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A GUIDE

TO THE

SCIENTIFIC EXAMINATION OF SOILS:

COMPRISING

SELECT METHODS OF MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
AND PHYSICAL INVESTIGATION.

TRANSLATED PROM THE GERMAN OF

Dr. FELIX WAHNSCHAFFE,
WITH ADDITIONS BY

WILLIAM T., BRANNT,

EDITOR OF “ THE TECHNO-CHEMICAL RECEIPT BOOK.”

ILLUSTRATED BY-TWENTY E ENGRAVINGS.
A OF CON NGRe, :
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/ \/

{ ¢
Re us hay Fo
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PHILADELPHIA:

HEN YY CAREY -BALRD ~& €.0.,
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS.
810 WALNUT STREET.

1892.

RLS xO
\

PRINTED AT THE COLLINS PRINTING HOUSE,
705 Jayne Street,
PHILADELPHIA, U.S. A.

PREFACE.

Tris translation of Dr. Felix Wahnschaffe’s
Anleitung zur wissenschaftichen Bodenunter-
suchung, has been prepared in the belief that
it will prove of interest to those engaged in
scientific agriculture and the investigation of
agricultural problems.

Some of the methods of analysis described
are in use in the laboratory of the Royal
Prussian Geological Institute, whilst others
have been taken from approved text-books,
but in many respects modified by Dr. Wahn-
schaffe. Only methods yielding scientifically
useful results, and of comparatively easy and

rapid execution, have been selected.

iv PREFACE,

The chapter on “The Definition of the
Soil,” being of interest only to German readers,
has been omitted, and a few trifling changes

and additions have been made.

WILLIAM T. BRANNT.

PHILADELPHIA, December, 1891.

CONTENTS.

J. DERIVATION AND FORMATION OF THE SOIL.

Various modes of the superficial formation of the earth’s
crust; Forces active in soil-formation; Weathering
Transformation of decomposable minerals contained in
rocks. : : : :

Process of kaolinization; Denudation of the soil

II. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.

Lorenz von Liburnau’s system ; Primitive soils and de-
rived soils; Albrecht Thaer’s system; Difficulty of
drawing sharp limits in the classification of soils

Importance of the quantitative determination of the
principal soil-constituents ; Clay the most important

soil-constituent : : : 5 : . :
Loams ; Definition of the terms light and heavy soils ;
Sub-soils; True soils or top-soils . - :

‘

III. Tue Ossect or Soit-ANALYSIS.

Soil-analysis from the geological and agricultural stand-
points; Absorption of carbon by the plant ;
Content of water in different parts of plants; Chemical

combinations found in plants . 3 : : .
Elements necessary for the nourishment of plants; Ele-
ments occasionally found in the plant-ash ; :

PAGE

18
19

bo
Or

vi CONTENTS.

PAGE
Execution of a soil-analysis which is to satisfy all de-

mands of agriculture ; Importance of complete exami-
nations . ° 5 : . : : - oe ae

IV. PREPARATORY LABORS FOR SoOIL-ANALYSIS.

Taking samples from the soil and storing and preparing
them for analysis. : : . : : fas

Taking specimens of salty or “alkali’’ soils; Depth to

which samples should be taken - - 3 . 29
Points which should be noted in taking samples . o. cee)
Labeling, drying, and storing samples . ° pac!

V. MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS.

Granulating with the sieve : : 5 - = you
Characterization of the mechanical composition of a
soil; Preparations for the execution of the mechani-

eal analysis . : : ‘ : : : M02
Detinitions of fine soil and fine earth; Different opinions

as to what constitutes fine soil and fine earth . <td
Silt-analysis; Apparatuses used for silt-analysis ; Noe-

bel’s elutriating apparatus - 3 : . 34

Products of elutriation obtained with Noshel’s appara-
tus; Schoene’s elutriating apparatus; Definition of

velocity of elutriation . : : ; : - O68
Schoene’s elutriator . 5 : : : : sree
Arrangement for the elutriating process. ; . 38
Formula for obtaining the elutriating velocity. ar a

Formule for calculating a determined elutriating ve-
locity. : ° ; : : : ‘ ay 2

Products of granulation corresponding to elutriating ve-_
locities . . : : : : : , . 44

CONTENTS.

vii

PAGE

Orth’s auxiliary cylinder ; Scheme of a table to be used

for all analyses with Schoene’s apparatus 5 .
Execution of the analysis with Schoene’s apparatus.
Apparatus for elutriation with distilled water : :
Products obtained by the elutriating process :

Scheme for entering the figures Srained by eleuleniis
the products of granulation and elutriation for the en-

tire soil - ‘ : 4 : ; 3 4
Hilgard’s elutriating apparatus . 7 s ;
Precautions to be observed in order to insure correct

and concordant results . ; A 3 : é
Lowest velocity available . : : : : :

45
46
AT
00

oo
nw

Gr Ot
oe

Vi. DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS.

Determination of the content of calcium carbonate or
of magnesia carbonate; Volumetric measurement of

the carbonic acid . : , . : :
Scheibler’s apparatus for the volumetric measurement
of the carbonic acid : ; . : :
Table for calculating the carbonic acid Be Scheibler’s
apparatus . ° : : .
Table for ateulakie the carbonic acid, foamed with
Scheibler’s apparatus, to calcium carbonate. :

Determination of the carbonic acid by weighing from
the loss; Mohr’s apparatus modified by Laufer and
Wahnschaffe . : > . : - : 5

Determination of the carbonic acid by direct weighing ;
R. Finkener’s apparatus : : :

Geissler’s potash apparatus : . :

Determination of the carbonate of calcium aaa magne-
sium by boiling with ammonium nitrate

Blast-lamp - : : ; : - : -

Vill CONTENTS.

PAGE

Determination of the humus substances; Definition of
humus; Neutral and acid humus; Definition of peat 72

Knop’s method for the determination of humus; Dr. R.

Muencke’s drying chamber. : : : . ts
Determination of the carbon of the humus substances

by elementary analysis . ‘ d : : = 4S
Combustion furnace . : : ; : 09,
Determination of the loss by ignition : - 7 On
Determination of the content of clay . ‘ ; ~ 12
Disintegration with sulphuric acid in a closed tube . 83
Tubular furnace : : * 4 , «| SSR

Separation of the ferric oxide from the alumina; Deter-
mination of the iron as ferrous oxide by titration with
potassium permanganate solution. 7 ; Ses

Standardizing of the potassium permanganate solution ;
Purification of iron-ammonium alum or ammonio-
ferric sulphate : : : : : : * 90

Formula for calculating the effective value of the potas-
sium permanganate solution; Calculation of the con-
tent of clay in the total soil. : : eye

Determination of the content of sand ; Peteetaphin de-
termination of the coarser admixed parts of the sand 94

Thoulet and Goldschmidt’s specifically very heavy
fluids. : : : : : : ; » 98

Rohrbach’s specifically very heavy fluid; Table of spe-
cific gravities of various minerals; Determination of

the content of quartz; J. Hazard’s method ; 96
Determination of the elementary composition of the soil ;
Disintegration with sodium carbonate . : . 99

Disintegration with fluoric acid . i : ‘ . 100

CONTENTS.

VII. DETERMINATION OF THE PLANT-NOURISHING

SUBSTANCES.

Determination of the plant-nourishing substances in soil
extractions ; Extraction of the soil with cold distilled
water; Preparation of the aqueous extract of the soil

Determination of the bases in the aqueous extract

Covered water-bath ; Preparation of a number of gles
filters : 7 : :

Determination of the re in the aqueous extract; De-
termination of chlorine .

Determination of sulphuric acid .

Determination of nitric acid

Tiemann’s modification of Sitibesinp!Sobtlaé? s ndtlio’d
for the determination of nitric acid

Table for finding the tension of the aqueous vapor ;
W. Wolf’s method of determining the nitric acid by
means of zine in alkaline solution 5

Determination of the ammonium chloride as ammonio-
platinum after the conversion of the nitric acid into
ammonium chloride : :

Volumetric determination by the ison Walenee azome-
ter of the nitrogen in the ammonium chloride after
converting the nitric acid into ammonium chloride

The Knop-Wagner azometer_.. .

Dietrich’s table for the absorption of a rece in 60
cubic centimeters developing fluid (50 cubic centi-
meters of bromine lye and 10 cubic centimeters of
water) with a specific gravity of the lye of 1.1 and
such a strength that 50 cubic centimeters correspond
to 200 cubic centimeters of nitrogen, with an evolu-
tion of 1 to 100 cubic centimeters of nitrogen .

Special method in the examination of peat; Extraction
of soil with carbonated water . ; :

PAGE

102

. 103
. 106
. 108
Od
colt

116

+ JUS
ceo

. 122

. 123

x CONTENTS.

Precipitation of the phosphoric acid with ammonium
molybdate and weighing as magnesium pyrophosphate
Determination of the phosphoric acid as ammonium phos-
pho-molybdate, according to R. Finkener é .
Finkener’s drying stand. 5 ° : 4 :
Further treatment of the soil extract prepared with car-
bonated water : : : : : : :
Extraction of the soil with cold concentrated hydrochlo-
ric acid; Extraction of the soil with boiling concen-
trated hydrochloric acid . . : : :
Erlenmeyer boiling flask and sand-bath : :
Determination of some important substances for the nour-
ishment of plants, which can either not or only parti-
ally be determined in the soil extracts ; Determination
of the total nitrogen in the soil; Kjeldahl’s method .
Determination of the nitrogen by combustion with soda

lime E 5 é 2 : , 5 ie

Determination of the ammonia contained in os soil .
Schoesing’s modified method for the accurate determina-
tion of the ammonia in the soil : A - 5

VIII. DETERMINATION OF THE SUBSTANCES IN
rue Sor Insurtious TO THE GROWTH
OF PLANTS.

Proof of the presence of free humic acids in the soil .

Determination of common salt in the soil; Determina-
tion of ferrous sulphate, free sulphuric acid, and iron
disulphide ; Methods used at the Prussian moor ex-
perimental station at Bremen . ; : -

Determination of the content of sulphur in the soil by
ignition F . . ° A : F

PAGE

126

127
128

- 130
ashok

139

140

CONTENTS. xl
PAGE
Fleischer’s method of calculating the sulphuric acid
present in a form injurious to plants ; Determination
of the content of sulphur in the soil by disintegration
with bromine : : : : : ; . 143
IX. DeEtTERMINATION OF VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF
THE SOIL WHICH ARE DEPENDENT PARTI-
ALLY ON PHYSICAL AND PARTIALLY ON
CHEMICAL CAUSES.
Weight of the soil ; Determination of the specific gravity 144
Determination of the volume weight ; Apparent specific
gravity of the soil; Porosity of the soil . . 145
Behavior of the soil towards nourishing substances . 146
Testing the absorbent power of the soil with 4, or ;35
normal solutions; Salts suitable for these experi-
ments; Preparation of the 4, normal solution;
Fesca’s method of preparing monocalcium phosphate 147
Determination of the absorption : ; : . 148

Determination of the absorption-coefficient according to
Knop_ . : : : - . ° : :
Behavior of the soil towards water ; Power of retaining
moisture in the soil; By experiments in the labora-
tory : : . : : . . . :
Definition of the greatest or full capacity for water; Zine
tubes used in determining the power of the soil to re-
tain water. : : : : : : :
A. Mayer’s method for determining the power of the
soil to retain water; Determination of the water ca-
pacity of the soil in its natural bed in the open field
Heinrich’s modified method; The evaporating power
of the soil; E. Wolff’s method of determining the
evaporating power of the soil . : ; : .

149

151

152

156

xii CONTENTS.

PAGE
The filtrating power of the soil; E. Wolff’s method . 157
Capillary attraction of the soil; Apparatus used for the
purpose . : : : 7 . 158
Behavior of the soil jemand gases; The are ca-
pacity of the soil for aqueous vapor ° s Log
The absorbent power of the soil for the oxygen of the
atmospheric air; W. Wolf’s method - : - 160
F. Schulze’s method of determining the absorption-coef-
ficient of the soil for oxygen; G. Ammon’s summary
of his experiments 5 : ; : : - Lol
The ventilating power of the soil; R. Heinrich’s method
and apparatus used ot o tees : - 162
Behavior of the soil towards heat ; Determination of the
heat-absorbent power of the soil. : . 163
On what the heating capacity of a soil is depesaant . 164
The heat-conducting power of the soil; Wollny’s de-
ductions from his experiments ; : . 165
Cohesion and adhesion of the soil; R. Heinrich’s aloe
of determining the coherence of the soil ina wet state 166
R. Heinrich’s directions for determining the adhesion of
moist soils to iron and wood . : : ° SL?

X. GENERAL RULES ror Soit-ANALYSIS.

Necessity of fixed rules in order to obtain peri

results. “ ° , 167
Summary of general rules to aie apalitd to tits examina-
tion of soils. - : : : : . - 168

INDEX . : : Fi ;: ‘ : A sel 1

THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

ie
DERIVATION AND FORMATION OF THE SOIL.

THE superficial formation of the earth’s crust, which
serves as the bearer and nourisher of plants, is effected
either by the loosening and decomposition of the exposed
rocks, or by the transport of coarse and fine materials
worn from other rocks, or, finally, by the transforma-
tion into humus of decayed vegetable remains piled up
in large masses.

The forces active in the first-mentioned mode of soil-
formation are partially of a physical and partially of a
chemical nature. Their co-operation is called weather-
ing, and will have to be considered somewhat more
closely. First of all, it is heat which, by itself as
well as in conjunction with water, prepares the rock
for the further disintegrating process. In consequence
of changes in temperature small cracks and fissures are
gradually formed in the rock by the unequal expansion
and contraction of the different minerals occurring in it.
When it rains the water flows down through all these
cracks and lodges in countless minute fissures in the face
of the rock. After a heavy rain, when the rock is filled

with water, it may clear away and a sharp frost set in.
2

18 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

Svery drop of water freezes and expands and bursts
open the rock, splitting off minute specks and scales or
throwing down great lumps. In the summer there is
no frost, and yet the rain may be at work washing moss
and dust into the cracks already opened and forming a
sponge ready to hold water that, freezing next winter,
will act with still greater force. The dry dust sifted
into the cracks and openings in the rock will also ex-
pand when wet and push off small pieces, or start a
great mass that last winter’s ice left just ready to fall.
These disintegrating agencies are still further aided by
the root-growth of plants, by the burrowing of worms
and other earth-delying creatures, and in no small de-
gree by the generation of organic acids—humie, crenic,
ete.—by organic decay.

Furthermore, rocks containing decomposable minerals
undergo a chemical process of transformation in which
the oxygen of the atmospheric air and water, as well as
the carbonic acid dissolved in the latter, are the chief
agents. The oxygen converts the metallic protoxides
in the rocks into oxides, and, since water is almost always
present, into hydroxides. Jerrous oxide combined with
silica is in this manner changed to ferric hydrate. By
this process the texture of minerals containing ferrous
silicate—as, for instance, many feldspars, certain micas,
hornblende, and augite (pyroxene)—is loosened. Rocks
distinguished by the occurrence in them of metallic sul-
phides, to which among the sedimentary rocks chiefly
belong the clay-slates, bituminous marls, and clays, are
decomposed by the conversion of their metallic sulphides,
on coming in contact with moist air, into sulphates or
vitriols. By the lixiviation of the latter by water, the

DERIVATION AND FORMATION OF THE SOIL. 19

rock becomes porous and cellular, and finally breaks up
into fragments.

The process of kaolinization is due to the action of
waters containing carbonic acid upon silicious rocks
rich in alkalies (potash and soda) and alkaline earths
(caleareous earth, magnesia). By such waters, which
acquire their carbonic acid, partially from the atmo-
sphere, and partially from the organisms decaying upon
the surface, the alkalies and alkaline earths are converted
into carbonates and bicarbonates, while silica is sepa-
rated. The carbonates and bicarbonates are soluble in
water, and, together with the separated gelatinous silica,
are carried away by the water, while a silicate of alu-
minium containing water—the kaolin—remains behind.
For this theory of the formation of kaolin we are in-
debted to Forchhammer. It takes: place, for instance,
in orthoclase, which consists of one molecule potash, one
molecule alumina, and six molecules silica, by the
separation of four atoms silica and one atom potash,
while the remaining alumina combines with two mole-
cules silica and two molecules water to kaolin and ciay.

Denudation of the soil_—The rain falling on the wast-
ing rocks sweeps away the minute specks and grains
chipped off by the weather and carries them down to
the nearest streamlet and brook. These fine bits of rock
do not float, but are suspended in the water or roll along
the bed of the stream. The ragged flakes and scales of
stone crash and grind against each other. Every rough
corner is knocked off, and all the pieces become rolled
into smooth round particles. The brook is a mill. It
is making, from the chips brought down by the rain,
sand. <A flood comes with more water, and larger pieces

20 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

of rock are pushed into the rapidly moving water, and
these knocking, tumbling, and grinding over each other,
are soon ground into smooth round pebbles and gravel.
Onward rolls the confused mass of gravel, sand, and
finer bits of rocks, grinding and polishing each piece
as it goes. In time the stream comes to more level
ground and runs slower and slower. The current.
not being able to push the larger stones any further,
leaves them all by themselves. Thus the trans-
ported matter is gradually deposited as the current
diminishes in velocity, the very finest particles being
carried as long as the stream remains in motion. When
the river reaches a flat or level tract, and over which its
waters can flow in flood with a slow motion, the sus-
pended matter, consisting principally of sand and mud,
is deposited and canstitutes the alluvium or new land,
formed by such deposits at the river’s mouth and along
its banks. Though the soil is thus continuously washed
away, still it remains nearly constant in quantity, since
what is taken away by denudation is made up from
other causes, and this augmentation can evidently pro-
ceed from nothing but the slow and constant disintegra-
tion of the rocks.

The rocks which weather most easily and rapidly do
not always exhibit most soil ; very often the reverse. A
pure limestone would show hardly any weathered band
or soil, because the carbonic acid of the rain would
almost at once dissolve and remove the particles it acts
upon. Even in the case of igneous rocks, their com-
position may be such that those which weather the most
rapidly would, likewise, show little of a weathered
band, owing to the same solvent action.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. PA

1G
CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.

Ix conformity with Lorenz yon Liburnau’s system,
soils may preferably be divided, according to their forma-
tion, into two large principal groups, viz., primitive soils
and derived soils. Primitive or original soils may be
called such as have been directly formed by the weather-
ing of exposed rocks, or, like peat, by the decomposition
of vegetable remains in their original place of location.
According to the original structure, a distinction has to
be made between primitive soils of the crystalline and
of the sedimentary rocks, as well as of the peat forma-
tions. Derived soils (deposited or transported soils) are
such as have been transported either in a solid or liquid
form by water, or, also, by the wind.

For the further classification of soils it is preferable
to make use of the physical system of soil classification
proposed by Albrecht Thaer, the founder of scientific
agriculture. He distinguishes the varieties of soil ac-
cording to the predominance in them of the admixed
parts of what may be called the principal soil con-
stituents. From this result the following groups of
soils: 1. Stony soils. 2. Sand soils. 3. Loam soils.
4, Clay soils. 5. Marl soils. 6. Lime soils. 7.
Humus soils.

The same experience met everywhere in nature that
sharp limits cannot be drawn in the classification of
animate, as well as inanimate bodies, shows itself in the

22 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

division of soils, the above-mentioned groups exhibiting
very gradual transitions into each other, and even, like
the clay and marl soils, are already partially transition
formations.

A single principal constituent, be it sand, clay, lime,
or humus, cannot afford to cultivated plants an adequately
fertile soil; the more uniformly all the constituents
participate in the composition of the soil, the greater its
value and yield will be. Hence, the quantitative de-
termination of the principal constituents is an important
task of scientific soil-analysis, since, on their proportions
to each other, the value of the soil for cultivation de-
pends. As is well known by a greater or smaller con-
tent of clay, a sand-soil gains essentially in the power
of holding water and in absorbent capacity. But the
physical properties of a clay-soil are also improved by a
content of sand, it becoming thereby more friable, more
permeable, and more easy to cultivate. Of still greater
importance to agriculture is a lime soil combined with
sand and clay—hence, the more it apporaches a marl
soil—while an extreme humus soil (peat) first requires
special meliorations to make it fit for cultivation.

It is not to be understood that in naming the varieties
of soils after the principal constituent, the admixed part
reaching the highest number of per cent. furnishes the
name, this being the case only with sand and lime soils.
On the contrary, it is rather the physically most import-
ant admixed part, which has to be considered as the guide
in this respect, even if it is not represented by a relatively
high number of per cent. in the composition of the soil.
Thus clay is the most important soil constituent so long as
its physical properties are not covered or invalidated by

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 23

another admixed part. If, for instance, this is done by
sand, a soil when no longer plastic, but only binding,
has to be classed among the loam soils. With a still
greater content of sand, the soil also loses its binding
power, and we have then a sandy loam or a loamy sand.

Loams which may be considered as typical soils are a
mixture of sand, clay, and humus, which are spoken of
as light when the sand predominates, and as heavy when
the clay is in excess. These terms, light and heavy, do
not refer to the actual weight of the soil, but to its
tenacity and the degree of resistance it offers to the im-
plements used in cultivation. Sandy soils are, in the
farmer’s sense of the word, the lightest of all soils, because
they are the easiest to work, whilst in actual weight they
are the heaviest soils known. Clay, though hard to
work on account of its tenacity, is comparatively a light
soil in weight. Peaty soils are light in both senses of
the word, they being loose or porous and having little
actual weight.

Besides the soils proper which come immediately under
cultivation, there are in most places a set of subsoils which
differ from the true soils, and which cannot be ignored.
The true soils, or, as they are sometimes called, the top
soils, are usually of a darker color from the larger ad-
mixture of humus, whilst the subsoils are lighter in hue,
yellow, red or bluish from the greater preponderance of
the iron oxides. The soils are more or less friable in
their texture, whilst the subsoils are tougher, more com-
pact, and more largely commingled with rubbish and
stone. The soils are usually a little more than mere sur-
face coverings, whilst the subsoils may be many feet in
thickness.

24 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

a:
THE OBJECT OF SOIL-ANALYSIS.,

In the analysis of soils we may be guided by geological
or agricultural considerations.

From a purely geological standpoint, the determina-
tion of the petrographic composition of the soil, as well
as that of its relations to the mother rock—the weather-
ing process—will chiefly be of interest. But, since the
soil is of importance principally in an agricultural
respect, it is also the object of most of the analyses of it
to solve scientific and practical questions relating to
agriculture as well as to a knowledge of the soil, and
though the latter is an agronomic science, it must rest
upon a geologico-petrographic basis.

Those times in which the soil was simply considered
the bearer, but not the nourisher of plants, and when it
was believed that only its physical properties exerted an
influence upon vegetation, have long since passed. To-
day it is well known that, though the production of
plants is materially influenced by these physical pro-
perties, it does not exclusively depend upon it.

One of its principal constituents—carbon—the plant
absorbs directly from the atmospheric air, whilst all the

remaining substances required for its nourishment and
development, it obtains, partially directly and partially
indirectly, from the soil. Since soil-analysis has for its
object the determination of the nourishing matters of the

THE OBJECT OF SOIL-ANALYSIS. 20)

plant, the elementary substances of the latter shall be
briefly discussed.

All the living parts of plants contain a large quantity
of water, which not only forms a principal constituent
of the juice, but also saturates all membranes and the
protoplasm. In the substance of all organized vegetable
structures small particles of water are stored. This
water, which is absolutely necessary for vegetation,
escapes on heating the parts of plants for some time to
from 212° to 230° F. The content of water, which is
to be calculated from the decrease in weight, varies very
much in the different parts of plants, it amounting, for
instance, in dry seeds to from 12 to 15 per cent., in juicy
plants to from 60 to 80 per cent., and in aquatic plants
and fungi up to 95 per cent. The plant obtains the
water directly from the soil, since on account of its
capillary structure it possesses, similar to a sponge, the
capacity of absorbing and retaining, to a more or less
degree, the water offered to it.

In the parts of plants dried at 230° F. a large num-
ber of chemical combinations are found, of which those
representing chemical unions of carbon with other ele-
ments are designated as organic combinations. By
incineration the organic combinations are destroyed, while
the inorganic combinations of the plant substance remain
behind asa white ash. It may here be mentioned that in
the incineration of the plants, the sulphur, which forms a
constituent of the organic combinations, also reaches, by
chemical processes, the ash in which it is found as sul-
phate. Furthermore, the carbonic acid formed during
incineration and which combines with the inorganic
substances of the residue, must also be left out of con-

26 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

sideration in analyzing the ash. The organic combina-
tions occurring in larger quantities in plants consist of
carbon and hydrogen, or of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy-
gen, or of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur.

By experiments it has been determined that certain
inorganic substances are not accidentally admixed parts
of the plant, but are absolutely necessary for its life and
growth, and consequently for the formation of the above-
mentioned organic combinations.

The elements which are necessary for the nourishment
of the plants may, according to their uses, be divided as
follows :—

Elements for the formation of the organic combina-
tions.—Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
and

Elements for the formation of the inorganic combina-
tions.—Phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, calcium, mag-
nesium, and iron. .

Besides these, some other elements are occasionally
found in the plant-ash, as, for instance, sodium, lithium,
manganese, silicium, iodine, bromine, and, very seldom,
aluminium, copper, zine, nickel, barium; but are of no
importance in the nourishment of the plants.

From the above it follows, that in examining the soil
as to its content of plant-nourishing substances, the
eight following elements, independent of oxygen and
hydrogen, have to be taken into consideration, namely :
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, cal-
cium, magnesium, and iron.

Since, as previously indicated, the thriving of the plant
depends not only on the chemical composition of the
soil, but also, in a high degree, on its mechanical mixture

THE OBJECT OF SOIL-ANALYSIS. XG

and physical properties, a soil analysis which is to satisfy
all demands of agriculture has to be executed as fol-
lows :—

1. The mechanical mixture of the soil must be quan-
titatively determined. This examination may be desig-
nated mechanical soil analysis.

2. The soitl-constituents, sand, clay, humus, lime, have
to be quantitatively determined. This is partially af-
fected by the mechanical analysis and partially by
chemical methods of analysis executed on the one hand,
independent of the mechanical analysis, and on the
other, in connection with it.

3. The content of plant-nourishing substances in the soil
has to be determined by chemical analysis.

4. The substances injurious to the vegetable world must
be taken into consideration.

5. Experiments have to be made to gain direct in-
formation in regard to certain properties of the soil, which
depend partially on physical and partially on chemical
causes.

Such complete examinations are of great importance
for judging the soil, but it must be borne in mind that
by them alone its value cannot be determined. The
greater or inferior fertility of a soil depends not only on
its mechanical and chemical composition, but also on
various conditions outside of them; for instance, the
more or less inclined, as well as the higher or lower
location of the soil, the condition of the subsoil, the
underground water, exposure to the sun, climate, ete.

28 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

LY.
PREPARATORY LABORS FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS.

Brrore entering upon the methods of analysis it will
be necessary to discuss the labors which must precede them.
They consist in taking samples from the soil and storing
and preparing them for analysis.

In the same field different varieties of soil often occur,
and some recommend that in collecting a specimen for
analysis, portions should be taken from different parts
of the field and mixed together, by which an average
quality of soil would be obtained. But this is bad
advice when the soils in different parts of the field are
really unlike. Suppose one part of a field to be clay and
another sandy, as is often the case in most countries, and
that an average mixture of the two varieties of soil is
submitted to the analysis; the result obtained will apply
neither to the one part of the field nor to the other, that
, it will be of little or no practical value. In taking
samples it is, therefore, recommended not to select mixed
average samples, but characteristic separate samples.

After selecting a proper spot, pull up the plants grow-
ing on it and scrape off the surface lightly with a sharp
tool, to remove half-decayed vegetable matter not, as yet,
forming part of the soil. Dig a vertical hole, like a
post-hole, at least twenty inches deep. Scrape the sides
clean, so as to see at what depth the change of tint
occurs which marks the downward limit of the surface
soil and record it. Take at least half a bushel of the

PREPARATORY LABORS FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. 29

earth above this limit, and, on a cloth or paper, break it
up and mix it thoroughly, and put up at least a quart of
it in a sack or package for examination. This specimen
will ordinarily constitute the “soil.” Should the change
of color occur at a less depth than six inches, the fact
should be noted, but the specimen taken to that depth
nevertheless, since it is the least to which rational culture
can be supposed to reach.

In case the difference in the character of a shallow sur-
face soil and its subsoil should be unusually great, as may
be the case in tule or other alluvial lands or in rocky
districts, a separate sample of that surface soil should be
taken besides the one to the depth of six inches.

Specimens of salty or “alkali” soils should, as a rule,
be taken only toward the end of the dry season, when
they will contain the maximum amount of the injurious
ingredients which it may be necessary to neutralize.

Whatever lies beneath the line of change, or below the
minimum depth of six inches, will constitute the subsoil.
But, should the change of color occur at a greater depth
than twelve inches, the “soil” specimen should, never-
theless, be taken to the depth of twelve inches only,
which is the limit of ordinary tillage; then another
specimen from that depth down to the line of change,
and the subsoil specimens beneath that line. The depth
down to which the last should be taken will depend on
circumstances. It is always desirable to know what
constitutes the foundation of a soil down to the depth of
three feet at least, since the question of drainage, resist-
ance to draught, ete., will depend essentially upon the
nature of the substratum. But in ordinary cases ten or
twelve inches of subsoil will be sufficient for the purpose

30 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

of examination in the laboratory. The specimen should
be taken in other respects precisely like that of the surface
soil, while that of the material underlying this ‘ subsoil”
may be taken with less correctness, perhaps at some ditch
or other easily accessible point, and should not be broken
up like the other specimens.*

At the same time when taking samples, the general
condition of the soil should be noted and accurate in-
formation gained chiefly in regard to the following
points :—

1. The geological origin and petrographic nature of
the soil. .

2. The relations of the foundation of the soil to a
depth of six feet if possible.

3. The thickness of the surface soil.

4, The location of the soil above the level of the sea.

5. The inclination of the soil.

6. The height of the underground water.

7. The climatic conditions of the region.

8. The judgment of a practical agriculturist residing
in the neighborhood in regard to the quality and yield-
ing capacity of the soil.

9, The manner and quantity of manuring the soil has
received in the preceding years.

10. The meliorations (marling, draining, irrigation,
etc.) which may have been made,

11. The lowest yields and rotation of crops.

In fact, every circumstance that can throw light on
the agricultural qualities or peculiarities of soil and
subsoil should be carefully noted.

* Soil Investigation, by E. W. Hilgard, in Tenth Census of the
U.5., vol. 5. Cotton Production, Washington, 1884.

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. on

It is recommended to tinmediately label each sample.

In summer, the sample is allowed to dry out slowly
in the air, and in winter, in a moderately warm room
until it shows a quite equal and constant weight. In
this condition it is called air-dry soil. Ifthe sample has
to be kept any length of time, it is recommended to store
it in wide-mouthed glass bottles hermetically closed, as
otherwise it might undergo changes in the laboratory
where vapors of ammonia and acids cannot always be
avoided. Clayey and humus yarieties of soils possess
the property of absorbing ammoniacal vapors, and, hence,
if the sample has for a long time remained unprotected
in the laboratory, the analysis would show too high a
content of nitrogen.

Ve
MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS.

THE object of mechanical soil-analysis is the quan-
titative determination of the proportional quantities of
coarser and finer constituents composing the soil. To
attain such a mechanical separation of the soil two
mediums are employed—granulating with the sieve, and
elutriating with water or silt analysis.

A. Granulating with the sieve-—Yor the examination
of soils with coarser constituents, granulation with the
sieve should always precede silt-analysis, since such soils
cannot be well brought into the elutriating apparatus,
and, even if this were possible, would clog it. Sieves

oe THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS,

with round holes are to be preferred to square-meshed
sieves, they permitting more accurate measurements.

In order to sufficiently characterize the mechanical
composition of a soil, and to compare it with other
varieties, the soil is divided into the following pro-
ducts :—

1. Grains larger than 2 millimeters in diameter.

2. 4¢ from) Zion a GC 46
3. “cc ec 1 to 0.5 ce ce
4, GE COT OFD ro One ce st
De we SOF (OEP troy (0) i cs WG
6. OG “0.1 to 0.05 GC 6s
ts uG ** 0.05 to 0.01 ot 46
8. ‘* smaller than 0.01 ou ce

The sizes of grains Nos. 1 to 3, 7. e., to 0.5 millimeters
in diameter, are obtained by sifting through sieves with
holes 2, 1, and 0.5 millimeters in diameter; all other
products of granulation are separated, as will be shown
later on by silt analysis.

For the execution of the mechanical analysis, spread
the air-dry soil out upon a sheet of paper or in a shallow
dish, and, after finely dividing it by rubbing between
the hands, or by means of a wooden pestle in a mortar,
weigh out a good average sample of 500 to 100 grammes.
For weighing all the products of granulation obtained
by sifting and elutriating, as well as for the physical ex-
periments, an accurate balance must, of course, be used.
The quantity weighed out for granulation is then passed,
in a dry state, through the 2-millimeter sieve.

Since the entire sample of soil has been weighed, it is
only necessary to weigh the residue remaining in the 2-
millimeter sieve. The quantity of soil which has passed
through the sieve is then learned from the difference

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 33

resulting by deducting the product of granulation of over
2 millimeters from the total weight. With loamy soils
the product of granulation of over 2 millimeters must
g, be rinsed off with distilled
water to free it from adhering sand and loam, then dried
at 212° IF. upon the sand-bath, and weighed only when
entirely cold.

The soil which has passed through the 2-millimeter
sieve will be designated as fine soil. Jt forms the initial
material to be employed in the silt analysis as well as in

always, before weighin

the chemical investigations in the execution of which pro-
ducts of elutriation are not to be used.

Emil Wolff and Schoene designate as fine earth the
soil which has passed through a 3-millimeter sieve.
Knop’s conception is a still different one. He calls
fine earth the soil which has passed through a 4-mil-
limeter sieve, and fine soil the residue resulting from
igniting the fine earth. M. Fesca applies the term fine
soil to soil less than 4 millimeters in diameter.

From what has been said it will be seen that there is
a great difference in the ideas of agricultural chemists as
to what constitutes fine soil and fine earth, and yet it is
absolutely necessary to establish a definite limit of value
for them, since, if every analyst selects another initial
substance, all possibility of comparing the analytical re-
sults must of course cease. We therefore adhere through-
out to the term fine soil as a designation for soil less than
2 millimeters in diameter, and take it as the initial mate-
rial for analysis, as has for a number of years been cus-
tomary in the laboratory for soil analysis in the Royal

Prussian Geological Institute.
3

34 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

The fine soil which has passed through the 2-milli-
meter sieve is thoroughly mixed and 30 to 100 grammes
of it taken for silt analysis.

The residue remaining after the silt analysis, with
an elutriating velocity of 25 millimeters, is dried and
weighed and then further granulated by passing through
sieves with holes 1 and 0.5 millimeter in diameter.

B. Silt analysis.—The object of silt analysis is to sepa-
rate the fine soil obtained in the above-described manner
into still finer products of granulation.

The principle adopted in the apparatus used for
this purpose is either to separate the coarser from the
finer particles by their different subsiding velocities in
water at rest (decanting apparatus), or to effect separa-
tion by an ascending jet of water (rinsing or elutriating
apparatus).

To the former class of apparatus belong: 1. Bennig-
sen’s elutriating flask ; 2. Knop’s elutriating cylinder ;
and 38. Julius Kuehn’s elutriating cylinder ; and to the
latter class the elutriating apparatuses of Noebel, Schoene,
and Hilgard.

Of these apparatuses only Schoene’s and Hilgard’s
yield sufficiently reliable results. However, as Noebel’s
apparatus is occasionally used, it shall also be briefly de-
scribed.

1. Noebel’s elutriating apparatus.—This apparatus,
Fig. 1, consists of a water reservoir of 10 liters’ capa-
city and four pear-shaped vessels, whose volumes are
as 1:8: 27: 6415: 28: 33: 48, and which are con-
nected with each other by knee-shaped tubes. The last
small vessel is connected with the water reservoir by

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 35

means of a rubber tube provided with a clip. The
largest vessel in front is provided with a discharge
tube, the point of which is drawn out, so that when
the apparatus is filled with water 9 liters run out in

40 minutes. The water reservoir is provided with a
gauge, A, so that elutriation may be carried on with
a constant pressure by connecting the tube, a, with a
water reservoir located at a higher level.

Fifty grammes of the soil to be elutriated (which, by
agreement, is to be less than 1 millimeter in diameter)
are prepared by boiling with water, and are then rinsed
into the second smallest vessel, 6, the smallest vessel
being filled with water only. The two larger vessels
are then filled to the brim with water, and after con-
necting the entire system by the connecting tubes the
clip is opened and the water allowed to flow for 40

36 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

minutes through the apparatus. The following products
of elutriation are obtained by this operation :—

1. The residue in vessel IT.

2. The residue in vessel III.

3. The-residue in vessel IV.

4, The particles of soil elutriated from vessel IV.

By now evaporating the residues in vessels II., IIT,
and IY. in small, weighed porcelain dishes and then
weighing them, the finest elutriated parts are obtained
from the difference.

Noebel’s apparatus, with its four vessels of ever-vary-
ing capacity and slope of sides and variable head of
pressure, has many defects. Not one of the sediments
obtainable by its use is ever of a character approaching
uniformity, and eyen in one and the same instrument
successive analyses of one and the same material differ
widely in their results.

2. Schoene’s elutriating apparatus—Like Noebel’s,
this also is a rinsing apparatus, a current of water
regulated by a stop-cock and rising vertically in the
elutriating space being also used. The water comes
from a reservoir standing at a higher level.

Whilst in the elutriating process, by means of decan-
tation, the gravity retarded by the fall in water is made
use of in Schoene’s as well as in Noebel’s apparatus, an
impelling force of the waters upwards, acting counter
to the gravity, is employed. Hence, in Schoene’s ap-
paratus, by velocity of elutriation is understood the space
through which a particle of soil is lifted im one second.
The length of this space is dependent on the volume-
content of the elutriating vessel, the cross-section and

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 3”

specific gravity of the particle of soil, as well as on the
velocity of the ascending current of water.

Schoene’s elutriator, Fig. 2, consists of a glass vessel,
the upper portion, B, of which must be perfectly
cylindrical and at least 10 centimeters
long, so that during elutriation an en-
tirely uniform velocity of current pre-
vails, at least, in the upper portion.
Its clear diameter should be, according
to Schoene, 5 centimeters, as accurately
as possible. In order to accurately fix
still smaller velocities, this diameter
should not be less than 4 centimeters.
The cylindrical portion is joined by the
very gradually tapering portion C,
which is 50 centimeters long. Below
the portion C passes into a tube D #
the clear diameter of which should,
under no conditions, be more than 5
millimeters, and not less than 4 milli-
meters. This tube is bent semicircularly
and extended upwards in a vertical
direction. Above the cylindrical space
the apparatus has a shoulder, and passes
into the neck A, which serves for the
reception of a perforated rubber cork.
The neck is 2 centimeters long, with a
diameter of 1.5 to 2 centimeters.

A piezometer, which serves as an indicator of the cur-
rent velocity, is pushed through the rubber cork. It has
a clear diameter of 3 millimeters, and, at a point 8 centi-
meters above its lower end, is bent twice in the form of

38 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

a knee at an angle of 45°. In the zenith of the second
bend is a circular discharge-aperture, the edges of which
should be as smooth as possible. From 1 to 10 centi-
meters the piezometer is graduated into millimeters, from
10 to 15 centimeters into half centimeters, and above
that into whole centimeters.

In order that the current of water, which is regulated
by a stop-cock, may remain as constant as possible, it is
necessary to use as a reservoir a capacious shallow box
of zine with a capacity of 50 liters, in which the level
undergoes but little change during elutriation.

The arrangement shown in Fig. 3 is very suitable
for the elutriating process.

The table C'serves for securing the elutriators, and is
71 centimeters high, 50 centimeters wide, and 85 cen-
timeters long. Its top consists of lath-work. The
elutriators are inserted between the laths and screwed
into the joints of a stand provided with a heavy cast-
iron plate. ‘To render it more secure the plate of the
stand is by means of a binding screw fastened to the
table. The latter also carries a wooden frame, G, 140
centimeters high, which, on the top, is provided with
two shiftable coupling boxes for the support of the
piezometer tubes. The water reservoir / is provided
with a glass gauge and stands upon a board secured by
cramp irons. The inlet pipes /, screwed in the bottom
of the reservoir and provided with brass cocks, D,
are connected by means of rubber tubing with the
elutriators.

The elutriating velocity in the cylindrical space of
Schoene’s elutriator (Fig. 2 B) with a determined head
of pressure is dependent on the cross section of the

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 39

Fig. 3
O
HII :
sof 80 ee [=
en vel
aE hal
; ai is ms i f | : ir
patil
ek

i
ly

40 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

cylinder and the size of the discharge aperture on the
piezometer. Hence it is necessary first accurately to de-
termine the diameter of the cylindrical elutriating space.
For this purpose graduate the cylinder by pasting strips
of paper on the outside. A plane laid through the
upper edge of the two strips of paper should stand as
perpendicular as possible to the axis of the cylinder ;
the distance of the two strips of paper from each other
should be 10 centimeters. Now fill the entire cylinder
with water, close the end of the tube / with a cork, so
that no air-bubbles remain therein, and let the lower
meniscus of the water in the cylindrical space sit upon
the upper edge of the uppermost strip of paper, whereby
the axis of the cylinder should stand as perpendicular
as possible. Now, by means of a pipette, remove the
water from the cylinder to the upper edge of the lower
strip of paper, and bring it into a measuring vessel
graduated into cubic millimeters.

The content of a cylinder (J), as is well known, is
equal to the product of the base (7?) and the altitude
(h).

= arta

Now since the cross section of the cylindrical portion
of the elutriator is known, the water is put at a de-
termined height into the piezometer and a measuring
flask, for instance, a liter, is allowed to run full, the
number of seconds, ¢, required to fill the flask being noted

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 41

by a stop-watch. The quantity (Q) which flows out in
a second is then :—
V=xmni
t
The elutriating velocity is obtained by dividing the
number of cubic-millimeters, which have not run out in
one second, by the cross section of the cylinder in square

millimeters (A’) :—
( xv Bt)
t

If a definitely determined elutriating velocity is desired,
commence first at a higher point of the piezometer,
calculate the velocity from the quantity discharged in
one second, and note whether it approaches the desired
velocity or not. According to the result, commence the
next experiment at a higher or lower mark of the piezo-
meter,

With the use of very slight elutriating velocities, the
thread of water does not appear at a fixed mark, only
a dripping of the fluid taking place on the discharge
aperture of the piezometer. In this case, the point to
which the meniscus of the thread of water in the piezo-
meter sinks in dripping off is taken as the mark, the
number of drops running off in one minute being also
counted. For calculating the quantity discharged in
one second, it suffices to allow a measuring flask of 100
cubic-centimeters capacity to run full. By a few experi-
ments, in which the water-level in the piezometer is so
regulated that the mean between the two last determined

42 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

limits is always taken, the water-level corresponding to
the elutriating velocity sought is readily obtained.

Instead of this empirical manner of finding a de-
termined elutriating velocity, it can also be calculated by
taking the piezometer graduated into centimeters as a
basis.

According to the theoretical law of discharge, the
quantities of discharge with one and the same piezometer,
and hence, for one and the same discharge aperture, are
as the square roots from the heads of pressure in the
piezometer. If, now, the heads of pressure are indicated
by hy and Ay, and the quantities of discharge in one sec-
ond by 2; and 2,,, the result will be the equation :—

hy ae

In the case in question the law of discharge has to be
somewhat modified, as the water-level in the piezometer
is influenced by the capillary attraction in the narrow
tube of the piezometer, as well as by the resistance the
water meets with in running from the narrow discharge
aperture. Hence to eliminate these influences, a constant
magnitude, C, to be empirically determined for all heads
of pressure of the same piezometer, must, according to
Schoene’s experiments, be deducted from the obseryed
head of water h. Thereby, equation No. 1 is modified
as follows :—

h —C 2

ny = Ge Qn? (No. 2.)

For the determination of the constant magnitude, C, it
suffices to execute two experiments by once allowing a

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 43

liter to run full at as low a head of pressure (2 to 3 centi-
meters), and then at as high a head of pressure (80 to
100 centimeters) as possible, noting the number of seconds
and caleulating the quantity discharged in one second.
By inserting the data obtained in formula No. 2, the fol-
lowing formula results :—

QP Ayah
Cae centimeters (No. 3.)
2P°—2;7

The constant magnitude C having thus been found,
the corresponding quantities of discharge, Qn, can be
calculated for all desired heads of pressure, or, also, the
corresponding heads of pressure for all desired quantities
of discharge.

From formula No. 3 result :—

aS Q :
On = V hn—C. Se aang, cubic-centimeters (No. 4.)

hn = Qni. = + C centimeters (No. 5.).

Since the quantities of discharge in one second Q, also
flow in the same time through any cross section of the
elutriating space whose diameter is D, it follows that if
v designates the elutriating velocity in one second :—

=v :

@ a D* centimeters (No. 6.)

Nae centimeters (No. 7.)
n 1)?

Hence when the constant magnitude C has been de-
termined by experiments and the velocity v, in the
elutriating space at a determined head of pressure h is

44 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

known, it can be readily calculated what head of water,
hn, has to be used, in order to obtain the velocity, vn,
sought. It is only necessary in this case to insert the
value for Q from formula No. 6, and the corresponding

value for Qn = ont J in formula No. 5, whereby is

obtained
= fos he OG ee
( oy Aen
(aay (No. 8.)

With an approximately equal specific gravity and
globular form of the material determined sizes of grains
correspond to determined velocities. By experiments,
Schoene has determined that with quartz sand in globular
form and elutriating velocities of from 0.1 to 12 milli-
meters per second, the following relation exists between
the diameter of the grains d and the elutriating velocity
vi—

d = 0.0314 v ai millimeters.

From his calculations, controlled by microscopical
measurements, it follows that starting from quartz in
globular form, the annexed products of granulation cor-
respond to the following elutriating velocities :—

0.2 millimeter of elutriating velocity = grain less than 0.01 millim.

2.0 millimeters 3b se = ‘* from0.05to0.01 ‘
7.0 oe ce ce = ce ce O.1 to 0.05 ce

Since, on account of the narrowness of the discharge

’ 5
aperture in the piezometer, a velocity of 7 millimeters
can only be obtained by the introduction of a second

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 45

piezometer with a wider discharge aperture, Orth has
proposed the insertion of a small auxiliary cylinder
2.5 centimeters in diameter. Its cylindrical portion
should be 50 centimeters long, so that it can also be used
for a velocity of 25 millimeters.

Since the production of an accurate sieve with holes
0.2 millimeter in diameter is very difficult and expen-
sive, and the sifting of the soil through such a sieve does
not yield good results on account of the holes readily
clogging up, Laufer’s proposition to obtain the size of
grains from 0.2 to 0.1 millimeter by elutriation may be
recommended. For this purpose Orth’s auxiliary
cylinder is used; a piezometer about 5 millimeters in
diameter and with a discharge aperture of from 3 to 3.5
millimeters being placed upon it. The cross-section of
the cylinder is determined in the previously described
manner, and, in order to find the velocity of 25 milli-
meters which corresponds to the size of grains 0.2 to 0.1
millimeters in diameter, the quantities discharged at dif-
ferent marks of the piezometer. are measured. When
the desired velocities in the various elutriators have been
determined, a table is made according to the following
scheme, which is used for all analyses to be executed
with the apparatus :—

46 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

Large elutriator. Small elutriator,
Diameter >: mm, Diameter >: mm.
Cross section : mm?. Cross section : mm.

Head of water in Velocity in one Head of water in | Velocity in one

the narrow piezo- | second, the narrow piezo- second,
meter, cm. meter, em.
| .
0.2 mm.
2.0 mm.
- - |
7.0 mm,
Head of water in
the wide piezo- 25.0 mm.
meter, cm,

For the execution of an analysis, the air-dried fine soil
passed through the 2-millimeter sieve is used. Spread
the soil upon a sheet of paper and weigh out an average
sample of exactly 100 grammes. Of very uniformly
and finely divided soils, 30 to 40 grammes suffice for
the analysis.

Bring the quantity of soil, weighed out, into a porce-
lain or enamelled iron dish, pour distilled water over it
and boil it, with constant stirring with a glass rod, until
the clayey constituents are entirely dissolved. With
tenacious clay soils, small nodules of clay frequently re-
main behind which do not dissolve even with continued
boiling ; and it is best to crush them with the index-finger,
which for the purpose should be protected with a thick
rubber coating. The material thus prepared is permitted
to become cold, when, without stirring up the sediment,
the supernatant turbid fluid is poured into the large
elutriator of the apparatus. Now, by opening the stop-

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 47

cock, fill the small elutriator before connecting it with
the larger elutriator, with water up to above the semi-
circular lower bend. The purpose of this is, on the one
hand, to prevent the apparatus from becoming clogged,
when introducing the soil, by the latter ascending in the
narrow tube, and, on the other, to avoid mistakes in the
commencement of the elutriating process by ascending air
bubbles. For the introduction of the soil into the small
elutriator, it is best to place upon the latter a wide-
mouthed funnel and inject the material with the assist-
ance of a wash bottle. Detach any adhering particles
by means of a glass rod, the lower end of which is
covered with a piece of rubber tubing.

If it is intended to make further chemical investiga-
tions with the products of elutriation at 0.2 and 2 milli-
meters velocity, the soil has to be elutriated with distilled
water. ‘This is necessary, because in gaining the product
of elutriation at 0.2 millimeter velocity, the elutriating
water has to be evaporated, and, by the use of ordinary
water, too many impurities would be introduced into the
material under investigation. The product of elutria-
tion at 0.2 millimeter velocity can only be elutriated
with ordinary water, if it is not to be weighed, but to be
calculated from the loss.

For elutriation with distilled water it is best to use
the apparatus shown in Fig. 4. A glass tube, d, reaching
to the bottom of a glass balloon, A, filled with distilled
water, connects with a glass flask, B, of about 10 liters
capacity. Near the top of the tube d is inserted a glass
tube provided with the glass stop-cock, a. The rubber
cork of the flask B is provided with two other perfora-
tions, in one of which is inserted, even with the under

48: THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

side of the cork, the knee-shaped glass tube g, which is
connected by means of a rubber tube with the lead tube
c. The latter is connected with a small water air-pump
so that a rarefied space can be created in B. Through
the third perforation in the rubber cork passes a siphon,
h, reaching to the bottom of the flask, the long leg of
which is provided below with a glass stop-cock, 6. This

siphon hf passes into one of the tubulures of the glass
flask C' standing at a lower level, while the other tubulure
serves for the reception of the water-gauge D, through
the bottom of which passes the tube e, which effects the
constant level of the water. On each side, near the bot-
tom, the gauge D is provided with a tubulure, one sery-

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 49

ing to connect the gauge with the flask C, while the
other, by means of a rubber tube and an inserted tube
provided with a glass stop-cock, f, communicates with
the two elutriators. When the flask B is to be filled,
the stop-cocks a and 6 are closed, and after putting the
air-pump in action, it is connected with the tube ¢. In
consequence of this a rarefied space is formed in B, and
the water will ascend from the balloon through the tube
d and fill 6. Now, in order to have a constant level
while elutriating, the flask B is filled, the stop-cocks a
and 6 are opened, and approximately as much water is
allowed to flow into Cas in elutriating flows out of this
vessel. The water discharged from the gauge-pipe e
may be caught and poured back into the balloon.

After the soil has, in the manner previously mentioned,
been introduced into the small elutriator, the stop-cock,
J, which serves for regulating the current of water, is
opened a little and the operation commenced at the mark
on the piezometer tube corresponding to the lowest
elutriating velocity of 0.2 millimeters. Two or three
liters are first allowed to run off, and, in case the product
of elutriation is to be gained, evaporated in a large
porcelain dish upon the water bath. In this manner
one is sure to obtain all the soil constituents soluble in
water. If, after running off two or three liters, the
water in the elutriating space of the large elutriator has
not become entirely clear, elutriation is continued at the
same velocity, without interrupting the operation, until
nearly complete clarification takes place in the upper
portion of the elutriating space. The elutriating water
thus obtained is brought into a large porcelain dish and

heated to boiling. By continued boiling the suspended
4

50 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

particles of clay ball together and settle on the bottom,
so that, after cooling and standing for some time, the
supernatant, nearly clear water may be siphoned off and
thrown away. ‘The sediment is added to,the product of
elutriation first obtained.

In many cases the further elutriating process may be
continued with ordinary water, the remaining products
of elutriation depositing readily so that the supernatant
water can almost be entirely siphoned off. The product
of elutriation is then several times washed with distilled
water, and, after allowing the sediment to settle, the
water is siphoned off.

The velocity next to be used is dependent on the pro-
portion of the cross-sections of the two elutriators. If
the velocity of 7 millimeters appears in the small
elutriator at a greater height of the piezometer than the
velocity of 2 millimeters in the large elutriator, com-
mence first at the height of the piezometer at which a
velocity of 2 millimeters prevails in the large elutriator.
In the reverse case, first elutriate with a velocity of 7
millimeters in the small elutriator, and, only after dis-
engaging the latter, set the piezometer so as to obtain a
velocity of 2 millimeters in the Jarge elutriator.

The products of elutriation are caught in large eylin-
drical glass vessels (A, Fig. 3) having a capacity of
from 10 to 15 liters. After, witha velocity of 7.0 milli-
meters, clarification has taken place in the small
elutriator, the wide piezometer (compare p. 45) is placed
upon the small elutriator and elutriation continued
with 25 millimeters velocity until clarification is com-
plete.

By the elutriating process the following products have

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. ik

been obtained (compare the numbers in the table,

8. Product of elutriation at 0.2 millimeter velocity. Discharge.

Mis ce ‘ ce 9.0 ce “ce ce

6. fe ss 7.0 ts fs Residue in the
large elutria-
tor (eventual-
ly also partial
discharge).

5 & ss 25.0 es ey Discharge.

4. Residue ee 25.0 a a Residue in the
small elutria-
tor.

The two residues (6 and 4) are best removed from the
elutriators by connecting the latter with the water reser-
voir, then inverting them in a large dish, and, after
opening the cock, rinsing out their contents.

The supernatant clear water is next siphoned off, when
the products of elutriation are brought into small
previously weighed porcelain dishes with flat bottoms
and for some time dried in a sand bath heated to about
212° F. After cooling, the dishes, before being weighed,
are allowed to stand at least one or two days so that the
products of elutriation may re-acquire the content of
moisture of the air of the room.

The products obtained by granulation and elutriation
are centesimally calculated for the entire soil, and the
figures entered in the following scheme :—

52 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

Clayey parts.

Gravel Sand. Total.
more Dust. | Finest.
than
2mm in ] |
diameter.| 9t0 | 1to | 0.5to | 0.2to | 0.1 to | 0.05 to /lessthan
1mm. | 0.5 al 0.2 mm.) 0.1 mm./0.05 mm.'0.01 mm.|0.01 mm.
2.4 71.0 26.7 100.1

| amen!
2.0 | 3.6 | 16.0 | 52.8 | Deal || ale: | 14.3

Mistakes in elutriating with Schcene’s apparatus are
avoided by executing the process as uninterruptedly and
uniformly as possible. Numerous experiments have
shown that the method yields sufficiently accurate
results,

3. LHilgard’s elutriating apparatus.—To avoid mis-
takes arising from flocculent aggregates of the finest
particles of soil, Prof. E. W. Hilgard has proposed* the
elutriating apparatus shown at Fig. 5. He uses a
cylindrical elutriating tube, 7, of 34.8 millimeters inside
diameter at its mouth, and 290 millimeters high. At-
tached to its base is a rotary churn, P, consisting of a
porcelain beaker triply perforated, viz., at the bottom
for connection with the relay reservoir, R; and at the
sides for the passage of a horizontal axis, A, bearing four
grated wings. This axis, of course, passes through stuffing
boxes firmly cemented to the roughened outside of the
beaker and provided with good thick leather washers,
saturated with tallow. These washers, if the axes run
true, will bear a million or more of revolutions without

* E. W. Hilgard. Silt Analysis of Soils and Clays. Am.
Journal of Science and Arts, vol. VI., October, 1873.

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 53

material leakage. From 500 to 600 revolutions per
minute is a proper velocity, which may be imparted by
clock-work or a turbine.

As the whirling agitation caused by the rotation of
the dasher would gradually communicate itself to the
whole column of water, and cause irregularities, a (pre-

Fig. 5.

ferably concave) wire screen of 0.8 millimeter aperture
is cemented to the lower end of the cylinder. No
irregular currents are then observed beyond about 75
millimeters above the screen, whose meshes are yet
sufficiently wide to allow any heavy particles or aggre-
gates to sink down freely. Any grains too coarse to pass
must, however, be previously sifted out.

54 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

Thus arranged, the instrument works quite satis-
factorily ; and by its aid, soils and clays may readily be
separated into sediments of any hydraulic value desired.
But in order to insure correct and concordant* results,
it is necessary to observe some precautions, to wit :—

1. The tube of the instrument must be as nearly
cylindrical as possible, and must be placed and main-
tained in a truly vertical position. A very slight deyvia-
tion from the vertical at once causes the formation of
return currents, and hence of molecular aggregates on
the lower side.

2. Sunshine, or the proximity of any other source of
heat, must be carefully excluded. The currents formed
when the instrument is exposed to sunshine will com-
pletely vitiate the results.

3. The Mariotte’s bottle should be frequently cleansed,
and the water used be as free from foreign matters as
possible. or ordinary purposes, it.is scarcely necessary
to use distilled water ; the quantities used are so large as
to render it difficult to maintain an adequate supply;
and the errors resulting from the use of any water fit
for drinking purposes are too slight to be perceptible, so
long as no considerable development of the animal and
vegetable germs is allowed. Water containing the slimy
fibrils of fungoid and moss prothallia, vorticelle, ete.
will not only cause errors by obstructing the stop-cock
at low velocities, but these organisms will cause a coa-
lescence of sediments that defies any ordinary churning,
and completely vitiates the operation.

4. The amount of sediment discharged at any one

* Usually within 5 per cent. of the quantities found.

MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 55

time must not exceed that producing a moderate turbidity.
Whenever the discharge becomes so copious as to render
the moving column opaque, the sediments assume a
mixed character ; coarse grains being, apparently, upborne
by the multitude of light ones whose hydraulic value’
lies considerably below the velocity used; while the
churner also fails to resolve the molecular aggregates
which must be perpetually reforming, where contact is
so close and frequent.

This difficulty is especially apt to occur when too large
a quantity of material has been used for analysis, or
when one sediment constitutes an unusually large portion
of it. In either case, a portion of the substance may be
allowed to settle into the relay reservoir until the part
afloat in the churn and tube is partly exhausted ; after
which the rest can be gradually brought up and worked
off. Or, the: sediments shown by the microscope to be
much mixed, may be worked over a second time. Either
mode, however, involves so grievous a loss of time as to
render it by far preferable to so regulate the amount
employed, that even the most copious sediments can be
worked off at once. Within certain limits, the smaller
the quantity employed, the more concordant are the
results. Between ten and fifteen grammes is the proper
amount for an instrument of the dimensions given
above.

Tt has been found that, practically, 0.25 millimeter
per second is about the lowest velocity available within
reasonable limits of time; and that by successively
doubling the velocities up to 64 millimeters, a desirable
ascending series of sediments is obtained, provided
always that a proper previous preparation had been given
to the soil or clay.

56 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

VE
DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS.

A. Determination of the content of calcium carbonate
or of magnesium carbonate.—With soils containing only
small quantities of magnesium carbonate, it suffices to
determine the carbonic acid expelled by stronger acids,
and to calculate from it the equivalent quantity of cal-
cium carbonate.

The content of calcium or magnesium carbonate in a
soil is of double significance, for, on the one hand,
they may be present in such large quantities as to form
an important constituent of the soil, and, on the other,
they play an important role in the nourishing of plants,
even if present in such small quantities that they can no
longer be classed as constituents.

According to the degree of accuracy aimed at, the
carbonic acid may be determined by three different
methods, viz: by volumetric measurement, by weighing
from the loss, or by direct weighing a volumetric measure-
ment of the carbonic acid with Scheibler’s apparatus.

a. Volumetric measurement of the carbonic acid is made
use of for strongly calcareous soil; for instance, diluvial
marls, meadow limes, and argillaceous marls, where the
rapid determination of the approximative content of
calcium carbonate in whole per cent. is sufficiently
accurate, As the initial material for this purpose, fine
soil dried at 212° F. is used, and if such is not at hand,
the soil itself. The material is to be quite finely pulver-
ized in a cast-steel mortar. .

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 57

Scheibler’s apparatus, Fig. 6, is arranged as follows :—

Two glass tubes 28 millimetersin diameter are vertically
secured to a wooden frame. The tube to the right is
graduated into half and whole centimetersand holds about
300 cubic centimeters. Below both the tubes are con-
nected by a bent glass tube. The top of the tube to the
left is closed by a cotton plug. Near the bottom of this
tube is a glass tube which is bent upwards and connects,
by means of a rubber tube provided with a clip, with an
open flask tubulated near the bottom. The rubber tube
must be of sucha length that the flask may conveniently be
placed upona board located above the frame. The gradu-
ated tube is connected, by means
of a tube provided on the side
with a glass cock, having a glass
bulb which receives the carbonic
acid, so that the latter cannot be
absorbed by the water in the
graduated tube. With the lower
end of this glass bulb is con-
nected, by means of a rubber
tube, the developing — vessel,
which consists of a glass flask

AD
“N

with a wide neck, in which aceu-
rately fits a rubber cork pro-
vided with a tube.

In using the apparatus the
glass flask filled with water is
set upon the board above the

aoe .
IF Oe | eee
af

frame, and the glass cock to the
right being opened, both tubes
are allowed to run full to above

58 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

the graduation. The flask is then taken down, and
by carefully opening the clip, water is allowed to flow
off until the lower meniscus of the water level in
the graduated tube sits exactly upon the O mark.
In both the communicating tubes the water will be
at the same level. In order to have always ap-
proximately the same tension of aqueous vapor, the
developing flask is, shortly before use, rinsed out with
concentrated common salt solution. Then by means of
a pipette 20 cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid (1
part concentrated bydrochloric acid to 3 water) are
introduced. Now place, with the assistance of straight
erucible-tongs, a small porcelain crucible containing
about four to eight grammes of the substance to be ex-
amined in the hydrochloric acid, and firmly put the
rubber cork into the neck of the flask, without, however,
touching the developing space with the warm hand.
Now close the glass cock, and by opening the clip allow
about 20 cubic centimeters of water to run off, as other-
wise, in consequence of the violent evolution of carbonic
acid in the beginning of the operation, water would be
thrown from the tube to the right. After the discharge
of the 20 cubic centimeters of water, the level in the
tube to the right will be somewhat lower, but will
remain constant at one point. Should this not be the
case, the apparatus leaks somewhere. Now, grasp with
the left hand the clip, and, with the right the develop-
ing flask so that the thumb lies on the left of the neck,
the index-finger upon the top of the rubber cork, and
the middle finger on the right of the neck. In this
manner the vessel can be very firmly held, and heating
by the hand is avoided. Incline the flask until the

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 59

porcelain crucible tumbles over and then impart a
circular motion to the flask. During the evolution of
carbonic acid a quantity of water, corresponding to the
sinking of the level in the tube to the right, is discharged
by opening the clip. Shaking of the developing vessel
is continued until the level in the tube to the right
remains constant. The apparatus is now allowed to
stand quietly for ten minutes, then again shaken, and,
when the water is at the same level in all the tubes, the
number of centimeters of carbonic acid is read off.
With due regard to the temperature and the height of
the barometer, the weight of the carbonic acid or of the
calcium carbonate corresponding to it, is caleulated to R.
Finkener’s tables (pp. 60 and 61), in which the weight of
a cubic centimeter of carbonic acid at different tempera-
tures and barometer heights is given in one-thousandths
milligrammes. In this figure is included the error arising
from measuring the gas in a moist state, and from the
absorption of a quantity of carbonic acid by the hydro-
chloric acid of the developing vessel.

OF SOILS.

EXAMINATION

THE

I.— Table for calculating the carbonic acid for Scheibler’s apparatus.

The figures indicate the weight of 1 cubic centimeter of carbonic acid in thousandths milligrammes.

Barometer.

Thermometer (Centigrade).

| | |

mm. 742 |'744.5| 747 | 749 | 751 |753.5| 756 | 758 | 760 |762.5| 765 | 767 | 769 771 | 774
= | | : ete.

Paris |
inches Bl | gre | yer | grr | grr | yor) V1} O87 | yr | arr | Brn | qi | Br | Brn | yy

and lines. | |
| |

28° 1778 | 1784} 1791 | 1797 | 1804 | 1810 | 1817 | 1823 | 1828 | 1833 | 1837 1842 | 1847 | 1852 1856
27 1784 | 1790| 1797 | 1803 | 1810 | 1816 | 1823 | 1829 | 1834 | 1839 | 1843 | 1848 1853 1858 1863
26 1791 | 1797 | 1803 | 1809 | 1816 | 1822 | 1829 | 1835 | 1840 | 1845 | 1849 | 1854 | 1859 | 1864 | 1869
25 1797 | 1803} 1810 | 1816 | 1823 | 1829 | 1836 | 1842] 1847 | 1852 | 1856 | 1861 1866 | 1871 | 1876
24 1803 | 1809 | 1816 | 1822 | 1829 | 1835 | 1842] 1848 | 1853 | 1858 1862 | 1861 | 1872 | 1877 | 1882
23 1809 | 1815) 1822 | 1828 | 1835 | 1841 | 1848 | 1854] 1859 | 1864 1868 | 1873 | 1878 | 1883 | 1888
22 1815 | 1821 1828 | 1834 1841 | 1847 | 1854] 1860]1865 | 1870 1875 | 1880 1885 1890 1895
21 1822 | 1828] 1835 | 1841 | 1848 | 1854 | 1861 | 1867 | 1872 | 1877 | 1882 | 1887 | 1892 | 1897 | 1902
20 1828 | 1834| 1841 | 1847 | 1854 | 1860 | 1867 | 1873 | 1878 | 1883 | 1888 | 1893 | 1898 | 1903 | 1908
19 1834 | 1840/ 1847 | 1853 | 1860 | 1866 | 1873] 1879 |] 1884 | 1889 | 1894 | 1899 | 1904 1909 | 1914
18 1840 | 1846 | 1853 | 1859 | 1866 | 1872 1879 | 1885 | 1890 | 1895 | 1900 | 1905 | 1910 | 1915 | 1920
17 1846 | 1853 1860 | 1866 | 1873 | 1879 | 1886 | 1892 | 1897 | 1902 | 1907 | 1912 | 1917 1922 | 1927
16 1853 | 1860) 1866 | 1873 1879 | 1886 | 1892] 1898} 1903 | 1908 | 1913 | 1918 | 1923 | 1928 | 1933
1s 1859 | 1866 1872 | 1879 | 1886 | 1892 | 1899 | 1905 | 1910 | 1915 | 1920 | 1925 1930 | 1935 | 1940
14 1865 | 1872] 1878 | 1885 | 1892 | 1899 | 1906 | 1912 1917 | 1922 | 1927 | 1932 | 1937 | 1942 | 1947
13 1872 | 1878] 1885 | 1892 | 1899 | 1906 | 1913] 1919 | 1924 | 1929 | 1934 | 193 | 1944 | 1949 1954
12 1878 | 1885 | 1892 | 1899 | 1906 | 1912 | 1919 | 1925 | 1930 | 1935 | 1940 | 1945 | 1950 | 1955 | 1960
11 1885 | 1892) 1899 | 1906 | 1913 | 1919 | 1926} 1932 1937 | 1942 1947 | 1952 | 1957 1962 1967
10 Teo e tie ae 1906 | 1913 | 1920 | 1926 | 1933] 1939 | 1944 | 1949 | 1954 | 1959 | 1964 1969 | 1974

OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS.

DETERMINATION

Il.— Table for calculating the carbonic acid found with Scheibler’s apparatus to calcium

Barometer.

Thermometer (Centigrade).

mm. 742 \744.5|) 747 | 749 | 751
Paris

inches 5/1 (add qs gir g///

and lines.
28° 4041 | 4056 | 4070 | 4085 | 4099
27 | 4055 | 4070 | 4085 | 4099 | 4114
26 4069 | 4084 | 4099 | 4114 | 4129
25 4083 | 4098 | 4113 | 4128 | 4143
24 4097 | 4112 | 4127 | 4142 | 4157
23 4111 | 4126 | 4141 | 4156 | 4171
22 4125 | 4140 | 4155 | 4170 | 4185
21 4139 | 4154 | 4169 | 4184 | 4199
20 4153 | 4169 | 4184 | 4199 | 4214
19 4168 | 4183 | 4198 | 4213 | 4228
18 4182 | 4198 | 4213 | 4228 | 4243
7 4197 | 4212 | 4227 | 4242 | 4257
16 4211 | 4226 | 4241 | 4256 | 4271
15 4225 | 4241 | 4256 | 4271 | 4286
14 4240 | 4256 | 4271 | 4286 | 4301
13 4955 | 4271 | 4286 | 4301 | 4316
12 42°70 | 4286 | 4301 | 4316 | 433
11 4285 | 4301 | 4316 | 4331 | 4346
10 4300 | 4316 | 4332 | 4348 | 4364

carbonate.
The figures express thousandths milligrammes.

753.5| 756 | 758 |.760 |762.5| 765 | 767 | 769 | 771 | 774
10/1) Va] ager | qr | grr | gir | At | Bre | grr | eee
4114 | 4128 | 4143 | 4155 | 4166 | 4177 | 4187 | 4197 | 4208 | 4218
4129 | 4143 | 4158 | 4169 | 4179 | 4190 | 4200 | 4211 | 4222) 4232
4144 | 4158 | 4172 | 4183 | 4193 | 4204 | 4214 | 4225 | 4236 | 4247
4158 | 4172 | 4186 | 4197 | 4208 | 4219 | 4230 | 4241 | 4252 | 4262
4172 | 4186 | 4200 | 4211 | 4222 | 4233 | 4244 | 4255 | 4266 | 4277
4186 | 4200 | 4214 | 4226 | 4237 | 4248 | 4259 | 4270 | 4281 | 4292
4200 | 4214 | 4228 | 4240 | 4252 | 4263 | 4274 | 4285 | 4296 | 4307
4214 | 4229 | 4243 | 4255 | 4267 | 4279 | 4290 | 4301 | 4312 | 4322
4229 | 4243 | 4257 | 4269 | 4281 | 4292 | 4303 | 4314 | 4325 | 4336
4243 | 4258 | 4272 | 4284 | 4296 | 4307 | 4318 | 4329 | 4340 | 4351
4258 | 4272 | 4286 | 4298 | 4310 | 4321 | 4332 | 4343 | 4354 | 4365
4272 | 4286 | 4300 | 4312 | 4324 | 4335 | 4346 | 4357 | 4368 | 4379
4286 | 4300 | 4314 | 4326 | 4338 | 4349 | 4360 | 4371 | 4382 | 4393
4301 | 4315 | 4329 | 4341 | 4353 | 4364 | 4375 | 4386 | 4397 | 4408
4316 | 4331 | 4345 | 4357 | 4368 | 4379 | 4390 | 4401 | 4412 | 4423
4331 | 4346 | 4361 | 4373 | 4384 | 4395 | 4406 | 4417 | 4428 | 4439
4346 | 4361 | 4376 | 4388 | 4399 | 4410 | 4421 | 4432 | 4443 | 4454
4361 | 4376 | 4391 | 4403 4415 | 4426 4437 | 4448 | 4459 | 4470
4378 | 4394 | 4407 | 4419 eae 0i eee! 4453 | 4464 | 4475 | 4486

}

62 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

b. Determination of the carbonic acid by weighing from
the loss.—This method consists in expelling, in a weighed
apparatus, the carbonic acid by dilute acids, again weigh-
ing the apparatus and calculating the content of carbonic
acid in the substance from the loss in
weight. An apparatus very suitable
for this purpose is Mohr’s, modified by
Laufer and Wahnschaffe, Fig. 7. It
consists of a small glass flask with a
thin bottom and short wide neck, which
serves for the reception of the sample
of soil to be examined. The finely pul-
verized material is dried by spreading
it out upon a watch erystal and placing
it in a drying chamber heated to 212°
I’, for one hour, It is then brought hot
into a small glass tube also dried out at
212° F., and the latter closed with a
cork. After cooling, the tube together

with the cork is weighed, two or three grammes of the
substance are poured into the glass flask, and the tube
is again weighed. The difference between the two
weighings corresponds to the weight of the initial sub-
stance dried at 212° F. In the neck of the glass flask
a hollow glass stopper provided with two tubulures is her-
metically ground in. In the tubulures two glass tubes of
different forms are also ground in, One tube is bent at a
right angle, and then again upwards and widens above the
second bend. It serves for the reception of calcium
chloride, and is filled by first pushing in loosely a small
cotton plug, placing upon the latter a layer of pieces of
calcium chloride the size of pin-heads, then introducing

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 63

another cotton plug and finally closing it with the glass
stopper provided with two tubulures. Over the end of
the tube is drawn a small piece of rubber tube, in the
top of which a small glass rod is pushed. The other
tube reaches nearly to the bottom of the vessel, and near
the top it is provided witha glass cock for the admission
of the acid into the apparatus. Above, the tube expands
pear-shaped for the reception of the acid, and is closed
in the same manner as the other tube by a glass stopper,
rubber tube, and glass rod. The filling with dilute acid
(1 part concentrated acid and 10 parts water) is effected
by immersing the pear-shaped tube inverted in the acid,
and, with the glass cock open, sucking the acid up until
the pear-shaped receptacle is nearly filled. The cock is
then closed, the tubulure dried with blotting-paper, and
the rubber tube placed over it. Some distilled water is
poured over the material in the flask. When all the
tubes have been firmly placed in position, the apparatus
is wiped off with a dry piece of leather, and, after stand-
ing for half an hour, weighed. The rubber tubes are
then removed, and the acid is allowed to run, drop by
drop, into the flask. The carbonic acid having been ex-
pelled, the bottom of the flask is heated with a very
small flame by placing the flask upon an asbestos plate,
whereby the acid pipe must remain closed. After heat-
ing nearly to boiling, so that the carbonic acid absorbed
by the water is expelled, allow the apparatus to cool,
and then, in order to remove all the carbonic acid, draw
a slow current of air through the apparatus by connect-
ing the calcium chloride tube with an aspirator (/, Fig.
8). Now close the apparatus with the rubber tubes, let
it stand for half an hour in the weighing-room, so that

64 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS,

it again acquires the temperature of the latter; lift, be-
fore weighing, the rubber tube on the calcium chloride
tube for the equalization of the air pressure, and weigh
after replacing the rubber tube. By duly observing all
precautionary measures and paying special attention
that in heating, the fluid is not brought to the boiling
point, the carbonic acid can, by this method, be accu-
rately determined to ;'5 per cent.

ce. Determination of the carbonic acid by direct weigh-
ing.—This mode of determination consists in expelling
the carbonic acid by hydrochloric acid and catching it
in an absorption-apparatus which can be weighed. This
method is used whenever the carbonic acid, even in very
small quantities, is to be determined as accurately as
possible.

R. Finkener’s apparatus, shown at Fig. 8, is very
suitable for the purpose. Of the substance dried at
212° J*., 0.5 to 2 grammes are weighed out and brought
into a flask upon the neck, a, of which sits a tube
secured to the flask by two copper wire rings connected
by spirals. On one side the tube has an ascending joint,
upon the end, ¢, of which sits the calcium chloride tube.
The latter is 93 centimeters long, and has an ascending
and a descending leg, ed and de, the latter of which is
only filled with calcium chloride, while the former serves
for the reception and condensation of the aqueous vapors
escaping in boiling. The calcium chloride tube is also
secured to the glass joint by means of rings and spirals.
Above the glass joint is a glass stop-cock, B, and over
it a funnel in the bottom, 6, of which a knee-shaped
tube is ground in. Below the glass stop-cock the funnel
tube narrows and reaches nearly to the bottom of the

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 65

flask where it is bent upwards, so that during the evolu-
tion of carbonic acid no bubbles can ascend in it. The
end of the calcium chloride tube is connected by means
of rubber tubing with a small Geissler potash-apparatus,

| ng
0" {

OPE TE

(RUD Ss
iil ii
i} Ur

ill

D, which is more plainly shown in Fig. 9. It is filled
with caustic potash solution (1 part caustic potash to 2
parts water). The small wash bottles of this apparatus

are filled three-quarters full by providing the upper end
5

66 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

of the tube with a rubber tubing dipping in the caustic
potash solution, and sucking with the mouth on the tube
end of the calcium chloride tube. The wash bottles
having been filled, the rubber tubing is removed and
the tube-end thoroughly cleansed with blotting-paper.
The calcium chloride tube is then filled, and the appa-
‘atus, after having been wiped with a piece of leather
and closed with rubber tubing, is placed for some time
in the balance in order to acquire the temperature of the
weighing-room.

Some distilled water is then poured over the material
in the flask, and after inserting the glass tube bent at
a right angle in the funnel, a current of air previously
freed from its carbonic acid in a potash wash bottle (A,
Fig. 8), is conducted through the apparatus. For the
conduction of the air it is best to use a small Bunsen
water air-pump, the current of air being regulated by
inserting the apparatus, /, seen in the illustration.
This apparatus consists of an ordinary glass flask with
a doubly perforated rubber cork. In the cork sit two
glass tubes, the lower end of one of which is drawn out
to a fine point, and dips about two centimeters deep into
the water in the flask. The other tube, which is even
with the lower surface of the cork, is in direct communi-
cation with the air-pump, and is provided with a glass
stop-cock, the boring on the mouth of which is laterally
indented, so that, even with a strong air pressure, small
air bubbles can, at determined intervals, be passed
through the fluid in the flask. After sucking through
about three times as much air as the apparatus contains,
the tube is removed from the funnel, and, after closing
the glass stop-cock, B, the funnel is filled with dilute

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 67

hydrochloric acid (1 part acid to 10 parts water). The
weighed Geissler potash-apparatus is then connected
with the long calcium chloride tube and the acid allowed
to run, drop by drop, into the flask. When evolution
has somewhat abated, a very small flame is brought
under the apparatus, while a slow current of air is passed
through it. The fluid is now heated to just below the
boiling point, when the flame is removed and the current
of air somewhat augmented. The operation is finished
when three times the volume of air which the apparatus
contains is sucked through it. The potash apparatus
closed at both ends with rubber tubing is allowed to
stand half an hour in the balance and is then weighed,
after being wiped with a piece of leather and removing
the frictional electricity thereby produced with a metallic
brush. /

If metallic sulphides are present in the soil, which
are decomposed by the acid and yield sulphuretted
hydrogen, add first some chloride of mercury to the
fluid. If, with the use of hydrochloric acid, chlorine
should be evolved, which may happen in the presence of
oxides of manganese, first let some concentrated stannous
chloride solution run into the flask.

After using the apparatus the condensed water in the
ascending portion of the calcium chloride tube is re-
moved by means of a flame, and the tube closed on both
ends. By this means it can be used for a long time
without the necessity of refilling it.

d. Determination of the carbonate of calcium and
magnesium by boiling with ammonium nitrate—If it is
necessary to determine the proportion of the carbonates
of calcium and magnesium, the following method, first

68 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

used by E. Laufer, can be recommended. Bring one or
two grammes of the material, pulverized as finely as
possible and dried at 212° F., into a beaker-glass and
pour 20 cubic centimeters of completely saturated am-
monium nitrate solution over them. After covering the
beaker-glass with a watch crystal, boil the fluid for half
an hour, and, in case the salt should separate by the
evaporation of the water, add some hot water. Am-
monium nitrate possesses the property of converting the
carbonates of calcium and magnesium into soluble
nitrates, while the ammonium carbonate formed thereby
is decomposed by boiling and escapes.

CaCO, + MgCO, + 4(NO,NH.,)=
Ca(NO,)2 + Mg(.NO,)2+2(CO[ NH,],).

The soil is then allowed to’settle, and the supernatant
hot solution decanted off through a filter by placing the
funnel in a copper hot-water funnel, Fig. 10, heated to
212° F., so that during filtration the ammonium nitrate
cannot separate and clog up the funnel. The boiling
with the solution is repeated twice; the material in the
glass is then washed with somewhat more dilute am-
monium nitrate solution and the washing fluid also
poured through the filter. In case the material is not to
be further used, it is unnecessary to bring it entirely
upon the filter. Washing with pure distilled water
cannot be done, as otherwise the fluid running off is
rendered turbid by the fine particles of soil which pass
through the filter. Washing is finished when a drop
running off from the filter leaves no perceptible residue
when evaporated upon a platinum sheet.

The filtrate strongly diluted with water is heated to

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 69

boiling, compounded with a few drops of ammonia and
the lime precipitated with ammonium oxalate. After
standing for twelve hours the white precipitate of calcium

Fig. 10.

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\ Uy
\ ff ;

} SS — —
Nt r
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| |
Sel
i I i) SS
|); VB iF
fj, 4
|

oxalate has completely settled. The supernatant fluid
is then poured off through a filter; the precipitate is
washed by several times decanting it with hot water in
the beaker-glass and finally brought upon the filter.
The portions of the precipitate adhering to the glass are
remoyed with a glass rod over the lower end of which a
piece of black rubber tubing has been drawn. The
filter is now washed out with hot water, with the aid of
the wash bottle. The operation is finished when a drop

70 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

running off leaves no perceptible residue when evaporated
upon a platinum sheet.

The oxalate of lime is dried in the drying stove (Fig.
12), at 212° F., then detached from the filter and brought
into a weighed platinum crucible, while the filter is

Fig. 11.

folded together and incinerated upon the lid of the
crucible. The ash is then brought into the platinum
crucible, which is best effected with the aid of a pencil,
and, after placing the lid upon the crucible, the latter is
gradually brought to ignition. In order to completely
convert the calcium carbonate formed by gentle igniting

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. ial

into calcium oxide, it is necessary to subject the crucible
for ten minutes to a strong heat over a blast-lamp (Fig.
11). Before weighing, cool the hot crucible and contents
in a desiccator. Caustic lime being hygroscopic, weigh-
ing must be effected as rapidly as possible. Generally
speaking, it is best to weigh all hygroscopic substances
twice, by allowing the weights of the first weighing to
remain in the pan of the balance, then again heating the
erucible and its contents, and again weighing after cool-
ing in the desiccator. Since the difference amounts at
the utmost to from one to two milligrammes, the weight
can very rapidly be determined by two or three oscilla-
tions of the beam of the balance. To find the corre-
sponding quantity of calcium carbonate, multiply the
number of weighed grammes of calcium oxide with the
factor 1.786.

The filtrate from the lime-precipitate is evaporated to
about half its volume in a platinum dish, then brought
into a beaker-glass and solution of sodium phosphate
added. Then add concentrated ammonia sufficient to
amount to one-third of the entire solution. With a
moderate heat (77° to 86° F.), a white crystalline pre-
cipitate consisting of ammonium magnesium phosphate =
PO,MgNH, + 6H,0 is separated inside of twenty-four
hours. The precipitate is filtered off and washed out
with a cold mixture of one part of concentrated ammonia
and three parts of water. Before igniting in a porcelain
crucible, the dried precipitate is detached as much as
possible from the filter, and the latter incinerated by
itself. Then add the ash to the contents of’ the crucible
and ignite over the blast-lamp. If, after igniting, the
precipitate should be colored gray or black by unburnt

ee. THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

coal, moisten it by allowing a drop of nitric acid to fall
upon it, place the lid upon the crucible and heat the
latter gently at first, and, afterwards, over the blast-lamp.
By the action of the heat the ammonium magnesium
phosphate is transformed into magnesium pyrophosphate
= Mg,P,O0, Cool the crucible and contents in a desic-
cator and weigh. The increase in the weight of the
crucible represents the weight of the magnesia pyrophos-
phate; this multiplied by 0.757 will give the equivalent
quantity of magnesium carbonate.

B. Determination of the humus substances.—By humus
are understood all the substances originating from the
decomposition of plant-remains, in which carbon appears
in organic combination.

With a full access of air and at an ordinary tempera-
ture, plant-remains are decomposed into a pale brown or
dark brown substance, which dissolves with a brown
color in alkalies and forms alkaline humates. The re-
action of this humus is neutral.

If the decomposition of the plant-remains takes place
under water, hence, without the access of air, a gray-
black mass is formed, which in a fresh state is muddy,
but in a dry state pulverulent. On account of its acid
reaction this mass is called acid humus (gein).

If the decomposition of plant-remains begins at first
with the full access of air and at an ordinary tempera-
ture, but is afterwards continued under water without
the access of air, the humus substance richest in carbon,
which is known as peat, is formed.

Between these different products of decomposition are
found gradual transitions into each other, so that the
humus substances represent no fixed chemical combina-

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 73

tions. For agriculture, it is first of all of importance,
to know the distribution of the humus substance in the
soil and its reaction. The distribution and the degree of
decomposition are learned from mechanical analysis by a
microscopic examination of the various products of
elutriation. The reaction is best learned by laying a
moist sample of soil upon blue litmus-paper and observ-
ing whether the test paper is more or less strongly
reddened. Since, however, the free carbonic acid present
in the soil may also redden the paper, in making the
experiment, the latter has to be dried and examined as
to whether the reddening remains visible after drying.
Sour humus soils are very detrimental to cultivation.

In regard to the quantitative determination of the
humus substances, their content of carbon can, with ap-
proximate accuracy, be determined by Knop’s method.
If, however, it is to be determined with the greatest
accuracy possible, combustion, customary in elementary
analysis, has to be employed. With some soils a guide
for judging the content of humus is already obtained by
determining the loss in igniting.

a. Knop’s method for the determination of humus.—
Knop’s method is based upon the conversion of the car-
bon contained ,in the humus by oxidation with chromic
acid into carbonic acid,.nd collecting the latter in a
weighable absorption-apparatus.

Spread about two to ten grammes of fine soil (less
than two millimeters in diameter) of the substance to be
examined upon a watch crystal and dry it for at least
one hour at 212° F. in a drying chamber. The drying
chamber shown at Fig. 12 has been devised by Dr. R.
Muencke, of Berlin, and can be highly recommended

74 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

for drying at a constant temperature. The box of
strong sheet-iron is provided with double walls, so that
the hot gases of combustion in the interspace between

Fig. 12.

i pu

=
(ea

the walls surround the entire box on all sides, with the
exception of the door, which is also double-walled.
The outside of the box is surrounded with a jacket of
asbestos card-board. The gases of combustion escape

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 75

through apertures in the top of the box, which can be
more or less opened by a slide. The two tubes serve
for the reception of a thermometer and a heat regu-
lator. A glass plate provided with two holes is placed
in the interior immediately under the top of the box.
The heating which is very uniform is effected by means
of a gas-spiral with twenty small flames, which can be
reculated by two screws.

The temperature of 212° F. should never be ex-
ceeded since, already, at 230° F., the water distilling from
the humus sometimes shows a brownish color which
indicates decomposition. Together with the substance a
weighing-flask is placed in the drying-chamber, the air-
tight ground-in stopper of the flask being however first
removed. When the substance is dry, it is brought hot
into the weighing-flask, and, after closing the latter with
the stopper, it is allowed to cool in the desiccator. It is
then weighed, and one to ten grammes of the substance,
according to its greater or smaller content of humus, are
carefully, without scattering any dust, brought into a
small glass flask with a wide neck, in which oxidation
of the humus substance is to be carried on. For this
purpose the apparatus for the determination of carbonic
acid, Fig. 8, may be used. If, however, such an appa-
ratus is not at hand, place in the glass flask a doubly
perforated rubber cork. Through one of the perfora-
tions passes a glass tube somewhat bent on the bottom
and closed above with a small piece of a glass rod in
rubber tubing. Through the other perforation passes
the calcium chloride tube which is bent above the cork
and otherwise has the same shape as described under
Fig. 8. In the beginning of the operation it is best not

76 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

to dip the straight tube into the fluid, as otherwise it may
easily clog up below by the separated chromic acid.

Pour over the weighed substance in the flask 20 to 30
cubic centimeters of distilled water, and add 30 to 40
cubic centimeters of concentrated sulphuric acid, which
is best gradually introduced through a funnel. On the
acid mixing with the water strong heating takes place,
so that the free carbonic acid present in the soil, as well
as that fixed on lime, is completely expelled. If much
calcium carbonate is present, as is, for instance, the case
with moor-marls, the sulphuric acid must be very gradu-
ally introduced, with frequent cooling of the vessel, as
otherwise the fluid might foam over. Before commence-
ment of oxidation the flask is allowed to completely cool
off and the air oyer the fluid sucked off to remove the
last traces of carbonic acid.

Since plant-remains not entirely converted into humus
frequently occur in soils, and cannot be well sorted
out, the substance is allowed to remain in contact
with the sulphuric acid for some days. Carbonization
of the organic remains now takes place, and oxidation
with chromic acid is effected more rapidly and uni-
formly.

After connecting the previously weighed Geissler ab-
sorption-apparatus (Fig. 9), with the caleium chloride
tube, 10 to 15 grammes of pulverized potassium bichro-
mate are quickly poured upon the substance through a
paper tube inserted in the flask, and the apparatus is
immediately closed. To avoid errors, which might
originate from the fluid spurting against the rubber cork
in case of a yery violent evolution of carbonic acid, it is
best to cover the lower side of the cork with thin

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 77
platinum sheet. A very small flame is now brought
under the flask and the eyolution of carbonic acid
beginning with the heating is so regulated that one
bubble per second passes through the Geissler apparatus.
If evolution becomes more vigorous, moderate the
flame, and if it abates, heat more strongly.

By the sulphuric acid, the potassium bichromate is
decomposed as follows: Cr,O,K, + H,SO, = 2(CrO,)+
K,SO, + H,O. By its oxygen the free chromic acid
oxidizes the carbon of the humus substances to carbonic
acid. An excess of sulphuric acid being always present,
chrome-alum (SO,),CrK + 12H,O) is generally formed
in the fluid. The heating is increased to boiling until a
perceptible evolution of carbonic acid no longer takes
place. Finally, the straight glass tube is dipped in the
fluid and connected with a potash wash bottle, while a
slow current of air is sucked through the entire appa-
ratus. The flame is now removed, and, for the rest, the
operation carried on as given under “determination of
carbonic acid by direct weighing.”

To approximately calculate from the carbonic acid
found, the quantity of humus free from water and
nitrogen, it has been agreed to take 58 per cent. as the
average content of carbon in the humus no matter in
which form it may occur in the soil. Hence, in order
to find the content of humus, the quantity of carbonic
acid found need only be multiplied by the factor 0.471.

Since errors may originate in the presence of ferrous
sulphide by the development of small quantities of sul-
phuretted hydrogen, or in the presence of chlorides, by
escaping hydrochloric acid gas, it is recommended to
insert between the calcium chloride tube and the Geissler

18 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

apparatus a U-tube. The latter is filled with pieces of
pumice previously saturated with blue vitriol and heated
until the latter is dehydrated. By this means the sul-
phuretted hydrogen and hydrochloric acid gas are re-
tained.

b. Determination of the carbon of the humus substances
by elementary analysis.—The object of the method to be
discussed here, which was first mentioned by Liebig, is to
burn the carbon to carbonic acid by igniting together
with cupric oxide. Since, however, the humus substances
of the soil always contain nitrogen which, by this mode
of combustion, is converted partially into nitrous gas and
nitrous acid, the method is accordingly modified.

To effect this analysis by combustion, a hard Bohemian
glass tube from 50 to 55 centimeters long is used. After
being thoroughly cleansed, one end is drawn out and
turned over in the shape of a beak, while the other end
is fused together. The tube is heated upon the sand
bath, and, after removing the air contained in it by
sucking with a glass tube, it is filled half full with pure,
freshly ignited and still warm cupric oxide, introduced
through a previously heated metallic funnel, care being
had that none of the cupric oxide reaches the beak-
shaped portion. This is best prevented by loosely
inserting, before filling, a cork of pure asbestos. Now
pour some warm cupric oxide into a heated porcelain
mortar and add 0.5 to 10 grammes of the finely pulve-
rized fine soil, the quantity depending on the larger or
smaller content of humus. The cuprie oxide is
intimately combined with the fine soil and the mixture
also brought into the tube. Any particles adhering to
the mortar are removed by rubbing them together with

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 79

some fresh cupric oxide and adding this mixture to the
other in the tube. Suppose the whole occupies a space
of 5 centimeters in the tube. Then add 5 centimeters
more of cupric oxide; upon this follows a layer of 10
to 12 bright, fine copper wire shavings or a copper wire
spiral of the same length. It is still better to use
spirals of very fine silver wire, which, besides completely
reducing the nitrous gas, also retain any chlorine present
by the formation of silver chloride. The tube having
been filled, rap repeatedly with it lengthwise upon a
table so that a channel is formed on top of the contents
through which the gases of combustion can escape. The
tube thus filled is provided with a calcium chloride tube
which is joined by a forked glass tube. One end of this
tube is connected with a water air-pump and the other
provided with rubber tubing and a clip. While the
combustion tube is being pumped out, dried air is allowed
to enter by means of the clip through the calcium
chloride tube, so that all moisture is thereby removed.

The tube thus prepared is placed in a combustion
furnace (Fig. 13), the empty space, about five centimeters
long, being allowed to project from the furnace, while
the perforated rubber cork closing the tube is protected
by a piece of asbestos card-board. The tube is connected
to a previously weighed calcium chloride tube and the
latter to the weighed Geissler potash-apparatus also,
provided with a calcium chloride tube.

Combustion should be conducted as slowly as possible.
After the whole arrangement has been found perfectly
air-tight, the front and back parts of the tube are heated,
and, when red-hot, the portion of the tube containing
the substance is gradually heated, the heat being so

80 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

regulated that one bubble per second passes through the
potash-apparatus.

The operation is finished as soon as with strong heat-
ing the potash solution begins to pass back into the bulb
nearest to the apparatus. The extreme point of the tube

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=

is then broken off and the main gas-cock closed. The
bent-up portion ofthe tube must not be too strongly heated
so that it can be connected by means of a rubber tube
with a potash wash-bottle. A caleium chloride tube is
inserted between the combustion tube and the potash
wash-bottle, so that no moisture from the potash solution
ean reach the front calcium chloride tube. After con-
necting the calcium chloride tube of the Geissler potash-
apparatus with the aspirator described under ‘ determina-
tion of carbonic acid,” a slow current of air is allowed

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 81

to pass through the combustion tube in order to expel
all the carbonic acid from it.

After finishing the operation, the Geissler potash
apparatus and the U-tube of the calcium chloride tube
are brought into the weighing-room and allowed to stand
for half an hour to acquire the temperature of the room
before weighing them separately. The water weighed
in the U-tube contains the entire hydrogen, that of the
humus substances as well as that fixed to the other soil
constituents.

To calculate, from the quantity of carbonic acid ab-
sorbed by the Geissler potash apparatus, the content of
carbon in the soil, multiply it with the factor 0.273.
If, however, the humus substance is to be determined,
multiply the weighed carbonic acid by the factor 0.471.

c. Determination of the loss by ignition.—If the sample
of soil to be examined contains no clay, or only a very
small quantity of it, the humus can be approximately
ascertained by determining the loss by ignition.

The fine soil dried continuously at 212° F. is poured
into a previously weighed porcelain crucible, and the
latter again weighed. Now heat the crucible very
gradually by placing it obliquely upon a triangle and
advancing it from the outer edge towards the small flame
of a Bunsen burner. Then heat gradually after placing
the lid upon the crucible, and regulate the combustion
of the substance so that no small particles can be carried
away by the draught. When combustion of the humus
is complete, accelerate entire incineration by stirring
with a stout platinum wire, the lower end of which has,
by hammering upon an anvil, been given the shape of a

spatula.
6

82 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

For the determination of loss by ignition Knop uses
two grammes of fine earth, mixes the residue from
ignition with pure pulverulent oxalic acid and gradually
raises the temperature until the oxalic acid just begins to
decompose. This operation is repeated with one-half
the quantity of oxalic acid until the erucible, after cool-
ing and weighing, shows a constant weight. The
crucible must not be too strongly heated, as otherwise a
portion of the carbonic acid regenerated by the oxalic
acid is again expelled.

According to another method, the residue from
ignition is repeatedly moistened with ammonium carbon-
ate and slightly ignited to regenerate the alkaline earths
present in small quantity, then dried at 302° F., and,
after cooling in the desiccator, weighed.

If, however, larger quantities of the carbonates of
calcium and magnesium are present, and heating has
been carried on to a higher degree in order to destroy
all organic substances, the oxides of calctum and mag-
nesium cannot be regenerated, since, by the intimate
mixture of the alkaline earths with dust-like silica,
silicates are formed which cannot be reconverted into
carbonates. In such a case, it is advisable to carefully
bring the residue from ignition into a platinum crucible
and heat the latter until all the carbonic acid is expelled
and fusible calcium silicate has been formed. The car-
bonie acid of the initial substance is determined in a
special sample and deducted from the loss by ignition.
The vesicular slag is best removed from the platinum
crucible by dissolving it in fuoric acid.

C. Determination of the content of clay.—Formerly
the content of clay was frequently determined by elutriat-

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 83

ing the finest portion from the soil and designating this
as clay. More accurate chemical investigations have,
however, shown that a considerable quantity of quartz-
flour is admixed with the finest portions, so that the
content of clay determined by elutriation was always
too high.

The object is better attained by combining for the de-
termination of the clay, the silt-analysis with a chemical
examination. It has been shown- that with an elutriat-
ing velocity of 0.2 millimeter the greater quantity of
clay contained in the soil is elutriated, and with a velocity
of 2 millimeters, the entire quantity, provided the sub-
stance is previously thoroughly loosened by boiling.
Hence, in inyestigating soils with the intention of
simultaneously determining the clay, elutriation will
have to be effected from the beginning with distilled
water in order to obtain the products of elutriation at
0.2 and 2.0 millimeters per second as pure as possible.
If the clay alone is to be determined, it is best to at
once elutriate the soil at 2.0 millimeters velocity. Soils
containing only small quantities of coarse material may
be pulverized in an agate mortar, and, without previous
elutriation, be directly used for the determination of clay.
If, however, in the mechanical analysis, the products of
elutriation at 0.2 and 2.0 millimeters’ velocity have been
separated, they are, after drying and weighing, again
combined and very carefully mixed in a dish.

Disintegration with sulphuric acid in a closed tube.—
This method of the determination of clay is based upon
the property of pure clay or kaolin dissolving in hot
sulphuric acid, while feldspars and quartz are not de-
composed. In order that the action of the sulphuric

84 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

acid may be as uniform as possible, disintegration is best
effected in a closed glass tube.

For this purpose a hard Bohemian glass tube about
30 centimeters long, without the neck, is used. One end
of the tube is drawn out to a capillary which is thickened
by fusion. The other end is also drawn out so that a
neck is formed, which must, however, be wide enough
for the convenient insertion of the weighing-tube.
3efore use, the tube is thoroughly boiled with aqua
regia, rinsed with distilled water and dried.

For the execution of the analysis, 1 or 2 grammes of
the finely pulverized substance are continuously dried at
212° F. and brought hot into a long thin weighing-tube
closed with a cork. After cooling, the substance is
poured into the Bohemian glass tube by pushing the
weighing-tube down as far as possible so as to prevent
any of the substance from adhering to the neck. The
weighing-tube is then again weighed.

By means of a pipette 20 cubic centimeters of dilute
sulphuric acid (1 volume of concentrated acid to 5
volumes of water) are now brought into the Bohemian
glass tube and the latter closed by drawing out the
neck.

Ifthesubstance contains carbonate of lime, the sulphuric
acid has to be added very gradually, and the tube,
before closing it, must be placed in boiling water, so
that all the carbonie acid can escape.

The closed glass tubes are now placed in a tubular
furnace (Fig. 14), so arranged that it will hold four
tubes. They are heated for six hours at 248° F., and
when perfectly cold, are opened by drawing a ring
around them with a diamond, and holding the point of a

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 809

red-hot glass rod against the mark. The glass breaks
off smoothly, and the contents can be conveniently

emptied into a beaker-glass with the aid of a wash-
bottle. The fluid is strongly diluted, and, in the

presence of much calcium carbonate, compounded with
some hydrochloric acid to dissolve the gypsum formed ;
it is then covered with a watch crystal and heated to
boiling. After allowing the substance to settle, the
fluid is decanted off through a filter. Finally, the un-
dissolved substance is also brought upon the filter and
the latter washed out with hot distilled water until a
drop running off from the funnel shows no perceptible
turbidity when compounded with barium chloride
solution.

To oxidize the ferrous oxide the filtrate is compounded

86 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

with bromine water, and, after covering it with a watch
crystal, boiled until the yellow coloring disappears and
an odor of bromine is no longer perceptible.

The flame is now removed, and the fluid, being con-
stantly stirred with a glass rod, is compounded with
dilute ammonia until it shows a slight ammoniacal odor,
and a piece of red litmus-paper thrown in acquires a
permanent blue color. The precipitate formed consists
of aluminium and ferric hydrate = Al(OH), + Fe-
(OH), If too much ammonia has been added, the
larger portion of it has to be expelled by heating the
fluid for some time, the aluminium hydrate being some-
what soluble in an excess of ammonia.

Now, pour the fluid boiling hot, and without allowing
the precipitate to settle, through a filter so arranged that
filtration will be rapidly effected. The filter should only
be filled with fluid up to, at the utmost, one centimeter
from the edge, as otherwise the washing out of the pre-
cipitate is very difficult. In filtering, the funnel should
not be allowed to become entirely empty, as otherwise
the gelatinous precipitate fixes itself firmly to the paper,
clogging it up. After the precipitate has been trans-
ferred from the beaker-glass to the filter and the particles
adhering to the glass removed with a feather, the pre-
cipitate is washed with hot water with the aid of a wash-
bottle, until a drop running off shows no turbidity when
compounded with barium chloride solution.

The precipitate of ferric ovide and aluminia is con-
tinuously dried in the drying-chamber at 212° F.,
whereby it shrinks together so much that it can be
almost completely detached from the filter. Now lay a
sheet of white paper upon the table, place upon it a

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 87

weighed platinum crucible and bring the precipitate into
the latter by rubbing the interior sides of the paper
against each other. Any scattering grains fall upon the
paper and are also brought into the crucible. The pre-
cipitate being detached as much as possible from the
filter, the latter is folded together, wrapped round with
thin platinum wire and burnt in the point of the flame
of a Bunsen burner. When the coal of the filter is
completely burnt, add the ash to the precipitate in the
crucible and strongly ignite the latter for some time,
commencing however with a moderate heat, the crucible
being covered with the lid. Then allow the crucible
and its contents to cool in the desiccator, and weigh as
rapidly as possible, since both the ferric oxide and
aluminia are quite hygroscopic. After deducting the
filter-ash, the quantity of ferric oxide and alumina =
Al,O; + Fe,O, dissolyed by sulphuric acid is found.
Separation of the ferric oxide from the alumina. a.
Determination of the iron as ferrous oxide by titration
with potassium permanganate solution.—The ignited and
weighed precipitate of ferric oxide and alumina is care-
fully, without scattering anything, poured from the
platinum crucible into a small glass flask with a long
neck. ‘The particles adhering to the crucible are de-
tached with a feather and washed by means of a wash-
bottle into the flask. Add to the water about an equal
volume of pure hydrochloric acid and place the flask
obliquely inclined upon the sand bath, which is suf-
ficiently heated to bring the fluid to boiling. The
oblique inclination of the neck of the flask is necessary
to avoid loss by squirting in consequence of the bump-
ing of the fluid during boiling. If, inside of a few

88 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

hours, the precipitate is not entirely dissolved, add to the
strongly evaporated fluid a mixture of hydrochloric acid
and water, and heat again until the entire precipitate is
dissolved. If a few white flakes should remain, they
consist mostly of silica or titanie acid; the quantity is,
however, generally so small that no notice need be taken
of them. When the solution in the flask is cold, com-
pound it with dilute sulphuric acid, again place the flask
in an oblique position on the sand-bath and heat, in
order to expel the hydrochloric acid, and convert the
chlorides of iron and alumina into sulphates, until the
fluid is quite evaporated and clear as water. Dilute the
cold solution with water, and compound it again with
pure dilute sulphuric acid.

In order to dissolve the iron in the ignited precipitate
of iron and alumina, another method may be used,
which, however, has the disadvantage that the substance
has to be previously powdered in an agate mortar,
whereby slight particles may readily be lost, again
ignited in the platinum crucible and weighed. The
powder is then compounded with ten times its quantity
of previously fused potassium bisulphate and heated in
the covered platinum crucible until the powder is com-
pletely dissolved. After cooling, the melt is dissolved
with hot water and compounded in a boiling flask with
pure dilute sulphuric acid.

Now add to the iron solution, obtained by either one
of the two methods, pure granulated zine, and place a
small funnel upon the boiling flask. Should the evolu-
tion of hydrogen, which now takes place, be not suf-
ficiently vigorous, it may be promoted by dipping the
point of a glass rod in platinum chloride and after

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 89

allowing the drop adhering to it to drop off, injecting
what remains on the rod into the flask by means of the
wash-bottle. A vigorous evolution of hydrogen will at
once commence. Hydrogen in a nascent state possesses,
as is well known, the property of converting ferric
oxides into ferrous oxides, or, according to the more
modern conception, of transforming the trivalent into
bivalent iron.

The reduction of the solution may also be promoted
by placing the flask on a moderately heated sand-bath.
When evolution of hydrogen has vigorously continued
for about one hour, the solution is tested as to the com-
plete reduction of the iron. This is effected by taking,
by means of a glass rod, a drop of the fluid from the
flask and allowing it to run upon a white porcelain plate
into a drop of freshly prepared, not too concentrated
potassium sulphocyanate solution. If the latter is
reddened, reduction is not finished and has to be con-
tinued, with the addition of some zine and sulphuric
acid if necessary, until a repeated test shows no colora-
tion of the potassium sulphocyanate solution. When
the solution is completely reduced, pour it rapidly
through a funnel in which a glass-wool cork has been
loosely inserted. In doing this, a current of pure car-
bonic acid should be conducted above upon the funnel,
as well as into the beaker-glass beneath it, so that during
filtering no oxidation of the solution by the oxygen of
the air can take place. The flask, together with the
zine remaining therein, is rinsed with distilled water,
and the rinsing water also poured through the funnel.
The filtrate, which should not be hot, is further com-
pounded with some dilute sulphuric acid, and the

90 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

solution is then titrated with previously standardized
potassium permanganate solution.

Standardizing of the potassium permanganate solution.
—The potassium permanganate solution is prepared and
standardized as follows :—

Dissolve, with the assistance of heat, 1 gramme of
pure crystallized potassium permanganate in distilled
water, and add to the solution sufficient water to make
1 liter. The solution thus prepared will keep for some
time in a glass-stoppered bottle, but should not be ex-
posed to the direct light of the sun.

The solution is standardized by measuring in a burette
with a glass stop-cock as many cubic centimeters of it
as are required for just imparting to a ferrous oxide
solution of known content a violet color. For prepar-
ing this iron solution iron-ammonium alum or ammonio-
ferric sulphate is used. This salt, being seldom found
pure in commerce, is purified by dissolving a quantity of
it in hot distilled water to which a few drops of sulphuric
acid have been added, until a film of salt commences to
separate. The beaker-glass containing the concentrated
solution is then placed in cold water and the solution
constantly stirred with a glass rod, so that the salt sepa-
rates as a fine crystalline powder. When the fluid is
perfectly cold, it is separated from the salt by pouring
it into a funnel provided with a platinum cone, which,
by means of a doubly perforated rubber cork, is placed
upon a glass flask. Through the other perforation of
the cork passes a glass tube which is connected with a
water air-pump. When nothing more drips off, the
glass flask is exchanged for another, and the precipitate
rinsed with a mixture of two parts absolute alcohol and

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 91

one part distilled water. The salt is pressed between
blotting-paper until perfectly dry. A solution of it
must be reddened by potassium sulphocyanate.

Of the perfectly dry ammonio-ferric sulphate, accu-
rately weigh out two portions of 0.1 gramme each, and
pour them into two beakers. Shortly before use, dis-
solve the salt in 200 cubic centimeters of water to which
some dilute sulphuric acid has been added. The burette
provided with a glass stop-cock should have a capacity
of at least 30 cubic centimeters, and be graduated into
tenths of a cubic centimeter. It is filled to the 0 point
with potassium permanganate solution, and for more
convenient reading a small float is put in it. The foot
of the burette stand is best covered with a dead white
glass plate, or, if such an arrangement cannot be had, a
piece of white paper is placed under the beaker contain-
ing the ammonio-ferric sulphate solution, Now allow
the potassium permanganate solution to flow slowly from
the burette into the ammonio-ferric sulphate solution,
stirring constantly with a glass rod. The red color of
the potassium permanganate solution at first disappears
very rapidly, but later on more slowly, so that in order
to hit the exact point, the solution must finally be
admitted only drop by drop. When finally all the iron
is oxidized, one drop suffices to very slightly color the
fluid. The operation is finished when this coloration
lasts a few minutes after stirring. Now, after waiting a
short time to allow the fluid from the walls of the
burette to run together, read off the number of cubic
centimeters of potassium permanganate solution used.
To control the correctness of the first reading, the

92 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

experiment is repeated with the other quantity of salt
weighed out.

Since the quantity of iron contained in the ammonio-
ferric sulphate amounts to 4, or, to be more exact, to
zhi lt is necessary, in order to find the iron in the
quantity weighed off, to divide the latter by 7, or, what
is the same, to multiply it by the factor 0.143. To cal-
culate the quantity of ferrous oxide equivalent to the
quantity of salt weighed out multiply by the factor
0.184, and to find the ferric oxide with the factor 0.204.
With the assistance of the figure found, the effective
value of the potassium permanganate solution is caleu-
lated according to the following proposition :—

Cem. of potassium permanganate solution consumed :

( Fe
g< FeO = 100 com’: ay.
( FeO,

The titration of the ferric oxide solution reduced by
hydrogen is effected in exactly the same manner as the
standardizing of the potassium permanganate solution
just described. However, to obtain a sharp final re-
action, the potassium permanganate solution must,
towards the last, be very carefully added drop by drop.
From the quantity of potassium permanganate solution
consumed, the equivalent quantity of ferric oxide is then
calculated. The percentage of ferric oxide deducted
from the total percentage of ferric oxide and alumina
gives the percentage of alumina by difference.

b. Calculation of the content of clay in the total soil_—
To find the content of clay in the soil, calculate for the
quantity of alumina found the equivalent quantity of
clay containing water, according to Forchhamme;x’s

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 93

formula (AJ,O,2[SiO,] + 2H,O), by multiplying the
weighed quantity of alumina by the factor 2.5294.
Since the quantity of clay in the argilliferous particles
(less than 0.05 millimeters in diameter) has been deter-
mined, the percentage of clay in the total soil is calcu-
lated.

With very fine soils, especially /oess and fat clammy
soils, as well as such as, on account of their strongly
humus nature, cannot be subjected to silt analysis, the
disintegration with sulphuric acid in the tube will have
to be at once executed with the total soil. With humus
soils it will, however, be better to retain the method
of disintegration with concentrated sulphuric acid by
heating in an open platinum dish. It was formerly
almost generally used for the determination of clay,
though it does not yield as uniform results as disintegra-
tion in the tube in which the concentration of the sul-
phuric acid, its quantity, the temperature and time of
action can be uniformly regulated.

Fesca and others have frequently drawn attention to
the fact that a portion of the alumina contained in the
soil is soluble in hydrochloric acid, and is not referable
to clay according to Forchhammer’s formula. Fesca
believes that this quantity of alumina soluble in hydro-
chloric acid indicates zeolitic silicates. Though the
correctness of this opinion is by no means proved, in
very accurate and comprehensive soil investigations, it
will be of interest to treat the argilliferous portions (less
than 0.05 millimeter in diameter), with hot concen-
trated hydrochloric acid and to disintegrate the residue
remaining thereby with sulphuric acid in the tube.

Howeyer, for the approximate quantitative determina-

94 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

tion of clay as a soil constituent, it is better to calculate
the total alumina in dust and finest disintegrable
particles as clay for the entire soil. Most soils do not
contain the clay in a pure form, as already shown by
Forchhammer’s clay formula, but it is rather a collective
term for all silicates more or less in a state of decom-
position or already decomposed. For agricultural
purposes, it is of importance to be able to express the
content of clay, as well as that of humus, in fixed
numerical values, and it does not much matter whether
in each separate case an exact petrographic equivalent is
thereby designated, especially not, when still further ex-
periments regarding the physical properties of the soil
are to be made.

D. Determination of the content of sand.—According
to its chemical composition, the soil-constituent, sand,
may represent something of very dissimilar nature. Sand
being a transported product of the disintegration and
elutriation of heterogeneous minerals and rocks, it shows
many variations in its perfected state. However, the
minerals disintegrating with the greatest difficulty,
especially quartz, will always preponderate in it. If the
mechanical analysis is carefully executed, and with
grains more than 0.05 millimeter in diameter, the sand
van, With an elutriating velocity of 2.0 millimeters per
second, be quite completely separated from the clayey
particles, and, hence, by the mechanical analysis already
described, the content of sand and its granulation are
found,

Petrographic determination of the coarser adinixed
parts of the sand.—The petrographic determination of
the coarser admixed parts of the sand is geologically of

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 95

importance, since it discloses the origin and formation
of the soil. In an agricultural respect it is of value for
judging the soil, as, for instance, in the presence of an
abundance of feldspar, the soil possesses for the future a
nearly inexhaustible reserve of plant-food, which be-
comes only gradually available by the progressing de-
composition of the feldspar.

A certain amount of information regarding the nature
of these admixtures is obtained by sorting out and test-
ing the grains of sand of from 2 to 1 millimeters in
diameter, and the gravel over 2 millimeters in diameter.
For this purpose moisten the sample to be examined
with water and test the grains, best by Mohr’s scale of
hardness, as to color, lustre, and hardness, and further,
as to cleavage, fusibility, and magnetic properties.
Small limestones are recognized by the evolution of
carbonic acid when treated with dilute hydrochloric
acid.

A further separation may. be effected by bringing the
admixed parts into specifically very heavy fluids.

For this purpose, Thoulet prepares a solution of 2.77
specific gravity (at from 52° to 59° F.) by alternately
introducing iodide of mercury and potassium iodide in
water, and effects with it the separation of all bodies of
higher specific gravity. By diluting the solution, bodies
of slighter specific gravity may also be separated from
each other.

Goldschmidt dissolyes 210 grammes of potassium
iodide and 280 grammes of iodide of mercury in 25
cubic centimeters of distilled water and produces a
solution of 3.196 specific gravity, upon which, for
instance, fluor spar (specific gravity 3.1 to 3.2) floats.

96 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

Rohrbach takes 100 parts of barium iodide and 130
parts of iodide of mercury to 20 eubiec centimeters of
water, heats in the oil bath to from 302° to 360° F., and
filters. The solution has a specific gravity of 3.39, and
topaz floats upon it.

With the aid of such solutions and the following
table of specific gravities, the distinct admixed parts of
the sand obtained by sifting or elutriating can be sepa-
rated and determined.

Gypsum : o 22 ito

2.4 | Augite g - 2.88 to 3.5
Orthoclase . eo) ee
2
2

-08 | Tourmaline . 2.94 6° 3.24
Albite . : . 2.62 ‘* 2.67| Amphibole . Se Ie ees 8
Oligoclase . - 2.63 ‘* 2.68) Fluor spar . a Gol ey
Quartz ; . 2.65 Rutile . ° > Ad AS
Calcareous spar . 2.65 ‘* 2.80 Heavy spar . Ri Bae 7187)
Anorthite . . 2.67 ‘ 2.76) Pyrites ° Ag” Me
Black mica . - 2.74 ‘* 3.13| Magneticiron ore 4.9 ‘* 5.2
Muscovite . Ss) ET So eka

KE. Determination of the content of quartz.—Since it is
frequently of interest to determine the content of quartz
in the sand, as well as the dust and the finest particles,
J. Hazard has for this purpose proposed an indirect
method, since no process is known for the direct sepa-
ration of quartz in a mixture with orthoclase, albite, and
oligoclase, it being always attacked in the disintegration
of these silicates.

The finely pulverized material is, according to Hazard,
fused with 2 parts concentrated sulphuric and 1 part
distilled water, in a hard Bohemian glass tube, and for
six hours exposed to a temperature of 482° F. in a
tubular furnace, whereby any muscovite, biotite, garnet,
tourmaline, tale, amphibole, hypersthene, diallage, and
pyroxene present is completely disintegrated, while

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 97

orthoclase, albite, and oligoclase remain undecomposed.
The contents of the glass tube are brought into a dish
and the particles adhering to the sides of the tube re-
moved by means of a glass rod provided with a piece of
rubber tubing. Before filtering off, the fluid is strongly
diluted. The superficially washed-out residue is then
brought together with the filter into moderately dilute
potash lye, in order to dissolve the silica separated from
the silicates, and then digested for one hour upon the
water bath. The solution is diluted with water, filtered
off and the substance upon the filter first washed with
hot dilute potash lye, and later on, with hot dilute
hydrochloric acid. The thoroughly dried filter, together
with its contents, is incinerated in a platinum crucible
and weighed.

The procedure is now exactly the same as in the sili-
cate analysis. The powder in the platinum crucible is
mixed with five times its quantity of anhydrous sodium
carbonate and first heated over an ordinary burner, and,
later on, over a blast lamp, until the mass flows quietly
and no more bubbles of carbonic acid are evolved. The
hot crucible is placed upon a cold iron plate, whereby,
in consequence of the rapid cooling off, the mass readily
becomes detached from the sides of the crucible. The
melt, as well as the crucible itself, is brought into a
beaker, and, after pouring distilled water upon it and
covering the beaker with a watch-crystal, the contents
are heated to boiling. Now, by means of a pipette, intro-
duced through the lip of the beaker, add in small propor-
tions concentrated hydrochloric acid in excess, and heat
the fluid until no more effervescence takes place. Then

add a few drops of nitric acid and evaporate the fluid,
7

98 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

together with the silicate separated, in a porcelain dish
upon a water bath to pulverulent dryness. As soon as
the fluid commences to become thickly-fluid, it has to be
constantly stirred with a glass pestle, so that no larger
cubes of common salt can form. In order to separate
the silica asa powder entirely insoluble in acids, it is
necessary to expel the hydrochloric acid as completely as
possible. This is best effected by adding, as soon as the
powder in the dish becomes dry, some hot water and
again evaporating, with constant stirring, to pulverulent
dryness. After cooling, moisten the powder with hydro-
chloric acid, pour hot water over it, and, after several
times washing out the silica in the dish with hot water,
bring it upon the filter and rinse it with hot water until a
drop running off shows no turbidity when mixed with
nitrate of silver. Before incinerating the filter with the
silica in the platinum crucible, it must be completely
dried at 212° F. It is advisable to finally ignite the
silica over the blast-lamp, whereby it slags somewhat
together and is no longer hygroscopic when weighed
after cooling in the desiccator. The filter ash is deducted
after weighing.

In the filtrate from the silica, alumina and calcareous
earth are determined by successive precipitation with
ammonia and ammonium oxalate according to the
methods previously described (p. 68 and p. 86).

For the orthoclase and albite, whose silica is contained
in the total quantity of silica obtained from the soda
melt, Hazard has caleulated the equivalent quantity of
silica from the alumina found and deducted it from the
total quantity of silica. The remainder represents the
quartz present in the soil. For othoclase and albite the
proportion of alumina to silicate is 1: 3.50878.

DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 99

In the presence of lime the alumina equivalent to the
lime is calculated according to Tschermak’s formula for
anorthite in the proportion of 1 calcareous earth: 1.85214
alumina. The alumina thus obtained is deducted from
the weighed total alumina, and the quantity of silica
required for the albite and orthaclase calculated to the
rest of alumina. For the alumina of the anorthite, the
quantity of silica belonging to it and to be deducted
from the total silica is calculated from the proportion 1
alumina: 1.16959 silica.

E. Determination of the elementary composition of the
soil—lIf the soil to be examined is of homogeneous
nature, as, for instance, may be the case with pure clays,
marly sands, or sands of the subsoil, it may frequently
be of interest to learn the elementary composition of the
entire soil. For this purpose it is advisable to simul-
taneously effect a disintegration with sodium carbonate,
as well as with fluoric acid, the analytical results obtained
being best controlled in this manner.

a. Disintegration with sodium carbonate.—For disinte-
gration with sodium carbonate pulverize dust fine 1 to 2
grammes of the total soil in an agate mortar and dry the
powder at 212° F.. Then pour it from a weighing tube
into a platinum crucible and mix it by means of a plati-
num spatula with 5 or 6 times its weight of anhydrous
sodium carbonate. The mass in the covered crucible is
heated, first over an ordinary burner, and finally fused
over the blast lamp until it flows quietly and no more
carbonic acid escapes. The glowing crucible is placed
upon a cold iron plate whereby the melt quickly con-
geals and later on can be readily detached from the cru-
cible. The dissolution of the melt in hydrochloric acid

100 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

and separation of silica are effected in the manner given
on p. 97. In the filtrate from the silica the: alumina,
ferric oxide, oxide of manganese, calcareous earth and
magnesia are determined according to the methods pre-
viously given. Such substances as titanic acid, sulphu-
ric acid, chlorine and phosphoric acid which occur only
in small quantities in the soil cannot be determined with
sufficient accuracy in the quantity used, and, therefore,
need not to be noticed.

If the substance used is free from organic or carbon-
aceous matter, the content of ferrous oxide may be de-
termined by disintegrating a special sample of the total
soil with sulphuric acid in a closed glass tube (p. 84),
separating the residue from the fluid by filtering in a
current of carbonic acid and determining the ferrous
oxide in the fluid by titration with potassium perman-
ganate solution (p. 89).

b. Disintegration with jfluorie acid.—Disintegration
with fluoric acid is best effected by simultaneously com-
bining with it a determination of loss by ignition. For
this purpose 1 to 2 grammes of the finely pulverized
substance dried at 212° F. are first gently heated in a
platinum crucible and then vigorously ignited over the
blast lamp. After cooling in the desiccator the loss by
ignition is determined by weighing. The mass which
is slagged together, and, in the presence of lime, often
fused, is moistened with distilled water and then strong
fluorie acid is poured over it. The crucible is now coy-
ered, and after placing in it a small platinum spatula of
stout platinum wire to the handle of which a cork is
secured, allow the acid to act upon the substance 2 or 38
days, stirring frequently, until a pasty mass is formed.

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 101

Then, with frequent stirring, evaporate the contents of
the crucible to dryness upon the water bath, in order
to expel the silica as silicon-fluoride. The crucible
being held obliquely, the dry residue in it is moistened,
with concentrated sulphuric acid in order to convert the
fluorides into sulphates. The excess of sulphuric acid
is expelled by heating the crucible placed obliquely so
that a very small flame acts upon it from the edge; this
is done to prevent the substance from scattering. When
the mass is dry, it is dissolved from the crucible by
means of hydrochloric acid and water, and with the aid
of a wash bottle brought into a beaker. When covered
with a watch-erystal and boiled continuously, the mass
should dissolve entirely clear. Now, for the oxidation
of the ferrous oxide, add some bromine water, boil the
fluid until the excess of bromine is completely expelled
and determine the aluminia, oxides of iron and manga-
nese, calcareous earth, magnesia, potash, and soda.

VIL.

DETERMINATION OF THE PLANT-NOURISHING
SUBSTANCES.

In the determination of the plant-nourishing sub-
stances we may proceed either by separately determining
the nourishing substances at the time present and ayail-
able in the soil, and those which only gradually become
available, or by determining from the start the sum-total
of those already present and of those which in a con-
ceivable space of time may become active by processes of

102 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

weathering and decay. In the first case the processes
taking place in nature will have to be imitated as closely
as possible, this being approximately effected by success-
ively treating the soil with agents constantly increasing
in strength.

A. Determination of the plant-nourishing substances in
soil extractions—The above-indicated requirements are
best fulfilled by the following fluids, which in very com-
prehensive soil investigations are successively allowed to
act upon the soil :—

1. Cold distilled water. 2. Cold distilled water, one-
quarter saturated with pure carbonic acid. 3. Cold
concentrated hydrochloric acid (specific gravity 1.15).
4, Boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid.

If only the sum-total of the plant-nourishing sub-
stances present and of those which will shortly become
active is to be determined, the soil is directly treated
with boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid, the other
extractions being omitted.

I. Eetraction of the soil with cold distilled water.—By
treating the soil with cold distilled water, only the con-
stituents soluble in water can, of course, be extracted.
Such constituents, independent of humus substances, are
chiefly chlorides, sulphates, and nitrates of calcium,
magnesium, potassium, and sodium. Hence, only these
substances will have to be determined.

The aqueous extract of the soil is prepared as fol-
lows: Bring into a glass flask of 2 liters capacity, and
which can be closed with a rubber cork, 500 grammes
of air-dry fine soil (less than 2 millimeters in diameter),
and pour over it 1000 cubic centimeters of distilled
water, less the yolume which would escape in drying

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 1038

500 grammes of fine soil at 212° F. For this purpose
determine at the same time the water escaping from
about 20 grammes of the same fine soil when continu-
ously heated. First weigh the air-dry sample in a
weighing-flask, then spread it out in as thin a layer as
possible upon a watch-erystal, and heat it for 2 hours at
212° F. in a drying-chamber. Now, with the aid of a
brush bring the dried substance, while hot, into the
heated weighing-flask, close the latter hermetically, and
let it cool in the weighing room. The determination of
the water escaped at 212° F. can only be relied on
when, after repeated drying and again weighing, no
noticeable difference in weight is obtained. The quan-
tity of soil weighed out for extraction is allowed to
remain in contact with the water for two days, being
in the meanwhile frequently shaken, and, after settling,
the supernatant fluid is drawn off by means of a siphon
provided with a suction pipe. The fluid is then filtered
through a dry filter into two measuring flasks, one of
500 and the other of 300 cubic centimeters capacity.

1. Determination of the bases in the aqueous extract.—
Evaporate the 300 cubic centimeters of the aqueous ex-
tract; which correspond to 150 grammes of fine soil
dried at 212° F., in a small weighed platinum dish upon
the sand bath, dry the residue at 212° F., and weigh it
after cooling in the desiccator. Now, gently ignite the
platinum dish, and after cooling in the desiccator, weigh
it again. By this means the sum-total of the substances
dissolved in water, as well as the incombustible matter
contained therein, is learned. If the latter is less than
0.5 gramme, the separation of the alkalies and alkaline
earths cannot be accurately carried out, on account of

104 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

the small quantity which would have to be weighed.
It is, therefore, best to repeat the aqueous extraction
with such a quantity of fine soil that the amount of
extract intended for the determination of the bases con-
tains at least 1 to 0.5 gramme of dissolved substances.
The residue obtained by igniting is dissolved with the
addition of some hydrochloric acid in distilled water
and filtered in case traces of silica are found. The fluid
is then heated to boiling, and traces of iron and alumina,
which, as a rule, reach the fluid only by turbid filtering,
are precipitated with ammonia. In the filtrate the cal-
careous earth is precipitated in the manner given on pp. 67
and 68. The filtrate of calcium oxalate is evaporated in a
capacious platinum crucible, and, after drying, moderately
ignited to expel the excess of sal ammoniac. The pro-
cess of drying can be essentially accelerated by constant
stirring with a platinum spatula. The residue is taken
up with a few drops of water, brought into a small
beaker, and the solution, if not clear, is again filtered
through a small filter.

The magnesia is now precipitated by ammonium car-
bonate, the solution of which is prepared as follows:
Dissolve 230 grammes of sublimed sesquicarbonate
of ammonia in 180 cubic centimetres of ammonia of
0.92 specific gravity, and add sufficient water to make
the volume of the fluid exactly 1 liter. This solution
must be added in considerable excess. If much mag-
nesia is present, a voluminous precipitate is at first
formed which, on stirring is, however, completely re-
dissolved. The fluid is now allowed to stand quietly
for twenty-four hours, during which time a fine erystal-

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 105

line precipitate consisting of ammonium magnesium
carbonate is formed. This salt is filtered off, washed
with ammonium carbonate solution, and when a drop
running off leaves no residue when evaporated upon a
platinum sheet, dried at 212° F. in the drying chamber.
The precipitate, together with the filter, is heated in the
platinum crucible, and when the filter is carbonized,
strongly ignited, the crucible being placed in an oblique
position. The precipitate, which consists of magnesia,
must be perfectly white after ignition.

The filtrate from the ammonium magnesium carbonate
contains the alkalies. It is brought into a capacious
platinum dish, which is covered with a watch-crystal and
heated upon the water-bath. As soon as the decomposi-
tion of the ammonium carbonate begins, the flame is
made somewhat smaller to prevent the fluid from foam-
ing over, and the latter is then heated until no more
bubbles of carbonic acid escape. The watch-crystal is
then removed and rinsed off with distilled water, and
the fluid evaporated in a smaller weighed platinum dish
upon the water-bath. The residue is moistened with a
few drops of hydrochloric acid, again evaporated, and
the covered platinum dish dried in the drying chamber
at a temperature gradually raised to 392° F. By this
means loss by the decrepitation of the water inclosed
in the common salt while igniting the salt in the pla-
tinum dish is avoided. The platinum crucible is only
slightly ignited, the alkaline chlorides being volatile at a
strong red heat. After cooling in the desiccator the
platinum crucible is weighed. In this manner the sum
total of the chlorides of potassium and sodium are
learned.

106 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

To separate the potassium from the sodium, take up
the chlorides with a few drops
of water and add solution of
platinum chloride in excess.
Now, in an atmosphere free
from ammonia, evaporate the
fluid on a covered water-bath
(Fig. 15) until it possesses a
syrupy consistency and the
platinum chloride commences
to separate in it in a crystal-
line form. After cooling, add
one part of a mixture of 55
cubie centimeters of absolute
aleohol and 15 cubic centi-
meters of ether, and allow
the fluid to stand under a
glass-bell for 12 hours, stir-

ring it several times in the
mean while. Then filter it through a weighed filter and
wash the precipitate remaining upon the filter with some
aleohol containing ether until the fluid running off is no
longer colored.

A greater number of weighed filters may be best pre-
pared as follows: Treat several filters first with hydro-
chloric acid, and, after thoroughly sweetening them with
distilled water, dry them continuously at 212° F.. in the
drying closet. Then bring them hot into a weighing
flask, also heated to 212° I*., and weigh the flask after
cooling. By successively taking out the filters, and each
time reweighing the flask, the weights of the filters are
obtained, which are best noted upon them with a pencil.

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 107

The precipitate of potassium platinum chloride is
thoroughly washed upon the filter, then dried at 212° F.
brought hot, together with the filter, into a weighing
tube and weighed after cooling. By deducting the
weight of the weighing tube, and of the filter, from the
weight last obtained, the quantity of potassium platinum
chloride present is obtained. To obtain the equivalent
quantity of potassium multiply by the factor 0.198.

Instead of weighing the potassium platinum chloride
upon a weighed filter, the salt may be decomposed and
the potassium determined from the platinum obtained.
In this case add to the precipitate in the filter some pure
oxalic acid and ignite the mass in a weighed porcelain
crucible provided with a cover; finally, in order to
reduce all the platinum, conduct a current of water upon
the crucible and allow the substance to cool in it. To
remove the potassium chloride, the platinum is washed
with water by repeated decantation, and, after drying
and again igniting, weighed. To obtain the equivalent
quantity of potassium, multiply the platinum by the
factor 0.477.

To obtain the sodium, calculate the potassium to
potassium chloride by multiplying by the factor 1.584,
deduct the potassium chloride from the sum of the
chlorides, and multiply the sodium chloride thus ob-
tained by the factor 0.530.

If many sulphates are present among the soil-salts
soluble in water, which may be the case with soils very
rich in gypsum, it is better, after precipitating the mag-
nesia with ammonium carbonate and evaporating the
solution, to add a few drops of sulphuric acid and then
ignite strongly in a weighed platinum dish. In doing

108 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

this, a small piece of ammonium carbonate has to be held
by means of a pair of tweezers in the dish in order to
convert the acid alkaline sulphates into neutral. The
alkaline sulphates being very refractory, ignition may
finally be carried to an initial red heat. After weighing,
dissolve the sulphates in water, compound them with
platinum chloride, and evaporate the solution to a
syrupy consistency upon the water-bath. Now dis-
solve the mass, according to Finkener’s directions, in a
mixture which, for 30 cubic centimeters of hydrochloric
acid, contains 150 cubie centimeters of absolute alcohol
and 35 cubie centimeters of anhydrous ether. When
the whole has stood for one hour, bring the precipitate
upon a weighed filter and wash it with a mixture of
hydrochloric acid, alcohol, and ether, in the above-men-
tioned proportions until the fluid runs off clear. Then,
to remove the hydrochloric acid, wash with alcohol con-
taining ether, dry the filter at 212° F. and weigh it,
together with the potassium platinum chloride upon it,
in the manner given on p. 107.

To determine the sodium in this case, multiply the
potassium by the factor 1.851, deduct the potassium
sulphate thus obtained from the total of the sulphates,
and multiply the remaining sodium sulphate by the
factor 0.437.

2. Determination of the acids in the aqueous extract.
a. Determination of chlorine-—If the aqueous extract of
the soil contains no sulphuric acid or only a trace of it,
which is recognized by filtering off a small sample of the
supernatant water and compounding the clear filtrate
with some nitric acid and barium chloride solution, the

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 109

chlorine may first be determined. Otherwise the sul-
phurie acid is first precipitated.

Compound the 500 cubic centimeters of aqueous ex-
tract mentioned on p. 102 with a small quantity of pure
sodium carbonate and evaporate to about 100 cubic cen-
timeters. In case anything has been separated, the
fluid is filtered, compounded with nitric acid and heated.
From the boiling hot solution, the chlorine is precipi-
tated with silver nitrate solution, stirring constantly
with a glass rod, until the precipitate balls together and
the fluid becomes entirely clear. The silver chloride
thus obtained is filtered off, washed with hot water,
dried at 212° F., and, after detaching it as much as pos-
sible from the filter, brought into a previously weighed
porcelain crucible. The filter is incinerated by itself
upon the lid of the crucible and then added to the silver
chloride in the crucible. Since by incineration the par-
ticles of silver chloride adhering to the filter have been
partially reduced to silver, saturate the filter ash with a
drop of nitric acid which is allowed to drop into the
erucible from a glass rod. Then heat somewhat in order
to dissolve the silver and add one drop of hydrochloric
acid. The crucible is then heated, first very moderately,
and then gradually more strongly, and, when no more
vapors of nitrous acid escape, so strongly that the silver
chloride fuses together to a regulus. Now allow the
crucible to cool in the desiccator, then weigh it and de-
duct the filter ash. The quantity of the silver chloride
found multiplied by the factor 0.247 gives the quantity
of chlorine in the aqueous extraction (500 cubic cen-
timeters equal to 250 grammes of soil dried at 212° F.).

b. Determination of sulphuric acid.—If the aqueous

110 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

extract of the soil contains sulphate, the sulphuric acid,
as previously mentioned, is precipitated before the chlo-
rine. Evaporate the 500 cubie centimeters mentioned
on p. 107, to 100 cubie centimeters, filter, and into the
boiling hot solution precipitate the sulphuric acid with
barium nitrate solution.

Since the heavy precipitate consisting of barium sul-
phate generally carries down with it other salts, it must
be again digested for some time with dilute hydrochloric
acid, after being washed with hot water, dried and
weighed. Then pour the supernatant hydrochloric acid
through a very small filter and wash the precipitate,
without taking it from the crucible, by decanting with
hot water. Evaporate the filtrate and wash-water nearly
to dryness ina platinum dish and bring the precipitate
thereby separated also upon the filter. After washing,
drying and incinerating the latter, add it to the other
precipitate in the platinum crycible and ignite at a
moderate red heat. Weigh the crucible after cooling in
the desiccator.

The barium sulphate multiplied by the factor 0.543
will give the weight of sulphuric acid (SO,) present.

ec. Determination of nitric acid—Pour over 1000
grammes of the air-dry fine soil 2000 cubic centimeters
of distilled water less the quantity of water calculated
from the determination of the hygroscopic water which
would escape from 1000 grammes of soil in drying at
212° F. Allow the soil to remain in contact with the
water for forty-eight hours, shaking frequently. Then
remove the supernatant clear fluid by means of a siphon
provided with a suction-tube, and filter it through a dry
filter into a liter-flask. One liter of this soil extract is

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. a Gi

equal to 500 grammes of soil dried at 212° F. Com-
pound this quantity of aqueous extract with a small
quantity of pure sodium carbonate and evaporate it to
about 100 cubic centimeters upon the water-bath. Any
precipitate formed is filtered off, washed, and the filtrate
again evaporated to 100 cubic centimeters.

For the determination of the nitric acid in these 100
cubic centimeters, it is best to use the method. originated
by Schoening and variously modified by T. Schulze as
well as by Fruehling and Grouvyen, Reichardt, and Tie-
mann. It is based upon the reduction of the nitric acid
by a solution of ferrous chloride in hydrochloric acid to
nitric oxide, expelling the latter by boiling and collect-
ing it. The chemical process takes place according to
the following equation :—

6FeCl, + 2KNO, + 8HCl = 4H,O + 2KCl +
3Ke,Cl, + 2NO; or : 6FeCl, + 2HNO, + 6HCl =
4H,0 +3Fe,Cl, + 2NO.

This method can be especially recommended, since the
accuracy of the result is not in the least impaired even
by the presence of dissolved humus constituents.

a. Tiemann’s modification of Schloesing-Schulze’s method
for the determination of nitric acid.—Tiemann’s modifica-
tion has the advantage of yielding very accurate and
reliable results with the use of an apparatus dis-
tinguished for simplicity.

The aqueous extract evaporated to 100 cubic centi-
meters is brought into a glass flask, A (Fig. 16), of one-
half-liter capacity. It is closed by a doubly perforated
rubber cork. Two glass tubes bent in the shape of a
knee fit accurately into the perforations of the rubber
cork. The tube, ¢ 6 a, is at a, drawn out into not too

112 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

fine a point and projects about 2 centimeters below the
rubber cork, while ef g is exactly even with the lower
surface of the cork. Both these tubes are connected by
means of thin black rubber tubing with the tubes, ¢ d

Fig. 16.

and gh. The rubber tubing can be hermetically closed
by two.strong clips, ¢ and g. The end of the tube g h
enters the so-called crystallizing glass dish, B, and pro-
jects with the point, which is bent upwards and covered
with rubber tubing 2 to 3 centimeters into the measur-
ing tube, C. The latter is graduated into tenths of cubic
centimeters, and, like the glass dish, B, is filled with
thoroughly boiled 10 per cent. soda lye prepared by dis-
solving 12.9 parts of caustic soda in 100 parts of water.

The fluid to be examined for a content of nitric acid
is first boiled for one hour, the tubes being at first left

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. oS

open and without g A dipping into the dish B, in order
to expel the air from the flask A by aqueous vapor.
The end of the tube ef g*h is then brought into the
caustic soda dish, without, however, dipping in the
measuring tube, and the aqueous vapors are allowed to
escape partially through the soda lye and_ partially
through the tube abe d. After a few minutes, the tube
is pressed together, at g, with the fingers ; and when all the
air has been expelled, the soda lye will reascend in the
vacuum of the tube gy h, which is recognized by a gentle
blow on the fingers. If this is the case, the tube behind
the place pressed together is closed with the clip g, and
the vapors are allowed to escape through abed. The
fluid is kept boiling until evaporated to 10 cubic centi-
meters. The gas flame is now removed, the rubber
tubing immediately closed at ¢, with the clip, and the tube
ed filled with thoroughly boiled water. Should an air
bubble remain at ¢, it is removed by pressing with the
finger.

The measuring tube is now filled with thoroughly boiled
soda lye, and, after closing the opening with the thumb
so that no air bubbles can enter, the tube is inverted and
immersed over the lower end of the tube g h into the
soda lye.

When the tubes ¢ and g are pressed together by the
external pressure of air, the nearly saturated solution of
ferrous chloride or ferrous sulphate compounded with
some hydrochloric acid is brought into a beaker on the
upper portion of which 20 cubic centimeters are divided
off by two strips of paper pasted on the outside. An-
other beaker is filled with concentrated hydrochloric

acid. Now dip the tube ¢ d into ferrous chloride solution,
8

114 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

and, after opening the clip c, allow 15 to 20 cubic
centimeters to run into the flask. Then dip the tube e d
into the concentrated hydrofhlorie acid and let a small
quantity of it rise twice until all the ferrous chloride is
rinsed out of the tube a bed. At 6asmall bubble of
hydrochloric acid is frequently formed, which completely
disappears on heating the flask. Now heat the flask
very moderately until the rubber tubings begin to swell
up somewhat ; then substitute the finger for the clip at
g, and, as soon as the gas-pressure becomes somewhat
stronger, allow the nitric oxide, expelled from the solu-
tion by heating, to pass over into the measuring tube.
The boiling of the fluid is continued until an increase of
the volume of gas in the measuring tube is no longer
perceptible. By the vigorous absorption of hydro-
chloric acid gas by the soda lye, a crackling noise is
made, but the end of the tube g h being protected, as
previously mentioned, by rubber tubing, its fracture
need not be feared.

When the operation is finished, the tube gh is re-
moved from the dish, the measuring tube closed beneath
the soda lye with the thumb, and, after shaking it,
together with the soda lye still in it, in order to remove
any traces of hydrochloric acid, immerse it in a large
glass cylinder filled with water of 59° to 64° F.

The volume of nitric oxide can be read off after
twenty minutes. For this purpose immerse the measur-
ing tube so far into the water of the cylinder that the
fluid in the measuring tube is at the same level with the
fluid outside of it. In this case the nitrie oxide is under
the prevailing atmospheric pressure as indicated by the
barometer.

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 115

Before reading off the volume of gas the measuring
tube should be placed as vertically as possible. In
reading off the volume of gas, the centre of the dark
zone formed by the water drawing up on the glass is
taken as the actual surface of the water, and the quan-
tity of nitrogen evolved noted in whole and tenths of
cubic centimeters.

The volume of every gas measured over water, hence
in a moist state, is dependent on the temperature of the
surroundings, the pressure of the atmosphere and the
tension of the aqueous vapor. Hence, in reading off
the volume of gas, the temperature of the water in the
cylinder is noted as well as the height of the barometer,
and the volume is calculated with regard to the tension
of aqueous vapor at O° C. and a pressure of 760 milli-
meters of mercury. The condition in which a dry
volume of gas is, at 0° C., and a pressure of 760 milli-
meters is designated as the normal condition.

According to Mariotte’s law, the volume of gas is in-
versely as the pressure, and since the expansion of a gas
by heat amounts for each degree C. to 543 of the volume
it occupies at 0° C., it follows, that in calculating the
volume of gas to the normal state, the pressure exercised
by the moist state must be deducted from the height of
the barometer.

Vo = VRB J)
(273 + t).760

In this formula Vo means the volume of gas at the
normal temperature (0°C.), V the volume of gas read
off at the height of the barometer B, and the tempera-
ture t, while f indicates the tension of the aqueous vapor

in the millimeters of pressure of mereury at ¢° C.

116 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

The tension of the aqueous vapor is found from the
following table :—

Tension in ' Tension in Tension in

Tempera-| millimeters |Tempera-| millimeters |Tempera-) millimeters
ture, ©. | of pressure of] ture, C. | of pressure of; ture, C. | of pressure of
mercury. mercury, mercury.
0° Dd g° 8.5 52 15.3
1 4.9 10 all 19 16.3
2 5.2 11 Jez 20 17.4
3 5 6 12 10.4 21 18.5
4 6.0 13 1lBi 22 19.6
5 6.5 14 HEY) 23 20.9
6 6.9 15 a 24 22.2
7 7.4 16 13.5 25 23.5
8 8.0 ly 14.4 26 25.0

To calculate the nitric oxide found to nitric acid in
grammes, multiply the number of cubic centimeters of
nitric oxide calculated to the normal state by the factor
0.002413.

b. W. Wolf’s method of determining the nitrie acid by
means of zine in alkaline solution —This method, which
is distinguished by simplicity and accuracy, is based
upon the reduction of nitrates to ammonia gas by zine
in alkaline solution through the hydrogen formed
thereby.

Since the presence of humus substances impairs the
experiment, the 1000 cubic centimeters of aqueous ex-
tract (p. 110) to be used for this purpose must, in case
they show a brown coloration, be boiled with the addi-
tion of some pure milk of lime, whereby the humus
substances are separated. After filtering the latter off,
the excess of lime in the filtrate is precipitated by the
introduction of pure carbonic acid and, after again filter-
ing, the filtrate is evaporated to 100 cubic centimeters.

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. nie

Now bring the fluid into a glass flask of about } liter
capacity and compound it with soda lye, so that it con-
tains about 14 grammes of soda. Close the flask quickly
with a perforated rubber cork and insert a cylindrical
funnel tube in the perforation. Close the top of the
funnel tube with a rubber cork through which passes an
open glass tube. Bring into the funnel tube glass beads
moistened with hydrochloric acid, so that the hydrogen
evolved can escape free from ammonia. The evolution
of hydrogen is induced by placing a spiral of sheet zine
and sheet iron soldered together in the fluid. This
gas is allowed to act upon the nitrates 4 to 5 hours at
an ordinary temperature. The rubber cork is then
carefully withdrawn, its lower surface rinsed off and,
after rinsing the hydrochloric acid adhering to the glass
beads into the flask by means of a wash-bottle, the
spiral, which must also be rinsed off, is taken from the
fluid with the aid of tweezers. Now quickly add some
soda lye to the fluid, and connect the flask by means of
the rubber cork with a glass receiver, in the other end of
which a knee-shaped tube is inserted through a rubber
cork. This glass tube reaches into an Erlenmeyer
boiling flask containing about 10 cubic centimeters of
pure dilute hydrochloric acid. The end of the tube in
the receiver should not dip into the fluid, but be just above
its surface. Now boil the fluid which contains the ni-
trogen in the form of ammonia until one-half of it has
been distilled into the receiver.

The determination of the ammonium chloride con-
tained in the distillate can be effected in various ways:

1. Determination of the ammonium chloride as am-
monio-platinwm after the conversion of the nitric acid into

118 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

ammonium chloride—The above-mentioned distillate,
which contains the sal ammoniac is evaporated to a
small yolume upon the water-bath and compounded in
excess with pure platinum chloride solution free from
nitric acid. The whole is then evaporated nearly to
dryness upon the water-bath and a mixture of 2 vol-
umes of absolute alcohol and 1 of ether added. The
residue remaining undissolved, constituting a heavy
pale-yellow powder, is brought upon a filter previously
weighed and dried at 257° F., and washed with alcohol
containing ether, of the above-mentioned composition.
It is then dried at 257° F. and weighed in a tarred
weighing flask. The result is not effected by a darker
color of the precipitate.

If the metallic platinum is to be weighed, it is only
necessary to heat the ammonio-platinum in a crucible
covered with a lid. Heating must, however, be effected
very gradually as otherwise the escaping vapors of chlo-
rine and ammonium chloride might readily carry away
particles of platinum. After detaching the precipitate
as much as possible, the filter is incinerated by itself and
then added to the mass. To obtain the equivalent of
nitrie acid, multiply the ammonio-platinum by 0.241, or
the platinum by 0.547.

2. Volumetric determination by the Knop- Wagner
azotometer of the nitrogen in the ammonium chloride after
converting the nitric acid into ammonium chloride.—This
method is based upon the process that a sal ammoniac
solution is decomposed by sodium bromide solution,
nitrogen being liberated: 3(BrONa) + 2(NH,Cl) =
3(BrNa) + 3(OH,) + 2HCl + 2N.

The solution of sodium bromide is prepared as fol-

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 119

lows: Dissolve 100 grammes of caustic soda in 1250
cubic centimeters of distilled water, cool the solution
and add, with constant shaking, 25 cubic centimeters of
bromine. ‘This lye is gradually decomposed by light
and must, therefore, be kept in a dark bottle. Fifty
cubic centimeters of it are capable of evolving 130 to
150 cubic centimeters of nitrogen from sal ammoniac
solution.

The Knop-Wagner azotometer (Fig. 17) is arranged
as follows: The bottom of the developing vessel is ce-
mented in a metallic ring and loaded with lead. It is
partitioned off into divisions by a glass wall not reaching
quite to the top; one of these divisions is filled with
sal ammoniac solution and the other with bromine lye.
It is necessary to constantly retain a determined propor-
tion of volume of the two fluids. Hence, the distillate
mentioned on p. 117 is evaporated nearly to dryness in
a porcelain dish and, after filling a pipette, holding 10
cubie centimeters, with distilled water, a few drops are
added to dissolve the sal ammoniac. This solution is
poured through a long funnel-tube into one of the diyis-
ions of the developing vessel, the porcelain dish and
funnel-tube being rinsed out with the water remaining
in the pipette. Into the other division 50 cubic cen-
timeters of bromine lye, prepared according to the direc-
tions given above, are introduced by means of a pipette.
The developing vessel being closed with a rubber cork,
it is immersed in the cooling vessel so that the rubber
cork is just covered with water. This cooling vessel, as
well as the tall glass cylinder, is filled with cool water
of the same temperature. Through the rubber cork of
the developing vessel passes a glass tube provided with

120 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

a glass stop-cock which is connected by means of rubber
tubing with the graduated glass tube in the cylinder.

ils;

The glass stop-cock is loosened or taken out, and the
communicating tubes inclosed in the glass cylinder are
filled with water by compressing the rubber ball pro-
vided with a hole, the clip being opened at the same
time. By discharging the water through the clip, the
lower meniscus of the surface of the water is exactly
brought to the 0 point of the graduated tube. After 5
minutes the glass stop-cock is firmly replaced, but so
that the developing vessel remains in communication
with the graduated tube. Now wait 5 minutes, and

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. VI

then observe whether the surface of the water in the
graduated tube has risen in consequence of the contrac-
tion of the air due to cooling off. This being the case
the glass stop-cock is once more loosened, then firmly
replaced and, after 5 minutes, the height of water in the
graduated tube again observed. This is repeated until
the water level remains constant at the 0 point. The
developing vessel is now taken from the cooling cylinder
and, after discharging 20 to 30 cubic centimeters of
water through the clip, the bromine lye is gradually
allowed to flow into the sal ammoniac solution by in-
clining the developing vessel. The evolution of nitro-
gen is promoted by swinging the glass. The glass stop-
cock is now closed, and, after vigorously shaking the de-
veloping flask, the stop-cock is again opened and the
developed nitrogen allowed to pass into the graduated
tube, this operation being repeated three times. The
developing vessel is now replaced in the cooling cylinder
and brought into communication with the graduated
tube by means of the glass stop-cock. After 15 minutes
it has acquired the same temperature as before, and suffi-
cient water is either discharged or added through the
clip to bring the level in the two communicating tubes
to the same height. Now read off the number of cubic
centimeters of nitrogen evolved, the temperature indi-
cated by the thermometer in the cylinder, and the height
of the barometer.

Since the fluid in the developing vessel has absorbed
a not inconsiderable quantity of nitrogen, it has to be
taken into calculation. In order to utilize, for this
purpose, the following table by Dietrich, it is necessary
always to use exactly 10 cubic centimeters of the fluid

122 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

to be examined and 50 cubie centimeters of bromine lye
of the above-mentioned concentration, since the quantity
of gas absorbed also changes with the concentration and
quantity of the fluid.

Dietrich’s table for the absorption of nitrogen in 60 cubic centi-
meters’ developing fluid (50 cubie centimeters of bromine lye
and 10 cubic centimeters of water), with a specific gravity of
the lye of 1.1, and such a strength that 50 cubic centimeters
correspond to 200 cubic centimeters of nitrogen, with an evolu-
tion of 1 to 100 cubic centimeters of nitrogen.

Evolved: cem. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ue lp 3 9 10
Absorbed : ccm, | 0.06 | 00.8 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.16 | 0.18 | 0.21 | 0.23 | 0.26 | 0.28

Evolved :cem. | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20°
Absorbed : cem, | 0.31 | 0.33 | 0.36 0.38 | 041 | 043 | 0.46 0.48 | 0.51 | 0.53

Evolved : ccm. | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 96 | 927 |
Absorbed : ccm. | 0.56 | 0.58 | 0.61 | 0.63 | 0.66 | 0.68 | 0.71

28 29 30
0.73 | 0.76 | 0.78

|
|

Evolved : ccm. | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34.| 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40
|

Absorbed : cem. | 0.81 | 0.83 | 0.86 | 0.88 | 0.91 | 0.93 | 0.96 | 0.98 1.01 | 1.03
Evolved : ccm. | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 50
Absorbed : cem. | 1.06 | 1.08 | 1.11 | 1.18 | 1.16 | 1.18 | 1.21 | 1.23 | 1.26 | 1.28

Evolved : cem. 51 52 53 54 55) | 56. | 670 ||, 158 59 60
Absorbed : ccm. | 1.31 | 1.33 | 1.86 | 1.38 | 1.41 | 1.43 | 1.46 | 1.48 1.51 | 1.53

Evolved : ccm. | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69 | 70
Absorbed : cem. | 1.56 | 1.58 | 1.61 | 1.63 | 1.66 | 1.68 | 1.71 | 1.73 | 1.76 | 1.78

Evolved :cem. | 71 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 80
Absorbed : cem, | 1.81 | 1.83 | 1.86 | 1.88 | 1.91 | 1.93 | 1.96 | 1.98 | 2.01 | 2.03

|
Evolved : ccm. | 81 | 82 | 93 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90
Absorbed : ccm. | 2.06 | 2.08 | 2.11 | 2.13 | 2.16 | 2.18 | 2.21 | 2.93 | 2.96 | 2.98

Evolved : eem. $1 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 | 100
Absorbed : ccm. | 2.31 | 2.33 | 2.36 | 2.38 | 2.41 | 2.43 | 2.46 | 2.48 | 251) ee.os

Calculate first to the normal condition, according to
the formula given on p. 115, the quantity of nitrogen read
off in the graduated tube, taking into consideration the
tension of the aqueous vapor. Then take from Dietrich’s
table the quantity of gas absorbed at the volume evolved.
Add this to the quantity of nitrogen calculated to the

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 123

normal state and the equivalent quantity of nitric acid
is obtained by muliplying by the factor 0.0048452.

3. Special method in the examination of peat.—Peat
moors, which are to be cultivated, require special ex-
amination. A determination of ash by carefully ignit-
ing the substance dried at 212° F. will always have first
to be executed. The content of carbonic acid in the ash
is to be determined and deducted from the per cent. of
ash.

About 10 grammes of the ash are used for an aqueous
extract, and the calcareous earth, magnesia, potassium,
sodium, sulphuric acid, and chlorine contained therein
are determined. The residue remaining from the
aqueous extract is boiled with concentrated hydrochloric
acid, and, after separating the silica, alumina, ferric oxide,
calcareous earth, magnesia, potassium, sodium, and phos-
phoric acid are determined. The residue remaining
thereby is, after boiling with sodium carbonate solution,
designated as sand.

II. Extraction of the soil with carbonated water.—
Pour over 1500 grammes of air-dry soil in a flask 6000
cubic centimeters of water } saturated with carbonic
acid, less the quantity of water escaping from the air-
dry soil at 212° F. Then close the flask and shake.
The water } saturated with carbonic acid is prepared by
completely saturating, at an ordinary temperature and
with a medium pressure of air, 1500 cubic centimeters
of distilled water with carbonic acid and diluting with
4500 cubic centimeters of distilled water. The soil
remains in contact with the water for three days, the
flask being frequently rolled upon a soft support. The
soil is then allowed to settle and 5000 cubic centimeters

124 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

of the supernatant clear fluid are siphoned off in two
separate portions, one of 1000 and the other of 4000 cubie
centimeters. The two fluids are then allowed to stand
quietly in hermetically closed flasks for twenty-four
hours, when they are filtered off clear without stirring
up the sediment. During this operation the filtering
funnel should be kept covered.

The 1000 cubic centimeters, which correspond to 250
grammes of soil dried at 212° F., are now gradually
evaporated to dryness in a small weighed platinum dish
upon the water-bath. The residue is dried in the air-
bath at 257° F., and quickly weighed after cooling in
the desiccator. By this means the sum total of the sub-
stances dissolved in the carbonated water is found. The
mass is then moderately ignited, several times moistened
with ammonium carbonate, again ignited, cooled in the
desiccator, and once more weighed. In this manner the
sum total of the refractory inorganic salts is obtained,
and their content of carbonic acid can best be de-
termined by the method given on p. 64. The determina-
tion of the carbonic acid being finished, the fluid in the
flask may further be used for the qualitative determina-
tion of the presence of the various constituents.

The greater portion of the carbonated aqueous ex-
tract (4000 cubic centimeters corresponding to 1000
grammes of the soil dried at 212° F.) is also filtered.
In case the filtrate is not entirely clear, E. Wolff pro-
poses to evaporate .the fluid to 400 cubic centimeters,
slightly over-saturate it, while still hot, with hydro-
chloric acid, and to filter off the small quantity of in-
soluble clay. To destroy the humus substances, as well
as to oxidize the iron, the fluid is compounded with a

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 125

few drops of nitric acid and evaporated to pulverulent
dryness by heating it in a porcelain crucible, several
times moistening the substance with water when it be-
comes dry, and rubbing it to a powder with a glass
pestle. The mass is then moistened with hydrochloric
acid, and, after adding boiling water, the fluid is filtered
to separate silica. In the filtrate, alumina, ferric oxide,
phosphoric acid, calcareous earth, magnesia, sulphuric
acid, potassium, and sodium are determined.

The fluid is now heated to boiling and compounded
with ammonia slightly in excess. A weighable precipi-
tate of ferric ovide will only be formed with acid humus
soils. If, however, the precipitate is too small to be
weighed, redissolye it by adding a few drops of hydro-
chlorie acid, compound the boiling-hot solution with a
few drops of very dilute ferric chloride solution and
again precipitate with ammonia slightly in excess. The
precipitate contains the entire quantity of phosphoric
acid dissolved in the carbonated water as ferric phos-
phate (FePO,). Filter the precipitate off, wash it with
hot water until a drop running off from the funnel is no
longer made turbid by silver nitrate, and then detach it
as much as possible from the filter with a feather. The
particles of the precipitate still adhering to the filter are
dissolved with hot dilute nitric acid by allowing the
latter to fall drop by drop upon the filter and placing
the beaker containing the detached precipitate under-
neath the filter. Wash the filter with hot water. Then
heat the fluid in the beaker and add nitric acid until the
precipitate is dissolved. The solution is evaporated to
a small quantity in a porcelain dish and rinsed with as
little water as possible into the beaker.

126 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

Precipitation of the phosphoric acid with ammonium
molybdate and weighing as magnesium pyrophosphate —
The ammonium molybdate solution required for the pre-
cipitation of the phosphoric acid is prepared as follows :
Dissolye 40 grammes of ammonium molybdate in 80
cubic centimeters of concentrated ammonia and 320
cubic centimeters of distilled water and slowly pour the
fluid, with constant stirring, into a mixture of 480 cubic
centimeters of nitric acid (1.18 specific gravity), and 120
cubic centimeters of water.

Of the solution thus prepared, add an abundant
quantity to the fluid to be examined, and let the mixture
stand for twelve hours at 104° F. During this time the
phosphoric acid separates as ammonium phospho-
molybdate in the form of a yellow granular crystalline
precipitate. Now siphon off a small portion of the
supernatant clear fluid, and test it as to whether a pre-
cipitate is again formed after once more adding am-
monium molybdate solution and standing for some time.
If such is the case, the test sample is again added to the
whole, and, after adding fresh ammonium molybdate
solution, it is again allowed to stand for twelve hours at
104° F,

The supernatant fluid is then poured off through a
small filter, and the precipitate in the beaker repeatedly
washed, by decanting, with a mixture of 100 parts of
ammonium molybdate solution, 20 parts of nitric acid
of 1.2 specific gravity, and 80 parts of water. To be
sure that all the iron is in the filtrate, the wash-water
running off from the filter towards the end of the opera-
tion should not yield a precipitate on being compounded
with ammonia. Now place the beaker containing the

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 127

washed precipitate under the funnel, dissolve any particles
of the precipitate adhering to the filter in a few drops
of concentrated ammonia, and wash the filter with a
mixture of one volume ammonia and three volumes
water. If the precipitate in the beaker does not dissolve
entirely clear, the fluid must be again poured through
the filter before washing the latter. To the clear filtrate
add, drop by drop, hydrochloric acid until the yellow
precipitate formed thereby only disappears after repeated
shaking. Then precipitate the phosphoric acid as am-
monium magnesium phosphate with magnesia mixture.
The magnesia mixture is prepared as follows : Dissolve
1 part of crystallized magnesium sulphate and 2 parts of
ammonium chloride in 8 parts of water, and 4 parts of
ammonia. The precipitate is washed, as given on p. 71,
with ammoniacal water, dried, ignited, and weighed as
magnesium pyrophosphate. ‘To calculate from this the
phosphoric acid, multiply the weighed quantity by the
factor 0.64.

Determination of the phosphoric acid as ammonium
phospho-molybdate, according to R. Finkener.—By this
method the precipitation of the phosphoric acid with
magnesia mixture is avoided, and it has the further ad-
vantage that even in the presence of very small quanti-
ties of phosphoric acid, a comparatively large weight is
brought upon the balance.

When the phosphoric acid bas been precipitated, after
adding 25 per cent. ammonium nitrate, with ammonium
molybdate in the manner described on p. 126, the precip-
itate is brought upon a small filter and washed with a
solution of ammonium nitrate, which contains 20 per
cent. of the salt and is previously mixed with =; its
volume of nitric acid. Washing is finished when the

128 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

solution running off is no longer immediately colored by
yellow prussiate of potash.

When the greater portion of the ammonium nitrate
has been removed by washing with some water, the pre-
cipitate is injected by means of a wash-bottle from the
filter into a weighed porcelain crucible. What adheres
to the paper is detached with heated liquid ammonia,
and after concentrating this solution by evaporating and
oversaturating it with nitric acid, it is also brought into
the crucible. After the fluid is first evaporated upon

the water-bath, the crucible is placed by means of a
triangle upon Finkener’s drying stand (Fig. 18), in
which the flame is cooled off by three different wire
screens placed one above the other. Only a moderate

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 129

heat is required for the expulsion of the ammonium
nitrate. The operation is finished when a watch-crystal
placed over the crucible is not tarnished. The ammo-
nium phospho-molybdate remaining in the crucible con-
tains for 1 part of phosphoric acid (P,O,) 24 parts of
molybdie acid (M,O,). It is placed, while hot, in the desic-
eator filled with sulphuric acid and, when cold, quickly
weighed since it is hygroscopic. To calculate the salt
to the equivalent quantity of phosphoric acid (P,O,) mul-
tiply the weighed quantity by the factor 0.03794.

Further treatment of the soil extract prepared with car-
bonated water—The filtrate from the precipitate with
ammonia (p. 125) is heated to boiling and the calcareous
earth precipitated with ammonium oxalate in the manner
given on p. 68 e¢ seq.

After the calcium oxalate has been filtered off, evapo-
rate the fluid to about 10 cubic centimeters, compound
it with a few drops of hydrochloric acid until it shows
an acid reaction, and precipitate the sulphuric acid with
barium chloride solution without, however, adding too
large an excess of it. The precipitate, consisting of
barium sulphate, is treated in the same manner as
described on p. 109 for the determination of sulphuric
acid in the aqueous extract.

In the filtrate the excess of barium sulphate is pre-
cipitated by a few drops of sulphuric acid, the precipi-
tate filtered off and the fluid after being neutralized with
ammonia is evaporated, with constant stirring, to dry-
ness in a platinum dish. The ammoniacal salts are
then expelled by igniting, the residue is taken up with

some hydrochloric acid and water, and filtered in case
some more barium sulphate has separated. From the
; |

130 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

very concentrated solution, the magnesia is precipitated
by ammonium carbonate (compare p. 104 et seq.). Weigh
the alkalies as sulphates and separate the potassium by
precipitating with platinum chloride and taking up the
precipitate with the mixture of hydrochloric acid, alco-
hol and ether, in the manner described on p. 108.

IIl. Extraction of the soil with cold concentrated hy-
drochloric acid.—Pour over 200 grammes of air-dry
soil in a eylinder, which can be closed with a glass
stopper, 400 grammes of pure concentrated hydrochloric
acid and allow the latter to act upon the substance at
the ordinary temperature of a room, for forty-eight hours,
shaking the cylinder frequently. The hydrochloric acid
is then much diluted, poured off through a filter, and
the soil washed by repeatedly decanting it with hot
water until a drop running off from the funnel shows
no reaction with silver nitrate.

The separation of the dissolved substances is effected
in the same manner as with soil treated with boiling
concentrated hydrochloric acid.

LV. Extraction of the soil with boiling concentrated
hydrochloric acid.—Only in a few cases will it be pos-
sible to simultaneously prepare the four extracts men-
tioned on p. 102, they requiring much labor and time.
Hence, as a rule, the experimenter will have to be satis-
fied with one extract, and, in such a case, it is best to
chose that with boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid,
which, as previously mentioned, contains the sum-total
of all the plunt-nourishing substances available at the
present and becoming active in the future.

Of sand soils weigh out 100 grammes, and of clay
soils 50 grammes of the air-dry fine soil. Bring the

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES, 131

weighed out quantity into an Erlenmeyer boiling flask
and pour over it, in the first case, 200, and in the latter,
100 cubic centimeters of pure concentrated hydrechloric
acid of 1.15 specific gravity. Put the boiling flask
upon a sand-bath (Fig. 19), and place upon it a small
funnel, c, with a short tube, using, however, the pre-
caution of inserting between the neck of the flask and
the funnel a small piece of a glass rod, 6, bent at an
angle of 45°, so that in boiling the
vapors can escape unrestrained, and
the scattering of the fluid through the
funnel tube is prevented.

The soil is boiled with the acid
exactly one hour. Then add a large
excess of distilled water, stir with a
glass rod, and allow the soil to settle.
When the supernatant fluid is clear,
pour it off through a filter and wash
the soil in the boiling flask by decant-
ing with hot water until a drop run-
ning off from the filter shows no
turbidity with silver nitrate.

The clear filtrate is compounded
with some nitric acid, and, to separate
the dissolved silica, is then brought to dusty dryness in
a porcelain dish upon the water-bath. The separation
of the silica must be very carefully done, as otherwise
it will erroneously affect the determination of phosphoric
acid.

The filtrate from the silica is compounded hot with
ammonia, the ferric oxide and alumina being thereby
precipitated. Then add a few drops of acetic acid

a
tt

132 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

until the fluid shows a slight acid reaction and boil
again. The precipitate which, asa rule, is considerable,
is brought upon two large rapidly filtering filters,
thoroughly washed with hot water, and then detached as
much as possible from the filters with the aid of a
feather. The particles adhering to the filters, as well
as the detached precipitate, are dissolved in hot dilute
nitric acid. Bring the solution into a flask of 500 cubie
centimeters capacity, and take 100 cubic centimeters of
it by means of a pipette for the determination of iron
and alumina. The remaining 400 cubic centimeters are
evaporated to a small quantity and used for the de-
termination of phosphoric acid according to the method
described on p. 127. In the 100 cubic centimeters, pre-
cipitate the ferric oxide and alumina with ammonia,
weigh the ignited precipitate, dissolve it in hydrochloric
acid or potassium sulphate, and determine the iron by
titration with potassium permanganate solution in the
manner described on p. 87 et seq.

The total filtrate of the principal precipitate is com-
pounded with ammonium sulphide, whereby the man-
ganese is precipitated as manganous sulphide. The
precipitate is filtered, washed with water containing am-
monium sulphide, and, after drying, incinerated, together
with the filter, in a weighed crucible. Now add some
flowers of sulphur, heat the crucible ina current of
hydrogen and let it also cool in it. The green residue
in the crucible consists of manganous sulphide (M,),
which, after cooling in the desiccator, is weighed. The
equivalent quantity of manganous oxide is obtained by
multiplying the manganous sulphide by the factor
0:877.

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. Te

The filtrate from the precipitate with ammonium sul-
phide is over-saturated with hydrochloric acid and boiled
until the, at first, milky sulphur separated, balls together
on the bottom, and the supernatant fluid is clear. The
sulphur is filtered off, the filter washed, and the calcare-
ous earth, magnesia, and alkalies are determined in the
filtrate in the manner given on p. 104 et seq.

If the quantity of silica separated in soluble form in
the extract with hydrochloric acid is to be determined,
the silica which has been dissolved in the hydrochloric
acid and separated in an insoluble form in evaporating the
latter, must be weighed as well as that remaining in solu-
ble modification in the soil. For this purpose repeatedly
boil the soil-residue from the extract with hydrochloric
acid with concentrated sodium carbonate solution to
which some soda lye has been added. Then filter off the
soil and over-saturate the filtrate with hydrochloric acid
by covering it with a watch crystal and slowly adding
the acid drop by drop. The fluid is then evoporated to
dusty dryness, the residue taken up with hydrochloric
acid, diluted with distilled water and the silica, separated
in an insoluble form, ignited and weighed in the manner
described on p. 97 et seq.

B. Determination of some important substances for the
nourishment of plants, which can either not, or only
partially, be determined in the soil-extracts. 1, Determina-
tion of the total nitrogen in the soil. a. skjeldahl’s
method.—This process was devised by J. Kjeldahl, of
Copenhagen. It is based upon the theory that the sub-
stance, which is to be used dry, is so altered by boiling
for some time with an abundant quantity of concen-
trated sulphuric acid, that by the succeeding oxidation

134 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

with dry pulverulent potassium permanganate, all the
nitrogen is converted into ammonia. A modified pro-
cess adapted for the investigation of soils is as fol-
lows :—

The substance dried at 212° F. is poured from a long
thin weighing tube into a boiling flask of 100 cubic
centimeters capacity, care being had that no substance
remains adhering in the neck. With humus and peat
soil 0.5 to 1 gramme of the finely pulverized soil is used,
and with humus sand soils and fat and clammy soils 2
to 5 grammes. Then add 20 cubic centimeters of a
mixture of 16 volumes of pure concentrated sulphuric
acid, 4 of pure fuming sulphuric acid, and 2 grammes
of anhydrous phosphoric acid, place the boiling flask in
an oblique position upon the sand-bath and boil the
fluid until it has acquired a wine-yellow color. Then
remove the flame, and, after cooling somewhat, add to
the solution, while still hot, an excess of dry pulverulent
potassium permanganate in small portions until the
solution has acquired a blue-green color. After cooling,
the solution is brought into a boiling flask holding one
liter (Fig. 20), and diluted with distilled water to 200
cubic centimeters. The boiling flask is connected by
means of a rubber cork with an obliquely ascending
glass tube expanding to a bulb, which enters a glass
receiver. From the other end of the receiver a tube
leads into an Erlenmeyer boiling flask which contains
some pure dilute hydrochloric acid in which, however,
the tube need not to dip. Now open the rubber cork, add
to the fluid 80 cubic centimeters of soda lye which con-
tains 50 grammes of caustic soda, and quickly replace
the cork upon the boiling flask. Now distil the fluid

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 135

for half an hour, during which time the ammonia is
completely expelled and absorbed by the hydrochloric
acid in the receiver. The hydrochloric acid is evapo-
rated to dryness, rinsed with 10 cubic centimeters of

distilled water into the developing vessel of the Knop-
Wagner azotometer and the nitrogen determined
volumetrically by decomposing the sal ammoniac with
bromine lye (compare p. 118).

b. Determination of the nitrogen by combustion with
soda lime—For this determination use a tube of hard

Fig. 21.

Sachin,

glass of the form shown in Fig. 21. Before drawing
the tube out it is thoroughly cleansed, and, after heating,

136 ¢ THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

dried by sucking out the air. Now first slip into the
tube a loosely fitting plug of asbestos, previously ignited,
and then a layer of 3 to 4 cubic centimeters of soda
lime free from nitric acid previously moderately heated
in a porcelain dish, and which, for use, should have a
temperature of 104° to 122° F. Now weigh out 1 to
10 grammes of fine soil finely pulverized and dried at
212° I, and mix it in a porcelain mortar with some
warm, finely pulverized soda lime and about } gramme
of pure cane sugar. Introduce the mixture, while warm,
into the combustion tube, forcible pressure being care-
fully avoided. The mixture is followed by a layer of
soda lime used to rinse the mortar. Then add enough
granulated soda lime to fill the tube to about 4 centi-
meters of the open end and place another plug of ignited
asbestos at the end. In the tube is inserted, by means
of a rubber cork, the end of a Will-Varrentrapp appa-
ratus, which is previously filled, by means of a pipette,
to one-quarter of its volume with pure distilled water,
and 1 cubic centimeter of pure concentrated hydrochloric
acid, as shown in Fig. 21. The hydrochloric acid used
must first be tested as to its purity ; and should leave no
residue after evaporating with platinum chloride and
taking up the mass with alcohol.

Before placing the tube in the combustion furnace, a
free passage is formed for the evolved gases by a few
gentle taps. The tube is then gradually heated com-
mencing at the fore part nearest the cork and progress-
ing slowly towards the tail. Care must be taken to
keep the fore part of the tube at a moderate red heat
throughout the process. The addition of sugar is claimed
to promote the conversion of the nitrogen into ammonia.

PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 13

Combustion is finished when no more black carbonace-
ous particles are perceptible in the substance. Now
break off the point of the ascending tube and at the same
time put out the gas. Then by means of an aspirator
connected by rubber tubing with the end of the Will-
Varrentrapp apparatus draw a slow current of air
through the apparatus. Now pour the fluid from the
Will-Varrentrapp apparatus into a porcelain dish, rinse
out with water, and evaporate nearly to dryness. By
now taking the residue up with some water, the greater
portion of tarry substances formed by combustion re-
mains in the dish. The fluid containing the sal ammo-
niac is evaporated nearly to dryness in a small dish
upon the water-bath, and the nitrogen determined either
volumetrically in the Knop-Wagner azotometer (see p.
118 ef seq) or weighed as ammonio-platinum (see p. 117).

2. Determination of the ammonia contained in the
soil—As a rule soils contain but small quantities of
ammoniacal gas and ammoniacal salts, they being gener-
ally rapidly oxidized to nitric acid. To determine them,
it is best to fill the soil taken from the field in its natu-
ral moist condition into a wide-necked glass flask, close
the latter hermetically and use the soil for analysis as
soon as possible after being taken from the field. The
methods based upon distilling the soil compounded with
water with soda lye or manganic oxide and catching the
escaping ammonia in a receiver do not yield accurate
results, since after the expulsion of the ammonia already
formed, the nitrogenous organic substances are also at-
tacked and constantly yield small quantities of ammonia.
The following method can, however, be recommended :

138 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

Schlesing’s modified method for the accurate determi-
nation of theammonia in the soil.—Introduce 100 grammes
of the soil into a liter flask, and at the same time deter-
mine, from the loss, the water which escapes at 212° F.
from about 20 grammes of the sample used, so that later
on the content of ammonia can be calculated to sub-
stance dried at 212° F.

Pour over the soil in the flask, 100 cubic centimeters
of distilled water, and add from a burette concentrated
hydrochloric acid, until any carbonic acid present is com-
pletely expelled, and the fluid contains an excess of hy-
drochloric acid. To the measured quantity of hydro-
chloric acid, previously tested as to its purity by evapo-
rating with platinum chloride, add sufficient distilled
water to make exactly 400 cubic centimeters of fluid.
Then close the liter flask with a rubber cork, shake vig-
orously and allow the soil to settle, for which 6 to 12
hours are required. The supernatant clear fluid is then
quickly poured through a dry, folded filter, and 200 eubie
centimeters of the filtrate, corresponding to 5 grammes
of the soil used, are taken out with a pipette. Evyvapo-
rate these 200 cubic centimeters to 10 cubic centimeters
in a room free from ammonia and rinse them into a half
liter flask, so that the fluid amounts to about 100 cubie
centimeters. Now add concentrated soda lye until it is
present in excess, introduce some granulated zine into
the flask and distil off one-half of the fluid through a
receiver into an Erlenmeyer boiling flask, which con-
tains some dilute hydrochloric acid for the reception of
the ammoniacal gas. When distillation is finished, the
distillate is evaporated nearly to dryness and the nitro-

INJURIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 139

gen volumetrically determined in the Knop-Wagner
azotometer,

If, now, the cubic centimeters of nitrogen calculated
to the normal condition are multiplied by the factor
0.001525, the content in grammes of ammoniacal gas
(NH,) in 50 grammes of the soil used is obtained.

VIII.

DETERMINATION OF THE SUBSTANCES IN THE
SOIL INJURIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS.

THE presence of certain substances in the soil may
essentially influence the growth of plants, and in many
cases render it even entirely impossible. Among these
so-called poisons to cultivated plants may be included:
Humic acids showing an acid reaction, too large quantities
of common salt, free sulphuric acid, ferrous sulphate,
and iron bisulphide. In many cases the establishment
of the presence of these substances suffices without the
necessity of their quantitative determination. Their
presence can be partially shown in preparing the aqueous
extract for the determination of the plant-nourishing
substances.

1. Proof of the presence of free humic acids in the
soil.—If the aqueous extract of a humus soil shows a
distinct acid reaction towards litmus-paper; and when
the presence of sulphuric acid cannot be established by
barium chloride, the acid will have to be traced back to
humus substances. Soils showing this phenomenon
generally also suffer from too much moisture, and the

140 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

field will have to be sufficiently drained by ditches or
raised by carting sand upon it. Liming and marling
will also be of advantage for fixing the humic acids.

2. Deterinination of the content of common salt in the
soil. V oelker’s and Grandeau’s investigations have
shown that a soil becomes unproductive when its con-
tent of common salt exceeds 0.1 per cent. In discussing
the aqueous extract for the estimation of the plant-
nourishing substances, the determinations of the content
of chlorine and sodium haye been considered. In most
cases the quantity of chlorine found can be directly
calculated to sodium.

3. Determination of the ferrous sulphate, free sulphuric
acid, and tron disulphide. The occurrence of ferrous
sulphate (green vitriol) or free sulphuric acid is dependent
on the presence of tron disulphide in the soil. Iron
pyrites which, according to Fleischer’s investigations,
are occasionally found in the soil, yield by their oxida-
tion through oxygen free sulphuric acid and ferrous sul-
phate = FeS, + 70 = SO, + FeSO,. These combina-
tions will always be formed when not sufficient bases,
especially lime, are present for their saturation. The
presence of iron disulphide in the sands under peat
moors has several times caused complete failures in the
establishment of the Rimpau moor-dam cultivation, in
which such sand was brought upon the moor. Hence,
it is of importance to examine the moor soil to be
cultivated, as well as the sand to be used, in regard to
these injurious substances.

In the Prussian moor experimental station at Bremen,
the following methods are used :—

Of the moor or sand to be examined, an aqueous

INJURIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 141

extract is prepared and tested for the presence of ferrous
oxide by adding solution of red prussiate of potash.
The presence of ferrous oxide is immediately recognized
by the blue coloration of the fluid. Any acid reaction
is determined by litmus paper.

In the aqueous extract of 100 grammes of soil, potas-
sium, sodium, calcareous earth, magnesia, ferrous or
ferric oxide, chlorine, and sulphuric acid are determined,
and the bases calculated to the acids present. The
excess of sulphuric acid can be designated as free.

a. Determination of the content of sulphur in the soil by
ignition.—Ignite 20 grammes of the fine soil extracted
with water and dried in a Bohemian glass tube in a cur-
rent of air, whereby any iron pyrites present are decom-
posed and the sulphur is transformed into sulphuric and
sulphurous acids.

First slip a plug of glass-wool into the tube (Fig. 22),
then pour the substance loosely upon it and insert another
plug of glass-wool. The tail end of the tube communi-
cates with a vessel filled with water which serves for
controlling the current of air to be used in the combus-
tion. The fore part of the tube is drawn out, bent at
a right angle downward and connected with an absorb-
ing vessel filled with potash lye free from sulphuric acid.
By means of the aspirator attached to the absorbing
vessel a current of air can be constantly conducted
through the combustion tube. Between the absorbing
vessel and the aspirator is first a funnel tube with glass
beads moistened with potash lye, and next a bulb tube
containing some neutral litmus solution, which during
the operation should not change its color, The tube is
placed in a combustion furnace and gradually heated to

142 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

a red heat, commencing at the tail and progressing
slowly towards the fore part. When the tube is ignited
throughout its whole length, the products of distillation
condensed in the drawn out portion of the tube are

Fig. 22.

= Tothe
q Aspirator

finally, by means of a flame, forced down as far as pos-
sible, so that when the operation is finished they can be
readily rinsed out with the wash-bottle. The potash lye
is oversaturated with hydrochloric acid, compounded
with bromine, to convert the sulphurous acid into sul-
phuric acid, and the bromine removed by boiling. Now
precipitate the sulphuric acid with barium chloride, ob-
serving the precautionary measures given on p. 110, since
the heavy precipitate in the concentrated common salt
solution generally carries alkali down with it. With
peats it is advisable to ignite the substance in a current
of oxygen,

By igniting the soil in a tube the entire quantity of
sulphuric acid contained in it is not obtained, but in the

INJURIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 143

investigations of the moor experimental station at
Bremen this method has proved itself as sufficiently
accurate.

From the above-mentioned methods, Fleischer calcu-
lates the sulphuric acid present in a form injurious to
plants as follows :—

1. Present as free acid (the residue of sulphuric acid
which remains after calculating the acid to the bases of
the aqueous extract).

2. Sulphuric acid contained in ferrous sulphate (caleu-
lated from the content of ferrous oxide in the aqueous
extract).

3. Sulphurie acid which may be formed from iron
disulphide (obtained by igniting the soil extracted with
water).

b. Determination of the content of sulphur in the soil by
disintegration with bromine-—Fuse 5 to 10 grammes of
the finely powdered soil extracted with water with 20
cubic centimeters of distilled water and 5 cubic centime-
ters of pure bromine free from sulphuric acid in a Bohe-
mian glass tube, and gradually heat, with frequent
shaking, to 158° F. upon the water bath. By the bro-
mine the sulphur present is oxidized to sulphuric acid.
When entirely cold the tube is opened in the manner
described on p. 84, the contents are rinsed into a beaker,
diluted with water, and heated until an odor of bromine
is no longer perceptible. Now filter the soil off, and
precipitate the sulphuric acid in the filtrate in the above-
mentioned manner. The sulphuric acid obtained from
the aqueous extract is then deducted from the total sul-
phuric acid, and the rest calculated to sulphur by multi-
plying it by the factor 0.4.

144 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

In the presence of large quantities of gypsum this
method is not available, as, in this case, all the sulphates
are not extracted by the aqueous extract.

LX,

DETERMINATION OF VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF
THE SOIL WHICH ARE DEPENDENT PARTIALLY
ON PHYSICAL AND PARTIALLY ON CHEMICAL
CAUSES.

A. Weight of the soil—We distinguish the specific grav-
ity, and the absolute volume or liter weight of the soil. For
determining them the following methods are suitable :—

1. Determination of the specific gravity.—A thin glass
flask of about 100 cubie centimeters capacity, and pro-
vided with a ground-glass stopper, drawn out to an open
capillary tube, is filled up to the end of the capillary
tube with distilled water of 60.8° F. The flask being
carefully cleansed with a piece of leather, is then accu-
rately weighed upon a chemical balance. The flask is
then emptied, and a weighed quantity (about 20 gram-
mes) of the soil dried at 212° F., and boiled with dis-
tilled water is, when cold, introduced, and sufficient
water of 60.8° F. added to entirely refill the flask. It
is then weighed. By adding the weight of the soil used
to the weight of the flask filled with water and deduct-
ing therefrom the weight of the flask filled with water
and the soil, the difference expresses the weight of a
volume of water which is equal to that of the quantity
of soil used. Since, by this means the proportion of the

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 145

weights of equal volumes of soil and water are found,
the specific gravity of the soil can, therefrom, be de-
duced by dividing the weight of the soil with the weight
of the water it has displaced.

2. Determination of the volume weight—The volume
or liter weight can be determined in two ways, by
bringing the soil into a measuring vessel, either in an
air-dry state, or saturated with water.

Only the first-mentioned method is, according to R.
Heinrich’s experiments, required for soils containing but
little humus, it yielding nearly the same results as
saturation with water.

For this purpose fill a measuring cylinder of 100
cubic centimeters capacity, with air-dry soil pulverized
as uniformly as possible, by introducing the soil in
small portions and compacting it by gently tapping the
vessel upon a cork support until a diminution in volume
no longer takes place. According to the kind of soil,
one-half to one hour will be required for this process,
care being taken that during the operation the measur-
ing vessel is always filled with soil up to the mark. De-
termine at the same time with a special. sample the
hygroscopic water which escapes at 212° F., the volume
weight ascertained by weighing being always referred
to substance dried at 212° F.

By dividing the volume weight of the soil with the
weight of the same volume of water the apparent
specific gravity of the soil is obtained.

By now dividing this apparent specific gravity with
the specific gravity of the soil, the quotient expresses
the porosity of the soil, i. e., the space which in soils in
a dry state (its volume being put = 1) is occupied by

146 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

particles of air. This porosity is frequently calculated
to 100 parts by volume of the soil.

To determine the volume of a soil completely satu-
rated with water, vigorously shake, according to E.
Wolff, 25 to 30 grammes of finely pulverized, air-dry
soil, whose volume weight is known, in a graduated
tube with water containing 1 per cent. of sal ammoniac,
and allow to settle. The volume is read off after twenty-
four hours. In the calculation the proportion existing
between the volume of soil in a saturated state and the
same volume of soil in a dry state is fixed by taking
the latter as the unit.

B. Behavior of the soil towards nourishing substances.
—The power of the soil to retain separate substances
presented to it in solution is termed absorption, and is
dependent partially on chemical, and partially on phy-
sical causes, though opinions differ in this respect. It has
been ascertained that the soil takes up more from concen-
trated than from more dilute solutions, and that the
absorbed substances can be again partially withdrawn
from the soil by washing with much water. The content
of humus and clay has great influence upon the ab-
sorbent power of the soil, the latter, it is claimed, being
also essentially increased by zeolitic minerals.

The greater or smaller absorbent power of a soil being
generally in direct proportion to its fertility, a determi-
nation of this important property is of great value, since
it has a bearing on practical agriculture, especially as to
the rational treatment and application of farm-yard
manure and the economical use of artificial manures,

In order to imitate nature as closely as possible, very
dilute nourishing solutions must be used for such experi-
ments.

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 147

1. Testing the absorbent power of the soil with =; or
iy normal solutions—For making these experiments
the following salts are very suitable : Ammonium chloride,
potassium nitrate, calcium nitrate, magnesium sulphate,
and monocaleium phosphate.

Ammonium chloride, calcium nitrate, and magnesium
sulphate can be readily prepared as chemically pure
anhydrous salts, and in this state weighed in a closed
weighing tube. The ;45 normal solution of these salts
is prepared as follows: Weigh out exactly 5 of their
molecular weight in grammes, which is equivalent to
ry of the atomic weight of hydrogen=1, and dissolve it
in 1000 cubic centimeters of distilled water of 60.8° F.
The quantities of salt required for 1 liter are as follows :
Ammonium chloride=5.35 grammes, potassium nitrate
=10.11 grammes, magnesium sulphate=6.00 grammes.

Since calcium nitrate forms a very deliquescent salt,
and, therefore, cannot be directly Sihacnee a solution
Seinen more concentrated than ;; normal solution is
prepared. In every 20 cubie dentienetsrs the content of
calcium monoxide is determined by gravimetric analysis,
and the mean of two determinations taken if their first
decimals agree. Now calculate the quantity of nitric acid
equivalent to the calcium monoxide, and compute with
how many cubic centimeters of water the solution pre-
pared will have to be diluted in order to contain 8.2
grammes of calcium nitrate in 1 liter.

To determine the absorption of phosphoric acid, mono-
calcium prosphate (CaH,,[ PO,],+ H,O) is very suitably
used, this soluble phosphorus salt being introduced into
the soil by the superphosphates of commerce. or its
preparation Fesca proposes the following method : Com-

148 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

pound a solution of commercial sodium phosphate with
glacial acetic acid, precipitate it with calcium chloride
solution, and wash the precipitate by decanting until the
wash water shows no reaction with silver nitrate. Then
bring the precipitate in a moist state into cold concen-
trated phosphoric acid until saturated. From the filtered
solution, in a heated room, the monocalcium phosphate
separates in crystals in 2 to 3 weeks. The crystals are
rinsed off with anhydrous ether, pressed between blotting
paper, and dried over sulphuric acid.

This salt being soluble without decomposition only in
a very dilute solution, Fesca made his absorbent experi-
ments with a ;7/59 atomic solution which contained in 1
liter of water 2.5 grammes of monocalcium phosphate
corresponding to 1.4 grammes of phosphoric acid (P,O,).

The coarser admixtures of the soil possessing no ab-
sorbent power, soil passed through a 0.5 millimeter sieve
is always used. .

For the determination of the absorption, 50 grammes
of the soil are left in contact with 200 cubic centimeters
of the normal solution for 48 hours, with frequent
shaking, at a uniform temperature of 62.6° F. The
soil is then allowed to settle, and after pouring the super-
natant clear solution through a dry filter, the substance,
the absorbed quantity of which is to be learned, is deter-
mined in 100 cubic centimeters of the filtrate. Experi-
ments have shown that in most cases it suffices to deter-
mine the absorbent power of the soil for potassium,
phosphoric acid, and nitrogen. In order to proceed as
uniformly as possible it is best to follow Fesca’s pro-
posal to use exactly 400 cubic centimeters of normal so-
lution for 100 grammes of substance. The absorption-

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 149

coefficient, 7. e., the quantity of the absorbed substance in
milligrammes is always referred to 100 grammes of air-
dry fine earth (less than 0.5 millimeter in diameter).

2. Determination of the absorption-coeficient according
to Knop.—The following method for the rapid deter-
mination of the absorption-coefficient has been proposed
by Knop. He always uses for the experiments air-dry
fine earth, by which he understands the portion of the
soil which has passed through a wire sieve with 400
meshes to the square centimeter. When using a sieve
with round holes, the soil passed through holes 0.5 milli-
meter in diameter, though somewhat coarser than the
material used by Knop, will, according to Fesca, be
found suitable for the experiment.

In case the soil is very binding it is boiled with water
and passed through a sieve with holes 0.5 millimeter in
diameter with the aid of a stiff brush. For the experi-
ment use 50 or 100 grammes of the perfectly air-dry fine
earth and add 5 or 10 grammes of elutriated powdered
chalk. Pour over this mixture in a cylindrical vessel,
which can be effectually closed, a solution of ammonium
chloride so prepared that one cubic centimeter of it on
being decomposed with sodium bromide evolves exactly
1 cubic centimeter of nitrogen (in the normal state).
Such a solution is obtained by dissolving exactly 5
grammes of freshly sublimed sal ammoniac in 1040 cubic
centimeters of water of 63.5° F. Now add to 50
grammes of fine earth 100, or to 100 grammes of fine
earth, 200 cubic centimeters of this sal ammoniac solu-
tion and let the soil remain in contact with it, with fre-
quent shaking, for 48 hours. Then allow the soil to
settle and pour the supernatant clear fluid through a dry

150 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

filter. From the filtrate take quickly, by means of a
pipette, 20 or 40 cubic centimeters, and, after adding one
drop of pure hydrochloric acid, evaporate nearly to dry-
ness in a small porcelain dish upon the water-bath.
Rinse the sal ammoniac remaining in the porcelain dish
with 10 cubic centimeters of water into one of the divis-
ions of the developing flask of the Knop-Wagner azot-
ometer, decompose it with 50 cubic centimeters of bro-
mine lye, and determine the nitrogen volumetrically.
The volume of nitrogen read off is, with due considera-
tion of the tension of the aqueous vapor, the height of
the barometer, and the temperature, calculated to the
normal condition, and the nitrogen which remains ab-
sorbed in the 60 cubie centimeters of fluid (see p. 118
et seq.) added. In case the soil possesses no absorption, 20
or 40 cubic centimeters of nitrogen must be obtained.
Knop understands by absorption the loss of nitrogen
which 200 cubic centimeters of sal ammoniac solution
suffer when in contact with 100 grammes of soil.
Hence, the cubic centimeters of nitrogen determined in
the azotometer must be deducted from the number of
cubie centimeters of sal ammoniac solution used, and the
difference calculated to 100 grammes of air-dry soil less
than 0.5 millimeter in diameter.

For judging the fertility of a soil the determination of
Knop’s absorption-coefficient is of great value, since,
though in exceptional cases an entirely unproductive soil
may happen to possess great absorption, a soil with slight
absorption can neyer be classed with very fertile soils.
Knop considers absorptions of from 0 to 5 degrees as
insufficient, of from 5 to 10 as sufficient, while those of

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. Lok

from 10 to 10 higher degrees progressively increase the
value of the soil.

In the valuation of the soil by absorption, it must
always be borne in mind that it would be entirely wrong
to judge the soil by this property alone, since a single
property favorable for the soil may, as regards its value,
be entirely nullified by others exerting an unfavorable in-
fluence.

C. Behavior of the soil towards water. 1. The power
of retaining moisture in the soil—The amount of moisture
retained by a soil is generally in direct ratio to its con-
tents of organic matter and its state of division. A
proper degree of fineness in the particles of the soil is
very important to obtain, especially if it is subjected to
drought. During dry weather plants require a soil that
is both retentive and absorptive of atmospheric moisture,
and that soil which has this faculty will evidently raise
a more vigorous crop than one without it. Regarding
this condition of retaining moisture, the materials which
are most influential in soils may be arranged in the fol-
lowing order: Organic matter, marls, clays, loams, and
sands. or the determination of the power of the soil
to retain moisture the following methods may be men-
tioned :—

a. By experiments in the laboratory.—Pour over 100
grammes of the air-dry fine soil 100 cubic centimeters
of distilled water and effect the thorough saturation of the
soil by stirring with a glass rod. Now rinse the soil
with 100 cubic centimeters of water, admitted from a
pipette, upon a filter saturated with water. The water
running off is caught in a graduated cylinder of 200
cubic centimeters capacity, and when nothing more drips

152 THE EXAMINATION OF SOIIS.

off, the quantity is read off in cubie centimeters. The
difference between the quantity of water used (200 cubic
centimeters) and that caught corresponds to the quantity
of water retained by the soil. This behavior of the soil,
which corresponds to its comparatively highest degree
of looseness, has been designated the greatest or full
capacity for water. It is caleulated for 100 parts by
weight, as well as for one liter of the soil dried at
212° F.

This full capacity may also be determined as follows:
Stir up 100 grammes of the air-dry soil (less than 2
millimeters in diameter) in the above-mentioned manner
with any desired quantity of water in excess, and bring
the whole with the aid of a wash-bottle into a previously
weighed funnel in the point of which a small filter is in-
serted. Cover the funnel with a watch crystal, and
when, after standing for some time, no more water drips
off, weigh it. Both these methods are quite suitable for
very pervious soils, but with very clayey or humus soils
have the disadvantage that the dripping off of water
already ceases when the mass in the filter is still in
a thinly-pasty condition.

Since, in order to obtain accurate comparable results,
it is necessary for the samples of soil to be always in the
same state of looseness, a method for laboratory experi-
ments has been proposed by which this is sought to be
attained as nearly as possible. For this purpose cylin-
drical tubes of zine sheet (Fig. 23), exactly 16 centi-
meters long and 4 centimeters in diameter, are used.
Their volume would, therefore, be 201.06 cubic centi-
meters. The bottom of the tube consists of fine nickel wire
gauze. Below the gauze a piece of zinc tube perforated

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 1653

on the sides is soldered over it. Before use a piece of
moistened fine linen is placed upon the wire gauze
bottom, and after tying a piece of rubber over the lower
end, the lower portion of the cylinder is filled with water

up to the gauze bottom. Now pour 200 cubic centimeters
of water of 60.8° F. into the cylinder and make.a mark
exactly over the level of the water. The edge of zine
sheet above this mark is filed off, so that the cylinder
with the linen rag has a capacity of exactly 200 cubic
centimeters, and may, at the same time, be used for the
determination of the volume weight of the soil. After
placing the moist linen rag in the cylinder the latter is
first weighed and then filled, constantly tapping it against
a soft support, with the uniformly divided air-dry soil.
The soil is finally accurately leveled with a knife. The
cylinder is again weighed and then placed in a glass dish
containing water, so that the gauze bottom dips about 4
to 5 millimeters in the water. Over several tubes thus
prepared a heavy glass bell shutting out the air is placed.
Tn this manner the soil is then allowed to absorb water
from below until saturated. According to the condition
of the soil, its saturation with moisture will be observed
on the surface ina longer or shorter time. The cylinders
are allowed to remain under the glass bell until after

154 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. ,

repeated weighing, for which purpose they are placed in
a shallow porcelain dish, they show an approximately
constant weight. In weighing the temperature and
height of the barometer are to be observed. The in-
crease in weight corresponds to the total quantity of
water absorbed which can be directly calculated for the
volume of soil.

Another method © corresponding still more to the
natural conditions has been used by A. Mayer. He
uses two glass tubes 0.75 and 0.25 meter long, and 2
centimeters in diameter. The upper shorter end is con-
nected with the longer by a short rubber tube. The
lower end of the long tube is closed by tying a piece of
linen over it. The tubes are then filled with air-dry
fine soil, they being gently tapped against a soft support
during the operation. Then pour enough water upon
the soil transitorily to establish its full capacity for
water. By now waiting for some time the column of
water sinks down. When no more water drips off be-
low, the rubber tube is disconnected, and on this place a
sufficient quantity of soil is taken out, quickly weighed,
and the water retained by it determined by drying at
212° F. With the assistance of the apparent specific
gravity (p. 145), the capacity for water of the weight of
soil can be calculated to the volume of soil. To the
smallest quantity of water retained by the soil thus
obtained, Mayer has applied the term absolute capacity
for water. On account of their very slight permea-
bility this method cannot be used with very clayey
soils.

b. Determination of the water capacity of the soil in its
natural bed in the open field—The following process was

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 15a

devised by R. Heinrich, and deserves to be preferred to
the experiments in the laboratory. To saturate the soil
in its natural bed in the field, a round sheet-metal cylin-
der, 20 cubic centimeters in diameter and 40 centimeters
long, is used. The lower end of the cylinder consisting
of strong sheet iron is sharpened and forced into the soil
by means of the feet. For this purpose the cylinder is
on both sides provided with a ledge, while to diminish
the fall of the water to be poured in and not to mechan-
ically reduce the soil to mud, a fine sieve is placed in the
upper portion of the cylinder. When the cylinder has
been firmly forced into the soil so that no water can run
out on the side, it is entirely filled with water. The
water is then allowed to soak into the soil, the latter
being covered with a board or sheet of parchment paper
to protect it against evaporation and other influences.
Sample taking is effected after 18 to 24 hours, since only
then, according to Heinrich’s experiments, the quantity
of water retained remains constant for some time. After
removing the cylinder, dig out with a spade the soil up
to the centre of the spot terminated by the cylinder,
using, however, the precaution of gently forcing the
surface of the spade away from the sample to be taken.
The uppermost layer of soil, from 2 to 4 centimeters
thick, is removed, a piece cut out of the centre with a
knife, brought into a powder flask of known weight and
hermetically closed. The quantity of water which the
soil retains is determined by continuous drying at 212°
I’. of the weighed sample in the flask and calculated to
100 grammes as well as to 1 liter of soil. Small stones
over 0.5 centimeter in diameter contained in the sample
are later on sorted out and their weight deducted. The

156 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

small quantity of water adhering to these stones need
not be noticed.

The method just described has later on been modified
by Heinrich so that the soil is lifted out to the sub-soil
and the cylinder placed upon the sub-soil. The top soil
is then replaced in its former position outside the sheet-
metal cylinder, while the rest of the soil is rubbed through
the sieve with as little water as possible, so that all the
coarser stones remain behind. For the determination of
water the soil is, after about 24 hours, lifted out with a
gouge-bit, the lower opening of which corresponds to a
surface of 1 square centimeter.

2. The evaporating power of the soil_—In determining
the evaporating power of the soil, it must also be sought
to imitate as closely as possible the natural conditions by
exposing a sufficiently thick layer of soil to the alterna-
ting influence of the direct rays of the sun and to the
shade. It is best to use for this purpose the cylindrical zine
tubes with sieve bottoms described on p. 152. According
to E. Wolff, they are surrounded with a narrow shell of
thick paste-board, and, after being filled with soil in a
state of full water capacity, are placed alongside each
other in a small wooden box whose shiftable lid is pro-
vided with apertures corresponding to the diameter of
the cylinders, so that the lateral radiation of the sun is en-
tirely shut out. This box is placed in the open air, the
zinc tubes being taken from the paste-board shells every
24 hours and their decrease determined by weighing,
whereby the temperature of the surrounding air, its
moisture, the height of the barometer at the time being,
and the cloudy or cloudless state of the sky have to be
noted. Since the weight of the air-dry soil used, as well

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. Lad

as the largest quantity of water retained by it, is
known, the evaporating capacity can be given either in
per cent. of the substance dried at 212° F., or in per
cent. of the total quantity of water absorbed.

3. The filtrating power of the soil_—By the filtrating
power of the soil is understood its property of allowing the
water to percolate in a longer or shorter time. To de-
termine this, a square zinc box 25 centimeters high and
3 centimeters wide, provided below with a funnel-
shaped piece with discharge-pipe, is, according to E.
Wolff, employed. The discharge-pipe of the funnel-
shaped piece is closed with cotton, projecting somewhat
from the pipe. The funnel-shaped piece is filled with
coarse quartz sand. The cotton and sand are saturated
with water, when the apparatus is weighed. Now bring
into the box, tapping it constantly against a soft support,
a layer of air-dry soil 16 centimeters thick, and weigh.
Then pour water over the soil and again weigh the box
when no more dripping off takes place. Thus the full
water capacity is obtained. :

Now pour upon the soil, without stirring it up, a layer
of water 8 centimeters deep and determine how much
time it takes until no more dripping off from the dis-
charge-pipe takes place. The filtering capacity of this
layer of soil 16 centimeters thick, and in a state of full
water capacity for a column of water 8 centimeters high,
is given in feet. Since, however, in repeating the ex-
periment more time is almost always consumed in filter-
ing than in the first trial, the experiment has to be repeated
five or six times, and the mean of the results taken.
For very clayey soils this method is not available, since

158 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

the water poured upon the soil remains standing without
running: off.

The experiment may also be made by each time allow-
ing exactly 50 centimeters to drop into a graduated
cylinder and noting the time thereby consumed.

4. Capillary attraction of the soil_—To determine the
capillary attraction by experiment, the lower ends of

glass tubes each 100 centimeters long and 2 centimeters
in diameter, are closed with fine muslin by drawing a
rubber ring over them, D (Fig. 24). Fill the tubes,
tapping them gently, with air-dry fine soil (less than 2
millimeters in diameter), and insert them 1 to 2 centi-

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 159

metres deep in a glass dish, B (Fig. 24), containing
water. It is recommended to use for the experiment
the stand A (Fig. 24), which is arranged for ten tubes,
C, which, in order to keep them suspended in the water,
are above secured by rubber rings, E.

With the aid of a meter rule it is now ascertained
how much time the fluid consumes in ascending 20, 30,
40, 50, 60, 70 centimeters, and in what time the maxi-
mum ascent is reached. The water absorbed by the soil
from the glass dish B must constantly be replaced.

The experiment may also be made by measuring the
heights to which the fluid has risen in 24, 48, 72, 96,
120 hours.

When the experiment is finished, it is also of interest
to cut up the tubes into pieces 1 decimeter long, and to
separately determine the content of water in them. It
may here be remarked that the tubes of 100 centimeters
length may also be used for the purpose of determining
how deeply and rapidly a column of water of determined
height (for instance, 10 centimeters) penetrates from above
into the air-dry soil.

D. Behavior of the soil towards gases. 1. The absor-
bent capacity of the soil for aqueous vapor.—To determine
the saturation-degree of the soil in a space filled with
aqueous vapors, bring 10 grammes of the air-dry soil
into a shallow zine box with a bottom-surface of 25
square centimeters, spreading it out as uniformly as
possible. After weighing the box with the soil, place
another weighed box of the same size, but empty, to-
gether with the first, upon a tripod under a glass bell
dipping in water. In the glass bell hang a thermo-
meter, and at each weighing read off the temperature.

160 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

After 24 hours weigh the zine box filled with soil, as
well as the empty one, and deduct the increase in weight
of the latter from the increase in weight of the former.
Repeat the weighings at intervals of 24 hours, until,
with the same conditions of temperature, an approxi-
mately constant weight is obtained. The moisture
retained is calculated for 100 grammes of the soil dried
at 212° I*., and designated as the absorbent capacity for
aqueous vapor.

2. The absorbent power of the soil for the oxygen of the
atmospheric air.—The absorbent power of the soil for
oxygen is traceable to chemical and physical causes. Its
fixation chemically is effected by the oxidation of ferrous
oxide combinations, metallic sulphides, and humus sub-
stances which may be present in the soil. The physical
absorption is dependent on the condensation of the gas
upon the surface of the particles of soil. The chemical
fixation of the oxygen preponderates by far, and from it
a judgment can frequently be formed regarding the con-
dition of the humus substances, they being found in the
soil in a more or less readily decomposable state corre-
sponding to the greater or smaller absorption of oxygen.
According to W. Wolf, 50 or 100 grammes of soil are
compounded with so much distilled water that the soil
to be examined contains 20 per cent. of it. The soil is
enclosed, together with an accurately measured quantity
of air, in bottles of 500 centimeters capacity, and the
change in the volume of air in from 8 to 14 days ob-
served, the quantity of carbonic acid formed in place
of the oxygen, which has disappeared, being at the same
time determined,

If simply the absorption-coefficient of the soil for

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 161

oxygen is to be determined, thoroughly moisten, accord-
ing to F. Schulze, 25 grammes of soil in a small flask
with quite concentrated potash lye, connect the flask
with an azotometer in which a determined volume of air
is shut off by mercury and repeatedly shake the flask
during the experiment. The decrease (after one to four
days) in the volume of air contained in the entire
apparatus gives the quantity of oxygen absorbed.

G. Ammon, in his article “Untersuchungen iiber
das Condensationsvermégen der Bodenkonstituenten fiir
Gas,”* sums up the most interesting results of his ex-
periments as follows :—

1, The condensation of the gases by the soil is de-
pendent on physical and chemical processes.

2. The absorption of gas in the soil brought about
by chemical processes is of greater moment than that
caused by surface attraction. The former is principally
effected by the ferric oxide and next by the humus sub-
stances.

3. The gases in being condensed by the soil are either
absorbed as such, or they suffer thereby chemical
changes.

4. The gases are generally condensed in a higher de-
gree the more readily, they otherwise change their aggre-
gate state and the more readily they are decomposed.

5. The condensation of the gases in the soil is the
greater, the finer, under otherwise equal conditions, the
particles of soil are.

6. The largest quantities of gases are condensed by
the soil at a temperature between zero and 10° C., while

* Wollny, Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der Agrikultur-Physik.
Band II., 1879.
ial

162 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

from that point on, the quantity of gases absorbed de-
creases with the rise and fall of temperature.

3. The ventilating power of the soil_—The ventilating
powér of a soil, 7. e., the greater or smaller resistance
opposed by different soils in a wet state to the passage
of the air, has been justly considered, by R. Heinrich,
as a very important property for judging of it. Whether
drainage can be carried out in a field or not is solely
dependent, it is claimed, on this property.

The experiment is made, according to Heinrich, as
follows: After the soil has been saturated by means of
the sheet cylinder described on p. 155, under determina-
tion of the water capacity in the open field, and a con-
stant water capacity has been obtained, a square box o
strong zine sheet C (Fig. 25), 100 square centimeters in
cross-section and 20 centimeters high, is 10 centimeters
deep sunk into the soil. On the outside of the box, 10
centimeters from the bottom, a strip of zine sheet, 5 cen-
timeters wide, is soldered on at a right angle, so that by
this means the box can be forced by the foot into the
soil to the above-mentioned depth, and, therefore, in-
closes a cube of earth of 1000 cubic centimeters. The
portion of the box above the soil serves as an air-
chamber and is connected with the flask B, of ten liters
capacity, by a tube soldered on, on the side. By the ad-
mission of water by means of a siphon from the flask A,
standing at a higher level, into the flask B, the air in the
latter is compressed and forced through the soil. The
flask B is provided with a manometer, D, by which the
air-pressure can be measured. By raising or lowering
the water reservoir A, the air-pressure can be increased
or decreased at will.

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 163

In making the experiment, water is allowed to flow
in until the manometer shows the desired pressure.
Then shut off the water by closing the elip and wait one
or two minutes. If the pressure decreases during this

Fig. 25.

|
ill a

tim admit more water until the first pressure has been
again attained. By continuing the experiment in this
manner, the time required to force 10 liters of air, at a
determined height of the manometer, through 1 liter of
soil is ascertained.

E. Behavior of the soil towards heat. 1. Determina-
tion of the heat-absorbent power of the soil.—A cylindrical
glass vat 4 centimeters high and 16 centimeters in
diameter, covered outside with thick asbestos pasteboard,
is entirely filled with air-dry fine soil, then placed in a
wooden box the lid of which is provided with an aper-
ture corresponding to the cross-section of the glass vat

164 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

and exposed for 6 hours to the direct rays of the sun.

sy a maximum thermometer, imbedded 1 centimeter
deep in the soil, the temperature to which the soil during
this time has been heated is then ascertained. The ex-
periment is repeated under as equal conditions as pos-
sible by imbedding the thermometer 2, 3 and + centime-
ters deep and determining the maximum temperature to
which the soil has been heated.

The heating capacity of a soil is dependent on various
conditions. The specific heat of the soils, 7. e., their dif-
ferent behavior regarding the absorption of varying
quantities of heat units to increase their temperature 1°
C., will have to be taken into consideration, further their
color and their more or less inclined position.

With soils saturated with moisture as found in the
field, their greater or smaller content of water is, how-
ever, of the greatest importance as regards the absorp-
tion of heat. While 1 kilogramme of water requires 100
units of heat to be raised 1° C., an equal weight of clay
requires only 17.8, and an equal weight of sand only 12.8
units of heat for the same increase in temperature. To
this, it must further be added, that a moist soil is con-
siderably cooled off by the evaporation taking place on
its surface. Hence, a field suffering from moisture may
always be designated as cold.

Investigations regarding the maximum and minimum
temperatures of the soil in a day, week or month are of
great value when the results are compared with the tem-
peratures of the air at the time being and referred to the
plant-production of the soil. It is best to use for this
purpose maximum and minimum thermometers accord-

PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 165

ing to the Six-Kapeller system, which are imbedded 1,
2, 5, 10 centimeters deep in the soil.

2. The heat-conducting power of the soil—The heat-
conducting power of the soil is determined by filling,
with constant tapping against a soft support, a thin
spherical glass flask of 1 liter capacity with air-dry fine
soil and at the same time fixing the bulb of a mercury
thermometer in the centre of the flask. The latter is
then brought into a drying chamber provided with a
gas-pressure regulator and heated to 212° F. Now
accurately observe the time required to heat the soil to
its centre from its original temperature to 212° F.

The experiment may also be made by heating the soil
in the same vessel to 212° F. and, determining, by the
thermometer sticking in the soil, the time required for
the soil to cool off to its initial temperature.

From his experiments Wollny has deduced the follow-
ing general results :—

1. During the warmer season of the year and with
warm weather, a compact soil is on an average warmer
than a loose soil.

2. During the colder seasons of the year (spring and
fall), and also in the warmer season, wheneyer there is a
sudden and considerable fall in the temperature, a com-
pact soil is, on an average, colder than a loose soil.

3. During the warmer season of the year, and with
warm weather, a compact soil is considerably warmer
during the day, but commonly colder during the night
than a loose soil.

4. At the time of the daily maximum of the tempera-
ture of the soil the difference mentioned under 1 is
greatest, but at the time of the daily minimum, either

166 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

very small or an equalization or even an inverse ratio
takes place.

5. In a compact soil the variations in temperature are
considerably greater than in a loose soil.

6. The causes of the above-mentioned phenomena
are due to the better heat-conducting power of a com-
pact soil as compared with a loose soil.

F. Cohesion and adhesion of the soil—To determine
the degree of firmness with which the particles of soil
in a dry state cohere together, knead, according to the
method proposed by Schiibler, the soil together with
water and shape the mixture in a mould to rods 5 centi-
meters long and 1 centimeter wide. After completely
drying the rods in the air, the pressure required to cut
them through is determined by placing weights upon a
suitable apparatus provided below with a dull edge.

Another method to determine the coherence of the
soil in a wet state was devised by R. Heinrich. The
soil is uniformly saturated with water so that the con-
tent of water amounts to exactly 50 per cent. of the
highest water-capacity of the experiment in the labora-
tory. The soil is then pressed between two sheet-iron
plates, one side of which is in the centre provided with
a hook. The layer of soil between the sheet-iron plates
should be from 5 to 10 centimeters. The upper plate
is then suspended from a thread, while to the lower a
small basket is secured, into which sand in small portions
is introduced until the column of soil tears apart. The
plate torn away, together with the basket and the ad-
hering soil, is then weighed. Their weight corresponds
to the force required to break up the coherence of a layer
of earth one decimeter in cross-section. ‘This method

GENERAL RULES FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. 167

is, of course, only available for soils in which the ad-
hesion to the iron plate is greater than the coherence of
the soil.

Regarding the adhesion of moist soils to iron and
wood, the sample to be examined is, according to Hein-
rich’s directions, also moistened with 50 per cent. of
water of its highest water capacity, and after bringing it
into a larger vessel, the surface of the soil is leveled as
much as possible. A plate of sheet-iron or beech wood
one square decimeter in cross-section is then pressed
firmly upon the soil, so that a complete contact of the
soil with the metal or wood takes place. To the hook
of the plate is fastened a cord which runs over a pulley
and carries a small basket. The latter is loaded with
sand until the plate tears loose from the soil. The
force required to overcome the adhesion corresponds to
the weight of the basket and of the portion of cord
reaching to the summit of the pulley, less the weight of
the plate torn off and the other end of the cord.

x
GENERAL RULES FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS.

Iv is, of course, self-evident that in the examination
of determined varieties of soil not all the methods dis-
cussed in the preceding sections will need to be employed.
The course of soil-analysis cannot be regulated accord-
ing to a pattern with fixed limits, but must, in each
case, be adapted to the questions to be decided. How-
ever, in order to obtain comparable results, it is necessary

168 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS.

to agree on certain fixed rules. Proceeding from the
point of view that the chief purpose of soil-analysis is
to be of service to agriculture and forestry, the general
rules to be applied to the examination of soils and the
question which deserves special consideration shall here
be briefly summed up :—

1. The profile of the entire soil, as far as of importance
for the nourishment of plants, must be included in the
examination. This, in most cases, will embrace the top-
soil and the more shallow and deeper subsoils.

2. Whenever possible, accurate analyses by graining
with the round-hole sieve and elutriating with Schoene’s
apparatus should be executed with the three abovye-
mentioned layers of soil, and always with the top-soil if
not derived from moor-soil. From such analyses im-
portant conclusions regarding the physical properties of
the top-soil and subsoil can be drawn, and a thorough
knowledge of the mechanical mixture of the soil is of
great value for judging it. Jor the mechanical analysis
the-air-dry total soil is to be used.

3. For judging the subsoil, it is further of import-
ance to determine its content of carbonate of lime, as
well as of clay, the latter by disintegration of the clayey
particles, less than 0.5 millimeter in diameter, with sul-
phurie acid in the closed tube (p. 83).

4, If the layers of the subsoil are to be utilized for
meliorating purposes, they must be examined as to the
substances useful and injurious to the growth of plants
contained in them. Of the useful substances, it will
be primarily necessary to determine the content of car-
bonate of lime and phosphoric acid, and of the injurious

GENERAL RULES FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. 169

ones, the presence of ferrous sulphate, free sulphuric
acid, and iron disulphide.

5. In all chemical and physical examinations of the
top-soil, fine soil less than 2 millimeters in diameter,
dried at 212° F., is to be used, and the results must be
referred to it. ;

6. In regard to the separation of the soil-constituents,
the content of lime, clay, humus, and sand in the fine
soil of the top-soil, dried at 212° F., is to be determined.

7. Exclusive of moor-soils, the determination of
nitrogen is only to be executed with top-soils.

8. For the determination of the plant-nourishing
substances the extraction with boiling concentrated sul-
phuric acid is preferably to be used, and, as a rule, only
the top-soil (fine soil less than 2 millimeters in diameter)
need to be considered. In making the experiment,
calcareous earth, magnesia, potash, phosphoric acid, and
sulphuric acid must first of all be determined. How-
ever, the substances not belonging to the actual plant-
nourishing substances, such as silica, alumina, ferric
oxide, oxide of manganese, and sodium must also be
taken into consideration.

9. For the determination of Knop’s absorption-
coefficient, air-dry fine earth less than 0.5 millimeter in
diameter is to be used. The experiments can only be
executed with top-soils, for the judging of which they
are of great importance.

10. Of the physical examinations the water capacity
(if possible in the open field) and the capillary attraction
are chiefly to be considered.

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INDEX.

BSORBENT power of the soil,
testing the, 147-149
Absorption-coefticient,
of, 148, 149
determination of the, 149
-151
Acid, carbonic, determination of, by
direct weigh-
ing, 64-67
of the, by weigh-
ing from the
loss, 62-64
volumetric measurement
of the, 56-61
fluoric, disintegration with,
100, 101
free sulphuric,ferrous sulphate
and iron disulphide, deter-
mination of the, 140-144
hydrochloric, extraction of the
soil with, 150-155
nitric, determination of, 110-
123

phosphoric, absorption of, 147,
148

definition

Finkener’s method of de-
termining, 127-129
precipitation of the, with
ammonium molybdate,
126, 127
sulphuric, determination of,
109, 110
disintegration with, 85-87
Acids, determination of the, in the
aqueous extract, 108-
123
free humic, proof of the
presence of, in the soil,
139, 140
Adhesion and cohesion of the soil,
166, 167
Alkali soils, taking specimens of,
29 ;

Alluvium, formation of, 20
Alumina, separation of the ferric
oxide, from the, 87-94
Ammonia, determination of the, in
the soil, 137-159
Ammon, G., summary of his ex-
periments, 161, 162
Ammonium chloride, determina-
tion of, 117, 118
molybdate, precipitation of the
phosphoric acid with, 126,
127
nitrate, determination of the
carbonate of calcium and
magnesium, by boiling with,
67-72
phospho-molybdate, determi-
nation of the phosphoric
acid as, 127-129
Analyses, scheme of a table for, 45,
46
Analysis, elementary, determina-
tion of the carbon of the
humus substances, by, 78-
81
silt, 34-55
Aqueous extract, determination of
the acids in
the, 108-125
of the bases in
the, 105-108
vapor, absorbent capacity of
the soil for, 159, 160
table for finding the ten-
sion of, 116

ASES, determination of the, in
the aqueous extract, 103-108
Behavior of the soil towards water,
151-159
Bennigsen’s elutriating flask, 34
Blast lamp, 71

172

Boiling flask, Erlenmeyer, 151

Bremen, methods used in the Prus- |

sian moor experimental station |
at, 140-145

Bromine, disintegration with, 143, |

144

Cre and magnesium, car- |

bonate of, determination of,
67-72
carbonate or magnesium car-
bonate, determination of the
content of, 56-72
Capillary attraction of the soil, 158,
159
Carbon, absorption of by the plant,
94

Carbon of the humus substances,
determination of the, 78-81
Carbonate, calcium or magnesium,
determination of the content
of, 56-72
of calcium and magnesium,
determination of, 67-72
sodium, disintegration with,
99, 100
Carbonic acid, determination of, by
direct weigh-
ing, 64-67
of the, by weigh-
ing, from the
loss, 62-64
Finkener’s table for cal-
culating, 59-61
volumetric measurement
of the, 56-61
Chlorine, determination of, 108,
109
Classification of soils, 21-23
Clay, calculation of the content of,
in the total soil, 92-94
determination of the content
of, 82-94
importance of, as a soil-con-
stituent, 22, 23
soils, 21
Cohesion and adhesion of the soil,
166, 167
Combustion furnace, 79

ENUDATION of the soil, 19, 20
Derivation and formation of
the soil, 17-20

INDEX.

| Determination of the plant-nour-
ishing substances, 101-159
of the soil-constituents, 56-101
of the substances in the soil
injurious to the growth of
plants, 159-144
of various properties of the
soil, 144-167
Dietrich’s table for the absorption
of nitrogen, 122
Drying stand, Finkener’s, 128
stove, 70, 73-75

ARTH, fine, 33
superficial formation of the
crust of the, 17
Elementary composition of the
soil, determination of the, 99-
101
Elements found in plants, 26
to be considered in soil-analy-
sis, 26
Elutriating apparatus, 52-55
Hilgard’s, 52-55
Noebel’s, 34-36
Schoene’s, 36-52
cylinder, Kuebn’s, 3+
process, precautions to be ob-
served in the, 54, 55
products obtained by the,
50, 51
space, cylindrical, determina-
tion of the diameter of the}
40
velocities, products of granu-
lation corresponding to, 44
velocity, formulas for caleu-
lating the, 41-44
Elutriation and granulation, cal-
culating and entering the
products of, 51, 52
definition of velocity of, 36
products of, obtained with
Noebel’s apparatus, 36
with distilled water, apparatus
for, 47-52
Elutriator, Schoene’s, 37, 38
Erlenmeyer boiling flask, 151
Evaporating power of the soil, 156,
157

\ERRIC oxide, separation of the,
from the alumina, 87-94

INDEX.

Ferrous oxide, determination of
the iron as, 87-90
sulphate, free sulphuric acid
and iron disulphide, deter-
mination of the, 140-144
Fesca, definition of fine soil by, 33
Filters, weighed, preparation of,
106
Filtrating power of the soil, 157,
158
Fine earth, 35
soil, 35
Finkener’s apparatus, 64-67
drying stand, 128
method of determining phos-
phorie acid, 127-129
tables for calculating the car-
bonic acid, 59-61
Fluids, specifically heavy, 96
Fluorie acid, disintegration with,
100, 101
Forchhammer’s theory of the form-
ation of kaolin, 19
Formation and derivation of the
soil, 17-20
Formulas for calculating the elu-
triating velocity, 41-44
Funnel, hot water, 68
Furnace, combustion, 79
tubular, 84

ASES, behavior of the soil to-
wards, 159-163

"Gein, 72

Geissler potash apparatus, 65

General rules for soil-analysis, 167—
169

Goldschmidt’s specifically heavy
fluid, 95

Granulating with the sieve, 31-34

Granulation and elutriation, cal-
culating and entering the pro-
ducts of, 51, 52

AZARD’S method of determi-
ning the content of quartz,
96-99

Heat-absorbent power of the soil,
163-165

Heat, behavior of the soil towards,
163-166

Heat-conducting power of the soil,
165, 166

173

Heavy soils, definition of, 25
Heinrich’s method of determining
the adhesion of
soils, 167
of determining the
coherence of the
soil, 166, 167
of determining the
water capacity of

the soil in the
open field, 155,
156

of testing the ven-
tilating power of
the soil, 162, 163
Hilgard’s elutriating apparatus,
52-55 ’
Hot-water funnel, 68
Humie acids, free, proof of the
presence of, in the soil, 139, 140
Humus, acid, 72
definition of, 72
determination of the, by igni-
tion, 81, 82
neutral, 72
soils, 2
substances, determination of,
72-82
of the carbon
of the, 78-
81
Hydrochloric acid, extraction of
the soil with, 130-133

NORGANIC combinations, ele-
ments for the formation of,
26
substances in plants, 26
Iron, determination of the, as fer-
rous oxide, 87-90
disulphide, ferrous sulphate,
and free sulphuric acid, de-
termination of the, 140-144

ree eee a process of,
19

Kjeldahl’s method of determining
nitrogen, 155-135

Knop, definition of fine earth and
fine soil by, 35

Knop’s elutriating cylinder, 34

method for the determination
of humus, 73-78

174

Knop’s method of determining the |

absorption-coeflicient, 149-151
Knop-Wagner azotometer, deter-
mination of the nitrogen, by the,
118-125
Kuehn’s elutriating cylinder, 34

ABORATORY, experiments to
determine the power of the
soil to retain moisture, in the,
151-154

Laufer’s method of obtaining smal]

grains, 45

Liburnau, Lorenz yon, system of
soil classification of, 21

Light soils, definition of, 28

Lime soils, 21

Loam soils, 21

Loams, light and heavy, 28

AGNESIUM carbonate or eal-
cium carbonate, determina-
tion of the content of, 56-
72
pyrophosphate, weighing the
phosphoric acid as, 126, 127
Marl soils, 21
Mayer’s method of determining
the power of the soil to retain
moisture, 154
Mechanical soil-analysis, 31-55
Minerals contained in rocks, trans-
formation of, 18, 19
table of specific gravities of, 96
Mohr’s apparatus, 62-64
Monocalcium phosphate, prepara-
tion of, 147, 148
Muencke, R., drying chamber, de-
vised by, 70, 73-75

ITRIC acid, determination of,
110-125
Nitrogen, determination of the,
by combustion with
soda-lime, 135-157
of the, by the Knop-
Wagner azotome-
ter, 118-123
of the total, in
soil, 155-157
Dietrich’s table for the absorp-
tion of, 122

the

INDEX.

Nitrogen, Kjeldahl’s method of de-
termining, 135-135

Noebel’s elutriating apparatus, 34—
36

Normal solutions, preparation of,
147

Nourishing substanees, behavior
of the soil towards, 146-151

BJECT of soil-analysis, 24-
27
Organic combinations, elements for
the formation of, 26
in plants, 25, 26
Orth’s auxiliary cylinder, 45
Oxide, ferric, separation of the,
from the alumina, 87-94
Oxygen, absorbent power of the
soil for, 160, 161

EAT, definition of, 72
special method in the exami-
nation of, 123
Phosphate monocalcium, prepara-
tion of, 147, 148
Phosphoric acid, absorption of,
147, 148
determination of
the, as ammo-
nium phospho-
molybdate, 127-
129
Finkener’s method
of determining,
127-129
precipitation of
the, with ammo-
nium molybdate,
126, 127
Plant, absorption of carbon by the,
24
elementary substances of the,
25, 26
Plant-nourishing substances, de-
termination of the, 101-139.
Plants, content of water in, 25
determination of some import-
ant substances for the
nourishment of, 153-159
of the substances in the
soil injurious to the
growth of, 159-144
elements found in, 26

INDEX.

175

Plants, inorganic substances in, 26 | Soda-lime, determination of the

organic combinations in, 25, 26
Porosity of the soil, 145 ,146
Potash apparatus, Geissler, 65
Potassium permanganate solution,

determination of
the iron by titra-
tion with, 87-90
solution, standard-
izing of the, 90-
92
Preparatory labors for soil-analy-
sis, 28-31
Prussian moor experimental sta-
tion at Bremen, methods used
in the, 140-148

UARTZ, determination of the
content of, 96-99

OCKS, disintegration of, 17, 18
Rohrbach’s specifically heavy
fluid, 96
Rules, general for soil-analysis,
167-169

ALT, common, determination of
content of, in the soil, 140
Salts suitable for testing the ab-
sorbent power of the soil, 147
Salty soils, taking specimens of, 29
Sand, determination of the con-

tent of, 94-96

petrographic determination of’

the coarser admixed parts
of, 94-96
soils, 21
Scheibler’s apparatus for the yolu-
metric measurement of carbonic
acid, 57
Schloesing’s method for the deter-
mination of the ammonia in the
soil, 158, 189
Schloesing - Schulze’s modified
method for the determination
of nitric acid, 111-116
Schoene and Wolff, E., definition
of fine earth by, 35
Schoene’s elutriating apparatus,
36-52
Sieve, granulating with the, 31-34
Silt-analysis, 34-55

nitrogen by combustion with,
155-187
Sodium carbonate, disintegration
with, 99, 100
Soil, absorbent capacity of the, for
aqueous vapor, 159, 160
power of the, for oxygen,
160, 161
Soil-analysis, execution of a com-
plete, 27
general rules for, 167-169
mechanical, 31-55
object of, 24-27
preparatory labors for, 28-31
Soil, behavior of, towards gases,
159-163
of the, towards heat, 163-
166
of the, towards nourishing
substances, 146-151
of the, towards water, 151-
159
calculation of the content of
clay in the total, 92-94
capillary attraction of the, 158,
159
characterization of the me-
chanical composition ofa, 32
coherence and adherence of
the, 166, 167
Soil-constituents, determination of
the, 56-101
Soil, denudation of the, 19, 20
derivation and formation of,
17-20
determination of the ammonia
in the, 157-139
of the content of common
salt in the, 140
of the elementary compo-
sition of the, 99-101
of the full capacity of the,
for water, 152
of the specific gravity of
the, 144, 145
of the substances in the,
injurious to the growth
of plants, 159-144
of the sulphur in the, 141-
145
of the total nitrogen in
the, 133-137
of the volume weight of
the, 145, 146

Soil, determination of the water

capacity of the, in the |

open field, 154-156
of various properties of
the, 144-167
drying and storing samples of,
31
evaporating power of the, 156,
157
extraction of the, with car-
*bonated water, 125-150
of the, with cold, distilled
water, 102- 123
of the, with hydrochloric
acid, 130-133
Soil-extractions, determination of

plant-nourishing substances in, |

102-133
Soil, filtrating power of the, 157,
158
fine, 33
forces active in the formation
of the, 17
further treatment of the, ex-
tracted with carbonated
water, 129, 130
granulation of the, by the
sieve, 51-34
greatest or full capacity of the,
for water, 152
heat-absorbent power of the,
163-165
heat-conducting power of the,
165, 166

points to be noted regarding |

the, 30

porosity of the, 145, 146

proof of the presence of free
humie acids in the, 139, 140

testing the absorbent power of
the, 147-149

the apparent. specific gravity
of the, 145

transportation of, by water,
19, 20

value of the, for cultivation,
99

ventilating power of the, 162,
165

weight of the, 144-166

Soils, classification of, 21-23

clay, 21

definition of light and heavy, 23

deposited or transported, 21

derived, 21

INDEX.

Soils, humus, 21
lime, 21
loam, 21
marl, 21
primitive or original, 2L
sand, 21
stony, « 21
sub, 23
taking Bpecimens of, 28-30
top, 23
true, 23
Specific gravity of the soil, deter-
mination of the,
144, 145
the apparent, of the
soil, 145
Stony soils, 21
Sub-soil, importance of the exami-
nation of the, 168, 169
Sub-soils, 2¢
Sulphate, ferrous, free sulphuric
acid and iron disulphide, deter-
mination of the, 140-144
Sulphur, determination of the, in
the soil, 141-145
Sulphuric acid, determination of,
109, 110
disintegration
83-87
free, ferrous sulphate
and iron disulphide,
determination of
the, 140-144

with,

\ABLE, Dietrich’s, for the ab-
sor ‘ption of nitrogen, 122
for analyses, scheme of a, 45,
46
Finkener’s, for calculating
carbonie acid, 59-61
Thaer, Albrecht, system of soil
classification proposed by, 21
Thoulet’s specifically heavy fluid,
95
Tiemann’s method for the deter-
mination of nitric acid, 111-116
Top soils, 23
True soils, 235
Tubular furnace, 84

ELOCITIES, elutriating, pro-
ducts of granulation corres-
ponding to, 44

INDEX.

Lae

Velocity, elutriating, formulas for | Water, determination of the full

calculating the, 41-44
Ventilating power of the soil, 162,
163
Volume weight of the soil, deter-
mination of, 145, 146

ATER-BATH, covered, 106
Water, behavior of the soil
towards, 151-159
Water capacity of the soil, deter-
mination of the, in the open
field, 154-156

carbonated, extraction of the

soil with, 125-130

cold distilled, extraction of the
soil with, 102-123

content of, in plants, 25

capacity of the soil for, 152

distilled, apparatus for elutri-
ation with, 47-52

greatest or full capacity of the
soil for, 152

transportation of soil, by, 19,
20

Weathering, 17

Weight of the soil, 144-146

Wolf’s, W., method of determining
the nitrie acid, 116-118 g

Wolff, E., and Schoene, definition
of fine earth by, 35

Wolff’s, E., method for determin-
ing the evaporating power of the
soil, 156, 157

| Wollny’s deductions from his ex-

periments on the heat-conduct-
ing power of the soil, 165, 166

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GATE AaneGy UB

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for the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Navas
Archwect, Miner and Millwright. By OLivER BYRNE. 8vo., nearly

600 pages : : : : : : P : £4.56
CABINET MAKER’S ALBUM OF FURNITURE:
Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture.
Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates.
Oblong, 8ve. . Z ; : : : : 3 cs $3.50
CALLINGHAM.—Sign Writing and Giass Embossing:
A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By James
CALLINGHAM. £2mo. . 2 - ; 2 ; Z $1.50
CAMPIN.—A Practical Treatise on Mechanicai Engineering :
Comprising Metailurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work.
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam-
Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron
Ores. By Francis CAmPIN, C. E. To which are added, Observations
en the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces
used for Smoke Prevention; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R.
ARMSTRONG, C. E., and JoHN Bourne. Rules for Calculating the
Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel
cutting Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, Includ-
ing Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking and
Expansion; and the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EpE. 8vo.
Ulusweted with twenty-nine plates and 100 wood engravings $5.00

8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.

CAREY.—A Memoir of Henry C. Carey.
By Dr. WM. ELDER. With a portrait. 8vo., cloth : A YS
CAREY.—The Works of Henry C. Carey:
Harmony of Interests: Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer.
cial. 8vo. $1.5¢
Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey’ Sace ‘ Principles
of Social Science.” By KATE MCKEAN. I vol. I2mo. . $2.25

Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. $10.00
Past, Present and Future. §8vo. . : Z A $2.50
Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, eS, - . $10.00
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and
How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo. . - $2.00
The Unity of Law: As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical,
Social, Mental and Moral Science (1872). 8vo. , : $3.56

CLARK.—Tramways, their Construction and Working:
Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex-
haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse-
power, steam, heated water and compressed air; a description of the
varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex-
penses. By D. KINNEAR CLARK. Illustrated by over 200 wood
engravings, and thirteen folding plates. 2 vols. 8vo. - $12.50

COLBURN.—The Locomotive Engine:

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man-
agement. By ZERAH COLBURN. Illustrated. 12mo. - $1.00

TCOLLENS.—The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia.

By T. WHARTON COLLENS, author of « Humanics,” ‘The History
of Charity,” etc. 12mo. Paper cover, $1.00; Cloth : $1.25

COOLEY.—A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery:
Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles.
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formule. By ARNOLD J.
COOLEY. I2mo. : $1.5¢

COOPER.—A Treatise on the use of ‘Belting for the Trans-
mission of Power.

With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar-

ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fasten-

ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal-
culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and

Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management 0%

Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, tozether witn

chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and

Wood Frictional Gearing; on the Strength of Belting Leather; and

on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. By

OHN H. Coorer, M. E. 8vo. . $3.50

CRAIK.—The Practical American Millwright and Mi Her.

By Davip Crark, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en-
g”avings and two folding plates. 8vo. . oy Be $5.06

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE. %

-_ oo

CREW .—A Practical Treatise on Petroleum:
Comprising its Origin, Geology, Geographical Distribution, History,
Chemistry, Mining, Technology, Uses and Transportation. Together
with a Description of Gas Wells, the Application of Gas as Fuel, etc.
By BENJAMIN J. CREW. With an Appendix on the Product and
Exhaustion of the Oil Regions, and the Geology of Natural Gas in
Pennsylvania and New York. By CHARLES A. ASHBURNER, M. S_
Geologist in Charge Pennsylvania Survey, Philadelphia. Illustrated
by 70 engravings. 8vo. 508 pages ; c : ¢ $5.00

CROSS.—The Cotton Yarn Spinner:
Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Different
Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been
practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all
our Changes. By RICHARD CROss. 122 pp. I2mo. . 75

CRISTIANI.—A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles:
With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris-
TIANI, Chemist. Author of “ Perfumery and Kindred Arts.”’ I]lus-
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. 5 5 - $12.50

CRISTIANI.—Perfumery and Kindred Arts:
A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing a History of
Perfumes from the remotest ages to the present time. A complete
detailed description of the various Materials and Apparatus used in
the Perfumer’s Art, with thorough Practical Instruction and careful
Formule, and advice for the fabrication of all known preparatiogs of
the day, including Essences, Tinctures, Extracts, Spirits, Waters,
Vinegars, Pomades, Powders, Paints, Oils, Emulsions, Cosmetics,
Infusions, Pastilles, Tooth Powders and Washes, Cachous, Hair Dyes,
Sachets, Essential Oils, Flavoring Extracts, etc.; and full details for
making and manipulating Fancy Toilet Soaps, Shaving Creams, etc,
by new and improved methods. With an Appendix giving hints and
advice for making and fermenting Domestic Wines, Cordials, Liquors,
Candies, Jellies, Syrups, Colors, etc., and for Perfuming and Flavor-
ing Segars, Snuff and Tobacco, and Miscellaneous Receipts fot
various useful Analogous Articles. By R. S. CRisTIANI, Con-
sulting Chemist and Perfumer, Philadelphia. S8vo. . e $10.00
DAVIDSON.—A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain-

ing, Marbling, and Sign-Writing:
Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign-:
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful
Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles,
and numerous wood engravings. By ELLIs A. DAVIDSON. 12mo.
$3-00
DAVIES.—A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and
Mining :

By D.C. Davigs, F. G.S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by
76 Engravings, _I2mo. . c c 5 : - : $5.00

£0 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO’S CATALOGUE.

OAVIES.—A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining:
By D. C. Davigs, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mine
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geologic
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the
practice of all parts of the world. 2d Edition, 12mo., 450 pages $5.06

JAVIES.—A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying:

Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. Davirs, F. G. S.,'
Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding
plates. amo. : - 6 é A 4 5 3 $2.03

{OAVIS.—A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Methe

ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale:
By CHarves T. Davis. Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. $1.50

DWAVIS.--The Manufacture of Paper:
Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrication, °
Coloring and Finishing of every kind of Paper, Including the Dif-
ferent Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values,
the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelli-
gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference toe
the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa-
per, complete Lists of Paper-Making Materials, List of American
Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials,
and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By CHARLEs T.
Davis. Illustrated by 156 engravings. 608 pages, 8vo. $6.00
GAVIS.—The Manufacture of Leather:
Being a description of all of the Processes for the Tanning, Tawing,
Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of every kind of Leather; including
the various Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their
Values; the Tools, Machines, and all Details of Importance con-
nected with an Intelligent and Profitable Prosecution of the Art, with
Special Reference to the Best American Practice. To which are
added Complete Lists of all American Patents for Materials, Pro-
cesses, Tools, and Machines for Tanning, Currying, ete. By CHARLES
Tuomas Davis. Illustrated by 302 engravings and 12 Samples of
Dyed Leathers. One vol., 8vo., 824 pages : = - $10.00
DAWIDOWSKY—BRANNT.—A Practical Treatise on the
Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine
Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages,
etc.:
Rased upon Actual Experience. By F. DAwtpowsky, Technical
Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions,
including a description of the most Recent American Processes, by
WILLIAM T. BRANNT, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College
of Eldena, Prussia. 35 Engravings. I2mo. . : A $2.50
2& GRAFF.—The Geometrical Stair-Builders’ Guide:
Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel
Engravings; together with the use of the most approved principleg
of Practical Geometry. By SIMON DE GRarr, Architect. te.

$2.50

HENRY CAREY BAiikw & CO.S- CATALUG Ji. II

bE KONINCK—DIETZ.—A Practical Manual of Chemical
Analysis and Assaying:
As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. Dg
KONINCK, Dr. Sc., and E. Dirrz, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by
ROBERT MATE a Hee shea Gowns. He etcn: American
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iror Ores, by A. A.
FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. 12mo. - ° . $2.59

( UNCAN.— Practical Surveyor’s Guide: .
Containing the necessary information to make any person of com-
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher
By ANDREW DuNCAN. Illustrated. I2mo. . $1.25

DUPLAIS.—A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation

of Alcoholic Liquors:
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol
from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho-
del, Fruits, etc.; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy,
Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aro-
matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatie
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copious
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors,
etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. Duptats,
Ainé et Jeune. By M. McKennik, M.D. To which are added the
United States Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and
Collection of Taxes on Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen
folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 pp. 8vo. $10 oo
BUSSAOCE,—Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches,
Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powder.
By Professor H. DussAucE. 12mo. $3 00
vYER AND COLOR-MAKER’S COMPANION:
Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on
the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now
in existence; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for
Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. 12mo. $1 25
EDWARDS.—A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine,
For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical
Work for Practical Men. By EmMory Epwarps, Mechanical Engi-
neer. Illustrated by sixty-three Engravings, including examples of
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with
much additional matter. I2mo. 414 pages p F $2 oa
€DWARDS.—Modern American Loccmotive Engines,
Their Design, Constructionand Management. By EMory EDWARDS,
Illustrated r2mo. . 6 5 : - A 5 $2.00

EDWARDS.—The American Steam Engineer:
Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latest and most ap-
proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam
Engines and Boilers. For the use of engineers, machinists, boiler-
makers, and engineering students. By EMory Epwarps. Fully
allustrated, 419 pages. I2mo. 2 : . ° $2.50

ra HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE,
————— eee
&DWARDS.—Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, and
Screw Propellers,
Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Practice of
the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the
United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 4te. $5.00
EDWARDS.—The Practical Steam Engineer’s Guide
In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary,
Portable, and Steam Fire- Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injectors,
Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By
Emory Epwarps. _ Illustrated by 19 eneravines: 420 pages.
I2mo, $2 50
EISSLER. _The Metallaresy of Gold:
A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-Bear-
ing Ores, including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination,
and the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. EIssirr.
With 132 Illustrations. I2mo. 3 4 . $3.50
EISSLER.—The Metallurgy of Silver:
A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation
of Silver Ores, including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of
Silver Bullion. ee M. E/ISSLER. aa Illustrations. 336 pp.

12mMo: ee : $4.25
ELDER. SGunvelsations on the Principal Sabjects of Political
Economy.

By Dr. WILLIAM ELDER. 8vo. . ‘ ; : 3 $2.50

ELDER.— Questions of the Day,
Economic and Social. By Dr. WILLIAM ELDER. 8vo.
ERNI.—Mineralogy Simplified.
Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including
Ores, by means of the Blowpipe, and by Humid Chemical Analysis,
based on Professor von Kobell’s Tables for the Determination of
Minerals, with an Introduction to Modern Chemistry. By HENRY
Ernt, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten,
enlarged and improved. I2mo. . : $3.0¢

FAIRBAIRN.—The Principles of Mechariaes and Machinery
of Transmission °
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys,
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag-
ing and Disengaging Gear. By SiR WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Bart
C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over bas wood-cuts. In one
volume, I2mo. . : . . $2.56
€LEMING.—Narrow Gauge Redeye in Agencas
A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics
as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, ete. By
HOWARD FLEMING. Illustrated, 8vo. . : $1 00
FORSYTH.—Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and
other Monuments:
Containing 78 Designs. eh JAMES ForsyTH. With an Introduction
by CHARLES BouTeLt, M. A. 4 to., cloth . : - $5 ce

- $3.00

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO”S CATALOGUE. 13

—+

PRANKEL—HUTTER.—A Practical Treatise on the Manue
facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine:
Based on the German of LADISLAUS VON WAGNER, Professor in the
Royal Technical High School, Buda-Pest, Hungary, and other
authorities. By JULIUS FRANKEL, Graduate of the Polytechnic
School of Hanover. Edited by RoperT Hurrer, Chemist, Practical
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover-
ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pp... $3.50

GARDNER.—The Painter’s Encyclopedia:
Containing Definitions of all Important Words in the Art of Plain
and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage,
Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Painting, including
Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing, Lettering,
Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By FRANKLIN B. GARDNER.
158 Illustrations. I2mo. 427 pp. . : 5 : : $2.00
GARDNER.—Everybody’s Paint Book:
A Complete Guide to the Art of Outdoor and Indoor Painting, De-
signed for the Special Use of those who wish to do their own work,
and consisting of Practical Lessons in Plain Painting, Varnishing,
Polishing, Staining, Pancr Hanging, Kalsomining, etc., as well as
Directions for Renovating Furniture, and Hints on Artistic Work for
Home Decoration. 38 Illustrations. 12mo.,183 pp. . $1.00
GEE.—The Goldsmith’s Handbook:
Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold,
including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col-
lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of
Waste; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; with a New
System of Mixing its Alloys; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful
Rules and Recipes. By GEorGE E. GEE. 12mo, . 5 $1.75
GEE.—The Silversmith’s Handbook:
Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver,
including the different modes of Refinin~ and Melting the Metal; its
Solders; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys; Methods of Manipula-
tion; Prevention of Waste ; Instructions for Improving and Finishing
the Surface of the Work ; together with other Useful Information and
Memoranda. By Grorce E. Gre. Illustrated. 12mo. $1.75
GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS:
Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong $2.00
GRANT.—A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears:
Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By GEORGE
B. Grant. Illustrated. Third Edition, enlarged. 8vo. $1.50
GREENWOOD.—Steel and Iron:
Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur-
sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in the Rolling-
Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By WiLtt1am HENRY GREEN-
woop, F.C.S. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. 12mo. $2.00

#4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO’S CATALOGUE.

— — — —_

GREGORY.—Mathematics for Practical Men:
Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and
Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS GREGORY. §8yo., plates $3.00

GRIMSHAW.—Saws:
The History, Development, Action, Classification, and Comparison
of Saws of all kinds. With Copious Appendices. Giving the details
of Manufacture, Filing, Setting, Gumming, etc. Care and Use of
Saws; Tables of Gauges; Capacities of Saw- Mills ; List of Saw-

Patents, and other valuable information. By RoBerT GRIMSHAW.
Second and greatly enlarged edition, wth SLD: and 354
Illustrations. Quarto . ; $5.00

GRISWOLD.—Railroad Engineer’ s Pocket Companion for the
Field:
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles,
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for En
gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the
Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En-
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples, By
W. GRISWOLD. I2mo., tucks . $1.75
GRUNER.—Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena:
By M. L. Gruner, President of the General Council of Mines of
France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines,
Translated, with the author’s sanction, with an Appendix, by L. D.

B. Gorpon, F.R.S. E., F.G.S. 8vo. . $2.5¢
Hand-Book of Useful Tables for the Lumberman, Farmer and
Mechanic:

Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Meas,
ure, Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure; Wages and Rent, by
Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land
Measure, Interest Tables, with Directions for Finding the Interest on
any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Useful Tables.
32 mo., boards. 186 pages. 25
HASERICK. —The Secrets of the ine of Dyeiae ‘Wool, Cotton,
and Linen,
Including Bleaching and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and
Random Yarns. <A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By
E. C. Haserick. Jllustrated @ 323 ee Patterns of the Yarn:
or Fabrics. 8vo. : . $7.50
HATS AND FELTING:
A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hattes.
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . $1.25
HOFFER.—A Practical Treatise on Caoutchouc and Gutta
Percha,
Comprising the Properties of the Raw Materials, and the manner of
Mixing and Working them; with the Fabrication of Vulcanized ana
Hard Rubbers, Caoutchouc ind Gutta Percha Compositions, Water

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE. 15

proof Substances, Elastic Tissues, the Utilization of Waste, etc., etc.
From the German of RAIMUND HOFFER. By W. T. ERANNT.
Iliustrated I2mo. $2.56
HOFMANN.—A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of
Paper in all its Branches:
By CaRL HorMann, Late Superintendent of Paper-Mills in Germany
and the United States; recently Manager of the ‘ Public Ledger”
Paper-Mills, near Elkton, Maryland. Illustrated by 110 wood en-
gravings, and five large Folding Plates. 4to., cloth; about 400

pages é « $35.00
HUGHES _—American Miller and Millwright’ s Assistant:
By WILLIAM CARTER HUGHES. I2mo. . $1.50

HULME.—Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geomet--
rical Drawing :
For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Wool-
wich; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst; the Indian Civil En.
gineering College, Cooper’s Hill; Indian Public Works and Tele-
graph Departments; Royal Marine Light Infantry; the Oxford and
Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. EDwARD HuLME, F. L.
Soy tis Se “A., Art-Master Mee eoRey College. Illustrated by 300
Seales ‘Small quarto : a c ° ° $2.5¢
JERVIS.—Railroad Property:
A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways,
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the
holders of this class of alate 3 as well as Railw ay Managers, Off-
cers, and Agents. By JoHN B. JERVIS, late Civil Engineer of the
Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. 12mo., cloth $2.0¢
KEENE.—A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging:
For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla
tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom-House for
ascertaining the Strength of Wines. By JAMES B. KEENE, of H. M.
Customs. 8vo. , $7.25
KELLEY. _Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and
Financial Questions:
By Hon. WILLIAM D. KELLEY, M.C. 544 pages, 8vo. . 3.00
&ELLOGG.—A New Monetary System:
The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor and
Property, and of Protecting ‘the Public from Financial Revulsions.
By Epwarp KeE.tocc. Revised from his work on “Labor and
other Capital.” With numerous additions from his manuscript.
Edited by Mary KELLocc Putnam. Fifth edition. To which ie
added a Biographical Sketch of the Author. One volume, 12mo.
Paper cover. 2 B F : F . $1.00
Bound in cloth 3 : 1.56
EMLO.—Watch- Repairer’ Ss ‘Hand- Book:
Being a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart,
Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and
other Yoreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. KEMLO,
RBractical Watchmaker. With [llustrations, 1I2mo. é $1.25

6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE,

eS ae
KENTISH.—A Treatise on a Box of Instruments,
And the Slide Rule; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Loga
rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim.
ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By THOMAS
KENTISH. In one volume. 12mo. F ; $1.2g
KERL.—The Assayer’s Manual:
An Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and
Furnace and other Artificial Products. By BRUNO KERL, Professor
in the Royal School of Mines. Translated from the German by
WILLIAM T. BRANNT. Second American edition, edited with Ex-
tensive Additions by F. Lynwoop GARRISON, Member of the
American Institute of Mining Engineers, etc. Illustrated by 87 en-
gravings. 8vo. : ; : : ° : 5 . $3.00
KJCK.—Flour Manufacture.
A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By FREDERICK KICK,
Imperial Regierungsrath, Prefessor of Mechanical Technology in the
émperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from
the second enlarged and revised edition with supplement by H. H.
P. PowLEs, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil Engineers. Illustrated
with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. 8vo. . $10.00
KINGZETT.—The History, Products, and Processes of the
Alkali Trade:
Including the most Recent Improvements. By CHARLES THOMAS
KINGZETT, Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustrations. 8vo. $2.50
KIRK.—-The Founding of Metals:
A Practical Treatise on the Melting of Iron, with a Description of the
Founding of Alloys; also, of all the Metals and Mineral Substanceg
used in the Art of Founding. Collected from original sources. By
Epwarp Kirk, Practical Foundryman and Chemist. Illustrated.
Third edition. 8vo. 5 d : . . 2 ° $2.50
LANDRIN.—A Treatise on Steel:
Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working,
and Use. By M. H.C. LANpRIN, JR., Civil Engineer. Translated
from the French, with Notes, by A. A. FEsQUET, Chemist and En.
gineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Pro
cesses for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt!
United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867.

i2mo.. . : : : : : . 5 . $3.0¢
LANGBEIN.—A Complete Treatise on the Electro-Deposition
of Metals:

Translated from the German, with Additions, by WM. T. BRANNT.
125 illustrations. 8vo. : - : ; $4.00

LARDNER.—The Steam-Engine:
For the Use of Beginners. Illustrated. I2mo. . ° : 75

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.”S CATALOGUE. 17

LARKIN.—The Fracticai Brass and Iron Founder’s Guide;
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and
their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improvements in the
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By
JAMES LARKIN, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department ix
Reany, Neafie & Co.’s Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition,
revised, with extensive additions. I2mo. 5 A : $2.25,
LEROUX.—A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of
Worsteds and Carded Yarns:
_ Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied
' to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English
and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds,
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of
CHARLES LEROUX, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a
Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Parne, M. D., and A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which
is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of the
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen
and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Uni-
versal Exposition, 1867. 8vo. A 4 $5.00
LEFFEL.—The Constructicn of Mill- Dams:
Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments
and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water
Supply, etc. By JAMES LEFFEL & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings.
8vo > : : . $2.50
LESLIE. —Complete Cookery: Bs
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss LEsLir.
Sixtieth thousand. Thorouahly revised, with the addition of New
Receipts. I2mo. . $1.50
LE VAN.—The Steam Bapine and the Tadicsvor:
Their Origin and Progressive Development; including the Most
Recent Examples of Steam and Gas Motors, together with the Indi-
cator, its Principles, its Utility, and its Application. By WILLIAM
BARNET LE VAN. Illustrated by as oe ae of Indi-
cator-Cards. 469 pp. 8vo. . $4.00
tIEBER.—Assayer’s Guide: F
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all
the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of
Coal, etc. By OscAR M. LIEBER. I2mo. . 5 : $1.25
Lockwood’s Dictionary of Terms:
Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those
Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turn-
ing, Smith’s and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., comprising upwards of Six
Thousand Definitions. Edited bya Foreman Pattern Maker, author
of “Pattern Making.” 417 pp. I2mo. 6 . ° $3.00

18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.

©UKIN.—Amongst Machines;
Embracing Descriptions of the various Mechanical Appliances used
in the Manufacture of Wood, Metai, and other Substances. s2mo.

$1.75
LUKIN.—The Boy Engineers:
What They Did, and How They Did It. With 30 plates. £8mo.

$1.75

——

LUKIN.—The Young Mechanic:
Practical Carpentry. Containing Directions for the Use of all kinds
of Tools, and for Construction of Steam-Engines and Mechanical
Models, including the Art of Turning in Wood and Metal. By JOHN
Lukin, Author of “The Lathe and Its Uses,” etc. Illustrated.
I2mo.. : : : : : : . : ° $1.75
MAIN and BROWN.—Questions on Subjects Connected with
the Marine Steam-Engine:
And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By
THomMAS J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College,
and THomAS Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo., cloth. $1.50
MAIN and BROWN.—The Indicator and Dynamometer:
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS
J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass’t S. Professor Royal Naval College,
Portsmouth, and THoMAS Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . $1.50
MAIN and BROWN.—The Marine Steam-Engine.
By THomas J. Main, F. R. Ass’t S. Mathematical Professor at the
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and THomMAsS Brown, Assoc.
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. ‘Attached to the Royal Naval
College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo. > : $5.00

MAKINS.—A Manual of Metallurgy:
By GEORGE HOGARTH MAKINS. 100 engravings. Second edition

rewritten and much enlarged. I2mo., 592 pages. : $3-00
MARTIN.—Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical
Engineers:

Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads
of Screws of any Required Pitch; with a Table for Making the Uni-
versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer.
8vo. . . ° ° . . . . = s 5a
MICHELL.—Mine Drainage:
Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Undes-
ground Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and
their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN
MICHELL. Illustrated by 137 engravings. 8vo., 277 pages. $6.00
MOLESWORTH.—Pocket-Book of Useful Formule and
Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers.
By Guitrorp L. MoLEsworTtH, Member of the Institution of Civ#
Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full-
beund in Pocket-book form . = 2 » . ° $1.00

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.s CATALOGUE. 19

MOORE.—The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me-
chanic:
Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipts,
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Etc.,
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By
R. Moore. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. 12mo. : $2.50
ti ORRIS.—Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks :
By means of the Prismoidal Formula, TJllustrated with Numeroug
Wood-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and concluded by an Exten.
sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas,
The whole being adapted for convenient use by [ngineers, Surveyors,
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork.
By ELwoop Morris, C. E. 8vo. . : $1.50
MORTON.—The System of Calculating Diameter, Circumfer«
ence, Area, and Squaring the Circle:
Together with Interest and Miscellaneous Tables, and other informa-
tion. By JAMES Morton. Second Edition, rene with the
Metric System. 12mo. . : = f1.o8
NAPIER.— Manual of Electro- Metallurgy:
Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes,
By JAMes NAPIER. Fowth American, from the Fourth London
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. $vo.
NAPIER.—A System of | Chemistry Applied to Dyeing.
By JAMEs Napirr, F. C.S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi-
tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science,
including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Catice
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Tllus-
trated. 8vo. 422 pages c $3.50
NEVILLE.—Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formule, for
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches,
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers:
Third Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formulz for the
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons; general infor-
mation on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water
Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By IoHN NeEvILLE, C. E. M. Ro
I. A.; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Thick

Iemon ae $5.50
NEWBERY. Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every
style:

Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian,
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. Ina series of 10a
exquisitely drawn Plates, ene ae hundred examples. By
ROBERT NEWBERY. 4to. 5 o) ) 12: 50
WICHOLLS. —The Theoretical aod Praecical Boiler Makes and
Engineer’s Reference Book:
Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Labor,
Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers, Irou, Copper, and Tinsrmiths

20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.

Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for the
Use of Science Schools and Classes. By SAMUEL NicHOLLs. Wlus-
trated by sixteen plates, 12mo. $2.50
NICHOLSON.—A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding :
Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding,
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and
Paper. By JAMEs Bb, NICHOLSON. Illustrated. I12mo., cloth $2.25
NICOLLS.—The Railway Builder:
A Hand-Book for Estimating the Probable Cost of American Rail-
way Construction and Equipment. By WILLIAM J. NIco.ts, Civih

Engineer. Illustrated, full bound, pocket-book form : $2.00
NORMANDY.—The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An-
alysis:

Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic or
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades,
and in the Arts. By A. NorMANpby. New Edition, Enlarged, and
to a great extent rewritten. By Henry M. Noap, Ph.D., F.R.S.,

thick I2mo. $5.00
NORRIS.—A Handbook “for Locomotive Engineers ‘and Ma.
chinists:

Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco-
motives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables cf Squares, Cubes, Areas,
etc., etc. By Seprimus Norris, M. E. New edition. Illustrated,
12mo. 5 ; $1.50
NYSTRGM. —A Mer Treatise on Elements of Mechanics: F
Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms;
accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me-
trology. By JoHn W. Nystrom, C. E. [Illustrated. 8vo. $2.00
NYSTROM.—On Technological Education and the Construc-
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers:
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JoHN W. Nystrom, late
Acting Chief Engineer, U.S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi-
tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. I2mo. . $1.50
®’NEILL.—A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing:
Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical
Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES O’NEILL, Analy-
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calica
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867- 8vo.
491 pages 5 . ° . $3.50
GRTON. —Underground "Treasures:
How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination
of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By James
OrTON, A.M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College,
N. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York; "author of the
** Andes and the Amazon,’”’ etc. A New Edition, with Additions.
TUustrated : : . : - ° ° : . #i.Se

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.

OSBORN.—The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel:

Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches; with special rererence
to American Materials and Processes. By H.S. Ossorn, LL. D.,
Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton,
Pennsylvania. Illustrated by numerous large folding plates and
wood-engravings. 8vo. $25.00

OSBORN.—A Practical Manual ‘of Minerals, Mines and Min.

ing:

Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur-
rence and Associations of the Useful Minerals; their Methods of
Chemical Analysis and Assay: together with Various Systems of
Excavating and Timbering, Brick and Masonry Work, during Driv-
ing, Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By: Prof. H. S,
OsgsorN, LL. D., Author of the “ Metallurgy of Iron and Steel.”
Elustrated by 171 engravings from original drawings. 8vo. 4.50

OVERMAN.—The Manufacture of Steel:

Containing the Practice and Principies of Working and Making Steel.
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard-
ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By
FREDERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer, Author of the “ Manu-
facture of Ixon,” etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By
A. A. FesquéT, Chemist and Engineer. 1I2mo. f1.50

OVERMAN.—The Moulder’s and Founder’s Pocket Guide :

A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam,
and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow-
ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds
for Iron, Brenze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur,
Wax, etc.; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and
Founding of Metals; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature,
etc., etc. By FREDERICK OVERMAN, M. E. A new Edition, to
which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding,
Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A, FEsQuET, Chem-
ist and Engineer. Illustrated by. 44 engravings. I2mo.

- ___ $2.06
PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER’S COMPANION;

Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the Arg
of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Graining, Marbling,
Sign- Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnishing;
SE ests for the Detection of Adulterations i in Oils, Colors, etc. ; and a
Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, with
the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, wiih
an Appendix. Containing Colors and Coloring—Theoretical ana
Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional
Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and
Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreui’s
Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. r2mo. Cloth $1.59

PALLETT.—The Miller’s, Millwright’s, and Engineer’s Guide.

By Henry PALLeTT. Illustrated. I2mo, . ° . 2.0%

22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.

PERCY.—The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron.
By JoHN Percy, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the
Royal School of Mines, and to The Advance Class of Artillery
Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich; Author of
“ Metallurgy.’’ With Illustrations. 8vo., paper . 4 50 cts,

PERKINS.—Gas and Ventilation :
Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific
Helps to Engineer-students and others, With Illustrated Diagrams,
By E. E. PERKINS. 12mo., cloth . : $1.25

PERKINS AND STOWE.—A New Guide to the Sheet-iron

and Boiler Plate Roller:

Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles
to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of
Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge
in decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per
sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various
dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of
Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short.
Estimated and collected by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE. $2.54

POWELL—CHANCE—HARRIS.—The Principles of Glass
Making.
By Harry J. Powe tt, B. A. Together with Treatises on Crown and
Sheet Glass; by Henry CHANCE, M. A. And Plate Glass, by H.
G. Harris, Asso. M. Inst. C. E. Illustrated 18mo. > $1.5
PROCTOR.—A Pocket-Book of Useful Tables and Formuiz
for Marine Engineers:
By FRANK Proctor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
Full-bound pocket-book form . > : : $1.50
REGNAULT.—Elements of Chemistry :
By M. V. ReGNAuLT. Translated from the French by T. Forrest
Berton, M. D., amd edited, with Notes, by JAMEs C. Boornu, Melter
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and WILLIAM L. Faser, Metallurgist and
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engravings. Com-
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . $7.50
RICHARDS.—Aluminium :
Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications,
including its Alloys. By JosepH W. Ricuarps, A. C., Chemist and
Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell-
schaft. Illustrated . $5.00
RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. —A Practical
Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting:
Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors; the
Treatment of the Raw Materials; the best Formulz and the Newest
Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and
the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use; Dryers; the
Testing. Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM.
RiFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and ToussAINT. Revised and Edited by M.

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE. 23

€. MALEPEYRE. Translated from the French, by A. A. FESQUET
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In one
vol., 8vo., 659 pages é - : c c - . $7.50
2OPER.—A Catechism of High-Pressure, or Non-Condensing
Steam-Engines:
{ncluding the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Steam-
Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By STE-
PHEN Roper, Engineer. Sixteenth edition, revised and enlarged.
18mo., tucks, gilt edge , : F $2.00
SOPER.—Engineer’s Handy-Book:
Containing a full Explanation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its
Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. With Formula
for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam-Engines; alsu,
Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers who wish to
qualily themselves for the United States Navy, the Revenue Service,
the Mercantile Marine, or to take charge of the Better Class of Sta-
tionary Steam-Engines. Sixth edition. 16mo., 690 pages, tucks,
fille Galexs 5G : : c c ‘i : ¢ : $3.50
ROPER.—Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines:
Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management
of Lane and Marine Engines and Boilers. With illustrations. By
STEPHEN Roper, Engineer. Sixth edition. 12mo., tucks, gilt edge.
$3.50
ROPER.—Hand-Book of the Locomotive:
Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc-
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By STEPHEN
Roper. Eleventh edition. 18mo., tucks, gilt edge : $2.50
ROPER.—Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines.
With illustrations. By STEPHEN Roper, Engineer. Fourth edition,
12mo., tucks, gilt edge S : H F $3.50
ROPER.—Questions and Answers for Engineers.
This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or
dinary intelligence may commit them to memory in a short time. By
STEPHEN Roper, Engineer. Third edition F 7 3 $3.00
ROPER.—Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler.
By STEPHEN Roper, Engineer. Eighth edituon, with illustrations.
18mo., tucks, giltedge . : : : é : $2.00'
ROSE.—The Complete Practical Machinist:
Embracing Lathe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps and
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of ‘Vools,
Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, ete. By JosHua Rose. Illus-
trated by 356 engravings. Thirteenth edition, thoroughly revised
and in great part rewritten. In one voi., 12mo., 439 pages $2.5¢
®&OSE.—Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught:
Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing
Instruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw:

24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.

ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical
Motions, Engines and Boilers. By JosHua Rose, M.E. Illustrated
by 330 engravings. 8vo., 313 pages : : . $4.00

ROSE.—The Slide- Valve Practically Eapleined:
Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of th
operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrat-
ing the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples cares
fully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By
JosHUA RosE, M.E. Illustrated by 35 engravings - $1.00

ROSS.—The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology:
Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work-
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By LiruT.-
COLONEL W. A. Ross, R. A., F.G.S. With 120 Illustrations,
I2mo. . . : . : $2.00

SHAW.— Civil ‘Agchieerute:

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con-
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By EDWARD SHAW,
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc.
By THoMAS W. SILLOwAY and GrEoRGE M. Harpino, Architects.
The whole illustrated by 102 quarto ear finely engraved on copper.
Eleventh edition. 4to. . : : : . $10.00

SHUNK.—A Practical Treatise on Baeos Curves and Loca-
tion, for Young Engineers.

By W. F. SHunK, C.E. 12mo. Full bound pocket-book form $2.00
SLATER.—The Manual of Colors and. Dee. Wares.

By J. W. SLATER. 12mo. - : - $3-75
SLOAN.—American Houses:

A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by

26 colored engravings, with Sieapor e references. By SAMUEL

SLOAN, Architect. 8vo. ‘ i p 4 : $1.50
SLOAN.—Homestead Agehitectare:

Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with

Essays on Style, Construction, Landscape Gardening, Furniture, etc.,

etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 Bee 3y SAMUEL SLOAN,

Architect. 8vo. é ; : . . $3.50
SLOANE.-—Home Experiments in Seicice:

By T. O’Conor SLOANE, E.M., A.M., Ph.D. Illustrated by g1

engravings. I2mo. : ¢ : $1.50
SMEATON.—Builder’s Pockex: -Companion :

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture;

with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject.

By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. I2mo. . . $1.50
SMITH.—A Manual of Political Economy.

By E. Pesuine Smiru. A New Edition, to which is added a full

Index. 1I2mo : : : : 3 - - Bi 25

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE. 25

SMITH.—Parks and Pleasure-Grounds:
Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and ,
Gardens. By CHARLES H. J. SmiTH, Landscape Gardener and
Garden Architect, etc., etc. I2mo. : 5 = A $2.00

SMITH.—The Dyer’s Instructor:
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton,
Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods; containing nearly 800
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work,
By DAvip SMITH, Pattern Dyer. 12mo. $2.06

SMYTH.—A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal ‘and Coal- es
By WARRINGTON W. Smytu, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G.
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised ‘and corrected, With aumer-

ous illustrations. 1I2mo. 3 : ‘ fr.75
SNIVELY.—Tables for auebemaric Qualitative Chemical Anal,
ysis.

By JouN H. SNIVELY, Phr. D. 8vo. ‘ $1.00

SNIVELY.—The Elements of Bu omatic Qualitative Chemical
Analysis:

A Hand-book for Beginners. By JOHN H. SNIVELY, Phr. D. 16mo.

$2.00

STEWART.—The American System:
Speeches on the Tariff Question, and on Internal Improvements,
principally delivered in the House of Representatives of the United
States. By ANDREW STEwarT, late M. C. from Pennsylvania.
With a Portrait, and a Biographical Sketch. 8vo. . . $3.00

STOKES.—The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer’s Companion :
Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work;
Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-Work; the Art of Dyeing and Stain-
ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker-
ing, Japanning, and Vornishing; to make French Polish, Glues,
Cements, and Compos:.:- as; with numerous Receipts, useful to work
men generally. Bv SToKEs. Illustrated. A New Edition, with
an Appendix upor .ench ee wie Staining, pa Varnishing

ete., ete, (r2ni0 - : $1. Pe

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METAL
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties at
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing
Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers
of the Ordnance Department, U.S. Army. By authority of the Secre.
tary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. Quarto. 10.0¢

SULLIVAN.—Protection to Native Industry.

By Sir EDWARD SULLIVAN, Baronet, author of ‘Ten Chapters on
Social Reforms.” 8vo. . 5 ° 5 ° $1.59
SULZ.—A Treatise on Beverages: :
Or the Complete Practical Bottler. Full instructions for Laboratory
Work, with Original Practical Recipes for all kinds of Carbonated
Drinks, Mineral Waters, Flavorings, Extracts, Syrups, ete. By
Cuas. HERMAN Suz, Technical Chemist and Practical Bottler
Illustrated by 428 Engravings. 81S pp. vo. : , $10.00

26 HENRY CAREY BAIRp & CO.’S CATALOGUE,

SYME.—Outlines of an Industrial Science.
By Davip SYME. 12mo. ‘ $2.06
TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND,
SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC.,
By Measurement. Cloth : : : 63
TAYLOR.—Statistics of Coal:
Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial
Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the
American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu-
facture. By R. C. TAYLOR. Second edition, revised by S. S. HALDE-
MAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. $8vo.,
cloth : : $10.00
TEMPLETON. '—The Practical Examinator on Steam and the
Steam-Engine:
With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of
Engineers, Students, and others. By WILLIAM TEMPLETON, En-
gineer. T2mo. $1.25
THAUSING.—The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of
Malt and the Fabrication of Beer:
With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab-
orated from personal experience by JULIUS E. THAUSING, Professor
at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Médling,
near Vienna. Translated from the German by WILLIAM T, BRANNT,
Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American matter, and
according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. SCHWARZ
and Dr. A. H. BAveR. Illustrated by rgo Engravings. 8vo., 815
pages : - $10.00
THOMAS.—The Modern Practice of Photography:
By R. W. THomas, F.C. S. 8vo. 75
THOMPSON.—Political Economy. With Especial Reference
to the Industrial History of Nations:
By Rogpert E. THompson, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the

University of Pennsylvania. 12mo. 5 $1.50
THOMSON.—Freight Charges Calculator :
By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent. 2\mo. ; - $1.25

URNER’S (THE) COMPANION:
Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn.
ing; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and
Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and
Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them
i2mo. - $1.25
TURNING: Specimens ‘of Fancy Turning Executed on the
Hand or Foot-Lathe:
With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting
ee By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs.
: $3.00
URBIN—BRULL. —A Practical Guide for Puddling Iron and
Steel.
By Ep. URBIN, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay,

HENRY CAREY BAIRB & CO.’S CATALOGUE. 23

read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of
Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6. To which is
added A COMPARISON OF THE RESISTING PROPERTIES OF IRON AND
STEEL. By A. BRULL. ‘Translated from the French by A. A. FEs-
QUET, Chemist and Engineer. 8vo. 5 : $1.00

VAILE.—Galvanized-Iron Cornice-Worker’s Manual:
Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and
Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also,
Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other
Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By CHARLES A. VAILE.
Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 4to. ° : ° c $5.00

FILLE.—On Artificial Manures:
Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture.
A series of Lectures given at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes,
during 1867 and 1874-75. By M. GreorGes VILLE. Translated and
Edited by WiLtiAM Crookes, F. R.S. Illustrated by thirty-one
engravinys. 8yvo., 450 pages . : : : : - $6.00
YILLE.—The School of Chemical Manures:
Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From
the French of M. Gro. VILLE, by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and En-
gineer. With Illustrations. I2mo. : : 2 ¢ $1.25
YOGDES.—The Architect’s and Builder’s Pocket-Companion
and Price-Book:
Consisting of a Short but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo-
decimals, Geometry and Mensuration; with Tables of United States
Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone,
Brick, Cement and Concretes, Quantities of Materials in given Sizes
and Dimensions of Wood, Brick and Stone; and full and complete
Bilis of Prices for Carpenter’s Work and Painting; also, Rules for
Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Paint-
ing, Plastering, with a Vocabulary of Technical Terms, etc. By
FRANK W. Vocpes, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised,
and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket-book
form, gilt edges ° . : ° ° . ° : $2.00
Cloth : 5 . : : : ° ° ° 1.5G
#W AHL.—Galvanoplastic Manipulations:
A Practical Guide for the Gold and Silver Electroplater and the Gal-
vanoplastic Operator. Comprising the Electro-Deposition of ai
Metals by means of the Battery and the Dynamo-Electric Machine,
as well as the most approved Processes of Deposition by Simple Im-
mersion, with Descriptions of Apparatus, Chemical Products employed
in the Art, etc. Based largely on the ‘ Manipulations Hydroplas-
tiques” of ALFRED RosELEuUR. By Witiiam H. Want, Ph. D.
( Heid), Secretary of the Franklin Institute. Illustrated by 189 en-
gravings. 8vo.,656pages”- : - - 5 -
wALTON.—Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated :
By THomas H. WALTON, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 24 large
and elaborate’ Plates, afier Actual Workings and Apparatus. $5.00

88 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.

WARE.—The Sugar Beet.
Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varieties
of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing,
Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva+
tion, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewig
S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo.

$4.00

WARN.—The Sheet-Metal Worker’s Instructor:
For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain-
ing a selection of Geometrical Probiems; also, Practical and Simple
Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different
branches of the above Trades. By REUBEN H. WARN, Practicai
Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing
Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids,
Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and
Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty-
two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. - $3.00

WARNER.—New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the
Computation of Earth-work:

Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates,
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes-
sional Computers. In two parts, with an Appendix. Part I. A Prae-
tical Treatise; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise, and the Appendix.
Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I.; Explana-
tions of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights.
The whole illustrated by numerous original engravings, comprising
explanatory cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric Scales
and Diagrams, and a series of Lithographic Drawings from Models.
Showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad
Excavations and Embankments. By JOHN WARNER, A. M., Mining
and Mechanical Engineer. Illustrated by 14 Plates. A new, revised
and improved edition. 8vo. . : : : . . $4.00

WATSON.—A Manual of the Hand-Lathe:

Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds,
ivory, Bone and Precious Woods; Dyeing, Coloring, and French
Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By
EcBERT P. WatTsoN, Author of ‘* The Modern Practice of American
Machinists and Engineers.’’ Illustrated by 78 engravings. $1.50

#ATSON.—The Modern Practice of American Machinists and
Engineers:
Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally, with
the most Economical Speed for the same; the Results verified by
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Togetne

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE. 29

with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam.
Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By EGpert P. Watson.
Tllustrated by eighty- six engravings. I2mo. . $2.50
WATSON.—The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving
by Hand and Power:
With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the
Trade. By JOHN Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine:
Maker. Illustrated ms large Drawiays of the best Power Looms.
Svo. . - : ; - c $7.50
&VATT.--The Awe ae Soap Making:
A Practical Hand-book of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps,
Toilet Soaps, etc., including many New Processes, and a Chapter on
the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste eek By ALEXANDER
Watt. Ill. 12mo. : . : $3.00

WEATHERLY.—Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys-
tailizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods,
And other processes for Confectionery, etc., in which are explained,
in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufactur-
ing every Description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods, as sold by
Confectioners and others. I2mo. . . 5 $1.50

WIGHTWICK.—Hints to Young Architects: :
Comprising Advice to those who, while yet at school, are destined
to the Profession; to such as, having passed their pupilage, are about
to travel; and to those who, having completed their education, are
about to practise. Together with a Model Specification involving a
great variety of instructive and suggestive matter. By GEORGE
WIGHTWICK, Architect. A new edition, revised and considerably
enlarged; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Constructivn
and Design. By G. HusKISSON GUILLAUME, Architect. Numerous
Wllustrations. One vol. 12mo. . ; 5 $2.06

WILL.—Tables of Qualitative Eee acal Analysis.
With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro-
essor HEINRICH WILL, of Giessen, Germany. Third American,
from the eleventh German edition. Edited by CHARLES F. HIMEs,
Ph. D., Professor of Ae Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa
8vo. : z 5 $1.50
WILLIAMS.—On Heat and Steam:
Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo.
sion. By CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS, A. I. C. E. Illustrated 8vo.
$3 50
WILSON.—A Treatise on Steam Boilers: ia
Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By Ropert
WILSON. Illustrated I12mo. . é $2.0c
WILSON.—First Principles of Political Economy:
With Reference to Statesmanship and the Progress of Civilization.
By Professor W. D. WILson, of the Cornell University. A new and
‘revised edition. I2mo. . g ; : - . $1.50

30 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.

WOHLER.—A Hand-Book of Mineral Analysis:

By F. WoHLER, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin-
gen. Edited by Henry B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry in the
Renssalaer ik dee Ra sae ee New York. Illustrated.
I2mo. . ° . $3.00

WORSSAM.—On Mechanical Saws:

From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1869. By S. W.
WorssaM, JR. Illustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo. $2.50

RECENT ADDITIONS.

ANDERSON.—The Prospector’s Hand-Book:

A Guide for the Prospector and Traveler in Search of Metal Bearing
or other Valuable Minerals. is J. W. ANDERSON. 52 Illustrations.
T2MO see : c ; 5 . $1.50

BEAUMONT.—Woollen and Worsted Cloth Manufacture:

Being a Practical Treatise for the use of all persons employed in the
manipulation of Textile Fabrics. By ROBERT BEAUMONT, M.S. A.
With over 200 illustrations, including Sketches of Machinery,
Designs, Cloths, ete. 391 pp. I2mo. . : : : $2.5c

BRANNT.—The Metallic Alloys:

A Practical Guide for the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amal-
gams and Solders used by Metal Workers, especially by Bell Founders,
Bronze Workers, Tinsmiths, Gold and Silver Workers, Dentists, etc.,
etc., as well as their Chemical and Physical Properties. Edited
chiefly from the German of A. Krupp and Andreas Wildberger, with
additions by Wm. T. BRANNT. Illustrated. 1I2mo. $3.00
BRANNT.—A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine-
gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit-Wines:

Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation ;
Preparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles,
Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By WILLIAM T.
BRANNT. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. $5.00

BRANNT.—The Metal Worker’s Handy-Book of Receipts
and Processes:

Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipula-
tions for the working of all Metals; including the Decoration and
Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their
Preservation. Edited from various sources, By WILLIAM T.
BRANNT. Illustrated. I2mo. $2.50

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO’S CATALOGUE. 31

a a aa

DAVIS.—A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks,
Tiles, Terra-Cotta, etc.:
Including Hand-Made, Dry Clay, Tempered Clay, Soft-Mud, and
Stiff-Clay Bricks, also Front, Hand-Pressed, Steam-Pressed, Re-
pressed, Ornamentally Shaped and Enamelled Bricks, Drain Tiles,
Straight and Curved Sewer and Water-Pipes, Fire-Clays, Fire-Bricks,
Glass Pots, Terra-Cotta, Roofing Tiles, Flooring Tiles, Art Tiles,
etc. By CHARLES THOMAS Davis. Second Edition. 217 Engrav-
ings. 501 pp. 8vo. : < c é : $5.00.
EDWARDS.—American Marine Engineer, Theoretical and
Practical:
With Examples of the latest and most approved American Practice.
By Emory Epwarps. 85 illustrations. I2mo, . : $2.50

EDWARDS.—600 Examination Questions and Answers:
For Engineers and Firemen (Land and Marine) who desire to ob-
tain a United States Government or State License. Pocket-book
form, gilt edge : : : : : ; $1.50

POSSELT.—Technology of Textile Design:
Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of
Weaves for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the latest
Inventions for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix, showing
the Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the Manufac-
ture of the various Textile Fabrics. By E. A. PosseLr, Head
Master Textile Department, Pennsylvania Museum and School of
Industrial Art, Philadelphia, with over 1000 illustrations. 292
pages. 4to. . : 5 : 5 2 : $5.00

POSSELT.—The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained:
With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and
Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A.
PossELT. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams, 127 pp.
4to. : : 3 : 4 ; : < $3.00

RICH.—Artistic Horse-Shoeing :
A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of
Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different
Diseases of the Foot, and for the Correction of Faulty Action in
Trotters. By Grorce E. RIcH. 62 [IIlustrations. 153 pages.
I2mo. . ‘ : : 5 : $1.00

RICHARDSON.—Practical Blacksmithing:
A Collection of Articles Contributed at Different Times by Skilled
Workmen to the columns of “ The Blacksmith and Wheelwright,”
and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the
Simplest Job of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings.
Compiled and Edited by M. T. RIicHARDSON.
Vol. I. 210 Illustrations. 224 pp. 1I2mo. . . ° $1.00
Vol. {I. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. I2mo. , - $1.06

32 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO’S CATALOGUE.

RICHARDSON.:—The Practical Horseshoer: :
Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Branches
which have appeared from time to time in the columns of “ The
Blacksmith and Wheelwright,” etc. Compiled and edited by M. T.
RICHARDSON. 174 illustrations. : : : $1.00

ROPER.—Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and
Firemen:
By STEPHEN Roper, Engineer. 18mo. Morocco ‘ $2.00

ROPER.—The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management:
By STEPHEN Roper, Engineer. 12mo., tuck, gilt edges. $2.00

ROPER.—The Young Engineer’s Own Book:

Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which
the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By STEPHEN ROPER,
Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. 18mo.,tuck . $3.09

ROSE.—Modern Steam-Engines:
An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain
language ; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office.
Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Steam.
Engines: Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To-
gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of
Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc.,
thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the
Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out
their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By JosHUA RosE, M. E.
Illustrated by 422 engravings. 4to., 320 pages F : $6.00

ROSE.—Steam Boilers:
A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the
Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Inspectors; and
embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing
or Classifying Steam Boilers. By JosHUA RosE, M.E. Illustrated
by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo. - : : $2.50
SCHRIBER.—The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter:
A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons,
and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions in all the Various Branches,
including Lettering, Scrolling, Ornamenting, Striping, Varnishing,
and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illus-
trations. I77 pp. 12mo. ; é : . 5 5 $1.06
VAN CLEVE.—The English and American Mechanic:
Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules,
and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufac-
turer. By B. FRANK VAN CLEVE. Illustrated. 500 pp. 1I2mo. $2.00
WAHNSCHAFFE.—Guide for the Scientific Examination of
the Soil:
By Dr. FELIX WAHNSCHAFFE. Translated from the German by
WILLIAM T. BRANNT. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. 8vu.
(In preparation.) :

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Full text of "A guide to the scientific examination of soils; comprising select methods of mechanical and chemical analysis and physical investigation"

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