&
occurring in the former (V, 4,1) and the latter (VI, 2, 9); and that about proud B&l&ki
and Ajäta^tni which occurs in the KBU. (IV) and in BU. (II, i), and others (TU. II,
8 and BU. IV, 3, 33). As to the recunence of verses see MU., SU. and KU.
Indo-arische Philologie IIL 6. I

2 III. Religion, Welü. Wissensch. u. KunsL 6. Vaif^avism etc.

prominent in the Upani$ads. But if that is what constitutes Pan-
theism, the liberal religious thought of the present day in Europe
also must be regarded as Pantheistic. With the immanence of God
is associated his transcendence also, as stated in the Vedänta-SQtra
II, 1, 27^). In addition to these two doctrines theUpani§ads teach that
God is the protector of all beings, is the lord of all and dwells in the
heart of man, that seeing him as he is and everywhere is eternal bliss,
that this is to be attained by contemplation and the purification of the
soul, and that in the blissful condition the individual soul attains to
a perfect similarity with the supreme soul*). They also teach the
absorption of the individual soul into the supreme as of a river into
the ocean and the unconsciousness of the soul when everything but
himself fades away from his knowledge. In this respect the doctrine
may be regarded as Pantheistic or as setting forth the illusory cha-
racter of all phenomena. Speculation in the Upani$ad times was very
free and it veered round even to the denial of the soul as a substance 3).

In the subsequent development of religious thought and worship
these Upani$ad doctrines played an active part. The Henotheism, so
fuUy explained by Max Müller, and its ultimate result, the identification
of Üie various gods, also infiuenced later thinkers. The conception that
the supreme spirit manifests himself in various forms which we
find expressed in the Upani^ads is a development, in the opposite
direction, of the idea that one God, for instance Agni, is the same
as Varuoa, Mitra, Indra and Aryaman4). If these several gods
are one, one god may become several. This led to the conception of
Incarnations or Avatäras, which plays such a prominent part in the
later religious Systems.

But for ordinary people an adorable object with a more distinct
Personality than that which the theistic portions of the Upani^ads
attributed to God was necessary and the philosophic speculations did
not answer practical needs. Thus some of the old Vedic gods and
others, which were new, became the objects of worship.

II. The Rise of a New Theistic System.

§ 2. The tide of free speculations culminated in the east into
such Systems as those of Buddhism and Jainism and, though they
denied the existence of God as a creator or did not use the idea for
the promotion of righteousness, and the former practically denied the
existence of the human soul as a substance, still these Systems had the

>) See the passage quoted by Saipkaräcär^'a in his commentary on the Sütra.

*) Paramam sämyam upaiti. See MU. III, 1, 3. The opinion expressed by some
eminent scholars that the bürden of the Upani^ad teaching is the illusive character
of the World and the reality of one soul only, is manifestly wrong, and I may even
say, is indicative of an uncritical judgment. As stated in the text, the Upani$ads from
the very nature of the compilations cannot but be expected to teach not one, but many
Systems of doctrine.

3) See the passage from BU. III, a, 13, quoted in my paper "A Peep into the
Early History of India", Joum. Bombay Br. Roy. As. Soc. Vol. XX, p. 361.

RV. V, 3, 1—2.

II. The Rise of a New Theistic System.

needful personal element in the shape of their founders. In the west,
however, a theistic system with a god who had come to dwell among
men arose. The various religious Systems and superstitions that
prevailed in the fourth Century B. C. are given in the foUowing
passage, occurring in the Niddesa, which though of the nature of
a commentary is regarded as one of the books of the Päli Buddhistic
Canon'): "The deity of the layfollowers of theAjIvakas is theAjivakas,
of those of theNigha^thas is theNigha^thas, of those of the Jatilas (asce-
tics wearing long matted hair) is the Jafilas, of those of the Paribbäjakas
is the Paribbajakas, of those of the Avaruddhakas is the Avaruddhakas,
and the deity of those who are devoted to an elephant, a horse, a cow,
a dog, a crow, Väsudeva, Baladeva, PuQpabhadda, Mapibhadda, Aggi,
Nägas, Supappas, Yakkhas, Asuras, Gandhabbas, Mahärajas, Canda,
Suriya, Inda, Brahma, Deva, Disä is the elephant, the horse, the cow,
the dog, the crow, Väsudeva, Baladeva, Puppabhadda, Maoibhadda,
etc., respectively." Here a Buddhist who cannot but be expected
to show scant courtesy to religious Systems other than his own, places
the worshippers of Väsudeva and Baladeva on the same level with
those of fire, moon, sun and Brahma, and even elephants, crows, dogs,
etc. But the worship of Väsudeva was destined to become the prc-
dominant religion of a large part of India even to the supersession of
that of fire, sun, moon and Brahma and, of course, of the superstitious
adoration of the lower animals. And it will be now our duty to trace
its rise and progress.

§ 3. In his comment on Papini IV, 3, 98, Patafijali distinctly
States that the Väsudeva contained in the SQtra is the name of the
"worshipful", i. e. of one who is pre-eminently worshipful, i. c. God*).
The worship of Väsudeva must be regarded to be as old as Papini.

In an inscription found at Ghosupdi inRSjputanaS) which unfor-
tunately is in a mutilated condition, the construction of a wall round
the hall of worship of Saipkar^aoa and Väsudeva is mentioned. From
the form of the characters in the inscription it appears to have been
engraved at least two hundred years B. C.

In another inscription recently discovered at Besnägar4), Heliodora
represents himself to have erected a Garudadhvaja or a column with
the image of Garuda at the top in honour of Väsudeva, the god of
gods. Heliodora calls himself a Bhagavata , was the son of Diya, was
a native of Tak$aSila and is spoken of as an ambassador of the Yavana
and as such came on a political mission from Amtalikita to Bha-
gabhadra who must have mied over Rastern Malwa. In this
inscription occurs the name Aiptalikita which in all likelihood is
the same as Antialkidas of the Bactro-Greek coins. This name as
well as the form of the characters show that it belongs to the earlier
part of the second Century before the Christian era. At that time
Väsudeva was worshipped as the god of gods and his worshippers

■) This passage has been fiimished to me by Mr. Dhannanand Kosambi.

*) See JRAS. 1910, p. 168.

3) Lttders, List of B^hml Inscriptions, No« 6.

4} Ibid. No. 669.

4 IIL Religioii, WdtL Wissensch. o. Kanst 6. VaifpaTism etc.

were called Bhägavatas. The Bhägavata religion prevaQed in the
nortbwestem part of India and was adopted even by the Greeks.

In the inscription No. I in the large cave atNSnaghaf), the names
of Sainkar^a^a and Väsudeva, in a Dvandva Compound, occur along
with those of other deities in the opening invocation. This inscrip-
tion appears from the form of the characters to belong to the first
Century before the Christian era.

In the passage in the Mahäbha^a in which Patanjali, to account
for the appearance of the name Väsudeva in P. IV, 3, 98, says that
this is not the name of a K$atriya, but that of the Worshipful One, the
question to be considered is whether Patafijali means this VSsudeva
to be quite unconnected with the Väsudeva of the Vr§pi race. From
the occurrence of the names Väsudeva and Baladeva close to each
other in the passage from the Niddesa referred to above, and that of
Samkar^a^a and Väsudeva as worshipful or divine persons in a Dvandva
Compound in two of the three above inscriptions, it appears that the
Väsudeva referred to by Patanjali as the Worshipful One must be the
Väsudeva of the Vf^pi race. But to account for the appearance of the
name in the SQtra, though the required form can be made up in ac-
cordance with the next Sütra (P. IV, 3, 99), Patafijali says that Päpini
looks at Väsudeva in his capacity as a divine person and not as a
K$atriya. One must take it in this sense, since the Ghosup^i inscription
noticed above, in which Samkar^apa and Väsudeva are associated
as worshipful persons, must be older than Patafijali himself. Besides,
Patafijali begins the discussion of the Sutra by first taking Väsudeva
as the name of a K$atriya and raising an objection against it. This
objection is answered in one way, Väsudeva being still regarded as a
K$atriya, and it is only optionaUy that he gives another explanation,
that that name is not the name of a K$atriya, but of a divine person.
This optional explanation given in the last resort must, therefore, be
understood in the sense given above. And from all the accounts of
the Bhägavata school contained in the whole literature it is clear that
the worshipful Väsudeva belonged to the Vr§pi race.

m. Analysis of the Närayaniya Section of the

Mahabharata.

§ 4. Having thus established on irrefragable evidence the existence
during the three or four centuries before Christ of a religion with
Väsudeva as its central figure and of a school of his foUowers known
by the name of Bhägavata, I will now proceed to examine the detailed
accounts contained in the literature and especially in the MahäbhSrata.
This was not done before, because the date of the Mahäbhärata or
any portion of it cannot be ascertained with any approach to certainty.
The NäräyaQiya section of the 6äntiparvan, to which we shall devote
a detailed consideration, is, however, older than Samkaräcärya who
quotes from it.

') n>id. No. II 12.

III. Analysis of the Naiflya^Iya Section of the Mah&bhirata.

Narada is represented to have gone to the BadarikaSrama to see
Nara and Näräyaoa. The latter was engaged in the Performance of
religious rites. Närada asked Näräyapa whom he worshipped, while
he himself was the Supreme Lord. Näräyapa told him that he
worshipped his original Prakrti (form), the source of all that is and
that is to be. Nara and NSräyaoa as well as Kr^pa and Hari, sons of
Dharma, are represented as the four forms of the Supreme.

Närada flies into the sky to see that original Prakrti and alights
on a peak of Meru. There he saw white men without senses, not eating
anything, sinless, with heads like umbrellas, making a sound like that
of thundering clouds and devoted to Bhagavat. Then Yudhi§thira
asks Bhi$ma who those people were, and how they came to be what
they were. Bhi^ma teils the story of the king Vasu Uparicara, who
worshipped God according to the Sätvata Vidhi (form of ritual). He
was a glorious king honoured by Indra, devoted to truth and holy.
The best of the learned in the Päficarätra System were honoured with
the first seat at dinner by him. The narrator then proceeds to mention
the CitraSikhap^ins, who appear to be the original promulgators of this
religion. The mountain Meru was the place where they revealed it.
They were scven, consisting of Marlci, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha,
Kratu, and Vasi^tha. The eighth was Sväyaipbhuva. From these
eight emanated this excellent Sästra. This they promulgated in the
presence of the great Bhagavat, who said to the ?^§is: **You have com-
posed a hundred thousand excellent ^lokas (stanzas), which contain
rules for all the affairs of men and are in harmony with Yajus, SSman,
^c, and Atharvängiras, and lay down precepts about the religion of
action as well as that of contemplation or repose. I created Brahman
from my peaceful and Rudra from my wrathful nature. This ^Sstra
will be handed down from person to person until it reaches Brhaspati.
From Brhaspati the king Vasu will obtain it. The king will follow
this ^ästra and will become my devotee. After his death this ^ästra
will be lost." Telling all this the great god disappeared. Then the
CitraSikhapdins spread the religion until it reached Brhaspati. Then
theoldKalpahaving endedand theson of Angiras, the priest of the gods,
being born, the gods were happy. The king Vasu Uparicara was
his first pupil. He learned this Sästra from Brhaspati. At one time
he brought forward an extensive horse-sacrifice, hut no animal was
killed on the occasion. The oblations were devised in accordance with
the words of the Ära^yakas. The god of gods showed himself to Vasu
and accepted his oblation, but was unseen by anybody. eise. Since
the oblation was taken away by Hari without -showing himself to
Brhaspati, the latter got angry and dashed upwards the sacrificial
ladle. At that sacrifice, Ekata, Dvita, and Trita, sons of Prajäpati,
and sixteen ?^§is, many of whom are now known as the authors of
literary works, such as Medhätithi, Tittiri, and Top^ya, are represented
to have been present. When Brhaspati was angry, they all said that
the great Hari was not to be seen by any man at random, büt by one
who was favoured by his grace. Ekata, Dvita and Trita said: **0n one
occasion we went to the north for the attainment of etcmal bliss near
the milky ocean and practised austerities for four thousand years and

6 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vaifpavism etc.

at the end a voice in the air declared: 'Well, how can you see that
great Lord? In the milky ocean there is a white island where there
are men possessing the lustre of the moon, who are the devotees of
the god, possess no senses, do not eat anything and being devoted
solely to the god (Ekäntin or monotheistic) are absorbed in him,
who is bright like the Sun. Go to that island; there shines my
soul'. Accordingly we went to the white island, and, dazzled by
the light of that being, were not able to see him. Then the truth
flashed upon us that the god cannot be seen by us unless we have
gone through austerities. After further austerities for a hundred
years we saw the men of the lustre of the moon with their minds
fuUy absorbed in the contemplation of God. The refulgence of each
man was like that of the sun on the last day. Then we heard
a sound: *Jitam te Pupdarlkäk$a* etc. (Triumphant art thou, Lotus-
eyed one). A short time after a voice in the air declared: *Go you
away as you came. That great being is not to be seen by one who is
not devoted to him*. Then we returned without being able to see
him. How then will you be able to see him?" Having heard this
from Ekata, Dvita and Trita, Brhaspati finished the sacriüce.

Vasu Uparicara had to live in a hole in the earth on account of the
curse of the^$is, who in a controversywith the gods maintained that no
animal should be sacrificed, but only vegetable grain, while the gods
contended that a goat should be sacrificed. The question was referred
to Vasu who declared in favour of the gods. Vasu was raised from
the hole by Näräyapa, whom he had devotedly worshipped, by sending
his Garuda to lift him up. He was thence taken to the Brahma world.

The Story of Närada's visit to Svetadvipa is then continued.
He praises the great being by uttering names expressive of his purity
and grandeur, and the great being then manifested himself to him,
saying that he was not to be seen by one who was not solely devoted
to him (Ekäntin) and that, as Närada was such a one, he showed
himself to him. He then proceeds to explain to him the religion of
Väsudeva. Väsudeva is the supreme soul, the internal soul of all
souls. He is the supreme creator. All living beings are represented
by Samkar§a]tia, who is a form of Väsudeva. From Saipkar^apa sprang
Pradyumna, the mind, and from Pradyumna Aniruddha, self-con-
sciousness. **Those who are devoted to me enter into me and are
released." The great being calls the four mentioned above his forms
(Mürtis). The production of one form from another is also mentioned;
all these forms are, however, styled his forms (Mürtis). He then
proceeds to mention the creation of gods and all other things by him-
self and their final dissolution into himself. Then are mentioned his
incarnations (Avatäras), viz. Varäha, Narasimha, the oppressor of
Bali, Räma of the Bhrgu race and destroyer of the K^atriyas, Räma
DäSarathi, and "he, who will come into existence for the destruction
of Kaipsa at Mathurä and after having killed many demons will finally
settle at Dvärakä'*. In this manner having done all things by his four
Mürtis, he destroyed Dvärakä with the Sätvatas and went to Brahmaloka.
After Närada had heard this from the supreme Näräyapa, he returned
to BadarikäSrama.

.III. Analysis of the Naiftya^iya Section of the MahäbhBrata. 7

What follows at the end of chapter 339 and in the next four
chapters has little bearing on our subject, except that in one of them
the etymological sense of Väsudeva is given as one who Covers the
whole World and is the resting-place (adOiiväsa) of all beings.

In chapter 344 the path of those who are free from sin is given
thus: — The sun is the gate, and after entrance all their material im-
purities being bumt, they remain as atoms in him; then released
from him, they enter into the Aniruddha form and, becoming mind,
enter into the Pradyumna form. Leaving that form, they enter into
that of Saipkar^aQa, i. e. the form of the individual soul (Jlva). After-
wards being free from the three GuQas, they enter into the Supreme
Soul, who exists everywhere and who is Väsudeva. In chapter
346 VaiSampäyana relates to Janamejaya that the Dharma which
Närada got from *the Lord of the world' Näräya^a himself in
all its details and peculiarities, was explained briefly to him (Jana-
mejaya) in the Harigltä. In chapter 348 this Ekäntika Dharma is re-
presented to be the same as that which was communicated to Arjuna
at the beginning of the war. At the creation of each Brahma this
Dharma was revealed by Näräya^ia, and then at the end of the Brahma
it was lost. In the account of the fourth Brahma the Dharma revealed
is twice called Sätvata. In this manner it goes on up to the present
or the seventh Brahma, in which that Dharma was first communicated
to Pitämaha, and from him it passed in succession to Dak$a, his
grandson, the eldest Äditya, Vivasvat, Manu and Ik^väku. Later on
it is stated that this original great eternal Dharma, difficult to be
known and to be foUowed, is professed by the Sätvatas.

This Dharma is associated with the non-slaughter of animals
(Ahimsä), andwhen properly exercised, the lordHari is pleased with it.
Sometimes one Vyüha or form of the Lord is taught and sometimes
two, three or four. VaiSampäyana winds up by saying that he has thus
explained the Ekäntadharma.

§ 5. Here we have two accounts, the second of which is inter-
woven with the first. The former, however, appears to relate to a
more ancient condition of things. The points to be noticed are these:

1. At the sacrifice instituted by Vasu Uparicara no animals were killed.

2. The oblations were devised in accordance with the teachings of the
Äraigiyakas which include the Upani§ads. 3. The chief deity was the
God of gods, who is also called Hari. 4. This Hari or God of gods is
not to be seen by one who follows the sacrificial mode of worship,
such as Brhaspati did, nor by persons who practise austerities for
thousands of years, as Ekata, Dvita and Trita did, but by one who
worships Him with devotion, as Vasu Uparicara did. Here then is an
attempt to introduce a religious reform on more conservative prin-
ciples than Buddhism and Jainism did. The repudiation of the slaughter
of animals and the inefficacy of sacrificial worship and austerities are
common to this religious reform with Buddhism. But that the supreme
lord Hari is to be worshipped with devotion and the words of the
Arapyakas are not to be rejected, are doctrines which are peculiar to
it. Vasu Uparicara's story goes so far only.

In the main account, according to which Närada visited the white

8 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vai^ayism etc.

Island, we have a reassertion of the doctrine that the Supreme Soul
can be seen by one who worships him with devotion. The great Närä-
ya^a manifests himself to him and explains the religion of Väsudeva
and his three other forms (Vyühas). He also mentions the future
incarnations of Väsudeva, and one of these is that assumed at Mathurä
for the destruction of Kamsa. The Supreme Näräya^a identifies him-
self with Väsudeva in his four forms fVyühas). At the end it is stated
that the religion is foUowed by the Sätvatas.

These two accounts seem to represent two stages in the pro-
gress of reform. In the earlier one the worship of Väsudeva and
his three other forms is not known. The Supreme God is named
Hari, and his worship has not thoroughly emancipated itself from the
religion of sacrifices. The reform had no reference to specific histo-
rical personages and was promulgated by certain sages who are called
CitraSikhaigicjins and whose names had been handed down by tradition.
The later account connects the reform with Väsudeva and his brother,
son and grandson, and the new religion is represented to have been
identical with that taught in the Bhagavadgltä. This reformed System
is Said to have been promulgated by Näräya^a himself. It thus
appears that the idea of a religion of devotion arose in earlier times,
but it received a definite shape when Väsudeva revealed the Gitä
to Arjuna, and led to the formation of an independent sect when
his brother, son and grandson were associated with him as his forms
presiding over certain psychological categories or as persons created
by him for the purpose. That sect became conterminous with the
race of the Sätvatas. We have now to consider who these Sätvatas
were.

IV. The Sätvatas and their Religion.

§ 6. In the Ädiparvan Väsudeva addressing the Vr§ois says
that Pärtha does not think them who are Sätvatas to be covetous.
Väsudeva is called Sätvata in Adip. 21 8, 12; Kftavarman in Ädip.
221, 31 ; Sätyaki in Dro^ap. 97, 36; and Janärdana in Udyogap. 70, 7. At
the end of chap. 66 of the Bhl§maparvan Bhl^n.asays: "Thisetemal
god, mysterious, beneficent and loving should be known as Väsu-
deva, and Brähma^ias, K§atriyas, VaiSyas and Südras worship him
by their devoted actions. At the end of the Dväpara and the be-
ginning of the Kali age, he was sung or expounded by Samkar^apa
according to the Sätvata rites (Vidhi). At the end of chap. 12 of thethird
book of the Vi§ou-Puräoa it is stated in the account of the genealogy of
the Yädavas and the Vr^^is that Sätvata was the son of AmSa, and
all his descendants were after him called Sätvatas. The Bhägavata
represents the Sätvatas as calling the highest Brahman Bhagavat and
Väsudeva (IX, 9, 49) and having a peculiar mode of worshipping him.
It mentions the Sätvatas along with the Andhakas and Vr§ois, which
were Yädava tribes (I, 14, 25; III, l, 29), and calls Väsudeva Sät-
vatar^abha (X, 58, 42; XI, 27, 5). In Patanjali under P. IV, i, 114
Väsudeva and Bäladeva are given as derivatives from Vr^^i names

IV. The Sitvatas and their Religion.

in the sense of sons of Väsudeva and Baladeva. Instances given by
the KäSikä of the same are Väsudeva and Äniruddha. Hera Äniruddha
means the son of Äniruddha, and therefore Väsudeva must mean the
son of Väsudeva and not of Väsudeva, as will appear from what
foUows. In the latter work under P. VI, 2, 34 Sini-Väsudeväb is
given as a Dvandva of royal Vr$Qi names, each of them being in the
plural, and Saipkar$aigia - Väsudevau as a Dvandva of royal Vf^pi
names, each being in the Singular, so that Väsudeva means both
the individual of that name and his sons.

From all this and such other passages from Patafijali it will appear
that Sätvata was another name of the Vr§9i race of which Väsudeva,
Samkar^a^a, and Äniruddha were members, and that the Sätvatas had
a religion of their own according to which Väsudeva was worshipped
as the Supreme Being, and thus the account given above from the
Näräyaplya is amply confirmed.

§ 7. It therefore appears that this religion of devotion to Väsu-
deva ascends as high into antiquity as PäiDiini himself. As I have
mentioned elsewhere, theK§atriyas engaged themselves in active specu-
lations on religious matters about the time of the Upani$ads ') and are
mentioned even as the original possessors of the new kowledge. Sid-
dhärtha and Mahävira fouhded in this period of intellectual fermen-
tation new Systems of religion in the east or the Magadha country
which discarded or passed over in silence the doctrine of the existence
even of God and laid down self-abnegation and a course of strict moral
conduct as the way to salvation. They belonged to the Säkya and
Jnätrka races of K^atriyas, and Buddhism and Jainism might be con-
sidered to be the religions of those tribes. The west, however, was
not so radical in its speculations, and the race of Sätvatas developed a
System of religion which took up the ideas of a Supreme God and
devotion to him as the mode of salvation. These Sätvatas and the
worship of Väsudeva-Kr§9a seem clearly to be alludedtoby Megasthenes,
who was the Macedonian ambassador at the court of Candragupta,
the Maurya. Candragupta reigned in the last quarter of the fourth
Century B. C. The Statement of Megasthenes is that Herakles
was specially worshipped by the Sourasenoi, an Indian nation, in
whose land are two great cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and through
it flows the navigable river Jobares. The Sourasenoi were the Süra-
senas, a tribe of K§atriyas, who lived in the region in which was situ-
ated Mathurä, corresponding to Methora in the above passage, and in
which flowed the river Jobares, which has been identified with the
Jumna or Yamunä. If the Väsudeva- Kr§9a worship prevailed in the
time of the first Maurya, it must have originated long before the estab-
lishment of the Maurya dynasty, and my assertion that it owes its
origin to the stream of thought which began with the Upani§ads and
culminated in the east in Buddhism and Jainism, and arose about the
time of the latter, is confirmed.

The name expressive of the Supreme Spirit was, however, in the

I) Verhandlungen des VII. Internat. Orientalisten-Congresses zu Wien. Ar. Sect.,
pp. 108-9.

10 lU. Religion, WeltL Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vaif^ayism etc.

early period Väsudeva alone. In the passage from the Niddesa and
the three inscriptions Väsudeva is the name that occurs.

In the Bhagavadgltä (VII, 19) it is stated that "He who possesses
knowledge gives himself up to me, believing Väsudeva to be all." Even
in the Bhägavata Mantra of twelve syllables which is usually repeated
at the present day and which is mentioned by Hemädri, it is to Väsu-
deva that obeisance is made '). In Bhl^map. chap. 65 Brahmadeva,
addressing the Supreme Spirit (Puru§a ParameSvara), entreats him to
become the increaser of the Yadu race and then, referring apparently
to a foregone age, he says: **0 Väsudeva, this greatsecret Ihavecom-
municated to thee through thy favour as it really is. Having created
thyself as the God Samkar§a9a, thou didst procreate thy son Pradyumna,
He created Aniruddha who is Vi^ijiu himself, and he created me (Brah-
madeva) who am made up of Väsudeva and created by thee. Dividing
thyself in this way, be bom as a human being again." In the be-
ginning of chapter 66 of the same Parvan Prajäpati speaks of himself
as having asked the supreme lord of all to dwell in the world of men
as Väsudeva (to become incamate). This Supreme Spirit should, it
is said, be known as Väsudeva, and throughout the chapter that name
alone is used in speaking of the eternal God. The substance of these
two chapters seems to be that in a former age the Supreme Spirit Väsu-
deva created Saipkar^a^a and the rest up to the Brahma himself,
and on the present occasion the latter asked him again to be bom in
the Yadu race as Väsudeva, dividing himself into four parts as on the
previous occasion. Thus Väsudeva was the name of the teacher of
the religion of devotion, and there appears to be an implication here
that he existed with the other three in a previous age. Even as a
member of the Vr§igii race the name Väsudeva occurs in the examples
quoted above from the Mahäbhä$ya and KäSikä and no other. In
the passages quoted by me in my article on "Allusions to Kr$Qa etc.'*
(Ind. Ant. Vol. III, pp. I4ff.) the name Kr?9a occurs three times,
Väsudeva in three passages and Janärdana in one. But in Kielhom's
edition of the Mahäbhä$ya, which is more accurate than the Benares
edition which I then used, the reading Kr§9a in two of the three places
is supported by one manuscript only and Väsudeva occurs instead of
Kr§9a in one of the two places and the other is entirely omitted, so
that Väsudeva is used four times and Kr?pa only once. In the Bhagavad-
gltä (X, 37) the Bhagavat says that of the Vr§i?is he is Väsudeva. In
the Buddhist Ghatajätaka the two eldest sons of Upasägara and De-
vagabbhä are named Väsudeva and Baladeva. In the prose narrative
no other name is given, but the names Ka^ha and Kesava occur in
the Verses that are interwoven with the prose. The commentator re-
marks on the first verse that he is there addressed by his Gotra name
Ka^ha, forhe belonged to the Ka^häyana Gotra, thus showing his belief
that Väsudeva was the true proper name of the person. This belief
he expresses again in his commentary on a verse occurring in the
Mahäummaggajätaka, in which Jambäväti is mentioned as the beloved
queen of Väsudeva Kapha. Here also Väsudeva is mentioned as

I) Vratakhap^a (Bibl. Ind.) p. 225. The Mantra is Om namo BhagavcUe VänuUväya,

IV, The Sätvatas and their Religion. II

belonging to the Ka^häyana Gotra, and from the verse itself, in
which Väsudevassa Ka^hassa occurs, it would appear that Ka^ha
was the family name, the sense being Väsudeva, die Kapha, so that
the author of the verse itself would seem to regard Väsudeva as the
proper name of the individual, and thus he and the prose narrative
agree.

§ 8. Thus then Väsudeva appears to be a proper name and not a
patronymic, and when the Väsudeva religion or the Bhägavata school
took its rise, that was the name by which the SupremeDeity wasknown.
The conception of Väsudeva as his father must have arisen afterwards,
as appears to me from the example Väsudevalji given in the Mahäbhä-
^a in the sense of **son or descendant of Väsudeva", and not **of Väsu-
deva", as must be inferred from the analogous instante of Bäladeva
from Bäladeva. Bäladeva was associated with Väsudeva and not with
Väsudeva. Kr??^} Janärdana, and KeSava do not appear to be Vr§i3ii
names and were given to Väsudeva in subsequent times when his
worship had widely spread. All these three occur in Patafijali also,
but the two latter only once so far as I know. But of these the
name Kr§9a is more important than the other two and many others
that are used. It appears to be as much a proper name as Väsu-
deva, though the latter has a religious signification specially atta-
ched to it. How then did this name Kr^pa come to be used? It
was the name of one of the Vedic ?§is, the composer of hymn 74
of the eighth Mapdala. He speaks of himself as Kr$Qa in verses 3
and 4 of the hymn. The author of the Anukrama^il calls him an
Ängirasa or descendant of A^giras. In the KB. (XXX, 9) apparently
the same Kr$9a Ängirasa is alluded to and is represented to have
*seen' the evening libation in its connection with the Brähma^ä-
cchaipsin priest. Kr^oa occurs in a Ga^a attached to P. IV, i, 96.
In the Ga^ia connected with P. IV, i, 99 Kr§oa and Rapa are repre-
sented to form the Gotra names Kär^päyana and Rä^äyana, these
mere Brähma^a Gotras falling under the group of Väsi^has. The
former is the Gotra alluded to by the commentator on the verses
in the Jätakas noticed above. But he apparently does not confine
it to the Brähma^a class. Then the name Kr99a as the son of DevakI
occurs in the Chändogya-Upani§ad (III, 17). He was the pupil of
Ghora, who was an Ängirasa. If Kr$9a was also an Ängirasa, which
is not improbable, it must be inferred that there was a tradition about
Kr^^a as a sage from the time of the ß.gvedic hymns to the time of the
Chändogya-Upani$ad, and about a Gotra of the name of Kär^igiäyana,
which literally means collection of Kr§9as, of which the original Kr§pa
was the founder. This tradition gave rise tothe identification of the sage
Kr$Qa with Väsudeva, when he was raised to the rank of the supreme
deity. Just as the name Janamejaya, the son of Parik§it, which occurs
in the AB., was in subsequent times used as the name of the person
to whom the Mahäbhärata was narrated and a genealogy was given
to him from Arjuna, the Päijdava, so it is possible that Väsudeva was
identified with the sage Kr$9a and a genealogy given to him in the
Vr§^i race through Süra and Väsudeva. Perhaps the best explanation
of the fact of Väsudeva having been called Kr§9a is that given by the

12 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. a. Kunst 6. Vaif^arism etc.

commentator of the Gsthäs or verses of the Jätakas, supported, as
it appears to me, by the author of the Gäthäs himself, that Krwa
was a Gotra name. The Gotra Kär^päyana which corresponds to
Ka^häyana is not only mentioned as a BrähmaiDia Gotra belonging
to the Väsißtha group in the Gaqa alluded to above, but is stated
to have belonged to the PäräSara subdivision of that group in the
MatsyapuräQa(ch.200)'). Though this was a Brähma^a and Pära^ara
Gotra, it could be assumed for sacrificial purposes by a K$atriya, for
according to Ä^valäyana (Sr. S.XII, 15) the Gotra and the ancestors
invoked of the K§atriyas are those of their priests or chaplains,
and* the only ?^§i ancestors that all the K§atriyas have, are Mänava,
Aüa and Paurüravasa. The names of these do not distinguish one
K§atriya family from another and, to answer the purposes of such a
distinction, the Gotra and ancestors of the priest are assumed.
Väsudeva therefore belonged to the Kär^^äyana Gotra, though it
was a Brähmapa and PäraSara Gotra, and as belonging to this Gotra
he could be called Kr§9a by name. Having come to be known by
that name, all the traditions about the learning and spiritual insight
of the old Kr$9a and also of his being the son of Devaki were en-
grafted on him, and thus in the Sabhäparvan 38 Bhl$ma says that
one of the two reasons for giving the highest honours to Kr$Qa was
that he possessed the knowledge of the Vedas and dependent treatises
(Vedängas), and that he was also a sacrificial priest (ß.tvij). The
Hindu habit of thought of identifying one god with others by regar-
ding the latter either as forms or incarnations of the former and thus
evolving monotheism out of polytheism led to the identification of this
Väsudeva with other gods and with the boy Krsigia of Gokula. These
we will notice later on.

§ 9. In the Näräya^iya we have an explanation of the Bhägavata
or Päficarätra system. This System also we will notice in its ripened
form later. In the meanwhile we will turn our attention to the State-
ment that the Ekäntika - Dharma founded by Väsudeva has been
explained in the Harigitä and on the occasion when the armies of the
Kurus and the Pä^davas stood face to face and Arjuna lost heart.
The allusion is of course to the Bhagavadgltä.

This passage is noticed in the Bhaktisütra 83 and its commentary,
in which it is stated that Ekäntabhäva (which is the subject of the
Näräya^iya), or devotionto one only, is Bhakti. alone, since the former
is recognised in that passage as identical with the main topic of the
Bhagavadgltä. But the Bhagavadgltä contains no allusion to the
Vyühas or forms of the Supreme, Samkar§aQa and others, while the
latter form a characteristic of the Bhägavata school. The Gitä, how-
ever, mentions as the Prakftis of Väsudeva the five Clements, the
mind, Buddhi or knowledge, and egoism as well as Jiva (VII, 4, 5).
The last is identified with Samkar§ai?a in the Bhägavata system,
egoism with Aniruddha, and mind, with which probably Buddhi is
associated, with Pradyumna. What appears to be the fact is this:
The Bhagavad^tä was composed before the doctrines of the Bhäga-

') Quoted also in Puru^ottama's Pravaramanjari, Mysore edition.

IV. The SBtvatas and their Religion. I3

vata school were reduced to a System, and it was then that the three
of the Prakrtis of the Supreme were personifiied into Samkar^a^a,
Pradyumna and Aniruddha, who were members of the family of Väsu-
deva. In the prevalent worship, however, Samkar^apa alone is found
associated with Väsudeva in early times, as is seen from the inscrip-
tions and the passage from the Niddesa noticed in the beginning.
Patanjali also notices, under P. II, 2, 34, a verse in which it is stated
that certain musical instruments are sounded in a gathering in the
temple of Dhanapati, Räma and KeSava. Here Räma and Keiava are
Balaräma and Väsudeva-Kr^^a, and it is clear that there were festive
gatherings at their temples in Pataiijali's time. If the passage in Patafi-
jali under P.VI, 3, 6 ** Janärdana with himself as the fourtji**, i. e. with
three companions, may be taken to allude to the three Vyühas, then it
must be understood that the f our Vyühas, Väsudeva, Saipkar^a^ia, Pra-
dyumna and Aniruddha, were known in Patafijali's time. Still it is
doubtful, and it may be taken for granted that the two Vyühas, Väsu-
deva and Saipkar^a^a, only were known up to the time of the latest
inscription which is to be referred to about the beginning of the first
Century before the Christian era, so that the System of four Vyühas
was not fully developed up to that time. If this reasoning is correct,
it will be Seen that the date of the Bhagavadgltä which contains no
mention of the Vyühas, or personified forms, is much earlier than those
of the inscriptions, the Niddesa and Patafijali, i. e. it was composed
not later than the beginning of the fourth Century before the Christian
era. How much earlier it is difficult to say. At the time when the Gitä
was conceived and composed, the identification of Väsudeva withNärä-
ya^a had not taken place, nor had his being an incarnation of Vi^^u
come to be acknowledged, as appears from the work itself. When his
Viräj or universe-form was shown to Arjuna, as represented in the
eleventh chapter, he is twice addressed by the latter as Vi§9u on ac-
count of his dazzling brilliance which rendered everythinghot and filled
the whole universe. Here Vi§9u is alluded to as the chief of the Adityas
and not as the supreme being, and Väsudeva was Vi$ou in this sense,
as mentioned in chapter 10, because the best thing of a group or class
is represented to be his Vibhüti or special manifestation.

§ IG. A characteristic of a new System of religion that comes into
vogue is that the followers are not satisfied with the idea that the person
known as the founder originated the System. They push back the
origin by many ages. Siddhärthaka was preceded by many Buddhas,
and so was Mahävira by many Tlrthamkaras. So in the case of the
Bhägavata school we have seen that that system was taught by Närä-
ya^a at the beginning of each Brahman and in the existing Brahman
it was first taught to Pitämaha or Prajäpati and thence it passed to
Dak$a, Vivasvat, Manu and Ik$väku. This last order of its revelation
is alluded to at the beginning of the fourth chapter of the Gltä which con-
firms the tradition noticed in the Näräya^Iya about the identity of
the religion of the Gltä with the Ekäntika religion revealed by Närä-
ya^a. In this respect of pushing back the origin the Bhägavata system
resembles Buddhism and Jainism. *

14 III- Religion, WelÜ. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vaif^avism etc.

V. Substance of the Bhagavadgita.

§ II. We will now pass under review the main Contents of the
Bhagavadgitä, as from all appearances it is the earliest exposition
of the Bhakti System or the Ekäntika Dharma.

Chapter IL Arjuna is reluctant to fight because it involves the
destruction of his near and revered relatives and of other men. Bha-
gavat endeavours to remove the reluctance by speaking of the etemity
and indestructibility of the human soul. Here are two stanzas which
occur, with a Variation in one of the lines, in the Katha-Upani§ad, Then
to fight is spoken of as the duty of a K^atriya for whom there is no
other good than a just fight. This mode of thinking is characterised
as being Säipkhya, and the Yoga mode then foUows. The condition
of mind in the Yoga mode is a determined will. Those who according
to the precepts of the Veda perform rites for the fulfilment of various
desires can not have a determined steadfast will. For attaining such
a will one should think only of the deed to be done and not of the fruits
to be derived from it. With a concentrated mind and without any
attachment to other objects one should devote oneself to the deed alone.
By such devotion to acts with a determined will man finally attains
inflexibility of will (becomes sthitaprajna), and all his desires being
uprooted, he attains complete serenity of soul or the Brähmi condition.
When he is in this condition at the time of death, heobtains quiescence
in Brahman. This comes to the same doctrine as that stated in the
Ka^ha and Brhadäranyaka-Upani^ads, that when all desires in the
heart are uprooted, the mortal becomes immortal and attains to Brah-
man '). The discipline, however, prescribed for the attainment of this
end is not simply moral, but religious also, since it is stated that after
having controlled the senses which render the mind restless, a man
should devote himself to Bhagavat.

§ 12. Chapter III. There are two paths, that of devotion to
knowledge for the Säipkhyas and that of devotion to Karman or action
for the Yogins. Every one is born for a life of activity, but the deeds
done do not tie him down to the world, if he does them for worship
(Yajna) and not for his private purposes. No Karman is necessary
for one whose enjoyments consist in himself, who is satisfied with
himself and contented in himself. But for other people action is ne-
cessary, and it must be done without any selfish desire. Janaka and
others obtained perfection by devoting themselves to actions alone, i.e.
by the pursuit of an active life. But the action should be dedicated
to the Supreme, and one should not seek any fruit for himself. But
such a frame of mind is not attainable by ordinary men, who are under
the infiuence of their physical nature and sensual passions. Then a
question is asked what it is that prompts man to sin. The reply is
that it is desire and anger which are all-powerful and envelop a man*s
Spiritual existence. Desire acts through the senses, but intelligence is

>) Yaää sarve pramueyante kämä yesya hfdi kriiä^, KU. VI, 14 and also
Bü. IV. 4, 7.

V. Substance of the Bha^vadgitS. I5

superior to the senses, and superior to this latter is the will (Buddhi),
and the soul is superior to Buddhi. Knowing oneself to be higher than
Buddhi, one should curb oneself by efforts and kill desire which acts
through the series, viz. senses, intellect, will. Here the superiority of .
one faculty over another is an idea borrowed from theKatha-Upani§ad./
In connection with the teaching that action should be done disinter-
estedly, Bhagavat makes the dosest possible approach to the SSip-
khya doctrine that the soul being deluded by egoism (Ahaipkara)
regards himself as the agent of the actions done by the qualities of
nature (Prakrti), and that, misled by the qualities of nature, he forms
an attachment to qualities and actions.

§ 13. Chapter IV. The chapter begins with Bhagavat's mention
of his communication of this System to Vivasvat in the first instance,
as alluded to above. Incidentally the question of his existence at the
time of Vivasvat comes up, and he then explains his being born again
and again and assuming incarnations for the destruction of the wicked
by means of his Prakrti. They who know the incarnations and the celestial
deeds of Bhagavat, are released from the body and are not born again. By
means of knowledge men, being purified and their passions destroyed
and being devoted to him and resorting to him and resting on him, /
attained to the condition of Bhagavat. Bhagavat resorts to men in [
the manner in which they resort to him; men everywhere foUow
his path.

The idea of action without attachment is further developed. Then
metaphorical Yajnas are mentioned, such as the sacrifice of the senses
into the fire of restraint, of the objects of the senses into the senses,
of the Operation of the senses and of the vital breaths into the fire of
Yoga, which is the control of the seif. All these Yajnas cannot be
accomplished without acts. Of these theYajfia of knowledge is the
best; for by its means one sees all things in one seif and in God (Supreme
Spirit). This highest knowledge brings about freedom from all sin, and
destroys the poUuting efifect of action. The realisation of the Yoga
sets aside the significance of the actions. This highest knowledge puts
an end to all doubt and one becomes a spirit — a spirit totally free.
When acts are done in this condition, they do not defile a person.
Here the tendency to rationalise Yajnas or sacrifices, which set in in
the Upani$ad period, is seen in a developed form, since the restraint
of the senses, the attainment of knowledge, and such other practices
are characterised as Yajfias or sacrifices.

Another point that deserves notice is the Statement that Bha-
gavat deals with men in the manner in which they deal with him, that
is, the spirit with which God is approached by men is reciprocated by
God. This is followed by the affirmation that men everywhere, what-
ever the dififerences of their views, foUow the path of Bhagavat. Here
lies in germ the principle that all religions have a basis of truth in them.

§14. Chapter V. Säipkhya andYoga are brought into connection
with Saipnyäsa and Karmayoga. They are not independent of each
other. FoUowing either thoroughly, one obtains the fruit of both. The
place which is obtained by Säipkhyas is obtained also by Yogas. For
Jfiänayajna or sacrifice of knowledge enabling a man to see all things

l6 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. vl. Kunst. 6. Vaif^avism etc.

in himself and in God, and this knowledge bringing about freedom
from sin, the same condition is attained to which an active life or
pursuit of actions (Karmayoga) brings about, when the actions are
done disinterestedly or without aiming at the fruit, with an eye direc-
ted towards Brahman only, the true essence of things. Though this
is so, still Saipnyäsa is difficult to be realised without Yoga. With
Yoga one attains to it soon. A Yogin does not think that he does some-
thing when he sees, hears, eats, sleeps, etc. This is so when these acts
are done without any attachment, the aim being the realisation of
Brahman. The Yogins perform deeds by their body, mind, will, or
simplyby their senses, without any attachment for the sake of Spiri-
tual purification. By means of Yoga, Jnäna is obtained, and in this
condition man looks at all things alike. When a man looks at all things
with the same regard, what he aims at is the Brahman and in it he
rests. This leads to the consideration of the final peace in Brahman
and the method of attaining it. This peace in Brahman resembles the
condition of an Arhat in Buddhism, but the Bhagavadgitä does not
end there and adds that in this condition of deliverance a person comes
to know the Supreme Soul as one to whom all kinds of worship and
austere practices are directed as the lord of all worlds and the friend
of all beings; and it is this knowledge that leads to peace.

§15. Chapter VI. He who does not attach himself to the re-
sult of his actions and does what he ought to do, is SarnnySsin as
well as Yogin. Karman or action is necessary to become a sage (Muni).
When he has attained the dignity of a sage, the essence of it is peace.
Then foUows a description of the State of a man who has attained
Yoga. Practice of Yoga, or contemplation, is then described. When
a man goes through the Yoga practices, he attains serenity in Bhaga-
vat, i. e. becomes absorbed in him in peace. All the functions of the
mind are suspended in the condition of Yoga. Seeing himself by him-
self he rests in himself. Then foUows an explanation of the process
of abstraction and concentration. A Yogin sees himself in all things
and all things in himself, looks at all things in the same light. The
Supreme Spirit is not lost to him who sees him everywhere and sees
everything in him, the Supreme Spirit. He who looks upon theBhagavat
as one, though he exists in all things, exists in him, though he moves
about everywhere. He who regards all as himself (and looks upon
them in the same light) in matters of happiness and misery is the best
Yogin. Then Arjuna remarks on the difficulty of this Yoga. **The
mind*', he says, **is restless". But Bhagavat replies that it can be
controlled by practice as well as by reflection on the vanity of things
(Vairägya). At the end Bhagavat teaches that he is the greatest
Yogin, who, having faith in him, adores him with his whole soul cen-
tred in him.

The Yoga described in this chapter is found in spme of the Upani-
§ads, especially in the Svetä^vatara. The affirmation **sees himself
in himself and everywhere eise" occurs in the Brhadäraqyaka (IV,
4, 23). The author winds up the chapter with a verse which is in
every sense theistic, as he does the fifth chapter, in order, it would
appear, that the description of the mental discipline contained^tin

V. Substance of the Bhagavadgltä. IJ

the last chapter and of Yoga in this might not lead to non • theistic
conclusions. Care is taken to bring the whole into connection with the
Suprerae Soul.

§ i6. Chapter VII. In the last six chapters has been explained
the whole process of Karmayoga from beginning to act regardless of
the fruit, to the attainment of the condition of Yogin, who acting
solely with a view to the acquisition of the Brahma condition, is free
from passions, looks upon all things alike; and it is added at the end
that he is the best of the Yogins, who adores Bhagavat with faith and
with a devoted heart. This is added to show that the processes up
to the attainment of the Yoga condition are difficult to bepractised
by men with such passions as we possess and the way to be free from
them is to surrender oneself to God, and therefore in this chapter
Bhagavat goes on to explain the nature of created beings and of his
relation to them. He begins by saying that God's Prakrti is eight-
fold: the five Clements, mind, will (Buddhi), and egoism. Jlva is
another Prakrti, which Supports the world. From these are produced
all objects or beings. Bhagavat is the source and the last resting place
of the World. There is nothing further than him. All these things are
strung together in him as gems in a string. That which is the charac-
teristic excellence of a thing is Bhagavat himself. All the three qua-
lities and the conditions resulting from them proceed from him. Bhaga-
vat is not in them and they are not in him. Bhagavat is beyond all
these three conditions. The world, deluded by the conditions resul-
ting from the three qualities, does not know Bhagavat, the Supreme
Spirit, who is beyond them all. This Mäyä of Bhagavat consisting
of these qualities is very difficult to be got over, and this Mäyä they
get rid of, who take refuge in him. Wicked men do not resort to
Bhagavat, their understanding being clouded by Mäyä and resorting
to Äsura or demoniacal condition. The devotees of Bhagavat are of
four kinds. Of these the Jnänin, or the enlightened, is the best. The
Jfiänin sticks to Bhagavat as his best refuge. The enlightened man
surrenders himself to himi regarding Väsudeva as everything. Other
people are attached to other deities and undertake different vows.
Their faith in their deities is generated by Bhagavat and strengthened
by him. They worship those deities with that faith and attain fruit.
TTiat fruit is yielded by Bhagavat himself. But it is perishable. Not
knowing Bhagavat's true nature, which is unchangeable and excellent,
Ignorant people regard him as something indiscrete at first and after-
wards made discrete. He is not intelligible to all beings, being enve-
loped in Yogamäyä (mystic power). He knows the past, the present
and the future, and nobody knows him. By likes and dislikes all beings
are deluded and those only, who are released from the infatuation of
likes and dislikes, with their sins being destroyed by the practice of
virtue, adore the Supreme. Those who know Bhagavat to be Adhiya-
jfia (presiding over worship) and Adhibhüta (presiding over beings),
come to know him when they depart this life.

For the idea of all existing things being strung together in the
Supreme we may compare MU. II, 2, 5 and BU. III, 8, 3 — 4; 6 — 7. Or-
dinary people are represented as resorting to other deities, led by seve-

iBdo-arisdie Philologe m. 6. 2

l8 UL Rdigion, WdtL Wissensdi. o. Kunst 6. VaifgaTism etc.

ral desires. The Bhagavat confirms their faith in their deities, and
the fniits that they receive from those deities are also ghren by him.
But the fniits that they get from them are perishable. Here appears
the same idea as that noticed in chap. IV and to be noticed in chap. IX,
viz. that the worshippers of other gods are really Bhagavat*s wor-
shippers, and that there is a principle of unity in all rel^ions.

§ 17. Chapter VIIL Arjuna begins by putting questions about
the three subjects mentioned in the last verse of the last chapter and
about Brahman and Adhyätma. Bhagavat then ^irpl^tin« these. About
perceiving him at the time of death he says: "He who leaves his body
while remembering me at the time of death, attains to the same con-
dition as mine.** Finally he states that he who departs this life while
meditating on the all-knowing, etemal niler , who is smaller than the
smallest thing, who is the protector of all, whose form is unthinkable,
whose brilliance is like that of the sun, and who is beyond all darkness,
with devotion, his whole soul gathered between the brows with the
pow6r of concentration, reaches that Supreme Being, who is higher
than the highest. He then mentions the attainment of the Unchange-
äble, with the mind concentrated, and the reaching of the final goal
after leaving the body by means of a Yoga process and by theutterance
of the syllable *Om' and the remembrance of Bhagavat all the while.
Bhagavat is easily attainable by one who meditates on him with a
singleness of mind and is devoted to him. Every being is subject
to transm^ration, but is free from it when he reaches Bhagavat.
During the night of Brahman all these thuigs are resolved into the
indiscrete (Avyakta), and, when the day dawns, they spring out again
from it. liiere is another substance, different from that Avyakta and
itself indiscrete (Avyakta), which is not destroyed when all others
are destroyed. This substance which is indiscrete, is unchangeable and
that is the highest resting place, which being attained to, there is no
retum. That is Bhagavat's highest abode. That supreme soul, in whom
all these beings are and who has spread out all this, is to be attained by
single-minded devotion. Then he proceeds to mention the two paths.
Those who die while the sun is in his northem course (Uttardyapa),
go to Brahman, and those who die while he is in his southem course
(Dak^ipäyana) go to the orb of the moon, from which the soul
returns.

It is worthy of Observation that after mentioning that the man
who meditates on the Supreme at the time of death reaches him, he
mentions the attainment of the Ak$ara, which is the h^est goal, by
resorting to a Yoga process. This seems to be like looking back on the
Yoga practices for the attainment of the Ak$ara (Brahman) men-
tioned in theUpani$ads such as theMu^daka (11,2,3) and theSveta§va-
tara (I, 14). In the first passage, the syllable ^Om* is compared to
a bow, the soul to the arrow, and Brahman to the target wiüch is to
be hit. In the second a person is instructed to use his own body as
the nether wooden piece and the Pra^ava as the upper one and, prac*
tising meditations, which is like rubbii^ of the wooden pieces against
each other, to discover the God hidden like Agni in the pieces of wood.
Here the Ak$ara Brahman of the MuQdaka is transformed into Deva

V. Substance of the Bhagayadglta. I9

(God) in the SvetaSvatara-Upani$ad, and the Bhagavadgitä also pre-
scribes the meditating on Bhagavat while the syllable 'Om* is being
uttered. Here, therefore, we see the effort to invest the unchangeable
and indiscrete Brahman with a strong distinct personality. Ltater on
in the chapter another Avyakta is mentioned, besides that into which
all things are resolved at the dissolution of the universe. This Avyakta
is etemal and indestructible and is called Ak$ara and the highest
goal. Here, however, this Ak^ara is at once rendered theistic by being
spoken of as the highest abode or condition of Bhagavat.

§18. Chapter IX. In this chapter Bhagavat proceedstoexplain
the direct and indirect knowledge which constitute the royal lore and
the royal secret. It is to be directly perceived. It is holy and easy to
be practised. The Bhagavat spread out all this universe. All things
are in him and he is not in them, and still the objects are not in him.
Wonderful is his lordly power. He is the sustainer of all beings
and is not in them. His seif brings all things into existence.
As the air which exists in the sky is everywhere, so all beings
are in him. At the dissolution of the world all beings are dissolved into
his Prakrti, and at the beginning of a new Kalpa they are discharged
forth again. All these acts do not contaminate him, as he does them
without any desire. With himself as the director, the Prakfti brings
forth the moveable and immoveable things. Foolish men disregard him
who has assumed a human form, not knowing his true nature, viz.
that he is the lord and the great ruler of all; but great souls, assuming
a godly nature, knowing him to be the origin of all beings, adore him
with Single -mindedness. Some people worship him by Jftanayajfta, i. e.
a rationalised sacrifice, taking him as one or several or as having his
face in all directions. He is a subsidiary as well as the main sacrifice.
He is Svadhä, herbs, Mantra, ghee. He is Agni and he is also oblation.
He is father, mother, nourisher and grandfather of the world. He is
^c, Säman, etc. He is the way, sustainer, lord, witness, shelter and
friend, etc. The knowers of the three Vedas, the drinkers of Soma,
worshipping him by means of sacrifice, desire habitation in heaven,
where they enjoy many pleasures. After their merit has been exhausted,
they come back to the mortal world again. Those who thus foUow the
ritual of the three Vedas come and go. He looks after the welfare of
those who think of him and meditate on him with single-mindedness
and adore him. Those who worship other deities must be considered /
as worshipping him, but they do so not according toprescribed rules. He/
is the receiver and lord of all kinds of Yajfias or worship, but those,
people do not know him as he really is, and therefore they fail. Those
who worship other deities attain to them, and his worshippers attain
to him. AU the oblations thrown into the fire, all that is eaten and
given and the austerities practised should be dedicated to him. In
this way these actions do not serve as a bondage, and one becomes a ,
real Saipnyäsin and goes to him. He who adores Bhagavat with Single- /
mindedness becomes holy, even if he be wicked. He becomes imme-
diately holy and obtains peace. Even women, Vaifyas and Sodras, j
when they resort to him, attain to the highest place. The seeker of
•the good should direct his mind towards him, should be his devotee,

20 III. Religion, WeltL Wissensch. o. Kunst 6. Vai^^avism etc.

should worship him, should bow to him, and acting in this way and
being thus fuUy devoted to him, he will reach him.

Here the Performance of sacrificial rites is, in the manner which
has become usual, mentioned as efficacious for the acquisition of a
place in heaven. From this place persons return when their merit is

\ exhausted, but there is no return when a man devotes himself to
Bhagavat with all his heart. God is further personalised and brought
home to manby being declared ashis father, mother, nourisher, grand-
father, friend, refuge, etc. The attitude to other gods is of toleration.
The worship offered to them is really offered to Bhagavat, but the wor-
shippers do not know Bhagavat as he truly is and therefore go wrong.
§ 19. Chapter X. The gods and ]&§is donot know theorigin of
Bhagavat. He was before them all. He who knows Bhagavat to
be the unborn and unbeginning lord of all worlds, is free from all
sins. All the mental conditions, knowledge, absence of ignorance, for-
giveness, truth, self-control, serenity, pain and pleasure, etc. are from
him. The seven ancient Mahar$is and four Manus sprang from him
whose descendants are all these men. Good men adore Bhagavat with

> pure faith, knowing him to be the origin of all and that everything
is set in motion by him. They, with their minds directed towards him,
with their souls centred in him, enlighten each other, speak about him,
and thus they are satisfied and are happy. Out of sympathy for them
he dispels the darkness of ignorance by the light of knowledge, being
himself in his true condition.

When they adore him thus constantly füll of love, he grants them
that condition of mind by means of which they reach him. Then
questioned by Arjuna as to the Vibhütis or excellent forms of each
species or group which pervade the world, Bhagavat proceeds to
mention them. He is the soul that dwells in the heart of men and is

\ the origin, the middle and the end of all beings. He is Vi§9u of the
Ädityas, the sun of all shining things, Kapila of the Siddhas, Prahläda
of all Daityas, Räma of wielders of weapons, philosophy (Adhyätma)
of all lores, Dvandva of Compounds, Kirti (fame) of all females, Väsu-
deva of Vr§9is, and Dhanatnjaya of Pä^davas. That object which has
excellence and splendour should be known as arising from his lustre.
There is to be observed here one special characteristic of the Bhakti
school, and that is that all the devotees meet together, enlighten each
other as to the nature of God and contribute by discourses on him
to each other's elevation and gratification. This is almost a charac-
teristic mark of Bhaktas as distinguished from the Yogins, who have
to go through their exercises singly and in solitude.

§20. Chapter XL The Viräj form of God, i. e. all beings looked
at simultaneously as constituting one whole, as also his destructive
form, in which all enter into his mouth and are absorbed, is described
in this chapter. Arjuna praises him that he does not see the end,
the beginning, the middle of him, that he is the guardian of etemal
righteousness and entreats him to give up this frightful form and
assume the more usual and the more agreeable human form. In verse 30
Arjuna addresses him as Vi$9u, saying that his dazzling brilliance
makes everything hot and his lustre has filled the whole universe.

V. Substance of the BhagavadgltL 21

The idea of looking at the universe as a form of god is as old
as the Puru§asükta (RV. X, 90). God's having eyes everywhere,
face everywhere, arms everywhere and feet everywhere is expressed
in RV. X, 81, 3. This verse is repeated in ävetä§vatara-Upani§ad

III, 3.

§ 21. Chapter XII. This chapter Starts with a question as to

the difference between the contemplation on the original indiscrete
cause which is unchangeable (Ak§ara) and the worship of him (Väsu-
deva), and the reply is, they are the best devotees, who, fixing their
minds upon him, meditate on him with a concentrated attention and
faith. Those who, with their senses restrained, meditate on the in-
discrete, unchangeable, undefinable, as existing everywhere and un-
thinkable, also reach him, but the trouble to them is greater. Bhagavat
delivers from the ocean of death those who, dedicating all their actions
to him and meditating on him, worship him; and he teaches Arjuna to
fix his mind on him and concentrate his will on him and, if he can
not fix his mind firmly upon him, then to endeavour to obtain him
bycontinual remembrance of him. If this last is not feasible, he should
perform deeds for his sake, and doing this he would obtain success.
If, however, he is not able to do this with his mind fixed on him, he
should abandon desire for the fruit of all his actions. Then foUows
an enumeration of the virtues of those who are devotees of God and
are specially dear to him, such as not hating any being, being the
friend of all, being humble, being indifferent to praise or censure, etc.

In this chapter the meditation on the Ak^ara or unchangeable
indiscrete cause is again mentioned as opposed to the worship of Bhaga«
vat as a personal God. In similar passages in the previous chapters
the personalisation is effected at once by inserting a clause applicable
only to a personal God. But here the meditation on Avyakta is spoken
of as successful, but is condemned as being very difficult to be prac-
tised, and the theistic aim of the work is kept in view.

§22. ChapterXIII. This body is the K§etra, and he who knows
this body as his own, is K$etrajfia. The Bhagavat is also K$etrajna
in all the K§etras. This subject about the K§etra and K§etrajfla has
been variously treated by the ß.§is in verses of various metres and
determined by the words of the Brahmasütra unfolding reasons. K§etra
consists of the twenty-four elements mentioned in the Sämkhya System
and desire, hatred, pleasure and pain, and body, life and courage, which
are Atmagu^as according to the VaiSe$ikas. Bhagavat then proceeds to
enumerate the virtues, such as humility, sincerity, etc., which con-
stitute, it is said, Jfiäna or knowledge, but which are to be taken as
means to knowledge. Then are alluded to knowledge, or true philosophy,
and its reverse. He then mentions the Jfieya, or thing to be known,
and it is Parabrahman, which has no beginning nor end, which is
neither existent nor non-existent, and which has hands and feet every-
where and which has eyes, head and face everywhere, which has ears
everywhere, and which pervades all. And thus the description of god-
head proceeds in the words of the Upani§ads. Prakrti andPuru§a are
unbeginning. All changes and qualities are produced from Prakrti.
Prakrti is the cause in bringing about effect, and Puru^a is the cause

22 m« Religion, Weltl. Wissenscfau m Kunst 6. Vaifpavism etc.

in the enjoyment and sufferance of happiness and misery. The Puru^a,
being connected with Prakrti, enjoys or endures the properties or
effects of the Prakrti; and tiie cause is his being connected with the
Gupas or qualities. Besides all thesevarious principles, there is.in this
body Puru5a, the Supreme Soul, who is the witness of everything,
who is the sustainer, enjoyer and the great lord. By meditation some see
the seif by seif, others see it by Sämkhyayoga and Karmayoga. Any
moving or unmoving thing that comes into existence is produced by
the Union of K^etra and K$etrajiia. He, who sees the Supreme Lord
equally in all things, who is not destroyed when other things are de-
stroyed, sees truly. SeeingGod equally in all things, a man does no
injury to himself and attains to the highest goal. He truly sees, who
sees all acts as done by Prakrti and Puru$a as not the actor. When
he regards all separate beings as existing in one place and sees develop-
ment proceeding thence, he becomes Brahman. The Supreme Spirit,
though dwelling in the body, does not do anything and is not contami-
nated, because he is unbeginning and is devoid of qualities and un-
changeable. The spirit is not contaminated, -jtcst as space or ether
existing everywhere is not. Just as the sun illuminates the whole world,
so does the K^etrajiia illuminate the K^etra.

The Karmayoga leading up to the condition of a Yogin, who looks
at all things with the same regard and makes no distinction between
them and himself, has been described in the first six chapters. In the
pext six the Bhaktiyoga, or loving adoration of God, is the subject
treated of ; and the final effect of it is the formation of the fuUy righteous
character which distinguishes a Bhakta who is dear to Bhagavat.
With chapter XIII begins the consideration of subsidiary subject&
In this Bhagavat speaks of the K$etra and K$etrajna, or the soul and
its dwelling place, and of another soul, that is, himself also dwelling
in the K§etra. In connection with this subject he refers to the poetic
works of the previous IgL^is and to the words of the Brahmasutra.
What these works are it is difficult to say; but what foUows is, ^Xßt^
the mention of the twenty-four principles generally associated with
the Sämkhya system, as well as seven others, all of which constitute
the K§etra; secondly, the enumeration of the virtues that qualify
one to the attainment of knowledge; thirdly, the Statement about
knowledge ( Jnäna) , or that which is true philosophy , and also
Ajüäna, which is the reverse; and fourthly, the description of the
Jneya or the thing to be knowri, which is Parabrahman or the
Supreme Soul. This last contains the attributes given in the Upa-
ni$ads, and a verse and a half are verbally quoted from the SU.
There are also other Statements in the concluding verses which
resemble KU. V, 1 1 and SU. V, 4. Then there is a Statement about
the nature of the Prakrti and Puru$a quite in keeping with the Sämkhya
System; but the existence of the highest spirit in the body along with
the animal soul is mentioned. Thus is the atheism of the Sämkhya
System studiously avoided, wheneyer there is a reference to its doc-
trines. Then foUow reflections on God and the seeing of the Supreme
Soul everywhere. The works, therefore, upon which this chapter is
based are some of the Upani$ads and some treatises setting forth the

V..Substaiice pf the BhagayadgltS. 23

Constitution of the world and the principles of morality. These treatises
may have been the discourses first independent and afterwards in-
cluded in the ^antiparvan and other parts of the Mahäbhärata, or
they may have been others of which we have no trace; but there is
no mention here of the Sämkhya system by name nor a special refe-
rence to it as elaborated in later times by ISvarakr$9a. The idea of
the twenty-four principles is ancient and seems to have been appro-
priated afterwards by the founders of the philosophic Systems, as it
suited their purpose. But no chronological conclusions can be de-
duced from the mention of those twenty-four principles. The doctrine
that all action proceeds from the Prakrti and the soul is inactive and
simply enjoys or suffers, which is a true Säipkhya doctrine, but is cal-
culated to absolve a man from moral responsibÜity, is also mentioned;
but it appears to come incidentally along with the twenty-four
principles.

§ 23. Chapter XIV. The great Brahman is the womb (Yoni)
for Bhagavat into which he throws seed. Of all the wombs that pro-
duce bodily forms, Brahman is the greäktest. Bhagavat then proceeds
to detail the nature of the three Gui?as, their products and their results
in the future world. These Gu^as prove as bondage, and when they
are got over, then the man is free from the bondage and becomes im-
mortal. The distinguishing characteristic of one who is free from
these three Guiüias is a quiet undisturbed serenemood, in which happiness
and misery arealike, andgold, clodof earth and stone are alike, in which
agreeable and disagreeable things are alike, and praise and censure are
also alike, etc. He who invariably resorts to Bhagavat by Bhaktiyoga
becomes free from these three Guiüias and attains to the condition of
Brahman. Bhagavat is the support of the immortal and unchanging
Brahman and of eternal righteousness (duty) and of unending
happiness.

Here then is a distinct affirmation of the souPs attainment of
freedom from passions by means of continuous devotion to Bhagavat
or God. The word Brahmayoni occurs in MU. HI, l, 3 and is to be
interpreted, in the light of the opening Statement in the above, as one
whose Yoni is Brahman.

§24. Chapter XV. Bhagavat proceeds to the comparison of
Saipsära, or the whole extent of things, to the pippal-tree. This tree
is to be cut by the weapon of indifference or non -attachment; and then
should be sought that place from which there is no retum. One should
surrender himself to the original Puru§a. Those reach that unchanging
Position or place, who are free from pride, ignorance, desires, and the
pair of happiness and misery. That is the highest abode of Bhagavat,
which is not illuminated by the sun, the moon or the fire. When a soul
departs from a body, it takes away the Indriyas, of which Manas is
the sixth, and brings them in when it assumes another body. The
soul itself is a part of Bhagavat and is eternal. This soul, placing itself
in these six Indriyas, resorts to all objects of sense. llie brilliance
existing in the sun, which illumines the whole world, and which exists
in the moon as well as in fire, is to be known as that of Bhagavat.
By becoming Soma Bhagavat raises all herbs. By becoming fire he

24 lU- Relipon, Wdd. Wincnscii. o. Knust. 6. Vai^^a

contributes to digestion. He dwells in the heart of au. From hini
proceeds consciousness of one's condition, knowledge, and tfae rejection
of what is not true. Bhagavat alone is to be known by means of all
the Vedas and as the author of Vedäntas and the knower of the Veda.
There are two souls in theworld, one that changes, and the other that
IS unchangeable. Besides these , there is another who is the hi^est
and is cailed Paramätman, and who as the unchangeable lord Supports
all the three worlds after entering into them. Bhagavat is known to
be that Highest Soul in the ordinary world and also in the Vedas.

There is one new point brought out in this chapter. And that
is that the animal soul goes out of the body along with the six senses
and enters newones in that condition. The comparison of thecomposite
universe to the pippal-tree occurs in KU. (VI, i), MaiU. {VI, 4), and
the non-illumination of the highest abode of Bharavat is mentioned
in a verse in KU. (V, 15), MU. (II, 2, 10) and SU. (VI, 14). The
doctrine of the existence of the third highest Puru$a should also be
noted as a characteristic of this theistic work. The triad, K$ara,
Ak^ara or Atman (individual soul), and the ruling one God, is men-
tioned in ^U. (I, ig), which work is a precursor of the Bhagavadgitä.

§25. Chapter XVL Bhagavat now proceeds to enumerate the
virtues which constitute the divine endowments (Daivi Sampad), and
the vices that constitute demoniacal possessions. From divine endow-
ments results final deliverance, and from the demoniacal possessions
follows destruction. There are two classes of created beings: one is
divine and the other demoniacal. In persons of the latter class there
is no purity nor correct conduct nor truth. They regard the world as
unreal, without substratum or support, without God, disconnected and,
what more, springing from lust. Holding this view these wicked and
duU persons with their ferocious deeds bring about the destruction
of the world. Füll of insatiable lust and possessed of vanity, pride,
and arrogance, they act in an unholy manner, sticking to their own
false conceits. They accumulate wealth by foul means for enjoyment,
and boasting of their possessions, their power, their parentage, they
treat others with contempt and eventually go to the infernal regions.
If they worship at all, they simply utter the name and assume a false
garb. They are füll of egotism and hate Bhagavat, as abiding in their
own bodies and those of others. These wicked men he consigns to the
race of the demons. Desire, anger and covetousness are the three
doors to hell. These three, therefore, should be abandoned. He who
avoids these three doors, reaches the highest goal. He who abandons
sacred precepts and acts according to his own wül, does not obtain suc-
cess, happiness or the highest goal. The sacred precepts must, therefore,
be foUowed whenever a man has to do anything or avoid anything.

Here two classes of men, good and bad, are mentioned. Among
the latter are included not only worldly men who do not care for God
or morality, but the foUowers of philosophical or religious Systems
different from that of Bhagavat seem also to be included. They set
aside the sacred ^ästra or precepts, denied God, as Buddhists and
Jainas did, and regarded the world as unsubstantial or unreal, as the
former did.

V. Substance of the Bhagavadglta. 25

§26. Chapter XVII. Arjuna asks: "What is the frame of mind
of thosewho set aside the sacred precepts and still worship with faith?
Is it characterised by the quality of goodness, activity or ignorance?"
Bhagavat answers : "'Faith is of three kinds, characterised by goodness,
activity, and darkness or ignorance. The faith of a man depends upon
the quality of his heart. A man is what faith makes of him. As is
his faith, so is the man". The good worship gods, the active, Yak^as,
and Rak$ases or evil spirits, and the ignorant, ghosts and spectres.
Men of a demoniacal frame of mind perform terrible austerities füll
of ostentation and egotism, and cause attenuation of the elements
composing the body and of the Bhagavat who dwells in it. He then
mentions three kinds of food, modes of worship, austerities and gifts,
in keeping with the three qualities. For instance, in the case of worship
or sacrifice, that is in keeping with the quality of goodness, which is
performed without any regard for the fruit and in accordance with the
sacred ritual. That Springs from the quality of activity, which is done
for the attainment of fruit and out of ostentation; and that which is
done without regard for the sacred precepts and without Dak^ipä or
rewards to the priest and without any faith, proceeds from the quality
of ignorance. As to charitable gifts, those spring from the quality
of goodness, which are made because it is a duty to give to one from
whom no return is expected; while that which is made with an interes*
ted motive and with a desire for return, Springs from the quality of
activity. And in this manner all the four subjects are treated. At the
end the doing of good acts by the repetition of the syllables *'0m, tat,
sat" is mentioned. In this chapter the truth that man's religious
faith and the character of the God that he worships, depend upon his
own character, whether good or bad, is clearly recognised.

Not only the nature of the God worshipped, but also the diet, the
mode of worship, charity or gifts, and the practice of austerity diflFer
according as a man*s nature is influenced by one or other of the three
qualities, goodness, activity and ignorance.

§27. Chapter XVIII. This chapter begins with a question by
Arjuna as to the principles of renunciation and abandonment. Bha-
gavat replies that renunciation is the giving up of works springing
from desires, and abandonment is the abandonment of fruits of actions.
Some say that all Karman should be abandoned ; others say that
worship, charity and austerity should not be given up. The decision
is that these last should not be abandoned, as they bring about purity
of the soul. The actions should be done without being attached to
them or desiring for the fruits. That duty that must be done, should
not be abandoned. Giving up that duty is an ignorant deed. When
action is avoided because it is wearisome, its abandonment Springs
from the quality of passion. When the essential action is done because
it should be done without any desire for fruit or attachment, that
abandonment Springs from goodness. It is not possible for a living
being to abandon all actions. He who abandons only the fruit, is
really one who has abandoned actions. According to the Ssunkhya doc-
trine, there are fivedififerent causes: the resting place, agent, instru-
ment, varied movements and fate. In this manner it goes on. Some

26 ni. Religioii, WdtL Wissensch. o. Kunst. 6. VaifpaTism etc.

acts or States of mind are rq)resented to vary according to the three
qualities, such as knowledge, the deed done and the doer, Buddhi or
will, firmness and happiness, and the duties of the different castes.

The man who worships him from whom all beings have sprung
and who has spread out all this by doing the duties assigned to him,
for which the three qualities have fitted him, attains final success.
He then proceeds to mention all those virtues and other states of
mind, such as self-control, freedom from passions, which conduce to
the realisation of the Brahma-condition. When this condition is
realised, a man is free from sorrow and desire and, being equally dis-
posed towards all beings, he develops in himself the highest love for
Bhagavat, and knowing Bhagavat fuUy and truly, enters into the
Bhagavat. One should do all acts, intent only upon God, and then one
obtains the etemal place by the favour of God. A man shoiüd fix
his mind upon Bhagavat alone, dedicating all his actions to him, and
then he gets over all evils by the grace of Bhagavat. Then Bhagavat
winds up the whole by teaching Arjuna to surrender himself with all
his heart to God (the Ruler), who abides in the hearts of all things
and moves them, as if forming parts of a wheel; and then he says,
by his favour Arjuna would obtain perfect peace and an etemal rcsting-
place. He is further instructed to dedicate his whole mind to Bhagavat,
to become his devotee, to worship him, to bow to him, and in this
way he (Arjuna) would reach him. This is styled the deepest secret«
Then Arjuna is told to set aside all other methods of salvation and
surrender himself to Bhagavat alone, and Bhagavat would then free
him from all his sins. And thus the chapter ends.

This is the Ekäntika Dharma or monotheistic religion which,
as the NäräyaQiya teils us, was communicated to Arjuna. The
method of ssdvation here revealed is to lead a life of action, but the
fruit of the action one should not be intent on. The action should
be done disinterestedly, that is, a man should be selfless in doing
it. The action should be dedicated to Brahman, that is, it should be
done because the universal order requires it to be done. This is tanta-
mount to saying that one should do one's duty because it is a duty. When
a more personal Interpretation is given to it, the doctrine comes to this,
that one should act with the sole object of carrying out God's will. The
frame of mind that is generated by consistently acting in this manner,
is freedom from passion, a sense of the omnipresence of God and an
equal regard for all things. This leads to the realisation of the highest
love of God and, knowing Bhagavat thoroughly, by this means a
man is absorbed in him.

But to do one's duty consistently and selflessly is a matter diffi*
cult, since all beings are subject to the influence of the three qualities
or, in our modern phraseology, of passions and appetencies. These
can be got over by surrendering oneself to God.

VL The Soorces of the Rdigion of the Bhagayadgltl. 2^

VI. The Sources of the Religion of the Bhagavadgita.

§ 28. This constant insistence on actions being done without any
regard for the fruit, that is, disinterestedly or selflessly, forms a pecu-
liarity of the Bhagavadgltä. But the idea is not new. In the ISo-
pani^ad it is stated in the second verse that a man should desire to
live a hundred years doing actions resolutely, and in thatway and
no other, will action not contaminate him. And the non-contamination
as the result of an elevated State of mind is spoken of in ChU. IV,
14, 3; BU. IV, 4, 23; and MaiU. VI, 20,

The attributes of the Supreme Being the Gltä draws from the
Upani^ads, as has been already shown in the remarks on the different
chapters. While the personality of God is fuUy acknowledged in cer-
tain parts of the Upani$ads, mere Brahman, the personality of which
is not so distinct, is also spoken of in some places. When the Bhaga-
vadgitä takes in these passages, it takes care to distinctiy personalise
the Ak$ara or Brahman, as we have shown. The source from which
the GltS derives its doctrines about the conquest of the seif and the
attainmentof a condition of peace and serenity, is the general atmo-
sphere of religious and moral sentiment that came to prevail from
the beginning of the earliest Upani$ad speculations to the formation
of deiinite religious Systems, orthodox and heterodox. Consequently,
though the Gitä speaks of the Brahma-Nirvä^a, it ought not to be
supposed that it borrows this doctrine of final peace and serenity from
Buddhism. The source resorted to by these Systems was common to all.

Besides the Upani$ads and the religious and moral atmosphere
prevalent at that time, the Gltä avails itself of the philosophy that
had come into existence in early times. This is the philosophy of
the Säipkhya and the Yoga. TTiough the twenty-four principles of
the former system, together with the Puru^a or soul as the twenty-
fifth, as known in later times, and the doctrine of the activity of the
Prakfti only and the non - activity of Puru$a are alluded to in the
Bhagavadgitä, still it adds another soul called the Uttama Puru$a or
the Supreme Soul, which is not found in the later Säipkhya, thus
giving a theistic character to the philosophy. In their account of the
creation the Purä^as foUow this philosophy, and the later Vai^pava
and Saiva Systems adopt it in a more or less qualified manner. But
the Word Säipkhya does not seem to be used in the Bhagavadgitä
to indicate the later non-theistic system. In the second chapter and
in the fifth, Säipkhya indicates a philosophy based upon knowledge,
and Yoga, one based on action. Again the live causes that are
alluded to in the last chapter as mentioned in the Säipkhya system do
not appear to be known to the later Sämkhyas. The speculative philo-
sophy, therefore, that existed about the time of the Övetä^vatara-
Upani^ad and the Bhagavadgitä, was known by the name of Säipkhya,
and out of it grew the non-theistic system of later times. The Yoga,
the philosophy of action, too did prevail, but it culminated, as indicated
before, into a concentration of mind, the ordinary Operations being
suspended, on the Brs^man, Ak^ara, or the Supreme Soul.

28 III. Rdigion, WeltL Wissenscfa. n. Konst 6. VaifpaTism etc.

§ 29. Thus the BhagavadgitS is the result of the development
of the religious and philosophic specxüation that prevailed before the
rise of Buddhism. But the origin of the idea of Bhakti, or love of
God, which is the characteristic of the work, has formed the subject
of a great deal of speculation in modern times, and to this pointwe
Will now turn. In the Upani$ads, Upäsanä, or fervent meditation of
a number of things, such as Manas (mind), the sun, the Puni$a in
the sun or the moon, food, vital breath, etc., regarded asBrahman,
i. e. thinking of them as Brahman , is prescribed. Such a fervent
meditation cannot but magnify the thing and give it a glorious form,
so as to excite admiration and even love. Again what is called the
Internal Ätman (soul) is said in the Brhadära^yaka to be dearer than a
son, wealth and every thing eise (I, 4, 8). Here the word Atman may
possibly be taken to mean one's own soul. In the same Upani^ad
there is another passage which runs thus: "This is that Great Un-
bom, who is of the form of thought among vital airs, who dwells in
the cavity of the heart, who is Controller of all, ruler of all, the lord
of all. By doing good or evil deeds he does not become better or worse.
He is the ruler of all beings, he is the causeway or dike that separates
things from one another and prevents them being confused together
(he is the preserver of order). The Brähmapas desire to know him by
the words of the Vedas, by worship, charity and austerity. Koowing
him, onebecomes a sage. The recluses, desiring him as the place to
live in, renounce the world. On this account the wise men of old did
not desire progeny, saying to themselves: What shall we do with
progeny, when we have got this Being, this world to live in?*; and
thus they gave up desire for sons, wealth and the world, and lived the
life of mendicants" (IV, 4, 22). Now, if those wise men of old gave
up all the pleasures of the world to contemplate and dwell with the
Supreme Being, so eloquently described, must it not be considered
that theywere actuated by love for him, though the wordBhakti does
not occur here? And at the bottom of all those rapturous sayings
about the peace attained by seeing the Supreme Soul in the world and
the heart of man, there must be a feeling akin to love. And during the
period when the JgLgveda poetry was composed, love for God or gods
was often an abiding sentiment in the heart of the poet, as is evident
from the words: "Dyaus is my father" (RV. I, 164, 33); "Aditi (the
boundless) is father, mother, and son" (RV. I, 89, lo); and from such
prayers as "O father Dyaus, avert all evils", "Be accessible to us and
gracious as a father to the son", etc. Though the later sacrificial ritual
destroyed the spirit of these verses and converted them into simple
verbal formulae, still, the feeling that was in the heart at the timc
when they were composed, must have continued, though it found no
expression for a time and exhibited itself again mixed with wonder
and admiration in the times of the Upani$ads. It certainly was not
absent during this last period. The text about the two birds, the
friends and companions of each other, by which are meant the Supreme
and individual souls exists in the JgUcsaiphitä (I, 164, 20) and is repeated
in the Muiüidaka-Upani^ad (VII, i, i).

In the last (MU. III, 2, 3) and in the KU. (II, 23) there is a verse

VI. The Sources of the Relig:ion of the Bhagayadgltft. 29

to the eflfect that this Supreme Soul is not to be attained by lectures
(from a teacher), nor by intelligence, nor by much leaming; he is
tobe attained by him whom the Supreme Soul favours; to him he
discloses his form, ^ain we have the doctrine that the supremely wise
Being, the life of all, leads a man to do good deeds, whom he desires
to elevate (KBU. III, 8); and another, that God dwelling in the heart
of all beings controls them, which latter forms the subject of a cele-
brated passage in the BU. III, 7. From this it is clear that the doctrine
that the individual soul is dependent on the Supreme and that the
latter alone works out his salvation, was acknowledged in Upani^ad
times.

§ 30. In this manner all the points that constitute the Ekäntika
religion of the Bhagavadgitä are to be found in the older religious
literature. The word Bhakti, however, in the sense of love is not to
be found except in a verse in 6U. But that ^ord is not always used
in the sense of love even by Rämänuja. In his system Bhakti means
constant meditation and corresponds to the Upäsanä of the Upani^ds.
The Word etymologically signifies resorting to and then loving the
thing resorted to. It is used in this sense by Päpini in SQtra IV, 3,
95; but the word, as explained by the commentators, has a passive
sense and means a thing resorted to, liked or loved; and general and
special terminations are prescribed, which, when affixed to a noun, in-
dicate one by whom the thing expressed by the noun is liked or loved.
In this sense the word Bhakti is used by Yäska also, when he speaks
of certain things as Agnibhaktini, Indrabhaktini, i. e. things which
resort to, or relate themselves to, Agni, etc. Thus the idea of love
was associated with the word in early times, though it then signified
loved instead of 1 o v e. Properly speaking, by the rules of Päpini
himself, it ought to signify the latter, as the suf&c ti indicates Bhäva
or condition. Howsoever the word may have come into use in later
times, the thing expressed by it, viz. love for the Ätman or the
Supreme Soul, was an idea implied and often expressed by the word
priya or preyas in the Upani^ad period.

§ 31. The State of things which must have led to the evolution
of the religion of the Gltä seems to me to be this. About the time when
the Systems of religion we have been considering arose, there was a
tendency amongst the people which often worked itself out, as is
evident from the Päli Birth-Stories, to give up worldly life and betake
themselves to a residence in forests or mountains. Even Buddhism,
Jainism and other like Systems considered an ascetic life to be a sine
qua non of religious elevation. There is reason to believe that Sra-
ma^as existed before the rise of Buddhism. The religious Systems
that had sprung up were mostly atheistic. The Indian mind had be-
come prone to indulge in mere moral discourses and thoughts of moral
exaltation, unassociated with a theistic faith, as appears clear from
Buddhism and other Systems and also from dry moral dissertations
of which the Mahabhärata is füll. Such a system as that of the Bhaga-
vadgitä was, therefore, necessary to counteract these tendencies.
Theistic ideas were so scattered in the Upani$ads, that it was necessary
for practical purposes to work them up into a system of redemption

50 . IIL Retigion, Wdd. Wisseoaeh. n. Kirnst 6. VaifomTism etc.

capable of being grasped easUy. These appear to be the conditioiis under
which the GitS came into existence. I am not indined to dissolve
Väsudeva and Arjuna into solar myths; but VSsudeva could not have
been living when the Bhagavadgitä was composed as a discouise deli-
vered by him, any more than Buddha was living when his discourses
were reduced to the form of books. It is worthy of femark that both
of them are called Bhagavats when speaking. VSsudeva must already
have been deified before the Bhagavadgitä was written.

As regards the attitude of the Bhagavat to the older belief, it
is evident that it is conservative and he came to fulfil the law and not
supersede it. It must already have been seen that he looks at the
sacrificial rel^ion from almost the same point of view as the Upani$ads.
The cherishing of desires which the sacrificial rites encouraged is con-
sidered harmful, and the fruit attained by means of them is perishable.
It was because this Ekäntika religion was so conservative, that it
gradually made its way into Hindu society in general, though it did not
succeed in uprooting the religion of sacrifices. Still it always retained
its character as a religion for women and for all castes, !§üdras in-
cluded, and in its later development it was associated with such Vedic
rites as then remained when it was professed by the Brähma^as, but
not so associated when its foUowers were of lower castes, among whom
it continued to exercise great influence. The Bhagavat's attitude
towards the worshippers of other gods has already been explained.
It was strictly liberal. All worship, to whomsoever it was directed,
reaches him ultimately, but the devotees of other gods do not know
Bhagavat as he truly is and thus go wrong. This attitude must have
had something to do with the influence of the Väsudeva-Kr^pa cult
over the lower classes.

Vn. Identification of Vasudeva with Narayana.

§ 32. The Word Näräya];ia is similar to Nädäyana, which last is
formed by P. IV, i, 99 and means the Gotra Näcjäyana. The termi-
nation is significative and means in this case the resting place or the
place to which Näda or a coUection of Nadas go. So Näräya^a means
the resting place or goal of Nära or a collection of Naras '). In the
Näräya^iya (XII, 341) Keäava or Hari says to Arjuna that he is
known as the resting place or goal of men (narä^äm). The word Nr
or Nara is also used to denote gods as manly persons, especially in
the Vedas, so that Näräyapa may be construed as the resting place
or goal of gods. There is a tradition which connects Näräya^a with the
primeval waters. Manu (i, lO) and also Hari in the above passage
say that the waters were called Näräs because they were the sons of
Nara and, since they were the first resting place of Brahma in the
first case and of Hari in the second, the two were called Näräya^as.
The Purä^as, such as the Väyu and the Vi§i?u, agree with Manu. Again
there is a tradition that Brahmadeva sprang from the lotus in the

') See Medhttithi'^ commentary on Manu 1,10.

VII. Identification of Visudeya with Närftya^a. 3^

Havel of Näräya^a or Vi^^u (MBh. III, 12, 34 and XII, 349, 18). In
the Väyu-PuräQa Näräya^a is represented as prior to Avyakta or
matter in an undeveloped form, and from Avyakta sprang the mundane
eggi änd from the latter arose Brahmadeva. All these traditions in
various forms seem to go back to RV. X, 82, 5 and 6, which may be thus
translated: "Prior to the sky, prior to this earth, prior to the living
gods, what is that embryo which the waters held first and in which
all the gods existed? The waters held that same embryo in which
all the gods exist or find themselves; on the navel of the unborn stood
something in which all beings stood". In this we have first the waters
mentioned; on those waters stood the embryo, which corresponds to
the Brahma of the later tradition, who created everything; and the
unborn corresponds to NärSya^a from whose navel he sprang. In this
embryo all the gods, it is said, found themselves. This corresponds to
the Naras, men or gods, whose goal or resting place was Naräyapa,
so that this confirms the identity between Brahma and Näräya^a
mentioned by Manu and some of the Puräpas. Näräya^a, therefore,
who, by the other authorities cited above, is considered prior to Brah-
madeva and to the SvayaipbhQ of Manu, is another person and has a
cosmic character and is not a historical or mythological individual.
This idea of Näräyapa was developed in the period of the later Bräh-
ma^as and Ara^yakas. In the Satapatha -Brähmapa (XII, 3, 4)
Puru$a NSräyaiüia is represented to have sent forth from the place of
sacrifice Vasus, Rudras and Adityas by means of the morning, midday
and evening libations respectively, he alone remaining in the place. Pra-
japati teils him to sacrifice again, and the substance of thewhole is
that Näräya^a placed himself in all the worlds, in all the gods, in all
theVedas and in all the vital airs, and they were placed in him. This
shadows forth the rising of Näräyapa to the dignity of the Supreme
Soul, who pervades all and in whom all things exist and who in the
beginning sent forth all the gods, being himself their receptacle or
resting place as indicated in RV. X, 82, 6. In another place (XIII,
6, l) Puru$a Näräyaiüia is mentioned as having conceived the idea of
a Paflcarätra Sattra (continued sacrifices for five days) as the means
of obtaining superiority over all beings and becoming all beings. He
performed the sacrifices and attained to that dignity. Here also Närä-
yapa's becoming the Supreme Ruler and becoming all are spoken of.
Näräyapa is represented as the author of the Puru§asükta (RV. X,
90). This appears to be as much a fanciful representation, as that of
Vi^akarman and others as authors of other hymns. As in these last
cases, it has a connection with the deity to which the hymn refers, so
that Näräya^a is another name of the Puru$a, and these two names
are associated together, as we have seen, in the above citations from
the 6atapatha-Brähmai3ia. In the Taittiriya- Ärai?yaka (X, ll) Närä-
ya^a is described with all the attributes of the Supreme Soul, which
are usually found mentioned in the Upani$ads. In the Mahabhärata
and PuräQas, he figures as the supreme god, especially in connection
with the creation; mythologically he is represented as lying on the
body of a huge serpent in the ocean of milk, the original conception
of bis connection with the primeval waters being still kept to.

32 ni- ReligioDi Welü. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vai^^avism etc.

Näräya^a thus became an object of worship. In the Ghosu^di in-
scription noticed before, there is what appears to be a dedication of
an enclosure to Näräya^^a (NSräya^a-Vätikä).

§ 33. The heaven of this Näräya^a was the Svetadvipa or white
Island. In the Kathäsaritsägara (54, 19; 21; 23) Naravähanadatta
is represented to have been carried to the white island by Devasiddhi
and to Hari reposing on the body of the serpent ^e$a and attended
by Närada and other devotees. In another place in the same work
(115, lOl — 3) certain gods are spoken of as having gone to Svetadvipa
and Seen Hari in a house made of great gems lying on the serpent bed
with Lak$mi sitting at his feet. In the HarivamSa (14 384) it is stated
thatYogins and Käpilasämkhyas who desireMok$a or final deliverance,
go to the white island or Svetadvipa, by reciting the prayer and praise
composed by Baiin. Evidently, therefore, Svetadvipa or white island
is the heaven in which Näräya^ia, spoken of sometimes as Hari, dwells.
It corresponds to the Vaikuptha of Vi§pu, the Kailäsa of 6iva, and
the Goloka of Gopälakr^pa; and to that heaven of Näräyaqa it was
that Närada went and saw him and learned from him the monotheistic
religion of Väsudeva. There is, therefore, no need to suppose that
that white island was a Christian country peopled by white races.

§ 34. Näräya^a, being thus evolved as the Supreme Being in
the later Brähmapic period, was, of course, prior to Väsudeva, and
in the epic times when the worship of the latter arose, Väsudeva was
identified with Näräyaija. In the Vanaparvan (chaps. 188, 189) there
is a description of the condition of things at the time of dissolution
of the universe, in which it is stated that there was water everywhere
and there was a boy lying on a couch on a branch of a Nyagrodha
tree. He opened his mouth and took in Märkainideya, who roamed in
the inside and saw the whole universe and was Struck with wonden
Then the boy vomited or threw him out, when he saw again the waters
alone. Märkaiüideya then asked the boy who he was; then he said:
"Formerly I gave to waters the name of Näräh, and those were my
resting place (Ayana), and therefore I am Näräya^a" , and thus he
goes on to describe his greatness. Finally Märkaiüideya, who teils the
whole Story, says to Yudhi§thira that Janärdana, his relative, is this
same Näräyaija. The bürden of the whole of the Näräya^üya section
seems to be this identity between Näräyaiüia and Väsudeva. Besides
this Näräyaijiia, the creator of all, there was a tradition about another
who was always associated with Nara. This companionship seems to
be traceable to the Upani§ad idea of two birds dwelling in a tree,
friends and associates of each other. That one of those, who is called
the lord and the onlooker, is in the present tradition Näräyaoa and
the other, who is engaged in eating the fruit of the tree, Nara. The
old idea was transferred to the new conception of Näräya^a as the
resting place or abode of all men. In the opening chapter of the Närä-
ya^iya it is stated that Näräyaiüia, the eternal soul of the universe,
with four forms became the son of Dharma. The four forms or four
sons were Nara, Näräyaija, Hari and Kr$Qa. The first two of these
devoted themselves to the practice of austerities in the Badarikä^rama.
The same story is given in the Vämana-Purä^a (chap. 6). These

VIII. Identification of Väsudeva with Vi$9u. 33

four are represented as the sons of Dharma and had Ahiipsä (non-kil-
ling) as their mother. This story seems to be significant. About the
time when the new Systems of religion arose, the ideas thatwere under-
going fermentation were Dharma or righteousness and Ahimsä or non-
slaughter as against the old ceremonial of sacrificial rites and the
killing of animals in accordance with it. These four names, there-
fore, were names connected with the introduction of a new System
of religion, not heterodox, which concerned itself with righteousness
and non-slaughter of animals. That is what appears to be meant by
Dharma being called the father of these four and Ahimsä their mother.
Nara and Näräyaiüia are sometimes called IgL^is, and that is probably
to be traced to the conception of Näräyaqa as the J^L^i or composer of
the Puru$asükta. These gods must have been very famous at the
time when the Mahäbhärata was composed, since in the opening stanza
of the different books obeisance is made to these two gods. In the
Vanaparvan (l2, 46; 47) Janärdana is represented to have said
to Arjuna: "Oh invincible one, thou art Nara and I am Hari Närä-
ya^a and we, the sages Nara-Näräyai?a, have come to this world at
the proper time; thou art not different from me, oh Pärtha, and I
am not different from thee; it is notpossible to know any difference
between us." In chap. 30 (verse l) of the same Par\'an the god of gods
(6iva) says to Arjuna : " In a former birth (body) thou wast Nara and with
Näräya^a for thy companion performedst austerities für many thou-
sands of years in Badari". In the Udyogaparvan (49, 19) it
is said: **The two heroes, Väsudeva and Arjuna, who are great war-
riors, are the old gods Nara and Näräya^a. This is the tradition."
In this manner there are a good many examples of the identification
of Arjuna and Väsudeva with Nara and Näräyainia. And thus the
old tradition about the two J^L^is who were warriors at the same time
was broüght into connection with the two interlocutors of the Bha-
gavadgitä.

VIII. Identification of Väsudeva with Visnu.

§ 35. Vi§i3iu is a Vedic deity. There are but few hymns addressed
to him in RV., but his personality is by no means unimportant. The
long strides which he takes, and the three steps by which he measures
the universe, are always described with an enthusiastic spirit. His
first two Steps can be discerned and approached by men, but the third
no one can dare transgress, and it is beyond the flight of birds (RV. I.
I55> 5)' The wise seethe highest place of Vi§i?u (paramam padam),
as it were an eye fixed in the heaven (RV. I. 22, 20). In the highest
place of Vi§i3iu there is a well of honey, and there the gods rejoice (RV.
Ii 154» S)« Vißpu appears as thecomrade and helper of Indra.

Vi§;^u, however, in spite of his comparatively subordinate position
in RV. began to rise in importance in the time of the Brähmapas,
while during the epic and Purä^ic period he rose to the rank of the
supreme spirit. The moment which seems to have been in Operation
during this process of elevation, was reverence for the third step or

lado-aritche Philologie IQ. 6. 3

34 ^^- Religion, Wdtl. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vai^^avism etc.

the mysterious highest abode of Vi$Qu beyond the ken of all. In the
Brähmapic period we have the mention of Agni as the lowest of the
gods and Vi§i?u as the highest (AB. I, l). Then we have a story in
Satapatha-Brähmai^a and Taittiriya-AraQyaka of a sacrificial session
held by the gods for the attainment of splendour, glory and food.
They proposed to themselves that he amongst them, who by his deeds
reached the end of the sacrifice before the others, should attain the
highest place among them all. Vi§pu reached the end before the others,
and he thus became the highest of the gods; and therefore they say
that Vi§pu is the highest of the gods (SB. XIV, I, l). When this
was written, Vi§i?u had already attained to the supreme dignity, and
the story is invented to account for it. There is again in the same
Brähma^a (i, 2, 5) the story of Vi§i?u the dwarf. When the gods and
Asuras were contending for a place for sacrifice, the latter agreed that
they would allow as much land for the former as was equal to the
size of the dwarf. Vi§i?u was then made to lie down, but gradually
he grew so large as to encompass thewhole earth, and so the gods got
the whole earth. Here a miraculous power has been attributed to
Vi§pu, though he is not necessarily the Supreme Spirit. In theMaitri-
Upani$ad (VI, 13) food is called the form of Bhagavad-Vi§pu, which
sustains the universe. In the Katha-Upani$ad (III, 9) the progress of
the human soul is compared to a journey, and the end of the path
which he traverses is called the highest place of Vi§9u (paramam
padam). This is the final goal and the abode of etemal bliss, and the
use of the word in this sense lends support to the view that the cle-
vation of Vi§i?u to the dignity of the Supreme Being was due to the
fact that the expression was capable of being used to denote this
sense. Some time after, Vi§i?u became even a household god. In the
ceremony of the seven steps contained in the marriage rituai the bride-
groom has to say to the bride, when she puts forth a step: "May Vi§9u
lead you or be with you." This formula occurs in the Grhyasütras of
Äpastamba, Hiranyake^in and Päraskara, but not in that of A§valä-
yana. In epic times Vi§i?u grew to be in every respect the Supreme
Spirit; and Väsudeva is identified with Vi^^u. In chapters 65 and 66
of the Bhi§maparvan noticed before, the Supreme Spirit is addressed
as Näräya^a and Vi§i?u and is identified with Väsudeva.

In the Anugltä portion of the ASvamedhikaparvan (chaps. 53 — 55)
Kr^iü^a, while returning to Dvärakä, meets on the way a sage of the
name of Uttanka of the Bhrgu race. The sage asks Kr§i?a whether he had
established peace between the contending kinsmen, Pä^dus and Kurus,
and established affectionate relations between them. Kr^QSi replies
that the Kurus had been destroyed and the Päodus were in possession
of the supreme sovereignty. The sage got angry and said that he would
pronounce a curse against Kr§i?a, but if he explained to him the philo-
sophy of the soul(Adhyätma), he would desist. Kr^iü^a then does explain
this philosophy at the request of Uttanka and shows him his
universal form (Virät svarQpam). TheSvarüpa isthe same as, or similar
to, that shown to Arjuna according to the Bhagavadgltä, but it is
here called the Vai§i?ava form (rüpa), which name does not occur
in the other passage. Thus then between the period of the Bhagavad-

IX. Identification of Vssudeva^K^va whith the Cowherd God (GopSÜa-Kn^a). 35

gitä and that of the Anugitä the identity of Väsudeva-Kr§i?a with
Vi$Qu had become an established fact. In the Santiparvan (chap. 43)
Yudhi§thira addressing Kr§i?a sings a hymn of praise, in which Krs^a
is identified with Vi§pu. In the epic times, Vi§i?u is regarded as the
Supreme Spirit, but the names of Näräyapa and Väsudeva-Kr^pa
apparently occur more frequently or are more prominent.

§ 36. Still many parts of the Mahäbhärata represent a condition
of things in which the divinity of Väsudeva-Kr§9a was not generally
acknowledged. In the above passage from the Anugitä, the sage Ut-
tanka is about to pronounce a curse on Kr$oa, as if he was an ordinary
individual, and desists only when his universal form is shown to him.
Similarly in many passages noticed by Dr. Muir (O. S. T. IV, pp. 205ff.)
Kr^^a's divinity is denied; and Saipjaya and Bhl^ma make strenuous
efforts to establish it. What appears to be the fact is that the religion
of Väsudeva, in which divine honours were paid to him, was professed
by the Sätvatas, as observed in several of the passages noticed above,
and its gradual extension to other tribes and people of the country is
shadowed forth in these portions of the great epic. In the Purä^ic
times, however, the cult of Väsudeva ceased to be militant, and three
streams of religious thought, namely the one flowing from Vi^^iu, the
Vedic god at its source, another from Näräya^a, the cosmic and Philo-
sophie god, and the third from Väsudeva, the historical god, mingled
together decisively and thus formed the later Vai§9avism. There is,
however, a fourth stream, which in modern times in some of the Systems
of Vai^^^avism has acquired an almost exclusive predominance, and
to this we shall now direct our attention.

IX. Identification of Vasudeva-Krsna with the

...

Cowherd God (Gopüa-Krsna).

§ 37. There is no allusion to the cowherd Kr§9a in the authorities
we have hitherto quoted. The inscriptions, the work of Patanjali and
even the Näräya^Iya itself indicate no knowledge of the existence of
such a god. In the last the Avatäraof Väsudeva is mentioned as having
been assumed for the destruction of Kamsa, but of none of the demons
whom the cowherd Kr§9a killed in the cow-settlement (Gokula). The
contrast between this and the Statements in the Harivam^a (vv, 5876
— 5878), Väyu-Puräija, chap. 98, vv. 100 — 102, and Bhägavata-Puräpa,
II, 7, of Kr§pa*s Avatära having been assumed for destroying all the
demons that appeared in the cow-settlement as well as of Kamsa is
significant. When these works were written, the legend about the
cowherd Kr$Qa must have already become current and his identifi-
cation with Väsudeva -Kr§i?a been effected. And the story of the Vj^^i
prince Väsudeva having been brought up in a cow-settlement is in-
congruous with his later career as depicted in the Mahäbhärata. Nor
does any part of it require the presupposition of such a boyhood as
has been ascribed to him.

In the Sabhäparvan (chap. 41), however, SiSupäla in traducing
Kr?9a alludes to his valorous deeds, such as the killing of Pütanä and

3*

36 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vai^^avism etc.

others,which were done in the cow-settlement, and speaks of Bhi$ma*s
having praised them. But the praise bestowed on Kr$];;ia by Bhi^ma
(chap. 38) does not contain a mention of these deeds. This passage
therefore is interpolated ').

The name Govinda does occur in the Bhagavadgitä and other
parts of Mahäbhärata. It is an ancient name, beeing derived by aVdrt-
tika on P. III, i, 138. If this name was given to Kr^iü^a, because of
his having had to do with cows, while a boy in Gokula, and his pre-
vious history in the cow-settlement was known, when the genuine
portions of the Mahäbhärata were composed, we should have found
an etymology of the name expressive of that connection. But, on the
contrary, in the Adiparvan it is stated that Govinda is so called,
because in the form of a boar he found the earth (Go) in the waters,
which he agitated (chap. 21, 12); and in the ^äntiparvan (chap. 342, 70)
Väsudeva says: "I am called Govinda by the gods, because formerly
I found the earth which was lost and lodged in a den". The origin
of the name may be traced to this legend, but more probably Govinda
is a later form of Govid, which in the ^gveda is used as an epithet of
Indra in the sense of *the finder of the cows'. This epithet, as another,
KeSini$üdana, which is also applicable to Indra, must have been trans-
ferred to Väsudeva-Kr$9a, when he came to be looked upon as the
Chief god.

From all this it appears that the story of Kr§9a's boyhood in
the Gokula was unknown tili about the beginning of the Christian fjra.
The HarivaipSa, which is the chief authority for it, contains the word
dinära, corresponding to the Latin word denariuSy and consequently
must have been written about the third Century oJF the Christian era.
Some time before that the stories of Kr§na's boyhood must have been
current. The nature of the tribe of cowherds among whom Kr^^a
lived, is to be gathered from the words of the boy-god addressed to
his f oster - father Nanda, in order to dissuade him from celebrating
a festival to Indra, and induce him to worship the mountain Govardhana
instead. **We are cowherds", he says, '^wandering in forests, main-

>) The Southern recension of the Mahabhazaia contains many interpolations. In
the NsrSyapIya chap. 338 of the Northern recension corresponds to chap. 344 of the
Southern. We have siz verses in the latter which are not contained in the former.
They speak of animals made of flour being killed instead of real live animals. This
is a later doctrine, which is strongly advocated by the Madhra Vaifpavas, but denied
with as much pertinacity by SmSrtas. In the present case in the SabhSparvan, chap.
22, Yv. 27 — 36 about Kf^^a's doings in Gokula are in S. and not in N. Chap. 23 in
S. about K]-$9a's birth and removal to Gokula is not in N. Chap. 24, S. ▼▼. 4 — S
about JarSsaipdha's declining to fight with Kr^^a, because he was a Gopa, are not found
in chap. 23, N., which corresponds to that chapter. Chaps. 33 and 34 in S. are not
in N. The first is about Sahadeva's ezpedition to the Pa^cjya countiy and the second
about Gbatotkaca's being sent to Lanka and Vibhi^apa's paying tribute out of respect
for Kf^^a. At the end of chap. 39 in S., corresponding to chap. 36 in N., there is
an interpolated passage, in which the worship done to Kf^pa is derided as having been
done to a Gopa or cowherd. This is not found in N. Chaps. 42 — 61 in S. are not
found in N. They contain a mention of the Avat&ras of Vi^pu and his exploits in
Gokula. Chap. 64 in S. corresponds to chap. 41 in N. Thus attempts have always
been made to bring by means of interpolations the stories told in the Mah&bhftrata to
the form which they subsequently assume. The passage dealt with in the text is a
dear interpolation.

IX. Identification of Väsudeva-Kf^^a with the Cowherd God (Gopala-Ki^pa). 37

taining ourselves on cows, which are our wealth; cows are our deities,
and mountains and forests" (H. 3808). The cowherds lived in a Gho§a
or temporary encampment, which was capable of being easily removed
£rom place to place, as when they left Vraja and encamped in Vrndävana
(H. 3532). Gho§a is defined as ÄbhirapallT, which is generally under-
stood as the enclosure o{ cowherds. But the original signification of the
Word Äbhira is not a cowherd. It is the name of a race, whose original
occupation was the tending of cows; and consequently the name be-
came in later times equivalent to a *cowherd'. For these reasons the
cowherds among whom the boy-god Kr§oa lived, belong to a nomadic
tribe of the name of Äbhiras. These Äbhiras occupied the tract of
country from Madhuvana near Mathurä to Anöpa and Änarta, the
regions about Dvärakä (H. 5161 — 5163). The Äbhiras are mentioned in
the Mahäbhärata (Mausalaparvan, chap. 7) as having attacked Arjuna,
who was carrying the women of theVr§pis from Dvärakä to Kuruk$etra
after the extinction of the male members of the Vr§qi race. They are
described as robbers and Mlecchas and lived near Pancanada, which
is probablyPanjäb. TheVi§pu-Puräpa locates them near the Aparäntas
(Konkan) and Saurä^tras, and Varähamihira .assigns them nearly the
same position. Though they are mentioned as a southern people (Br-
S. 14, 12) and as living in the southwest (Br. S. 14, 18), the Äbhiras
must have migrated in large hordes into the country. They were at
first mere nomads and afterwards settled in the country from about
the eastern confines of the Panjäb to the vicinity of Mathurä and in
the south up to Surä$tra or Käthiäväd, i. e., they must have occupied
the whole of Räjputäna and a tract to the northeast of it. After they
were settled, they took to various occupations, one of which was of
course the old one, namely the tending of cows. The descendants of
the old Äbhiras are called Ähirs at the present day, and we have now
Ähirs foUowing the occupation of carpenters, goldsmiths, cowherds
and even priesthood. At one time they founded a kingdom in the
northem part of the Marätha country, and an inscription of the ninth
year of the Äbhira king I^varasena, the son of Äbhira äivadatta, is
found at Näsik i). From the form of the characters the inscription pro-
bably belongs to the end of the third Century. The Puräpas mention
a dynasty of Äbhiras composed of ten princes*). Another inscription of
an earher date is found at GundäS) in Käthiäväd, in which the charities
of RudrabhQti, a general, who is called an Äbhira, are mentioned.
The inscription belongs to the reign of a K$atrapa king of the name
of Rudrasimha, who held power in äaka 102 corresponding to 180 A. D.
K then about the end of the second Century and in the third the Äbhiras
enjoyed high political position, they must have migrated into the
country in the first Century. They probably brought with them the
worship of the boy-god and the story of his humble birth, his reputed
father's knowledge that he was not his son, and the massacre of the
innocents. The two last correspond to Nanda's knowing that he was

<) Laders, List of B^hmi Inscriptions, Nr. 1137.

>) See VSyu-Parjpa, vol II. chap. 37, page 453, Bibl. Ind.

3) Lttders, List of Brähmi Inscriptions, Nr. 963.

38 in. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. n. Kunst. 6. Vai^oavism et&

not the father of Kf^^a and Kamsa's killing all children. The stories
of Kr$Qa's boyhood, such as that of killing Dhenuka, a demon in the
form of a wild ass, were brought by Äbhiras '), and others were
developed after they came to India. It is possible that they brought
with them the name Christ also, and this name probably led to the
Identification of the boy- god with Vasudeva-Kr^pa. The Goanese and
the Bengalis often pronounce the name Kf^pa as Ku$to or Kri^to,
and so the Christ of the Äbhiras was recognised as the Sanskrit
Kr$Qa. The dalliance of Kr$9a with cowherdesses, which introduced
an element inconsistentwith the advance of morality into the Vasudeva
reUgion, was also an after-growth, consequent upon the freer inter-
course between the wandering Äbhiras and their mdre civilised Äryan
neighbours. Morality cannot be expected to be high or strict among
races in the condition of the Äbhiras at the time; and their gay neigh-
bours took advantage of its looseness. Besides, the Äbhira women
must have been fair and handsome as those of the Ähir-Gavaliyas
or cowherds of the present Say^are.

§ 38. The Story in the Buddhistic Ghatajätaka represents Vasu-
deva and his brothers to be the sons of Kamsa's sister Devagabbhä
and Upasägara. They were made over to a man of the name of Andha-
kaveohu and to his wife Nandagopä who was the attendant of Deva-
gabbhä. In this Version there is a reminiscence of DevakI in the name
Devagabbhä; andNanda and Ya^odä or Gopä of Gokula are compoun-
ded together to form the name of the maid - servant who brought up
Devagabbhä's sons as her sons. And in Andhakave^hu the names of
the two kindred Yädava tribes, Andhaka and Vr?oi, are compounded
together, and the Compound becomes the name of the husband of the
maid -servant. Now as Andhaka and Vr§oi were according to the
highest authorities two distinct names and were the names of the two
tribes, this story contains a confused reminiscence of the true legend
and was of a later growth. All the Jätakas were not written at one and
the same time. While some belong to a pre-Christian period, others
must be assigned to post -Christian times, and the Ghatajätaka appears
to me to belong to the latter class. The Compound Nandagopä, there-
fore, though it contains a clear reminiscene of the fosterparents of the
boy- god Kr?Qa, cannot be considered to point to a pre-Christian
period for the identification of Väsudeva-Kr§pa with Gopäla-Ki^qa.

X. The Päncaratra or Bhägavata System.

§ 39. We have thus gone over the last element which goes to form
theVai§pavism of later times. That element, however, does not forma
prominent part, or forms no part at all, of the Systems which are
basedupon the old Päncaratra doctrines. Aswe have seen, theEkäntika
Dharma or monotheistic religion was that which was promulgated
by the Bhagavadgitä; but the Päncaratra System, consisting, as it
did, of the worship of Vasudeva and his several forms, shows no oi^anic
connection with that work, though Bhakti or devotion is common to

>; Joum. Roy. As. Soc. for 1907, p. 981.

X. The I^ncar&tra or Bhftgavata System. 39

both. That System must havc developed in about the third Century
B. C, as we have already seen from the inscriptions and passages
in books referred to before» Their being free from the Gopäla-Kr§oa
Clement is thus intelligible, and the later Vai$Qava Systems, such as
that of Rämänuja and Madhva, which more or less recognise the old
Bhägavata doctrines or ideas, have entirely neglected that element.
In other Systems, however, it is recognised and in a general way in
populär Vai§^iavism. The authorities on which the Bhägavata System
was based are the Pancarätra-Saiphitäs; and Rämänuja in his comments
on the Brahmasutras, II, 2, 39 — ^42, quotes fromsomeof these. The first
Quotation is from the Pau$kara-Samhitä, which is intended to show
that, when Brähmapas worship the fourfold soul with the traditional
names, it should be considered authoritative. The second is from the
Sätvata-Samhitä, which is to the effect that this great Sästra contains
the secret of Brahman and imparts discrimination to Brähmapäs who
worship the true Brahman bearing the name of Väsudeva. There are
two from the Parama- Samhitä. One of these gives the nature of Prakjti,
which is unsentient, of use to another than "itself", eternal, always
changeable, composed of three qualities, and is the sphere within which
the action of agents is done. The other represents somebody, pro-
bably Sä^dilya himself, as saying that he has studied all the Vedas
with the dependent treatises and Väkoväkya, but not having found
the way to supreme bliss clearly stated in them. One of these Samhitäs,
bearing the name of Sätvata, hasbeenprinted and is available. Itbegins
by saying that Närada saw ParaSuräma on the Malaya Mountain and
was told by him to visit the ^§is, who were in search of the place of
Hari, and to instruct them in the Sätvata method of worship (KLriyä-
märga). Närada does this and explains to them the secret traditional
methods (Rahasyämnäya). Näräya^a is spoken of here as the supreme
spirit. The secret methods were formerly explained by the bearer of
the discus (Väsudeva), when asked by Saipkar^apa. Saipkar^apa
spoke to Vi§ou at the beginning of the Tretä age, asking why his coun-
tenance had become red. The answer is: "Because the people will
be afiTlicted with passion in this age*'. Being asked how they will
be delivered from passion, Sainkar§apa is told that they will be deliver-
cd by adoring the eternal and highest Brahman in three ways. The
Supreme Spirit, who has hands and feet and eyes everywhere and is endow-
ed with six Gupas or qualities, is Para or the Highest. It is one and the
Support of all. Besides this there is a triad, each member of which
is distinguished from the others by a distinction in knowledge and
other qualities. These three should be known as Vyuhas, or forms,
who confer the desired fruit with ease. Balaräma then asks about
the mode of service. Bhagavat then explains it as foUows: — "When
the pure Brahman, which is the aim and end of the creation, exists
in the heart of quahfied Brähma^as, who worship Väsudeva, the highest
^ästra, which is a great Upani§ad of Brahman, Springs forth from it
for the redemption of the world and confers discrimination; it contains
divine methods and has for its fruit final deliverance '). I will then

') Two lines out of this are contained in the quotations from R&mflnuja given above.

40 III. Religion» Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^pavism etc.

explain that to you which is of various kinds. This ^ästra, along
with Rahasya, is fniitful to those who have gone throughYoga with
its eight parts and whose soul is devoted to mental sacrifice. The
Yogins, who are Brähmapas guided by the Vedas and who have given
up the mixed worship, are competent for the worship of the Single
one, dwelling in the heart. The three orders, K$atriya and others,
and those who are prapanna or have resorted to seif -surrender are
competent for the worship of the four Vyühas accompanied by Mantras,
and also unaccompanied by them, so far as regards the series of cere-
monies concerning the four Vyühas as well as the actions and the
coUection of Mantras concerning the Vibhavas *). All these persons
should be free from attachment and absorbed in the Performance of
their duties and be devotees of the supreme lord by their deeds, words
and mind. In this manner, the four (orders) become competent, when
they are initiated (for Service) with Mantras. Hear now the process
concerning the Single form". Then foUows the Statement of the mystic
arrangement of letters and formulae and the meditations. This work
throughout contains the mystic modes of worship by means of Mantras
variously arranged. The allusion at the end of chap. 66 of the Bhi§ma-
parvan to Samkar§apa's having sung or expounded Väsudeva according
to the Sätvata rites (Vidhi) refers in all probability to such rites as
are detailed in this Sätvata- Samhitä.

äamkaräcärya, in his notice of the Bhägavata school under Br.
S. II, 2, 42, gives five methods of worshipping the supreme lord, Bha-
gavat Väsudeva, inhisfourfoldform, which, along with the explanations
given by the commentators, are as follows: — (i) Abhigamana or going
to the temple of the deity with the Speech, the body and the mind
centred on him; (2) Upädäna or coUecting the materials of worship;
(3) ^yä or worship; (4) Svädhyäya or the muttering of the usual
Mantra; (5) Yoga or meditation. By worshipping him in these ways for
a hundred years, all sin is destroyed and the devotee reaches Bhagavat.

§ 40. The book called Näradapancarätra, published by the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, contains the Samhitä called Jnänämrtasära. The
glories of the boyKr§na are sung in this work. Närada desiring to
know Kr§oa's greatness and the methods of his worship is recommended
to go to Samkara, or Siva, and seek instruction from him. Närada
repairs to Kailäsa and enters the palace of Samkara, which has seven
gates. At these gates there are pictures and sculptures relating to
the scenes of Kr§ria's childhood and his various deeds in the cow-
settlement, such as Vrndävana, Yamunä, Kr§na's sitting on the Ka-
damba tree with the garments of the cowherdesses and their return
from bath in the Yamunä river in a naked condition, the destruction
of the serpent Käliya, the holding up of the Govardhana mountain
on the palm of his hand, the journey to Mathurä and the lamentations
of the Gopis and his foster parents, etc. Sculptures representing some
of these events were discovered on a pillar excavated at Mandor near
Jodhpur about two years ago *). The age of the pillar has been

i) Vibhavas are the incamations of the Supreme Spirit.

•) Archseoloj^cal Survey of India, Annual Report 1905 — 1906. p. 135 ff.

XI. The AvatSLras of Vi^^u or Narfiya^a. 4I

considered not earlier than the fourth Century A. D. The idea of imagining
such sculptures on the gates of Siva's palace could have occurred to a
writer only when the practice of adorning gates and pillars with such
sculptures had become general. The Jnanämrtasära, therefore, could
not have been earlier than the fourth Century and appears to me to be
considerably later, as will be presently shown. Goloka or the world
of cows is the heaven in which Kr$na dwells and which is reached
by those who adore him, and several Mantras are given in this book,
the reciters of which are rewarded with a place in that heaven. The
servitude of Hari through devotion is the highest Mukti or absolution
according to this work. There are six modes of adoring Hari, viz.
(l) remembrance of him, (2) utterance (of his name and glory), (3) sa-
lutation, (4) resorting to his feet, (5) constant worship of him with
devotion, and (6) surrender of the whole soul to him. The Bhägavata-
Puräna adds three more, viz. hearing (his praise), servitude, and
companionship (Sakhyam). These last two are preliminary to the
surrendering of the whole soul. In this book Rädhä is mentioned as
the highest of the women whomKr§9a loved, and she is represented
to have been formed by the original lord becoming two, one of which
was Rädhä (II, 3, 24 ff.). The exaltation of this woman is thus one
of the main objects of this Samhitä.

The Samhitä we have been considering, seems thus to be entirely
devoted to the advancement of the cult of the Kr§oa of the cow-
settlement or Gokula and of his beloved mistress Rädhä, now raised
to the dignity of his eternal consort. The Vyühas which form a pecu-
liarity of the Päncarätra school, are not mentioned in it. The creed
afterwards promulgated by Vallabhäcärya is exactly similar to that
set forth in this book. This Samhitä, therefore, must have been written
a Short time before Vallabha, that is, about the beginning of the
sixteenth Century. The Rämänujiyas consider this Samhitä to be
apocryphal.

XI. The Avataras of Visnu or Narayana.

§ 41. An Avatära or incarnation of a god differs from mere iden-
tification of two gods in this, that in the former case the god that
is considered an incarnation acts like a human being, or even a brüte,
at the same time that he has the miraculous powers of a god. The
transition, however, from the idea of identification to that of incar-
nation is easy. The person in the flesh is identified with the god who
is a mere spirit, so that the habit of thought which in Vedic times
led to the identification of some of the Vedic deities with Agni, has been
at work even in this conception of the Avataras. The Avataras of
Näräya^a or Vi§9u are variously given by the various authorities.
In the passage in the Näräyaijiya translated above, six only are given,
viz. the boar, the man-lion, the dwarf, Räma of the Bhrgu race, Räma
DäSarathi, and that assumed for the destruction of Kamsa (Väsudeva-
Kr?Qa). This passage is foUowed after a short interval by another
in which the incarnations are given as ten, the additions being Hamsa

42 IIL Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vaif^ayism etc.

(swan), KOrma (tortoise), and Matsya (fish) in the beginning and
Kalkin at the end. The one preceding Kalkin is called Sätvata, i. e.
Väsudeva-Kr?9a. This passage, foUowing so closely on the first, appears
to be interpolated when the number of Avatäras became fixed at tan.
The HarivamSa mentions the six given in the first of these two pas-
sages. The Väyu-Purä^a gives the incamations in two passages (chap.
97, vv. 72 ff. and chap. 98, vv. 63 ff.), in the first of which there are
twelve, but some of them appear rather to be incamations of Siva
and Indra. In the second the number ten, which about that time must
have come into usage, is made up by adding to the six mentioned
above the four: Dattätreya, one unnamed called the fifth, Vedavyäsa,
and Kalkin. In the Varäha-PuräQa we have the ten incamations
which came to be accepted later, containing the Fish, Tortoise,
Buddha, and Kalkin, in addition to the six mentioned above. The
Agni-Puräpa gives the same ten. The Bhägavata-Purä^a enumerates
the incamations in three different passages. In the first, contained
in chapter 3 of Book I, twenty-two are mentioned. In the passage
in chapter 7 of Book II we have twenty -three, and in chapter 4
of Book XI sixteen are given. It deserves notice that among the
Avatäras mentioned in this Puräpa are Sanatkumära; the divine sage
(Närada), who expounded the Sätvata System; Kapila, who explained
to Äsuri the Sämkhya System, which determines the coUection of prin-
ciples; Dattätreya, who is represented to have taught Änvik§ikl to
Alarka and Prahräda and the attainment of excellence by means of
Yoga to Yadu and Haihaya; R§abha, son of Näbhi and Merudevl,
who abandoned attachment to all things, acquired serenity and, looking
at all things alike and possessing Yoga power, acted as if he were a
non-living creature; and lastly Dhanvantari, the teacher of the science
of medicine. ?.§abha, from the parentage given here and other indi-
cations, appears clearly to be the same as the first Tirtharpkara of
the Jainas. He was probably raised to the dignity of an incarnation
as the Buddha of the Buddhists was. There is hardly a wide-spread
cult of any of these incamations except Dattätreya, who is adored
and worshipped by a large number of people to this day, and Räma
of whom more will have to be said hereafter. Kr§oa, of course, though
included in the Avatäras Stands on independent grounds, andhisworship
over the widest area is due, not to his having been considered an
Avatära, but to his being the peculiar object of adoration to the foUow-
ers of a new religion or religious reform, as I have ventured to call
it, which first took its rise among the Sätvatas.

XII. Later Traces of the Bhagavata School and

General Vaisnavism.

§ 42. We will now resume the chronological thread we have
traced from Megasthenes to the latest inscription, that at Nänäghät,
which is to be referred to the first Century B. C. For about four
centuries after this there are no epigraphical or sculptural traces of
any Brähma^ic religious System; and they reappear about the time

XII. Later Tnces of the BhSgavata School and General Vai^pavism. 43

when theGuptas rose to power in the first quarter of the fourth Century.
The Gupta princes, Candragupta II, Kumäragupta, and Skandagupta,
are styled Paramabhagavatas on their coins. They were thus wor-
shippers of Bhagavat or Väsudeva. Their dates ränge from 400 to
464 A. D.

Onapanel atUdayagiri, there is a figure of a four-armed god, who
is probably Vi§ou, The inscription below bears the date 82 G. E., i.e.
400 A. D. »)

There is a pillar at Bhitari in the Ghäzlpur District of the U.P.,
on which there is an inscription which records the installation of an
image of Öärngin and the grant of a village for its worship by Skan-
dagupta, whose dates ränge between 454 and 464 A. D. >) Särngin must
have been Väsudeva-Kr^pa, Skandagupta himself being a Bhägavata.

A temple of Vi§^iu was erected in 456 A. D. by Cakrapälita, son
of Par^adatta, appointed viceroy of Surä§tra or Käthiävä^ by Skan-
dagupta. The inscription which records this opens with an invocation
of Vi§ou in the Vämana or the dwarf incarnations).

In an inscription at Erai? in the Sägar district, C. P., belonging
to the reign of Budhagupta and bearing the date 165 G. E., corres-
ponding to 483 A. D., Mätrvi§9u and his younger brother Dhanya-
vi§9u are represented to have erected a Dhvajastambha or flag-staff
in honour of the god Janärdana. Mätrvi^^u is called a great devotee
of Bhagavat ((Uyanta-Bhagavai-bhakta)^). The god Janärdana must
therefore be Väsudeva-Kr§oa.

A copperplate inscription of A. D. 495, found near the village
of Khoh in Bäghelkhan<J, records the grant of a village, by a chief
named Jayanätha, to Bhagavat for repairs to the temple of that god
and for the Performance of ordinary ceremoniesS).

An inscription on an iron pillar near the Kutub Minär at Delhi
speaks of that pillar as a flag-staff to Vi$Qu erected by a great king
named Candra, who enjoyed universal sovereignty and was a great
devotee of Vi§9u. The inscription is not dated, but if the king Candra
referred to here was Candragupta II, it belongs to the latter part of
the fourth Century or the beginning of the fifth^).

In his MeghadQta (v. 15) Kälidäsa compares the cloud adorned
with a piece of a rain-bow, with Vi§pu in the shape of the cow-herd
adorned with a shining peacock feather. Here there is an identiflcation
of Gopäla-Kr?qa with Vi§nu; and, if the Vikramäditya who was the
patron of Kalidasa was Candragupta II of the Gupta dynasty, this
must be considered to be a record belonging to the early part of the
fifth Century.

We have already alluded to the sculptures on a pillar excavated
at Mandor near Jodhpur. These sculptures represent the overturning
of a cart by the baby Kr$9a, the holding of the Govardhana Mountain

«) Corp. Inscr. Ind. Vol. III, p. 2iff.

») Ibid. p. 5 2 ff.

3) Ibid. p. 56 ff.

4) Ibid. p. 88 ff.

5) Ibid. p. 131 ff.
*) Ibid. p.* 139 ff.

44 m* Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vais^avism etc.

by Kr$9a on the palm of his hand, and such other events. I refer them
tentatively to the fifth Century.

In Saka 500, MangallSa, a prince belonging to the early Cälukya.
dynasty of the Deccan, got a cave scooped out, in which a temple
to Vi§9u was constnicted, and an image of Vi§nu was installed in it.
The Provision for the Performance of Näräyapabali (offerings to Närä-
yapa) was made by assigning the revenues of a village for the pur-
pose ^). In this cave-temple there are figures of Vi§i?u or Näräya^a
lying on the body of a serpent, with Lak^mi nibbing his feet, and of
the Boar and Narasimha incarnations, and of Harihara in which the
peculiar iparks of Hari, or Vi§nu, and of Hara, or Siva, are combined*).

In mentioning the priests who are qualified to install and con-
secrate the images of certain gods, Varähamihira says that this
function in the case of Vi$nu should be assigned to Bhägavatas 3).
Bhägavatas were thus recognised in his time as the peculiar wor-
shippers of Vi§qu. Varähamihira died in Saka 509. i. e. 587 A. D- ♦).

Amarasimha, the author of the well-known Ko^a or thesaurus,
was a Buddhist. After giving the words expressive of gods generally,
when he comes to the names of particular gods, he begins by giving
those of Buddha and proceeds next to give the names Vi^pu, Näräya^a,
etc., of which we have thirty-nine. After finishing these he says that
Vasudeva was his father. This means that the thirty-nine names
previously given are the names of Vasudeva. If we examine these,
we shall find that before Amara's time Vasudeva had ahready been
identified with Vi§riu and Näräyaija. Except the name Dämodara,
there is no other connecting Vasudeva with Gokula, and the etymology
of Dämodara which connects him with that cow-settlement is doubtfuL
While Kamsäräti, or the enemy of Kamsa, does occur, we have no
such name as Pütanäri, the enemy of Pütanä, or any other derived
from the names of the many demons he slew while he was a boy.
There are also no names of incarnations except the doubtful one,
Balidhvamsin, which, however, has been interpreted by one commen-
tator as the destroyer of ignorance by means of Bali or oblations.
There are, of course, several names derived from those of other
demons, such as Madhuripu and Kaitabhajit, but these are not the
enemies destroyed by Vi§nu in his incarnations as they are usually
mentioned. After giving the name of the father of Väsudeva-Kr§pa,
Amara proceeds to mention those of Samkar^apa, or Baladeva, and
afterwards of Pradyumna and Aniruddha. Thereafter he mentions
those of Lak§mi, the wife of Näräyana or Vi§i?u, then those of the
weapons of the god and his Ornaments, and ends with the names of
Garuda, the vehicle of Vi§i?u. After finishing these he proceeds to
the other great god of the Hindus, Sambhu or Siva. Here Amara
appears clearly to have in view the four forms, or Vyühas, of
Vasudeva recognised by the Bhägavatas, so that in his time
the prevalent form of Vai§pavism was that embraced by the

Ind. Ant Vol III. p. 305; Vol. VI. p. 363.
*) Fergusson and Burgess, Cave Temples, p. 407.
3; Bf. S. 60, 19.
4) Bhau Daji, Lit. Remains, p. 240.

^:jm

XII. LAter Traces of the Bhftgavata School and General Vai^^avism. 45

Bhägavatas. Amara's exact age is doubtful, but, if he was a Bud-
dhist, he must have belonged to the Mahäyäna sect, the sacred language
of which was Sanskrit. This System was in füll swing in the fourth,
fifth and sixth centuries *). Amarasimha, therefore, must have flourished
in this last Century, or, if we believe in the traditional verse which
asserts his contemporaneousness withKälidäsa and in Candragupta II as
Vikramaditya, the famous patron of learning, he must have flourished
in the early part of the fifth Century. The identity of Väsudeva-Kr§oa
with Gopäla-Kr§pa is very rarely alluded to, while that with Vi§pu
and Näräyaoa is clearly set forth.

About the middle of the seventh Century Bäpa in his Har§a-
carita represents a sage of the name of Diväkaramitra, who, originally
a BrähmaQa, became a Buddhist, as being surrounded in the Vindhya
mountains, where he had his abode, by foUowers of a number of sects,
two of which were the Bhägavatas and Päncarätras.

In the DaSävatära temple at EUora there is a figure of Vi$Qu
on the body of a serpent with Lak$ml rubbing his feet and Brahma
seated on a lotus Coming out of his navel. There are also images of
the Narasimha, Vämana and Varäha incamations, as well as of Kr?i?a
holding the Govardhana Mountain over the flocks of the cow-settle-
ment. This temple was constructed about the middle of the eighth
Century in the time of Dantidurga of the Ra$traküta race. There are
similar figures of Avatäras in the Kailasa temple scooped out in the
latter part of the eighth Century, in the time of Kr§oa I, uncle of
Dantidurga. Among these is also the scene of the destruction of
Käliya by Kr§9a.

There is an inscription in a cave at Pabhösa, about 32 miles South-
west of Allahabad, which probably had a human figure above and runs
thus: **The maker of the images of ärI-Kr§na and the milk-maids".
The date is uncertain, but the inscription is referred to the seventh
or eighth Century by Bühler *).

At Sirpur in the Raipur district, C.P., over the front of a shrine-
door there is a sculpture of Yi^tya or Näräyana reclining on the folds
of the serpent äe$a, and from his navel Springs a lotus on which is
seated Brahma. Down the two outer sides of the shrine-door are
some of the incarnations of Vi^pu, one of which is that of Räma and
another of Buddha, whose image is in the usual meditative attitude.
The temple belongs probably to the eighth Century 3).

At Ösia, 32 miles north of Jodhpur, there is an old temple ad-
joining to the house of the local Jahagirdar. On two pilasters, projec-
ting from the shrine into the Sabhäma^dapa, are two images of deities
both seated on Garuda. Both have four hands, but one of them holds
a conch- Shell, the discus, the mace and the lotus, and the other bears
a plough-share and a mace in his two hands, the other two being
empty. The last has his head canopied by a five-hooded serpent.

») Vide my *Pcep into the Early History of India', Joum. Bo. Br. Roy. As. Soc,
Vol. XX. p. 395.

•) Ep. Ind. Vol. II. p. 482.

3) Annual Progress Report of Archseolofical Survey, Western Circle, for 1903 —
04, p. ai.

46 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vai^pavism etc.

They are apparently Väsudeva and Sarpkar^aoa. The temple cannot
be later then the ninth Century *).

In a work called Dharmaparik$ä Aniitagati, the author, who was
a Digambara Jaina, says that there were according to the legendary
lore current among thejainas sixty-three eminent men: the twelve
supreme sovereigns , the twenty - four Arhats ( Jinas) , and nine
Rämas, nine Ke^avas, and the nine enemies of these nine. The last
of the Vi$Qus (KeSavas] was the son of Väsudeva, and his Brähma^a
devotees call him the pure, the supreme being. They say: "He
who meditates upon the god Vi§i?u, who is all- pervading, a whole
without parts, indes tructible and unchangeable, who frees a man fronci
old age and death, is free from misery". He is traditionally known
to have ten forms or incarnations. These ten forms are the same as
mentioned in the Varäha and Agni-Puränas (see above), and wb ich
are now generally accepted. Thus Buddha had come to be recognised
as an incarnation of Vi$Qu before the date of the Dharmaparik^ä,
which is Vikrama 1070, corresponding to 1014 A. D. If the appro-
ximate date assigned to the temple at Sirpur is correct, Buddha
must have been admitted into the Brähmaij^ic pantheon before the
eighth Century. Amitagati also speaks of the mighty Vi§ou having
become a cowherd in Nanda's Gokula and of the all-knowing, all-
pervading protector of the world (Räma) as being oppressed by the
fire of Separation from Sita like a mortal lover.

Hence, we have evidence of the existence of the cult of Vi§pu,
principally in accordance with the mode professed by the Bhägavatas
from the fourth to the eleventh Century. The doctrine of the
incarnations had also become an article of ordinary faith, and the
founder of Buddhism and the first Tirthamkara of the Jainas also
came later to be recognised as incarnations of Vi§i?u.

XIII. The Cult of Räma.

§ 43- The architectural remains passed under review contain only
figures of the incarnations of Vi§i?u and are not to be taken as proving
the existence of the cult of any of these incarnations. But at the
present day the cult of Räma exists over a pretty wide area. In the
temples and other religious structures hitherto noticed, there is none
dedicated to his worship nor any flag-staff like those erected in honour
of Janärdana or Väsudeva-Kr§oa. Räma, however, was considered as
an incarnation of Vi§nu even in very early times. There are passages
in the Rämäyapa pointing to this, but there is good reason to believe
that they are spurious or interpolated. But the passage in the Närä-
yaplya, which we have frequently referred to, contains his name, and
so do all the Puränas that have been noticed. These in themselves are
not sufficient to enable us to determine approximately the period in
which he came to be regarded as an incarnation. But in the tenth
chapter of the Raghuvam^a the story of the birth of Räma is preceded
by the usual appeal to Vi§nu or Näräyai^ia lying on the body of the

I) See the forthcoming Annual Report of the Arch. Surv. of India.

XIII. The Colt of RAma. 47

great serpent, with Lak§ml rubbing bis feet, in the milky ocean and
bis promise to be born as a son of DaSaratha for the destruction of
Ravaij^a. Amitagati also speaks in 1014 A. D., as we have seen, of
Räma's being regarded as the all-knowing, all-pervading protector
of the World- The Väyu-Puräpa, which is the earliest work of that
class, must have been written about the fifth Century; so that the
belief in Räma's beiiig an incarnation of Vi^Qu existed in all proba-
bility in the early centuries of the Christian Era. But there is no
mention of bis name in such a work as that of Patanjali, nor is there
any old inscription in which it occurs. Amarasitpha, too, has no place
for him in bis scheme of Brähma^ic gods. These circumstances, as
well as those mentioned above, show that, though he was regarded as
an Avatära, there was no cult in bis honour. Still, as depicted by
Välmiki, Räma was a high-souled hero and poets, including those
nameless ones who wrote Puräijas in the names of old ?.§is, particu-
larly Bhavabhuti, still more highly exalted bis character. Räma,
therefore, won a place in the heart of the Indian people, and that must
have soon led to the foundation of the cult. But when this took place
it is difficult to say. Madhva or Anandatirtha, the founder of a sect
to be noticed hereafter, is represented to have brought the image of
Digvijaya Räma from Badarikä^rama and sent Naraharitirtha to
Jagannätha about the year 1264 A. D. ') to bring what was called
the original idols of Räma and Sita. The cult of Räma, therefore,
must have come into existence about the eleventh Century. There exist
manuals giving the modes of worship by means of Mantras or formulae
and magic circles, like those prescribed in the Sätvata-Samhitä for
the worship of Väsudeva. The ceremony in connection with bis birth
on the 9th of the bright half of Caitra is given in bis Vratakhapcja *)
by Hemädri, who flourished in the thirteenth Century. That writer,
as well as Vrddha-Härita 3), gives the modes of worshipping him as an
incarnation along with others on certain occasions, so that it appears
that bis worship as an incarnation has been of a longer duration than
that based on terms of equality with Väsudeva-Kr§pa. Twenty-four
images, differing from each other in the order in which the four objects,
viz. the conch -Shell, discus, mace and lotus, are placed in the four hands
of the principal god Väsudeva or Vi^qu, are mentioned by both those
authors, and the twenty-four names 4) corresponding to these twenty-
four images, KeSava, Näräya^a, Govinda, etc., which include those of
the four Vyühas, are repeated by us at the beginning of every cere-
mony that we perform at the present day; that is, obeisance is made
to the twenty-four forms of the god by usimg the word namah
(salutations) after the dative of each of the names, and the sense is

») See below.

») P. 941 (Bibl. Ind.)

3) Vratakha94A PP« 1034 ff.; Vrddha-Härita-Sm]ti (Änand&Srama Sanskr. Ser.), chap.
X. V. 145.

4) (i) Ke^va, (2) Näraya^a, (3) Madhava, (4) Govinda, (5) Vi^^u, (6) MadhusO-
dana, (7) Trivikrama, (8) Vämana, (9) Sridhara, (xo) Hf^ikeSa, (11) Padmanabha, (12)
Dftmodara, (13) Saqikar^a^a, (14) Vftsudeva, (15) Prad>nmiDa, (x6) Aniruddha, (17)
Punifottama, (18) Adhok$aja, (19) Narasiipha, (20) Acyuta, (21) Janardana, (22) Upendnii
(23) Hari, (24) Srikj^^a.

48 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^^aTism etc.

'Salutations to Ke^ava, Näräyaija, etc.'. The name of Räma, however, is
not included in them, while two other Avatäras, Narasiipha and Vämana,
are mentioned. Every Sräddha ceremony is wound up by the ex-
pression **May Janärdana-Väsudeva, who is a form of the ancestors, or
the father, grandfather and great grandfather, be satisfied by this
act". All this shows that Väsudevism has penetrated into every one
of our ordinary ceremonies, which include a repetition even of Vedic
Mantras, while this is not at all the case with the cult of Räma, which
is, therefore, of a modern growth. There is a work, entitled the Adhy-
ätma-RämäyaJ[ia, which Ekanätha '), aMahärä^tra saint, who flourished
in the sixteenth Century, calls a modern treatise, composed of excerpts
from older writings and having no pretence to be considered as emana-
ting from the old ?.?is. The object of this work throughout has been
to set forth the divinity of Räma. The first book of it comprises
what is called Rämahrdaya, which was narrated to Hanümat by
Sita, who says that as the original Prakrti, she does every thing and
did all the deeds mentioned in the Rämäyapa, while Räma as the
onlyexisting soul is inactive, unchangeable and blessed, and is a mere
witness of her deeds. After she has concluded, Räma explains the
threefold nature of the knowing spirit, viz. (i) the original, (2) that
conditioned by Buddhi or finite intelligence, and (3) the appearances,
the last two of which are fictitious. The fifth canto of the last book
is styled Rämagltä, which is meant to correspond to the Bhagavad-
gitä of Väsudeva and which is narrated by Räma to Lak§ma];ia, who
takes the place of Arjuna. The doctrine is thoroughly adualistic as
that of the previous portion. The world and the individual soul are
illusory, and one spirit alone exists. There is another book called Räma-
gitä published in Madras, which represents itself to be contained in
a larger work called Sattvapäräyaqa and is composed of eighteen
chapters like the genuine Bhagavadgitä. It is narrated to Hanümat
by Räma. In the beginning it professes itself to be based on the one
hundred and eight Upani§ads, some of which are manifestly very
recent. This work, therefore, must be a very modern compilation.
Thus the works designed to give importance to Räma as a religious
teacher are of recent origin.

XIV. Väsudevism or Vaisnavism in the South.

§ 44. We have seen that Saqikar§aqa and Väsudeva had come
to be worshipped as gods in the Marätha country by about the first
Century B. C. The cult must have spread further south up to
the Tamil country, but there is no evidence to show at what time
it was introduced there. The Bhägavata-Purä];ia (Book XI, chap. 5,
vv. 38 — ^40) says, in the usual prophetic style, that in the Kali age
there will be found men here and there devoted to Näräya^a, but in
large numbers in the Dravida country, where flow the rivers Tämra-
parpl, Kaveri and others, and that those who drink the water of these
rivers will mostly be pure-hearted devotees of Väsudeva. When the

>) See his Bhävärtha-Ramäya^a, ÄrapyakcL^^a.

XIV. V&sudevism or Vai^^avism in the South.

49

Puräpa goes out of its beaten track to make such a Statement as this,
the fame of the devotees of Vasudeva, who had flourished in the Tamil
country, musthave spread overotherpartsof Indiawhen thePurä^awas
compiled. ThePuräpawas regarded as sacred in the thirteenth Century,
whenÄnandatirtha, who flourished between about 1 199 and 1278 A. D.,
places it on the same level as the Mahäbhärata and devotes a treatise
to the determination of its drift, as to that of the latter. About the
same time Bopadeva prepared an abstract of it at the request of the
councillor Hemädri. The Bhägavata, therefore, must have been com-
posed at least two centuries before Änandatirtha to account for the
reputation of the sacred character which it acquired in his time. It
cannot be very much older, for its style often looks modern and in
copying from the older Puräqas it falls into mistakes, such as the one
pointed out by me in another place '). The Dravicja devotees, there-
fore, noticed in the Bhägavata, must have mostly flourished before the
eleventh Century. These devotees, who are known by the name of
Älvärs, are generally reckoned as twelve in number and are divided
into three classes by S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar >) in accordance with
the received chronology which he follows to determine their sequence,
though in itself it assigns a preposterously high antiquity to them.
Their names, Tamil and Sanskrit, are as follows: —

Class

Ancient

Later

Last

Tamil name

Poygai ÄJvär
Bhütattär
Pey ÄJvär
.Tirumaji^ai ÄJvär

Namm ÄJvär

1 Periy ÄJvär
l A^^däJ

{ToQdaradippodi
Tiruppäp ÄJvär
Tirumangai ÄJvär

Sanskrit name

Saroyogin

Bhütayogin

Mahadyogin or Bhräntayogin

Bhaktisära

äathakopa

Madhurakavi

KulaSekhara

Vi§9ucitta

Godä

BhaktänghrireQu

Yogivähana

Parakäla

The date of the first, ordinarily given, is B. C. 4203 and of the
last, B. C. 2706, and the others ränge between these two. Not only
are these dates fanciful, but even the sequence shown above is un-
reliable. Krishnaswami places the last in the earlier half of the
eighth Century A. D. and all the preceding ones impliedly before that
date. But there is distinct evidence to show that Kula^ekhara flourished
much later. He was a king of Travancore, and one of the works com-
posedby him styledMukundamälä contains a verse from the Bhägavata-

>) Early History of the Dekkan (Second Edition), pp. 32—33.
») Ind. Ant. Vol. XXXV, p. 228.
bido-itfitcfae Philologie HL 6.

50 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai$iaavism etc.

Purä^a (XI, 2, 36) *). Again in an inscription on a tablet, existing
in a temple at Naregal in the Dharwar district, translated by Dr.
Fleet*), it is stated that Permädi of the Sinda dynasty vanquished
KulaSekharänka, besieged Chatta, pursued Jayake^in, and seized upon
the royal power of Poysala and invested Dhorasamudra, the capital
of the Poysala dynasty. In another inscription 3) this Permädi is re-
presented tobe a vassal of Jagadekamalla II, whose dates ränge be-
tween A. D. 1138 and 1150. While the former was in power as Mahä-
mai;idalesvara in the seventh year of Jagadekamalla, i. e. in A. D. I144,
a certain grant was made by a body of sellers of betel leaves and nuts.
The Kula^ekharänka, mentioned as being vanquished by this Permädi,
must be a prince reigning on the western coast as the others, Jayakesin,
the Kadamba prince of Goa, the Hoysala king, and so forth, were.
Putting this Statement and the quotation from the Bhägavata-Puräna
together, it appears highly probable that the ÄJvär Kula^ekhara lived
in the first half of the twelfth Century. The sequence, therefore, given
above cannot be implicitly believed in. Still it may be admitted that
the earliest ÄJvärs flourished about the time of the revival of Bräh-
manism and Hinduism in the north, which extended up to the Marätha
country, as we have shown from inscriptions and antiquarian remains,
and must have extended still farther to the south. The earliest ÄJvärs
may be placed before, about the fifth or sixth Century, but there is
nothing to show that Vai§navism had not penetrated to the Tamil
country earlier, i. e. about the first Century. But an impetus, such
as the rise of the ÄJvärs indicates, could in all probability come only
from the energy of the revival.

The hostile relations into which the ÄJvärs and the Saiva saints,
Näyanmärs, came with the Buddhists and Jainas, lend support to
the view we have advocated.

The ÄJvärs composed, mostly in Tamil, what are called Praban-
dhas or songs in praise of the deity füll of piety and devotion and
containing also religious truths. They are considered as very sacred
and spoken of as the Vai§nava Veda. The reverence paid to the ÄJvärs
isvery great, and their images are placed by the side of the god repre-
senting Vi§i?u or Näräyana in some form and worshipped. It may
be noted here that Kula^ekhara ÄJvär's favourite deity was Räma,
the son of Dasaratha.

XV. Ramanuja,

§ 45. There were two classes of teachers among the Vai$iiavas
of the south, viz. the ÄJvärs and the Äcäryas. The former devoted
themselves to the culture of the feeling of love and devotion for Vi§ou
or Näräyana and composed songs, while the object of the latter was
to carry on disputations and controversies and seek to establish their
own theories and creeds. The first class we have already noticed briefly.

*) Käyena väcä manasendriyair vä, etc.

») Jour. Bo. Br. R. As. Soc, Vol. XL p. 244.

3) Ibid. p. 251.

XV. Ramsnuja. 51

The first of the second class appears to have been Näthamuni. His
successor was Yämunäcärya or Yämunamuni. Rämänuja succeeded
Yämunamuni, one of whose last directions to his successor was to com-
pose a commentary on Bädaräyana's Brahmasötra. The necessity
for such a work was feit by the leaders of the Vai§oava faith, since
they found it not possible to maintain the doctrine of Bhakti or love
in the face of the theory of Advaita or monism of spirit set up by
Saipkaräcärya as based upon the Brahmasütras and the Upani$ads.
During the period of the revival of Brähmanism and Hinduism there
was such a fermentation of thought as that which existedwhenBud-
dhism, Jainism and other heterodox Systems on the one hand, and
Väsudevism on the other, arose. The present fermentation, however,
did not rest on independent thought, but was based upon the sacred
works that had been handed down from the earlier times. The Päli
Buddhism made way for the Sanskrit Mahäyänism, and against this
last controversies were carried on by the school of Nyäya founded by
Gautama and by the Mimämsakas, especially by ^abarasvämin and
Kumärilabhatta. But theMimätpsakas attacked not only the Buddhists,
but theAupani^adas, or a school of thought based upon the Upani$ads.
They maintained the efficacy of the sacrificial religion alone and denied
it to the faith and practices of the latter school. The efforts of this
school were therefore directed towards the maintenance of their position
that their System alone can lead to supreme bliss. The person who
appeared prominently on the scene on this occasion was Gau^apädäcärya
and some time after him the pupil of his pupil, Samkaräcärya. The
theory that this latter set up, was that there exists one spirit alone
and the feelings of individuality and other attributes of the animal
spirit and the variety of the inanimate world owe their origin to a
principle of illusion and are consequently unreal. This doctrine left
no room for the exercise of love and piety in the world of reality,
though its foUowers allow it in the ordinary illusive condition of the
human souls, and therefore it laid the axe at the root of Vai^^avism.
The great wish of the southern leaders of the latter faith was the over-
throw of this doctrine of illusion, or Mäyä, on the same Aupani^ada
grounds on which it was set up. And this wish of his predecessor
was carried out by Rämänuja, and henceforward everyVai§qava system
and even, in one or two cases, Saiva Systems had to tack on Aupa-
ni$ada or Vedäntic theories to their own doctrines.

§ 46. Rämänuja was born in Saka 938 corresponding to 1016
or 1017 A. D. In his youth he lived at Käncipura or Conjeevaram and
was a pupil of YädavaprakäSa, who was an Advaita philosopher and
therefore professed spiritual monism. Rämänuja, whose inclinations
were towards Vai^pavism, was dissatisfied with the teachings of his
master, and the ultimate result was his Separation from him. He applied
himself to the study of the Prabandhas of the ÄJvärs and drank in
their spirit. When he became a successor of Yämunäcärya, he lived at
Siirangam, near Trichinopoly, and did his life's work there. He is
Said to have gone on a pilgrimage to the noted holy places of upper
India. In the latter years of his age he was subjected to persecution
by the Chola prince of his time, who wanted him to renounce Vai§pa-

4*

52 III. Religion, Weld. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vai^^vism etc.

vism for ^aivism, in consequence of which he took refuge in 1096 A. D.
in the dominions of theHoysala Yädava princes, who reigned in Mysore
and whose capital was Dvärasamudra, the modern Ha|ebTd. There
he converted VitthalaDeva, popularly called Bifti Deva, Biffi being,
in all likelihood, the corniption of Vitthala or Vitthi. This took place
in 1098 A. D. Vitthala Deva was not the reigning prince, but ad-
ministered some of the frontier provinces in the name of his brother
Balläla, who was on the throne *). Vitthala Deva or Bitti Deva was
called Vi§^^uvardhana after his conversion to Vai^pavism. This is
the ordinary aecount. But what appears true is that his name was
originally Vi§9u, which was comipted into Bittu or Bitti in the Kana-
rese, the vemacular of the district, so that his original name Bitti
Deva is the same as Vi$Qu Deva which he is represented to have
assumed after his conversion. He reigned from 1104 to 1141 A. D. *)
Rämänuja composed the following works: — Vedäntasära, Vedärtha-
samgraha, Vedäntadlpa, and commentaries, or Bha$yas, on the Brahma-
sütras and the Bhagavadgltä 3).

§ 47. The Vedantic theory , or the theory based upon the Brahmasütras
and the Upani$ads, which Rämänuja set up to provide scope for the
feeling of Bhakti, or love for God, and the spirit of worship, was that
there are three eternal principles, the individual or animal soul (Cit),
the insensate world (Acit), and the Supreme Soul (fevara). There
are Upani$ad texts to support this, and one of them is that in the
äU. (I, 12) to the effect that all Brahman, regarded as composed of
the enjoyer or suflferer, the objects from which enjoyment or suffering
Springs, and the Controller or mover, is threefold. But the Brahma-
sütras lay it down on the authority of the Upani$ads that Brahman
is the material as well as the efficient cause of the world. To make
this possible in his System, Rämänuja resorts to the passs^e in BU.
of the Mädhyamdina school, beginning from III, 7, 3, in which the
Supreme Soul is stated to be the internal Controller (Antaryämin) of
the individual soul as well as of the external world. The form that
he gives to his theory is that the individual soul and the insensate
world are the attributes of the Supreme Soul. They constitute his
body, as stated in the Upani§ad also, and thus they with the Con-
trolling inward Supreme Soul constitute one entity called Brahman,
just as the body and the indwelling soul constitute the human being.
Before creation the body of the Supreme Soul exists in a subtile form
and, when creation takes place, it develops in the form of the existing
universe; thus Brahman is the material cause of the external world.
It is also the efficient cause, when, as the internal Controlling soul, it
wills to create. The subtile form of the insensate world is thePrakrti,
a term first invented by the original author of the Sämkhya doctrine.
It develops under the guidance of the indwelling Supreme Spirit until
the mundane egg is produced. The successive stages of Mahat, Aham-

I) See Krishnaswami lyengar's paper in No. 8 of the magazine Vi§i$t&dvaitin for
most of these facts.

>) Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. XVIII, p. 173.

3) See Krishnaswami's paper alluded to above.

XV. Rimänuja. 53

kära, etc., are like those of the Säipkhya System, which has been
adopted by the Puränas also in the account of the creation. And the
creation after the production of the mundane egg is also made by
ISvara as the internal Controller of Brahmadeva, Dak$a, etc.

fevara or God is free from all faults or defects- He is eternal,
pervades all living and non-living things, is the internal Controller of all,
is pure joy or blessedness, is possessed of the auspicious qualities o£
knowledge, power, etc., is the creator, protector and destroyer of the
World, and is resorted to by those who are afflicted, who wish to gain
knowledge, who seek to attain a certain end, and who are already
enlightened *). He confers the fourfold fruit of existence *). He is
possessed of a wonderful celestial body of unsurpassable beauty and
has for his consorts Lak§mi3), Bhü (the earth), and Lllä (sport).
This fevara appears in five different modes: —

I. Para or the highest, in which mode Näräyana, called also
Farabrahman and Para-Väsudeva, lives in a city called Vaikupfha,.
which is guarded by certain persons and which has doorkeepers; seated
in a pavilion of gems on a couch in the form of the serpent ^$a
placed on a throne having the eight legs, Dharma and others; attended
by Örl, Bhü and Lilä; holding the celestial weapons, conch - shell,.
discus, and others; adorned with celestial Ornaments, such as a tiara
and others; possessed of numberless auspicious attributes, knowledge,
power, and others; and his presence being enjoyed by the eternal
spirits, such as Ananta, Garuda, Vi§vaksena, and others, and by deli-
vered souls.

n. Vyuha, in which the Para himself has assumed four forms,
Väsudeva, Samkar§aija, Pradyumna and Aniruddha for convenience
of worship and for purposes, such as creation, etc. Of these Väsudeva
is possessed of the six qualities; Samkar$aria has two, viz. omniscience
and sustaining power; Pradyumna, two, viz. Controlling power and un-
changeableness; and Aniruddha, creative power and all-overcoming
prowess 4).

HL Vibhava, which mode consists of the ten Avatäras, fish,
tortoise, etc.

IV. Antaryämin, in which mode he dwells in the heart and is
to be seen by Yogins and accompanies the individual souls even when
they go to heaven or hell.

V. Idols or images set up in houses, villages, towns, etc., made
up of a material chosen by the worshipper, in which he dwells with
a body not made up of matter 5).

Other authorities leave out Väsudeva from the Vyühas and have
the other three only. The Arthapancaka has another form of the Antar-
yämin, in which form he dwells in everjrthing and mies over all, is

') These aie the four, Äita, Jijfiftsu, etc., mentioned in BhG. (7, 16).
>) Artha, or worldly piosperity» K&ma, or the objects of desire, Dharma» or reli-
gious merit, and Mok$a, or final deliverance, are the four objects of existence.

3) From the Tattvatraya of I.okäcSLrya.

4) These are translations of the word Jfiäna, Bala, Ai^varya, Virya, Sakti, and
Tejas, according to the definitions in the Yatlndramatadipikä«

5) Yatindramatadipikft 9.

54 ni. Religion, WelÜ. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^navism etc.

bodiless, all-pervadingand störe of all good attributes, and is called
Vi§r;iu, Näräya^ia, Väsudeva *), etc.

Seif- consciousness, knowledge, union as a soul with a body,
agency, are attributes common to the supreme and individual souls *).
The latter is self-illumined, joyous, eternal, atomic, imperceptible to
the senses, unthinkable, devoid of parts, unchangeable, the substratum
öf knowledge, subject to God's control, depending on God's existence
forhis own existence. and an attribute ofGodS). This description of
the individual soul differs a great deal from that of ^amkaräcärya,
who attributes no agency or substantiality to it; and the dependence
on God in a variety of ways cannot, of course, be thought of ander
the doctrine of Spiritual monism. The souFs being an atom is also
denied by ^amkara's school and various others. The souls are many
and are divided into: (1) Baddha or tied down to the circle of exis-
tences from Brahmadeva to the vilest worm, as well as the vegetable
souls; (2) Mukta or finally delivered; and (3) Nitya or eternal. Of
the first class, those that are rational, that is, not brutes or vegetables,
are of two sorts: (i) desirous of enjoyment; (2) desirous of final deli-
verance. Of those that are desirous of enjoyment, some devote them*
selves tho the acquisition of wealth and the satisfaction of carnal desires,
and others, who seek to attain the happiness of heaven, perform all
rites and sacrifices, make pilgrimages to holy places and give in charity.
Some of these devote themselves to Bhagavat and others to other
deities. Some of those who desire final deliverance seek the consci-
ousness of their pure soul only (Kevalin), and others eternal bliss.
Of these latter, some are Bhaktas, who seek to attain God by resorting
to Bhakti with all its details, having first of all studied the Vedas
and acquainted themselves with the Vedänta and the philosophy of
rites (Karman). The three upper orders alone can practise Bhakti,
but not the Südras. Others are Prapannas, who are those who take
refuge in God, feeling themselves poor and helpless. Of Prapannas,
some seek the first three objects of life, while the rest, finding no happi-
ness in these, renouncing everythihg worldly, desire eternal bliss {Mok§a)
alone and, seeking the advice of a preceptor and apquiring from him
the impulse to action, fling themselves on the will of God, not having
the power of going through the Bhakti process and being helpless.
This Prapatti or surrender to God can be practised by all Orders,
including ^üdras 4).

What are necessary for the efficacy of the method of Bhakti, are
Karmayoga or the Performance of actions, and Jnänayoga or the ac-
quisition of knowledge. Karmayoga is the Performance of all acts,
rites and ceremonies without regard for the fruit resulting from them.
These are the worship of the deity, practice of austerity, pilgrimage
to holy places, giving in charity and sacrifices. This Karmayoga puri-
fies the soul and leads to Jnänayoga, or acquisition of knowledge.

') See my Report on the Search for Sanskrit Manuscripts during 1883 — 84, p. 69.
>) Yat 8.

3) Tattvatraya.

4) Yat. 8.

XV. RSmSnuja. cz

This knowledge consists in seeing oneself as distinct from Prakfti, or
matter, and as an attribute of God himself (äe§a). This Jnänayoga
leads to Bhakti. Bhaktiyoga, or the method of Bhakti, consists in
continuous meditation accompanied by the practice of the eight Yoga
processes, Yama, Niyama, etc. This is to be attained by (l)the puri-
fication of the body by the use of unpoUuted and unprohibited food,
(2) chastity, (3) constant practice, (4) the Performance of five great
rites and ceremonies according to one's means, (5) virtues such as
truth, uprightness, compassion, charity, non-destructionof Hfe, (6)hope-
fulness or absence of despondency, and (7) absence of elatedness.
Bhakti, as promoted by these seven means, assumes the form of actu-
ally seeing (Gbd) and produces the final mental perception. Prapatti
consists in the resolut ion to yield, the avoidance of Opposition *), a
faith that God will protect, acceptance of him as saviour or praying
him tosave, and sense of helplessness resulting in throwing one's whole
soul on him *). Prapatti thus comes to seif -surrender 3).

The Arthapancaka mentions a fifth way called Äcaryäbhimäna-
yoga, which is for one who is unable to foUow any of the others and
consists in surrendering oneself to an Äcärya or preceptor and being
guidedby him in everything. The preceptor goes through all that is
necessary to effect his pupil's deliverance as a mother takes medicine
herseif to eure an infant.

Sixteen modes of worship are to be practised by the devotees of
Vi§nu, as stated in a passage quoted from the Padma-PurSna by a
recent writer of the Ramänuja school. Eight of these are the same
as those included in the nine modes of Bhakti enumerated in a previous
section as mentioned in the Bhägavata-Purä^ia, Sakhya, or friendship or
companionship, being omitted. The other eight are: (i) imprinting the
marks of the conch-shell and the discus and other weapons of Hari
onthebody; (2) themakingof a vertical mark on the forehead; (3) re-
peating of Mantras on the occasion; (4) drinkingthe water used in wash-
ing the feet of Hari; (5) the eating of the oflFerings of cooked food
madetohim; (6) doing Service to his devotees; (7) the observance of
fast on the iith of the bright and dark halves of each lunar month;
(8) laying TulasI leaves on the idol of Hari.

A text from the Häritasmfti is also quoted giving nine modes
of worship (Bhakti), three of which are common to it with the Bhäga-
vata-Puräqa. The other six are the same as the eight in the above,
the first two being combined and the third being omitted. The ver-
tical mark on the forehead mentioned above consists of two lines made
with white earth and a connecting cross line at the bottom with, in
the middle, a yellow line made with turmeric powder or a red line
composed of the same material reddened by mixing it with lime.

') The two expressions thus translated have also been otherwise explained as bear*
iBg good-will to all and the absence of ill-will.

>) There is anpther reading here which should be translated as throwing oneself
upon him and a feeling of helplessness. Thus there are six constituents of Prapatti.
lliese are: (i) Snukülyasya saipkalpa^ (2) prätikülyasya raijanam, (3) rak^ifyatlti Yisvaso
(4) göptrtvavanmam tathä, (5) ätmanik$epa- (6) kärpa^ye fa^vidhä sara^ägati^.

3) Yat. 7.

56 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vai^^aTism etc.

§ 48. In Northern India there are not many £ollowers of Rämä-
nuja; in Southern India there is a very large number. There are two
schools among them, known by the names of Vadakalai, or northem
learnihg, and Tenkalai, or southem learning. The essential difference
between them is brought out by the different iUustrations ') that they
give of the connection between God's grace and man's eflFort in bringing
about final deliverance. The illustration used by the former, or the
northem, is that of a female monkey and her cub. The cub has to
hold fast its mother on the abdomen to be conveyed to asafe place.
The southerns use the illustration of the cat and its kittens. The
female cat catches hold of the kitten, without any eflFort on its part,
and takes it to a place of safety. In the first case the doctrine is that
the process of deliverance must begin with an act of a person seeking
it. In the other case the process begins with God himself. In keeping
with this distinction is the idea of Prapatti or self-surrender held by
the two sects. The first maintains that Prapatti is one of the ways
resorted to by the devotee and begins with him. The southem school
holds that it is not one of the ways, but it is a frame of mind which
characterises all those who seek absolution and reject all other ways
in favour of this. Those who resort to other ways have not arrived at
the right mood which leads to God. When a soul is in this frame of
mind, God himself takes entire possession of him, while by the other
ways man, as it were, makes approaches towards him. The Vadakalai
lays down that Prapatti is for those who cannot foUow other ways,
such as Karmayoga, Jiianayoga and Bhaktiyoga, while the Tenkalai
holds that it is necessary for all, whether able or not, to foUow the
other ways. The first school says that one should give himself up
to God when one finds other ways, which have been resorted to, to
be fruitless. The second holds that self-abandonment to God should
precede the trial of other ways. Self-assertiveness is the characte-
ristic of the first, but it is forbidden by the second and self-abandon-
ment is enjoined. The northerners say that the six ways of Prapatti
or self-surrender given above are preliminaries to the Prapatti which
results from them. The southerners say that Prapatti must take
place first and then the six foUow as results. The northem school
teaches that a person belonging to an inferior caste should be treated
well only so far as conversation by words is concemed. The southerners
say that they should be admitted to an equal treatment in all respects
and no distinction be made. The syllable Om should be omitted
from the eight-syllabled Mantra, according to the Vadakalai, when
taught to others than Brahmai:ias; the Tenkalai does not make this
distinction and provides for the teaching of the whole Mantra in the
same form to all *).

§ 49. It will be Seen from the short summary here given that
Rämänuja derives his metaphysical doctrines from texts in the Upa-
ni§ads and from the Brahmasütras, while his theory of the production

>) The following remarks are based on Visi$tädvaitin, Vol. i, No. 8, pp. 200 ff.» and
Mr. Govindftcärya's article, JRAS. 19 10, pp. 1 103 ff.
>) This mantra is "Om Namo NSräya^äya".

XVI. Madhva or Änandatiitha. yj

of the external world is that adopted by the Puräpas and based on
the twenty-four Clements of the Sätnkhya System. His Vai§i?avism is
the Väsudevism of the old Päncarätra System combined with the Närä-
yaQa and Vi^Qu elements. The last name does not occur often in the
literature of his school. The most prominent name is Näräyaria, though
Väsudeva takes his proper place when the Supreme Soul and the Vyühas
are spoken of. The name of Gopälaki^pa is conspicuous by its absence,
and Rämänuja's System is free from that repulsive form which Vaißi^a-
vism assumes when Rädhä and other cowherdesses are introduced.
Räma too does not appear to be a favourite deity. Rämänuja's doc-
trines as to the way of reaching the Supreme Soul are the same as, or
amplified forms of, those in the Bhagavadgltä. But in this System
Bhakti is reduced to the form of acontinuous meditation on the Su-
preme Soul. It thus corresponds to the Upäsanäs, or meditations, de-
scribed by Bädaräya^a, and does not mean a boundless love for God,
as the Word is commonly understood, though the meditation that is
enjoined implies tacitly a feeling of love. The tendency of Rämänuja's
System seems to be to give an exclusive Brahma^ic form to the
traditional method of Bhakti, or devotion to God, and this is distinct-
ly Seen in the doctrines of the Vadakalai, while the Tenkalai, or southern
leaming, is more liberal and so shapes the doctrines of the System
as to make them applicable to ^üdras also. But we shall find the
Südras asserting themselves when we corae to the disciples of Rämä-
nanda and to the Marätha saints and teachers, Nämdev and Tukäräm.
The fifth Upäya, or way to God, given in the Arthapancaka, of
surrendering oneself completely to a teacher or preceptor, doing nothing
oneself andthepreceptor doing all that isnecessary for one's redemption,
seems suspicious. It has a striking resemblance to the Christian doctrine
of Christ suffering or, in the words of our author, going through the
processes necessary for redemption, the believer doing nothing but
putting complete faith in his saviour. If the prevalence of Christianity
in and before the time of Rämänuja in the country about Madras is
a proved fact, this doctrine as well as some of the finer points in the
theory of Prapatti may be traced to the influence of Christianity •
Rämänuja's System is known by the name of Srlsatnpradäya or the
tradition springing from Sri.

XVI. Madhva or Anandatirtha.

§ 50. The great object of theVai§9avateachersof the eleventh Cen-
tury and upwards was to confute the theory of Mäyä, or the unreality
of the world, and establish the doctrine of Bhakti, or love. and faith,
on a secure basis. Rämänuja effected this by the System which he
promulgated and which we have already noticed. But in order to
reconcile his doctrine with the theory set forth in the Brahmasütras
on the basis of the Upani^ads, that God is the material as well as the
efficient cause of the world, he propounded the doctrine of God's
being a composite person, having for his body the individual souls and
the inanimate world. Even this Madhva considered objectionable as
having a tendency to depreciate the independent majesty of God, and

58 ni. Religion, Weld. Wlssensch. n. Kunst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

therefore he denies bis being tbe material cause of tbe world. All
the Sütras of Bädaräyana which set fortb tbat doctrine. have been
interpreted by him in an entirely different way. Probably he would
bave set aside the Brahmasütras altogether, but he could not do so,
since the work bad acquired an uncontested authoritativeness as re-
gards religious truth before bis time. He had therefore to show that
bis System did not go against tbe Brahmasütras and therefore accepted
them and interpreted them in almost a fantastic manner. Texts from
the Upani§ads, too, which do not agree with his doctrines, he treats
similarly. In Opposition to the pure monism of ^amkara and tbe
qualified monism of Rämänuja, Anandatirtba sets fortb five etemal
distinctions or individualities, viz. the distinction between (i) God
and the individual spirit, (2) God and the inanimate world, (3) tbe
individual spirit and the inanimate world, (4) one individual spirit
and another, (5) one inanimate object and another. According to tbe
Madhvavijaya, or the history of the triumphs of Madhva, by Närä-
yaija, the son of Trivikrama, there was in the town of Rajatapitha
a family known by the name of Madhyageha. Madhva's fatber was
called Madhyagehabhatta ') ; the name given to Madhva after bis
birth was Väsudeva. After Väsudeva had received tbe usual edu-
cation of a Brähmana, he was initiated as an anchorite by Acyuta-
prek§äcärya who thus became his Guru. After his initiation be went
to Badarikäsrama in the Himälaya and brought back the idols of
Digvijaya Räma and VedavySsa. He was raised to the seat of high
priest in the presence of kings. Anandatirtba went from country to
country, putting down the advocates of the doctrine of Mäyä and
others, and established the Vaisnava creed. He had for his pupils
Padmanäbbatlrtha, Naraharitlrtha, Mädhavatirtba, and Ak§obhya-
tirtha. Naraharitlrtha was sent to Jagannätha in Orissa to bring the
original idols of Räma and Sita. Änandatirtha's other names werc
Pürnaprajiia and Madhyamandära, or wish-giving tree of the family
of Madhya.

The date of his death given in the list preserved in several of the
Mathas, or establishments of the sect, is ^aka II 19, and as be lived
for seventy-nine years. the date of his birth has been given as^aka 1040.
But these Statements are open to serious doubts. There is an inscrip-
tion in the Kürme^vara temple at Örlkürmam in the Chicacole Täluka
of the Ganjäm District in which Naraharitlrtha is represented to have
constructed a temple and placed in it an idol of Yogänandanarasimba
in the year ^aka 1203 *)• The first person therein mentioned is Puru-
$ottamatIrtha, who is the same as Acyutaprek§a 3), then his pupil
Anandatirtba, and the last is Naraharitlrtha, the pupil of Anandatirtba.
This Naraharitlrtha is considered by some to have been the ruler of
Orissa. But this arises from a confusion between him and a king
bearing the same name, in the slightly modified form of Narasimba,

') Kallianpur in the U(^ipi Täluka of the district of South Kanara in stated to be
the birth-place of Madhva. It was probably the same as the Rajatapitha of the Madhva-
vijaya. (Imp. Gaz. Vol. XIV, page 314.)

>) Ep. Ind. Vol. VI, pp. 260 fr.

3) Madhvavijaya, VI. 33.

XVI. Madhva or Änandatlrtha. 59

who was the actual ruler of the country from about ^aka I191 to 1225.
He is mentioned in an inscription at Örlkürmam of Naraharitlrtha
himself, bearing the date 6aka 1 2 1 5, which is represented as the eighteenth
year of the king's reign ^). He was Narasimha II and was the prince
panegyrised in a work on rhetoric, the Ekävali ^). Naraharitirtha's
other dates gathered from other inscriptions ränge betweenSaka 11 86
and 12 12 3). All these epigraphical records confirm the truth of the
tradition that Naraharitlrtha was sent by Änandatlrtha to Orissa.
He appears to have held a very high position there.

Now if Naraharitirtha's active period extended from SakaiiSö to
1215, his master could not have died in Saka II 19, i. e. fuUy 67 years
before. It seems, therefore, reasonable to take the date given in Madh-
va's Mahäbharatatätparyanirnaya, which is 4300 of the Kali age,-
to be the correct date of his birth. It corresponds to Saka 1 121, which,
bearing in mind the fact that some use the current year of an era and
8ome the past, we must regard as equivalent to ^aka 1 1 19, the date
given in the lists for Änandatirtha's death. But instead of taking it
as the date of his death, we shall have to regard it as the date of his
birth. He lived for 79 years according to the current account, so that
his death must be placed in Saka 1198 4). The two dates may, there-
fore, be taken as settled. Änandatlrtha thus lived in the first three
quarters of the thirteenth Century. He was succeeded, according to the
list, by Padmanäbhatlrtha who held the pontificate for seven years,
i. e. up to Saka 1205. He was succeeded by Naraharitlrtha who oc-
cupied the pontifical seat for nine years, i. e. up to äaka 12 14, or, if
we regard 1121 as the date of the first pontiflF's birth according to
the strict interpretation of the Kali date, up to ^aka 1216; and, as
we have seen, his latest date in the inscriptions is ^aka 1215.

§ 51. The Mädhvas foUow the method of Vai^e§ikas and divide
all existing things into the categories of substance, qualities, etc., with
some modifications of their own 5). God is a substance. The supreme
souI possesses innumerable or an infinite number of qualities. His
functions are eight, viz. (i) creation, (2) protection, (3) dissolution,
(4) Controlling all things, (5) giving knowledge, (6) manifestation
of himself, (7) tying beings down to the world, (8) redemption- He is
omniscient, expressible by all words, and entirely diflferent from the
individual souls and the inanimate world. He possesses the holy form
made up of knowledge, joy, etc., independent of every thing, and one
only, assumingdifferent forms. All his forms are his füll manifestations,
and he is identically the same with his incarnations in qualities, parts,
and actions. Lak$mT is distinct from the Supreme Soul, but entirely

') Ep. Ind. Vol. VI, page 262, note.

>) See my note in Trivedi's edition of the work, BSS.

3) Ep. Ind. Vol VI, p. 266.

4) This agrees with the tradition existing in the Matha at Phalmäni, near Mulki
m South Canara, to the effect that Änandatlrtha was born in Saka 11 19 and died in
Saka 1199; Ep. Ind. Vol. VI, p. 263, note.

5) This account of the System is abrigded from a work called Madhvasiddhftntas&ra
by Padmanäbhasüri, printed in Bombay by Jävaji Dädäji, Nirnayasagara Press, published
at Kumbhakonam in Saka 181 5, corresponding to 1883 A. D. The tedious details
are omitted.

6o UL Rdifibii, WehL ^Isscnscb. n. Konsc 6u Vai^^a

dependent on him. She is etemal and blessed (Mukta) like the Sapreme
Soul and is his consort. She has vahous forms. but no matenal body,
and is tbus like the Supreme Soul, and like him is ezpressible by all
words. She possesses the same extension in space and time as the
Supreme Soul, i. e. is concomitant with him. Jivas or indrvidual souls
go throug^ the usual succession of existences and are characterised by
ignorance or other defects. They are innumerable individually, or as
members of groups, such as Rjus <) who are fit for attaining Brahmahood,
and others who are fit for theattainmentof thedignity of Rudra^Gamda,
Asuras, or demons, etc. They are of three kinds: (i ) fit for attainingfinal
bliss, (2) always going through the circle of existences, and (3) fit for
thecondition of darkness. The gods, R^is, and the manes, and die best
of men, belong to the first dass, ordinary men belong to the second
class, and demons, ghosts, and the vilest of men, etc., to the third
dass. All these individual souls are distinct from each other aod from
the Supreme Soul. Creation begins when the Supreme Soul distuifos
the equilibrium of the Prakrti, which then develops into all the other
principles of the Samkhya System, as modified by the Puränas, until
the mundane eg^ is produced. Then placing the sentient and non-
sentient objects into his inside, he enters into the mundane ^;g. Then.
at the end of a thousand celestial years he produces from his navd
a lotus, which is the seat of the four-faced Brahmadeva; and firom
this last after a long time the ordinary creation takes place.

All knowledge Springs from Paramätman, whatever the means
by which it is produced. It is of two kinds — that which leads to
worldly existence. and that which leads to Mok$a. Vi^qu bestows
knowledge on the Ignorant and Moksa on those who have knowledge.
The knowledge, or feeling which creates an attachment to the body,
child or wife, leads to a worldly life. This is not true knowledge, but
ignorance from which results that worldly life; and that ignorance is
dispelled by the knowledge of God. Mok$a is attained by the direct
knowledge or perception of Hari by means of a method of service
possible to oneself and in a body fitted for it. That direct perception
is possible to all good individual souls from Brahmadeva to the best
of men. This direct perception is to be attained by many means.
What are necessary for direct knowledge, which leads to Mok^ are
(l) Vairägya, or the disgust of enjoyments of this world or the next,
generated by seeing the vanity of the world and by the Company of
good persons; (2) equanimity (^ama) and self-control (Dama), etc.;
(3) acquaintance with the lore; (4) self-surrender (^ara^ägati). in
which the mind is devoted toGod, as the best of all beings. and is fuU
of the highest love. and in which everything is resigned toGod and he
isworshipped with devotedness in the three ways, and which is ac-
companied with the faith that he will unfailingly protect and the
feeling that the devotee is his; (5) attendance on aGuru, or preceptor,
and propitiation of him, which is necessary for Mok$a or redemption;
(6) acquisition of knowledge from the Guru and not from books or,
in the absence of a Guru, from a good Vai$Qava, and, in rare cases.

I) Rjas are a dass of gods.

XVI. Madhva or Änandatlitha. 6l

from books also ; (7) reflection over what has been taught ; (8) de-
votion, in the order of their merits, to a preceptor and persons better
than oneself and deserving respect; (9) love of God (Paramätma-
bhakti) consequent on the knowledge of God's greatness and his being
the best of all. This love should be firm and higher than that for
all others, and this leads to Mok$a or eternal bliss; (10) sympathy
for those who are inferior, but good men, love for those who are equal,
as if they were the same as themselves, and respectful love or reve-
rence for superiors; (11) performing rites and ceremonies deliberately
without any desire, which has the effect of purifyingthesoul; (12) the
avoidance of prohibited deeds, i. e. sins great and small; (13) resign-
ing every act to Hari as done by him and not by oneself; (14) the
knowledge of the comparative position of beings and of Vi$QU as the
highest of all; (15) knowledge of the five distinctions already men-
tioned; (16) distinguishing Prakfti from Puru§a, all beings from
Näräyapa down to men with their consorts being Puru§as and the
inanimate world being the Prakjti; (17) reprobation of false doc-
trines; (18) Upäsanä or worship. This last is of two kinds, viz.
(i) the learning of the Öästras, (2) meditation. Meditation (Nididhyä-
sä) is placing Bhagavat before the mind's eye to the exclusion of
everything eise. This meditation is possible for one who has a distinct
knowledge of a thing acquired after the removal of ignorance, doubt
and delusion by means of reading or hearing something read and
reflection. Some people meditate on Bhagavat as a Single spirit and
others on him as having four phases as Sat (existence), Cit (know-
ledge), Änanda (joy), Atman (spirit). Then are given meditations
resorted to by gods and some of those mentioned in the Brahmasütras.
All these eighteen ways lead to the direct knowledge of God, which is
possible for all from Brahmadeva to man. The direct knowledge of
God attained by men is comparable with the coruscation of lightning
and that attained by gods to the bright disk of the sun. Graruda and
Rudra have that knowledge in the shape of a reflection, while Brah-
madeva has the knowledge of the whole with all its parts, and some
have the knowledge of him as dwelling in the universe and limited by
the universe. The direct knowledge is simply mental.

§ 52. The foUowers of Madhva wear a mark on the forehead com-
posed of two white perpendicular lines made with an earth called
Gopicandana above the bridge of the nose, and a dark line in the
middle with a reddish spot in the centre. The two white lines are
joined by a cross line on the bridge of the nose. They wear on the
Shoulders and on the other parts of their body prints, made with the
same white earth, of the conch-shell, the discus, and other weapons
of Vi$Qu. These are impressed occasionally with a heated metallic
stamp on the skin, so as to leave a permanent scar. Members of this
sect exist in pretty large numbers in the Kanarese districts of the
Bombay Presidency, Mysore and on the western coast from Goa to
South Kanara, andthere are only scattered adherents in Northern India.
There are eight establishments, or Mathas, for the dissemination and
preservation of the creed in South Kanara and three in the inner
country. Some of these were founded by Änandatirtha himself.

62 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. a. Ktmst. 6. Vai^Q^Tism etc.

Änandatirthacomposed thirty-seven') different treatises. Hc in-
cludes among the authorities enumerated by him in support of his
System the Pancarätra-Samhitäs; but it will be seen from the account
given above that in his creed there is no place for the Vyöhas, Väsu-
deva and others, and the name by which the Supreme Spirit is spoken
of is mostly Visnu. Some of his incamations, especiaUy Räma and
Kf^na, are also adored. But the Gopäla-Ki^na element seems to be
entirely absent from his System, and Rädhä and the cowherdesses are
not mentioned. It thus appears that the Päncarätra or Bhägavata
System has been set aside by Anandatirtha or thrown into the back-
ground. The old traditional Väsudevism of the Bhägavata school
gradually disappeared about his time and made room for general
Vai^^avism.

XVn. Nimbarka,

§ 53- We have thus noticed the form which Vai^oavism assumed
in the south from the middle of the eleventh Century to the middle of
the thirteenth. A strong feeling of Bhakti, or love, and a fear of the
dangerous consequences of the doctrine of Mäyä, or illusion, were the
guiding principles of the new development. The influence of this last
extended itself to the north, and we can distinguish between two classes
of founders of sects, viz. (i) those who wrote in Sanskrit, and (2) those
who used the vemacular for the propagation of their creed. The first
of the former class we have to notice is Nimbärka. Nimbärka is said
to have been a Tailanga Brähmana by birth and to have Uved in a
village caUed Nimba ^), which perhaps is the same as Nimbäpura in
the Bellary district. He was bom on the 3rd of the bright half of
Vaisäkha, andhisfather's name was Jagannätha, who was a Bhägavata,
and his mother's Sarasvati 3). He is believed by his foUowers to be
an incamation of the Sudarsana, or the discus of Vi$QU. As to when
he flourished we have no definite information, but he appears to have
lived some time after Rämänuja 4). Nimbärka composed the Vedänta-

>) For the names of these see the Granthamälikästotn in mj Repoit on die Search
for Sanskrit Manuscripts during 1882 — 83, p. 207.

*) Manuscript No. 706 of the collection of 1884 — 7. Nimbärka was ttie "san. of
Nimba".

3) Introduction to the commentaiy on DasaSlokI by Hari^SsadeTa. It is to be xe-
gretted that the commentator does not give the year of Nimbärka*s biith.

4) In my Repoit on the Search for Sanskrit Manuscripts for the year 1882 — 83, I have
given two succession lists of spiritual teachers, one of the sect of Änandatiitha (p. 203) and
another ofthat founded by Nimbärka (pp. 208 — 12). This contains 37 names. There is
another list in Manuscript 709 of the collection of 1884 — 7, which contains 45 names.
The two lists agree up to No. 32 Harivyasadeva. After that, while the first has only
five names, the second has thiiteen names, and none of these agrees with any of the
five, so that after HarivySsadeva the line appears to have divided itself into two bianches.
No. 709 of the same collection was written in Saipvat 1806 corresponding to 1750 A. O.,
when Gosvämin DSmodara was living. He was the thirty-third after Nimbärka in
the new branch line. The thirty-third after Änandaäitha died in 1879 ^ ^- Ananda-
tirtha according to our revised date died in 1276 A. D., so that his thirty-three successors
occupied 603 years. Supposing that the thirty-three successors of Nimbäika occupied
about the same period and allowing about fifteen years of life to Oämodara Gosväminf
who was living in 1750 A. D., and subtracting from 1765 A. D« 603 years, we have

XVH. Nimbärka 63

pärijätasaurabha, which is a short commentary on the Brahmasütras,
^nd also a small work containing ten stanzas of the name of Siddhänta*
ratna, usually called Da^asloki, from the number of stanzas contained
in it. ^riniväsa, the immediate foUower of Nimbärka, wrote a com-
mentary called Bhä$ya on the first, and Harivyäsadeva, the thirty-
second in the list of succession, wrote on the second. The thirteenth
in the list, Deväcarya, wrote the SiddhSntajahnavi, and his successor,
Sundarabhafta, wrote a commentary on it, called Setu. The thirtieth
in the list composed a commentary, or Bhä^ya, on the Brahmasütras.
His name was Ke^ava Ka^mirin.

§ 52. Nimbärka's Vedäntic theory is monistic as well as plura-
listic. The inanimate world, the individual soul and God are distinct
from one another as well as identical. Identical they are in the sense
that the first two have no independent existence, but are dependent
on God for their existence and action. The theory of the Brahmasütras
that Brahman is the material cause of the universe, is thus understood:
To be the material cause of an eflfect is (i) to possess the capacity
of asßuming the form of that efifect, and (2) to be fitted to do so.
Brahman possesses various capacities which are of the nature of the
animate and inanimate worlds. These in a subtle form constitute
its natural condition. This satisfies the first of the two requirements.
The capacities again contain in them the nidiment of the effect, i. e.
the World, in a subtle form. This meets the second requirement, By
realising these capacities andbringing the subtle rudiment into a gross
form Brahman becomes the material cause of the world. Rämänuja's
theory of Brahman forming with the animate and inanimate world
a composite personality and of its being the material cause in so far
as the bodily portion of the composite personality becomes developed,
is rejected by the school of Nimbärka '). For a further knowledge
of the System I willhere give a translation of the DaSaslokl.

I. Jlva, or the individual soul, is knowledge, dependent onHari, and
is in a condition to bt associated with, or dissociated from, a body ; is an
atom; diflferent in dififerent bodies; and is a knower and numberless.

It is called knowledge here to show that it is able to know without
the Organs of sense, and it is not to be understood here that the
soul is the mere phenomenon of knowledge, and not a substance,
which is the doctrine of Öamkaräcärya.

II. The individual soul has his form distorted by its contact with
Mäyä, or Prakrti, or the constituent principle with the three qualities
which has no beginning. Its true nature becomes known by the grace
of God.

Individual souls are of two sorts: (i) those delivered or in
a supremely blissful condition; (2) those tied down to the circle of
existences. The first are of two kinds: (i) those who are eternally

II 62, which is about the date of Nimbärka's death, so that he lived after RamSnuja.
This calculation of ours is of course very rough and, besides, the date of the manuscript
No. 706. which is read as I9JI3 by some, but which looks like 1813, conflicts with
this calculation, as nine more Äcäryas flourished after Dämodara. And, if 181 3 is the
correct date, seven years cannot suffice for these, though 107 may, if the date is read 191 3.
') See Kesava's eommentaiy, Br. S. I. 4, 23.

64 m* Religion, Weld. Wissensch« u. Kunst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

in a supremely blissful condition, such as (a) Ganida, Vi$vaksena, and
(b} the crown, ear -Ornaments and the flute considered as living beings;
and (2) those who are freed from the trammels of life. Of these last
some attain to the likeness of God and others are content with the
perception of the nature of their own soul. Corresponding to thcse^
two last are two kinds of Mumuk§u, those who seek deliverance of
either kind.

III. The inanimate objects are of three kinds: (i) not derived
from Prakfti; (2) derived fromPrakfti; and (3) time. In the things
derived from Prakrti we have the ordinary material objects having
the three colours, viz. red, white, and dark.

The first class consists of those which are spoken of figuratively
by the use of the names of objects belonging to the second class, such
as the sunlike refulgence of the Supreme Soul. It is a refulgence not
arising from the Prakfti. Similarly the body, hands, feet, and Orna-
ments of God, as well as all the surroundings, such as garden, palace,
etc., belong to the first class and are of an inanimate nature, though
they are not made of matter, i. e., not derived from Prakrti').

IV. I meditate on the highest Brahman, viz. Kr§na, who has
eyes like the lotus, who naturally is free from all faults, is the störe of
all beneficient attributes, who hasVyühas for his parts, and who is
adored by all.

The Vyühas here mentioned are those usually referred to in the
Päiicarätra and Rämänuja Systems. The commentators understand
the incarnations also by this expression. One gives a large number
of these, divided into classes on certain principles. Kf^Qa is called
VareQya or adored by all, because he has a holy celestial body and
bodily qualities, such as beauty, tenderness, sweetness and charm.
All these are of course non -material (Apräkfta), though inanimate ac-^
cording to stanza III.

V. I reflect on the daughter of Vr§abhänu (Rädhikä), who shines
with a corresponding beauty on the left side (of Kr§pa), is attended
on by thousands of f emale friends, and who always confers all desired
objects.

VI. This Parabrahman should be always worshipped unintcr-
ruptedly by men in order to be free from the darkness in the sbape
of ignorance, in which they are enveloped. So was Närada, who directiy
perceived the whole truth, taught by Sanandana and others.

VII. All things having Brahman for their souls in accordance
with the Srutis and Smrtis, the knowledge that [Brahman] is all is
true. This is the doctrine of those who know the Vedas, and at the
same time the three forms are true as determined from the sacred
precepts (Smrtis) and the Sütras.

Here is laid down the unity of all things in so f ar as Brahman
is the inner Controlling soul of all and is concomitant with them, and
their existence and actions are dependent on it, and also pluralism,
since there are three distinct substances, which are called forms of

I) The physical attributes given to God by RsmSnuja and the rest and to whiöh
the Word ^celestial' is sometimes prefized, are to be understood in this sense.

XVII. Nimbarka. 65

Brahman in the stanza, viz. the inanimate world, the individual soul
and the Supreme SouL

VIII. There appears no way to salvation except the lotus-like
feet of Kr§9a, which are adored by Brahmadeva, äiva and others —
Kr$9a, who, at the desire of a devotee, assumes a form easy of meditation
and whose power is unthinkable and whose essence cannot be com-
prehended.

IX. His grace extends itself to those who have a feeling of help-
lessness and otherqualifications, and by that grace is generatedBhakti,
or devotion, consisting of special love for him, who has no superior lord.
This Bhakti is of two kinds: the highest is one, and the other is
that which leads to or is instrumental to it.

By the feeling of helplessness and other qualifications are meant
the six modes of Prapatti given in connection with Rämänuja's System.
The Bhakti which is instrumental to that which is the highest, is of
the nature of the six or nine modes mentioned in previous sections.

X. These five things should be known by thedevotees: (l) the
nature of the being to be worshipped; (2) the nature of theworshipper;
(3) the fruit of God's grace; (4) the feeling of enjoyment consequent
on Bhakti, or love; (5) obstructions to the attainment of God.

The first is the knowing of the nature of the Supreme Being as
existence, intelligence and joy (Saccidänanda), of his possessing a
celestial body (non-material), of his dwelling in such places as the
cow-settlement (Vraja), which is calied the celestial city (Vyomapura),
of his being the cause of all, omnipotent, tender, merciful, gracious
towards his devotees, and so forth. The second consists in knowing
the worshipper as an atom, possessing knowledge and joy, and as the
servant of Kr§9a, etc. The third is. the seif -surrender and the giving
up of all actions except the service of God, which results in seif -surren-
der. The fourth arises from serenity, servitude, friendliness, aflfection,
and enthusiasm. These states of mind are consequent upon the peculiar
relation to God of each individual, as affection was the feeling of Nanda,
Vasudeva and Devaki, and enthusiasm, of Radhä and RukmiQi. The
fifth are such as regarding the body as the soul, dependence on others
thanGod and one's preceptor, indiflference to the commands of God con-
tained in the sacred books, worshipping other gods, giving up one's
own peculiar duties, ingratitude, spending one's life in a worthless
manner, vilification of good men, and many others.

§ 55. These ten stanzas contain the quintessence of Nimbärka's
System. This appears to have Rämänuja's doctrines for its basis and
is a sidewise development of it. It gives predominance to Prapatti
or seif -surrender of the six kinds alluded to above, and then, by the
grace of God, love for Him is generated. His Sädhana Bhakti com-
prehends all the Yogas of Rämänuja's System. Rämänuja, as we have
already remarked, changes the original sense of Bhakti and renders it
equivalent to theUpäsanä, orthe meditation prescribed in theUpani§ads.
But Nimbarka keeps to the original sense. His doctrines make a nearer
approach totheTenkalai, or southern learning, of the Rämänujiyas. But
thegreat differencebetween the two teachers is, that, while Rämänujacon-
fines himself to Näräya^a and his consorts Lak§mT, Bhü and Lila, Nim-

Tndo-arische Philolofirie III. 6. 5

66 III. Religion, WelÜ. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vaifpavism etc.

bärka gives almost an exclusive prominence to Kr$];ia and his mistress,
Rädhä, attended on by thousands of her female companions. Thus
the fourth dement of Vai^^avism which we have mentioned rises to
the surface in Vai^oavism about this time and retains its place in
Northern India, including Bengal, except in the case of those sects
whose favourite deity is Räma and not Kr$9a; and to these for the
present we will now turn our attention, Coming back again to Kr$oaism
later on* Nimbärka's System is known by the name of Sanakasaqi-
pradäya, or the tradition originating with Sanaka. Though Nimbärka
was a southerner, he lived at Vfndävana near Mathurä, which ac-
counts for the preference given by him to the Rädhä-Kr^o^L form of
Vai§9avism. His foUowers are scattered over the whole of Northern
India and exist in large numbers near Mathurä and in Bengal. They
wear two perpendicular lines of GopTcandana with a black spot in the
middle on the forehead and use a necklace and rosary of the wood of
the Tulasi plant. They are divided into two classes, the ascetics
and householders. This distinction appears to have originated at the
time of Harivyäsadeva, after whom, as I have observed in a note,
the successors of Nimbärka were divided into two branches. The
reason for the division was probably this new distinction.

XVm. Rämänanda.

§ 56. A spirit of sympathy for the lower castes and classes of
Hindu Society has from the beginning been a distinguishing feature
of Vai$Qavism. Still, so f ar as we have advanced, the great teachers
kept these castes and classes into, what might be called, an outer
court, though they were admitted to the benefits of the new dispen-
sation. They had not, as the pure Vedäntins assert, to do the duties
prescribed for their mean position and rise in succeeding lives until
they were finally born as Brähma^as, when alone they could avail
themselves of the methods laid down for the attainment of Mok$a,
or deliverance. They could attain this even as members of the lowest
caste by resorting to devotion, but the Brahma^ic teachers, Rämänuja
and others, made the methods based on the study of the Vedic literature
accessible only to the higher castes, leaving other methods to the rest.
But Rämänanda now began a radical reform and made no distinction
between Brähma^as and members of the degraded castes, and all
could even dine together, provided they were the devotees of Vi^^u
and had been admitted into the fold. Another reform, which must
be traced to Rämänanda, was the use of the vernaculars for the pro-
pagation of the new creed. And a third very important reform made
by him was the introduction of the purer and more chaste worship
of Räma and Sita instead of that of Kr$9a and Rädhä.

Mr. Macauliffe mentions Mailkot as the place of his birth and says
that he must have flourished in the end of the fourteenth and the
first half of the fifteenth Century, which, he states, corresponds with
a reckoning which gives 1398 A. D. as the date of the birth of Kabir.
This would rather make Rämänanda live long before the end of the
fourteenth Century, as Kablr was his successor and ordinarily believed

XIX. Kmbir. 67

to be his pupil '). The authority ^) I have consulted states that he
was bora at Prayaga as the son of a Känyakubja Brahma^a, named
PuQyasadana, and his wife SuSila. The date of his birth is given
as 4400 of the Kali age, equivalent to 1356 of Vikrama-Saipvat. This
corresponds to 1299 or 1300 A. D. and is more consistent with the
traditional Statement that there were three generations between him
and Ramänuja. The date of Rämänuja's death is usually given as
1137 ^' ^-> though it makes him out as having lived for 120 years.
The lapse of three generations between 1137 and 1300 A. D. is a more
reasonable supposition than between 1137 and the end of the fourteenth
Century. This last date, therefore, given for Rämänanda is manifesüy
wrong, and that occuring in the book I have consulted appears to be
correct in all probability.

From Prayäga Rämänanda was sent to Benares for the usual
education of a Brähmaoa. After he finished this, he became a disciple
of Räghavänanda, a teacher of the ViSi$tädvaita school of Rämänuja.
After some time he gave up some of the restrictive practices of the
sect, such as that of taking food without being seen by anybody, and
separated himself from his preceptor and himself became the founder
of a school. As indicated above, he took pupils from the degraded
castes also. Thirteen of them became noted and their names are:
I. Anantänanda, 2. Surasaränanda, 3. Sukhänanda, 4. Naraharlya-
nanda, 5. Yogänanda, 6. Pipä, 7. Kabir, 8. Bhävänanda, 9. Senä,
10. Dhannä, li. GälavSnanda, 12. Räidäs, and 13. Padmävatü Of
these Pipa was a RäjpQt, Kabir was a Südra and spoken of also as a
Mahomedan foUowing the profession of a weaver, Senä was a barber,
Dhannä a Jät, Räidäs belonged to the degraded caste of curriers or
workers in leather, and Padmävatl was a woman. With the first twelve
he went about the country visiting holy places, conductingdisputations
with the advocates of the Mäyä doctrine, Jainas, Buddhists, etc.,
establishing his own ViSi^tädvaita theory and Converting men to his
views and admitting them as his disciples. Rämänanda is stated to
have died in 1467 of Vikrama-Samvat, corresponding to 141 1 A. D.
This gives him a life of iii years, which is rather improbable. Some
of his pupils became the founders of different schools, and through them
the worship of Räma spread over an extensive portion of Northern
and Central India, successfuUy competing with that of Gopäla-Kr^pa.

XIX. Kablr.

§ 57. The few particulars that have come down to us about the
birth and life of Kabir are these. He was the son of a Brähma^a
widow who cast him away as soon as he was born, to hide her shame,
near the Lahar Tank in Benares. A Mahomedan weaver of the name
of Nlru was passing by the way with his wife Nimä, when the latter

>) The Sikh Religion, etc. by M. A. Macaoliffe, Vol. VI, pp. loo—i. 1908
A. D. is Said by Macaoliffe to correspond to the 5ioth year of kis era. By Ais he
mast mean Kabir's.

*) Chapters from the Agastya-Saiphitft with a Hindi translation by Rima NftrSya^a
Dis, completed in Saiprat i960, corresponding to 1904 A. D.

5*

68 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^pavism etc.

saw the child and carried it home. He was nurtured and brought up
by her and her husband Nirü, and Kabir, when he had grown up,
foUowed the occupation of a weaver. He showed leanings towards
the Hindu faith, and the idea of makingRämänanda his Guru, or pre-
ceptor, arose in his mind. But heconceived it notpossible that that sage
should receive a Mahomedan as his disciple and therefore had recourse
to a contrivance. He laid himself down on the Ghät, or pavement on
the Ganges, at which Rämänanda bathed very early in the moming.
On the way Rämänanda trampled on the boy and exclaimed: ''Räma,
Räma! VVhat poor creature is it that I have trampled upon.^" Kabir
rose up and received the exciamation '*Räma, Räma" as a Mantra
communicated to him by Rämänanda, and he understood that he had
thus been made a disciple. Another account is that, being trampled
on, Kabir rose up and cried aloud, when Rämänanda told him to be
quiet and go on uttering the name of ''Räma". Considering that he
had thus been accepted as a pupil, Kabir went on with his adorations
of God, proclaiming that he was the disciple of Rämänanda. Some
Hindus went to the latter and asked him whether he had initiated
Kabir. Thereupon Kabir was sent for and asked by Rämänanda,
when it was that he had been initiated. Kabir mentioned to him the
incident of his having been trampled upon on the Ghät- Then Rämä-
nanda remembered the matter and clasped Kabir to his breast. Since
that time Kabir regularly attended at his master's Matha and joined
him in his disputations with the Pandits. For some time Kabir lived
atManikapur, as is mentioned in one of his Ramainis. There he heard
of the fame of Shaikh Taqqi and of twenty-one Pirs. He heard their
discourses, condemned their teachings and said: '*OhShaikhs, ofwhat*
ever name, listen to me; open your eyes and see the origin and the end
of all things and their creation and dissolution". In one of the books
of this sect, Shaikh Taqqi is represented as an enemy of Kabir and
a Kr, or the religious guide, of Sikandar Lodi. At his advice the
emperor persecuted Kabir and used various methods to destroy him.
But Kabir miraculously escaped death and was eventually reconciled
to Sikandar Lodi, who received him into his favour. Kabir died at
Maghar, and there was a dispute between the Hindus and the Maho-
medans as to the disposal of his dead body, which was covered by a
sheet of cloth. When the sheet was removed, the body had disappeared,
and in its stead there was a heap of flowers. The Mahomedans took
one half of the quantity and buried it at Maghar and erected a tomb
over it, and the Hindus took their share to Benares, where it was
burnt. Kabir had a wife of the name of Loi, a son of the name of
Kamäl, and a daughter of the name of Kamäll. But there are miracu-
lous stories as to how Kabir came by them.

As to how much of this account is historical and how much le-
gendary, it is difficult to say. But that he was a Mahomedan weaver
at the beginning may be accepted as a fact. And that Shaikh Taqqi,
a Mahomedan Kr, who is mentioned in one of the Ramainis, as stated
above, was his rival and that Kabir lived about the time of Sikandar
Lodi may also be regarded as historical. As to whether Kabir was a
disciple of Rämänanda, there is some question, as will be prescntly

XIX. Kabir. 69

mentioned. Mr. Westcott considers it not impossible that he should
have been both a Mahomedan and a Süfi *), but all bis writings show
a complete familiarity with the names occuring in Hindu religious
literature and Hindu manners and customs, so that it appears to
me that there is little er nothing in Kabir's writings calculatedto
show that his teachings had a Mahomedan basis. The basis appears
to be purely Hindu, though Ka,bir was a bold aitd uncompromising
reformer and hurled anathemas at the Pa^dits, the Brähmapas proud
of their caste, and the teachers of the existing sects of the Hindus,
and thus appears to have come under the infiuence of Mahomedanism.

The dates given by various writers for the birth and death of
Kablr are conflicting. Mr. Westcott makes him live for 78 years, from
1440 to 1518 A.D. *), and according to Mr. Macauliffe he was born in
Samvat 1455, corresponding to A. D. 13983), and he died in A. D. 15184),
having lived for 119 years, five months and twenty-seven days. In
a footnote he quotes from an original work the date Saka 1370, corres-
ponding to 1448 A. D., as the date of his death. Sikandar Lodi was
on the throne of Delhi from 1488 to 15 17 A. D. The last of the threc
dates does not harmonise with this, and so it must be given up. Rämä-
nanda, we have seen, is spoken of as having been born in 1298 A. D.
and died in 141 1 A. D. If Mr. Westcott's date for Kabir's birth is true,
Kabir cannot have been a disciple of Rämänanda. If that of Mr. Ma-
cauliffe is accepted, it is just possible that he should have so become,
for at the time of Rämananda's death Kabir must have been thirteen
years of s^e, and he is represented in one of the legends to have been
but a boy when he was accepted as a disciple by the old sage. The date
15 18 A. D. given by both the writers for his death may be accepted as
correct. But, if that of his birth given by Mr. Macauliffe is also accepted,
we shall have to suppose that Kabir lived for 119 years; Rämänanda
also according to the dates given in the last section lived for 113 years;
Whcther both of them lived such long lives might well be questioned.
But, until we have more evidence, the dates for Rämänanda already
noticed and for Kabir as given by Mr. Macauliffe may be provisionally
accepted, and thus Kabir might be considered to have really been a
disciple of Rämänanda« though, of course, being a boy of thirteen,
he could not have taken part in his master's disputations with Pa^dits.
In Kabir's works, however, so far as I have seen them, Rämänanda' s
name does not occur, though the name Räma as that of the Supreme
Being and also the relation of the individual soul with Räma as well
as his refutation of the doctrine of God's being Videha or Nirgu^a,
i. e. without attributes, must have been borrowed from Rämänanda's
doctrines, which again are based on Rämänuja's System.

§ 58. We now give a translation of a few passages illustrative of
the teachings of KabirS).

') Kabir and the Kabir Panth by Rev. G. H. Westcott Cawnpore, 1907, p. 44.
>) Ibiä, Chronological Table, p. VlI.

3) The Sikh Religion, Vol. VI, p. 122.

4) IMd, pp. 139—40.

5) The edition consulted is that published with a commentary under the Orders of
Raghurajasimha, Maharaja of Rewah, in Samvat 1924.

70 m. Rdigkm, Weld. Wlsscnsdi. n. KbbsL 6. Vm^nsm etc.

First Ramaini*).

I. There was in the inside a substance called Jiva, or individual
soul, the Internal Light illuminated [it]. 2. And then foUowed a womaD
of the name of 'desire'; and she was called GäyatrL 3. That woman
gave birth to three sons, Brahma, Vi$Qu and MaheSa. 4. Then Brahml
asked the woman who was her husband and whose wife she was.
5. (She replied:) "Thou and I, I and thou, and there is no third. Thou
art my husband and I am thy wife.*' 6. The father and son had a
conmion wife; and one mother has a two-fold character; there is no
son who is a good son and who will endeavour to recognise his father.

Second Ramainl.

I. In the light there was sound, which was a woman. 2. And
of the woman were Hari, Brahma and the enemy of the three dties
(^iva). 3. Then Brahma created an ^;g and divided it into fourteen
regions. 4 — 6. Then Hari, Hara and Brahma settled in three regions»
and then they arranged the whole Brahmaqda and the six philosophies
and ninety-six heresies. Nobody then taught the Veda for his soste-
nance; and Turuk did not come for making circumdsion. 7. The woman
brought forth from her womb children. They became distinct indi-
viduals and foUowed different courses of action. 8. Therefore I and
thou are of one blood andare one life. Distinctness arisesfromignorance.
9. From one woman all ^rang, and what knowledge is it that brought
about distinctness between them? 13 (Sakhl). Kabir proclaims: All
this ordinary world is destructible; without knowing the name of
Rama all individuals are drowned in the ocean of existence.

Kabuls account of creation seems to be this. In the light of Rama
there existed a substance which was the subtle element. the sum total
of all individual souls. And then that substance was illuminated by
that light. Then foUowed a desire in the shape of a woman, which
was at the same time called Gayatri and sound (^bda), and from her
the creation took its rise. His idea thus seems to be that individual
souls came into being, or were developed out of a substance which
was their subtle form, at the will of theSupreme Soul, which (will) was
uttered in the form of a sound. That is to say, the Supreme Soul was
not the material cause of the world, but a distinct subtle entity. Wliat,
in the language of the Upani$ads, became many was this entity and
not the Supreme Soul himself. Kabir's philosophy is thus not a monism,
but dualism. All individuals sprang into existence from the same
cause, there was one blood and one lif e, and consequently the distinc*
tion of castes and races was a later fiction. Kablr thus appears to be
an Opponent of this distinction.

Fifth Ramainl.

The substance of the first five Caupais seems to be that Hari, Hara
and Brahma, taking the two letters (Rama), laid the foundation of all

I) Ramioiii is a pieoe of compositioii conststbif of seToal Canpiit (Sk. Catafpadl),
«bkli are ttuuas oonsistnig of fonr lincs widi the cnds of the fiist two wmd of the
last tvo riiymin; with each odier, and a Sikhi (v^kh is anodier species of meCie) it
ihe cnd.

XDL Rabir. Jl

leaming, and gradually the Vedas and Kitäbs (books) came to be com-
posed. 6 — 8. In all the four ages the devotees devised Systems, but
were not aware that the bündle they had tied up was torn. Men ran
in all directions for salvation, being afraid. Abandoning their'lord
they ran towards hell.

Eighth Ramaini.

I. The precept **Tat tvam asi" (that thou art) is the message of
the Upani$ads. 2. They lay great stress upon it, and those who are
qualified explain it (at great length). 3. Sanaka and Närada became
happy by regarding the highest principle to be distinct from them-
selves. 4. The coUoquy between Janaka and Yäjflavalkya comes to
the same effect, and that same sweet sentiment was tasted by Dattä-
treya. 5. Vasi§tha and Räma sang together the same thing, and that
same thing was explained to Uddhava. 6. That same thing was sub-
stantiated by Janaka and, though he had a body, he was calledbodiless
(Videha). 7 (Sakhi). No mortal becomes immortal without aban-
doning the pride of birth. That which one cannot see by experience
is to be considered as "unseen" or "unperceived".

In this Ramaini Kabir shows acquaintance with the Upani§ads
and other branches of Hindu sacred literature, so that he cannot have
been a mere "SOfi and Mahomedan". He rejeets the theory of the
identity between the Supreme and the individual souls, which is regar-
ded as being laid down in the expression **That thou art" of the Chan-
dogya-Upani§ad. The commentator says that by "that" is to be
understood the subtle body of sixteen parts and the expression means
"Thou art that subtle body". Kablr takes all the individuals he has
named in this Ramaini to have preached duality.

In the fourteenth Ramaini there is a condemnation of the several
Systems of religion, that contained in the Puräit^as, that of Brahma,
Haxpsa, Gopäla, ^ambhu, ghosts and goblins and various forms of
worship up to the Neväja of the Mahomedan.

Thirty-fourth Ramaini.

I. The Pa^dits were misled by the study of the Vedas which are
based on the Gu](^as, or qualities, and did not know their own nature
and their true friend (God). 2. They practise Saipdhyä, Tarpa^a, the
six rites and various other such ceremonies. 3. In all the fourYugas
Gayatil has beentaught; ask who obtained salvation (Mukti) by its
means. 4. When you are touched by other people, you bathe; teil me
who is more degraded than yourselves. 5. You are very proud of
your virtues. Too much pride is not good. 6. How can he whose name
destroys all pride bear this proud behaviour? 7 (Säkhi). Giving up
the traditional mode of worship of the family, they seek the place
of Nirvä^a; having destroyed the seed and sprout, they became an
cntity without attributes (Videha or Nirgupa).

Kabir here condemns the rites, ceremonies and other practices
of the Brähma^as, the pride that is generated in them by these, the
contempt in which they hold people of other castes, and also their
search of Nirväpa, or a condition without any attributes, i. e. the A-
dvaita, or a-dualistic, System which they follow.

^2 III. Religrion. Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^oavism etc.

Fortieth Ramaini.

I. The sea, which is a coUection of waters, is a ditch, and in it are
the sun, the moon, and thirty-three crores of brothers. 2. In the
whirlpools (o£ such a universe) they (men and gods) have seated
themselves and desire happiness, but have not shunned the touch
of misery. 3. Nobody knows the secret of misery, and the world has
become mad in a variety of ways. 4. Everybody is a fool or a sage in
himself and nobody knows Räma who dwells in the heart. 5 (Säkhi).
They themselves are Hari (God), they themselves are lords, they them-
selves are the slaves of Hari. When there is no guarantee, the lady
(Mukti, or salvation) goes away disappointed.

Here again there is a condemnation of various Systems and of
the self-confidence which has given rise to them and the neglect of
God dwelling in the heart.

Säkhis.

I.

31. The crowds went by the path traversed by the Papdits. Lofty
is the ascent to Räma. Kabir has climbed it. 135. The whole world
has gone astray by partiality for one's own System. He who, becoming
free from partiality, adores Hari, is a wise sage. 138. The great ones
are lost in their own greatness; pride peers out through every pore;
when they are not familiär with a wise preceptor, all the Orders of
men are of the Camär caste, i. e. the degraded caste of curriers.
182. The Kali is a wicked age; the world is blind and nobody believes
in the true word. He to whom a salutary advice is given, becomes
an enemy. 211. Three things went to a holy place (the body, the
fickle heart, and the mind which is a thief). They did not destroy
a Single sin, but on the contrary the mind contracted ten others. 260. The
Kabirs (men in general) polluted the pathof Bhakti, orfaith, by washing
pebbles and stones. Keeping poison within, they have thrown out the
nectar. 358. **I am the author of the whole creation, there isno other
who is superior to me." (This is what some people think.) Kabir
says that, when one does not know what one is oneself, one thinks
everything to be contained in oneself. 365. In this world all have
passed away considering themselves to be Räma, but no one actually
became Räma. Kabir says that those who know Räma as he truly
is, attain all their objects. 366. This world has become mad and has
conceived a love for something which can be no matter of experience;
and denying all authoritativeness to actual experience, they attach them-
selves to a soul without attributes (Videha). 372. Seeing a void, men
were misled and went about searching in all quarters tili they died,
but did not find a form without attributes.

II.

91. The bee loiters in the garden, being enticed by the innumerable
flowers in it. In the same manner the individual soul loiters among
the objects of sense and at the end goes away disappointed. 95. The
soul is to the mind as a monkey is to a showman. Making it dance
in a variety of ways, it (mind) finally retains it in its own hands.

XIX. Kabir. 73

96. The mind is fickle, a thief and perfect swindler. The gods and the
sages feil off in consequence of the mind, and mind finds a hundred
thousand openings. 136. If a man gives up his belongings, it does not
mean much. Egotism, or self-pride, cannot be given up. Self-pride,
which led astray the great Munis, devours all. Running after
gold and women, men are bumt by the passion generated by an illusion.
Kablr says, how can they be saved, being like cotton which has come
in contact with fire? 147. All became subject to the power of illusion:
Brahma, Vi$](^u, MaheSa, and the four, Närada, Särada, Sanaka, and
Ga](^eSa, the son of Gaurl. 209. Do not kill a poor living creature;
the life of all is the same. You will not be free from (the sin of ) killing,
even if you hear crores of Puränas.

III.

122. He to attain whom the great sages (Munis) go through
austerities and whose virtues the Vedas sing, himself gives instruc-
tion, but nobody believes. 208. One Single poor soul is bound up by
many fetters. If the father (God) will not liberate him, what power
has the soul himself to do so? 243. I (God) instruct him; but he does
not understand and sells himself into the hands of others. I pull him
towards myself ; but he runs away to the city of death (Yama). 282. If
you endeavour to acquire one thing (God), every other thing will
come to you; but if you endeavour to acquire every other thing, that
one thing will be lost. If you water the root of a tree, you will obtain
a sufficiency of flowers and fruits. 310. If you want me (God), give
up your desire for every other thing and become mine, and then
everything will be yours. 336. He has entered into every body and
remains there fuUy watchful. When one wants a certain accomplish-
ment, he inspires him with the corresponding thoughts (calculated
to enable him to achieve success).

Here the first group contains a condemnation of the current
religious doctrines; the second gives a specimen of Kabir' s moral
teachings; and the third explains the way in which God's grace*
operates towards the deliverance of man. Kabir, therefore, was as
much a constructive reformer as destructive. In Säkhi 260 of the
first group Kabir, it will be seen, condemns the worship of idols. The
religion which he promulgated, therefore, was a pure spiritual theism.
The mode of worship used by his followers up to the present day
consists of prayers and praises only. Kabir founded a Pantha, or a
sect, and the Mathas, or establishments, of that sect exist in several
parts of India. The principal one is at Benares, with a branch at
Maghar in the Gorakhpur district, where he died. This last is said
to be in the Charge of a Mahomedan Mahant, or superior. The second
was established by Dharmadäs, his chief disciple, in the Chattisgarh
district of the Central Provinces»). The followers of Kabir's sect are
to be found principally among the lower castes, but the sage is highly
venerated by all Vai§^avas of whatever caste or class.

») For details sce Rev. G. H. Westcott's volume on Kabir referred to above.

74 ^« Rdij^ion, Weltl. Wissensdi. u. Kunst. 6. Vaif^aTism etc.

XX. Other Ramanandins.

§ 59. Malukdäs, who lived about the end of Akbar's reign, i. e.
about the end of the sixteenth Century, was aworshipper of Räma. The
tradition that he belonged to the school of Ramänanda appears to
be correct. Like Kabir, he seems to have been a non-idolater, since
in a hymn which I have seen he ridicules men and women who hammer
valuable metals into gods, worship them, and, whenever there is a
necessity, seil them for the price of the metal, and says that the tnie
way was shown to him by his wise preceptor. The sect founded by
him has seven Mathas, or establishments, and its adherents follow the
occupation of householders.

Dädu was a cotton cleaner at Ahmedabad. At twelve he removed
to Sambhar and finally settled at Naraina, about twenty Kos from
Jaipur. He flourished about 1600 A. D. at the end of Akbar's reign.
His doctrines appear to be similar to those of Kabir. The oniy
mode of worship was Japa, or the repetition of the name of Räma.
The sect does not worship images of Räma and it erects no temples.
Dädu inculcates faith in, and love of, Räma and meditation on him.
His followers are divided into three classes: (i) Viraktas, (2) NSgas,
and (3) Vistaradhärins. The first live the life of ascetics, the second
are bearers of arms and enter into the Service of princes as soldiers,
and the third lead an ordinary life.

Räidäs, a pupil of Rämänanda, was a founder of a sect the follo-
wers of wliich are to be found in the caste of Camärs, or leather-
workers. NäbhäjT in his Bhaktamälä teils many legends about him.
Under the name of Rohidäs he is known and revered even in the
Maräfha country, and Mahlpati, the Marätha writer on saints, de-
votes a chapter to him.

Senä the barber, a follower of Rämänanda, is also reported to
have founded a sect. He too is known in the Marätha country ^).

XXI. Tulasidäs.

§ 60. Another person who contributed to the propagation of
the cult of Räma over Northern India, was the famous Tulasidäs,
whom we will now briefly notice. Tulasidäs belonged to the Saravaryä
or Sarayfipari^a caste of Brähma](^as and was bom in Saipvat 1589,
corresponding to 1532 A. D., under an inauspicious constellation. He
was abandoned by his parents and was picked up by a Sädhu, or a
pious man, in whose Company he visited many places in India. His
father's name was Ätmäräma Sukla Dübe, his mother's HulasI, and
his own Räma Böta. His father-in-law was a man of the name of
DinabandhuPäthaka, and his wifewas called Ratnävall. His son's name
was Täraka.

Tulasidäs commenced the composition of his great work, Räma-
caritamänasa, usually known as Rämäyapa, at Ayodhyä in 1574 A. D.
and finished it at Benares. He wrote eleven other works, six of which
were smaller. Tulasidäs was not a sturdy reformer like Kablr and

I) See Wilson' 8 Hindu Religions.

XXI. Tulasidas. 75

does not seem to have founded a sect or even to have promulgated
a definite Vedäntic theory. In this respect he appears to have been,
like a host of other persons who flourished in the country, a teacher
of the Bhaktimärga, or the path of devotion, which is based upon a
dualistic philosophy with a leaning towards spiritual monism of the
Advaita System. Tulasidäs died in 1623 A. D. ').

§ 61. I will now give a short specimen of Tulasidäs' teachings from
his RSma-Satasal, the composition of which, as stated in Dohä 21
of the first chapter, was commenced on Thursday, the ninth of the
bright half of VaiSsicha, Saipvat 1642 = 1585 A. D.

Chapter I.

(Doha 3) The highest soul, the highest excellent place, than
whom or which there is no other, Tulasi understands and hears to
be Räma, the blessed. (DohS 4) "Räma whose attributes confer
blessings upon all is himself free from all desires. He fulfils all desires,
is the benefactor of all. The sages assert this." — So says Tulasi.
(Doha 15) Tulasi sees plainly that in every pore of Räma there
is an endless universe. He is pure, is unchangeable and is irresistible.
(Doha 6) The blessed Jänakl is the mother of the world, and Räma
the father. Both are beneficent. Their grace destroys sin, and creates
conscience (confers the knowledge of distinguishing good from evil).
(Doha 44) Where there is Räma, there is no [evil] desire; where
there is [evil] desire, there is no RSma. Oh Tulasi, the sun and the
night do not exist in one place. (Dohä 45) When Räma is afar,
Mäyä (illusion or temptation) is strong. When he is known, it becomes
tiny or thin. When the sun is at a distance, the shadow is long; when
he is on the head, it is below the feet. (Dohä 48) Says Tulasi: "K
there is no love for Räma, all leaming is thrown into an oven; and
Yama takes away knowledge and devours it; every thing burns away,
and the very root is destroyed". (Doha 57) All things by which
a man is surrounded, serve as hindrances, and none proves a help
(towards the way of bliss) ; and, in such circumstances, if the end is
good, it can become so only through Räma's grace.

Chapter IL

(Doha 17) Says Tulasi: "Through the disobedience of God, man
brings evil on himself and all his associates. The king of the Kurus,
while governing his kingdom, was reduced to dust along with his
army and family". (Dohä 18) Says Tulasi: **From sweet words
results good on all sides. This is a spell that overcomes everything;
avoid all harsh words". (Dohä 19) **A man attains happiness by
the grace of Räma, and it escapes one without it", says Tulasi, "though
they know this, bad men neglect to adore Räma."

Chapter IV»).

82 (89 B. L). The excellent retentive faculty is called Girä or
Sarasvati, and the immutable Dharma is a Vata tree. Dharma con-

') For deteils see Dr. Grierson's articles in the Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXII.
*) The editions consulted are those published by Navalkisora at Lakhnau in 1886
and in the Bibliotheca Indica in 1897.

76 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Konst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

sists of a triad of confluent rivers destroying sin. Oh Tulasi, conceive
DO dislike for these and accept these.

The triad is given by the commentator as action, knowledge, and
Bhakti, or devotion.

83 (90 B. I.). One becomes clean by bathing (in these three
confluent rivers), i. e. grasping the triad by the understanding.
The dirt in the shape of immorality is washed off, and then there is
no doubt as to the easy attainment of the place of Räma. 84 (91 B. L).
Forgiveness is holy Värä^asl. Bhakti, or devotion, is like the river
of gods (Gangä), and clear knowledge is like ViSve^vara. These together
with compassion, which is power (Pärvati), shine.

The commentator remarks that just as Benares with the other
three brings about deliverance, so do forgiveness, devotion, know-
ledge, and compassion.

85 (92 B. I.). Väränasi is not far from him whose heart dwells
in the house which is K§ama (forgiveness) — Väränasi, in which shines,
oh Tulasi, the celestial river in the shape of Bhakti, which results in
numerous virtuous deeds. 86 (93 B. L). Kä§i is the bright half of
a month and Magaha, or Magadha, is the dark half in which dwell
covetousness, infatuation, intoxication, and lust. Oh Tulasi, conside-
ring which is beneficial and which is injurious, do [choose where to]
reside during all the watches of the day.

Kä^i is associated with the four virtues mentioned above, and
Magadha with the vices noticed here. So one is told to practise
what is beneficial and to avoid what is injurious.

87 (94 B. L). What has gone away will not come again. There-
fore do acquire knowledge. The same thing that you have to-day
you will have to-morrow; therefore, oh Tulasi, give up all infatuation.

The idea seems to be: Do not waste time by procrastination;
begin your devotions at once.

88 (95 B. I.). The past and the future hang together on the
present. Oh Tulasi, do not entertain any doubt; get through that
which is before you at present.

89 (96 B. I.). A good soul is like the Mänasa (lake)/and in it is the
pure water of the sweet glory of Räma. Sin is washed off and the
heart becomes pure (by bathing in that water); and this calm water
is not inaccessible to the wise.

The idea seems to be that in a good soul a taste for devotion to
Räma Springs up and, when it is cultivated, the soul becomes pure.

From these extracts it will be seen that according to Tulasidäs
Räma is the supreme God, and that through his grace man becomes
holy and blessed. He should, therefore, be adored; where he is, sin
is not, and therefore, for the purification of the mind, he should always
be thought of and meditated on. The ways to God usually foUowed
are, he says, inefficacious and as such may be thrown into the fire.

XXn, VaUabha.

§ 62. We will now turn our attention to the more extensive and
almost exclusive cult of the Kr§i?a of Gokula. The founder of it was

XXII. VaUabha. ^^

Vallabha. He was the son of a Tailaiiga Brahma](^a named Lak^ma^a
Bhatta, who was a Student of the Black Yajurveda and lived at a
village named Känkarava in the Telugu country. On one occasion
Lak^ma^a Bhatta went on a pilgrimage to Benares with his wife,
Elamägära. On the way she gave birth to a son on the eleventh of
the dark half of VaiSäkha of the Vikrama year 1535, corresponding
to 1479 A. D. i) That son was known as Vallabha. Vallabha lived
for some time in Vrndävana and for some time at Mathurä. About
that time it is alleged that Gopäla-Kr^pa manifested himself on the
Govardhana hill by the name of Devadamana, called also Srl-NSthajT.
The God told Vallabha in a dream to come and see him, informing
him that his companions in the cow-settlement, when he became
incamate as Kr^^a, were born again in the present age and commissi-
oned him to make them his attendants, that he might sport with
them as in the former age. Accordingly, Vallabha went and saw Deva-
damana or Sri-NäthajI. Sri-Näthaji commanded him to erect a
shrine for himself and to promulgate the method of worshipping him,
without which a man would not be admissible to the Pu$timärga, or
the path of divine grace, which Vallabha had founded. The meaning
of this seems to be that Vallabha connected his System with a special
manitestation of Kr§9a known by the name of Sri-Näthajl *).

Vallabha's Vedäntic theory is the same as that of an earlier author
of the name of Vi§pusvämin. This Vi§pusvämin is said to have been
the son of the councillor of a Dravida chief dependent upon the emperor
of Delhi 3). Nabhaji in his Bhaktamalä makes Jnändeva, Nämdeva,
Trilocana, and lastly Vallabha his successors4). The first was Jiiändeva,
who is represented as a follower of his system (Saippradäya). He was
one of three sons born to a man, who became a householder after
he had assumed the order of an ascetic. He was, therefore, excom-
municated and was not allowed to learn the Vedas. But he himself
by his miraculous power made a male buffalo repeat the Vedas. This
story is the same as that related of the Jnandeva of Maharä^tra, the
author of a vernacular commentary on the Bhagavadgitä. But the
MarSthas do not know of Vi$](^usvämin as his Guru, or teacher, or of
Jfiändeva being his successor or follower. If, however, the tradition
reported by Näbhäjl is correct, Vi^^usvämin must have lived about
the middle of the thirtcenth Century. The date of the commentary
above alluded to is Saka 1212, corresponding to 1290 A. D.

The Vedäntic theory of Vi§i(iusvämin which is the same as that
of Vallabha is as follows. The one primeval soul was not joyful, be-
cause he was alone (BU. I, 4, 3), and, desiring to be many, he
himself became the inanimate world, the individual soul, and the inward
Controlling soul. These sprang from him like sparks from a burning
fire and are his parts (MU. II, l). By his own inscrutable power
he rendered the properties of intelligence and joy imperceptible in

*) Yajfiesvara, AryavidySsudhäkara.

^) See Harir3ya Maharäja's Govardhanapräkatyaki Värta, published in Saipvat 1935,
p. II. _

3) Vajnesvara, AryavidyäsudhSkara, p. 228.

4) Ed. by ELhemaraj, Bombay, Saka 1827 (1905 A. D.), pp. 95—98.

78 IIL Religion, Welü. Wisscnsdi. a. Kirnst. 6. Vaif^avism ctc

the fiist, and bis joy alone in the second, while the third has all the
attributes perceptible in it. Simple Brabman as sucb bas perceptible
joy prevailing in it >).

§ 63. Tbe foUowing particulars bave been gleaned from two worics
belonging to Vallabhäcärya's sect^). Tbe wbole worid bas Brabman
for its material cause. Tbe perception of forms apparently different
from tbe Brabman is due to ignorance or delusion and to tbe tnie
nature of Brabman being rendered imperceptible. Tbe individual soul
is identical witb Brabman, a part of Brabman and atomic. From the
Ak^ara composed of existence, inteliigence, and joy (Saccidänanda)
particles come out as sparks from fire. From tbe predominance <^
the Sat portion in them tbe joy portion is concealed, and tbus we bave
the individual souls possessing Sat, existence, and Cit, intelligence.
Tbe individual soul is not a form of the Supreme Soul altered by a
third tbing being involved in it, such as ^he Mäyä (illusive power),
but is itself the same substance as tbe Supreme Soul ipritb one attribute
rendered imperceptible. The relation between the two is tbus tbat
of identity (Advaita), both being in the pristine unchanged form, i. e.
identity of untransformed souls (^uddhädvaita).

The individual soul is of two kinds: (i) going througb the cirde
of existences, and (2) delivered from the trammels of life. The first
is subject to misery in consequence of bis delusion tbat bis body and
senses are bis soul. He remains in this condition tili he acquires know-
ledge, sees the vanity of the world and devotes himself to meditation
and the love of God, when he is delivered. The delivered souls are:
(l) those who bave become so, while in their previous condition,
by the termination of ignorance or delusion, such as Sanaka and
others; and (2) those who dwell in the world of the Bhagavat, other
than the pervading VaikuQtha 3), where they attain tbe condition of
pure Brabman by the favour of the Bhagavat; (3) there are others,
who, having the divine nature in them and Coming in contact witb
good men, resort to various ways of Bhakti, or the propitiation of
God, until perfect love alone for bim comes to dwell in their beart,
and finally become the associates of the Bhagavat in bis eternal sports
and amusements. This last is the highest Mok$a, or deliverance. Tbat
class of worldly souls who bave no divine nature in them and in whom
evil predominates, are ever moving in the circle of existences. Tbe
souls who bave the divine nature in them are of two kinds: (l) those
who subject themselves to certain moral discipline (Maryädäjiva),
and (2) those who depend entirely on God's grace (Pu§tijiva). Both
attain final deliverance, but there is a difference which corresponds

>) SakalacSiyamatasaipgTaha by Srinivasa, Chowkh. Series.

^) Suddhadvaitamarta^^A by Giridhara, and Prameyaratnftr^ava by Balalq^ga Bhatfa,
Chowkh. Series.

3) I translate the word Vyftpi-Vaikuptha thus. The Vylpi-Vaiku^tha is above the
Vaiku9tha of Vifpu, the protector of the world. There dwells Purufottuna, who mani-
festi himself variously to his various devotees. To those in whom Bhakti has risen to
the hig:hest pitch and has become a haunting passion he manifests himself as tiie spor-
tive I^9a. In a portion of the VySpi-Vaikuvtha there is the Goloka with Vpidivana
in which there are extensive trees, bowers of creepers, and the river Yamunä. The
highest Bhaktas aie transferred to this Vfndftvana, and Kf^pa sports with them there.

XXII. Vallabha. 79

to that between (2) and (3) above and which will be further explained
below.

^ilki^^a is the highest Brahman. He has hands and feet not
nfiade up of ordinary matter (Apräkrta), but celestial. His body con-
sists of Sat, existence; Cit, intelligence; Änanda, joy. He is called
Puru$ottama, as the most excellent of all beings, and has all attributes
which are not ordinary, but celestial. All his Sports are eternal. He,
with his four arms or two arms, sportswith his various devotees^ or
Bhaktas, in the extensive VaikuQtha, which contains Vrndavana with
its large forests. Kr^^a is, therefore, the highest joy (Paramänanda).
By his will his Sattva portion overcomes the Ananda or joy portion
and, becoming Ak$ara, or unchangeable, he is the cause of all
causes and creates the world. Then Ak$arabrahman is of two kinds:
(i) that which is recognised by the devotees as the place of Puru-
$ottama, which has the attributes of the extensive VaikuQtha and
others; (2) to the enlightened it appears in the form of existence,
intelligence and joy, infinite in time and space, self-manifesting and
devoid of all qualities. Therefore, in the form in which the enlightened
see it all the positive qualities are hidden or rendered imperceptible by
the inscrutable power referred to above, and therefore they are not
to be regarded as non-existing. When Brahman is spoken of as devoid
of all qualities, what is meant is just this. There are thus three forms
of the Supreme Being, Puru$ottama and the two kinds of the
Unchangeable here mentioned. To explain the Controlling of all by
Puru$ottama, that form of his that dwells in the sun, the gods, the
earth,etc., is called Antaryämin (the inward Controller). It is this inward
Controller that becomes incarnate in the various forms usually men-
tioned. The celestial Sattva quality of Kr^pa becomes Vi§pu, and
in Ihis form he becomes the protector of all. Similarly the qualities
of Rajas and Tamas assume the forms of Brahmadeva and Siva
for discharging the functions of creation and destruction.

Pu§ti is the grace (Anugraha) of God which is to be inferred
from its fruit or the results, which are ordinary, or of this world, and
extraordinary, or of the next world. Mahäpu§ti, or the highest grace,
is that which removes great obstacles and conduces to the attainment
of God himself. Pu§ti enables one to attain the four objects of life.
Extraordinary, or special Pu§ti, conduces to Bhakti, which leads to the
attainment of God. The Bhakti, or devotion generated by this special
grace, is called Pu§tibhakti. The frame of mind generated by this
kind of devotion is the desire of the attainment of God to the ex-
clusion of everything eise. This Pu§tibhakti is of four kinds: (i) Pra-
väha-Pu§tibhakti, (2) Maryädä-Pu§tibhakti, (3) Pij§ti-Pu§tibhakti,
(4) Suddha-Pu§tibhakti. The first is the path of those who, while
engaged in a worldly life with its me and miney which is compared
to a stream (Praväha), do acts calculated to bring about the attain-
ment of God. The second is of those who, withdrawing their minds
from worldly enjoyments, devote themselves to Grod by hearing dis-
courses about him, einging his name, and such other processes. The
third is of those who already enjoying God's grace are made by an-
other grace competent to acquire knowledge useful foradoration; and

80 IIl- Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vai^paTism etc.

thus they come to know all about the ways of God. The foUowers
of this path have to depend on their own efforts for the acquiätion
of knowledge referred to. The fourth is of those who through mere
love devote themselves to the singing and praising of God as if it were
a haunting passion. This Bhakti is generated by God himself and
does not depend upon man's will as the third, mentioned above, does-
First a liking for himself is generated by God in the mind of a man
to whom his grace extends. Then a man sets about acquiring know-
ledge about God, and all this is called Premabhakti (love adoration).
Now the stages in the development of this are asfollows: (l) love or
liking (Preman), (2) attachment or addictedness (Asakti), (3) a haun-
ting passion, which is the mature condition of the first two (Vyasana).
The haunting passion leads to the attainment of the end, that is,
the highest bliss. Those in whom Bhakti has attained to this pitch
reject with scorn the four kinds of Mukti and choose the eternal Ser-
vice of Hari, as noticed in the section on the Pancarätra system. By
the haunting passion about Hari he is seen everywhere, and therefore
everything becomes an object of love, and the devotee identifies him-
self with everything. Then the inner and the outer world is, for the
devotee, füll of Puru§ottama, or the highest soul. The final fruit of
this devotion is admission to the eternal sports of Kr$Qa. The Bhak-
tas join in these Sports, assuming the forms of cows, beasts, birds,
trees, rivers, etc., and enjoy the Company of Puru§ottama, which
confers boundless joy. These eternal Sports are like those which Kps^a
went through when he became incarnate in Vraja and Vrndävana.
Some of the devotees become in the celestial Vrndävana Gopas and
Gopis and join in the sports. The Maryädäbhaktas attain Mukti called
Säyujya , which consists in being one with Hari. The Pu^pbhaktas
reject it with scorn and seek for participation in the sports of Hari.
§ 64. These are the doctrines of the school of Vallabha. We will
now proceed to give a short description of the practical modes of
worship. Vallabha had a son named VitthaleSa, and they are spoken
of respectively as Äcärya and Gosälm or Gosvämin. The latter had
seven sons of the names of Giridhara, Govindaräya, Bälakr^^a, Goku-
lanätha, Raghunatha, Yadunatha, and GhanaSyäma. The Gurus of
this sect ordinarily called Mahäräjas are descendants of these seven.
Each Guru has a temple of his own, and there are no public places
of worship. The devotee should visit the temple of his Guru at stated
intervals, which are eight in number during the day. The mode of
worship is as follows. The conductor of the worship should rise early
in the morning, utter the name of Bhagavat and rinse his mouth
and then drink a little of the washings of the feet [of Bhagavat] and,
with his face to the north or the east, should utter the name of the
Äcärya and pray to him and make a bow. The same should be done
to Vijthale^a and the names of his seven sons should be uttered, as
well as of one's own Guru, and then a bow should be made to Kr?9a
after uttering the names Govardhana and others. Then the river
Yamunä should be remembered and bowed to, and six stanzas of a
poem called Bhramaragltä should be repeated; and then the GopIs,
or cowherdesses, should be adored. After this the worshipper should

XXII. Vallabha. 8l

answer the call of nature, wash his hands, f eet and face, and then drink
a portion of the washings of the feet of Kr$Qa, and eat the residue of
the betcl leaves supposed to be eaten by Kr$Qa. Then he should besmear
his body with oil and bathe. After bathing he should drink in a little
water, after repeating the name of Näräyait^a. Then he should make
a perpendicular mark on his forehead with white earth, the mark of
a lotus on the bosom and of a bamboo leaf on the arms, etc., twelve
in all, to represent the twelve forms of Vi§9u, KeSava, Näräya^a,
Madhava, etc. He should then print the forms of the various weapons
of Vi$QU on his body, and then, saluting VallabhacSrya, should adore
Kr$9a with the Gopis. He should then open the door of the temple
and, going into the sleeping apartments, bring out the wreaths of flowers
and all other things used on the previous day, and then sweep and
clean the apartments. He should then brush the throne and make
all the arrangements necessary for the reception of Kr^^a awakened
from sleep. He should then approach the bed-toom and sing a song
calling upon Kr$Qa to rise from sleep, to take the refreshments pre*
pared for him and to go with his companions to the forest for grazing
the cows. Kr$Qa should be brought out and placed on the throne.
RsdhS should be placed to his left hand, and then the worshipper
should prostrate himself before her. The refreshments already pre-
pared should then be placed before them, and they should be requested
to eat them. Then the bed should be dusted and cleaned and then
Kr$9a should be made to wash his mouth. Other refreshments should
be then placed before the two. And at the end of all an AratI, or waving
of lamps, should be gone through with a song. Vallabhacärya should
then be saluted. Then comes the bath of Kr$9a. After bathing saffron
paint should be applied. Then he should be dressed and milk given
to him. Afterwards by the churning of milk froth should be prepared
and offered to Kr$9a. He should be then told to wash his mouth with
water. Then betel leaves should be offered to him. Then a cradle
should be adomed and Kr^^a should be told to get into it, and then
it should be rocked and toys should be got ready for the divine boy.
Afterwards the mid-day dinner should be prepared. A Cauka, or a
small four-legged table, should be placed before him and viands of all
kinds in cups should be put on the table. The lord should then be
told to eat them. A little rice should be placed in a small plate and,
mixed with ghee, five or seven mouthfuls should be held before him.
Then lamps should be waved about him. Subsequently all the other
dishes should be offered. In this manner the ceremonies go on. A
meal is again prepared at night and Kf^^a is laid on the sleeping cot
and made to sleep again. Thus the order of the ceremonies is as foUows:
(l) the ringing of the bell, (2)theblowingof theconch-shell, (3)awaken-
ing of the Lord (Thäkurji) and offering moming refreshments, (4) wa-
ving of lamps, (5) bathing, (6) dressing, (7) Gopivallabha food, (8) lea-
ding the cows out for grazing, (9) the mid-day dinner, (10) waving
of lamps, (11) after the last the screen is drawn up and the God cannot
be seen; this interval is called Anosara or Anavasara, i. e. no time for
seeing him, (12) the hnishing up, (13) the evening meal, (14) going
to bed.

lDdo*arische Philologie III. 6. 6

82 HI* Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

Besides the ordinary worship detailed above, the foUowers of this
sect hold a number of feasts and festivals, some of which are
in honour of Vallabhäcärya, his son and seven grandsons. The influence
exercised by Vallabha and his successors over their adherents seems
to have been immense, and this has come down to their descendants
or existing Gurus of the sect also. This is kept up by the fact that
the God cannot be worshipped independently in a public place of
worship, but in the house and temple of the Guru or the Maharäja,
which therefore has to be regularly visited by the devotees with
oflerings. The foUowers of this System consist principally of the trading
classes of Gujarät, Räjputäna and further to the north about
Mathurs. The principal doctrine which these latter are taught is
that all their belongings should be dedicated to their Guru; and this
doctrine is not seldom carried to an extreme. Among the different
kinds of Bhakti mentioned above there is only one which contem-
plates non -attachment to worldly objects. The highest Bhakti as
well as the others are generated in the heart of man by the grace of
God; and the first even ripens into a haunting passion. This grace
of God one may enjoy even while engaged in a worldly life.
The Maryädä-Pu§ti, which is one of the four forms and requires the
restraint of passions, does not conduce to the attainment of the
highest bliss, which consists in joining in the eternal sports
of Hari in the Goloka. The spirit of this System, therefore, seems
to be sportive enjoyments and it cannot but be expected to influence
the ordinary life of its foUowers. Moral rigidity culminating in indiffe-
rence to worldly enjoyments and self-abnegation does not appear to
be a characteristic of this school. Vallabhäcärya Kimself was a married
man, and so were all his successors and so are all^ the Gurus of the
sect, who are as much men of the world as their foUowers.

§ 65. From the account we have given it will be seen that the
fourth Clement of Vai§ijavism, that we have described in a preceding
section, alone constitutes the religion of Vallabha. The sportive boy
Kr§na of the cow-settlement with all his pranks is the highest god
of this school; and his mistress Rädhä, who is mentioned only in the
later books and dignified into his eternal consort, as will be mentioned
further on, is the object of the deepest adoration. This sportive Ki^Qa
with his Radha is transferred to a heaven which is in a region higher
than the ordinary Vaiku^fha of Naräyaija or Vi§9u and is called
Goloka. The highest aim of man's life is to get to this place and join
in the sports. Thus the doings of Kr^ijia in Gokula and his relations
with the men and women as well as the inferior animals, trees and
even the river Yamunä constitute the basis of Vallabha' s System and
also its goal when transferred to Goloka.

XXm. Caitanya.

§ 66. About the same time as Vallabha there flourished in Bengal
another propagator of the religion of Rädha and Kr$Qa, who is known
by the name of Caitanya. The prominent distinction between the
two appears to be, that while Vallabha and those who foUowed him

XXIII. Caitanjra. 83

developed the ceremonial side of the religion, Caitanya and his succes-
sors devoted themselves to the cultivation of the emotional side.
Caitanya endeavoured to win the hearts of man by instituting Kirtanas
or the fervent singing of songs about the love of Radha and Kr^^a
and other devotional matters. The love of the cowherd god and his
mistress had already become the subject of bewitching songs by Jaya-
deva in Sanskrit and by other poets in the vernacular. Caitanya also
was a more courageous reformer in so far as he cried down the mecha-
nical religious ceremonial of the prevalent Hinduism and preached
Spiritual devotion and at the same time condemned the distinctions
of castes and admitted all, including even Mahomedans, as his pupils.
§ 67. Caitanya's original name was Bisambhar (Vi^vaipbhara)
MiSra, and his father's name was Jagannätha MiSra and mother's Sacl
Debi. The father lived originally in Sylhet in Elstern Bengal, but had
emigrated to Nadiya (Nabadvipa) before the birth of Bisambhar, his
youngest son. The eldest son's name was Bisvarüpa, who is called
Nityänanda in the history of Caitanya. These were the only two sons
of Jagannätha, and between these were eight daughters, who died
young. Caitanya was born on the full-moon day of Phalguna in the
year 1407 of the 6aka era, corresponding to 1485 A. D. He was after-
wards called Kf^^a Caitanya and was considered by his disciples an
^incarnation of Kr^pa himself. As such he is reported to have played
pranks with the women of the village, which, however, cannot be
considered as historically true. Caitanya is also known by the name
of Gauränga, i. e. possessed of a fair and not a dark body, and Gaura-
candra, or fair moon. When he was eighteen years of age, he married
a wife of the name of Lachmi Debl and began to live the life of a
householder, taking pupils and giving them secular instruction. Soon
after he took to a wandering life and visited many places in Eastern
Bengal. Begging and singing were his occupation, and he is said to
have collected a great deal of money. During his peregrinations his
wife died, and on his return home he married another. When he was
about twenty-three years of age, he went to Gayä to make offerings
to his manes and on his return he began the mission of his life. He
condemned the ritualistic System of the Brähmaijas and preached faith
in Hari and the love of him as well as singing his name as the only
effectual ways to salvation. He also preached the doctrine of the
brotherhood of men, denouncing the System of castes. It is stated
that the doctrine of faith and love had been preached before Caitanya
by a person of the name of Advaitäcärya, whose practice it was, after
the Performance of the usual Brahmaijic rites, to go to the banks of
the Ganges and call out for the appearance of God to Substitute the
doctrine of faith and love for that of the Performance of various rites.
It is also Said that this Äcärya was at first the instructor of Caitanya
and afterwards became his pupil. Whatever it may have been, the
new doctrine was first publicly proclaimed to the exclusion of others
by Kf$Qa Caitanya. He was assisted by his brother Nityänanda, who
was regarded as an incarnation of Balaräma, the brother of the god
KnQa. Caitanya now began to hold meetings for the singing and
glorification of the name of Hari. These were at first private and held

6*

84 m* Rdigion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vaif^avism etc.

in the house of a pupil named Srfbasa. The doings of these devotees
met with scorn and ridicule, especially at the hands of the worshippers
of Kali, one of whom put red flowers and goat's blood on the Steps
of the door of the house in which the Vai^^ava meetings were held.
The fervour displayed at these Kirtanas, or singing of the name of Hari,
gradually increased in intensity, until the loud singers and princi-
pally Caitanya himself swooned away and dropped senseless on the
ground. In the year 1510 Caitanya became a Saipnyasin, or an ascetic,
and was initiated into the order by Ke&ib Bharati of Katva. After
this he first went to Puri to visit the shrine of Jagannätha, and thence
wandered about the country for six years preaching his new faith >).
On one occasion he went to Benares, where he is reported to have
held a disputation with PrakaSSnanda, a teacher of the monistic
Vedanta of ^aipkaracärya. Caitanya condemned ^ipkara's commen-
tary on the VedSntasütras and said that it mystified the sense of
the original. ^aipkarScärya did not give the piain ordinary sense of
the words of Bädaräya^a, but forced his own views into them. The
doctrine of development (Pari^ämaväda) was held by the author of
the Sütras, while ^ipkaracärya rejects it and brings in his doctrine
of illusion (Vivartaväda). The former alone is tnie according to Cai-
tanya. After these wanderings he returned to Purl, where he spent
the last eighteen years of his life, and died in^ka 1455, corresponding
to 1533 A. D.

§ 68. Some of the doctrines attributed to Caitanya are as foUows.
Kr$9a is the highest god and is so beautiful that he excites love
for himself even in the heart of the God of love, and is enamoured
of himself. His ParabrahmaSakti (power) pervades the universe and
assumes a corporeal form by his wonder-creating power (Mäyä&ikti),
though he is the soul of all. He possesses a self-multiplying power
(ViläsaSakti) which is of two kinds. By one of these, in sporting with
the cowherdesses, he became as many Kr$Qas as were sufficient to give
one to every two of them (PräbhavavilSsa). By the other self-
multiplying power (Vaibhavaviläsa) he assumes the forms of the four
Vyühas, or forms of Väsudeva, Saipkar^apa, etc., Väsudeva representing
intelligence, Saipkar^apa, consciousness, Pradyümna, the love, and
Aniruddha, sportiveness. Here, it will be seen, the functions of
the fourVyOhas are changed, and the principle of love is attributed
to Pradyümna, instead of that of the mind as in the older system,
and that of sportiveness, instead of seif -consciousness which is trans-
ferred to Saipkar^aQa, is attributed to Aniruddha. This change is
in consonance with a System of which love and sport form the distin-
guishing characteristics. All the usual incarnations spring from one
or other of the Vyühas. According as the quality of Sattva, Rajas,
or Tamas predominates, Kf$Qa becomes Vi§^u, Brahmadeva, or Siva,
respectively. The Sports of Kr$Qa go on always, as the rising and
setting of the sun. His eternal Sports are carried on in the Goloka.
Kr^pa has three powers: the internal which is intelligence, the eicter-

The above is an abstract of the accoant given bj J. Beames in his paper pu-
blished in Ind. Ant. Vol. II, pp. i ff.

XXIII. Caitanya. S5

nai which generates appearances, and the differentiated which forms
the Jiva, or individual soul. His chief power is that which creates
dilatation of the heart, or joy. This appears to be the power of love.
When this love becomes settled in the heart of the devotee, it con-
stitutes Mahäbhäva, or the best feeling. When love attains to the
highest pitch, it constitutes itself into Rädhä, who is the most love-
able of all and füll of all qualities. She was the object of the highest
love of Kr$Qa and being idealised aslove, some of the agreeable feelings
of the heart are considered her Ornaments. The sports of the cow-
herdesseswere dueto simple love (Preman), and this itwas thatUddhava
and other devotees söught to attain. The Supreme Soul (Paramätman)
is boundless and is füll intelligence itself. The individual soul is an
atom having intelligence. They are necessarily connected together
and this connection can never be destroyed. Kf^pa is the support
(ASraya) and jTva rests on him (Ä^rita). The relation between the
two is identity as well as difference. Thus the Vedäntic theory of
Caitanya's System is the same as that of Nimbärka. As the bee is
distinct from the honeyand hovers about it and, when itdrinks it, is füll
of it, i. e. is one with it, so the individual soul is at first distinct from
the Supreme Soul, seeks the Supreme Soul consistentlyand continuously
and, when through love he is füll of the Supreme Soul, he becomes
unconscious of his individual existence and becomes, as it were, absorbed
in him. Herein is described the ecstatic condition in which the indi-
vidual soul becomes one with God, though they are really distinct.
Kr$9a is the lord of the power of delusion, or ignorance (Mäyä), and
Jiva is the slave of it. When the latter cuts off its shackles, he distinctly
sees his own nature and his true relation to God. Kr^^a is to be ap-
proached and attained by Bhakti aloxie ^).

§69. Kr$Qa Caitanya, Nityänanda and Advaitänanda are called
the three Prabhus, or masters of the sect. The descendants of Nityä-
nanda live at Nadiya, and those of Advaita at Santipur. They are the
Spiritual heads of the sect. Nityänanda was appointed by Caitanya
tumself as the superior of the church. His female descendants live
at Balegor and male ones at Khordu near Barrackpur. There are
temples belonging to Caitanya's followers at Mathurä, Vrndävana, and
three principal ones in Bengal: oneat Nadiya dedicated to Caitanya,
the other atAmbikä, to NitySnanda, and the third at Agradvlpa, to
Gopinatha. There is a shrine dedicated to Caitanya in the vicinity
of Dhäkädakßipa in Northern Sylhet, where his father originally lived.
It is visited by pilgrims from all parts of the district and even from
Bengal. At Khetur, in the Raja$ahi district, a temple is erected in
his honour, where a religious fair is held in the month of October,
which is attended by about 25,000 persons.

The sectarian marks worn by the followers of Caitanya are two
white perpendicular lines on the forehead joined together at the bridge
of the nose and a line continued up to the tip of the nose. They also
use necklaces of three strings of TulasI beads and a rosary of the same.

') See GaurilngatattTasaha Gauiftngacarita by Prasanna Kumlra Vidylratna, printed
at Calcatta.

86 III. Religioiii Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. VaifpaTism etc.

as a help in the muttering of Hari's name. The worship of Gums,
or Spiritual heads, as gods characterises this System. Most of Advaita's
followers observe caste distinctions, but a minority rejects them.
This minority consists of Bairägis, or recluses. In one branch of the
sect there are monks as well as nuns. They live in the same convent.
And there is only a platonic relation between them. A person of the
name of Räm Saram Pal of the Sadgopa caste founded about two
hundred years ago a branch of the sect called Kartäbhäjas, or wor-
shippers of the Kartä, or headman. It admits of recruits f rom all castes
and observes no distinction. The founder, also called Kartä Bäbä,
died at Gho^apur, and his votaries assemble periodically to do honour
to him. The Spiritual teachers of Caitanya's sect, whether male or
female, are celebates.

The three Prabhus, or masters, did not leave any compositions.
But Caitanya's pupils, especially Rupa and Sanätana, wrote a great
deal. A work by the latter entitled Rasämftasindhu contains an
analysis of the feeling of love, or Bhakti, explaining the states of mind
which lead to it and its various forms. A considerable body of lite-
rature has grown up round this System of religion.

XXIV. Debasement of Vaisnavism.

« •

§ 70. The worship of Rädhä, more prominently even than that
of Kf$oa, has given rise to a sect, the members of which assume the
garb of women with all their ordinary manners and affect to be subject
even to their monthly sickness. Their appearance and acts are so
disgusting that they do not show themselves very much in public,
and their number is small. Their goal is the realisation of the position
of female companions and attendants of Rädhä; and hence probably
they assume the name of Sakhibhävas (literally, the condition of
companions). They deserve notice here only to show that, when the
female dement is idolised and made the object of special worship,
such disgusting corruptions must ensue. The worship of Durgä in
the form of Tripurasundarl has led to the same result.

Though the Vai§riava Systems of Nimbärka, Vallabha and Caitanya
are based on the fourth dement of Vai§9avism that we have pointed
out in a preceding section, still that dement has undei^one an im-
portant modification. Before, Kr§?a was a person who had amorous
dalliances with the Gopis generally. But now Kr^pa had a definite
consort in Rädhä, who had a large number of female companions,
who were probably the original GopIs. She is indissolubly united with
him in the creed of the worshippers. This Rädhä is not mentioned by
name in the Harivam^a, Vi§9u-Puräna and the Bhägavata. In the last,
however, among the cowherdesses engaged in Kr§ija's amorous Sports
in Vrndävana on an autumnal moonlight night, there was one with
whom the youthful god carried on his dalliance further, after he had
become invisible to the rest. This woman became proud of Kr§pa's
special attachment for her, whereupon the god disappeared from her
also. Here was contained a Suggestion which probably led to the
creation of Rädhä in later times. In the apocryphal Näradapaiicarätra-

XXV. Nftmdev and Tuk&ram. 87

Samhitä, as mentioned before, the one Single lord is represented to
have become two, one a woman and the other a man, who was he
himself. He then had amorous intercourse with her. The woman
was Radha. In the Brahmavaivarta-Purä^a she has been made to
sprii^ from the primordial body of Kr^^a, forming its left side, and is
eternally associated with him in bis amorous sports in this world as
well as the world of cows (Goloka). The name of Rukmi^i occurs
in the ordinary forms of Kr$Qaism, but in the Systems named above
it is entirely absent. The introduction of Rädhä's name and her ele-
vation to a higher position even than Kr$Qa*s operated as a degrading
element in Vai§^avism, not only because she was a woman, but also
because she was originally a mistress of the cowherd god, and her
amorous dealings were of an overt character.

In the Räma cultus Sita is a dutiful and loving wife and is benig-
nant towards the devotees of her husband. She holds a position
entirely subordinate to Räma, while Rädhä is often preferred to Kr§oa.
There is no amorous Suggestion in her story as in that of Rädhä, and
consequently the moral influenae of Rämaism is more wholesome.
Kablr does not, so far as I know, mention the name of Sita at all.
He was a strict monotheist and his Räma was the supreme lord (Säheb)
only. Those other teachers who followed him maintain the same
attitude, so that the Räma cultus represents a saner and purer form
of Hindu religious thought than Rädhäkr$Qaism.

XXV, Nämdev and Tukaram.

§ 71. The populär Vai^^avism of the Marä^ha country centres
itself round the shrine of Vifhobä at Pandharpur, which is a city situ-
ated on the banks of the Bhimä or Bhimarathi. The füll name of the
god is VitJhal, which is not a Sanskrit name, but the etymology is
clear enough. It is stated that the corruption of the Sanskrit name
Vi§ou in the Canarese language is Vifthu, and this looks probable,
since Kf^^a is corrupted into Ku§ta in the Goanese dialect and Kutt^,
Kitti, or Kr§ta in the Canarese, and we have seen that Vi§^u, the
first portion of the name of the Hoysala prince Vi§9uvardhana, was
corrupted to Vitti or Bitti')- The terminations bä and la are appen-
ded to the name Vi§Qu or Vitthu to indicate additional sense such as
tenderness or reverence. When the shrine was established we have
not the means of determining, but we have clear evidence of its being
in existence in the middle of the thirteenth Century. In a copper-
plate inscription of the reign of Kf$Qa of the Yädava dynasty of Deva-
giri it is stated that Mallisetfi a general and viceroy of the king made,
while engaged on a military expedition, the grant of a village in the
Belgaum district at Paundarikak§etra, a holy place situated on the
Bhimarathi, in the vicinity of the god Vi^^u, in the year II71 of the
5aka era corresponding to 1249 A. D. *) Now if the Paupdarika-
k$etra was situated on the Bhimarathi or Bhlmä river, it is certainly
not unreasonable to suppose that is was the same as Pa^dharl which

>) See above, p. 5a.

Indian Antiquar}', Vol. XIV, p. 68 ff.

88 III. Relipon, Weld. Wissensch. o« Kunst 6. Vai^^avism etc.

is the alternative name of Pao<}harpur; and the god in whose vicinity
the grant was ma/le must therefore have been Vitthal, or Vithobä, here
mentioned by bis Sanskrit name and not the populär Canarese comip-
tion. In another inscription on stbne existing at Pa^dharpur itself
and dated 1192 Saka, which corresponds to 1270 A.D., Bhänu, the son
of KeSava, is represented to have performed an Aptoryäma sacrifice
in Pändurangapura in consequence of which crowds of people and
Vitthala together with the gods were greatly gratified'). Here wc
have another name of Par^dharpur and that was probably given to
it because it was the city of Pä^duranga. Pa^daranga^ or Pa^^uranga,
is according to Hemacandra a name of Rudra or Siva*). And we
have a temple of Siva at Pa^^harpur and pilgrims have to visit it
first before going to that of Vithobä or Vitthal. Pä^duranga, which is
the same as the Papcjuranga of Hemachandra, is however in modern
times a populär name for Vitthal. Whether then the city was called
Pändurangapura on account of it containing the temple of Vi$ou, or
Vitthal, or that of Siva is doubtful. But from the wording of the
inscription in which Vitthala and Päpdurangapura are mentioned
independently it would appear as if Vitthal had no connection with
the name and that it was given to the city on account of its containing
a Siva temple. But when Vifhobä's importance increased in later
times so vastly that Öiva was thrown entirely into the shade, Pä^du-
ranga became identical with Vitthala. The name PauQ(jlarika occuring
in the first inscription seems to owe its origin to a man named Puq-
darlka, the populär legend about whom is to the foUowing effect.
The region about Paijdharpur was, it is said, a forest of the name
of pio^iravana. There lived a man of the name of Pu^dalika, who
spent all his time in the service of his aged parents, and the god
Ki^pa was pleased with his devotion to them. In the meantime, while
Kr99a was living at Dvärakä, he remembered RädhA, who was the
object of his fervent love while he was in Gokula. Rädhä, who had
after Kr§oa's leaving Gokula betaken herseif to a residence in the
Himälaya mountain for the practice of austerities in consequence of
her Separation from Kr$Qa, came to know of this through her innate
cognitive power and came at once to Dvarakä and sat on the lap of
Kr$Qa. Some time after, Rukmi^I, theweddedwifeof Kr§va, came to the
place, and Rädhä did not rise up to honour her as every other woman
in similar circumstances did at her approach. Kr^o^ even did not
take Radhä to task for this dishonour of Rukmi^i, and Rukmipi got
offended, left Dvärakä and wandered about, until she came to Pi^ijira-
vana and rested there on the site of the modern Pao<Jharpur. Ki^qb
was filled with sorrow at the disappearance of Rukmi^i and went
about in quest of her to all parts of the country, until he came to the
place where Rukmipi was lying. After some explanations she was
reconciled to him, and Kr§?a then went to the hut of PuQ^^Ika to
reward him for his devotion to his parents by personal manifestation.

') Early History of the Dekkan, Second Ed., p.. 115» in which, however, Kesava,
the father of Bhftnu, is by mistake represented as the sacrificer.
>) DesinAmamSlä VI, 23.

XXV. Nftmdev and Tukiram. 89

PuQdalika being engaged in attending to the wants of his father and
mother was not able to greet him at once and threw back a brick
(Maräthi: vif) and asked him to stand on it and wait for him until he
finished what he was engaged on. Kr$oa stood on the brick and there
he was joined by Rukmi^i, and thus the shrine of Paodharpur grew up.

PuQdallka has been referred to as the originator of the Vitthal
cult of devotion both byNämdev and Tukäräm, and that is the populär
belief. The legend points to this fact and we may therefore take him
to be the personwho promulgated the cult ofVithobä, orVi§9U, in the
Marätha country. He established himself at Paijidharpur and it must
be on that account that the city is called the holy place (K$etra)
PauQdarlka, which I identify with the modern name Pa^dharl in the
first inscription. The Päijdurangapura of the second may have become
the later Papdharpur.

There is another historical significance in this legend, and that
appears to be this. At first, no woman was connected with
the Kr$Oä worship, as we have seen in the case of the pure Pa&-
carätra or Bhägavata system. Then came Rädhä to be associated
with him in the north, as we have seen, in the Systems of Nimbärka,
Vallabha and Caitanya, while Rukmi^I, the lawful wife, was united
with him in the Marätha country. The Kr^Qa of Paodharpur is almost
exclusively known by the name of Vitthala or Vithobä, and Rukmi^I
by the name of Rakhamäl or RakhamäbS!. In the religious literature
of the country Vitthala, or Kf^^a, is almost exclusively spoken of as
Rukmi^ipati or Rukmi^ivara, the lord or husband of Rukmi^i, and
not as Rädhävallabha, or the lover of Rädhä. Thus the Vai§oavism
of the Marätha country, associated as it is with these two names,
is more sober and purer than that of the three Systems named above.
Rähi, the Maräthi form of Rädhikä, is not unknown, but an insigni-
ficant place is assigned to her. The sports of Kr$oa in Gokula are
also represented occasionally in the mode of worship, but very little
importance is attached to them. This Vai^pavism of the Marätha
country found a fertile soil among the lower classes, though it has had
foUowers among Brähmaijis and other higher classes also. Like the
Vaißpavism of the disciples of Rämänanda, ithadnolearned orSanskrit-
knowing promulgators, but its prophets were ^üdras, who, however,
had the true religious instinct and possessed a clear spiritual insight.
Such were Nämdev and Tukäräm.

§ 72. The family of Nämdev originally lived at a village called
Narasi Väma^I, situated near Karhad in the Sätära district , and now
known by the name of BhayS-Narsingpur or Koleip-Narasingpur. It
belonged to the tailor caste and foUowed that occupation or of dealers
in cloth. The name of Nämdev's father was Dämä 6et, and that of
his mother, Go^äbäl. They migrated to Papijharpur, where Nämdev
was born in the Öaka year 1192, corresponding to 1270 A. D. Nämdev
received ordinary education, but showed little capacity for the usual
occupation of his family. He became a devoted worshipper of Vithobä
and had for his Guru a person named Visobä Khecar, who appears to
have been a non-idolater. For Nämdev says of him that he gave him
the following Instruction: —

90 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vaifpavism etc.

No. 191 *). **A stone-god never speaks. What possibility then
of his removing the disease of mundane existence? A stone image
is regarded as God, but the true God is whoUy different. If a stone-god
fulfils desires, how is it he breaks when Struck? Those who adore
a god made of stone, lose everything through their folly. Those who
say and hear that a god of stone speaks to his devotees, are both
of them fools. Those who extol the greatness of such a god and call
themselves his devotees, should be regarded as worthless persons
and their words should not be heard by the ear. K, by chiselling a
stone, a god is made of it and is worshipped with care for many years,
will he be of use at any time? Do reflect on this well in your mind.
Whether a holy place is small or large , there is no god but stone or
water. In the village of Dvädai^i (Bärsi)*) instruction was given that
there is no place which is devoid of God. That God was shown to
Nämä in his heart, and thus Khecar conferred a blessii^ on him."

The omnipresence of God and his being neither stock nor stone
are well brought out here. The omnipotence of God Nämdev brings
out in the foUowing: —

No. 151. **The Veda has to speak by thy might and the sun has
to move round; such is the might of thee, the lord of the universe.
Knowing this essential truth, I have surrendered myself to thee. By
thy might it is that the clouds have to pour down rain, mountains
to rest firm and the wind to blow. Nothing moves at all (without
thee). Oh lord Päijdurang, thou art the cause of all."

It will thus be seen that, though Nämdev worshipped the idol
at Papdharpur, he had füll knowledge of the true nature of God,
as given in treatises like the Upani§ads; and this God it was that he
tried to attain.

No. 1029. **Your mind is füll of vices. What is the use of the
pilgrimages you make? What is the use of austere practices, if there
is no repentance? The sins resulting from a mental act cannot be
effaced by the highest holy place (literally : the father of the holy places).
The essence of the matter is very simple: Sin is effaced by repen-
tance", so says Nämä.

No. 887. **Vows, fasts, and austerities are not at all necessary; nor
is it necessary for you to go on a pilgrimage. Be you watchful in your
hearts and always sing the name of Hari. It is not necessary to give
up eating food or drinking water; fix your mind on the feet of Hari.
Yoga or sacrificial ceremonies or giving up object« of desire is not
wanted. Realise a fondness for the feet of Hari. Neither is it necessary
for you to contemplate (lit. dwell in) the one without attributes. Hold
fast to the love of the name of Hari; says Nämä, be firm in singing
the name and then Pändurang will render himself manifest to you."

In these two songs Nämdev urges upon his hearers the total ineffi-
cacy of the usual modes of purification and of the attainment of God,
such as pilgrimages, vows, fasts, or meditation on the absolute, and
sacrifices.

>) Tukaräm Tätyä's edition, published in Bombay in 1894.
*) Barsi is a town near Pa^c^harpur.

XXV. Nftmdev and Tuk&räm. 9I

No. 245. '*Recognise him alone to be a righteous man, who sees
Väsudeva in all objects, eradicating all pride or egoism. The rest
are entangled in the shackles of delusion. To him all wealth is like
earth and the nine species of gems are mere stones. The two, desire
and anger, he has thrown out and cherishes in his heart (lit. house)
quietude and forgiveness. He constantly repeats the name of Govinda,
not desisting even for a moment."

No. 1004. *'Firmly grasp the truth which is Näräyaoa. Purity
of conduct should not be abandoned; one should not be afraid of the
censure of people and thus accomplish one's own purpose. Surrender
yourself to your loving friend (God), giving up all ostentation and
pride. The censure of people should be regarded as praise and their
praise not heeded. One should entertain no longing for being respec-
ted and honoured, but should nourish in oneself a liking for devotion.
This should be rendered firm in the mind and the name of God should
not be neglected even for a moment."

In these songs Nämdev describes the holy condition of him who
is a devotee of Väsudeva and sees him everywhere, and preaches self-
surrender to him, regardless of the criticism of the world.

This is a short specimen of the teachings of Nämdev. Purity of
heart, humility, self-surrender, forgiveness, and the love of God form
the sum and substance of it. Nämdev wrote songs in Hindi also and
some of these are incorporated in the Grantha-Säheb, or the bible
of the Sikhs. I will here translate two of these ^) : —

No. 2352. **He is one, [but] fills and encompasses many; wher-
ever you look you find him there. There is scarcely one who under-
stands him, all being deluded by the variegated picture drawn by
Mäyä (delusive power). Everything is Govinda, everything is Govinda,
there is nothing without Govinda. Just as there is one thread and on *
it are woven breadthwise and lengthwise hundreds of thousands of
beads, so is everything woven in the lord. The waves, the foam, and
the bubbles of water are not different from water. All this extent
of the universe is the sport of Parabrahma and, when we think of
it, is not different from it. Illusive phantoms and the objects seen in
dreams are regarded as real. When by the instruction of my Guru
my mind awoke, I accepted the truth. Reflecting in your mind, see
this all to be the creation of Hari, says Nämdev; in the inside of
every individual thing there is one Muräri alone without any inter-
stice."

No. 2353. **The pitcher is filled and the water brought to bathe
the god. There were forty-two hundreds of thousands of animals
in it; there was already Vifthal in them. Whom shall I bathe? Wher-
ever we go there is Vifthal and he ever sports in joy. Flowers have
been brought and wreaths woven of them for worshipping God. First
of all the flowers were smelt by the bees, there was Vitthal there;
what shall I do? Milk has been brought and cooked for the offering
of Khir ») to God. The milk was first tasted by the calf, in it was

I) Tukäram Tstyft's edition.

*) A preparation of mUk and rice mixed with sugar.

92 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^pavism etc.

Vitfhal, what shall I do? Here is Vifthal, there is Vitfhal, there is
no World withöut Vitthal. This place and that thou hast filled. Thou
hast filled the whole world, says Nämä humbly"').

In these hymns God's omnipresence is described by Namdev.

§ 73. The date assigned to the birth of Nämdev is, as we have seen,
äaka I192, that is, 1270 A. D. This makes him a contemporary of
Jnändev, the author of the Jnändevl, which was finished in 1290 A. D.
But the Maräthl of the latter work is decidedly archaic, while that
of Nämdev's writings has a considerably more modern appearance.
Nämdev* s Hindi too looks more modern than that of the thirteenth Cen-
tury, when the poet Canda flourished *). What this is due to, it is difficult
to say. But it appears probable that the traditional date of Nämdev's
birth, 6aka I192, has been pushed backwards and that he is represented
as a contemporary of Jnändev. We have seen in a former section
that Näbhäji in naming the successors of Vißijiusvämin places Jnändev
first and Nämdev afterwards. If we are to judge from Nämdev's
Maräthi and Hindi, his date must be put later by about a Century.

Some conception, however, of the time when Nämdev flourished
may be formed from the strong and definite sentiments as to the f Utility
of idol-worship, which his instrUctor is represented, in one of the
hymns translated, to have expressed. Khecar, or Visoba Khecar as
he is usually called, appears to have been an uncompromising Oppo-
nent of idol-worship from the accounts given of him in the existing
biographies. All previous writers, includii^ Rämänuja, as well as
a great many thatfoUowed, excused idol-worship in some way or other.
If then Khecar's attitude towards it was definitely hostile, he and
his pupil Nämdev must have flourished when the Mahomedan influ-
ence had for the first time become very powerful. The Mahomedans
established themselves in theDekkan in the beginning of the fourteenth
Century of the Christian era, and their hatred of idol-worship must
have taken about a hundred years to make its way into the under-
standing of religious Hindus. But a more direct evidence for the fact
that Nämdev flourished after the Mahomedans had established them-
selves in the Marätha country is afforded by his mention in a song
(No. 364) of the destruction of idols by the Turaks, i. e. Turks. The
Mahomedans were often called Turaks in early times by the Hindus.
Nämdev, therefore, probably lived about or after the end of the
fourteenth Century. It will thus be seen that the date of Nämdev's
birth given with such details is quite wrong. Unfortunately the
historical spirit has by no means been the distinguishing feature
of the intellectual life of us Indians, and we often confuse different
persons together and attribute to one what belongs to another. Some
such confusion must have taken place in the present case.

§ 74. TukärSm was born and lived at a village called Dehu, which
is about fourteen miles to the northeast of Poona. The name of the
family to which he belonged was More. It was a family of the Maräfha

') These two hymns have been translated by Macauliffe in Vol. VI, pp. 41-42
of the Sikh Relig^ion. The readings in the Bombay Ed. have been compared wifh those
in the Grantha-Ssheb, pp. 427 — a8 of the Lucknow Ed. of 1893.

*) See my Report on the Search for Sanskrit Mss., 1 887-1 891, page LXXX.

XXV. Nftmdey aad TukftTSm. . 93

caste, which caste i!nay have Sprung from the old order of K$atriyas,
but is considered to belong to the ^Qdra order. Nothing specific is
known about the date of his birth, but there is no reason for doubting
the truth of the date traditionally assigned to his death, which is
^ka 1571, corresponding to 1649 A. D. His biographer, Mahlpati,
represents him to have become a bankrupt at the end of the first half
of his life, when he was twenty-one years of age. From that it is in-
ferred that he lived for 42 years, and he is thus understood to have
been born in 1607-8 A. D.

Seven of Tukäräm's ancestors were devoted worshippers of the
god Vithobä. Of these Vi^ambhara was the first who made regulär
pilgrimages to Pa];idharpur, but after some years he constructed a
temple in his own village and, placing the idols of Vifhobä and Rukmai
in it, dedicated it to their worship. Tuk&rSm's father*s name was
Bolhoji and he foUowed the occupation of a petty trader. When he
became old, he proposed to entrust the affairs of his family and his
business to SSvjI, his eldest son. But Sävj! was a man for whom a
worldly life had no interest, and he declined to undertake the business.
It was, therefore, made over to Tuk&räm, who was then thirteen years
of age. Tukäräm managed the affairs somehow, tili he became seven-
teen years old, when his father died. He naturally feit desolate when
this occurred and, being a man of simplicity and liable to be imposed
upon by designing persons, his affairs got into disorder and he incurred
loss in his trade. Tukäräm was at first married to a w4fe who was
sickly, and some time later he married another of the name of Jijäbäl
er Ävall, the daughter of a well-to-do trader in Poona. When his
affairs got into corüFusion, Ävali procured a loan for him and set him
up again. A short time after, he made a profit in his new trade, and,
while Coming back from the place to which he had gone for the sale
of his goods, he met a man who was being carried about by the agents
of his creditor and who was crying out for assistance to relieve him
from his debt and the impending imprisonment. To this man Tuk&räm
gave all that he possessed, the capital and the profit that he had made.
He returned to Dehu empty-handed, and soon after there was a famine,
which made him a thorough bankrupt, and his first wife died of hunger.
TukSräm then made up his mind to renounce his business, but his
younger brother KSnhyä protested against it. Then, sitting on the
banks of the Indräya^i, he told his brother to bring all the documents,
deeds and bonds relating to their business, divided them into two
parts, gave one to KSnhyä and told him to live separately from him,
and his own share he threw into the river. Henceforward he devoted
himself to the contemplation of God and singing his praises, spending
the day on the top of a hill near Dehu and the night at the temple
of Vithobä in the village. He read the Maräthl works on religious
subjects of the saints and sages who had flourished before him. The
idea of givii^ expression to his thoughts and feelings by composing
songs in Maräthi soon arose in his mind. The metre used by him was
that which is known by the name of Abhaipg, the measure of which
is by no means strict or regulär, but which is characterised by the
use of rhyming words at specific intervals. A single-minded piety

94 ^1^- Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vaif^avism etc.

and the desire to be of Service to all, even by executing their errands,
became settled points in bis character. Family matters had to be
attended to by his wife, Avali, who often found herseif in great straits.
Tukäräm's chief occupation was the Performance of Kirtans, which
consist of religious discourses interspersed with the singing of songs.
These discourses gradually became very attractive and drew in crowds
of people. The songs he sung at these had been often prepared by
himself, and some were composed by him extempore while engaged
in the discourse. Tukäräm's fame spread about not only in his village,
but in the surrounding country, and it evoked jealousy, especially in
the minds of Brähma^s, who had set themselves up as religious
teachers; and he was subjected to persecution. He, however, main-
tained an evenness of temper throughout, though there were struggles
in the mind. His fame reached the ears of the rising prince, Siväji,
the future king of the Maräfhas. He was eager to hear Tukäräm's
Kirtans and on one occasion invited him into his presence, sending
him messengers with torches, umbrella and horses, as embleras of
high honour. Tukäräm, however, declined to go and sent him a letter
written in his usual metre. On another occasion Siväjl attended his
Kirtan at Lohagaon, about six miles from Poona, and placed before
him a plate füll of golden coins. Tukäräm, of course, declined to receive
them, and they were distributed among the Brähma^s there. When
hisend approached, he is reported to have gathered together a largebody
of his followers and to have proceeded to the banks of the Indräya^i,
all singing loudly and enthusiastically the praises of God and fuUy
absorbed in it. When they approached the river, Tukäräm suddenly
disappeared. No further account of his death has been handed down.

§ 75. It has beenalready stated that Tukäräm had acquired a great
facility in composing Abhamgs. He spoke in Abhaipgs and wrote in
Abhamgs. Some of these only could be written and were written, and
others were neglected by him or his immediate followers, but retained
in the memory of others. The collections, therefore, of his pieces
cannot be expected to be of the same size. There are two such printed
in Bombay, one containing 4621 pieces and the other 8441. This
latter collection is uncritically made and oftentimes one same piece
is given a second time with the opening lines omitted. Still, this is a
larger collection and contains Abhamgs which are not to be found
in the first collection, but are quite in the style of Tukäräm with the
usual fervent devotion and purity of thought. We will now give a
few specimens.

First collection, No. 2869. **When the auspicious juncture of
Simhastha ^) comes, it brings fortune only to barbers and priests.
There are crores of sins in the heart, but externally a man shaves the
hair on the head and the beard. What has been shaved off, has dis-
appeared. Teil me what eise has changed. The vicious habits are not
changed, which might be regarded as a mark of the destruction of

■) When Jupiter is in the sig^ of Leo, the period is considered favourable for the
washing away of sins, and Hindus go to holy places, such as NSsik, shave their heads
and mustaches and bathe in the river.

XXV. Nämdev and Tukaräm. 95

sins; says Tukä, without devotion and faith everything eise is useless
trouble."

Second coli., No. 4733. **What hast thou done by going to a
holy river? Thou hast only outwardly washed thy skin. In what
way has the interior been purified? By this thou hast only added
a feather to thy cap (lit. prepared a decoration for thyself). Even
if the bitter Vrndävana fruit is coated with sugar, the settled quality
of the interior (bitterness) is in no way lessened. If peace, forgiveness,
and sympathy do not come in, why should you take any trouble?"

First coli., No. 90 (l — 2). "Sesamum seeds and grains of rice
thou hast burnt by throwing into fire, but desire and anger are as
mischievous as before. Why hast thou taken trouble in vain, giving
up the adoration of Päijdurang?"

Here Tukäräm condemns religious practices which concern the
body only, and mechanical rites, such as giving oblations, and enforces
the necessity of striving for the attainment of spiritual virtue and of
the adoration of God.

In No. 2383 (first coli.) Tukäräm condemns the worship of god-
desses, Jäkhäi, Jokhäl, of gods like Bhairava and even Gapapati, and
of ghosts and goblins, and earnestly recommends the adoration of
him whose consort is Rakhamäi. Tukäräm was thus a devotee only
of Vithobä of Papdharpur and a monotheist in this sense. Though
he worshipped the idol at the place, still he had always before his
mind's eye the great Lord of the universe, as the following will
show: —

First coli., No. 4361. **Thy greatness is unsearchable. Even the
Vedas became silent and the power of the mind becomes stunted.
What possibility is there of my mental power reaching him whose
light it is that the sun and the moon display? Even the thousand-
tongued (the great serpent) is unable to expound thy greatness. How
then shall I be able to do so? Says Tukä, we are thy children, thou
art our mother, place us under the shadow (protection) of thy grace."

First coli., No. 4419. **A11 the world says that there is not a
Space so rainute as a sesamum seed without thee. The old ^§is,
sages, pious and holy men said that thou art in the heart of all these

things Thou hast filled up numberless universes and also a

residue still remained. But to me thou hast become inaccessible."

First coli., No. 1870. **God is ours, certainly ours, and is the
soul of all souls. God is near to us, certainly near, outside and
inside. God is benignant, certainly benignant, and fulfils every longing
even of a longing nature. God protects us, certainly protects us,
and subdues strife and death. God is merciful, certainly njerciful,
and protects Tukä."

This great God is to be attained only by devoted love and by
no other means: —

First coli., No. 810. **This thy nature is beyond the grasp of the
mind or of words; and therefore I have made devoted love a measure.
I measure the Endless by the measure of love; he is not to be truly
measured by any other means. Thou art not to be found by pro-
cesses of concentration (Yoga), sacrificial rites, practice of austerities,

g6 111. Religion, Welü. Wissensch. u. Kaust. 6. Vaif^ayism etc.

and any bodily exertions, nor by knowledge. Oh Ke&iva, accq)t the
Service which we render to thee in the simplicity of our hearts."

There is peace and pure indescribable bliss in seeing God: —

Second coli., No. 141 1. "Oh Näräyaijia, the peace arising from
rest is truly not to be attained without thy feet; even if modes and
methods are followed for crores of Kaipas <), bliss will not ensue:
The bliss of bliss, which is interminable and boundless, which is en-
joyed by Hari and Hara, manifest to me, oh thou, the sustainer of
my soul, oh omniscient, those feet of thine [which produce it]."

But this God is not to be seen by those whose passions are un-
restrained: —

First coli., No. 4420. "The Endless is beyond, and between him
and me there are the lofty mountains of desire and anger. I am not
able to ascend them, nor do I find any pass. Insurmountable is the
ascent of my [mountain-like] enemies. What possibility is there of
my attaining N&räyapa, my friend? Pä^durang is lost to me; says
Tuka, it is now piain that this valuable life of mine has gone for
nothing."

To curb these passions becomes now his great and earnest aim.
He examines his heart carefully and on all occasions in life finds them
present there in one shape or another; with all his eiforts he fails to
restrain them; and addresses fervent prayers again and again to God
to help him. The number of these is very large: —

Second coli., No. 1430. "With whose support shall I gird up
my loins ? Oh PäQdurang, I f eel depressed. All wicked persons abide
in my frame and my mind is subdued by them. All my efforts have
proved fruitless. What shall I do? Thou art the only mother of the
helpless; says Tukä, those wicked persons will not leave my frame
without thy might."

The wicked persons are the passions.

When in the course of years Tuk&räm became famous and was
praised everywhere, he found a glow of satisfaction gathering strength
in his heart. This he recognised as pride or conceit, and he was greatly
afraid of it and again and again prayed to God to free him from this
pride and bestow humility of spirit: —

First coli., No. 1779. **I have become an expert in the unrestricted
use of words. The root of the whole matter I have not attained. There-
fore, oh king of Pa^dharl, my mind is afflicted. Who knows what is
in my heart? I am respected or worshipped, and this has given rise
to conceit; and my further progress (towards perfection) has been
arrested; says Tukä, I do not know the true way and find myself in
the hands of egotism." Again: —

First coli., No. 1133. "What shall I do with fame and worldly
honour and greatness? Do show me thy feet. Do not bring about
this (result), that thy servant should go for nothing. KI become
great and bear the bürden of ostentatious knowledge, I shall go away
from thy feet farther and farther. What possibility is there of people
knowing the internal condition? A man is judged by his externa!

') A long fabulous period.

XXV. NomdcT and TokSrlm« 9^

appearances. Even adversity will be sweet to me, if it leads me to
thy feet."

He thus goes on cultivating the virtue of humility, until at last
he comes to speak of the death of the seif in him as in the foUowing: —

First coli., No. 3474. **I have surrendered my soul to thee and
then I have abandoned my individuality (dwellii^). Now thy might
alone prevails here. I being dead, thou hast established thy Station
here. Now nothing like m e and m i n e remains here/'

Here he speaks of his having abandoned the seif and God^s having
come to dwell in his heart instead of the seif. And more distinctly; —

First coli., N0.2668. **I have seen my own death with my eyes.
The result is incomparable rapture. The three worlds are filled with
joy. And I have enjoyed as the soul of all. By my sense of indivi*
duality I was confined to one place and by its abandonment I have
become all-i'eaching. The pollution arising from birth and death is
at an end and I am free from the littleness resulting from the feeling
of m e and m i n e. Näräyapa has now given me a place to dwell in;
putting my faith in him I have remained at his feet; Tukä says, the
fulfilment of what I undertook I have manifested to the world."

Here he speaks of the dying of the Iower man in himself and the
Coming to life of the higher man. There is a large number of pieces
conveying instruction to men seeking Spiritual advance. A few spe-
cimens will now be given.

First coli., No. 3800. "Therefore one should surrender oneself
to God with all one's heart. He will carry one to the opposite bank of
the river of life, which is difficult to be crossed. He whose name is
Ananta, or Endless, is very merciful; Tukä says, I have experienced
this and therefore announce it to all."

Second coli., No. 5383. "Fortunate, indeed, are those persons,
in whose heart dwells forgiveness and to whom, when there is occasion,
Courage and strength do not fail; who do not criticise other people
by calling them good or bad and who think nothing of worldly greatness
or superiority; who internally and externally are alike pure like the
Gangä and whose heart is tender; Tukä says, I will wave my body
round them and place my head on their feet.**

First coli., No. 2397. **For all beings entertain no hostile feeling.
This one alone is the excellent way. Thus alone will Näräya^a accept
thee. All talk without this is useless trouble. Relatives as well as the
evil-disposed should be regarded as alike and the mind devoted to the
doing of good to others; Tukä says, when the mind is pure everything
becomes efficacious."

First coli., No. 1368. "Do not give up food; do not betake yourself
to a forest -dwelling; in all your sufferings and enjoyments think of
Näräya;^a. Achild sitting on the Shoulders of its mother feels no trouble.
Put an end to all thoughts different from this. Do not get entangled
in worldly enjoyments nor abandon them; dedicate everything you
do to God, and have done with it; Tukä says, do not ask me again
and again; nothing eise is to be taught but this."

Here Tukäräm dissuades men from giving up the world and
becoming recluses and advises them instead to dedicate their lives

Indo-ftrische Philologie HL 6. 7

98 in. Rdigion, WtltL Wissensch. n. Kunst. 6. Vai« «aTism de

to the Service of God and do eveiything in a manner to profM-
tiate him.

The question has ofteD been discussed among Maräfhas whether
Tukäräm f ollowed the Vedäntic theory of ^amkaräcärya and regarded
everything as an Illusion except one soul: There are some Abhamgs
which exhibit the dosest possible approach to that theory, such as
the following: —

First coli., No. 300. **What means crossing a mirage to reach
the yonder bank? Children play with golden coins which are but
pot-sherds. Is there any profit or loss by those transactions? littie
girls perform marriage (of dolls). Is the relation thus established
real? The happiness or misery e3q>erieoced in a dream is seen not
to be true when a man awakes. The expressions, one is bom, one
18 dead, are all false; and the saying that persons are in bondage or
are delivered is a mere waste of breath, so says Tukä."

Here the illusive nature of everything is set forth quite in the
style of ^qikaräcärya's world-illusion. Again: —

First coli., No. 1992. ^*A sugar crystal and sugar powder differ
only in the name. There is no difference when sweetness is to be judged.
Teil me, oh Päpdurang, how thou and I are distinct. Thou hast moved
the World and m e and m i n e are the results. Gold in the form of
Ornaments is wom on the foot, the hands, nose and the head. When
all these are thrown into the crucible, where remains the distinction?
Profit and loss are real in a dream when one goes to sleep; both
vanish when one is awakened, so says Tukä."

Here there is a mixture of the two opposite theories, that of
Paripama, or development, as in the case of gold and omaments made
of it, and that of Vivarta, or Illusion, as in the case of things seen in
a dream. The latter alone is held by Saipkaräcärya. .^ain: —

First coli., No. 2482. ^'When salt is dissolved in water, what
is it that remains distinct ? I have thus become one in joy with tbee
and have lost myself in thee. When fire and camphor are brought
together, is there any black remnant? Tukä says, thou and I were
one light."

Here the losing of seif -consciousness in moments of ecstasy appears
to be what is meant, and not quite a perfect identity of God and man.
Nämdev and Tukäräm were not leamed Pap^its like RSmänuja and
Madhva and cannot be expected to formulate a consistent metaphysical
theory of the relations between God, man, and the world. On the
other hand, Tukäräm was such a devout and sincere lover of God that
the idea of such a distinctness between the three as would render
such a love possible, was constantly present in his mind, and there
are a great many Abhatpgs in which he condemns the theory of spiritual
monism as in the following: —

First coli., No. 1471. "His words should not be listened to, who
expounds useless (unsubstantial) knowledge without Bhakti, or de-
votion. When monism is expounded without faith and love, the ex-
pounder as well as the hearer are troubled and afflicted. He wfao
calls himself Brahma and goes on in his usual way, should not be
spoken to and is a buffoon. The shameless one who speaks heresy

XXV. NOmder and TnkSrSm. 99

in Opposition to the Vedas is an object of scorn among hoiy men.
Even an outcast is superior to him who cuts off the relation between
God and bis devotee (by asserting them to be identical), so says
TukSL"

Here is an uncompromising denunciation of spiritual monism
which leaves no scope for Bhakti, or devotion. It is considered as
opposed to the Vedas and as a heresy. Again: —

First coli., No. 3753. "For me there is no satisfaction in the
doctrine of monism. Sweet to me is the Service of thy feet. Confer
this gift upon me making it fit (to be given by thee). Thy name and
singing of it are dear to me. The relation between God and bis devotee
is a source of elevated joy. Make me feel this, keeping me distinct
from thee. All this belongs to thee. Confer it upon me some day."

Here in bis confutation of spiritual monism he takes his stand
on the heartfelt charms of the love of God. He sets the innate feelings
of his heart against the sophism of the advocates of the Advaita-
vedanta.

First coli., No. 1589. "I will make the mouth of the knowers of
Brahma to water (in longing) and make the delivered ones to abandon
the pristine condition (attained in consequence of deliverance). In
singing the whole bodily frame becomes instinct with Brahma and
the good fortune (resulting from it) consists in making God a debtor.
I will bring indolence on him whose practice it is to repair to holy
places and make the enjoyment of a lif e in heaven bitter. I will make
the man who practises austerities give up his pride and put to shame
sacrificial rites and charities. I will accomplish the great object of life,
viz. love and wealth of devotion, which constitutes the true treasure
of Brahma and its substance; and I will make people say that it was
by good fortune that they saw Tuka and became blessed."

Here his enthusiasm for the love and devotion for God becomes
so great, that he instinctively, as it were, out of the strength of his
feelings declares all other ways of reaching God, including the monistic
Vedänta, as worthless and inefficacious. Lastly I will here translate
the Abhaqig in which Tukäram sets forth the mission of his life: —

First coli., No. 520. "We lived in the Vaikuptha and have come
for this very reason, viz. for bringing into practice truly what the
]$$is taught. The world is overgrown with weeds; we will sweep dean
the paths trodden by the righteous and accept what has remained.
The old truths have disappeared. Mere verbal knowledge has
brought about destruction. The mind (of man) is eager for worldly
enjoyments and the way to God has been whoUy obliterated. We
will beat the drum of Bhakti which carries terror to this sinful age;
Tukä says, proclaim victory with joy').**

The above extracts from a voluminous collection will give some
indication of the manner in which Tukäräm endeavoured to execute
his mission. He denounced the merely mechanical rites and practices,
enforced humility and the purification of the heart and a single-minded
devotion to God.

') The readings of this piece have been compared with those handed down orally
and coirected.

100 IIL Religio&i Wdd. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vaifpavitm etc.

XXVI. R^tim^.

§ y6.. We have thus completed our survey of Vai^pavism from
about the fif th Century bef ore Christ to the middle of the seventeenth.
It first appeared as a religious reform, like Buddhism and Jainism,
but based on theistic principles. Its early name was Ekäntika Dharma,
or the religion of a Single -minded love and devotion to One. In its
back*ground stood the Bhagavadgltä, a discourse professing to be
preached by Väsudeva-Kf^^a. It soon assumed a sectarian form
and was called the Pancarätra or Bhägavata religion. It was pro-
fessed by a tribe of K$atriyas of the name of Sätvata and was noticed
by Megasthenes about the end of the fourth Century before Christ
as the religion of such a specific people. This faith mingied itself w^ith
the existing one in Näräyapa, the fountain from which all men have
Sprung, and with that in Vi§|?u, whose traces were visible in this world,
and who at the same time had a mysterious nature. In the Bhagavad-
gita itself were embodied some of the teachings of the Upani^ds and
a few general doctrines of two kinds of philosophy, the Sämkhya and
the Yoga, which, however, had not yet assumed the character of definite
Systems. Soon af ter the beginning of the Christian era another element
was contributed to this System of religion by the Äbhiras, or cowhcrds,
who belonged to a foreign tribe, in the shape of the marvellous deeds
of the boy-Kr$9a, who came to be regarded as a god, and of his amorous
dalliances with cowherdesses. So constituted, Vai^qavism went on
tili about the end of the eighth Century, when the doctrine of Spiritual
monism and world-illusiön was promulgated and disseminated by
^atpkaräc&ya and his foUowers. This was considered as destnictive
of the Bhakti, or love, which Vaiß^avism enjoined. And the feeling
of hostility to spiritual monism gathered to a head in the eleventh
Century, when Rämänuja made strenuous endeavours to put it down
and spread the religion of Bhakti in a reinvigorated form. He was
foUowed in the north by Nimbärka, who, however, gave prominence
to the fourth or cowherdess element of Vai^pavism and enjoined the
worship of Kr^^a's mistress Rädhä also, Rämänuja having passed them
over in severe silence. The attacks on spiritual monism and world-
illusion were continued in a determined and definite manner in the
thirteenth Century by Madhva or Anandatirtha, who established the doc*
trine of pluralism and brought into prominence the name of Vi$ou
as that of the supreme God. In the north, Rämänanda gave a new
turn to Vai$Qavism by bringing in the name of Räma, while Rämänuja,
from whom his metaphysical doctrines are derived, laid particular
stress on the name Näräya^a. The preachings of Rämänanda and his
tüsciples were carried on in the vernacular. Rämänanda*s religious
activity is to be ref erred to the f ourteenth Century. He was followed by
Kabir in the fif teenth Century, who preached strict monotheism, the name
of his God being Räma, and condemned idolatry. Vallabha in the
sixteenth Century preached the worship of the boy-Kf^^aand his mistress
Rädhä. Caitanya about the same time promulgated the worship
of the grown up Kr^^a, for ever associated with Rädhä, who was
idealised into an image of pure love. The increasing ardency in the

XXVI. R^sum^. 10 1

love and devotion of God sought for realistic expression and the con-
ception of Radha deepened and acquired an exclusive prominence and
importance. The devotion of Caitanya and bis followers was sincere
and fervent, and even bordered on the frantic; but that of Vallabha
and his school was more dramatic than real. Ultimately this con-
ception led to the degradation of Vai^^avism. In the Marätlia country,
Namdev, whose date is uncertain, but who probably lived about the
end of the fourteenth Century, and Tukäram, in the first half of the
seventeenth Century, preached the worship of Vithobä of Pap^harpur
as the supreme God and, discardingRädhS-Ki^^aism, cultivated a more
sober line of devotion. They also resorted to the vernacular for the
dissemination of their ideas. They, as well as Kabir and, to a certain
extent, Caitanya also, condemned the fonnalism which prevailed in
the religion of their day and preached pure love of God. The two
Marätha saints and Kablr also laid particular stress on the purifi*
cation of the individual's heart and moral elevation as means to a
single-minded and devoted love of God and as necessary for the attain ^
ment of eternal bliss.

The points of contact between these various Vai99ava Systems
are that their spiritual elements are essen tially derived from the Bhaga-
vadglta, that Vftsudeva as the name of the Supreme Being Stands
in the back-ground of all, and that spiritual monism and world-illusion
are denounced by them equally. The differences arise from the varied
importance that they attach to the different spiritual doctrines; the
prominence that they give to one or other of the three elements that
were mingled with Väsudevism; the metaphysical theory that they
set up; and the ceremonial which they impose upon their followers.
The Bhagavadgita was supplemented in later times by the Päficarätra
Saiphitäs and the Purä^as such as the VisQu and the Bhägavata,
and other later works of that description. These occasionally elucidated
some of the essential doctrines, laid down the ceremonial and brought
together a vast mass of legendary matter to magnify the importance
of their special teachings and render them attractive.

Part n.
^AIVISM AND MINOR RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS.

L Introductory.
Formation of tiie Conception of Rudra-^iva.

§ ^^. Some of the phenomena of external nature are pleasing,
vivifying and benignant; others are terrible, dispiriting and destruc-
tive. In the dawn the old Äryas found the lovely goddess U§as, pur-
sued by her lover Sürya, or the Sup (RV. I, 115, 2). In the rising
sun they found Mitra, a friendly god, who roused them from sleep
and set them to do the work of the day (RV. III, 59, l; VII,
36, 2). And in the sun, who visibly at rising stretched forth his rays
as if they were his arms, filling the heaven and the earth, vivifying the
World at the end of the night and placing it in the course assigned
to it by him, they found Savitr (RV. IV, 53, 3). The dreadful and de-
structive phenomena are usually the storms that uproot trees and eveo
demolish houses, accompanied by the thunderbolt which strikes down
men and beasts dead in a moment; and the epidemics tbat rage and
carry off numbers of men. In these the old Äryas saw Rudra, who
went about howling with the stormy winds (Maruts), who were his
sons (Rudriyas). But human beings do not believe in a purely malig-
nant power reigning in the universe. The dreadful phenomena are
attributed to the wrath of a god, which, however, can be appeased
by prayer, praise and offerings. Then the god becomes äiva, or the
benignant. This appears to be the natural process by which a belief
in such a god as Rudra-^iva became established in India in ancieot
times. We will now trace the development of the idea of this god
until he became the supreme creator, ruler, and pervader of the uni-
verse, a knowledge of whom contributed to eternal bliss.

n. The Development of the Idea of Rudra-Siva.

§ 78. Rudra is represented as discharging brilliant shaf ts which run
about the heaven and the earth (RV. VII, 46, 3) and as possessing
weapons which slay cows and men (RV. I, 114, 10). Here the destruc-
tive agency of lightning seems to have been clearly in view. He is
prayed to by the singers to keep these away from them and to protect
the two-footed and four-footed beings belonging to them (RV. I,
H4, i). When, in consequence of the prayers or in the natural course
of things, the cattle go unharmed, Rudra is represented to be Pa^upa,
or protector of the cattle (RV. I, 114, 9). Rudra is prayed to not
to afflict children with disease (RV. VII, 46, 2) and to keep all

II. The Development of the Idea of Rudra-Siva. IO3

— •

in the village free from illness (RV. I, 114, i). Rudra was thus be-
ll eved to cause diseases, and when men recovered from them or were
altogether free from them, that also was attributed to the agency
of Rudra; and he is consequently spoken of as possessing healing
remedies (RV. I, 43, 4) and as the best pbysician of physicians (RV.
II» 33» 4) and as possessed of a thousand medicines (RV. VII, 46, 3).
The Singers also pray for the acquisition of those pure and salutary
remedies belonging to the Maruts and Rudra, which father Manu
desired (RV. II, 33, 13). The general character of the prayers ad-
dressed to Rudra is well brought out in the foUowing: **0h Rudra,
do not, out of thy anger, injure our children and descendants, our
people, our cattle, our houses, and do not kill our men. We invoke
thee always with offerings" (RV. I, 114, 8). By his power he perceives
all earthly beings and by his universal sovereignty he perceives divine
beings (RV. VII, 46, 2). Here even in the ^gveda, Rudra is raised
to supreme power.

§ 79. The character of Rudra appears in a much more developed
form in the ^atarudriya (TS. IV, 5, l; VS. chapter 16). His benig-
nant^form (Sivä tanu^i) is distinguished from its opposite, the malig-
nant. He is called GiriSa and Giritra, "lying on a mountain", probably
because the thunderbolt that he hurls, Springs from a cloud, which
is often compared to a mountain and in which he was believed to
dwell. The cowherds and the female bearers of water see him as he
creeps alongwith his blue neck and redcomplexion, that is, these simple
folk working in the open field see a black cloud tinged red by the soft
glow of the lightning. Representing, as Rudra does, the darker powers
of nature, he may be expected to dwell away from the habitations
of men, and therefore he is called the lord of the paths, of the forests
and of those who roam in them, of thieves and highway robbers who
frequent and move about in lonely places to prevent being detected,
and also of outcasts who live away from the usual dwellings of men.

In his character as a healer he appears here as the lord of medicinal
herbs and is called a heavenly physician. Being the lord of the open
fields or plains, he is the lord of cattle (paiQnätp patib) which roam
in them. The name PaSupati became in later times a special appellation
of this God. In this manner the ränge of Rudra became so wide that
he came to be called the **lord of the quarters*'. He is called Kapardin,
or the wearer of matted hair, which epithet is probably due to his
being regarded as identical with Agni, or fire, the fumes of which look
like matted hair. The names Sarva (arrow-wielder), and Bhava also,
occur, and when his wrathful nature is thoroughly appeased, he be-
comes Saipbhu or benignant, ^atpkara or beneficent, and ^iva or
auspicious, which names occur at the end of the Satarudriya. He is
also represented as wearing a hide (krttim vasänah). How the epithet
arose it is difficult to say. But, being represented as roaming in forests
and other lonely places, the idea of investing him with the skin-
clothing of the savage tribes may have suggested itself to a poet.
The Ni$ädas, a forest tribe, are compared to Rudras, which fact lends
Support to this view.

The name Rudra has been generalised and many Rudras arc

I04 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u« Knntt. 6. VaifO^Tism etc.

spoken of , and a wish is expressed that they may be far away from
the singer. Here the signification of the common name appears to
be an evil spirit. In another place also the name is generalised, but
the signification is much better. The Rudras are called Cra^as or tribes,
and Ga^apatis or leaders of tribes, workmen, potters, cart-makers,
carpenters, andNi^ädas or men of the forest-tribes. Thus thesefollowers
of handicraft and also the forest -tribe of Ni$adas äre brought into
close connection with Rudra; probably theywere his worshippers, or
their own peculiar gods were identified with the.Äryan Rudra. This
last supposition appears very probable, since the groups of beings,
whose Pati, or lord, he is represented to have been, dwelt inor frequen-
ted open fields, forests and waste lands, remote from the habitations
of civilised men.

§ 80. In AV. the conception of Rudra is further developed, and
he is elevated to a higher platform. Several other names, by which
he was known in later times, are also given, but the bearers of these
are spoken of and addressed as separate gods. Bhava and Sarva
are treated as two distinct deities and spoken of as ruling (ii§athe)
over two-footed and four-footed beings (IV, 28, l). They are styled
the swiftest of all archers, and to them belongs what is near as well
as remote. They are called thousand-eyed. Their ränge is far and
wide (3). Their stroke can not be avoided by any man or god (5).
They are invoked to launch their thunderbolt against the Yätudhäna,
or evil spirit (6). They are implored to deliver the singers from cala-
mity (7). Sarva is called the archer, and Bhava the king (räjan),
and obeisance is made to them, and they are desired to remove their
deadly poisons to other places (VI, 93, 2). Obeisance is made to
Rudra who is in Agni, who is in the waters, who has entered into the
herbsand plants, and who has formed all these beings (VII, 87, l).
This verse occurs in AU, (VI) and also in 6U. (II, 17), where,
however, it appears in a somewhat altered form, the word Deva being
used instead of Rudra. In describing a particular ox Mahadeva is
spoken of as his two arms (IX, 7, 7). Bhava and Sarva are
invoked to launch the lightning against the doer of wickedness (X,

1, 23). They are called Bhutapati (the lord of spirits) and PaSupati
^the lord of beasts) (XI, 2, l). They are reverenced as being in their

domains in the sky and in the middle regions (XI, 2, 4). Five
distinct species of animals, kine, horses, men, goats, and sheep, are
marked off as belonging to PaSupati (XI, 2, 9). To Ugra, the
fierce, belong the four intermediate quarters, the sky, the earth, and
the wide atmosphere, and that which has spirit and breathes on the
earth (XI, 2, 10). Bhava sees everything on earth. Nothing is far
or near to him. He destroys things in the farther ocean, being himself
in the preceding ocean (XI, 2, 25). Rudra is implored not to
bring on consumption, poison, and celestial fire (XI, 2, 26). Bhava
is the lord (i^a) of the heavens, the earth, and fills the whole atmo-
sphere (XI, 2, 27). Bhava is addressed as king (räjan) (XI,

2, 28). A wish is expressed that the arrows of Bhava, ^arva, and
Rudra, who is PaSupati (the lord of beasts), may be always propitious
^sadä^iva) (XI, 6, 9). Savitr is called Aryaman, Varupa, Rudra,

II. The Development of the Idea of Rudra-Sm. I05

and Mahadeva (XIII, 4, 4). All the stars and the moon are under
Rudra's control (XIII, 4» 28). The gods made Bhava the archer, the
protector of theVrätyas, oroutcasts, in the intermediate Space of the
eastern region, Sarva of the southern region, Paäupati of the western
region, Ugra of the northem region, Rudra of the lower region, Mahädeva
of the Upper region, and ISäna of all the intermediate regions (XV,

5, 1—7).

§ 81. In SB. (VI, I, 3, 7) and KB. (6, i, 9), Rudra is mentioned

as the son of U$as; and, after he was bom, Prajäpati gave him, as

he grew up, eight names, seven of which are the same as those given

above from the AV. and the eighth is ASani, or the thunderbolt. It

would be seen that the AV. regards the seven as different though allied

gods, though once Rudra is identified with PaSupati. As in the

case of the sun-god the several ways of looking at him gave rise to

the conception of several sun-deities such as Savitr, SOrya, Mitra,

PQ$an, etc., so the same terrible and destructive agency in nature, with

its benignant and graciouscounterpart, looked at from different points

of view, gave rise to'the belief in the seven different gods mentioned

in the AV. They are all rcgarded as the names of one god in the

^B. and KB., and an eighth name is introduced. Of these eight names,

four, Rudra, ^arva, Ugra and ASani, are indicative of the destructive

energy, and the other four, viz. Bhava, PaSupati, Mahädeva or Mahän

devah, andlSSna, of its benign antcounterpart. It willhavebeenobserved

that the AV. brings in a new element, that of poisons which the terrific

god was believed to send forth and of his shafts being unfailing and

unavoidable by gods and men. On the other, or the benignant side,

Bhavd is represented to be a shining king (räjan). Rudra is the

lord of all creatures. His ränge is far and wide. He controls the stars

and the moon. He reigns in the sky and the middle regions. He is

in fire and water, in plants and herbs, and in all beings; and he is the

protector of Vrätyas in all quarters; and he is pre-eminently the ruler

(Isäna). Thus the terrible and the destructive God became, when he

was propitiated by men in a variety of ways, a benignant God and

attained to the whole majesty of the godhead by the time of the

YV. and AV., and it is on this majestic form of the god that the

theosophic speculations of Su., which we will notice further on,

are based.

§ 82. But the darker side of the nature of this god was never

forgotten. A sacrifice called ^Qlagava is mentioned in most of the

GrhyasQtras. A bull is sacrificed to Rudra to appease him (AG.

IV, 9). The rite should be perfortned beyond the limits of a village,

and its remains should not be brought into it, which nile sufficiently

indicates the inauspicious character of the rite. The Vapä, or Omentum,

should be sacrificed to Rudra by uttering twelve names, seven of

which are the same as the first three in the first group given above

and the four in the second group. ASani is omitted, and we have the

foUowing five additional names, Hara, Mrda, ^iva, Bhlma, andSaipkara.

Or the Vapä may be thrown into the fire by uttering six specific names

only or the Single name Rudra. This Solagava sacrifice should be

perf ormed in a cow-shed when a cattle disease has to be averted. In

I06 III. Reli^on, Weld. Wissensclu und Kunst. 6. Vaif^avism etc.

PG. (III, 8) the names uttered in throwing the oblations are the
same eight as those in the two groups above with the addition of
Agni. TTiere are also ol?lations to the wives, Indrä^i, Rudräpi, ^arväiji,
and Bhavänl. HG. (II, 3, 8) has the same deities as the eight above-
mentioned, Bhlma being substituted for ASani; and oblations are
given to the wife o£ each by repeating the formula **bhavasya devasya
patnyai svähä" (to the wife of God Bhava) etc. and not by uttering
their proper names.

Directions are given in PG. (III, 15) to render obeisance to Rudra
and pray for safe conduct when traversing a path, Coming to a place
where four roads meet, crossing a river, getting into a ferry-boat,
entering a forest, ascending a mountain, passing by a cemetery or by
a cow-shed and such other places. Similarly HG. (I, 5, 16) directs
that a traveller should adore Rudra by repeating the specific formula
given by him, when he comes to the crossing of four roads or to a heap
of cattle-dung, when serpents creep, and when he is overtaken by tor-
nado or is entering a river or comes to a variegated scene, sacrificial
site or an old large tree.

It will thus be seen that, in the time of the Grhyasutras,
Rudra was still a terrible god, who had to be appeased. He was the
god that held sway over regions away from home, over fields, wilder-
nesses, cemeteries, mountains, old trees and rivers. Whenever a man
came to anything which inspired awe and terror, Rudra was the god
thought of and prayed to to protect. Herein lies the reason which
rendered him in later times the omnipresent supreme lord of the
universe to the exclusion of all other Vedic gods except Vi§ou. Many
are the occasions in the life of man, which excite fear; there are epide-
mics and other diseases, poisons, serpents, storms, thunderbolts and
wild and awf ul scenes, and consequently the god who brings on these
occasions and protects when appeased will be thought of oftener than
other gods. The lovableness of the works of God, his greatness and
majesty and his mysterious nature are also matters which strike the
mind of man; and these appear to have operated in bringing Vi$QU
into prominence. What contributed to the formation of Vai§oavisni
were the appearances and occurrences which excited love, admiration
and a spirit of worship; while in Rudra -Öaivism the sentiment of
fear is at the bottom, howsoever concealed it may have become in
certain developments of it, and this sentiment it is that has worked
itself out in the formation of various Rudra-Öaiva Systems of later
times. In the monotheistic religions of other countries the same god
is feared and loved; in India the god that is loved is Vis^u-Näräyaiiia-
Väsudeva-Kr§pa, while the god that is feared is Rudra-Siva.

in. Svetai^vatara and Atharvasiras Upanisads.

§ 83. Before we proceed to the consideration of the Rudra-Siva
sects, we must devote some time to the consideration of a religio-
philosophic treatise which represents the farthest point in the develop-
ment of the idea of Rudra -Öiva as a god worshipped by the Indian
Äryas generally. This is the Svetä§vatara-Upani§ad. It does not appear

III. Syet&syatara and Atharvasiras Upani^ads. 10^

to be composed in a sectarian spirit. The elevated notions about
the nature of God and bis relations to man and the world, which
had been reached in the time of the early Upani§ads, have been
disentangled from their connection with the impersonal Brahman and
transferred to the God who had at the time when the Upani$ads were
written, acquired a living and active personality in the minds of the
people. This god was Rudra-Siva, who, as we have seen, had by the
time of AV. attained to the dignity of the supreme god. After the
preliminaries, the doctrinal points that occur in the first chapter are
these: that there are three unborn elements in the world; of these
the all-knowing and the ignorant, the ruler and the ruled, are two,
and there is a third which has in itself materials of enjoyment and
suflfering (9). Brahman is of three kinds, viz. the suflferer or enjoyer,
what is enjoyed or suffered, and the dispenser or mover. There is
nothing furthertobeknown (12). Pradhäna is changeable, the immortal
is unchangeable; Hara, the one lord, rules over the changeable and
the soul. By mcditating on him, by devoting oneself to him, by reali-
sing him, the whole ignorance is dispelied (10). By making one's
body the lower block of wood, the syllable **Oip'* the upper, and by
the act of meditation, which is (like) the rubbing of the two blocks
against each other, one should perceive the hidden god (14). One
finds that soul in oneself who seeks him by means of truth and exertion,
as oil in seeds, butter in curds, or water in a spring (15).

The three elements mentioned in 9 and 12 are adopted by
Rämänuja in his System, and these texts are quoted by writers of that
school. What is set forth in the tenth is similar to that which occurs
in the sixteenth and seventeenth verses of chap. 15 of the BhG.

In the second chapter there is first of all a short mention of the
Yoga processes, which lead to the perception of the supreme soul
and the purity of the seif. When by the purified nature of the indi-
vidual seif, as by a lamp, is known the nature of Brahman, or the god
-who is unborn, unchangeable, pure in every way, one is free from
all bondage (15). The chapter closes with the verse which we have
noticed as occurring in the AV.

In the third chapter we have in the beginning a stanza which
sets forth that those become immortal who know him who, possessing
a nct, rules by his ruling powers, rules over all the worlds by his ruling
powers, who alone is the cause of production and growth (i). There
is only one Rudra — and they do not recognise another — who rules
these worlds by his ruling powers, who is the inmost soul of all men,
who contracts eveiything on the final day, and, creating all beings,
protects them (2). He has his eyes everywhere, his face every-
where, as in RV. X, 81, 3 (3). May Rudra, the cause of the pro-
duction and growth of the gods, the lord of the universe, the great
prophet, and who formerly created Hirai(^yagarbha, endow us with a
holywill (4). Then follow two verses from the äatarudriya, praying
Rudra to look at the singer with his gracious countenance and not
to do härm to men, etc. (5, 6). Knowing the lord (fea), who is the
highest Brahman and the greatest of all, who dwells in the inside of
all beings whatever their form, and who encompasses the whole uni-

I08 III« Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. VaifpaTism etc.

verse, men become immortal (7). Then follow similar verses ex-
pressive of the attributes of the supreme God and prescribing a know-
ledge of him as the door to immortality. As formerly remarked, a
verse and a half in this chapter occurs word for word in the thirteenth
chap. of the BhG. It also deserves remark that the proper names
of the supreme being that occur are ISäna, ISa, and ^iva; and the
epithet Bhagavat, that is used also, deserves notice (11, 12, 15,
17, 20). In verse 20, which occurs also in the MU., there is ISam for
Atmanab which is indicative of the peculiarity of this Upani^ad wliich
we have noticed. There are two verses from the Puru$asükta (RV.

X, 90).

The fourth chapter opens with the expression of the desire that
he who, himself being without form, creates many forms with a
certain purpose, in whom in the end as well as in the beginning the
universe exists, may endow the adorers with a holy will, llien fcAows
the identification of this supreme soul with fire, sun, wind, moon and
a variety of other objects (2 — ^4). We have then the metaphor
of one male goat lying down with the female goat and another male
goat abandoning her after enjoyment, which represents the soul in
the worldly and the delivered conditions (5). We have next the
verse about two birds, the friends and companions of each other,
resting on the same tree, one eating the fruit of that tree and the other
simply looking on without eating, which occurs in the RV. (I, 164, 20)
and in the MU. (III, i, i). The next verse about the weak soul being
deluded and in grief and being delivered from his sorrows when he
sees the other soul, who is the ruler (ISa), occurs in the MU. also
(III, I, 2) but not in the RV. After two verses there is another, in
which Mäyä is called Prakrti, and he who uses this Mäya is called
MaheSvara (lo). MaheSvara is a name of ^iva. Having known
the boon-giver, I§äna, who presides over every productive oi^^an and
in whom and from whom are all things, one attains etemal peace
or serenity (ll). Then there is a repetition here of a verse in the
previous chapter (III, 4) with an unimportant difiference of reading
(12). Then occurs the second part of the verse in RV., which re-
presents Hirapyagarbha to be the lord of two-footed and four«footed
animals (X, 121, 3), the first part of the latter being paraphrased
here (13). This verse was probably suggested by the occurrence of
the name of Hirapyagarbha in the previous verse. Having known
Siva (the auspicious), who is minuter than the minute, the creator of
the universe, of many forms, and who alone encompasses the universe
in this medley of the world, one attains etemal peace (14). That
same lord of the universe concealed in all objects is the protector of
the World in time. Devoting themselves to him and knowing him thus,
the Brahmar$is and the deities cut away the nooses of death
(15). Knowing Siva, concealed in all beings, who is as subtle
as the essence of milk other than the butter, knowing the god
who alone encompasses the universe, one is free from all nooses
(16). This god — this great soul — whose work is the universe
always dwells in the hearts of men. He is determined by the heart,
the intelligence, and internal consciousness; those who know this be-

IlL ^TeUsvatara and Athanraiiias Upanifads. IO9

come immortal (17). When there was simple darkness and no
day or light, no entity or nonentity, ^iva alone existed. He was the
one unchangeable thing, and he was the bright light of the sun, and
from him sprang all intelligence (18). Here appears an idea similar
to that expressed in RV. X, 129. No one can seize him above, trans-
versety or in the middle. There is not another like him. Great is
his glory (19). His form is invisible. Nobody sees him with the
eye. Those who see him, dwelling in the heart, by the heart and the
internal consciousness, become immortal (20). This verse is the same
as in KU. (VI. 9), excepting in the third line, which there is the same
as the third line of v. 17 above. The chapter ends with two verses
containing a prayer to Rudra to protect, the latter of which is the
same as RV. I, 114, 8.

In the first verse of the fifth chapter are mentioned two inde-
structible beings, Brahman and the other, who are endless, in whom
there lie, unobserved, knowledge and ignorance. Ignorance is destruc-
tible, knowledge is indestructible; and there is another who niles over
knowledge and ignorance (i). In the next verse is mentioned the birth
of Kapila and his being fed with knowledge by him who presides over
every productive energy (2). Giving various forms to each group
^lit. net), the god resolves everything into the original principle.
Creating again the lords of beings, he, the great soul, the ruler, wields
sovereignty over all (3). As the sun illuminates all quarters, upper
and lower and transversal, so also the god, theBhagavat, presides over
the natures of all productive energies (4). The original cause of
the World makes natural powers develop and brings to a mature con-
dition those who are capable of development. He presides over this
universe and puts into Operation all the qualities (5). That is con«
cealed in Upani§ads, which contain the secret of the Vedas. That
origin of Brahman, Brahmadeva knows. All the ancient gods and
^$is, who knew that, being absorbed in it, became immortal
(6). The Upani$ad then proceeds to mention the individual soul,
the lord of the vital airs, who performs actions and enjoys or suffers
their fruit, possesses three qualities and follows three ways and goes
through a succession of births in consequence of his actions (7).
He IS as big as the thumb, bright like the sun, is conscious of himself
and wills, is as minute as the hundredth part of the hundredth part
of the point of a hair and is endless. In himself he is not a female nor
a male nor sexless. This depends on the body assumed by him (8,
9, 10). He assumes many gross and subtle forms in accordance with
his qualities and the qualities of his actions and of the seif. But he
who eflfects their union, is another (12). Then follows a verse similar
to rV, 14 and the latter part of 16 (13). In the last verse Siva,
the God, the creator and destroyer, is said to be knowable by Bhäva
(faith, love, or the pure heart) (14).

1 The sixth chapter appears to be a sort of resum^ of what
precedes. Among other things it is stated that he who promotes
virtue and dispells sin, should be known as existing in oneself (6);
that the one God is concealed in all beings, is all-pervading, the internal
soul of all beings, presiding over all actions, the Support of all beings,

HO 11 1. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^pavism etc.

thewitness of all, the life-giver, absolute and without qualities (li);
and that, knowing the cause which is to be understood by means of
the Säipkhya and the Yoga, a man is free from all nooses (13).
After this foUows a verse to the effect: "nor the sun nor the moon nor
the Stars nor lightning illuminate him (i. e. make him known); when
he shines, everything shines after him, and by his light all this is ren-
dered visible, or is illuminated'* (14). This verse occurs in KU.
(V. 15) and in MU. (II, 2, 10). The work ends with an expression
of the author's seif -surrender to the god, who shines forth in one*s
own intelligence, who first created Brahmadeva, and who sent forth
the Vedas — the god who has no parts, who does not su£fer change,
who is all peace, has no def ects and is unpolluted, the bridge f or crossing
over to immortality, and who is like fire that has bumt fuel (18, 19).
§ 84. From ttus short sununary it will be seen that this Upani$ad
contains verses from the Saqihitas of the RV. and YV. and others,
which must have been in a floating condition and were appropriated
by the Mup^aka and Katha Upani$ads as well as by this; and a great
many others, which have not been traced elsewhere, are original. All
these contain truths about the nature of God, the individual soul and
the inanimate world and the relations between them. The way to
redemption is meditation on the supreme soul, which way is charac-
teristic of the Upani$ad doctrine in general. Certain Yoga processes
are prescribed to render this meditation eifective, and the final result
is a perception of the supreme soul as existing everywhere, and this
perception constitutes eternal bliss. This treatise contains the theism
of the Upani$ad period in its most mature form with a God distinctly
personal at the centre. The attributes of the supreme soul are often
given in very general terms, and he is referred to by the non-sectarian
general name Deva, but as often that Deva is identified with Rudra,
biva, ISäna and MaheSvara, and his powers are spoken of as banis;
but there is no indication whatever that these names have been given
for the purpose of raising Rudra-Siva to the supreme gpdhead to the
exclusion of another god. Names indicative of Rudra-Siva appear to
have been used, since he was invested with a personality perceived
and acknowledged by all. This Upani$ad, therefore, is not a sectarian
treatise like others promulgated in later times, and is often quoted by
äaipkaräcärya, Rämanuja and other writers of the different schools, and
not by those of one school only. It must have been composed bef ore the
BhG. since the latter contains, as already stated, a verse and a half from
it, and the nature of the religio -philosophic speculations contained in
it, though essentially Upani$adic, make a nearer approach to the later
Bhakti school than those of any of the older treatises of the class.
The description of the godhead and of the final pure serenity are
instinct with the glow of love and admiration and the treatise ends
with an expression of self-surrender to the god, who makes himself
manifest in one's own intelligence. The ^vetäSvatara-Upani^ad, therefore,
Stands at the door of the Bhakti school, and pours its loving adoration
on Rudra-Siva instead of on Vasudeva-Kr^oa as the BhG. did in
later times when the Bhakti doctrine was in füll swing. Vasudeva«
Kr$92i had a historic basis; and the circumstances wtuch led to his

III. SvetBsvatara and Atharvasiras Upanifads. III

being invested with the supreme godhead, occurred in later times, while
in the age, in which the ^vetäSvatara-Upani$ad was composed, Rudra-
Siva was alone in the field as the supreme god, and the germs of Bhakti,
or love, which manifested themselves at the time, were directed
towards him; but when Vasudeva-Kr$oa also came into the field, he
appealed more to the hearts of men as the god who had come to
dwell amongst them; consequently the germs of Bhakti speedily
developed, and he became the object of the heightened feelings in
preference to the other.

§ 85. Up to the time at which we have arrived we meet with
nomentionofthe wife of Rudraor^iva,butin the Kena-Upani$ad, which
is certainly one of the earlier Upani^ads, the name of Umä occurs.
She is calledHaimavati, or the daughter of Himavat, but she is not
mentioned in the KnU. as the wife of Rudra or Siva, though in later
times she was known to be so. The story is: — Brahman conquered
the enemies of the gods for them, but the gods took credit to them-
selves for the victory and were proud of their achievements. Agni,
Väyu and Indra were sitting together, engaged in joyous conversation,
when there appeared at some distance a spirit. Agni first went out
to see what it was. The spirit asked him the nature and extent of
bis power and laid down a blade of grass, which it asked him to bum
away. Agni was not able to do this and retumed baffled. Then went
Väyu, who also was not able to blow away the blade of grass; after-
wards went Indra, and at his approach the spirit disappeared. Indra
was disappointed, but he saw a beautiful woman of the name of Umä-
Haimavati and asked her who the spirit was. She said it was Brahman.
The Story represents that condition of things, in which the oldVedic
gods had lost their power or hold over men, and Brahman had come
into prominence as the supreme spirit. Since it was Umä that dis-
closed the nature of the spirit, it may be understood that the Brahman
mentioned was Rudra-Siva and Umä was his wife. It would thus
appear that she had come to be so regarded some time before the
Upani$ad was composed.

§ 86. The AtharvaSiras is another Upani$ad appertaining to
Rudra. It is a much later work as is shown even by the very variant
texts before me, commented on by Näräya^a and ^aipkaränanda.
The gods, it is said, went to heaven and asked Rudra who he was.
He said that he alone was, is, or will be, and nothing eise. He is in all
the quarters, he is Gäyatrl, man, woman, etc., and thus a number of
things are mentioned with which he is identical. Then Rudra was
invisible to them, and they raised their arms and praised him saying:
*'He who is Rudra, is Bhagavat, and who also is Brahmadeva, a bow
to him*'. In the similar sentences that foUow, instead of Brahmadeva
we have Vi$QU, MaheSvara, Umä, Skanda, Vinäyaka, etc. The sun
and the constellation are also included. Then Oqikära is menti-
oned, to which many epithets and epithets of epithets expressive of
divine attributes are given, and lastly it is called the one Rudra, who
is ISäna, Bhagavat, MaheSvara and Mahädeva. Then foUow the ety-
mologies of the epithets or names. The only Rudra he is called, be-
cause he alone creates and absorbs everything. He is called I^äna,

112 IIL Rdigion, Welü. Wissensch. u. Kunst 6. Vai^^vism etc.

because he rules by the powers called the I^anls. Then follow four
or five Verses from SU. with different readings in some cases. The
substance of what foUows is thus given by Sainkaränanda. For the
knowledge of Rudra one should use moderate food, devote himself to
reading ^ravaigia), thinking (Manana), etc., become a Paramahaipsa, or
a Single -minded devotee, and spend bis time thus. One should undertake
the PäSupata vow (Vrata), which is of the foUowing nature. Greed
and anger should be given up. Forgiveness should be realised. The
muttering of Oip should be practised, and meditation resulting in
Avagati, or perception, should be resorted to. The text, of which this
is the explanation, may be generally rendered thus: — *'In the inside
of the heart exists the subtle body, in which there are anger, greed
and forgiveness. Destroying greed, which is at the bottom of human
motives, and concentrating the mind on Rudra, who is one and eter-
nal, one should be moderate in eating and drinking". Then follows
a precept to besmear the body with ashes by repeating the words:
'*The ash is fire, the ash is water, the ash is earth, everything is ash,
the ether is ash, the mind, the eyes and other senses are ash." This
is the Pä^upata vow (Vrata), enjoined for the removal of the noose
with which the PaSu, or the individual soul, is tied."

Here the besmearing of the body with ashes after repeating a
formula, or Mantra, is prescribed as a vow for the devotees of Pa^upati,
or Rudra-äiva, calculated to effect a deliverance from the trammels
of life. The expression "Pa5upäsavimok§apa**, which means the
loosening of the noose tied round the necks of beings, is a characte-
ristic of the Pä^upata sect. This Upani§ad therefore belongs to that
sect. Before, however, we pass on to the consideration of this sect,
we must cast a glance at the position which Rudra-Siva holds in
the Mahabhärata.

IV. Rudra-Siva in the Mahabharata and Lihga Worship.

§ 87. At the beginning of the Bhi^maparvan Kr$pa advises Arjuna
to make an obeisance to Durgä before the commencement of the battle
and pray for success. Arjuna does so after repeating a hymn in honour
of Durgä, containing the names of Umä, mother of Skanda, Kätyä-
yani, Karäll, and a number of others. In -the Vanaparvan Arjuna is re«
presented to have gone to the Himälaya and practised austerities
there. Some time after, ^iva appears dressed likeaKiräta, and a severe
fight ensues between them. Arjuna is overpowered in the end and
lies on the ground exhausted. He then praises ^iva, and, having
made an altar of earth, puts flowers on it in the name of Samkara.
These, however, appear as placed on the head of the Kiräta, where-
upon Arjuna makes him out as ^iva the object of his adoration, and
surrenders himself to him. ^iva becomes pleased and offers him
whatever he wishes. Arjuna asks for the weapon presided over by
Pa^upati (PäSupatästra), which possesses the power of destroying all
formidableenemies (chaps.38 — 40). IntheDroqaparvanagain (chaps. 80,
81) the attainment of the PäSupatästra, which appears to be of an-
other kind, consisting of a bow and arrow, by Arjuna, is mentioned«

IV. Rudra-Siva in the MahfibhSlrata and Linga Wonhip. II3

Arjuna and Kr^pa are spoken of as having gone to the Himälaya ia
a Vision and seen ^amkara at his dwelling. They bow their heads
before him, sing a hymn in his praise, in which they call him the
unborn, the creator of the universe, the unchangeable and utter the
iiames which we have given as occurring in earlier works, and thus
propitiating him ask for the Pä^upata weapon. They are directed to
a lake where the Astra had been thrown. There they saw two veno-
mous serpents, which, however, assumed at the time the fonns of a
bow and an arrow,and these Arjuna took away. In the Sauptikaparvan
(chap. 7) A^vatthäman is mentioned to have propitiated Saipkara
and obtained a sword from him. ^iva himself enters into his body,
and A§vatthäman carries havoc and destruction with the terrible
sword in the camp of the Päpdus, killing all their progeny, and even
Dhf^tadyumna, who had cut off the head of his father Droqa.. Yu-
dhi$thira asks Kf^^a how he was able to effect all this. Kr^qa says
that he did it through the poweir of ^aqikara and relates another
Story about him. Brahmadeva once told Saipkara not to create.
Whereupon ^amkara concealed himself under water for a long time.
When, therefore, there was no creation for such a long period, Brah-
madeva created another Prajäpati, who brought into existence a large
number of beings. These beings, being afflicted with hunger, went
to Prajäpati to devour him. He, being afraid, went to Hira^yagarbha,
who created two kindsof food forthose beings and then they werequieted.
After some time Mahädeva rose out of the water, and seeing that
new beings had been created and were in a flourishing condition, he
cut off his organ of generation as no more necessary, and it stuck into
the ground. He then went away to perform austerities at the foot
of the Munjavat mountain. There is a similar story about Mahädeva's
having ceased to create and become a Yogin in the Väyu-Purä^a
(chap. 10). Brahmadeva told Nilalohita ^Mahädeva) to create, and
bnnging to mind his wife Sati, he created thousands of beings exactly
like himself, who were immortal. Thereupon he stopped and rendered
himself incapable of procreation. He then resorted to all those pro«
cesses of the Yoga which in the Puräqa is called the PäSupata-Yoga. In
the Sauptikaparvan Ki^pa continues the story of Mahadeva and teils
Yudhi$thira that when the gods created the rite of sacrifice and assig-
nednooblationtoRudra, hewasfullof wrath and destroyed the sacrifice;
whereupon they assigned him a portion and the god was pleased.
In the AnuSäsanaparvan (chap. 14) Kr^pa is introduced as recounting
the glories of Mahadeva. He says, Jämbavatl, one of his wives, ex-
pressed a desire for as good a son as RukmiQi, his chief consort, had.
To procure such a son he had recourse to. Mahadeva, through whose
favour only his wishes could be fulfilled. He then went to the Himalaya,
on which äiva lived. On the way he saw the hermitage of Upamanyu.
Upamanyu enters into a long discourse on the beneficent deeds of
Mahadeva. A list is given of persons, including many Daityas, who
obtained their desired objects, such as sons, weapons, powers, etc.,
through the favour of Mahadeva, whom they had propitiated by
rigid austere practices and other ways. One of these was Sakalya, to
whom was granted the boon that he would be an author and would

Indo-ariscfae Philologie m. 6. 8

114 ni. Religion, Weld. Wistensch. u. Kunst 6. Vai^pavism etc.

obtain immortal glory and his son would be the composer of Sutras.
The persona alluded to here must be the Compiler of the RVS. and
the author of the Pada text. Upamanyu began to practise austerities
to^ propitiate ^iva at the instance of his mother, who, in describing
the god's power and beneficence, spoke of him as dancing nakedly and
of his having the quarters for his clothing (Digvasas). In the course
of his austerities, Mahädeva, to test Upamanyu's devotion, appears
before him in the form of Indra and offers him many magnificent
boons, which Upamanyu refuses and declares that he would have
boons from ^aqikara alone, and that he would become a worm or a
butterfly at the command of ^amkara, but did not desire even the
sovereignty of the three worlds given by Indra. In the course of his
narrative Upamanyu says that Mahadeva was the only god, whose
Organ of generation (Linga) is worshipped by men. He and Umä
were the real Creators of animals, as these bear the marks of the two,
and not the discus or the conch-shell or marks of any other god. Even-
tually äiva and Umä appeared before Upamanyu, seated on a strong
towering ox, attended on the one side by Brahmadeva seated on the
swan, his vehicle, and on the other by NärSyaoa on Garu^a with the
conch-shell, lotus, etc., andconferred onhim all theblessings hedesired.
At his instance Kr$Qa also entered on a long course of austerities, at
the end of which Mahadeva with Umä appeared before him in the
same manner as they did to Upamanyu. The god conferred
eight boons upon him, and his consort eight more; besides she pro-
mised him sixteen thousand wives, and altogether thenumber of boons
he obtained was twenty-four inclusive of the birth of such a son as
he wanted.

§ 88. The characteristics of ^iva, or Mahädeva, as brought out
by these accounts appear to be these. He was a powerful, wrathfui
and impetuous god, but generous and bountiful, and spared nothing
when he was propitiated. Whenever a man conceived a desire for
anything, he was the god to be appealed to for its fulfilment. He lived
on the Himalaya with his wife Umä, Parva ti, or Durgä, who had a
number of other names such as Kall, Karsli, etc., and was attended
by a number of beings called his Gaqas, or hosts. His vehicle was an
ox. He had, of course, all the attributes of the supreme godhead.
He is represented as having betaken himself to the processes of Yoga,
or contemplation, when he had ceased to be creative. It will be seen
that the object of worship in ^aivism is the Linga, or phallus. We have
f ound no trace of this characteristic in the earlier literature, so far as we
have examined it<), and the first timewe meet with it is in this passage
from the AnuSäsanaparvan. We have had occasion in a previous section
to remark that Rudra-Siva had a close connection with stragglers in
the forest, with VrStyas, or those who were not included in the Ärjran
Community, and with the wild tribe of the Ni$ädas, and also observed

') I do not, however, deny the possibility that when the SU. in IV, ii speaks
of the god IsKna as presiding oyer every Yoni and in V, a of the lord as presidio;
over all forms and Yonis, an allusion to the physical fact of the Linga and Yoni
connected together may have been meant as typifying the philosophical doctrine of gods
presiding over every creative cause.

V. Origin and Diflfusion of the Saiva Sects etc. II5

that the gods of these last were amalgamated with Rudra. Rudra*s
partiality for serpents and his being the lord of spirits, or BhQtas, were
probably due to the influence of the serpent-worship and the devilry
of the savage tribes. There are two places in the RV., in one of which
Indra is prayed to not to allow those whose god is SiSna to disturb
the rites of the singers (VII, 21, 5); and in another he is represented
to have conquered the riches of a city after killing those whose god
is ^iSna. Here evidently those whose god wasSi^na, or phallus, are meant
as the enemies of the Vedic Äryas, who disturbed their holy rites. Not-
withstanding all that is said about the matter, my own belief is that
the persons here referred to were really some tribe of the aborigines of
the country, who worshipped the phallus. Just then as the Rudra -^iva
cult borrowed several elements from the dwellers in forests and stragg-
lers in places out of the way, so it may have borrowed this element
of phallic worship from the barbarian tribes with whom the Aryas
came in contact. This element, however, does not appear to have
come in all at once, especially among the learned classes, whose beliefs
are represented in the literature which we have examined. The Linga
worship had, it appears, not come into use at the time of Pata&jali,
for the instance he gives under P. V, 3, 99 is that of an image or
likeness (pratikrti) of ^iva as an object of worship, and not of any
emblem of that god. It seems to have been unknown even in the time
of Wema-Kadphises, for on the reverse of his coins there is a human
figure of Siva with a trident in the band; and there is also an emblem,
but it isNandin, or the bull, and not a Unga, or phallus. But this element
must have crept in early enough among ordinary people who were in
closer communication with the uncivilised tribes, and gradually made
its way to the higher clasess, of whose creed it subsequently became
an article. And it is this final stage of its adoption by the higher classes
that is represented in Upamanyu*s discourse in the MahSbhärata.
From all that we have brought forward from the post-Saiphitä lite-
rature it will appear that Rudra-Siva was a deity whose worship
was common to all the Aryas, and who was not at first a sectarian
god. As above remarked, he was in charge of the field before the
Vai$9ava or Väsudevic deities came in to contest his supremacy. The
GrhyasQtras, which, as we have seen, give directions as to the ado-
ration of Rudra under various circumstances, can not be considered
as belonging to any Saiva sect. In the time of Pataiijali, images of
Siva, Skanda and ViSäkha, made sometimes of precious metals, were
kept for common worship by certain religious persons who derived an
income from them >). The images of Siva here alluded to cannot have
been meant for the use of a particular sect.

V. Origin and Diffusion of the Saiva Sects and ttie
Several Classes of Siva Worshippers.

§ 89. A äaiva sect is, however, mentioned even by Patafijali.
The members of it were known as Sivabhägavatas, or devotees of

'} See hit oomment on P. V, 3, 99.

8*

1 16 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vaifpavism etc.

Siva, the Bhagavat. ^iva, we have seen, is called Bhagavat in AU.
A äivabhägavata carried in bis band an iron lance as an emblem
of tbe deity be worsbipped (under P. V, 2, 76).

In tbe Näräya^Iya section of MBb., tbe Pa^upata is mentioned as
one of five scbools of religious doctrines (ääntiparvan, cbap. 349, v. 64).
^iva-^rikaptba, tbe consort of Umä, tbe lord of spirits and tbe son
of Brabmadeva, is represented to bave revealed tbe tenets of tbat scbool
(verse 67). Wbetber tbis Statement is to be understood in tbe sense that
its f ounder was a buman being af terwards recognised as an incamation of
äiva, or wbetber it is a mere general Statement like tbat contained in the
BU. (II, 4, 10) tbat tbe ?.gveda, Yajurveda, etc. are tbe breatb of this
great being, meaning nothing more bistorically tban tbat the system
gradually came into existence witbout any special individual being
concemed witb it, is a question somewbat difficult to answer definitely ;
but tbefe is evidence in tbe Puräpas and inscriptions of tbe existence
of a belief in favour of tbe first supposition. Tbe Väyu-Purä^ia
(cbap. 23) and tbe Linga-Purä^a (cbap. 24) represent MaheSvara to
have told Brabmadeva tbat wben, at tbe time of Kr$9a-Dvaipäyana
during tbe twenty-eigbtb repetition of tbe Yugas,'Väsudeva, the best
of Yadus, would be born of Vasudeva, be would incamate himself
as a Brabmacärin by tbe name of Lakulin after entering a dead body
thrown into a cemetery; tbe place wbere tbis would occur, would be
called Käyävatära or Käyävaroba^a, and be would bave four pupils
of tbe names of KuSika, Garga, Mitra andKauru^ya. Tbese Pä^upatas,
witb tbeir bodies sprinkled witb asbes, resorting to tbe Yoga of Mahe-
^vara^ would in tbe end go to tbe world of Rudra. Now in an inscription
in tbe temple of Nätba near tbat of Ekalingji, 14 miles to tbe nortb
of Udaipur, Räjputäna, it is stated tbat Siva became incamate as
a man witb a club (lakula) in bis band in. tbe country of Bbrgukaccha,
being propitiated by Bbrgu. Sages, KuSika and otbers, conversant
witb the PäSupata Yoga and using asbes and wearing bark-dress and
matted bair, are mentioned. Tbere is anotb er inscription, usually called
tbe Cintra Pra^asti, wbicb states tbat Siva becaitie incamate in tbe
form of Bbattäraka Sri-Lakull§a and dwelt at Kärobapa in tbe Lata
country. Tbere appeared in bodily form four pupils of bis of tbe names
of KuSika, Gärgya, Kauru^a and Maitreya for tbe strict Performance
of tbe PäSupata vows, and tbey became tbe originators of four branches.
Tbe date of tbe first inscription is Vikrama 1028, or97i A.D., and the
second was composed between A. D. 1 274 and 1 296. In anotb er inscription
dated 943 A. D. found at HemävatI in tbe Sira Täluka, Mysore, Laku-
llSa is represented to bave been born again as Muninätba Chilluka to
preserve tbe memory of bis name and doctrines *).

Mädbava calls the Pä^upata system tbat be explains in bis Sarva-
darSanasamgraha, NakullSa-PäSupata, and quotes a few words from
wbat appears to be a work attributed to bim. From all tbis it appears
that tbere lived a certain person of the name of Lakulin (tbe bolder
of a lakuta, or laguda, or lakula, i. e. a club) who founded a PäSupata
system. Four scbools sprang out of it, and tbeir reputed founders,

') See Jour. B. B. R. A. S. Vol. XXII, pp. 151—153.

V. Origfin and Diffusion of the Saiva Sects etc. 1 1 7

whether historical or legendary, were considered bis pupils. Lakulin
is the same asNakulin, and the fact that his rise has been represented
by the Puräpas to be contemporaneous with Väsudeva-Kr$9a points
to the inference that traditionally the System was intended to take
the same place in the Rudra-^iva cult that the Päftcarätra did in the
Väsudeva-Kr§^a cult. We may, therefore, place the rise of the Pä^u-
pata school mentioned in the Näräya^Iya about a Century after that
of the Päftcarätra system, i. e. about the second Century B. C.

§ 90- Before we proceed further we will notice the extent of the
diffusion of the creed. At the end of the commentaryontheVaiSe^ika-
sQtras, the author PraSastapada makes his obeisance to Kanada, the
author of the Sütras, and characterises him as having composed the
Vai^e$ikaäastra after propitiating Mahe^vara by the greatness of his
Yoga (meditation or concentration) and Acära (practice). These
two ways are common to both the Pä§upata and ^aiva Systems,
as will be seen hereafter, and Kaqäda, therefore, may have beed
a follower of the Pa^upata or Saiva System. BhSradväja, the
author of the Uddyota, or a gloss on Vätsyäyanä's Nyäyabhä^yat is
called Pä^upatScärya, or a teacher belonging to the PaSupata school«
at the end of his work. Wema-Kadphises, a powerful prince of the
Ku$ana race, who ruled over a large part of northem and northwestem
India about the middle of the third Century A. D. , styles himself on the
reverse of his coins a devot ee of MaheSvara, or a member of the MaheS*
vara sect, and an image of Nandin and another of Siva with a trident
in his hand occur on the obverse. VarShamihira in the latter part
of the sixth Century lays down the rule that the priests to be employed
for the Installation of an image of ^aipbhu should be BrShma^as
besmearing their bodies with ashes. By these he means members of
a äaiva sect, since, in the case of other gods, the names mentioned
are those of the sects founded in the names of those gods.

Haribhadra, an old Jaina author, speaks in his ^a^daräana-
samuccaya of the schools of Gotama and Kanada as professing the
Saiva faith. But his commentator Gu^aratna, who flourished in the
latter part of the fourteenth Century <), calls the VaiSe^ikas PäSupatas
and the other school ^aivas. This last must be a mistake, since Bhärad«
väja of the Nyäya school is specifically spoken of as a PaSupatäcarya,
as we have seen. The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsiang in the middle of
the seventh Century mentions the PäSupatas twelve times in his book.
In some places he says that there were temples of MaheSvara at which
the Pa^upatas worshipped; in one or two temples, he says that they
resided. And at Benares he found about ten thousand sectaries who
honoured MaheSvara, besmeared their bodies with ashes, went naked and
tied their hair in knots. These and those who lived in temples must
have been like the Bairägis, or ascetics, of modern times, who had given
up the World; but probably the others mentioned by him were the
foUowers of the Pa^upata faith who lived the ordinary life of hou^e-»
holders. In the copper-plate charter of Nägavardhana, nephew of
Pulake^in II of Maharä$^, who ascended the throne in 6io A. D.

«) Ind. Ant. Vol. XI, pp. 255—256.

1 18 III. Religkn, Welü. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vaifoairism etc.

and was living in 639 A. D., a grant is recorded of a village near Igat-
puri in the Näsik district f or the worship of the god KäpäleSvara, i. e.
the lord of the wearers of garlands of skulls, and for the maintenance
of the Mahävratins residing in the temple. It will hereafter be shown
that the name Mahävratin, or observer of the great vow, designated
the Käpälikas or Kälämukhas. Thus there is evidence of the existence in
the middle of the seventh Century of the sect of Käpälikas in Mahärä^tra').
In the Karhä^ grant of Kr^^a III of the Ra$trakQta dynasty, the king
mentions his having granted in Saka 880 {^ 958 A. D.) a village
to GagahaSiva, the practiser of great austerities, who was fuUy versed
in all the ^ivasiddhäntas and was the pupil of I^änaSiva, who was
an Acärya, or preceptor, and the head of the establishment at Valka-
leSvara in Karahäta. These holy men and their establishment seem to
have belonged to the ^aiva sect and not to the PaSupata. The evidence
for the existence of the Kalämukha and Saiva sects in Mysore in the
latter part of the twelfth Century will be given in the next section.

Here it seems necessary to make another distinction. Bä^a in
the Kadambarl represents PäSupatas with red clothing to have been
among those who waited to see Taräpl^a's minister ^ukanftsa at the
door of his house for some private purposes of their own; but in an-
other place he represents Viläsavati, the queen of TSräpI^a, to have
gone to the temple of Mahäkäla on the fourteenth (of the dark half
of the month) to worship the god. BhavabhQti in the MslatimSdhava
(Act III) represents Malati to have gone with her mother to the
temple of Saipkara on the fourteenth of the dark half of the month.
This fourteenth day still continues to be sacred to Siva when special
worship is performed. Now Viläsavati and Malati and her mother can
hardly have been meant to be members of that sect, some foUow^ers
of which, with a red clothing, were waiting at Sukanasa's door. It,
therefore, appears to be clear that all worshippers of ^iva were not
members of any of those sects the names of which have come down
to US, as observed in a previous section. Rudra-^iva had gradually
from the earliest times grown to be a god commonly worshipped by
the Indians, and he has continued to be their ordinary god to this day.
The sects that subsequently arose were based upon specific methods
of redemption, when religious and philosophic thought was advancing
or perhaps declining, but the old god was resorted to by ordinary
people without reference to them. And it must be remarked that those
sects must have had a clerical or ascetic class as well as a class of lay
f oUowers or householders — and probably in some cases at least Hiuen
Tsiang means these last by his P&Supatas — and a class of Saiva religious
men, as distinct from lay foUowers, existed in Karahäta as we have
noticed. There were thus three classes of Siva worshippers: — (l) clericals
or ascetics, (2) their lay foUowers, and (3) ordinary people who had
no particular connection with any sect. The poets Kalidasa, Subandhu,
Bäpa, 6rI-Har9a, Bhatta-Näräyapa, Bhavabhüti and several others
adore Siva at the beginning of their works. They may have been the
lay foUowers of any of the sects, but, in all likelihood, they belong

') Jour. B. B. R. A. S. Vol. XIV, p. 26.

VI. Names and Doctrines of the Saiva Sects. 1 19

to the third class. For of these Subandhu, BäQa and Bhatta^NärSya^a
invoke Hari or another form of Vi^pu at the same time, thus showing
that they were not exclusive adherents of one of the two gods. The
many temples of ^iva constnicted by the early Calukyas and the
Ra^trakütas and the Kailäsa and other cave temples at Ellora exca-
vated by the latter contain no indication of their being intended for
a specific Saiva sect, and therefore they may be regarded as pointing
to the diffusion of the general worship of Siva in Maharä$tra from the
seventh to the tenth Century.

VI. Names and Doctrines of the Saiva Sects.

§ 91. The older Saiva sects had and have a literature of their own,
the so-called Agamas attributed to Siva himself and a number of works
by human authors. But the literature has not yet been published nor
even discovered. I have, therefore, necessarily to resort to the stray
notices about the sects and their doctrines, contained in works not
written by the followers of the Systems except in one case. With the
more modem sects the case is different, their literature having recently
become available.

Saipkara says that the MäheSvaras maintain that PaSupati has
revealed five topics (Br. S. II, 2, 37). Thus the sects were known by
the general name of MsheSvara, and PaSupati, or the god ^iva, was
believed to be their founder. RSmänuja under the same SQtra, which,
however, is numbered 35, speaks of the Systems as the tenets of Paäu-
pati. ReSava KäSmlrin calls the sects the followers of the ^'tenets
of PaSupati". änkaptha-Siväcarya calls them the ^'believers in the
Agamas revealed by ParameSvara, or the great god". The name Mahe-
^vara is the old name as is evident from the fact that Wema-Kadphises,
as noticed above, and several later princes, especially of the Valabhi
dynasty, called themselves MaheSvaras. HiuenTsiang, too, aswehave
seen, mentions temples of MaheSvara, at which the PäSupatas wor-
shipped. It also foUows that all these sects were at the same time
known by the name of Pa^upata sects; and the founder of them all
was believed to be the god PaSupati.

The same conclusion is to be deduced from the Mysore inscriptions
that have been published, the only di£Ference being that the original
teacher is called Lakulin or LakulTSa. In one inscription dated 943 A. D.,
referred to above, it is stated that LakuliSa, being afraid that his name
and doctrines would be forgotten, became incamate as Muninätha-
Cilluka '). This appears to be a general name applicable to all Systems.
In another dated 1078 A. D. one ascetic is called an ornament to the
Lakula school and another is spoken of as '*a hand to Lakula'* ^).
This appears to be the general name and does not point to a. specific
sect. Li a third dated 1103 A. D. SomeSvara-SQri is spoken of as having
caused the Lakula doctrine (Siddhänta) to bloom. He is called a
Naiyayika and VaiSe$ika 3). This shows that he belonged to the specific

Ep. Cam. Vol. XII, p. 93 (Translation).

s) Ep. Carn. VoL VII, Sikarpur Taluq No. 107.

3) Ep. Cam. Vol. VII, Pt. I, p. 64 (Translation).

120 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissenscb. u. Kunst 6. Vai^pavism etc.

Pääupata sect. In a fourth dated 1177 A. D. certain ascetics are called
upholders of the LakuUgamasamaya, i. e. the system based upon a work
of Lakulin, and adherents of KäUmukhas'). Here evidently the Kala-
mukhas are called Lakulas, which is the same as Ps^patas. The
names of the ascetics mentioned in this inscription end in the word
^akti and jlya, which appear to be characteristic of the KäUmukha
sect. In a fifth dated 1 183 A. D. is noticed a grant to NägaSiva-PaQ^^ta,
who is called an upholder of the Läkula System, and the names of his
preceptors in the two preceding generations end in the suffix ^iva«
Näga^iva is praised for eminence in Ägama and in Öivatattva*). From
the ending suffix §iva in these names and the mention of a profi-
ciency in Ägama and in Sivatattva, it appears that Näga^iva was a
f ollower of the Saiva school and at the same time he was a Läkula, or
Pa^upata. A sixth dated 1199 A. D. notices a grant of land to Bamma-
deva, son of NägaräSi, the promoter of the System based upon the work
of Lakulin 3). The suffix räSi is found in a great many names of the
devotees of 6iva. Whether it is a characteristic of a specific sect is
not clear, but it appears that the bearers of it belong to the
PaSupata, or the Kalamukha school. In a seventh dated 12 13 A. D.
a certain religious man is represented as the upholder of the system
known by the name of Vägi-Lakula, i. e. the system of the leamed
Lakulin 4). In an eighth dated 1285 A. D. the grantor is called a
Support er of the new system of Lakulin 5). This perhaps refers to the
later school of Liiigayats. Thus it will be seen that Lakula was the
general name by which the ^aiva sects were called, and the specific
name Kalamukha is associated with the general name in otie case.
This general name has for its basis the historical fact, noticed above
that a person of the name of Lakulin or LakuliSa founded a ^aiva system
corresponding to the Paficaratra system, which the Vayu- and Linga-
Puraqas consider to be contemporaneous with it. The other general
name PaSupata arose by dropping the name of the human individual
Lakulin and substituting that of the god PaSupati, whoseincamation he
was believed to be, as is done in the texts of the MBh. quoted above. But
that the Saiva system had a human founder is confirmed by the fact
that the name of his work, the Pancädhyayl, or Pancarthavidyä, has
been handed down, as will be shown immediately below, and probably
the work is extant, even if it has not yet been discovered, as Madhava

«) Ep. Cam. Vol. V, Pt. I, p. 135 (Translation).

*) Ep. Cam. Vol. V, Arsikere Taluq No. 89. Another holy person of the name
of Naga with the suffix r&si instead of siva is mentioned in inscr. No. 69 Arsikere
Taluq (Ep. Cam. Vol. V, p. 137). A grant is therein recorded to Mftdhajiya, a dxsciple
of N&garasi, who belonged to the Kälamukhas and was himself the disciple of Pad-
masiva-Pav^ita. Another NagarSlsi is mentioned in inscr. No. 48 (Ibid.). The grantee
in this case is Kalya^asakti, disciple of Sivasaktideva, who was himself the disciple of
Nagaräsi, "bound to the Kälamukhas". This NagarBsi, or these two Nagarasis, appear
to me to be different from the Nagasiva mentioned in the text. And the use of the ter-
mination rasi in his case, he being a Kalamukha, and of the word iakti in the case of
two of the pupilSi strengthens my supposition that these were characteristic of the Ka-
lamukha sect, the former being applicable to the Pasupata also.

3) Ep. Cam. Vol. V, Arsikere Taluq No. 103.

4) Ep. Cam. Vol. V, Arsikere Taluq No. 46.
5) Ep. Cam. Vol. XII, p. 45 (Translation).

VII. The Pasupata System. 121

mentions a gloss on the perpetual commentary (Bha$ya) on it, which
also will be noticed below. The conclusion therefore appears to be
that a certain historical person was the founder of the main ^aiva
System which was the same as that explained by Mädhava as Naku-
IKa-PäSupata, and that three other Systems arose out of it in later
times.

The commentators of Saipkara State that there were four of these
schools bearing the names of ^aiva, PaSupata, KSnikasiddhäntin and
Käpälika. Väcaspati, however, calls the third Käru^ikasiddhSntin.
Rämänuja and KeSava KäSmIrin mention the same four schools, but
call Kärukasiddhäntin by the name of Kälämukha. The word Käruka
is probably a corruption of Kauni^ya, the name of the third of the
four (according to the Purä^as) pupils of Lakuli^a, or this last name
may be the Sanskritised form of the original Käruka '). A work of
the name of PaficädhySyl, dealing with the five topics alluded to above
and attiibuted to PaSupati, is mentioned by KeSava KaSmIrin and is
quoted by Rämänanda on KaSlkhap^a ^). Iliis must be the same work
as that which is quoted from by Mädhava in the section on NakuliSa-
PäSupata and attributed by him to NakullSa, or LakuliSa.

VII. The Pasupata System.

§ 92. The five topics mentioned by ^aqikara and explained by
his commentators are these (i) Kärya, or efFect, which is Mahat and
the rest produced from Pradhäna; (2) Käraqa, or the cause, which
is ISvara or MaheSvara and also Pradhäna; (3) Yoga, which is absorption
in meditation or the muttering of the syllable Oip, contemplation,
concentration, etc.; (4) Vidhi, bathing (in ashes) at the three points
of time, i. e. the beginning, the middle and the end of the day, and
the rest up to Güdhacaryä, i.e. incognito movement; (5) Du^khänta,
which is final deliverance. This is amplified by Mädhava in the section
on the Pasupata sect.

I. Effect (Kärya) is that which is not independent. It is of three
kinds: (i) Cognition (Vidyä), (2) Organs (Kala), and (3) individual
soul (PaSu). Of these Cognition is the property of the individual and
is of two kinds: (l) external, and (2) internal. External Cognition is

I) These lour schools are mentioned in the VäyaTlyasaxphiUl of the Siva-Purä^a
(II, 24, 177). The Saiva school, however, is called SiddhKntamarga, and the Kal&mu-
khas are called Mahflvratadharas.

*) See Aufrecht's Cat. Cat. The Vayavlyasai|ihitft (II, 34, 169) also mentions this
work, which it characterises as the highest theosophy (VidyS) of Siva and gives
PaAcaitha as its name, i. e. Panc&rthavidyS. This PancSitha appears to be alluded
to by Msdhava when he refers his reader to the Paficarthabhä^yadlpika in his section
on Nakullsa-Pasupata. In an inscription in the temple of Har^anSth, which exists in
the Slkar principality of the Jaipur State, a person of the name of Visvarüpa is mentioned
as the teacher of the Paficartha-LakulamnAya, i. e. the sacred book of Lakulin, called
Pancftrtha. The inscription is datedV. E. 1013 = A.D. 957, so that there can be no
qnestion that the PBsupata System was attributed to a human author named Lakulin,
the work composed by him being called Paflcärtha (Ep. Ind. Vol. II, p. 122).

The occurrence of the names of the schools and of this book in the Pu^^>a
shows that its composition was later than the foundation of the schools, which, therefore,
must be considered as owing nothing to it.

122 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissentch. u. Kunst. 6. Vaif^avism etc.

of twokinds: (i) distinct, and (2) indistinct. Distinct externa! Cognition,
which is educed by the instniments of knowledge, is called conceptual
Operation (Citta). For by the conceptual Operation every man reduces
to definiteness the thing that has been apprehended definitely or in-
definitely by the aid of the light in the shape of the extemal object.
The internal Cognition is of the nature of virtue or vice, which forms
the objective of the individual and determines for him the body of
precepts he has to foUow. Organs are dependent on the cc^itive
individual and are themselves insensate. They are of two kinds:
(i) effects, and (2) causes. The efifected organs are of ten kinds: the
five Clements, earth and others, and the iive qualities, colourandothers.
The Organs, which are causes, are of thirteen kinds: the five senses,
and the five organs of action, and the three internal organs, viz. Intel-
ligence, egoism and mind, the functions of which are the determination
of the will, the consciousness of the seif, and the formation of a plan
respectively. The individual (Pa^u) is that which has individualism
(PaSutva). It is of two kinds: (l) impure, and (2) pure. The impure
individual is that which is connected with the body and the organs,
while the pure one is unconnected with them. The details should be
Seen in the Pancärthabhä^yadlpika and other works.

IL The cause (Kärapa) is that which effects the destruction of
the whole creation and its prosperity or promotion. Though it is one,
still on account of its various properties and functions it has many
forms, such as lord (Pati), naturally powerful (Sädya), etc. To be the
lord means to have the unbounded power of knowing and acting.
He is, therefore, the etemal ruler. To be a Sädya is to be possessed
of supreme sovereignty, which is not incidental, but natural.

III. Yoga is the connecting of the individual soul with god through
the conceptual faculty (Citta). It is of two kinds, consisting in (l)
action, and (2) cessation from action. The first consists in muttering
syllables and formulas, meditation, etc. The second, or cessation
from action, consists in mere feeling (Samvid).

IV. Vidhi, orprocess, is an Operation which efifects or brings about
righteousness. It is of two kinds: (l) primary, and (2) secondary.
The first, or primary, is conduct (Caryä) which induces righteousness
directly. That conduct is of two kinds: (l) vows, and (2) means or
doors. The vows consist in besmearing the body with ashes and lying
down in ashes, definite practices (Upahära), muttering and circum-
ambulation. Thus has NakuliSa said: "One should besprinkle one*s
body at the three points of the day and lie down in ashes". The definite
practices are six. These have been stated by the author of the Sütras
tobe laughing, singing, dancing, Hudukkära, prostration, and inaudible
repetition. With these he says one should worship. Laughing is the
making of the sound 'häl ha] häT by the forcible Stretch of the throat
and the Ups. Singing is the contemplation of the attributes of Mähe-
§vara in accordance with the rules of the science of music. Dancing
should be resorted to by contracting and stretching forth hands, feet,
etc. and all other principal and subsidiary limbs accompanied by the
representation of feeling in accordance with the science of dancing
and gesticulation. Hudukkära is a holy sound resembling that of an

VII. The PBanpata System. 123

ox made by striking the tongue on the palate. Huduk is an inimi-
tative sound like the sacrificial Va$at. When there is a crowd of
people, all this should be done so as not to be observed.

The means, or doors, are these: (l) Krathana, i. e. affecting to be
asieep when one is awake; (2) Spandana, which is the moving or the
shaking of the limbs as if they were paralysed; (3) Mandana, or the
Walking as if one's legs and other limbs were disabled; (4) ^nigSra^a,
which is showing oneself to be in love by means of amorous gestures
as if on seeing a beautiful young woman; (5) Avitatkara^a, which
is doing a thing condemned by all as if one were devoid of the sense
of discrimination between what should be done and what should be
avoided; (6) Avitadbha^aqa, which is speaking nonsensical and
absurd things.

Secondary processes are those which are intended to help the
conduct (Caryä), such as besmearing with ashes after worship, and
to remove the sense of indecency or impropriety attaching itself to
begging and eating the remnant of what others have eaten. For this
purpose the author of the Sütras has laid down that one should besmear
his body after the worship and wear the faded flowers and leaves
which had been removed from the god and a Linga (the image of the
phallüs).

V. DutJchanta, or final deliverance, is of two kinds: (i) total
destruction of misery, and (2) an elevated condition consisting in the
possession of the pow^r of knowing and acting. The power of
knowing is of five kinds: (i)DarSana, or seeing all objects which are
atomic, concealed orare at a distance, and touching them; (2) Sravapa,
or the miraculous hearing of all sounds; (3) Manana, or the miraculous
knowing of all objects of thought; (4) Vijnäna, or the miraculous
knowledge of all the sciences with that of the treatises on them and
the matter contained in these last; and (5) Sarvajfiatva, or the mira-
culous knowledge of the principles (of a science), whether mentioned
or unmentioned, succinct and detailed, with their divisionsand pecu-
liaiities. The peculiarities of the present System are such as these:
In other Systems the destruction of misery is final deliverance; in this
System the attainment of the highest powers is also to be added. With
others, that which comes into existence from non-existence is an effect;
here the effect is eternal such as PaSu, or the individual soul. In other
Systems the cause depends for its Operation on a subordinate cause;
here the great lord acts independently. With others, the fruit of the
Y<^a, or concentration, is the attainment of an absolute condition;
here it is the attainment of the highest powers. With others, Vidhi,
or process, has for its fruit heaven and other places, from which there
is a return to mortal life; in this system the fruit is proximity etc.
(to god), from which there is no retum.

The power of acting, though one, is regarded as threefold: (i) Mano-
javitva, or the power of doing anything instantly ; (2)Kämarüpitva, or the
power of assuming variety of shapes and forms or bodies and senses
without an effort; (3) Vikramaqadharmitva, or the possession of great
power, even when the Operation of the senses is suspended. Thus then
a man acquires these miraculous powers of knowledge and action at

1 24 m* ReligioDi Weltl. Wisseosch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

the end of a long course of conduct and discipline prescribed by the
PäSupata System.

It will be Seen how fantastic and wild the processes prescribed in
this System for the attainment of the highest condition are. Rudra-
^iva was the god of the open fields and wild and awful regions aivay
from the habitations of men and worshipped by aberrant or irregulär
people. This chäracter did impress itseU on the mode of worship for
his propitiation, which was developed in lat ertimes. The ÖU. endea-
voured to humanise Rudra-Siva; but the wild and outlandish chärac-
ter of the god prevailed. We will now proceed to the consideration of
the äaiva System which seems to have been established in later times.
Here also Madhava will be our main guide, since the many works that
he quotes from are not available.

VIII. The Saiva System.

§ 93. There are three principles: (l) the lord (Pati), (2) the in-'
dividual soul (PaSu), and (3) fetters (Pä^a); and the whole system
has four Pädas, or parts, which are knowledge (Vidyä), action (Kriyä),
meditation (Yoga), and conduct, or discipline (Caryä). The first part
contains an explanation of the nature of the individual soul (Pai§u),
fetters (Pä6a), and god (fevara), and determines the importance of
formulas (Mantra) and the lord presiding over the formulas (Mantre-
Svara). This leads to initiation (Dik^a), which is necessary for the
acquisition of the highest object of life. The second part contains an
explanation of the process of initiation (Dlk^ävidhi), which is of many
forms and has many parts. The third part explains meditation, or
concentration, along with its subsidiary processes. The fourth teaches
discipline, or conduct, consisting in doing what is prescribed and avoi-
ding what is proscribed. Without this Yoga is not possible.

L Now the lord (Pati) is äiva. Siva acts, being impelled thereto
by the deeds (Karman) of souls, and produces things to be enjoyed
or suffered and their means. The exercise of his creative power thus
depends on the Karman of man. He does everything; therefore, he
is omniscient. God has not a body like that of an individual soul which
has the fetters of taint and Karman, etc. ; but he has a body made
up of powers, certain specific five formulas (Mantras) ') being imagined
to be the different parts of his body. These five are his powers and
are also considered his different forms, and by these he does the five
actions, which are creation, existence or protection, destruction, con-
cealment, and benefaction. The f ollowing four partake of the nature

>) These five formulas, or Mantras, are contained in the TA. (X, 43 — 47) and in
the MahanarSya^ya Up. 17. The coznmentator considers these to refer to the five
faces of Siva, respectively. They are Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tatponi^a and
Isana. They are also calied forms of Siva. One of the Danas, or charitable gifts,
mentioned by Hemadri (Danakha^^a Vol. I, pp. 789 — 792 Bibl. Ind.) consists of five
Images made of gold or other metal fashioned in a particular manner of thete five
forms of Siva. In^ giving each a certain verse has to be repeated. These five forms
are identified in a Saiva treatise with the earth, water, fire, wind and ether, respectively,
and they are considered as the Creators of these Clements in another, yiz. VIra-Saiva-
Cintamapi, Sholapur 1908 A. D.

VIII. The Saiva System. 125

o£ ^iva: (i) formulas (Mantras), (2) the deity presiding over the
formülas (MantreSvara), (3) the great god (Mahe^vara), and (4)
delivered souls (Mukta).

II. The Pa^u is the individual soul, who is atomic and known
by the name of K$etrajna (self-conscious) and otbers. It is eternal
and all-pervading. It is not incapable of action nor is it one only,
as is maintained by other schools of philosophy. When the fetters
are removed, he becomes ^iva, possessing eternal and boundless know-
ledge and power of action. The Muktas, or delivered ones, are Sivas,
-who have so become by the favour of him who is etemally Mukta, and
is a person with five formulas (Mantras) for his body, i. e. he is identiiied
with the. god Siva himself. Though they become äivas,. they are not
independent, but depend upon the eternal god, ^iva. PaSu is of three
kinds: (l) VijnSnäkala, who has shaken off bis connection with all
the Organs (Kaläji) ») in consequence of the destruction of the im-
pression of deeds done, by means of knowledge, meditation, asceticism,
or by the enjoyment or suffering of the fruit (Bhoga), and has simple
taint (Mala). The second is Pralayäkala, whose organs are destroyed
by the dissolution of the world. He has both impression of deeds
(Karman) and taints (Mala). The third is Sakala, who has all the
three fetters, taint (Mala), impression of deeds (Karman), and material
cause (Mäyä). Vijnänakala is of two kinds: (l) one whose taint (Kalu^a)
has ended, and (2) another whose taint (Kalu$a) has not ended. The
first are those, whose taint (Kalu$a) having ended, are elevated to
the Position of VidyeSvaras. The VidyeSvaras are eight and are as
foUows: (l) Ananta, or endless, (2) atomic, (3) the most excellent
6iva, (4) the one-eyed, (5) the one Rudra, (6) he with the three forms,
(7) SrikaQtha, and (8) ^ikha^din. Another author says that Siva in-
vests the Samäptakalu^a (one whose taint has ended) with Vidye^atva,
which is of eight kinds, and the Asamäptakalu$a (one whose taint has
not ended) he raises to the dignity of formulas (Mantras) which are
seven crores. Pralayäkala is also of two kinds. The first is one whose
two fetters have matured (and about to be shaken off), and the second
is different from him. The first attainsMok^a, and the second, entangled
with Purya^taka, undergoes many births in accordance with his im-
pression of deeds (Karman). The Purya§taka is a subtle body, which
is composed of Clements which are variously enumerated. Of those
who have the Purya§taka, some, who are virtuous, are raised to Bhu-
vanapatitvabyMaheSvara Ananta. Sakala is also of two kinds: (l) one
whose taint (Kalu^a) is matured, and (2) one whose taint (Kalu^a)
is not matured. The first is raised to the dignity of Mantre^vara of
118 Mantras, i. e. of so many kinds. ParameSvara, assuming the form
of his preceptor by the process of initiation and the use of power
calculated to counteract the matured taint, confers Mok§a. Those
Apus, or atomic souls, whose taint has not ripened (i. e. is not in a
condition to be wiped away) are made to suffer or enjoy in accordance
with their Karman.

III. PäSa (fetter) is of four kinds: (l) Mala, or taint, (2) Karman, or
the impression of deeds, (3)Mayä, or material cause, and (4) RodhaSakti,

>) See previous section.

126 UL Reticum, WeltL WisMosch. u. Knast. 6. Vaif^aviim ctc

or obstructive power. Mala, or taint, is that which conceals the knowing
and acting power of the soul and is like the husk envdoping a giain
of rice. Kannan is the impression of deeds done for the attainment
of fruit. It is righteous or unrighteous. It is unbeginning, ever
continuing in succesion in the manner of seed and its ^rout. Mäyä
is that into which the whole creation resolves itself at the time of
dissolution and from which it Springs out at the time of recreatioD.
The obstructive power is the power of Siva, which, because it regu-
lates the three other fetters and conceals the true nature of the soui,
is itself called a fetter. It performs its function, because it is the
principle of speech by means of w^hich names are given to things
and thus their nature is determined ').

§ 94. This constitutes the first part of the System (Vidyäpäda),
the nature of the other three parts has been succinctly given above.
A few details are these ^) : The second part (Kriyapäda) treats of the
accomplishment of Mantra, the twilight adorations, worship, muttering
of formulas (Japa), throwing oblations into the fire, occasional cere«
monies for the attainment of etemal bliss, anointing of the preceptor
and of the person entering on a course of action for final emandpaticm
(Sädhaka), and one's own initiatory ceremonies necessary to fit one
for a wordly and for an etemal life. In the third, or the Yoga part
are mentioned the thirty-six principles; the deities presiding over them;
the lords of the difFerent worlds; the individual soul; tihe aU-ruling
soul; the power (^akti); the direct perception of Mäyä and Mahämäyä,
which are the causes of the world; the attainment of the miraculous
powers, minuteness, lightness, etc. for those who concem themselves
with the worldly element; the methods of the restraint of the breath,
abstraction, meditation, concentration, and absorption in thougfat
(Samädhi); and the positions of the circles in the body beginning with
the root-circle (Mfllädhära, or navel). The fourth part treats of penances,
a purificatory ceremony (Paviträropapa), the foundation, and the
natures of ^ivalinga, of the visible Liiiga of Umä and MaheSvara, and
of the lord of Gaqas, or groups, such as Skanda and Nandin, of the
rosary used for the muttering of formulas, and the funeral Sräddhas.
This last part appears to contain matters subsidiaryto, andexplanatory
of, the actions enjoined in the second part. The proscribed actions
mentioned above are: (i) the eating of the residue of what is o£Fered
to another deity; (2) the vilification of (a) 6iva, (b) of the devotees
of äiva, (c) of the System of äiva, (d) of the practices enjoined in the
Saiva system; (3) the enjoyment of things belonging to God; (4) the
killing of animals.

§ 95. The doctrines of the Saiva school are more moderate and
rational than those of the PäSupata school. This last, as well as the
two extreme schools to be mentioned next, are called Atimärgika, or
schools that are away from the patb or go astray, and are spoken of
by Sambhudeva, quoted in the above paragraph, as revealed byRudra.
The Saiva school he calls the Siddhänta^ästra, or the true Sästra

1) Saipbhudeva's Saivasiddhantadlpikfl, Sholapur 1909.
*) From the same work.

IX. The Kapala and Kalftmukha Sects. I27

based upon the Mantras, and says that it was revealed by ^iva. The
Väyavfyasamhita also caUs it the Siddhänta school. It will have
been seen that both this and the PäSupata school are dualistic or plura-
listic and maintain that the sxipreme and individual souls are distinct
entities and the Pradhäna the constituent cause of the material world.
In the delivered condition the individual soul shakes off its ignorance and
weakness and attains boundless knowledge and power of action accor-
ding to the PäSupata doctrine, while the ^aivas hold that he becomes
Siva himself, i. e. attains perfect resemblance with the god 6iva
without, however, the power of creation.

The ^aiva school that developed itself in later times and is repre-
sented by Saipbhutieva, and SrlkapthaSiväcärya to be noticed here-
after and supported also by texts in the Väyaviyasaiphitä holds
that Siva possesses or develops in himself a Sakti, or power, consi-
sting of the rudiments of the individual soul and the material world,
and from this power the whole world is developed. This doctrine may,
therefore, be called qualified spiritual monism like that of Ramänuja,
in as much as Siva characterised by the Sakti creates. This last is
a tenet of the Lingäyat school also.

IX. The Kapala and Kalamukha Sects.

§ 96. Ramanuja teils us under II, 2, 35 or 36 that the Käpälikas
maintain that a man who knows the essence of the six marks (Mudrika)
and who is skilf ul in their use, attains the highest bliss by concentrating
his mind on the soul seated on the female organ. The six marks are
(i) a necklace, (2) an ornament, (3) an ear-ornament, (4) a crest jewel,
(5) ashes, and (6) the sacred thread (YajnopavTta). He whose body
bears these marks, is free from transmigration. The Kälämukhas
hold that the foUowing are the means for the attainment of desires
concerning this world and the next: — (l) eating food in a skull;
(2) besmearing the body with the ashes of a dead body; (3) eating
the ashes; (4) holding a club; (5) keeping a pot of wine; and (6) wor-
shipping the god as seated therein. A bracelet of Rudrak$a, one string
of matted hair on the head, a skuU, besmearing the body with ashes,
and such other things are mentioned in the Saiva sacred books. They
also maintain that people of other castes become Brähmapas and
attain to the highest order by the Performance of certain rites. For
it is Said '*One becomes a Brähmapa immediately after the process of
simple Initiation^ and a man becomes a holy Saint by undertaking the
vow of a Käpäla".

In the Saqikaradigvijaya (chap. XV, vv. i — 28) Mädhava brings
Samkara into contact with the KäpSlikas at a place which, according
to the commentator, was Ujjayinl. The preceptor of the sect came
forward to meet Sainkara. His body was besmeared with the ashes
taken from a buming-ground. He had a skull in his band and also an
iron lance. He said toSaipkara: "The ashes on your body are all right »).

>) Lines of ashes are bome on the body by ordinary Saivas also and Saqikara's
body was marked with them.

128 III. Religion, Weld. Wissensch. n. Kunst. 6. Vaif^avism etc.

But why dost thou carry an unholy potsherd instead of the holy skull ?
Why dost thou not worship KapSlin who is Bhairava? How -will
Bhairava become pleased unless he is worshipped by the skulls red
with the blood of men and with wine?" Then ensues a fight between
Sudhanvan, the king, who accompanied Saipkara in his wanderings
and the Käpalikas. Satnkara also pronounced a curse on them, and
they were all killed. Then Krakaca, the leader of the Käpälikas,
Coming up to Samkara, filled the skull in his hand with wine, drank
half of it and left the other half and invoked Bhairava. Bhairava
came up and Krakaca prayed to him to destroy his enemy; but as
Saipkara was his own incarnation, he destroyed Krakaca himself and
not Saipkara. In Änandagiri's book the Käpälikas, whom l^mkara
meets at Ujjayini, speak of Bhairava being the great god, who creates,
destroys, etc. They profess to have their knowing power sharpened
by drinking wine and eating a certain kind of food (probably a dis*
gusting substance) and always being embraced by the power (Sakti)
of Kapälin, i. e. Bhairava. BhavabhQti in his Mälatimädhava gives
SriSaila as the principal seat of the Käpälikas. Miraculous powers
of speedy movement attained by the practice of Yoga are attributed
to them. The woman Kapälakupdala wears a garland of human skulls.
She carries away Mälati, the heroine of the play, from the place where
she was sleeping in her father's palace in the dead of night and places
her before the image of Karälä - Cämupdä near the cemetery to
be killed and sacrificed to the goddess by her preceptor Aghora-
ghapta.

It will be seen how horrible and demoniacal this sect was. The
fear which some of the phenomena of external nature inspire in the
mind of man led to the Vedic conception of Rudra, and this has now
culminated into the ideal image of the horrid god Bhairava with his
wife Cap^ika wearing a garland of human skulls and requiring human
sacrifices and offerings of wine for his propitiation. In the account
just given there appears to be a confusion between the sects of Käpä-
likas and Kälämukhas. From Rämänuja's account the Kälämukhas
appear to be the most extreme sect; and they are called Mahävrata-
dharas in the 6iva-Purä^^a as noticed above. Mahävrata means the
great vow, and the greatness of the vow consists in its extraordinary
nature, such as eating food placed in a human skull, besmearing the
body with the ashes of human carcasses and others which are attributed
to the Kälämukhas by Rämänuja. Jagaddhara, the commentator on
the Mälatimädhava, however, explains Käpälikavrata by Mahä-
vrata'), and this explanation appears to be correct, since the ascetics
dwelling in the temple of KäpäleSvara in the Näsik district are, as
we have seen, called in the grant Mahävratins, or the observers of the
great vow. The account of Käpälikas given above from other authori-
ties looks like those of the most extreme sect. Ordinarily, therefore,
people do not seem to have made a sharp distinction between the
Käpälikas and the Kälämukhas.

») Act I, p. 33, on 1. 127 of my second edition of the play.

X. Kasmir Saivism« 129

X. Kasmir Saivism.

§ ^T. It is a relief now to turn away from this ghastly picture of the
wild aberrations of the human intellect and spirit to a system of Öaivism
more humane and rational. The KaSmir baivism has two branches,
the SpandaSästra and the PratyabhijfiäSästra. The authorship of the
first is attributed to Vasugupta and his pupil Kallata. The two principal
Werks of the System are the 6ivasütram or Öivasüträiji and the Spanda-
karikäs, which are fifty-one verses only. The first are said to have
been revealed to Vasugupta by Siva himself or by a Siddha, or per-
fected human being. They were inscribed on a rock on the Mahädeva
hin, and Vasugupta was directed to the rock by 6iva. Another account
is that they were revealed by the god in a dream, and another account still
further confers the credit of the revelation on the perfected human
being. These two last occurrences are said to have taken place on the
Mahädeva hill. As to the second work, there are also varying traditions,
one ascribing the authorship of the verses to Vasugupta and another to
Kallata. A third tradition, however, that Kallata obtained the know-
ledge of the System from Vasugupta and composed the Spandakärikas
for the instruction of his pupils seems to contain the truth*). What
the meaning of the roundabout tradition about the Sivasütras which
do not ascribe their authorship to Vasugupta directly is, it is diffi-
cult to say; perhaps the original work was the Spandakärikäs and the
prose SivasQtras were composed in later times in the older or more
orthodox form, and as Vasugupta was probably too near the time
when they were composed and what he did was known to all, a mira-
culous origin was given to the new Sütras and Vasugupta was repre-
sented to have received them from others and not composed them
himself.

§ 98. Kallata lived in the reign of Avantivarman *), 854 A.D.,
wherefore his Guru's literary activity must be referred to the be-
ginning of the ninth Century. The foUowers of this school boldly deny
the necessity of God's having a prompting cause, such as Karman, or
a material cause, like the Pradhäna, for the creation of the world.
Neither do they admit that he is himself the material cause, as the
Vedäntasütras maintain, nor do they think some principle of illusion,
such as Mäyä, generates appearances which are false. God is according
to them independent and creates merely by the force of his will all
that comes into existence. He makes the world appear in himself,
as if it were distinct from himself, though not so really, as houses or
even towns appear in a mirror, and is as unafiected by it as the mirror
is by the images reflected in it. Neither does he exist only as realised
in the world, which is the conclusion that follows from the doctrine
that he is the material cause. In a verse attributed to Vasugupta
an obeisance is made to Salin, or Siva, who is represented as por-

I) For these various traditions see my Report on the Search for Sanskrit Manu-
Scripts during 1883—84, p. 77^.

>) Btlhler, Report of a Tour made in Kasmir, p. 78.

Indo-arische Philologrie III. 6. 9

130 in. Religion, Weltl. Wissen -r u. Kunst. 6. VaifQarism etc.

traying a picture of the world without a canvass and a collection
of materials *).

Another Illustration that they give of creation without any ma-
terial or prompting cause is that of a Yogin who creates objects by bis
mere will without any materials. God himself by his own wonder-
working power appears in the form of the many individual souls and
by means of another power brings into existence the State of things
which goes to form what we call the wakeful and dreamy condition
of our life^). Thus according to this system the individual soul is
identical with the supreme soul. But the former does not perceive
this identity on account of his impurity. This impurity, or Mala, is
of three kinds. When a soul forgets his own free and universal nature
through ignorance and believes himself to be imperfect and regards
things, such as the body, which are not himself, to be himself, and thus
reduces himself to finiteness or subjects himself to limitations, the
impurity is called ÄQava (littleness). Then his remaining in the body,
which is prepared by the originator of things, called Mäyä, is another
species of impurity known as Mäylya, or effected by Mäyä. And when
under the influence of the internal organ, or the heart, the oi^ns of
action are set in motion, the impurity arising from it is called Kärma,
or resulting from action, such as that consisting in a man's conscious-
ness of having done a good or evil deed which is to lead to happiness
or misery in the end 3). These several kinds of impurity are brought
into action by Näda, which is the f emale element constituting a primeval
power (Sakti) of Siva and from which rises speech. Without speech
the ideas which render a worldly life possible can not stand or assume
a shape or form, and therefore the principle of speech is believed to
be the origin of the Mala, or impurity, which leads to a worldly life.
This power is associated with others which are personalised as Ambä,
Jye§thä, Raudri, Vämä4). The impurity vanishes when by means of
intense contemplation the vision of the highest being breaJcs in upon
the mind of the devotee and absorbs all finite thought. When this
conditio!^ becomes stable, the individual soul is free and becomes the
supreme soul. The breaking in of the vision is called Bhairava, because
it is his and is caused by him 5).

§ 99. The founder of the Pratyabhijnä school of KaSmIra Saivism
was Somänanda, the work written by whom is called Sivadr5ti. But
the principal treatise of the school was composed by his pupil Udayäkara,
and contains verses which are called Sütras. On these Sütras there
are glosses and detailed explanations by Abhinavagupta, the pupil of

See Mädhava's Sarvadarsanasaipgraha, PratyabhijnSdarsana. This reise is
quoted in the KävyaprakSsa, chap. IV, and by other writers on Alaipk&ras.
») See the first note on p. 80 of my Report for 1883 — 84.

3) SivasutravimarsinI by K^emaAja under SOtras I, 2 and 3, pablished by the Kai-
mlra Government.

4) Ibid. Sütra 4, and SpandapradlpikS, v. 42. These several kinds of Mala and
Näda conespond to Pä§as, or fetters, viz. Nfola, Karman, Maya and Rodhasakti given
by Madhava_in the Saivadarsana. The word Mala Stands here for the Pftsa of that
System and Ä^ava for its Mala. It is also called Ä^ava by Saxpbhudeva.

5) SivasutravimarsinI, I. 5.

XI. The Virasaiva or l.iAg^yat Sect. I3I

the pupil of Somänanda '). Abhinavägupta wrote between 993 and
1015 A. D. >), wherefore Somänanda must be taken to have lived
in the first quarter of the tenth centurjr.

The doctrines of the creation of the world and of the relations
between the iridividual and supreme^ouls set forth by this school
are the same as those maintained by the preceding one. But the way
of the perception of the identity is recognition according to this System.
There is an Upani§ad text3), from which it follows that every thing
shines when He shines and everything becomes perceptible by His
light, and thus our knowing power is the same as God's and every*»
thing outside of us becomes an object of knowledge by his illumining
power. Capable of knowledge and action as we are, we partake of the
nature of God; but there is no reason to place a limit to this partici-
pation, and it must be understood that we are God himself. But the
joy and elevation characteristic of God we are unconscious of in our
present condition, and th^t is due to the fact that we do not recognise
that we are God, though we are really so. Just as a maiden, stricken
with love for a youth whose excellences have been described to her,
is not fiUed with raptures when she is carried to him and looks upon
him as an ordinary individual, but is overjoyed and devotes her whole
soul to him when she is told that he is the man whose excellences had
so fascinated her, so is it with the individual soul. The serene bliss
of godly nature he does not feel, though he is himself God, because
he is not aware that those high attributes which belong to the divine
nature exist in him. But when he is led to believe by his preceptor
that he possesses them, i. e. when by his instructions he is enabled to
recognise God in himself, then it is that the serene bliss dawns upon
him. The Spanda school mentions the dawning of the form or vision
of Bhairava, or God, on the mind in the courseof meditationandthereby
the Clearing away of the impurities as the way to the realisation of
the identity with God, while this maintains that recognition of oneself
as God is the way.

According to Mädhava these two Systems do not enjoin restraint
of the breath, concentration, and all that course of fantastic external
and internal conduct or discipline which the other schools prescribe
as essential. These two schools appearently cut themselves off from
the old traditional Saivism, which gradually developed itself into the
ghastly Käpälism or Kälämukhism, and hence the epithet PäSupata
or Läkula cannot be applied to them in any sense. A fresh revelation,
therefore, was claimed for Vasugupta, though some of the doctrines
of the more sober Öaiva school were preserved in the Spanda system.

XL The Virasaiva or Lingäyat Sect.

§ 100. The foundation of this sect is generally attributed to Basava,
who was the son of Mädiräja, a Brähmai^a supposed to be of the

') Balller, Report of a Tour made in Kasmir; extract from Nos. 465 — 66, p. CLK.

») Ibid. pp. 81—82.

3) KU. 5, 15; äü. 6, 14; Mü. 2, 2, 10.

9*

132 III. Religion, Weltl. Wiss«nsch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

Arädhya sect. His story is given in the Basavapuräoa ^) published
in 1905, at Poona. From this story it by no means follows that be
founded the sect by settling its doctrines and founding what may
be called a church. He, however, appears to be a strenuous supporter
of the sect. In the beginning oftlie Basavapurä^a Närada is represented
to have gone to Siva and told him that on earth there were devotees
of Vi$Qu, foUowers of the sacrificial religion, Jainas and Buddhists,
but there were no devotees of his. He mentions Vi^veSvarärädhya^
Papditärädhya, Ekorama, the great Yogin, and others as having flou-
rished from time to time and established Sivabhakti, but there isnone
now. Siva thereupon told his Nandin to become incarnate on earth
for the promotion of his religion and the furtherance of the cause of
ViraSaivas. From all this it does not appear that Basava was the
originator of the sect. He had predecessors, three of whom have just
been named. His was a life of political turmoil. From his native place
Bägevädi he went to Kalyäija, when Vijjala, or Vijjana, was reigning
(1157 — II67A. D.). His maternal uncle Baladeva was the minister
of the king, and he himself was raised to the position after his death.
Basava^s sister, a beautiful woman, was married by the king. He
was in Charge of the king's treasury and spent lai^e amounts in sup-
porting and entertaining members of Lingäyat mendicantSy called
Jangamas. The matter came to the notice of the king Vijjala, who
gradually became completely alienated from him and endeavoured to
apprehend him. Basava fled away, and the king sent a few men in
pursuit. These were easily defeated by Basava, whereupon the king
himself advanced with troops to punish him; but Basava had collected
a large number of followers and succeeded in defeating him. The
king was reconciled to Basava and brought him back to Kalyäpa, but
there could be no true reconcilement, and after a time Basava caused
the king to be assassinated.

§ IUI. There is a work entitled Vijjalaräyacarita by a Jaina, which
also gives an account of Basava and his relations with VijjaQa. It
is written from the point of view of an enemy of Basava and mentions
Basava*s sister as having been given to the king as a mistress, which
was perhaps true. But since the Lingäyat account and the Jaina
account, agree in the main particulars, they may be accepted as his-
torical ^). Basava thus was a scheming politician and could hardly
have been the propounder of a new System of doctrines or the organiser
of a new sect. Besides, in the many Lingäyat works now available,
his name is not mentioned as the name of a teacher of any articles of
faith. What he did, therefore, appears to have been that he used
his political influence to raise the fortunes of the ViraSaiva sect, to
bring it into prominence, and to disseminate the creed. There is an-
other man who has been brought forward by Dr. Fleet, on the strength

I) This book and a good many others appertaining to the LiAgSyat sect have
been published under the patronage of an influential and enlightened member of
the sect, the late Mr. Malläppa Varada of Sholapur.

') For the Lingäyat account see the translation of the Basavapuräpa, Joum.
B. B. R. A. S. Vol. VIII, or the Basavapura^a itself, printed at Poona, and for the
latter see VVilson's Mackenzie Mss.

XI. The Virasaiva or Lingäyat Sect I33

of certain inscriptions, as the founder of the Lingayat sect, and that
is Ekänta, or Ekäntada, Rämayya. An account of this person is also
given in the second part of the BasavapuräQa, and this and that
in the inscriptions come to this that he was an enemy of the Jainas
and wished to destroy their gods and^shrines. He laid a wager with
them that he would cut off his head and lay it at the feet of Siva,
and if it should be restored to him and replaced on his Shoulders as
it was before, the Jainas should consent to throw down their idols
and protess a belief in Saivism. According to the inscription, this was
first done at Ablür at the place where it exists, and when Rämayya
compelled the Jainas to destroy their idols, they went to Kalyä];ia and
complaiaed to king Vijjapa, who thereupon summoned Rämayya into
his presence and required him to explain why he did so. He offered
to repeat the feat of cutting off his head and getting it back again
in the presence of the king. The Basavapurä^a represents Basava
himself to have been present when Rämayya laid this wager. So that
beyond undermining the Jaina sect there is no evidence of Rämayya's
having built up the Virasaiva creed.

§ 102. In connection with Dik§äs, or initiatory ceremonies, as,.for
instance, that which one has to go through when one has to choose
a Guru, or preceptor, it is necessary to place four metallic vessels füll
of water at the four cardinal points and one in the middle. This last
belongs to the person to be consecrated as Guru, or preceptor, who
is supposed to represent an old Acärya, or teacher, of the name of
ViSvärädhya, and the other four to four other priests chosen as having
been brought up in the schools of Revapasiddha, Marulasiddha, Eko-
räma and Pao^itärädhya and connected with certain Mathas, or esta-
blishments *). The same list is given in another treatise*). These five
vessels are consecrated to the fiive faces or forms of äiva, Sadyojäta,
etc., mentionedin a former section 3). TheÄcäryas, orteachers, named
above are believed to have Sprung from the five forms of Siva in this
Kali age4). Others bearing other names, born in other ages of the
World, are also mentioned, but with these we have nothing to do. Of
these five teachers three at least are mentioned as having preceded
Basava in the passage quoted at the beginning of this section, It will
thus appear that the Virasaiva, or Lingayat, System came into existence
before Basava. It is affiliated to the moderate or sober school of
^aivas known by the name of SaivadarSana, or SiddhäntadarSana
as it is called by its foUowers; and especially to the later form of it alluded
to before 5). But its technical terms, Sthala, Anga, Linga, etc., and
its ideas are entirely different from those of that school as explain-
ed by Mädhava and others. And these terms we do not meet with
clsewhere, so that this was a modern school. When it originated, it
is difficult to say. But it was clearly in a militant condition in the

') Vivekacintamavi, POrvabhflga, Sholapur 1909 A. D., pp. 230 ff.
*) Vinsaivacarapradipika, Poona 1905 A. D., pp. 33 — 37.

3) P. 124, note I.

4) Pancacaryapancamotpattiprakara^a, Bombay 1903 A. D., p. i.

3) § 95.

134 m* Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai$Qavism etc.

time of Basava. It must, therefore, have originated about a hundred
years before. The names of two at least of the five teachers as given
above end in the word ärädhya, while in other books all the five have
that epithet attached to their names'). This was the name of a sect
allied to the Lingäyats.

Of the five Äcäryas represented by the five metallic vessels, Mr.
Brown ^) does not mention the middle one and calls all the other four
Ärädhyas, so that all the five preceptors honoured at the time of
initiation and other ceremonies belong to the Arädhya sect, which,
according to Mr. Brown, was a sect of the ViraSaiva creed. There
has been a good deal of ill f eeling between the Ärädhyas and the ordinary
Lingäyats, and that appears to be due to the retention by the former
of some Brähmaijic rites, such as repeating the holy Gäyatrimantra
and wearing the sacred thread. But the very nameÄrädhya, which
means one to be adored or worshipped, shows that, before the con-
tention between the two sects arose, the Ärädhyas enjoyed very great
respect. Taking all these circumstances into consideration, what appears
to be the truth is that the VIraSaiva creed was reduced to a shape by
the Ärädhyas, who must have been men of leaming and holy living
and the subsequent reformers, such as Basava, gave it a decidedly
uncompromising and anti-Brähmai^ical character. And thus these
two sects of the ViraSaiva faith came into existence. We will now
give a Short account of the doctrines of this school.

§ 103. The One,Highest, Brahman, characterisedby existence(Sat),
intelUgence (Cit), and joy (Änanda), is the essence of Siva (Sivatattva)
and is called Sthala. Then are given explanations as to why it is called
Sthala, two of them based upon an artificial etymology. In thesupreme
Brahman, or the essence of Siva, Mahat and other principles exist and
are eventually resolved into it. In it first exists the universe, arising
from Prakrti and Puru§a, and to it it returns at the end; therefore
it is called Sthala. (The first part stha signifies sthäna, or Standing,
and the second part la signifies laya, or resolution.) That name is
given to it also because it is the support of the whole moveable and
immoveable world and holds all powers, all luminaries, and all souls.
It is the resting place of all beings, of all worlds, and of all possessions.
It is the highest place to be attained by those who seek the highest
happiness, and therefore it is called the One only and non-dualistic
Sthala (position). By the agitation of its innate power (Sakti)
that Sthala becomes divided into two: (l) Lifigasthala, (2) Änga-
sthala. Lifigasthala is Siva or Rudra and is to be worshipped or
adored, while the Angasthala is the individual soul, the worshipper
or adorer. In the same manner, the Sakti, or power, divides herseif
into two by her own will, one of the parts resorting to Siva
and being called Kala, and the other resorting to the individual
soul and being called Bhakti, or devotion. Sakti, or power, has got a
certain susceptibility, which leads it to action and entanglement with
the World, while Bhakti is free from that susceptibility and tums

>) PaficäcSryapaficamotpattiprakarapa, p. 35.

*) Madras Journal of Literature and Science , Vol. XI.

XI. The Virasaiva or LiAgSyat Sect. I35

away from action and from the world and leads to final deliverance.
The Sakti, or power, makes one an object of worship, while Bhakti
makes one a worshipper; therefore, the former exists in the Linga
or ^iva, and the latter in the Anga or individual soul. Eventually,
yby this Bhakti, there is a union between the. soul and Siva.

The Linga is Siva himself, and not a mere external emblem of
him. The Lingasthala is divided into three: (l) Bhävalihga, (2) Präpa-
linga, and (3) I$t^linga. The first is without any parts (Kala) and is
to be perceived by faith. It is simple Sat (existence), not conditio ned by
Space or time, and is higher than the highest. The second is to be
apprehended by the mind and has parts and is without parts. The
third has parts and is apprehensible by the eye. This confers all desired
(i$ta) objects and removes afflictions; or it receives its name because
it is worshipped (i§ta) with care. The Präpalinga is the intelligence
(Cit) of the Supreme Soul, and I§l:alinga, the joy. The first is the highest
principle, the second is the subtle form, and the third, the gross form.
These three Lingas, corresponding to the soul, the life and the gross
form, and being characterised by use (Prayoga), formulas (Mantra)
and action (Kriyä), form what are called Kala, Näda and Bindu.
Each of these three is divided into two; the first into Mahälinga and
Prasädalinga, the second into Caralinga and ^ivalinga, and the
third into Gurulinga and Äcäralinga. These six operated on by six
kinds of äakti, or power, give rise to the foUowing sixforms. (i) When
the äiva essence is operated on by the power of intelligence (Cit), it
forms the Mahälinga, the attributes of which are the absence of birth
and death, freedom from taint, perfection, unity, subtlenesg, being
higher than the highest, incorruptibility, unfathomableness, capability
of being apprehended by faith and love, and idealistic (Caitanyarüpa).

(2) When the Siva essence gets permeated with its highest power
(Parä^akti), then is produced a principle called Sädäkhya^) which is
light, eternal, indivisible, imperceptible to the senses, apprehensible
by reason, indestructible, and the rudiment that develops; and that
principle is called Prasädalinga. (3) When the 6iva essence is operated
on by its primeval power (Ädi^akti), Caralinga is produced, which
is infinite and pervades the internal and external world, which is füll
of light, is a Puru§a (a person), and is higher than the Pradhäna or
Prakrti, and capable of being contemplated by the mind alone. (4) When
permeated by the will power (Icchä^akti), it forms Öivalinga, which
is a finite principle with a sense of egoism, possessed of knowledge
and power (Kalä),having a celestial ref ulgenee, with one face, and serene.
(5) When permeated with the power of knowledge (Jnänasakti),
it forms a Gurulinga, which possesses agency, presides over every
System or science that instructs, is füll of light, a boundless ocean of
joy, and dwells in human intelligence. (6) When influenced by the

^) The Sadakhya is the product of the combination of the principle, the Siva essence,
with the two of the five powers, Pars and Ädi. The Sadakhyas are five: (i) Siva-
sadäkhya, which develops into Sadäsiva ; (2) Amürta, or not finite, which becomes Isa ;

(3) Samürta, or finite, which results in Brahmesa; (4) Kartr, or agent, which becomes
Isvara; (5) Karman, or action, which develops into IsSna. The Sadakhya alluded to
in the text raast be Sadäsiva.

136 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vaif^avism etc.

power of action (KriyäSakti), it is called Acäralinga, which in the
shape of action serves as the support for the existence of all things,
which is conceivable by the mind, and leads to a life of renunciation.

It will be Seen that the original entity becomes divided into God
and individual soul by its innate power, and the six forms of the first,
that are mentioned, are the various ways of looking at God. The first
form is the infinite Being considered independently. The second is
the form in which we conceive of him as developing or creating by
its highest power. The third is the form in which he is conceived as
distinct from the material world, The fourth is a bodily form, the body,
however, not being made up of ordinary matter, but celestial like the
body attributed to Näräyai^ia, or Krspa, by the Vai§aavas. The fifth
is the form in which he instructs mankind. And the sixth involves
the idea of his guiding the individual soul in his actions until he is
delivered. In this form äiva is the Redeemer.

Bhakti is the characteristic of the individual souls. It consists in
a tendency towards God, and there are three stages in the progress of
this tendency and, corresponding to these, there are three divisions
of the Angasthala, or the subject of the individual soul. The first or
highest division is called Yogänga, the second Bhoganga, and the
third Tyägänga. By the first, a man obtains happiness by his union
with 6iva; by the second, he enjoys along with Siva; and the last in-
volves the abandonment of the world as transient or illusory. The first
corresponds to the resolution into the cause and to the condition of
sound sleep, the second to the subtle body and to dreamy sleep, and
the third to the gross body and to the wakeful condition. Two varieties
of each of these are distinguished. Of the first, or Yogänga, we have
the two, Aikya and Sara^a. The first consists in sharing the joys of
äiva after one is convinced of the unreality of the whole world. This
is called Samarasä Bhakti, in which God and the soul are united in
blissful experience. The second is called Sarai;;iabhakti, in which one
sees Linga, or God, in himself and everything eise. It is a condition
of joy for oneself. The second is also of two kinds: (l) Präoalingin
and (2) Prasädin. The first consists in abandoning all regard for life,
renunciation of egoism, and concentration of the whole mind upon
the Linga, or God. The second is realised, when one resigns all the
objects of one's enjoyment to the Linga, or God, and serenity (Prasäda)
is acquired. The divisions of the last are Mähe^vara and Bhakta.« The
first is one who has a firm belief in the existence of God, who goes
through the whole discipline consisting in the observance of vows and
restraints, which have 6iva for their object, and truth, morality,
cleanliness, etc. and a heroically rigid vow based upon a firm belief in
the unity of the Linga, or God. A Bhakta is one, who, tuming his
mind away from all objects by which it is attracted and practising
devotion and rites, lives a life of indifference to the world ').

This represents the progress of the soul from indifference to the world,
which is the first step, through theintermediate stages, in a reverse order,

') The above is an abstract of the matter contained in the AnubhavasQtra
of Mayideva, Sholapur, 1909.

XI. The Virasaiva or LiDgSyat Sect. 137

» ■

to Sämarasjra, or union in blissful experience withäiva, which is the
highest conditon. The goal thus pointed out does not involve a per-
fect identity between the supreme and individual souls or the
shaking off of individuality and beconiing a simple soul un-
conscious of itself, which is the doctiine of the great non-dualistic
school of äaipkara, The belief of the ViraSaiva school that the original
essence of Öiva divided itself by its own innate power into Linga, or
God, and Anga, or the individual soul, and under the influence of other
powers the essence became the creator of the world, shows that the
doctrine of that school is that the rudiment of the creation exists in
God himself in the shape of his power, but this power is not unreal.
This doctrine, therefore, resembles that of Kämänuja, but with the
latter there is a real rudiment of the soul and of the external world
characterising God which afterwards develops, but with the ViraSaivas
there exists a power only in God which leads to creation; so that it
is the power that characterises God according to the latter, while the
rudiment is his characteristic according to the former. The Lingäyat
school, therefore, is a school of qualified spiritual monism (ViSi$tä-
dvaita). It will also have been seen that the method of redemption
taught by this school is that of Bhakti or love of God, and a course
of moral and spiritual discipline up to the attainment of Sämarasya
with äiva. In this respect also it resembles Rämänuja's System.

SiikapthaSiväcärya, whose Bha$ya on the Vedäntasutras has
long been before the public, holds the same view. Under I, 4, 22,
he States that the word Atman in the sense of the individual soul is
used to express the supreme soul in BU. (IV, 5, 6), because the latter
is the internal Controller of the former and is spoken of as identical
with everything in this sense. Under II, 2, 38, he states that äiva
as possessed of powers is the material cause of the world; and in his
comment on IV, 4, 3 — ^4 he represents the dehvered soul as similar to
the Supreme Soul, that is, as having the attributes of the latter. And
under IV, 4, 2, he speaks of the delivered soul as Samarasa, or united
in blissful experience with the Supreme Soul. Thus Srikaijtha's view
appears to be identical with that of the ViraSaivas. Therefore unlike
the four older schools, PäSupata and others, which are dualistic, these
three Saiva schools hold a doctrine of qualified spiritual monism.

§ 104. The highest class of Lingäyats is composed of those who
call themselves Lingi - Brähmaijas, the other castes or classes who
wear the Linga being simply their foUowers. The Lingi -Brähma^as
consist of two main classes, the Acäryas and the Paflcamas. The
legendary account given of these is as foUows. The Acäryas were
originally five in number and sprang from the five faces, Sadyojäta,
etc., of äiva spoken of in a former section. They are the same as
those mentioned above as having a metallic vessel placed in their
names on the occasion of any holy ceremony. From these five have
Sprung up all the priestly classes now existing. These five had five
Gotras, viz. Vira, Nandin, Vr§abha, Bhrngin, and Skanda, who were
originally persons almost as high as Siva himself. From the ISäna
face of äiva sprang a Ga^e^vara (leader of a group), who had five
faces. From these five faces sprang five Pancamas, known by the

138 III. ReligioD, Weltl. Wissenscb. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

names of Makhäri, Kaläri, Puräri, Smaräri, and Vedäri, which, the
reader will remember, were the names of 6iva himself given to
him on account of certain deeds done by him. From these arose others
who are called Upapaiicamas. Each Pancama has to connect himself
with one of the. five Äcäryas as his Guru. The Gotra of the Guni is
his Gotra, and there can be no marriage relationbetween the mem-
bers of the same Gotra. These Pancamas have got Gotra, Pravara
and ääkhä of their own, and the Lingäyats thus seem to have copied
the Brähmaijic System. The Paiicamas are spoken of as the true devo-
tees of 6iva ^). According to the ordinary account the true Lingäyats are
divided into fourclasses: (l) Jafigamas, or priests, (2) ^avants, or
pious, (3) Banjigs, or traders, and (4) Pancamsälis. The second and
the third classes are based on the occupation or mode of life followed;
so that even here, there are only the two classes mentioned in the
work referred to above. The members of the lirst or Acärya class are
popularly called Jafigamas. Of these there are some who are called
Viraktas (passionless) and who devote themselves to contemplation
•and other religious exercises and live a life of celebacy and asceticism.
They maintain a convent (Matha) and are adored by all people. One
such convent, which might be called the chief convent, is that which
exists at Chitaldrug in the Mysore territory about a hundred miles
from Dhan^^ar. The head monk is held in deep reverence and exer-
cises great influence over the foUowers of the sect. The second division
of the class comprises those who follow a priestly occupation and
conduct all ceremonies. They are married men and lead the life of
householders. They exercise religious control over the Pancamas
and the foUowers of their sect. These priestly Jangamas are the repre-
sentatives of one or other of the five principal establishments located
in different parts of the country from the Himälaya to the Mysore
province. Any knotty question concerning the sect is decided by
the final Orders issued at one of these establishments. Besides the true
Lingäyats there is an affiliated class and another composed of half
Lingäyats. The Lingäyats abstain from meat and drink. Their
widows are allowed to marry. And women are not considered poUuted
and untouchable during the days of monthly sickness, as is the case
among Brähma^ic Hindus.

§ 105. There is a Dik§ä ceremony among the ViraSaiyas corre-
sponding toUpanayana among the Brähmanas. Instead of theGäyatri-
mantra of the latter, they have the Mantra *0m namaS Siväya', and
have to wear theLinga, or emblem of^iva, in the place ofYajnopavita.
On the occasion of the Dik$ä, the Guru holds a Linga in his left band,
worships it in the usual sixteen ways, and shows it to the disciple. Then
placing it in the left band of the disciple and enjoining him to look
upon it as his own soul and as the highest existing thing and so forth,
he ties it round the neck of the disciple with asilken cloth byrepeating
a Mantra used by the Brähmanas in putting on the Yajnopavlta.
This is called the Lingasväyattadik§ä. This ceremony is perfoimed in
the case of girls also, and the women too have to wear the Linga like men.

') Pahcacan'apaAcamotpattiprakarai^a.

XI. The Virasaiva or Lingäyat Sect. I39

The Linga is generally put into a box made of silver and suspended
round the neck. The VlraSaivas have to go through daily ceremonies
siniilar to the twilight adorations of the Brähmapas, and the Mantra
repeated on the occasion is that given above, as also the Siva-GäyatrI,
the first two lines of which are the same as the Brahma^ic GäyatrI,
and the last is Tan nab ^iva^ pracodayät'. In the marriage ceremony
the Mantra to be repeated on the occasion of the taking hold of the
hrand of the bride is the same as among the Brähma];ias, and in the
ceremony of Walking the seven Steps together with the bride, the
formulas repeated are the same as those used by ^gvedin Brähmai^ias.
But in their marriage ceremony, they do not perform the rite of throw-
ing parched rice into the lire as the Brähmaicias do. The worship of
the Linga, called I§ta-Linga, worn on the body, is their chief divine
worship; and attendance at temples and worship of the Linga therein
are by no means necessary for them. They do not concern themselves
directly with the public temples of 6iva.

§ 106. There is a traditional legend among the Lingäyats that,
when äiva brought Brahmadeva into existence, he told hini to create the
World. But Brahmadeva said that he did not know how to do it.
Whereupon Siva created it himself in order that it might serve him
as a model. And the Äcäryas and Pancamas, as detailed above with
their Gotras and Säkhäs, are that creation of Siva. The true import
of this legend is that the Lingäyats set up a System for themselves as
a rival to the Brähmapic System and the close resemblance between
the two confirms this view. But a mere copy was not their object,
and they introduced several reforms, especially in the condition of
women, as will have been seen from the above notice. In this respect,
this System dififers from all other schools, Vai§i[;iava or äaiva or even
Buddhist or Jaina, who did not set up for themselves a special System
of social relations and domestic rites, though, as shown above, that
framed by the Lingäyats for themselves is a copy of that of the Bräh-
maQaSy which, however, is a reformed copy.

The impression that this whole account creates in one is that
Lingäyatism owes its origin to a spirit of jealousy of the power exer-
cised by Brähmaijism and of rivalry with the system. Such a spirit
of jealousy and rivalry cannot be expected to have arisen in thoroughly
depressed minds. The system therefore must have come into exi-
stence among the spirited members of the upper classes of non-Bräh-
mapic Hindus under the leadership of a body of men composed of
Brähma^as known by the name of Ärädhyas. Some of the members
of this body did not go far enough in the desired reform, as mentioned
before, and formed a distinct sect ^). It will thus be seen that all the

\) An Äradhya sect is^ mentioned by Anantanandagiri as having come into confliet
with SaipkaracSrya (See Sankaravijaya, Bibl. Ind., p. 37.). In the corresponding
poition of Dhanapati*s ^94iina which accompanies Mldhava's äai}ikaravijaya the name of
the sect does not occur; so that it is questionable whether the Ärädhya sect came into
existence before Saipkara even if we suppose that the sect mentioned by Anantanandagiri
was the same as the one we have noticed as affUiated to the LiAgäyats. Or, on the
evidence of Anantanandagin the Äradhya sect may be considered to have come into
existence about the time of Saipkaracarya, that is, before the ninth Century A. D., and the

140 in. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

Lingäyats havenot Sprung up from the Südra caste, but there is a mix-
ture of the three higher orders ampng them. The claim that the two
main classes of the sect put forward of theirbeingLingi-Brähma^as,!. e.,
Brähmaj;?as wearing the Linga, seems to be founded on truth. The
Äcärya or Jangama class is said to have Sprung from the five holy
persons, adored on the occasion of a religious ceremony, whose names
end in the suffix ärädhya significative of their being Brähma^^s.
We might therefore safely take them to be of a Brähmapic descent ').
As to the Paflcamas, they probably represent the VaiSya order of the
Brähmapic system which foUowed the occupation of traders and
cultivators, and as the Vaisyas belong to the class of the twice-born,
so also do the Paiicamas and hcnce they are included in the Lingi-
Brähmana group.

XII. Saivism in the Dravida Country

§ 107. Öaivism prevails in the Dravida or Tamil country, and
possesses an extensive literature of its own. It consists of eleven collec-
tions. The first three contain the hymns composed by a saint held
in great reverence, of the name Tiruiiänasambandha. They are three
hundred and eighty-four in number, each being called a Padigam which
consists of ten stanzas with an eleventh containing the author's name
usually added. The next three were composed by Appar who was an
older contemporary of Sambandha, who had renounced Buddhism or
rather Jainism, and become a äaiva. The seventh coUection belongs
to Sundara who was a Brähmana devotee of a later generation. These
seven books are called Deväram and are compared to the Brähmanic
Veda. In certain processions, while on the one side the hynms of the
Brähmanic Veda are repeated, on the other are sung those contained
in the Deväram which are addressed to the deity. The Tiruvä^agam
forms the eighth book, and it resembles the Upani§ads. The author of
this book is MänikKaväsagar. The ninth group is made up of hymns
composed in imitation of the Deväram hymns. One of the writers
is Kandaräditya, a Cola king, from whom Räjaräja Cola, who came
to the throne in 984-85 A. D., was fifth in descent. The tenth contains
mystic songs of a Yogin called Tirumülar. The eleventh coUection is
composed of miscellaneous pieces, the last ten of which were written
by Nambi Andär Nambi. The third of these ten forms the basis of

theory advanced that the LiAgäyat reforxn was carried out within its limits and a poxtion
of the Ämdhya sect adopted the new creed and developed it, while another remained
orthodox and staunch to some of the Brähma^^ic practices. To this portion is to be
traced the Ärildhya sect of the present day.

') There are Jan^amas who know Sanskrit, and I have been in communtcatxon
with one such of the name of Mallikärjuna^ästrin, who directed me to some of the
books of the sect wich I have foUowed in this section, and also gave ond infonnation on
some points. He daims to be a BrShma^a authorised to study the Vedas, his own
Veda being the White Yajurveda. The head monk of the Chitaidnig consent alluded
to above was on a Visitation to Poona about two months ago with all the State of a
Spiritual potentate, having four elephants with him and a number of followers. He was
a good, courteous and kindly person, had studied Sanskrit grammar and was able to
converse fluently in pure JSanskrit. Some of the books of the sect are written in Sanskrit.

XII. Saivism in the Dravi<}a Country. 14I

the Tamil Puräpa called Periyapurä^a, These eleven collections
together with the Periyapurä^^a, which are all written in the- Tamil
language, form the sacred literature of the Tamil Öaivas. Besides
these there are the works of what are called Santäna-Äcäryas, which
are fourteen in number and called SiddhäntaSästras. Their Contents
are of a philosophical nature. The most highly honoured of all these
writers is Tirunänasambandha. He was a Brähma^a by birth, and
the poetic faculty was developed in him very early in life. His hymns
are füll of the purest devotional feeling and are melodious. The tunes
in which they were originally sung were Dravidian, but in later times
northern melodies with northern names came to be used. Sambandha's
image is set up for worship in every Saiva temple, and he is adored
by Tamil poets and philosophers in the beginning of their works.
He was a great enemy of Buddhists and Jainas; and every tenth
stanza of hisPadigams, or hymns, contains an imprecation against them.
On one occasion, he was invited by the queen of Kuni Päqdya of Ma-
dhurä, where he held a disputation with the Buddhists or Jainas, which
ended in the conversion of the king to the Saiva faith *).

In an inscription in the RäjaräjeSvara temple at Tanjore the
king Rajaräjadeva, after whom the temple was named, makes a daily
allowance for the support of the reciters or singers of the Tinippadiyam
or the Padigams of Tirufiänasambandha, before the twenty-ninth year
of his reign^). The date of Räjaräja's accession to the throne has been
determined by the mention of a lunar eclipse in one of his inscriptions
to be 984-5 A. D. 3) This is consistent with the fact mentioned in
another inscription 4) that he conquered SatyäSraya, who was the
immediate successor of Tailapa, the founder of the later Cälukya
dynasty of Mahärä^tra, and died in Saka 930, or 1008 A. D. Thus before
the twenty-ninth year of Räjaräja, i. e. before 1013 A. D., the Padigams
of Sambandha had come to be looked upon as so sacred that the
recitation or singing of them was considered an act of religious merit
like the repetition of the Öatanidriya by the foUowers of the Brähma^iic
Veda. This character the hymns of Sambandha could not have acqui-
red unless they had come into existence about four hundred years
before the beginning of the eleventh Century. This is consistent with
the conclusion arrived at by Mr. Pillai that Sambandha flourished in
the seventh Century.

The inscriptions in the temples at Käficipura contain evidence
of Saivism being in a flourishing condition in the sixth Century. The
Pallava king Räjasiipha constructed a temple, and the god inside was
named after him RäjasimheSvara. Räjasimha appears from some of
the inscriptions to have been a contemporary of the early Caiukya
prince PulakeSin 1. 5), who may be referred to about the year 550 A. D.,

*) The above account is mostly taken from the able paper of P. Sundaram
Pillai published in the Ind. Ant. Vol. XXV, pp. 113 ff. It is to be regretted
that Mr. PiUai does not give us precise information as to whether it was the Buddhists
against whom Sambandha directs his attacks or the Jainas.

>) South-Indian Inscriptions ed. by E. Hultzsch, Vol. II, p. 252, No, 65.

3) Ind. Ant. Vol. XXIII, p. 297.

4) South-Ind. Inscrs., Vol. II, p. 2.

5) South-Ind. Inscrs., Vol. I, p. 11.

142 in. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^pavism etc.

as his son Kirtivarman I came to the throne about the year
567 A. D I)

The Saivism that prevailed in the Tamil country seems to have
been generally of the ordinary kind, since the hymns in the Deväram
sing the praises of Siva and exhibit fervent devotional feeling, but
there must have been some DarSana or system of philosophy also,
since in an inscription in the RäjasitpheSvara temple at Käiici Atyan*
takäma» which was another name of Räjasitpha» is represented as pro-
ficient in the system of the ^aivasiddhäntas. And the last species
of the Saiva literature detailed above is, it will have been seen, called
Siddhäntasästra composed by Santäna-Acäryas. These must be
philosophical works on Saivism. And the system therein taught
appears in all likelihood to be the same or similar to the SaivadarSana,
which has already been explained. But what exactiy the system
taught by the Siddhäntas was, we have not the means of finding out,
as none of the works is available for examination. The Periyapura^a
gives an account of sixty-three Bhaktas or devotees of Siva, and these
correspond to the Älvärs of the Vai§i3iavas. The enemies that both
these classes of devotees had to contend with were Jainas, and it
appears to me that both Saivism and Vai^navism penetrated to the
extreme south of India after the revival of Brähma^ism in the north
during the fourth and fifth centuries. Buddhism and Jainism had been
introduced earlier and were in possession of the field when the two
later Systems of theistic belief were introduced into the southem
country. Hence arose the necessity of controversies and contests which
these Systems carried on with their earlier predecessors. Whether
Saivism extended itself to the Tamil country before the revival, wc
have not the means of determining.

XIII. The Saktas or Sakti Worshippers-

§ 108. In the Vedic literature down to the Grhyasütras which
we have examined for tracing the development of the idea of Rudra-
Siva, no female devotee of predominant power is mentioned. We have
such names as Rudrä^i and Bhavänl, which are simply derivatives
and do not show a belief in the existence of an independent powerful
goddess. Umä, too, is the wife of a god and does not overshadow her
maleconsort. IntheMBh. (Bhi§maparvan, chap. 23), however, there is
a hymn addressed to Durgä by Arjuna under the advice of Kr^^^
in which she is prayed to for granting victory in the forthcoming battle.
This hymn itself shows that at the time when it was composed and
inserted in the poem, Durgä had already acquired such an importancc
that she was adored by men as a powerful goddess, able to fulfil
their desires. Among the names by which she is addressed occur the
foUowing: Kumärl (maiden), Kall fblack or female time as destroyer),
Käpäli (wearer of skulls) , Mahäkäli (the great destroyer), Capdi
(angry), Kätyäyani (of the Kätya family), Karälä (frightful), VijayS
(Victory), Kausikl (of the Ku§ika family), Umä, KäntäraväsinI (dwel-

I) Early History of the Dekkan, Second Ed., p. 61.

XIII. The Säktas or Sakti Worshippers. I43

■ ' ■— ^ " ■ ' — »» - I ■ I. , ■ ■ ■- I ■■ ■! ■ I ■■■■-■>■■ - ■■» ■ ■ --—., — " ■■■- '■ — ■ - I ■

ling in the forest). There is another hymn in the Viräjaparvan (chap. 6)
sung by Yudhi^thira. It does not exist in the principal southern
Mss., and is probably an interpolation, as it contains almost the same
matter as in a similar passage in the HarivamSa. The points and
cpithets in this hymn which deserve notice are these. She is called
Mahi$asuranäSini ^or the destroyer of the demon in the shape of a
bu£Falo, and she is fond of wine, flesh and beasts. She was born to
YaSodä and dashed against a stone, whereupon she went to heaven.
She is called the most beloved of Näräya^a and the sister of Väsudeva.
She resides permanently on the Vindhya mountain. It is related in
the Harivam§a (vv. 3236 ff.) that Vi§i?u descended into the Pätäla,
and asked sleep in the form of destroying time (Nidrä KalarQpiQi) to
become the daughter of YaSodä. She is told that she would become
KauSild and would have a permanent residence on the Vindhya moun-
tain. There she was told that she would kill Sumbha and NiSumbha
and would be worshipped by animal sacrifices. There is given a hymn
to Apyä (Durgä) in which she is represented as the goddess of ^abaras,
FulindaSy Barbaras and other wild tribes, and as fond of wine and
flesh. The goddess that killed the buffalo-demon, was, according to
the Märkai;i(Jeya-PuräQa (eh. 82) made up of the fierce radiance of Siva,
Vi$9u and Brahmadeva, and all the other gods pontributed to the
formation of her limbs as well as her Ornaments. She is called Ca^cJI
and Ambikä. The formation of the goddess that killed Sumbha and
NiSumbha, according to the account which follows, is thus explained.
The gods being oppressed by the demons ^umbha and NiSumbha
went to the Himälayas and praised the goddess, whereupon Parva ti
came out to bathe in the Ganges. Then ^ivä, also called Ambika,
came out of the body of PärvatI, and said that it was she whom the
gods were praising to induce her to kill Sumbha and NiSumbha. She
was called KauSikT, because she sprang out from KoSa or frame of
Pärvati's body. When Ambikä came out of her body, Parva tl's com-
plexion became dark, and hence she rceived the name of Kälikä (dark
one). In the course of the fight, when $umbha and NiSumbha pounced
upon her, her forehead became dark with anger, and from it came
Kall with a frightful face wearing a garland of skuUs and a tiger-skin
and with an infernal weapon (Khatvänga) in her band. She killed
the demons Ca^da and Mui^da, and went back to Ambikä, who there-
upon, since she had killed those demons, gave her the name Cämuodä.
TTie seven Öaktis, Brähmi, Mäheivarl, Kaumäri, Vai§9avi, Värähi,
Närasimhl and Aindri, which are the powers or spirits of the gods
from whom their names are derived, are called her excellent forms
(Vibhütis). At the end, the goddess says that she would, in the
Vaivasvata Manu, destroy ^umbha and NiSumbha again by assuming
the form of the goddess residing on the Vindhya mountain, and pro-
ceeds to give the other forms that she would assume on other occasions
such as the daughter of Nanda, Säkambhari, Bhlmä, Bhrämarl, etc.
§ 109. In the account here given, it will be seen that there is one
goddess with a number of different names. But the critical eye will see
that they are not merely names, but indicate different goddesses who
owed their conception to different historical conditions, but who were

144 ^^^* Religion. Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

afterwards identified with the one goddess by the usual mental habit
of the Hindus. First we have Umä, the protectress, the consort of
6iva. Then we have Haimavati and Pärvati, which are the epithets
ofUmä, since 6iva, her consort, was Giri^a, or dweller on the mountain,
and she was a woman born on the mountain. Then there aregoddesses,
dwelling in forests and on the Vindhya mountain, to whom animals
and even human beings were sacrificed and oblations of wine were
given and who were also the goddesses worshipped by the wild tribes,
such as Pulindas, ^abaras and Barbaras. These were fierce goddesses
and have the names of Karälä, Kali, Candl, Cämu^dä, and others.
It must be admitted, however, that the first two names came into
use when in an early age Rudra was identified with Agni, whose fiames,
which were considered his tongues, have those two names and five
others. Probably the ferocity of the later goddesses of those names
was due to this identification and not to their being the objects of
worship to the ferocious barbarous tribes. In all likelihood, however,
both the Clements contributed to give that character to Kali, Karälä
and Cämurjidä. That an aboriginal dement should have contributed
to the formation of Rudra's consort in later times as it did in earlier
times towards the formation of Rudra himself as he is represented
in the Satarudriya, is a matter that might be expected. A third and
powerf ul Clement in the conception of these goddesses is that of Sakti, or
power. The powers of willing, acting, creating, illuding, etc. were con-
ceived of as goddesses as the noun Sakti is of the feminine gender. The
seven goddesses named above, Brähmi, Mähe^varT, etc. owe their origin
to this conception of Sakti and the powers of the seven gods. In later
times some of the Brähmaijic families came to have tutelary goddesses,
and thus we have Kätyäyani, or the goddess of the Kätyas, and Kau^iki,
the goddess of the Kau^ikas. A further development went on especially
under the influence of the idea of Sakti, or power, and thus we have
three forms in which the goddess was worshipped. First we have
the ordinary bland form, in which the goddess is worshipped.
Then we have the fierce form, in which she is associated with the
schools of Käpälikas and Kälämukhas, and animals and human beings
are sacrificed. And the third is the sensual form, in which she is the
object of worship with the school of the Öäktas, who are so called
because they are worshippers of Öakti.

§ 1 10. The Tantras inculcating the worship of the goddess in these
various forms, constitute a considerable body of literature. We will
here notice the formation, doctrines and practices of a school based
on one of these forms, that which we have called sensual. The
goddess here is called Änandabhairavi, Tripurasundarl, and Lalitä.
Her dwelling is thus described. There is an ocean of nectar, in which
there are five celestial trees. Then there is a row or enclosure of Nlpa
or Kadamba trees, in the midst of which is a pavilion made of jewel
stones. In that paviHon is situated a palace made of the wish-giving
stone, where lies the great I^äni, the great Tripurasundari, on a couch,
which is Siva, with Mahe^äna for its coverlet and Sadä^iva for its

{>illow. The legs of the couch are Brahmadeva, Hari, Rudra and
svara. These are spirits discharging certain functions contained in

XIII. The Saktas or Sakti Worshippers. 145

the essence of Maheävara '). This is a mythological explanation of
certain figures in the mystic cirles and of technical terms. The goddess
is thus elevated to the highest position. Änandabhairava or Mahä-
bhairava, which is thename given toSiva, is the soul of, oris composed
of, the nine collections of things of which the world is made up, such
as time and its various forms (Kälavyüha), existing things like the
blue substance (Kulavyüha), names(Nämavyüha), perception (Jiiäna-
vyüha), the five faculties, viz. consciousness, heart, will, intelligence,
and mind (Cittavyüha). Mahäbhairava is the soul of the goddess;
therefore she also is the soul of, or composed of, the nine collections.
Both, therefore, constitute one entity. When there is Sämarasya, or
Community of joy or intense love between them, creation foUows.
The female dement, or Mahäbhairavi, however, is predominant in the
process of creation and the male dement, or Mahäbhairava, in the
work of destruction *).

The metaphysical doctrines of what is called SämbhavadarSana,
on which the usual practices and rites of the Öäktas profess to be
based, are theseS). Siva and Öakti are the primordial substances.
6iva in the form of PrakäSa (light) enters into Sakti in the form of
Vimar^a or Sphürti (feeling or appearance), and assumes the form of
a Bindu (drop); and Sakti similarly enters into Siva, whereupon the
Bindu develops, and there arises out of it the female dement called
Näda (sound). These two, the Bindu and the Näda, becoming united,
form one Compound Bindu, and that substance represents the intense
affinity between the female and male energies and is called Käma
(love). Again, there are two drops, one of which is white and represents
the male dement, and the other, red, which represents the female
dement. These form the Kala; these three again, the Compound
Bindu, and the white and red drops form one substance called Käma-
kalä. Thus there are four powers united here: (i) the original Bindu
representing the material of which the world is made; (2) Näda, or
sound, upon which depends the naming of the substances, arising from
the development of the Bindu. Between these two there is intense
love, but no creation follows simply from it. They only contain the
materials of things and speech. Therefore a productive energy is
associated with them by (3) the white male drop which, however, by
itself cannot produce, and by (4) the female red drop which is fecun-
dated by the male drop. When all these four principles unite into
one substance, Kämakalä, the whole creation of words and the things
expressed by them (Vägarthau), proceeds. Another substance called
the Härdhakalä is also developed, according to some, along with the
Näda, when the female dement first enters into the simplq Bindu.
In a certain text the highest deity, or Kämakalä, is spoken of as having
the sun (Compound Bindu) for her face, fire and moon (the red and
white Bindus) for her breasts, and the Härdhakalä for her organ of

>) Saundaryalahari with Lak^midhara's comxnentary, Maisur Ed., comxnent. on
vv. 8 and 92.

») Ibid. V. 34.

3) The following contains in a recast form the matter given in pp. 89 — 91 of
my Report on the Search for Sanskrit Manuscripts during 1883 — 84.

Indo-arische Philologie m. 6. lO

146 in. Relig-ion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

generation. This view provides a womb from which creation Springs
out. The Creative agent, therefore, is a goddess thus constituted, and
she is the highest deity and is called Parä, Laiita, Bhattärikä and
Tripurasundari. Siva is symbolically identified with the letter a and
äakti with A, the last letter of the Sanskrit aiphabet. This h is called
Ardhakaläy or half part, and hence the female eiement, orwomb, men-
tioned above is called the half part in the shape of the letter Ä. This
Ä, or the half part, together with a which Stands f or Siva is a symbolic
representation of Kämakalä or Tripurasundari, who is the result of
the combination of Siva and Öakti. She is thus called Aham, the
ego, and is invested with egoism or individuality, and hence it is that
all her developments (i. e. the whole creation) have egoism or indi-
viduality; and all souls are but forms of Tripurasundari and become
Tripurasundari when they study and practise the Kämakalävidyä
with its series of Devicakras, or mystic circles. A and A, being the
first and last letters of the aiphabet, contain between them all letters
and through them all words, i. e. the whole speech; and just as all
things are produced from Tripurasundari, so are all words which
express the things. She is thus called Parä, the first of the four kinds
of speech. Creation is Pariijäma, or development, and not Vivarta, or
the generation of false appearances. This is the philosophy of the
Sämbhavadar^ana, and it will be seen that, though it admits a male
element in the beginning, still it is thoroughly subdued by the female
Clement which becomes predominant; and the highest deity is a goddess,
viz. Tripurasundari. The ambition of every pious follower of the
System is to become identical with Tripurasundari, and one of his
religious exercises is to habituate himself to think that he is a woman.
Thus the followers of the ^akti school justify their appellation by
the belief that God is a woman and it ought to be the aim of all to be-
come a woman.

Tripurasundari is propitiated and eventually attained by assuming
the vow (DIk§ä) of a devoted worship of her. This vow is of three
kinds. The first consists in fully concentrating the mind on the Devi
as sitting on the lap of Siva in the Mahäpadmavana (a garden of
lotuses), as possessed of a body which is pure joy and is the original
cause of all, and as identical with one's own seif. The second is the
Cakrapüjä, the worship by means of the mystic circles, which is a
Bähyayäga, or material worship; and the third consists in studying
and knowing the true doctrine. The second is the proper ^akti cere-
monial. It consists in the worship of a picture of the female organ
drawn in the centre of another consisting of a representation of
nine such organs, the whole of which forms the Sricakra. The
pictures are drawn on a Bhürja leaf or a piece of silken cloth or
on a gold leaf'). With reference to this worship it must be
observed that there are two classes of Säktas: (l) Kaulika and (2)
Samayin. The former worship the gross material object, while tiie
latter have a recourse to imagery. The worship of the pictures just
mentioned is resorted to by ancient (Pürva) Kaulas, while the modern

') Saundaryalahari v. 41, commentary.

XIV. The Sect of Ga^apatyas. I47

(Uttara) Kaulas worship the organ of a living beautiful woman. The
Kaulas worship thdr goddess by offering to her, and themselves using,
wine, flesh, honey (Madhu), fish and such other things. The. Samayins,
of course, abstain from such practices. There are even Brähma^as,
who secretly profess the doctrines of the Säkta school and worship
the goddess Tripurasundari in accordance with the Pürva-Kaula or
Uttara-Kaula way. There are no distinctions of caste when the worship
of the Bhairavicakra is going on. Men of all castes become Bräh-
ma^as, but they resume their own castes when the worship is over *).
There are several more innocent and decorous modes of worshipping
the goddess under the names of Lalitä and Upäiigalalita mentioned
in the ordinary religious books. The worship of the latter comes off
on the fifth lunar day of Äivina and of the former f or the first ten days.
The latter, when so worshipped by women, wards off widowhood*).

XIV. The Sect of Gänapatyas.

§ III. Rudra had his hosts of Maruts,[who were called his Ga^as,
and the leader of these Gai]ias was Ga^apati. The name Rudra, as
we have seen, was generalised and signified a number of spirits par-
taking of the character of the original Rudra; and so was the name
Gapapati generalised and meant many leaders of the Ga^as, or groups.
Another name, Vinäyaka, denoting a spirit also came into use. In the
AU. Rudra is identified with many gods or spirits, and among these
there is one called Vinäyaka. In the MBh. (Anu^äsanaparvan 151, v. 26)
GanieSvaras and Vinäyakas are mentioned amongst the gods, who
observe the actions of men and are present everywhere; and again
(57) Vinäyakas are said to remove all evil from men when praised.
Gai?e^varas, or Ga^apatis, and Vinäyakas are here represented, as the
former are in the Satarudriya, many in number and present everywhere.
In the MänavagrhyasGtra (2, 14) is given an account of Vinäyakas.
They are four in number. And their names are (l) Sälakatankata,
(2) KO^mä^daräjaputra, (3) Usmita, and (4) Devayajana. When
possessed by these a person pounds sods of earth, cuts grass, and
writes on his body, and sees in dreams waters, men with shaved heads,
cameis, pigs, asses, etc., and feels he is moving in the air, and when
Walking, sees somebody pursuing him from behind. Again, when
possessed by these, Princes Royal do not obtain the kingdom, though
qualified to govern. Girls do not obtain bridegrooms, though possessed
of the necessary qualities. Women do not get children, even if otherwise
qualified. The children of other women die. A learned teacher quali-
fied to teach does not obtain pupils, and there are many interruptions
and breaks in the course of a Student. Trade and agriculture are un-
successful. A person, who shows such signs of being possessed by
Vinäyaka, is made to go through the ceremony of bathing in waters
brought from four places and with a little earth from four different
quarters thrown into them. After bathing oblations of mustard oil

«) Aufrecht's Oxf. Cat. p. 92, n.
*) See Hemadri, VratakhaQ<la.

10*

148 III. Religion» Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^pavism etc.

extracted afresh should be offered to the four Vinäyakas in a ladle made
öf the wood o£ the Udumbara tree and poured over the head of the
individual. Then food of many sorts, rice, husked and unhusked, flesh,
and fish, cooked as well as raw, pulse of various kinds, etc. should be
put into a basket and the basket placed on the ground where four
roads meet, the ground first being covered with Ku§a grass. Then certain
deities including evil spirits are invoked, and a wish expressed that they
may be satisfied, and, becoming so, satisfy the worshipper, etc. This
is the ceremony which frees the persons haunted by the Vinäyakas.

Yajfiavalkya in his Smfti (I, 271 ff.) gives the same ceremony
and frequently in the same words. But the ceremony appears in a
somewhat more developed or complicated form. He begins by stating
that Rudra and Brahmadeva appointed Vinäyaka to the leadership
of the Ganas, (i. e. made him Gapapati) and assigned to him the
functions of raising difficulties and obstructions in the actions of men.
In the Smfti one Vinäyaka is only addressed, but instead of the four
names occurring in the SOtra six are given, viz. [l) Mita, {2) Sammita,
(3) Säla, (4) Katankata, ^5) Kü§mända, and (6) Räjaputra, and these
are said to be six different names of the one Vinäyaka. After the
basket with various kinds of food has been prepared, directions are
given to make an obeisance to Ambikä, the mother of Vinäyaka.

The form of the ceremony contained in the Sütra is unquestionably
more ancient than that contained in the other work. But the difference
between the two shows that during the period that had elapsed between
the composition of the Sütra and that of the Smfti, the four Vinäyakas
had become one Ga;?apati-Vinäyaka, having Ambikä for his mother.
It will thus be seen that, in his own nature, this last god is an unfriendly
or malignant spirit, but capable of being made friendly and benignant
by propitiatory rites. In this respect, he resembles Rudra himself.
That the Vinäyakas had come to be objects of faith before the Christian
era, may be taken to follow from the occurrence of the ceremony
mentioned above in a Grhyasütra. But the one Gaoapati -Vinäyaka,
the son of Ambikä, was introduced into the Hindu pantheon much
later. None of the Gupta inscriptions which I subjected to an exami-
nation on a former occasion ^) contains any mention of his name er
announces any gift or benefaction in his honour. But in two of the
caves at Ellorä, there are groups of images of Kala, Kall, the Seven
Mothers or Saktis, and Ganapati *). These caves are to be referred to
the latter part of the eighth Century. So that between the end of the
fifth and the end of the eighth Century the Gaijapati cult must have
come into practice, and the Smrti of Yajfiavalkya must have been written
not earlier than the sixth Century. Another inscription and an old relic
which indicate the prevalence of the worship of Ganapati are found
at a place called Ghatiyälä, 22 miles north -west of Jodhpur. There
is a column there, on the top of which there are four images of Ganapati
facing the four quarters. In the opening sentence of the inscription

') See my Teep into the Early History of India'; Joum. Bo. Br. Roy. As. See.
Vol. XX, pp. 356 ff.

2) In RavaQa-ki-khSI, in the circumambulator}' passage and Räme^vara temples
See Cave-Tcmples by Fergusson and Burgess.

XIV. The Sect of Ga^apatyas. I49

engraved on it an obeisance is made to Vinäyaka. The date of the
inscription is Vikrama-Sainvat 918 = A. D. 862 *).

When and how the god came to have the elephant's head, it is
difficult to determine. The images in the cave-temples at EUorä have
that head, and Bhavabhüti also in the beginning of the eighth Century
describes him, in the opening stanza of the Mälatimädhava, as possessed
of such a head. Rudra-Siva and the gods allied with him were connec-
ted closely with forests and wild places, in which elephants also were
found. The hide worn by Rudra and by his consort also in one of her
forms was the hide of an elephant, and it perhaps suited the fancy
of some men to place the head of that animal over the body of a
god originally mischievous. Ga^apati's reputation for wisdom is,
I believe, to be attributed to the confusion between him and Bfhaspati,
who in RV. II, 23, i is calied Gai^apati. Brhaspati, of course, is the
Vedic god of wisdom, and is calied the sage of sages.

§ 1 12. Six varieties of the Gä^apatya sect are mentioned by Änan-
dagiri, or AnantiUiandagiri as he is sometimes calied, in his ^amkaradig-
vijaya as well as by Dhanapati in his commentary on the corresponding
work of Mädhava. The first consists of those who adore Mahä-
gai^apati. MahS^ai^apati is, according to them, the creator, and
he alone remains when Brahmadeva and others have been destroyed
at the time of the dissolution. He should be meditated upon as
possessed of his peculiar face with one tooth and as embraced by
the Sakti. By his own wonderful power, he creates Brahmadeva
and others. One, who repeats the original Mantra and meditates on
this Gai^apati, attains supreme bliss. The name of the person who
expounds these doctrines to the Äcärya is given as Girijäsuta.

Another interlocutor foUows. His name is Gapapatikumära, and
he adores Haridrägaoapati. He takes his stand on RV. II, 23, i, and
makes out this text to mean **We meditate on thee who art the leader
of the group of Rudra, Vi§ou, Brahman, Indra and others, and art
the instructor of sages, Bhfgu, Güru, 6e§a and others, the highest
of all who know the sciences, the greatest lord of the Brahmans engaged
in the creation of the world, i. e. adored by Brahman and others in
the work of creation and others". He should be worshipped and
meditated on as being dressed in a yellow silken garment, bearing
a yellow sacred thread, having four arms, three eyes and his face
suffused over by turmeric ointment, and holding a noose and an ele-
phant-goad and a staff in his hand. He who worships the god in this
form, obtains emancipation. Gapapati is the cause of the whole world,
and Brahma and others are his parts. The worshipper of this Ga^apati
should bear, on both of his arms, the marks of Ga^apati's face and
one tooth impressed upon them by a heated iron stamp.

Then came Herambasuta, who was the worshipper of Ucchi§tagaaa-
pati. The foUowers of this variety resort to the left handed path
(Vämamärga), which probably was set up in Imitation of the Kaula
worship of Öakti. The form of Gai?apati meditated on is very obscene.
There is no distinction of caste among the foUowers of this sect.

») Ep. Ind., Vol. IX, pp. 277 ff.

150 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^avism etc.

No restriction is to be observed, such as marriage imposes, and
promiscuous intercourse is allowed and also the use of wine. The
foUower should have a red mark on his forehead. All the ordinary
ceremonies, such as twilight adorations (Saipdhyävandana), are left
to a man*s own will.

The followers of the other three Gai?apatis, Navanita, Svar^a,
and Saiptäna, worship their god, they say, according to the 6ruti.
But since Gaijiapati is adored in the beginning of every religious act,
he is the chief god and all the other gods are parts of him and should
be worshipped as such. They regard the whole world as Gaipapati and
adore him as such.

Since the god Ga^apati-Vinäyaka was introduced about the sixth
Century, it is questionable whether these several sects existed at the
time of ^aipkaräcärya. The imprinting of the face and the tooth of
the God on the arms was a custom common to them with the Mädhva
Vai§i?avas, though it is hardly indicative of the period in which the
sect arose. But the worship of Ga^apati without reference to any
particular sect is practised by nearly all Hindus at the beginning of
any religious ceremony and on special occasions. His image made
of clay is worshipped with great pomp in the Marätha country on
the fourth lunar day of the month of Bhädrapada (September), and
at Chinchwad near Poona there is a special establishment for the
exclusive worship of that god.

XV. Skanda or Kärttikeya.

§ 113. Another god whose worship was extensively practised in
ancient times, but is now rare, is Skanda or Kärttikeya. The general
belief is that he was the son of Siva and Pärvati. But in the Rämäyapa
he is represented as the son of the god of fire and Gangä (I, chap. 37).
The foetus was thrown by Gangä on the Himavat mountain, and it
was nourished by the six stars constituting the constellation of Kittikä
(Pleiades) and was thus called the son of the Krttikäs or Kärttikeya.
In the MBh. (Vanaparvan, chap. 229) also he is represented as the son
of Fire, but the mother was Agni's true wife Svähä, who had assumed
the forms of the wives of six ]^is, whom Agni loved. But here he is
called the son of Siva also, as Agni is a form of that god. There are
other stories connecting him with Siva and Pärvati as his parents.
But whatever the legend may have been, there is no question that
he was connected with Öiva, and was the leader of one of his Ga^as.
There is a Lingäyat tradition reported in the section on that sect
that he was a founder of a Gotra, and was a form of Siva himself.
His having the peacock for his vehicle is also consistent with his con-
nection with Öiva, as peacocks are found in forests of which Rudra
and his attendants were gods . His being the leader of the army of
the gods was an idea probably suggested by his being the leader of
a Gapa of Rudra. And in historical times he has been associated with
äiva. Under P. V, 3, 99, Patanjali mentions the images of 6iva, Skanda
and ViSäkha as being worshipped in his time. On the reverse of the
coins of theKu§ana princeKani§ka, there are figures with their names

XVI. The Sect of Sauras and the Northern Sun-Worship. I5I

in Greek letters of Skando, Mahaseno, Komaro and Bizago '). The
first is Skanda, and because he was the Commander of the army of the
gods, he was also called Mahäsena, which is the second name on the
coin. The third is Kumära, which is also a name of Skanda, and the
fourth is the Skr. ViSäkha. If the first three were the names of one
deity only, there was no necessity for giving three names and three
figures. These, therefore, must have been regarded as three different
gods as Vi^äkha undoubtedly was from his being mentioned separately
from Skanda by Patanjah. In the story in the MBh. referred to above
Visäkha is mentioned as having arisen from the right side of Skanda
when it was Struck by Indra's thunderbolt. This is indicative of the
tendency to make the two as one person; and they appear to have
been so made in later times. Or, looking to the fact that there are
two names of Buddha on the coins, the above three may have been
the names of one Single deity. There are also other indications of the
prevalence of the worship of Skanda or Mahäsena in the early centuries.
In the year 414 A. D. was built a Pratoll, or gallery, in the temple of
Svämi -Mahäsena by one Dhruvasarman at Bilsäd »). Several holy
observances and vows in the name of Kumära and Kärttikeya are
mentioned in Hemädri's Vratakhaijda, and the worship of that
god has not become obsolete even at the present day.

XVI. The Sect of Sauras and the Northern Sun-Worship.

§ 114. Sürya, or the sun as the orb that is seen in the sky and
not as an imaginary god of light, was a Vedic deity. It is but reasonable
to expect that the worship of such a deity should not become obsolete
in later times, since the orb of the sun is dailyseen in the sky. In two
passages in RV. (VII, 6o,l; 62, 2) the singer wishes the rising sun to
declare him sinless to Mitra, Varuna, and other gods. This idea
probably arose from the fact that the rising sun by his bright light
discloses everything that has been done in the darkness of the
previous night, and thence it developed into a belief that the sun
destroys sins. Kau§itaki is represented to have adored the sun
in the morning, at midday, and in the evening, and having made
oflerings of water with flowers, sandal, etc. or without (Arghya),
prayed for the removal of his sins (KBU. II, 7). And this is what
we do or are expected to do in our twilight and midday adorations.
Water is sipped by repeating a formula expressive of a wish that the
Sun, Manyu and Manyupati may protect the adorer from sins (ÄG.
Pari^i§ta I, 3 and TÄ. X, 25, i). After that three offerings of water
with or without the other ingredients are made to the sun after repeating
theGäyatri, and then the water is whiried round his head by the adorer
by repeating the Mantra **That Äditya is Brahman" 3). Ä^valäyana
directs that, while adoring the morning twilight, one facing the east
should repeat the GäyatrI-Mantra tili the whole disc of the sun has
risen, and in the evening with his face towards the west tili the whole

See Journ. Bo. Br. Roy. As. Soc. Vol. XX, p. 385.

') Ib. p. 393.

3) AsSv adit}'o Brahma.

152 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^pavism etc.

has gone down and the stars have begun to appear (ÄG. III, 7, 4 — 6).
In the Upanayana ceremony, when the boy is invested with the sacred
thread and other badges of a student's life, he is made to look at the
orb of the sun, when the preceptor, addressing that deity, prays "Oh
god Savitar, this is thy Student, protect him. May he not die" (ÄG.
I, 20, 6). Khadira prescribes the adoration of the sun for the en-
joyment of riches and for the attainment of fame (Khädiragrhyasütra
IV, I, 14 and 23). The hymn addressed by Yudhi§thira to the sun
after he entered his forest-residence, and his having obtained a vessel
from him for the production of all the food wanted by him, his family
and foUowers, are well-known. In the seventh Century Mayüra, who lived
at the court of Har§avardhana, composed a hundred stanzas to obtain
relief from the white leprosy from which he suffered About the be-
ginning of the eighth Century Bhavabhüti makes the Sütradhära, or the
manager, of the Mälatlmädhava ofler prayers to the rising sun to
remove all his sins and bestow holy blessings on him. Thus the sun
has been adored since the Vedic times for the removal of sins, and the
bestowal of riches, food, fame, health, and other blessings. At the
present day twelve prostrations are made to Surya by repeating twelve
of his names, all of which have a Sanskrit etymology, and there is no
foreign look about them. There is also a more elaborate set of such
prostrations.

§ 115. It cannot but be expected, therefore, that a school should
come mto existence for the exclusive worship of the sun. And such
a school is that of the Sauras. Änandagiri brings Samkara into contact
with the followers of this sect at a place in the south called Subrah-
maoya situated at the distance of fourteen days* journey from Anan-
ta^ayana orTrivendram. The name of their leader was Diväkara, and
they wore a circular spot of red sandal on the forehead and bore
red flowers. The substance of the account of this school given by
Diväkara is as follows. The Supreme Soul, the Sun, is the author
of the World. He is the tutelary deity of the Sauras and is adored
by them. The ^rutis themselves speak of him as the cause of the world,
such as **The sun is the soul of moveable and immoveable things"
(RV. I, 115,1) and* That AdityaisBrahman". Brahman with which the
the sun has thus been identified is the cause of the whole world, accor-
ding to the text, from which all these beings originate, etc. (TU. III,
I, l). There is also a Smrti text in favour of this doctrine. There are
six classes of devotees of the sun all bearing a mark made by red
sandal, wearing a garland of red flowers, and repeating the formula
of eight syllables. Some worship the orb of the sun who has just risen
as Brahmadeva, the creator, others, the sun on the meridian as
Isvara, the destroyer. He is also regarded as the originator. Some
rei^ard the setting sun as Vi§iju, the protector, and, considering him
as the cause of the creation and destruction also and as the highest
entity, worship him. There are some who resort to all the three suns
as a triple form. Others, observing the vow of regularly seeing the orb,
adore the Supreme Soul as existing in it with golden whiskers and
golden hair. One section of this class is devoted simply to the vow of
the Observation of the disc, and they see the orb, worship it in the

XVI. The Sect of Sauras and the Northern Sun-Worship. 153

sixteen ways, dedicate all their actions to the god, and do not eat
without seeing the orb. The devotees of the sixth class imprint the
orb on their forehead, arms and bosom with a heated iron piece and
meditate on the god in their minds continuously. All these six classes
have to repeat the same Mantra, or formula, of eight syllables. The
foUowers of this creed like other sectarians interpret various Vedic
texts as setting forth the greatness and the supremacy of their own
god. The Puru§asükta (RV. X, 90) and the Öatarudriya are so ex-
pounded, and the conclusion is that all who desire emancipation should
adore the sun, should bear his marks on the body, and mutter the
Mantra.

§ 116. So far there is no trace of foreign influenae in the develop-
ment of the Saura system. But such an influenae undoubtedly con-
tributed to the growth of the sun-worship prevalent in Northern
India from the early centuries of the Christian era. Varähamihira
in the stanza twice quoted before (Brhatsaiphitä, chap. 60, 19) teils
US that the installation and consecration of the images and temples
of the sun should be caused to be ni?de by the Magas, and generally
those who worship a certain deity according to their special ritual
should be made to perform the ceremony concerning that deity. This
shows that the Magas were, according to Varähamihira, the special
priests of the sun-god. . There isa legend concerning this matter in
the Bhavi^yapuräpa (chap. 139). Samba, the son of Kr§i?a by
Jämbavati, constructed a temple of the sun on the banks of the Can-
drabhägä, the modern Chenäb in the Panjab, and no local Brähmarja
would accept the office of a regulär priest of the temple. He thereupon
asked Gauramukha, the priest of Ugrasena. He told him to get Magas,
who were special sun-worshippers, from Öakadvipa. Then is given
the history of the Magas. Sujihva was a Brähmaija of the Mihira
Gotra. He had a daughter of the name of Nik§ubhä, with whom the
sun feil in love. The son of these two was called Jara^abda or Jarasasta,
and from him sprang all Magas. They wore a girdle round their waist,
which was called Avyanga. Thereupon Samba went on the back of
Garuda, his father's vehicle, toöäkadvipa, brought some Magas from it
and installed them into the office of priests of the temple he had con-
structed. The Magas have long been known in the literary history
of India. There is an inscription at Govindapur in the Gayä District
dated Saka 1059, corresponding to 1 137-38 A. D., in the opening
stanza of which the Magas, who sprang from the sun, are represented
to have been brought into the country by Samba. Six great poets,
the works of some of whom are extant, are also mentioned. There
are traces of the Magas elsewhere, and there are Brähmaijas of that
name in Räjputäna and some other provinces of Northern India.
Now these Magas are the Magi of ancient Persia, and the name Jara-
sasta mentioned above as occurring in the Bhavi§yapuräJia connects
them with the Avesta prophet Zarathushtra. The Avyanga, which
according to the Purä^a they wore round their waist, was the same
as the Aivyäonghen of the Avesta language, which last signifies the
Kusti worn by theParsees at the present day. AlbSrünT, speaking of
the Persian priests Magians, says that they existed in India and were

154 ^II* Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

called Magas *). The idea of locating them on a continent called Säka-
dvipa must have arisen from the fact that they were foreigners like
the äakas with whom the Indians had been familiär since the second
or third Century before the Christian era. Evidently then the worship
of the sun or Mihira -worship was brought into India by the old Persian
priests Magi, but at whose instance and under what circumstances they
came it is difficult to say. The legendary tradition of their having been
brought by Samba was current in the first half of the twelfth Century,
as we have seen from the inscription. The temple on the Candrabhägä
referred to above was that which existed at Multän and a glowing
description of which is given by the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsiang.
Four centuries later it was seen by Alberüni *). It existed tili the
seven teenth Century, when it was finally destroyed by Aurangzeb. Multän
is the same as the Sanskrit Mülasthäna, and this name may have
been given to the place, because the new worship of the sun was first
organised there and it was its original seat. On the coins of Kani$ka
there occurs a figure with the name Miiro= Mihira by its side. Mihira
is the Sanskritised form of the Persian Mihr, which is a corruption of
Mithra, the Avestic form of the Vedic Mitra. The cult of Mihr had
originated in Persia, and it extended itself up to Asia Minor and
even Rome, and the proselytising energy which characterised its first
adherents must have led to its extension towards the east also, and
of this extension the figure of Mihira on Kani§ka's coin is an evidence.
The cult, therefore, must have penetrated to India about the timc
of that Ku§ana prince, and the Multän temple, which was its original
seat, must have been constructed about the same time.

An inscription at Mandasaur records the construction of a temple
to the sun in the year 437 A. D. by a guild of weavers, and its repair
in the year 473 A. D. Another on a copperplate found at Indor in the
Bulandshahar District in the United Provinces mentions an endow-
ment of Devavi§nu in 464 A. D. for lighting a lamp in a temple of the
sun. And in a third is recorded a grant in 511 A. D. to a temple of
Äditya, or the sun. A great many more sun temples have been dis-
covered especially in Western India from Multän down to Cutch and
northern Gujarät 3). The ruins of one exist at Modherä, eighteen
miles to the south of Pätan in the last-named province, and they
contain the date Vikrama 1083 corresponding to 1027 A. D. -There
was another at Gwalior constructed in the time of Mihirakula, the
Hü^a Prince, in the beginning of the sixth Century.

The form of the idol of the sun worshipped in such temples is
described by Varähamihira (Brhatsamhitä, chap. 58), but the features
mentioned by him which have a significance for our present purpose
are that his feet and legs should be enclosed or covered up to the
knees and he should be dressed in the fashion prevalent in the north
(v. 46), and that he should be encircled by an Avyanga (v. 47). Accor-
dingly the images of the sun that are found in the temples mentioned
above have boots reaching up to the knees and a girdle round the waist

') Sachau's Translation, Vol. I, p. 21.

a) Ibid. vol. I, p. 116.

3) Burgess, Architectural Antiquities of Northern Gujrat, London 1903.

XVII. Resumc. 155

with one end hanging downwards*). This last is a Persian feature,
as we have already seen, and the other also must have the same or
similar origin. It certainly is not Indian. The features of the idol of
the sun and the fact of Magas, who were descended from the Persian
Magi, being its priests point unmistakably to the conclusion that the
cult was introduced intolndia from Persia, and I believe that the con-
struction of so many temples was also due to the foreign influence.
For, in the account of the Saura Systems we have given above, there
is not the remotest allusion to a temple of the sun. According to all
appearances, therefore, the cult prevalent in Northern India was
entirely distinct from those Systems. It does not appear to have allied
itself with any one of these latter. But it was accepted by the mass
of the Hindus as a general worship of the sun, and the feelings which
it evoked could not have been different from those wh*ch the indigenous
worship gave rise to. And the manner in which devotion to the sun
is expressed in the inscriptions which we find in some of the temples,
has nothing special or foreign in it. The Magas themselves, the priests
of the new cult, were gradually thoroughly Hinduised until they be-
came undistinguishable from the other Hindus and formed only a
separate caste. In the copper-plate grant of Har§avardhana, who
livedin the middle of theseventh Century, hisfatherPrabhäkarvardhana,
bis grandfather Ädityavardhana and his great-grandfather Räjya-
vardhana are all styled great devotees of the sun (Paramäditya-
bhakta) »). This is an evidence to show that the sun cult, probably
made up of a mixture of the indigenous and foreign forms, prevailed
in the beginning ^of the sixth ^Century and was professed by great
princes.

XVII. Resume,

§ 117. The fearful and destructive phenomena of nature led to
the conception of, and belief in, the god Rudra, the terrible howler,
accompanied by his groups, or Gapas, called sometimes Rudras or
Rudriyas, who were minor howlers. This god, when propitiated, became
the auspicious Öiva, the beneficent Öamkara and the benignant Sambhu.
The conception gradually developed further, until Rudra became the
god of wild and awful scenes, such as cemeteries, mountains and forests.
Of the beasts and savages that dwelt in these last and of the thieves
and outcasts that resorted to them, he became the lord. Subsequently
he developed into the god who pervades the universe, dwells in fire
and water, in all beings and in herbs and trees and was the supreme
ruler of all. When he rose to this position, he became the subject of
Upani§ad speculation, by meditating on whom and seeing whom
everywhere in the universe a man attained blissful serenity.

But the awful and wild side of his nature was not effaced, but went
on developing; and when religious schools such as that of the Päiica-
rätras came to be established, one with Rudra or Pa^upati as the god
to be adored was set up some time after. Its founder was a human

Ibid. Plate LVI.

*) Epigraphia Indica, Vol. I, pp. 72 — 73.

I 56 III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vaif^avism etc.

being, who came to be known as Lakutin or Lakulin, the holder
of a club, and LakulISa or Nakuli§a, the lord, the holder of the club.
Paiicärtha was the title of the work attributed to him, and his System
came to be known by the name of Pä^upata. Two extreme schools
were developed out of this, and also one which was more moderate
known by the name of the Saiva. Traces of these schools have beenfound
from about the second Century of the Christian era to about thetwelfth.
But the repulsive nature of the two extreme schools and the wild and
fantastic character of the other two led to a reaction, and in the be-
ginning of the ninth Century we have the first Ka^mir school; and
about a hundred years afterwards was founded another. These are
very sober in their doctrines and practices, and may be considered
to have been influenced by the school of Öamkara, though an escape
from his severe spiritual monism has been provided for, so as to allow
of an individual existence to the delivered soul. A further reform was
effected about the middle of the eleventh Century by the Lingäyat
school. The philosophical doctrines of this school amount to this:
that God is infinite intelligence and joy, is the creator of the world and
the instructor and redeemer of mankind, and that the individual soul
attains to a unity of blissful experience with him by gradually estrang-
ing himself from the world, pursuing a course of devotional worship,
abandoning himself to God and seeing him in everything. This philo-
sophy seems to have been influenced by the tenets of the school of
Rämänuja. The spirit of the Lingäyats was, however, combative, and
they set up for themselves a Community distinct from that which
owes its origin to the Brähmanic System. All the while, however,
during the existence of these schools the general worship of Rudra-
^iva has prevailed among ordinary people regardless of the doctrines
of these schools.

Siva was associated with his consort Pärvati or Umä. She too
had a beneficent and majestic character as alluded to in the KnU.
But just as an aboriginal dement contributed to the formation of the
character of Rudra-Siva, so an aboriginal dement ot a more distinct
nature came to be combined with his consort, and she became a terrible
goddess that had to be appeased by animal and even human sacrifices.
But since the lustful nature of man is very strong in him, that goddess
under the name of Tripurasundari (the beauty of the three cities)
or Lalitä (sportively graceful) became the creator of the world, and
was also worshipped with debasing and sensual rites; and thus came
in the school of the ^äktas, who looked forward to an identity with
Tripurasundari as the goal of their existence. Ga^iapati as the leader
of a host was, of course, connected with Rudra-^iva. That idea became
mingled with the idea of Vinäyaka, an evil spirit that possessed men,
and thus the combined god Ganapati -Vinäyaka became an object of
worship on the principle that an obstructive and evil spirit should be
first propitiated before beginning an action. Thereafter he became
the special god of six minor sects, one of these, holding doctrines as de-
basing as those of the Öäkta cult. Skanda was more closely connected with
^iva as the lord of one of his Ga^as or groups; and afterwards came to
be believed to be his son; and his worship prevailed for several centuries

XVIII. Hindu Theism and Pantheism. I57

f rom the time of Pataiijali downwards and has not become obsolete even
at the present day. The sun was a god worshipped in early times and his
cult did not disappear, as his orb was daily visible. But he became the
object of sectarian worship some time later. About the third Century,
however, of the Christian era, another cult of the sun was introduced
from Persia. It took root on Indian soil and prevailed for a long time
in North-Western India, a good many splendid temples having been
erected from time to time for his worship. A special caste of priests
of the name of Magas was associated with the cult, and the masses
of the Hindu population adopted it as if it had been indigenous to the
country.

XVIII. Hindu Theism and Pantheism.

§ 118. As the theoretic or philosophic portion of the doctrines
taught by the founders of most of the various Systems we have
examined are based on certain fundamental ideas contained in the
Upani^ads and the Bhagavadgitä, I deem it necessary to devote this
last section to a consideration of the question as to what those ideas
definitely are and to what extent they have been adopted or modified
by the promulgators of those Systems to suit their specific purposes.

In discussing these ideas some scholars make a broad distinction
between Vedantism, which they identify with Pantheism, and
Theism. If they find any passage expressive of the immanence
of God in the world in a work whose main aim is theistic, they
consider such a passage to be interpolated. I have already alluded
to this mental attitude in the beginning of the present work, but it
is necessary to say something more on the subject. If they mean by
Theism the Deism of the eighteenth Century according to which the
World is a machine constructed and set in motion by God who remains
apart from it, with perhaps the additional doctrine that he enters
into relations with men who worship him and appeal to him, they are
probably right. But this is not Hindu Theism. The immanence of God
in thfe external world and in the heart of man is its essential doctrine.
But that is perfectly consistent with the belief in God's transcendency,
that is, his being distinct from the world and man and above them,
influencing them, Controlling them, protecting them, and listening
to prayers. That the ideas of immanence and transcendency are
not incompatible or inconsistent with each other is admitted even by
European thinkers. The Theism of the Bhagavadgitä is a Theism of
this nature, and consequently the passages expressive of immanence
are by no means to be regarded as interpolated. Theism of this nature
is contained in the Upani^ads also, though there are pantheistic doc-
trines of varied sorts. Pantheism as formulated by Spinoza is thus
stated: — **God, though undetermined ab extra, is capable of in-
finite self-determination. Thus God, the causa sui manifests him-
self in an infinite multiplicity of particular modes. Spinoza is, theref ore,
both pantheist and pancosmist: God exists only as realised in the
cosmos: the cosmos exists only as a manifestation of God*)." The

Encyd. Brit. Eleventh Edition, Vol. XX, p. 683 a under Pantheism.

158 III. Religion, Weil!. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^ioavism etc.

Upani§ads contain pantheistic doctrines corresponding to what is
stated in the first two sentences of this quotation. Th^re are affirmations
that when one thing is known, everything becomes known, as in the
case of a ball of earth, on knowing the true nature of which one knows
the true nature of all that is made of earth. etc. (ChU. VI, i, 4) ; that
when the soul is seen, heard and known, all this becomes known, and
the Brahman, the K§atra, these worlds, these gods, these Vedas,
these elements, — all this is the soul (BU. IV, 4, 6). Then
again there are such Statements as that Sat alone existed in the be-
ginning, one without a second. That reflected **I may be many and
multiply". It created light. This Statement is to the effect that every-
thing existing is a form or modification of God. There are many such
passages in the Upanisads and several of these are quoted in 6am-
kar5cärya*s Bhä§ya on the Brahmasütras I. 4, 23 — 27. But it is by no
means to be inferred that the Upani§ad Pantheism is of the nature
set forth in the last sentence of the quotation from Spinoza, that is:
Brahman is not exhausted in the world, but it exists separately
also. But the objection to this view is that Brahman being of the
nature of spirit is not like the body divisible into parts , so that one
may become developed into the world and another remain outside;
and this is affirmed in a text of the 6U. (VI, 19). This inconsistency
is removed by Bädaräyana in Brahmasütras II, l, 26 — 27. The
argument is that though the Upani§ads State that the constituent
cause of the world is Brahman, they at the same time affirm the ex-
istence of Brahman separately from the world (ChU. III, 12, 6;
and VI, 3, 2.). The two are inconsistent on the theory that Brahman
is a spirit and not discerptible into parts. Though they are thus in-
consistent, they must both be accepted on the authority of the sacred
texts, since the true nature of Brahman and the world is beyond the
reach of human intellect. This Solution of the difficulty is inadmissible
to non-believers in the sacred texts, but it shows that Bädaräyana
does not agree with the latter part of Spinoza's definition of Pantheism,
i. e. according to him the sacred texts do not affirm that "God exists
only as realised in the cosmos: the cosmos exists only as a mani-
festation of God". The inconsistency pointed out by him is based
on the impossible conception of Brahman's being divisible into parts.
But it will not arise if , instead of bringing in this conception, we suppose
that in one aspect Brahman is the material or constituent cause of
the world or realised in the world and from another point of view it
remains pure and becomes the object of contemplation and devotion.
Whatever it may be, Bädaräyana's view appears to me to be correct,
and the Pantheism of the Upani§ads is not exactly the same as that
formulated by Spinoza.

But even this partial Pantheism is only one of the doctrines set
forth in the Upanisads. As mentioned in the beginning, they contain
the rudiments not only of one system of religious philosophy, but of
a good many and even of Buddhism. When Brahman or täie Supreme
Soul is affirmed to be distinct from the world and thus there is a denial
of the partial Pantheism I have spoken of, that soul is represented as
dwelling in the extemal world and in the soul of man; that is to say,

XVIII. Hindu Theism and Panthetsm. I 59

Theism is taught with the immanency of God in the world and in man.
For instance in the BU. III, 7, J — 30 ^) we have first '*He who
dwelling in the earth is distinct from it, whom the earth does not
know, whose body the earth is, and who, being in the inside, controls
the earth, is the indestructible Controlling soul". In the foUowing
passages up to 30 we have precisely the same Statement about water,
fire, the sky, wind, the sun, the moon and stars, the quarters, the
lightning, thunderbolt, all the worlds, all the Vedas, all sacrifices, all
beings, the vital breath, speech, the eye, the ear, the mind, the skin,
light, darkness, the seminal fluid, and the (individual) soul. Here the
inward Controlling soul is mentioned as distinct from the earth and
all the rest, up to the individual soul, and still as dwelling in them,
Controlling them from the inside, and having these for his body. The
whole section winds up with the affirmation that this Controlling soul .
is not Seen, but is the seer; is not heard, but hears; is not apprehended
by thought, but apprehends by thought; is not known, but knows;
there is no other seer, no other hearer, no other apprehender, and
there is no other knower. Herein are brought out the peculiar points
of Hindu Theism: God is the only seer, the only hearer, and the only
knower, that is, he is all-seeing, all-hearing, and all-knowing; and no-
body can see him, hear him, or know him. He is distinct from all
objects, but dwells in them and controUs them. Texts expressive of
such an immanency are to be found in niany places in the Upani$ads.
God being thus distinct from the world, though immanent, can be the
object of devoted meditation and can be attained by means of
truth, knowledge and purity. Mere immanency of this nature does
not at all constitute the Pantheism f ormulated by Spinoza. There is
therefore no ground whatever for regarding as an interpolation the
occurrence of texts expressive of it in such a theistic work as the
Bhagavadgltä.

We have noticed above the manner in which Bädaräyana removes
the inconsistency between God*s developing himself into the world,
while at the same time he is transcendent, and his being a simple
spirit without parts. ^amkaräcärya fairly explains, I think, Bäda-
räyapa's view. But raising a further objection he brings in his own
doctrine eventually, that the so-called development of Brahman into
the world is fancied by ignorance and is not true, that is, the world
is an Illusion. There are two doctrines indicative of the relation of
God to the world, the so-called Paripämaväda and the Vivar-
taväda. The former implies real development and the latter, an
illusive development. This last is the doctrine of Öamkaräcärya,
wherefore his System should be called Singularism rather than spiritual
monism; while the first is that clearly held by the author of the Sütras.
This is evident from his very definition of Brahman as that from
which everything originates, in which everything lives, and into which
everything resolves itself in the end, and from the manner in which
in the first Päda of the second chapter he answers the objections
based upon the theory that an intelligent being cannot develop

Mädhyamdina recension.

l60 III. Religion, WelÜ. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^pavism etc.

into non -intelligent or insensate matter; and ^mkaräcärya himself
acknowledges at the end of his comment on II, I, 14 that the
author of the Sütras follows the Pari^äma doctrine, though to
save his theory he imagines without any grounds that Bädaräya^a
has in view the ordinary or illusory condition of things in doing
so. ^mkaräcarya's Vivartaväda it was which the later schools of
Vaißpavism and Saivism contended against; for even according to
him it leaves no scope for the relation of the ruler and the ruled, i- e.
God and the devotee in the condition of reality when all illusion is
dispelled and one spirit alone exists (II, l, 14). Most of them adopted
Bädaräyapa's Paripämaväda, but the distinctness of God, man and
the World, which was necessary for the validity of their doctrines of
worship and devotion, they secured by qualifying the mode of develop-
ment. By this qüalification they also steered clear of the inconsistency
pointed out by Bädaräyana in II, I, 26, so that his mode of satisfaction
was not necessary for them. Rämänuja lays down that the rudiments
of the individual souls and of the insensate world exist in God himself
as his characteristics or body, and with these he develops into the
World, thus giving rise to the three distinct substances, the material
World, the individual soul, and God as the Controller. Nimbärka main-
tains that the other two substances do not characterise God or form
his body, but are dependent upon him for their existence, and in a
subtle form constitute his power or capacity, which develops into the
animate and inanimate world. Vi§i?usvämin, and therefore Vallabha,
hold that the highest God, or Parabrahman, manifests himself as the
material world, the individual soul, and the supreme Controller, but in
the course of development his attributes of intelligence and joy are
concealed by his mysterious power, and thus is produced the material
world, while, his joy alone being concealed, individual souls come into
existence, and when the three are manifest or unconcealed, he becomes
the supreme Controller. Vallabha adds two other forms of Parabrahman
or Puru§ottama, as mentioned in the section on his System. Madhva
rejects the doctrine of God being the constituent cause of the world
and consequently that of his development, and lays down the five
eternal distinctions between God, man, and the world and between
different individuals and objects involved in the last two. Of the
older Öaiva schools, the Pä^upata brings in the Pradhana of the Säip-
khyas with its developments as the material cause of the world with
Pa^upati as the efficient cause. Örikai^tha Siväcärya in his comment
on Br. S. II, 2, 38 states that according to his predecessors a certain
branch of the philosophy based on the sacred texts revealed by Siva
(Agamas) held Öiva to be only the efficient cause of the world. This
must be a reference to the äaiva school which, as we have already
stated, was a dualistic or pluralistic school. The Väyavlyasamhitä
according to him states that Sakti, or power, first originates from Siva,
thence Mäya, thence Avyakta (I, 7, 3). By Mäyä is to be understood
the wonderful creative power of Siva, as is evident from the following
verse 4, and Avyakta means the Pradhana, as appears from that verse
as well as verse 7. He gives another verse which sets forth that every-
thing from the Sakti to the earth is produced from the essence of

XVIII. Hindu Theism and Pantheism. l6l

Siva, SO that Öiva through the Sakti is both the efficient and the
constituent cause of the world. This Öakti is brought in by those who
hold creation to be the development of äiva, while it is not wanted for
those Saiva philosophers who would keep the creative principle Mäyä
or Pradhäna as distinct from Öiva and undergoing independent deve-
lopment. ärikaijtha explains the expression *Siva alone existed' occurring
in SU. IV, i8, under I, 4, 27, by *äiva, with whom the ^akti (the
power) in the form of the animate and the inanimate world was united,
alone existed so as to form one entity*, so that he here understands
äiva as possessed of the ^akti to be the constituent cause. In this
respect his doctrine is similar^to that of Nimbärka. But immediately
afterwards he speaks of the Cit and the Acit forming the body of
6iva and thus puts forth the same theory as that of Rämänuja. Prac-
tically he makes no distinction between the two. The theory of the
Lingäyats is the same as the first form of the theory set forth by
ärlkaptha Siväcärya. Siva as qualified by the Öakti is the creator,
that is, is the efficient and the constituent cause of the world. The
Ka^mir Saivism attributes the production of the world to the will
of God without any material cause or affirms that God makes the
world appear in himself.

Thus most of these schools avoid the Pantheism of Spinoza and
the incompatibility between God*s development into the world and
his transcendency by holding that the rudiments of the material and
the Spiritual world associated with God as his characteristics or as his
body or as his power only undergo development, he himself remaining
pure. Vi§r;iusvämin and Vallabha, admitting, as they do, the develop-
ment of Puru§ottama into the world and at the same time his tran-
cendency, foUow Bädaräyana. The mysterious power which causes
the dijfferences by rendering certain qualities imperceptible, may be
compared to the self-determining power of God involved in Spinoza's
Statement. The Ka^mir Saivas do not bring in the idea of God as a
constituent cause undergoing development and seem to admit the
doctrine of creation out of nothing.

Indo-ariache Philologie III 6. II

List of Abbreviations.

AB. = Aitareya-Br&hmaQE.

AG. = Äivaläyana-GfhyasOtra.

AU. = Atharvasiras-Upani^ad.

AV.= Atharva-Veda.

BhG. = Bhagavad-GitSU

Bibl. Ind. = Bibliotheca Indica.

Br.S. = Brahma-Sütra.

Bf.S. = Bfhat-Saiphitä.

BU. = Bfhadaravyaka-Upani^ad.

Chowkh. = Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series.

ChU. = Chandogya-Upani^ad.

HG. = Hira^yakesi-GfhyasQtra.

KB. = Kau^itaki-Brfthmaioa.

KBU. = Kaufitaki-Brähma^a-Upani^ad.

KnU. = Kena-Upani$ad.

KU. s Katha-Upanifad.
MaiU. = Maitri-Upani$ad.
MBh. = MahäbhSrata.
MU. = Mu^di^-Upani^ad.
P. = Papini.

FG. = I^askara-Gf hyasütra.
R V. = Rg- Veda,
RVS = Rg-Veda-SaijihitJL
SB. = Satapatha-Brähmapa.
SU. = Svetäsvatara-Upani$ad.
TA. = Taittiriya-Ara^yaka.
TS. = Taittiriya-SaiphitSl.
TU. = Taittiriya-Upani$ad.
VS. = Vajasaneyi-Saqihita.
YV.= Yajur-Veda.

I. INDEX OF SANSKRIT WORDS AND PROPER NAMES.

[The Indexes have been compiled by V. Sukthankar, M. A. Throughout the references

are to pages.]

Akfara i8, 19, 21, 34, 27, 78; <>brahman

79.
aäga 133; <>sthala 134; yoga<>, bhoga«,

tyaga<> 136.

acit 52, 161.

Atharvasiras 106, iii.

advaita 78.

adhibhüta 17.

adhiyajfta 17.

adhyatma 18, 20, 34.

Aniniddha 6, 9, 10, 12, 13, 53, 84.

antaryamin 53, 79.

Andhaka 8, 38.

aprfikita 79.

abhigamana 40.

Amarasiipha 44.

Arjuna 7, 8, 11 — 14, 16, 20, 21, 25, 26.

avaUra 2, 6, 10, 12, 15, 41 f., 144, 151.

avitatkara^a 123.

avitadbhä^apa 123.

avyakta 18, 19, 31.

avyaÄga 153, 154.

ahaipkara 15, 53.

ahiipsä 7, 33.

Agama 119.
acarySlbhimanayoga 55.
äpava (mala) 130.
atmagupa ai.
atman 61.

ananda 61, 65, 78, 79, 134.
Äbhira 37; opalli 37.
Äradhya 132 ff.

Ijya 40.

Tsana 105, 107 f., III.
Isvara 52.

Uttamapuru^a 37.

Upani$ads, their composite character i f.;
the tendency to rattonalise yajflas in
the — 15; the genn of the religion
of devotion in the — 28; — as in-
terpreted and used by later propagan-
dists 51, 53, 58, 158.

Upamanyu 1 1 3 f.

Upasagara 10.
upadana 40.
upasana 28, 29, 57.
Uma III f.
Usmita 147.

R^abha 42.

Ekantikadharma 7, 12, 26, 29, 38.
ekantin 6, 7.

Aupanifada 51.

Kapardin 103.

Kablr 66 ff.

kartabhaja 86.

kannan 14, 16, 25, 130; (philosophy of

rites) 53.
karmayoga 15—17, 32, 54.
kala 121 f., 145.
Kallata 129.
kapalika 118, 127 f.
kama 145.
kamarfipitva 133.
kärapa I3i f.
kärukasiddhantin 121.
kanipikasiddhantin 13 1.
Karttikeya 150, 151.
karya I3i f.
kalamukha 118.
Kusika 116.
Kü$ma94^ajaputra 147.
K^pa 5, 10, 11, 38; cult of — 76 ff.
kevalin 54.
Kesava 10, 11, 13.
Kauru$ya 116.
kaulika 146 f.
krathana 123.
kriyamarga 39.
k$atriyas 4, 14; as active speculators on

religious matters 9; gotrasof — 12.
k$ara 24.
k$etrajna 3i, 32.

Ga^apati 147 ff., 156; various Ga^apatis

149 f.
Garga 116.

II*

i64

III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensrh. u. Kaust. 6. Vai^^avism etc.

Gltl s. BhagavadglU.

gn^a 7, 22, 23, 25, 26.

guni 60, 80, 82,

gü^hacaryä I2i.

Golnila 35 f.

gotra 10, 11; — of the k^atriyas 1 2.

Gopala-KffQa 35—38; 76 f.

goloka 78, 82.

Govinda 36.

Garys 122.

cit 52, 61, 65, 78, 79, 134, 161.

Citraiikhap^in 5, 8.

Caitanya 82 f.

Jangama 138.

Janardana 8, 10, 11, 13, 33.

jlva 12, 17.

jftäna 16, 21.

jnlnayajfia 15, 19.,

jnanayoga 54.

jnanin 17.

Jft&ndev 92.

Tukariün 87 ff.
Tulasldas 74 ff.
Tripurasundarl 146, 147, 156.

Dattatreya 42.
du^kh&nta 121 f.
Dcvayajana 147.
daivi saippad 24.

Dharma 5, 7, 32, 33.

Nakullsa Pasupata 116.

Nandin 115.

Nara 5, 32, 33.

näga 74.

nada 130, 145.

Nsmdev 87 ff.

Naräyapa 5—8, 26, 33; — as the rcsting

place of Nara 30; cosmic character

of — 31.
nididhySlsa 61.
Nimbärka 62 — 66, 160 f..

Paftcama 137 f.

Pa^c^harpur 88.

Pataftjali 3, 4. 8, 13, 115

para (mode of Isvara) 53.

paramahamsa 112.

pari^amavada 84, 159 ff.

pasu 121 f.

PaSupati 103 ff 112, 113.

pasupasavimok$a 112.

Paiicaratra 5, 12, 31, 38—41; «>samhii.1 39.

pasa 125.

pasupata (vow) 112, 113; oyoga 113; (Saiva

sect) 116 f.
puni§a 18, 21—23, 27, 134.
Puni$a Naraya^a 31.

poiya^t^a 125.

pu$tijlva 78; pu^tibhaktt 79; mar>'adapu-
$tibhakti, pu^tipo^tibhakti, suddhapu-

^tibhakti 79; pu^tiiu^si 77.
praka^ 145.
prakrti 5, 12, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 27, 39,

52. 55f 60, 61, 6^, 108, 134.
Prajapati 5, 10, 13, 31, 113.
Pradj-nmna 6, 10, 12, 13, 53, 84.
pradhana 127, 161.
prapatti 54—56, 65.
prapanna 40, 54.
pRibandha 31.
pralayakala 125.
pravapa 18.
premabhakti 80.

Baladeva $, 9, u.

Balarama 1 3.

Basava 131.

Badarayana 158 f.

bindu 145.

buddhi (prakrti) 12; (will) 15, 17, 26: 48.

brahman 14, 16 — 18, 22, 27, 28, iii.

brahmanirvapa, 27.

brabmayoni 23.

brahmaloka 6.

brahma^acchamsin 11.

brahml (condition of the jlva) 14.

Bhakta 54.

bhakti 12, 20, 28; in SU., Pa^ini, Vä.>ka

29; 38, 52. 54, 55. 57, 65, 110, 134,
136; °yoga 22, 23; omarga 75.

Bhagavat 5, 14, 17, 26; as appellation
of the Buddha and Vasudcva 30, ot
Siva 108, 109.

Bhagavadglta, the, religion of — S, 12;
datc of composition of — 13; substance
of — 14 — 26; sources of the religion
of — 27 ff; its psychology 14, 15; its
essentially theistic naturc 16, 17, 19,
21 ; moral responsibilit}' in — 23; salva-
tion according to — 26, 10 1, 107,
108, 110.

Hhava 103 f.

Bhagavata (Vasudcva worship) 3, 4,8, 11,

38-41.
bhava 109.

Maga 153—155.

Madhva 36 n., 39, 47. 57 ff-i >6o.

manojavitva 123.

mandana 123.

niar)'adajlva 78.

mala 130.

nitihat 52.

Mahadeva 104, loS, in.

mabapu§ti 79*

Mahabharata, the, interpolations in the

southern reccnsion of — 36 n.; position

of Rudra-Siva in — 112.

I. Index of Sanskrit Words and Proper Names.

165

mahäbhava 85.

mabavrata, »dhara 118, 128.

mSyä 17, 78, 85, 108, 161.

Märka^^eya 32.

mähesvara (=pasupata) 119 f.

Mitra 116.

mudrikä 127.

muni 16.

mürti 6.

Yajfia (worship) 14; (metaphorical) 15.

Yajnavalkya 148.

yoga, teachings of 14, 16, 18; — doctrines
mentioned in the Gltä 27; — element
in Väsudeva worship 40; 107, iio, 114,
121 f.

yogamäya (mystic power) 17.

Rahasya 40.
rahasyärnnSya 39.
Radhä 41, 82 ff.
Räma 46 — 48.
RamSnanda 66.

Ramanuja 39, 50—57, 107, 137, 160 f.
RukmlQl 89.

Rudra 102 ff.; (plural) 103 f.; as thc su-

preme god 106, 107; as creator 113.

Rudra-Siva 102; identical with Agni 103.

I«akuIin=NakuIvp 116 f.

liAga 133 ff.; ^sthala 134; bhäva^, präpa°,

i?ta° 135; acära« 136.
LingSlyat 131 ff., 161.

Varepya 64.

Vallabhacarya 41, 76 f., 160.

Vasugupta 129.

Vasudeva 11.

vakoväkya 39.

Vilsudeva, belongcd to thc Vrsni r.icc 4,
9, and the Kär^päyana gotra 11, 12;
mentioned in inscriptions 3, 4; older
than Paijkini 3; religion of — 6; ety-
mology of the word — 7 ; as the supre-
me soul 6, 7; — is the name of a
historical personage 9, 11; — not me-
rely a patronymic 9; the Vasudeva-
Kffpa cult nearly contemporancous with
the rise of Buddhism and Jainism 9;
— identiBed with Kr^pa 11, 12, with
Naräyapa 13, 30—33. with Vi§riu 33—
35; 53» loi, in.

vikramariadharmitva 123.

vijfianakala 125.

Vithobä 87 ff.

vidhi (saiva) 121.

Vinayaka 147 ff.

vibhava 40, 53.

vibhüti 13, 20.

virakta 74.

viräj 13, 20.

vilasasakti 84.

vivartaväda 84, 98.

Vi§flu 33—35.

vistaradharin 74.

Vlrasaiva 131 ff.

Vrndavana 78.

vf§pi 4, 8, 20, 38.

Vedavyasa 42.

vyasana 80.

vyapivaikuQtha 78 n.

vyöha 7, 8, 12, 13, 39, 40, 41, 53, 64,

84, 145.
vratya 114.

9

Sakti 127, 134, 161; — worship 142 ff.
Saipkara (deity) 103 f., 112 f.
Saipkaracar)'a 2 n., 40, 51, 63, 137, 150,

158 — 160.
^ra^agati 60.
^arva 103 f.
^akadvlpa 153 154.
Sa^cjilya 39.
Sambhavadarsana 145.
SalakafaAkata 147.
Siva 102 f., 108, 109; — as Kirata 112;

characteristics of — 114; »bhagavata

115-
sllavantas 138.

suddhadvaita 78.

südras, forms of worship open to — 54, 56,

66, 67, 73, 74, 89.

sülagava 105.

srAgarapa 123.

sraroa^a 29.

sricakra 146.

SrI-Nathajl 77.

srlsampradaya 57.

Svetadvipa 6, 32.

Svetasvatara-Upanisad 106 ff., iio.

Samvid 122.

samsara 23.

sakhibhava 86.

sakhya 41.

Saipkar§ana 3, 4, 8—10 12, 13, 39, 53,

84.
saccidänanda 65, 78.
sat 61, 65, 78, 79, 134.
satvata 8.

Sanaka, «saippradäya 66.
saipnyasa 15, 16, 19.
samayin 146 f.
Samkhya 14, 15, 25, iio; — doctrines

mentioned in thc Glta 27.
Satvata (vidhi) 5, 7, 8, 40; worshippers

of Vasudeva 6, 8 — 13; (inckrnation) 42.
sadakhya 135.
sadya 122.
sayujya 80.
Somananda 130.
saura 151.

Skanda 150, 151, 157.
sthala 133, 134.

i66

III. Religion, Weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. 6. Vai^pavism etc.

sthitaprajna 14.
spandana 123.
sphörti 145.
smSüta 36 n.

svädhySyana 40.

Hara 105, 107.
Hari 5, 7, 8.

II. GENERAL INDEX.

Aborigines, the influenee of thcir belicfs

on Indian religions 115, 124, 144.
Ahirs 37.
aivySonghcn 153.
Älvär 49, 50.

Banjig 138.

Brähma^ism, revival of 51, 142.

Buddhism 2, 7, 9, 13, 16, 24, 29.

Gaste differences, ignoration of 70, 83, 149.
Christian influenae on Indian religions 38,

.57.
coins of Kaniska 150.

cosmogony (Säkta) 145.

Devaram 140.

dualistic philosophy, (Vai§pAva) 73, 75;
(Saiva) 127.

Ecstasy, rcligious 65, 80, 84, 85.

Founders, as historical personagcs, of some
Vai^^ava and Saiva sects 10, 11, 120,
121, 129, 133.

Gates engraved witb sculpturcs 40 f.

Hcnothcism 2.

Idolatry and non-idolatry 47, 55, 58, 73, 74,
89, 90, 92.

incamation 2, 6, 10, 15; „evolution of
monotheism out of polytbeism*^ 12,
144, 151; — and idcntification oftwo
gods 41; — of Vi§^^u 41, 42.

Jainism 2, 7, 9, 13, 24, 29.
Jätakas 38.

Kusti 153.

Magi=maga 1 53 f.

Mayä doctrine, its rejection 51, 57, 62.

Miiro=Mihira 154.

miraculous powers, their attainment 123,
126, 128.

Mithra 154.

monism and pluralism, (Vai^^ava) 51 f., 58,
63, 64, 98 f.; monism denounced by
the Vai§ijavas loi ; (Saiva) 127, 137.

Padigam 140.

Paiicamsali 138.

pantheism, Rgvedic 21; 157 — 161.

Persian Sun-God 155, 157.

phallic worship 115.

physical attributes of God (Vai^pava) 64, 79.

Pippal tree, universe comparcd to the

23, «4.
priests, wordly life of 82.

Ramainl of Kablr 70 f.

religion of devotion (bhakti), in the
Näräyai;ilya 7; its early formulation in
the Glta 8 ; as old as PS^ini 9 ; Väsu-
deva as the promulgator of the — 10;
17, 20, 28, 76, 98 f.; open to the
sudras 30 54, 66.

religious sects, in the fouith Century B. C.
3; founders of new — 13; ekauitika
6 — 8, 13, 14; principle of unity in all
of them 15, 18, 19; toleration 20;
Spiritual theistic 73.

renunciation 35.

rites, their Performance without desirc
14, 61; condemned 83, 90, 95, 99.

Sacrifice, animal (discouraged) 5, 7 ; its
inefficacy feit by the people i, 7; 20,

Saivism, early beg^innings of 102 f.; — and
Vaifpavism 106; liiiga worship 114 f.;
influenee of the beliefs of the abori-
gines on — 115; Siva-worshippers
117, 118; the fourteenth as the sacred
day in — 118; the (human) founder
of — 120; its characteristics 133; escha-
tolog}' 125; Kasmir — 1 39f. ; dlk^ä cere-
monies, 133, 138; — in the Dravi<ja
country 140.

salvation (nirvä^a, mukti), in the Upani§ads
2, HO, the early Väsudcvism 23, the
Bhagavadglta 36, 39; in the PancarStra
System 39; according to RSmSnuja 54.
Madhva 60; in the GopJla-Krj^a cult
78 f.; according to Caitanya 85, Tukä-
räm 97 f.; with the Saivas 123, 131.

Spinoza 157 ff.

Sun-worship 151, 155.

Tenkalai 56, 65.
theism, Hindu 157 — 161.

Vac^akalai 56.

Vai^pavism, constituents of the later forms

III. List of Sectarian Works consulted.

167

of — 35; its development from the
foarth to the eleventh Century 42 ; Philo-
sophie groundwork of — 51 — 57; Säm-
khya influences on — 53 ; — and
Saipkara's Vedantism 54; its attitude
towards the sGdras 66, 73, 74, 89;
emotional isüc development of ^ — 83;
its debasement 86; — and Saivism
106.

«1

Vedantism and Theism 157 — 159.

Waters called Näräs 30.

worship, mystic modes of 40, 47; — of
Vasudeva 40, of Hari 41 ; Vai^pava 55 ;
in the Gopala-Kr^^a cult 80 f. ; — of the
phallus 115, of the pudenda 127, 146 f.

Zarathushtra=Jarasasta 153.

m. LIST OF SECTARIAN WORKS CONSULTED.

Adhyatmaramaya^a 48.
Arthapancaka 53, 55, 56.

Aryavidyasudhakara 77.

Govardhanaprakatyaki V.1rtä 77.
Gauräng^acarita 85.
Grantharoalikastotra 62.
Grantha-Saheb 91 f.

Ji^anamftasara (samhita) 40, 41.

Tattvatraya 53, 54.

Da^aslokl 63 fr.

Dharmaparik^a 46.

Naradapancaratra (saiphita) 40, 86.

Pahcaratrasamhita 39, loi.
PaficacaryapaftcamotpattiprakaraQa 133, 134.
Pancädhyayl 120.
Paftcarthabha^yadlpika 122.
Pancarthavidya 120.
Paramasaiphita 39.
Pau^karasaiphita 39.
Prameyaratnar^ava 78.
Pravaramafijarl 12.

Basavapurai^a 132.

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Madhvavijaya 58.

Madhvasiddhantasara 59.
Mahabharatatatparyanirpaya 59.
Mukundamala 49.

Yatlndramatadipika 53, 54. 55.

Rasamftasindhu 86.
Ramaglta 48.

Väyaviyasamhita 127, 160.
Vlrasaivacintama^i 124.
Virasai väcaryapradlpika 133.
Vrddhaharltasmfti 47.
Vedantaparijatasaurabha 62, 63.
Vratakha94& 10, 47.

Saipkaradigvijaya 127, 149.
Satarudriya 103, 107.
^ivasütravimarSinl 130.
Suddhadvaitamarta^cja 78.
Saivasiddhantadipika 126.

Sakalacaryamatasaingraha 78.
Satvatasamhita 39.
Siddhantajahnavl 63.
Siddhantaratna (DaSasloki) 63.
Setu 63.

Saundaryalaharl 145, 146.
Spandapradlpika 130.

Hariglta 12.
Harltasmfti 55,