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2 as | 
THE STUDY OF INSECTS, 


AND A TREATISE ON THOSE 


- INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL TO CROPS: | 


FOR THE USE OF 


/ 


COLLEGES, FARM-SCHOOLS, AND AGRICULTURISTS. 


e 
& 
i BY 


i PACKARD. Jn Mn D. 


WITH ELEVEN PLATES AND SIX HUNDRED AND MFTY WOOD-CUTS. 


es 


os 


SALEM: 


NATURALIST’S BOCK AGENCY. 


Lonpon: TRUBNER & CO. 


1869. 


MAY 18 1987 
en, UEBRARIES 


26 sNhsonian Inga 


wot 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by 
A. S. PACKARD, Jr. 
in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts, 


ESSEX INSTITUTE PRESS. 


PREFACE. 


Tuts introduction to the study of insects is designed to 
teach the beginner the elements of entomology, and to serve 
as a guide to the more elaborate treatises and memoirs which 
the advanced student may wish to consult. Should the 
book, imperfect as the author feels it to be, prove of some 
service in inducing others to study this most interesting and 
useful branch of natural history, the object of the writer will 
have been fully attained. 

In order to make it of value to farmers and gardeners, 
whose needs the writer. has kept in view, and that it may be 
used as a text book in our agricultural colleges, concise ac- 
counts have been given of insects injurious or beneficial to 
vegetation, or those in any way affecting human interests. 
When the localities of the insects are not precisely given, 
it is to be understood that they occur in the Eastern Atlantic 
States from Maine to Pennsylvania, and the more northern of 
the Western States. When the family names occur in the 
text they are put in spaced Italics, to distinguish them from 
the generic and specific names which are Italicized in the usual 
way. | 
The succession of the suborders of the hexapodous insects 
is that proposed by the author in 1863, and the attention of 
zodlogists is called to their division into two series of sub- 
orders, which are characterized on page 104. To the first 
and highest may be applied Leach’s term MerasBouia, as 
they all agree in having a perfect metamorphosis; for the 
second and lower series the term HrTrEROMETABOLIA is pro- 


1V PREFACE. 


posed, as the four suborders comprised in it differ in the 
degrees of completeness of their metamorphoses, and are 
all linked together by the structural features enumerated 
on page 104. 

The classification of the Hymenoptera is original with the 
author, the bees (Apide) ,being placed highest, and the saw- 
flies and Uroceridz lowest. The succession of the families 
of the Lepidoptera is that now generally agreed upon by en- 
tomologists. Loew’s classification of the Diptera, published 
in the ‘*Miscellaneous Collections” of the Smithsonian 
Institution, has been followed, with some modifications. 
Haliday’s suggestion that the Pulicide are allied to the 
Mycetophilidz gives a clue to their position in nature 
among the higher Diptera. Leconte’s classification of the 
Coleoptera is adopted as far as published by him, 7.e., to 
the Bruchide. For the succeeding families the arrangement 
of Gerstaecker in Peters and Carus’ ‘‘Handbuch der Zoo- 
logie” has been followed, both being based on that of Lacor- 
daire. The Hemiptera are arranged according to the author’s 
views of the succession of the families. The classification of 
the Orthoptera is that proposed by Mr. 8S. H. Seudder. This 
succession of families is the reverse of what has been given 
by recent authors, and is by far the most satisfactory yet 
presented. The arrangement of the Neuroptera (in the Lin- 


nan sense) is that of Dr. Hagen, published in his ‘*Synop- 


sis,” with the addition, however, of the Lepismatide, Cam- 
pode and Poduridee. 

The usual classification of the Arachnida is modified by 
placing the Phalangidz as a family among the Pedipalpi, and 
the succession of families of this suborder is suggested as be- 
ing a more natural one than has been previously given. 

The arrangement of the Araneina, imperfect as authors 
have left it, is that adopted by Gerstaecker in Peters and 


PREFACE. i Vv 


Carus’ ‘‘Handbuch der Zoologie.” In the succession of the 
families of the Acarina, the suggestions of Claparéde, in his 
‘¢Studien der Acariden,” have been followed, and in the 
preparation of the general account of the Arachnids the 
writer is greatly indebted to Claparede’s elaborate work on 
the ‘Evolution of Spiders.” 

In the preparation of this ‘‘Guide” the author has con- 
sulted and freely used Westwood’s invaluable ** Introduction 


2 


to the Modern Classification of Insects;” Gerstaecker’s. 
‘¢ Arthropoden” in Peters and Carus’ ‘“‘Handbuch der Zoo- 
logie ;” Siebold’s ‘‘ Anatomy of the Invertebsates” (Burnett’s - 
translation, 1854); Newport’s Article ‘‘Insecta” in Todd’s 
Cyclopzedia of Anatomy and Physiology; and Dr. T. W. 
Harris’ ‘Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation.” He 
would also acknowledge his indebtedness to Professor L. 
Agassiz for many of the general ideas, acquired while the 
author was a student in the Museum of Comparative Zoo- 
logy at Cambridge, regarding the arrangement of the orders 
and classes, and the morphology of the Articulates. 

For kind assistance rendered in preparing this book, the 
author is specially indebted to Baron R. von Osten Sacken, 
who kindly read the proof sheets of the chapter on Diptera ; 
to Mr. F. G. Sanborn for the communication of many speci- 
mens and facts; and also to Messrs. Edward Norton, 8. H. 
Scudder, J. H. Emerton, C. T. Robinson, A. R. Grote, G. D. 
Smith, E. T. Cresson, P. R. Uhler, C. V. Riley, Dr. J. L. Le- 
conte, Dr. Hagen, W. C. Fish, and E. S. Morse. For much 
kind assistance and very many favors and suggestions, and 
constant sympathy and encouragement during the printing 
of the work, he is under special obligation to his valued 
friend, Mr. F. W. Putnam. The types of the new species 
noticed here are deposited in the Museum of the Peabody 
Academy of Science. He would also express his thanks to 


vi : PREFACE, 


the American Entomological Society, the Society of Natural 
History at Boston, the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board 
of Agriculture, the Essex Institute, the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, the Secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture, and 
to Mr. R. Hardwicke, the publisher of ‘‘Science-Gossip,” 
Prof. Sanborn Tenney, the author of “‘A Manual of Zo- 
dlogy,” and to his coeditors of the ‘“* American Naturalist,” 
for the use of many of the cuts, a list of which may be 
found on the succeeding pages. 


PEABODY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, 
SALEM, Nov. 10, 1869. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 


Fics. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 83, 34, 35, 88, 39, 40, 84, 86, 87, 91, 93-106, 124, 
126, 130, 181, 182, 142, 144, 146, 151, 180, 191-196, 201, 202, 204, 205, 
206, 207, 208b, 209, 212, 213, 215, 219, 220, 221, 224, 225, 226, 246, 256 
260, 267, 320, 321, 332, 333, 379, 404, 408, 409, 421, 422, 442, 455, 480, 
481, 484, 485, 487, 493, 500, 501, 502, 509, 513, 518, 519, 521, 531, 534, 
535, 552, 561, 562, 576, 579, 593, 601 and 651, were borrowed from the 
American Entomological Society, at Philadelphia. 

Figs. 2, 14, 15-24, 27, 48, 63-67, 69, 181, 216, 217, 222, 230, 231, 233 
—235, 247, 369, 389, 420, 424, 427, 435, 486, 438, 497, 508, 578, 630 and 
631 were loaned by the Boston Society of Natural History. 

‘Fies. 25, 86, 37, 55, 83, 128, 186, 237, 242, 269, 350, 352-357, 362, 368, 
872, 373, 380, 511, 512, 514, 542, 548, 544, 545, 546, 556, 585-587, 589, 
590, 591, 594, 602, 603, 604 and 605, were borrowed from the report of 
the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture for 1862. 

Figs. 155-165, 169-179, 270, 271, 285-296, 300, 303-306, 345-348, 358, 
359, 632, 633 and 634, were loaned by the Smithsonian Institution. 

Fies. 1, 5, 8, 10, 30, 31,32, 51, 52, 57, 58, 62, 64, 68, 72, 79, 80, 81, 82, 
85, 89, 92, 110-121, 127, 185, 186, 227, 228, 239, 248, 250, 252, 262, 263, 
273, 278, 298, 307-314, 317-319, 322, 324-327, 329-331, 334-343, 361, 
363a, 375, 387, 412,418, 425, 426, 428, 430, 432, 4383, 487, 489, 447-451, 
456-458, 463, 464, 474, 475, 504, 516, 576, 577, 580-584, 588, 592, 608, 
613, 615, 627, 636, 637, 638, 689, 641, 642, 646-649, were taken from the 

, ‘American Naturalist.” 

Fies. 41, 70, 71, 88, 129, 188, 148, 152, 200, 232, 249, 258, 255, 349, 
492, 554, 618, and 645 were borrowed from the ‘‘ Report of the Maine 
Board of Agriculture for 1862.” 

Figs. 73-78, were kindly loaned by Prof. Jeffries Wyman. 

Fies. 570, 571, 574, 575, 617 and 635, were loaned by the Illinois 
Geological Survey. 

I am also indebted to Prof. Sanborn Tenney for the use of Figs. 
189, 190, 198, 315, 823, 563-567, from his ‘‘ Manual of Zoology.” 

The publishers of Hardwick’s ‘“‘ Science-Gossip,” London, afforded 
me stereotypes of Figs, 517, 557, 569, 573, 606, 607, 609-611, 616, 620 
-622, 628, 629 and 640. 

Electrotypes of Figs. 119, 261, 281, 281c-284, 328, 344, 351, 360, 363, 
367, 374, 376, 414, 429, 484, 452-454, 466, 468-471, 477, 479, 494, 506}, 
506?, 510, 522-526, 530, 532, 533, 536-541, 547-551, 564, 568, 595-598, 
were purchased of the publishers of the ‘‘ American Entomologist.” 

The following figures were engraved expressly for the work, viz: 
Figs. 11, 12, 13, 26, 28, 29,42, 48-47, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56, 59-61, 80, 107- 


(vii) 


vili EXPLANATION OF PLATE. 


109, 122, 123, 125, 1383-135, 137, 189-141, 145, 148-151, 166-168, 189- 
184, 187, 188, 197, 203, 208, 210, 211, 214, 218, 228, 236, 243, 244, 254, 
264-266, 272, 280, 297, 299, 301, 302, 308, 310, 364-366, 370, 371, 377, 
378, 381-386, 388, 390-397, 399-403, 405-407, 410, 411, 415-419, 423, 431, 
440, 441, 443-446, 459-462, 465, 467, 472, 473, 476, 478, 482, 483, 4852, b, 
488, 489, 490, 491, 495, 496, 498, 499, 503, 505, 507, 515, 520, 527-529, 
555, 558-560, 565, 572, 599, 600, 612, 614, 619, 623-626, 643, 644 and 650. 
Of these, 119 were drawn from nature, mostly by Mr. J. H. Emerton, 
and a few by Messrs. C. A. Walker and L. Trouvelot. These are num- 
bered: 11, 12, 13-20, 26, 28, 29, 42, 51, 52, 57-63, 64-67, 79-82, 90, 107- 
109, 122, 123, 125, 138, 137, 189, 141, 145, 148, 149-151, 166, 167, 168, 
182-184, 187, 188, 197, 203, 208 a, b, 210 a, 211, 214, 218, 236, 254, 265, 
266, 299, 301, 308, 316, 364-366, 378, 383, 384, 386, 392, 393, 396, 397, 
400, 402, 403, 405, 413, 415, 419, 423, 431, 443, 441, 443-446, 465, 473, 
476, 482 a, 483, 485 a, b, 489, 490, 491, 496, 498, 499, 503, 505, 507, 515, 
520, 555, 560, 565, 599, 600, 612, 614, 619. 

Of the remainder, Figs. 134, 459-462, 495, 506, were copied from 
Harris; 43, 45, from Leidy; 46, 47, 49, 50, from Straus-Durckheim; 
44, 53, 54 and 650, from Newport; 135, 140, from Fitch; 223, 243, 244, 
528, 529, from Glover; 264, 467, from Curtis; 623-626, from Clapa- 
réde; 643, 644, from Doyére; 56 from Gerstaecker; 297, from Mecz- 
nikow; 302, from Brauer; 417, 418, from Leprieur; 527, 558 559, 
from Guérin-Méneville; 572 from Dohrn; 394, from Blisson; 388,- 
from Candéze; 377, 381, 382, 385, 390, 891, 895, 399, 401, 406, 407, 410, 
472 and 488, from Chapuis and Candéze. 

PuatsEs 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11, were taken from the ‘‘ American 
Naturalist.” Plates 5 and 8, are original, and drawn from nature by 
Mr. J. H. Emerton. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE 8. 


Fic. 1. Empretia stimulea; 1a, larva. 

Bie. 2. Leucania unipunceta; 2a, larva. 

Fie. 3. Xanthoptera semicrocea; 3a, larva. 

Fie. 4. Catocala ultronia; 4a, larva. 

Fre. 5. Angerona crocataria, male; 5a, larva. 

Fic. 6, Ennomos subsignaria; larva. i 

Fic. 7. Nematocampa filamentaria; 7a, larva (enlarged twice). 

Fie. 8. Abraxas ribearia, male. 

Fie. 9. Anisopteryx vernata, male; 9a, female (enlarged), 96, larva. 


Fig. 10. Cidaria diversilineata; 10 a@, larva. 

WIG. 11. Galleria cereana. 

Fra. 12. Lozotenia rosaceana; 12a, larva. 

Fre. 13. Penthina pruniana. . . 
Fra. 14. Depressaria robiniella. _ [its mine, 
Fig. 15. Lithocolletis geminatella; a, larva; b, pupa (enlarged three times), 15c, 
Fie. 16. Bueculatrix pomifoliella. 

Fig. 17. Coleophora; larva. 

Fic. 18. Lyonetia saccatella; 18a, larva; 18}, case (enlarged). 

Ftc. 19. Lithocolletis nidificansella (enlarged); 19a, cocoon. 

Fre. 20. Aglossa cuprealis. 

Fre. 21. Anehvlopera vacciniana. 

Fig. 22. Penthina vitivorana (enlarged). 

FIG. 23. Pterophorus periscelidactylus; a, larva; 6, pupa (enlarged three times). 


GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 


THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Tuat branch of the Animal Kingdom known as the ARTIC- 
ULATA, is so called from having the body composed of rings 
or segments, like short cylinders, which are placed successively 
one behind the other. Cuvier selected this term because he 
saw that the plan of their entire organization, the essential 
features which separate them from all other animals, lay in the 
idea of articulation, the apparent joining together of distinct 
segments along the line of the body. If we observe carefully 
the body of a Worm, we shall see that it consists of a long 
cylindrical sac, which at regular intervals is folded in upon 
itself, thus giving a ringed (annulated, or articulated) appear- 
ance to the body. In Crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, etc.) 
and in Insects, from the deposition of a peculiar chemical 
substance called chitine, the walls of the body become so 


hardened, that when the animal is dead and dry, it 
readily breaks into numerous very perfect rings. 
Though this branch contains a far greater number of 
species than any other of the animal kingdom, its myr- 

iad forms. can all be reduced to a simple, ideal, typical 
figure; that of a long slender cylinder divided into 
numerous segments, as in Fig. 1, representing the larva ‘ 
of a Fly. It is by the unequal development and the 
various modes of grouping them, as well as the differ- 

ences in the number of the rings themselves, and also in Fis-1. 
the changes of form of their appendages, 7.e. the feet, jaws, 
antenne, and wings, that the various forms of Articulates are 
produced. 


Fig. 1. Worm-like larva of a Fly, Scenopinus. — Original. 
1 


7 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Articulated animals are also very distinctly bilateral, i.e. the 
body is symmetrically divided into two lateral halves, and 
not only the trunk but the limbs also 
show this bilateral symmetry. In a less 
marked degree there is also an antero- 
posterior symmetry, i.e. each end of 
the body is opposed, just as each 
side of the body is, to the other.* 
The line separating the two ends is, 
however, imaginary and vague. ‘The: 
antenne, on the anterior pole, or head, 
are represented by the caudal, or anal, 
stylets (Fig. 2), and the single parts 
on the median line of the body corre- 
spond. ‘Thus the labrum and clypeus 
are represented by the tergite of the 
eleventh segment of the abdomen. 

Fig. 2* In all Articulates (Fig. 3) the long, 
tubular, alimentary canal occupies the centre of the body ; above 
it lies the ‘‘heart,” or dorsal vessel, and below, upon the under 
side, rests the nervous system. 
The breathing apparatus, or 
‘‘Jungs,” in Worms consists of 
simple filaments, placed on the 
front of the head ; or of gill-like 
processes, as in the Crustaceans, 
which are formed by membran- 
ous expansions of the legs ; or, Fig. 3. 
as in the Insects (Fig. 4), of delicate tubes (tracheze), which 


* Professor Wyman (On Symmetry and Homology in Limbs, Proceedings of the 
Boston Society of Natural History, 1867) has shown that antero-posterior symmetry 
is very marked in Articulates. In the adjoining figure of Jera (Fig. 2) the longi- 
tudinal lines illustrate what is meant by bilateral symmetry, and the transverse 
lines “fore and aft” symmetry. The two antero-posterior halves of the body are 
very symmetrical in the Crustacean genera Jera, Oniscus, Porcellio, and other 
Crustacea, and also among the Myriapods, Scutigera, Polydesmus, ‘‘ in which the 
limbs are repeated oppositely, though with different degrees of inequality, from the 
centre of the body backwards and forwards.” ‘ Leuckart and Van Beneden have 
shown that Mysis has an ear in the last segment, and Schmidt has described an eye 
in the same part in a worm, Amphicora.’— From Wyman. 

Fic. 3 represents an ideal section of a Worm. /f indicates the skin, or mus- 
cular body-wall, which on each side is produced into one or more fleshy tubercles, 
usually tipped with bristles or hairs, which serve as organs of locomotion, and 


THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 3} 


ramify throughout the whole interior of the animal, and con- 
nect with breathing pores (stigmata) in the sides of the body. 
They do not breathe through the mouth as do the higher ani- 
mals. The tracheze and blood-vessels follow closely the same 


a Fig. 4, 


course, so that the aération of the blood goes on, apparently, 
over the whole interior of the body, not being confined to a 
single region, as in the lungs of the vertebrate animals. 

Thus it is by observing the general form of the body-walls, 
and the situation of the different anatomical systems, both in 
relation to themselves and the walls of the body, or crust, 
which surrounds and protects the more delicate organs within, 
that we are able to find satisfactory characters for isolating, in 
our definitions, the articulates from all other animals. 

We shall perceive more clearly the differences between the 
three classes of Articulates, or jointed animals, namely, 
the Worms, Crustaceans, and Insects, by examining 


often as lungs. The nervous cord (a) rests on the floor of the cylinder, sending a 
filament into the oar-like feet (), and also around the intestine or stomach (0), to a 
supplementary cord (d@), which is situated just over the intestine, and under the 
heart or dorsal vessel (c). The circle c and eis a diagram of the circulatory sys- 
tem; cis the dorsal vessel, or heart, from the side of which, in each ring, a small 
vessel is sent downwards and around to e, the ventral vessel. — Original. 

Fic. 4. An ideal section of a Bee. Here the crust is dense and thick, to which 
strong muscles are attached. On the upper side of the ring the wings grow out, 
while the legs are inserted near the under side. The trachez (d) enter through the 
stigma, or breathing pore, situated just under the wing, and their branches sub- 
divide and are distributed to the wings, with their five principal veins as indicated 


% 


+ THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


their young stages, from the time of their exclusion from the egg, 
until they pass into mature life. A more careful study of this 
period than we are now able to enter upon would show us how 
much alike the young of all articulates are at first, and how 
soon they begin to differ, and assume the shape characteristic 
of their class. 

Most Worms, after leaving the egg, are at first like some 
infusoria, being little sac-like animalcules, often ciliated over 
nearly the entire surface of the-infinitesimal body. 
Soon this sac-like body grows longer, and con- 
tracts at intervals; the intervening parts become 
unequally enlarged, some segments, or rings, 

Fig.5. formed by the contraction of the body-walls, 

sreatly exceeding in size those next to them; and it thus 
assumes the appearance of being more or less equally ringed, 
as in the young Terebella (Fig. 5), where the 
cilize are restricted to asingle circle surrounding 
# the body. Gradually (Fig. 6) the ciliz disap- 
m° pear and regular locomotive organs, consisting 
™ of minute paddles, grow out from each side ; 
ie ° feelers (antennze), jaws, and eyes (simple rudi- 
mentary eyes) appear on the few front rings 
of the body, which are grouped by themselves 
c into a sort of head, though it is difficult, in a 
large proportion of the lower worms, for un- 
skilled observers to distinguish the head from 
the tail. 

Thus we see throughout the growth of the 
worm, no attempt at subdividing the body 
into regions, each endowed with its peculiar 

,iunctions ; but only a more perfect system of 
rings, each relatively very equally developed, 


a 


Fig. 6. 


in the figure, also to the dorsal vessel (c), the intestine (b), and the nervous cord (@). 
The trachez and a nervous filament are also sent into the legs and to the wings. 
The trachez are also distributed to the dorsal vessel and intestine by numerous 
branches which serve to hold them in place. — Original. 

Fic. 5. Young Terebella, soon after leaving the egg. — From A. Agassiz. 

Fic. 6 represents the embryo of a worm (Autolytus cornutus) at a later stage 
of growth. a is the middle tentacle of the head; e, one of the posterior tentacles; 
bd, the two eye-spots at the base of the hinder pair of feelers; c is one of a row of 
oar-like organs (ci77%) at the base of which are inserted the locomotive bristles, 


THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 5 


but all becoming respectively more complicated. For example, 
in the Earth-worm (Lumbricus), each ring is distinguishable into 
an upper and under side, and in addition to these a well- 
marked side-area, to which, as for example in marine worms (e.g. 
Nereis), oar-like organs are attached. In most worms eye-spots 
appear on the front rings, and slender tentacles grow out, and 
a pair of nerve-knots (ganglia) are apportioned to each ring. 

In the Crustaceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish (Asta- 
cus), aS Shown by the German naturalist Rathke; and also in 
the earliest stages of the Insect, the body at once assumes a 
worm-like form, thus beginning its embryonic life from the goal 
reached by the adult worm. 

The young of all Crustaceans (Fig. 7) first begin life in the 
ege as oblong flattened worm-like bodies, each end of the body 
being alike. The young of the lower Crustaceans, such as the 
Barnacles, and some marine forms like the Jeera and some 
lowly organized parasitic species inhabiting the gills of 
fishes, are hatched as microscopic embryos which would readily 
be mistaken for young mites (Acarina). In the higher Crus- 
taceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish, the Bie 
young, when hatched, does not greatly differ § i 
from the parent, as it has passed through the 
worm-like stage within the egg. 

Fig. 7 represents the young of the fresh- Sees 
water Lobster (Crawfish) before leaving the %@ % a haart 
ego. The body is divided into rings, ending ee 
in lobes on the sides, which are the rudiments 
of the limbs. 0 is the rudiment of the eye- Fig. 7. 
stalk, at the end of which is the eye; a is the fore antenne ; 
¢ is the hind antennz; d is one of the maxilla-feet; e is the 
first pair of true feet destined in the adult to form the large 
‘‘claw.” Thus the eye-stalks, antenne, claws, and legs are 
moulded upon a common form, and at first are scarcely distin- 


with the cirri serving as swimming and locomotive organs; d, the caudal styles, or 
tail-feelers. In this figure we see how slight are the differences between the 
feelers of the head, the oar-like swimming organs, and the caudal filaments; we 
can easily see that they are but modifications of a common form, and all arise 
from the common limb-bearing region of the body. The alimentary canal, with 
the proventriculus, or anterior division of the stomach, occupies the middle of the 
body; while the mouth opens on the under side of the head.— From A. Agassiz. 
Fic. 7. Embryo of the Crawfish.— From Rathke. “ 


et 


6 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


guishable from each other. Here we see the embryo divided 
into a head-thorax and a tail. 

It is the same with Insects. Within the egg at the dawn of 
life they are flattened oblong bodies curved upon the yolk- 
mass. Before hatching they become more cylindrical, the 
limbs bud out on the sides of the rings, the head is clearly 
demarked, and the young caterpillar soon steps forth from the 
ege-shell ready armed and equipped for its riotous life. 

As will be seen in Fig. 8, the legs, jaws, and antennz are 
first started as buds from the side of the rings, being simply 
elongations of the body-wall, 
which bud out, become larger, 
and finally jointed, until the 
See buds arising from the thorax or 
abdomen become legs, those 
from the base of the head be- 
come jaws, while the antennze 
and palpi sprout out from the 
front rings of the head. Thus 
os while the bodies of all articulates 
Fig. 8. are built up from a common em- 
bryonic form, their appendages, which are so diverse, when we 
compare a Lobster’s claw with an Insect’s antenna, or a Spider’s 
spinneret with the hinder limbs of a Centipede, are yet but 
modifications of a common form, adapted for the different uses 
to which they are put by these animals. 


Fic. 8. A Caddis, or Case-fly (Mystacides) in the egg, with part of the yolk 
(x) not yet inclosed within the body-walls. a, antenne; between @ and 4 the mandi- 
bles; b, maxilla; c, labium; d, the separate eye-spots (ocelli), which afterwards in- 
crease greatly in number and unite to form the compound eye. The “neck” or 
junction of the head with the thorax is seen at the front part of the yolk-mass;: ¢, 
the three pairs of legs, which are folded once on themselves; jf, the pair of anal legs 
attached to the tenth ring of the abdomen, as seen in caterpillars, which torm Jong 
antenna-like filaments in the Cockroach and May-fly, ete. The rings of the body are 
but partially formed; they are cylindrical, giving the body a worm-like form. 
Here, as in the other two figures, though not so distinctly seen, the antennze, jaws, 
and last pair of abdominal legs are modifications of but a single form, and grow 
out from the side of the body. The head-appendages are directed forwards, as 
they are to be adapted for sensory and feeding purposes; the legs are directed 
downwards, since they are to support the insect while walking. Itappears that the 
two ends of the body are perfected before the middle, and the under side before the 
upper, as we see the yolk-mass is not yet inclosed and the rings not yet formed 
above. Thus all articulates differ from all vertebrates in having the yolk-mass 
situated on the back, instead of on the belly, as in the chick, dog, or human em- 
bryo.— From Zaddach. 


THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 7 


The Worm is long and slender, composed of an irregular 
number of rings, all of very even size. Thus, while the size of 
the rings is fixed, their nwmber is indeterminate, varying from 
twenty to two hundred or more. The outline of the body is a 
single cylindrical figure. ‘The organs of locomotion are fleshy 
filaments and hairs (Fig. 2, /) appended to the sides. 

In one of the low intestinal worms, the Tape-worm (Tenia), 
each ring, behind the head and ‘‘neck,” is provided with organs 
of reproduction, so that when the body becomes broken up 
into its constituent elements, or rings (as often occurs naturally 
in these ‘low forms for the more ready propagation of the 
species, since the young are exposed to many dangers while 
living in the intestines of animals), they become living inde- 
pendent beings which ‘‘move freely and somewhat quickly 
like Leaches,” and until their real nature was known they 
were thought to be worms. This and other facts prove, that, 
in the Worm, the vitality of the animal is very equally dis- 
tributed to each ring. If we cut off the head or tail of some 
of the low worms, such as the Flat Worms (Planaria, etc.), the 
pieces will become a distinct animal, but an Insect or Crab 
sooner or later dies when deprived of its head or tail (abdomen). 

Thus, in the Worm the vital force is very equally distributed 
to each zoological element, or ring of the body; no single 
part of the body is much honored above the rest, so as to sub- 
ordinate and hold the other 
parts in subservience to its 
peculiar and higher ends in 
the animal economy. 

The Crustacean, of which: 
the Shrimp (Fig. 9) is a 
typical example, is com- 
posed of a _ determinate ‘ 
number (21) of rings which "Fig. 9. 
are gathered into two regions; the head-thorax (cephalo- 
thorax) and hind-body, or abdomen. In this class there 
is a broad distinction between the anterior and posterior ends 
of the body. The rings are now grouped into two regions, 
and the hinder division is subordinate in its structure and 


Fig. 9. A Shrimp. Pandalus annulicornis. a, cephalothorax: b, abdomen. 


8 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


uses to the forward portion of the body. Hence the nervous 
power is transferred in some degree towards the head; the 
cephalothorax containing the nervous centres from which nerves 
are distributed to the abdomen. Nearly all the organs perform- 
ing the functions of locomotion and sensation reside in the front 
region; while the vegetative functions, or those concerned 
in the reproduction and nourishment of the animal, are mostly 
carried on in the hinder region of the body (the abdomen). 

The typical Crustacean cannot be said to have a true head, 
in distinction from a thorax bearing the organs of locomotion, 
but rather a group of rings, to which are appended the organs 
of sensation and locomotion. Hence we find the appendages 
of this region gradually changing from antennze and jaws to 
foot-jaws, or limbs capable of eating and also of locomotion ; 
they shade into each other as seen in Fig. 9. Sometimes the 
jaws become remarkably like claws; or the legs resemble jaws 
at the base, but towards their tips become claw-like ; gill-like 
bodies are sometimes attached to the foot-jaws, and thus, as 
stated by Professor J. D. Dana in the introduction to his great 
work on the Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedi- 
tion, the typical Crustaceans do not have a distinct head, but 
rather a ‘‘head-thorax” (cephalothorax). 

When we rise a third and last step into the world of Insects, 
we see a completion and final development of the articu- 
late plan which has been but obscurely hinted at in the two 
lowest classes, the Worms and Crustaceans. Here we first meet 
with a true head, separate in its structure and functions from 
the thorax, which, in its turn, is clearly distinguishable from 
the third region of the body, the abdomen, or hind-body. 
These three regions, as seen in the Wasp (Fig. 10), are each 
provided with three distinct sets of organs, 
each having distinct functions, though all are 
governed by and minister to the brain force, 
now in a great measure gathered up from the 
posterior rings of the body, and in a more 
concentrated form (the brain being larger than in the lower 
articulates) lodged in the head. 

Here, then, is a centralization of parts headwards ; they are 


Fig. 10. Philanthus ventilabris Faby. A Wood-wasp.— From Say. 


COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 9 


brought as if towards a focus, and that focus the head, which 
is the meaning of the term ‘‘cephalization,” proposed by Pro- 
fessor Dana.* Ring distinctions have given way to regional 
distinctions. The former characterize the Worm, the latter 
the Insect. In other words, the division of the body into three 
parts, or regions, is in the insect, on the whole, better marked 
than the division of any one of those parts, except the abdo- 
men, into rings. 


ComMPoOsITION OF THE INsEcT-crUST. Before describing the 
composition of the body-wall, or crust, of the Insect, let us 
briefly review the mode in which the same parts are formed in 
the lower classes, the Worms and Crustaceans. We have seen 
that the typical ring, or segment (called by authors zodnule, 
zoonite, or somite, meaning parts of a body, though we prefer 
the term arthromere, denoting the elemental part of a jointed 
or articulate animal), consists of an upper (tergite), a side 
(pleurite), and an under piece (sternite). This is seen in its 
greatest simplicity in the Worm (Fig. 2), where the upper and 
ventral arcs are separated by the plewral region. In‘the Crus- 
tacean the parts, hardened by the deposition of chitine and 
therefore thick and unyielding, have to be farther subdivided to 
secure the necessary amount of freedom of motion to the body 
and legs. The upper are not only covers the back of the ani- 
mal, but extends down the sides; the legs are jointed to the 
epimera, or flanks, on the lower arc; the episternwm is situated 
between the epimerum and sternum; and the sternum, form- 
ing the breast, is situated between the legs. In the adult, there- 
fore, each elemental ring is composed of six pieces. It 
should, however, be borne in mind that the tergum and ster- 


*In two papers on the Classification of Animals, published in the American 
Journal of Science and Arts, Second Series, vol. xxxv, p. 65, vol. xxxvi, July, 1863, 
and also in his earlier paper on Crustaceans, ‘‘the principle of cephalization is 
shown to be exhibited among animals in the following ways: 

1. By a transfer of members from the locomotive to the cephalic series. 

2. By the anterior of the locomotive organs participating to some extent in ce- 
phalic functions. 

3. By increased abbreviation, concentration, compactness, and perfection of 
structure, in the parts and organs of the anterior portion of the body. 

4. By increased abbreviation, condensation, and perfection of structure in the 
posterior, or gastric and caudal portion of the body. 

5. By an upward rise in the cephalic end of the nervous system. This rise 
reaches its extreme limit in Man.” 


10 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


num each consist, in the embryo, of two lateral parts, or halves, 
which, during development, unite on the median line of the 
body. Typically, therefore, the crustacean ring consists pri- 
marily of eight pieces. The same number is found in all insects 
which are wingless, or in the larva and pupa state ; this applies 
also to the Myriapods and Spiders. 

In the Myriapoda, or Centipedes, the broad tergum overlaps 
the small epimera, while the sternum is much larger than in 
the Spiders and Insects. In this respect it is like the broad 
flat under-surface of most worms. Hence the legs of the 
Centipede are inserted very far apart, and the ‘‘breast,” or 
sternum, is not much smaller than the dorsal part of the crust. 
In the Julus the dorsal piece (tergum) is greatly developed 
over the sternum, but this is a departure from what is ap- 
parently the more typical form of the order, 7. e. the Centipede. 
In the Spiders there is a still greater disproportion in size 
between the tergum and the sternum, though the latter is very 
large compared with that of Insects. The epimera and episterna, 
or side-pieces of the Spiders, are partially concealed by the 
over-arching tergum, and they are small, since the joints of the 
legs are very large, Audouin’s law of development in Articu- 
lates showing that one part of the insect crust is always 
developed at the expense of the adjoining part. In the Spider 
we notice that the back of the thorax is a single solid plate 
consisting originally of four rings consolidated into a single 
hard piece. In like manner the broad solid sternal plate 
results from the reunion of the same number of sternites cor- 
responding, originally, to the number of thoracic legs. Thus 
the whole upper side of the head and thorax of the Spider is 
consolidated into a single hard horny immovable plate, like 
the upper solid part of the cephalothorax of the Crab or 
Shrimp. Hence the motions of the Spiders are very stiff com- 
pared with those of many Insects, and correspond to those of 
the Crab. 

The crust of the winged insect is modified for the per- 
formance of more complex motions. It is subdivided in so 
different a manner from the two lower orders of the class, that 
it would almost seem to have nothing in common, structurally 
speaking, with the groups below them. It is only by examin- 


COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 11 


ing the lowest wingless forms such as the Louse, Flea, 
Podura, and Bark-lice, where we see a transition to the Or- 
ders of Spiders and Myriapods, that we can perceive the plan 
pervading all these forms, uniting them into a common 
class. 

A segment of a winged six-footed insect (Hexapod) consists 
typically of eight pieces which we will now examine more 
leisurely. Figure 12 represents a side-view of prm 
the thorax of the Telea Polyphemus, or Silk- pt 
worm moth, with the legs and wings removed. 
Each ring consists primarily of the tergum, the 
two side-pieces (epimerum and episternum) and i Be 
the sternum, or breast-plate. But one of these Fig. 11. 
pieces (sternum) remains simple, as in the lower orders. The 
tergum is divided into four pieces. They were named by Au- 
douin going from before backwards, Fig. 12. 
the prescutum, scutum, scutellum, fies SOTO TOS 
and postscutellunv. 


The scutum is invariably present ?~ i a 
and forms the larger part of the ’-\ 
upper portion (tergum) of the tho- em’ —\ ALC) |. em” 
rax; the scutellum is, as its name CHS TAR : 
indicates, the little shield so promi- Tee a 
nent in the beetle, which is also we JSON 2 
uniformly present. The other two tr te c" tre” tr 
pieces are usually minute and Le eda 


crowded down out of sight, and placed between the two oppos- 
ing rings. As seen in Fig. 11, the praescutum of the moth is 
a small rounded piece, bent vertically down, so as not to be 
seen from above. In the lowly organized Hepialus, and some 


Fic. 11. Tergal view of the middle segment of the thorax of Telea Polyphemus. 
prm, prescutum; ms, scutum; scm, scutellum; pém, postscutellum; pt, patagium, 
or shoulder tippet, covering the insertion of the wings. — Original. 

Fic. 12. Side view of the thorax of 7. Polyphemus, the hairs removed. 1, Pro- 
thorax; 2, Mesothorax; 3, Metathorax, separated by the wider black lines. Tergum 
of the prothorax not represented. ms, mesoscutum; scm, mesoscutellum; ms” , 
metascutum; scm”, metascutellum; pt, a supplementary piece near the inser- 
tion of patagia; w, pieces situated at the insertion of‘the wings and surrounded by 
membrane; em, epimerum of prothorax, the long upright piece above being the 
episternum; epm’, episternum of the mesothorax: em”, epimerum of the same; 
epm”, episternum of the metathorax; em’, epimerum of the same, divided into two 
pieces; c, c’, c’, coxe; te, le’, le”, trochantines; ¢r, tr, fr, trochanters. 
— Original. 


2 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Neuroptera, such as the Polystechotes (Fig. 13a), the pre- 
scutum is large, well developed, triangular, and wedged in 
between the two halves of the scutum. The little 
piece succeeding the scutellum, 7.e. the postscu- 
tellum, is still smaller, and rarely used in descrip- JM 
tive entomology. Thus far we have spoken of the ? iggy 
middle, or mesothoracic, ring, where these four [i 
pieces are most equally developed. In the first, “gaat 
or prothoracic, ring, one part, most probably the a 2) f 
scutum, is well developed, while the others are M@Seag 
aborted, and it is next to impossible to trace them Ly. 
in most insects. The prothorax in the higher in- Fis. 1. 
sects, such as the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera is 
very small, and often intimately soldered to the succeeding or 
meso-thoracic ring. In the lower insects, however, such as the 
Coleoptera, the bugs (Hemiptera), grasshoppers and _ their 
allies (Orthoptera), and the Neuroptera, the large broad pro- 
thorax consists almost entirely of this single piece, and most 
writers speak of this part under the name of ‘‘ thorax,” since 
the two posterior segments are concealed by the wings when 
the animal is at rest. The metathorax is usually very broad 
and short. Here we see the scutum split asunder, with the 
preescutum and scutellum wedged in between, while the post- 
scutellum is aborted. 

On the side are two pieces, the upper (epimerum) placed 
just beneath the tergum, which is the collective name for the 
four tergal, or dorsal, pieces enumerated above. In front of 
the epimerum and resting upon the sternum, as its name im- 
ples, is the episternum. These two parts (pleurites) compose 
the flanks of the elemental ring. To them the legs are articu- 
lated. Between the two episterna is situated the breast-piece 
(sternum), which shows a tendency to grow smaller as we 
ascend from the Neuroptera to the Bees. 

In those insects provided with wings, the epimera are also 
subdivided. The smaller pieces, hinging upon each other, as 
it were, give play to the very numerous muscles of flight 


1 


° Bae 


Fic. 18. a, tergal view of thorax of Hepialus (Sthenopis); 1, prothorax; 2, meso- 
thorax; 3, metathorax. The prothorax is very small compared with that of Poly- 
steechotes (13 a, 1), where it is nearly as long as broad. — Original. 


COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 13 


needed by the insect to perform its complicated motions 
while on the wing. 

The insertion of the fore wing is concealed by the ‘‘ shoulder 
tippets,” or patagia (Fig. 11), which are only present in the 
mesothorax. The external opening of the spiracles just under 
the wing perforates a little piece called by Audouin the pevi- 
treme. 

A glance at Figures 11 and 12 shows how compactly the 
various parts of the thorax are agglutinated into a globular 
mass, and that this is due to the diminished size of the first 
and third rings, while the middle ring is greatly enlarged to 
support the muscles of flight. There are four tergal, four 
pleural, two on each side (and these in the Hymenoptera, Lepi- 
doptera, and Diptera subdivide into several pieces), and a 
single sternal piece, making nine for each ring and twenty- 
seven for the whole thorax, with eight accessory pieces (the 
three pairs of peritremes and the two patagia), making a total 
of thirty-five for the entire thorax; or, multiplying the four 
tergal pieces by two, since they are formed by the union of two 
primitive pieces on the median line of the body, we have 
thirty-nine pieces composing the thorax. 


TABLE OF THE PARTS OF THE THORAX APPLIED TO THE PRO-, 
MESO-, AND METATHORAX, RESPECTIVELY. 


Prescutum, 
Dorsal Scutum, 
Surface Scutellum, 
| Postscutellum. 
Thorax 4 Pleural ; Hoist ae 
j Surface 2 Episternal apophysis, Stigma, Peritreme. 
| Sternal ; i 
concice Sternum. 


We must remember that these pieces are rarely of precisely 
the same form in any two species, and that they differ, often in 
a very marked way, in different genera of insects. How sim- 
ple, then, is the typical ring, and how complex are the va- 
rious subdivisions of that ring as seen in the actual, living 
insect, where each part has its appropriate muscles, nerves, and 
trachez ! 

We have seen how the thorax is formed in Insects generally, 
let us now advert to the two types of thorax in the six-footed 

2 


14 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


insects. In the higher series of suborders, comprising the Dip- 
tera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, placing the highest last, 
the thorax shows a tendency to assume a globular shape; the 
upper side, or tergum, is much arched, the pleural region bulges 
out full and round, while the legs conceal at their insertion 
the sternum which is minute in size. 

In the lower series, embracing the Coleoptera, Hemiptera, 
Orthoptera, and Neuroptera, the entire body tends to be more 
flattened ; in the thorax-the terguin is broad, especially that of 
the prothorax, while the pleurites (episterna and epimera) are 
short and bulge out less than in the higher series, and the ster- 
num is almost invariably well developed, often presenting a 
large thick breast-plate bearing a stout spine or thick tubercle, 
as in Gidipoda. We can use these characters, in classifying 
insects into suborders, as they are common to the whole order. 
Hence the use of characters drawn from the wings and mouth- 
parts (which are sometimes wanting), leads to artificial dis- 
tinctions, as they are peripheral organs, though often convenient 
in our first attempts at classifying and limiting natural groups. 

The abdomen. In the hind body, or third region of the 
trunk, the three divisions of the typical ring (arthromere), are 
entire, the tergum is broad and often not much greater in ex- 
tent than the sternum; and the pleurites also form either a 
single piece, or, divided into an epimerum and episternum, 
form a distinct lateral region, on which the stigmata are sit- 
uated. The segments of the abdomen have received from 
Lacaze-Duthiers a still more special name, that of write, and 
the different tergal pieces belonging to the several rings, 
but especially those that have been modified to form the genital 
armor have been designated by him as tergites. We have 
applied this last term to the tergal pieces generally. The typi- 
cal number of abdominal segments is eleven. In the lowest 
insects, the Neuroptera, there are usually eleven; as we have 
counted them in the abdomen of the embryo of Diplax. In 
others, such as the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, there may 
never be more than ten, so far as present observation teaches 
us. 

The formation of the sting, and of the male intromittent 
organ, may be observed in the full-grown larva and in the in- 


COMPOSITION OF THE OVIPOSITOR. 15 


complete pupa of the Humble-bee, and other thin-skinned 
Hymenopterous larve, and in a less satisfactory way in the 
young Dragon-flies. 

If the larva of the Humble-bee be taken just after it has 
become full-fed, and as it is about to enter upon the pupa state, 
the elements 

ZS, (sterno - rhab- 
= UN. Gh eae 

\WW) dites Lacaze 


ES Dee LE ate Duthiers), or 
Cc. 4 tubercles, 
destined to Fig. 16. 
form the ovipositor, lie in 
G separate pairs, in two groups, 
Fig. 14. Fig. 15. exposed distinctly to view, 
as in Figures 14-18. The ovipositor thus consists of three 
pairs of slender non-articulated tubercles, situated in juxta- 
position on each side of Fig. 17. 17a. 


the mesial line of the 
body. The first pair arises 


from the eighth abdominal G N [ 


ring, and the second and 
third pair grow out from 
the ninth ring. The ends m9 
of the first pair scarcely 

reach beyond the base of | 


the third pair. With the |; T 

growth of the semi-pupa, 

the end of the abdomen ” 

decreases in size,and is. Fig. 1s. 184. 


Fig. 14. Rudiments of the sting, or ovipositor, of the Humble-bee. 8, 9, 10, 
sternites of eighth, ninth, and tenth abdominal rings in the larva. a, first pair, situ- 
ated on the eighth sternite; 6,second and inner pair; and c, the outer pair. The let- 
tering is the same in figures 14-22. The inner pair (b), forms the true ovipositor, 
through which the eggs are supposed to pass when laid by the insect, the two 
outer pairs, @and c, sheathing the inner pair. 

Fig. 15. The same a little farther advanced. 

Fic. 16. The same at a later stage, the three pairs approximating. 

Fic. 17. The three pairs now appear as if together growing from the base of the 
ninth segment; 17a, side view of the same, showing the end of the abdomen grow- 
ing smaller through the diminution in size of the under side of the body. 

Fig. 18. The three pairs of rhabdites now nearly equal in size, and nearly 
ready to unite and form a tube; 18a, side view of the same; the end of the abdo- 
men still more pointed; the ovipositor is situated between the seventh and.tenth 
rings, and is partially retracted within the body. 


16 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


gradually incurved toward the base (Fig. 18), and the three 
pairs of rhabdites approach each other so closely that the two 
outer ones completely ensheath the inner, until a complete 
extensible tube is formed, which is gradually withdrawn entirely 
within the body. 
The male genital organ is originally composed of three pairs 
, (two pairs, apparently, in s- 
q china, Fig. 19) of tubercles all 
arising from the ninth abdominal 
ring, being sternal outgrowths 
and placed on each side of the 
aD . mesial line of the body, two be- 
ing anterior, and very unequal in size, and the 
Fig. 19. third pair nearer the base of the abdomen. The ex- 
ternal genital organs cannot be considered as 
in any way homologous with the limbs, which 
are articulated outgrowths budding out be- 
, bween the sternal and pleural 
) pieces of the arthromere.* 
~~ This view will apply to the 
Fic.21. genital armor of all Insects, so 
far as we have been able to observe. It is 
so in the pupa of schna (Fig. 21), and 
the pupa of Agrion (Fig. 22), which com- 
pletely repeats, in its essential features, the Fig. 22. 
structure of the ovipositor of Bombus. Thus in Aschna and 
Agrion the ovipositor consists of a pair of closely appressed ensi- 
form processes which grow out from under the posterior edge of 
the eighth abdominal ring, and are embraced between two pairs 


* This term is proposed as better defining the ideal ring, or primary zodlogical 
element of an articulated animal than the terms somite or zodnite, which seem too 
vague; we also propose the term arthroderm for the outer crust, or body walls, of 
Articulates, and arthropleura for the pleural, or limb-bearing region, of the body, 
being that portion of the arthromere situated between the tergite and sternite. 

Fic. 19. The rudiments of the male intromittent organ of the pupa of Aschna, 
consisting of two flattened tubercles situated on the ninth ring; the outer pair 
large and rounded inclosing the smaller linear oval pair. 

Fic. 20. The same in the Humble-bee, but consisting of three pairs of tubercles, 
2, Y, 2; 8,9, 10, the last three segments of the abdomen. 

Fig. 21. The rudimentary ovipositor of the pupa of schna, a Dragon-fly. 

Fic. 22. The same in pupa of Agrion, a small Dragon-fly. Here the rudiments 
of the eleventh abdominal ring is seen. d, the base of one of the abdominal false 
gills. — Figs. 14-22 original. 


COMPOSITION OF THE OVIPOSITOR. 17 


of thin lamelliform pieces of similar form and structure, arising 
from the sternite of the ninth ring. These sternal outgrowths 
do not homologize with the filiform, antennz-like, jointed 
appendages of the eleventh ring, as seen in the Perlide and 
most Neuroptera and Orthoptera (especially in Mantis tes- 
sellata where they (Fig. 23) closely 
resemble antennz), which, arising as 
they do from the arthropleural, or limb- 
bearing region of the body, 7. e. between Fig. 23. 

the sternum and episternum, are strictly homologous with the 
abdominal legs of the Myriapoda, the ‘‘false legs” of cater- 
pillars, and the abdominal legs of some Neuropterous larvee 
(Corydalis, Phyganeide, étc.). 

It will thus be seen that the attenuated form of the tip is 
produced by the decrease in size of certain parts, the actual 
disappearance of others, and the perfection of those parts to 
be of future use. Thus towards the extremity of the body 
the pleurites are absorbed and disappear, the tergites overlap 
on the sternites, and the latter diminish in size and are 
withdrawn within the body, while the last, or eleventh sternite, 
entirely disappears.* Meanwhile the sting grows larger and 
larger, until finally we 
have the neatly fashioned 
abdominal tip of the bee 
concealing the complex 
sting with its intricate 
system of visceral ves- 

Fig. 24. sels and glands. 

The ovipositor, or sting, of all insects, therefore, is formed 

on a common plan (Fig. 24). The solid elements of the arthro- 


*In Ranatra, however, Lacaze-Duthiers has noticed the curious fact that in 
order to form the long respiratory tube of this insect, the tergite and sternite of the 
pregenital (eighth) segment are aborted, while the pleurites are enormously en- 
larged and elongated, so as to carry the stigmata tar out to the end of the long tube 
thus formed. 

Fig. 23. End of the abdomen of Mantis tessellata; p, many-jointed anal style 
resembling an antenna. 5-11, the seven last abdominal segments; the 8-11th ster- 
nites being obsolete.— From Lacaze-Duthiers. 

Fic. 24. Ideal plan of the structure of the ovipositor in the adult insect. 1-7t, 
the tergites, connected by dotted lines with their corresponding sternites. 6, the 
eighth tergite, or anal scale; c, epimerum; a’, a, two pieces forming the outer pair 
of rhabdites; 7, the second pair, or stylets; and f, the inner pair, or sting; d, the 

Q% 


18 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


mere are modified to form the parts supporting the sting alone. 
The external opening of the oviduct is always situated between 
the eighth and ninth segments, while the anal opening lies at 
the end of the eleventh ring. So that there are really, as 
Lacaze-Duthiers observes, three segments interposed between 
the genital and anal openings. 

The various modifications of the ovipositor and male organ 
will be noticed under the different suborders. ; 


Tue STRUCTURE OF THE Heap. After studying the com- 
position of the thorax and abdomen, where the constituent 
parts of the elemental ring occur in their greatest simplicity, 
we may attempt to unravel the intricate structure of the head. 
We are to determine whether it is composed of one, or more, 
segments, and if several, to ascertain how many, and then to 
learn what parts of the typical arthromere are most largely 
developed as compared with the development of similar parts 
in the thorax or abdomen. In this, perhaps the most difficult 
problem the entomologist has to deal with, the study of the 
head of the adult insect alone is only guesswork. We must 
trace its growth in the embryo. Though many writers consider 
the head as consisting of but a single segment, the most emi- 
nent entomologists have agreed that the head of insects is com- 
posed of two or more segments. Savigny led the way to these 
discoveries in transcendental entomology by stating that the 
appendages of the head are but modified limbs, and homol- 
ogous with the legs. This view at once gave a clue to the 
complicated structure of the head. If the antennz and biting 
organs are modified limbs, then there must be an elemental 
segment present in some form, however slightly developed in 
the mature insect, to which such limbs are attached. But the 
best observers have differed as to the supposed number of such 
theoretical segments. Burmeister believed that there were two 
only ; Carus and Audouin thought there were three; McLeay 
and Newman four, and Straus-Durckheim recognized seven. 
From the study of the semipupa of the Humble-bee (Bombus) 


support of the sting; e, the support of the stylet (7). £&, the anus; O, the outlet of 
the oviduct. The seventh, eighth, and ninth sternites are aborted.— From Lacaze- 
Duthiers. 


THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD. 19 


and several low Neuropterous forms, as the larva of Ephemera, 
but chiefly the embryo of Diplax, a dragon-fly, we have con- 
cluded that there are seven such elemental segments in the 
head of insects. 

That there are four corresponding to the jointed appendages, 
i. e. the labium, or second maxillee, the first maxillze, the man- 
dibles, and the antennz, seems indisputable. But where else 
are we to look for jointed appendages in an insect’s head? We 
must go out of the class of Insects and study the stalk-eyed 
Crustacea, such as the Lobster, where the eye is supported on a 
two-jointed stalk, which has been homologized with the limbs. 
While, therefore, the eyes of insects are never ‘‘ stalked,” as in 
the Lobster and Shrimp, they are evidently developed, as in 
the Crustacean, upon a separate segment (or its rudiments), 
‘which may be called the “ ophthalmic ring,” and which is, there- 
fore, the fifth cephalic ring. In advance of the eyes are nor- 
mally placed the three ocelli, though in the highest Insects (the 
Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera) they appear to be 
situated in the rear of the eyes. 

Each of these three ocelli is situated upon a distinct piece; 
but we must consider the anterior single ocellus as in reality 
formed of two, since in the immature pupa of Bombus the 
anterior ocellus is differently shaped from the two posterior 
ones, being transversely ovate, resulting, as I think, from the 
fusion of two originally distinct ocelli, and not round like the 
other two. ‘There are, therefore, two pairs of ocelli, and hence 
they grow from the rudiments of a sixth and seventh ring 
respectively. 

Now, since the arthropleural is the limb-bearing region in 
the thorax, it must follow that this region is largely developed 
in the head, to the bulk of which the sensory and digestive 
organs bear so large a proportion; and as all the parts of the 
head are subordinated in their development to that of the ap- 
pendages of which they form the support, it must follow logi- 
cally that the larger portion of the body of the head is pleural, 
and that the tergal, and especially the sternal, parts are either 
very slightly developed, or wholly obsolete. Thus. each region 
of the body is characterized by the relative development of 
the three parts of the arthromere. In the abdomen the upper 


20 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


(tergal) and under (sternal) surfaces are most equally devel- 
oped, while the pleural line is reduced to a minimum. In the 
thorax the pleural region is much more developed, either quite 
as much, or often more than the upper, or tergal portion, while 
the sternal is reduced to aminimum. In the head the pleurites 
form the main bulk of the region, the sternites are reduced to 
a minimum, and the tergites may be identified in the occiput, 
the clypeus, and labrum. 


TABLE OF THE SEGMENTS OF THE HEAD AND TITEIR APPENDAGES, 
BEGINNING WITH THE MOST ANTERIOR.* 


Preoral. 
; a0 Labrum, epipharynx, cly- 
(Hypothetical), Teregal, ’ : 
5 peus. 
First Segment Anterior ocellus (originally 
(First Ocellary), , Fleural, ; double). 
Second Segment ; Re eT 
secon Ocean): Pleural, Two posterior ocelli. 
Third Segment ‘ 
(Ophthalmic), eleouc BES: 
Fourth Segment Pleural, Antenne. 
(Antennary), 
Postoral. 
Fifth Segment 2 : 
(Mandibular); 5 Pleural, HERETO 
Sixth Segment ? i a 
(First Maxillary), § Pleural, First maxille. 


Second mavxillze 


Seventh Segment Tergal (occiput), 
(Second Maxillary, or Pleural (gena), : 
Labial), Sternal (gula), (Labium). 


The Appendages. We naturally begin with the thoracic 
appendages, or legs, of which there is a pair to each rmg. The 
leg (Fig. 25) consists of seven joints, the basal one, the cowa, in 
the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera, consisting of two 


*¥n the first column are enumerated the seven rings, or segments, composing 
the head. The tergal parts (é.e. the labrum, epipharynx, and clypeus), situated in 
front of the ocelli, are left out in enumerating the seven segments, as they are not 
supposed by the author to belong to either of those segments. 

In the first column the seven rings are named (in brackets) according to the sort of 
appendages they bear. In the second column is given the part, or parts, of the ideal 
segment supposed actually to exist in an insect’s head; and in the third column are to 
be found the names of the organs attached to their corresponding segments, beginning 
with the front and going back to the base of the head. 


THE APPENDAGES. 21 


pieces, 7.e. the coxa and trochantine (see Fig. 12); the tro- 
chanter; the femur; the tibia, and, lastly, the tarsus, which is 
subdivided into from one to five joints, the latter being 
the normal number. The terminal joint ends in a pair 
of claws between which is a cushion-like sucker called 
the pulvillus. This sucking disk enables the Fly to 
walk upside down and on glass. 

In the larva, the feet are short and horny, and the Fig. 25. 
joints can be still distinguished. In Myriapods, each segment 
of the abdomen has a pair of feet like the thoracic ones. We 
must consider the three pairs of spinnerets of Spiders, which 
are one to three-jomted, as homologous with the jointed limbs of 
the higher insects. In the six-footed insects (Hexapoda), the 
abdominal legs are deciduous, being present in the Coleopterous 
grub, the Dipterous maggot, the caterpillar, and larva of the 
Saw-fly, but disappearing in the pupa state. They are often, 
as in most maggots, either absent, or reduced in number to the 
two anal, or terminal, pair of legs ; while in the Saw-flies, there 
are aS Imany as eight pairs. These “false” or ‘‘ prop-legs” 
are soft and fleshy, and without articulations. At the retrac- 
tile extremity is a crown of hooks, as seen in caterpillars or the 
hind-legs of the larva of Chironomus (Fig. 26), in which the. 
prothoracic pair of legs is reduced to inarticu- 
late fleshy legs like the abdominal ones. 

The position of the different pairs of legs 
deserves notice in connection with the principle 
of ‘antero-posterior symmetry.” The fore- 
legs are directed forwards like the human arms, Fig. 26. 
but the two hinder pairs are directed backwards. In the Spiders, 
three pairs of abdominal legs (spinnerets) are retained through- 
out life; in the lower Hexapods, a single pair, which is ap- 
pended to the eleventh segment, is often retained, but under 
a form which is rather like an antenna, than limb-like. In 
some Neuropterous larvee (Phryganea, Corydalus, ete.) the 
anal pair of limbs are very well marked; they constitute the 
‘‘anal forceps” of the adult insect. They sometimes become 
true, many-jointed appendages, and are then remarkably like 


Fic. 25. A, coxa; B, trochanter; C, femur; D, tibia; F, tibial spurs; E, tarsus, 
divided into five tarsal joints, the fifth ending in a claw.— from Sanborn. 


22 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


antenne, as in the instance of Mantis tessellata described by 
Lacaze-Duthiers (Fig. 23). In the Cockroach these append- 
ages, sometimes called ‘‘anal cerci,” resemble the antennz of 
the same insect. In the Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera they 
do not appear to be jointed, and are greatly aborted. 

The Wings. The wings of insects first appear as little soft 
vascular sacs permeated by trachese. They grow out in the 
preparatory stages (Fig. 27) of the pupa from the side of the 

k thorax and above the insertion of the 
5 legs, i.e. between the epimerum and 
_™tergum. During the pupa state they 
are pad-like, but when the pupa skin is 
thrown off they expand with air, and 
in a few minutes, as in the Butterfly, 
enlarge to many times their original 
size. The wings of insects, then, are . 
simple expansions of the crust, spread 
over a framework of horny tubes. 
These tubes are really double, consist- 
ing of a central trachea, or air tube, 
inclosed within a larger tube filled with 
blood, and which performs the functions of the veins. Hence 
the aeration of the blood is carried on in the wings, and thus 
they serve the double purpose of lungs and organs of flight. 

The number and situation of these veins and their branches 
(veinlets) are of great use in separating genera and species. 
The typical number of primary veins is five. They diverge 
outward at a slight angle from the insertion of the wing, and 
are soon divided into veinlets, from which cross veins are 
thrown out connecting with others to form a net-work of veins 
and veinlets, called the venation of the wing (Figs. 28, 29). 
The interspaces between the veins and veinlets are called cells. 

At a casual glance the venation seems very irregular, but in 
many insects is simple enough to enable us to trace and name 
the veinlets. The five main veins, most usually present, are 


Fic. 27. The semipupa of Bombus, the larva skin haying been removed, show- 
ing the two pairs of rudimentary wings growing out from the mesothorax (/), and 
metathorax (m). m and the seven succeeding dots represent the eight abdominal 
stigmata, the first one (7) being in the pupa situated on the thorax, since the first 
ring of the abdomen is in this stage joined to the thorax. — Original. 


THE WINGS. 23 


ealled,going from the costa, or front edge, the costal, subcostal, 


median, submedian, and internal, and sometimes the median 
Fig. 28. 


divides into two, making six 
veins. The costal vein is un- 
divided ; the subcostal and me- 
dian are divided into several 
branches, while the submedian 
and internal are usually simple. 
The venation of the fore- 
wings affords excellent marks 
in separating genera, but that 
of the hind wings varies less, 
and is consequently of less use. 
The wings of many insects 
are divided by the veins into 
three well-marked areas; the 
costal, median, and internal. 
The costal area (Fig. 310) forms 
the front edge of the wing and 
is the strongest, 
since the veins are 
nearer together than S 
elsewhere, and thus sm 
afford the greatest 
resistance to the air 


Fic. 28. Fore and hind wings of a Butterfly, showing the venation. I. fore wing: 
a, costal vein; b, subcostal vein; 61, b2, b3, 04, b5, five subcostal veinlets; c, inde- 
pendent vein (it is sometimes a branch of the subcostal, and sometimes of the me- 
dian vein); d, median vein; d1, d2, d3, d4, four median veinlets; e, submedian vein ; 
J, internal vein; h, interno-median veinlet (rarely found, according to Doubleday, 
except in Papilio and Morpho); b and d are situated in the ‘‘ discal cell;” g1, 92, 73, 
the npper, middle, and lower discal veinlets. In the Bombycidz and many other 
moths g1 and g2 are thrown off from the subcostal and median veins respectively, 
meeting in the middle of the cell at g2._ They are sometimes wholly absent. 

II. The hind wing; the lettering and names of the veins and veinlets the same 
as in the fore wing. — Slightly changed from Doubleday. 

Fic. 29. Fore wing of a Hymenopterous insect. c, costal vein; sc, subcostal 
vein; m, median vein; sm, submedian vein; 7, internal vein; c, 1, 2,3, the first, 
second, and third costal cells; the second frequently opaque and then called the 
pterostigma. sc,1,2,3,4, the four subcostal cells; m, 1, 2, 3, 4, the median cells; 
sm, 1, 2, 8, the three submedian cells; 71, the internal cell; this is sometimes divided 
into two cells, and the numbers of all but the costal cells is inconstant, the outer 
row of cells (4, 4, 3) being the first to disappear. 

The costal edge extends from c to c; the outer c, the apex; the outer edge extends 
from the apex (c) to a, and the inner edge extends from a, the inner angle, to the 
insertion of the wing at 7.— Original. Figs. 30-32 from Scudder. 


24 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


during flight. The median area (Fig. 31) is the largest. It is 
in the grasshoppers and crickets sometimes modified to form a 
musical organ, being 
drum-like, as in the 
Gcanthus (Fig. 30), or 


tera (Fig. 31a). The 
internal area (c) is the 
smallest, and less dis- 
»., tinetly marked than the 
two other regions; the musical file-like or- 
gan of Orchelimum vulgare, a common grass- 
hopper (Fig. 32d) is situated on this area. 
Fig. 31. The limits of the edges of the wing vary 
in almost every genus, and their comparative length afford 
excellent generic characters. The front edge (Fig. 29) is called 
the costal, its termina- im 

tion in the outer angle //7 \ 
of the wing is called 
the apex; the outer edge 
is situated between the 
apex and the inner an- 
gle, between which and 
the base of the wing is 
the inner, or internal, 
edge. These distinc- 
tions are of most use 
in describing the butter- 
flies and moths. 

The Appendages of 
Fiz. 31a. the Head. These organs 
are divided into two groups, | 
the first of which comprise the ‘ i 
sensory organs, z.e. the ocelli, Fig. 32. 
eyes, and antenne, which are attached to the region in front 
of the mouth, or preoral region of the head. The second 
group consists of the sensorio-digestive appendages, combining 
the power of finding and seizing the food and preparing it for 
digestion. They are inserted behind the mouth and belong 
to the postoral region of the head. 


THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD. 25 


We will first describe the ocelli, going backwards to the 
basal appendages, the labium (second maxille) being the 
hindermost. 

The simple eye, Ocellus, or Stemma, is the simplest form of 
the eye. Its most elementary form (seen in the larva of the 
Bot-fly and the Cecidomyian larva of Miastor) is that of a brown 
spot, or group of pigment-cells lodged under the skin’ and 
against which a nerve-filament impinges. Over this spot New- 
port states that the tegument is transparent and convex, 
resembling a true cornea, or eye-lens. A well-developed 
ocellus consists, according to Newport, of a ‘‘very convex, 
smooth, single cornea, beneath which is a spherical crystalline 
lens, resting upon the plano-convex surface of the expanded 
vitreous humor, the analogue of the transparent cones of the 
compound eyes.” Miller believes that the function of the ocelli 
is the perception of nearer objects, while that of the compound 
eyes is to see more distant objects. The ocelli constitute the 
only visual organs in the Myriapods (except Cermatia), the 
Arachnida, and the larve of many Six-footed Insects; they 
are usually from one to six on a side. In adult insects 
they are generally three in number, and 5 f te 
are generally present except in the large 620 = 
majority of Coleoptera. Their normal site > 
is in front of the eyes, but they are usually Fic. 33. 
thrown back, during the growth of the insect, behind the eyes, 
on the vertex, or topmost part of the head (Fig. 33). 

The Compound Eyes are a congeries of simple eyes. During 
the growth of the insect the simple eyes of the larva increase 

OO in number, and finally coalesce to form the compound 

Y@? eye, or compound cornea, the surface of which is 

Fig. 34. very convex and protuberant in the predaceous insects, 
or those requiring an extended field of vision. 

The number of facets, or corneze, vary from fifty (in the Ant) 
to 3,650, the latter number being counted by Geofiroy in the 
eye of a Butterfly. These facets are usually hexagonal, as in 
the Dragon-fly (Fig. 34), or, rarely, quadrangular. 

Fic. 33. Ocelli of three species of Sand-wasps, Pompilus.— From Cresson. 


Fig. 34. Three hexagonal facets of the compound eye of a fossil Dragon-fly, 
greatly magnified.— Krom Dawson. 


3 


26 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


The Antenne (Figs. 35, 36) are inserted usually in the adult 
insect between, or in front of the eyes, though normally the 
antennary is posterior to the ophthalmic ring. 

It is normally a long, filiform, slender, many- A 7 
jointed appendage, undergoing great changes = 

in form. When it is highly specialized, as in = 
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, it is divided 

into three parts, the basal or scape, the middle = 

\ or pedicel, and the terminal part or flagellum,  ™'S- 36 
Fig. 35. or clavola, which usually comprises the greater part of 
the antenna. 

It is believed by some that the sense of hearing is lodged 
in the antenne, though Siebold has discovered an auditory 
apparatus situated at the base of the abdomen of some, and 
in the fore-legs of other species of Grasshoppers. 

Mr. J. B. Hicks has made the latest studies on the auditory 
apparatus. According to him ‘it consists first of a cell, sac, 
or cavity filled with fluid, closed in from the air by a mem- 
brane analogous to that which closes the foramen ovale in the 
higher animals; second, that this membrane is, for the most 
part, thin and delicate, but often projects above the surface, in 
either a hemispherical, conical, or canoe-shaped, or even hair- 
like form, or variously marked ; thirdly, that the antennal nerve 
gives off branches which come in contact with the inner wall of 
the sacs ; but whether the nerve enters, or, as is most probable, 
ends in the small internally projecting papilla which I have 
shown to exist in many of these sacs, it is very difficult to say. 
The principal part of the nerve proceeds to these organs, the 
remaining portion passing to the muscles, and to the roots of 
the hairs, at least to those of the larger sort.” On the other 
hand, Lefebvre, Leydig, and Gerstaecker regard this so-called 
‘‘auditory apparatus” as an organ of smell. 

The antennze have also the sense of touch, as may readily be 
observed in Ants, Bees, and the Grasshopper and Cockroach. 
‘*The Honey-bee, when constructing its cells, ascertains their 
proper direction and size by means of the extremities of these 


Fic. 35. Filiform antenna of Amphizoa.— From Horn. 

Fic. 36. A, lamellate antenna of a Lamellicorn Beetle; B, antenna of a Fly, 
with the bristle thrown off from the terminal joint; C, bristle-like antenna of a 
Dragon-fly, Libellula.— From Sanborn. 


THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD. PAE 


organs; while the same insect, when evidently affected by 
sounds, keeps them motionless in one direction, as if in the act 
of listening.” (Newport.) 

After cutting off one or both. antennz of the June beetle, 
Lachnosterna, the insect loses its power of directing its flight 
or steps, wheeling about in a senseless manner. Dr. Clemens 
observed that the Cecropia moth was similarly affected after 
losing its antenne. 

The Mandibles (Fig. 37) are inserted on each side of the 
mouth-opening. They usually consist of but a single joint, 


rap joa AX 


representing probably the aad niet of the ideal limb. This 
part, however, is often subdivided by two longitudinal furrows 
into three parts, each ending in a ‘‘tooth” of unequal size for 
tearing and cutting the food. ‘This tripartite form of the man- 
dibles, to which attention has been called by Mr. Scudder, is 
more fully carried out in the maxilla, where each portion is 
highly specialized. The mandibles vary greatly in form and 
size. ‘The two cutting edges are usually opposed to each other, 
or frequently overlap in the carnivorous forms. Their base is 
| ie _ yy )\ Often concealed by the clypeus 
S\ ea ay and labrum. Their motion is 
transverse, being the reverse of 
the motion of the jaws of Ver- 

tebrates. 

w Fig. 38. b The Mawillee (Figs. 386,39) are Fig. 39. 

much more complicated organs than the mandibles. They are 


Fic. 37. Different forms of mandibles. A, mandible of Cicindela purpurea; B, 
Phylloptera, a green grasshopper; C, Libellula trimaculata; D, Vespa maculata, or 
paper-making Wasp; E, ‘‘rostrum” or jointed sucker of the Bed-bug, Cimezx lectu- 
larius, consisting of mandibles, maxillz, and labium; F, proboscis, or sucker, of a 
Mosquito, Culex, in which the mandibles are long and bristle-like.— From Sanborn. 
G, mandible of Amphizoa; H, mandible of Acratus,a genus of Cockchafers.— From 
Horn. 

Fic. 38. a, mentum and labial palpi; 6, one maxilla, with its palpus, of Acra- 
tus.— From Horn. 

Fic. 39. Maxilla of Amphizoa, with the two lobes (stipes and lacinia), and the 
palpifer bearing the four-jointed palpus.— From Horn. 


28 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


inserted cn the under side of the head and just behind the 
mouth. The maxilla consists of a basal joint, or cardo, 
beyond which it is subdivided into three lobes, the stipes, or 
footstalk ; the palpifer, or palpus-bearer; and the lacinia, or 
blade. The stipes forms the outer and main division of the 
organ. The lacinia is more membranaceous than the other 
parts, and its upper surface is covered with fine hairs, and 
forms a great part of the side of the mouth. It is divided 
into two lobes, the superior of which is called the galea, or 
helmet, which is often a thick double-jointed organ edged with 
stiff hairs, and is used as a palpus in the Orthoptera and many 
Coleoptera. The inferior lobe is attached to the internal angle 
of the lacinia. It terminates in a stiff minute claw, and is 
densely covered with stout hairs. The mazillary palpi are 
long, slender, one to four-jointed organs, very flexible and sen- 
sitive. 

The maxille vary greatly in the different groups. Their office 
is to seize the food and retain it within the mouth, and also to 


aid the mandibles in comminuting it before it is swallowed. 
This function reminds us of that of the tongue of vertebrate 
The labium, or second mawille (Fig. 40), is placed in front of 
the gula, which forms the under part of the head, and is bounded 
posteriorly by the occiput. The gen are 

bounded laterally by the epicranium and 

Fig. 40. situated the basal parts of the labium, or 
second mawnille, which embraces the submentum and mentune 
mentum, but often the latter piece is differentiated into two, 
the anterior of which takes the name of palpiger, called by 
and the palpi originate from them. The ligula is the front 
edge of the labium, being the piece forming the under lip. 


animals. 
a on each side by the gene, or cheeks, and 
puny: 
\ 

the under side of the eyes. In front are 
(or labium proper). The labial palpi are inserted into the 
Dr. Leconte (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections) the ligula, 
It is often a fleshy organ, its inner surface being continuous 


Fic. 40. Ligula and labial palpi of Amphizoa, an aquatic beetle. Itis quadrate 
and without paraglosse; a, mentum of the same, being deeply incised, and witha 
tooth at the bottom of the excayation.— From Horn. 


THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD. 29 


with the soft membrane of the mouth. In the Bees, it is enor- 
mously developed and covered with soft hairs. It is often 
confounded with the palpiger. In Hydrous it is divided into 
two lobes. In most of the Carabide and Bees it is divided 
into three lobes, the two outer ones forming the paraglosse 
(Fig. 41m), and acting as feelers, while the middle, usually 
much longer, forms the lingua, or tongue, being the continuation 
of the ligula. In the bees, where 
the ligula is greatly developed, (une 
it performs the part of the tongue BS K 
in Vertebrates, and aids the max- |aae \wurnid! 
ille in collecting nectar and | 
pollen. 

The roof of the mouth is 
formed by the labrum and the 
epipharynx (Fig. 42c), a small 
fleshy tubercle concealed beneath 
the labrum. It is seen in the 
bees on turning up the labrum. 
It probably corresponds to the 
‘““Jabellum” of Schiodte. The 
labrum (Fig. 41e) is usually 
transverse and situated in front 
of the clypeus (Fig. 410). The 
shield-like clypeus is the broad, Big. 40 
visor-like, square piece forming usually the front of the head. 
Behind it is the clypeus posterior, or supra-clypeus, a subdivision 
of the clypeus, and especially observable in the Hymenoptera. 
The epicranium forms a large part of the head; it is bounded 
posteriorly by the occiput, on the sides by the eyes, and in 
front by the clypeus, and though usually described as a 
single piece, is really composed of several. The ocelli often 
appear to be situated upon it, though in reality they are placed 
upon a distinct piece or pieces. The ‘‘ epicranial suture” is the 
line of junction of the two ‘‘procephalic lobes” (Huxley). 


Fic. 41. Front view of the head of a bee, Anthephora. a, compound eyes; c¢, 
three simple eyes, situated upon the epicranium; 0, clypeus; e, labrum; d, an- 
tenn; 7, mandibles; 7, maxille; kh, maxillary palpi; J, palpifer; j, labial palpi; m, 
paraglosse; x, ligula—from Newport. 


3* 


30 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. ‘ 


(These lobes will be explained farther on when speaking 
of their development in the embryo.) Behind the epicra- 
nium is the occiput, 
or base of the head. 
It belongs to the la- 
bial, or second max- 
illary segment, and 
helps to form a com- 
plete ring, articulat- 
ing with the thorax. 
It is perforated by a 
foramen to afford a 
connection between 
the interior of the 
head and thorax. It 
is sometimes, as in 
many Coleoptera, Or- 
thoptera, and Hemip- 
tera, elongated be- 

Fig. 42. hind and constricted, 
thus forming a ‘‘neck.” It will be seen beyond, that the 
labrum and clypeus are in the embryo developed from a 
‘*tongue-like process whose inferior part eventually becomes 
the labrum, while superiorly it sends a triangular process (the 
rudiment of the clypeus) into the interval between the proce- 
phalic lobes.”* This part (7.e. the clypeus and labrum) is the 
most anterior part of the head, and in the embryo, as in the 
adult, is normally situated in front of the ocelli, and may be 
compared with the ‘anal plate,’ or eleventh tergite, of the 
larva. 


Fic. 42. Side view of the front part of the head, together with the mouth- 
parts of the Humble-bee (Bombus). a, clypeus covered with hairs; }, labrum; 
c, the fleshy epipharynx partially concealed by the base of the mandibles (d); 
é, lacinia, or blade of the maxillx, with their two-jointed palpi () at the base; j, the 
labium to which is appended the ligula (g); below are the labial palpi; hk, the two 
basal jomts, being greatly enlarged; /:, the compound eyes.— Original. | 

* These lobes are folded back upon the top of the base of the head, and they 
seem to form the tergal portion of the hypothetical, elemental ring, or rings, to which 
they respectively belong, and do not seem to us to be the sternal portion, as sug- 

“gested by Huxley, for they are apparently developed in front of the mouth-opening, 
and form the roof of the mouth. 

{ ‘Lasily, there arecertain parts developed singly in the median line in the Artic- 
ulata. Of this nature are the frontal spines of Crustacea, their telson, and the sting 


THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 31 


In describing Insects the vertex, or crown, of the head is the 
highest part; and the front is the part usually in front of the 
insertion of the antennze. 


Tue Muscurar System lies just beneath, and is continuous 
with the integument. It consists of numerous ‘‘ distinct isola- 
ted straight fibres, which are not gathered into bundles united 
by common tendons, or covered by aponeuroses [or tendinous 
sheaths] to form distinct muscles, as in the Vertebrata, but 
remain separate from each other, and only in some instances 
are united at one extremity by tendons.” (Newport.) These 
minute fibres form layers, which Newport regards as separate 
muscles. ‘‘EKach fibre is composed of a great number of very 
minute fibrillze, or fasciculi of fibrilla,” and has been observed 
by Wagner and Newport to be often striated as in Vertebrates. 
The muscular system is simplest in the lower insects and the 
larve of the higher forms, and is more complex in the head 
than elsewhere, and more’ complex in the thorax than in the 
abdomen. ‘These minute muscles are excessively numerous. 
‘¢ Lyonnet, in his immortal work on the anatomy of the larva 
of Cossus ligniperda, found two hundred and twenty-eight dis- 
tinct muscles in the head alone, and, by enumerating the fibres 
in the layers of the different segments, reckoned 1,647 for the 
body, and 2,118 for the internal organs, thus making together 
3,993 muscles in a single larva. In the larva of Sphina ligus- 
tri we have found the muscles equally numerous with those 
discovered by Lyonnet in the Cossus.” (Newport.) 

The muscular system corresponds to the jointed structure of 
insects, as do the other internal systems of organs. Of the 
muscles belonging to a single ring, some stretch from the front 
edge of one segment to the front edge of the next, and others 


of the Scorpion, whose mode of development appears to be precisely similar to 
that of a telson. In the same category we must rank the labrum in front of the 
mouth, which in the Crustacea (at least) appears to be developed from the sternum 
of the antennary, or third somite, the metastoma (or so called labium, or lingua) 
of Crustacea, and the lingua of Insecta, behind the oral-aperture. 

»“ However much these appendages may occasionally simulate, or play the part 
of appendages, it is important to remember, that, morphologically, they are of a 
very different nature, and that the confusing them with true appendages must 
tend completely to obscure the beautiful relations which obtain among the dif- 
ferent classes of the Articulata.”— Huxley, Linnean Transactions, vol. xxii. 
London. 


32 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


to the hinder edge; there are also sets of dorsal and ventral 
muscles going in an oblique or vertical course. The muscles 
are either colorless and transparent, or yellowish white and 
of a soft, almost gelatinous consistence. In form they are 
simply flat and thin, straight, band-like, or pyramidal, barrel 
or feather-shaped. They act variously as rotators, elevators, 
depressors, retractors, protrusors, flexors, and extensors. 

The muscular power of insects is enormous. The Flea will 
leap two hundred times its own height. Certain beetles can 
support enormous weights. Newport cites the case of Geo- 
trupes stercorarius which is ‘‘able to sustain and escape from 
beneath a pressure of from twenty to thirty ounces, a prodi- 
cious weight when it is remembered that the insect itself does 
not weigh even so many grains.” Some beetles have been 
known to gnaw through lead-pipes, and the Stag-beetle of 
Europe, Lucanus cervus, has, as stated by Mr. Stephens, 
enawed ‘a hole an inch in diameter through the side of an 
iron canister in which it was confined.” 

‘‘The motions of the insect in walking as in flying are 
dependent, in the perfect individual, entirely upon the thoracic 
segments, but in the larva chiefly upon the abdominal. Al- 
though the number of legs in the former is always six, and in 
the latter sometimes so many as twenty-two, progression is 
simple and easy. Miller states (Elements of Physiology, p. 
970, Translation) that on watching insects that move slowly 
he has distinctly perceived that three legs are always moved at — 
one time, being advanced and put to the ground while the 
other three propel the body forwards. In perfect insects, those 
moved simultaneously are the fore and hind feet on one side, 
and the intermediate foot on the opposite ; and afterwards the 
fore and hind feet on that side, and the middle one on the 
other, so that, he remarks, in two steps the whole of the legs 
are in motion. <A similar uniformity of motion takes place 
in the larva, although the whole anterior part of the body is 
elevated and carried forwards at regular distances, the steps of 
the insect being almost entirely performed by the ‘false,’ or 
abdominal legs.” 

‘In flight the motions depend upon the meso- and meta- 
thoracic segments conjointly, or entirely upon the former. The 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 33 


sternal, episternal, and epimeral pieces, freely articulated 
together, correspond, in function with the sternum, the ribs, 
and the elavicles of birds.*. The thorax is expanded and con- 
tracted at each motion of the 
wings, as in birds and other ani- 
mals, and becomes fixed at each 
increased effort as a fulcrum or 
point of resistance upon which 
the great muscles of the wings 
are to act, thus identifying this 
part of the body in function as 
in structure with that of other ani- 
mals.” (Newport.) 


Tue Nervous System. In its 
simplest’ form the nervous system 
consists of two longitudinal cords, 
each with a swelling (nerve-knot, 
or ganeglidn,) corresponding to 
each segment (Fig. 43). This § 
cord lies on the ventral side of the 
body, but in the head it passes 
upwards, sending a filament from 
each side to surround the cesoph- f 
agus.| As in the Vertebrates, 
the nervous cord of insects is 
composed of two distinct columns Fig. 43. 
of fibres placed one upon the other. .‘“‘The under or eternal 
column, which is nearest to the exterior of the body, is that in 
which the ganglia, or enlargements, are situated. The upper 
one, or that which is internal and nearest to the viscera, is 
entirely without ganglia, and passes directly over the ganglia 
of the under column without forming part of them, but in very 


* Bennet on the Anatomy of the Thorax in Insects, and its Function during 
Flight. Zodlogical Journal, vol. i, p. 394. 

{The brain of insects is formed of several pairs of ganglia, corresponding, 
probably, to the number of primitive segments composing the head. The nervous 
cord is thus, in the head, massed together and compacted to form a brain. 

Fic. 43. Nervous System of Corydalus cornutus. a,‘‘cerebrum;” b, ‘‘cere- 
brellum;” c, thoracic ganglia, which distribute a nerve to each leg; d, eight pairs 
of abdominal ganglia. The dotted lines represent the wings. — From Leidy: - 


34 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


close approximation to them.” Newport also believes that the 
ganglionless upper, or internal, column of fibres is analogous 
to the motor column of Vertebrata, while the external, or under 
one, corresponds to the sensitive column, thus representing the 
cerebro-spinal system of the Vertebrata. 

From each pair of ganglia are distributed special nerves to 
the various organs. In the larva of Sphinw the normal num- 
ber of double ganglia is thirteen, and the nervous cord of the 
Neuroptera and other lowly organized and attenuated forms of 
insects corresponds in the main to this number. In the adult 
insect, especially in the Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and 
Hymenoptera, the three thoracic ganglia are fused together, 
following the fusion and general headwise development of the 
segments of the tegument. Besides the central nervous cord, 
corresponding to the spinal cord of the Vertebrates, there is a 
vagus, or visceral nerve, representing the sympathetic nerve of 
higher animals. This nerve ‘arises, in the larva, from the 
anterior part of the cerebrum, and, forming a ganglion on the 
upper surface of the pharynx, always passes backward beneath 
the brain, along the middle line of the esophagus.” In its 
microscopic structure the nervous cord, like that of Vertebrata, 
consists of a central ‘“‘ white” substance, and an outer or peri- 
pheral part, the ‘“‘gray” substance. 

In the embryo the ganglia are very large and close together, 
the commissures, or connecting filaments being very short, and 
small in proportion. 


Oreans or Nutrition. These consist of the alimentary canal 
and its appendages, or accessory glands (Fig. 44). We have 
already treated of the external appendages (mouth-parts) 
which prepare the food for digestion. The simplest form of 
the alimentary canal is that of a straight tube. In the larva 
of Stylops, and the sedentary young of Bees it eds in a blind 
sac, as they live on liquid food and expel no solid excretions. 
When well developed, as in the adult insect, it becomes a long 
convoluted thick muscular tube, subdivided into different parts 
which perform different functions and have distinct names, 
taken from analogous organs in the vertebrate animals. This 
digestive tube is composed of three coats, the outer, or peri- 


ORGANS OF NUTRITION. 35 


toneil ; the middle, or muscular ; and the inner, or mucous. The 
mucois coat is variously modified, being plaited or folded; or, 


as in the Orthoptera and carnivorous Coleoptera, it is solidified 
and covered with rows of strong horny teeth, forming a sort of 
gizzard. The almentary canal is held in place by retractor 
muscles, but principally by exceedingly numerous branches of 
the main trachez. 3 
This canal (Fig. 45) is subdivided into the mouth and pha- 
rynx, the esophagus, supplementary to which is the crop, or 
“¢ sucking stomach” of Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera. 
The proventriculus, or gizzard ; the ventriculus, or true stomach 
succeed, and the intestine consists of the ilewm, or short intes- 


Fig. 44. Anatomy of Sphinx ligustri. m, 2, gq, the nervous cord resting on 
the floor of the body; atc, the ganglia form a brain-like organ, much larger than 
the ganglia of the thorax (m) and abdomen (g). From the brain is sent off the 
subesophageal nerve which surrounds the gullet into which the food is conveyed 
by the maxille, or spiral tongue (a), which, when at rest, is rolled up between the 
labial palpi (0). 

From the nervous cord is also thrown off a pair of nerves to each pair of legs 
(as at n, 0, p) and a branch, d, is sent off from above, distributing nerves to the 
muscles of flight. 

The heart, or dorsal vessel (é, 7"), lies just beneath the median line of the body, 
and is retained in place by muscular bands (as at /) as well as by small tracheal 
branches. 

The alimentary canal (h,j, g), forms a straight tube in the head and thorax; h, 
the crop, or sucking stomach, which opens into the cesophagus; j, the true, chyle- 
forming stomach, which contracts posteriorly, and then dilates near its anal outlet 
into a cloaca (indicated at g, but not distinctly, as it is concealed by the numerous 
urinary vessels). The urinary vessels also indicated at g, form long tubes (which 
correspond to the kidneys of Vertebrates), opening into the pyloric end of the 
stomach. The position of the testes (%)is the same as that of the ovary, and the 
dotted line 7 shows the course of the efferent duct (vas deferens) and also of the 
oviduct of the female. 

The numerals indicate the number of segments of the body, which in the Lepi- 
doptera, consists of twenty, the 21st, or 11th abdominal, being absent.— From 
Newport. : 


« 


36 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


tine, and the colon and rectum. The latter part, as well af the 
crop and proventriculus, is sometimes absent. 

Of the appendages of the canal, the first 

are the salivary glands, which are /usually 
ii long simple tubes, which in the hrva, ac- 
cording to Newport, form the sf/k vessels. 
They ‘‘empty themselves by a single duct 
through the spinneret on the ficor (labium) 
f of the mouth.” In the Ant-lion( WZyrmeleon) 
the silk is spun from ‘‘a slender telescopic- 
m like spinneret, placed at the extremity of 
f its body,” and Westwood also states that the 
fH larva of Chrysopa spins a cocoon ‘* from the 
H spinneret, at the extremity of the body.” 
i These silk glands when taken out of the 
m larva, just as it is about ready to transform, 
| are readily prepared as /‘ gut” for fish-lines, 
| etc., by drying on a beard. 

In the Bees these glands are largely de- 
veloped to produce a sufficient amount of 
’ salivary fluid to moisten the dry pollen of 

Ries aoe flowers, before it enters the cesophagus. 
‘‘ Bee-bread” consists of pollen thus moistened and kneaded 
by the insect.. The Honey-bee also dissolves, by the aid of the 
salivary fluid, the wax used in making its cells. Newport 
believes this fluid is alkaline, and forms a solvent for the other- 
wise brittle wax, as he has seen this insect ‘‘reduce the per- 
fectly transparent thin white scales of newly secreted wax to 
a pasty or soapy consistence, by kneading it between tts man- 
dibles, and mixing it with a fluid from its mouth, before apply- 
ing it to assist in the formation of part of a new cell.” 

Insects have no true liver; its functions being performed 
‘*by the walls of the stomach, the internal tunic of which is 
composed of closely-aggregated hepatic cells.” (Siebold.) In 
the Spiders and Scorpions, however, there is a liver distinct 
from the digestive canal. In the Spiders it is very large, 
enveloping most of the other viscera. 


Fic. 45. Alimentary tube of Carydalus cornutus. a, esophagus; 6, proven- 
triculus; c, ventriculus; d, large intestine; e, urinary tubes; , cecum; g, testis or 
ovary.— From Leidy. ? j 


THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 37 


Siebold states that in some insects the ileum has glandular 
appmdages whose product.is perhaps analogous to the pancre- 
atic fuid. In the larva of insects is found the corpus adiposum, 
or fat-nody, in the form of large lobes of fat-cells which spread 
through the intervals of the viscera in the general cavity of 
the body. It is interpenetrated and retained in place by 
numerous trachez. 


Tue Crroutatory System. The vascular, or circulatory, 
system is not a closed sac as in the Worms and Vertebrates. 
The organs of circulation consist of a contractile, articulated 
dorsal vessel, or so-called ‘‘heart,” which terminates in a 
cephalic aorta. The dorsal vessel receives the veinous current 
through the lateral valvular openings and pumps the blood into 
its prolongation or cephalic aorta, whence it escapes, traversing 
the body in all directions, in regular currents, which do not 
have, however, vascular walls. ‘‘In this way, it penetrates the 
antennee, the extremities, the wings, and the other appendages 
of the body, by arterial currents, and is returned by those of a 
yeinous nature. All the veinous currents empty into two 
lateral ones, running towards the posterior extremity of the 
body, and which enter, through lateral orifices, the dorsal 
vessel.” (Siebold.) 

‘*The blood of the Insecta is usually a colorless liquid, 
though sometimes yellowish, but rarely red. In this liquid are 
suspended a few very small, oval, or spheroidal corpuscles, 
which are always colorless, have a granular aspect, and are 
sometimes nucleated. 

_ “The dorsal vessel, which is constricted at regular intervals, 
is always situated on the median line of the abdomen, being 
attached to the dorsal wall of its segments by several trian- 
gular muscles whose apices point outwards. Its walls contain 
both longitudinal and transverse fibres, and, externally, are 
covered by a thin peritoneal tunic. Internally, it is lined by 
another very fine membrane, which, at the points of these con- 
strictions, forms valvular folds, so that the organ is divided 
into as many chambers as there are constrictions. Each of 
these chambers has, at the anterior extremity on each side, a 
valvular orifice which can be inwardly closed. The returning 
4 


a rs 


a 


38 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


blood is accumulated about the heart and enters into it durng 
the diastole of each of its chambers, through the lafral 


contractions of the heart, from behind forwards into the aorta, 
which is only a prolongation of the anterior chamber. This 
aorta consists of a simple, small vessel, situated on the dorsal 
surface of the thorax (Fig. 44 e, f), and extending even to the 
cephalic ganglion, where it either ends in an open extremity, or 
divides into several short branches which terminate in a like 


manner. The length of the dorsal vessel depends, in all the 
three states of insects, upon that of the abdomen. The number 
of its chambers is very variable, but is, most usually, eight. 
‘“The blood, after leaving the aorta, traverses the body in 
currents which are also extravascular, and in this way bathes 
all the organs. The newly-prepared nutritive fluid passes 
through the walls of the digestive canal in which it is found, 
into the visceral cavity, and thence directly into the blood. 
Latterly, this extravascular circulation has been called in 
question, but its presence may be easily and directly observed 


Fig. 46. Part of the dorsal vessel or heart of Zucanus cervus ; a, the posterior 
chambers (the anterior chambers are coyered by a part of the ligaments which hold 
the heart in place). 7, the auriculo-ventricular openings; g, g, the lateral mus- 
cles fixed by the prolongations h,h,to the upper side of the abdomen.— From 
Straus Durckheim. 

Fic. 47. Interior of the dorsal vessel; a, the inner walls with their circular 
fleshy fibres; c, the auriculo-ventricular opening; with its semilunar valve (c), in 
front of which is d, the interventricular yalyule.— From Straus Durckheim. 


THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 39 


‘ 
with very many perfect Insecta and their larvee. The vascular 
walls, supposed to have been seen at certain points, are, un- 
doubiedly, the result of some error of observation or interpre- 
tation. This is also true of the pulsatile organs supposed to 
have been observed in the legs of many water-bugs, and which 
were thought to affect the circulation.” 

Blanchard and Agassiz believe in a ‘‘peritracheal circula- 


tion,” and other observers agree that the course of the circula- 


tion is along the tracheee, 7.e. that the blood circulates in the 
space between the loose peritoneal envelope and the trachea 
itself. Professor H. J. Clark objects to this view that the blgod 
disks are too large to pass through such an exceedingly minute 
space as the distance between the trachea and its enveloping, 
or peritoneal, wall. 

Newport thinks that there are actual blood vessels distrib- 
uted from the heart and ‘passing transversely across the 
dorsal surface of each segment in the pupa of Sphinw. If 
they be not vessels distributed from the heart, it is a some- 
what curious circumstance that the whole of the blood should 
be first sent to the head of the insect, and the viscera of the 
abdominal region be nourished only by the returning blood, 
which has in part passed the round of the circulation.” 

Newport also describes in Sphinw the supra-spinal, or great 
ventral vessel which lies in the abdomen just over the nervous 
cord, and which is also found in the Scorpion and Centipede. 
He believes ‘‘this vessel to be the chief means of returning 
the blood from the middle and inferior portion of the body to 
the posterior extremity of the dorsal vessel or heart.” He 
strongly suspects that anteriorly this great ventral vessel is 
connected with the aorta. The circulation of Insects, there- 
fore, is probably as much a closed one as in the Myriapods, for 
he states that the ‘‘ blood certainly flows in distinct vessels, at 
least in some parts of the body in perfect insects, and that 
vessels exist even in the larva.” Observations on the vascular 
system are exceedingly difficult from the delicate structure of 
the vessels, and the subject needs renewed observations to 
settle these disputed points. 

The blood is forced through the vessel into the body by regu- 
lar pulsations. Herold counted thirty to forty in a minute in a 


40 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


s 
full-grown caterpillar; we have counted about sixty a miute 


in the recently hatched larva of Diplax. During excitement, 
the number of pulsations increases in rapidity. Newportfound 
the pulsations in a bee, Anthophora, when quiet, to be eghty a 
minute ; but when “the insects were quite lively, and had been 
exposed to the sun for an hour or two, the number of pulsa- 
tions amounted to one hundred and forty.” 

He found that the number of pulsations decreased after each 
moult of the larva of Sphinw ligustri, but increaséd in force ; 
when it was full grown and had ceased feeding /t was thirty. 
‘After it had passed into the pupa state the sumber fell to 
twenty-two, and afterwards to ten or twelve. ad, during the 
period of hibernation, it almost entirely ceases ; but in the per- 
fect insect it rose from forty-one to fifty, and when excited by 
flight around the room it was from one hundred and ten to one 
hundred and thirty-nine.” 

OrGaAans OF ReEsprraTion. All insects breathe air, or, when 
they live in the water, respire, by means of branchie, the 
air mixed mechanically with water. Respiration is carried on 
by an intricate system of tubes (pul- 
monary trachez) which open by pores 
(spiracles or stigmata) in the sides of 
the body; or, as in aquatic insects, by 
branchie, or gill-like flattened expan- 
sions of the body-wall penetrated by 
trachez (branchial trachez). 

There are sometimes eleven spiracles, 
or breathing-holes (Fig. 48), on each side 
of the body; each consisting of an oval 
horny ring situated in the peritreme 

LES and closed by a valve, which guards 
the orifice (Fig. 49). Within this valve is a chamber closed 
within by another valve which covers the entrance into the 
trachee. The air-tube itself (Fig. 50) consists of ‘tan external 


Fic. 48. Larva of the Humble-bee just beginning to change to a pupa, showing 
eleven pairs of stigmata. In the adult bee, only the fourth pair is apparent, the 
remaining pairs being concealed trom view, or in part aborted. In most insects 
there are usually only nine pairs of stigmata.— Original. 


ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. Al 


serous, and an internal mucous membrane, inclosing between 
them a spirally convoluted fibre, thus giving great strength 
and flexibility to the tube.” 

Nearly all the air enters through the thoracic and _ first 
abdominal spiracles, so that on pinching most insects on 
the thorax they can be 
easily deprived of 
breath and killed. 
‘“‘In some aquatic K 


a 


Fig. 49. 


(Fig. 51, pupa), and : 
Ephydra, and also in some perfect insects, 
as in Nepa and Ranatra, the parts sup- 
porting the stigmata are prolonged into slen- Fig. 50. 

der tubes, through which the insect, on rising to the surface, 
breathes the atmospheric air. 

Agrion (Fig. 52) affords a good instance of branchize 
or gill-like expansions of the crust, or skin. It is 
supposed that these false gills, or branchize, ‘‘ absorb 
the air from the water, and convey it by the minute 
ramifications of the tracheal ves- 
sels, with which they are abun- 
tet, az dantly supplied, and which ter- 

Risin minate in single trunks, into the 
main trachez, to be distributed over the whole body, 
as in insects which live in the open atmosphere.” 
(Newport.) 

Of branchize there are three kinds. The first, as in 
the larvee and pup of Gnats, consist of slender fila- 
ments arranged in tufts arising from a single stem. Fis: 52. 
In the larva of Gyrinus and the aquatic caterpillar of a moth, 


Fic. 49.. Chamber leading into the trachea; a, a, external valve protecting the 
outer opening of the stigma, or breathing hole; 6, c, c, ner and more complicated 
valve closing the entrance into the trachea (J, &); m, conical occlusor muscle 
elosing the inner orifice. — From Straus Durckheim. 

Fic. 50. Portion of a trachea divested of its peritoneal envelope: a, spirally 
convoluted fibre, closely wound around the trachea, as at e; ¢, origin of a secondary 
tracheal branch.— From Straus Durckheim. — 

Fic. 52. One of the three gill-like appendages to the abdomen of the larva and 
pupa of Agrion enlarged, consisting of a broad leaf-like expansion, permeated by 
trachez which take up by endosmosis the air contained in water. — Original. 

4% 


A? THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Hydrocampa stratiolata, they form short stiff bristles placed 
along the side of the body. <Agrion and Ephemera, in their 
_larval stages, afford the second kind of branchize, and Libellula 
the third kind, or internal gill, situated in the colow. The 
Mosquito breathes both by branchize which form large club- 
shaped organs, and by lateral filaments. 

In those insects that fly, most of the tracheze are often dilated 
into air-vesicles, so that by filling and emptying them of air the 
insect can change its specific gravity. ‘That their use is also 
to lighten the body is shown by their presence in the heavy 
mandibles and head of the male of Zucanus cervus. In the 
adult Humble-bee there are two very large vesicles at the base 
of the abdomen. These vesicles are not found in the larve, 
or in the adult forms of creeping insects. 

The act of respiration consists in the alternate dilation and 
contraction of the abdominal segments, the air entering the 
body chiefly at the thoracic spiracles. As in the Vertebrates the 
frequency of the acts of breathing increases after exertion. 
‘When an insect is preparing itself for flight, the act of res- 
piration resembles that of birds under similar circumstances. 
At the moment of elevating its elytra and expanding its wings, 
which are, indeed, acts of respiration, the anterior pairs of 
spiracles are opened, and the air rushing into them is extended 
over the whole body, which, by the expansion of the air-bags, is 
enlarged in bulk, and rendered of less specific gravity ; so that 
when the spiracles are closed at the instant the insect endeavors 
to make the first stroke with and raise itself upon its wings, it 
is enabled to rise in the air, and sustain a long and powerful 
flight with but little muscular exertion. In the pupa and larve 
state respiration is performed more equally by all the spiracles, 
and less especially by the thoracic ones.” 

During hibernation the act of breathing, like the circulation 
of the blood, almost entirely ceases, and the heat of the body 
is greatly lowered. Indeed Newport has shown that the devel- 
opment of heat in Insects, just as in Vertebrates, depends on the 
‘‘quantity and activity of respiration, and the volume and 
velocity of the circulation.” The Humble-bee, according to 
Newport, possesses the voluntary power of generating heat by 
breathing faster. He says, confirming Huber’s observations, 


ORGANS OF SECRETION. 45 


‘the manner in which the bee performs her incubatory office is 
by plicing herself upon the cell of a nymph (pupa) that is 
soon tv be developed, and then beginning to respire at first 
very gredually. In a short time the respirations become more 
and more frequent, until. at length they are increased to one 
hundred end twenty, or one hundred and thirty per minute. 
The body of the insect soon becomes of a high temperature, 
and, on close inspection, is often found to be bathed with per- 
spiration. When this is the case the temperature of the insect 
soon becomes reduced, and the insect leaves the cell, and an- 
other bee almost immediately takes her place. When respira- 
tion is performed less violently, and consequently less heat is 
evolved, the same bee will often continue on a cell for many 
hours in succession. This extreme amount of heat was evolved 
entirely by an act of the will in accelerating the respiratory ef- 
forts, a strong indication of the relation which subsists between 
the function of respiration and the development of animal heat.” 


OrGaANs OF SecrETION. The urinary vessels, or what is 
equivalent to the kidneys of the higher animals, consist in In- 
sects of several long tubes which empty by one or two common 
secretory ducts into the posterior or ‘‘pyloric” extremity of 
the stomach. ‘There are also odoriferous glands, analogous to 
the cutaneous glands of vertebrates. The liquid poured out is 
usually offensive, and it is used as a means of defence. The 
Bees, Wasps, Gall-flies, etc., and Scorpions, have a poison-sac 
(Fig. 54g) developed in the tip of the abdomen. ‘The bite of 
the Musquito, the Horse-fly, and Bed-bug is thought by New- 
port to be due to the simple act of thrusting their lancet-like 
jaws through the skin, and it is not known that these and 
other insects which bite severely eject any poison into the 
wound. But in the spiders a minute drop of poison exudes from 
an orifice at the end of the mandibles, ‘‘ which spreads over the 
whole wound at the instant it is inflicted.” This poison is 
secreted by a gland lodged in the celphalo-thorax, and which 
is thought by Audouin to correspond in position to the salivary 
apparatus and the silk glands of the Winged Insects. 


ORGANS OF GENERATION. We have already described the 
external parts. The internal parts of the male insect consist, 


44 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


first, of the ductus ejaculatorius, which opens into the external 
intromittent organ. This duct extends backwards, conneting 
with the vesicule seminales, which lgad by 
the vasa differentia to the testes (Fig. 53). 
The latter are usually rounded glandular 
bodies, sometimes, as in Mélolontha and 
Iucanus, numbering six on a side. These 
organs lie in the abdominal cayity, usually 
above and on each side of the alimentary 
canal. 

The sperm, or fertilizing fluid, contains 
very active 
spermatic par- 
ticles which 
are developed 
in large cells 
in the testes, . 
where they are 
united into bundles of various 
forms. 

In the female, the internal re- 
productive organs (Fig. 54) are 
more simple than those of the 
other sex. The external open- 
ing of the female is situated at 
the end of the oviduct, that 
leads by two tubes to the ovary, 
which consists of two or more 
tubes (in the Queen Bee one hundred and sixty to one hundred 
and eighty) in which the ova are developed. On the upper side 


Fic. 53. Male organs of Athalia centifolie. h, the penis, or external portion, 
in which the ductus ejaculatorius (f) terminates, which extends backwards, and is 
connected with the wesicule seminales (e), and vasa differentia (d) which are con- 
nected with the epididymis (b), and the testes (a). i and 2, two pairs of horny plates, 
surrounded by a horny ring (z%). 7, horny prehensile hooks attached to %. m, two 
elongated muscular parts ineclosing the penis (h).— From Newport. 

Fig. 54.. Female organs of generation of Athalia centifolic. a, b, c, the eighteen 
ovarial tubes originating from each of the two oviducts (e), and containing the im- 
mature eggs; f, the spermatheca; g, poison-sac, the poison being secreted in the 
secretory vessels’h. The poison flows through the oviduct into the sting and thence 
into the wound made by the sting. 10, the terminal ganglia of the nervous cord. 
— From Newport. . : : <~, 


ORGANS OF GENERATION. 45 


e 


of the oviduct are from one to five appendages, the most impor- 
tant of which is the spermatheca (the others being sebaceous 
glands), which receives the fertilizing fluid of the male during 
sexual wnion, and in which, according to Darwin, the male ele- 
ment ‘is enabled to keep alive four or five years.” 

Insects bisexual. With the exception of the Tardigrades, 
which are doubtfully referred to the Mites (Acarina), there are 
no hermaphrodites among Insects, that is, there are no individ: 
uals having both male and female organs, and capable of self- 
impregnation. On the contrary, the sexes are distinct ; Insects 
are bisexual. 

Hermaphrodites, so-called. Cases not unfrequently occur in 
which from arrest of development of the embryo, the sexual 
organs are imperiectly developed, so as to present the appear- 
ance of being both male and female. ‘‘Siebold has investigated 
some hermaphrodite Honey-bees belonging to the Italian race, 
obtained from a Dzierzon hive at Constance. He found in 
many of them a combination of sexual characters, not only in the 
external parts, but also in the generative organs. The mixture 
of the external characters is manifested sometimes only in the 
anterior or posterior part of the body, sometimes in all parts 
of the body, or only in a few organs. Some specimens pre- 
sent male and worker characters on the two sides of the body. 
The development of the internal organs is singularly correla- 
ted with these peculiarities of external organization. The sting; 
with its vesicle and gland, is well developed in hermaphrodites 


with the abdomen of the worker ; soft in those with the drone- 


abdomen. The seminal receptacle, when present, is empty. 
The ovaries contain no ova. In the hermaphrodites with the 
drone-abdomen, the male sexual organs are well developed, and 
the testes contain spermatozoids. Frequently with testicular 
and ovarian organs present on each side, the epididymis and 
copulatory apparatus are well developed, and an imperfect 


poison-apparatus exists. In these cases the tube contains 


spermatozoids, but there are no ova in the ovaries. The her- 
maphrodites are thrown out of the cell by the workers as soon 
as they emerge, and speedily perish. Siebold ascribes the pro- 
duction of these hermaphrodites: to an imperfect fecundation 
of the ovum.” (Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 
1864, p. 73. See Ginther’s Zodlogical Review for 1864.) 


46 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Mr. Dunning describes a specimen of Fidonia pinigria, 
‘which was sexually a female, and the abdomen was appar- 
ently distended with eggs; the general color was midway be- 
tween the colors of the ordinary male and female, but ‘he size 
and markings were those of the male. (Transactious Ento- 
mological Society, London, Aug. 7, 1865.) Professor West- 
wood states that ‘‘he had an Orange-tip Butterfly (Anthocharis 
cardamines), which was female in every respect, except that 
on the tip of one fore-wing were about a dozen of the bright 
orange scales which characterize the male.” 


Tue Eee. Professor H. J. Clark (Mind in Nature) defines 
an egg to be a globule surrounded by the vitelline membrane, 
or yolk-envelope, which is protected by the chorion, or egg- 
shell, consisting of ‘‘two kinds of fluid, albumen and oil, which 
are always situated at opposite sides or poles.” ‘‘ In the earli- 
est stages of all eggs, these two poles shade off into each 
other,” but in the perfectly developed egg the small, or albu- 
minous pole, is surrounded by a membrane, and forms the 
Purkinjean (germinal) vesicle; and thirdly and last, the inner- 
most of the three globules is developed. This last is the 
Wagnerian vesicle, or germinal dot. The oily matter forms the 
yolk. Thus formed, the egg is the initial animal. It becomes 
an animal after contact with the male germs (unless the product 
of organic reproduction), and the egg-shell or chorion is to be 
considered as a protection to the animal, and is thrown off 
when the embryo is hatched, just as the larva throws off its 
skin to transform into the pupa. So that the egg-state is 
equivalent to the larva state, and hence there are four stages 
in the life of an insect, 7.e. the egg, the larva, the pupa, and 
the imago, or adult state. 

The egg is not always laid as a perfect egg (Clark). It 
sometimes, as in the Ants, continues to grow after it is laid by 
the parent, like those of frogs, which, according to Clark, ** Are 
laid before they can hardly be said to have become fully formed 
as eggs.” Again, others are laid some time after the embryo 
has begun to form; and in some, such as Melophagus and 
Braula, the larva is fully formed before it is expelled from the 
oviduct. 


THE EGG. 47 


Eggs are usually small in proportion to the size of the 
parent ; but in many minute forms (7.e. Pulew, Pediculus, etc.) 
they sre proportionately much larger. In shape eggs are 
either spherical or oblong. In some there are radiating append- 
ages at one end, as in those of Nepa and Ranatra; or they are 
provided with a single stalk, as in Chrysopa, Cynips, and 
Ophion. 

The eggs of most Hpmenoptent Diptera, and many Coleop- 
tera are usually cylindrical; those of Lepidoptera are more 
generally spherical. The eggs of the Mosquito are laid in a 
boat-shaped mass, which floats on the surface of quiet pools, 
while those of the Chrysopa, or Lace-winged-Fly (Fig. Se are 
supported on long pedicels. 
They are a, invariably 
laid near or upon objects des- 
tined to be the food of the 
future larva. Thus the Copris, or ‘‘Tumble-bug,” places its 
egg in a ball of dung which it rolls away to a secure place; 
‘the Flesh-fly oviposits on meat; and all vegetable-feeders lay 
their eggs on the food-plant where the larva, upon its exit 
from the egg, shall readily find an ample supply of food. 

The posterior end of the egg is more often the fixed one, and 
it may thus be distinguished from the anterior pole. In the 
eggs of some Diptera and Orthoptera, the ventral side of the 
embryo, according to Gerstaecker, corresponds to the convex 
side of the egg, and the concave side of the latter corresponds 
to the dorsal region of the embryo. 

The surface of the chorion, or egg-shell, which is dense and 
brittle, is often coyered by a mosaic-work of more or less regu- 
lar facets. In many small eggs the surface is only minutely 
granulated, or ornamented with ribs and furrows, as in those 
of many Butterflies. 

The Micropyle. On the anterior end (though soars 
at both ends) of the egg is one or more pores of exceeding 
minuteness, through which the spermatozoa (more than one 
of which, according to Darwin, is requisite to fertilize an 
ovule) enter to fertilize the egg-contents. In some cases 
these micropyles are scattered over the whole surface of the egg. 
Fig. 56a represents the micropyles of Nepa cinerea, consisting 


48 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


of a whorl of long bristles. Those of Locusta viridissima (Fig. 
56D) slightly resemble toodstools. Fig. 56¢ represents the an- 
terior pole of the egg with 
the micropyles of Pyrhocoris 
apterus. — (From Gerstaecker. ) 
This contact of a male 
sperm-cell with the yolk is 
the fertilization ef the ege. 
From this moment begins the 
life of the embryo. Fertiliza- 
4 tion of the female germ by 
BS Do means of the male sperm, 
through the congress of the sexes, is the rule with bisexual 
animals, but there are exceptions among insects. An embryo 
may start into being without the interposition of the male; to 
this mode of generation has been applied by Leuckart the term 
Parthenogenesis. Among certain species of insects there are 
some individuals which, by a sort of budding process, and with- 
out the aid of the male element, throw off summer broods, con- 
sisting of ‘‘asexual” individuals, which, as winter approaches, 
are succeeded by a brood of true males and females, the latter 
of which lay eggs. This phenomenon, called by Steenstrup 
‘‘alternation of generations,” has been observed among a com- 
paratively few species, and the apparent design of such an 
anomalous mode of reproduction is to afford an immense num- 
ber of individuals, thus providing for the continuance of the 
species. The individuals in whom this budding process takes 
place are called “asexual” because, though they may resemble 
the female sex outwardly, their sexual organs are only partially 
developed. This budding process is the same in kind with that 
observable in the Jelly-fish, which throw off by parthenogen- 
esis, or alternations of generations, summer broods of immense 
extent, but in winter propagate by true eggs. Huxley has 
studied the development of Aphis by, parthenogenesis, the 
anomalous nature of which has previously been discovered by 
Bonnet, Trembly, Lyonet, Degeer, Kyber, and others, and 
arrives at the following conclusions : 
‘1, Ovadeposited by impregnated female Aphides in autumn 
are hatched in the spring. 


ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. 49 


2. From these ova viviparous, and, in the great majority of 
cases, apterous forms proceed. 

3. The broods to which these give rise are either winged or 
apterous, or both. 

4, The number of successive broods has no certain limit, but 
is, so far as we know at present, controlled only by tempera- 
ture and the supply of food. 

5. On the setting in of cold weather, or in some cases on the 
failure of nourishment, the weather being still warm, males 
and oviparous females are produced. 

6. The males may be either winged or apterous. 

7. So far as I am aware, there is no proof of the existence 
of any exception to the law that the oviparous female is apte- 
rous. 

8. Viviparous Aphides may hybernate, and may co-exist with 
oviparous females of the same species.” (Linnean Transac- 
tions, xxii, p. 198.) 

The origin of the viviparous, asexual, or agamic (from the 
Greek a, without; game, marriage) individual, as it may be 
more properly called, is, up to a certain stage, the same as 
that of the true egg, z.e. until the germ (pseudovum) of 
the former is detached from the false ovary (pseudovarium). 
‘‘From this point onwards, however, the fate of the pseudovum 
is different from that of the ovum. The former begins at once 
to be converted into the germ ; the latter accumulates yelk-sub- 
stance, and changes but little. Both bodies acquire their mem- 
branous investment rather late; within it the pseudovum 
becomes a living larva, while the ovum is impregnated, laid, 
and remains in a state of rest for a longer or shorter period. 

‘‘ Although, then, the pseudovum and the ovum of Aphis 
are exceedingly similar in structure for some time after they 
have passed out of the condition of indifferent tissue, it cannot 
be said that the sole difference between them is, that the one 
requires fecundation and the other not. When the ovum is of 
the size of a pseudovum which is about to develop into an em- 
bryo, and, therefore, long before fecundation, it manifests its 
inherent physiological distinctness by becoming, not an em- 
bryo, but an ovum. Up to this period the influence of fecunda- 
tion has not been felt; and the production of ova, instead of 

5 


50 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


pseudova, must depend upon a something impressed upon the 
constitution of the parent before it was brought forth by, its 
viviparous progenetrix.” (Huxley.) 

Siebold has also shown that the ‘‘ova of the Queen-beé pro- 
duces females or males, according as they are fecundated or 
not. The fecundated ovum produces a queen or a neuter 
according to the food of the larva and the other conditions to 
which it is subjected; the unfecundated ovum produces a 
drone.” This is analogous to the agamic reproduction of 
Aphis, and ‘demonstrates still more clearly the impossi- 
bility of drawing any absolute line of demarcation histologi- 
cally between ova and buds.” 

This process of reproduction is not known in the Myriapods. 
It occurs among the mites (Acarina), and occurs in isolated 
genera of Hemiptera (Aphis, Chermes, Lecanium, and Aspidi- 
otus according to Gerstaecker). 

Among Lepidoptera the Silk-moth sometimes lays fertile 
eges without previous sexual union. This very rarely hap- 
pens, for M. Jourdain found that, out of about 58,000 eggs 
laid by unimpregnated silk-moths, many passed through their 
early embryonic stages, showing that they were capable of 
self-development, but only twenty-nine out of the whole 
number produced caterpillars. (Darwin.) Several other moths * 
have been found to lay fertile eggs without previous sexual 
union, and among Hymenoptera, Nematus ventricosus, Cynips, 
Neuroterus, perhaps Apophyllus (according to Gerstaecker), 
and Cynips spongifica (according to Walsh, Proceedings of 

* We give a list from Gerstaecker (Bronn’s Classen und Ordnungen des Thier- 
reichs) of all the known eases of agamic reproduction in this suborder, with the 


number of times the phenomenon has been observed, and the names of the ob- 
servers. 


Sphinz ligustri, once (Treviranus). 
Smerinthus populi, four times (Nord- 
mann). 
Smerinthus ocellatws, once (Johnston). 
Euprepia caja, five times (Brown, etc.). 
cf villica, once (Stowell). 
Telea Polyphemus, twice (Curtis). 
aa opacha pini, three times (Scopoli, 
etc 
Gastr opacha quercifolia, once (Basler). 
Ps ia, once (Burmeis- 
ter 


Gastropacha quercus, once (Plieninger). 
Liparis dispar, once (Carlier). 
“ Egger moth” (2 Liparis dispar), (Tardy, 
Westwood). 
Liparis ochropoda, once (Popoft). 
Orgyia pudibunda, once (Wernebur Z)e 
Psyche apiformis, once (Rossi). 
‘© helix (Siebold). 

Solenobia lichenella (Siebold). 

ct triquetrella (Siebold). 
Bombyx mori, several times. 


The subject has been also discussed by Siebold in his work entitled, A true Par- 
thenogenesis in Lepidoptera and Bees; by Owen, in his ‘‘ Parthenogenesis,” and 
by Sir J. Lubbock in the Philosophical Transactions, London, vol. 147, pt. 1. 


ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. 51 


the Entomological Society of Philadelphia). Parthenogenesis, 
or agamic reproduction, is, then, the result of a budding pro- 
cess, or cell-growth. This process is a common mode among 
the Radiates, the low Worms, and the Crustaceans. Metamor- 
phosis is simply a series of marked stages, or periods, of 
growth; and hence growth, metamorphosis, and agamic re- 
production are morphologically identical. All animals, there- 
fore, as well as plants, grow by the multiplication of cells. 

After hearing the surprising revelations of Bonnet, Reaumur, 
Owen, Burnett, and Huxley on the asexual mode of generation 
in the Aphis, we are called to notice still a new phase of repro- 
duction. None of the observers just mentioned were accus- 
tomed to consider the virgin aphis as immature, but rather as 
a wingless adwli Plant-louse. But Nicolas Wagner, Professor 
of Zoology at Kasan,* supported by able vouchers for the 
truth of his assertions, both in Russia and in Germany, who 
have repeated and thoroughly tested his observations, has 
observed an asexual reproduction in the larva of a Cecidomy- 
ian fly, Miastor metraloas Meinert, and Meinert has observed 
it in this species and the Oligarces paradoxus Meinert. 

Says Dr. R. Leuckart, whose articlet we have drawn largely 
upon in the present account, ‘‘ This reproduction was said to 
commence in autumn, to continue through the winter and 
spring, giving origin, during the whole of this period, to a 
series of successive generations of larvee, until, finally, in June, 
the last of them were developed into perfect and sexually 
mature animals. The flies, then, as usual, after copulation, 
lay eggs, and thus recommence the developmental cycle just 
described.” 

Professor Leuckart has observed these facts anew in the 
larvee of a species of dipterous gall-fly, and which he believes 
distinct from the Russian species, found under the bark of a 
half dead apple-tree that was attacked by fungi. The young 
are developed within the body of the larva-like parent from a 


*K. HE. Von Baer, ‘“‘ Report on a Neyw Asexual Mode of Reproduction observed 
by Professor Wagner in Kasan.”. Bull. Acad. St. Petersburg, 1863, pt. vi, p. 239. 
Also, Wagner in the Journal of the University of Kasan, 1861. 

{On the Asexual Reproduction of Cecidomyia Larve. Annals and Magazine 
of Natural History, March, 1866. Translated from Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche 
Zoologie, Bd. xiv. 


o2 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


‘‘germ-ball” essentially agreeing with the ovary, and the asex- 
ual larvee begin life as egg-like bodies developed from this 
germ-ball, just as eggs are developed in the little tubes of 
which the ovary is an aggregation. Hence these worms bud 
out from the germ-stock, just as we have seen in the case of 
the Aphides. Leuckart and Wagner farther agree, that ‘ the 
so-called chorion never being formed in either of them, the 
vitellus [yolk] remains without that envelope which has so re- 
markable and peculiar a development in the true egg of in- 
sects.” .. . . ‘The processes of embryo-formation agree in 
all essential points with the ordinary phenomena of devel- 
opment in a fecundated egg, exactly as has been proved (by 
Huxley) to’ be the case in the Aphides.” ../. “The only 
difference consists in the germ-chambers of the Cecidomyide 
larvee separating from the germ-stock, and moying about freely 
in the cavity of the body, whilst in the Aphides they remain 
permanently attached, and constitute an apparatus which, in 
its form and arrangement, reproduces the conditions of the 
female organs.” 

Thus we can neither pronounce these so-called larvee to be 
larvee so long as they produce young, neither are they actual 
males or females ; they are what Leuckart calls asexual forms, 
which produce false-eggs (pseudova of Huxley, as restricted 
by Leuckart). This is paralleled by the asexual Aphides, and 
among Hymenoptera by the worker Ants, and worker, or, as 
they were formerly called, neuter Bees, the latter of which have 
been known to produce young without the interposition of the 
male; thus the two sexes, at least the females, are dimorphic, 
i.e. for certain exigencies of life they are specialized into two: 
distinct forms, one (as in the asexual Aphis) to produce an un- 
limited number of young during the summer; the other and 
sexual, normal form to produce in the autumn a comparatively 
limited number of eggs. 

Dimorphism is intimately connected with agamic reproduc- 
tion. Thus the asexual Aphis, and the perfect female, may be 
called dimorphic forms. Or the’ perfect female may assume 
two forms, so much so as to be mistaken for two distinct spe- 
cies. Thus Cynips quercus-spengifica occurs in male and female 
broods in the spring, while the fall brood of females were 


DIMORPHISM. 53 


described as a separate species, C. aciculata. Mr. B. D. Walsh 
considers the two sets of females as dimorphic forms, and he 
thinks that O. aciculata lays eggs which produce C. quercus- 
spongifica. 

Huber supposes there are two sizes of the three forms (7. e. 
male, female, and worker) of Bombus, one set being a little 
larger than the other. 


Alfred Wallace has discovered that there are two forms of 


females of Papilio Memnon of the East Indies; one is normal, 
haying its wings tailed and resembles a closely allied species, 
Papilio Coén, which is not dimorphous, while the other is tail- 
less, resembling its tailless male. Papilio Panvmon has three 
sorts of females, and is hence ‘‘trimorphie.” One of its forms 
predominates in Sumatra, and’a second in Java, while a third, 
(described as P. Romulus) abounds in India and Ceylon. P. 
Ormenus is trimorphic, as Mr. Wallace obtained in the island 
of Waignion, ‘‘a third female quite distinct from either of the 
others, and in some degree intermediate between the ordinary 
male and female.” Much the same thing occurs in the North 
American P. Turnus. Papilio Glaucus is now known to be a 
dimorphic form of the former butterfly, both having, according 
to Mr. Uhler, been bred from the same batch of eggs. The 
ordinary form of the female of P. Turnus occurs north of lat. 
37°, while the dimorphic form, P. Glaucus, occurs south of 42°. 

The male sex also presents dimorphic forms. Mr. Pascoe 
(Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London, 1862, 
p- 71) states that there are dimorphic forms of Anthribide ; 
that they occur in the male of Stenocerus and Micoceros. Six 
species of Dytiscus have two female forms, the most common 
having the elytra deeply sulcate, while in the rarer forms the 
elytra are smooth as in the male. 

There is a tendency, we would observe, in the more abnor- 
mal of the two sexual forms, to revert to a lower type. Thus 
the agamic Aphis is more generally wingless, and the tailless 
female butterfly mimics the members of a lower genus, Pieris. 
The final cause of Dimorphism, like that of agamic reproduc- 
tion, is the continuance of the species, and is, so far as yet 
known, an exceptional occurrence. 

Mimetic forms. Many insects often resemble, in a remark- 


5* 


+ : THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Or 


able manner, those of other groups. They are called mimeti¢ 
forms. Insects are related to each other by analogy and affin- 
ity. Thus the truly tailless species of Papilio, i. e. those where 
the tail is absent in both sexes, are related by affinity to Pie- 
ris, which has rounded hind wings. They also stand next to 
Pieris in the system of Nature. But there are, on the other 
hand, mimetic forms, which borrow the features of groups far 
above them in the natural system. Thus the Sesia resembles a 
Bee, Bombylius and Laphria resemble Bombus; the Syrphus 
flies are easily mistaken for Wasps. So in the second series 
of suborders of Insects, Forficula resembles the Staphylinus ; 
Termes resembles the true Ant; Psocus, the Aphis ; Ascalaphus 
resembles Papilio ; Mantispa recalls the Orthopterous Mantis, and 
Panorpa reminds us of the Tipule (Bittacus being strikingly 
analogous to the Dipterous Bittacomorpha). Thus these lower, 
more variable groups of insects strive, as it were, to connect 
themselves by certain analogous, mimetic forms, with the more 
stable and higher groups. 

Comprehensive types are mimetic forms which combine the 
characters of other and generally higher groups. ‘Thus each 
Neuroptercus family contains mimetic forms which ally them 
strongly with some one of the six other suborders of insects. 
The early fossil insects are remarkable for combining the char- 
acters of groups which appear ages after. The most remark- 
able comprehensive type is a Carboniferous insect, the Bugereon 
Boeckingi mentioned farther on. 


Hysripiry. Hybrids are sometimes produced between differ- 
ent species, but though it is known that different genera unite 
sexually, we know of very few authentic instances of the pro- 
duction of hybrids therefrom. One is related by Mr. Midford, 
who exhibited at the March 4th (1861) meeting of the London 
Entomological Society, hybrids produced from a male Phiga- 
lia pilosaria, and a female Nyssia hispidaria. ‘+The males 
resemble WN. hispidaria, but in color have the lighter and — 
greener tint and transparency of wing of P. pilosaria.” 


Tue DeveLopment oF Insects. Immediately after the fer- 


tilization of the egg, the first act in the organization of the 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. S15) 


future embryo is the formation of the germinal layer, or dlas- 
toderm (from the Greek, meaning primitive skin). This layer 
is formed at the surface out of a surface-layer of larger, often 
nucleolated, cells which nearly encompass the yolk-mass. At 
one point there is a break in this cellular layer, and the yolk 
eranules reach to the surface, so that it appears darker than 
the other parts of the egg. This cellular layer is soon resolved 
into the blastoderm, or germinal layer, which thickens and 
narrows, forming a longitudinal band. This is the first stage 
of the embryo, which lies as a thin layer of cells upon the outer 
surface of the yolk. Both ends of the body are alike, and we 
shall afterwards see that its back lies next to the centre of the 
ego, its future ventral side looking outwards. ‘The embryo is 
thus bent on itself backwards. 

In the next stage the blastoderm divides into a certain num- 
ber of segments, or joints, which appear as indentations in the 
body of the embryo. The head can now be distinguished from 
the posterior end chiefly by its larger size, and both it and the 
tail are folded back upon the body of the embryo, the head 
especially being sunk backwards down into the yolk-mass. 

In a succeeding stage, as we have observed in the embryo of 
Diplax, a Dragon-fly (Fig. 57), the head is partially sketched 


Fig. 58. 
out, with the rudiments of the limbs and mouth-parts ; and the 
sternites, or ventral walls, of the thorax and of the two basal 
rings of the head appear. The anterior part of the head, in- 
cluding the so-called ‘‘procephalic lobes” overhangs and con- 


Fic. 57. Side view of embryo. The procephalic lobes arenot shown. 1, antennez ; 
2, mandibles; 3, maxillze; 4, second maxille (labium); 5-7, legs. These numbers 
and letters are the same in all the figures from 57-60. The under-side (sternum) 
of six segments are indicated. Fic. 58. Ventral view of the same. 


56 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


ceals the base of the antenne. It is probable that moré 
careful observation would have shown the end of the abdomen 
folded back upon the dorsal region, as usual at this period in 
the embryos of those insects whose embryology has been 
studied. : 

The antenne, mandibles, and maxille form a group by them- 
selves, while the second maxille (or labium) are very much 
larger and turned backwards, being temporarily grouped with 
the legs. 

There are traces only of the two basal sterna of the abdo- 

men. This indicates that the basal abdominal segments grow 
in succession from the base of the abdomen, the middle ones 
appearing last. The post-abdomen (Fig. 594) has probably 
been developed synchronous with the procephalic lobes, as it is 
in all insect and crustacean embryos yet observed. As stated 
by Zaddach, these two lobes in their development are exact 
equivalents; antero-posterior symmetry is very clearly de- 
marked, the two ends of the body at first looking alike. But 
in this stage, after the two ends of the body haye been evolved 
from the primitive cell-layer, development in the post-abdomi- 
nal region is retarded, that of the head progressing with much 
ereater rapidity. 
In the next stage (not figured) the yolk is completely walled 
in, though no traces of segments appear on the back or side of 
the embryo. The revolution of the embryo has taken place ; 
the post-abdomen being curved beneath the body, and the back — 
presenting outwards. 

The rudiments of the eyes appear as a darker, rounded mass 
of cells indistinctly seen through the yolk-granules, and situ- 
ated at the base of the antenne. They consist of a few epithe- 
lial cells of irregular form, the central one being the largest. 

The second maxille are a little over twice the length of the 
first maxillze and are grouped with the legs, being curved back- 
wards. They are, however, now one-third shorter than the an- 
terior legs. The second maxillary sternum is still visible. 

The tip of the abdomen (or post-abdomen) consists of four 
segments, the terminal one being much the larger, and ob- 
scurely divided into two obtuse lobes. 

The abdominal sternites are now well marked, and the ner- 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE INSECT. 57 


vous eord is represented by eight or nine large oblong-square 
(seen sideways) ganglia, which lie contiguous to each other. 
The formation of the eyes, the post-abdomen, the sternites, 
and median portion of the nervous cord seems nearly synchro- 
nous with the closing up of the dorsal walls of the body, though 
the division of the tegument into segments has not apparently 
taken place over the yolk-mass. ; 


The succeeding stage (Fig. 59) is signalized by the appear- - 


ance of the rudiments of the intestine, 
while the second maxille are directed 
more anteriorly. 

In form the body is ovate-cylin- 
drical, and there is a deep constric- 
tion separating the post-abdomen 
from the anterior part of the abdo- 
men. 

The terminal (eleventh) ring is 
immensely disproportioned to its size in the embryo just pre- 
vious to hatching (see Fig. 61, where it forms a triangular piece 
situated between its appendages, 
‘the anal stylets). At a later 
period of this stage two more ab- 
dominal segments have been added, 
one to the end of the main body 
of the abdomen, and another to 
the post-abdomen. They have 
been apparently interpolated at the 
junction of the post-abdomen to 
the abdomen proper. Should this 
observation be proved to be correct, it may then be considered 
as a rule that, after reaching a certain number of segments, all 
additional ones are interpolated between the main body of the 
abdomen and its terminal segment or segments. This is the 
law of increase in the number of segments in Worms, and in 
Myriapods (Julus, according to Newport’s observations), in 
Arachnids (Claparede), and Crustacea (Rathke). 

The next stage (Fig. 60), is characterized by the differentia- 


Fig. 59. An embryo much farther advanced. C, clypeus; E, eye; A, bi-lobed 
extremity of the abdomen; I, the rudiments of the intestines. 


a8 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


tion of the head into the rudiments of the ophthalmic ring, and 
the supraclypeal piece, and clypeus, together with the approx- 
imation of the second pair of maxilla, which, when united, form 
the labium, the extremities of which are now situated in the 
middle of the body. 

The antennz now extend to the middle of the labium, just 
passing beyond the extremities of the mandibles and maxille. 
The cesophagus can now be seen going from the mouth-opening 
situated just beneath the labium. It curves around just behind 
the eyes. There are at this period no appearances of movable 
hlood-disks or of a dorsal vessel. 

The abdomen is now pointed at the extremity and divided 
into the rudiments of the two anal stylets, which form large, 
acute tubercles. The yolk-mass is now almost 
entirely inclosed within the body walls, form- 
ing an oval mass. 

Another embryo, observed July 27th, had 
reached about the same stage of growth. The 
front of the head, including the antennary 
segment, is farther advanced than before. The 
entire head is divided into two very distinct 
regions; ¢.e. one before the mouth-opening 
(the preoral region, including the ocellary, or 
first and second segments; the ophthalmic, or 
third segment, and antennary, or fourth seg- 
ment of the head); and the other behind the 
mouth (postoral, consisting of the mandibular, 

Mee or fifth segment, the jfirst mazillary, or sixth 
segment, and the second mawillary, or labial, being the seventh 
and last cephalic ring. 

At a later period the embryo is quite fully formed, and is 
about ready to leave the egg. The three regions of the body 
are now distinct. ‘The articulations of the tergum are present, 
the yolk-mass being completely inclosed by the tergal walls. 


Fie. 61. The embryo taken from the egg, but nearly ready to hatch. T, the 
dotted line crosses the main trachea, going through the yolk-mass, now restricted 
to the thoracic region. At xX, the trachee send off numerous branches around an 
enlargement of the intestine (colon), where the blood is aerated; better seen in fig. 
62. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, the last being a minute triangular- 
piece. : 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INSECT. 59 


The body is so bent upon itself that the extremities of the 
second maxillz just overlap the tip of the abdomen. 

The two limbs of the labium are now placed side by side, 
with the prominent spinous appendage on the outer edges of 
the tip. These spines are the rudiments of the labial palpi. 

The general form of the embryo at a still later period (Fig. 
61), on being taken from the egg and straightened out, re- 
minds us strikingly of 
the Thysanura, and, in 
these and other re- 
spects, tend to prove 
that the Podure and 
Lepismz, and _ allied 
genera, are embryonic, 
degraded forms of Neu- 
roptera,: and should 
therefore be considered 
as a family of that sub- 
order. Seen laterally, 
the body gradually ta- 
pers from the large 
head to the pointed ex- 
tremity. The body is 
flattened from above 
downwards. At this 
stage the appendages 
are still closely ap- 
pressed to the body. 

Just before the ex- 
clusion of the embryo, 
the legs and mouth- 
parts stand out freer Fig. 62. 
from the body. The labium, especially, assumes a position at 
nearly right angles to the body. The antennez, mandibles, 
and maxille have taken on a more definite form, being like 


Fig. 62. The larva just hatched and swimming in the water. N, ventral.cord or 
neryous ganglia; D, dorsal vessel, or “heart,” divided into its chambers. The 
anal valves at the end of the abdomen, which open and shut during respiration, are 
represented as being open. Both of the dotted lines cross the trachex. X, net- 
work-of the trachez, surrounding the cloaca. 


60 . THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


that of the young larva, and stand out free from the body, 
The head is much smaller in proportion to the rest of the 
body, and bent more upon the breast. 

The Larva (Fig. 62) 
when hatched is about 
five hundredths of an 
inch in length. The 
head is now free and 
the antennz stand out 
free from the front. 
The thorax has greatly 
diminished in size, 
while the abdomen has 
become wider, and the 
limbs very long; and 
the numerous minute tubercles, seen in the preceding stage, 
have given origin to hairs. The dorsal vessel can now, for the 
first time, be seen. When in motion, the resemblance 
to a spider is most striking. The flow of blood to 
the head, and the return currents through the lacunar 
or venous circulation along the side of the body were 
easily observed. The vessels were not crowded with 
blood disks, the latter being few in number, only one 
or two passing along at a time. . Two currents, pass- 
ing in opposite directions, were observed in the legs. 


Fig. 63. Side view of the head of the larva of Diplax before the first moult. ce, 
deciduous tubercles terminating in a slender style; their use is unknown; they 
have not been observed in the full-grown larva. e, the compound eyes. 1, the 
three Faniaal antenne, the terminal joint nearly three times as long as the two 
basal ones. 2, the mandibles, and also enlarged, showing the cutting edge divided 
into four teeth. 8,maxille divided into two lobes: d, the outer and anterior lobe, 
2-jointed, the basal joint terminating in two sete; and a, the inner lobe concealed 
from view, in its natural position, by the outer lobe, d. 4, the base or pedicel of 
the second maxille, or labium, the expanded terminal portion being drawn sepa- 
rately; d@ and a, two movable stout styles representing, perhaps, the labial palpi; 
the lobe to which they are attached is multidentate, and adapted for seizing 
prey; on the right side the two styles are appressed to the lobe. 2x represents, 
perhaps, the ligula; but we have not yet studied its homologies carefully: this 
part is attached to a transversely linear piece soldered to the main part of the 
labium. y, the 11th abdominal ring, with its pair of conical anal styles. 2, the 
last tarsal joint and pair of long slender claws. 

_ Fic. 64. The pupa of Diplax, having rudimentary rings, in which the eyes are 
much larger, and the legs much shorter than in the recently hatched larya; mn- 
troduced to be compared with the young larva. Figs. 57-64, original. : 


TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 61 


On review it will be seen how remarkable are the changes in 
form of the insect before it is hatched, and that all are the 
result of simple growth. We have seen that the two ends of 
the body are first formed, and that the under side of the body 
is formed before the back; that the belly is at first turned out- 
wards, and afterwards the embryo reverses its position, the 
back presenting outwards. All the appendages are at first 
simple protrusions from the body-walls, and new segments are 
interpolated near the tip of the abdomen. These changes take 
place very rapidly, within a very few days, and some of the 
most important and earlier ones in a few hours. We can now 
better understand that the larva and pupa stages are the result 
of a similar mode of growth, though very marked from being 
in a different medium, the insect having to seek food and act 
as an independent being. 


TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. We have seen that 
during the growth of the embryo, the insect undergoes remark- 
able changes of form, the result of simple growth. The meta- 
morphoses of the animal within the egg are no less marked 
than those which occur after it has hatched. It will also be 
seen that the larva and pupa stages are not always fixed, defi- 
nite states, but only pauses in the development of the insect, 
concealing beneath the larva and pupa skins the most impor- 
tant changes of form. ; 

The process of hatching. No other author has so carefully 
described the process of hatching as Newport, who observed 
it in the larva of Meloé. ‘‘When the embryo larva is ready 
for its change, the egg-shell becomes thinned and concave on 
that side which covers the ventral surface of the body, but is 
much enlarged, and is more convex on the dorsal, especially 
towards the head. The shell is then burst longitudinally along 
the middle of the thoracic segments, and the fissure is ex- 
tended forwards to the head, which then, together with the 
thoracic segments, is partially forced through the opening, but 
is not at once entirely withdrawn. The antennex, parts of the 
mouth, and legs are still inclosed within separate envelopes, 
and retain the larva in this covering in the shell. Efforts are 
then made to detach the posterior segments of the body, which 


62 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


are gradually released, and with them the antenne, palpi, and 
legs, and the larva remoyes itself entirely from the shell and 
membranes. In this process of evolution the young Meloé 
throws off two distinct coverings: first, the shell with its lining 
membrane, the analogue of the membrane in which, as I have 
elsewhere shown,* the young Myriapod is inclosed, and re- 
tained several days after the bursting of the ovum, and which 
represents in the Articulata, not the allantois, but apparently 
the amnion, of Vertebrata; next, the first, or foetal deciduation 
of the tegument, analogous probably to the first change of skin 
in the Myriapod, after it has escaped from the amnion, and 
also to the first change which the young Arachnidan invariably 
undergoes a few days after it has left the egg, and before it 
can take food. This tegument, which, perhaps, may be analo- 
gous to the vernix caseosa of Vertebrata, thrown off at the 
instant of birth, is left by the young Meloe with the amnion 
in the shell; and its separation from the body, at this early 
period, seems necessary to fit the insect for the active life it 
has commenced.” (Linn. Trans. xx. p. 506, etc.) 

The larva state. The larva (Latin larva, a mask) was so- 
called because it was thought to mask the form of the perfect 
insect. The larvee of Butterflies and Moths are called cater- 
pillars; those of Beetles, grubs; and those of the two-winged 
Flies (Diptera) maggots; the larve of other groups haye no 
distinctive common names. 

As soon as it is hatched the larva feeds voraciously, as if in 
anticipation of the coming period of rest, the pupa state, for 
which stores of fat (the fatty bodies) are developed for the 
supply of fat globules out of which the tissues of the new 
body of the pupa and imago are to be formed. 

Most larvee moult, or change their skin, four or five times. 
In the inactive thin-skinned lary, such as those of Bees, 
Wasps, and Gall-flies, the moults are not apparent; as the 
larva increases in size it out-grows the old skin, which comes 
off in thin shreds. But in the active larvee, such as eater- 
pillars, grasshoppers, and grubs, from the rapid deposition of 
chitine in the outer layers of the skin, just before the change, 


* Philosophical Transactions, Pt. 2, 1841, p. 111. 


TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 63 


it becomes hard and dry, and too small for the growing in- 
sect, and is then cast off entire. 

A series of bee-larvze can be selected showing a graduation 
in size and form from the egg and recently hatched larva up to 
the full-grown larva. In the caterpillar and other active larve, 
there are usually four or five stages, each showing a sudden and 
marked increase in size. Newport states that the caterpillar 
of Sphinx ligustri moults six times, and at the last moult be- 
comes a third larger than at any earlier period; the larva of 
Arctia caja moults from five to ten times. 

A few days before the assumption of the pupa state, the 
larva becomes restless, stops eating, and deserts its food, and 
usually spins a silken cocoon, or makes one of earth, or chips, 
if a borer, and there prepares for the change to the pupa state. 

During this semipupa period (lasting, in many insects, only 
for a day or several days, but in some Saw-flies through the 
winter) the skin of the pupa grows beneath that of the quies- 
cent larva. While the worm-like larva exhibits no trire- 
gional distinctions, the muscles of the growing pupa contract 
and enlarge in certain parts so as to modify the larva form, 
until it gradually assumes the triregional form of the adult 
insect, with the differentiation of the body into a head, thorax, 
and abdomen. 

In a series of careful studies, abundantly. illustrated with 
excellent plates, Weismann has recently shown that Swammer- 
dam’s idea that the pupa and imago skins were in reality 
already concealed under that of the larva is partially founded 
in truth. Swammerdam states, ‘‘I can point out in the larva 
all the limbs of the future nymph, or Culex, concealed beneath 
the skin,” and he also observed beneath the skin of the larvee 
of bees just before pupating, the antennz, mouth-parts, wings, 
and limbs of the adult. (Weismann.) 

During its transformations the pupa skin is developed from 
the hypodermis, or inner layer of skin. This peals off, as it 
were, from the inner layer of the old larva skin, which soon 
dries and hardens, and is thrown off. Meanwhile the muscles 
of the body contract and change in form, thus causing the origi- 
nal segments of the larva to infold and contract at certain parts, 
gradually producing the pupa form. If, during this period, the 


a 


64 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


insect be examined at intervals, a series of slight changes of 
form may be seen, from the larva to the imago state. In some 
cases each change is accompanied by a moult, as in the ‘‘ac- 
tive” Ephemera, where Lubbock counted twenty moults. 

As a general rule, then, it may be stated that the body of 
the larva is transformed into that of the imago; ring answer- 
ing to ring, and limb to limb in both, the head of the one 
is homologous with that of the other, and the appendages of 
the larva are homologous with the appendages of the imago. 

Weismann has shown that in the larva of the Meat-fly, Musca 
vomitoria, the thorax and head of the imago are developed 
from what he calls ‘‘imaginal disks.” These disks are minute 
isolated portions of the hypodermis, which are formed in the 
embryo, before it leaves the egg, and are held in place within 
the body-cavity of the larva by being attached either to nerves 
or trachee, or both. After the outer layer of the larva skin 
dries and hardens, and forms the cask-shaped pupariwm, the 
use of which corresponds to the cocoon of moths, etc., these 
imaginal disks increase in size so as to form the tegument of 
the thorax and head. The abdomen of the Meat-fly, however, 
is formed by the direct conversion of the eight hinder seements 
of the body of the larva, into the corresponding segments of 
the imago. 

Accompanying this change in the integument there is a 
destruction of all the larval system of organs; this is either 
total or effected by the gradual destruction of tissues. Now 
we see the use of the “fatty body ;” this breaks up, setting 
free granular globules of fat, which, as we have seen in the 
embryo, produces by the multiplication of cells the new tissues 
of the pupa. Thus the larva-skin is cast aside, and also the 
softer organs within, but the formation of new tissues keeps 
even pace with the destruction of the old, and the insect pre- 
serves its identity throughout. The genital glands, however, 
are indicated even in the embryo, and are gradually developed 
throughout the growth of the insect, so that this histolysis, or 
destruction of tissues, is not wholly complete. The quiescent 
pupa-state of Musca is long-continued, and its vitality is latent, 
the acts of respiration and circulation being almost suspended. 
(Weismann. ) 


TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 65 


In the metamorphosis of Corethra, a Mosquito-like Fly, which 
is active both in the larva and pupa states, ‘‘the segments of 
the larva are converted directly into the corresponding seg- 
ments of the body of the imago, the appendages of the head 
into the corresponding ones of the head of the imago; those 
of the thorax are produced after the last moult of the larva 
as diverticula of the hypodermis round a nerve or trachea, 
from the cellular envelope of which the formation of tissue in 
the interior of the appendages issues. The larval muscles of 
the abdominal segments are transferred unchanged into the 
imago; the thoracic muscles peculiar to the imago, as also 
some additional abdominal muscles, are developed in the last 
larval periods from indifferent cellular cords which are indi- 
cated even in the egg. The genital glands date back to the 
embryo, and are gradually developed ; all the other systems of 
organs pass with little or no alteration into the imago. Fatty 
body none or inconsiderable. Pupa-state short and active.” 
(Weismann. ) 

As the two types are most. clearly discriminated by the 
presence or absence of true imaginal disks, Weismann suggests 
that those insects which undergo a marked metamorphosis 
might be divided into Insecta discotad (or Insects with imaginal 
disks), and those without, into Insecta adiscota. 

The metamorphosis of Corethra may prove to be a type of 
that of all insects which are active in their preparatory stages ; 
and that of Musca typical of all those that are quiescent in the 
pupa-state, at least the Lepidoptera and those Diptera which 
have a coarctate * pupa, together with the Coleoptera and those 
Neuroptera in which the metamorphosis is complete, as Phry- 
ganea, Hemerobius, ete. 

The transformations of the Humble-bee are easily observed 
by taking a nest after the first brood have matured, when we 
shall find individuals in all stages of development from the 
larva to the imago state. The figures below show four stages, 
but in reality there is every gradation between these stages. 


* The larvee of some of the higher Diptera spin a slight cocoon, while the true 
flies, such as the Muscidz and Syrphide, etc., change to pup within the larva 
skin which contracts into a cylindrical “puparium” corresponding in use to the 
cocoon; such pupe are called ‘ coarctate.” 


5 


66 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Fig. 64 shows what we may call the semipupa, concealed by 
the larval skin. ‘There are eleven pairs of stigmata, three 
thoracic and eight abdominal. The head of the semi-pupa 
lies under the head (a) and prothoracic ring (»). The basal 
ring of the abdomen (c), or fourth ring from the head, is un- 
changed in form. This figure also will suffice to represent 


Fig. 66. Fig. 67. 


the larva, though a little more produced anteriorly than in 
its natural form. 

In another stage (Fig. 65) of the semi-pupa, the larval skin 
is entirely sloughed off, the two pairs of wing-pads lying paral- 
lel, and very equal in size, like the wings of Neuroptera. The 
thoraco-abdominal ring, or propodeum (c), is distinguished by 
its oblong spiracle (7), essentially differing from those on 
the abdomen. At this point the body contracts, but the head 


TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 67 


and thorax together are yet, as still more in the previous 
stage, much smaller than in the pupa, and there is still a con- 
tinuous curve from the tip of the abdomen to the head. (g, 
antenna; h, lingua, maxille, and palpi; 7, fore-legs; j, mid- 
dle legs; %, meso-scutum; /, meso-scutellum; n, spiracle of 
the propodgum. ) 

In a succeeding stage (Fig. 66) of the semi-pupa, the head 
and thorax together nearly equal in size the abdomen, and the 
propodeum (c) has become entirely transferred to the thorax. 
The head has become greatly enlarged; the rings are very un- 
equal, the hinder pair are much smaller, and overlaid by the 
anterior pair; the three terminal pair of abdominal rings, so 
large in Fig. 65, have been absorbed, and partially inclosed in 
the cavity of the abdomen; and there has been a farther dif- 
ferentiation of the ring into the sternite (d), pleurite (¢), and 
tergite (f). (a, eye; h, lingua; 0, ovipositor, two outer 
rhabdites exposed to view.) The abdominal spiracles in Figs. 
65 and 66, are represented by.a row of dots. In the pupa 
they are concealed by the tergites, which overlap the sternites. 

Fig. 67 represents the pupa state, where the body has become 
much shorter, and the appendages of the head and thorax greatly 
differentiated ; the external genital organs are wholly retracted 
within the cavity of the abdomen; the head is freer from the 
body, and the whole bulk of the head and thorax together, in- 
cluding the appendages, greater than that of the abdomen. 
These changes of form, assumed by the insect in its passage 
from the larva to the pupa state, are nearly as striking as 
the so-called ‘“‘hypermetamorphosis” of Meloé and Sitaris 
described by Newport and Fabre. (/, mesoscutellum ; p, cly- 
_peus; qg, maxillee with the palpi; 7, lingua.) 


We have also observed similar changes in the semi-pupa of a 


Tineid larva, which we found in the mud-cells of Odynerus 
albophaleratus. ‘There were over a dozen specimens in different 
stages of growth from the larva to the pupa, which were but 
partially paralyzed by the well-directed sting of the intelligent 
wasp, so that some continued to transform into perfect pup. 

The following changes were noticed: the larva straightened 
out, and became a little shorter, the prothoracic ring remaining 
the same; the head of the pupa being beneath it; the meso- 


68 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


thoracic ring enlarged, swelling and rounding above and on the 
sides, and with this increase in size’ drawing the meta-thorax 
forwards. ‘The first visible portion of the pupa beneath is the 
meso-thorax. The thoracic legs of the larva are now con- 
stricted at their base, and have become useless. 

In the next stage, the most important change noticed is in 
the meta-thorax, which now becomes broadly heart-shaped. In 
a succeeding stage, the whole thorax bulges out, and is much 
larger and clearly distinguished from the head and abdomen. 
The prothorax of the larva disappears, and that of the pupa 
takes its place. The occiput of the pupa, just before the larva- 
skin is thrown off, can be distinctly seen under the larval occi- 
put, pushing aside each half of the latter. 

In the last stage of Bombus just before the imago leaves its 
cell, the body and limbs are surrounded by a thin pellicle. 
This pellicle also envelops the moth, just before it leaves the 
pupa, and which is cast off when it moults the pupa-skin. This 
is probably identical with the skin cast by the active subimago 
of Ephemera, soon after it has taken its flight. Westwood also 
considers this subimago skin identical with that covering the 
bodies of coarctate Diptera, as in Evistalis. 

Newport states, that when the imago of Sphinx is about to 
cast off the pupa-skin the abdominal segments are elongated 
beyond their original extent, this being the first part of the 
insect that is entirely freed from its attachment within the 
pupa-case. After this the thorax slits down, and the body is 
drawn out of the rent. In the Butterfly the wings mature in a 
few moments, but those of Sphinw being thicker, require two 
or three hours. 

Newport (Philosophical Transactions, London, 1832 and 
1834) has detailed with great minuteness the internal changes 
of Sphinx ligustri while transforming. The most marked 
changes are in the nervous and digestive systems. 

Several anomalous modes of metamorphosis have been ob- 
served, one in Diptera and the other in Sitaris and Meloé. The 
development of the latter insect will be noticed beyond. 

Sir John Lubbock has described the singular metamorphosis 
of Lonchoptera, which he considers to be allied to Sargus, 
though the adult stages differ greatly. The larva is oblong 


‘TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 69 


ovate, flattened, with four long set in front and two behind, 
with the sides of the body emarginate and spinulated. They 
were found under logs. ‘* When the larva is full grown, it de- 
taches itself from the skin, which retains its form, and within 
which the insect changes into a white opaque fleshy grub con- 
sisting apparently of thirteen segments which gradually dimin- 
ish in size from one end to the other. There are no limb-cases. 
According to analogy the pupa should be ‘incomplete ;’ it is 
probable, therefore, that the legs and wings make their appear- 
ance at a later stage. If this be so the perfect form is only 
attained after passing through three well-marked stages. I re- 
eret, however, that the specimens at my disposal did not enable 
me to decide this point.” (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, Third 
Ser. i, 1862.) . : 

Haliday states that Thrips goes through a propupa and pupa 
stage. There are five well-defined stages in the Homopterous 
Typhlocyba, and more than three in Aphis. Yersin has noticed 
several stages in the development of Giryllus campestris, and 
the genus Psocus has four such stages. 

The duration of the different stages vary with the changes 
of the seasons. Cold and damp weather retards the process of 
transformation. Réaumur kept the pupa of a Butterfly two 
years in an ice-house before, on being removed to a warm place, 
it changed to a butterfly. Chrysalids survive great alter- 
nations of heat and cold; they may be frozen stiff on ice, and 
then, on being gradually exposed to the heat, thaw out and 
finish their transformations. 

Retrograde Development. ‘There are certain degradational 
forms among the lowest members of each group ot Insects 
which imitate the group beneath them. The Tardigrades (which 
are considered by some authors to be allied to the Mites) are 
mimicked by the low parasitic worm-like Demodezx folliculorum ; 
the low Neuroptera, such as Lepisma, imitate the Myriapoda ; 
and the wingless Lice remind us of the larva of the Neuropter- 
ous Hemerobius. 

Among the Coleoptera, the history of Stylops affords a strik- 
ing example. The active six-footed larva is transformed into 
the strange bag-like female which takes on the form of a cylin- 
drical sac, the head and thorax being consolidated into a 


70 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


minute flattened portion. The process of degradation here 
seems carried out to its farthest limit. 

Thus the degraded forms of the lower series of Hexapods 
take on a Myriapod aspect. In the more highly cephalized 
Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera the degraded forms 
are modelled on a higher articulate type. The idea of a divis- 
ion into three regions is involved. Thus the wingless forms 
of Flies, such as the Bird-louse, Nirmus,; the Bat-tick, Mycte- 
ribia; the Bee-louse, Braula; and Chionea resemble strikingly 
the biregional Arachnids. 

In the wingless female of Orgyia and the Canker-worm moth, 
the head is free, but the thorax is merged into the abdomen. 
The resemblance to the lower insects is less striking. The 
worker ants and wingless Ichneumons, Pezomachus, still more 
strictly adhere to the type of their suborder, and in them the 
triregional form of the body persists. Among the first of the 
examples here cited we have seen the workings of a law, by 
which most degraded forms of insects (and this law is exerted 
with greater force in Crustacea) tend to revert to the worm-like, 
or, as we may call it, the archetypal, form of all Articulata. 

We have seen that many winged forms mimic the groups 
above them, whereas the wingless degraded species revert to a 
worm-like form. In either case, the progress is towards a 
higher or a lower form. The latter is the more exceptional, as 
the evolution and growth of all animals is upwards towards a 
more specialized, differentiated form. 

The Imago. After completing its transformations the adult 
insect immediately seeks to provide for the propagation and 
continuance of the species. The sexes meet, and, soon after, 
the male, now no longer of use in the insect economy, perishes. 
The female hastens to lay her eggs either in, upon, or near 
what is to be the food of the young, and then dies. This 
period generally occurs in the summer and autumn, and during 
the winter the species is mostly represented by the egg alone. 
Rarely does the adult insect hibernate, but in many species 
the pupa hibernates to disclose the adult in early summer. 
The larva seldom, as such, lives through the winter. 

Réaumur kept a virgin butterfly for two years in his hot- 
house. From this it would seem that the duration of the life 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. rae 


of an insect may be in this way greatly prolonged. Most in- 
sects live one year. Hatching from the egg in early summer, * 
they pass through the larva state, and in the autumn become 
pup, to appear as imagos for a few days or weeks in the 
succeeding summer. Many Lepidoptera are double-brooded, and 
some have even three broods, while the parasitic insects such as 
Lice and Fleas, and many Flies, keep up a constant succession 
of broods. Warmth, Mr. R. C. R. Jordan remarks in the Ento- 
mologists’ Monthly Magazine, has much to do with rapidity 
of development, as insects may be forced artificially into hay- 
ing a second brood during the same season. Some Coleoptera, 
such as the Lamellicorns, are supposed to live three years in 
the larva state, the whole time of life being four years. The 
Cockchafer (Melolontha) of Europe is three years in arriving 
at the perfect state, and the habits of the Goldsmith Beetle 
(Cotalpa lanigera), according to Rey. Samuel Lockwood 
(American Naturalist, vol. 2, p. 186), and of the June Beetle, 
and allied genera, are probably the same. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DistrrpuTiIon. The insect-fauna of a coun- 
try comprises all the insects found within its limits. The 
Polar, Temperate, and Tropical zones each have their distinct 
insect-fauna, and each continent is inhabited by a distinct 
assemblage of insects. It is also a curious fact that the insect- 
fauna of the east coast of America resembles, or has many an- 
_alogues in, that of the Eastern hemisphere, and the west coast 
of one repeats the characteristics of the west coast of the 
other. Thus some California insects are either the same spe- 
cies or analogues (7.e. representative species) of European 
ones, and the Atlantic coast affords forms of which the ana- 
logues are found in Eastern Asia and in India. This is corre- 
lated with the climatic features which are repeated on alternate 
sides of the two hemispheres. 

The limits of these faunze are determined by temperature and 
natural boundaries, 7.e. the ocean and mountain ranges. Thus 
the insect-fauna of the polar regions is much the same in 
Europe, Asia, and North America; certain widely spread polar 
species being common to all three of these continents. 

When we ascend high mountains situated ii the temperate 


EE 


—— 


—— 


SS = 


72 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


zone, and whose summits reach near the snow-line, we find a 
*few insects which are the same or very similar to those of the 
polar regions ; such an assemblage is called an Alpine fauna. 

The insect-fauna of each great continent may be divided into 
an Arctic, or polar, a Temperate, and a Tropical fauna, and an 
Alpine fauna if there are mountains in the warm latitudes which 
reach near the snow-line. Mountain barriers, inland seas, des- 
erts, and peculiarities in the flora (or collection of plants 
peculiar to a certain district), are boundaries of secondary 
importance in limiting the distribution of species. 

On the other hand insects are diffused by winds, rivers, 
oceanic currents, and the agency of man. By the latter im- 
portant means certain insects become cosmopolitan. Certain 
injurious insects become suddenly abundant in newly cultivated 
tracts. The balance of nature seems to be disturbed, and 
insects multiplying rapidly in newly settled portions of the 
country, become terrible pests. In the course of time, how- 
ever, they seem to decrease in numbers and moderate their 
attacks. 

Insect-faunze are not limited by arbitrary boundaries, but 
fade into each other by insensible gradations corresponding in 
a general way to the changes of the temperature of different 
portions of the district they inhabit. 

The subject of the geographical distribution of insects, of 
which we have as yet but given the rudiments, may be studied 
to great advantage in North America. The Arctic insect-fauna 
comprises Greenland, the arctic American Archipelago, and the 
northern shores of the continent beyond the limit of trees. A 
large proportion of the insects found in this region occur in 
arctic Europe and arctic Asia, and are hence called circum- 
polar, while other species are indigenous to each country. 
Again, the arctic fauna of Labrador and Hudson’s Bay differs 
from that of the arctic portions of the region about Behring’s 
Straits, certain species characterizing one side of the continent 
being replaced by representative species which inhabit the 
opposite side. 

The Alpine fauna of the White Mountains consists, besides 
a very few peculiar to them, of circumpolar species, which are 
now only found in Labrador and Greenland, and which are 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. (G) 


supposed to be relies of a glacial fauna which formerly inhab- 
ited the northern part of the temperate zone, and in former 
times followed the retreat of a glacial, or arctic climate from 
the low-lands to the alpine summits. These patches, or out- 
liers, of an arctic fauna, containing however a preponderance 
of subarctic forms, also occur in the colder parts of New 
England. 

The subarctic fauna is spread over British North America, 
stretching north-westerly from the interior of Labrador and the 
northern shores of the St. Lawrence, following the course of 
the isothermal lines which run in that direction, and north of 
which no cereals grow. There are subarctic forms which inhabit 
the shores of the Bay of Fundy, especially about Eastport, 
Maine, where the fogs and cold arctic marine currents lower 
the climate. 

Dr. J. L. Leconte, in a paper on the Coleoptera of Kansas 
and Eastern New Mexico (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl- 
edge), thus subdivides the Coleopterous fauna of the United 
States, and gives a useful map to which the reader is referred. 

““The whole region of the United States is divided by merid- 
ional, or nearly meridional lines into three, or perhaps four, 
great zoological districts, distinguished each by numerous 
peculiar genera and species, which, with but few exceptions, do 
not extend into the contiguous districts. The eastern one 
of these extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the arid prairies on 
the west of Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas, thus embracing 
(for convenience merely) a narrow strip near the sea-coast of 


Texas. This narrow strip, however, belongs more properly — 


to the eastern province of the tropical zoological district of 
Mexico. 

‘The central district extends from the western limit of the 
eastern district, perhaps to the mass of the Sierra Nevada of 
California, including Kansas, Nebraska, Utah, New Mexico, 
Arizona, and Texas. Except Arizona, the entomological fauna 
of the portion of this district west of the Rocky Mountains, 
and in fact that of the mountain region proper, is entirely un- 
known; and it is very probable that the region does in reality 
constitute two districts bounded by the Rocky Mountains, and 
the southern continuation thereof. 


. 


74. THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


‘¢ The western district is the maritime slope of the continent 
to the Pacific, and thus includes California, Oregon, and Wash- 
ington Territories. 

‘*These great districts are divided into a number of prov- 
inces, of unequal size, and which are limited by changes in 
climate, and therefore sometimes distinctly, sometimes vaguely 
defined.” 

‘*The method of distribution of species in the Atlantic and 
Pacific districts, as already observed by me in various memoirs, 
is entirely different. In the Atlantic district, a large number 
of species are distributed over a large extent of country ; many 
species are of rare occurrence, and in passing over a distance 
of several hundred miles, but small variation will be found in 
the species obtained. In the Pacific district, a small number 
of species are confined to a small region of country; most 
species occur in considerable numbers, and in travelling even 
one hundred miles, it is found that the most abundant species 
are replaced by others, in many instances very similar to them ; 
these small centres of distribution can be limited only after 
careful collections have been made at a great number of locali- 
ties, and it is to be hoped that this very interesting and im- 
portant subject of investigation may soon receive proper atten- 
tion from the lovers of science of our Pacific shores. 

“‘In the Central district, consisting, as it does to a very 
large extent, of deserts, the distribution seems to be of a mod- 
erate number of species over a large extent of country, with a. 
considerable admixture of local species ; such at least seems to 
be the result of observations in Kansas, Upper Texas, and 
Arizona.” 

There are a very few species which range from New England 
to Brazil, and fewer still (Xyleutes robiniw, according to Bois- 
duval, is found in California) range from New England to 
California. Junonia cenia, according to authors, is found both 
in the Southern States:and California, and Pyrrharctia isabella 
of the Eastern States would be easily confounded with P. Cali- 
fornica. 

Variation. Islands afford more variable forms than conti- 
nents; the Madeiran insects and those of Great Britain vary 
more than the same species found on the continent of Europe. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 75 


A species spread through two zones of temperature also varies ; 
many European species, according to McLachlan, becoming 
*“‘melanized”’ jn going northward, while others become paler. 
Such varieties have been described as different species. 

Mr. Alfred Wallace finds that the most constant forms of 
species are those the most limited in their geographical range 
as to a particular island, while those species, which range over 
a large part of the Malayan Archipelago, vary very consider- 
ably. It is a general rule throughout the animal and vegetable 
world, that the most widely spread species are those capable of 
withstanding the greatest climatic changes, and adapting them- 
selves to the greatest diversities of topography. 

While the most widely distributed species are thought to be 
the most variable, Mr. Scudder finds in the genus Chionobas 
that C. semidea, restricted to the summit of Mt. Washington 
varies almost as much as C. Oeno, which is cireumpolar, being 
found both in Labrador and Northern Europe. 

Mr. Wallace (Transactions of the Linnzean Society, xxv, 
1865, p. 14) mentions the following facts ‘‘as showing the 
special influence of locality in giving a peculiar facies to the 
several disconnected species that inhabit it.” 

*“On examining the closely allied species, local forms, and 
varieties distributed over the Indian and Malayan regions, I 
find that larger or smaller districts, or even single islands, give 
a special character to the majority of their Papilionide. For 
instance: 1. The species of the Indian region (Sumatra, Java, 
and Borneo) are almost invariably smaller than the allied spe- 
cies inhabiting the Celebes and Moluccas; 2. The species of 
New Guinea and Australia are also, though in a less degree, 
smaller than the nearest species or varieties of the Moluccas ; 
3. In the Moluccas themselves the species of Amboyna are larg- 
est ; 4. The species of Celebes equal or even surpass in size those 
of Amboyna; 5. The species and varieties of Celebes possess 
a striking character in the.form of the anterior wings, differing 
from that of the allied species and varieties of all the surrounding 
islands ; 6. Tailed species in India or the Indian region become 
tailless as they spread eastward through the archipelago.” 

Variety breeding. Varieties may be produced artificially ; 
thus negro varieties of insects may be raised ‘‘from parents 


cy 


76 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


more or less tainted with melanism, and according to Knaggs, 
there is a ‘‘ frequent recurrence of individuals wanting: a hind- 
wing, which may be noticed even at large in Macaria notata.” 
‘¢Few species are liable to the same extent of variation, and 
many apparently to none at all.” Certain species vary ‘ac- 
cording as they may have reproduced, generation after gen- 
eration, on a chalky, peaty, gravelly, or other soil.” Food also 
exerts an influence in inducing variation, according as cater- 
pillars of the same species feed on different plants; this occurs 
most commonly in the Micro-lepidoptera. (Knaggs,in the 
Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, London.) 

Introduced species of insects, like those of plants, often thrive 
more vigorously than the native forms. This is instanced by 
native insects which abound in unusual numbers in newly 
cleared districts where the former presence of forests and 
their natural foes kept them under. The Potato-beetle, Can- 
ker-worm, and Clisiocampa must have lived formerly in mod- 
erate numbers on our native plants, where now countless hosts 
affect our introduced plants. Among species introduced from 
a foreign country we have only to instance the Hessian Fly, 
the Wheat-midge, the Coddling-moth, the Clothes-moth, the 
Apple Bark-louse, and the Grain-weevil. Mr. W. T. Brig- 
ham informs us that some of the most abundant insects in the 
Hawaiian Islands are introduced species carried by vessels 
from Europe. Vanessa Antiopa, Pyrameis cardui, and P. 
Atalanta, so abundant in this country, are supposed to be intro- 
duced butterflies. Aphodius fimetarius, found by us living in 
dung on Mt. Washington, is one of our most common beetles, 
and the Asparagus-beetle, introduced from Europe a few years 
since, is common in gardens in Eastern New York, while Mr. 
Walsh has recorded the appearance of the European Gooseberry 
Saw-Fly, which ravages the Gooseberry and Currant. Pieris 
rape, the Cabbage-butterfly, introduced from Europe into 
Quebee about 1859, soon became abundant within a circle of 
forty miles radius about that city, and has even spread into 
Maine and Vermont along the railroads leading from Quebec. 

Insect Years. There are insect years as well as “apple 
years,” seasons when insects most abound. Every collector 
knows that there are certain years when a particular species of 


GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. M7 


insect is unusually common. The Army-worm, Leucania uni- 
puncta, swarms in countless numbers in a summer following 
a dry and warm spring. After a cold and rainy spring, insects 
are less abundant. Mr. F. Smith remarks that in England the 
summer and autumn of 1860 were unusually wet, which dis- 
abled the bees, wasps, and fossorial hymenoptera generally, in 
building their nests. We know how ants are hindered from 
building their nests by rain, and in a very rainy season num- 
bers probably die. A succession of rainy seasons caused the 
Andrene, or Spring bees, to disappear from the vicinity of 
London. While a severe winter, if the cold be continuous, is 
not injurious to insects, mild periods in winter, when it is warm 
enough to rouse them from torpidity, are as fatal to insects as 
to vegetation, should severe cold immediately follow. 


GrEoLogicaL DistrisutTion. The geological distribution of 
insects corresponds generally with that of other animals, 
though insect-remains are few in number, owing naturally to 
the difficulty with which their fragile forms are preserved 
in the rocks. Professor C. F. Hartt has discovered near St. 
John, New Brunswick, the oldest insect-remains in the world. 
They occur in some plant-beds of the Upper Devonian forma- 
tion, and consist of six species of Neuroptera. Mr. Scudder, 
who has referred to them in vol. 1 of the American Naturalist, 
states that with the exception of one or two Ephemeride, or 
May-flies, they mostly represent families which are now extinct. 
He describes a gigantic May-fly, Platephemera antiqua (Pl. 1, 
fig. 3); Lithentomum Harttii (Pl. 1, fig. 5); Homothetus fossi- 
lis (Pl. 1, fig. 7) ; and Xenoneura antiquorum which is supposed 
to bear a stridulating organ like that of the Grasshoppers, 
so that he ‘‘is inclined to believe there were chirping Neu- 
roptera in those days.” 

Ascending to the Carboniferous rocks, insect-remains appear 
more abundant. At Morris, Illinois, have been collected some 
remarkable forms. Among them are Miamia Bronsonii Dana 
(Pl. 1, fig. 1), allied to the White Ants and Hemeristia occi- 
dentalis Dana, allied to Hemerobius and Chryscpa; with these 
occurred remains supposed by Professor Meek to be those of a 
caterpillar (Fig. 68). 


78 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


In the Coal-beds of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Dr. 
Dawson, Mr. Barnes, and Professor O. C. Marsh have discovered 
several interesting Neuropterous and 
Orthopterous insects; among them a 
Cockroach, Archimulacris Acadica (P1. 
1,* fig..2). In Europe, Carboniferous 
insects have been discovered at Wettin, 
Saarbrick, ete. 

The insects from these two form- 
ations show a tendency to assume gigantic and strange shapes. 


Fig. 68. 


They are also comprehensive types, combining the characters of 
different families and even different suborders. The most re- 
markable instance is the Lugereon Boechingii Dohrn, from the 
Coal Formation of Germany. It has been referred by Dr. 
Hagen, with some doubt, to the Hemiptera, from its long im- 
mense rostrum into which all the mouth-parts are produced, the 
labium ensheathing them as usual in the Hemiptera. Its fore- 
legs are large and raptorial; but the filiform many-jointed an- 
tenn, and the net-veined wings are Neuropterous characters. 
Hence Dohrn considers it as a comprehensive type uniting 


* PXPLANATION OF PLATE 1. 


Fig. 1. Miamia Bronsoni. A Neuropterous insect found in iron-stone concre- 
tions in the Carboniferous beds at Morris, Illinois. The figure is magnified one- 
third, and has all its parts restored; the dotted lines indicate the parts not existing 
on the stone. Reduced from a figure in the Meinoirs of the Boston Society of Nat- 
ural History, Vol. I. 

Fig. 2. Archimulacris Acadica. Wing of a Cockroach observed by Mr. Barnes 
in the coal-formation of Nova Scotia. 

Fig. 3. Platephemera antiqua. A gigantic May-fly obtained by Mr. Hartt in the 
Devonian rocks of New Brunswick. 

Fig. 4. Xylobius sigillarie. The Myriapod (or Gally-worm) found in the coal- 
formation of Nova Scotia, by J. W. Dawson. Copied from a figure in Dr. Dawson’s 
Air-breathers of the Coal-period. Magnified. 

Fig. 5. Lithentomum Hartii. A Neuropterous insect, the specimen first dis- 
covered by Mr. Hartt in the Devonian rocks of New Brunswick. This fossil, and 
those accompanying it, are the oldest insect-remains in the world. 

Fig. 6. Three facets from the eye of an insect, considered by Dr. Dawson a 
Dragon-fly. It was found in coprolites of reptiles in the rocks containing the My- 
riapod, represented in Fig. 4. Copied from Dr. Dawson’s figure, greatly magnified. 

Fig. 7. Homothetus fossilis. A Neuropterous insect from the Deyonian rocks of 
New Brunswick; it was discovered by Mr. Hartt. 3 

Fig. 8. Haplophiebium Barnesii. A curious Neuropterous insect, of large size, 
probably allied to our May-flies; taken by Mr. Barnes from the coal of Cape Bre- 
ton. 

' These figures, with the exception of 1, 4, and 6, are of life size, and borrowed 
from the new edition of Dr. Dawson’s Acadian Geology. 


Pi. 


Fig. 8. 


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GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. 79 


the characters of the Neuroptera and Hemiptera. It is gigan- 
tic, spreading eight or nine inches; its body must have meas- 
ured six inches in length. i 

In the Mesozoic rocks, the celebrated Solenhofen locality in 
Bavaria is rich in Liassic insect-remains. Dr. Hagen (Ento- 
mologist’s Annual, London, 1862) states that among the Solen- 
hofen fossils the Neuroptera and Orthoptera are most largely 
represented ; as out of four hundred and fifty species of insects, 
one hundred and fifty are Neuroptera, of which one hundred 
and thirty-six are Dragon-flies, and besides ‘‘there is a Cory- 
dalus, one Chrysopa, a large Apochrysa, and a_ beautiful 
Nymphes. The last two genera, which do not seem very remote 
from. Chrysopa, are now found only in the Southern Hemi- 
sphere, Nymphes is peculiarly an Australian genus.” 

The Lias of England is very rich in fossil insects, especially 
. the Purbeck and Rhoetic Beds (see Brodie’s Work on Fos- 
sil Insects and also Westwood in the Geological Journal, etc. 
Nol oxe)): 

In the Trias, or New-Red Sandstone of the Connecticut 
Valley, Professor Hitchcock has found numerous remains of 
the larva of an aquatic insect. 

The insects of the Tertiary formation more closely resemble 


those of the present day. The most celebrated European. 


locality is Geningen in Switzerland. 

According to Professor O. Heer, over five thousand specimens 
of fossil insects have been found at Ciningen, comprising 844 
species, of which 518 are Coleopterous. From all Tertiary 
Europe there are 1,322 species, as follows: 166 Hymenoptera, 
18 Lepidoptera, 166 Diptera, 660 Coleoptera, 217 Hemiptera, 
39 Orthoptera, and 56 Neuroptera. 

‘“‘If we inquire to what insect-fauna of the present period 
the Tertiary fauna is most analogous, we shall be surprised to 
find that most of the species belong to genera actually found in 
the old and the new world. The insect-fauna of Giningen con- 
tains 180 genera of this category, of which 114. belong to the 
Coleoptera. Of these last, two (Dineutes and Caryborus) re- 
main in Europe, while all the others are now found living both 
in Europe and in America. The whole number of Coleopterous 
genera furnished by Giningen, and known to me, amount to 


* 


80 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


158; those that are common to both hemispheres forming then 
more than two-thirds of the whole number, while of the actual 
Coleopterous fauna of Europe, according to the calculation of 
M. Lacordaire, there is only one-third. The genera found to-day 
in both parts of the world have then during the Tertiary epoch 
played a more important part than is the case now; hence 
the knowledge of the character of the fauna is rendered more 
difficult. We find at Giningen but a very small number (five) 
of genera exclusively European; seventeen are found to-day 
in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, but not in America. For the 
most part they belong to the Mediterranean fauna (comprising 
eight genera) and give to the insect-iauna of Giningen a strong 
proportion of Mediterranean forms. In this fauna I only know 
of one exclusively Asiatic genus; two are peculiar to Africa, 
and two others (Anoplites and Naupactus) are American. 

‘*'There are now living, however, in Europe certain genera . 
which, without being exclusively American, since they are found 
in Asia and in Africa, belong more peculiarly to America ; such 
are Belostomum, Hypselonotus, Diplonychus, Evagorus, Sten- 
opoda, Plecia, Caryborus, and Dineutes. . . . The genera peculiar 
to our fauna of Tertiary insects amount to forty-four, of which 
twenty-one belong to the Coleoptera; among the Orthoptera 
there is one, and six Hymenoptera, six Diptera, and eleven 
Hemiptera. They comprise 140 species.” (Heer.) 

An apparently still richer locality for Tertiary insects has 
been discovered by Professor Denton west of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, near the junction of the White and Green Rivers, Colo- 
rado. According to Mr. Scudder ‘‘ between sixty and seventy 
species of insects were brought home, representing nearly all 
the different suborders; about two-thirds of the species were 
Flies, —some of them the perfect insect, others the maggot-like 
larvee,—but, in no instance, did both imago and larva of the 
same insect occur. The greater part of the beetles were quite 
small; there were three or four kinds of Homoptera (allied to 
the tree-hoppers), Ants of two different genera, and a poorly 
preserved Moth. Perhaps a minute -Thrips, belonging to a 
group which has never been found fossil in any part of the 
world, is of the greatest interest.” 

He thus sums up what is known of American fossil insects. 


THE DISEASES OF INSECTS. $1 


‘“The species of fossil insects now known from North America, 
number eighty-one: six of these belong to the Devonian, nine 
to the Carboniferous, one to the Triassic, and sixty-five to the 
Tertiary epochs. The Hymenoptera, Homoptera, and Diptera 
occur only in the Tertiaries ; the same is true of the Lepidop- 
tera, if we exclude the Morris specimen, and of the Coleoptera, 
with one Triassic exception. The Orthoptera and Myriapods 
are restricted to the Carboniferous, while the Neuroptera occur 
both in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations. No fossil 
Spiders have yet been found in America.” (American Nat- 
uralist, vol. 1, p. 630.) One species of Spider has been found 
in the Coal-measures of Europe, and a large number in Prus- 
sian Amber. 


Tue Diseases or Insects have attracted but little atten- 
tion. They are so far as known mostly the result of the attacks 
of parasitic plants and animals, though epidemics are known 
to break out and carry off myriads of insects. Dr. Shimer 
gives an account of an epidemic among the Chinch bugs, which 
“was at its maximum during the moist warm weather that fol- 
lowed the cold rains of June and the first part of July, 1865.” 

Species of microscopic plants luxuriate in infinitesimal for- 
ests within the alimentary canal of some wood-devouring insects, 
and certain fungi attack those species which are exposed to 
dampness, and already enfeebled by other causes. Among the 
true entophyta, or parasitic plants, which do not however ordi- 
narily occasion the death of their host, Professor Leidy describes 
Enterobryus elegans, E. spiralis, E. alternatus, Arthromitus 
cristatus, Cladophytum comatum, and Corynocladus radiatus, 
which live mostly attached to the mucous walls of the interior 
of the intestine of Julus marginatus and two other species of 
Julus, and Passalus cornutus. Eccrina longa Leidy, lives in 
Polydesmus Virginiensis; and E. moniliformis Leidy in P. 
_granulatus. 

But there are parasitic fungi that are largely destructive to 
their hosts. Such are Sphaeria and Isaria. ‘These fungi 
grow with great rapidity within the body of the animal they 
attack, not only at the expense of the nutritive fluids of the 


latter, but, after its death, all the interior soft tissues appear 
6 


82 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


to be converted into one or more aerial receptacles of spores.” 
(Leidy.) These fungi, so often infesting caterpillars, are hence 
called ‘‘caterpillar fungi.” They fill the whole body, distend- 
ing even the legs, and throw out long filaments, sometimes 
longer than the larva itself, giving a grotesque appearance to 
the insect. Leidy has found a species which is very common 
in the Seventeen-year Locust, Cicada septendecim. We found 
‘‘among myriads of the imago between twelve and twenty 
specimens, which, though living, had the posterior third of the 
abdominal contents converted into a dry, powdery, ochreous- 
yellow, compact mass of sporuloid bodies.” He thinks this 
Cicada is very subject to the attacks of these fungi, and that 
the spores enter the anal and genital passages more readily 
than the mouth; thus accounting for their development in the 
abdomen. 

The most formidable disease is the ‘‘ Muscardine,” caused by 
a fungus, the Botrytus Bassiana of Balsamo. It is well known 
that this disease has greatly reduced the silk crop in Europe. 
Balbiani has detected the spores of this fungus in the eggs of 
Bombyx mori as well as in the different parts of the body of 
the insect in all stages of growth. Extreme cleanliness and 
care against contagion must be observed in its prevention. 

Among plants a disease like Muscardine, due to the presence 
of a minute fungus (Mucor mellitophorus), fills the stomach 
of some insects, including the Honey-bee, with its colorless 
spores, and greatly weakens those affected. Another fungus, 
Sporendonema musca, infests the common House-fly. 

Another Silk-worm disease called ‘‘ Pebrine,” carries off many 
silk-worms. Whether it is of pathological or vegetable origin 
is not yet settled. 

There are also a few intestinal worms’ known to be para- 
sitic in insects. The well-known ‘“Hair-worm” (Gordius) 
in its young state lives within the body of various insects in- 
cluding the Spiders. The tadpole-like young differs greatly 
from the parent, being short, sac-like, ending in a tail. Upon 
leaving the egg they work their way into the body of insects, 
-and there live on the fatty substance of their hosts, where they 
undergo their metamorphosis into the adult hair-like worm, 
and make their way to the pools of water in which they live 


THE DEFORMITIES OF INSECTS. 83 


and beget their species, and lay ‘‘millions of eges connected 
together in long cords.” lLeidy thus writes regarding thie 
habits of a species which infests grasshoppers. 

“The number of Gordit in each insect varies from one to five, 
their length from three inches to a foot ; they occupy a position 
in the visceral cavity, where they lie coiled among the viscera, 
and often extend from the end of the abdomen forward through 
the thorax even into the head; their bulk and weight are fre- 
quently greater than all the soft parts, including the muscles, 
of their living habitation. Nevertheless, with this relatively 
immense mass of parasites, the insects jump about almost as 
freely as those not infested. 

““The worms are milk-white in color, and undivided at the 
extremities. The females are distended with ova, but I have 
never observed them extruded. When the bodies of Grass- 
hoppers, containing these entozoa, are broken and lain upon 
moist earth, the worms gradually creep out and pass below its 
surface.” 

Goureau states that Filaria, a somewhat similar worm, in- 
habits Hibernia brumata and Vanessa prorsa. (Ann. Ent. Soc. 
France.) : 

Siebold describes Gordius subbifurcus which infests the 
Honey-bee, especially the drones, though it is rather the work- 
ers, which frequent the pools where the Gordii live, that we 
would expect to find thus infested. Another entozoan is Mer- 
mis albicans of Siebold, which is a very slender whitish worm 
much like Gordius, and about five inches long. It is found in 
the drone of the honey-bee and in some other insects. 

Deformities of Insects. Numerous instances of supernume- 
rary legs and antennze are recorded. The antennz are some- 
times double, but more commonly the legs. ‘‘Of these As- 
muss has collected eight examples, and it is remarkable that in 
six of them the parts on one side are treble.” Newport, from 
whom we have quoted, states that ‘‘the most remarkable ex- 
ample is that given by Lefebvre of Scarites Pyrachmon in which 
from a single coxa on the left side of the prosternum two tro- 
chanters originated. The anterior one, the proper trochanter, 
supported the true prothoracic leg; while the posterior one, in 


DD 
the form of an oblong lanceolate body, attached to the base of 


7 


84 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


the first, supported two additional legs equally well formed as 
the true one.” 

The wings are often partially aborted and deformed ; this is 
especially noticeable in the wings of butterflies and moths. 
Mr. F.G. Sanborn has described and 
figured a wing of a female of Libellula 
luctuosa Burm. (Fig. 69), in which 
among other deformities ‘‘the ptero- 
stigma is shorter and broader than that 
of the opposite wing, and is situated about one-eighth of an inch 
only from the nodus, only one cubital vein occurring between 
them, instead of fourteen as in the opposite wing. (Proceed- 
ings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xi, p. 526.) 


Fig. 69. 


DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 
Insects differ sexually in that the female generally appears to 
have one abdominal ring less (one ring disappearing during the 
semi-pupa state, when the ovipositor is formed), and in being 
larger, fuller, and duller colored than the males, while the lat- 
ter often differ in sculpture and ornamentation. In collect- 
ing, whenever the two sexes are found united they should be 
pinned upon the same pin, the male being placed highest. 
When we take one sex alone, we may feel sure that the other 
is somewhere in the vicinity ; perhaps while one is flying about 
so as to be easily captured, the other is hidden under some 
leaf, or resting on the trunk of some tree near by, which must 
be examined and every bush in the vicinity vigorously beaten 
by the net. Many species rare in most places have a metropolis 
where they occur in great abundance. During seasons when 
his favorites are especially abundant the collector should lay 
up a store against years of scarcity. 

At no time of the year need the entomologist rest from his 
labors. In the winter, under the bark of trees and in moss he 
can find many species, or on trees, etc., detect their egos, which 
he can mark for observation in the spring when they hatch out. 

He need not relax his endeavors day or night. Mothing is 
night employment. Skunks and toads entomologize at night. 
Early in the morning, at sunrise, when the dew is still on 
the leaves, insects are sluggish and easily taken with the hand ; 


ms ae . : HEP 
fo- , , / £ 9 
: , iV , / 


COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 85 


so at dusk, when many species are found flying, and in the 
night, the collector will be rewarded with many rarities, many 
species flying then that hide themselves by day, while many 
caterpillars leave their retreats to come out and feed, when the 
lantern can be used with success in searching for them. 

Wollaston (Entomologist’s Annual, 1865) states that sandy 
districts, especially towards the coast, are at all times prefer- 
able to clayey ones, but the intermediate soils, such as the 
loamy soil of swamps and marshes are more productive. ~ Near 
the sea, insects occur most abundantly beneath pebbles and 
other objects in grassy spots, or else at the roots of plants. 
In many places, especially in Alpine tracts, as we have found 
on the summit of Mt. Washington and in Labrador, one has to 
lay down and look carefully among the short herbage and in 
the moss for Coleoptera. 

The most advantageous places for collecting are gardens and 
farms, the borders of woods and the banks of streams and 
ponds. The deep, dense forests, and open, treeless tracts are 
less prolific in insect life. In winter and early spring the moss 
on the trunks of trees, when carefully shaken over a newspaper 
or white cloth, reveal many beetles and Hymenoptera. In the 
late summer and autumn, toadstools and various fungi and rot- 
ten fruits attract many insects, and in early spring when the 
Sap is running we have taken rare insects from the stumps of 
freshly cut hard-wood trees. Wollaston says, ‘‘ Dead animals, 
partially-dried bones, as well as the skins of moles and other 
vermin which are ordinarily hung up in fields are magnificent 
traps for Coleoptera; and if any of these be placed around or- 
chards and inclosures near at home, and be examined every 
morning, various species of N itidule, Silphide, and other 
‘insects of similar habits, are certain to be enticed and cap- 
tured. 


‘Planks and chippings of wood may be likewise employed: 


as successful agents in alluring a vast number of species which 
might otherwise escape our notice, and if these be laid down 
in grassy places, and carefully inverted every now and then 
with as little violence as possible, many insects will be found 
adhering beneath them, especially after dewy nights and in 
showery weather. Nor must we omit to urge the importance 


ae rn ee 


— 


—— 


86 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


of examining the under sides of stones in the vicinity of ants’ 
nests, in which position, during the spring and summer months, 
many of the rarest of our native Coleoptera may be occasion- 
ally procured.” Excrementitious matter always contains many 
interesting forms in various stages of growth. 

The trunks of fallen and decaying trees offer a rich harvest 
for many wood-boring larvee, especially the Longicorn beetles, 
and weevils can be found in the spring, in all their stages. Nu- 
merous carnivorous Coleopterous and Dipterous larvee dwell 
within them, and other larvee which eat the dust made by the 
borers. ‘The inside of pithy plants like the elder, raspberry, 
blackberry, and syringa, are inhabited by many of the wild 
bees, Osmia, Ceratina, and the wood-wasps, Crabro, Stigina, 
etc., the habits of which, with those of their Chalcid and Ich- 
neumon parasites, offer endless amusement and study. 

Ponds and streams shelter a vast throng of insects, and 
should be diligently dredged with the water-net, and stones 
and pebbles should be overturned for aquatic beetles, He- 
miptera, and Dipterous larve. 

The various sorts of galls should be collected in spring and 
autumn and placed in vials or boxes, where they may be rear- 
ed, and the rafters of out-houses, stone-walls, etc., should be 
carefully searched for the nests of Mud-wasps. 

Collecting Apparatus. First in importance is the net. This 
is made by attaching a ring of brass wire to a handle made 
to slide on a pole six feet long. The net may be a foot in 
diameter, and the bag itself made of thin gauze or musquito- 
netting (the finer, lighter, and more durable the better), and 
should be about twenty inches deep. It should be sewed to a 
narrow border of cloth placed around the wire. A light net 
like this can be rapidly turned upon the msect with one hand. 
The insect is captured by a dexterous twist which also throws 
the bottom over the mouth of the net. The insect should be 
temporarily held between the thumb and fore-finger of the hand 
at liberty, and then pinned through the thorax while in the net. 
The pin can be drawn through the meshes upon opening the 
net. The beating-net should be made much stouter, with a shal- 
lower cloth bag and attached to a shorter stick. It is used for 
beating trees, bushes, and herbage for beetles and Hemiptera 


2) 


COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 7 


A, 


and various larvee. Its thorough use we would recommend in 


the low vegetation on mountains and in meadows. The water- 


net may be either round or of the shape indicated in Fig. 70. 
The ring should be made of brass, and 
the shallow net of grass-cloth or coarse 
millinet. It is used for collecting aqua- 
tic insects. 

Various sorts of forceps are indispen- 
sable for handling insects. Small delicate narrow-bladed for- 


ceps with fine sharp points in use by jewellers, and made. 


either of steel or brass, are excellent for handling minute 


° 


specimens. For larger ones long curved forceps are very con- 
venient. For pinning insects into boxes the forceps should be 
stout, the blades blunt and curved at the end so that the insect 
can be pinned without slanting the forceps much. The ends 
need to be broad and finely indented by lines so as to firmly 
hold the pin. With a little practice the forceps soon take the 
place of the fingers. They will have to be made to order by 
a neat workman or surgical-instrument maker. Some persons 
use the ordinary form of pliers with curved handles, but they 
should be long and slender. A spring set in to separate the 
handles when not grasped by the hand is a great convenience. 

Various pill-boxes, vials, and bottles must always be taken, 
some containing alcohol or whiskey. Many collectors use a 
wide-mouth bottle, containing a sponge saturated with ether, 
chloroform, or benzine, or bruised laurel leaves, the latter be- 
ing pounded with a hammer and then cut with scissors into 
small pieces, which give out exhalations of prussic acid strong 
enough to kill most small insects. 

Besides these the collector needs a small box lined with 
corn-pith, or cork, and small enough to slip into the coat- 
pocket ; ora larger box carried by a strap. Most moths and 
small flies can be pinned alive without being pinched (which 
injures their shape and rubs off the scales and hairs), and then 
killed by pouring a little benzine into the bottom of the box. 

Killing Insects for the Cabinet. Care in killing affects very 
sensibly the looks of the cabinet. If hastily killed- and dis- 
torted by being pinched, with the scales rubbed off and other- 
wise mangled, the value of such a specimen is diminished 


88 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


either for purposes of study or the neat appearance of the col- 
lection. 

3esides the vapor of ether, chloroform, and benzine, the 
fumes of sulphur readily kill insects. Large specimens may 
be killed by inserting a pin dipped in a strong solution of ox- 
alic acid. An excellent collecting bottle is made by putting 
into a wide-mouth bottle two or three small pieces of cyanide 
of potassium, which may be covered with cotton, about half- 
filling the bottle. The cotton may be covered with paper 
lightly attached to the glass and pierced with pin-holes; this 
keeps the insect from being lost in the bottle. For Diptera, 
Loew recommends moistening the bottom of the collecting box 
with creosote. This is excellent for small flies and moths, as the 
mouth of the bottle can be placed over the insect while at rest ; 
the insect flies up into the bottle and is immediately suffocated. 
A bottle well prepared will, according to Laboulbéne, last 
several months, even a year, and is vastly superior to the old 
means of using ether or chloroform. He states, ‘‘ the incon- 
venience of taking small insects from a net is well known, as 
the most valuable ones usually escape; but by placing the end 
of the net, filled with insects, in a wide-mouthed bottle, and 
putting in the cork for a few minutes, they will be suffocated.” 

Pinning Insects. The pin should be inserted through the 
thorax of most insects. The Coleoptera, however, should be 
pinned through the right wing-cover; many Hemiptera are 
best pinned through the scutellum. The specimens should all 
be pinned at an equal height, so that about one-fourth of the 
pin should project above the insect. 

The best pins are those made in Berlin by Klager. They are 
of five sizes, No. 1 being the smallest; Nos. 1, 2, and 5 are 
the most convenient. For very minute insects still smaller pins 
are made. A very good but too short pin is made by Edles- 
ton and Williams, Crown Court, Cheapside, London. Their 
Nos. 19 and 20 may be used to impale minute insects upon, 
and then stuck through a bit of cork, or pith, through which a 
No. 5 Klager pin may be thrust. Then the insect is kept out 
of the reach of devouring insects. Still smaller pins are made 
by cutting off bits of very fine silvered wire at the right length, 
which may be thrust by the forceps into a piece of pith, after 
the insects have been impaled upon them. 


COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 89 


Small insects, especially beetles, may be mounted on cards 
or pieces of mica through which the pin may be thrust. The 
French use small oblong bits of mica, with the posterior half 
covered with green paper on which the number may be placed. - 
The insect may be gummed on the clear part, the two sexes to- 
gether. The under side can be seen through the thin mica. 

Others prefer triangular pieces of card, across the end of 
which the insect may be gummed, so that nearly the whole un- 
der side is visible. 

Mr. Wollaston advocates gumming small Coleoptera upon 
cards. Instead of cutting the pieces of cards first, he gums them 
promiscuously upon a sheet of card-board. ‘‘ Having gummed 
thickly a space on your card-board equal to, at least, the entire 
specimen when expanded, place the beetle upon it, drag out 
the limbs with a pin, and, leaving it to dry, go on with the 
next one that presents itself. As the card has to be cut after- 
wards around your insect (so as to suit it), there is no advan- 
tage in gumming it precisely straight upon your frame, —though 
it is true that a certain amount of care in this respect lessens 
your after labor of cutting-off very materially. When your 
frame has been filled, and you are desirous of separating the 
species, cut out the insect with finely pointed scissors.” 

For mending broken insects, 7.e. gumming on legs and an- 
tenn which have fallen off, inspissated ox-gall, softened with a 
little water, is the best gum. 

For gumming insects upon cards Mr. Wollaston recommends 
a gum ‘‘composed of three parts of tragacanth to one of 
Arabic, both in powder ; to be mixed in water containing a grain 
of corrosive sublimate, without which it will not keep, until 
of a consistency just thick enough to run. As this gum is of 
an extremely absorbent nature, nearly a fortnight is required 
before it can be properly made. The best plan is to keep add- 
ing a little water (and stirring it) every few days until it is 
of the proper consistency. It is advisable to dissolve the grain 
of corrosive sublimate in the water which is poured jist upon 
the gum.” 

Preservative Fluids. The best for common use is alco- 
hol, diluted with a little water; or whiskey, as alcohol of full 
strength is too strong for caterpillars, etc., since it shrivels them 


90 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


up. Glycerine is excellent for preserving the colors of cater- 
pillars, though the internal parts decay ‘somewhat, and the 
specimen is apt te fall to pieces on being roughly handled. 

Laboulbéne recommends for the preservation of insects in a 
fresh state plunging them in a preservative fluid consisting 
of alcohol with an excess of arsenic acid in fragments, or the 
common white arsenic of commerce. <A pint and a half of al- 
cohol will take about fourteen grains (troy) of arsenic. The 
living insect, put into this preparation, absorbs about >,%;5 of its 
own weight. When soaked in this liquor and dried, it will be 
safe from the ravages of Moths, Anthrenus, or Dernestes. This 
liquid will not change the colors of blue, green, or red beetles 
if dried after soaking from twelve to twenty-four hours. He- 
miptera and Orthoptera can be treated in the same way. 

A stay of a month in this arseniated alcohol mineralizes the 
insect, so that it becomes very hard, and, after drying, becomes 
glazed with a white deposit which can, however, be washed off 
with alcohol. In this state the specimens become too hard for 
dissection and study, but will do for cabinet specimens designed 
for permanent exhibition. 

Another preparation recommended by Laboulbéne is alcohol 
containing a variable quantity of corrosive sublimate, but the 
latter has to be weighed, as the alcohol evaporates easily, the 
liquor becoming stronger as it gets older. The strongest solu- 
tion is one part of corrosive sublimate to one hundred of alco- 
hol; the weakest and best is one-tenth of a part of corrosive 
sublimate to one hundred parts of alcohol. Insects need not re- 
main in this solution more than two hours before drying. Both 
of these preparations are very poisonous and should be handled 
with care. ‘The last-named solution preserves specimens from 
mould, which will attack pinned insects during damp summers. 

A very strong brine will preserve insects until a better liquor 
can be procured. Professor A. E. Verrill recommends two sim- 
ple and cheap solutions for preserving, among other specimens, 
the larvee of insects ‘‘ with their natural color and form remark; 
ably perfect.” The first consists of two and a half pounds of 
common salt and four ounces of nitre dissolved in a gallon of 
water, and filtered. Specimens should be prepared for perma- 
nent preservation in this solution by being previously immersed 


COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 91 


in a solution consisting of a quart of the first solution and 
two ounces of arseniate of potash and a gallon of water. (Pro- 
ceedings Boston Society Nat. Hist. Vol. 10, p. 257.) 

The nests, cocoons, and chrysalids of insects may be preserved 
from injury from other insects by being soaked in the arsenia- 
ted alcohol, or dipped into benzine, or a solution of carbolic 
acid or creosote. i 

Preparing Insects for the Cabinet. Dried insects may be 
moistened by laying them for twelve or twenty-four hours in 
a box-containing a layer of wet sand, covered with one thick- 
ness of soft paper. ‘Their wings can then be easily spread. 
Setting-boards for spreading the wings of insects may be made 
by sawing deep grooves in a thick board, and placing a strip . 
of pith or cork at the bottom. The groove may be deep enough 
to allow a quarter of the length of the pin to project above the 
insect. The setting-board usually consists of thin parallel — 
strips of board, leaving a groove between them wide enough to 
receive the body of the insect, at the bottom of which a strip 
of cork or pith should be glued. The end of the strips should 
be nailed on to a stouter strip of wood, raising the surface of 
the setting-board an inch and a half so that the pins can stick 
through without touching. Several setting-boards can be made 
to form shelves in a frame covered with wire gauze, so that 
the specimens may be preserved from dust and destructive in- 
sects, while the air may at the same time have constant access 
to them. The surface of the board should incline a little to- 
wards the groove for the reception of the insect, as the wings 
often gather a little moisture, relax and fall down after the 
insect is dried. Moths of medium size should remain two or 
three days on the setting-board, while the larger thick-bodied 
Sphinges and Bombycide@ require a week to dry. The wings 
can be arranged by means of a needle stuck into a handle 
of wood. ‘They should be set horizontally, and the front mar- 
gin of the fore-wings drawn a little forward of a line -perpen- 
dicular to the body, so as to free the inner margin of the hind 
wings from the body, that their form may be distinctly seen. 
When thus arranged, they can be confined by pieces of card 
pinned on the board as indicated in the figure 71, or, as we 
prefer, by square pieces of glass laid upon them. 


92 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


After the insects have been thoroughly dried they should not 
be placed in the cabinet until after having been in quarantine 
to see that no eggs of Dermestes or 
Anthrenus, etc., have been deposited 
on them. 

For preserving dried insects in the 
cabinet Laboulbéne recommends plac- 
ing a rare insect (if a beetle or any 

Fig. 71. other hard insect) in water for an hour 
until the issues be softened. If soiled, an insect can be 
cleansed under water with a fine hair-pencil, then submit it to 
a bath of arseniated alcohol, or, better, alcohol with corrosive 
sublimate. If the insect becomes prune-colored, it should be 
washed in pure alcohol several times. This method will do 
for the rarest insects; the more common ones can be softened 
on wet sand, and then the immersion in the arseniated alcohol 
suffices. After an immersion of an hour or a quarter of an 
hour, according to the size of the insect, the pin is not affected 
by the corrosive sublimate, but it is better to unpin the insect 
previous to immersion, and then pin it when almost dry. 

For cleaning insects ether or benzine are excellent, rubbed 
on with a hair-pencil; though care should be taken in using 
these substances which are very inflammable. 

After the specimens are placed in the cabinet, they should be 
farther protected from destructive insects by placing in the 
drawers or boxes pieces cf camphor wrapped in paper perfo- 
rated by pin-holes, or bottles containing sponges saturated with 
benzine. The collection should be carefully examined every 
month; the presence of insects can be detected by the dust 
beneath them. Where a box of insects is much infested with 
destructive insects, benzine should be poured into the bottom 
of the box or drawer, when the fumes and contact of the ben- 
zine with their bodies will kill them. The specimens them- 
selves should not be soaked in the benzine if possible, as it 
renders them brittle. 

Insect-cabinet. For permanent exhibition, a cabinet of shal- 
low drawers, protected by doors, is most useful. A drawer 
may be eighteen by twenty inches square, and two inches deep 
in the clear, and provided with a tight glass cover. For constant 


COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 93 


use, boxes made of thin, well-seasoned wood, with tight-fitting 
covers, are indispensable. For Coleoptera, Dr. Leconte recom- 
mends that they be twelve by nine inches (inside measurement). 
For the larger Lepidoptera a little larger box is preferable. 
Others prefer boxes made in the form of books, which may be 
put away like books on the shelves of the cabinet, though the 
cover of the box is apt to be in the way. 

The boxes and drawers should be lined with cork cut into 
thin slips for soles; such slips come from the cork-cutter about 
twelve by four inches square, and an eighth of an inch thick. A 
less expensive substitute is paper stretched uponaframe. Mr. 
E. 8. Morse has given in the American Naturalists (Vol. 1, p. 
156) a plan which is very neat and useful for lining boxes in a 
large museum, and which 
are placed in horizontal 
show-cases (Fig. 72). ‘A 
box is made of the re- 
quired depth, and a light 
frame is fitted to its in- 
terior. Upon the upper 
and under surfaces of this 
frame, a sheet of white 
paper (drawing or log- 
paper answers the pur- 
pose) is securely glued. Fig. 72. 

The paper, having been previously dampened, in drying con- 
tracts and tightens like a drum-head. The frame is then 
secured about one-fourth of an inch from the bottom of the 
box, and the pin is forced down through the thicknesses of 
paper, and if the bottom of the box be of soft pine, the point 
of the pin may be slightly forced into it. It is thus firmly held 
at two or three different points, and all lateral movements are 
prevented. Other advantages are secured by this arrangement 
besides firmness; when the box needs cleaning or fumigation, 
the entire collection may be removed by taking out the frame, 
or camphor, tobacco, or other material can be placed on the 
bottom of the box, and concealed from sight. The annexed 
figure represents a transverse section of a portion of the side 
and bottom of the box with the frame. A, A, box; B, frame; 


94 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


P, P, upper and under sheets of paper; C, space between 
lower sheet of paper and bottom of box.” 

Other substitutes are the pith of various plants, especially 
of corn; and palm wood, and ‘‘inodorous felt” is used, being 
cut to fit the bottom of the box. 

Leconte recommends that ‘‘for the purpose of distinguish- 
ing specimens from different regions, little disks of variously 
colored paper be used; they are easily made by a small punch, 
and should be kept in wooden pill-boxes ready for use; at 
the same time a key to the colors, showing the regions em- 
braced by each, should be made on the fly-leaf of the catalogue 


of the collection.” He also strongly recommends that the . 


‘¢specimens should all be pinned at the same height, since the 
ease of recognizing species allied in characters is greatly in- 
creased by having them on the same level.” 

He also states that ‘-it is better, even when numbers with 
reference to a catalogue are employed, that the name of each 
species should be written on a label attached to the first speci- 
men. Thus the eye-is familiarized with the association of the 
species and its name, memory is aided, and greater power given 
of identifying species when the cabinet is not at hand.” For 
indicating the sexes the astronomical sign ¢ (Mars) is used for 
the male, and ? (Venus) for the female, and ¢ for the worker. 

Transportation of Insects. While travelling, all hard-bodied 
insects, comprising many Hymenoptera, the Coleoptera, He- 
miptera, and many Neuroptera should be thrown, with their 
larvee, etc., into bottles and vials filled with strong alcohol. 
When the bottle is filled new liquor should be poured in, and 
the old may be saved for collecting purposes; in this way the 
specimens will not soften and can be preserved indefinitely, and 
the colors do not in most cases change. Leconte states that 
‘if the bottles are in danger of being broken, the specimens, 
after remaining for a day or two in alcohol, may be taken out, 
partially dried by exposure to the air, but not so as to be brit- 
tle, and these packed in layers in small boxes between soft 
paper; the boxes should then be carefully closed with gum- 
paper or paste, so as to exclude all enemies.” 

Lepidoptera and Dragon-flies and other soft-bodied insects 
may be well preserved by placing them in square pieces of pa- 


REARING LARVZE. 95 


per folded into a triangular form with the edges overlapping. 
‘Put up thus, multitudes can be packed away in tin boxes, and 
will bear transportation to any distance. In tropical climates, 
chests lined with tin should be made to contain the insect- 
boxes, which can thus be preserved against the ravages of 
white ants, etc. 

In sending live larvee by mail, they should be inclosed in lit- 
tle tin boxes, and in sending dry specimens, the box should be 
light and strong, and directions given at the post-office to 
stamp the box lightly. In sending boxes by express they 
should be carefully packed in a larger box, having an inter- 
space of two inches, which can be filled in tightly with hay or 
crumpled bits of paper. Beetles can be wrapped in pieces of 
soft paper. Labels for alcoholic specimens should consist 
of parchment with the locality, date of capture, and name of 
collector written in ink. A temporary label of firm paper with 
the locality, etc., written with a pencil, will last for several 
years. 

Preservation of Larve. Alcoholic specimens of insects, in all 
stages of growth, are very useful. Few collections contain al- 
coholic specimens of the adult insect. This is a mistake. Many 
of the most important characters are effaced during the drying 
process, and for purposes of general study alcoholic speci- 
mens, even of Bees, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Dragon-flies are 
very necessary. 

Larvee, generally, may be well preserved in vials or bottles 
of alcohol. They should first be put into whiskey, and then 
into alcohol. If placed in the latter first, they shrivel up and 
become distorted. Mr. E. Burgess preserves caterpillars with 
the colors unchanged, by immersing them in boiling water 
thirty or forty seconds, and then placing them in equal parts 
of alcohol and water. It is well to collect larvee and pup 
indiscriminately, even if we do not know their adult forms ; we 
can approximate to them, and in some cases tell very exactly 
what they must be. 


Rearine Larv#. More attention has been paid to rearing 
Caterpillars than the young of any other suborder of insects, 
and the following remarks apply more particularly to them, but 


96 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


very much the same methods may be pursued in rearing the 
larve of Beetles, Flies, and Hymenoptera. Subterranean 
larvee have to be kept in moist earth, aquatic larvee must be 
reared in aquaria, and carnivorous larve must be supplied 
with flesh. The larve of Butterflies are rare; those of 
moths occur more frequently, while their imagos may be 
scarce. In some years many larvee, usually rare, at other 
times occur in abundance, when they should be reared in num- 
bers. In hunting for caterpillars bushes should be shaken and 
beaten over newspapers or sheets, or an umbrella; herbage 
should be swept, and trees examined carefully for leaf-rollers 
and miners. The best specimens of moths and butterflies are 
obtained by rearing them from the egg, or from the larva or 
pupa. In confinement the food should be kept fresh, and the 
box well ventilated. Tumblers covered with gauze, pasteboard 
boxes pierced with holes and fitted with glass in the covers, or 
large glass-jars, are very convenient to use as cages. The bot- 
tom of such vessels may be covered with moist sand, in which 
the food-plant of the larva may be stuck and kept fresh for 
several days. Larger and more airy boxes, a foot square, with 
the sides of gauze, and fitted with a door, through which a bot- 
tle of water may be introduced, serve well. The object is to 
keep the food-plant fresh, the air cool, the larva out of the sun, 
and in fact everything in such a state of equilibrium that the 
larva does not feel the change of circumstances when kept in 
confinement. Most caterpillars change to pup in the autumn; 
and those which transform in the earth should be coyered with 
earth, kept damp by wet moss, and placed in the cellar until the 
following summer. ‘The collector in seeking for larvze should 
carry a good number of pill-boxes, and especially a close tin 
box, in which the leaves may be kept fresh for a long time. 
The different forms and markings of caterpillars should be 
noted, and they should be drawn carefully together with a leaf 
of the food-plant, and the drawings and pupa skins, and per- 
fect insect, be numbered to correspond. Descriptions of cat- 
erpillars cannot be too carefully made, or too long. The 
relative size of the head, its ornamentation, the stripes and 
spots of the body, and the position and number of tubercles, 
and the hairs, or fascicles of hairs, or spines and spinules, 


ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 97 


which arise from them, should be noted, besides the general 
form of the body. ‘The lines along the body are called dorsal, 
if in the middle of the back, subdorsal; if upon one side, lat- 
eral, and ventral when on the sides and under surface, or stig- 
matal if including the stigmata or breathing pores, which are 
generally parti-colored. Indeed, the whole biography of an 
insect should be ascertained by the observer; the points to 
be noted are: 

1. Date, when and how the eggs are laid; and number, size, 
and marking of the eggs. 

2. Date of hatching, the appearance, food-plant of larva, 
and number of days between each moulting; the changes the 
larva undergoes, which are often remarkable, especially before 
the last moulting, with drawings illustrative of these ; the hab- 
its of the larva, whether solitary or gregarious, whether a day 
or night feeder; the Ichneumon parasites, and their mode of 
attack. Specimens of larvee in the different moultings should 
be preserved in alcohol. The appearance of the larvae when 
full-fed, the date, number of days before pupating, the forma- 
tion and description of the cocoon, the duration of larvee in the 
cocoon before pupation, their appearance just before changing, 
their appearance while changing, and alcoholic specimens of 
larvee in the act, should all be studied and noted. 

3. Date of pupation ; description of the pupa or chrysalis ; 
duration of the pupa state, habits, etc. ; together with alcoholic 
specimens, or pinned dry ones. Lepidopterous pupze should be 
looked for late in the summer or in the fall and spring, about 
the roots of trees, and kept moist in mould until the imago 
appears. Many Coleopterous pup may also occur in mould, 
and if aquatic, under submerged sticks and stones, and those 
of borers under the bark of decaying trees. 

4, Date when the insect escapes from the pupa, and method 
of escape; duration of life of the imago; and the number of 
broods in a season. 


Entomoioaicat Works. The titles of a few of the most im- 
portant works on Insects are given below. The more advanced 
student should, however, possess Dr. Hagen’s Bibliotheca En- 
tomologica, 8vo, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1862-3, which contains a 

7 


98 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


complete list of all entomological publications up to the year 
1862. Besides these he should consult the annual reports on 
the progress of Entomology published in Wiegmann’s Archiv 
fir Naturgeschichte, begun in 1854, and continued up to the 
present time ; and also Ginther’s Zoological Record (8vo, Van 
Voorst, London), beginning with the year 1864. Occasional 
articles are also scattered through the various government re- 
ports, and those of agricultural societies and agricultural 
papers. 


GENERAL WORKS. 


The works of Swammerdam, Malphighi, Leeuwenhoek, Lyonnet, Serres, Meckel, 
Ramdohr, Suckow, Merian, and Herbst. 

Réeaumur, Réné Ant. de. Mémoires pour serviral Histoire des Insectes. Paris, 1734 
-1742, 7 vols. 4to. 

Roesel, Aug. Joh. Der monatlich herausgegeben Insekten-Belustigung. Niirnberg, 
1746-1761, 4 vols. 4to, illustrated. 

Geer, Carl de. Mémoires pour servir 4 l Histoire des Insectes, 1752-1778, 7 vols. 
4to. 

Linneus, Carolus. Systema Nature, 1735. 12th edition, 1766-1768. 

Fabricius, Joh. Christ. Systema Entomologie, 1775, 8yo. 

Genera Insectorum, 1777, 8vo. 

Species Insectorum, 1781, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Mantissa Insectorum, 1787, 2 vols. 8vo. 

Entomologia Systematica, 4 vols. 8vo, 1792-94. 

Cramer, P. Papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde. 4 vols. 4to, 1775-82. 

Stoll, Casper. Supplement to Cramer’s Papillons exotiques. 4to, Amsterdam, 
1787-91. 

Smith, J. E., and Abbot, John. The Natural History of the Rarer Lepidopterous 
Insects of Georgia. Fol. Plates. London, 1797. 

Latreille, Pierre André. Précis des caractéres générique des Insectes, 1796, 8vo. 

Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum, 4 vols. Svo, 1806-1809. 

Considération générales sur VY Ordre naturel des Animaux composant 

les Classes des Crustacés, des Arachnides et des Insectes. 

In Cuvier’s Régne animal, Svo, 1810. 

Familles naturelles du Régne animal, Syo, 1825. 

Cours V Entomologie, 8vo, 1831. 

Fabricius, Otho. Fauna Groenlandica. Hafnixw, 1780, 8vo. Contains Libellula 
virgo (erroneously), Phryganea rhombica, Termes divinatorium, etc. 

Drury, Drew. Miustrations of Natural History, ete. London, 1770-1782, 4to,3 vols. 
(ed. Westwood, 1837). Numerous species are figured and described. 

Treviranus, G.R. Vermischte Schriften anatomischen und physiologischen Inhalts 
Bd. 1u.2. Géttingen, 1816-17, 4to. 

Mac Leay, W.'S. Hore Entomologice,2 vols. London, 1819. 

Meigen, F. W. Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europiischen zweilflii- 
geligen Insecten. 7 vols. Aachen and Hamm, 1818-1835. (Although this work 
contains only European species, many of them are common to both continents.) 

Say, T. American Entomology. 3 vols. With plates. Philadelphia, 1824, 25, 28. 

Complete Writings on the Entomology of North America, edited by J. L, 
Leconte, M.D. 2 vols. 8vo, colored plates. New York, 1859. 

Baer, K. E.v. Beitrage zur Kentniss der niederen Thiere. (Extracted from Nova 
Acta Acad. Leopold. Carolin. xiii. 2, 1827.) 


| 


ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 99 


Palisot de Beauvais, A. J. Insectes recueillis en Afrique et en Amérique, dans les 
royaumes @’ Oware et de Benin, 4 Saint-Domingue et dans les Etats-Unis, pen- 
dant les années, 1786-97. Fol. with 90 plates, Paris, 1805-21. 

Savigny, J. C. de. Description de ? Egypte. Histoire naturelle. Crustacés, 
Avachnides, Myriapodes et Insectes, 53 pl. in gr. fol. Paris, 1809-1838. Ex- 
plication sommaire des planches par J. V. Audouin, Paris, 1826, tol. 

Curtis, John. Description of the Insects brought home by Commander James 
Clark. Ross’s Second Voyage. App. Nat. Hist., 1831, 4to, plates. (Several Arctic 
species are described.) 

Kirby, W. § W. Spence. An Introduction to Entomology; or, Elements of the Nat- 
ural History of Insects. 4 vols. 8vo, 1828. Seventh edition (comprising vols. 3 
& 4 of the early editions). London} 1856, post 8vo. 

Wiedemann, C. R. W. Aussereuropiische Zweifliigelige Insecten. 2 vols. Hamm, 
1828-30. With plates. 

Curtis, John. Farm Insects; being the Natural History and Economy of the Insects 
injurious to the Field Crops of Great Britain andIreland. S8yvo. With plates and 
wood-cuts. 1860. 

Chevrolat, Aug. Coléopteres du Mexique. Strasbourg, 1834-5. 

Stephens, J. F. Illustrations of British Entomology. London, 8vo, 1835. Sev- 
eral species of European Insects mentioned in this work have been found in 
North America. 

Kirby, W. Fauna boreali-Americana, etc. Norwich, 1837, 4to. 

Kollar, V. Naturgeschichte der schaedlichen Insekten. Wien, 1837, 4to. Contains 
Termes flavipes, injurious in the hot-houses of Schenbrunn and Vienna. This 
description has been omitted in the translation of this work by Mr. Loudon, 
London, 1840. 

Macquart, J. Dipteres Exotique nouveaux ou peu connus. 2 vols. en 5 parties, et 
5 supplements, Paris, 1838-55. With numerous plates. (Published originally in 
the Mémoires de la Société des Sciences et des Arts de Lille, 1838-55.) 

Burmeister, H. Manual of Entomology, translated by W. E. Shuckard. London, 
Svo, 1836. 

Burmeister, Hermann. Zoologischer Hand Atlas. Berlin, 1836-43 fol., 41 plates. 

Westwood, J. O. An Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects. 2 vols. 
8vo. London, 1839-40. 

Cuvier, G. Le Régne animal distribué @aprés son Organisation. Nouvelle édi- 
tion, accompagnée de planches gravées, représentant les types de tous les Gen- 
res,etc., publiée par un réunion de Disciples de G. Cuvier. Paris, 1849, 8vo. 
Insectes, Arachnides, Crustacés par Audouin, Blanchard, Doyere, Milne-Ed- 
wards et Dugés. 4 vols. Texte et 4 vols. atlas. 

Guérin-Méneville, F. E. Jconographie du Regne Animal de G. Cuvier, ou repré- 
sentation d’aprés nature de I’ une des especes les plus remarquables et souvent 
non encore figurées de chaque genre d’ animaux, vols. 6 et 7: Annélides, Crus- 
tacés, Arachnides et Insectes, Paris, J. B. Bailliére, 1829-44, 164 pl. 8vo. 

Grifith, HE. The Animal Kingdom, described and arranged in conformity with its 

* organization. London, 1824-35, Svo. Class Insecta, 2 vols. with 140 pl. 1832. 
Classes Annelida, Crustacea et Arachnida. 1 vol. with 60 pl. 

Suites a Buffon et Nowvelles suites a Buffon. Formant avec les Giuvres de cet 
auteur un Cours complet d’ Histoire naturelle. Paris, Dufart, 1798-1807. Paris, 
Roret, 1834-1864, 8vo. (Insectes, Crustaces, Arachnides etc., par Latreille, Lacor- 
daire, Amyot, Audinet-Serville, Boisduval, Guénée, Rambur, Lepeletier de St. 
Fargeau, Macquart, Milne-Edwards, Watkenaer, et Gervais). 

Gosse, P. H. Canadian Naturalist. London, 1840. 

Zetterstedt, J. W. Insecta Lapponica. Lipsiz, 1840, 4to. Several species from 
Lapland have been found in the Arctic regions of North America. 

Pictet, F. Histoire naturelle, etc., des insectes Neuroptéres, Part I, Perlides; Part 
II, Ephémérines. Genéve, 1841-45, 8vo, with colored plates. 


100 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Doubleday, E., and Westwood, J. O. The Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera. 86 col- 
ored iis: 2 vols. fol. London, 1846-52. 

Walker, F. Uist of the specimens of Lepidopterous, Dipterous, Neuropterous, and 
Homopterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum. London, 1848-67. 

Amyot, C., and Serville, A. Hemipteres. 8vo, Paris, Roret, 1843. 

‘ Ratzeburg, J.T. C. Die Forstinsekten. 4to,3 vols. Berlin, 1837-44. 

Van der Haven, J. Handbook of Zodlogy, English translation. 2 vols. 8vo, 1850. 

Gerstaecker, A. Handbuch der Zodlogie (in connection with V. Carus), 2 yols. 
8vo. (vol. 2, Arthropoda). Leipzig, 1863. 

De Selys Longchamps, EZ. Revue des Odonatés ou Libellules ad’ Europe avec la col- 
laboration de H. Hagen. Paris, 1850, 8vo. (Mémoir. Soc. R. Science de Liége, 
vol. vi.) (Two species, Lib. Hudsonica, P. 53, and Agrion Doubledayi, p. 209, are 
described in this work.) 

Hagen, H. Revue des Odonatés; Monographie des Calopterygines; Mono peaEVne 
des Gomphines (ef. Selys Longchamps). 

Agassiz, L. Wake Superior, its Physical Character, its Vegetation, and its Animals, 
Boston, 1850. With Catalogue of Coleoptera, by Dr. J. L. Leconte, and of the 
Lepidoptera, by Dr. T. W. Harris. 

Lacaze-Duthiers, H. Recherches sur ?armure génitale femelle des Insectes. 
Plates. 8vo. Paris, 1853. 

Melsheimer, F. E. Catalogue of the described Coleoptera of the United States. 
Smithsonian Institution. 8vo, 1853. 

Dailas, W. S. Catalogue of Hemipterous Insects in the British Museum. 1,2. 
Tilustrated. London, 1852. 

Fitch, Asa. The noxious, beneficial, and other Insects of the State of New York. 
Reports 1-8, 1856-56. 

Smith, Frederic. Catalogue of Hymenoptera in the British Museum. Parts i-vyi. 
Plates. London, 1857-58. 

Fallen, C. F., Stal, C., and Fieber. Various papers on Hemiptera in Scandinayian 
and German periodicals. 

Hiibner, J. Sammlung Exotischer Schmetterlinge. 5 vols. 4to. Plates. 1806. 

Guénée, A. Species général des Lépidopteres. (Noctuide, Phalenide and Pyra- 
lid) Suite a Buffon. Paris, 8vo, 1852-57. 

Stainton, H. T. The Natural History of the Tineina. 8vo, with many plates. Lon- 
don, vols. 1-8, 1855-64, 8vo. 

Lacordaire, J. T. Genera des Coléoptéres. 8vo, tomes 1-7. Paris, Roret, 1854. 

Boisduval, J. A. Histoire générale et Iconographie des Lépidoptéres et des Che- 
nilles de ? Amérique septentrionale. 8vo. Paris, Roret, 1829-42. 

Spécies générale des Lépidoptéres. 8vo. Roret, Paris, 1856. 

Essai sur ? Entomologie horticole. S8yvo. Paris, 1867. 

Practical Entomologist. Entomological Society of Philadelphia. Vols. 1, 2, 4to, 
1865-67. 

Harris, T. W. A Treatise on some of the Insects of New England, which are 
injurious to Vegetation. ‘Third edition, illustrated. Boston, 1862. 

Leconte, J. L. Classification of the Coleoptera of North America. Part I, 1861-2. 
Smithsonian Institution. 

List of Coleoptera of North America. 8vo, 1863-6. Smithsonian Institu- 


tion. 


New Species of North American Coleoptera. Syvo. Part I, 1863-6. Smith-- 

sonian Institution. 

Coleoptera of Kansas and Eastern New Mexico. 4to. 3 plates. 1859. 
Smithsonian Institution. 

Hagen, H. Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America. 8yo. i861]. Smith- 
sonian Institution. 

Morris, J. G. Catalogue of the described Hepidopiers of North America. S8vo, 
1860. Smithsonian Institution. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 101 


Osten Sacken, R. Catalogue of the described Diptera of North America. 1858. 
Smithsonian Institution. 

Loew, H., and Osten Sacken, &. Monograph of the Diptera of North America. 
Parts 1,2, 8vo, 1862-64. Smithsonian Institution. 

Trimble, I. P. A Treatise on the Insect Enemies of Fruit and Fruit Trees. The 
Curculio and Apple moth. 4to. Plates. New York, 1865. 


MORPHOLOGY. 


Savigny, J. C. Mémoires sur les Animaux sans Vertébres. 1 Partie. Description 
et Classification des Animaux invertébrés et articulés, 1. Fascicule. Théorie des 
Organes de la Bouche des Crustacés et des Insectes. Paris, 1816. 

Audouin, J. V. Recherches anatomiques sur le Thorax des animaux articulés et 
celui des Insectes hexapodes en particulier. (Annales d. Scienc. natur. 1, 1824, 
p. 97 and 416.) 

Eschscholtz, J. F. Beschreibung des inneren Skeletes einiger Insekten aus ver- 
schiedenen Ordnungen. Dorpat, 1820, Svo, p. 24-49, 2 Taf. 

Baer, K. H. V. Ueber das 4ussere und innere Skelet (Meckel’s Archiv. f. Anatom. 
u. Physiol. 1826, p. 327-374). 

Erichson, W. F. Ueber zodlogische Charaktere der Insekten, Arachniden und 
Crustaceen. (Entomographien, S. 1-28.) Berlin, 1840, 8vo. 

Brullé, A. Recherches sur les Transformations des Appendices dans les Arti- 
culés (Annales des Sciences naturelles, 3. sér. IT, 1844, p..271-374). 

Leuckart, R. Ueber die Morphologie und die Verwandtschaftsverhiltnisse der 
Wirbellosen Thiere. Braunschweig, 1848, Svo. 


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


Straus-Diirckheim, H. Considérations générales sur ? Anatomie comparée des 
Animaux articulés, auxquelles on a joint ? Anatomie descriptive du Melolontha 
vulgaris. Paris, 1828, 4to. 10 pl. 

Dufour, L. Numerous anatomical papers in the Annales des Sciences naturelles, 
Paris. 

Siebold, C. Th.v. Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Anatomie der wirbellosen Thiere. 
Berlin, 1848, 8vo. Translated by W. I. Burnett. Boston, 1851, 8vo. 

Gegenbaur, C. Grundziige der vergleichenden Anatomie. Leipzig, 1859, 8vo. 

Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Etienne. Considérations philosophiques sur la détermination 
du Systeme solide et du Systeme nerveux des Animaux articulés. (Annal. d. 
scienc. natur. II, 1824, p. 295 ff., III, p. 199 u. p. 453 ff.) 

Newport, G. On the Structure, Relations, and Development of the nervous and 
circulatory Systems, and on the existence of a complete Circulation of the Blood 
in Vessels, in Myriapoda and Macrourous Arachnida. (Philosoph. Transact- 
1843, p. 243-302.) 

On the Structure and Development of the Blood, I. ser. The Development 

of the Blood Corpuscle in Insects and other Invertebrata, and its Comparison 

with that of Man and the Vertebrata. (Annals of Nat. Hist. XV, 1845, p. 281-281.) 

. Onthe Nervous System of the Sphinx ligustri Lin. and on the Changes 

which it undergoes during a Part of the Metamorphoses of the Insect. (Philo- 

soph. Transact. 1832, p. 383-398, and 1834, 389-423.) 

On the Temperature of Insects and its Connexion with Functions of Res- 
piration and Circulation in this class of Invertebrated Animals. (Philosoph. 
Transact. 1837, p. 259-338.) 

Blanchard, E. Recherches anatomiques et zodlogiques sur leSystéme nerveux des 
Animaux sans vertébres. Du systeme nerveux des Insectes. (Annal.d. scienc. 
natur. 3. sér. V, 1846, p. 273-379.) 


102 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Blanchard, EF. Du Systeme nerveux chez les Invertébrés dans ses rapports avec la 
Classification de ces Animaux. Paris, 1849, 8vo. 

Miine-Edwards, H. W“egons surla Physiologie et ? Anatomie comparée de VPHomme 
et des Animaux. Paris, Masson 1857-64, 8vo. 


EMBRYOLOGY. 


Rathke, 77. Untersuchungen iiber die Bildung und Entwickelung des Flusskreb- 
ses, Leipzig, Voss. 1829, Fol. mit 5 Taf. 
Zur Morphologie, Reisebemerkungen aus Taurien. Riga, 1837, 4to, mit 5 


Taf. 

Herold, J. W. Exercitationes de animalium vertebris carentium in ovo formatione 
I. De generatione Aranearum in ovo.— Untersuchungen iiber die Bildungsge- 
schichte der Wirbellosen Thiere im Ei. 1. Th. Von der Erzeugung der Spinnen 
im Ei. Marburg, Krieger, 1824, fol. mit 4 Taf. 

Disquisitiones de animalium vertebris carentium in ovo formatione. De 
generatione Insectorum in oyo. Fasc. I, Il, Frankfurt a Main, 1835-38, fol. 

Kolliker, A. Observationes de prima Insectorum genesi, adjecta articulatorum 
evolutionis cum vertebratorum comparatione. Dissert. inaug. Turici, Meyer et 
Zeller, 1842, 4to, c. tab. 3. 

Zaddach, G. Untersuchung iiber die Entwickelung und den Bau der Gliederthiere. 
Heft 1. Die Entwickelung des Phryganiden-Eies. Berlin, Reimer. 1854, 4to, c. 
tab. 5. 

Leuckart, R. Die Fortpflanzung und Entwickelung der Pupiparen nach Beobach- 
tungen an Melophagus ovinus. (Abhandl. d. naturf. Gesellsch. zu Halle LV, 1858; 
S. 145-226.) 

Huxley, T. On the agamic Reproduction and Morphology of Aphis (Transact. 
Linnean Soc. of London, XXII, p. 193-236.) 

Lubbock, J. On the Ova and Pseudova of Insects (Philosophical Transactions 
of the Royal Soc. 1859, p. 341-369. : 

Claparéde, E. Recherches sur V évolution des Araignées. 4to. Utrecht, 1862. 

Weismann, A. Ueber die Entstehung des vollendeten Insekts in Larveund Puppe. 
Ein Beitrag zur Metamorphose der Insekten, Frankfurt a Main, 1863, 4to. 

Die Entwickelung der Dipteren im Ei, nach Beobachtungen an Chirono- 

mus, Musca vomitoria und Pulex canis (Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaitliche Zo- 

ologie XIII, p. 107-204.) 

Die nachembryonale Entwickelung der Musciden nach Beobachtungen an 

Musca vomitoria und Sarcophaga carnaria. (The same, XIV, p. 187-3836.) 


FOSSIL INSECTS. 


Giebel, C. Fauna der Vorwelt mit steter Beriicksichtigung der lebenden Thiere. 
2. Bd. Gliederthiere. 1. Abtheilung. Die Insekten und Spinnen der Vorwelt mit 
steter Beriicksichtigung der lebenden Insekten und Spinnen. Leipzig, 1856, 8vo. 

Berendt, C. G. Die im Bernstein befindlichen organischen Reste der Vorwelt, ge- 
sammelt und in Verbindung mit Mehreren herausgegeben. 1. Band. 2, Abth. 
Die im Bernstein befindlichen Crustaceen, Myriapoden, Arachniden und apteren 
der Vorwelt, bearbeitet von C. LZ. Koch und C. G. Berendt.—2. Band. Die im 
Bernstein befindlichen Hemipteren, Orthopteren, und Neuropteren der Vorwelt, 
bearbeitet von #. fF. Germar, F. J. Pictet, und H. Hagen. Berlin, 1854-56, fol. 

Heer, O. Die Insecten-fauna der Tertiaergebilde yon Gningen und Radoboj. Leip- 
zig, 1849, 4to, 2 vols. 

Scudder, S. H. An inquiry into the Zo6dlogical Relations of the first discovered 
Traces of fossil Neuropterous Insects in North America. From the Memoirs of 
the Boston Society of, Natural History, Vol. I, 1867, with a plate. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL JOURNAL. 103 


PERIODICAL WORKS (now in course of publication). 


Edwards, W.H. Butterflies of North America. Colored plates. Commenced 1868. 

Annales de la Société entomologique de France, Paris. Commenced 1832. 

Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. Commenced 1834. 

LT? Insectologie Agricole, Monthly Journal, Paris. Commenced 1867. 

Zeitung. Entomologische Verein, Stettin. Commenced 1840. 

Linnea entomologica. Entomologische Verein, Berlin. Commenced 1846. 

Zeitschrifé. Bntomologische Verein, Berlin. Commenced 1857. 

Annales de la Société entomologique Belge, Brussels. Commenced 1857. 

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Commenced 1819. 

Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Commenced 1817. 

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. New Series. Conmenced 
1818. 

Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Commenced 1834. 

Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History. Commenced 1834. 

Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. Commenced 1824. 

Proceedings and Transactions of the American Entomological Society, Philadel- 
phia. Commenced 1861. 

Proceedings and Communications of the Essex Institute, Salem. Commenced 1848. 

American Naturalist, Salem. Commenced March, 1867. 


ENnTOMOLOGICAL JouRNAL. Every collector should keep a 
daily journal of his captures and observations, noting down 
every fact and hint that falls under his notice. In this book, 
commenced as soon as the season opens in early spring, can 
be placed on record the earliest appearance, the time of great- 
est abundance, and the disappearance of every insect in any of 
its stages. Also the descriptions of larvae, with sketches, and 
observations upon their habits; though drawings had better 
be kept upon separate pieces of paper for easier reference. 
The insects, when captured and unnamed should be numbered 
to agree with corresponding numbers in the note-book. At 
the close of the season one will be surprised to see how much 
material of this kind has accumulated. He can then make a 
calendar of appearances of perfect insects and larvee, so as 
te have the work of the next season portioned out to him; 
he will thus know when and where to look for any particular 
insect or caterpillar. 


Tue Numser or Spectes or Insects. Oswald Heer estimates 
that the Insects comprise four-fifths of the whole animal king- 
dom. While there are about 55,000 species of animals known, 
excluding the Insects, the number of this last single class 
amounts. to upwards of 190,000 known species, according to 


104 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Gerstaecker’s estimate. He reckons that there are at least 
25,000 species of Hymenoptera, from 22,000 to 24,000 Lepidop- 
tera, about 24,000 Diptera, and 90,000 Coleoptera; the number 
of the other suborders cannot be easily estimated. Besides 
these there are about 4,600 Arachnida, and 800 Myriapods. 


GroupinG OF Insects IntTO OrDERS AND SuBorDERS. Be- 
fore beginning an account of the Six-footed Insects, we 
present the following tabular view of the Classification of In- 
sects. The idea that the Myriapods, Spiders, and Six-footed 
Insects formed orders and not classes was first proposed by R. 
Leuckart in 1848, and afterwards supported by Agassiz and 
Dana. The arrangements proposed by these and other authors 
are put in tabular form on page 106. 


THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 


Order I.—Segments grouped into three distinct re- ) 
gions; eyes compound and simple; two pairs of | HExapPopa 
wings;* three pairs of thoracic legs; one pair of >(Six-footed In- 
jointed abdominal appendages. A more or less | sects). 
complete metamorphosis, 5 : 

Order I[.—Segments grouped into two regions 2) 
false cephalothorax fandan abdomen; no antennee ; A us 

< Fits ahs Bir bas El s e S C be : RACHNIDA 
eves simple; wingless; four pairs of thoracic legs; { Suidae 
three pairs of jointed abdominal appendages (spin- | Ca. 
nerets) often present. No metamorphosis, . 

Order II. — Body cylindrical, worm-like. Segments 
not grouped into regions (except in the ae | 


hatched young). Head free; eyes simple; an- + (Cennees) 


tenne present; wingless; yolk-sac present for a | 
short period after hatching. No metamorphosis, J 


» THE ORDER OF SIX-FOOTED INSECTS{ (Hexapoda). 


Ih First and higher series. Body usually cylindrical; ) 
“en, prothorax small; mouth-parts more generally | HYMENOPTERA. 
“J haustellate (formed for sucking); metamorphosis >LEPIDOPTERA. 
~ complete; pupa inactive; larva usually cylindri- | Diprera 
cal, very unlike the adult, i 5 : s : 
Second and lower series. Body usually flattened; ) 
Nef f - prothorax large and squarish ; mouth-parts usually | STR 
uf t adapted for biting; metamorphosis incomplete; ‘a shat 


pupa often inactive; larva flattened, often resem- } Ce aletetes 
bling the adult, : : : : : : 53) 


COLEOPTERA. 


*The number of wingless forms is comparatively few. The Diptera have but 
one pair. 

{The so-called ‘‘cephalothorax” of Spiders is not like that region in the Crabs, 
the head being much treer from the thorax. 

+ Leuckart’s classification is an advance on others in his considering the Hexa- 
poda, Arachnida, and Myriapoda as orders instead of classes, but he says nothing 


GROUPING OF INSECTS. 105 


~ 


The following diagram shows, in a rude way, the relative 
rank and affinities of the seven suborders, and of the two 
series of Six-footed Insects. 


e 
ee 
Hy 
Q 
2 
roy 
oO 
4 
a0) 
(qr) 
5 
5 || 
a= 
A e) 
Ss 
Neuroptera. 


Through Lepisma, and Podura which are wingless Neuropter- 
ous insects, the lower series is connected with the Myriapods, 
the minute degraded myriapod, Pauwropus of Lubbock, per- 
haps forming the connecting link; and through the wingless 
flies, Braula, Chionea, and Nycteribia, the Diptera, belonging 
to the higher series, assume the form of the Spiders, the head 
being small, and sunken into the thorax, while the legs are 
long and slender. ‘The first and highest series culminates in 
Apis, the Honey-bee; and the second, or lower, in Cicindela, 
the Tiger-beetle. 


regarding the rank and value of the minor groups. Professor Agassiz extended 
Leuckart’s views in considering the seven grand divisions of the order of Hexapods 
as suborders. In 1863 (How to Observe and Collect Insects, Maine Scientific Sur- 
vey, and Synthetic Types of Insects, Boston Journal of Natural History), we 
proposed a new Classification of these suborders, by which they are thrown into 
two main groups headed by the Hymenoptera and Coleoptera respectively. These 
two groups, as represented in the diagram, are nearly equivalent in value, and 
stand in a somewhat parallel relation. There is nothing like a linear series in the 
animal kingdom, but rather a net-work. The higher series of suborders form more 
of a linear series than the lower series, so that in the diagram the Neuroptera, 
Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Coleoptera form a more broken series than the Hy- 
menoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera. <A Bee, Butterfly, and House-fly are much 
more closely allied to each other than a Beetle, a Squash-bug, a Grasshopper, 
and a Dragon-fly are among themselves. The Neuroptera are the most indepen- 
dent, and stand at the bottom of and between the two series, though by the Orthop- 
tera they are very intimately linked with the Hemiptera and Coleoptera. 


OF INSECTS. 


THE CLASS 


106 


‘spodojdiq, | ‘ey eusopyo 
‘spodoyiy) ‘upodopiyp “(qand “(1993 FI—8 
*S-T Sdoploquyg |*Z-T Stop.oqus “Bley dooy ‘2yVsouy jur) vyesoug WIA) vaojydy *ep0do}00 
*ppodnrwhiyr *ppodpiwiyr “‘ppodnrwhiyr ‘IL Joplo assur *g LOPlg (4d Ut) J topag |\proyd.ownpauy 
“SPLlOIVd VW : “RULIRO VY 
‘sprouordtoog | ‘suordtoog TAVOV 
‘sploounly ‘BOURLY ‘BVOULY *(qaed| (ooy sno.outnU “(qavd 
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*PPLUYODLP “DPLUYODLT PPLUYODLT ‘FI Loplg ‘9 SSLID *g Loplo (4d ut) J dopag|pyoydsownjawy 
‘saunupshy J, 
*RALO! 4. 
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‘10409109 ‘vanes AY, BIOSMATY| sue +g -agos| X18) tOIdV 
acer ‘Y y BIVSSO[H Se Wied ae : 
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-yaaydoanaN “er0ydo.1noN oH TOUNONY vAIOId([| “GI-1L Sossvlo -sopy 9 ‘(avd ‘(npodexoH) 
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‘p10 dowoyy PE ACHOU CD 31 VIdIdOTIAD wroydousu Ay “eyeUOpO -¢ *(voorysnay e103 doueutAy 
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‘grojdiaeydy| —_“wleadiq BuoidywoH| — “vleydyuleH vavystudS|-(qavd uy) vyug| “vtoadopidoy ‘ntoq dry 
eto diy vaoydoprdoT Boyd] ‘ery doy31O ; BIVUOTA|-stukg -e “eIRU eroyd uray ‘proj dojouy 
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“sdaqJ0uay) “1 |"1-T Sdoploqug]*y-T Saop.oqng| “OI-T Stoprg | “E-T Sossv[M |-No[W'T Stoplo| *9-T staparg | ‘wjyoydwownjary 
“FORT “E981. “GIST. “9GLT ‘G6LT “GUT. “CELT “COLT : 
‘VWNVd ‘quvuovd *ZISSVOV ‘ATMAULWT ‘SNIOIN av AL ‘SADA A ‘SQ NNT ‘WU 


“Avy Jo oul} oy} cours posodoid suiojskg [eorsoTouojuM Tediourid 04} Jo MATA UVINAVE 


HYMENOPTERA. 107 


HYMENOPTERA. 


Tue Bees, Wasps, Saw-flies, Ants, and other members of this 
suborder differ from all other insects in having, in the higher and 
more typical forms, the basal joint of the abdomen thrown for- 
ward upon and intimately united with the thorax. The head 
is large, with large compound eyes, and three ocelli. The 
mouth-parts are well developed both for biting, and feeding on 
the sweets of plants, the ligula especially, used in lapping 
nectar, being greatly developed. The other regions of the 
body are more distinct than in other insects; the wings are 
small but powerful, with comparatively few and somewhat 
irregular veins, adapted for powerful and long-sustained flights ; 
and the genital appendages retracted, except in the Ichneu- 
mon parasites and Saw-flies, within the body, are in the female 
modified into a sting. 

The transformations of this suborder are the most complete 
of all insects; the larvee in their general form are more unlike 
the adult insects than in any other suborder, while the pupe, 
on the other hand, most clearly approximate to the imago. 
The larve are short, cylindrical, footless (excepting the young 
of the Saw-flies, the lowest family, which are provided with 
abdominal legs like Lepidopterous larvee), worm-like grubs, 
which are helpless, and have to be fed by the prevision of the 


parent. The pupa has the limbs free, and is generally contained 


in a thin silken cocoon; that of the Saw-flies, however, being 
thick. 

The Hymenoptera exhibit, according to Professor Dana, the 
normal size of the insect-type. ‘‘This archetypic size is be- 


NOTE to.page 106.—Ray divided the Hexapods into Coleoptera and Aneloptera, 
the latter division embracing all the other suborders except the Coleoptera. His 
Ametamorphota Hexapoda contained the wingless hexapoda; while the Ametamor- 
phota polypoda comprise the Myriapods, and the 4. octopoda the Arachnids. Lin- 
neus’ Aptera (with numerous feet) are equivalent to the Myriapods, and his Aptera 
(with S-l4 feet) to the Arachnids. In Fabricius’ system the Hleutherata ave equiva- 
lent to the Coleoptera; the Ulonata to the Orthoptera; the Synistata to the Neur op- 
tera; the Piezata to the Hymenoptera; the Odonata to the Libellulidee; the Glossata 
to the Lepidoptera; the Rhyngota to the Hemiptera; the Antliata to the Diptera. 
The AMitosata are the Myriapods, and the Unogata, the Arachnids. In Latreille’s 
system the Suctoria, or Fleas, are now referred to the Diptera; the Parasita or 
Lice, to the Hemiptera, and the 7hysanura to the Neuroptera. 


108 HYMENOPTERA. 


tween eight and twelve lines (or twelfths of an inch) in length, 
and two and a half and three lines in breadth.” This size is 
probably a smaller average than in any other suborder ; thus the 
Hymenoptera while being the most cephalized, consequently 
comprise the most compactly moulded insectean forms. 

Besides these structural characters, as animals, endowed 
with instincts and a kind of reason differing, perhaps, only in 
degree from that of man, these insects outrank all other Articu- 
lates. In the unusual differentiation of the individual into males 
and females, and, generally sterile workers, with a farther dimor- 
phism of these three sexual forms, such as Huber has noticed 
in the Humble-bee, and a consequent subdivision of labor 
among them ; in dwelling in large colonies, thus involving new 
and intricate relations with other insects (such as Aphides, 
ant-hill-inhabiting beetles, and the peculiar bee-parasites) ; 
their wonderful instincts, their living principally on the sweets 
and pollen of flowers, and not being essentially carnivorous 
(i.e. seizing their prey like the Tiger-beetle) in their habits, as 
are a large proportion of the other suborders, with the exception 
of Lepidoptera; and in their relation to man as a domestic an- 
imal, subservient to his wants,—the Bees, and Hymenoptera 
in general, possess a combination of characters which are not 
found existing in any other suborder of insects, and which 
rank them first and highest in the insect series. 

The body-wall of the Hymenoptera is unusually dense and 
hard, smooth and highly polished, and either naked, or covered 
with hair as in a large proportion of the bees. The head is 
large, not much smaller than the thorax, and its front is verti- 
cal. The antenne are short, filiform, often .geniculate, very 
rarely pectinated. The mandibles are large, stout, toothed, and 
the maxillz are well developed into their three subdivisions, 
the palpi being usually six-jointed ; the labial palpi are usually 
four-jointed, and the prolongation of the under lip, or ligula, 
is highly developed, being furnished with a secondary pair 
of palpi, the paraglossx, while in the pollen-gathering species 
the ligula is of great length, and thus answers much the same 
purpose as the spiral tongue (maxille) of the Lepidoptera. 

Réaumur states that the Bee does not suck up the liquid 
sweets, but laps them up with its long slender hairy tongue. 


. 


HYMENOPTERA. 109 


“Even in the drop of honey the bee bends the end of its 
tongue about, and lengthens and shortens it successively, and, 
indeed, withdraws it from moment to moment.” The liquid 
passes along the upper surface of the pilose tongue, which is 
withdrawn between its sheaths, the palpi and maxille, and thus 
‘‘conveys and deposits the liquid with which it is charged 
within a sort of channel, formed by the upper surface of the 
tongue and the sheaths which fold over it, by which the liquid 
is conveyed to the mouth.” (Shuckard.) 

The thorax forms a rounded compact oval mass, with the 
prothorax and metathorax very small, the mesothorax being 
large, and also the propodeum, to which the pedicel of the ab- 
domen is attached. The pleurites are large and bulging, 
while the sternum is minute. The cox and trochantines are 
large, and quite free from the thorax; and the trochanters 
are small, while the rather slender legs are subject to great 
modifications, as they are devoted to so many different uses 
by these insects; thus, in the Sand-wasps they are strongly 
bristled for the purpose of digging, and in the Bees, the 
basal joint of the tarsi is much enlarged for carrying honey. 

‘¢The manner in which the bee conveys either the pollen, or 
other material it purposes carrying home, to the posterior 
legs, or venter, which is to bear it, is very curious. The 
rapidity of the motion of its legs is then very great; so great, 
indeed, as to make it very difficult to follow them; but it 
seems first to collect its material gradually with its mandibles, 
from which the anterior tarsi gather it, and that on each side 
passes successively the grains of which it consists to the inter- 
mediate legs, by multiplicated scrapings and twistings of the 
limbs; this, then, passes it on by similar manceuvres, and de- 
posits it, according to the nature of the bee, upon the pos- 
terior tibiz and tarsi, or upon the under side of the abdomen. 
The evidence of this process is speedily manifested by the pos- 
terior legs gradually exhibiting an increasing pellet of pollen. 
Thus, for this purpose, all the legs of the bees are more or less 
covered with hair. It is the mandibles which are chiefly used 
in their boring or excavating operations, applying their hands, 
or anterior tarsi, only to clear their way; but by the construc- 
tive, or artisan bees, they are uggd both in their building and 


110 HYMENOPTERA. 


mining operations, and are worked like trowels to collect moist 
clay, and to apply it to the maSonry of their habitations.” 
(Shuckard.) 

The four wings are present, except in rare instances. They 
are small; the hinder pair long, narrow, ovate, lanceolate. 
The costal edge of the fore-wing (Fig. 29), is generally 
straight, becoming a little curved towards the apex, which 
is obtusely subrectangular; the outer edge is bent at right 
angles, while the inner edge of the wing is long and straight. 
The veins are often difficult to trace, as in the outer half of the 
wing they break up into a system of net-veins, which are few 
in number, yet the continuations of the subcostal, median, and 
submedian veins can be distinguished after careful study. 

In some low Ichneumonide, the Proctotrupide, and 
Chalcidide, the veins show a tendency to become obsolete, 
only the simple subcostal vein remaining; and in Pteratomus, 
the veins are entirely obliterated, and the linear feather-like 
wings are in one pair fissured, reminding us of the Plume- 
moths, Pterophorus. 

The abdomen is composed in the larva state of ten segments, 
but in the adult stinging Hymenoptera, of six complete seg- 
ments in the females, and seven in the males; while in the 
lower families the number varies, having in the Tenthredi- 
nide, eight tergites on the upper side and six sternites on the. 
lower side. The remaining segments are, during the transfor- 
mations of the insect, aborted and withdrawn within the body. — 
The ovipositor and corresponding parts in the male have 
been described on pp. 14-18. 

The nervous system consists in the larvee of eleven ganglia, 
in the adult five or six of these remain as abdominal ganglia, 
while the remainder, excluding the cephalic ganglia, are placed 
in two groups in the thorax. The cerebral ganglia are well 
developed, evincing the high intellectual qualities necessary in. 
presiding over organs with such different uses as the simple 
and compound eyes, the antennee, and lingua and palpi, and 
mandibles, especially in those sociable species which build 
complete nests. 

The digestive system, in those bees which sip up their food, 
consists, besides the external mouth-parts, of a ‘‘long cesoph- 


HYMENOPTERA. | GL 


99 


agus which dilates into a thin-walled sucking stomach,” which 
in the dpiarice and Vespide may be simply a lateral fold, 
or, asin many Crabronide, ‘attached solely by a short and 
narrow pedunele.” In Formica,’ Crnips, “Leucospis, and Xyphid- 
ria there is a globular uncurved ‘callous gizzard, which is en- 
veloped by the base of the stomach, according to Siebold, who 
also states that ‘‘those Hymenoptera which are engaged during 
a long and active life in labors for the raising and support of 
their young, have a pretty long and flexuous stomach and in- 
testine, and the first has, usually, many constrictions ;” while 
the Cynipide, Ichneumonide, and Tenthredinide, 
which take no care of their young, have only a short small 
stomach and intestine. The salivary glands consist of two 
rather short ramified tufts, often contained entirely in the head. 

The tracheze consist, as in other insects, of two main branches, 
from which numerous transverse anastomosing branches are 
given off, with numerous vesicular dilatations. ‘Two such vesi- 
cles of immense volume are situated at the base of the abdo- 
men, which according to Hunter and Newport ‘‘serve chiefly 
to enable the insect to alter its specific gravity at pleasure dur- 
ing flight, and thus diminish the muscular exertion required 
during these movements.” 

The urinary vessels are very numerous in the Hymenoptera ; 
they are usually short and surround the pylorus in numbers of 
from twenty to one hundred and fifty. 

The two poison glands (Fig. 54, h,g) are composed of long 
ramose tubes, resembling the salivary glands in their minute 
structure. The poison is poured from these into a pyriform 
sac lodged near the base of the sting, which is provided with a 
peculiar muscular apparatus for its sudden extension and with- 
drawal. The poison, in the Ants, Bees, and Wasps, consists, 
according to Will, of ‘“‘formic acid, and a whitish, fatty, sharp 
residuum, the former being the poisonous substance.” (Bur- 
nett.) 

Whether the wax-secreting apparatus consists of special 
elands (as Milne-Edwards supposes) or not, as Dufour, Siebold, 
and others contend, is not yet a settled question. Siebold, the 
eminent German physiologist, from whose work on the anatomy 
of Invertebrata we have drawn so largely, suggests that the 


112 HYMENOPTERA. 


' wax ‘*is produced by an exudation from the thin membranes 
which connect the different parts of the legs. Moreover, many 
other Insects (Coccide and Aphide, Flata, etc.) have secretory 
products which transude through the skin without the existence 
of any special glandular apparatus, and which are hardened by 
the air like wax. These products are usually whitish, pulver- 
ulent, filamentous, or flocculent substances, which catch upon 
the surface of bodies.” He also states that there are no such 
glands (as are supposed by some to secrete this substance) in the 
‘‘hee-workers; but if certain Andrenidee are examined, there 
will be found, on each side of their posterior tibiz, a small pyri- 
form follicle with an excretory duct, and which secretes an oily 
substance.” Gersteecker states that the wax is produced on 
the under side of the abdominal segments. It is formed by 
chemical changes in the food during the process of nutrition. 

The honey is elaborated by an unknown chemical process, 
from the food contained in the proventriculus, or crop, and 
which is regurgitated into the honey-cells. 

The ovaries consist of many-chambered, four, six, or a hun- 
dred, short tubes. ‘‘The receptacula seminis is nearly always 
simple, round or ovoid, and necked, and is prolonged into a 
usually short seminal duct.” The glandula appendicularis con- 
sists of a bifurcate tube which opens into the ductus seminalis, 
and only rarely into the capsula seminalis itself. 

In the Tenthredinide, ‘this apparatus is formed on a 
different type ;. the seminal vesicle is a simple diverticulum of 
the vagina, and more or less distinct from it, besides it is defi- 
cient in the accessory gland. The copulatory pouch is absent in 
all the Hymenoptera, as are also the sebaceous glands with those 
females which have a sting and a poison gland,” while in other 
insects the sebaceous glands are present, and it would be nat- 
urally inferred, therefore, that the two are homologous, but 
modified for diverse functions. 

The two testes of the male are ‘‘composed of long follicles, 
fasciculate and surrounded, together with a portion of the 
torose deferent canal, by a common envelope; but more com- 
monly the two testes are contained in a capsule situated on the 
median line of the body.” (Siebold.) 

The eggs are usually long, cylindrical, and slightly curved in 


HYMENOPTERA. 113 


the Bees; in the Wasps they are more globular, and affixed by 
their smaller somewhat pedicelled end to the side, near the bot- 
tom of the cell in which they are laid. The eggs of the lower 
families tend to assume a spherical form. The eggs of dif- 
erent species of Bombus present no appreciable differences. 

The larve of the Bees and Wasps, especially the social 
species, which live surrounded by their food, are of a very 
persistent form, the various genera differing but slightly, while 
the species can scarcely be separated. Such we have found to 
be the case in the Bees and Wasps (Vespide) and Fossorial 
Wasps. The sexes of the species with a very thin tegument, 
such as Apis, Bombus, and Vespa, can be quite easily distin- 
guished, as the rudiments of the genital armor can be seen 
through. 

The Hymenoptera are mostly confined to the warmer and 
temperate regions of the earth; as we approach the poles, the 
Bees disappear, with the exception of Bombus, and perhaps 
its parasite Apathus; a species of Vespa is found on the Lab- 
rador coast, which has a climate like that of Greenland. No 
fossorial species of Wasps are known to us to occur in the arc- 
tic regions, while a few species of Ants, and several Chalcidi- 
de and Ichneumonide are not uncommon in Northern 
Labrador and Greenland. Our alpine summits, particularly 
that of Mt. Washington, reproduces the features of Northern 
Labrador and Greenland as regards its Hymenopterous fauna. 
The tropics are, however, the home of the Hymenoptera, and 
especially of the Bees. 

There are estimated to be about twenty-five thousand living 
species of this suborder, and this is probably a much smaller 

number than are yet to be discovered. 
__ In geological history, the Hymenoptera do not date far back 
compared with the Neuroptera and Orthoptera, and ven the 
Coleoptera. Indeed they were among the last to appear upon 
the earth’s surface. The lower forms, so far as the scanty 
records show, appeared first in the Jura formation; the Ants 
appear in the Tertiary period, especially in amber. . 

As we have noticed before, the Hymenoptera are more purely 
terrestrial than any other insects. None are known to be 
aquatic in the early stages, and only two genera have been found 

8 


114 HYMENOPTERA. 


swimming in the adult state on the surface of pools, and they 
are the low, minute, degraded Proctotrupids, Prestwichia 
natans and Polynema natans described by Mr. Lubbock. - The 
Hymenoptera do not imitate or mimic the forms of other in- 
sects, but, on the contrary, their forms are extensively copied in 
the Lepidoptera, and especially the Diptera. A partial excep- 
tion to this law is seen in the antenne of the Australian genus 
Thaumatosoma, where they are long and slender, and knobbed 
as in the butterfly, and also in Tetralonia mirabilis of Smith, 
from Brazil. ' 

The Hymenoptera, also, show their superiority to all other in- 
sects in the form of their degraded wingless species, such as 
Pezomachus, the workers of Formica and the female of Mutilla. 
In these forms we have no striking resemblances to lower orders 
and suborders, but a strong adherence to their own Hymenop- 
terous characters. Again; in the degradational winged forms, 
we rarely find the antennz pectinated ; a common occurrence 
in the lower suborders. In a low species of the Apiarie, 
Lanprocolletes cladocerus, from Australia, —that land of anom- 
alies,—the antennz are pectinated. This, Mr. F. Smith, the 
best living authority on this suborder, says, ‘‘is certainly the 
most remarkable bee that I have seen, and the only in- 
stance, to my knowledge, of a bee having pectinated antenne ; 
such an occurrence, indeed, in the Aculeate Hymenoptera is 
only known in two or three instances, as in Psammotherma flab- 
ellata amongst the Mutillid@, and again in Ctenocerus Klugii 
in the Pompilide ; there is also a modification of it in one or 
two other species of Pompilide.” Among the Tenthre- 
dinide, the male Lophyrus has well-pectinated antenne, as 
also has Cladomacra macropus of Smith, from New Guinea 
and Celebes. 

The wings of perhaps the most degraded Hymenoptera, the 
Proctotrupide, are rarely fissured; when this occurs, as in 
Pteratomus Putnamii, they somewhat resemble those of Péero- 
phorus, the lowest moth. It is extremely rare that.the com- 
pound eyes are replaced by stemmata, or simple eyes; in but 
one instance, the genus Anthophorabia, are the eyes in the 
male sex reduced to a simple ocellus. This species lives in the 
darkness of the cells of Anthophora. 


APIARLE. 115 


By reason of the permanence of the type, due to the high 
rank of these insects, the generic and specific characters are 
founded on very slight differences, so that these insects, and 
particularly the two higher families, the Wasps (Vespidee) and 
Bees (Apiariew) are the most difficult insects to study. The 
easiest characters for the recognition of the genera, lie in the 
venation of the wings ; though in the fossorial families the legs 
vary greatly. The best specific characters lie in the sculptur- 
ing and style of coloration, but the spots and markings are apt 
to vary greatly. The great differences between the sexes are 
liable to mislead the student, and hence large collections are 
indispensable for their proper study. Bees act as ‘‘marriage 
priests” in the fertilization of plants, conveying pollen from 
flower to flower, and thus insuring the formation of the fruit. 
It is said that most orchids could not be fertilized without 
the interposition of Bees. 

Their interesting habits deserve long and sation study ; it 
is for their observations on the insects of this suborder that the 
names of Réaumur, the two Hubers, and Latreille will be ever 
held in special remembrance. 

Most Hymenoptera love the sun, and they may be caught 
while flying about flowers. The nests of bees, wasps, and ants 
should be sought for and the entire colony captured, together 
with the parasites. The hairy species should be pinned while in 
the net, and the naked ones can be put in the collecting-bot- 
tle. The larger species may be pinned, like other insects, 
through the thorax; but the minute Chalcids, etc., should be 
gummed, like small Coleoptera, upon cards. 

The nests of bees and of wasps and ants and the young in 
various stages of growth should be collected, and in such num- 
‘bers as to show their different stages of construction, to serve 
as illustrations of insect architecture. 


_Apiari#£ Latreille (Apide Leach). This and those families 
succeeding which are provided with a true sting, were called 
by Latreille Hymenoptera Aculeata. The male antennze are 
mostly thirteen-jointed, while in the female they are twelve- 
jointed. The females (and the workers, when they exist) 
feed the larvee, which mostly live in nests or cells. 


116 HYMENOPTERA. 


In the social Bees, besides the normal male and female forms, 
there are asexual females, whose inner genital organs are partly 
aborted, though externally only differing in their smaller size 
from the true females. The male antennz are longer, tapering 
more towards the tips, and the eyes of the male approach each 
other closer over the vertex than in the opposite sex, though 
these are characters which apply to other Hymenoptera. The 
mouth-parts are in the higher genera greatly elongated, the 
labium being long, with the lingua of great length, and the 
lobes of the maxillze long and knife-shaped ; but these parts, as 
well as the form of the jaws, are subject to great modifications - 
in the different genera: the labial palpi are four-jointed, and 
the maxillary palpi are from one to six-jointed. The hind 
tibia and basal joint of the tarsi are, in the pollen-gathering 
species, very broad; the tibia is in Apis and Bombus hollowed 
on the outside, and stiff bristles project over the cavity from 
each side of the joint, forming the honey-basket (corbiculum), 
on which the ‘‘clodden masses of honey and pollen” are con- 
veyed to their nests. In the parasitic genera, such as Apathus, 
the tibia is, on the contrary, convex, rather than’ concave, 
though of the usual width; while in Nomada, also parasitic, 
the legs are narrow, the tibia not being dilated. 

In Andrena and its allies, Halictus and Colletes, the mouth- 
parts, especially the tongue, are much shortened, thus afford- 
ing a passage into the Vespide@. In these genera the tongue 
is folded back but once between the horny encasement of the 
‘maxille, but in the higher Apiarie the part formed by the 
union of the lingua and maxilla is twice bent back, and thus 
protected by the horny lobes of the maxille. ‘The fore-wings 
have two or three subcostal (cubital) cells. 

There are two thousand species of this family. The ditfer- 
ences between the larvae of the various genera of this family 
are very slight, those of the parasitic species are, however, 
readily distinguished from their hosts. 

The higher Apiarie, comprising the subfamily Apine, have 
the ligula long, cylindrical, while the labial palpi have two 
very long, slender, compressed basal joints, and two short 
terminal joints. 

The genus Apis has no terminal spurs on the hind tibie, 


APIARIZA. 117 


while the fore-wings have three subcostal (cubital) cells, the 
middle of which is elongated and acutely wedge-shaped. The 
eyes inthe male are united above; the mouth-parts are nearly 
aborted, and the hind legs are smooth. In the female there 
are two paraglossz on the ligula, and the maxillary palpi 
are one-jointed. The worker only differs externally from the 
female in the shorter abdomen. 

The larva of the Honey-bee closely Poses that of Bom- 
bus, but the body is shorter, broader, and more flattened, while 
the head is less prominent, and the lateral tubercles along the 
body are, perhaps, less prominent than in the young Humble- 
bee, otherwise the two genera are, in the larval state, much 
alike. In its natural position, the larva lies at the bottom of 
the cell doubled upon itself. 

Though the larve are said usually to feed upon pollen, 
Mr. Desborough states that honey alone is the food of the 
grub, as he reared 729 larve with no other food than honey. 
But as with the wild bees they may extract honey from the 
pollen provided for them. He says the matured bees may be 
observed feeding at night on the bee-bread (pollen). Lang- 
stroth (The Hive and Honey-bee), however, states that ‘‘ pol- 
len is indispensable to the nourishment of the young. It is 
very rich in the nitrogenous substances which are not contained 
in the honey.” in 

The Honey-bee, Apis mellifica, is now distributed over the 
civilized world. It was introduced into this country during 
the seventeenth century, and into South America in 1845 (Ger- 
steecker). The Italian, or Ligurian, bee is considered. by F. 
Smith as being a climatic variety. 

The cultivation of the Honey-bee is rapidly increasing in this 
country, but the German Bee-masters have made the most pro- 
gress in theoretical and practical Bee-culture. Convenient 
hives are now constructed by which all the operations of the 
bees can be observed at leisure. Gersteecker thus sums up 


the habits of the Honey-bee: A fertilized queen which, with a | 


few workers, has wintered over, lays its eggs in the spring first | 


.in the worker, and afterwards, at a later period, in the drone- 


cells (both arranged in two perpendicular rows of cells). Early | 


in summer, the workers construct the larger flask-shaped queen- ’ 


118 HYMENOPTERA. 


cells, which are placed on the edge of the comb, and in these 
the queen-larvee are fed with rich and choice nourishment. 
As soon as the first of the new brood of queens is excluded 
from its cell, which it indicates by a peculiar buzzing noise, it 
deserts the old queen, carrying away with it a part of the 
swarm, and thus forms a new colony. The recently excluded 
queen then takes its marriage flight high in the air with a 
drone, and on its return undertakes the management of the 
hive, and the duty of laying eggs. When another queen is 
disclosed, the same process of forming a new colony goes on. 
When the supply of young queens is exhausted, the workers 
fall upon the drones and destroy them without mercy. The 
first brood of workers live about six weeks in summer, and 
then give way to a new brood. Mr. J.G. Desborough states 
that the maximum period of the life of a worker is eight months. 
The queens are known to live five years, and during their whole 
life lay more than a million eggs (V. Berlepsch). Langstroth 
states that ‘‘during the height of the breeding season, she 
will often, under favorable circumstances, lay from 2,000 to 
3,000 eggs a day.” According to Von Siebold’s discovery 
only the queens’ and workers’ eggs are fertilized by sperm- 
cells stored in the receptaculum seminis, and these she can 
fertilize at will, retaining the power for four or five years, 
as the muscles guarding the duct leading from this sperm-bag 
are subject to her will. Drone eggs are laid by unfertilized 
queen-bees, and in some cases even by worker-bees. This last 
fact has been confirmed by the more recent observations of 
Mr. Tegetmeier, of London.. 

Principal Leitch, according to Tegetmeier, has suggested the 
theory that a worker egg may develop a queen, if transferred 
into a queen-cell. ‘It is well known that bees, deprived of 
their queen, select several worker-eges, or very young larve, 
for the purpose of rearing queens. ‘The cells in which these 
egos are situated are lengthened out and the end turned down- 
ward.” He suggests that the development into a queen was 
caused by the increased temperature of the queen-cell, above 
that of the worker-cells. 

But Messrs. F. Smith and Woodbury (Proceedings of the 
Entomological Society of London, January 2, 1862) support F. 


APIARIA. 119 


Huber’s theory, that the change is due to ‘‘the quality as well 
as quantity of food with which the royal larva is supplied,” 
though Dr. Leitch objects, that it has been by no means con- 
clusively proved ‘that the so-called royal jelly differs in any 
respect from the ordinary food supplied to the worker larva ;” 
and Mr. Woodbury cites the experiments of Dzierzon, as 
quoted by Kleine, ‘‘that as Huber, by introducing some royal 
jelly in cells containing worker-brood, obtained queens, it may 
be possible to induce bees to construct royal cells, when the 
Apiarian prefers to have them, by inserting a small portion of 
royal jelly in cells containing worker-larye.” Kleine takes ‘an 
unsealed royal cell—which usually contains an excess of 
royal jelly—and removes from it a portion of the jelly, on 
the point of a knife or pen, and by placing it on the inner 
margin of any worker cell, feels confident that the larve in 
them will be reared as queens.” 

Before these points are settled we must study the habits of 
the Wild Bees, and of the other social Hymenoptera and White 
Ants, together with the social Aphides more carefully. Mr. F. 
W. Putnam pertinently states, ‘‘at present I cannot believe 
that the peculiarity of food, or the structure of the cells, pro- 
duces a difference of development in Humble-bees, for the lar- 
vee, as has been previously stated, were seen to make their own 
cells from the pollen paste. Is it not more natural to believe, 
as has been suggested to me by Professor J. Wyman, that the 
difference in the development of the eggs is owing to their be- 
ing laid at various times after impregnation? Thus, if I am 
right in supposing that the queens are impregnated by the 
males late in the summer, the eggs, laid soon after, produce 
the large queen larvee ;* the next set of eggs, laid in the spring, 
produce the workers, or undeveloped females, while from those 
deposited still later, male bees are principally developed.” 
(Proceedings of the Essex Institute, Salem, vol. iv, 1864, p. 
103.) 

Referring to Mr. Putnam’s statement that there are both small 
and large queens (besides the workers), Dr. Gerstaecker infers, 


* Dr. Gerstecker, on the other hand, states that ‘‘from the brood-cells of a nest 
of Bombus muscorum, found by him on the 18th of September, there were devel- 
oped at the end of the same month only workers.” 


120 HYMENOPTERA. 


‘from the examination of numerous individuals found flying in 
the spring after hibernation, that these could not be considered 
as true queens, since their ovaries were only moderately devel- 
oped, though larger than those of the workers, while in the 
true queen, captured in the summer, the ovaries were perfectly 
developed. This corresponds almost entirely to what we find 
in the wasps, whose spring females have only moderately de- 
veloped ovaries.” 

How the Honey-bee builds its cells, and whether they are ex- 
actly hexagonal, are questions that have interested the best 
observers from Maraldi who wrote in 1712, and Réaumur, 
whose Memoires appeared in 1740, down to the present date. 
Their solution involves not only the closest observation of the 
insect while at work, but also the shrewdest judgment to ex- 
plain the facts observed and deduct a legitimate theory. Does 
the bee intelligently plan her work out beforehand, or does she 
follow the guidance of what is called instinct? Does she 
construct hexagonal cells which are mathematically exact, 
or does she vary the proportions of each cell, so that it is per- 
fect only in its general ideal form? Again, in making the cell, 
is the bee actually capable of making such a cell alone, or is it 
due to the resultant action of several bees? Professor J. Wy- 
man is of the latter opinion, as he thinks ‘that if left alone to 
build a single cell, this would most probably be round. In the 
cells of Melipona, as Huber’s plate shows, they are only hex- 
agonal when in contact with the adjoining cells.” (Proceed- 
ings of the Boston Society of Natural History, x, p. 278, 
1866.) 

A similar view is that proposed in 1862 by the Rev. Samuel 
Haughton, in a paper read before the Natural History Society 
of Dublin, where he says, according to Mr. F. Smith, that the 
hexagonal form of the cell ‘‘ may be accounted for simply by the 
mechanical pressure of the insects against each other during 
the formation of the cell. In consequence of the instinct that 
compels them to work with reference to a plane, and of the 
cylindrical form of the insect’s body, the cells must be hex- 
agonal.” 

Mr. G. R. Waterhouse (Transactions of the Entomological 
Society of London. Third series, vol. ii, p. 129, 1864) has 


APIARLA. 119) 


proposed what has been called the ‘circular theory,” or what 
the author himself terms ‘‘the principle of working in seg- 
ments of circles.” He contends ‘‘ that the hexagonal form of the 
cells of certain bees and wasps may, and does, arise out of this 
mode of action when under certain conditions ; that those condi- 
tions are, that the cells are so commenced that their natural cir- 
cumferences, as the work proceeds, are either simply brought 
into contact with each other, or that the cells are so placed that 
the (we will say theoretical) circumferences must intersect. 
Contact with adjoining cells, then, is an essential condition to 
bring about the hexagonal form as I have before pointed out 
(See Proceedings of the Entomological Society, 1858, p. 17) ; 
but for this result it is not necessary that a hexagonal cell 
should be completely surrounded by other cells.” 

Is not this theory, after all, too mechanical? Is not our bee 
more of a free agent? Does it not have a mind to désign its 
work? Mr. F. Smith, who has devoted years to the study of 
Hymenoptera, especially the higher forms of this suborder, the 
Bees and Wasps, replies to both theories of Waterhouse and 
Haughton, by bringing in the case of the Wasps which also 
build hexagonal cells, showing that a solitary wasp will build 
its cells in very regular hexagons. Thus the nest of the soli- 
tary Wasp, Icaria guttatipennis, ‘‘ consists of a double row, the 
number of cells being ten; I now direct your attention to the 
fact that all the cells are perfectly hexagonal, the exterior 
planes being as beautifully finished as those in contact with 
the inner planes of the opposing cells. I have placed a draw- 
ing of this nest (Plate 5, Fig. 7) in the box on the table, and I 
particularly wish you to observe, that the first cell is carried 
up in a perfectly hexagonal form above the adjoining cells; a 
proof that, if Wasps never build perfect isolated hexagonal cells, 
they certainly possess the capability of doing so. The exterior 
of all the cells, as I before observed, is hexagonal, not eylindri- 
cal, until fresh cells are added on the outer side, as was ob- 
served to be the case in combs of the Hive-bee, by Mr. 
Tegetmeier.” (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of 
London. Third series, ii, 1864, p. 135.) 

An examination of the cells of three species of Polistes (the 
female of which begins alone in the spring to build her nest, 


Ze HYMENOPTERA. 


the cells of which are afterwards greatly increased in number 
after the first brood of females appear), convinced us that 
the Wasp begins with the circular cup-shaped form of cell, and 
when about depositing an egg in it, changes her mode of ope- 
rating, builds up the edges into a hexagonal form, and carries 
up the rim of each cell independently to its required height. 
She thus apparently changes her plan at a certain stage of the 
work, and is so far a free agent. 

Mr. Smith also exhibited a portion of the nest of another 
wasp, Tatua Morio (Plate 5, Fig. 9), that proved to his mind 
the primary intention of the wasp instinctively to build cells 
with exactly six sides. The figure represents part of one of 
the flat floors, on which the foundations of the cells are laid in 
regular hexagons, instead of beginning in hemispherical cups. 

Mr. Smith (p. 141) concludes, ‘‘ that all hexagonal cells are 
not constructed upon a circular principle, and that the primary 
idea of all social bees and wasps is not to produce cylindrical 
cells with hemispherical bases.” 

In this connection the following extract from Mr. Smith’s 
remarks is of interest: ‘¢ It may not be known that in order to 
expedite the building of honey-combs, it is a common practice 
with bee-keepers in Germany to furnish hives with artificial 
foundations for the cells; these consist of sheets of wax, upon 
which is impressed a series of pyramidal hollows; in fact, the 
counterpart of a comb built by the bees themselves, entirely 
deprived of the cell-walls ; and it is from such a piece of comb 
that the casts for the artificial foundations are obtained. A 
piece of casting of this description I lay before you, and I par- 
ticularly call your attention (addressing the members of the 
Entomological Society of London) to the commencement of the 
outer cells ; you will see, in some instances, a single plane of 
the hexagonal cell commenced, in others two or three are in 
progress ; here you have a ground-plan supplied, or, I may say, 
the foundations of the habitations ready prepared, upon which 
the laborers are to raise the walls, and you may see how admi- 
rably they have done it. Instinct enables the bee to construct 
hexagonal cells without teaching, and, we are told, in one un- 
deviating manner. Surely the example before us exhibits an 
amount of intelligence on the part of the bees in availing them- 


APIARIA. 1) 


selves of such adventitious aid. Must we not henceforth, 
when speaking of the marvels of the hive or the vespiary, erase 
from our vocabulary such terms as blind instinct ; and must we 
not cease to stigmatize the bee as a mere machine?” 

At the meeting of the same society held Feb. 1, 1864, Mr. 
F. Smith exhibited a collection of Wasps’ nests, — one of Vespa 
rufa, the rest of V. vulgaris; they were in various stages of © 
formation, the earliest consisting of only a single cup contain- 
ing the first egg, others consisting of three or four cups, whilst 
others again were more complete. The whole had been arti- 
ficially obtained by Mr. Stone, who tempted the wasps to build 
by excavating holes in banks and furnishing them with foot- 
stalks; in fact, Mr. Stone appeared to possess the power of 
inducing wasps to build nests of almost any shape he 
pleased. 

But to return to the cell of the Bee. It should first be 
proved that the cells are not exactly and mathematically per- 
fect hexagons, though sufficiently so for the purpose for which 
they are used. In the Proceedings of the American Academy 
of Arts and Sciences, vol. vii, 1866, Professor Wyman has, by 
a most careful as well as novel and ingenious mode of investiga- 
tion, proved that the cells are all more or less imperfect, and 
that a hexagonal cell mathematically exact, does not exist in 
nature, but only in theory. 

The form of the cell is liable to marked variations, chief 
among which the following may be mentioned, in the author’s 
own’ words : 

“1. The diameters of workers’ cells may so vary, that ten 
of them may have an aggregate deviation from the normal 
quantity equal to the diameter of a cell. The average varia- 
tion is a little less than one half that amount, namely, nearly 
0.10 inch, in the same number of cells. 

‘2. The width of the sides varies,.and this generally in- 
volves a variation of the angles which adjoining sides make 
with each other, since the sides vary not only in length but in 
direction. 

‘©3, The variation in the diameters does not depend upon 
accidental distortion, but upon the manner in which the cell 
was built. . 


124 HYMENOPTERA. 


‘¢4, The relative size of the rhombic faces of the pyramidal 
base is liable to frequent variation, and this where the cellseare 
not transitional from one kind to another. _ 

‘*5. When a fourth side exists in the basal pyramid, it may 
be in consequence of irregularity in the size of the cells, or of 
incorrect alignment of them on the two sides of the comb.” 

Sometimes one of the faces is lost, and a new one formed, 
so that all the basal portion of the cell becomes reversed, as 


A B. C will be seen by refer- 
ence to Figs. 73 and 

Coir as 74; the first repre- 
Fig. 73. senting the cells when 


the base is viewed, and the second when looked at perpendic- 
ularly to one of the sides. In both figures A indicates the 
ordinary form of the cell. The whole a B Cc 
‘series of Fig. 74 shows the gradual 
introduction of the new face, which 
is seen on the lower border, and the 
elimination of one of the original faces, 
which is seen on the upperborder. At Fj 4) Fott Lio) 
B, which is intermediate between the Fig. 74. 
two extremes, the four faces consist of two equal rhombs,— 
one of which is the outgoing and the other the incoming one, 
iy Ge ‘ and two equal hexagons. B, Fig. 
b 74, represents the sides of the same 
cell, which, instead of forming three 
trapeziums, as at A, a, 0, ¢, now 
form two pentagons, a' and c’, and a 
parallelogram, 0’. At C, Figs. 73 
and 74, the forms are in all respects 
lb the reverse of those of A. A and C 
are symmetrical with each other, and 
B is symmetrical in itself. No pre- 
4 LES Tbs cise number of cells is necessary 
for the purpose of making this transition, for it may take 
place in two or three, or extend through a long series, as in 
Fig. 73. 
‘6, Ordinarily, the error of alignment does not amount to 
more than one or two diameters of a cell. But occasionally 


— 


APIARIA. 125 


the rows of cells on one side of the comb may deviate from 
their true direction with regard to those on the other, to the 
extent of 30°.” . 

‘«Thus, if a piece of normal comb be held in the position in 
which it was built, two of the opposite angles of the hexagon, 
Fig. 75, A, a, will be in the 
same vertical line, and two 
of the sides will be parallel 
to this. The same is true 
of the opposite side of the 
comb; and thus all the cor- 
responding parts of the cells 
on the two sides will be par- 
allel. In the deviation we 
are now noticing, the change 
is like that represented in A, 
where the cell a is in its 
true position, while the cell 
6, which is from the oppo- 
site side, and is in contact 
with a, varies from it by 
about 30°. If we look at 
these two cells in the direc- 
tion of their sides as at B, : 
the prism a will have one Fig. 76. 
of its angles towards the eye, and b one of its sides. 

In consequence of this deviation and the continual crossing 
of the rows on opposite sides, the pyramidal base is not made, 
and the cell is shortened. 

‘‘7. In curved or bent combs the 
cells on the concave side tend to be- 
come narrower, while those on the 
other tend to become broader to- 
wards their mouths. In Fig. 76 
(this and Figs. 77 and 78 are made 
from impressions obtained directly 
from the comb and transferred to wood; they represent the 
form of the cells exactly), as in the central line of cells, there 
are a variety of hexagons, each resulting from the union 


Fig. 77. 


126 HYMENOPTERA. 


of two cells, the base being double while the mouth is 
single. That on the line a,b, has three sides at one end, 
united by two long sides with one at the other, and thus two 
of the opposite sides are not parallel; at c, d, two sides at 


S) 
o 


Sse mma wanes 


either end are united by two long sides, these last being par- 
allel; and ate, f, the mouth of the compound cell has seven 
sides. Each has a partition at its base, separating the two 
originally distinct cells, and each was lined with a cocoon, 
showing that it had been used for rearing young. At g, not 
only has the partition between the combining cells disappeared, 
but also three of the sides of each cell.” 

The bees do not appear to have any systematic way of mak- 
ing a transition from worker to drone cells, which are one-fifth 
larger than the former. More commonly, they effect it by a 
gradual alteration of the diameters, thus enlarging a worker 
into a drone, or narrowing a drone into a worker cell. This 
alteration is usually made in from four'to sixrows. In one case 


APIARLZE. 127 


Professor Wyman noticed the transition made with only one 
cell, as in Fig. 78, but not without destroying the regularity of 
the two adjoining rows. 

“In consequence of the gradual narrowing or widening of 
the transition cells, the comb tends to become more or less tri- 
angular and the cells to become disturbed. The bees counter- 
act this tendency by the occasional intercalation of an additional 
row, of which two instances are given in Fig. 78, at a and J, 
where three rows of worker cells are continuous with two of 
drone cells, c, d and e, f; or, reversing the statement, and 
supposing the transition, as in the building of the comb, is 
from worker to drone-cells, a row of the latter is from time to 
time omitted as the rows a and 0; in this way, the regularity of 
the comb is preserved.” 

Honey-cells are formed either by enlarging the ordinary 
brood-cells, or adding them to others often larger, or by con- 
structing a new comb, devoted entirely to the storing of honey. 
‘¢ While the cells of this last are built unequivocally in accord- 
ance with the hexagonal type, they exhibit a range of variation 
from it which almost defies description.” 

No Ichneumon-flies are known to attack the larva of the 
Honey-bee, nor in fact, with few exceptions, any of the wild 
bees, owing, probably, to the difficulty of their gaining access 
to them, since Anomalon vesparwm has been reared from the 
cells of wasps which are more exposed than those of bees. 
But the Honey, as well as the wild bees, are afflicted by a 
peculiar assemblage of insect-parasites, some of which have 
the most remarkable habits. The most formidable pest of the 
Hive-bee is the Bee Fly, Phora incrassata, which in Europe 
sometimes produces the well-known disease called ‘‘foul- 
brood.” The Bee-louse, Brawla cceca, is, in Europe, sometimes 
troublesome to the adult bee, while Tvrichodes apiarius, a beetle, 
devours the larve. The larvee of Meloé and Stylops are known 
in Europe to infest the Honey-bee, and among the low intesti- 
nal worms Assmus enumerates Gordius subbifurcus which in- 
fests the drones of the Honey-bee as well as other insects. 
Professor Siebold has also described Mermis albicans, which 
is a similar kind of hair-worm, from two to five inches long, 
and whitish in color. This worm is also found, strangely 


128 HYMENOPTERA. 


enough, only in the drones, though it is the workers which 
frequent watery places (where the worm deposits its eggs) to 
appease their thirst. The Wax-moths, Galleria cereana and 
Achroia alvearia, do much harm by consuming the wax and 
thus breaking down the celis, and by filling the hive with 
their webs.* 

The genus Apis is indigenous in South America, though the 
Honey-bee has been extensively introduced into the West In- 
dies. Our Honey-bee is replaced in the tropics by the stingless, 
minute bees, which store up honey and live in far more numer- 
ous colonies. The cells of Melipona are hexagonal, nearly 
approaching in regularity those of the Hive-bee, while the 
honey-cells are irregular, much larger cavities, which hold about 
one-half as much honey as a cell of the Humble-bee. From a 
paper on the Brazilian Honey-bees, read by Mr. F. Smith be- 
fore the Entomological Society of London, March, 1863, he 
states that the Meliponas are small insects, having wings shorter 
than the abdomen, the latter being very convex and oblong ; 
their mandibles never being dentate ; while the Zrigonas have 
the wings more ample, and longer than the abdomen, which is 
short, somewhat triangular, while the mandibles are serrated, 
denticulate, or sometimes edentate. The Meliponas are re- 
stricted to the new world, while Trigona extends into Africa, 
India, and Australasia. ; 

‘¢ All these bees are honey gatherers, but the honey collected 
by the different species varies greatly in quality: from the 
nests of some it is excellent; from others, worthless. The 
honey of the species ‘ Mombuca’ is said to be black and sour, 
the quality being dependent on species of flowers from which 
the honey is collected. This great difference in the honey of 
the various species is apparently confirmatory of the fact that 
each species confines itself to particular flowers, never visiting 
any other kind. The different relative length of the tongue in 

* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2. Parasites of the Honey-bee. Fig. 1, Phora incras- 
sata; Fig. 2, pupa; Fig. 3, larva. Fig. 4, Braula ceca; Fig. 5, larva. Fig. 6, Tri- 
chodes apiarius : a, larva; b, pupa. Fig.7, Meloé angusticollis ; Fig. 8, freshly hatched 
larva;. Fig. 9, second stage of larva; Fig. 10, first stage of semi-pupa; Fig. 11, 
pupa. Fig. 12, Stylops Childreni in the body of a wild bee, Andrena; Fig. 13, top 
view of the same removed from its host; Fig. 14, male of the same; a, side view. 


Fig. 15, Mucor mellitophorus, a parasitic fungus. Fig. 16, unknown larya found in 
nest of Humble-bee. Descriptions of the insect parasites will be given beyond. 


A \\\ VIN | 
m TCA AF 


Fig. lta. 


—<—_— 


Fig. 16. 


‘ APIARIZA. “as 129 


the species is also confirmatory of the same supposition; in- 
deed, the great diversity in this respect observable in these 
bees, appears to me to be analogous to a similar diversity in the 
length of the bills of humming-birds, which, it is well known, 
are always adapted for reaching the nectaries of the particular 
flowers which they usually frequent.” 

In regard to the immense numbers of individuals in a col- 
ony, Mr. Stretch, who collected them at Panama, ‘‘found a 
nest several feet in length in the hollow of a tree, containing 
. thousands of individuals, their numbers being, as he informs 
me, apparently countless. ; 

‘‘Gardner, in his travels, gives a list of such. species (of 
Melipona) as he met in the provinces of Piauhy and Goyaz, 
where he found them numerous ; in every house, he says, ‘you 
find the honey of these bees ;’ many species, he tells us, build in 
the hollow trunks of trees, others in banks; some suspend 
their nests from branches of trees, whilst one species constructs 
its nest of clay, it being of large size; the honey of this spe- 
cies, he says, is very good.” (Smith.) 

In a nest of Zrigona carbonaria from Eastern Australia, 
Smith, of the British Museum, found from 400 to 500 dead 
workers crammed in the spaces between the combs, but he 
did not find a female among them. The combs are arranged 
precisely similar to those of the common wasp. The number of 
honey-pots, which are placed at the foot of the nest, amounted 
to 250. 

Smith inclines to the opinion that the hive of Trigona con- 
tains several prolific females; ‘‘the accounts given of the mul- 
titudes inhabiting some nests is too great, I think, to render it 
possible that one female could produce them all. Mr. Stretch 
described a hive that he saw, occupying the interior of a decay- 
ing tree, that measured six feet in length, and the multitude of 
bees he compared to a black cloud. M. Guerin found six fe- 
males in a nest of Melipona fulvipes.” 

Hill states, in Gosse’s Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica, 
‘‘that the wax of these bees [Trigona] is very unctuous and 
dark colored, but susceptible of being whitened by bleaching. 
The honey is stored in clusters of cups, about the size of 
pigeon’s eggs, at the bottom of the hive, and always from the 

9 


130 “i HYMENOPTERA. 


brood-cells. The brood-cells are hexagonal; they are not 
deep, and the young ones, when ready to burst their casement, 
just fill the whole cayity. The mother bee is lighter in color 
than the other bees, and elongated at the abdomen to double 
their length.” Smith also states that the female of this genus 
has the abdomen greatly distended, reminding one of the 
gravid female of the White Ant. (Smith, Proc. Ent. Soc., 
London, Dec. 7, 1863.) 

In North America, our nearest ally, as regards its habits, of 
the true Honey-bee, is the Humble-bee (Bombus), of which 
over forty species are known to inhabit North America. 

The economy of the Humble-bee is thus: the queen awakens 
in early spring from her winter’s sleep beneath the leaves or 
moss, or in deserted nests, and selects a nesting-place generally. 
in an abandoned nest of a field-mouse, or beneath a stump or 
sod, and ‘‘immediately,” according to Mr. F. W. Putnam, 
“collects a small amount of pollen mixed with honey, and in 
this deposits from seven to fourteen eggs, gradually adding to 
the pollen mass until the first brood is hatched. She does not 
wait, however, for one brood to be hatched before laying the 
egos of another ; but, as soon as food enough has been collected, 
she lays the eggs for a second. The eggs [Plate 4, Fig. 2] 
are laid, in contact with each other, in one cavity of the mass 
of pollen, with a part of which they are slightly covered. They 
are very soon developed; in fact, the lines are nowhere dis- 
tinctly drawn between the egg and the larva, the larva and 
pupa, and again between the latter and the imago; a perfect 
series, showing this gradual transformation of the young to the 
imago, can be found in almost every nest. 

‘¢ As soon as the larvee are capable of motion and commence 
feeding, they eat the pollen by which they are surrounded, and, 
eradually separating, push their way in various directions. 
Eating as they move, and increasing in size quite rapidly, they 
soon make large cavities in the pollen mass. When they have 
attained their full size, they spin a silken wall about them, 
which is strengthened by the old bees covering it with a thin 
layer of wax, which soon becomes hard and tough, thus form- 
ing a cell. [Plate 4, Figs. 1,2.] The larve now gradually 
attain the pupa stage, and remain inactive until their full devel- 


APIARI EA. 131 


opment. They then cut their way out, and are ready to assume 
their duties as workers, small females, males or queens. 

“Tt is apparent that the irregular disposition of the cells is 
due to their being constructed so peculiarly by the larve. 
After the first brood, composed of workers, has come forth, 
the queen bee devotes her time principally to her duties at 
home, the workers supplying the colony with honey and polien. 
As the queen continues prolific, more workers are added, and 
the nest is rapidly enlarged. 

“¢ About the middle of summer eggs are deposited which 
produce both small females and males.” ... ‘‘ All eggs laid 
after the last of July produce the large females, or queens ; 
and, the males being still in the nest, it is presumed that the 
queens are impregnated at this time, as, on the approach of 
cold weather, all except the queens, of which there are several in 
each nest, die.” (Putnam, Com. Essex Inst., vol. iv, p. 98, 1864.) 

Besides Apathus, the larvee of various moths consume the 
honey and waxen cells; the two-winged flies, Volucella and 
Conops, and the larve of what is either an Anthomyia or 
Tachina-like fly; several species of Anthrax, the Coleopterous 
Anobium paniceum of Europe, Meloé, Stylops, and Anthero- 
phagus ochraceus are parasitic on Humble-bees.* 

The habits of the genus Apathus are not clearly known, but 
they are supposed to prey, in the larva state, upon the larvee of 
Bombus, being found in their nests; their habits, so far as 
known, ally them with Nomada. The species are distinguished 
by the tibiee being convex, instead of concave, as, in Bombus, 
while the mandibles of the females are acute, triangular, biden- 
tate, being spatulate and three-toothed in Bombus, and they 
have no pollenigerous organs. There are males and females 
only, as in all the remaining genera of the family. Apathus 
Ashtonii (Plate 3, Fig. 1) is found in the Northern States. 


* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3.— Parasites of the Humble and Leaf-cutter Bees. 
Fig. 1, Apathus Ashtoniit. Fig. 2, Nephopteryx Edmandsii; a, larva; b, pupa. Fig. 
3, 3a, Microgaster nephoptericis, an Ichneumon parasite of Nephopteryx. Fig. 4, 
Antherophagus ochraceus. Fig. 5, Anthomyia? larva; a, side view. Fig. 6, Re- 
cently hatched larva of Stylops Childrenti; a, side view. Fig. 7, larva; a, pupa of 
Anthophorabia megachilis, a Chalcid parasite on Megachile. Fig. 8, Pteratomus 
Putnamii, an exceedingly minute Proctotrupid fly, supposed to be parasitic on An- 
thorphorabia megachilis; a, a hind wing. Fig. 9,a Mite found in the nests of 
Humble-bees. 


152 HYMENOPTERA. 


Xylocopa, the Carpenter-bee, is ‘* the largest and most bulky 
of all known bees,” but less hirsute than Bombus, while the 
basal joint of the labial palpi is almost four times as long as 
the second; and the maxillary palpi are six-jointed, the mouth- 
parts being very highly organized. ‘The larva of X. Virginica 
(Plate 4, Fig. 3, adult; Fig. 4, larva; Fig. 5, nest) is slenderer 
than that of Bombus, the body tapering more rapidly towards 
each end. 

The power of boring the most symmetrical tunnels in solid 
wood reaches its perfection in the large Virginian Carpenter- 
bee (Xylocopa Virginica). We have received from Mr. James 
Angus, of West Farms, N. Y., a piece of trellis for a grape- 
vine, made of pine wood, containing the cells and young in 
various stages of growth, together with the larve and chrysa- 
lids of Anthrax sinuosa (Plate 4, Fig. 6, larva; Fig. 7, pupa), 
a species of fly parasitic on the larva of the bee, and which 
buries its head in its soft body and feeds on its juices. 

Mr. Angus thus writes us regarding its habits, under date of 
Jaly 19; ‘*T asked an intelligent and observing carpenter yes- 
terday, if he knew how long it took the Xylocopa to bore her 
tunnel. He said he thought she bored about one-quarter of an 
inch a day. I don’t think myself she bores more than one- 
half inch, if she does that. If I mistake not, it takes her 
about two days to make her own length at the first start; but 
this being across the grain of the wood may not be so easily 
done as the remainder, which runs parallel withit. She always 
follows the grain of the wood, with the exception of the en- 
trance, which is about her own iength. ‘The tunnels run from 
one to one and a half feet in length. They generally run in 
opposite directions from the opening, and sometimes other gal- 
leries are run above the first, using the same opening. I 
think they only make new tunnels when old ones are not to be 
found, and that the same tunnels are used for many years. 
Some of the old tunnels are very wide. I have found parts of 
them about an inch in diameter. I think this is caused by 
rasping otf the sides to procure the necessary material for con- 
structing their cells. The partitions are composed of wood- 
raspings, and some sticky fluid, probably saliva, to make it 
adhere. 


APIARIZA. 133 


‘“‘The tunnels are sometimes taken possession of by other 
bees and wasps. I think when this is the case, the Xylocopa 
prefers making a new cell to cleaning out the mud and rubbish 
of the other species. I frequently find these. bees remaining 
for a long time on the wing close to the opening, and bobbing 
their heads against the side, as if fanning air into the opening. 
I have seen them thus employed for twenty minutes. Whether 
one bee, or more, makes the tunnel, that is, whether they take 
turns in boring, I cannot say at present. In opening the cells, 
more than one are generally found, even at this season. About 
two weeks ago, I found as many as seven, I think, in one.” * 

The hole is divided by partitions into cells about seven-tenths 
of an inch long. These partitions are constructed of the 
dust or chippings made by the bee in eating out her cells, for 
our active little carpenter is provided with strong cutting jaws, 
moved by powerful muscles, and on her legs are stiff brushes 
of hair for cleaning out the tunnel as she descends into the 
heart of the solid wood. She must throw out the chips she 
bites off from the sides of the burrow with her hind legs, pass- 
ing the load of chips backwards out of the cell with her fore- 
limbs, which she uses as hands. 

The partitions are built most elaborately of a single flattened 
band of chips, which is rolled up into a coil four layers deep. 
One side, forming the bottom of the cell, is concave, being 

* “Since writing the above I have opened one of the new holes of Xylocopa 
which was commenced between three and four weeks ago, in a pine slat used in 
the staging of the greenhouse. The dimensions were as follows: Opening fully 
3-8 wide; depth 7-16; whole length of tunnel 6 and 5-16 inches. The tunnel branched 
both ways from the hole. One end, from opening, was 2 and 5-8, containing three 
cells, two with larva and pollen, the third empty. The other side of the opening, or 
the rest of the tunnel, was empty, with the exception of the old bee (only one) at 
work. I think this was the work of one bee, and, as near as I can judge, about 
twenty-five days’ work. Width of tunnel inside at widest 9-16 inch. 

For some days this bee has been discharging a great quantity of saw-dust and 
pollen, which I had collected by placing a vessel under it. It would seem that she 
had cells constructed also in the opposite side of the hole, and that she removed 
them to enlarge the tunnel. Among the stuff thrown out, I find a partition of a cell 
nearly entire. 

I have just found a Xylocopa bobbing at one of the holes, and in order to ascer- 
tain the depth of the tunnel, and to see whether there were any others in them, I 
sounded with a pliable rod, and found others in one side, at a depth of five and one 
half inches; the other side was four inches deep, without bees. The morning was 
cool, so that the object in bobbing could not be to introduce fresh currents of air, 


but must have had some relation to those inside. The legs on such occasions are, 
as I have noticed, loaded with pollen.” — American Naturalist, vol.1, p. 370. 


134 HYMENOPTERA. 


beaten down and smoothed off by the bee. The other side of 
the partition, forming the top of the cell, is flat and rough. 

At the time of opening the burrow, July 8th, the cells con- 
tained nearly full-grown larvee, with some half developed. 
They were feeding on the masses of pollen, which were as.large 
as a thick kidney-bean, and occupied nearly half the cell. Sa- 
pyga repanda is parasitic in the cells of Xylocopa vioiacea of 
Southern Europe. 

The habits and structure of the little Ceratina ally it closely 
with Xylocopa, as it hollows out the stems of plants, and builds 
in them its cylindrical cells. This bee is oblong in form, with 
tridentate mandibles, and a short labrum. The maxillary palpi 
are six-jointed, and the labial palpi are two-jeinted. Ceratina 
dupla Say is acommon small bright-green smooth-bedied species, 
which, in the middle of May, according to Dr. Harris’ MS. notes, 

. tunnels out the stems of the elder or blackberry, syringa, or any 
other pithy shrub, excavating them often to a depth of six or 
seven inches, and even, according to Mr. Haldeman (Harris 
MS.), bores in acorns. She makes the walls just wide enough 
to admit her body, and of a depth capable of holding three or 
four, often five or six cells (Plate 4, Fig. 11). The finely built 
cells, with their delicate silken walls, are cylindrical and nearly 
square at each end, though the free end of the last cell is 

‘rounded off. They are four and a half tenths of an inch long, 

and a little over one-third as broad. The bee places them at 
nearly equal distances apart, the slight interval between them 
being filled in with dirt. 

Dr. T. W. Harris* states that, ‘‘ May 15, 1832. one female 
laid its eggs in the hollow of an aster-stalk. Three perfect in- 
sects were disclosed from it July 28th.” The observations of Mr. 
Angus, who saw some bees making their cells, May 18th, aiso 
confirms this account. The history of our little upholsterer is 
thus cleared up. Late in the spring she builds her eells, fills 
them with pollen, and lays one or more eggs upon each one. 
Thus in about two months the insect completes its transforma- 
tions; within this period passing through the egg, the larval 
and chrysalid states, and then, as a bee, living through the win- 
ter. Its life thus spans one year. 


* According to a note in MSS. deposited in the Library of the Boston Society of 
Natural History. 


APIARI®. 135 


The larva (Plate 4, Fig. 10) is longer than that of Mega- 
chile, and compared with that of Xylocopa, the different seg- 
ments are much more convex, giving a serrate outline to the 
back of the worm. The pupa, or chrysalis, we have found in 
the cells the last of July. It is white, and three-tenths of an 
inch long. It differs from that of the Leaf-cutter bee in having 
four spines on the end of the body, and in having a much 
longer tongue and maxille, both being almost twice as long. 

In none of the wild bees are the cells constructed with more 
nicety than those of our little Ceratina. She bores out with 
her jaws a long deep well just the size of her body, and then 
stretches a thin delicate cloth of silk, drawn tight as a drum- 
head, across each end of her chambers, which she then fills with 
a mixture of pollen and honey. 

Her young are not, in this supposed retreat, entirely free 
from danger. The most invidious foes enter and attack 
them. Three species of Ichneumon-flies, two of which belong 
to the Chalcid family, lay their eggs within the body of the 
larva, and emerge from the dried larva and pupa skins of the 
bee, often in great numbers. The smallest parasite, belonging 
to the genus Anthophorabia (so called from being first known 
as a parasite on another bee, Anthophora), is a minute species 
found also abundantly in the tight cells of the Leaf-cutter bee. 

The species of Anthidiwm, according to Smith, are gaily 
marked with yellow bands and spots ; the ligula is almost twice 
as long as the labial palpi, and acutely pointed ; the paraglossze 
are short, the maxillary palpi are two-jointed, and there are two 
subcostal cells. The males are longer than the females, with an 
elongated and stoutly toothed abdominal tip. The female lines 
her nest, situated in any hole convenient for its purpose, with 
down from woolly-stemmed plants. They pass the winter in 
the larva state, and the bees do not appear until mid-summer. 
The species mostly occur in the old world. 

In Anthophora, which approaches nearer to Bombus in its 
plump and hairy body than the two preceding genera, the lig- 
ula is twice as long as the labial maxilla, ending in a bristle- 
like point; the basal joint of the hind tarsus is thickly hirsute, 
while the middle tarsus of the males is generally elongated. 
The species are gregarious, their numerous cells, while indepen- 


136 HYMENOPTERA. 


dent, are crowded together in grassy banks. Species of 
Melecta are parasitic on them, ovipositing in their cells. The 
larvee are infected by the Chalcid, flies, Anthophorabia and 
Monodontomerus, and by a peculiar species of Mite, Hete- 
ropus ventricosus, described by Newport. Say has described 
Anthophora abrupta and A. tawrea from Indiana. 

In Eucera the antenne are very long, while the body is still 
plump and hairy: our more common form in the Middle States 
is Eucera maculata St. Fargeau. The species are likewise 
eregarious, and, according to Smith, their habits are precisely 
the same as those of Anthophora. 

In Megachile, the Leaf-cutter Bee, the head is broad, the 
body stout, oblong, the ligula is about one-half longer than 
the labial palpi, being quite stout, while the paraglossze are 
short and pointed; the maxille are long and sabre-shaped, 
while their palpi are short and two-jointed. There are two 
subcostal cells in the fore wing. It is a thick-bodied bee, with 
a large square head, stout scissor-like jaws, and with a thick 
mass of dense hairs on the under side of the tail for the pur- 
pose of carrying pollen,’since it is not provided with a pollen 
basket as in the Honey and Humble-bees. The larva is broader 
and flatter than that of Bombus, the raised pleural region is a 
little more prominent, and the raised, thickened tergal portion 
of each ring is more prominent than in Bombus. 

The Megachile lays its eggs in burrows in the stems of the | 
elder (Plate 4, Fig. 2), which we have received from Mr. 
James Angus; we have also found them in the hollows of the’ 
locust tree. Mr. F. W. Putnam thus speaks of the economy 
of M. centuncularis, our most common species. ‘‘ My attention 
was first called, on the 26th of June, to a female busily en- 
gaged in bringing pieces of leaf to her cells, which she was build- 
ing under a board, on the roof of the piazza, directly under 
my window. Nearly the whole morning was occupied by the 
bee in bringing pieces of leaf from a rose-bush growing about 
ten yards from her cells, returning at intervals of a half minute 
to a minute with the pieces which she carried in such a manner 
as not to impede her walking when she alighted near her hole. 
[We give a figure of the Leaf-cutter bee in the act of cutting 
out a circular piece of a rose-leaf (Plate 4, Fig. 8). She 


APIARIZA. 13376 


alights upon the leaf, and in a few seconds swiftly runs her 
scissors-like jaws around through the leaf, bearing off the 
piece in her hind legs.} About noon she had probably com- 
pleted the cell, upon which she had been engaged, as, during 
the afternoon, she was occupied in bringing pollen, preparatory 
to laying her single egg in the cell. For about twenty days 
the bee continued at work, building new cells and supplying 
them with pollen. . . . On the 28th of July, upon removing 
the board, it was found that the bee had made thirty cells, 
arranged in nine rows of unequal length, some being slightly 
curved to adapt them to the space under the board. The 
longest row contained six cells, and was two and three-quarters 
inches in length; the whole leaf-structure being equal to a 
length of fifteen inches. Upon making an estimate of the 
pieces of leaf in this structure, it was ascertained that there 
must have been at least a thousand pieces used. In addition 
to the labor of making the cells, this bee, unassisted in all her 
duties, had to collect the requisite amount of pollen (and 
honey?) for each cell, and lay her eggs therein, when com- 
pleted. Upon carefully cutting out a portion of one of the 
cells, a full-grown larva was seen engaged in spinning a slight 
silken cocoon about the walls of its prison, which were quite 
hard and smooth on the inside, probably owing to the move- 
ments of the larva, and the consequent pressing of the sticky 
particles to the walls. In a short time the opening made was 
closed over by a very thin silken web. The cells, measured on 
the inside of the hard walls, were .55 of an inch in length, and 
.15 in diameter. The natural attitude of the larva is some- 
what curved in its cell, but if straightened, it just equals the 
inside length of the cell. On the 31st of July, two female 
bees came out, having cut their way through the sides of their 
cells.” In three other cells ‘‘several hundred minute Ichneu- 
mons [ Anthophorabia megachilis ] were seen, which came forth 
as soon as the cells were opened.” (Com. Essex Inst., vol. iv, 
p- 105, 1864.) 

Megachile integer Say MS., according to Dr. Harris (MS. 
notes), forms its nest of leaves the first of August. This spe- 
cies is twice as large, but closely resembles Megachile brevis of 
Say. The front of the head is covered with dense ochreous 


138 HYMENOPTERA. 


hairs, becoming shorter and black on the vertex. The nest, 
preserved in the Harris collection, now in the Museum of the 
Boston Society of Natural History, is made of rose-leaves, and 
is scarcely distinguishable from that of M. centuncularis. _ 

Osmia, the Mason Bee, is another genus of Carpenter or 
Upholsterer bees. The species are generally bluish, with 
greenish reflections, with smooth shiny bodies, and the species 
are of smaller size than in Megachile. The tongue in this 
genus is three times as long as the labium, tapering from the 
base to the acute apex, and clothed with short hair. 

Mr. F. Smith states that the larva of the English species 
hatch in eight days after the eggs are laid, feeds ten to twelve 
days, when it becomes full-grown, then spins a thin silken 
covering, and remains in an inactive state until the following 
spring, when it completes its transformations. 

The habits of the little Mason-bees are quite varied. They 
construct their cells in the stems of plants and in rotten posts 
and trees, or, like Andrena, they burrow in sunny banks. An 
European species selects snail-shells for its nest, wherein it 
builds its earthen cells, while other species nidificate under 
stones. Curtis found two hundred and thirty cocoons of a 
British species (Osmia paretina), placed on the under side of 
a flat stone, of which one-third were empty. Of the remainder, 
the most appeared between March and June, males appearing 
first ; thirty-five more bees were developed the following spring. 
Thus there were three successive broods for three succeeding 
years, so that these bees lived three years before arriving at 
maturity. 

Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, in the Transactions of the Entomo- 
logical Society of London, for 1864 (3d series, vol. 2, p. 121), 
states that the cells of Osmia leucomelana ** are formed of mud, 
and each cell is built separately. The female bee, haying de- 
posited a small pellet of mud in a sheltered spot between some 
tufts of grass, immediately commences to excavate a small 
cavity in its upper surface, scraping the mud away from the 
centre towards the margin by means of her jaws. A small 
shallow mud-cup is thus produced. It is rough and uneyen on 
the outer surface, but beautifully smooth on the inner. On 
witnessing thus much of the work performed, I was struck with 


APIARI A. 139 


three points. First, the rapidity with which the insect worked ; 
secondly, the tenacity with which she kept her original position 
whilst excavating; and thirdly, her constantly going over 
work which had apparently been completed. . . . The lid is 
excavated and rendered concave on its outer or upper surface, 
and is convex and rough on its inner surface ; and, in fact, is a 
simple repetition of the first-formed portion of the cell, a part 
of a hollow sphere.” 

The largest species of Osmia known to us is a very dark-blue 
species which seems to be undescribed. We will call it the 
wood-boring Osmia (Osmia lignivora). It is larger than 
the Osmia lignaria of Say, being just half an inch long. The 
head is much shorter, and less square than in Say’s spe- 
cies. The front of the head below the antennz is clothed with 
dark hairs, but above and on the thorax with yellowish ochreous 
hairs. The body is deep blackish blue, with greenish reflec- 
tions. We are indebted to a lady for specimens of the bees 
with their cells, which had been excavated in the interior of a 
maple tree several inches from the bark. The bee had industri- 
ously tunnelled out this elaborate burrow (Plate 4, Fig. 12), 
and, in this respect, resembles the habits of the Carpenter-bee 
(Xylocopa) more closely than any other species of its genus. 

The tunnel was over three inches long, and about three- 
tenths of an inch wide. It contracted a little in width between 
the cell, showing that the bee worked intelligently, and wasted 
no more of her energies than was absolutely necessary. The 
burrow contained five cells, each half an inch long, being 
rather short and broad, with the hinder end rounded, while the 
opposite end, next to the one adjoining, is cut off squarely. 
The cell is somewhat jug-shaped, owing to a slight constriction 
just behind the mouth. The material of which the cell is com- 
posed is stout, silken, parchment-like, and very smooth within. 
The interstices between the cells are filled with rather coarse 
chippings made by the bee. 

The bee cut its way out of the cells in March, and lived for 
a month afterwards on a diet of honey and water. It eagerly 
lapped up the drops of water supplied by its keeper, to whom 
it soon grew accustomed, and seemed to recognize. 

The female of Osmia lignaria Say MS., according to Dr. 


140 HYMENOPTERA. 


Harris’ MS. notes, was found in the perfect state in cocoons 
within earthen cells under stones, April 15th. The cell she con- 
structs is half an inch long, oval, cylindrical, and contracted 
slightly into a sort of neck just before the opening for the exit 
of the bee. From Mr. James Angus I have received the pellets 
of pollen, about the size of a pea, in which it deposits its eggs ; 
the larvee were about one-third grown in August. 

This species is larger than Osmia simillima of Smith, while 
the male antennze are much paler, being fuscous. The front 
of the head is covered with long dense yellow ochreous hairs. 
The vertex is not of so dark a green as in O. simillima, and 
is covered with coarse punctures. The thorax is heavily clothed 
with yellow ochreous, thick hairs. The abdomen is yellowish, 
and much more hairy. The legs are stout, fuscous, with yel- 
lowish hairs. Length, thirty-five inches. 

Our smallest and most abundant species is the little green 
Osmia simillima of Smith. It builds its little oval, somewhat 
urn-shaped cells, against the roof of the large deserted galls of 
the oak-gall fly (Diplolepis confluentus), placing them, in this 
instance, eleven in number, in two irregular rows, from which 
the mature bees issue through a hole in the gall (Plate 4,* Fig. 
14. From specimens communicated by Mr. F. G. Sanborn). 
The earthen cells, containing the tough dense cocoons, were 
arranged irregularly so as to fit the concave vault of the larger 
gall, which was about two inches in diameter. On emerging 
from the cell the Osmia cuts out with its powerful jaws an 
ovate lid, nearly as large as one side of the cell. Both sexes 
may be found in April and May in the flowers of the willow 


* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4.—Fig. 1, a cell of the Humble-bee; natural size, 
with the pollen mass upon the top. Fig. 2, end view of the same mass, showing 
the three eggs laid in three divisions of the cavity. Fig. 3, Xylocopa Virginica, the 
Carpenter Bee. Fig. 4, the larva of Xylocopa Virginica; natural size. Fig. 5, 
the nest containing the cells of the same, with the partitions and pollen masses, 
on which the young larva is seen in the act of feeding; natural size. Fig. 6, 
young larva of Anthrax sinuosa; side view. Fig. 7, pupa of Anthrax sinuosa, 
side view; natural size. Fig. 8, the Leaf-cutter Bee (JJegachile), on a rose leat, 
in the act of cutting out a circular piece. Fig. 9, cells of Megachile, in the elder; 
natural size. Fig. 10, larva of Ceratina dupla, the little green Upholsterer Bee; 
enlarged. Fig. 11, cells of the same in the stem of the elder; natural size. Fig. 
12, cells of Osmia lignivora, new species, the wood-devouring Mason-bee, exca- 
vated in the maple; natural size. Fig. 13, cells of Osmia simillima, the common 
green Mason-bee, built in the deserted gall of the Oak-gall Fly. Fig. 14, a single 
earthen cell of the same; natural size. Fig. 15, pollen mass, or bee-bread of 
Osmia lignaria; natural size. It is made up of distinct pellets of pollen, which 
are probably stuck together with saliva. 


MORSE DEL. 


A pe dial x, daieanca emnct daniast RD SIN: NIN Cea shy abme ine omer 


APIARIA. 141 


and fruit trees which blossom later. The antenne are black, 
and the green body is covered with fine white hairs, becoming 
yellowish above. 

In the Harris collection are the cells and specimens of Osmia 
pacifica Say, the peaceful Osmia, which, according to the man- 
uscript notes of Dr. Harris, is found in the perfect state in 
earthen cells (Plate 5, Fig. 2) beneath stones. The cell is oval 
cylindrical, a little contracted as usual with those of all the spe- 
cies of the genus, thus forming an urn-shaped cell. It is half 
an inch long, and nearly three-tenths of an inch wide, while the 
cocoon, which is rather thin, is three-tenths of an inch long. 

The following genera, called Cuckoo Bees, are parasitic on 
other bees, laying their eggs in the cells, or nests, of their host. 
In Celioxys the body is stout, and the bee closely mimics its 
host, Megachile. The ligula is very long, being almost three 
times the length of the labium, and the paraglossz are wholly 
wanting ; the maxillary palpi are short, three-jointed, and the 
abdominal tip of the male is variously toothed. Celioxys octo- 
dentata Say, is abundant late in the summer about flowers. An 
allied genus, Melecta, is parasitic on Anthophora, and Epeolus is 
parasitic on Colletes. 

The species of Nomada are very numerous; in all, the tongue 
is long and acute, with paraglossze about one-fourth as long 
as the tongue; the maxillary pair of palpi are six-jointed ; 
and there are three subcostal cells. The species in their slen- 
der, smooth, gaily colored body resemble the wasps. These 
Cuckoo-bees lay their eggs in the nests of Andrena and Ha- 
lictus, and, according to English authors, Panurgus and Eucera, 
where they may be found in all stages of development corre- 
sponding to those of their hosts. The females do not sting 
severely. The species emit sweet, balmy, or balsamical odors. 
Shuckard states that these bees should be killed with burning 
sulphur to preserve their bright colors. 

_The larvee differ greatly from those of their hosts, Andrena, 
the head being much smaller, the body being smoother and 
rounder, and belonging to a more degraded, lower type. The 
whole body is more attenuated towards both extremities. 
The pupa differs from those of any other genus of this family 
known to us, except Andrena, by having three conspicuous 


142 HYMENOPTERA. 


spines on the upper and posterior edge of the orbit, which are 
also found in the pupa of Stigmus, a Crabronid genus, and which 
evidently aid in locomotion. Thus the same law of degrada- 
tion obtains in these highly organized bee-parasites as in the 
lower parasitic species, though in a much less marked degree. 

From specimens found in the nests of Andrena and Halictus, 
collected at Salem by Mr. J. H. Emerton, and now in the. Mu- 
seum of the Essex Institute, we have been enabled in great 
part to clear up the history of this bee. We have found in the 
nests of Andrena vicina both sexes of Nomada imbricata Smith, 
and several females of Nomada pulchella of Smith; and in the 
cells of Halictus parallelus Say, specimens of Nomada imbri- 
cata. Both full-grown larve and pupe of different ages, up 
to the adult Nomada, ready to take leave of its host, were 
found in the cells of the Andrena vicina. It seems, there- 
fore, that the newly hatched young of Nomada must feed 
on the pollen mass destined for the Andrena. But there 
seems to be enough for both genera to feed upon, as the young 
of both host and parasite were found living harmoniously to- 
gether, and the hosts and their parasites are disclosed both at 
the same time. Does not this mild sort of parasitism in No- 
mada throw much light on the probable habits of Apathus, the 
Humble-bee parasite? It is more than probable that the Apa- 
thus larvee simply eat the food of the Bombus larvee, and do 
not attack the larvee of their hosts. Both Nomada and Apathus 
in their adult stages live harmoniously with their hosts,-:and 
are seen gathering food from the same flowers, and flying about 
the same nest. 

In the second subfamily, Andrenete, the ligula, or tongue, is 
for the most part short and broad, and the maxillary palpi 
have four joints of equal size. 

In Sphecodes the body is smooth and wasp-like, and in its 
habit of running and flying in dry sandy places, it resembles 
Sphex, whence its generic name. The abdomen is generally 
light red, farther aiding in the resemblance to the Sphegide. 
The ligula is short, lancet-shaped, fringed with setz ; the para- 
gloss» are not so long as the tongue, while the labial palpi are 
shorter than the paraglossze, and the maxille are broad, lan- 
ceolate, with six-jointed palpi. The antenne of the males are 


APIARILE. 143 


short and sometimes moniliform. Sphecodes dichroa Harris is 
our most common species. Mr. F. Smith, from direct observa- 
tion, states that this genus builds cells, though earlier authors 
have stated that if is parasitic on Halictus and Andrena. 

Prosopis is generally yellow on the face, and is ‘less pubes- 
cent than any of the bees.” The tongue is broad, subemar- 
ginate, the paraglossz reach a little beyond the tongue; the 
labial palpi are as long as the tongue, while there are two sub- 
costal cells in the fore wings. Smith states that the genus is 
not parasitical as formerly supposed, as he has ‘‘repeatedly 
bred them” from cells laid in a regular order in the hollow of 
bramble stems. Mr.S. Saunders has also raised them in Alba- 
nia where ‘‘they construct their cells in bramble sticks (which 
they bore in the same manner as Colletes) with a thin transpa- 
rent membrane, calculated for holding semi-liquid honey, which 
they store up for their young. ‘The species are much attacked 
by Stylops.” Like Sphecodes and Ceratina, this genus, accord- 
ing to Smith, is unprovided with pollenigerous organs. We 
have several species in this country of which P. afinis Smith, 
and. P. elliptica Kirby, are found northward. The habits of 
our species are not known. 

Augochlora comprises beautiful shining metallic green spe- 
cies, very commonly met with. The thorax is globose, and 
the anterior wings have one marginal and three submarginal 
cells; the first submarginal cell as long as the second and third 
united. Augochlora purus Smith is a small, green, rather 
common species. Mr.J.H. Emerton has found its nests in Sa- 
lem, near those of Andrena. The mouth of the hole opened 
under a stone, and was built up so as to form a tube of sand 
(Plate 5, Fig. 1). The burrow on the 28th of June was four 
inches deep. 

Andrena is a genus of great extent, and the species are often 
difficult to distinguish. The lanceolate tongue is moderately 
long, and the paraglossz are half as long as the tongue itself, 
while the six-jointed maxillary palpi are longer than the maxillee 
themselves. The wings have three subcostal cells, with the 
rudiments of a fourth one; the second is squarish, and the 
third receives a recurrent nervure near the middle. The pos- 

terior legs ‘‘have a long curled lock upon the trochanter be- 


144 HYMENOPTERA. 


neath, and the anterior upper surface of the femora is clothed 
with long loose hair, which equally surrounds the whole of the 
tibiae.” (Shuckard.) The abdomen is banded more or less 
conspicuously with reddish. 

The larva (Fig. 79) is stout and thick, with a head of moder- 
ate size, and the mouth-parts are a little shorter than usual, the 
maxille and labium especially. The seoments of 
the body are much more-convex (angularly so) 
than usual, giving a tuberculate outline to the 
body. It is stouter than that of Halictus, the 
wings are less convex than in that genus ; while the 
=—. maxille are much stouter and blunter. The pupa 
is distinguished from the other genera by much the 
same characters as the imago, except that there 
are two tubercles on the vertex near the ocelli. 
From a comparison of all its stages, this genus stands inter- 
mediate between those placed above, and Halictus, which, in 
all its characters, is a more degraded form. The males often 
differ widely from the other sex, in their broad heads and widely 
spreading bidentate mandibles. 

Mr. Emerton has observed the habits of our most common 
species, Andrena vicina Smith; which builds its nest in grassy 
fields. The burrow is sunken perpendicularly, with short pas- 
sages leading to the cells, which are slightly inclined downwards 
and outwards from the main gallery. The walls of the gallery 
are rough, but the cells are lined with a mucus-like secretion, 
which, on hardening, looks like the glazing of earthen-ware. In 
Fig. 80 Mr. Emerton gives us a profile view of natural size of 
the nest showing the main burrow and the cells leading from it ; 
the oldest cell, containing the pupa (qa) is situated nearest the 
surface, while those containing larvze (b) lie between the pupa 
and the cell (e) containing the pollen mass and egg resting 
upon it. The most recent cell (f) is the deepest down, and 
contains a freshly deposited pollen mass. At ¢ is the begin- 
ning of a cell; g is the level of the ground. The bees were 
seen at work on the 4th of May, at Salem, Mass., digging their 
holes, one of which was already six inches deep; and by the 
15th, hundreds of holes were observed. On the 28th of May, 
in unearthing six holes, eight cells were found to contain pol- 


APIARI®. 145 


len, and two of them a small larva. On the 29th of June six 
full-grown larvee were exhumed, and one about half-grown. 
About the first of August the 
larva transforms to a pupa, and 
during the last week of this month { i 
the mature bees appear. N\\ 

In Halictus, which is a genus 
of great extent, the head is trans- 
verse, and flattish; the mouth- 
parts are of moderate length, the 
tongue being very acute, with 
acute paraglossz half the length 
of the tongue, while the labial 
palpi are not quite so long as 
the paraglossze. ‘There are three 
subcostal cells in the wings, with 
the rudiments of a fourth often ., 
present, and the second cell is ,* 
squarish. ‘The abdomen is ob- 
long ovate, with a longitudinal 
linear furrow on the tip in the 
female. In the males the body / 
is longer and the antenne more 
filiform and slender than usual in 
this family. 

The larvee are longer, and with 
more acutely convex segments 
than in Andrena. The pup 
differ much as the adult bees from 
Andrena, especially in the shorter 
mouth-parts. Fig. 80. 


yiuts, 


ty 


SS 
NG 

SS ~ 

WISN 


“y Wy 


Lyjj. ZB ey 
A “Cy, 


Lg iy 


My 


My 


Halictus parallelus Say excavates cells almost exactly like 
those of Andrena; but since the bee is smaller, the holes are 
smaller, though as deep. Mr. Emerton found one nest, in a 
path, a foot it depth. Another nest, discovered September 9th, 
was about six inches deep. ‘The cells are in form like those of 
Andrena, and like them are glazed within. The egg is rather 
slender and much curved; in form it is long, cylindrical, ob- 
tuse at one end, and much smaller at the other. The larva 

10 


146 HYMENOPTERA. 


(Fig. 81) is longer and slenderer, being quite different from the 
rather broad and flattened larva of Andrena. The body is 
ai rather thick behind, but in front tapers slowly 
LA towards the head, which is of moderate size. Its 

= body is somewhat tuberculated, the tubercles aid- 
“— 5 ing the grub in moving about its cell. Its length 
is .40 of an inch. On the pupa are four quite dis- 
tinct conical tubercles forming a transverse line 

HIge STs just in front of the ocelli; and there are also 
two larger, longer tubercles, on the outer side of each of 
which an ocellus is situated. Figure 82 represents the pupa 
seen from beneath. 

Search was made for the nests on July 16th, when 
the ground was very hard for six inches in depth, 
below which the soil was soft and fine, and over 
twenty cells were dug out. ‘‘The upper cells 
contained nearly mature pupze, and the lower ones 
larvee of various sizes, the smallest being hardly 
distinguishable by the naked eye. Each of these 
small larvee was in a cell by itself, and situated 
upon a lump of pollen, which was of the size and shape of a 
pea, and was found to lessen in size as the larva grew larger. 
These young were probably the offspring of several females, 
as four mature bees were found in the hole.” (Emerton.) 
The larva of an English species hatches in ten days after the 
eges are laid. 

Another brood of bees appeared the middle of September, 
as on the ninth of that month (1864) Mr. Emerton found sey- 
eral holes of the same species of bee made in a hard gravel 
road near the turnpike. When opened, they were found to 
contain several bees with their young. September 2, 1867, the 
same kind of bee was found in holes, and just ready to leave 
the cell. 

Like Bombus, the females are supposed to hybernate, the 
males not appearing until late in the season. Like Andrena, 
these bees suffer from the attacks of Stylops, and according to 
Shuckard, an Ichneumon preys upon them, while certain spe- 
cies of Cerceris, Philanthus, and Crabro carry them off to store 
their nests with. 


VESPARI®. 147 


In Colletes the females, as Shuckard observes, resemble the 
workers of the Honey-bee, while there is considerable disparity 
between the sexes, the males being much smaller, the tongue 
and maxille very short; and the four-jointed labial palpi 
much shorter than the paraglossz. There are three subcostal 
cells, with the rudiments of a fourth. These bees form large colo- 
nies, burrowing in the earth eight or ten inches deep, lining their 
cells ‘‘at the farther end with a very thin transparent mem- 
branaceous coating, resembling goldbeaters’ skin.” They thus 
furnish six or eight cartridge-like cells, covering each with a 
cap, ‘‘ like the parchment on a drum-head.” Smith, from whom 
we have been quoting, states that Miltogramma punctata, which 
is a Tachina-like fly, and the Cuckoo-bee, Epeolus variegatus, 
have, in Europe, been reared from their cocoons. 


Vespari& Latreille, Wasps. In this family, which comprises 
about 900 species, the body is more attenuated, more cylindri- 
cal, with a harder and smoother tegument than in the Apiarie. 
In the species with densely populated colonies, such as Vespa 
and Polistes, there are workers which are often very numerous, 
while in Eumenes and Odynerus, éetc., there are only males and 
females. The antenne are elbowed, the mandibles are large, 
stout; the maxille and labium of varying length; the maxil- 
lary palpi are six-jointed ; while on the labial palpi, which are 
four-jointed, there are well-developed paraglosse. The pro- 
thorax is prolonged on each side to the insertion of the wings 
which are long and narrow, and once folded longitudinally 
when at rest; the fore pair have two or three subcostal cells ; 
the hind shanks and tibiz are smooth. The eggs, when first 
laid, are globular, soon becoming oval. 

The larvee of this family are soft, fleshy, with larger heads in 
proportion to the rest of the body, than in the Apiarie; 
the antennal tubercle, or rudimentary antenne, are more dis- 
tinct, and the mandibles are larger. The surface of the body 
is smoother in Vespa and Polistes, but more tuberculated in the 
solitary genera, Odynerus and allies, while the end of the body 
is more acute. 

Asin the Apiaric the higher genera are social, building 
papery nests, while the lower are solitary and build cells of mud 
or sand in protected places. 


148 HYMENOPTERA. 


In Vespa, the Paper Wasp, the ligula is squarish, with the 
paraglosse nearly as long as the tongue, the outer maxillary 
lobes rounded oval, half as long as the palpi, and the labial 
maxille are scarcely longer than the tongue. The abdomen 
is broad at base, acutely conical. The nests are either with or 
without a papery covering, supported by a short pedicel. 

Such females as have hybernated, begin to make their 
cells in the early part of summer. Smith states that the soli- 
tary female wasp ‘‘ begins by making three saucer-shaped re- 
ceptacles, in each of which she deposits an egg; she then 
proceeds to form other similar-shaped receptacles, until the 
eggs first deposited are hatched and the young grubs require a 
share of her attention. From the circular bases she now be- 
gins to raise her hexagonal cells, not building them up at once, 
but from time to time raising them as the young grubs grow. 
(Proc. Ent. Soc., London, 1858, p. 35.) 

Waterhouse states that the cells formed by the solitary fe- 
male early in the season appear ‘‘ to be built entirely of glisten- 
ing, whitish, silk-like threads which I have little doubt are a 
secretion from the insect, all the threads being firmly attached 
together as if they had originally been of a glutinous nature.” 
The cells formed later in the season by the workers, differ 
in consisting of masticated rotten wood. ‘‘ Almost simultane- 
ously with the commencement of the cells, it appears that the 
nest-covering is commenced. At first it has the appearance of ~ 
a miniature umbrella, serving to shelter the rudimentary cells.” 
Plate 5, Fig. 3, shows a group of cells surrounded by one 
layer of paper, and the beginning of another. As the nest 
grows larger the cells are ar- 
ranged in galleries, supported by 
pedicels, and the number of 
layers in the outside covering 
greatly increases in number. 

While our common and largest 
species, Vespa maculata Linn. 
(Fig. 83), and the yellow wasp, 

Fig. 83. 7, arenaria Fabr., build papery 
nests consisting of several galleries, with the mouth of the cells 
directed downwards, the East Indian species, V. orientalis, 


VESPARI®. 149 


builds its cells of clay, and, according to Waterhouse, ‘‘ the 
work is exceedingly beautiful and true.” Another species, 
according to Smith, makes its nest of sandy loam, the exterior 
being so hard that a saw used in opening one of its sides was 
blunted. | 

The larva of Vespa arenaria is long and cylindrical, not 
so much curved as in Polistes. Its position in its cell corre- 
sponds to its form, as the cell is longer and narrower than that 
of Polistes. Each segment of the body is posteriorly some- 
what thickened, as is the lateral (pleural) ridge of the body. 
The tip of the abdomen is rather blunt, the last sternite be- 
ing large and transverse. The pupa is provided with a single 
tubercle on the vertex, where there are two in the Crabron- 
ide and Sphegide. 

By the time the nest of V. arenaria is large enough to 
contain ten full-grown larvee, and has about fourteen cells in 
all, being about an inch in diameter, the occupants of the two 
or three central cells will have changed to pup, and one wasp 
will have been excluded. 

In a nest of the same species two inches in diameter, there 
were a second brood of larve. ‘The outer row of cells were 
occupied by pupze, while the central ones, emptied of the first 
brood, were filled with a second brood of larve. Evidently as 
soon as an imago leaves its cell, the female deposits an egg 
therein, as very minute larvee were found occupying cells next 
to those containing large full-grown larve. 

In comparing a number of pup from a large nest, they 
will be found to be in all stages of perfection, from the 
larva which has ceased feeding, and is preparing to transform, 
to the imago, still veiled by its thin subimago pellicle. It is dif- 
ficult to draw lines between these stages. Also when com- 
pared closely side by side, it is difficult, if not impossible to find 
any two pup just alike, the development proceeding very un- 
equally. ‘Thus the limbs may be more perfect than the antenne, 
or certain parts may be less perfect in some than in others, while 
the limbs may be more highly colored like the imago. 

Like the bees, Vespa suffers from numerous parasites, includ- 
ing Rhipiphorous paradoxus, which is a beetle allied to Stylops, 
and Lebia (Dromius) linearis. The larva of Volucella is said 


150 HYMENOPTERA. 


to feed on the Vespa-larve, and Mr. Stone says that Anthomyia 
incana is also parasitic in Wasps’ nests, while two species 
of Ichneumons, one of which is Anomalon vesparum, also in- 
fest the larvee. No parasites have been as yet detected ‘in this 
country. : 

The Hornet, V. crabro Linn., has, according to Mr. Angus, 
become domesticated about New York. This and the smaller 
wasps are sometimes injurious by eating into ripe fruit, but the 
injury is more than counterblanced by the number of flies and 
other insects they feed their young with. 

Indeed, as Saussure states, the species of Vespa are more 
omnivorous in their tastes than any other wasps. They live by 
rapine and pillage, and have obtained a worse repute than other 
insects more injurious. In spring and early summer they feed on 
the sweets of flowers; but later in the season attack strawber- 
ries, plums, grapes, and other fruits, and often enter houses and 
there help themselves to the dishes on the table. They will eat 
raw meat, and then aid the butcher by devouring the flies that 
lay their eggs on his meats. They will sometimes destroy Honey- 
bees, attacking them on their return from the fields laden with 
pollen ; they throw themselves upon their luckless victims, and 
tear the abdomen from the rest of the body, and suck their 
blood, devouring only the abdomen. ‘They fall upon flies and 
butterflies, and, biting off their wings, feet, and head, devour 
the trunk. In attacking insects they use only their powerful 
jaws, and not the sting, differing in this respect from the 
fossorial wasps. 

Saussure states that though wasps do not generally lay up 
food, yet at certain periods they do fill the cells with honey. 

The females feed their young with food chewed up and re- 
duced toa pulp. Saussure questions whether the larvee of one 
sex are not fed on animal and the other on vegetable food, 
since Huber had shown ‘what a great influence the kind of 
food exerts on the sex of Bees.” But it is now known that the 
sexes of some, and probably all insects are determined before 
the larvee is hatched. I have seen the rudiments of the ovi- 
positor in the half-grown larvee of the Humble-bee, and it is 
most probable that those rudiments began to develop during 
embryonic life. It is far more probable that the sexual differ- 
ences are determined at the time of conception. 


* VESPARIA. 151 


Westwood states that the larve, which live head-downward 
from the reversed position of the comb, retain their position in 
the cell, while young, by a glutinous secretion, and afterwards 
‘¢by the swollen front of the body which fills the open part of 
the cell.” ‘*The female cells are mostly placed apart from 
those of the males and neuters, those of the males being often 
mixed, but in a small number, in the neuter combs. The egg 
state lasts eight days, the larva state thirteen or fourteen, and 
that of the pupa about ten. After the imago has been produced, 
one of the old workers cleans out the cell, and fits it for the 
reception of a fresh inhabitant. The upper tier of cells, being 
first built, serves for the habitation of the workers ; the females, 
being produced at the end of the summer, occupy the lowest 
tiers.” When about to transform the larve spin a thin cover- 
ing, thus closing over the cell. 

In Polistes the paraglossz are slender, and a little longer 
than the long, or as in one instance noticed by us in P. Cana- 
densis, barrel-shaped ligula, which is split at the end; the palpi 
are stouter, while the whole body is much longer than in Vespa ; 
the abdomen is subpedunculate, and the thorax is rather ob- 
long than spherical, as in Vespa. 

The larva differs from that of Vespa in its much larger head, 
and shorter, more ovoid form of the body, which is dilated in 
front so as to retain the insect in its cell, while the tip is 
more acute; the antennal tubercles are closer together; the 
clypeus is more regularly triangular and more distinct, while 
the labrum is much larger and excessively swollen, as are the 
mouth-parts generally. The mandibles are bidentate, where in 
Vespa they are tridentate. The pupa differs from that of Vespa, 
besides the usual generic characters, in having the tubercle on 
the head smaller. 

The nests of Polistes (Plate 5, Fig. 4, nest of P. annularis 
Fabr., from Saussure) are not covered in by a papery wall as in 
Vespa, but may be found attached to bushes, with the mouth 
of the cells pointed downwards. While at Burksville Junction, 
Va., in the last week of April, I had an opportunity of watch- 
ing three species beginning their cells on the same clump of 
bushes. They all worked in the same method, and the cells 
only differed slightly in size. The cells were formed mostly of 


ha HYMENOPTERA. 


crude silk, and the threads could be seen crossing each other, the 
same structure being observed at the top and bottom of each 
cell. 

In the three-celled nest of Polistes (Plate 5, Fig. 5, 5a) 
first noticed April 29th, there were but two eggs deposited, the 
third cell being without an egg, and a little smaller, and 
the rim not so high as in the other two. The outer edge did 
not seem to be perfectly circular, though stated by Water- 
house to be so in the incipient cells, for in some cases we de- 
tected two slight angles, thus making three sides, which, 
however, would be easily overlooked on casual observation ; 
as there are only two sides within, the cell, from being at its 
earliest inception hemispherical, or ‘* saucer-shaped,” becomes 
five, and subsequently six-sided, and thus from being cir- 
cular, it is converted by the wasps into a hexagonal cell. In 
some cells, perhaps a majority, both in this and the other spe- 
cies, the newly made rim of the small cells is thinner than the 
parts below, and slightly bent inwards ; thus being quite the re- 
verse of the thickened rim of the cells of the Hive Bee. It 
would seem that the wasp plasters on more silk, especially on 
the angles, building them out, and making them more promi- 
nent, in order to complete, when other cells are added, their 
hexagonal form. ‘The three cells are of much the same size 
and height when the third egg is laid, as we observed in another 
nest, that of Polistes Canadensis (Linn.), built at the Defences — 
of Washington, near Munson’s Hill, June 9th. 

Again, when one or two more cells have been added te the 
nest, and there are four or five in all (Plate 5, Fig. 6; 6a, top 
view, in which there are four cells), two of them are nearly 
twice as large as the others, while the fifth has been just begun, 
and is eggless. The form of the two which run up much higher 
than the others is the same as that of the smaller and shorter 
ones, 7.e. they are on one side nearly semicircular, and on the 
other, partly hexagonal, and the angular sides show a tendency 
to be even more circular than when the others are built around 
them, for the little architect seems to bring out the angles 
more prominently when carrying up the walls of the other cells. 
Thus she builds, as if by design, one and the same cell both 
by the ‘‘ circular” and ‘‘ hexagonal” methods, afterwards adopt- 


VESPARIZ. 153 


ing only the latter, and if she devotes her attentions specially 
to plastering the corners alone, with the design of making the 
cell six-sided, then we must allow, contrary to Mr. Water- 
house’s views, that the wasp builds the hexagon by choice, and 
not as the mere result of her blindly ‘‘ working in segments of 
circles ;” for if our point be proved, and the most careful obser- 
vation of the wasp while at work is needed to prove it, then it 
may be shown that the wasp is a free agent, and can abandon 
one method of. working at a certain stage of her work, and 
adopt a different mode of operating. 

The eggs are oval, pointed at the end, and glued to the in- 
side of the cell. They are situated midway from the top and 
bottom of the incipient cell, and*placed on the innermost sides, 
so that in a group of several cells the eggs are close together, 
only separated by the thin cellular walls. In a completed cell 
the egg is placed very near the bottom. 

For several days a Polistes Canadensis was engaged in build- 
ing its nest in my tent in camp near Washington. When first 
noticed on June 9th, there were three cells, two of which con- 
tained eggs; and it was not for two days, the 11th, that the 
third cell was completed, and a third ego deposited in it. The 
wasp paid especial attention to strengthening the pedicel, going 
over it repeatedly for an hour or two with its tongue, as if lay- 
ing on more silken matter, and then proved the work by its 
swiftly vibrating antenne. It would often fly out of the tent, 
and on its return anxiously examine each cell, thrusting its head 
deep down into each one. It gradually became accustomed to 
my presence, but eventually abandoned the nest, without adding 
more cells. The others, while at work on the bushes, abscond- 
ed at my approach, and seemed very wary and distrustful, as 
if desirous of concealing their abodes. Mr. Smith has found 
Trigonalys bipustulatus to be a parasite on Polistes lanio Fabr. 
(P. Canadensis Linn.), from St. Salvador, S. A. 

Saussure arranges the higher Vespidee into two parallel series. 
Vespa is offset by Chartergus and Nectarina; lower down we 
find Tatua and Synceca, while Polistes is offset by Polybia. 
These five genera are tropical, and in their habits, the general 
appearance of their nests, and in the number of individuals 
represent Vespa and Polistes of the temperate zone. The 


154 HYMENOPTERA. 


genus Nectarina is a short plump wasp, somewhat like Odyne- 
rus in shape; its distinguishing mark is the concealment of 
the postscutellum by the scutellum. Nectarina mellifica Say, 
of Mexico, builds a large nest externally like that of a wasp, 
but it is more irregular, and the papery covering consists of 
but one layer. The interior of the nest is very different, the 
galleries of cells, instead of being parallel, being arranged in 
concentric spheres. 

Charterqus has the tip of the clypeus slighted, excavated, and 
an oval sessile abdomen. C. chartarius Olivier makes an ex- 
ceedingly thick tough nest, attached by a broad base to the 
bough of a tree, about twice as long as thick, and ending in a 
cone, pierced in the centre ‘by the entrance which passes 
through the middle to the basal gallery ; the other galleries are 
formed by a continuation of the sides of the nest, and arrayed 
in a conical plane. 

In Tatua, the abdomen is pedicelled, but the petiole is not 
enlarged, and the abdomen itself is very regularly conical. 7. 
morio Cuvier, from Cayenne, forms a nest like that of Charter- 
gus; but the galleries form a flat floor, and each gallery has an 
entrance from the outside of the nest, where in the latter there is 
one common entrance. Plate 5, Fig. 9, shows how the bases 
of the cells are laid out on the edge of a gallery. In Synoca 
the peculiarly shaped abdomen is cordate and compressed. The 
curious nest of S. cyanea Fabr. is formed of a single layer of 
cells fixed against the trunk of a tree, and covered in with a 
dense covering made from the bark of dead trees. Some nests 
of Syneca are three feet long. In the very extensive genus 
Polybia, which resembles Polistes in its general shape, the abdo- 
men is pedicelled, and the mandibles are four-toothed. The nests 
are somewhat like those of Chartergus, but much smaller. Sey- 
eral species occur in Mexico, and in Brazil the number of 
species is very great. In Apotca the abdomen is very long, 
and the third segment is as long as the second. Plate 5, Fig. 
11, represents the nest of Apotca pallida Olivier, from Cayenne. 
It is unprotected, with a conical base, and with a single row 
of cells. 

In Icaria we have an approach to Polistes in the slender 
series of cells composing the nest, forming two or three rows 


VESPARIA. 155 


only. Plate 5, Fig. 7, represents the nest of I. guttatipennis 
Saussure, from Senegal ; 8, ground plan of a similar nest. These 
wasps are mostly distinguished from Polybia by the petiole 
ending in a globular mass. Plate 5, Fig. 10, represents 
the elegant nest of Mischocyttarus labiatus Fabr., from Cay- 
enne and Brazil, which consists of a few cells supported by a 
long pedicel. The wasp itself much resembles Polistes, but 
the petiole is very much longer. 

The remaining genera noticed here are solitary, building 
separate cells, and with only males and females. There are 
three subcostal cells in the fore wings, and the maxille and 
labium are much elongated. 

In Eumenes the abdomen has a long pedicel, being sessile in 
Odynerus. While authors place Eumenes higher than Ody- 
nerus, we would consider the latter as a higher, more cepha- 
lized form, since the abdomen is less elongated, and the head 
is larger. 

In Odynerus the ligula is long, deeply forked at the 
slender extremity, while the slender paraglossze are shorter, 
ending in a two-toothed claw-like tip; the maxillz are slender, 
and the palpi have an elongated basal joint; the clypeus is 
nearly circular, toothed on the front edge. The larva differs 
from those of the higher Vesparic, inits more elongated head, 
the square clypeus, the unusually deep fissure of the bilobate la- 
brum, and in the larger tubercles of the body, as the larva is 
more active, turning and twisting in its cell, while feeding on 
its living food; and in this respect it is more closely allied to 
the young Crabronide. In the pupa of O. albophaleratus, 
_the tip is more incurved than in the pupa of Vespa, so that the 
hind legs (tarsi) reach to the tip, and the abdomen.is rounded 
ovate, while in Vespa it is oblong. 

The cells (Plate 4, Figs. 13, 14) of Odynerus albophaleratus 
Sauss. have been detected like those of Osmia in a deserted gall 
of Diplolepis confluens, where several were found in a row, 
arranged around one side of the gall, side by side, with the holes 
pointing towards the centre of the gall. The cells are half an 
inch long, and one-half as wide, being formed of small pellets 
of mud, giving a corrugated, granulated appearance to the 
outside, while the inside is lined with silk. 


156 HYMENOPTERA. 


We have received from Mr. Angus deserted cells of Cera- 
tina in a syringa stem, in which we detected a pupa of an 
Odynerus, perhaps O. leucomelas ; the cell was a little shorter 
than that of the Ceratina it had occupied. ‘The cocoon of 
the Odynerus was of silk, and almost undistinguishable from 
the old cocoon of Ceratina. The wasp had dispensed with the 
necessity of making a mud cell. If future research shows that 
either this or any other species makes a mud cell or not at 
will, it shows the intelligence of these little ‘free-agents ;” 
and that a blind adherence to fixed mechanical laws does not 
obtain in these insects. 

The larve of Odynerus and Eumenes are carnivorous. I 
found several cells of O. albophaleratus, June 22d, in the 
deserted nest of a Clisiocampa, which were stored with micro- 
lepidopterous larvz and pupee, still alive, having been para- 
lyzed by the sting of the wasp. The larve of the wasp was 
short and thick, being, when contracted, not more than twice 
as long as broad; the rings of the body are moderately convex, 
and the pleural region is faintly marked. Prof. A. E. Verrill 
has discovered the cells of an Odynerus at New Haven, forming 
a sandy mass (Plate 5, Fig. 12) attached to the stem of a 
plant. 

In Eumenes the lingua is very long, being narrower and 
more deeply divided than in Odynerus; the second subcostal 
space of the wings is long and narrow, while in Odynerus it is 
triangular. The genus is easily recognized by the very long 
pedicel of the abdomen. Humenes fraterna Say constructs a 
thin cell (Plate 5,* Fig. 15) of pellets of mud, and as large 


* EXPLANATION OF PLATE 5. Fig. 1. Mouth of the tunnel ef Augochlora purus ; 
from Emerton: Fig. 2. Cells of Osmia pacifica; communicated by Mr. Sanborn. 
Fig. 3. Vertical section of nest of Vespa with a group of primitive cells surrounded 
by one layer of paper, and part of another; from Saussure. Fig. 4. Nest of Po- 
listes annularis ; from Saussure. Fig. 5. Three primitive cells of Polistes; 5a, top 
view of the same, one being eggless. The sides adjoining are angular. Figs. 6 and 
6a, a cell farther advanced, consisting of four cells, each containing an egg, and 
with the edges of the cells built up higher and more decidedly six-sided; original. 
Fig. 7. Cells of Icarta guttatipennis, showing that each cell is built up independently 
in regular hexagons. Fig. 8. Ground plan of a similar nest. Fig. 9. Ground plan 
of cells of Tatuwa morio; from Smith. Fig. 10. Nest of Mischocyttarus labiatus ; 
from Saussure. Fig. 11. Nest of Apoica pallida; from Saussure. Fig. 12. Nest of 
Odynerus: original. Fig. 18. Nest of Odynerus albophaleratus: original. Fig. 14. 
Mud cell of Pelopeus flavipes; original. Fig. 15. A row of spherical cells of Zu- 
menes fraterna, with the female; original, from Harris. 


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CRABRONIDZ. U7 


as acherry. It is attached by a short stout pedicel to bushes, 
and the cavity is filled with the larve of small moths. 

Raphiglossa odyneroides, from Epirus, described by S. S. 
Saunders, makes elongated cells in galleries in briars, storing 
them with the larve of what he supposed to be weevils. The 
dark brown dense tough cocoon of a Chrysis was also found in 
the cells. 

In Masaris, which connects the Vesparice with the succeed- 
ing family, the wings are not completely folded when at rest ; 
there are but two subcostal cells; the maxilla are rudimen- 
tary ; and the antennee are clavate and eight-jointed. Masavis 
vespoides Cresson, inhabits Colorado Territory. 


CraBronip#& Latreille. Sand-wasps, Wood-wasps. In the 
more typical genera the head is remarkably large, cuboidal, 
while the clypeus is very short, and covered for the most part 
with a dense silvery or golden pile. The antennz are genicu- 
late, the long second joint being received, when at rest, in a 
deep frontal vertical groove; the mandibles are large, and of 
even width throughout, and the mouth-parts are rather short, 
especially the lingua, which is often, however, well developed. 
There is only one subcostal cell, except in the Philanthine. 
The thorax is sub-spherical, and the abdomen is either short 
and stout, or more or less pedicellate. The forefeet are 
adapted for digging and tunnelling, the forelegs in the females 
being broad and flat, and in the males, which are supposed to 
do no work, they are sometimes, as in C.Thyreopus, armed with 
vexhillate expansions. 

The larva is rather short and thick, a little flattened on the 
under side, but much rounded above; the segments are convex 
above, the thoracic segments differing from the abdominal seg- 
ments in not being thickened posteriorly on each ring. They 
spin either a very slight cocoon, or a thin dense brown oval 
cylindrical case, generally reddish brown in color. The pupz 
have much the same character as the imago, with prominent 
acute tubercles above the ocelli. 

The members of this family afford, so far as we are ac- 
quainted with their habits, most interesting examples of the 
interdependence of structure and the habits of insects. Most 


158 HYMENOPTERA. 


of the species are wood-wasps, making their cells in cy- 
lindrical holes in rotten wood, or enlarging nail-holes in 
posts, as is the case with Crabro singularis, according to the 
observations of Mr. C. A. Shurtleff, thus adapting them to the 
requirements.of their young. Other genera (Rhopalum pedicel- 
latum, Stigmus fraternus, and Crabro stirpicola) avail them- 
selves of those plants whose stem has a pith which they can 
readily excavate and refit for their habitations. The females 
provision their nests with caterpillars, aphide, spiders, and 
other insects. 

This family is most difficult to classify ; it consists rather of 
groups of genera, some higher and some lower, though as a 
general rule those genera with pedunculate abdomens are the 
lowest in the series. In illustration, we regard Stigmus, with 
its elongated decephalized body, as inferior to Blepharipus, 
which again is subordinate to the more cephalized Crabro, 
where the body is shorter, the abdomen sessile, the anterior 
part of the body more developed headwards, while its nests 
are constructed more elaborately. The genus Psen, for the 
same reason, is lower than Cerceris, of which it seems a de- 
graded form. 

Some of the most useful characters in separating the genera 
of this family are to be found in the form of the clypeus, its 
sculpturing and relative amount of pubescence or hirsuties ; in 
the form and sculpturing of the propodeum (Newman), or tho- 
racico-abdominal ring of Newport; while the tip of the abdo- 
men presents excellent generic and also specific characters, 
depending on its grooved or flattened shape. 

The species of this family are mostly found in the north 
temperate zone, being very abundant in North America and in 
Europe. The Pemphredoninez occur far north in abundance, 
while Cerceris occurs farthest towards the tropics. 

The subfamily Philanthince includes the three genera, Phi- 
lanthus, Hucerceris, and Cerceris. In Philanthus (Fig. 84, wing), 
the head is short, transversely suboval, the clypeus longer 
than broad, with the first joint of the abdomen nearly as broad 
when seen from above as the succeeding one. Our more com- 
mon form southward is Philanthus vertilabris Say (Fig. 89). 
In Europe P. apivorus provisions its nest with honey-bees. 


CRABRONIDZ. 159 


Cresson remarks that Hucerceris (Fig. 86, fore wing of male ; 
a, female) differs from Cerceris in the venation, which differs 


greatly in the two sexes. EH. zonatus Say ae 
occurs in the west. 


The species of Cerceris (Fig. 87, wing) Fig. 84. 
have transversely oblong heads, the front of 
the head is flattened and destitute of hairs, a 
and the rings of the abdomen are contracted, a 
the middle part being un- 


usually convex and coarsely 
punctured, while the basal 


ring is nearly one-half nar- Bip GU: 
Hes rower than the ot eee 
ones. Cerceris deserta Say is our most com- : 
mon form. In Europe some species are Fig. 87. 


known to store their nests with bees, and the larve of Cur- 
culionide and Buprestide. Dufour unearthed in a sin- 
gle field thirty nests of C. bupresticida which were filled with 
ten species of Buprestis, comprising four hundred individuals, 
and none of any other genus. Cerceris tuberculata provisions 
its nest with Leucosomus ophthalmicus; and C. tricincta with 
Clythra. 

In the subfamily Orabronine, there is a great disparity in 
the sexes, the form of the females being the most persistent. 
In the male the head is smaller, narrow behind, with shorter 
mandibles, and a narrower clypeus; the body is also much 
slenderer, especially the abdomen, and the legs are simple in 
Crabro, but in Thyreopus variously. modified by expansions of 
the joints, especially the tibia. The 
species of Crabro (Fig. 88) are readily 
distinguished by the large cubical 
head, and the sharp mucronate abdo- 
minal tip of the female. The more 
typical form of this very extensive 
genus is Crabro sew-maculatus Say, 
so-called from the six yellow spots 
on the subpedunculate abdomen. According to Dr. T. W. 
Harris (MS. notes), this wasp was seen by Rev. Mr. Leonard, 
of Dublin, N. H., burrowing in decayed wood, June 10th. 


Fig. 88. 


160 HYMENOPTERA. 


Crabro singularis Smith, was discovered by Mr. C. A. Shurtleff 
boring in a post. 

In Thyreopus, the body is slender, and the forelegs are 
curiously dilated in the males, often forming a broad expansion, 
and so dotted as to present a sieve-like appearance, while the 
head is much shorter, being more transverse. TT’. latipes Smith 
is known by the broad, long, acute, mucronate, shield-like ex- 
pansion of the fore tibia, which is striped with black at the 
base. 

The species of Rhopalum are usually blackish, without the 
gay colors prevalent in the genera before mentioned ; the legs 
are simple, and the abdomen is long and slender, with a long 
peduncle. The body of the larva is short and thick, tapering 
rapidly towards each extremity; the segments are convex, 
those of the thorax especially being smooth, broad, and regu- 
larly convex, while the abdominal rings are provided with 
prominent tubercles. The tip of the body is quite extensible, 
and when protruded is subacute, terminating in a small knob- 
like body, formed by the last ring. The larvee of this genus 
differ from those of the Vesparie and Apiarice known to us 
by having a few hairs scattered over the body. 

In the pupa the antenne, in their natural position, do not 
quite reach to the second pair of trochanters, and reach only 
to the tip of the maxillary palpi. The tip of the abdomen is 
very acute and elongated unusually far beyond the ovipositor. 
On the head, between the ocelli and antenne, are two very 
prominent, acute tubercles, and the abdominal segments are 
dentate on the hind edge. Thus both the larva and pupa 
would seem, by their anatomy, to be unusually active in their 
loose, illy-constructed cells, which do not confine their food so 
closely as in the other wasps, as the insects on which they prob- 
ably feed have a greater range in their rather roomy cells. April 
18th we opened several stems grown in the open air, and 
found both larve and pup; the latter in different stages of 
development. The cells were placed in the closely packed 
dust made by the larva of an Ageria, or directly bored in the 
pith of the plants. There were six such cells, each with its 
inhabitant, within a space an inch in length, some laying cross- 
wise, others along the middle. The larve spin but a very 


CRABRONIDZ. 161 


slight cocoon, not at all comparable with that of Crabro; the 
walls of the cell being simply lined with silken threads. Under 
other circumstances, 7.e. where the cells are more exposed, it 
is not unlikely that a more elaborate cocoon may be spun. 

Mr. James Angus has bred numerous specimens of Rhopa- 
lum pedicellatum Pack., from stems of the Rose, Corcorus, Ja- 
ponica, and Spirzea, grown in hot-houses at West Farms, N. Y. 
The larva is a quarter of an inch long. 

The following genera belong to the subfamily Pemphre- 
donine : 

The genus Stigmus, as its name indicates, may at once be 
known by the very large pterostigma, as well as the unusually 
small size of the species. The body of the larva is moderately 
long and slender, cylindrical, tapering slowly towards both ex- 
tremities. The rings are short, very convex, subacutely so, 
and the larva is of a beautiful roseate color. Stigmus frater- 
nus Say burrows in the stems of the Syringa, of which speci- 
mens have been received from Mr. Angus with the larvee and 
pupe. 

In Oemonus the front narrows rapidly towards the insertion 
of the mandibles, and there is a short triangular enclosure on 
the propodeum, while the abdomen is shorter and thicker than 
in Pemphredon, a closely allied genus; the pedicel is also 
longer. The larvee of Cemonus inornatus Harris live in irregu- 
lar burrows in the elder, like those of Rhopalum from which 
they have been reared by Mr. Angus. They are known by the 
broad flattened head and body, serrate side and tergum of the 
body, and large, conspicuously bidentate mandibles, as well as 
by the peculiarly flattened abdominal tip. 

_In Passalecus the labrum is very prominent, while the man- 

dibles are very large, widening towards the tip, and in the com- 
mon P. mandibularis Cresson they are white, and thus very 
conspicuous. This species burrows in company with the other 
wood-wasps mentioned above in the stems of the elder and 
syringa. The cells are lined with silk. The wasps appear 
early in June. Their nests are tenanted by Chalcids. The 
female stores her cells with Aphides, as we have found them 
abundantly in stems of plants received from Mr. Angus. 

The genus Psen seems to be a degraded Cerceris, but the 

IU 


162 HYMENOPTERA. 


abdomen is pedicelled, and differs from Mimesa, a still more 
slender-bodied genus, in having the tip of the abdomen more or 
less grooved, while in Mimesa it is flat and not grooved at all. 

Psen leucopus Say has a dense silvery pile on the front of 
the head, with black antenne, and the pedicel is rather short. 


Nyssonrpx Leach. In this family the head is transversely 
@donger and less cubical than in the preceding group; the ver- 
tex is higher and more convex, while the front is narrow, the 
clypeus long and narrow, the eyes long and narrow, and the 
antennz are more clavate than in. the Crabronide, and 
the propodeum is sometimes armed with acute spines, while 
the enclosed space is smoothly polished or striated. The wings 
are long and narrow, and the abdomen is sessile in the typical 
genera, where it is obconic, but clavate when pedicellate. 

In Trypoxylon the body is long, with a pedicellate clavate 
abdomen. In Europe ‘‘ Mr. Johnson has detected it frequent- 
ing the holes of a post pre-occupied by a species of Odyuerus, 
and into which it conveyed a small round ball, or pellet, con- 
taining about fifty individuals of a species of Aphis; this the 
Odynerus, upon her return, invariably turned out, flying out 
with it, held by her legs, to the distance of about a foot from 
the aperture of her cell, where she hovered a moment, and then 
let it fall; and this was constantly the case till the Trypoxylon 
had sufficient time to mortar up the orifice of the hole, and the 
Odynerus was then entirely excluded; for although she would 
return to the spot repeatedly, she never endeavored to force 
the entrance, but flew off to seek another hole elsewhere.” 

T. politum Say has purplish wings, and no enclosure on the 
propodeum. 

T. frigidum Smith lives in the stems of Syringa, from which 
it has been reared by Mr. Angus. The thin, delicate cocoon is 
long and slender, enlarging slightly towards the anterior end. 

The genus Mellinus (belonging to the third subfamily, Wel- 
linine,) is known by its broad front, and slender antenne, 
and its pedunculate abdomen, while in Alyson,.a slender- 
bodied genus, it is sessile. Mellinus bimaculatus Say has a 
black head, with pale tipped antennz, and two ovate yellow 
spots on the abdomen. Alyson oppositus is black, with two 


NYSSONID ZA. 163 


yellow spots on the abdomen, which has the basal ring yel- 
lowish red in the female. 

The fourth subfamily is the Nyssonincee, so named from Nys- 
son, a typical genus. 

The genus Gorytes is truly a mimetic form, closely simulat- 
ing the genus Odynerus, one of the Vesparic. The front of 
the head is narrow, while the clypeus is larger than usual.” The 
species are numerous, occurring late in the summer on the 
' flowers of Spirea. Gorites flavicornig Harris is polished russet. 
brown, with narrow yellow rings on the abdomen, the propo- 
deum is smooth and polished, and the basal ring of the abdomen 
‘is black. A species has been observed in Europe protruding 
her sting into the frothy secretion of Tettigonix living on 
grass, and carrying off the insect to provision its nest with. 

Oxybelus is a short, stout, black genus, with whitish abdomi- 
nal spots, and stout spines on the thorax, while the sessile 
abdomen is distinctly conical. ‘‘Its prey consists of Diptera, 
which it has a peculiar mode of carrying by the hind legs the 
while it either opens the aperture of its burrow or else forms a 
hew one with its anterior pair. Its flight is low, and in skips ; 
it is very active.” (Westwood.) 

Oxybelus emarginatus Say has two oval membranous appen- 
dages to the metathorax, and is a common black species found 
abundantly on the flowers of the Virginia Creeper. 

In Nysson the body is a little longer, narrow compared with 
that of Oxybelus, while the terminal joint of the antenne is 
thickened, flattened, and excavated beneath. Nysson lateralis 
Say is dull black, with six light spots on the abdomen. 

The species of Stizus are of large size and easily recognized 
by their hirsute body, stout legs, triangular silvery clypeus, 
and the high transverse vertex of the head. The propodeum 
has a faintly marked triangular enclosure. The species are 
very rapacious, paralyzing grasshoppers and other large insects 
with their formidable sting, and carrying them off to provision 
their nests. Professor S. Tenney has sent us a specimen of 
the Dog-day Cicada (C. canicularis) which Stizus speciosus had 
thus stung. Mr. Atkinson has observed the same fact, and has 
found the deep burrows of this species, the hole being’ three- 
fourths of an inch in diameter. He has observed it feeding on 
sap running from a tree. 


164 HYMENOPTERA. 


The species of Larra are smaller, and differ from those of 
Stizus in the long, narrow, very prominent labrum, the shorter 
clypeus, broader front and longer abdomen, the tip of which is 
without the broad subtriangular area which is present in Stizus 
and the other genera of this family. Larra wnicincta Say is black- 
ish, with a single reddish band on the second abdominal ring. 


BemBecip&® Latreille. We have but two genera, Bembex 
and Monedula, which have large heads and flattened bodies, 
bearing a strong resemblance to Syrphus flies from their similar 
coloration. The labrum is very large and long, triangular, like 
a beak. The species are very active, flying rapidly about 
flowers with a loud hum. ‘‘The female Bembex burrows in 
sand to a considerable depth, burying various species of Dip- 
tera (Syrphidz, Muscidie, etc.), and depositing her eges at the 
same time in company with them, upon which the larvae, when 
hatched, subsist. When a sufficient store has been collected, 
the parent closes the mouth of the cell with earth.” ‘ An 
anonymous correspondent in the Entomological Magazine, states 
that B. rostrata constructs its nests in the soft light sea-sands 
in the Ionian Islands, and appears to catch its prey (consisting 
of such flies as frequent the sand; amongst others, a bottle- 
ereen fly) whilst on the wing. He describes the mode in 
which the female, with astonishing swiftness, scratches its hole 
with its forelegs like a dog. Bembex tarsata, according to 
Latreille, provisions its nests with Bombylii.” (Westwood.) 
Dufour states that two Diptera, Panopea carnea and Toxophora 
fasciata, the latter allied to Systrophus, are parasites on Bem- 
bex. Mr. F. G. Sanborn has noticed the exceedingly swift 
flight of our common Bembex fasciata Fabr. on sandy beaches 
where it is found most abundantly. 

Monedula differs from Bembex in its slenderer body, more 
clavate antenne, and its shorter, very obtuse labrum. The 
body is smoother, and most generally more highly colored and 
more gaily spotted than in Bembex. 

Monedula Carolina Fabr. and M. 4—fasciata Say are common 
southwards of New England. 


Larrip& Leach. Mr. F. Smith defines this family as having 
‘‘mandibles notched exteriorly near the base; the labrum con- 


TENOR DEA 165 


cealed, with a single spine at the apex of the intermediate 
tibize ; the abdomen is ovoid-conical.” 

The genus Astata is a large hairy form, with long antennze 
and palpi and an elongated prothorax. Its spiny legs show its 
near relationship to the Sphegidaw. Astata wnicolor Say repre- 
sents the genus in this country. 

Tachytes is also of larger size than the following genus. 
It is covered with long dense golden short hairs, with a trap- 
ezoidal front. Tachytes aurulentus Fabr. is rare; it frequents 
the flowers of the Asclepias, as we have found pollen masses at- 
tacned to the spines of its legs. We figure 
(89) a tarsus of a wasp belonging probably to 
this genus, received from Mr. V. T. Chambers, 
showing the pollen masses of Asclepias at- 
tached to the spines. 

The genus Larrada ‘‘contains those species 
which have the marginal cell truncated at the 
apex and appendiculated, and three submarginal 
cells, the first as long as the two following; 
.... the metathorax [propodeum] truncated 
posteriorly, elongate, the sides being generally 
parallel; the mandibles are large and arcuate, 
with a tooth on their exterior towards the base; abdomen 
ovate-conical, acuminate at the apex.” Larrada argentata 
Beauv. is covered with silvery pile. It is a slender form, with 
short, nearly unarmed legs. 

A Brazilian species of Larrada, according to Mr. H. W. 
Bates, builds a nest composed apparently of the scrapings of 
the woolly texture of plants; it is attached to a leaf, having a 
close resemblance to a piece of German tinder, or a piece of 
sponge. ‘The cocoons were dark brown, and of a brittle consist- 
ency. The reporter, Mr. F. Smith, adds: ‘“‘I am not aware of 
any similar habit of building an external nest having been pre- 
viously .recorded; our British species of the closely allied 
genus Tachytes, are burrowers in the ground, particularly in 
sandy situations ; their anterior tarsi are strongly ciliated, the 
claws bifid and admirably adapted for burrowing. On examin- 
ing the insect which constructed the nest now exhibited, I find 
the legs differently armed; the anterior pair are not ciliated, 


166 “HYMENOPTERA. 


and the claws are simple and slender, clearly indicative of a 
peculiar habit differing from its congeners, and how admirably 
is this illustrated in the nest before us?” 


Spuecip# Latreille. Smith defines this family as having 
‘*the posterior margin of the prothorax not prolonged back- 
wards to the insertion of the wings, and anteriorly produced 
into a neck, with the abdomen petiolated.” The very fossorial 
legs are long and spiny, the posterior pair being of unusual 
length. The mandibles: are large, curved, narrow, and acute, 
the base not being toothed externally, and the antennz are 
long and filiform. The species are often gaily colored, being 
ornamented with black and red, brown and red, or are entirely 
black, or blue. They love the sunshine, are very active, rest- 
less in their movements, and have a powerful sting. 

The sting of these and other wasps which store up insects for 
their young, penetrates the nervous centres and paralyzes the 
victim without depriving it of life, so that it lives many days. 
A store of living food is thus laid up for the young wasp. 
After being stung the caterpillars will transform into chrys- 
alids, though too weak to change to moths. Mr. Gueinzius, 
who resides in South Africa, observes that ‘large spiders 
and caterpillars became immediately motionless on being stung, 
and I cannot help thinking that the poisonous acid of Hymen- 
optera has an antiseptic and preserving property; for cater- 
pillars and locusts retain their colors weeks after being stung, 
and this, too, in a moist situation under a burning sun.” 

These insects either make their nests in the sand, or, like the 
succeeding family, are ‘‘mud-daubers,” building their cells of 
mud and plastering them on walls, etc. 

The tropical genus Ampulex is more closely allied to the 
preceding family than the other genera. The species are 
brassy green. Dr. G. A. Perkins has described in the Ameri- 
can Naturalist, vol. 1, p. 293, the habits of a wasp, probably 
the Ampulex Sibirica Fabr., which inhabits Sierra Leone, and 
oviposits in the body of the cockroach. The dead bodies of 
the cockroaches are often found with the empty cocoon of the 
wasp occupying the cavity of the abdomen. 

A species of this genus, abundant at Zanzibar at certain sea- 


SPHEGIDZH. - ; 167 


sons, was frequently observed by Mr. C. Cooke to attack the 
cockroach. The cockroach, as if cowed at its presence, im- 
mediately yields without a struggle. The Ampulex stings 
and paralyses its victim, and then flies away with it. 

Chiorion is closely allied, containing blue and metallic green 
species, often with golden yellow wings. Chlorion cyanewm 
Dahlb., a blue species, is found in the Southern States. 

The genus Priononyx ‘differs from the genus Sphex in hay- 
ing the claws quadridentate beneath at their base; the neura- 
tion of the wings and the form of the abdomen are the same as 
in Harpactopus,” which is found only in the tropics and Aus- 
tralia. Priononyx Thome is found from South Carolina to 
Brazil, éncluding the West Indies. 

The genus Sphex is quite an extensive one. The head is as 
wide as the thorax; the antennze are filiform, mandibles large 
and acute, bidentate within, the teeth notched at their base, 
forming a rudimentary tooth, the apical tooth being acute. 
The thorax is elongate-ovate, truncated behind, with a trans- 
verse collar (prothorax). The fore wings have one marginal 
and three submarginal cells ; the marginal cell elongate, rounded 
at its apex; the 
first submarginal 
cell as long as the 
two following. The 
abdomen is pedun- 
culated, conically 
ovate, and the an- 
terior tarsi are cili- 
ated in the females. 

Sphex ichnewmo- 
nea Linn. (Figure 
90) is a large rust- 
red species, with a 
dense golden pu- 
bescence. It is common from Massachusetts southwards. In 
the last week of July, and during August and early in Sep- 
tember, we noticed nearly a dozen of these wasps busily en- 
gaged in digging their holes in a gravelly walk. In previous 
seasons they were more numerous, burrowing into grassy 


168 HYMENOPTERA. 


banks near the walk. The holes were four to six inches deep. 
In beginning its hole the wasp dragged away with its teeth a 
stone one half as large as itself to a distance of eight inches 
from the hole, while it pushed away others with its head. In 
beginning its burrow it used its large and powerful jaws almost 
entirely, digging to the depth of an inch in five minutes, com- 
pleting its hole in about half an hour. After having inserted 
its head into the hole, where it loosened the earth with its 
jaws and threw it out of the hole with its jaws and fore 
legs, it would retreat backwards and push the dirt still 
farther back from the mouth of the cell with its hind legs. In 
cases where the farther progress of the work was stopped by a 
stone too large for the wasp to remove or dig around, it would 
abandon it and begin a new hole. Just as soon as it reached 
the required depth the wasp flew a few feet to the adjoining 
bank and falling upon an Orchelimum vulgare or O. gracile, 
stung and paralyzed it instantly, bore it to its nest, and was out 
of sight for a moment, and while in the bottom of its hole 
must have deposited its egg in its victim. Reappearing it be- 
gan to draw the sand back into the hole, scratching it in quite 
briskly by means of its spiny fore tarsi, while standing on its 
two hind pairs of legs. It thus threw in half an inch of dirt 
upon the grasshopper and then flew off. In this way one Sphex 
will make two or three such holes in an afternoon. The walk 
was hard and composed of a coarse sea-gravel, and the rapidity 
with which the wasp worked her way in with tooth and nail was 
marvellous. 

Sphex tibialis St. Fargeau is a black, stout, thick insect. 
Mr. J. Angus has reared this species, sending me the larve in 
a cavity previously tunnelled by Xylocopa Virginica in a 
pine board. The hole was six inches long, and the oval cylin- 
drical cocoons were packed loosely, either side by side, where 
there was room, or one a little in advance of the other. The 
interstices between them were filled with bits of rope, which 
had perhaps been bitten up into pieces by the wasp itself; while 
the end of the cell was filled for a distance of two inches with a 
coarse sedge arranged in layers, as if rammed in like gun-wad- 
ding. The cocoons are eighty to ninety hundredths of an inch 
long, oval lanceolate, somewhat like those of Pompilus. They 


SPHEGIDZ. 169 


consist of two layers, the outer very thin, the inner tough, 
parchment-like. The larve hybernate and turn to pup in 
the spring, appearing in the summer and also in the autumn. 

The larva is cylindrical, with the pleural ridge prominent, 
and with no traces of feet ; the head, which is small and not 
prominent, and rather narrow compared with that of Pelopzeus, 
is bent inwards on the breast so that the mouth reaches to the 
sternum of the fourth abdominal ring. The posterior half of 
each ring is much thickened, giving a crenulated outline to the 
tergum. ‘The abdominal tip is obtuse. 

Sphex Lanierit Guerin, according to Smith (Proceedings 
of the Entomological Society of London, Feb. 7, 1859), con- 
structs its nest of a cottony substance, filling a tunnel formed 
by a large curved leaf. The species of the genus are sup- 
posed to burrow in the ground, and the two cases above 
cited show an interesting divergence from this habit. Mr. 
Smith adds, that in ‘‘the Sphex which constructs the nest in 
the rolled leaf, the anterior tarsi are found to be very slightly 
ciliated, and the tibiz almost destitute of spines, thus affording 
another instance proving that difference of structure is indica- 
tive of difference of habit.” 

The genus Pelopeus is of a slighter form than in Sphex, the 
body being longer and slenderer; the clypeus is as broad as 
long, triangular above, in front convex, or produced and end- 
ing in two teeth. The outer costal cell is lanceolate oval, the 
second subcostal cell subtrapezoidal, being widest above ; it is 
also somewhat longer than broad. The first median cell is very 
long and narrow, much more so than usual. The pedicel of 
the abdomen is long, the first joint in the male being often as 
long as the remainder of the abdomen. 

The larva of P. ceruleus Linn. is much like that of Sphex, 
having a cylindrical body with the rings thickened posteriorly. 
It differs from that of Pompilus in its longer and narrower head, 
the short broadly trapezoidal clypeus, and the distinctly marked 
exserted labrum. The mandibles are long and tridentate. 

The pupa (of P. flavipes) differs from that of the Vesparie 
in having the head more raised from the breast; the palpi are 
not partially concealed, as they may be easily seen for their 
whole length. The long curved mandibles cover the base of the 


170 FYMENOPTERA. 


maxillee and lingua, and the antennze reach to the posterior coxee. 
The mawyillz are slender, not reaching to the tip of the labium. 

The female usually provisions her cells (Plate 5, Fig. 14) with 
spiders. The cells are constructed of layers of mud of unequal 
length, and formed of little pellets placed in two rows, and di- 
verging from the middle. They are a little over an inch long, 
and from a half to three-quarters of an inch wide, and are some- 
what three-sided, the inner side next the object, either stone- 
walls or rafters, to which it is attached, being flat. As the 
earthen cells sufficiently protect the delicate larvee within, the 
cocoons are very thin, and brown in color. 

The cells of Pelopeus flavipes from Brownville, Texas, col- 
lected by an United States officer and presented to the Boston 
Society of Natural History, contained both spiders and numer- 
ous pupie of a fly, Sarcophaga nudipennis Loew (MS) which is 
somewhat allied to Tachina. These last hatched out in mid- 
summer a few days before the specimens of Pelopzeus. It is 
most probable that they were parasitic on the latter. These 
specimens of P. flavipes were more highly ornamented with yel- 
low than in. those found northwards in the Atlantic States, 
the metathorax being crossed by a broad yellow band. 

The genus Ammophila is a long slender form, with a petio- 
late abdomen, the tip of which is often red. The petiole of the 
abdomen is two-jointed, and very long and slender, being. 
longer than the fusiform part. In the males the petiole is in 
some species much shorter. The wings are small, with the apex 
more obtuse than usual; the second subcostal cell is pentag- 
onal, and the third is broadly triangular. 

Westwood states that ‘‘the species inhabit sandy districts, 
in which A. sabulosa forms its burrow, using its jaws in bur- 
rowing ; and when they are loaded, it ascends backwards to 
the mouth, turns quickly around, flies to about a foot’s distance, 
gives a sudden turn, throwing the sand in a complete shower 
to about six inches’ distance, and again alights at the mouth 
of its burrow.” 

‘‘Latreille states that this species provisions its cells with 
caterpillars, but Mr. Shuckard states that he has observed the 
female dragging a very large inflated spider up the nearly per- 
pendicular side of a sand-bank, at least twenty feet high, and 


POMPILIDZ. 171 


Mr. Curtis observed it bury 


that whilst burrowing it makes a loud whirring buzz; and, in 
states that he has detected both A. sabulosa and A. hirsuta 
St. Fargeau, how- 


the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, he 


dragging along large spiders. 
the caterpillars of a Noctua and Geometra. 
ever, states that A. sabulosa collects caterpillars of large size, 
especially those of Noctuze, with a surprising perseverance, 
whereas A. arenaria, forming a distinct section in the genus, 
g 


( Westwood.) 
Ammophila cementaria Smith, and A. urnaria Klug, are the 


collects spiders.” 
more common species in this country ; they are red and white, 
while A. /uctwosa Smith is a black, shorter, stouter, more hirsute 
They may all be seen flying about hot sandy places, 


and alighting near wells and standing water to drink. 


species. 
Pompitip& Leach. In this family the body is oblong, the 
sides often compressed, and the head shorter, when seen from 
yy yy : 
Pa 


cox 
S 
f/ 
i 
YS 


\ 
\ 
4 IS 


above, being more trans- 

versely ovate than in 
the preceding family. 
The antenne are long, 
not geniculate, and in 
the males are stouter 


and with shorter joints 
the females. 


than in 
The eyes are narrow 


oval, and the maxillary 
palpi are six, and the 
labial palpi four-jointed. 
The prothorax is ex- 
tended on the sides back 
which latter are large and broad, the fore pair having three 


to the base of the wings, 
The legs are very long and slender, with thick 
The Pompilide, of which about seven hun- 


subcostal cells. 


slender spines. 


dred species are known, have a wide geographical range, from 
Like the Sphegide, they 
oviposit in the body of other insects, storing their nests, usually 


the temperate zone to the tropics. 


built in the sand, with spiders and caterpillars. 
The head of Pompilus (Fig. 91) is a little longer, seen from 


172 HYMENOPTERA. 


above, than in the other genera; the front of the head is about 
a third longer than broad. The antennz are long and fili- 
form and sometimes crenulate, as in Figure 91a, in the 
males; the mandibles are stout, broad, sabre-shaped, 
being much curved, with low flattened teeth, and the 
maxillary palpi are longer than the labial palpi. The 
wings are rather broad, with the three subcostal cells 
lying in a straight.row. The abdomen is slightly com- 
pressed, and equals in length the remainder of the 
body. The sting is very large and formidable, and ex- 
cessively painful, benumbing the parts it enters. They 
are exceedingly active, running and flying over sandy 
places like winged spiders. 

There are about five hundred species of this genus described. 
They are usually shining black or deep bluish black, with 


Fig. 91a. 


Fig. 92. 


smoky or reddish wings, and sometimes a reddish abdominal 
band. This genus is interesting, as affording in its form a 
mean between the globular thorax and short body of the 
Apiarice and the elongated body of the Ichneumonide. 
The Pompilus formosus Say (Fig. 92), called in Texas the 
Tarantula-killer, attacks that immense spider the Mygale Hentzii, 
and, according to Dr. G. Lincecum (American Naturalist, May, 


POMPILIDA. 1735 


1867), paralyzes it with its formidable sting, and inserting an 


ego in its body, places it in its nest, dug to the depth of five 


inches. There is but a single brood, 
produced in June, which is killed off by 
the frosts of November. This species 
feeds in summer ‘‘upon the honey and 
pollen of the flowers of the Elder, and 
of Vitis ampelopsis, the Virginia Creeper ; 
but its favorite nourishment is taken from 
the blossoms of Asclepias quadrifolium.” 
(Lincecum.) PP. cylindricus Cresson (Fig. 93, wing) is one of 
our smallest species, being 
from three to five lines 
longs» Lib occurs) im) the 
South and West. P. arctus 
Cresson (Fig. 94, wing) in- 
habits Colorado Territory. 
P. Maric: Cresson (Fig. 95, 
2 enlarged) is a beautiful 
and rare species found in 
Pennsylvania. The genus 
Priocnemis is characterized 
by the two hind pair of 
tibiz being serrated (9, 
Fig. 96, a, wing; b, pos- 
terior leg ; c, anterior leg), and by the want of spines on the an- 


Fig. 94. 


terior legs. P. wnifasciatus Say is a wide-spread species and 
b 

. color of the body, the yellow an- 

: ee tenneze and the large yellow spot at 

; the tip of each anterior wing. 

i‘ ¢ Lhe genus Agenia (Fig. 97, a, 

4 haying smooth legs. A. brevis Cres- 

Fig. 96. son (Fig. 98, wing) is a little spe- 

was captured in West Virginia; and A. acceptus Cresson (Fig. 

100, wing) in Georgia. The genus WNotocyphus (Fig. 101, 


a readily recognized by the deep black 

j 
wing; 6, posterior leg) differs in 
cies found in Georgia. A. congruus Cresson (Fig. 99, wing) 
?, wing) is found in Brazil and Mexico. Planiceps (Fig. 102, 


174 HYMENOPTERA. 


wing) contains a few species, of which P. niger Cresson, an 
entirely black species, is found in Connecticut. Aporus (Fig. 
103, wing) contains a single American 
species, A. fasciatus Smith, taken in 
North Carolina. 
From Mr. F. G. Sanborn we have re- 
ceived the larva and cocoon of Pompilus 
Fig. 97. funereus St. Farg., a small black spe- 
cies, which builds its nest in fields. The larva is short and 
broad, with the lateral region rather prominent, and the tip of 
the abdomen rather acute. It differs 
from Pelopzeus in, its stouter, rather flat- 
tened body, and thickened segments, 
though as our specimen is preserved in 
alcohol these characters may have be- 
come exaggerated. It more nearly re- ————y~ 
sembles Pelopzeus in its transverse Fig. 101. 


clypeus, thin bilobate labrum, and the Se —— 
stout mandibles, which are, however, a 
much stouter than in Pelopzeus, while ES 


the whole head is shorter, broader, and 
rounder. It is probable that this pecu- © ——=—= Sy 
liar form of the head (which as in Sphex 
is bent beneath the breast), together Fig. 103. 
with the broad transverse clypeus, and broad, short, bilobate, 
thin, transparent labrum, and especially the unidentate short 
broad mandibles are family characters, sep- 
arating the larvee of this group from those of 
the Sphegide. The cocoon is ovate, long, 
and slender, much smaller at one end than 
the other, not being so regularly fusiform 
as in Sphex. 

Ceropales differs from the foregoing gen- 

Fig. 100. era in its broad head, its much shorter ab- 

domen; and also in the eyes being a little excavated, in the 
depressed labium, the narrow front, which dilates above and 
below the middle, and in the greatly elongated hind legs, gen- 
erally banded with red or whitish. Ceropales bipunctata Say 
is generally distributed throughout the United States. It 


SCOLIADZ. ey 


is easily recognized by the black body and legs, and red pos- 
terior femora, and is six lines long. ©. Robinsonii Cresson 
(Fig. 104, ¢) is an elegant 
species found in West 
Virginia. An allied genus 
is Mygnimia (Fig. 105, 
wing) containing MW. Mea- 
tcana Cresson and M. us- 
tulata Dahlb., two Mexican 
species. 

In the genus /Pepsis 
(Fig. 106, wing) the max- 
illary and labial palpi are 
of equal length. The spe- 
cies are large, some of 
them being among the lar- 
gest of Hymenoptera, and gS Lie 
are generally indigo-blue in color. Pepsis heros Dahlbom is 
found in Cuba; it is two inches long. P. cyanea Linn., 
which is blackish-blue, with 
blue abdomen and wings, 
the latter reddish at the 
apex, has been described by 
Beauvois from the United 
States, while P. elegans St. 


Si Farg. also occurs in the 
pe Southern States. 
a Vee {4 P. formosa Say affords 


another example of a species 

Fig. 106. common to both sides of the 
Rocky Mountains, as it has been found both in Texas and Cal- 
ifornia. It is black, with bluish or greenish reflections, with 
bright fiery red wings, and is thirteen to eighteen lines long. 


Scotiap# Leach. This family forms a group very easily 
distinguished from the Bembecide or Chrysidide, as well 
as the Pompilide, by the broad front, the small indented eyes, 
and the great sexual differences in the antenne, those of the 
male being long and slowly thickened towards the tip, while in 


176 HYMENOPTERA. 


‘the female they are short, thick, and elbowed on the second 
joint. The clypeus is large, irregularly quadrilateral, becom- 
ing shorter in, the lower genera, and the labrum is small, 
scarcely exserted, while the mandibles are, in the female es- 
pecially, large and broad. The prothorax is very square in 
front. In the fore-wings are three subcostal spaces. The 
abdomen in the typical genus (Scolia) is broad and flat, longer 
than the rest of the body. The abdomen of Mutilla approaches 
that of the Chrysidide@ in having the second ring much en- 
larged over the others. The males usually have the anal 
stylets very prominent, while the sting of the female is very 
powerful. The body and legs are generally very hirsute, and 
the first tarsal joint is as long as the tibie. 

The genus Sapyga is easily recognized by its smooth slender 
body, being ornamented with yellow, with transverse bands on 
the abdomen. The head is long, very convex in front, and 
the antennze are clavate; the prothorax is very broad, giving 
an oblong appearance to the thorax. ‘The legs are slender and 
smooth. It is said to be parasitic, laying its eggs in the cells 
of Osmia. Sapyga Martinii of Smith is found northward. 

The species of Scolia are often of great size, being black 
and very hirsute, with the labium composed of three linear di- 
visions; the abdomen alone being banded or spotted with 
yellow on the sides. They are found in the hottest places 
about strongly scented flowers. In Europe, Scolia bicincta 
‘‘makes its burrows in sand-banks, to the depth of sixteen 
inches, with a very wide mouth ;” and it is probable that the 
nest is stored with grasshoppers. 

Scolia quadrimaculata Fabr. is found in the Middle and 
Southern States. The larva of Scolia flavifrons was found by 
Passerini to live in the body of the lamellicorn beetle, Oryctes 
nasicornis. In Madagascar, Scolia oryctophaga lives on 
Oryctes simia, according to Coquerel. 

Professor Sumichrast states that at Tehuacan (Department 
of Puebla) the Scolia Azteca Sauss. is very common; and is 
particularly abundant in the leather tanneries, which leads him 
to think that the females of this species also deposit their eggs 
under the epidermis of the larva which abounds in the tan. 

Tiphia is black throughout and rather hirsute. The antennz 


MUTILLARIA. 1k e/'7 


are shorter than in Scolia or Myzine ; the clypeus is also shorter, 
while the prothorax is longer. In the fore-wings the outer cos- 
tal cell is short, broad, angulated, oval; and of the two sub- 
- costal cells, the outer one is broad and triangular, twice as long 
as broad, while the first median cell is regularly short rhom-: 
boidal, much more so than in the other genera. 

The females, according to Westwood, ‘‘make perpendicular 
burrows in sandy situations, for the reception of their eggs; 
but the precise food stored up for the larve has not been ob- 
served.” Tiphia tnornata Say is a common species with us, 
and flies low over sandy places early in the season. 

The short oval head, the large eyes, short meso-scutum, 
large meso-scutellum, and the flattened, rather smooth body, 
characterize the genus Myzine. ‘The females are very different 
from the males, the two sexes being for a long time considered 
as separate genera. ‘The female, especially, differs in the great 
length of the square prothorax, which is very broad and convex 
in front. In the male the eyes are lunate, while in the female 
they are small, entire, and remote. In its general form the fe- 
males much resemble Scolia, while the males are long and nar- 
row, with broad yellow bands, especially on the abdomen, and a 
large exserted sting-like organ. Myzine sexcincta Fabr. is seen 
from New England southwards, flying low over hot sandy places. 
The genus Elis is closely allied. Sumichrast (American Nat- 
uralist, vol. 2), surmises that Elis costalis St. Farg. lives on 
certain Scarabeeides, which undergo their metamorphosis in the 
formicary of Gicodoma in Mexico. 


Mortitiari# Latreille. This interesting family is character- 
ized by the females alone being wingless, though Morawitz says 
that wingless males occur in two species; and by the absence, 
generally, of the three ocelli. In Mutilla and Myrmosa the . 
thorax is still high, compressed, and oblong cuboidal, and ex- 
cept in the closely united tergal pieces the females do not greatly 
recede from the type of the winged males. The species are 
very equal in size, are black, or black and red, and either 
smooth or hirsute. 

The antenne are inserted low down on the front, the clypeus 
being very short and broadly ovate (especially in Myrmosa), 

12 


a Ali7es} HYMENOPTERA. 


or it is indented, as in Mutilla. The tongue is shorter than usna). 
The sides of the thorax contract in width, both before and be- 
hind. The meso-scutum is squarer than usual, while the meso- 
scutellum is much narrower and longer, and the propodeum is 
squarely truncated behind, thus presenting a full convex surface. 
The abdomen is not much longer than the rest of the body, be- 
ing shorter than usual. In all these characters this family shows 
its affinities to the Ants. The wings are very dissimilar in the 
different genera. In Myrmosa the neuration closely approaches 
that of Sapyga, while in the larger, more acute primaries of 
Mutilla, and especially in the short outer costal cell, and short 
open pterostigma, the latter genus differs from the others. 

The male of Scleroderma closely mimics the Procto- 
trypide, the veins of the wings being absent, while the 
form of the head and abdomen also reminds us of some genera 
in that family.. The wingless female is very different, having 
more of the form of Mutilla, with a large oblong head and long 
acutely conical abdomen. The species are minute and rarely 
met with. 8. contracta Westwood is found in ‘“ Carolina.” 

In the female Methoca the eyes are very long, and the seg- 
ments of the abdomen are widely separated, much as in the 
ants. Methoca Canadensis Smith is shin- 
ing black, and slightly villose. 

The species of Myrmosa may be known 
by the very short clypeus, the broad ver- 
tex, and the rings of the abdomen of the 
male being unusually contracted. The 

_ Fig. 107. abdomen of the female is cylindrical, 
about twice as long as broad, and thickest on the second ring. 
The rings are densely hirsute on the hinder 
edge. Myrmosa wnicolor Say (Figs. 107, 
male ; 108, female) is widely distributed. We 
have taken this species in Maine, while sex- 
ually united, early in June. The wingless 
female is like an ant, and is pale reddish on y 
the thorax and basal ring of the abdomen, Fig. 108. 
and the antennze and feet are concolorous, while the head and 
remaining abdominal rings are much darker. It is .20 inch 
long. The male is .28 inch long and entirely black. 


FORMICARILA. 1993 


The genus Mutilla is.a very extensive one, and enjoys a wide 
geographical range. It is throughout stouter than Myrmosa, 
the head is more cubical, and the thorax and abdomen is 
shorter, the tip of the latter being somewhat truncated. 

The wingless female closely resembles, both in its form and 
motions, a worker ant. The body is coarsely granulated and 
either naked or densely hirsute, and of a scarlet, black, or pale 
red, or brown-black color. The females are found running in 
hot sandy places, and hide themselves quickly when disturbed, 
while the males frequent flowers. Mutilla 
occidentalis is a large species. It is of a 
beautiful scarlet color and is armed with a 
very powerful sting. According to Profes- 
sor A. E. Verrill this species was found by 
him, at New Haven, to construct deep 
holes in a hard beaten path, storing its nest 
with insects. This species is also said by Fig. 109. 
Kirby to be very active, ‘“‘taking flies by surprise.” (West- 
wood.) Mr. Verrill noticed that this insect makes a slight 
creaking noise. The larvee of M. Europea are said to live 
parasitically in Humble-bees’ nests. Mutilla ferrugata Fabr. 
(Fig. 109) is found frequently in New England. 


Formicarit# Latreille. The family of ants would seem 
naturally to belong with the truly fossorial Hymenoptera, both 
from their habits and structure. 

Both males and females are winged, but the males are much 
smaller than the females, while the wingless workers are smaller 
than the males. In these wingless forms the segments of the 
thorax become more or less separated, making the body much 
longer and slenderer, and less compact than in the winged nor- 
mal sexual forms, the prothorax being more developed than in 
the males and females. The workers often consist of two 
forms: one with a large cubical head, or worker major, some- 
times called a soldier, and the usual small-headed form, or 
worker minor. ; 

The head is generally triangular. The eyes are large in the 
males, smaller in the workers, and in those of some genera 
(Ponera, Typhlopone, etc.) they are absent; while in the 


180 HYMENOPTERA. 


workers the ocelli are often wanting, though present in the 
winged individuals of both sexes. The antenne are long, 
slender and elbowed. The mandibles are stout, and toothed, 
though in those species that do not themselves labor, but en- 
slave the workers of other species, they are unarmed and 
slender. The maxillary palpi are from one to six-jointed, and 
the labial palpi two to four-jointed. ‘The fore-wings usually 
have but a single complete subcostal (cubital) cell. The sting 
is often present, showing that in this respect as well as their 
fossorial habits the ants are truly aculeate Hymenoptera. The 
larva is short, cylindrical, with the end of the body obtuse. 
The rings of the body are modcrately convex. The head is 
rather small and bent upon the breast. The larvee are fed by 
the workers with food claborated in their stomachs. 

The larve of the stingless genera usually spin a delicate 
silken cocoon, while those of the aculeate genera do not. Both 
Latreille and Westwood, however, state that sometimes, as in 
Formica fusca, of Europe, the pup are naked, and at other 
times enclosed in a cocoon. 

The colonies of the different species vary ereatly in size. In 
the nests of Pormica sanguinea the number of individuals is very 
great. The history of a formicarium, or ant’s nest is as follows : 
The workers only (but sometimes the winged ants) hibernate, 
and are found early in spring, taking care of the eggs and 
larvee produced by the autumnal brood of females. In the 
course of the summer the adult forms are developed, swarming 
on a hot sultry day. The little yellow ants, abundant in paths 
and about houses in New England, generally swarm on the af- 
ternoon of some hot day in the first week of September, when 
the air is filled towards sunset with myriads of them. The 
females, after their marriage flight in the air, may then be seen 
entering the ground to lay their eggs for new colonies, or, as 
Westwood states, they are often seized by the workers and 
retained in the old colonies. Having no more use for their 
wings they pluck them off, and may be seen running about 
wingless. According to Gould, an early English observer, 
the eggs destined to hatch the future females, males and 
workers, are deposited at three different periods. 

The nests of some species of Formica are six feet in diameter 


FORMICARILA. 181 


and contain many thousand individuals. Ants also build 
nests of clay or mud, and inhabit hollow trees. They enjoy 
feeding upon the sweets of flowers and the honey of the Plant- 
lice, which they domesticate in their nests. Several species of 
beetles, including some of the Staphylinide, take up their 
abode in ants’ nests. Ants are useful as scavengers, feeding 
on decaying animal matter. A good method of obtaining the 
skeletons of the smaller animals, is to place them on a densely 
populated ant-hill. ‘The habits of the ants, their economy and 
slave-making habits, are described in the works of Huber, La- 
treille, and Kirby -and Spence. | 

Upwards of a thousand species of ants have already been 
described ; those of this country have still to be monographed. 

The first group of this extensive family consists of Dorylus 
and its allies, and Formica and the neighboring genera, all of 
which are distinguished by having only the first abdominal seg- 
ment contracted, while in the second group (Myrmicaric), the 
two basal rings are contracted into knot-like segments. 

The genus Dorylus was, by Latreille, Klug, and others, in- 
cluded in the Mwutillaric. The head is very short, the 
ocelli are large and globular. The thorax and abdomen are 
elongated, the last is cylindrical, with a small, round, basal 
joint. The legs are short, with broad compressed femora and 
feather-like tarsi. In the wings the outer subcostal cells are 
wanting. The females are not yet known. Mr. F. Smith says 
that Dorylus was found by Hon. W. Elliot to live in the man- 
ner of ants, under the stone foundation of a house in India. 
The society was very numerous. The difference in size of the 
male and worker is very remarkable. The males are of large 
size and are found in tropical Asia and Africa. 

Typhlopone is an allied genus. TZ’. pallipes Haldeman is 
found in Pennsylvania. 

To the genus Anomma belong the Driver-ants of Western 
Africa. They march in vast armies, driving everything before 
them, so formidable are they from their numbers and bite, 
though they are of small size. They cross streams, bridging 
them by their interlocked bodies. Only the workers are known. 
Two species only, A. Burmeisteri Shuckard, and A. arcens 
Westwood, are described from near Cape Palmas, West Africa. 


182 HYMENOPTERA. 


The genus Ponera is found distributed throughout the 
tropics. The females and workers are armed with spines; the 
abdomen is elongated, the segments more or less diminished 
in size, the first comparatively large and often cubical. The 
legs are slender. P. ferruginea Smith is a Mexican species. 

The allied genus Odontomachus springs like some leaping 
spiders. It uses for this purpose its unusually long mandibles, 
which are bent at right angles. O.clarus Roger lives in Texas. 

Formica includes the typical species of ants. Over two hun- 
dred species of this genus have been already described. ‘The 
body is unarmed. The abdomen is short, oval or spherical, 
the scale-like first segment being lenticular in form, with a 
sharp upper edge. ‘The subcostal cell of the fore-wings end in 
a point. Formica sanguinea Latr. is one of our most abundant 
species, making hillocks of sand or clay, according to the nature 
of the ground. From the formicary walks, and underground 
galleries, radiate in all directions. ‘This species has been ob- 
served making forays upon each others colonies. We haye 
found a variety of this species in Labrador, where it is com- 
mon. It does not throw up hillocks, but tunnels the earth. 

This species has been observed in Europe by P. Huber, to 
go on slave expeditions. They attack a ‘‘negro-colony” be- 
longing to a smaller black species, pillaging the nest, and carry- 
ing off merely the larvee and pup. The victors educate them 
in their own nests, and on arriving at maturity the negroes take 
the entire care of the colony. Polyerqus rufescens is also a slave- 
making ant, and ‘* Latreille very justly obseryes that it is physi- 
cally impossible for the rufescent ants (Polyergus rufescens), 
on account of the form of their jaws, and the accessory parts of 
their mouth, either to prepare habitations for their family, 
to procure food, or to feed them.” Formica sanguinea sallies 
forth in immensely long columns to attack the negro ant. Hu- 
ber states that only five or six of these forays are made within 
a period of a month, at other seasons they remain at peace. 
Huber found that the slave-making Polyergus rufescens when 
left to themselves perish from pure laziness. They are waited 
upon and fed by their slaves, and when they are taken away, their 
masters perish miserably. Sometimes they are known to labor, 
and were once obseryed to carry their slaves to a spot chosen 


FORMICARIZ. 183 


for a nest. The F. sanguinea is not so helpless, ‘‘ they assist 
their negroes in the construction of their nests, they collect their 
sweet fluid from the Aphides; and 
one of their most usual occupations 
is to lie in wait for a small species 
of ant on which they feed ; and when 
their nest is menaced by an enemy 
they show their value for these faith- 
ful servants, by carrying them down 
into the lowest apartments, as to a 
place of the greatest’ security.” 
(Kirby.) Pup of both of the slave- 
making species were placed in the 
same formicary by Huber, where they Fig. 110. 

were reared by the ‘‘negroes,” and on arriving at maturity 
‘“‘lived together under the same roof in the most perfect amity,” 
as we quote from Kirby. Darwin states that in England, FP. 
sanguinea does not enslave other species. 

In this country Mr. J. A. Allen has 
described in the Proceedings of the 
Essex Institute, vol. 5, 1866, a foray 
of a colony of F. sanguinea upon a 
colony of a black species of Formica, 
for the purpose of making slaves of 
them. 

Formica Pensylvanica, our largest 
species, is found in oaks and. decay- 

Fig. 111. ing trees, while F. herculanea Latr. 
burrows in the earth, its hole opening beneath stones and sticks. 

Gould, who wrote in 1747, states that there are two sizes of 
workers of the common European Formica rufa, and flava; 
one set of individuals exceeding the other by about one-third. 
Kirby states that in his specimens ‘‘the large workers of For- 
mica rufa are nearly three times, and of I’. flava, twice the 
size of the small ones.” Mr. E. Norton describes F’. fulvacea 
(Fig. 110, worker minor), and also Tapinoma tomentosa (Fig. 
111, worker major; antennz broken off), from Mexico. 

The tropical genus Polyrhachis includes, according to Smith, 
all those species that closely resemble Formica, but which 


184. HYMENOPTERA. 


have the thorax and node of the peduncle armed with spines 
or hooks. They construct small semicircular nests, of a ‘kind 
of net-work, on the leaves of trees and 
shrubs. Their communities are small, sel- 
dom exceeding twenty individuals. Mr. 
Norton describes P. arboricola (Fig. 112, 
worker major) from Mexico. An allied 
genus is Hctatomma (Fig.1138, worker major 
of E. ferruginea Norton, from Mexico). 

Mr. F. Smith has described a new genus, 
Ccophylla, which is allied to Formica. 
They are green ants, found building in trees 
in the tropics of the old world. The nest of G. smaragdina 
Smith is ‘‘formed by drawing together a number of green 
leaves, which they unite with a fine.-web. Some nests are a 
foot in‘diameter. They swarm, says Mr. Wallace, in hilly for- 
ests in New Guinea. Their sting is not very severe. This 
genus forms a link between Formica and Myrmica; it 
agrees with the former in hay- 
ing a single node to the pe- 
duncle, and with the latter in 
having the ocelli obsolete in 
the workers, and in being fur- 
nished with a sting.” 

The curious Honey-ant of 
Texas and Mexico, Myrmeco- 
cystus Mexicanus Westwood, 
has two kinds of ‘* workers of 
very distinct forms, one of the 
usual shape,” according to 
Smith, ‘‘and performing the 

Wig 13. active duties of the formica- 
rium ; the other and larger worker is inactive and does not quit 
the nest, its sole purpose, apparently, being to elaborate a kind 
of honey, which they are said to discharge into prepared recep- 
tacles, which constitutes the food of the entire population of 
the community. In the honey-secreting workers the abdomen 
is distended into a large globose bladder-like form. From 
this honey an agreeable drink is made by the Mexicans.” 


FORMICARIZ. — 185 


The second subfamily, Myrmicarie, includes those species 
in which the two first abdominal segments are contracted and 
lenticular. In Myrmica the females and workers are armed 
with spines, and the ocelli are absent in the workers. The 
species are very small, and mostly bright colored. Myrmica 
molesta Say is found in houses all over the world. 

G. Lincecum describes the habits of the Agricultural Ant of 
Texas, Myrmica molefaciens. It lives in populous communi- 
ties. ‘*They build paved cities, construct roads, and sustain 
a large military force.” In a year and a half from the time 
the colony begins, the ants previously living concealed beneath 
the surface, appear above and ‘‘clear away the grass, herbage, 
and other litter, to the distance of three or four feet around the 
entrance to their city, and construct a pavement, ... . con- 
sisting of a pretty hard crust about half an inch thick,” formed 
of. coarse sand and grit. These pavements would be inun- 
dated in the rainy season, hence, ‘‘at least six months pre- 
vious to the coming of the rain,” they begin to build mounds 
rising a foot or more from the centre of the pavement. Within 
these mounds are neatly constructed cells into which the 
‘‘eoos, young ones, and their stores of grain, are carried in 
time of rainy seasons.” No green herb is allowed to grow on 
the pavement except a grain-bearing grass, Aristida stricta. 
This grain, when ripe, is harvested, and the chaff removed, 
while the clean grain is carefully stored away in dry cells. 
Lincecum avers that the ants even sow this grain. They also 
store up the ‘‘grain from several other species of grass, as 
well as seeds from many kinds of herbaceous plants.” 

Pheidole is distinguished by having workers with enormous 
heads. P. notabilis Smith, from the Island of Bachian, Indian 
Archipelago, is noted for the enormously enlarged, cubical 
head of the worker major, which is at least six times the size 
of the abdomen, while in the worker minor, the head is of 
the ordinary size. An Indian species, P. providens Westwood, 
according to Col. Sykes, ‘collects so large a store of grass 
seeds as to last from: January and February, the time of 
their ripening, till October.” 

The genus Atta is also well-armed, while the workers have 
a very large, deeply incised and heart-shaped head, without 


186 HYMENOPTERA. 


ocelli, and the second abdominal knot-like ring is very trans- 
verse. A. clypeata Smith is a Mexican species. 

In Eciton the man- 
dibles nearly equal 
the length of the in- 
sect itself. This ge-. 
nus is the most 
ferocious of all the 
ants, entering the nest 
of species of Formica 
and tearing them, 
limb from limb, and 
then carrying off the 
remains to their own 
houses. 

Eciton Mexicana 
Roger (Fig. 114, 
worker major, a, front 
view of head, show- 

Fig. 114. ing the immense 
sickle-like mandibles, and only the two basal joints of the 
antenne; Fig. 115, worker minor, with a front view of the 
head, showing the mandi- 
bles of the usual size). 
This species, with Eciton 
Sumichrasti Norton, (Fig. 
116, worker minor) has 
been found by Professor 
Sumichrast at Cordova and 
Orizaba, Mexico. 

The males of Eciton are 
not yet known. Smith 
supposes that Labidus (a 
genus allied to Dorylus) is 
the male form, and Sumi- 
ehrast thinks this conjec- 
ture is ‘‘sustained by the Fig. 115. 
fact that it is in the season when the sorties of the Eciton 
are the more frequent that the Labidus also show themselves.” 


FORMICARLA. 187 


An allied genus is Pseudomyrma. P. bicolor Guérin (Fig. 
117) is found in Central America. P. flavidula Smith, found in 
Central and South America, in Mexico lives, according to 
Sumichrast, within the spines which arm the 
stems of certain species of Mimosa. These 
spines, fixed in pairs upon the branches, are 
pierced near the end: by a hole (Fig. 118a), 
which serves for the entrance and exit of the 
ants. 

The genus Gcodoma differs from Atta in , . 
having the thorax armed with spines. @. Fig. 116. 
Mexicana Smith (Figs. 119, female; 120, worker major) is 
abundant on the Gulf Coast of Mexico. In many places, ac- 
cording to Sumichrast, the natives eat the females after hav- 
ing detached the thorax. The intelligence of these 
ants is wonderful. They are seen in immense num- 
bers transporting leaves. Sumichrast states that 
“‘the ground at the foot, of the tree, where a troop of 
these ‘ arrieras,’ or workers, is assembled for despoil- 
ing it of its leaves, is ordinarily strewn with frag- 
ments cut off with the greatest precision. And if the 

Fig. 117. tree is not too lofty, one can satisfy himself that a 
party of foragers, which have climbed the tree, occupies itself 
wholly in the labor of cutting them off, while at the foot of 
the tree are the carriers which make the journeys between the 
tree and the nest. This manage- 
ment, which indicates among these 
insects a rare degree of intelligence, 
is, perhaps, not a constant and in- 
variable practice, but it is an incon- 
testable fact, and one which can be 
constantly proved.” 

‘“‘Tt is specially in the argillaceous 
countries that the Gicodomas build 
their enormous formicaries, so that 
one perceives them from afar by the Fig. 118. 
projection which they form above the level of the soil, as 
well as by the absence of vegetation in their immediate 
neighborhood. ‘These nests occupy a surface of many square 


188 HYMENOPTERA, 


metres,* and their depth varies from one to two metres. 
Very many openings, of a diameter of about one to three in- 
ches, are contrived from the exterior, and conduct to the inner 
cavities which serve as storehouses for the eggs and larve. 
The central part of the nest forms a sort of funnel, designed 
for the drainage of water, from which, in a country where 
. the periodical rains are often abundant, they could hardly es- 
cape without be- 
ing entirely sub- 
merged, if they 
did not provide 
for it some out- 
letane 

‘“‘The system 
which reigns in 

Fig. 119. the interior of 
these formicaries is extreme. The collection of vegetable 
debris brought in by the workers is at times considerable ; 
but it is deposited there in such a manner as not to cause any 
inconvenience to the inhabitants, nor impede their circulation. 
It is mostly leaves which are brought in from without, and it 
is the almost exclusive choice of this kind of vegetation which 
makes the Gcodoma a veritable scourge to agriculture. At 
each step, and in almost every place in the 
elevated woods, as on the plains; in desert 
places as well as in the neighborhood of 
habitations, one meets numerous columns 
of these insects, occupied with an admirable 
zeal in the transportation of leaves. It 
y seems even that the great law of the divi- 

Fig. 120. sion of labor is not ignored by these little 
creatures, judging from the observations which I have often 
had occasion to make.” (Sumichrast.) 

‘*The dz. cephalotes,’ says H. W. Bates, ‘‘from its immense 
numbers, eternal industry, and its plundering propensities, be- 
comes one of the most important animals of Brazil. Its immense 
hosts are unceasingly occupied in defoliating trees, and those 
most relished by them are. precisely the useful kinds. They 


* A metre is about thirty-nine (39.37) inches. 


FORMICARI®. 189 


have regular divisions of laborers, numbers mounting the trees 
and cutting off the leaves in irregularly rounded pieces the size 
of a shilling, another relay carrying them off as they fall.” 
“‘The heavily laden fellows, as they came trooping in, all de- 
posited their load in a heap close to the mound. About the 
mound itself were a vast number of workers of a smaller size. 
The very large-headed ones were not engaged in leaf-cutting, 
nor seen in the processions, but were only to be seen on dis- 
turbing the nest.” Bates also says, ‘“‘I found, after removing 
a little of the surface, three burrows, each about an inch in 
diameter ; half a foot downward, all three united in one tubular 
burrow about four inches in diameter. To the bottom of this I 
could not reach when I probed with a stick to the depth of four 
or five feet. This tube was perfectly smooth and covered with 
a vast number of workers of much smaller size than those oc- 
cupied in conveying the leaves; they were unmixed with any 
of a larger size. Afterwards, on probing lower into the bur- 
row, up came, one by one, several gigantic fellows, out of all 
proportion, larger than the largest of those outside, and which 
I could not have supposed to belong to the same species. Be- 
sides the greatly enlarged size of the head, etc., they have an 
ocellus in the middle of the forehead ; this latter feature, added 
to their startling appearance from the cavernous depths of the 
formicarium, gave them quite a Cyclopean character.” 

Of another species, the ic. sexdentata, Mr. Smith quotes 
from Rey. Hamlet Clark, that at Constancia, Brazil, the pro- 
prietor of a plantation used every means to exterminate it and 
failed. ‘*Sometimes in a single night it will strip an orange or 
lemon tree of its leaves; a ditch of water around his garden, 
which quite keeps out all other ants, is of no use. This spe- 
cies carries 4 mine under its bed without any difficulty. In- 
deed, I have been assured again and again, by sensible men, 
that it has undermined, in its progress through the country, the 
ereat river Paraiba. At any rate, without anything like a nat- 
ural or artificial bridge, it appears on the other side and con- 
tinues its course.” This testimony is confirmed by Mr. 
Lincecum (Proceedings of Academy of Natural Sciences, 
Philadelphia, 1867, p. 24) in an interesting account of the Gc. 
Texana, which he has observed for eighteen years. He states 


190 HYMENOPTERA. 


that they often carry their subterranean roads for several hun- 
dred yards in grassy districts, where the grass would prove an 
impediment to their progress. On one occasion, to secure ac- 
cess to a gentleman’s garden, where they were cutting the 
vegetables to pieces, they tunnelled beneath a creek, which was 
at that place fifteen or twenty feet deep, and from bank to bank 
about thirty feet. He also observes that the smaller workers 
which remain around the nest do not seem to join in cutting or 
carrying the leaves, but are occupied with bringing out the 
sand, and generally work in a lazy way, very differently from 
the quick, active leaf-cutters. Also, that the pieces of leaves 
are usually dried outside before being carried in, and that if 
wet by a sudden shower are left to decay without. He also 

‘ thinks that their lives are dependent upon access to 
, water, and that they always choose places where it 
, is accessible by digging wells. In one case, a well 
was dug by Mr. Pearson for his own use, and water 
found at the depth of thirty feet. The ant-well 
which he followed was twelve inches in diameter.” 

Fig. 121. (Norton, American Naturalist, vol. 2.) 

The genus Cryptocerus is remarkable for its flattened head, 
with the sides expanded into flattened marginal plates, con- 
cealing, or partly hiding the eyes. C. multispinosus Norton 
(Fig. 121) is the most common species about Cordova, Mexico, 
where they live, according to Sumichrast, within the trunks of 
trees. 


Curysipip# Latreille. In this small group the thirteen- 
jointed antennz are elbowed, the eyes are oval and the ocelli 
distinct. The maxillary palpi are five, and the labial palpi 
three-jointed. There are about four hundred species known. 

These insects are very different from the ants in their oblong 
compact form, their nearly sessile, oblong abdomen, having only 
three to five rings visible, the remaining ones being drawn with- 
in, forming a long, large, jointed sting-like ovipositor, which 
can be thrust out like a telescope. The abdomen beneath is 
concave, and the insect can roll itself into a ball on being dis- 
turbed. They are green or black. The sting has no poison- 
bag, and in this respect, besides more fundamental characters, 


CHRYSIDIDZ. LOH 


the Chrysis family approaches the Ichneumons. They best 
merit the name of ‘‘ Cuckoo-flies,” as they fly and run briskly 
in hot sunshine, on posts and trees, darting their ovipositor into 
holes in search of the nests of other Hymenoptera, in which to 
lay their eggs. Their larve are the first to hatch and devour 
- the food stored up by other fossorial bees and wasps. ‘‘St. 
Fargeau, however, who has more carefully examined the econ- 
omy of these insects, states that the eggs of the Chrysis does 
not hatch until the legitimate inhabitant has attained the greater 
part of its growth as a larva, when the larva of the Chrysis 
fastens on its back, sucks it, and in a very short time attains 
its full size, destroying its victim. ’ It does not form a cocoon, 
but remains a long time in the pupa state.” (Westwood.) 

“In the Entomological Magazine has been noticed the dis- 
covery of Hedychrum bidentulum, which appears to be parasitic 
upon Psen ealiginosus ; the latter insect had formed its cells in 
the straws of a thatched arbor, as many as ten or twelve cells 
being placed in some of the straws. Some of the straws, per- 
haps about one in ten, contained one or rarely two, of the 
Hedychrum, placed indiscriminately amongst the others. 
Walkenaer, in his Memoirs upon Halictus, informs us that 
Hedychrum lucidulum waits at the mouth of the burrows of 
these bees, in order to deposit its eggs therein; and that when 
its design is perceived by the bees, they congregate together 
and drive it away. St. Fargeau states that the females of 
Hedychrum sometimes deposit their eggs in galls, while H. 
regium oviposits in the nest of Megachile muraria; and he 
mentions an instance in which the bee, returning to its nearly 
finished cell, laden with pollen paste, found the Hedychrum 
in its nest, which it attacked with its jaws; the parasite im- 
mediately, however, rolled itself into a ball, so that the Mega- 
chile was unable to hurt it; it, however, bit off its four wings 
which were exposed, rolled it to the ground and then deposited 
its load in the cell and flew away, whereupon the Hedychrum, 
now being wingless, had the persevering instinct to crawl up 
the wall to the nest, and there quietly deposit its egg, which it 
placed between the pollen paste and the wall of the cell, which 
prevented the Megachile from seeing it.” (Westyvood.) 

In Cleptes the underside of the abdomen is not hollowed out ; 


192 HYMENOPTERA. 


it is acutely oval, and with five rings in the male. Cleptes 
semiaurata Latr. is found in Central Europe. We have no na- 
tive species. In Chrysis and the other genera, Stilbum, Parno- 
pes, and Hedychrum, the abdomen is hollowed beneath, and 
the tip is broad and square. Chrysis hilaris Dahlb. (Fig. 122) 
is a short, thick, bluish green species, .82 inch in length. It 
is not uncommon in New England. 

In Hedychrum the maxillary palpi and ligula are rather short, 
the la&8t cordate ; the mandibles are three-toothed within. The 
abdomen is broad and short, almost spherical, the second seg- 
ment being the largest. HH. dimidiatum Say is found in the 
Middle States. : 

The European Stilbum splendidum, Fabr. according to Du- 
four, lives in the cells of Pelopzeus spirifex. It makes oblong 
cocoons of a deep brown, with rounded 
ends; they are of great tenacity, being 
mixed with a gummy matter. 

Mr. Guenzius states that in Port 
Natal ‘‘a species of Stilbum lays its 
eggs on the collected caterpillars stored 

Fig. 122. up by Eumenes tinctor, which con- 
structs a nest of mud and attaches it to reeds, etc., not in a 
single, but a large mass, in which cells are excavated, similar 
to the nest of Chalicodoma micraria?*. First, it uses its ovi- 
positor as a gimlet, and when its point has a little penetrated, 
then as a saw or rasp; it likewise feels with its ovipositor, and, 
finding an unfinished or an empty cell it withdraws it immedi- 
ately, without laying an egg.” 


IcuNEuMONID# Latreille. The Ichneumon-flies are readily 
recognized by the usually long and slender body, the long ex- 
serted ovipositor, which is often very long, and protected by a 
sheath formed of four stylets of the same length as the true 
ovipositor. The head is usually rather square, with long, 
slender, many-jointed antennz which are not usually elbowed. 
The maxillary palpi are five to six-jointed, while the labial 


* A query (?) after the name of a species indicates a doubt whether the insect 
really belongs to that species; so with a ? after the name of a genus. <A ? before 
both the genus and species expresses a Goubt whether that be the insect at all. 


ICHNEUMONID 2. 193 


palpi are three to four-jointed. The abdomen is inserted im- 
mediately over the hind pair of trochanters, and usually consists 
of seven visible segments. The fore-wings have one to three 
subcostal (cubital) cells. . 

The larva is a soft, fleshy, cylindrical, footless grub, the 
rings of the body being moderately convex, and the head rather 
smaller than in the foregoing families. The eggs are laid by 
the parent either upon the outside or within the caterpillar, or 
other larva, on which its young is to feed. When hatched it 
devours the fatty portions of its victim which dies gradually of 
exhaustion. The ovipositor of some species is very long, and 
is fitted for boring through very dense substances; thus Mr. 
Bond, of England, observes that Rhyssa persuasoria actually 
bores through solid wood to deposit its eggs in the larve of 
Sirex; the ovipositor is worked into the wood like an awl. 
When about to enter the pupa state the larva spins a cocoon, 
consisting in the larger species of an inner dense case, and a 
looser, thinner, outer covering, and escapes as a fly through 
the skin of the caterpillar. The cocoons of the smaller genera, 
such as Cryptus and Microgaster, may be found packed closely 
in considerable numbers, side by side, or sometimes placed up- 
right within the body of caterpillars. 

The Ichneumon-flies are thus very serviceable to the agricul- 
turist, as they must annually destroy immense numbers of cat- 
erpillars. In Europe over 2,000 species of this family have 
been described, and it is probable that we have an equal num- 
ber of species in America; Gerstaecker estimates that there 
are 4,000 to 5,000 known species. 

The Ichneumons also prey on certain Coleoptera and Hymen- 
optera, and even on larvee of Phryganide, which live in the 
water. In Europe, Pimpla Fairmairii is parasitic on a spider, 
Clubione holosericea, according to Laboulbéne. Boheman 
states that P. ovivora lives on a spider, and species of Pimpla 
and Hemiteles were also found in a nest of spiders, according to 
Gravenhorst. Bouché says that Pimpla rufata devours, during 
winter and spring, the eggs of Aranea diadema, and Ratzbure 
gives a list of fourteen species of Ichneumons parasitic on 
spiders, belonging to the genera Pimpla, Pezomachus, Ptero- 
malus, Cryptus, Hemiteles, Microgaster, and Mesochorus. Mr. 

13 


194 HYMENOPTERA. 


Emerton informs me that he has reared a Pezomachus from 
the egg-sac of Attus, whose eggs it undoubtedly devours. They 
are not even free from attacks of members of their own family, 
as some smaller species are well known to prey on the larger. 

Being cut off from: communication with the external world, 
the Ichneumon larva breathes by means of the two principal 
: trachew, which 
terminate in the 
end of the body, 
and are placed, 
according to Ger- 
staecker, in com- 
munication with a 
stigma of its host. 
From the com- 
plete assimilation 
of the liquid food, 
the intestine ends 
in a cul de sac, as we have seen it in the larvee of Humble-bees 
and- of Stylops, and as probably occurs in most other larvee 
of similar habits, such as young gall-flies, weevils, etc., which 
live in cells and do not eat solid food. 

The first subfamily, the Hvaniide, are insects of singular and 
very diverse form, in which the antenne are either straight or 
elbowed, and thirteen to fourteen- 
jointed; the fore-wings have one to 
three subcostal (cubital) cells, and the 
hind wings are almost without veins. 

In Evania and Fenus the abdomen 
has avery slender pedicel, originating 
next the base of the metanotum. The 
former genus has a remarkably short 
triangular compressed abdomen in the 
female, but ovate in the male. The 
species are parasitic on Blatta and allies. Evania levigata 
Olivier (Fig. 123, ¢ and pupa) is a black species, and is para- 
sitic on the cockroach, Periplaneta, from the eggs of which we 
have taken the pupa and adult. The eggs of the cockroach are 
just large enough to accommodate a single Evania. This species 


Fig. 124. 


ICHNEUMONID 2. 195 


is widely distributed, and in Cuba, according to Cresson, it 
evours the eggs of Periplaneta Americana. 

The genus Aulacodes of Cresson, “forms a very close con- 
necting-link between the minute Ichneumons and the Evanie.” 
A. nigriventris Cresson (Fig. 124, a; b, metathorax ; c, inser- 
tion of the abdomen) lives in Cuba. 

Fenus is quite a different genus, as the abdomen is very long 
and slender. Menus jaculator Linn. is known in Europe to 
frequent the nests 
of Crabronide, 
ovipositing in the 
larvee. 

Pelecinus is a fa- 
miliar insect, the im- 
mensely elongated, 
linear abdomen of 
the female easily 
distinguishing it. The male is extremely rare; its abdomen 
is short and clavate. It strikingly resembles Trypoxylon, 
though the abdomen is considerably larger. Pelecinus poly- 
cerator Drury (Fig. 125, g and 2) is widely distributed 
throughout this country. 

The genuine Ichneumonide have long, straight, multiarticu- 
late antenne. The first subcostal (cubital) cell of the fore- 
wings is united with the median 
cell lying next to it, while the 
second is very small or wholly 
wanting. ‘There are two recurrent 
veins. Mr. Cresson has described 
the genus Hiphosoma (Fig. 126), 

Fig. 126. which he states may be known by 
the long, slender, compressed abdomen, and the long posterior 
legs, with their femora toothed beneath the tips. H#. annu- 
latum Cresson, a Cuban species, is, according to Poey, ‘‘ para- 
sitic upon a larva of Pyralis.” (Cresson.) 

In Ophion the antennze are as long as the body, the abdo- 
men is compressed, and the species are honey-yellow in color. 
O. macrurum Linn. (Fig. 127) attacks the American Silk- 
worm, Telea Polyphemus. Anomalon is a larger insect and 
usually black. A. vesparwm is,in Europe, parasitic on Vespa. 


196 HYMENOPTERA. 


The genus /thyssa contains our largest species, and frequents 
the holes of boring insects in the trunks of trees, inserting its 
remarkably long ovipositor 
in the body of the Jarve 
deeply embedded in the 
trunk of the tree. Harris 
states that I?hyssa (Pimpla) 
atrata and lunator (Fig. 128, 
male) of Fabricius, ‘‘ may 
frequently be seen thrusting 
their slender borers, measur- 
ing from three to four in- 
ches in length, into the 
trunks of trees inhabited 
by the grubs of the Tre- 
mex, and by other wood- 

Fig. 127. eating insects; and, like 
the female Tremex, they sometimes become fastened to the 
trees, and die without being able to draw their borers out 
again.” The abdomen of the male is very slender. 

Pimpla has the ovipositor half as long as the abdomen. P. 
pedalis Cresson is a parasite on Clisiocampa. 

The genus Trogus leads to Ichneumon. The antennz are 
shorter than the body ; the abdomen is slightly petiolate, fusi- 
form, and the second subcostal cell 
is quadrangular. Trogus exesorius 
Brullé is tawny red, and is a para- 
site of Papilio Asterias. 

The genus Ichnewmon (Fig. 129) 
is one of great extent, probably 
containing over three hundred spe- 
cies. The abdomen is long and 
slender, lanceolate ovate, slightly 
petiolate. The second subcostal cell 
is five-sided, and the ovipositor is 
either.concealed or slightly exserted. Fig. 128. 
Ichneumon suturalis Say is a very common form, and has been 
reared in abundance from the larva of the Army-worm, Leu- 
cania unipuncta. The body is pale rust-red, with black sutures 
on the thorax. Another common species, also parasitic on the 


ICHNEUMONID. NG) 7 


Army-worm, is the Ichnewmon paratus, which is blackish, 
banded and spotted with yellow. . 

The singular genus Grotea, established by Mr. Cresson, has 
along and narrow thorax (Fig. 130q@), and a very long and 
petiolated abdomen (c). We have 
taken G. anguina Cresson, the only 
species known, from the cells of 
Crabro in raspberry stems received 
from Mr. Angus. 

Cryptus is a genus of slender 
form, with a long, cylindrical abdo- 
men, which is petiolate. In the fe- 
male it is oval with an exserted 
ovipositor. Cresson figures a wing E> MES 
(Fig. 131) of C.? ornatipennis, a Cuban species, which has the 
wings differently veined from the other species. Westwood 
remarks that in Europe a species of this genus preys on the 
larvee of the Ptinide. , 

Pezomachus is usually wingless, and might at first sight read- 
ily be mistaken for an ant. The body is small, the oval abdo- 


men petiolate, and the wings, when pres- 

oS ent, are very small. The species are very 

ae numerous. Gerstecker suggests that 

ai some may be wingless females, belong- 
ing to winged males of allied genera. 

The third subfamily is the Braconidcee, containing those 
genera having long multiarticulate antennee, and with the first 
subcostal cell separate from the first median, lying just behind 
it. The second subcostal cell is usually 
large, and there is only one recurrent vein. 

The genus Bracon is distinguished by the 
deeply excavated clypeus. The first sub- 
costal cell is completely formed behind, 
wanting the recurrent nerve; the second cell 
is long, and four-sided. More than five 
hundred species, mostly of bright, gay BiB 180: 
colors, are already known. The genus Rhopalosoma of Cres- 
son connects Bracon and other minute genera (Braconide) 
with the true Ichneumons. &. Poeyi Cresson (Fig. 132) is a 


198 HYMENOPTERA. 


pale honey-yellow species, with a long club-shaped abdomen. 
It lives in Cuba. 
Rogas is a genus differing from Bracon in haying the three 
first abdominal rings long, forming a slender petiole. 
In Microgaster, a genus containing numerous species, the 
antenne are eighteen-jointed, and the abdomen is shorter than 
usual, and clavate. There are two or three 


ow subcostal. cells, the second very small. Mi- 
CESS crogaster nephoptericis (Plate 35, figs. 3, 3a) is 
=z] 


parasitic on Nephopteryx Edmandsii, found in 


the cells of the Humble-bee. 
/ Aphidius, the parasite of the Plant-lice, is 
a most valuable ally of man. It is known by 


its small size, and by having the second and 
third segments of the abdomen moving free on 
ei Ee each other. There are three cubital cells, though 
the wings are sometimes wanting. Aphidiws (Praon) avena- 
phis of Fitch, the Oat-louse Aphidius, is black with honey- 
‘yellow legs, and is one-tenth of an inch long. Aphidius 
(Toxares) triticaphis Fitch, the Wheat-louse Aphidius, is black, 
shining, with thread-like antennz composed of twenty-five 
joints. Its length is .08 inch. Frequently the large size of 
the parasite causes the body of the dead Aphis to swell out 
into a globular form. 


Procrotrypip#® (Proctotrupti) Latreille. Egg-parasites. 
In this family are placed very minute species of parasitic Ich- 
neumon-like Hymenopters which have rather long and slender 
bodies, with straight or elbowed antennz of various lengths, 
often haired on the joints, usually ten to fifteen, sometimes only 
eight in number, while the wings are covered with minute hairs 
and most of the nervures are absent. ‘The maxillary palpi are 
three to six, the labial palpi usually three-jointed. The abdo- 
men has from five to seven joints, and the tarsi are mostly five- 
jointed, rarely four-jointed. These insects are often so minute 
that they can scarcely be distinguished by the naked eye unless 
it is specially trained; they are black or brown, and very 
active in their habits. They may be swept off grass and 
herbage, from aquatic plants, or from hot sand-banks. They 


PROCTOTRYPIDZ. 199 


prey on the wheat-flies by inserting their eggs in their larvee, 
on gall-midges, and gall-flies, and on fungus-eating flies. In 
Europe, species of TYeleas lay their eggs in those of other 
insects, especially butterflies and moths and hemipters, where 
they feed on the juices of the larve growing within the ege, 
coming out as perfect Ichneumons. We probably have many 
species of these insects in this country. They usually occur in 
great numbers where they are found at all. They are almost 
too small to pin, and if transfixed would be unfit for study, 
and should, therefore, be gummed on mica, or put into small 
vials with alcohol. 

In Proctotrupes the antennee are long, feathered, twelve- 
jointed. The fore-wings have the beginning of a cubital cell, 
and two longitudinal veins on the posterior half. The abdo- 
men is spindle-shaped and very acutely pointed, the terminal 
joints being tubular in their arrangement, 
and thus, as Westwood states, approaching 
the Chrysidide. An unknown species 
(Fig. 133) we have taken at the Glen, in 
the White Mountains. AS 

The head of Diapria is horizontal and Fig. 133. 
longer than broad; the ocelli are moved forward on to the 
front edge; the long, filiform antenne have a projection on 
the under side, with the basal joint much elongated; in the 
male they are thirteen or fourteen-jointed, with one joint less 
in the female. The wings are without stigma or veins. The 
abdomen is long, oval, pedicelled. In Europe, D. cecidomyi- 
arum Bouché is parasitic on the larve of Cecidomyia arte- 
misiz. Esenbeck considers that this genus is also parasitic on 
the earth-inhabiting Tipulide. 

Gonatopus is a wingless genus, with the head very broad, 
transverse, and the front deeply hollowed out, while the ten- 
jointed antennze are long, slightly clavate, and the thorax is 
much elongated, deeply incised, forming two knot-like portions. 
Gonatopus lunatus Esenbeck, found in Europe, is one and a 
half lines long. 

Ceraphron has the antennz inserted near the mouth; they 
are elbowed, and eleven-jointed in the male, and ten-jointed in 
the female. ‘The abdomen has a very short pedicel. The fore- 


200 HYMENOPTERA. 


wings have a very short, bent costal (radial) vein. C. arma- 
tum Say was described from Indiana. 

The egg-parasite, Teleas, has the elbowed twelve-jointed an- 
tennze inserted very near the front of the head, and slightly 
hairy and simple in the male, but in the female terminated in a 
six-jointed club. The thorax is short, the legs thickened and 
adapted for leaping, and the abdomen is pedicelled. Many 
species have been found in Europe. According to Westwood, 
‘‘the type of this genus is the Ichneumon ovulorum of Linnzeus 
ene (Teleas Linnei Esenbeck), which Linneeus and 
Soe De Geer obtained from the eggs of moths.” It 
ff \ has been raised from the eggs of several Bom- 

N bycidw. ‘Bouché observed the female deposit 

Fig. 134 an egg in each of the eggs of a brood of Bom- 
byx neustria. He describes the larva as elliptical, white, 
shining, rugose, subincurved, and one-third of an inch long.” 
(Westwood.) 

Of the extensive genus Platygaster over a hundred European 
species are already known. The body, especially the abdomen, 
is generally flattened, the antennze are ten-jointed, and in the 
female clavate. The wing veins are absent; the rather slender 
legs are not adapted for leaping, and the tarsi are five-jointed. 
A species of Platygaster (Fig. 134) not yet named, oviposits 
in the eggs of the Canker-worm moth, Anisopteryx vernata, 
and by its numbers does much to check the increase of this 
caterpillar. We have seen several of these minute insects 
engaged in inserting their eggs into those of the Canker- 
worm. 

Dr. Harris, in speaking of the enemies of the Hessian-fly, 
states, that ‘‘two more parasites, which Mr. Herrick has not 
yet described, also destroy the Hessian-fly, while the latter is 
in the flax-seed or pupa state. Mr. Herrick says, that the egg- 
parasite of the Hessian-fly is a species of Platygaster, that it is 
very abundant in the autumn, when it lays its own eggs, four 
or five together, in a single egg of the Hessian-fly. This, it 
appears, does not prevent the latter from hatching, but the 
maggot of the Hessian-fly is unable to go through its trans- 
formations, and dies after taking on the flax-seed form. Mean- 
while its intestine foes are hatched, come to their growth, spin 


PROCTOTRYPIDA. 201 


themselves little brown cocoons within the skin of their victim, 
and in due time, are changed to winged insects, and eat their 
way out.” P. error Fitch (Fig. 135) is closely allied to P. 
tipulcee Kirby, which, in Europe, destroys great numbers of the 
Wheat-midge. Whether this is a parasite of the midge, or 
not, Dr. Fitch has not yet determined. 

The habits of the genus Bethylus remind us of the fossorial 
wasps. Bethylus fuscicornis, according to Haliday, ‘buries 
the larvee of some species of Tinea, which feed upon the low 
tufts of Rosa spinosissima, dragging them to a considerable 
distance with great labor and solicitude, and employing, in the 
instance recorded by Mr. Haliday, the bore of a reed stuck in 
the ground instead of an arti- 
ficial funnel, for the cells which 
should contain the progeny of 
the Bethylus, with its store of 
provision.” (Westwood.) 

The genus Jnostemma is re- 
markable for having the basal 
segment of the abdomen of the L 
females furnished with a thick Fig. 135. 
curved horn, which extends over the back of the thorax and 
head. Dr. Fitch states that J. inserens is supposed by Kirby to 
insert its eggs into those of the Wheat-midge. In the genus 
Galesus of Curtis, the mandibles are so enlarged and length- 
ened as to form a long beak, and Westwood farther states that 
in some specimens the anterior wings have a notch at the ex- 
tremity. Say’s genus Coptera has similar wings. C. polita 
Say was discovered in Indiana. 

In the very minute species of Mymar and its allies, the head 
is transverse, with the antenne inserted above the middle of 
the face ; they are long and slender and elbowed in the male, 
but clavate in the female. ‘There are no palpi, while the very 
narrow wings have a very short subcostal vein and on the 
edges are provided with long dense ciliz. The antenne of 
Mymar are thirteen-jointed in the male, and nine-jointed in the . 
female; the club is not jointed. The tarsi are four-jointed, 
and the abdomen is pedunculated. Mymar pulchellus Curtis 
is a quarter of a line long. It is found in Europe. An allied 


202 HYMENOPTERA. 


form Polynema ovulorum Linn. lays numerous eggs in a single 
butterfly’s ege. 

In Anaphes the male antennz are twelve-jointed, those of 
the female nine-jointed, and the abdomen is subsessile and 
ovoid. In <Anagrus the male antennz are thirteen-jointed, 
those of the female nine-jointed, while the tarsi are four-jointed, 
and the acutely conical abdomen is sessile. No native species 
are known. 

The smallest Hymenopterous insect known, if not the most 
minute of all insects, is the Preratomus Putnamii Pack. (Plate 
3, figs. 8, 8a, hind wing), which we first discovered on the 
body of an Anthophorabia in the minute eggs of which it is 
undoubtedly parasitic. It differs from Anagrus in the obtusely 
conical abdomen, and the narrower, very linear wings, which 
are edged with a fringe of long, curved hairs, giving them a 
graceful, feathery appearance. ‘The fore-wings are fissured, 
a very interesting fact, since it shows the tendency of the 
wings of a low Hymenopterous insect to be fissured like 
those of Pterophorus and Alucita, the two lowest Lepidop- 
terous genera. It is one-ninetieth of an inch in length. 


Cuatcipip® Westwood. This is a group of great extent; 
the species are of small size; they are often of shiny colors, as 
the name of the principal genus implies, being either bronzen 
or metallic. They have also elbowed antennze with from six 
to fourteen joints, and the wings are often deficient in veins. 
In some genera, including Chalcis, the hind thighs are thickened 
for leaping.. The differences between the sexes, generally very 
marked in Hymenoptera, are here especially so. The abdo- 
men is usually seven-jointed in the male and six-jointed in the 
female, the other rings being aborted. The male of several 
species has-the joints of the antennee swelled and furnished with 
long hairs above. Some of the species of Pteromalus are wing- 
less, and closely resemble ants. They infest eggs and larve. 
Some species prey upon the Aphides, others lay their eggs in 
the nests of wasps and bees. One species is known in Europe 
to be a parasite of the common house-fly. Others consume 
the larvee of the Hessian-fly, and those Cecidomyiz that pro- 
duce galls, and also the true gall-flies (Cynips). Some are 


CHALCIDIDZ. 203 


parasites on other Ichneumon parasites, as there are species 
preying on the genus Aphidius, which is a parasite on the 
Aphis. Mr. Walsh has bred a species of Hockeria and of 
Glyphe, which are parasitic on a Microgaster, which in turn 
preys upon the Army-worm, Leucania unipuncta; and Chalcis 
albifrons Walsh, was bred from the cocoons of Pezomachus, an 
Ichneumon parasite of the same caterpillar. 

The pupze of some species are said to have the limbs and 
wings soldered together as in Lepidoptera, and the larvee sel- 
dom spin a silken compact cocoon. We have 
probably in this country at least a thousand 
species of these small parasites, nearly twelve 
hundred having been named and described in 
Europe alone. They are generally large enough 
to be pinned or stuck upon cards or mica; some 
individuals should be preserved in this way, 
others, as wet specimens. Fig. 136. 

Chalcis is known by the abdomen having a long pedicel, its 
much thickened, oval thighs, and curved tibiz. Chalcis bra- 
cata (Fig. 136), so named by Mr. Sanborn ‘‘in allusion to the 
ornamental and trousered appearance of the posterior feet” 
is about .52 inch in length. ‘‘Réaumur has described and 
figured a species of Chalcis, which is parasitic in the nest of 
the American wasp Epipone nitidulans and which he regarded 
as the female of that wasp.” (Westwood.) 

The genus Leucospis is of large size. It is known by having 
the large ovipositor laid upon the upper surface of the abdo- 
men, and being spotted and banded with 
yellow, resembling wasps. One of our more 
common species is the L. afinis (Fig. 137) of 
Say. The Cuban Z. Poeyi Guérin is para- 
sitic on the Megachile Poeyi of Guérin. 

The well-known Joint-worm, Hurytoma, 

ies Le is thought by many to produce galls on 
wheat-stems. The antennze are, in the male, slender and pro- 
vided with verticils of hairs. The acutely oval abdomen has 
a:short pedicel. The hind legs are scarcely thicker than the 
fore limbs. H. hordei Harris (Fig. 138) is found in gall-like 
swellings of wheat-stalks. It is still a matter of discussion, 


204 IYMENOPTERA. 


whether it directly produces the galls, or is parasitic, like 
many of the family, on other gall-insects. Dr. Harris, who has 
studied the habits of the Joint-worm, states that the body of 
the adult fly is jet black, and that the thighs, shanks (tibize), 
and claw-joints, are blackish, while the knees and other joints 
of the feet, are pale-yellow. ‘The females are .13 inch long, 
while the males are smaller, have a club-shaped abdomen, and 
the joints of the antennz surrounded with a verticil of hairs. 
The larva is described by Harris from specimens received from 
Virginia, as varying from one-tenth to nearly three-twentieths 
of an inch in length. It is of a pale yellowish white color, 
with an internal dusky streak, and is destitute of hairs. The 
head is round and partially retractile, with a distinct pair of 
jaws, and can be distinguished from the larve of the dipterous 
gall-flies by not having the v-shaped organs on the segment 
succeeding the head. During the sum- 
mer, according to Mr. Gourgas’s obserya- 
“ tions reported by Dr. Harris, and when 


the barley or wheat is about eight or ten 
inches high, the presence of the young 
Joint-worms is detected ‘“‘by a sudden 

Fig. 138. check in the growth of the plants, and 
the yellow color of their leaves,” and several irregular gall- 
like swellings between the second and third joints, or, accord- 
ing to Dr. Fitch, ‘‘immediately above the lower joint in the 
sheathing base of the leaf;” or, as Harris states, in the joint 
itself. The ravages of this insect have been noticed in wheat 
and barley. During November, in New England, the worms 
transform into the pupa state, according to the observations of 
Dr. A. Nichols, and ‘‘live through the winter unchanged in 
the straw, many of them in the stubble in the field, while others 
are carried away when the grain is harvested.” In Virginia, 
however, the larva does not transform until late in February, 
or early in March, according to Mr. Glover. From early in 
May, until the first week in July, the four-winged flies issue 
from the galls in the dry stubble, and are supposed to im- 
mediately lay their eggs in the stalks of the young wheat or 
barley plants. The losses by this insect has amounted, in 
Virginia, to over a third of the whole crop. The best remedy 


CHALCIDID Z&. 205 


against the attacks of this insidious foe, is to burn the stubble 
in the autumn or spring for several successive years. Plough- 
ing in the stubble does not injure the insects, as they can 
work their way out of the earth. 

It has been objected by Westwood, Ratzburg, and more 
recently by Mr. Walsh, in the Practical Entomologist, vol. i, 
that as all the species of this family, so far as known, are para- 
sitic, the Eurytoma cannot be a gall-producer, and that the 
galls are made by a dipterous insect (Cecidomyia) on which 
the Eurytoma is a parasite; but, as they offer no new facts to 
.support this opinion, we are inclined to believe from the 
statements of Harris, F itch, Cabell, T. Glover (Patent Office 
Report for 1854), and others, that the larva of the Eurytoma 
produces the gall. We must remember that the habits of 
comparatively few species of this immense family have been 
studied; that the genus Eurytoma is not remotely allied to 
the Cynipidz, or true gall-flies (which also comprise animal 
parasites), in which group it has actually been placed by Esen- 
beck, for the reason that in Europe ‘‘several species of 
Eurytoma have been observed to be attached to different 
kinds of galls.” (Westwood.) Dr. Fitch also describes the 
Yellow-legged Barley-fly, Eurytoma flavipes, which produces 
similar galls in barley, and differs from the Wheat Joint-worm 
in having yellow legs, while the antennze of the male are not 
surrounded with whorls of hair. The Hurytoma secalis Fitch 
infests rye. It differs from E. hordei in ‘‘ having the hind pair 
of shanks dull pale-yellow, as well as the forward ones.” We 
shall also see beyond that several species of Saw-flies produce 
true galls, while other species of the same genus are external 
feeders, which reconciles us more easily to the theory that the 
Eurytoma hordei, and the other species described by Dr. Fitch, 
differ in their habits from others of the family, and are not ani- 
mal parasites. Indeed the Joint-worm is preyed upon by two 
Chalcid parasites, for Harris records finding the larve, proba- 
bly of Torymus, feeding on the Eurytoma larve, and that a 
species of Torymus (named T. Harrisii, by Dr. Fitch, and per- 
haps the adult of the first-named Torymus) and a species of 
Pteromalus are parasites on Eurytoma. 

In Monodontomerus (Torymus) the third joint of the an- 


206 HYMENOPTERA. 


tennz is minute, and the hind femora are thick, but not ser- 
rated, and beneath armed with a tooth near the tip. 

The wings are rudimentary so that it does not quit the cell. 
Newport states that the larva is flat, very hairy, and spins a 
silken cocoon when about to pupate. It is an ‘external feed- 
ing parasite” consuming the pupa as well as the larva of An- 
thophorabia. The imago appears about the last of June, 
perforating the cell of the bee. It also lives in the nests of 
Osmia, Anthophora, and Odynerus. 

The genus Anthophorabia is so-called from being a parasite on 
Anthophora. The males ditfer remarkably from the females, 
especially in having simple instead of compound eyes, besides 
the usual three ocelli. A. megachilis' Pack. (Plate 4; fig. 7, 
larva; 7a, pupa) is a parasite on a species of Megachile. 
The. larva is white, short and thick, cylindrical, with both 
extremities much alike; the segments are slightly convex, and 
the terminal ring is orbicular and rather large. Length, .04 
inch, being one-third as broad as long. On opening the cells 
of Megachile, we found nearly a dozen containing these para- 
sites, of which 150 larvee were counted clustering on the out- 
side of a dead and dry Megachile larva. In England they 
occur, according to Newport’s observations, in much less num- 
bers, as he found from thirty to fifty in a cell of Anthophora. 
A few females hatched out in the middle of October, and there 
were a few pupze left, but the majority wintered over in the 
larva state, and a new and larger brood appeared in the spring. 

Perilampus is a beautiful genus, with its shining, metallic 
tints. The eleven-jointed antennz are short, lying when at 
rest in a deep frontal furrow. The head is large, while the 
abdomen is slightly pedicclled, being short, contracted, with 
the ovipositor concealed. P. platygaster Say and P. triangu- 
laris Say were described from Indiana. 

The numerous species of Pieromalus often oyiposit in the 
larvee of butterflies. In this genus the antennze are inserted 
in the middle of the front. The abdomen is nearly sessile, ob- 
tusely triangular, or acutely ovate in form, with the ovipositor 
concealed. The femora are slender. There are about three 
hundred species known to inhabit Europe. Pteromalus va- 
ness Harris is a parasite on Vanessa Antiopa. P. clisio- 


CHALCIDID®. 207 


campee Harris infests Clisiocampa.  ‘‘ Pteromalus apum is 
parasitic in the nests of the Mason-bee.” (Westwood.) A spe- 
cies of this or an allied genus (Fig. 139) 
infests the eggs of the Clisiocampa Ameri- 
cana. Its eggs are probably laid within , 
those of the Tent-caterpillar moth early 
in the summer, hatching out in the autumn, 
and late in the spring or early in June. 

An allied genus, Siphonura, is a para- 
site on galls. It resembles a beetle, Mor- 
- della, from its very peculiar scutum. Fig. 139. 

The antennz of Semiotellus are twelve-jointed. S. (Ceraph- 
ron) destructor Say (Fig. 140), according to that author, 

destroys the Hessian-fly, while lying 

~ a in the ‘“‘flax-seed” state. Fitch de- 

scribes it as being a tenth of an 

inch long, black, with a brassy 

green reflection on the head and 

thorax, while the legs and base of 
the abdomen are yellowish. 

In Encyrtus, which comprises 
over a hundred species already 
known, usually rather small in 

Fig. 140. size, the body is short and rounded. 
The eleven-jointed antennze are inserted near the mouth. The 
thorax is square behind, and the sessile abdomen is short and 
broad at the base. EHncyrtus Bolus 
and EH. Reate are described from 
North America by Mr. F. Walker. 
Encyrtus varicornis is in Europe 
found as a parasite in the cells of 
Eumenes coarctata. 

The antenne of Hulophus are nine- Fie. 141. 
jointed, with a long branch attached to the third, fourth, and 
fifth joints. The abdomen is, flattened, sessile. LH. basalis 
Say was described from Indiana. We figure a Chalcid (Fig. 
141, ¢), allied to Eulopus, which preys upon the American 
Tent Caterpillar. 

A species of Blastophaga (B. grossorum Gray.) is interest- 
ing as it is the means of assisting in the fertilization of the Fig 


208 HYMENOPTERA. 


blossoms, which act, as applied to this instance of the fertiliza- 
tion of flowering plants by insects, has been called by Mr. 
Westwood ‘‘ caprification.” 


Cynipip® Westwood. (Diplolepariw Latreille.) Gall-flies. 
In this most interesting family we have a singular combination 
of zodlogical and biological characters. The gall-flies are closely 
allied to the parasitic Chalcids, but in their habits are planc 
parasites, as they live in a gall or tumor formed by the ab- 
normal growth of the vegetable cells, due to the irritation first 
excited when the egg is laid in the bark, or substance of the leaf, 
as the case may be. The generation of the summer broods is 
also anomalous, but the parthenogenesis that occurs in these 
forms, by which immense numbers of females are produced, is 
necessary for the work they perform in the economy of nature. 
When we sce a single oak hung with countless galls, the work 
of a single species, and learn how numerous are its natural 


enemies, it becomes evident that the demand for a great nu- 
merical increase must be met by extraordinary means, like the 
generation of the summer broods of the Plant-lice. 

The gall-flies are readily recognized by their resemblance to 
certain Chalcids, but the abdomen is much compressed, and 
usually very short, while the second, or the second and third seg- 
ments, are greatly developed, the remaining ones being imbri- 
cated or covered one by the other, leaving the hind edges 
exposed. Concealed within these, is the long, partially coiled, 
very slender ovipositor, which arises near the base of the abdo- 
men.* Among other distinguishing characters, are the straight 


* Fig. 142. I, abdomen of Cynips quercus-aciculata Osten Sacken, with the ovipos- 
itor exserted; II, the same with the ovipositor retracted; III, the abdomen of the 
female of Figites (Diplolepis) 5-lineatus Say; IV, the same showing the ventral 
portion, in nature covered by the tergal portion of the abdomen; V, end view of the 


CYNIPID®. 209 


(not being elbowed) thirteen to sixteen-jointed antenne, the 
labial palpi being from two to four-jointed, and the maxil- 
lary palpi from four to six-jointed. The maxillary lobes are 
broad and membranous, while the ligula is fleshy, and either 
rounded or square at the end. ‘There is a complete costal cell, 
while the subcostal cells are incomplete. The egg is of large 
size, and increases in size as the embryo becomes more deyel- 
oped. The larva is a short, thick, fleshy, footless grub, with 
the segments of the body rather convex. When hatched they 
immediately attack the interior of the gall, which has already 
formed around them. Many species transform within the gall, 
while others enter the earth and there become pupe. 

It is well known that of many gall-flies the males have never 
been discovered. ‘‘Hartig says that he examined at least 
15,000 specimens of the genus Oynips, as limited by him, with- 
out ever discovering a male. To the same purpose he collected 
about 28,000 galls of Cynips divisa, and reared 9,000 to 10,000 
Cynips from them; all were females. Of C. folii, likewise, he 
had thousands of specimens of the female sex without a single 
male.” (Osten Sacken.) Siebold supposes in such cases that 
there is a true parthenogenesis, which accounts for the immense 
number of females. 

Baron Osten Sacken, however, thinks that these females are 
impregnated by males of the same species which are produced 
from a different sort of gall, existing, however, on the same 
species of tree. He reports in the Proceedings of the Acad- 
emy.of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, July 1861, ‘an 
observation, which, if confirmed, would solve the question of 
the sexes of Cynipide. From a singular, spindle-shaped gall 
on the red oak, I reared a male Cynips, which is similar to the 
gall-fly, Cynips confluens Harris, of the common oak-apple of 
the red oak, known by the female sex only, and looks exactly 
as one might suppose the male Cynips confluens, if known, 
ought to look. If it is proved that the Cynips of the spindle- 


abdomen of Cynips, showing the relations of segments 7-8, the sternal portion of 
the eighth segment being obsolete; sp, the single pair of abdominal spiracles; VI, 
terminal ventral piece, from which the sheaths (ss) and the ovipositor (0) take 
their origin: itis strongly attached at m to the tergites of the sixth and seventh 
rings; 0, ovipositor; s, s its sheaths; a, an appendage to v, the terminal sternite. 
— From Walsh. 3 


14 


210 HYMENOPTERA. 


shaped gall is the male of the Cynips of the oak-apple, and i? 
it is shown, by further observation, that in the genera, supposed 
to be agamous, by Hartig, the males produced from galls are 
different from those of the females, then it will be plain how 
28,000 galls of the same kind could give 10,000 females and 
not a single male. 

‘¢ A strong proof in confirmation of my assertion is, that in 
those genera, the males of which are known, both sexes are 
obtained from galls in almost equal numbers; even the males, 
not unfrequently, predominate in number (see Hartig, 1. ¢. iy, 
399). Now the gall-flies, reared by me from the oak-apple, 
were all females. Dr. Fitch, also, had only females; and Mr. 
B. D. Walsh, at Rock Island, Illinois, reared (from oak-apples 
of a different kind) from thirty-five to forty females, without a 
single male. This leads to the conclusion that the Cynips of 
the oak-apples belongs to the genera hitherto supposed to be 
agamous.” 

For an account of the habits and many other interesting 
points in the biology of these interesting insects, we further 
quote Baron Osten Sacken. ‘‘ Most of the gall-flies always attack 
the same kind of oak; thus, the gall of C. seminator Harris, 
is always found on the white oak; C. tubicola Osten Sacken on 
the post oak, ete. Still, some galls of the same form occur on 
different oaks; a gall closely resembling that of C. quercus- 
globulus Fitch, of the white oak, occurs also on the post oak, 
and the swamp chestnut oak; a gall very similar to the com- 
mon oak-apple of the red oak occurs on the black-jack oak, ete. 
Are such galls identical, that is, are they produced by a gall-fly 
of the same kind? I have not been able to investigate this 
question sufficiently. Again, if the same gall-fly attacks dif- 
ferent oaks, may it not, in some cases, produce a slightly difier- 
ent gall? It will be seen below, that C. quercus-futilis, from a 
leaf-gall on the white oak, is very like C. quercus-papillata from 
a leaf-gall on the swamp-chestnut oak. I could not perceive 
any difference, except a very slight one in the coloring of the 
feet. Both gall-flies may belong to the same species, and 
although the galls are somewhat different, they are in some 
respects analogous, and might be the produce of the same gall- 
fly on two different trees. 


CYNIPIDZ. 211 


‘‘Some gall-flies appear very early in the season; Oynips 
quercus-palustris for instance, emerges from its gall before the 
end of May; these galls are the earliest of the season; they 
grow out of the buds and appear full grown before the leaves 
are developed. May not this gall-fly have a second generation, 
and if it has, may not the gall of this second generation be 
different from the first produced, as it would be under different. 
circumstances, in a more advanced season, perhaps on leaves 
instead of buds, etc? 

‘¢ A remarkable fact is the extreme resemblance of some of 
the parasitical gall-flies with the true gall-fly of the same gall. 
Thus, Oynips quercus-futilis, O. Sacken, is strikingly like Aulax? 
futilis, the parasite of its gall. ‘The common gall on the black- 
berry stems produces two gall-flies which can hardly be told 
apart at first glance, although they belong to different genera.” 
(Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia.) 

Hartig has divided this family into three sections: First, 
Cynips and its allies, the true gall-flies (Psenides) in which the 
second (counting the slender pedicel as the first) segment of 
the abdomen is longer than half its length, and the subcostal 
area is narrow, the basal areolet (cell) being opposite the base 
of the former. 

Cynips confluens Harris forms the oak-apple commonly met 
with on the scrub-oak. There is a spring and summer brood. 
These galls, sometimes two inches in diameter, are green and 
pulpy at first, but when ripe have a hard shell with a spongy 
interior, in the centre of which, lodged in a woody kernel, 
which serves as a cocoon, the larva transforms, escaping 
through a hole, which it gnaws through both the kernel and 
shell. We have found the fly ready to escape in June, and Dr. 
Harris has found it in October. Two galls are represented on 
Plate 4, fig. 13; the larger of which has been tenanted, after 
the gall-flies had escaped, by an Odynerus. Cynips galle-tinc- 
torice Olivier produces the galls of commerce, brought from 
Asia Minor. 

Biorhiza (Apophyllus Hartig) is a wingless genus, and lives 
beneath the earth in galls formed at the roots of oak trees. 
Biorhiza nigra Fitch is black throughout, including the antennze 
and feet, and is but .08 inch long. 


bo 


Di, HYMENOPTERA. 


Galls are often found on the blackberry, tenanted by another 
genus, Diastrophus, which has usually fifteen-jointed antennze 
in the male, and one joint less in the female. On opening a 
gall containing this fly, we often find an inquiline gall-fly, 
Aulax, ‘‘showing the most striking resemblance in size, color- 
ing and sculpture, to the Diastrophus, their companion. The 
one is the very counterpart of the other, hardly showing any 
differences, except the strictly generic characters.” (Osten 
Sacken.) These galls are also infested by Chalcid parasites, 
Callimome (two species), Ormyrus, and Eurytoma. 

Osten Sacken enumerates ‘‘ eight cynipidous galls on the dif- 
ferent kinds of roses of this country.” The flies all belong to 
the genus /thodites, which is distinguished by the under side 
of the last abdominal segment being drawn out into a long 

point, while the antenne are fourteen-jointed 

in both sexes. &. rose produces the bede- 

ZB guar gall (‘‘from the Hebrew bedequach, said 
/ SD) to mean rose-apple”). It was formerly used 

as a medicine. The galls form a moss-like 

mass, encircling the rose branch. Fhodites 

1B ee dichlocerus of Harris (Fig. 143), produces 

hard, woody, irregular swellings of the branches. 

We now come to the second section, the Guest gall-flies (In- 
quilinze), which are unable to produce galls themselves, as they 
do not secrete the gall-producing poison, though possessing 
a well developed ovipositor. Hence, like the Nomada, ete., 
among bees, they are Cuckoo-flies, laying their eggs in galls 
already formed. 

This group may generally, according to Mr. Walsh, be dis- 
tinguished from the preceding by the sheaths of the ovipositor 
always projecting, more or less, beyond the ‘‘dorsal valve,” 
which is a small, hairy tubercle at the top of the seventh ab- 
dominal segment. This dorsal valve also projects greatly. 
In almost all the species, the ovipositor projects from between 
the tips of the sheaths. 

Among the Inquiline genera are Synophrus, Amblynotus, 
Synerges, and Aulax, which are guests of various species of 
Cynipides. 

In Figites and allies (Figitide), the third section of the 


TENTHREDINID. 213 


family, the second segment is shorter than half the length of 
the abdomen, being much longer and less high and compressed 
than in the Cynipides, and the ovipositor is retracted within 
the abdomen. These insects are true internal parasites, re- 
sembling the Chalcids. Jbalia is a parasite on a wood-beetle. 
This genus has, by Walsh, been placed in the Cynipides. 
Figites has feather-like antennz in the male; it is a parasite 
on the larve of Sarcophaga. ‘The genus Allotria is a para- 
site on Aphis. 

Walsh states that two genera, which he has identified as 
Kleidotoma and Eucoila are true Figitide, and ‘‘have the 
wings fringed like a Mymar, and the former has them emargi- 
nate at tip with the radial area in my species distinctly open, 
and the latter simple at tip with the radial area in my species 
marginally closed by a coarse brown vein.” Hucoila is sup- 
posed to be parasitic on some insect attacking the turnip. 


TENTHREDINID# Leach. The Saw-flies connect the Hymen- 
optera with the Lepidoptera. In the perfect state they con- 
form to the Hymenop- 
terous type, but as 
larvee they would often 
be mistaken for Lepi- 
dopterous larvee, and 
in their habits closely 

[ah 


resemble many cater- ————~~———) _ 
pillars. The three SS aS > pai etl le 


divisions of the body, iS<3 
iit an i 
usually so trenchantly fey coe eS 


marked in the higher 

Hymenoptera, are here NES JESS 

less distinct, since the abdomen is sessile, its basal ring being 
broad and applied closely to the thorax, while the succeeding 
rings are very equal in size. ‘The head is broad and the thorax 
wide, closely resembling that of the ‘Lepidoptera. The wings 
(Fig. 144, fore-wing) are larger in proportion to the rest 
of the body than usual; they are more net-veined, the cells 
being more numerous and extending to the outer margin.* 


*Jn treating of this family we avail ourselves largely of the important work on 
the American species, publishing at the time of writing, by Mr. EK. Norton, in the 
Transactions of the American Entomological Society, vols. 1,2. We therefore 


214 HYMENOPTERA. 


All these characters show that the saw-fly is a degraded 
Hymenopter. 

The antenne are not elbowed; are rather short and simple, 
clavate, but in rare instances fissured or feathered. The ab- 
domen consists, usually, of eight external segments, the two 
last being aborted on the under side, owing to the great deyelop- 
ment of the ovipositor. The ovipositor or ‘‘saw” (compare 
Fig. 24) consists of two lamells, the lower edge of which is 
toothed and fits in a groove in the under side of the upper one, 
which is toothed above, both protected by the usual sheath-like 
stylets. On pressing, says Lacaze-Duthiers, the end of the 
abdomen, we see the saw depressed, leave the direction of 
the axis of the body, and become perpendicular. By this 
movement the saw, which both cuts and pierces, makes a gash 
in the soft part of the leaf where it deposits its eggs. 

The eggs are laid more commonly near the ribs of the leaf, 
in a series of slits, each slit containing but a single egg. 
‘‘Some species, on the other hand, introduce their eggs by 
means of their saws into the edges of leaves (Nematus conju- 
gatus Dahlb.), and others beneath the longitudinal ribs of the 
leaves.. A few, indeed, merely fasten their eggs upon the outer 
surface of the leaves (Nematus grossularie, etc.), attaching them 
together like a string of beads (Réaumur, vol. vy, plate 10, fig. 
8), whilst a few place them in a mass on the surface of the leaf 
(ibid, plate 11, figs. 8, 9).” (Westwood.) The irritation set up 
by the saws in the wounded leaf, causes a flow of sap which is 
stated by Westwood to be imbibed by the egg, so that it swells 
eradually to twice its original size. It is known that the ege 
of ants increase in size as the embryo develops, and we would 


copy his diagram (Fig. 144), showing the venation of the wing (compare Fig. 29 
and our nomenclature), with the explanation of parts given by him. 

a, stigma; b, costa or costal margin; c, apical margin; d, costal and post- 
costal veins; ec, externomedial; f, g, anal; hk, posterior margin; 7, marginal vein; 
j, submarginal vein; x, first, second, and third (transverse) submarginal neryures; 
1, recurrent nervures (discoidal) ; m, discoidal vein; n, first and second inner api- 
cal or submarginal nervures. Bullx or clear spots, on the veins or neryures, with 
bullar or clear lines crossing them. 1,2, marginal or radial cells; 3, 4, 5, 6, submar- 
ginal or cubital cells; 7, 8, 9, discoidal cells; 10, costal cell; 11, 12, brachial or me- 
dial cells; 13, 14, inner and outer apical cells. (Hinder cells, Hartig. Cellule du 
limbe, St. Farg.) No. 11 is sometimes the medial, and Nos. 12 and 13 the submedial 
cells; Nos. 9 and 14 the apical cells; Nos. 7and 13 discoidal; Nos. 10, 11, 12, 15, the 
first, second, third and fourth brachial cells; 15, lanceolate cell. 1, open; 2, con- 
tracted; 3, petiolate; 4, subcontracted; 5, with oblique cross neryure; 6, with 
straight cross neryure. 


TENTHREDINIDA. 215 


question whether the increase in size of the eggs of the Saw- 
fly is not rather due to the same cause. 

The punctures in the plant often lead, in some genera, to the 
production of galls, in which the larvee live, thus showing 
the near relationship of this family to the gall-flies (Cynipide). 

The larve strongly resemble caterpillars, but there are six 
to eight pairs of abdominal legs, whereas the caterpillar has 
but five pairs. Many species curl the hind body up spirally 
when feeding or at rest. They are usually green, with lines 
and markings of various colors. They usually moult four 
times, the last change being the most marked. Most of the 
larvee secrete silk and spin a tough cocoon, in which they hiber- 
nate in the larva, and often in the pupa state. The pupa has 
free limbs, as in the other families. The eggs are usually de- 
posited in the leaves of plants, but in a few cases, according 
to Norton, in slender or hollow stems. While some are slug- 
shaped, like the Pear-slug, others like Lyda inanita, mentioned 
by Westwood, live on rose bushes, and construct a ‘‘ portable 
case, formed of bits of rose-leaves arranged in a spiral coil;” 
and other species are leaf-rollers, like the Tortricids. The 
larva of Cephus does injury to grain, in Europe, by boring 
within the stems of wheat. A remarkable instance of the care 
of the saw-fly for her young, is recorded by Mr. R. H. Lewis, 
who observed in Australia, the female of Perga Lewisii deposit 
its egos in a slit next the midribs of an Eucalyptus leaf. They 
were placed transversely in a double series. ‘‘On this leaf 
the mother sits till the exclusion of the larvee; and as soon as 
these are hatched, the parent follows them, sitting with out- 
stretched legs over her brood, protecting them from the attacks 
of parasites and other enemies with admirable perseverance.” 
( Westwood.) . 

The species are mostly limited to the temperate zone, but 
few being found in the tropics. The perfect insects mostly 
occur in the early summer, and are found on the leaves of the 
trees they infest, or feeding on flowers, especially those of 
the umbelliferous plants. 

The genus Cimbex contains our largest species, the antennze 
ending ina knob. C. Americana Leach is widely distributed, 
and varies greatly in color. The large whitish larva, with a 


216 HYMENOPTERA. 


blackish dorsal stripe, may be found rolled up in a spiral on 
the leaves of the elm, birch, linden and willow trees. When 
disturbed it ejects a fluid from pores situated above the spira- 
cles. It constructs a large tough parchment-like cocoon, and 
the fly appears in the early summer. 

The genus Trichiosoma is recognized by its hairy body, and 
the antennz have five joints preceding the three-jointed club. 
T. triangulum Kirby is found in British America and Colorado, 
and a variety, 7’. bicolor Harris, on Mount Washington; it is 
black, except the tip of the abdomen, with the fourth and fifth 
joints of the antennze piceous, and the thorax is covered with 
ash-colored hair. 

In Abia the antennz are seven-jointed, with the club obtuse ; 
the body is villose, the abdomen having a metallic silken hue. 
The Abia caprifolium Norton (Fig. 145, larva) is very destruc- 
tive to the Tartarian Honeysuckle, sometimes stripping the 
bush of its leaves during successive sea- 
sons in Maine and Massachusetts. It 
hatches out and begins its ravages very 
soon after the leaves are out, eating cir- 
cular holes in them. It lies curled up 
on the leaf and when disturbed emits 
drops of a watery fluid from the pores in 
the sides of the body, and then falls to 
the ground. During the early part of 
August it spins a pale yellowish silken 
cocoon, but does not change to a pupa, 
Mr. Riley states, until the following 

NE spring. He describes the larva as being 
common about Chicago; that it is ‘‘ bluish green on the back, 
and yellow on the sides, which are pale near the spiracles, and 
covered with small black dots. Between every segment is a 
small, transverse, yellow band, with a black spot in the middle 
and at each end. Head free, of a brownish black above and 
- color of the body beneath.” The fly is described by Norton 
as being black, with faint greenish reflections on the abdomen ; 
there are two white bands at the base of the metathorax, and 
the wings are banded. It is .86 inch long and the wings ex- 
pand .70 inch. ‘The larvee can easily be destroyed from their 


TENTHREDINID ZA. PALF 


habit of falling to the ground when the bush is shaken, where 
they can be crushed by the foot. Dr. Fitch has reared Abia 
cerasi from one or, two cocoons found on the wild cherry, the 
fly appearing in New York during March. 

Hylotoma is a much smaller genus; the basal joint of the 
antenna is oval, while the second is small and round, and 
the terminal joint is very long. The larva is twenty-footed, and 
when eating curves the end of the body into the form of an S. 
The pupa is protected by a gauzy, doubly enveloping cocoon. 
H. McLeayi Leach is wholly black, sometimes with a tinge of 
blue. It is found throughout the Northern States. 

The genus Pristiphora, closely allied to Nematus, is known 
by its nine-jointed antenne, and the single costal cell; the first, 
submarginal (subcostal) cell having two recurrent veinlets. 
P. identidem Norton has been discovered by Mr. W. C. Fish to 
be destructive to the cranberry on Cape Cod. He has reared 
the insect, and sent me the following notes on its habits, while 
the adult fly has been identified by Mr. Norton, to whom I 
submitted specimens. The larve were detected in the first 
week of June, eating the leaves; ‘‘they were light or pale yel- 
lowish green when first hatched,” and grew darker with age. 
The head of the young was dark, but in the full-grown worm 
lighter. When full-grown they were about .30 of an inch in 
length, and had two lighter whitish green stripes running along 
the back from head to tail. ‘They had spun their cocoons by the 
20th of June in the rubbish at the bottom of the rearing bot- 
tles. On the 29th of June they came out in the perfect state. 
We would add to this description that the body, in two alco- 
holic specimens of the larvze, was long, cylindrical, and smooth, 
with seven pairs of abdominal feet. The head is full, rounded 
and blackish, but after the last moult pale honey-yellow. The 
male is shining black, and Mr. Norton informs me that it is 
his P. idiota. P. grossularice Walsh is a widely diffused species 
in the Northern and Western States, and injures the currant 
and gooseberry. The female fly is shining black, while the 
head is dull yellow, and the legs are honey-yellow, with the tips 
of the six tarsi, and sometimes the extreme tips of the hinder 
tibiee and of the tarsal joints pale dusky for a quarter of their 
length. The wings are partially hyaline, with black veins, a 


218 HYMENOPTERA. 


honey-yellow costa, and a dusky stigma, edged with honey- 
yellow. The male differs a little in having black coxee. Mr. 
Walsh states that the larva is a pale grass-green worm, half 
an inch long, with a black head, which becomes green after 
the last moult, but with a lateral brown stripe meeting with 
the opposite one on the top of the head, where it is more or 
less confluent; and a central brown-black spot on its face. 
It appears the last of June and early in July, and a second 
brood in August. They spin their cocoons on the bushes on 
which they feed, and the fly appears in two or three weeks, the 
specimens reared by him flying on the 26th of August. P. 
sycophanta Walsh is an ‘‘inquiline,” or guest gall-saw-fly, 
inhabiting a Cecidomyian gall on a willow. 

The genus Huura comprises several gall-making species. It 
differs from the preceding genus in the second, instead of the 
first, submarginal cell having two recurrent venules. Mr. 
Walsh has raised #. orbitalis Norton (E. genuina Walsh) from 
galls found on Salix humilis. This gall is a bud which is 
found enlarged two or three times its natural size, before it 
unfolds in spring. The larva is twenty-footed, is from .13 to 
.19 of an inch long, of a greenish white color, and the 
head is dusky. It bores out of its gall in autumn, descending . 
an inch into the ground, where it spins a thin, silken, whitish 
cocoon. The gall of E. salicis-ovwm Walsh is found on Salix 
cordata. The female is shining yellow, while the ground color 
of the male is greenish white. The gall of this species is an 
oval roundish, sessile, one-chambered, green or brownish swell- 
ing, .30 to .50 of an inch long, placed lengthwise on the side of 
smali twigs. The larva is pale yellowish, and the fly appears 
in April. The fly is, according to Walsh, ‘‘ absolutely undistin- 
guishable by any reliable character from the guest gall-saw-fly, 
Euura perturbans Walsh,” which inhabits dipterous galls made 
by Cecidomyian flies on the willow and grape (Walsh). If these 
two ‘‘species” do not differ from each other, either in the larva 
or adult state, ‘‘by any reliable characters,” then one must 
question whether the variation in habits is sufficient to separate 
them as species, and whether E. salicis-ovum does not, some- 
times, instead of forming a new gall, lay its eggs in a gall ready- 
made by a dipterous gall-fly. We have seen that Odynerus 


TENTHREDINID A. 219 


albophaleratus, which usually makes a mud cell situated in the 
most diverse places, in one case at least, makes no cell at all, 
but uses the tunnel bored out by a Ceratina! and yet we should 
not split this species into two, on account of this difference 
in its habits. We had written this before meeting with Mr. 
Norton’s remark that ‘‘it is difficult to give a hearty assent 
to Mr. Walsh’s inquilines or guest-flies, without further inves- 
tigation.” (Transactions of the American Entomological 
Society, vol. i, p. 194.) 

In Nematus the nine-jointed antennze have the third joint 
longest. There is one costal and four subcostal cells, the 
second cell receiving two recurrent veinlets; the basal half 
of the lanceolate cell is closed; the hind wings have two mid- 
dle cells, and the tibize are simple. 

The larve are hairy with warts behind the abdominal feet. 
They haye twenty feet, the fourth and eleventh segments (count- 
ing the head as one) being footless. ‘They are either solitary, 
feeding upon the leaves of plants, or social and generally found 
on pine trees, while some species live in the galls of plants. The 
pupa, according to Hartig, is enclosed in an egg-shaped cocoon, 
like that of Lophyrus, but less firm, though with more outside 
silk. It is generally made in the earth, or in leaves which fall 
to the ground. NV. vertebratus Say is green, with the antennz 
and dorsal spots blackish, the thorax being trilineate. There 
are fifty species in this country, of which the most injurious 
one, the Gooseberry saw-fly, has been brought from Europe. 
This is the WV. ventricosus Klug which was undoubtedly imported 
into this country about the year 1860, spreading mostly from 
Rochester, N. Y., where there are extensive nurseries. It does 
more injury to the currant and gooseberry than any other native 
insect, except the currant moth (Abraxas? tiliaria). Professor 
Winchell, who has studied this insect in Ann Arbor, Michigan, 
where it has been very destructive, observed the female on 
the 16th of June, while depositing her cylindrical, whitish and 
transparent eggs, in regular rows along the under side of 
the veins of the leaves, at the rate of about one in forty-five 
seconds. The embryo escapes from the egg in four days. 
It feeds, moults and burrows into the ground within a period of 
eight days. It remains thirteen days in the ground, being 


220 HYMENOPTERA. 


most of the time in the pupa state, while the fly lives nine days. 
The first brood of worms appeared May 21, the second brood 
June 25. Winchell describes the larva as being pale-green, 
with the head, tail and feet, black, with numerous black spots 
regularly arranged around the body, from which arise two or 
more hairs. Figure 146, 1, shows the eggs deposited along the 
under side of the midribs of the leaf; 2, the holes bored by the 
very young larvee, and 3, those eaten by the larger worms. 

In transporting gooseberry and currant bushes, Walsh recom- 
mends that the roots be carefully cleansed of dirt, so that the 
cocoons may not be car- 
ried about from one gar- 
den to another. The leaves 
of the bushes should be 
examined during the last 
week of May, and as only 
a few leaves are affected 
at first, these can be de- 
tected by the presence of 
the eggs and the little 
round holes in them, and 
should be plucked off and 
burnt. The female saw- 

Y fly is bright honey-yellow, 

Fig. 146. with the head black, but 

yellow below the insertion of the antenne. The male differs 

in its black thorax, and the antennze are paler reddish than in 
the female.* 

The genus Emphytus has nine-jointed antenne; the third 


* Mr. Norton has communicated the following description of the larva of another 
saw-fly of this genus which infests the weeping-willow. 

“ Nematus trilineatus Norton. The larve of this were first seen upon the weep- 
ing-willows about August Ist, in immense numbers, almost wholly stripping large 
trees of their leaves. They begin upon the edge of the leaf and eat all of it except 
the inner midrib. They are very sensitive to disturbances, very lively, and are 
generally found with the hinder part of their bodies bent up over the back. They 
are twenty-footed, of a bright green color, palest at head and tail, with five rows of 
black dots down the back, the outer row upon each side irregular and with inter- 
vals. On each side above the feet is another row of larger black dots, and the three 
anterior pair of feet are black at the base, middle and tip. 

“A great number of the saw-flies were found flying about the trees, August 19th, 
in the proportion of about ten males to one female. The males being almost 
wholly black upon the thorax.” 


TENTHREDINID A. 221 


and fourth joints of equal length; the wings have two subcos- 
tal and three median cells, the first as long as the second, gen- 
erally longer ; the first receiving one recurrent vein, the second 
two. We have found the larva of EL. maculatus Norton on the 
cultivated strawberry, to which, in the Western States, it some- 
times does considerable damage, but it can be quite readily 
exterminated by hand-picking. Mr. Riley has carefully ob- 
served the habits of this insect, and we condense the follow- 
ing remarks from his account in the Prairie Farmer :— Karly in 
May, in Northern Illinois, the female saw-fly deposits her eggs 
in the stem of the plant. They are white and .03 of an inch 
long, and may be readily perceived upon splitting the stalk ; 
though the outside 
orifice, at which 
they were intro- 
duced, is scarcely 
perceptible, their 
presence causes a 
swelling: in the | 
stalk. By the mid- 
dle of May the 
worms will have 
eaten innumerable 
small holes in the 
leaves. They are 
dirty yellow and ig IA 

eray green, and at rest curl the abdomen up spirally. They 
moult four times, and are, when full-fed, about three-fourths of 
an inch in length. They make a loose, earthen cocoon in the 
ground, and change to perfect flies by the end of June and 
the beginning of July. A second brood of worms appear, 
and in the early part of August descend into the ground and 
remain in the larva state until the middle of the succeeding 
April, when they finish their transformations. The fly is pitchy 
black, with two rows of dull, dirty white, transverse spots upon 
the abdomen. The nine-jointed antenne are black, and the 
legs are brown, and almost white at the joints. Fig. 147 rep- 
resents the Strawberry Emphytus in all its stages of growth. 
1, 2, ventral and side-view of the pupa; 3, the fly enlarged ; 


222 HYMENOPTERA. 


5, the same, natural size; 8, an antenna enlarged; 4, the 
larva while feeding ; 6, the same, at rest; 7, the cocoon; 9, an 
ege enlarged. 

Of the genus Dolerus, known by the second submarginal cell 
receiving two recurrents, D. arvensis Say, is a common blue- 
black species found in April and May on willows. 

The genus Selandria is the most injurious genus of the 
family. It embraces the Pear and Rose-slugs, the Vine-slug 

y and the Raspberry slug. The flies are small, 
black, with short and stout nine-jointed an- 
tennee, and broad thin wings. ‘‘The larvee 
are twenty and twenty-two-footed, present- 
ing great differences in appearance and habit, 
being slimy, hairy or woolly, feeding in 
companies or alone, eating the whole leaf as 
they go, or, removing only the cuticle of the 
leaf, and forming sometimes one and some- 
times two broods in a year. Selandria vitis, 
the Vine-slug, is twenty-footed; it has a 
smooth skin, and the body is somewhat thick- 
ened in the middle but slender towards the 
tail. ‘* While growing, the color is green 
above, with black dots across each ring, and 
yellow beneath, with head and tail black. 
They live upon the vine and are very destruc- 
tive, feeding early in August in companies, on 
TBE the lower side of the leaf, and eating it all as 
they go from the edge inwards. There are two broods in a 
season. The fly is shining black, with red shoulders, and 
the front wings are clouded.” (Norton.) 

S. rubi Harris feeds on the raspberry, appearing in May. 
The larva is green, not slimy, and feeds in the night, or early 
in the morning. JS. tilic feeds on the linden. The Pear-slug, S. 
cerasit Peck (Fig. 148, larvee feeding on a leaf of the pear, and 
showing the surface eaten off in patches; a, enlarged; 0, fly), 
is twenty-footed ; it narrows rapidly behind the swollen thorax, 
and is cevered with a sticky olive-colored slime. It feeds on 
the upper side of the leaves of both the wild and cultivated 
cherry and pear trees, and has been found on the plum and 


TENTHREDINIDZ. 223 


mountain-ash. It appears in June and September. The fly is 
shiny black, with the tips of the four anterior femora, and the 
tibize and tarsi, dull white. An egg-parasite, belonging to the 
genus Encyrtus, renders, according to Peck, a great number 
of its eggs abortive. 

The Rose-slug, Selandria rose Harris, is longer than the Pear- 
slug, the body being scarcely thickened anteriorly, and not 
covered with slime. It is pale-green and yellowish beneath. 
It appears in July and August, and does sone ue in dis- 
figuring and killing the leaves of the Lh tt nae 
rose, which remain dried and with- 
ered on the bush. When full-fed, f 
the larva, like the Pear-slug, makes § 
a cocoon beneath the surface of the & 
ground. The flies are seen in abund- fae 
ance about the rose-bushes as soon 
as the leaves are expanded, when they may be caught with 
nets, or the hand on cloudy days. MHand-picking, and the 
application of a very weak solution of carbolic acid, coal oil, 
whale oil soap, or quassia, are useful in killing the larve. 

On the 25th of July a young friend brought me a large num- 
ber of some remarkable larve (Fig. 149, natural size) of a 
saw-fly, which I surmised might belong to this genus. It pre- 
sented the appearance of an animated, white, cottony mass, 
about an inch long and two-thirds as high. The head of the 
larva is rounded, pale whitish, and covered with a snow-white 
powdery secretion, with prominent 
black eyes. The body (Fig. 150, 
naked larva) is cylindrical, with eight 

Fig. 150. pairs of abdominal legs, the segments 
transversely wrinkled, pale pea-green, with a powdery secre- 
tion low down on the sides, but above and on the back, arise 
long, flattened masses of flocculent matter (exactly resembling 
that produced by the woolly plant-lice and other Homopterous 
Hemiptera) forming an irregular dense cottony mass, reaching 
to a height equal to two-thirds the length of the worm, and con- 
cealing the head and tail. On the 27th and 28th of July the 
larvee moulted, leaving the cast skins on the leaf. They were 
then naked, a little thicker than before, of a pale-green color, 


Aas HYMENOPTERA. 


and were curled on the leaf. They eat out the edge of the 
leaf of the butternut tree. Sometime during August, two 
cocoons were spun between the 
leaves, but I did not succeed in 
raising the saw-fly. On describing 
the larva, in a letter to Mr. E. Nor- 
ton, he kindly sent me alcoholic 
specimens of larve (without the 
woolly substance, which dissolves 
and disappears in alcohol) found 
feeding on the hickory, which are 
1g ae apparently, from the comparison of 
alcoholic specimens, identical with the Butternut Selandria. 
The adult fly (Fig. 151, ¢, a, cocoon), he has named S. carye, 
of which he has kindly furnished 
me with the subjoined description. * 
Allantus is closely related to Se- 
landria, both in its structure and its 
habits, but differs in having the an- 
tennee short and somewhat clavate. 
A. basilaris Say is acommon species. 
The Pine saw-fly, Lophyrus, may be known by the feathered 
antenne of the male. JL. abiectis Harris (Fig. 152, female) 
infests the fir and pitch-pine. The male is black above and 
brown beneath, while the female is yellowish brown above, 


* Selandria carye Norton, noy.sp. (Belonging to tribe 2. Under wings with one 
middle cell. Div. A. Antenne filiform, short). 

Female. Color shining black. The pro- and mesothorax and scutellum rufous. 
the apex of the latter black; the nasus and legs white, with their tarsi blackish; the 
base of coxe and a line down the upper side of the legs black. Antenne short, 
the second joint as long as the first; the four final joints together, not longer than 
the two preceding. Nasus slightly ineurved. Claws of tarsi apparently bifid, 
Wings subviolaceous. Lanceolate cell petiolate, the first submedial cell above it, 
with a distinct cross vein. Under wings with one submarginal middle cell (all 
other species have this cell discoidal), the marginal cell with a cross nervure, and 
all the outer cells closed by an outer nervure, which does not touch the margin. 
The submedial cell extended nearly to margin. Length, .25 of aninch. Expanse 
of wings .40 of an inch. 

“The male resembles the female, but the under wings are without middle cells. 
The larve feed upon the leaves of the hickory (Juglans squamosa.) They are 
found upon the lower side of the leaf, sometimes fifteen or twenty upon one leaf, 
which they eat from the outer extremity inward, often leaving nothing but the 
strong midribs. They cover themselves wholly with white flocculent tufts which 
are rubbed off on being touched, leaving a green twenty-two legged worm, about .75 


TENTHREDINID A. 225 


with a short black stripe on each side of the thorax. The 
larve are about half an inch long, of a pale dirty green, yel- 
lowish beneath, striped with green, and when full-fed yellowish 
all over. They are social, and may often be found in consider- 
able numbers on a single needle of the pitch-pine. The larve 
spin tough cocoons 
among the leaves, 
and the flies appear 
during August, but 
probably in greater 
numbers in the 
spring. 

These slugs can 
be best destroyed 
by showering them 
with a solution of 
earbolic acid, pe- 
troleum, whale oil Fig. 153. 
soap, or tobacco water. Mr. Fish has sent me the larve of a 
saw-fly, allied to L. abietis, which, in Eastham, Mass., ravaged 
the young pitch-pines planted in the sandy soil of that region.* 
The eggs are laid singly in the side of a needle of the pine; 
though sometimes an egg is inserted on each side of the 
leaf. 

Mr. Riley has described the habits of the White-pine saw-fly, 


of an inch in length when fully grown; darkest above, and with indistinct black- , 
ish spots upon the sides. The head is white with a small black dot upon each side. 

“Specimens were taken upon the leaves July 4th. Went into the ground about 
the 20th of July. The cocoon is formed near the surface of the ground of a little 
earth or sand drawn together. Four specimens came forth about August 22d, all 
seeming very small for so large lary.” 

*On sending specimens of the male and female to Mr. Norton he writes that 
this is an undescribed species, of which he has prepared the following description : 

“ Lophyrus pinus-rigida Norton. New Species. Female. Length, 0.30; expanse 
of wings, 0.65 of an inch; antennze seventeen-jointed, short, brown; color, luteous 
brown, with a black line joining the ocelli, a black stripe down each of the three lobes 
of the thorax above, and the sutures behind; body paler beneath; the trochanters 
and base of the tibiz waxen; claws with an inner tooth near the middle; wings 
very slightly clouded; cross nervure of the lanceolate cell straight. Male. Length, 
0.25; expanse of wings, 0.55 of an inch; antenne fifteen-jointed, black, quite short, 
with twelve branches on each side, those at the base nearly as long as the sixth 
and seventh; apical joint simple, enlarged at base; color of insect black, with the 
abdomen at apex and beneath yellow-brown; legs the same color at base; below 
the knees whitish. 


15 


226 HYMENOPTERA. 


LI. Abbotti Leach. The flies appear early in June, and there is 
but a single brood of larvee, which remain on the trees, in Illi- 
nois, until November, and hibernate before changing to pupe. 
The female is honey-yellow, with pale rufous legs, and the 
male is jet black. Fig. 153 represents, after Riley, the trans- 
formations of this species, whose habits closely resemble those 
of L. abietis. 1, is the fly somewhat magnified; 6, magnified 
antenna of the male; 7, female antenna; 2 and 3, pupe; 
4, larvee in different positions, natural size; 5,cocoon. The L. 
Lecontei Fitch has been found feeding on the Scotch and Aus- 
trian pines in New Jersey, and has been described by Mr. 
Riley. The larva is an inch long, dirty or yellowish white, 
with dorsal black marks wider before than behind, and usually 
broken transversely in the full-grown individuals; they are 
farther apart than in L. Abbotii. ‘‘ The lateral spots are some- 
what square, with an additional row of smaller black marks 
below them, and the last segment is entirely black above. The 
antennze of the male fly are twenty-one-jointed, and have on 
one side seventeen large, and on the other seventeen small 
branches, there being eighteen on one side and fiftéen on the 
other in L. Abbotii. The female may at once be distinguished 
from L. Abbotii by her abdomen being jet-black above, with a 
small brown patch at the end, and a transverse line of the 
same color just below the thorax.” 

_ There are several allied genera, such as Cladius (C. isomera 
Harris), Lyda (L. scripta Say), and Xyela (X. infuscata Har- 
ris), which belong here. The last genus, Cephus, which by some 


“The females of Lophyrus are all much alike and I have found the number and 
forms of the joints of the antenne, so far, the only reliable guide. The male looks 
precisely like that of Z. abietis, but the form of the antenne differs in being much 
shorter. The female looks much like Z. abdominalis Say, taken on the pine near 
New York. The following list will show how the species may be distinguished by 
counting the number of joints.” 


L. Fabricii Leach, male, not described, female, 16 joints. 

L. compar Leach, a s¢ ee £6 1G} 

L. pinus-rigida Norton, ‘ 15 joints ce ieatncs Pine. 
L. Abbotii Leach, U3 not described Se lees “ 
L. abietis Harris, ne 21 joints, ce Tbe} ye 

L. abdominalis Say, £6 not described, ot iksyiy GS Pine. 
L. pinetum Norton, se 19 joints, ce TS ice of 
L. Americanus Leach, * not described, & ihey= 

L. insularis Cresson, ce 17 joints, ot 20) <5 Pine. 
L. Lecontei Fitch, fe ep Reo EE 


UROCERID. 227 


authors is placed in the next family, is retained by Norton in the 
present group. The larva is, in Europe, injurious to rye and 
wheat, boring in the stems of the plant. Cephus abbreviatus Say 
is our more typical form, though rarely met with. C. trimaculatus 
Say is found in New York early in June, according to Dr. Fitch. 


Urocerip# Leach. The family of ‘‘ Horntails” are so-called 
from the long prominent horn on the abdomen of the males, 
while the ovipositor or ‘‘saw,” resembling that of the true saw- 
flies, is attached to the middle of the abdomen, and extends far 
beyond its tip. They are of large size, with a long cylindrical 
body and a large head, square next the thorax, but much 
rounded in front. The antennz are long and filiform. The 
larvee are ‘cylindrical fleshy grubs, of a whitish color, with a 
small rounded horny head, and a pointed horny tail. They have 
six very small legs under the fore-part of the body, and are pro- 
vided with strong and powerful jaws, wherewith they bore long 
holes in the trunks of the trees they inhabit. Like other borers 
these grubs are wood-eaters, and often do great damage to pines 
and firs, wherein they are most commonly found.” Harris 
farther states that, when about to transform, the larve make 
thin cocoons of silk in their burrows, interwoven with little 
chips made by the larva. ‘‘ After the chrysalis skin is cast off, 
the winged insect breaks through its cocoon, creeps to the 
mouth of its burrow, and gnaws through the covering of bark 
over it, so as to come out of the tree into the open air.” 

Xiphidria is so-called from the sword-like ovipositor, which 
is much shorter than in the succeeding genera. ‘The body is a 
little flattened, somewhat turned up behind, and the tip of the 
abdomen ends in an obtuse point, while the antennz are short, 
curved and tapering at the end. Xiphidria albicornis Harris is 
black with yellowish legs and white antennz, with the two 
lowest joints black. It is nearly three-fourths of an inch long. 

The typical genus of the family is Urocerus, which has a large 
body, with a large ovipositor and long, sixteen to twenty-four- 
jointed antennze, while the body of the male ends in a stout 
acute horn. U. albicornis Fabricius has white antennez, and the 
female is of a deep blue-black color, while the male is black. 
It is found on pine trees in July. It is an inch in length. 


228 HYMENOPTERA. 


The genus Tremex is known by the wings haying two mar- 
ginal and three submarginal cells. Tremex Columba Linn. in- 
fests the elm, pear and button-wood. ‘The female is an inch 
and a half long, rust-red, varied with black, while the abdomen 
is black with seven ochre-yellow bands on the upper side, all 
but the two basal ones being interrupted in the middle. They 
fly during the last of summer. 

‘‘ Dr. Harris thus describes the habits of this interesting in- 
sect. The female, when about to lay her eggs, draws her borer 
out of its sheath, till 1t stands perpendicularly under the middle 
of her body, when she plunges it, by repeated wiggling motions, 
through the bark into the wood. When the hole is made deep 
enough, she then drops an egg therein, conducting it to the 
place by means of the two furrowed pieces of the sheath. The 
borer often pierces the bark and wood to the depth of half an 
inch or more, and is sometimes driven 
in so tightly that the insect cannot 
draw it out again, but remains fast- 
ened to the tree till she dies. The 
eggs are oblong oval, pointed at 
each end, and rather less than one- 
twentieth of an inch in length. 

“The larva, or grub, is yellowish 
white, of a cylindrical shape, rounded behind, with a conical, 
horny point on the upper part of the hinder extremity, and it 
crows to the length of about an inch and a half. It is often 
destroyed by the maggots of two kinds of Ichneumon-flies 
(Rhyssa atrata and lunator of Fabricius). These flies may 
frequently be seen thrusting their slender borers, measuring 
from three to four inches in length, into the trunks of trees 
inhabited by the grubs of the Tremex, and by other wood-eat- 
ing insects; and like the female of the Tremex they some- 
times become fastened to the trees, and die without being able 
to draw their borers out again.” 

We have noticed the trunk of an elm, at Saratoga Springs, 
perforated by great numbers of holes, apparently made by these 
insects. TT. latitarsus Cresson (Fig. 154; a, antenna ; b, wing ; 
c, hind leg) is remarkable for the expansions on the hind legs. 
It lives in Cuba. 


Fig. 154. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 229 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


BurrerFiirs AND Morus are readily recognized by their 
cylindrical, eompact bodies; their small head, with its large 
clypeus; by the maxille being prolonged into a tubular 


Fig. 155.* Fig. 156, 
‘tongue ;” the obsolete mandibles; and the broad, regularly 
veined wings, which are covered with minute scales. 
Their transformations are complete ; the active larve assum- 
‘ing a cylindrical, worm-like form, being rarely footless, and 


Fig. 157. Fig. 158. 
having from one to five pairs of fleshy abdominal legs, besides 
the three pairs of corneous jointed thoracic limbs. A large 
proportion (butterflies excepted) spin silken cocoons before 


*For explanation of cuts, 155 to 171, see pages 233 and 234. 


230 LEPIDOPTERA. 


changing to pupze (chrysalids, nymphs). In the pupa state 
the limbs and appendages of the head are soldered together, 
and the head and thorax tend to form one region, upon which 
the third region, or abdomen, is more or less movable. Three 


Fig. 159. Fig. 160. Fig. 161. 
or four genera of the lower families are partially aquatic, while, 
as a whole, the suborder is purely terrestrial. 

The three regions of the body are very distinct, but the head, 
though free, is smaller and with its parts less equally developed 


Fig. 162. 
than in the Hymenoptera, and the ‘‘propodeum” has now be- 
come plainly the first abdominal ring. The abdomen is also 
longer, with the genital armor partially exserted, thus showing 
a tendency to decephalization. In fine, the whole body is 


98 7 
4 
: Bie: 
53 2 
Fig. 163. Fig. 164. 
loosened and less compact than in the Hymenoptera. Their 


broad wings ; obsolete mouth-parts, with the abnormally devel- 
oped maxille; and active larvee, with their worm-like shape, 


LEPIDOPTERA. ~ 231 


are also characters which show that they are more degraded than 
the Hymenoptera. There is also a greater disproportion in the 
relative size of the three thoracic rings. In the abdominal rings 
the pleurites are much larger than in Hymenoptera, where they 
are partially obsolete. They 
scarcely use the legs, the fore 
pair (so remarkably differen- 
tiated in the higher Hymenop- 
tera) being partially obsolete 
in some butterflies (Vanessa, 
etc.). They are essentially 
fliers, not having the great 
variety in the mode of loco- Fig. 165. 
motion observable in the Hymenoptera. No parasites are 
known to occur in this suborder. They are only social while in 
the larval state, and then merely because their eggs, in such in- 
stances, are laid in bunches, and on distinct food-plants to 
which the larvee are confined. The adults rarely 
take an actrve part in the economy of nature, 
and have but little opportunity for the mani- 
festation of instinct and reason, though the 
larvee in seeking for suitable places in which 
to undergo their transformations often exhibit 
Fig. 166. wonderful instinct. 

The readiest method of determining the natural position of 
groups is by a comparison of their degradational forms. Thus 
we find that in the degraded Hymenoptera the tripartite form 
of the body is preserved; while, on the contrary, in the wing- 
less Lepidoptera (such as the female pj jij yy iii ail 1, 
of Orgyia and Anisopteryx) the body (ag Mail Vuh 
is either oval, the head being less | ‘\l 
free and smaller than in the winged | 
form, and the thorax and abdomen ‘ ! 
continuous, their respective rings ||/\{ 
being of much the same size and | 
shape, while the legs are feeble: 
or, as in the female of Céketicus, 
the body is elongated, and worm-like. The wingless moths, 
then, are much lower than the worker ants, the female Scolia, 


i 
WV Sats 


232 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


etc., giving us an unfailing test of the difference in rank of the 


two suborders. 


( eh) 


Fig. 168. 


In their habits and transformations, and 


in their external 
anatomy, the Lep- 
idoptera vary less 
than other insects. 

The Lepidop- 
tera, while in the 
perfect state, can 
be scarcely said to 
walk much, com- 
pared with beetles 
and other walking 


insects, the legs being only used to support them while at rest, 


and not for locomotion. 


broad wings, which 
with them are more 
highly specialized 
than in other in- 
sects. Their fore 
wings are usually 
triangular in form, 
while their hind 
wings are some- 


what square or rounded. 


Fig. 169. 


typical in form and venation. 
The surface, from the costa to the inner edge, may be 


They move almost entirely by their 


The anterior wings are the most 


Fig. 171. 


divided into three areas,—the costal, median, and internal. 
There are five principal veins: the costal and subcostal are 


LEPIDOPTERA. 233 


grouped together, and form the costa or front edge of the wing ; 
the median occupies the middle of the wing; and the sub- 
median and internal, the hinder, or internal, area of the wing. 
The costal vein is usually simple, and joins the costa near its 
outer third. The subcostal, near the middle of the wing, is 
usually subdivided into five branches, which are called ven- 
ules, while the median is usually subdivided into one venule 
less, and the submedian and internal are simple. The last, or 
fifth, subcostal venule, and the first median venule, generally 
each throw out a small venule, which meet to form the discal 
venule, thus enclosing a large central area called the discal area, 
or cell. There are rarely any cross venules present. Some- 
times, as in Hepialus, there is a transverse costal venule, and 
an interno-submedian venule. ‘They are usually found only in 
degraded Lepidoptera, and recall the net-veined style of vena- 
tion of the Neuroptera. 

The legs are slender, cylindrical, and weak. The coxe are 
closely united with the thorax, the trochanters are spherical, 


FIGs. 155, 156, give a general view of the body of a butterfly denuded of scales. 
Fic. 155. a, antenna; 1, prothorax; m, patagia, or shoulder-tippets ; 4, mesoscutum ; 
n, abdomen; A, costal edge of fore-wing; D, apex; C, outer edge excavated; EH, 
outer angle; B, inner edge; ab, discal cell; am, discal venules, throwing off the 
independent vein, al. The dotted lines indicate the inner, middle and outer third 
of the wing. Fic. 157 illustrates the mode of ornamentation of the wings 
of moths; ab, am and al, the inner, the middle, and outer third of the wings. The 
capitals are the same as in FiG. 155; sd, the basal line; sa, the inner line; sp, 
the outer, and ms, the marginal line variously waved, scalloped and angulated. 
In most of the Noctuidz are the dentiform spot, 10; mo, the orbicular, and mr, the 
reniform spots; between the two latter often runs the transverse shade, wm. In 
Fia. 158, hind wing, jr indicates the “bristle” which fits into the “hook” on 
the fore-wing, uniting the two wings during flight; cm, situated in the discal cell, 
indicates the “lunule,” and beyond are the outer and marginal dusky bands. 
Fig. 159, la, internal vein; 10, submedian vein; 2, 3, 4, 5, the four branches 
(venules) of the median vein (in FiaG. 160,5 becomes the independent venule); 
6 to 12, branches of the subcostal (in FIG. 161, xii, is the costo-subcostal recurrent 
venule). In Fig. 162, wings of the Hepialus, the venation is more irregular, and in 
the fore-wing the discal cell is divided into an anterior and posterior discal 
cellule, by the disco-longitudinal vein; sd, x, and s, accessory cells. In the Tineids 
the venation is very simple. In Fic. 163, the submedian and internal veins have 
disappeared; 9 is the costal vein; 2, 3, the two branches of the median vein; 4 to 
8, branches of the subcostal vein. In F1a@. 164, the internal vein is shortened, and the 
submedian forked, while the median and subcostal are merged together.— From 
Heinemann, in Morris’s Synopsis, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Compare 
also FIG. 29 on page 23. 

FIGs. 155 and 165. a, antenna, on one side wholly, and on the other partially, 
pectinate; 6, eye; f. ocellus; h, labial palpus; g, maxille or “tongue;” 0, coxa; 
p, trochanter; q, femur; 7, tibia; V, single anterior spur; 7*, two middle tibial 
spurs; 2, 3, two pairs of posterior tibial spurs; s, tarsus. 


234 LEPIDOPTERA. 


and the femora, tibiz and tarsi, slender and very equal in 
length. .There are usually two tibial spurs. The tarsus is 
five-jointed, the terminal joint ending in two slender claws. 

The scales covering the body of Lepidoptera are simply 
modified hairs. In studying the wing of the Cecropia moth, 
we find the hairs of the body and base of the wing gradually 
passing into the forms represented in Fig. 166. They are 
attached to the wings and laid partially over one another like 
the tiles on a roof (Fig. 167). They are inserted in somewhat 
recular lines, though, as seen in the figure, these lines are often 
irregular, as shown by the line of scars where the scales have 
been removed. The scales are beautifully ornamented with mi- 
croscopic lines. We find, on removing the scales, that the 
head consists of three well-marked pieces,* 7.e. the occiput 
or basal piece which lies behind the ocelli; the epicranium, 
lying behind the insertion of the antennze, and carrying the eyes 
and ocelli, and the clypeus, which constitutes the front of the 
head. The latter piece is larger than in all other insects, its 
size being distinctive of the Lepidoptera. There is a general 
form of this piece for each family, and it affords excellent 
characters in the different genera, especially among the butter- 
flies (as Mr. L. Trouvelot has shown us in a series of drawings 
made by him), and the Zyqgenide and Bombycide. It is 
largest, and most perfectly shield-shaped, in the Attaci. In the 
Phalenide, it is smaller, and square; and in the Tineide 
it is smaller still, while the occiput and epicranium are 
larger. 

The labrum is remarkably small and often concealed by the 
overhanging clypeus. The labium is small, short, triangular, 
and the mentum is nearly obsolete. The lingua is obsolete, its 
place being supplied by the tongue-like maxille. The labial 
palpi are feebly developed, sometimes rudimentary, and consist 

* Fig. 168. A, head of Ctenucha Virginica denuded; oc, occiput; ec, epicranium, 
with the two ocelli, 0, and the base of the antenna, at; e, eye; c, clypeus; 7, la- 
brum; m, mandible; mz, tongue, or maxille, with the end split apart; B, rudimen- 
tary maxilla of Actias Luna, with its single-jointed rudimentary palpus, showing 
the mode of attachment to the base of the maxilla; C, two-jointed, rudimentary 
labial palpus of A. Luna; D, the same, single jointed, of Platysamia Cecropia. 

FIGs. 169,170. Head of amoth in relation to the prothorax (1). F1G. 171, A, B, side 
view and (C) front view of the head of a moth; a, antenna; B, eye; d, the ‘“front;” 


e, orbit of the eye; 7, ocellus; g, maxilla situated between h, the three-jointed la- 
bial palpi ; 7, the maxillary palpus, sometimes very large and three-jointed. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 239 


of from one to three joints, the terminal one being small and 
pointed. They are recurved in front of the head, on each side 
of the spiral tongue, and are 
covered with hairs; their func- 
tion, as ftouwchers or feelers, 
seeming to be lost. The man- 
dibles are rudimentary, consist- 
ing of a pair of horny tubercles, 
partly concealed by the front 
edge of the clypeus. The 
maxillze, on the other hand, 
are remarkably developed. In 
their rudimentary state, as in Attacus, they form a pair of 
grooved blades, the hollowed sides being opposed and held 


Fig. 173. Fig. 174. Fig. 175. 


together by a row of minute teeth, thus forming a canal. The 
insect sucks through this long tube the sweets of flowers. 


Fig. 176. Fig. 177. Fig. 178. Fig. 179. 
The ‘‘tongue” is often nearly as long as the body of the insect 


itself, and when. at rest, is rolled up and held between the 
palpi. At its base are the minute rudimental maxillary palpi, 


236 LEPIDOPTERA. 


which are generally:concealed, but are apparent in the smaller 
and lower moths, Crambus and the Tineids. They are usually 
from two to three-jointed, and even five to six-jointed, as in 
Tinea granella, and longer than the maxillse, thus resembling 
the Phryganeide, or Caddis flies. 

In seeking for honey with their long maxille, the Lepidop- 
tera play an important part in the fertilization of plants, 
especially the Orchids. 

The ocelli are often present, though they do not form a tri- 
angle on the vertex, as there are only two, the third and most 
anterior one being absent. The eyes are large and globose, 
and vary in their distance apart in different families. 

The antennze vary greatly ; they are either filiform (Fig. 172, 
a), or setiform (Fig. 172, 6), or fusiform, as in the Sphinges 
(Fig. 172, c), or club-shaped, as in Papilio (Fig. 172,d). They 
are rarely entirely naked, but are finely ciliated (Fig. 173), or 
have a pair of bristles on each joint (Fig. 174), which are 
sometimes tufted (Fig. 175). The joints are sometimes toothed 
(Fig. 176), lamellate (Fig. 177), serrate (Fig. 178), or pec- 
tinate (Fig. 179). 

The thorax in Lepidoptera is remarkable for the small size 
of the first, or prothoracic ring, the mesothorax being highly 
developed. In Telea (Figs. 11 and 12, on page 11) the char- 
acteristic form is well shown. The tergal arch of the pro- 
thorax is almost obsolete, the scutum alone being represented 
by a corneous piece, while the pleural parts are more developed 
as supports for the forelegs. In the mesothorax the pre- 
scutum is present, but is usually vertical, being bent down 
and concealed between the two rings, becoming visible, how- — 
ever, from above in Hepialus (Sthenopis), in which respect it 
strikingly resembles the position and development of the same 
piece in the neuropterous Polystcechotes. The scutum is large, 
with convex sides, broadest behind the middle, and deeply 
notched for the reception of the triangular scutellum, which 
is about one-fourth the size of the scutum. The postscutellum 
is transverse, and situated out of sight, unless the two hinder 
thoracic rings are separated, under the scutellum. The epi- 
sterna and trochantines are large, and the whole mesothoracic 
flanks nearly twice as wide as those of the metathorax. The 


LEPIDOPTERA. 237 


metathorax is much compressed antero-posteriorly. The scu- 
tum is thrown aside as it were by the scutellum into two lat- 
eral, nearly square halves, the remaining tergal pieces being 
usually obsolete and membranous, but in Sthenopis the pre- 
scutum and scutellum (Fig. 18, page 12) are large, and meet 
in the middle of the segment, much as in the neuropterous 
Sialide and Hemerobiide. 

The abdomen is oval in Papilio, becoming long and linear in 
the Tineids. In the Zygenide, especially, the basal ring is 
membranous and is partly adherent to the thorax, and somewhat 
inflated on each side. The number of abdominal segments 
varies, being either eight or nine; the variation occurring, as 
stated by Lacaze-Duthiers, in closely allied genera; thus the 
genital and anal openings are placed more usually behind the 
eighth, but sometimes behind the ninth segment. 

The genital armor is very simple, consisting of two valve- 
like pieces. The parts beyond (anal stylets, etc.) are aborted, 
so that the anus and external opening of the oviduct are 
brought closely together. In the male the parts are more com- 
plex, the anal forceps often, as in the Callosamia Promethea, 
forming long curved hooks for clasping the abdomen of the 
female. 

The nervous system of Lepidoptera, and its changes during 
the transformations of the larva, have been studied most 
thoroughly by Herold (in Pieris) and Newport (in Sphinx 
ligustri and Vanessa urtice). In the imago the ventral cord 
consists of seven ganglia, while in the larva there are eleven. 
This decrease in their number is due to the fusion, during the 
pupa state, of the first, second, third and fourth ganglia of 
the larva, exclusive of those situated in the front part of the 
head; these form the two thoracic ganglia which distribute 
_ nerves to the legs and the muscles of the wings. Meanwhile 
the fifth and sixth ganglia of the larva have either disappeared 
entirely, or been united with the others. 

The digestive system (see Fig. 44, on page 35) of butterflies 
and moths is modified to suit their peculiar habits. They draw 
in the sweets of plants through the ‘‘tongue” by a sucking 
stomach which opens into the hinder end of the cesophagus. 
‘*The ileum is long, small, and nearly always forms several 


238 LEPIDOPTERA. 


convolutions. The colon is constantly of a large size, and is 
often dilated into a caecum at its anterior portion.” (Siebold.) 
The salivary glands are composed of two simple tubes, which 
are very large in the larval state, extending into the abdomen. 

The respiratory system is normal and well developed. In 
the larva the stigmata are wanting on the second and third 
thoracic and last abdominal segment. In those species of 
Sphingide, Bombycide and Noctuide, which have a 
long-sustained flight there are numerous vesicular dilatations 
of the trachee. 

The urinary tubes are six in number; they are long, free, 
and open into the stomach by two excretory ducts. 

The silk-glands consist of two long, flexuous, thick-walled 
sacs, situated on the sides of the body, and opening by a 
common orifice on the under lip (labium) usually at the 
extremity of a short tubular protuberance (Sicbold). They 
are most developed when the larva approaches the pupa state. 

We once found a larva of Clisiocampa Americana that had 
just spun its cocoon, and to ascertain whether the silk had been 
exhausted, we removed the worm from its cocoon, when it spun 
another, but thinner one; and upon removing it a second time 
it spun a third very thin cocoon, before the supply of silk was 
entirely exhausted. 

The ovary consists of four yery long, spiral, multilocular 
tubes. The receptaculum seminis is pyriform, and often has a 
long, spiral ductus seminalis. At its base is situated a large, 
double sebaceous gland; and there are two small ramose 
glands, perhaps odoriferous, situated at the orifice of the vagina. 
The copulatory pouch is a remarkably large, pyriform reseryoir, 
having for the reception of the male intromittent organ a 
canal, which opens by a special orifice, situated below and 
behind the external opening of the oviduct. (Siebold.) 

The testes form two round or oval follicles, and the two 
short deferent canals unite with two simple and very flexuous 
accessory glands, to form the long ductus ejaculatorius. 

Several interesting cases of hermaphroditism in butterflies 
and moths have been published by European entomologists. 
Mr. Edwards has noticed two remarkable instances in the Pro- 
ceedings of the Philadelphia Entomological Society (vol. iv, 


LEPIDOPTERA. 239 


p. 380), the latter of which we have also seen. ‘‘ A specimen of 
Papilio Asterias is in my collection, and was captured by Mr. 
_ J. Meyer of Brooklyn, L. I., two or three years since. It is ¢ 
fine instance of a perfect hermaphrodite. ‘The right wings are 
both male, the left wings both female, distinctly marked upon 
both surfaces with no suffusion of color. The size is that of 
the largest specimens of Asterias. The Saturnia Promethea 
is in the collection of Mrs. Bridgham of New York, and is a 
curious instance of an imperfect hermaphrodite. ‘The left an- 
tenna and left primary are male; the right antenna and left 
secondary are female ; the right primary is also female, but the 
right secondary is something between the two, neither male 
nor female. The color of the upper surface is nearly the same 
as the under surface of the male. On the under side the 
color and markings of the left primary are male, but the other 
three wings are female. The color and markings of the male 
Promethea are quite different from those of the female, and on 
this hermaphrodite the confusion of the sexes is conspicuous. 
It is a bredspecimen. The body had been viscerated, so that it 
is impossible to determine its sex.” 

The larva of Ctenucha, which resembles that of Arctia, con- 
structs its cocoon out of the hairs of its body, without spinning 
any silken threads, so far as we could ascertain by microscopi- 
cal examination. The hairs of this, as of probably most hairy 
caterpillars, but more especially the Bombycid larve, are 
thickly armed with minute spinules, so that by being simply 
placed next to each other, they readily adhere together. The 
cocoon is finished in about twelve hours. We once noticed 
a Ctenucha larva just beginning its cocoon. Early in the 
morning it described an ellipse upon the side of the glass jar in 
which it was confined, out of hairs plucked from just behind its 
head. From this elliptical line as a base, it had by eight o’clock 
built up, rather unequally, the walls of its cocoon, in some 
places a third of the distance up, by simply piling upon each 
other the spinulated hairs, which adhered firmly together. At 
four o’clock in the afternoon, the arch was completed, and the 
larva walled in by a light partition, and soon afterwards the thin 
floor was made. No silk is spun throughout the whole opera- 
tion, while in the cocoon of Pyrrharctia isabella there is a 
slight frame-work of silk upon which the hairs are placed. 


240 LEPIDOPTERA. 


Trouvelot states that the Polyphemus larva constructs its 
cocoon by drawing the leaves together as a support for the 
threads, forming the foundation of the cocoon. ‘*This seems 
to be the most difficult feat for the worm to accomplish, as after 
this the work is simply mechanical, the cocoon being made of 
regular layers of silk united by a gummy substance. The silk 
is distributed in zig-zag lines of about one-eight of an inch 
long. When the cocoon is made, the worm will have moved 
his head to and fro, in order to distribute the silk, about two 
hundred and fifty-four thousand times. After about half a 
day’s work, the cocoon is so far completed that the worm can 
hardly be distinguished through the fine texture of the wall ; 
then a gummy, resinous substance, sometimes of a light brown 
color, is spread over all the inside of the cocoon. The larva 
continues to work for four or five days, hardly taking a few 
minutes of rest, and finally another coating is spun in the 
interior, when the cocoon is all finished and completely air- 
tight. The fibre diminishes in thickness as the completion of 
the cocoon advances, so that the last internal coating is not 
half so thick and so strong as the outside ones.” 

In those moths which spin a thick cocoon, the pupa, a few 
days previous to its exit, secretes an acid fluid from two glands 
opening into the mouth. This fluid, according to Mr. L. Trou- 
velot (American Naturalist, vol. i, p. 83), in his account of the 
Polyphemus silk-worm, dissolves the hard gummy substance 
uniting the silken threads, until after the expiration of half an 
hour, the moth is able to push the fibres aside, and work its 
way out, without breaking a thread. 

Trouvelot says that the larvee of the Polyphemus moth (and 
this remark will probably apply to all other Lepidopterous 
larvee) seem entirely unable to discern objects with their sim- 
ple eyes, but can distinguish light from darkness. 

In their adult state butterflies and moths take but little food, 
consisting of honey, though Papilio Turnus, according to a 
Canadian observer, is attracted to heaps of decaying fish. 

Caterpillars grow very rapidly, and consume a great quantity 
of food. Mr. Trouvelot gives us the following account of the 
gastronomical powers of the Polyphemus caterpillar. ‘‘It is 
astonishing how rapidly the larva grows, and one who has no 
experience in the matter could hardly believe what an amount 


LEPIDOPTERA. 241 


of food is devoured by these little creatures. One experiment 
which I made can give some idea of it: when the young silk 
worm hatches out, it weighs one-twentieth of a grain; when 


10 days old it weighs 1-2 a grain, or 10 times its original weight. 
920 (75 (73 (73 (73 3 grains cc 60 (73 (39 (79 (73 
30 (73 cc 73 (73 381 (73 3 620 ce ce ce cc 
40 (73 6é (73 (73 90 « (7 1800 (T3 (73 (t3 ii 
56 tc (73 ce cc 207 cc “ 4140 (75 (73 cc (79 


When a worm is thirty days old it will have consumed about 
ninety grains of food; but when fifty-six days old it is fully 
erown and has consumed not less than one hundred and twenty 
oak leaves weighing three-fourths of a pound; besides this it 
has drank not less than one-half an ounce of water. So the 
food taken by a single silk-worm in fifty-six days equals in 
weight eighty-six thousand times the primitive weight of the 
worm. Of this, about one-fourth of a pound becomes excre- 
mentitious matter ; two hundred and seven grains are assimi- 
lated and over five ounces have evaporated. What a destruction 
of leaves this single species of insect could make if only a one 
hundredth part of the eggs laid came to maturity! <A few 
years would be sufficient for the propagation of a number large 
enough to devour all the leaves of our forests.” The Lepidop- 
tera are almost without exception injurious to vegetation and 
are among the chief enemies of the agriculturist. 

They are rarely found fossil owing to the delicacy of their 
bodies. Remains, doubtfully referred to the Lepidoptera, have 
been found in the Jura formation. A Sphinx-like moth has 
been discovered in the Tertiary formation of Europe, and a few 
minute forms have occurred in Amber. 

Butterflies are easily distinguished from the other groups by 
their knobbed antennee. In the Sphinges and their allies the 
feelers are thickened in the middle: in the Moths they are fili- 
form and often pectinated like feathers. Lepidoptera have 
also been divided into three large groups, called Diurnal, Cre- 
puscular and Nocturnal, since butterflies fly in the sunshine 
alone, most Sphinges in the twilight (some of them, however, 
fly in the hottest sunshine), while the moths are generally 
night-fliers, though many of them fly in the day time, thus 
showing that the distinctions are somewhat artificial. i 

The larger Lepidoptera (butterflies and the larger moths) 

16 


242 LEPIDOPTERA. 


have been called Macrolepidoptera, while the smaller ones, 
including the smaller Pyralid@, the Tortricide@, and the 
Tineide, are called Microlepidoptera. 

In studying these insects the best generic characters will be 
found in the antenneze, the shape of the head-parts, the vena- 
tion and proportions of the wings: very slight changes in these 
parts separating genera and species. Size and coloration, 
which are usually very constant, afford good specific characters. 

A good method of preserving larvee dry, adopted at Dresden, 
is to squeeze out the intestines through a hole made near the 
anal extremity of the larva, then to insert a fine straw, after 
which it may be placed in a glass vase, itself placed in a tin 
vessel and held over a lamp; the larval skin is blown while 
suspended over the lamp, by which the skin dries faster. It 
may be done with a small tube or blow-pipe fixed at the end 
of a bladder, held under the arm or between the knees, so as 
to leave the hands at liberty; and the straw which is inserted 
into the body of the larva may be fastened by a cross-pin stuck 
- through the skin, and thus retained in its proper position 
throughout the process of blowing. ‘The small larvee, such as 
those of the Tinez, may be put alive into a hot bottle, baked 
until they swell to the proper extent and dry, when they can be 
pinned with all their contents inside. (Westwood, Proceed- 
ings of the Entomological Society of London, Sept. 7th, 1863.) 

Dr. Knaggs has, in the Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, 
given some directions for managing caterpillars. Very young 
caterpillars, which will not eat the food provided, and become 
_ restless, should be reared in air-tight jam-pots, the tops of which 
are covered with green glass to darken the interior of the ves- 
sel. When small larve hide themselves by mining, entering 
buds and spinning together leaves, they should have as small a 
quantity of food as possible. In changing larvee from one plant 
to a fresh one, a slight jar or puff of breath will dislodge them, 
and they can be transferred to the jam-pot, or the glass cylin- 
der, covered at one end with muslin, can be turned muslin end 
downwards for them to crawl upon. The duplicate breeding 
cage, pot or tube, should be ‘*sweetened” by free currents of 
fresh dry. air and then stocked with fresh food. 

Dr. Knaggs advises that ‘hiding places,” or bits of chips, 


LEPIDOPTERA. 2438 


etc., be provided for such Noctuid larvee as naturally lie con- 
cealed, such as Orthosia, Xanthia, Noctua, etc., ‘‘ while for 
Agrotis and a few others a considerable depth of fine earth or 
sand is necessary.” 

“¢ Larvee, which in nature hibernate, must either be stimulated 
‘ by warmth and fresh food to feed up unnaturally fast, or else 
through the winter must be exposed to out-door temperature.” 
For such larvee as begin to eat before the trees are leaved 
out, the leaves of evergreens must be provided, pine leaves, 
chickweed, grasses and mosses. Hibernating, living larve, 
must during the winter be kept dry, otherwise the damp seems 
to hang about their fur, and causes them to be attacked by a 
white fungus; while smooth larvee require the natural damp- 
ness of the soil. Mr. Gibson strongly recommends that during 
the winter all cages containing larvee be placed in front of a 
window facing the east or north-east, so that the inmates may 
be kept as cool as possible. 

When the moth is fairly out of the pupa, as remarked by Mr. 
Sanborn, their wings often fail to properly expand, on account 
of the want of moisture, ‘‘ the insect being unable to expand its 
wings in a heated, dry room. He has avoided this difficulty 
by placing the insect just emerged, or about to come forth, 
beneath a bell-glass, within which he had placed moistened 
pieces of bibulous paper.” 

Mr. Trouvelot has noticed that the difference in size of the 
wings of moths or butterflies is due to the fact that some of 
the fluid thrown into the wings during their development 
escapes from a break in the surface of the wing, so that this 
wing is smaller than the other. He has, by pinching a wing 
while thus developing, caused the fluid to ‘‘ flow from the punc- 
ture, and immediately the wing so wounded ceased to grow, 
while the three others continued their development to its full 
extent.” ‘I have sometimes advanced the development of the 
wings of Telea Polyphemus. I selected for this purpose, 
pupz very far advanced in their transformation, as is shown by 
the looseness of the pupal skin, and by the color of the wings 
of the moth, which can be seen through it. I took carefully 
the pupal skin from around the moth and suspended the insect 
in the position that Lepidoptera take when emerging from the 


Q44. LEPIDOPTERA. 


chrysalis. It is very rare that the wings of such an insect 
are developed, though I have obtained some perfect specimens 
in this way; and in one instance the development of the wings 
took place only three days after the pupal skin had been 
removed. Success is more certain if the insect is put under a 
glass jar with a moistened sponge, and something for the insect 
to hang from; the dampness of the air in the jar will prevent 
the soft wings from drying too fast, and when the time arrives 
for the insect to accomplish its transformation, the fluid will be 
active. Such an insect has much analogy with a vertebrate 
born prematurely; the insect, like the quadruped, remains 
almost motionless till the natural time for its birth arrives.” 


Paritionip# Latreille. The Butterflies, or Diurnal Lepi- 
doptera, are at once distinguished from the moths by their 
knobbed antennee, though they are sometimes nearly filiform. 
The body is small, but there is a greater equality in the size of 
the three regions than in the moths, the abdomen being much 
shorter and smaller, as a general rule, than in the lower fami- 
lies. The ocelli are usually wanting; the spiral tongue or 
maxille, are long and well developed; and the wings are car- 
ried erect when in repose, and are not held together during 
flight by a bristle and socket as in the moths. 

The larve vary greatly in shape and in their style of orna- 
mentation, but they uniformly have, besides the thoracic legs, 
five pairs of abdominal legs. The pupa is called a ‘‘ chrysalis” 
or ‘‘aurelian” from the bright golden hues which adorn those 
of many species. They disappear as the wet tissues beneath the 
pupa-skin harden just before the fly appears. The pupa is usu- 
ally angulated on the sides of the thorax and along the upper 
side of the abdomen. A few species, such as those of Vanessa, 
hibernate, while several species, such as Vanessa Antiopa, are 
social as young larvee. The most ‘‘ perfect state of society is ex- 
hibited by a Mexican butterfly (Eucheira socialis Westwood), 
the caterpillars of which construct a very strong parchment-like 
bag, in which they not only reside, but undergo their change to 
the pupa state.” Butterflies also occasionally swarm while 
in the perfect state, such as species of Colias, Cynthia and 
Danais, multitudes of which are sometimes seen passing over- 


PAPILIONIDZA. 245 


head in long columns. They are truly tropical insects, since 
Gerstaecker mentions that three times as many species (600) 
occur at a single point (Para, Brazil) as in all Germany, where 
scarcely 200 species live. There are about 5,000 species known ; 
900 inhabit North America and probably the number will be 
increased to a thousand, while Mr. Scudder enumerates ninety- 
five species which have already been found in New England. — 

The noble genus Ornithoptera has very long, slightly knobbed 
antenne, and a well developed prothorax; while the fore- 
wings are very large, elongated, triangular, and the hind wings 
are relatively smaller and rounded. O. Priamus Linn. is found 
in the Moluccas. There are twenty species known. The larvee 
differ from those of Papilio in having an external forked 
sheath for the ‘‘tentacles.” The pupa is sustained by a silken 
thread on each side, attached to a small lateral tubercle. 

Of the extensive genus Papilio, or ‘‘Swallow-tail,” over 300 
species are known. ‘The larva is rather short and stout, with a 
v-shaped scent-organ, or ‘‘tentacles.” The pupa is supported 
by a filament passed entirely around it. The common P. As- 
terias Drury appears in New England in June, when it lays its 
egos on the leaves of parsley and other umbelliferous plants. 
From this brood a new set of butterflies appear in August. 
The larva is yellow, striped and spotted with black, and when 
irritated, pushes out, from a slit in the prothoracic ring, a 
v-shaped, yellow, fleshy, scent-organ, used as a means of de- 
fence. The chrysalis is free, attached by the tip of the abdo- 
men and supported by a loose silken thread, which is passed 
over the back. It lives in this state from nine to fifteen days. 
It has two ear-like projections on each side of the head and a 
prominence on the back of the thorax. 

Mr. W. Saunders has received from St. John’s, Newfound- 
land, several specimens of a butterfly, one of which I have before 
me, and which seems to be a very remarkable variety of P. 
Asterias, rather than a distinct and undescribed species, as 
supposed by my friend to whose collection it belongs. He 
writes me, after giving a detailed description, presented below,* 


*“ Papilio brevicauda Saunders. Female. Expands three and one-fifth inches; 
head, palpi and antennz black; thorax black, fringed with yellow hairs on each 
side, for about half its length; body above black, with a row of seven or eight 
yellow spots along each side which are largest about the middle of the row; under 


246 LEPIDOPTERA. 


ey 


that ‘‘this species resembles P. Asterias, but differs from it 
in many points. In P. Asterias the palpi are edged within with 
yellow; in P. brevicauda they are black. P. Asterias has two 
yellow spots above at the base of the antennz, which are either 
wanting, or exceedingly faint in the other species. P. Asterias 
has a spot of bright yellow on the anterior edge of each side of 
the thorax ; P. brevicauda has a fringe of duller yellow, extend- 
ing fully half the length of the thorax. On the primaries the 
discal bar in P. Asterias is much narrower, and the inner row 
of spots smaller and bright yellow, the upper one in the row 
being divided ; in P. brevicauda the spots are fulvous, the upper 


side of the body black, the abdomen being furnished with two rows of yellow spots 
corresponding with those above, with several additional spots within near the tip; 
feet black. Primaries above brownish black, with a bar of yellow across the end 
of the discal cell; just beyond this is arow of eight spots, extending across the 
wing nearly parallel with the outer margin; the upper one, which rests on the sub- 
costal vein, is yellow, elongated and irregular, with a blackish dot beyond the mid- 
dle: the lower ones are fulvous ; the second and third smaller than the first and.of 
an elongated, triangular form, with the apex pointing inwards; the fourth, fifth 
and sixth are similar in shape, but larger, the latter with its apex partially wanting; 
the seventh spot is wider and slightly concave on both the inner and outer edges, 
the inner edge is broken; the eighth is long, narrow and irregular, with its lower 
edge close to the hind margin of the wing. Behind the upper spot in this rowisa 
second yellow spot nearly round. Between these and the outer margin is a second 
row of spots, eight in number, but much smaller in size. These are all yellow, the 
three upper ones nearly round, the lower ones more or less elongated, the lowest 
contracted in the middle as if composed of two spots joined together; the fringe 
of the wing is also spotted with yellow, the spots corresponding in number and 
position with those forming the second row. 

“Secondaries above brownish black, with a row of seven large spots nearly con- 
fluent beyond the middle, in continuation of those on primaries, all more or less 
triangular in form, the middle ones somewhat elongated; these spots are yellow 
above and at the sides, fulvous from near the middle to the outer edge; the fulvous 
marking is less distinct on the second and third spots; within the margin is a sec- 
ond row, all yellow excepting the upper one which is tinged with fulyous; the up- 
per spot is oblong, the second nearly round; third, fourth and fifth lunular, nearly 
equal in size; the sixth similar in form, but much smaller; while the inner one is 
irregularly concave above, holding in the cavity the eye-like spot at the anal angle. 
On the outer edge are six yellow spots, larger and more striking than those form- 
ing part of the fringe on the primaries. The space between the two inner rows of 
spots is sprinkled with metallic blue atoms. At the anal angle is a round, red spot, 
with a black dot in it below the middle, and a crescent of bluish atoms above; 
tails very short, scarcely one-eighth of an inch long,—not more than half the 
length of those of P. Asterias. 

“Under surface of wings somewhat paler in color, with spots corresponding to 
those above. The upper spot of the inner row on the primaries is tinted with 
fulvous; the spots composing the inner row on the secondaries are more decidedly 
and uniformly fulyous; the four upper spots in the second row are also streaked 
with the same color; the bluish atoms between the rows are partially replaced by 

. green ones.” Taken at St. John’s, Newfoundland. 


PAPILIONIDA. QAT 


one is undivided. ‘The inner row of spots on the secondaries 
are also entirely yellow in P. Asterias, smaller and very differ- 
ent in form from those on P. brevicauda. ‘The second row of 
spots is also smaller in P. Asterias, and the red spot at the 
anal angle paler, with a smaller black dot in it, and a wider 
crescent of bluish atoms above. The length of the tail, which 
is one of the most striking points of difference, has already 
been noticed.” 

We have compared some interesting varieties of P. Asterias 
in the Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History, col- 
lected about Boston by Mr. Shurtleff, which approach (in the 
reddish hue of the spots, usually yellow, especially on the under 
side, and the shortness of the tail) the Newfoundland speci- 
men kindly sent us by Mr. Saunders, and strongly suggest the 
inference, with which Messrs. Scudder and Sanborn agree, that 
P. brevicauda is a very remarkable 
local variety of P. Asterias. 

The yellow Papilio Turnus Linn. flies ¢ 
in June and July through woods and 
about lilacs. Its larva feeds on the { 
apple and wild thorn; it is green with W/ § 
_ two eye-like spots on the thorax, and 
pupates in the middle of August. ‘The 
black dimorphic 2? form, P. Glaucus, 
is found in the Southern States. P. 
Daunus Boisd. (Fig. 180) originally Fig. 180. 
found in Mexico, has been found in Kansas, near the Rocky 
Mountains, by Mr. James Ridings. He states that it strikingly 
resembles P. Turnus, but has longer antennz, with longer, more 
curved fore-wings, besides differing in other characters. It ex- 
pands nearly five inches. P. Troilus Linn. appears more com- 
monly southward. The larva feeds on the sassafras. and lilac 
trees, and was found by Mr. Saunders feeding, rolled up on 
a leaf, on the spice bush, August 3d. ‘‘Its length was about 
one and three-fourths inches, the body being thickest from the 
third to the fifth segments. The head is rather small, flat in 
front, slightly bilobed, dull flesh color, with a faint tinge of 
brown. The body is bright pea-green, with a yellow stripe 
across the anterior part of the second segment; edged behind 
with dull black. On the fourth segment are two prominent 


248 LEPIDOPTERA. 


eye-like spots, of dull yellowish or yellowish buff, encircled 
by a fine ring of black, and a large black pupil filling most 
of the lower portion. The posterior portion of this black 
pupil is encircled by a shining bluish black ring, the anterior 
portion of which strikes a little beyond the middle of the 
pupil; there is also a line of black in front of the pupil ex- 
tending nearly across the yellow portion, and a pale pinkish 
spot in the upper part of the yellow which is edged with a 
slightly darker shade. On the fifth segment are two large, 
irregular spots of the same color, pale buff, encircled by a faint 
ring of black, and having a faint pinkish spot on the anterior 
portion of each; these spots are nearer to each other than 
those on the fourth segment, a portion of the space between the 
fifth and sixth segments being deep black; each segment, from 
the sixth to the eleventh in- 
clusive, has four blue dots, 
encircled with black, those on 
the seventh, eighth and ninth 
segments being largest. On 
each side, close to the under 
surface, is a wide yellow 
stripe, gradually softening 
into the green above, and 
ee TEN edged below with blackish 
brown. Immediately below the spiracles is a row of blue dots 
edged with black, one on each segment from the sixth to the 
twelfth inclusive. The under surface is dull, pale greenish, or 
yellowish white, having a decided reddish tinge as it approaches 
the yellow stripe on the sides. The feet partake of the same 
general color.” 2. Philenor Fabr. is black, with a greenish 
reflection towards the outer border, with whitish spots on the 
margin, and on the hind wings six whitish lunules. The larva 
is brown, with two lateral rows of small, reddish tubercles, 
and two long tubercles on the prothoracic segment. The 
chrysalis (Fig. 181, side and dorsal view) is grayish violet, yel- 
lowish on the back, with the head ending in a truncated cone. 
The genus Parnassius has short, thick antenne, with a 
rounded club, and the fore-wings are much rounded at the 
apex; it inhabits mountains. P. Smintheus Doubleday, with 
three other species, is found in the Rocky Mountains. 


PAPILIONIDZ. Q4A9 


The White Turnip, or Cabbage butterfly, Pieris oleracea Harris 
(Fig. 182 ; a, larva), is well known as being often destructive to 
cruciferous plants. In this genus, and its allies, the wings are 
rounded and entire on the edges, and are grooved on the inner 
edge to receive the abdomen. The greenish caterpillars are 
slender, ‘tapering a very little toward each end, and are spar- 
ingly clothed with a short down which is quite apparent, how- 
ever, in Pieris oleracea.” We have found the larve of this 
species on turnip leaves in the middle of August, at Chamber- 
lain Farm in Northern Maine. They are of a dull green, and 
covered with dense hairs. They suspend themselves by the 
tail and a transverse loop; and their chrysalids are angular 
at the sides, and pointed at both ends. (Harris.) Pieris 
oleracea is white, with the 
wings dusky next the body, 
the tips of the fore-wings are 
yellowish beneath, and the 
hind wings are straw-colored 
beneath. The yellowish, pear- 
shaped, longitudinally ribbed 
egos, are laid three or four 
on a single leaf. In a week 
or ten days the larve are . 
hatched. They live three Fig. 182. 
weeks before becoming full-fed. The chrysalis state lasts ten 
to twelve days. ‘There is an early summer (May) and a late 
summer (July) brood. Pieris rape Schrank has been intro- 
duced from Europe and is now found in the vicinity of Quebec 
and the northern parts of New England. 

P. Protodice Boisd. and Lec. is found southward. The 
head of the chrysalis, kindly sent me by Mr. Saunders, is pro- 
longed into a tubercle, which is equilaterally triangular, seen 
in outline, with two small tubercles near the base. On the 
thorax is a high, thin dorsal ridge, edged with red. On each side 
of the abdomen is a ridge, largest anteriorly, and rising into 
a thin tubercle on the second ring. There is a thin dorsal 
ridge on the posterior half of the abdomen. The tip is deeply 
excavated by a furrow extending the whole length of the ter- 
minal ring. There are seven rows of black dots on each ring. 


250 LEPIDOPTERA. 


It is pale whitish straw yellow throughout, with thick, black 
dots on the anterior half of the body. It is .70 of an inch in 
length. It also occurs in California. 

The Sulphur-yellow butterflies, Colias, of which C. Philodice 
Godart, our most common butterfly, is a type, occur everywhere. 
There are two broods, one appearing in April and May, and the 
other in July. Mr. Saunders gives me the following history 
of this butterfly: ‘*‘The female deposited her eggs on the 24th 
of July ; they were very long, tapering at each end, with twelve 
or fourteen raised, longitudinal ribs, and smaller cross lines in 
the concave spaces between them. ‘They hatched on the 31st. 
The freshly hatched larva is about a thirteenth of an inch long ; 
the head is black, and the body dull yellowish brown. When 
five-eighths of an inch long, it is nearly the same as when ma- 
ture; the head being dark green and slightly downy, with 
minute hairs, which also give a downy appearance to the whole 
body, which is also dotted minutely with paler points. There 
is a yellowish white stripe, on each side close to the under sur- 
face. Beneath, the body is slightly paler than above. The full 
grown larva is an inch long, and differs from the young in hay- 
ing an irregular streak of bright red running through the 
whitish lateral line. It feeds on the clover and lupine, and on 
the cultivated pea. It is not unlike a saw-fly larva in its ap- 
pearance and movements, feeding on the upper surface of the 
leaves and twisting its body into a coil when disturbed. The 
chrysalis is about seven lines long, girt with a silken thread 
across the greatest diameter of the body, which is full and bulg- 
ing on the sides. The head is pointed conically, with a purplish 
red line on each side, running to the tip and margined behind 
with yellow. The body is pale green, with a yellowish tinge, 
and a ventral line of a darker shade formed by a succession of 
minute, yellowish dots ; a yellow stripe runs along the side on 
the five hinder segments. Beneath, on the seventh, eighth and 
ninth rings, is a blackish brown line on each side, deepening 
in color about the middle of each segment, and a dorsal line 
of dark green about the same length. It remains in the chrys- 
alis state about ten days.” 

Mr. Scudder has described three species of this genus from 
the north. C. Labradorensis we have taken abundantly in 


PAPILIONIDA. 951 


Labrador. It represents our C. Philodice. C. interior lives 
north of the Great Lakes, and C. occidentalis ranges from 
Fort Simpson to the Gulf of Georgia. 

The species of a closely allied genus, Terias (7. Lisa and 
T. Delia), are much smaller and are more tropical. 

The genus Danais has antennze with a long and curved knob, 
the head and thorax are spotted with white, and the wings are 
round and entire. The caterpillars have projecting, thread-like 
horns, arranged in pairs on the top of the second and eleventh 
seoments, and the body (D. Archippus) is banded with yellow, 
black and white. The-oval chrysalids are short and thick and 
decked with golden spots. The larva of D. Archippus Harris 
feeds on the silk-weed, Asclepias, and matures in about two 
weeks, changing its skin three times, while the chrysalis state 
lasts for ten or twelve days. The butterfly appears from July 
to September. 

A very beautiful and quite aberrant tropical genus is Heli- 
conta, in which the wings are small, very narrow and often very 
transparent, while the antenne are nearly as long as the body. 
The larvee are either long, cylindrical and spinose (Acraea 
violze), or furnished with several pairs of long fleshy append- 
ages, and the chrysalids are often brilliantly spotted with 
golden and suspended by the tail. 

According to H. W. Bates (Transactions of the Entomolog- 
ical Society, 1857), the venation of the wing in many species 
of Mechanitis and Ithomia, which are allied to Heliconia, varies 
in different individuals of the same species. The sexes have 
the closest resemblance in color and markings. They are 
very gregarious in their habits. The Brazilian *‘ H. Melpomone 
varies in a curious manner. I have no doubt they are hybrids 
(i.e. the varieties), and I can almost point out the species with 
which it hybridates. Strange to say, the hybrids occur in one 
district and not in another, and one style of hybrids only occur 

in one district and not in the others, the species being equally 
abundant in all the districts.” 

Argynnis is readily recognized by the numerous round and 
triangular silver spots on the under side of the hind wings. 
The very spiny caterpillars have a round head, and the spines 
are branched, two of the prothoracic ones being the largest and 


252 LEPIDOPTERA. 


reaching over the head. The angular arched chrysalids have 
the head either square, or slightly notched, with a smooth 
thorax, while on the back of the abdomen are two rows of 
usually gold colored tubercles. They usually feed on violets, 
and may be found from May to July. Argynnis Idalia Drury 
is found the last of summer. A. Cybele Fabr. is found in the 
Middle States, and A. Atlantis Edwards in the White Moun- 
tain valleys and the colder portions of New England. 

Mr. C. A. Shurtleff discovered the larva and pupa of the lat- 
ter, July 17th, at Eastport, Maine, and being with him at the 
time, we made the following description of them: The larva 
is uniformly cylindrical, tapering alike towards each end of the 
body. On each side of the vertex of the head is a small low 
spine, giving the head an oblong shape when seen sidewise. 
The front is broad, somewhat square, flattened, with scattered 
hairs. On the first and second thoracic rings are two large 
subdorsal spines and minute lateral warts bearing small bris- 
tles, and on the hind edge of these rings are two large spines. 
On the third thoracic ring are three large spines. On each 
abdominal ring are six stout spines of the same size and placed 
equidistant on the upper surface. The bristles on the spines 
are nearly one-half as long as the spines themselves. Small pa- 
pillee, giving rise to bristles, are scattered over the body, with 
a row of them above the abdominal feet. The triangular anal 
plate is small, papilliform and prominent. The larva is dark 
velvety purple, the base of the head being of a pale horn color ; 
the body beneath is scarcely paler than above; the spines are 
pale livid on the basal half. They were full-fed and ready to 
pupate July 17th. The head of the pupa is square in front. 
On the prothorax are two subdorsal spines, and an elevated 
mesial ridge on the mesothoracic ring, rising highest behind. 
At the base of each wing is a sharp, conical, prominent papilla, 
immediately succeeded by a broad, thin-edged dilatation, con- 
stricted and appressed to the base of the abdomen; this is the 
internal angle of the wings. On the abdomen are two lines of 
subdorsal sharp papillz, one on each side. The wings extend 
to the fifth abdominal ring, and from this point the abdomen 
rapidly tapers to the tip. The surface of the body is wrinkled 
with conspicuous black spiracles. Its general color is chest- 


PAPILIONIDZ. 253 


nut brown, mottled with black; the wings being black at the 
base. The sexes of the rare and superb A. Diana Cramer differ 
remarkably, the male being dark velvety brown, with a deep 
orange border, while the female is blue-black, with lighter blue 
spots and patches on the border of the wings. It has been 
taken in West Virginia, Georgia and Arkansas. 

A, Aphrodite (Fig. 183*) abounds in the Northern States. 
According to Scudder, it is double-brooded, appearing about 
the middle of June, and fresh specimens late in August. A. 
Montinus, a more diminutive species, was discovered by Mr. 
Scudder on the lower half of the barren summits of the White 
Mountains. Allied to this last species by their size, are A. 
Myrina Cramer and A. Bellona Fabr. found in damp meadows 
late in summer. 
A. Myrina has 
tawny wings bor- 
dered with black 

above, and ex- 
pands from one 
and three-fourths 
to one and eight- 
tenths of an inch. 
A. Bellona differs 
from the other 
species by not Nis Us, 
having any silvery spots on the under side of the wings. Mr. 
Saunders has reared A. Myrina from eggs deposited June 24th, 
by a specimen confined in a box. ‘‘The egg is pale green, 
elongated, shaped something like an acorn, with the base 
smooth, convex and the circumference striated longitudinally, 
‘with about fourteen raised striz which are linear and smooth ; 
the spaces between are about three times wider than the striz, 
depressed, concave in the middle, and ribbed by a number of 
cross lines, fifteen to twenty between each strize, and distinctly 
indented. The egg is contracted at the apex, the strie protrud- 
ing at the tip all around a little beyond the body of the egg. 
The larva hatched in six or seven days, and when fresh from the 


*The upper side of the wings are figured on the left side, and the under side 
on the right, in this and in Figs. 184 and 188. 


254. LEPIDOPTERA. 


ego was about one-tenth of an inch long. The head is medium 
sized, black, and shining; the body above is dark brown, with 
transverse lines of a paler color, especially on the anterior seg- 
ments ; it is thickly covered with stout hairs of a pale brownish 
color ; between the first and second moult it is one-fourth of an 
inch long. The head is bilobed, shining, black and hairy, and 
the body above is greenish black, the greenish tinge most 
apparent on the second and third segments, with a few small 
yellowish dots along each side, and transverse rows of strongly 
elevated, black tubercles, emitting numerous short, black hair- 
like spines. 

‘¢The under surface is similar to the upper ; the feet are black 
and shining, and the prolegs are black, tipped with a paler hue. 
After the second moult there are two fleshy tubercles ‘on the 
second segment much longer than the others, being three or 
four times their length, which are covered throughout with 
small hair-like spines. The yellowish spots along the sides of 
the body assume more of an orange tint, and there are one or 
two faint, longitudinal streaks of the same color along the sides 
close to the under surface, and between the rows of large, raised 
tubercles, are many smaller ones which are also black and 
appear but slightly raised. August 7th the larva was full- 
grown. The head is, at this period, slightly bilobed, black, 
shining, and covered with short, fine, black hairs. 

‘The body above is.dark greyish brown, beautifully spotted 
and dotted with deep velvety black; the second segment, has 
two long, fleshy horns, yellowish white at base, black above, 
covered with minute, blackish, hair-like spines. The third and 
fourth segment, have each four whitish spines tipped with 
black, those on the sides placed on the anterior portion of 
the segment, those above about the middle. All the other seg- 
ments have six whitish spines, excepting the terminal one, 
which has four. All the spines have fine branches of a black 
or brownish black color and are about one-third the length of 
the fleshy horns on the second segment. A pale line extends 
along each side from the fifth to the terminal segments close to 
the under surface. The under surface is brownish black, darker 
on the anterior segments; feet black and shining; prolegs 


3) 


brown, with a shining band of brownish black on the outside. 


PAPILIONIDA. 255 


The duration of the pupa stage was ten or eleven days.” The 
pupa, received from Mr. Saunders, has two large, conical tuber- 
cles in front of the insertion of the antenna, and two acute 
tubercles on the pro- 
thorax. The thorax is 
acutely bituberculated 
on the sides, with an 
acute thin dorsal ridge, 
on each side of which 
are two small, sharp 
tubercles. Along the 
back of the abdomen Fig. 184. 

are two rows of tubercles, those on the third abdominal ring 
being much larger. It is half an inch long, and pale ash, 
with black dots and irregular lines. 

Melitea differs in not having silver spots beneath, while the 
caterpillars are covered with 
blunt tubercles which give rise 
to short stiff bristles. They 
ee = feed on different species of 
Fig. 185. plantain. The chrysalids are 
like those of Argynnis, but spotted with black or brown, and 
not with golden. 

Melitea Phaeton Drury (Fig. 184) is found in damp bogs. 
We have taken the young larva less than one-half of an inch 
long, early in spring under leaves, where it had 
doubtless hibernated. The mature larva (Fig. 
185, enlarged, the specimen from which the | | 
drawing was made, is too contracted, the head | | 
being drawn in unnaturally; fig. 186, pupa) is 
cylindrical, and the head is slightly angulated. 
There are nine rows of black spines which are 
fleshy and surrounded at the tips with rather 
long, thickset spinules. The head and thoracic | 
and last three abdominal rings are black; the rest ‘Fis: 186. 
of the body being deep orange, with ‘black lines between the 
spines, and dots along the side. Towards the last of May and 
early in June it changes to a chrysalis, which is white with a 
slight bluish tinge, with yellow papille, and scattered black 


256 LEPIDOPTERA. 


spots, giving it a gay and variegated appearance. The butter- 
fly rises from cold, swampy places the last of June and early 
in July. Its wings are velvety black, with orange red cres- 
cents and spots. It expands from two to two and a quarter 
inches, being our largest species. 

M. Tharvos Boisd. and Leconte is a very abundant species in 
New England. There are two broods, one appearing in June 
and early in July, and the second one late in August and Sep- 
tember. It has short, broad wings which are tawny orange 
above, with black, irregular lines and spots; it expands from 
one and three-tenths to one and a half inches. 

Mr. Saunders has sent us a remarkable and undescribed but- 
terfly, under the name of Melitcea Packardii Saunders, with the 
following description: ‘*It resembles M. Tharos in size, and 
expands 1.42 of an inch. The palpi are pale brown above, yel- 
lowish below; antennz black above, dotted with white and 
tipped with red; below white tipped with red. Head, thorax 
and abdomen, black above, clothed with brownish hairs ; white 
underneath ; feet brownish yellow ; wings above brown, with a 
cupreous tinge, sprinkled with fulvous atoms, with a wide band 
of dark brown on the outer margin, faintly edged on each side 
with black. The primaries have a fulvous macular band a short 
distance from the base, extending nearly across the wings, and 
a patch of the same hue a little beyond and towards the front 
margin. Beyond the middle is a wide band of the same, 
divided by the yeins into a series of seven spots ; the upper one 
is very small, a mere dot with a whitish hue ; the second is much 
larger; the third and fourth are nearly uniform in size, larger 
and more elongated than the second ; the fifth and sixth are the 
largest and wider and longer than any of the upper ones; the 
seventh is nearly of the same width as the sixth, but not more 
than half the length ; the fringe is dotted with white, especially 
about the tip. 

‘*On the secondaries a wide fulvous patch covers the inner 
part of the wing, extending from near the base to near the 
middle of the wing, and bounded towards the inner margin by 


3) 


a brown edging ; within this patch are three rounded blackish 
spots, one most distinct about the middle, the others near the 


inner margin and partly lost in the brown edging of the wing 


PAPILIONID. 257 


Beyond this is an imperfect band of fulvous spots, in continua- 
tion of those on the primaries ; the upper ones faint and indis- 
tinct, and two of the lower ones prominent and nearly round ; 
the last small and linear. The inner margin is edged with 
fulvous, having a yellowish tinge which encroaches on the outer 
brown marginal band at the anal angle. The fringe of the 
secondaries is dotted with dull white. The primaries below 
are fulyous, with a single wavy, brown line across the wing a 
short distance within the outer margin; base yellowish, costal 
margin sprinkled with dark brown atoms, and a streak of the 
same along the middle of the wing near the hind margin. At 
the tip is a yellowish patch, occupying the space between 
the brown line and the margin, and within this, one of silvery 
white nearly equal in size. Below the white are three indis- 
tinct, yellowish patches, the lower one extending to the outer 
margin; a large patch of yellow at the lower corner where the 
outer and hinder margins meet. The secondaries below are 
yellowish from the. base to near the middle, with streaks and 
spots of brown; the yellowish color extending down the inner 
to the hinder margin. Beyond the middle the wings are 
silvery white, sprinkled with yellow and brown scales, divided 
by the brown veins and partially crossed by an irregular streak 
of brown. ‘There are also two brown patches on the hind mar- 
gin, the smaller one nearly round and occupying the space 
between the first and second median venules; the larger being 
irregular and resting on the median vein, and extending across 
the third to the second subcostal venule. It was taken near 
Grimsby, Ontario County, Canada.” 

Meliteea Ginone Scudder is rarely found in Maine and Mas- 
sachusetts; it is pale fulvous above, with blackish brown 
markings, and expands from one and three-fifths to one and 
four-fifths inches. M. Harrisii Scudder may be readily distin- 
guished from M. Gnone by the under surface of the hind wings 
being cinnamon-red, with bands and spots of white margined 
with black. It expands one and three-fourths inches and is 
found in New England, though rather a rare species. The larva 
has been reared in Norway, Maine, by Mr. 8. I. Smith. It feeds 
on Diplopappus umbellatus, pupating from the middle to the 
last of June, and remaining in the chrysalis state from ten to 

17 


258 LEPIDOPTERA. 


sixteen days; the butterfly appears from June 20th to Aug. 
1st. The larva (Fig. 187) has also been discovered in Vermont 
by Mr. P. S. Sprague, and we describe it briefly from an alco- 
holic specimen, in the collection of Mr. Sanborn. It is cylin- 
drical, with six acute, small tubercles on each side of each 
thoracic ring, while on the abdominal rings the four dorsal 
tubercles are larger and re- 
markably boot-shaped, the 
toe being formed by a lateral 
prolongation of the tubercle, 

Fig. 187. and the heel is also well 
formed, from which arises a short bristle. The specimen is 
dark, with a lighter stripe along the back on each side of the 
median line of the body. Its length is .80 of an inch. 

M. Chalcedon Doubleday is found in California and the 
Rocky Mountains, while M. Anicia Doubleday, the under side 
of which is much like that of Chalcedon, occurs not only in 
California and the Rocky Mountains but also in Kansas. MM. 
Texana Edwards is a Texan species expanding one and one- 
half inches. 

In Vanessa the wings are notched and angulated or tailed on 
the hind edges, while the palpi are long and beak-like. The 
larva is cylindrical and stoutly spined, the spines being long 
and branched. ‘The caterpillars are gregarious during the early 
stages. ‘*The head of the chrysalis is deeply notched, or fur- 
nished with two ear-like prominences ; the sides are very angu- 
lar; in the middle of the thorax there is a thin projection, in 
profile, somewhat like a Roman nose, and on the back are two 
rows of very sharp tubercles of a golden color.” (Harris.) 
Vanessa Antiopa Linn. is one of our most abundant butterflies, 
being much more common in this country than in Europe, 
whence it has probably been imported. Its wings are purplish 
brown above, with a broad buff yellow border in which is a row 
of pale blue spots. The butterfly hibernates, appearing before 
the snow is off the ground. It is seen until June, and then 
not until the middle of August. The larva is black, spotted 
minutely with white, with a row of eight dark, brick-red spots 
on the back. The chrysalis is dark brown, with large tawny 
spots around the tubercles on the back. The caterpillar defoli- 


PAPILIONIDZ. 259 


ates the willow, poplar and Balm of Gilead. Vanessa Mil- 
bertii Godart is much smaller and is rather rare. It occurs 
about roadsides in May, July and August. The larva feeds 
on nettles. Mr. Saunders informs me that ‘‘it was found feed- 
ing on the nettle, nearly full grown, July 26th. It was from 
one to one and one-eighth inches long. The head is black, 
thickly covered with fine, brownish white hairs, and sprinkled 
with many minute whitish dots. ‘The body is black, thickly 
sprinkled with whitish dots and with small, fine, white hairs, 
each segment, excepting the second, with a transverse row of 
branching spines. <A greenish yellow lateral line runs close to 
the under surface, with a second broken line of a brighter yel- 
low color. All the spines and their branches are black, except- 
ing the lower row on each side from the fifth to the twelfth 
segment, springing from the greenish yellow lines ; these are of 
a greenish yellow color. Under surface dull greenish, minutely 
dotted with whitish dots. There is a wide, central, blackish 
stripe covering anteriorly, nearly the whole of the under sur- 
face.” V. Californica Boisd. is bright fulvous, with three black 
bands on the anterior edge of the fore-wings, and there are no 
black crescents in the black border of the wings. 

The genus Grapta differs from the preceding in its deeply 
incised wings, its smaller size, and red and brown colors. 
The under side of the hind wings has usually a silvery or 
golden dot and curved line, or both, imitating different punc- 
tuation marks. Grapta interrogationis Doubleday is one of the 
largest species, and has a golden semicolon beneath. It is found 
in May, August, and in autumn. The caterpillars injure the 
foliage of the elm and lime trees, and also the hop vine, some- 
times defoliating the whole vine. The larva has been found, 
by Mr. Saunders, feeding on the hop, August 7th. ‘‘ When 
full grown its length is one and one-fourth inches. The head 
is reddish black, flat in front and somewhat bilobed, each lobe 
tipped with a tubercle emitting five single, black, pointed 
spines ; it is covered with many small, white, and several black- 
ish tubercles. The body is cylindrical, black, thickly covered 
with streaks and dots of yellowish white; the second segment 
is without spines, but with a row of yellowish tubercles in their 
place; the third segment has four branching spines, all black, 


260 LEPIDOPTERA. 


with a spot of dark yellow at their base; and on the fourth 
segment are four spines, as there are on all the others, except- 
ing the terminal, which has two pairs, one posterior to the 
other. The spines are yellow, with blackish branches, except- 
ing the terminal pair which is black; and there is a row of 
reddish ones on each side. The under surface is yellowish grey, 
darker on the anterior segments, with a central line of blackish 
and many small, black dots.” The chrysalis state lasts from 
twelve to fourteen days. It is ash brown, with the head deeply 
notched, and eight silvery spots on the back. Grapta c-argen- 
teum Kirby (Fig. 188, G. Progne Harris) is a small species 
with a silvery L in the middle of the under side of the hind 
wings. It isour most common species northward. It appears 
the last of summer. The larva lives on the hop and elm. 
Grapta comma Double- 
day is more common 
southward. It is known 
by haying a silvery 
comma in the middle 
of the hinder wings. 
The caterpillar lives on 
the hop and elm. Mr. 
W. H. Edwards has 

Fig. 188. found the larvee on the 
broad-leaved nettle. He says ‘‘my attention was first attracted 
by observing certain leaves drooping, and more or less eaten. 
On the under side of these I usually found the caterpillar 
inactive, and never more than one upon the same plant. ‘The 
half-grown larvee were black, with a yellowish stripe along the 
side from the third segment to the tail, and with yellow stripes 
across the back, and spots of the same color at the base of 
the dorsal spines, which were yellow, tipped with black. The 
mature larvee were white, mottled or striped with grey or 
ashen, and with red spiracles.” 

The chrysalis is brownish gray or white, variegated with 
pale brown, and ornamented with gold on the tubercles. The 
fly appears in May, July, August and September. In the colder 
and mountainous portions of New England and New York, 
these species are replaced by the Grapta Faunus of Edwards, 


PAPILIONIDZ. 261 


who states that ‘‘comparing Faunus with c-album, the former 
is deeper colored by many degrees; it is one-fifth larger, the 
black spots and margins much heavier, and, owing to this and 
the depth of the ground-color, the general hue of the surface is 
much darker than either c-album or any of the American spe- 
cies.” The under side of G. Faunus is beautifully marbled in 
several colors. 

The genus Pyrameis differs from Vanessa in having the 
wings simply scalloped, not notched; beneath, they are not 
marked with metallic colors, and the long, tapering palpi curve 
upward. The larve are covered with branched spines, corre- 
sponding in size, and often wanting on the first and last seg- 
ments; the head is heart-shaped. They are solitary, hiding 
under a rolled leaf or spinning a slight web, and hang by the 
hind feet alone when about to transform. The chrysalids are 
angular on the sides, with two or three lateral rows of sharp, 
golden tubercles, and a short, thick tubercle on the top of the 
thorax. PP. cardui Linn. feeds on thistles and the sunflower, 
the hollyhock, burdock and other rough-leaved plants, in June 
and July. It remains in the pupa state twelve days, the but- 
terfly appearing in Maine, about the 20th of July. Pyrameis 
Huntera Fabr. has much the same habits, while P. Atalanta 
Linn. feeds on the nettle. These species are all double- 
brooded, first appearing in May and then in July, August 
and September. 

Junonia is closely allied to Vanessa. J. cenia Boisd. and 
Lec. is found in the Southern States, the West Indies, Mexico 
and California. 

In Limenitis the antennee are very slender, and the hind 
wings are scalloped, while on both wings the discal area is 
open. ‘The caterpillar and chrysalis are like those of Danais. 
LL. Misippus Fabr. (Fig. 189) is tawny yellow above, and of a 
paler yellow beneath, with a broad, black border, spotted with 
white, and black veins. It expands from three to three and a 
half inches and flies from June to September. The larva is 
pale brown, variegated with white on the sides, and some- 
times with green on the back; the prothoracic ring has two 
slender, blackish, spinulated horns, and on the tenth and 
eleventh rings are short tubercles. It feeds on the poplar and 


262 LEPIDOPTERA. 


willow. The pupa is known by a thin, almost circular, projec- 
tion standing out from its back. The young larvee winter in 
cases ‘‘composed of the leaf of the willow, on which the larva 
feeds, neatly joined by its longest opposite margins, so as to 
form a cylindrical tube closed at one end and lined with silk.” 
(Trouvelot.) L. Ephestion Stoll is blue black, with three black 
lines on the hind edges, and just within the outer border is a 
row of orange colored spots. It lives on the scrub-oak (Quercus 
ilicifolia) in June, and also on the whortleberry and the cherry. 
Limenitis Arthemis Drury is smaller and has an oblique, broad, 
white band, crossing both wings. It is common in the White 
and Adirondack Mountains, where it is double brooded, ap- 
pearing late 
in June, and 
j again late in 
August. 

The superb 
and regal ge- 
nus Morpho 
is the Atlas 
among but- 
terflies. The 
broad wings 
spread nearly 
six inches, and are usually of a brilliant blue above, and brown 
beneath, with eye-like spots. Morpho Menelaus Linn., from 
Brazil, expands five and a half inches. MM. Polyphemus Chenu 
is a Mexican species. MW. Epistrophis Hubner is of a delicate 
pale green, with two rows of lunate brown spots on the hind 
wings. The apex of the fore-wings is brown, and the discal 
spot is connected with the brown costa. It inhabits Brazil. 

The genus Satyrus, and its allies, Chionobas, Hipparchia and 
Neonympha, are wood brown and ornamented, especially be- 
neath, with eye-like spots, and have the wings entire, with the 
veins of the fore-wings swelled at their base, and the discal 
area open on the hind wings. They have a short, quick, jerky 
flight. The caterpillars are green and smooth, spindle-shaped, 
or cylindrical, tapering at both ends; the hind end is notched, 


Fig. 189.* 


* FIGS. 189, 190 and 198, are from Tenney’s Zodlogy. 


PAPILIONID ZX. 263 


and the head entire or notched. They live mostly on grasses. 
‘¢The chrysalis is either oblong and somewhat angular on the 
sides, with the head notched, and two rows of pointed tuber- 
cles on the back, or short and rounded, 
with the head obtuse.” (Harris). Chio- 
nobas is found on Alpine summits and 
in the Arctic regions and on subarctic 
mountains. C. semidea Say (Fig. 190; 
Fig. 191, hind wing) lives on the summit 
of Mount Washington. It feeds on 
lichens. 

Mr. Scudder, has in the accompanying 
figures, closely exhibited the differences ™ 
between the Alpine and Arctic species i 
of Chionobas. C. Jutta Moschler (Fig. 192) we took in, 
Northern Labrador ; it extends as far south as Quebec, accord- 
ing to Edwards. C. Chrixus Doubleday, (Fig. 193) is found 
on Pike’s Peak, Colorado Territory ; C. Calais Scudder (Fig. 

194) is found on Albany River, Hudson’s 
\ SO) Bay; C. Bore Schiodte (Fig. 195) we 
have collected in Hopedale, Labrador, 
‘4 as also C. Gino Boisd. (Fig. 196). 

Satyrus Alope Fabr. is our largest spe- 
cies. It is dark brown, with a broad, 
ochre-yellow band beyond the middle. 
It is abundant in open fields in July and August. The pale 
ereen larva is striped with dark, the head is round, and the tail 
is forked. The chrysalis is rather long, rounded on the sides 
and with the head notched. iS. Nephele Kirby is the more 


aN EE | 


Fig. 193. Fig. 194. Fig. 195. Fig. 196. 
northern form, and in the upper Middle States, as about the 
Catskill mountains, occupies higher ground, according to Mr. 
Edwards, while S. Alope, which prevails southward, is found 
in the lowlands and valleys. S. Nephele is smaller, darker, and 


Fig. 191. Fig. 192. 


264 LEPIDOPTERA. 


there is no yellow band on the fore-wings, though, sometimes, 
each eye-like spot is surrounded by a yellowish diffuse ring. 

Neonympha Eurytris Fabr. flies low, with a jerky sort of 
motion, in thick woods, in June and July. The larva is like 
that of S. Alope, while the chrysalis is shorter with the head 
obtusely rounded. The adult is dark brown, with two black 
eye-spots, pupilled with a lead-colored dot, and surrounded 
with an ochre-yellow ring. On the hind wing is a smaller, simi- 
lar spot. It expands one and seven-tenths of an inch. 

The aberrant genus Libythea, with its long, snout-like palpi, 
reminds us of the Pyralids. It is small and the wings are 
irregularly notched. L. Bachmanii of Kirtland is not a common 
butterfly. It occurs southward, and in Central America and 
the West Indies. 

_ The small, delicate Theclas and Lyczenas are often of great 
beauty and interest. The palpi are elongated, the wings 
entire, and the hind pair are often once or double tailed. 
The larvee are slug-like, as when moving on their short feet, 
sixteen in number, they seem rather to glide than walk. They 
are oval, flat below and rounded above, both extremities being 
much alike, with the small head retracted within the body. 
The short and thick chrysalids are flat beneath, but very con- 
vex above and rounded at each end. Chrysophanus Ameri- 
canus Harris, our most abundant form, is coppery red above. 
Its green larva feeds on the sorrel, and there are three broods 
of butterflies in the year. The chrysalis is usually suspended 
under a stone. One sent by Mr. Saunders, is smooth, with 
no fine hairs. The head and thorax, including the wings, is 
dull reddish brown, dotted with black; the abdomen is much 
lighter cinereous, with very distinct, and irregular black dots, 
and a lateral row of twin black dots, one dot being a little 
behind its mate. On the middle of the back are three rows of 
smaller black dots. It is .45 of an inch in length. Chryso- 
phanus Thoe Westwood is quite a rare species. Mr. Saunders 
describes the eggs as being ‘‘nearly round, a little flattened at 
the apex and flattened also at the base, where it is fastened to 
the box. They are greenish white, and thickly indented ; at the 
apex is a considerable depression; immediately around this, 
the indentations are small, growing larger towards the base.” 


PAPILIONID®. 265 


The genus Lycena is azure blue throughout, with dark mark- 
ings. Lycenda neglecta Edwards (Polyommatus pseudargiolus 
Harris) is very common about the Kalmia and Rhodora in 
May, and a new brood appears in June and July. It has been 
reared by Mr. Saunders, from whom I have received the pupa, 
which is a little hairy, being much smaller than in Thecla 
Acadica and paler ashy. It is spotted quite thickly with black 
blotches, and on each side of the abdomen is a subdorsal row 
of rather large, black, contiguous blotches, more distinct than 
in T. Acadica. It is .30 of an inch long. 

I. comyntas Harris is quite common southward. It differs 
from the other species in having a little tail on the hind wings, 
at the base of which are two deep, orange-colored crescents. 
It flies in July and August. The caterpillar lives on the Lespe- 
deza. It is green with three darker stripes. The brown chrys- 
alis has three rows of black spots on the back. 

Thecla differs from the two preceding genera, in its conspic- 
uous tails and the longer clubs of the antennz and its dusky 
brown hues. The larvee are longer and flatter, and they usually 
live on trees. Thecla humuli Harris feeds on the hop-vine. 
It flies in July and August. Thecla niphon Godart, a dusky 
rust-red butterfly, feeds on the pine. The larva is green, with 
a dorsal yellow stripe, and a white one on each side. It 
changes to a short, thick, greyish pupa, with two rows of 
blackish dots, and beyond these a row of rust-red ones. Mr. 
Saunders has sent us the following description of the cater- 
pillar and chrysalis of Thecla Acadica Edwards, found by him 
at London, Canada West, feeding on the willow, June 11th 
and 18th. ‘It was .63 of an inch in length, with a very small, 
_ pale brown head, withdrawn within the prothoracic segment, 
when at rest. The body is rather dark green, and is thickest 
from the mesothoracic to the sixth abdominal segment. There 
is a darker green, dorsal line, the dorsal region being flat, 
rather wide, and edged on each side with a raised, whitish yel- 
low line, and the sides of the body are inclined at almost an 
acute angle, and striped with faint, oblique lines, of a greenish 
yellow. A whitish yellow line borders the under surface, be- 
ginning at the anterior edge of the second segment (the head 
is, for convenience, counted as a single ring, or segment) and 


266 LEPIDOPTERA. 


extending entirely around the body. 'The chrysalis is .32 of 
an inch long, and .15 wide. It is fastened with a silken 
thread. ‘The abdomen is thickened and somewhat raised. It 
is minutely hairy, pale brown, with many dots and patches of 
a darker color; the upper edge of the wings being quite dark, 
with a dark ventral stripe, and four or five short, dark lines on 
the side. It remains in the chrysalis state eight or nine days, 
the caterpillar turning dark July 3d, just before pupating.” 
The body, especially the abdomen, is thicker and fuller than in 
Chrysophanus Americanus. 

Thecla Mopsus Hubner is found in New England and Canada. 
Mr. Saunders sends me the following description of the larva 
taken June 9th, by beating bushes, at London, Canada. ‘It 
was .40 of an inch in length. The head is small, of a shin- 
ing black color, with a pale stripe across the front just above 
the mandibles, and is drawn within the second ring when at 
rest. The body above is green along the middle rings, deep rose 
color at each extremity, and is thickly covered with short, brown 
hairs. The second segment is rosy above, greenish yellow at 
the sides, with an edging of the same color in front; the third 
segment is entirely rose colored; from the third to the tenth 
segments is a dorsal stripe of rose which is wide on the fourth, 
fifth, eight and ninth segments, but narrow and linear on the 
intermediate ones; on the tenth segment the green encroaches 
on the rose color on the sides of the body, extending more than 
half-way upon the segment behind the tenth. The body is 
rose colored with a dorsal streak of a darker shade. The rose 
color at each extremity is united by a rosy line along each side 
close to the under surface which grows fainter on the middle 
segments. The under surface is dull green, with a yellowish 
tint; the feet and prolegs (abdominal legs) are yellowish 
ereen. June 24th, the larva has now become quite large and 
will probably soon go into the chrysalis state. I found it 
would readily eat the plum and cherry. 

‘““Tts length is now .70; its width about .20 of an inch. The 
head is very small, bilobed, black and shining, with a streak of 
dull white across the front above the mandibles, which are 
reddish brown. The body above is dull green, with a yel- 
lowish tint, especially on the anterior segments, which are 


o 


PAPILIONIDA. 267 


thickly covered with very short, brown hairs, scarcely visible 
without a magnifier; these hairs arise from small, pale, yel- 
lowish dots which appear slightly raised ; there is a dorsal streak 
of dark green arising from the internal organs showing through 
the semitransparent skin. ‘There is a patch of dull pink, or 
rosy color, on the anterior segments from the second to the 
fourth inclusive; it is faint on the second ring, and covering 
but a single portion of its upper surface, and nearly covering 
the dorsal crest on the third segment, and reduced again to a 
small, faint patch on the fourth. On the posterior segments is 
a much larger rosy patch, extending from the hinder part of the 
ninth segment to the end of the body. ‘The hinder part of 
the ninth segment is merely tinged. On the tenth segment it 
becomes a rather large patch, widening posteriorly. Behind 
this the body is entirely covered with rosy red. The sides of 
the tenth segment, close to the under surface, have a streak of 
the same color, and there is a faint continuation of this on the 
ninth segment. The head is drawn within the second segment 
when at rest. The second segment is smaller than the third ; 
there is a wide dorsal crest, or ridge, from the third to the tenth 
segments inclusive ; behind this the body is suddenly flattened, 
the sides suddenly sloping. ‘The under surface is yellowish 
green, with a few very fine brownish hairs; the feet and 
prolegs are greenish, semitransparent. 

“On June 29th it fastened itself to the lid of the box, chang- 
ing to a chrysalis July Ist, which was .45 of an inch in 
length, and its greatest width .20 of an inch. The body is 
pale brown and glossy, with many small, dark brown or black- 
ish dots distributed over the whole surface; they are thicker 
along the middle above, with a faint, imperfect, ventral stripe 
from the seventh to the eleventh segments; the surface is 
thickly covered with very short, brown hairs, invisible without 
a magnifier. The imago appeared July 13th.” 

Mr. Saunders has found the larva of Thecla strigosa Harris, 
a rare species in Canada and New England, feeding on the 
thorn, Cratzegus, July 13th. ‘“‘The head is small, greenish, with 
a faint tint of brown, and a black stripe across the front below 
the middle, and a patch of white between this stripe and the 
mandibles, which are brownish black above. The body is of a 


268 LEPIDOPTERA. 


rich velvety green, with a yellowish tinge, slightly paler be- 
tween the segments, and a dorsal stripe of a darker shade, 
centred along the middle segments with a faint, yellowish 
line. The anterior edge of the second segment is yellowish 
brown, with a few dots of a darker color. The body is thickly 
covered with minute hairs which are brown above and white 
below, being scarcely visible to the naked eye. The body is 
flattened above (dorsal crest not bordered with yellow as in T. 
Acadica), steeply sloped at the sides, where it is striped with 
faint oblique lines of yellowish, two or three on each segment. 
The two last segments have a patch of yellowish on each side, 
making the dark dorsal line appear much more prominent. A 
faint yellowish line close to the under surface from the fifth to 
the terminal segments. The under surface is bluish green, 
with a darker patch on the last two segments. 

‘The chrysalis changed June 19th, and is nearly oval in form. 
The head-case is rounded, and the body is dark reddish brown, 
with black markings thickly covered with fine, short, whitish 
hairs, rather more numerous on the anterior and posterior 
segments. Anterior segments with many thickly set patches 
of blackish, and a dark ventral line from the sixth to the 
twelfth segments. It is bound by a few silken threads on 
the anterior portion of the first and second segments.” 

The accompanying cut (Fig. 197) represents the pupa of a 
Thecla, found in July by Mr. Sanborn, on the Glen road to 
Mount Washington. The body is smooth and tapers gradually 

from the mesothorax, and the venation of the wings is 

a very apparent. Another pupa, probably of Thecla, found 

v-\ by Mr. Sanborn, is very different, being much stouter, 
and thicker through the abdomen, by a third of its 
diameter, than the chrysalis figured. It is rough and 
covered with short, fine, stiff hairs; the tegument is so thick, 
that there are no traces of the veins of the wing, while the 
sutures between the segments and the appendages are not 
nearly as distinct. The larva, according to Mr. Sanborn’s 
notes, was found feeding upon the White Pine, July 13th. 
‘It was .45 of an inch long; the head was retracted, yellow- 
ish, and the body pale, transparent green, with four longi- 
tudinal, white stripes, and one transverse, lozenge-shaped 


SS 
Fig. 197. 


PAPILIONIDA. 269 


patch, of the same color, on the eleventh segment. The rings 
were all somewhat elevated in the middle of their diameter and 
thinly covered with yellowish brown, short hairs.” He did not 
succeed in rearing the butterfly, but this description will be 
useful to any entomologist who may be fortunate enough to 
rear it hereafter. 

The Hesperians, or Skippers, are a large group of small, 
dark, dun-colored butterflies, whose antennze have the knob 
curved like a hook, or ending in a little point bent to one side, 
reminding us of the antennez of the Sphinges. They are moth- 
like in their motions, form, and larval characters. ‘They are 
stout bodied, with large heads and prominent eyes, and thick 
palpi, almost square at the end. The larvee are spindle-shaped, 
naked, and with a remarkably large head. They are solitary, 
and often hide in folded leaves like the Tortricide, trans- 
forming in arude cocoon of dead leaves or stub- 
ble, held together by silken threads. The pupeze 
are somewhat conical, like those of moths, 
smooth and generally covered with a bluish 
white powder. They are fastened by the tail 
and a slight band of threads within their rude IMGe Wee. 
cocoons. We have many species in this country; the largest 
forms occurring southwards. 

Hudamus Tityrus Cramer feeds on the locust and is our largest 
species northward. EH. Bathyllus flies in June and July. It feeds 
on Glycine and Hedysarum in May and June. In Hesperia 
the knobs are shorter, and end in a point turned sidewise. 
The upper wings are raised, and the lower spread out flat when 
at rest. The chrysalis has a long tongue-case free at the end, 
in this respect showing a transition to the hawk-moths. They 
are snufi-brown, with dark spots. 

Mr. W. Saunders has been very successful in raising the 
larvee of H. Hobomoc Harris and other butterflies and moths, 
by watching for the fertile eggs in captured specimens, which 
are often deposited on the sides of the collecting box. The 
food-plant of the larva can usually be discovered after experi- 
menting with those plants on which other species of this or 
allied genera are known to feed. ‘‘The egg, deposited June 
17th, is nearly round, flattened on the lower side, and of a 


270 LEPIDOPTERA. 


pale green color. Under the microscope it appears plainly 
reticulated, with fine, six-sided markings, strongly resembling 
the cornea of a fly’s eye. The larva on finding its way out, 
June 27th, began to eat the egg-shell at the centre above. 
It feeds on grass, on the inside of the leaves near the joints, 
drawing portions of the leaves together with silken threads. 
When placed on a strongly ribbed blade of grass, it spins a 
few threads from rib to rib, and stations itself behind the 
threads. By the 14th of July the caterpillars were three- 
eighths of an inch long and resembled those of H. Mystic 
of the same age.” Mr. Saunders did not succeed in raising 
the caterpillars to maturity as they were unfortunately lost. 

The most abundant species in New England is A. Wamsutta 
Harris (Fig. 198) which frequents roadsides throughout the 
summer. According to Mr. Saunders’ notes, from ‘‘eggs de- 
posited July 10th, the young larva was hatched July 24th, the 
egos growing darker about two or three days previous. The 
ege is pale greenish yellow, or yellowish green, strongly con- 
vex above, and flattened at the place of attachment. The flat- 
tened portion is slightly concave and very faintly reticulated 
under a power of forty-five diameters. 

The young larva, when first hatched, is about the same as 
that of Mystic and Hobomoc, probably .10 of an inch, and is 
scarcely distinguishable from them, excepting that it is slightly 
darker in color. The head is large and prominent and of a 
shining black color. The second segment has a ring of brown- 
ish black, encircling it above. The body is dull brownish yel- 
low, very faintly dotted with black, each dot emitting a single, 
rather long, brownish hair. The under surface is rather paler 
than the upper. 

Mr. Saunders has also reared the larva of H. Mystic Edwards 
from the egg, which is ‘‘ strongly convex above, flattened below 
and depressed in the centre of the flattened portion. Under 
a magnifying power of eighty diameters, the surface is seen 
to be faintly reticulated ; it is pale yellowish green. The eggs 
were deposited about the 20th of June and hatched on the 
28th and 29th of June. When hatched it was .10 of an inch 
long, with a large, black head, and was white, becoming yel- 
lowish brown, especially towards the end of the body. It feeds 


SPHINGIDA. 271 


on grass, and at this stage can scarcely be distinguished from 
the young larva of H. Hobomoc. When an inch long the head 
is not large in proportion to the body, though it is prominent 
and wider than the second segment; it is dull reddish brown 
and black posteriorly. The body above is semitransparent, 
dull brownish green, with minute, whitish hairs, similar to 
those on the head, with a dorsal line and many darker dots 
over the surface. The second segment is pale whitish, with a 
line of brownish black across the upper surface, with a faint, 
pale, lateral line close to the under surface: the terminal seg- 
ments are paler than the rest of the body. The feet are 
whitish, semitransparent. ‘This species is found from Canada 
to Maryland. 


SpHiIncip# Latreille. The Hawk-moths or Humming-bird 
moths are among the largest and stoutest of Lepidoptera. The 
body is very stout, spindle-shaped, with narrow, powerful wings. 
Their flight is, consequently, exceedingly swift and strong. 
The antenne are prismatic in form and thickened in the mid- 
. dle. The tongue, or maxille, is remarkably long, so that the 
insect is able, while on the wing, to explore the interior of 
deep flowers. This habit of remaining for a considerable time 
poised in the air on their rapidly vibrating wings, causes them 
to be mistaken for humming-birds. At rest the wings are 
folded, roof-like, over the body. The larvee have sixteen legs, 
and on the last segment is an acute horn, sometimes represented 
by a simple tubercle. At rest they stand with the forepart 
of the body elevated in a supposed Sphinx-like attitude. The 
larvee descend into the earth and transform, often in rude, 
earthen cocoons, moulded into form by the pressure of the 
body. The tongue-case is usually free. 

There are between 300 and 400 species known, a large part 
of which are tropical American. Most of the species fly in 
June and July. The larve transform in the latter part of 
August and in September. 

In Ellema the body is small. The head is small, narrow and 
somewhat tufted, and with small eyes. It might be passed over 
on a hasty view for a Noctuid. The larva of Ellema Harrisii 
Clemens is green, has no caudal horn, and lives on the pine. 


272 LEPIDOPTERA. 


Mr. Saunders writes me that he has found it feeding on the 
pine, about the middle of September. ‘‘It is two inches long, 
the body being smooth and nearly cylindrical and thickest in 
the middle of the body. The head is large, pointed aboye, flat 
in front and green, with a yellow stripe on each side. The 
body is bright green, with a dorsal row of dark red spots on 
the fifth to the twelfth segments inclusive, with a bright yel- 
low stripe on each side of the reddish spots and a lateral 
white stripe mixed with yellow.” The moth is a very small, 
ash grey species, only expanding two inches. It frequents 
flowers at dusk in June. 

The genus Sphinx, as now limited by systematists, is much 
larger bodied, with a long and narrow head, small eyes and 
long and narrow wings. The head of the larva is rather 
large, semi-oval and flattened in front. ‘The body is cylin- 
drical, smooth and obliquely banded on the side, with an 
arching, caudal horn. It transforms in a subterranean earthen 
cell. The tongue-case of the pupa is short and free, instead 
of being soldered to the body. Sphinx gordius Cramer is dark 
brown, with a roseate tinge, and the thorax is blackish brown 
above. The larva feeds on the apple. 

Sphinge kalmic: Smith is hoary and rust-red, and on the hind 
wings are a median and marginal black band. The caterpillar 
feeds on the lilac and laurel. It is pale green, with seven 
oblique, lateral, pale yellow bands, edged above with black, 
which is again bordered with pale blue. Sphinx drupiferarum 
Smith has the fore-wings blackish brown, with the discal dot 
and outer edge of the wing whitish fawn-color. The larva 
feeds on the different species of plum. The body is pale green, 
with lateral purple bands, edged beneath with white. Sphinz 
chersis Hiibner (S. cinerea Harris) is the largest species we 
have, and is pale ashen, and reddish gray beneath. The larva 
feeds on the lilac. 

The large ‘‘potato worm” belongs to the genus Macrosila, 
containing our largest species of the family; the head is pro- 
portionally large, and the wings are rather broad, with the 
interior angles dilated. M. cingulata Fabr. has pink hind 
wings and pink spots on the abdomen. It feeds on the sweet 
potato. M. quinque-maculata Haworth (Fig. 199, moth; a, 


SPHINGID A. 273 


18 


274 LEPIDOPTERA. 


larva; 6, pupa) is gray; the fore-wings are immaculate at the 
base, and on the hind wings are two distinct angulated bands. 
The larva feeds on the tomato and potato vines. It is dark 
green, with a series of greenish yellow angular bands on the 
side. The tongue-case is long and much arched. M. Carolina 
Linn. is cinereous, with a white spot at the base of the fore- 
wing, while the central band of the hind wings are indistinct. 
The larva (Fig. 200) 
feeds on the tobacco 
and tomato. It is dark 
green with lateral, 
oblique, white bands, 
edged above with blu- 
ish and short trans- 
verse black stripes. 
The tongue-case is shorter and less curved than in M. 5-macu- 
lata. The tongue of a Madagascar hawk-moth, MW. cluentius, 
Wallace states, is nine and a quarter inches long, probably 
adapted for exploring the long nectaries of some Orchids. 

In Ceratomia the body is thick, with the head and eyes small ; 
the thorax is short and round, while the abdomen is rather 
long. The larva is easily known by the 
four thoracic horns, besides the usual 
caudal horn. The tongue-case is not 
\ free. C. Amyntor Hubner (quadricornis 
Harris) feeds on the elm. 

We now come to the more aberrant 
forms of the family. Under the name 
of Cressonia Mr. Grote has separated 

Fig. 201. from the genus Smerinthus, a species in 
which the wings are more notched than in the latter genus, and 
the antenne are slightly pectinated. Cressonia juglandis Smith 
(Fig. 201, venation) is of a pale fawn-color, and has no eye-like 
spots on the hind wings, as in Smerinthus. The larva is bluish 
green, with a row of subdorsal and stigmatal reddish brown 
spots, and six oblique, lateral, bright yellow bands. It lives on 
the wild cherry. 

In Smerinthus the body is stout, the head sunken and the 
maxille are only as long as the palpi, being almost obsolete. 


SPHINGID A. 275 


The species are said to fly heavily and only in the night. The 
head of the larya is semi-oval or pyramidal, acute above, and 
the thoracic rings are obliquely banded on each side. The 
pupa is smooth, cylindrical and somewhat conical in form. S. 
modestus Harris is a very large species, expanding nearly six 
inches. It feeds on the Lombardy poplar. SS. exccecatus Smith 
has the hind wing's rosy on the inner angle. The ‘‘ocellus” or 
eye-like spot is black, with two or three blue pupils. The 
larva is apple green, with seven oblique, yellowish white lines 
on the sides, and a bluish caudal horn. It feeds on the apple 
and the Rosa Carolina. S. geminatus Say (Fig. 202, venation 
of the hind wing) is so-called from the two or three blue ete 
in the black ocellus. The hind wings are rosy. 

The pupa has been found at the roots of 

willows. | 

In the genus Philampelus, or lover of the vine, 
as its name indicates, the tongue is again aslong ‘Fis. 202. 
as the body. The antennze have a long hook tapering to 
the end, bearing ciliz in the male. The abdomen is large and 
thick, and the wings are deeply concave on the inner border. 
The larva has a tubercle in place of a caudal horn. The 
tongue-case of the pupa is not free. P. vitis Harris is olive 
ereen, with pale green hind wings, which are rose-red towards 
the inner margin. The larva is flesh-colored mixed with yel- 
low, and with short, transverse, black lines, and lateral, semi- 
oval, yellowish white bands, edged with black. 

In Deilephila the abdomen tapers suddenly at the tip and 
the fusiform antennz end in a minute hook. The gaily colored 
larva has a straight and rather short caudal horn. There are no 
oblique bands on the sides of the body, but a row of subdorsal 
spots on each side. Clemens states that the anterior segments 
are much attenuated, and are capable of being withdrawn or 
shortened, or much extended. ‘‘ When disturbed they fall from 
their food-plants, shorten the anterior segments and bend the 
head inwards.” They transform in a cell excavated from the 
surface. The tongue-case of the pupa is not free. D. lineata 
Fabr. is olive green, with six white lines on the thorax. The hind 
wings are black with a rose colored central band. The larva is 
yellowish green; the subdorsal spots consisting of two curved, 


276 LEPIDOPTERA. 


short, black lines, with yellow above and beneath. It is double 
brooded in Texas. The larva feeds on the purslane and turnip, 
and will, in confinement, eat the apple. D. chamenerii Harris 
has a white line on each side of the head and thorax. The 
larva feeds on the willow-herb (Epilobium angustifolium). It 
is bronze green, dull red beneath, with nine round cream- 
colored spots, pupilled with black, and a dull red caudal horn. 

The genus Thyreus has a lateral tuft on each side of the tip of 
the flattened, oval abdomen, and the head is broad and obtuse, 
while the fore-wings are excavated just below the tips. The 
body of the 
larva tapers 
gently from 
the first ab- 
dominal ring, 
and the last 
segment has a 
lenticular tu- 
bercle instead 
of a true horn. 
When at rest 
it throws its 
head from side 
to side thus 
producing a 
crepitating 
noise. It transforms in a cell on the surface. JT. Abbotii 
Swainson (Fig. 203 and larva) is dull chocolate brown, with 
dull sulphureous hind wings, with a dark brown terminal band 
broken up into short lines on a roseate spot at the inner angle. 
The larva is reddish brown, with numerous patches of light 
green. ‘The tubercle is black, encircled at base by a yellowish 
line and a blackish cordate patch. It feeds on the wild and 
cultivated grape-vines and on the Ampelopsis quinquefolia, or 
woodbine. 

The Bee-moth or Clear-wing, Sesia, is smaller than the fore- 
going genera, and the body is flattened, oval and gaily colored 
with yellow, black and red, while the wings are transparent in 
the middle. The larva tapers in front, has a dorsal stripe just 


Fig. 203. 


AGERIADA. 277 


above the row of stigmata, and a short recurved horn. It 
transforms in an imperfect cocoon at the surface of the earth. 
Sesia diffinis Boisd. is pale greenish yellow, with the abdomen 
black beneath, and the legs black. The larva is 
pale green, reddish beneath. Sesia Thysbe Fabr. 
is amore common species northward. The thorax 
is deep olive green, with the abdomen reddish be- 
neath, and with whitish legs. It is abundant, flying in June 
in the het sun about the lilac and Rhodora Canadensis. 

Under the name of Lepisesia Mr. Grote has separated ZL. 
flavofasciata Barnston (Fig. 204, venation of fore-wing) found 
in Canada, from the genus Macroglossa, repre- 
sented in Europe by J. stellatarum Linn. 

Mr. Grote also separates from the latter 

genus, under the name of Hupyrrhoglossum, Fig 205. 

a Cuban moth, which has larger, fuller eyes, and larger hind 
wings than in Macroglossa. H. Sagra (Fig. 205, venation of 
fore-wing) is a handsome form described by Professor Poey. 


Fig. 204. 


JEGERIAD# Harris. These elegant and gaily colored moths, 
which by the arrangement of their colors and their clear wings, 
look like bees and wasps, are readily recognized by their small 
size, narrow wings, thickened antenne, and by the tufts at the 
end of the body, which they can spread out fan-like. They fly 
very swiftly in the hottest sunshine. The larvee are borers, 
living mostly in the hollowed stems of plants. They are whit- 
ish, cylindrical, with sparse, short, inconspicuous hairs, and 
they have no anal horns. They transform in a rude, oblong, 
oval cocoon, constructed of the chips they make in boring out 
their tunnels, cemented by a gummy secretion. The pupz are 
chestnut-brown, with transverse rows of short teeth on the 
abdominal rings, by which they make their way out, partly 
through the hole previously made by the larva for the exit of 
the moth. The shell of the chrysalis is often left protruding 
from the hole. This family is, therefore, quite injurious to 
gardeners. 

Aigeria exitiosa Say (Fig. 206, 6) the Peach-tree borer, has 
caused the death of many peach trees and also, according to 
Fitch, occasionally attacks the plum. It is a slender, dark 


278 LEPIDOPTERA. 


blue moth, expanding an inch and a half, or more. The male 
is much smaller than the female (Fig. 207), expanding one inch. 
She deposits her eggs near the root of the tree. The larve are 
hatched and bore in to feed upon the inner bark and sap wood. 
When one year old they make their cocoon under the bark or 
at the root of the tree. Borers of all sizes, Harris states, will 
be found in the trees throughout the year. 

The trees should be protected by wrapping sheathing paper 
around the bottom of the trunk, and putting fresh mortar around 
the roots. The wounded part may be coy- 
., cred with clay. Hgeria pyri Harris infests 
the pear tree. It is purple black above and 
‘he golden yellow beneath, with three yellow 

a bands across the abdomen, the middle band 
1 be being the larger. 

The habits of the Grape-root borer, 7. polistiformis Harris, 
resemble those of the Peach-tree borer. It sometimes de- 
stroys grape-vines in the Middle and Western States, but does 
not attack the Scuppernong variety. The larva lives under 
ground, the female, according to Walsh, ‘‘depositing her egg 
on the collar of the grape-vine, close to the earth; the young 
larvee, as soon as they hatch out, immediately descend into 
the roots.” They attack the sap-wood and bark of the roots, 
eating irregular furrows. The cocoons are oval, and covered 
with bits of wood and dirt. They are 
» found, through the summer, in the earth 
7 near the roots of the grape, and the moths 
fly from the middle of June until the mid- 
dle of September, according to Dr. Kron. 
Harris describes the moth as being dark 
brown, tinged with tawny orange on the 
sides, and banded with bright yellow upon the edge of the 
second abdominal ring. The thorax and fourth abdominal 
_ ving are faintly tinged with yellow, or tawny orange, as are 
the palpi, under side of the antennze, and the legs. The female 
has a little orange colored tuft on each side of the tail, and 
the males have two tufts on each side. The wings expand 
from one to one and a half inches. Another species, . 
caudata Harris, inhabits the wild currant. 


Fig. 207. 


ZYGMNIDE. 279 


The currant borer, geria tipuliforme Linn. (Fig. 208; d, 
larva ; a, pupa, enlarged) has been introduced from Europe, and 
is a great pest in our gar- 
dens, injuring the currant 
bushes. It is a_ slender, 
agile, dark blue moth, found 
= fiying in July in the hot sun, 
about the currant leaves. 
The larva bores in the stems, 
and ‘by splitting them open, 
in the fall and spring, we 
shall find the larva, which 
pupates towards the last of May. 

Mr. James Ridings describes from Virginia 4. quinque 
caudata (Fig. 209) which has 
five filaments at the tip of 
the abdemen. Its body is 
blue black, with a transparent 
spot at the base of the hind 
wings, while the third abdom- 
inal segment is red above. 

The Squash-vine borer, TRS 210 
Melittia cucurbite Harris (Fig. 210; a, larva), often kills, very 
suddenly, the squash plant. The moth is orange colored, 
spotted with black, and its hind legs are 
fringed with long, orange and black hairs. 
? She oviposits on the vine close to the roots, 
from the tenth of July to the middle of Au- 
gust. The larva eats out the interior of the 
vine, and usually transforms in a rude earthen 
cocoon near the roots, but as we have no- 
ticed, within the stem, beginning to spin its cocoon the first 
of October. 


Fig. 209. 


ZyGzNiD#& Latreille. This interesting group connects the 
diurnal with the nocturnal Lepidoptera. Some: of the forms 
(Castnia) remind us strikingly of the butterflies. The group 
may be recognized by the rather large free head, and the 
simple antennze which are slightly swollen in the middle, or 


280 LEPIDOPTERA. 


partially clavate, as in Zygsena. The wings are long and nar- 
row in the typical genera, becoming shorter and broader in the 
lower genera, such as Huremia, from India. The scales are 
fine, powdery and scattered thinly over the surface, often leay- 
ing naked spots on the wings. ‘The species are usually green 
or deep blue, with scales of purplish black, or entirely black, 
alternating with gay colors, such as golden, bronze, or white 
and red. ‘They fly in the hot sunshine. 

The sixteen-footed, greenish larvee are short, cylindrical, the 
body being obtuse at each end. The head is very small and 
when at rest is partially drawn into the prothoracic ring. The 
segments are short and convex, with transverse rows of un- 
equal tubercles which give rise to thin fascicles of very short 
and evenly cut hairs, which are often nearly absent. The 
larvee are either naked, as in Alypia, Eudryas and Castnia, or, 
as in the lower moth-like species, they are hairy, like those of 
the Lithosians and Arctians in the next family. Before trans- 
forming, the larvee usually spin a dense, silken cocoon, though 
Eudryas and Castnia make none at all, and Ctenucha a slight 
one of hairs. The pupa of Zygzena, especially, is intermediate 
in form between that of Ageria and Arctia, being much 
stouter than the first, and somewhat less so than the last. 
The head is prominent, and the tips of the abdomen sub-acute. 
Ctenucha is more like Arctia, while Castnia and Alypia are 
elongate, slender, with the head made especially prominent by 
a tubercle on the front of the clypeus. 

In common with the Sphingide and dgeriade, the 
Zygeenide are confined to the temperate and tropical regions. 
The family type, Zygeena, has its metropolis about the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, and thence spreads to the north of Europe, and 
southward to the Cape of Good Hope. Zygena exulans is 
found as far north as Lapland, and in vertical distribution rises 
6,000 to 7,000 feet in the Alps of Styria. 

Castnia is, however, a tropical American genus. Alypia is 
the most northern genus, extending into the Hudson Bay ter- 
ritories. Glaucopis and allies, which comprise a large number 
of species, are almost exclusively tropical American. In Aus- 
tralia, as Klug observes, Castnia is represented by Synemon. 
The American genus Eudryas is represented by very closely 
allied South African genera. 


Z7YGHNID A. 281 


Castnia closely resembles the Hesperians, though much 
larger. The species are of large size and of brilliant hues, and 
fly in the day-time, like the butterflies. The head is, however, 
much narrower in front, and the antennz inserted higher up. 
The larva is a borer, living in the stems of Orchids; it is not 
known, but probably has the usual form of boring caterpillars, 
and the pupa is said by Klug to resemble that of Cossus. 

Alypia comprises black moths, ornamented with white and 
yellow patches on the wings. The antennz are long, and a 
little thickened in the middle. The wings are short and broad. 
The body of the pupa is not contracted at the base of the 
abdomen as in Eudryas. The larva feeds on the grape and 
constructs an earthen cocoon, like that of Aigeria, according 
to Harris. A. octo-maculata Fabr. is black, with eight spots, 
two on each wing, those on the fore wing being yellowish, those 
on the hind wing white. 

The genus Psychomorpha is allied to Alypia, but differs in 
the broadly pectinated antenne, and the shorter palpi, which 
do not pass beyond the front of the 
head. P. epimenis Drury (Fig. 211) is 
found from Connecticut southwards. 
It is black, with a broad, yellow, white, 
irregularly lunate patch crossing the 
outer third of the wing, and on the un- 
der side is larger, being triangular, 
with two square black spots connected with the costa; on the 
hind wings is a little larger, mostly regular crescent-shaped 
brick-red spot; it expands 1.10 inches. Doubleday (Harris 
Correspondence) states on the authority of Abbot, that the 
larva feeds on Bignonia radicans, in Georgia. ‘‘It is pale, 
with black lines, and though having the full complement of 
legs, seems to be a semi-looper in its walk, like Brephos.” 

Eudryas is a peculiar form, gaily colored, and easily known 
by the densely tufted forelegs, and the short tufts of metallic 
scales on the thorax and abdomen. ‘The antennz are filiform, 
and the abdomen is tipped with hairs. The larva of H. grata 
Fabr. is gaily colored with orange and blue, dotted with black. 
The body is long and widens towards the eighth ring, which is 
humped, from which the body rapidly narrows to the tip. 


Fig. 211. 


282 LEPIDOPTERA. 


Across each segment is a row of tubercles which give rise to 
three fascicles of hairs. The pupa is rather long, with a promi- 
nent tubercle on the front of the head, and the abdominal tip 
ends in four tubercles. The larva feeds on the grape dur- 
ing midsummer and at the end of August creeps down, bury- 
ing itself three or four inches, without making any cocoon. 
Mr. L. Mitchell of Norwich, Connecticut, has had the kind- 
ness to send me ‘‘a piece of wood burrowed by the E. grata 
with one of the pupz in position.” As E. unio is now known 
to burrow in the stems of plants, our opinion that Eudryas is 
allied to Castnia would seem to be confirmed by the habits of 
the larvze which seem, at least occasionally, to bore into wood. 

Eudryas unio Hibner according to Mr. Kirkpatrick, burrows 
in the stems of Hibiscus, thus resembling Castnia in its habits. 

Mr. Grote establishes the genus Huscirrhopterus for a moth 
closely allied to Eudryas. H. Poeyi Grote (Fig. 212, fore 
wing; the venation of the hind wing 
being ‘‘almost identical with that of 
Eudryas”) is a brown and yellow 
Cuban species. 

Zygeena is an European genus, and 
its characters have been indicated 
in describing those of the family. The antennz are much 
thickened towards the end, the wings are long and narrow, 
and the species are usually entirely blue black, or green with 
red, or white and red bands and spots. 

Acoloithus represents the Procris (P. vitis) of Europe, but 
the wings are longer and narrower, and the hind wings are 
very ovate. The gregarious larva of A. Americana is little 
over half an inch long, being short and thick. It is yellow with 
a transverse row of black spots on each ring. Before pupating 
it spins a dense cocoon in crevices. The moth is deep blue 
black, with a saffron collar. Riley states that the ‘‘eggs are 
deposited in clusters, and in twenty-five to thirty days from the 
time of hatching, the worms, which then measure rather more 
than half an inch, spin dirty white, flattened cocoons, mostly 
in clusters on the leaf. Three days afterwards they become 
chrysalids, also somewhat flattened, and of a shiny yellowish 
brown ; while in ten days more the moths issue.” 


BOMBYCIDZ. 283 


The genus Pyromorpha has thin, oblong wings, very broad 
at base, the hinder pair being as broad as the fore-pair; with 
a’small, slender body. P. dimidiata Herrich-Scheeffer (after- 
wards described by Clemens under the name of Malthaca per- 
lucidula) is blackish brown, with the basal half of the costal 
region of both wings yellowish. It expands one inch, and is 
found sparingly in the Middle States, but has been detected 
near Boston by Mr. Sanborn. 

The species of Glaucopis and its allies, abounding in tropical 
America, are represented in the Northern States by Ctenucha, 
which has pectinated antennze, long, slender, acutely pointed 
palpi, and rather broad wings; the apex of the fore-pair being 
much rounded. The thick-bodied larva feeds on sedges and 
grass, and is very hairy, like an Arctian. The pupa is short 
and thick, and much like that of Arctia. Ctenucha Virginica 
Charpentier is of a deep indigo blue, with a smoky tinge on the 
fore wings, a lighter blue abdomen and a saffron collar. It 
flies in the hottest sunshine. The female lays 
her smooth, green, spherical eggs in a broad mass. 

Lycomorpha has dentated antennze, the body 
is unusually slender, and the wings long and _ nar- 
row. LL. Pholus Drury is deep blue, the wings 
being saffron at base. The larva feeds on lichens. From Mr. 
EK. Bicknell I have received the eggs of this moth. The 
larvee hatched August 10th, and closely resembled the larvze 
of the Arctians when of the same age. 

The genus Callalucia, according to Grote, differs from its 
better known ally, Ctenucha, by its antennz not being so 
broadly pectinated, its shorter palpi, and by important differ- 
ences in the venation of the wings. C. vermiculata Grote (Fig. 
213, hind wing) occurs in Colorado Territory. 


Fig. 213. 


Bompycip# Latreille. This large and handsome family com- 
prises some of the largest and most regal of moths. Their 
thick heavy bodies, and small sunken heads, and often obsolete 
mouth-parts (the maxillze or tongue being especially short com- 
pared with other moths), and the broadly pectinated antennz, 
together with their broad, often falcate wings and sluggish 
habits, notwithstanding numerous exceptions, afford good 


284. LEPIDOPTERA. - 


characters for distinguishing them. The clypeus is large, the 
antennz are inserted higher up than in other moths, so that 
when in doubt as to the position of some aberrant forms, a ref- 
erence to these characters enables us to determine quite readily 
as to their affinities. The larvee are thick, usually more hairy 
than other moths, or, as in the typical forms, Attacus, ete., are 
thick, fleshy and with seven longitudinal rows of long tubercles, 
crowned with spines. The hairs, especially of the Arctians, 
are thickly spinulated, so that the cocoons of the hairy species 
are very dense and made with but little silk, while the naked 
larvee, of which the silk-worm is a type, spin very dense co- 
coons of the finest silk. It is probable that the caterpillars are 
usually developed in the egg soon after it is laid in autumn. 
Dr. Burnett has noticed that the embryos of the American Tent 
caterpillar are developed before winter sets in, and ‘‘ Guérin- 
Méneville has found that the larve of the Japanese silk-worm 
(Samia Yama-mai) are developed in the egg within a few days 
of their deposition in autumn, although they are not hatched 
until the following spring.” (Zoological Record, 1864.) 

Several moths of this family (Arctia pudica, Setina aurita, 
Hypoprepia fucosa, etc.) have been known to produce a stridu- 
lating noise by rubbing their hind legs over a vesicular expan- 
sion situated on the sides of the thorax, and the Death’s-head 
Sphinx has long been known to produce a creaking sound. 
The pupz are very short and thick and easily recognized by 
their plump form. ‘Bar mentions the occurrence in Cayenne 
of an aquatic caterpillar, which produces a moth, resembling 
Bombyx pheedima of Cramer. This larva lives at the bottom 
of the water, and feeds on the roots of an abundant weed.” 
(Bulletin Société Entomologique de France, 1864.) 

Lithosia and its allies (Lithosiinze) have very narrow wings, 
the antennee filiform, and the body slender. The larve are 
cylindrical and covered with short, spinulated hairs. Some of 
them do not spin cocoons, so far as we know, the pupa of Cro- 
cota being found under stones with the dried larva skin still 
adhering to the tip of the abdomen. Lithosia argillacea Pack. 
is slate-colored, with yellow palpi and prothorax. ‘The base of 
the wings and the tip of the abdomen are yellowish. 

Lithosia casta Sanborn (Fig. 214) is an undescribed species 


BOMBYCIDZ. 285 


of great beauty, discovered by Mr. Sanborn at Berlin Falls, 
N. H., August 10th, and also at Ausable Chasm, N. Y. It is 
pure milk white, with a slight slate-colored tinge on the hind 
wings, and is slate-colored beneath, especially on the fore 
wings, and white on the inner edge of the hind wings. Just 
behind the middle of the white abdomen are tufts of tawny 
hairs, and the tip is white. It ex- . 

pands one and a quarter inches. 

Crambidia has still narrower 
wings. C. pallida Pack. is of an 
uniform drab color and would be 
easily mistaken for a Crambus. 
Nudaria has broad wings like a Iie 2 
geometrid moth, with hyaline spots. The larva is hirsute and 
makes a thin cocoon of interwoven hairs. NW. mundana is a 
European moth. It is represented in this country by Hupha- 
nessa mendica Walk., which has broader wings and longer 
palpi. The wings have two rows of smoky transparent spots. 

Hypoprepia has rather broader wings than Lithosia. H. fu- 
cosa Hubner is deep scarlet, with three leaden stripes on the 
fore wings, the middle stripe situated at the apex of the wing. 
The larva, Mr. Saunders informs me, is ‘‘spiny and black, 
sprinkled lightly with yellow dots and short lines; there is a 
dorsal row of yellow dots from the fifth to the twelfth segments. 
The head is black.” Early in May, according to Harris, it 

ISSN 2m makes its cocoon, which is thin 
j and silky, and the moth appears 
twenty days afterwards. 

Crocota is red, or yellowish red, 
throughout, with black margins 
and dots on the wings. The an- 

Fig. 215. tennze are filiform and the wings 
are broad, being triangular in form. Our most common 
species is Crocota ferruginosa Walk., which is pale rust-red, 
with two dusky broad bands on the outer half of the wing. A 
much larger form is Utetheisa bella Linn. (Fig. 215), a beautiful 
moth, whose yellow fore wings are crossed by bands of white, 
encircling black dots, while its scarlet hind wings are edged 
irregularly with black. 


286 LEPIDOPTERA. 


The genus Callimorpha is still larger, with broad wings. 
C. Lecontet Boisduval is white, the fore wings being almost 
entirely bordered with brown. The caterpillars of this genus 
are usually dark colored, with longitudinal yellow stripes. By 
day they hide under leaves or stones and feed by night on 
various shrubby and herbaceous plants. C. interrupto-marginata 
Beauv. (Fig. 216, fore wing) has an anchor-shaped black spot 
when the wings are folded, one side of the anchor being seen 
in the figure. 

Arctia and its allies are stout-bodied, with short, moderately 
broad wings, and simple or feathered antenne. The hairy 
larvee are covered with dense whorls of long, spinulose hairs. 
They make a loose cocoon of interwoven hairs under the 
shelter of some board or stone. The pupa is short and thick. 
Arctia virgo Linn. is an exceedingly beautiful insect. Its fore 
wings sometimes expand two inches and a half, and are flesh- 
red, streaked thickly with broad, black slashes, and on the 
vermilion-red hind wings are seven or eight large black spots. 
The caterpillar is brown. A. Anna Grote 
is allied, but differs in the wholly black ab- 
domen and black hind wings. It was de- 
scribed first from Pennsylvania, and has 
been detected by Mr. B. P. Mann on the 
Alpine summit of Mount Washington, N. H. 

The common black and reddish, very hairy caterpillar, found 
feeding on various garden weeds, is the young of Pyrrharctia 
isabella Smith, a stout-bodied, snuff colored moth. The cater- 
pillar hibernates, as do most of the others of the group of 
Arctians, and we have kept it fasting for six weeks in the 
spring, previous to pupating in the middle of June; it re- 
mained twenty-seven days in the pupa state, the moth appear- 
ing early in June. 

Leucarctia differs from Spilosoma in having narrower wings, 
and the outer edge much more oblique. Leucarctia acreea Smith 
is white and buff colored. Its caterpillar is the salt-marsh cat- 
erpillar, which at times has been very injurious by its great 
numbers. It is yellow, with long hairs growing from yellow 
warts, and it makes a coarse, hairy cocoon. 

Hyphantria textor Harris is entirely white. The caterpillar, or 


BOMBYCIDA. 287 


<¢fall web worm,” is slender, greenish yellow, dotted with black, 
with thin, silken hairs. It spins a thin and almost transparent 
cocoon, or almost none at all. HH. cunea Drury is white, spot- 
ted with black dots. Mr. Saunders informs me that the larva 
‘Cwill feed on Chenopodium album. The head is small, black, 
shining, bilobate. ‘The body is black, with a slight shade of 
brown, and sprinkled with very small, whitish dots. Each seg- 
ment has a transverse row of shining black tubercles, each 
giving rise to a tuft of hairs of the same color; on each side 
of the body is a double row of orange-colored spots from the 
sixth to the twelfth segment inclusive.” 

The ‘‘yellow bear” is the caterpillar of Spilosoma Virginica 
Fabr. The moth is white, with a black discal dot on the 
fore wings and two black dots on the hind wings, one on the 
middle and another near the inner angle. 

Halesidota has a more slender body, with longer antennz and 
palpi, and longer wings than Arctia, being thin and yellowish, 
crossed by light brownish streaks. ‘The larva is very short 
and thick, usually white, with dark pencils and tufts of hairs, 
arising from twelve black tubercles on each ring, 
placed as seen in the cut (Fig. 217). H. tessel- 
laris Smith, the ‘‘ checkered tussock moth,” is 
ochre-yellow, with its partially transparent fore ~~ as 
wings crossed by five rows of dusky spots. #. 
carye Harris is light ochreous, with three rows ‘Fis: 217 
of white semitransparent spots parallel to the very oblique 
outer margin. ‘* The chrysalis, according to Harris, is short, 
thick, and rather blunt, but not rounded at the end and 
not downy.” Mr. Saunders writes me, that the larva of H. 
maculata Harris ‘*‘feeds on the oak. It is 1.30 inches in 
length; the body is black, thickly covered with tufts of bright 
yellow and black hairs. From the fourth to the eleventh seg- 
ments inclusive is a dorsal row of black tufts, the largest of 
which is on the fourth segments.” The moth appears early in 
June; it is light ochre-yellow, with large, irregular, light, 
transverse, brown spots on the fore wings. 

These tufted larvee lead to the tussock caterpillars, which, as 
in Orgyia, have long pencils of hair projecting over the head 
and tail. The pretty larve of this genus are variously tufted 


288 LEPIDOPTERA. 


and colored, and feed on the apple tree and various garden 
vegetables. The males have very broad wings, with very 
broadly pectinated antennze, and fly in the hot sunshine in 
September. The females are wingless and often lay their eggs 
on the outside of the cocoon, and then die, scarcely moving 
from their eggs. O. antiqua Och. is tawny brown, while O. leu- 
costigma Smith is dark brown, with a lunate white spot near 
the outer angle. 

The thick and aoaillye hacked. pale yellowish, crinkled-haired 
Lagoa is an interesting genus. The tip of the abdomen is very 
broad, and the antennz are curved and broadly pectinated, 
while the wings are short and broad. The larva is very densely 
pilose with short, thick, evenly cut hairs, those at the end being 
longer and more irregular. It is broadly oval, and might easily 
be mistaken for a hairy Limacodes larva, for, like it, the head is 
retracted and the legs are so rudimentary as to impart a glid- 
ing motion to the caterpillar when it walks. Lagoa crispata 
Pack. is so named from the crinkled woolly hairs on the fore 
wings. It is dusky orange and slate-colored on the thorax and 
low down on the sides. Previous to the last moult it is whitish 
throughout and the hairs are much thinner. The larva (Fig. 
218) feeds on the blackberry, and, according to a cor- 
respondent in Maryland, it feeds on the apple. The 
cocoon is long, cylindrical and dense, being formed of 
the hairs of the larva, closely woven with silk. The 
pupa is very thin, and after the moth escapes, the 
thin skin is found sticking partially out of the co- 
coon, as in Limacodes and its allies (Cochlidize). 

Fig. 218. This last group of genera is as interesting as it is 
anomalous, when we consider the slug-like, footless larve, 
which are either nearly hemispherical, boat-shaped, or oblong, 
with large fleshy spines, and are painted often with the gayest 
colors. The pup are very thin skinned, and the cocoons are 
nearly spherical. The moths are often diminutive, the larger 
forms being stout, woolly-bodied and with short, thick antennz, 
pectinated two-thirds their length, while the smaller genera 
with slender bodies have simple filiform antennze, and closely 
resemble some of the Tortrices. 

Euclea is a very stout and woolly genus; the antennz are 


BOMBYCID®. 289 


three-fourths as long as the fore wings and pectinated on their 
basal half. The fore wings are a little shorter than the body and 
the hind wings reach to the tip of the broadly tufted abdomen. 
Euclea Monitor Pack. is cinnamon brown, with a large irregular 
green patch in the middle of the fore wings. We named 
this species from the striking resemblance of the larva to the 
iron-clad ‘‘ Monitor.” It is very regularly elliptical, flattened 
above, and a broad conspicuous brown spot in the middle of 
the back reminds one of the ‘‘cheese-box” or turret. Long, 
fleshy, bristling spines arise from each end of the larva. 

Empretia stimulea Clemens (Plate 8; Fig. 1; 1a, larva) is 
our largest species of this group. The moth is rarely found by 
collectors, and is of a rich, deep velvety brown, with a reddish 
tinge. There is a dark streak along the basal half of the me- 
dian vein, on which‘is situated a golden spot, while there are 
two twin golden spots near the apex of the wing. It expands 
an inch and a half. The larva is thick and elliptical, the body 
being rounded above, but flattened beneath, and a little fuller 
towards the head. There is a pair of densely spinulated tuber- 
cles on each side of the segments, the subdorsal pair on the 
metathoracic ring, and a pair on the seventh abdominal ring, 
being two-thirds as long as the body is wide. There are three 
pairs of small, but well developed thoracic legs, while there are 
none on the abdominal segments. The body is reddish, with 
the upper side green between the two largest pair of spines, 
centred with a broad elliptical reddish spot, edged with white, 
as is the green portion along the side of the body. According 
to Mr. S. I. Smith, of New Haven, from whom the specimen 
figured was received, the larva feeds on the raspberry. He 
states that the hairs sting, as its specific name indicates. The 
cocoon is rounded, almost spherical, and is surrounded with a 
loose web, the whole structure being over three-fourths of an 
inch in length. The moth appeared June 18th. 

Phobetrum has narrow wings, and the male is very unlike the 
female, which has been raised by Mr. Trouvelot, and was con- 
founded by us with the Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis of Ha- 
worth. Its antennz are very broadly pectinated, and the 
remarkably long, narrow fore wings are partly transparent. 
Thyridopteryx nigricans Pack. must be considered as belonging 

19 


290 LEPIDOPTERA. 


to this genus. The cocoon of the latter species is tough, leath- 
ery, brown, and nearly spherical. The larva of P. pithecium 
Smith is broad, ovate, flattened, with six long, tongue-like, 
fleshy lateral appendages. It feeds on the 
| plum, cherry and apple. 

In Limacodes the fore wings are oblong, 
the costa being straight, while the hind 
wings scarcely reach to the tip of the ab- 
domen. ‘The fore wings are often crossed 
by straight lines forming a V. JL. scapha Harris (Fig. 219) is 
light cinnamon brown, with a dark tan-colored triangular spot, 
lined externally with silver, which is continued along the costa 
to the base of the wing and terminates sharply on the apex. 
The larva, as its specific name indicates, is boat-shaped, beng 
of the form of a castana nut, and is green, spotted above with 
brown, and pale beneath, while the sides 
of the body are raised, the dorsal surface ' 
being flattened. It constructs a dense, oval, 
spherical cocoon, surrounded by an outer ' 
thin envelope. Fig. 220. 

Callochlora chloris H-Sch. (Fig. 220) is a pale brown moth, 
allied to Euclea, and with a broad, pea-green band crossing 
the fore wings. 

Lithacodes (L. fasciola Boisd. Fig. 221) and Tortricodes, 
strikingly resemble the genus Tortrix, from their narrow 
wings, slender bodies, and filiform antennze. 

The subfamily Psychinz, embraces some remarkably diver- 
gent forms. The two genera, Phryganidia and Thyridop- 
teryx, differing so much in the breadth of their 
+ wings and thickness of their bodies, are, how- 
ever, connected by many intermediate forms 
occurring in Europe. Psyche is a hairy-bodied 

NG Zale moth, with broad and thin wings, the female of 
which is wingless and closely resembles the larva, and inhabits 
a case, which is constructed of bits of its food-plant. The 
female of Psyche helix has been known to produce young from 
eggs not fertilized by the male. It lives in a case of grains of 
sand arranged in the form of a snail shell, thus resembling 
some Phryganeids in its habits, as it does structurally. 


BOMBYCID. 291 


The male of Thyridopteryx (T. ephemerceformis Haworth), 
the ‘‘basket-worm,” is stout-bodied, with broadly pectinated 
antennee and a long abdomen ; the anal forceps and the adjoin- 
ing parts being capable of unusual extension in order to reach 
the oviduct of the female, which is wingless, cylindrical, and in 
its general form closely resembles its larva, and 
does not leave its case. On being hatched from 
the eggs, which are, so far as known by us, not 
extruded from its case by the parent, the young 
larvee immediately build little, elongated, bas- 
ket-like cones, of bits of twigs of the cedar, on 
which they feed, and may, then be seen walking 
about, tail in the air, this tail or abdomen cov- 
ered by the incipient case, and presenting a 
comical sight. The case (Fig. 222) of the full 
grown larva is elongated, oval, cylindrical, and 
the fleshy larva transforms within it, while it 
shelters the female through life. The genus 
Ciceticus comprises large species, with much 
the same habits, growing in tropical America ‘ 
and in Australia. 

A basket-worm, allied to Gceticus, has been 
discovered in Florida, by Mr. Glover, feeding upon the orange, 
and we give the following account of it from the study of 
his admirable drawings. With much the same habits, it be- 
longs to quite a different and undescribed genus. The body ° 
of the mele resembles that of the broad winged Psyche, and 
indeed, this moth may be regarded as a 
connecting link between the latter genus 
and Ci&ceticus. Jt may be called the 
Plateeceticus Gtoverti (Fig. 223). Its 
body is slender, with pectinated an- 
tennee ; the wings very broad, irregular, 

Big. 2b. and the hind wings are broad and 
much rounded, reaching a third of their length beyond the tip 
of the abdomen. It is dark brown throughout, and expands 
three-fourths of an inch. The wingless, cylindrical, worm-like 
female (Fig. 223 0) is acutely oval in form, and whitish. The 
larva (Fig. 223c) is rather flattened and resembles that of 


292 LEPIDOPTERA. 


Thyridopteryx. It constructs an oval cocoon (Fig. 223d) 
which hangs to the edge of the leaf. 

The genus Perophora, another sack-bearer (P. Melsheimerii 
Harris), is a gigantic Psychid, being about the size of the silk- 
worm moth, which it closely resembles in the imago state. It 
also lives in a case during the larva state, formed of two oblong 
pieces of leaf, fastened together in the neatest manner by their 
edges, and lined with a thick and tough layer of brownish 
silk. The larva is cylindrical, as thick as a common pipe-stem 
and light reddish brown in color. 
The head has extensible, jointed 
feelers which, when extended, are 
kept in constant motion, while be- 
hind is a pair of antenna-like organs, 
broad and flattened at the end. The 
tail is widened and flattened, form- 
ing a circular horny plate, which like the operculum of a whelk, 
closes up the aperture of the case. Before transforming within 
its case, the larva closes each end with a circular silken lid. 
The pupa is blunt at the hinder end and with a row of teeth on 
each abdominal ring. Both sexes are winged. Our species, 
P. Melsheimerti Harris, is reddish ash grey, sprinkled with 
blackish points, and with a common oblique blackish line. 

Notodonta and its allies (Ptilodontes Hubner) are mostly 
naked in the larva state, with large humps on the back, and the 
hind legs often greatly prolonged, as g& 
in Cerura, the ‘‘fork-tail.” The pupa & ~ 
and moths are best described by stat- “= 
ing that they bear a close resemblance 
to the Noctuids, for which they are 
often mistaken. 

Ceelodasys (Notodonta)  wnicornis 
Smith derives its specific name from the horn on the back of 
the caterpillar, and its generic name from the large conical tuft 
of hairs on the under side of the prothorax. The moth is light 
brown, with irregular green patches on the fore wings. The 
cocoon is thin and parchment-like, and the caterpillars remain 
a long time in their cocoons before changing to pup. Nerice 
bidentata Walker (Fig. 224) is a closely allied moth. Hdema 


BOMBYCID 2. 293 


albifrons Smith (Fig. 225) is known by the costa being white 
on the outer two-thirds. It feeds on the oak, to which it is oc- 
casionally destructive. Mr. Riley (American Entomologist, 
vol. i, p. 89) describes the larva as being of a ‘‘bluish white 
eround-color, marked longitudinally with yellow bands and 
fine black lines, with the head and a hump on the eleventh seg- 
ment either of a light coral or dark flesh color.” It generally 
elevates the end of the body. It pupates during the last of 
September, the moth appearing about the middle of April, in 
the vicinity of Chicago. 

_ Platypteryx, a small geometra-like moth, with its broad fal- 
cate wings, seems a miniature Attacus. Its larva is slender, 
with fourteen legs, and naked, with several little prominences 
on the back, and the tail is forked like 
Cerura. The pupa is enclosed in a co- 
coon among leaves. P. geniculata 
Walker, and Dryopteris rosea Grote, 
represent this interesting group. We 
also give a rude sketch, traced from 
Abbot’s drawings, from the advanced 
sheets of the Harris Correspondence, of 
an undescribed species of Dryopteris 
(Fig. 226, and its larva). Doubleday Wig. 226. 

‘states that the moth is rose-colored, with a few red dots in the 
yellow portion of the hind wings. 

The Chinese silk-worm, Bombyx mori Linn., has white faleate 
fore wings, while the hind wings do not reach to the tip 
of the abdomen, and the antennz are well pectinated. The 
larva is naked, rather slender compared with those of the next 
group, and cylindrical ; the second thoracic ring is humped, and 
there is a long horn on the tail. It is three to three and a half 
inches long. It is of an ashy or cream color, but ‘in almost 
every batch of worms there will be seen after the first moult 
has occurred, some dark colored, which, at the first glance, 
appear to be a distinct species,” but Captain Hutton, of India, 
shows that ‘‘so far, however, are they from being a mere pass- 
ing variety that they are actually types of the original species, 
and merely require to be treated according to the established 
rules of breeding in order to render them permanent and 
healthy.” 


294 LEPIDOPTERA. 


‘‘He attributed the enormous loss of silk-worms by mus- 
eardine and other diseases, and the consequent diminution 
of the crop of silk, to the combined effects of bad and scanty 
food, want of sufficient light and ventilation, too high a tem- 
perature, and constant interbreeding for centuries of a debili- 
tated stock. He asserted that there was no such thing now in 
existence as a perfectly healthy domesticated stock of silk- 
worms ; and moreover, that it was useless to seek for healthy 
seed, for whether in Europe, Persia, India or China, the worms 
were all equally degenerated, or, if there were a difference at 
all, it was in favor of the European race. He had for several 
years been experimenting on Bombyx mori, with a view, if 
possible, to reclaim the worms, to restore to them a healthy 
constitution and to induce them to revert from their present 
artificial and moribund condition to one of vigor and perma- 
nent health. ‘The occasional occurrence in a brood of one or 
more dark grey or blackish-brindled worms—the ‘vers tigrés’ 
or ‘vers zébrés’ of the French—contrasting strongly with 
the pale sickly hue of the majority, must have been noticed by 
all who have had experience in rearing silk-worms ; such occur- 
rences have been always spoken of as indicating varieties aris- 
ing from domestication. The author had endeavored, by a series 
of experiments, to ascertain the cause of this phenomenon, his 
conviction being, either that the species had at some time or 
other been crossed by another of different colors, and that Na- 
ture, as sooner or later she always would do, was making an 
effort to separate them, or that the original color of the worm 
had been dark, and an effort was being made to revert from a 
sickly condition to the original healthy starting point. He ac- 
cordingly picked out all the dark colored worms and reared 
them separately, allowing the moths to couple only inter se, and 
the same with the white worms. In the following spring the one 
batch of eggs produced nearly all dark brindled worms, whilst 
the other batch produced white worms, sparingly interspersed 
with an occasional dark one; these latter were removed into a 
dark batch, which was also weeded of its pale worms. In the 
third year the worms were still darker than before, and were 
always larger and more vigorous than the pale ones, giving 
larger and better stuffed cocoons. He finally succeeded in 


BOMBYCIDZ. 295 


getting an entire brood of dark worms, which he regarded as 
a sign of increased health and strength in the larva, thus 
proving that the dark worms were of the original race, which 
also agrees with the colors of the numerous species of the genus 
of which he has, with others, made known nearly twenty. The 
author also considers the white cocoons as a strong sign of de- 
generacy, arguing that the good quality of the silk produced, 
was no proof of the general health of the insect, as the mala- 
dies affected rather the quantity produced, and the present great 
fineness was due likewise to the disease.” (Proceedings of the 
Entomological Society of London.) The silk-worm is an an- 
nual, though some species of this group yield two and three 
broods in the warmer parts of India. It moults four times, but 
occasionally only three times. 

The cocoon of the silk-worm is white or whitish yellow and 
is over an inch long and nearly half as broad; 860 cocoons 
weigh a pound and a half. In France and Italy about thirty- 
six days elapse between the hatching of the larva and the for- 
mation of the cocoon, it taking four days for the spinning of 
the cocoon. In England and certain parts of India it requires 
forty-six days for its formation. 

The above remarks apply to Bombyx mori Linn., the Chinese 
silk-worm, which feeds on the mulberry, originally derived from 
the mountainous provinces of China. It is the largest and 
strongest of the domesticated species. There are, however, as 
shown by Captain Hutton, twelve species of silk-worms, most 
of which have been confounded under the name of B. mori, 
and which belong to the genera Bombyw of Schrank, Ocinara 
of Walker, and Trilocha Moore. There are six domesticated 
species of Bombyx. There is not silk enough in the cocoon 
of Ocinara to make it worth cultivating (Hutton). 

Captain Hutton, speaking of the larve of B. Huttoni, re- 
marks that it ‘‘is curious to observe the instinctive knowledge 
which these worms appear to possess of the approach of a hail- 
storm. No sooner are the peals of thunder heard, than the 
whole brood seems to regard them as a warning trumpet-call, 
and all are instantly in motion, seeking shelter beneath the 
thicker branches, and even descending the trunk of the tree to 
some little distance, but never proceeding so low down as to 


296 LEPIDOPTERA. 


lose the protecting shelter of the boughs. For rain they eare 
nothing, but appear to be able to distinguish between the com- 
ing of a heavy shower, and the more pitiless pelting of the hail.” 

Attacus and its allies (Attaci) form the central and most 
typical group of the family. They are among the largest of 
insects. The genus dAttacus is found in China, the East Indies 
and the South Sea Islands, and in Brazil. Its immense size, 
falcate wings, with the large triangular transparent spot in the 
centre, readily distinguish it. .A. Atlas Linn., from China, 
expands from seven to nine inches. Samia is a smaller genus 
and with a partially transparent lunate spot in the middle of 
the wings. Samia Cynthia Linn. has been introduced from 
China and is a hardy worm, quite easily raised, and the silk is 


MN > AS! hy 


La : 


of a good quality. Mr. W. V. Andrews urges, in the American 
Naturalist (vol. ii, p. 311), the cultivation of the Cynthia silk- 
worm in this country, as it is double-brooded, our native spe- 
cies bearing but a single crop of worms. It feeds on the ail- 
anthus, and can be reared in the open air. Among many allied 
forms, generally referred to the genus Attacus but which still 
need revision, are the A. Mylitta (Tussah worm), from China 
and India; A. Pernyi, from Manchouria, which feeds on the 
oak, and which has been raised in France, and the Japanese 
A. Yama-mai, all of which produce silk, though less reared in 
Europe than the Cynthia worm. The silk of the Yama-mai 
moth approaches nearest that of B. mori, and as it feeds on 


Plate 6. 


eR hd 


na es at 
a) a) 


BOMBYCIDA. 297 


the oak, and can be raised in the open air, its cultivation has 
gained much attention in Europe. A. Awrota Beauv. is com- 
mon in Central and South America. In Brazil it could be 
raised with success for home use, but is too delicate for a 
northern climate. 

Telea Polyphemus (Pl. 6, male; Pl. 7 , female) is brown, with 
large transparent eye-like spots in the centre of the wings. 
The thread of which the cocoon is 
spun is continuous, and is readily 
unwound. It is coarser than that 
of the Bombyx mori, but has a rich 
gloss and can be used very exten- 
sively in commerce. Its larva == 
(Fig. 227), which feeds on the Fig. 228. 
oak, is thick, fleshy, striped obliquely with white on the sides, 
with angulated segments, on which are tubercles giving rise 
to a few short hairs. The pupa (Fig. 228) is very thick, and 
the cocoon (Fig. 229) is regularly oval cylindrical. 

Mr. L. Trouvelot gives an account in the American Natural- 
ist (vol. i) of this silk-worm, which is our most hardy native 
worm. So successful was he in rearing them that in a single 
season *‘not less than a million could be seen feeding in the 
open air upon _ bushes : SS 
covered with a net.” qj = 
The moths leave the co- ING ah 


z | 5 ALANS 
coons late in May, ap- Ai \/ wy 
a \ \\ YA AW ) 


pearing until the middle 
of June. They then lay \ 
their eggs, generally ~ nee 
singly, on the under side Fig. 229. 
of the leaves. In ten or twelve days the caterpillars hatch ; the 
operation usually takes place early in the day. The worm 
moults five times, the first four moultings occurring at intervals 
of ten days, while about twenty days elapse between the fourth 
and fifth moults, this process usually occurring late in the after- 
noon. It makes its cocoon late in September, and in six or 
eight days after beginning its cocoon assumes the pupa state, 
and in this condition passes the winter. 

The genus Actias is at once known by the hind wings be- 


\\ 


298 LEPIDOPTERA. 


ing prolonged into a long tail which reaches far behind the tip 
of the abdomen. <Actias Luna Linn.:is green and the larva 
closely resembles that of 'Telea; it is, however, banded ob- 
liquely with yellow instead of white, and spins a cocoon that is 
of much the same shape. It is not so hardy a worm as the 
Polyphemus caterpillar. It lives on the walnut, hickory and 
maple. In the Museum of the Peabody Academy is a closely 
allied and undescribed species from the west coast of Guate- 
mala, which we would call Actias Azteca. It differs from A. 
Luna in its much smaller size, expanding only three and a half 
inches, and in the shorter fore wings, the apex being much 
rounded and with shorter veins, while the ‘‘tails” on the hind 
wings are only half as long as those of A. Luna. It also dif- 
fers in having the origin of the first subcostal venule much 
nearer the discal spot than in A. Luna, being very near that 
of the second subcostal venule. It is whitish green, with 
markings not essentially differing from those of A. Luna. 

Callosamia is a genus with broader wings and no transpa- 
rent eye-like spots. ‘The larva has large tubercles and is very 
plump. Its characters are intermediate between those of 
Samia and Platysamia. C. Promethea Drury is a smaller spe- 
cies than the others. Its larva is pale bluish green, with the 
head, tail and feet yellow, with eight warts on each ring, those 
on the two first thoracic rings being the largest, much longer 
than the rest and coral red. The cocoon is hung by a stout 
silken cord to the stem of the leaf which is then wrapped 
around it. It may be found attached to the twigs of the 
wild cherry, Azalea and Cephalanthus, or button bush, in 
winter after the leaves have fallen. 

Our most common species of this group is the Cecropia moth, 
belonging to the genus Platysamia, which has a_ broader 
head and wings than the foregoing genera. The caterpillar of 
P. Cecropia Linn. is longer, with long spinulated tubercles, 
especially marked on the thoracic rings; the large, very dense 
cocoon is open at one end and thus the silk cannot be un- 
wound so well as that of the Polyphemus worm, but it is still 
useful, and Platysamia Euryale Boisduval is cultivated in Cali- 
fornia for its silk, though the cultivation of the Chinese silk- 
worm (B. mori) is carried on there very largely. 


BOMBYCIDZ. 299 


The next group, the Ceratocampade of Harris, is composed 
of large moths, in which the hind wings scarcely extend beyond 
the tip of the abdomen, and the wings are often ocellated. 
The larvee are longer than in the Aftaci and more hairy. 
Eucronia Maia Drury has a narrow, lunate, curved white 
line in the centre of each wing; it expands from two and a 
half to three inches, and is black with a common, broad, yel- 
lowish white band. The caterpillar is elongated, with six 
long branched prickles on each ring. It feeds on the oak. 
Hyperchiria varia Walker (Saturnia Io of Harris) is a little 
larger than the preceding. The male is yellow and the female 
reddish brown, with a faint eye-like spot on the fore 
wing, and on the hind wings a large round blue | 
spot, margined with black and pupilled with white. S g 
The caterpillar is green, with spreading tufts of 
spines, very sharp, stinging severely when the insect P!8: 3” 
is handled, and arising from a tubercle, of which there are six 
on each ring; the fascicles on the side are as represented in 
Fig. 230. The pupa is thick, pointed at the tip of the abdo- 
men, and the cocoon is thin, being made under leaves on the 
eround. It feeds on the corn and cotton, to which it is very 
harmful southwards, and also on the maple, elm, etc. 
Citheronia regalis Hubner expands from five to six inches, 
and its fore wings are olive colored, spotted with yellow and 
veined with broad red lines, while the hind wings are orange 
red, spotted with olive, green and yellow. The caterpillar is 
spiny, having four large acute spinulated 
spines on the anterior thoracic segments. It 
a, i feeds on the walnut, hickory and the persim- 
ay 6. nop tree, and spins no cocoon. A second spe- 
cies, C. Mexicana Grote and Robinson, has 
been described, as its name indicates, from Mexico: it is 
more orange and less red, with duller yellow patches. Fig. 
231 is a rude sketch (from the Harris Correspondence) of the 
young larva, with two of the peculiar long hairs next the head 
magnified. A much smaller species, which expands only 3.10 
inches, is the C. sepulcralis G. and R., which was discovered 
at Andover, Mass., by Mr. J. O. Treat. It is purplish brown, 
without any yellow spots, and with a diffuse discal spot, centred 


Fig. 231. 


300 LEPIDOPTERA. 


with reddish scales. Mr. Treat has raised this fine moth from 
the larva found on the common pitch pine; it resembles that 
of C. regalis. It also occurs in Georgia, as it has been figured 
in the unpublished drawings of Abbot, now in the possession 
of the Boston Society of Natural History. 

Eacles imperialis Hubner has broader wings, expanding from 
four and a half to over five inches. The wings are yellow with 
purple brown spots. The larva is but slightly tuberculated, 
with long, fine hairs. Its chrysalis is like that of Anisota. 

The genus Anisota is much smaller than the foregoing, with 
variously striped larve, which are naked, with two long, 
slender spines on the prothoracic ring, and six much shorter 
spines on each of the succeeding segments. ‘They make no co- 
coons, but bury themselves several inches deep in the soil just 
before transforming, and the chrysalids end in a long spine, 
with the abdominal rings very convex and armed with a row of 
small spines. The species have much smaller, narrower wings, 
with less broadly pectinated antenne than in the foregoing 
moths. A. rubicunda Fabr. is rose colored, with a broad, 
pale yellow band on the fore wings. Anisota senatoria Smith 
is pale tawny brown, with a large, white, round dot in the cen- 
tre of each fore wing. 

The next group of this extensive family embraces the Lach- 
neides of Hubner, in which the moths have very woolly stout 
bodies, small wings, with stoutly pectinated antennz, while the 
larvee are long, cylindrical and hairy, scarcely tuberculated, and 
spin a very dense cocoon. The pup are longer than in the 
two preceding subfamilies. Gastropacha (Fig. 159, hind wing) 
has scalloped wings, and a singular grayish larva whose body 
is expanded laterally, being rather flattened. G. Americana 
Harris is rusty brown, slightly frosted, and with ashen bands 
on the wings. 

In Tolype the wings are entire. TJ. Velleda Stoll is a curi- 
ous moth, being white, clouded with blue gray, with two broad, 
dark gray bands on the fore wings. The larva is hairy and is 
liable to be mistaken for an excrescence on the bark of the 
apple tree, on which it feeds. 

The American Tent Caterpillar is the larva of Clisiocampa, 
well known by its handsome caterpillars, and its large, con- 


BOMBYCIDZ. 301 


spicuous webs placed in neglected apple trees and on the wild 
cherry. The eggs are laid on the twigs, in bunches of from 
300 to 400, placed side by side and covered with a tough 
gummy matter; they are sometimes infested by chalcid para- 
sites. 

The larve of C. Americana Harris hatch out just as the 
leaves are unfolding and soon form a web, under which the col- 
ony lives. They may be destroyed by previously searching 
for the bunches of eggs on the twigs before the tree is leaved 
out, and the caterpillars may be killed with a brush or mop 
dipped into strong soap-suds, or a weak solution of petroleum. 

The larvee become full grown about the middle of June, then 
spin their dense white cocoons, under the bark of trees, ete., 
and the moths appear about the 
first of July. The larva of C. 
Americana is about two inches 
long, hairy, with a dorsal white 
stripe, with numerous fine crin- 
kled black lines on a yellow 


° e \ y Yy In, pay 
ground, united below into a Qe’ ill si l; Way ly 
z SS ae (ae eee ee es ES 
common black band, witha blue ZA Jad; dvd thar 


spot on the side of each ring. 
The moth (Fig. 232, and larva) Be: ee. 

is reddish brown, with two oblique, dirty white lines on the 
fore wings. It expands from an inch and a quarter to an inch 
and a half. The Forest Tent caterpillar, C. disstria Hubner 
(C. sylvatica Harris) differs in the apex of the fore wings 
being much longer, with two transverse rust brown, nearly 
straight, parallel lines. It is sometimes destructive to the 
apple and oak trees. 

The Hepiali are a group of boring moths, the larve boring 
in the stems of plants or in trees. The wings are narrow, both 
pairs being very equal in size, and show a tendency to recur to 
the net-veined style of venation of the Neuroptera. Xyleutes is 
a large moth, with a stout vein passing through the middle of 
the discal space, and the short antennze have two rows of short 
teeth on the under side. X. robiniw Peck is gray, with irregu- 
lar black lines and dots on the wings, and a black line on the 
inside of the shoulder tippets. The hind wings of the male 


302 LEPIDOPTERA. 


(X. crepera Harris) are distinctly triangular and yellow on the 
outer half. The larva is nearly three inches long, is reddish 
above and covered with sparse long hairs. It bores in various 
directions through the red oak and locust, and spins a dense 
cocoon. The pupa is much elongated, with the suture between 
the segments well marked, and the head and thorax rather small. 

Sthenopis is a gigantic moth, with more falcate wings than 
in Hepialus. S. argenteomaculata Harris expands nearly 
three inches, and is ashy gray, variegated with dusky clouds 
and bands, with a small, triangular, silvery spot and round 
dot near the base of the fore wings. Hepialus is smaller, with 
a larger head and straighter wings. H. humuli Linn. is 
injurious to the hop vine in Europe. Our most common spe- 
cies, H. mustelinus Pack., is sable brown, with slight silvery 
lines on the fore wings. It expands a little over an inch and 
a quarter. 


Nocrva.itmz Latreille (Noctuide). Owlet moths. There 
is a great uniformity in the genera of this family, which are 
characterized by their thick bodies, the thorax being often 
crested, by the stout and well developed palpi, and the simple 
and sometimes slightly pectinated antennz. The fore wings 
are small and narrow, and the rather large hind wings are 
when at rest folded under them, so that the moth looks much 
smaller than when flying. They fly swiftly at night, and are 
attracted by light. The fore wings have almost invariably a 
dot and reniform spot in the middle of the wing, and the moths 
-are generally dark and dull colored. The larvee taper towards 
each end, and are striped and barred in different ways. They 
have sixteen feet, except those of the lower genera, such as 
Catocala and other broad-winged genera, which have fourteen, 
and look when they walk like the Geometers. They make 
thin earthen cocoons, and the pup generally live under 
ground. In these and other more essential characters, this 
family is intermediate between the Bombycide and the Phalz- 
nidee. There are about 2,500 species known. . 

These moths can be taken at dusk flying about flowers, while 
they enter open windows in the evening, and during the night 
are attracted by the light within. When alighted on the table 


NOCTU ALITA. 303 


under a lamp a slight tap with a ruler will kill them without 
injuring the specimens. In warm, foggy evenings, they enter 
in great numbers. The moths fly in July and August, but 
many species occur only in autumn, while others hibernate and 
are taken early in the spring. An English writer says, ‘‘ moths 
are extremely susceptible of any keenness in the air; a north 
or east wind is very likely to keep them from venturing abroad. 
Different species have different hours of flight.” 

An English entomologist states, that ‘after dusk the flowers 
of the willow are the resort of several species of moths (Noc- 
tuide), some of which have hibernated, and others have just 
left their pupa state. It is now some fifteen years since the 
collectors first took moths in this way, that were likely long to 
have remained deficient in the collections but for the discovery, 
by Mr. H. Doubleday, of the attractive powers of the sallow 
blossoms. I believe it was the same gentleman who found out 
about the same time that a mixture of sugar and beer [or rum 
and sugar or molasses, etc. ], mixed to a consistence somewhat 
thinner than treacle, is a most attractive bait to all the Noc- 
tuide. ‘The revolution wrought in our collections, and our 
knowledge of species since its use, is wonderful.” 

‘““The mixture is taken to the woods, and put upon the 
trunks of trees in patches or stripes, just at dusk. Before it is 
dark some moths arrive, and a succession of comers continue 
all through the night, until the first dawn of day warns the 
revellers to depart. The collector goes, soon after dark, with 
a bull’s-eye lantern, a ring net, and a lot of large pill boxes. 
He turns his light full on the wetted place, at the same time 
placing his net underneath it, in order to catch any moth that 
may fall. The sugar bait may be used from March to October 
with success, not only in woods, but in lanes, gardens, and 
wherever a tree or post can be found to put it upon. The best 
nights will be those that are warm, dark and wet; cold, moon- 
light, or bright, clear and dry nights are always found to be 
unproductive. It is also of no avail to use sugar in the vicinity 
of attractive flowers, such as those of the willow, lime or ivy. 
Sometimes one of the Geometride or Tineide@ comes, and 
occasionlly a good beetle.” The virgins’ bower, when in blos- 
som, is a favorite resort of Noctue. Many can be taken by 


304 LEPIDOPTERA. 


carrying a kerosene lamp into the woods and watching for 
whatever is attracted by its light. 
Thyatira and Cymatophora are allied by their small, hairy 
heads, to the Notodontz in the preceding family. In Thyra- 
EOrke tira the palpi are long and depressed, and the 
ee, fore wings are dark, with five or six large light 
Y spots, and the larva is like that of the Noto- 
Fig. 233. dontz, the segments being humped, and the 
anal legs raised while at rest, while Cymatophora is pale ashen, 
the fore wings being crossed by four or five waved lines. The 
larva is smooth, rather flattened beneath, with a large head. 
It feeds on trees, between two leaves united by silk. C. cani- 
plaga Walker describes from Canada. Gramatophora trisig- 
nata Doubleday (Fig. 233, fore wing) is a gaily colored spe- 
cies, greenish, marbled with 
black, with three large, round, 
brown spots on the fore wings. 
The larva (Fig. 234) is 
humped, giving it a zig-zag 
outline, and is brown with the 
third to the sixth abdominal 
rings much paler. It has the unusual power of boring very 
smooth, cylindrical holes in solid pine wood. We have re- 
ceived specimens of its tunnels from Mrs. J. Brigham. We 
have found the larvee just moulting on the leaves of the lilac, 
September 12th. 
In Acronycta the head becomes large and broad, the fore 
wings are broad and short, with dark streaks and a dark mark, 
like the Greek letter Psi on the 
“\-“— inner margin. The larve vary 
=o in being humped or cylindrical, 
; downy, slightly hairy, or very 
hairy, and feed exposed on shrubs. ‘The pupa lies in a co- 
coon made in moss or in crevices of bark. A. oblinita Smith 
(Fig. 235, larva) is whitish gray, with darker streaks on the 
fore wings. 
Apatela Americana Harris is a large, pale gray moth, without 
black streaks, whose woolly, yellowish caterpillar, with long, 
slender pencils of black hairs, feeds on the maple. 


NOCTU ALITA. 305 


We have received from Mr. Sanborn a singular caterpiller 
allied to this genus (Fig. 236), which is figured in the Harris 
Correspondence as Acronycta acris? var. Americana. ‘It is 
ereenish brown,” according to Harris, ‘‘each segment above 
with a transverse oval greenish yellow spot; the body is beset 
with a few long black bristles, dilated at the end, which do not 
grow, as usual, from small warts ; 
there are no long bristles on 
the second and third thoracic, 
or on the tenth abdominal rings. 
It moves very quickly, and rests 
with the fore part of the body Fig. 236. 
bent sideways. The chrysalis was found under a log fastened 
to another with a few threads. The moth appeared June 28th.” 

In Leucania the fore-wings are short, the outer margin nearly 
straight, while the hind wings are usually white. Leuwcania 
unipuncta Haworth (Plate 8, fig. 2; a, larva) is the ‘¢‘ Army- 
worm” of the Northern States. Its larva is smooth, cylindri- 
cal, tapering rapidly towards each end, and striped with fine, 
dark, longitudinal lines. It feeds on grasses, and in certain 
years has greatly ravaged wheat fields. It hides by day among 
tufts of grass. The moth is rusty, grayish brown, peppered 
with black scales, and with an oblique row of about ten black 
dots running towards the apex, and a white discal spot. It 
expands a little over one and a half inches. It constructs, in 
the middle of August, a rude earthen 
cocoon, or cell of dry grass. The moth 
) appears the last of August northwards. 
/ Six species of Ichneumon, and one of 
Tachina, prey upon this species. To pre- 
vent the too great accumulation of this 
very destructive caterpillar, the grass land 
should be burnt over in autumn. When on the march their 
armies may be kept out by ditching, and hogs and fowl should 
be turned into fields during the middle of August, while they 
are transforming, to prevent their attacks the succeeding year. 

Agrotis, the Dart-moth, is known by its crested thorax ; 
the palpi are broad and truncated, level with the front, and 
the antennez are either somewhat pectinated or distinctly cili- 


20 


806 LEPIDOPTERA. 


ated. The dot and reniform spot are very distinct, being sit- 
uated on a black ground, and there is a basal, median, black 
‘streak on the fore wing. The apex of the hind wings is much 
produced. The larvee, 
called ‘*‘ cut worms,” are 
thick, with a distinct, 
horny, prothoracie 
plate, like that in the 
-\ Tortrices, or  leaf-rol- 
=} lers ; they are marked 
J with shining and warty, 
~ or smooth and concolor- 
TEES 2D ous spots, and often lon- 
diac dark lines, and live by day hidden under sticks and 
the roots of low plants; feeding by night. The pupa is found 
living under ground. Agrotis tessellata of Harris (Fig. 237) ‘ 
is dark ash colored; the two ordinary spots on the fore wings 
are large and pale, and alternate with a triangular and a square, 
deep, black spot. It expands an inch and a quarter. <Agrotis 
devastator Harris is the moth of 
the cabbage cut-worm. Another 
very abundant species, often seen 
flying over the blossoms of the 
4 Golden-rod in autumn is the Agro- 
a7 tis subgothica (Fig. 238). Mr. 
Riley states that this moth is the 
‘*parent of a cut-worm which very 
closely resembles that of A. Coch- 
rani, but which has the dark side 
divided into two stripes. The 
Wig i222 chrysalis remains somewhat longer 
in the ground, and the moth makes its appearance from four 
to six weeks later than A. Cochrani.” 
A. suffusa Den. and Schief. (A. telifera of Harris, fig. 239) 
is sonamed from the lance-like streaks on the fore wings. It 
appears late in July, and probably attacks corn, as Mr. Uhler 
has found the chrysalids at the roots of corn in Maryland. 
Riley describes the larva under the name of the Large Black 
Cut-worm. It is an inch and a half in length when crawling. 


<a 


NOCTUELITE. 307 


‘Its general color above is dull, dark, leaden brown, with a 
faint trace of a dirty yellow white line along the back. The 
subdorsal line is more distinct, and between it and the stigmata 
are two other indistinct pale lines. ‘There are eight black, 
_ Shiny, piliferous spots on each segment ; two near the subdorsal 
ond e, the smaller a little above anteriorly ; the larger just below 
ik, te a little back of the middle of the segment, with the line 
3 Appearing especially light above it. The other two are placed 
“each side of the stigmata, the one anteriorly a little above, 
the other just behind, in the same line with them, and having a 
white shade above it.” 

While cut-worms have usually been supposed to feed upon 
the roots of grasses and to cut off the leaves of succulent 
vegetables, Mr. Cochran, of Calumet, Ill., has discovered that 
one species ascends the apple, pear and grape, eating off the 
fruit buds, thus doing immense damage to the orchard. Mr. 
Cochran, in a letter published in the ‘‘ Prairie Farmer,” states 
that ‘‘they destroy low branched fruit trees of all kinds except 
the peach, feeding on the fruit buds first, the wood buds as a 
second choice, and preferring them to all things, tender grape 
buds and shoots (to which they are also partial) not excepted ; 
the miller always preferring to lay her eges near the hill or 
mound over the roots of the trees in the orchard, and if, as is 
many times the case, the trees have a spring dressing of lime 
or ashes with the view of preventing the operations of the May 
beetles, this will be selected with unerring instinct by the mil- 
ler, thus giving her larve a fine warm bed to cover themselves 
with during the day from the observation of their enemies. 
They will leave potatoes, peas and all other young, green 
things, for the buds of the apple and the pear. The long, 
naked, young trees of the orchard are almost exempt from 
their voracious attacks, but I found them about midnight, of a 
dark and damp night, well up in the limbs of these. The 
habit of the dwarf apple and pear tree, however, just suits 
their nature, and much of the complaint of those people who 
cannot make these trees thrive on a sandy soil, has its source 
‘and foundation here, though apparently, utterly unknown to 
the orchardist. There is no known remedy; salt has no prop- 
erties repulsive to them; they burrow in it equally as quick as 


308 LEPIDOPTERA. 


in lime or ashes. Tobacco, soap and other diluted washes do 
not even provoke them; but a tin tube, six inches in length, 
opened on one side and closed around the base of the tree, fit- 
ting close and entering at the lower end an inch into the 
earth, is what the lawyers would term an effectual estoppel to 
further proceedings. 

“Tf the dwarf tree branches so low from the ground as not to 
leave six inches clear of trunk between the limbs and ground, 
the limbs must be sacrificed to save the tree, as in two nights 
four or five of these pests will fully and effectually strip a four 
or five year old dwarf of every fruit and wood bud, and often 
when the tree is green utterly dennde it of its foliage. I look 
upon them as an enemy to the orchard more fatal than the can- 
ker worm when left to themselves, but fortunately for man- 
kind, more surely headed off.” 

Mr. Riley has named this cut-worm Agrotis Cochrani (Fig. 
240, and larva) and de- 
, scribes the larva which, 
4} according to the obser- 
’ vations of J. Townley 
of Marquette, Wis., 
also ascends standard 
trees, not confining 
its injuries to dwarf 
trees. The cut-worm is 1.07 inches in length. ‘‘It is slightly 
shagreened and the general color is of a dingy ash gray, with 
lighter or darker shadings. The back is light, inclining to flesh 
color with a darker dingy line along the dorsum. The sides, 
particularly along the subdorsal line, are of a darker shade. 
On each segment there are eight small, black, shiny, slightly 
elevated points, having the appearance of black sealing-wax, 
from each of which originates a small black bristle. The stig- 
mata are of the same black color and one of the black spots is 
placed quite close to them anteriorly. The head is shiny and 
of the same dingy color, with two darker marks; thick and 
almost joining at the upper surface, becoming thinner below 
and diverging towards the palpi. The upper surface of the 
first segment is also shiny like the head. The ventral region is 
of the same dingy color, but lighter, having a greenish tinge 


Fig. 240. 


NOCTUZLITA. 309 


anteriorly and inclining to yellow under the anal segment. 
Prolegs and feet of the same color. It has a few short bristles 
on the anterior and lateral segments. 

“The head is light brown, with a dark brown spot on each 
side and dark brown above, leaving the inverted Y mark in the 
middle light brown, and having much the appearance of a 
goblet, as one looks from tail to head. The cervical shield is 
dark brown, except a stripe above and on each side. There 
are sparse, short, white bristi®s laterally and_ posteriorly. 
The venter and legs are of a glaucous glassy color, and the 
feet are light brown.” 

‘¢The moth in its general appearance bears a great resem- 
blance to Hadena chenopodii, but the two are found to differ 
essentially when compared. From specimens of H. chenopcdii, 
kindly furnished me by Mr. Walsh, and named by Grote, I am 
enabled to give the essential differences, which are: 1. In 
A. Cochrani, as already stated, the middle area exceeds some- 
what in width either of the other two, while in H. chenopodii 
it is but half as wide as either; 2. In the Agrotis the space 
between the spots and between the reniform and transverse 
posterior is dark, relieving the spots and giving them a 
light appearance, whilst in the Hadena this space is of the 
same color as the wing, and the reniform spot is dark. The 
claviform spot in the Hadena is also quite prominent, and one 
of its distinctive features ; while in the Agrotis it is just about 
obsolete. 

Another larva is called by Mr. Riley the W-marked cut- 
worm. ‘‘It measures one and an eighth inches, and its gen- 
eral color is ash gray, inclining on the back and upper sides 
to dirty yellow: it is finely speckled all over with black | 
and brown spots. Along the back there is a fine line of a 
lighter color shaded on each side at the ring joints with 
a darker color. Subdorsal line light sulphur yellow, with a 
band of dirty brownish yellow underneath. Along the stig- | 
matal region is a wavy line of a dark shade with flesh colored 
markings underneath it; but the distinguishing feature is a 
row of black velvety marks along each side of the back, on all 
but the thoracic segments, and bearing a general resemblance 
(looking from tail to head), to the letter W. The ventral region 


310 LEPIDOPTERA. 


is greenish gray ; prolegs of the same color ; thoracic feet brown 
black. Head black with white lines in front, resembling an in- 
verted Y, and white at the sides. The thoracic segments fre- 
quently have a greenish hue.” 

Still another, of which the moth is unknown, is described 
by Mr. Riley under the name of the Pale Cut-worm. ‘It 
is of the same length as Cochran’s cut-worm, and the general 
color is pale gray, with a lilac colored hue, caused by innumer- 
able light purplish marking® on an almost white ground. 
There is no particular shading on the back, and it is very slight 
‘along the subdorsal line. The stigmatal line, however, being 
destitute of the above mentioned markings, is almost white. 
Above this line there is a band of a darker shade than the rest 
of the body. At first sight this worm appears quite smooth and 
uniform in color, the most striking feature being the second 
segment, which is shiny black, with three white lines. One of 
these lines is on the 
top, and continues 
to some extent on 
the head ; the others 
™, are placed on each 
~ side of this and do 

not run down as far. 
LE rll Us The anal segment 
has also two black shiny marks on its surface. The stigmata 
are black and the head is gray, below light shiny, and brown 
above. Legs and feet of the same color as the under side of 
the body which is nearly white with a glaucous tinge. There 
are a few scattering hairs near the tail. This worm is 
smoother than the others.” 

In Gortyna the antenne are crenulated in the male, and the 
fore wings are yellow with darker markings. The larva is dull 
colored with warty spots. That of G. flavago, an European 
species, feeds in the stems of thistles and the burdock, chang- 
ing to a pupa inside the stem. G. leucostigma attacks the colum- 
bine (Harris). The habits of the Dahlia and Aster stalk borer 
(Gortyna nitela Guenée) have been described by Mr. Riley, 
who states that the fore wings of the moth (Fig. 241; a, larva) 
are lilac gray, speckled with minute yellow dots, with a dis- 


NOCTUALITA. 311 


tinct white band running across them. The caterpillar is gen- 
erally of a livid or purplish brown, though varying much as to 
depth of shading and is darker before than. behind. ‘‘The 
young worm hatches about the first of July and immediately 
commences its work of destruction. It works in such a sur- 
reptitious manner as to be too.often unnoticed till the vine is 
destroyed. The plant does not generally show any signs of 
decay until the cocoon is about fully grown, when it wilts and is 
past recovery. This occurs about a month after the worm is 
hatched, and it then crawls just under the surface of the ground, 
_ fastens a tittle earth together around itself by a slight web and 
changes to a chrysalis of a very light mahogany brown color, 
and three-fourths of an inch long. ‘The moth comes forth the 
fore part of September. The careful culturist need fear nothing 
from this troublesome insect, as an occasional close inspection 
of the plants about the first of July will reveal the hole where 
the borer has entered, which is generally quite a distance from 
the ground, and by splitting downwards one side of the stall 
with a penknife it may be found and killed. If this inspection 
be made at the proper time the worm will be found but a short 
distance from the hole and the split in the stalk will heal by 
being kept closed with a piece of thread.” (Prairie Farmer.) 

Achatodes difiers from Gortyna in not having the fore wings 
faleate. A. zew, described by Harris, is rust-red with gray 
clouds and bands on the fore wings and yellowish gray hind 
wings; it expands an inch and a half. The larva feeds inside 
the stalks of corn, within which it transforms; it is a little 
over an inch long, smooth and naked, with the head and the 
top of the first and last rings of the body black, and with a 
double row of small, smooth, black dots across each of the 
other rings. It also infests the dahlia and elder. 

The genus Mamestra comprises rather large moths in which 
the antenne are rather long and simple in the male; the front 
of the head is smooth and convex, and the reniform dot is 
very distinct, while the outer margin of the fore wings is rather 
oblique. The larva is longer than usual and feeds on the 
leaves of low plants, remaining concealed by day. The ee 
is subterranean, the cocoon being made of earth. 

Mamestra arctica Boisd. (Hadena amica) is common neeite 


312 LEPIDOPTERA. 


ward, and is found in the colder subarctic regions of America 
and Europe. It cuts off the leaves of roses and other shrubs. 
Fitch states that the larva, late in May in New York, cuts off 
the young shoots of the currant. It is an inch and a half long, 
of a shining livid color, with faint dots, from which arise a very 
short, fine hair. It remains in the pupa state about a month be- 
neath the ground, the moth appearing in July. It is found also 
in Labrador and in Europe. The moth expands an inch and 
three quarters and is of a deep Spanish brown, variegated with 
gray, with a very conspicuous reniform dot; the outer edge is 
bordered with blue gray. Harris also describes MW. picta, a red- 
dish brown species, with a conspicuous white Z on the outer 
edge of the fore wing. The larva is yellow, gaily variegated 
with three longitudinal stripes. It feeds on garden vegeta- 
bles, and Mr. Fish informs me that it feeds on the cranberry. 

The genus Plusia is quite unlike the foregoing genera, as 
the palpi are long and slender, and the fore wings are acute, 
with silver marks and lines, usually a dot and dash, like a 
semicolon; the inner angle is tufted, and the hind wings are 
triangular. 

Our most common species is Plusia precationis Guenée, 
the larva of which, according to Mr. Saunders, feeds on the 
hollyhock in August. ‘It is one and a half inches long, 
the body tapering anteriorly and thickening in the middle 
and towards the end. The head is small, smooth, shining 
green, with a black stripe on each side. The body is green 
with dull whitish, longitudinal lines above and a whitish stripe 
somewhat more distinct on each side near the spiracles. It 
changed to a chrysalis August 9th.” A species of Plusia, like 
P. preecationis, is figured by Mr. Glover in his unpublished 
plates of insects injurious to the cotton plant. It has a much 
curved, semicircular discal spot, with a distinct dot just beyond, 
the two spots arranged thus ~. The caterpillar is pale 
green, the body increasing in size from the head to the tail and 
with a lateral row of brown dots. ‘‘It was found eating the 
cotton flower in Georgia the last of October.” It forms a loose, 
thin cocoon among the leaves, and the pupa is pale green, 
spotted above with irregular brown spots. Mr. Glover also 
figures quite a different species of Plusia, which has the same 


NOCTU ALITA. 313 


habits as the species just mentioned. It belongs, however, to 
a different section of the genus, and on the discal area is an 
oblique, golden, irregular oval patch, containing two unequal 
dots. The larvais pale green and has a broad, lateral, white 
stripe. The chrysalis is brown and protected by a thin, loose 
cocoon. P. divergens Fabr. lives on the Alps, in Finmark, and 
in Labrador. Mr. F.G. Sanborn found, July 6th, a closely allied 
species on the summit of Mount Washington, N. H., which dif- 
fers from P. divergens in the forked, golden, discal spot being 
a third smaller, while the two branches of the spot go off at 
right angles to each other. On the fore wings the second line 
from the base is acutely dentate on the submedian vein, where 
in P. divergens it is straight, and the outer line is also den- 
tate, not being so in P. divergens. The hind wings are yel- 
lowish at base, with a wide black margin. It may be called 
Plusia montana. Mr. Grote has described P. ignea (P. alticola 
of Walker) from Pike’s Peak, which is closely allied 
to P. divergens. Plusia crea Hubner (Fig. 242, side 
view) is a reddish brown moth, with obscure markings, 
and without the usual metallic spots. It expands a , 
little over an inch, and is not uncommon in the North- 
ern States. 

Anomis is a slender-bodied genus, with triangular Fig. 22. 
fore wings. A. aylina Say feeds upon the cotton. It is a 
brown moth with a dark discal oval spot centred by two 
pale dots. She deposits, according to Mr. Glover, a low, much 
flattened, vertically ribbed egg upon the surface of the leaf. 
The larva is a looper, whence it can be readily distinguished 
from the army and boll worms, and its body is thickest in the 
middle, very hairy, green, dotted with black along a subdorsal 
yellowish line, and with black dots beneath. It matures early 
in the season, and a second brood becomes fully grown in Sep- 
tember and October. When about to transform it gathers a 
leaf together by a web, thus forming a rude cocoon. (Glover.) 

Like our northern army worm (Leucania unipuncta) the 
Army worm of the South (Fig. 243, and larva, from Glover), 
makes its appearance in great numbers in a single day, 
committing the greatest havoc in a few hours. Professor J. 
Darby, of Auburn, Ala., writes me that ‘Saturday, Septem- 


314 LEPIDOPTERA. 


ber 19th, I was in the field examining the forms (buds before 
flowering) and the young bolls (fruit after the floral organs 
have fallen off). I examined all carefully, with no signs of eggs 
or worms. On Sunday I did not see it. On Monday I passed 
it as usual and observed nothing unusual. On Tuesday morn- 
ing I passed it and noticed nothing unusual. On Tuesday noon 
every plant in the field was stripped of all its upper leaves; 
not one remaining as far as could be seen, and the plants were 
covered with millions of worms. I counted on one plant forty- 
six worms. They commence at the top of the plant, eating 
every leaf. When the leaves were gone they attacked the 
young bolls, eating through the perianth and consuming the 
young cotton. In the course of four days the work was done. 
They did not touch the grape or any other plant in the field, 
so far as I have been able to see. 
Many left the field and thousands were 
in the road and on the fences, but not 
one in a thousand thus escaped. To- 
day, September 23d, there is scarcely 
one to be seen. Their disappearance 
is as mysterious as their coming. They 
have left no signs that I can see, 
either on the stalks or in the ground. 
They have extended over hundreds of miles, and nothing 
has proved a barrier to them, having been as destructive 
on islands in the river, as elsewhere. One-third of the 
cotton crop has been destroyed. Nothing of the kind has 
occurred in thirty years past to my knowledge.” ‘The larva 
is reddish brown, with distinct black spots, the dorsal line 
being streaked with yellow and black. It hibernates as a 
moth. The presence of this caterpillar in. the West Indies 
caused the cultivation of cotton to be abandoned. ‘The same, 
or another species, also appears often in Guiana and other parts 
of South America. A good remedy against the worm is a mix- 
ture of two parts of carbolic acid with 100 of water, to be 
sprinkled on the leaves of the plant. Heliothis has pubescent 
antenn, the thorax and abdomen are smooth, and the fore 
wings slightly acute at tip. The larva is elongated, but not 
attenuate, with a large head and distinct lines along the body. 


NOCTU ALITA. 815 


It feeds exposed on low plants, preferring the flowers. The 
pupa is conical and subterranean. AH. armigera Linn. (Fig. 
944; a, larva) is the ‘‘boll 
worm” of the Southern States, 
so destructive to cotton crops. 
Riley states that it also feeds 
on the fruit of the tomato, and 
in Southern Illinois on the silk 
and green kernels of corn and SS 
also the phlox, tomato and *e 
corn-stalks, and, according to 
Mr. T. Glover, it bores into the I 
pumpkin. Mr. Riley, in the tee 
‘Prairie Farmer,” describes apparently the same insect under 
the name of the ‘‘ Phlox worm” (Fig. 245, and larva). He states 
that there are two broods in a year, the first appearing in July, 
and becoming moths by the middle of August, 
(Ze —/ the second passing the winter in the chrysalis 
—~SY state. The eggs are deposited singly on all 
Fig. 246. portions of the plant, and the caterpillar, 
when about to become a chrysalis, enters the ground, and in- 
terweaves grains of sand with a few silken theads, forming a 
very slight elastic cocoon.” The genus Heliocheilus differs 
from Heliothis in its broader and shorter wings and its vena- 
tion. H. paradoxus 
Grote (Fig. 246, vena- 
tion of fore wing) is a 
pale testaceous moth, 
with the fore wings 
darker. It inhabits ¥ 
Colorado Territory. 
Anarta is rather a 
small moth, with a 
hairy body and small 
head; the fore wings Fig. 245. 
are thick and velvety, with confused markings, and the hind 
wings are yellow or white, often bordered with black. The 
larva is short and smooth in repose, with the anterior portion 
of the body bent under the breast. The pupa is enclosed in a 


f\\ 


316 LEPIDOPTERA. 


cocoon of silk mixed with earth. The genus is arctic or sub- 
arctic, and inhabits Alpine summits. A. algida Lefebvre in- 
habits Labrador and Lapland. <A closely allied and undescribed 
species, seems to be peculiar to the summit of Mount Wash- 
ington, N. H., where it has been detected by Mr. Sanborn. 

Xanthoptera semicrocea Guenée (Plate 8, fig. 3; a, larva) is 
brown, with the base of the wings saffron yellow; it expands 
a little less than one inch. Dr. A. W. Chapman, of Appalachi- 
cola, Fla., states in a letter to Mr. Sanborn, that the larva 
feeds on the leaves of the Pitcher plant, Sarracenia. It is red 
and cylindrical, with short black tubercles on the top of each 
segment, and a black cylindrical spine on each side of the 
four basal rings of the abdomen, surmounted by fine hairs. 
It does not spin a cocoon but hangs loosely by a few silken 
threads within the pitcher-like leaf, and the moth is the only 
insect that can get out of the bristly and narrow opening of 
the ‘‘ pitcher.” 

The little slender-bodied genus Hrastria has filiform antenn 
and a slender crested abdomen, with the usual lines and dots. 
quite distinct. The larva is smooth and slender, with only 
three pairs of abdominal legs. The pupa is enclosed in a co- 
coon among leaves or moss. HH. carneola Guenée is a common 
species, with the outer edge of the fore wings flesh colored. 

In Brephos the hind wings are bright orange, the body is 
hairy and the antenne are ciliated; the abdomen is slender, 
and the wings are broader than usual. The larva is smooth, 
elongate, with sixteen legs, though the first two abdominal 
pairs are useless for walking, hence the larva has a semi- 
looping gait. It feeds on trees and makes a slight cocoon 
in moss or under bark. B. infans Moschler inhabits Labrador 
and New England. It flies early in April before the snow has 
left the ground. 

Catocala is a beautiful genus, the species being numerous 
in this country and of very large size, often expanding three 
inches or more; the wings are broad, and in repose form a 
very flat roof. The larva is elongate, slender, flattened beneath 
and spotted with black, attenuated at each end, with fleshy 
filaments on the sides above the legs, while the head is flat- 
tened and rather forked above. It feeds on trees and rests 


NOCTU ALITA. B17 


attached to the trunks. The pupa is covered with a bluish 
eiflorescence, enclosed in a slight cocoon of silk, spun amongst 
leaves or bark. C. piatrix Grote is brown on the anterior 
wings and varied with black, while, the hind wings are yellow 
with a broad median and marginal band. It is common in the 
Middle and Eastern States. 

CO. ultronia Hubner (Plate 8, fig. 4; a, larva) expands two 
and a half inches and is of a rich umber color, with a broad 
ash stripe along the middle ef the wings, not extending to- 
wards the apex, which is brown. The hind wings are deep red, 
dusky at base, with a median black band, and beyond is a red 
band a little broader than the dark one, while a little less than 
the outer third of the wing is blackish. The larva feeds on 
the Canada plum. It is gray with black punctures, and the 
head is edged with black. The seements are transversely 
wrinkled, and on each one are two whitish and two brownish 
papille ; the two brown ones on 
the eleventh ring are much en- 
larged, and on the ninth ring is a 
small brownish horn. On the 
sides of the body, before the spir- 
acles is a line of light pink fila- 
ments fringing the scalloped sides. On July 15th the larva 
changed to a chrysalis in an earthen cocoon, and the moth ap- 
peared on the 2d of August. 

Drasteria is a small, grayish moth, with two geminate black 
dots near the apex, and a broad diffuse line on the fore wing. 
The larva is a looper, and the body is attenuated at each end. 
D. erechtea Cramer flies very abundantly in grass lands in May 
and early summer. Mr. Saunders informs me that the larva 
(Fig. 247) is ‘‘one and a quarter inches long and walks 
like a geometer; the body is thickest in the middle, being 
somewhat smaller towards the head, but tapering much 
more posteriorly, while the head is not large and is rather 
flattened in front and is pale brown, with darker longi- 
tudinal lines. The body above is reddish brown, with many 
longitudinal darker lines and stripes; there is a double whitish 
dorsal line, with a stripe on each side of the darker shade, 
another stripe of the same hue on each side close to the stig- 


318 LEPIDOPTERA. 


mata, and between these stripes are faint longitudinal lines. 
It fed on clover and went into the chrysalis state Sept. 21st.” 

The two remaining genera have broad wings, and are black- 
ish, with numerous transverse waved lines. ‘The edges of the 
wings are scalloped, the palpi are very long, and the head nar- 
row between the eyes, thus showing their affinities to the 
Phalenide. The species of Homoptera are of a dark ash 
color. HH. lunata Drury has a lunate discal spot. 

Erebus is a gigantic moth, with the outer margin very 
oblique and a large, incised, discal spot and sublunate margi- 
nal spots. Our large, blackish species, dark as night, is Hre- 
bus odora Drury ; it expands about five inches. The magnifi- 
cent, pale gray Erebus Agrippina Cramer (EK. strix of 
Fabricius) inhabits Brazil; it expands nearly ten inches. 


Puarenip#£ Latreille (Geometride). The Geometrids are 
easily known by their slender, finely scaled bodies and broad 
thin wings, which in repose are not folded roof-like over the 
body, but are spread horizontally and scarcely overlap each 
other. The antennee are usually pectinated. They are deli- 
cate, pale, often greenish or yellowish moths, and fly more by 
day than the Noctuids. The palpi are short and slender, and 
the tongue, or maxille, is weak and short. 

The larvee rarely have more than ten legs, some having four- 
teen, and a few (Metrocampa and Ellopia) twelve. Thus from 
the absence of legs on the basal rings of the abdomen, the larvee 
are loopers, or geometers, as grasping the object on which they 
are walking with their fore legs, they bring the hind legs close 
up to the fore legs, thus making a loop like the Greek letter 
Omega. They usually let themselves down by spinning a 
silken thread, hence they are sometimes called ‘‘ Drop-worms.” 
When about to pupate, the larva either spins a slight, loose, 
silken cocoon, or conceals itself under a covering of leaves 
fastened together with silk, or buries itself in the ground 
without any cocoon, while Harris states that a very few fasten 
themselves to the stems of plants and are changed to chrysa- 
lids, which hang naked and suspended by the tail. The pupa 
is long, slender, conical, generally smooth, sometimes with 
lateral protuberances on the head, and usually dark brown, but 


PHALANIDZ. 319 


otten variegated. The species, of which there are about 1,800 
described, are widely distributed, and more are found in the 
arctic regions than of the preceding family. 

We place at the head of this family the genus Urania and 
its allies. From their large size, splendid colors, swallow- 
tailed wings, the fore pair of which are elongated towards the 
tips, while the outer edge is very oblique, as in Papilio; their 
habit of flying by day and other resemblances to the butter- 
flies Latreille placed them among the butterflies immediately 
after the Hesperians. They have also been supposed to belong 
to the same group as Castnia, but the shape of the head, the 
long geometriform antenne, the palpi and the conical pupa and 
other characters ally them with the Urapteryx and the higher 
Phalenide. Urania Leilus is velvet black, the fore wings 
crossed by emerald green strize, and the hind edge of the hind 
wings are banded with light blue and golden, while the fringe 
and long tail are white. It is found in Surinam and Brazil. 

Urapteryx is a true Geometrid, with very square hind wings 
extending beyond the abdomen, with their outer margin pro- 
longed into a short tail. U. politia Cramer is a yellow species 
found in Mexico and the West Indies. The larva of the 
European U. sambucaria feeds on the oak, elder, bramble, 
etc., and is elongate, with projections from the eighth and 
twelfth segments. The pupa is elongate and enclosed in a net- 
like cocoon suspended by threads. 

In Cherodes the hind wings are still angulated, the angle 
reaching beyond the tips of the abdomen ; the falcate apex of 
the fore wings is acute, and the outer margin is entire and 
angulated just above the middle. ‘The species are usually pale 
ochreous, with short transverse strigee and two darker lines, 
the outer one of which is obtusely angulated just before the 
apex. C. transversata Drury is a pale ochreous species, which 
we have found resting on red maple leaves. 

The genus Angerona comprises the single species A. croca- 
taria Fabr., the larva of which (Plate 8, fig. 5a) we have found 
feeding on the cultivated strawberry during the last of June. 
It is an inch and a half long and when at rest extends itself 
straight out. The body gradually increases in size to the first 
pair of abdominal legs. The head is flattened so as to be 


320 LEPIDOPTERA. 


square above, and whitish green, with three longitudinal brown 
lines. The prothoracic ring is concolorous with the head, from 
which two brown lines extend, forming an inverted V on the 
hinder edge. The body is pale grass green above, with the 
sides bulging. ‘There are four minute black dots on each ring, 
a whitish, indistinct subdorsal line, and a lateral white line ex- 
tending to the sides of the anal legs. The body is greenish 
white. The moth (Plate 8, fig. 5, male) is of a rich yellow, 
with brown patches on the wings, and appears in July. 

In Endropia, which is closely allied to Cheerodes, the outer 
edge of the wings is deeply notched. L. tigrinaria Guenée 
is dirty ochreous, the wings being sprinkled with black; the 
outer line is nearly straight, ferruginous, paler within, with 
some submarginal spots, and the basal line on the fore wings 
is angulated, while the apex is pale and margined externally 
with blackish. 

Metrocampa is pearly white, with the wings a little bent in 
the middle. MW. perlata Guen. is pure white, with two darker 
oblique lines not angulated ; it is found not uncommonly north- 
ward. The larva of the English MW. margaritata has twelve 
legs, and like Catocala has fleshy filaments on the sides just 
above the legs. The pupa lives on the surface of the earth. 

Ellopia has pectinated antennze and exceedingly thin trans- 
parent wings, which are angulated in the middle of the outer 
edge, and with an inner and outer line, the latter bent nearly 
at right angles. The larva has twelve legs, but is smooth. 
The English EH. jfasciaria feeds on firs. Hllopia flagitiaria 
Guenée is pale ashen ochreous, with the speckles and two bands 
pale brown. It expands from six to eighteen lines. 

In Cuberodes the antennz are broadly pectinated, and the 
apex of the fore wings are nearly rectangular. The species 
are pale ochreous with thick wings, and the outer line termi- 
nates near the apex. C. metrocamparia Guenée is common 
northwards; with a blackish discal dot and outer dusky line 
arcuated and margined with white. 

The genus Nematocampa is characterized by the four fila- 
ments on the back of the larva. WN. jfilamentaria Guen. (Plate 
8, fig. 7; 7a, larva) is a small moth of a pale ochreous color, 
with reddish brown lines and dots, a ring in the discal space, 


Plate 7. 


me 


S 
8 


ROCCE 


Ma 
i? 


PHALNIDA. 321 


and just beyond a dark lead-colored band which becomes a 
broad squarish patch on the inner angle, and which is continu- 
ous with a broad band of the same color on the hind wings. 
It expands three quarters of an inch. Its singular larva we 
have found feeding, late in June, on the strawberry. It is .70 
of an inch long, cylindrical and with two pairs of long curled 
filaments, situated on the third and fifth abdominal rings re- 
spectively ; its general color is wood gray, and the pupa is 
pale reddish gray. The moth appeared on the 27th of July. _ 

The genus Abraxas, to which our currant worm belongs, may 
be known by the whitish or ochreous wings being covered with 
dark, often partially transparent blotches, and the larva being 
gaily speckled with black and golden spots. A. ribearia Fitch 
is ochre-yellow, with two rows of dark spots, the inner row be- 
ing incomplete and the outer row with a large blotch in the 
middle of the wings. As soon as the leaves of the currant 
and gooseberry are fairly expanded, late in May or early 
in June, the young caterpillar may be found busily eating 
them. In about three weeks after hatching it becomes 
fully grown, being ‘about an inch long, and bright yellow 
with black: dots. The chrysalis may be found under the 
bushes, either upon the ground or just under the surface. 
In two weeks after pupating the yellowish moth may be seen 
flying about the garden. Riley states that by sprinkling 
powdered hellebore upon the leaves, or applying a solution of 
eight or twelve ounces to a bucket of water, the larve will 
be killed, while hand-picking and shaking the bushes will also 
reduce their numbers. 

The genus Ennomos is stouter and much more hairy than 
any of the preceding genera; the antenne are well pectinated 
in the male, the wings are not so broad as usual and are den- 
tate. The larva is rather long and twig-like, either smooth or 
humped, and spins a cocoon consisting of leaves drawn to- 
gether by silk. H. magnaria Guen. is yellow, punctured with 
black, with two dusky lines, and the fringe is partly blackish. 
EH. subsignaria Hubner (Fig. 248, moth; Plate 8, fig. 6, larva) 
is a delicate, white, widely distributed species, and in the city 
of New York, where it is free from the attacks of its natural 
enemies, it is very destructive to the elm trees. 

21 


322 LEPIDOPTERA. 


A writer in the ‘‘ Practical Entomologist” (vol. i, p. 57) states 
that the caterpillars are hatched as soon as the leaves unfold, 
and live unobserved for a week or so in the young shoots in 
the tree-tops, and when half grown are seen crawling about the 
tree. Towards the end of June they pupate, and in about a 
week after the moth appears. ‘The importation of the English 
sparrow is said to have very effectually checked the ravages of 
this caterpillar, which may be recognized by its resemblance to 
the twigs of the tree on which it feeds, while its rather large 
head and the terminal ring of the body are bright red. 

In Amphidasys the body is very stout and the triangular 
wings are inclined to be small (in Nyssia, an European genus, 
’ the female has minute rudimentary wings) and narrow, while 
the antenne are broadly pectinated. The larva is stout, twig- 
gs like, being dark brown and 
warted; it is swollen at each 
end, and the head is often bifid. 
The pupa is subterranean. Such 
are the habits of A. cognataria 
Guen. which is white and very 
thickly sprinkled with ashy 

black. We have found the 
# larva feeding on the ‘‘ Missouri 
currant,” the gooseberry, and 
the red Spirzea. It went into the pupa state on the 22d of 
September. 

Boarmia has pectinated antenne, the tip being generally 
simple, while the abdomen is rather slender and the wings are 
dusky gray and crossed by dentate lines. The larva is twig- 
like, elongate, with small humps and lateral projections, and 
lives on trees. The pupa is subterranean. B. gnopharia Guen. 
is ashen, the wings clouded with fuscous, and dusted with black 
seales, with four black dentate lines. A species of Boarmia, 
figured by Mr. Glover, ‘eats the flowers of the cotton, being 
found early in October.” The larva is of the same thickness 
throughout, with a rather large head angulated above, and two 
tubercles near the tip. It is brown, with a double lateral 
pale stripe. The chrysalis is brown and enclosed in an under- 
ground cocoon. The moth expands nearly an inch and a half, 


PHALANID A. 323 


and is ash colored, sprinkled densely with brown speckles, with 
three angulated, transverse, black stripes. 

Geometra and its allies (Nemoria, Iodis, and Racheospila), » 
have smooth, round or angular, entire wings, which are green, 
often with whitish lines. Geometra is the largest genus; ‘‘it 
has pectinated antennz, and the larva is rather short, downy, 
with several dorsal humps. The pupa is enclosed in a trans- 
parent cocoon amongst moss.” (Stainton.) G. iridaria Guen. 
is pea green, with two broad bands, and the costa of the fore 
wings is white sprinkled with rust red. 

A great many species, often difficult to identify from the 
sameness in their markings, are comprised in the genus Acida- 
lia, which is known by its rather thin wings, with the edges 
usually entire, and with stripes and bands and other markings 
common to both. The hind wings are often slightly angulated. 
The larva is smooth, slender, and feeds concealed under low 
plants. The pupa is subterranean, or lives in a cocoon among 
leaves. A. nivosaria Guen. is pure white. A. enucleata Guen. 
is whitish yellow; its wings are speckled with brown, and 
with pale lines and submarginal spots. 

Macaria is easily recognized by its faleate wings, which 
have a rounded excavation below the hooked tip, and there is 
a rather prominent angle on the hind wings. 
There are usually two large blotches, one in 
the middle of the wing, and the other. on the 
outer third of the costa. The larva is rather 
short and smooth, and feeds on trees and Fig. 249. 
shrubs. The pupa is protected by a cocoon. M. granitata 
Guen. is gray, with indistinct darker bands and minute black 
speckles, with a rust red costal spot in front of a black discal 
spot. 

Zerene is a beautiful genus, with feathery antennee and broad, 
thin, white wings. Z. catenaria Drury is white with black 
discal dots, and two black scalloped lines. The larva is a gen- 
eral feeder, eating sedges, the goldenrod, blueberry, waxwork, 
and according to Mr. Fish, is injurious to the cranberry. It is 
a pretty caterpillar (Fig. 249) and is straw colored, the seg- 
ments being wrinkled and thickened, with two subdorsal darker 
threads ; the head is yellow with six black dots; the spiracles 


324 LEPIDOPTERA. 


are black, situated in a white field, and with a black dot on 
each side. In Maine it pupates about the middle of August, 
making a thin gauzy cocoon, consisting of yellowish green 
silken threads. ‘The pupa is white, with scattered black dots 
and black stripes; it remains thirty-two days in the pupa 
state, the moth appearing during the middle of September. 

In Anisopteryx the male antennze are simply pubescent, the 
wings are ample, and rounded at the tip, while the hind wings 
are rounded. The female is wingless, the head small and the 
body is oval. The male of A. vernata Peck (Plate 8, fig. 9 ; 
9a, female; 9b, larva), the moth of the Canker worm, is ash 
colored, with a whitish costal spot near the tip of the fore 
wings which are crossed by two jagged whitish bands dotted 
with black on the outside ; they expand about one inch and a 
quarter. In the early spring and late in autumn the male flies 
about and couples with the wingless female, which lays a patch 
of short, cylindrical eggs, from sixty to one hundred or more, 
arranged in rows, and glued to the surface of the bark. The 
larvee hatch from the first to the middle of May, or as Harris 
states, about the time of the flowering of the red currant, and 
the leaving out of the apple tree. Almost before the presence 
of the larvee is known they often nearly strip an orchard of its 
leaves. They also attack the cherry, plum, elm, and other 
trees and shrubs. The canker worm (Plate 8, fig. 9b) when 
mature is about an inch long, ash colored on the back, black 
on the sides, and beneath yellowish. It varies greatly in the 
intensity of its markings. It ceases eating when four weeks 
old, and late in June creeps down, or lets itself down by a 
thread, and burrowing from two to six inches in the loose earth, 
there forms a rude earthen cocoon, fastening the grains of earth 
together with silk. Twenty-four hours after the cocoon is fin- 
ished the worm becomes a chrysalid, which, in the male, is 
slender, rather pointed in front and light brown in color. Com- 
ing forth in the autumn and following spring, its progress up 
the tree can be arrested by the application of coal oil or prin- 
ter’s ink, by the well known methods, around the trunk, while 
the bunches of eggs should be picked off and burnt. The A. 
pometaria Harris is as abundant as A. vernata; it has thinner 
wings, wanting the whitish bands and spot, and having an 


PHALANIDZA. 325 


oblique, dusky, apical line. We are inclined to think that it is 
simply a variety of A. vernata. Harris has detected an ich- 
neumon parasite which preys upon the canker worm, and a 
species of Tachina also attacks the caterpillars, and we have 
noticed a minute species of Platygaster (Fig. 134), first dis- 
covered by Herrick, ovipositing in its eggs. The Calosomas 
also devour them, and probably other ground beetles ; and cer- 
tain wasps (Kumenes) store their nests with them. (Harris. ) 

Allied to the canker worm is the Hybernia tiliaria Harris, the 
male of which is much larger and has feathered antennze. The 
female is larger and slenderer than that of the canker worm, 
and along the back are two rows of black dots on a pale gray- 
ish ground. The moth flies late in the autumn. ‘The larva is 
bright yellow, with ten crinkled black lines along the top of the 
back, and is an inch and a quarter in length. It feeds on the 
lime, apple and elm, and is sometimes very destructive. 

Eupithecia is a diminutive form, with very small rounded 
hind wings, while the fore wings are much elongated towards 
the apex, and at rest both pairs are spread out and pressed 
closely to the surface on which the moth rests. The larva is 
rather short, stiff, often marked with dorsal lozenges, and the 
_ head is small and rounded. It feeds on trees or low plants; 
sometimes on seeds of plants. The pupa is slender, conical and 
pointed. E. miserulata Grote is clear silky grayish, with a 
black interrupted outer line and a grayish fringe, interrupted 
with black. 

Cidaria numbers many species in which the antennz of the 
male is simple or slightly pubescent, and the fore wings are 
rather pointed at the tip, while the hind wings are rounded. 
The larva is elongate and slender, with the head often notched. 
It feeds on trees or shrubs, and the pupa is of variegated 
colors. Cidaria diversilineata Hibn. (Plate 8, fig. 10, 10a, 
larva) is yellowish ochreous, with brownish angular lines, and 
at rest the abdomen is curved over the back. Mr. Saunders . 
has found the larva feeding on the woodbine. According to 
his notes ‘‘the body above is dark brown, with a slightly 
reddish tint, and patches of a darker shade along the dorsal 
region, being the color of the twigs of its food plant. It 
remains in the pupa state about a week.” We have also 


326 LEPIDOPTERA. 


found both brown and green specimens feeding on the grape 
vine in midsummer. The worms can be removed by hand-pick- 
ing as they are rather conspicuous objects. A larva, probably 
of Cidaria, has been found by Mr. W. C. Fish, stripping the cran- 
berry plants in Harwich, Mass., late in August. Mr. Fish 
writes, ‘‘I have never met them that I am aware of before, but 
on one bog in this place they destroyed nearly two acres of 
cranberry vines, eating off all the green leaves, the bog being 
as black in spots as though a fire had been over it.” They 
were not numerous elsewhere in that town, but may prove at 
times to be a great pest to cranberry growers. We failed to 
rear the larvee sent by Mr. Fish. They are about the size of 
the canker worm. ‘The head, which is no wider than the rest 
of the body, is deeply indented, on each side rising into a tu- 
bercle ; the anal plate is long, acute, and beneath it are two 
minute acute tubercles, tinged with reddish. It is dull reddish 
brown, simulating the color of the twigs of the cranberry, and is 
finely lineated with still darker lines. The head is speckled with 
brown, with a conspicuous transverse band across the vertex, 
and two rows of pale spots across the front. Just above the 
spiracles is a broad dusky band. Beneath, the body is paler, 
with a mesial clear line edged with brown. It is .80 of an inch 
in length. Mr. Fish states that the owner of the bog flowed it 
with water so that it was completely covered and the worms 
were ‘killed. This is a rapid and the most effectual way to ex- 
terminate insects ravaging cranberry lots. 


Pyraripa Latreille. The Snout-moths, so called from their 
very long and slender compressed palpi, are very easily recog- 
nized by this character alone. The more typical forms have 
tridngular fore wings, and a slender abdomen and long 
slender legs, the front pair of which are often tufted. They 
are usually dull ash gray, with a marked silken lustre. The 
larger genera, Hypena and Herminia, etc., are called Deltoids, 
as when at rest the wings form a triangle of the form of the 
Greek letter Delta. Their antennze are sometimes pectinated 
in the male. They are usually gregarious in their habits, and 
often extremely local. They haunt moist grassy places, are 
readily disturbed by day, and fly before dusk, while some are 


PYRALIDZ. 397 


= 


true day-fliers. The larve are generally known by their remark- 
ably glassy appearance, and the few hairs on them have an un- 
usually bristly look. Many spin a cocoon. The pupa is long, 
slender, and conical. 

The largest form is Hypena, in which the male antennz are 
hairy, and the palpi are long, ascending, and the fore legs are 
not tufted, and there are often slight tufts of raised scales on 
the fore wings. The larva is elongate, cylindrical, with four- 
teen legs, and feeds on low or climbing plants, making a slight 
cocoon among leaves. , 

The Hop vine moth, H. humuli Harris (Fig. 250; a, larva 
and pupa) is very destructive to the hop. It is marbled with 
eray beyond the middle of the fore wings, with a distinct 
oblique gray spot on the tip; they are crossed by two wavy 
blackish lines formed of elevated black tufts, and there are two 
similar tufts in the middle of the wings; it expands one inch 
and a quarter. The 
larva is glassy pea- 
green. The body is 
long and _ slender, 
with rather convex 
rings, and with long 
sparse hairs. ‘The head is rather large and deeply divided into 
two lobes by the median suture; it is a little more yellowish 
green than the body, which tapers gradually towards the tail, 
while the anal legs are long and slender, there being but two 
pairs of abdominal legs, so that the caterpillar walks with a 
looping gait. The body is striped with a narrow whitish line, 
edged broadly below with dusky, and with two white lines on 
the sides of the body, though specimens vary in the number of, 


lines, some having no lateral whitish stripes. It is .45 of an 
inch in length. When half grown the larva is pale livid flesh 
color, not greenish, with a broad dark dorsal line, bounded on 
each side by a whitish line. It is double-brooded, the first lot 
of caterpillars appearing in May and June, the moths coming 
out late in June and early in July; while the second brood of 
larvee appear in July and August, the moth flying in Septem- 
ber. It is very active, leaping off the leaf to the ground when 
disturbed. When fully grown it forms a loose silken cocoon 


328 LEPIDOPTERA. 


within a folded leaf or any crevice, the moth appearing in three 
weeks. We have raised a species of 'Tachina from the pupa. 
The vine should be showered with a solution of whale oil, and 
soapsuds, and the plants shaken to rid them of these pests. 
Herminia differs from Hypena in its tufted fore legs; the 
larva is short, slender towards each end, covered with small 
spots; it has sixteen legs, and feeds concealed among dry 
leaves, making a narrow cocoon among them. AH. jucchusi- 
alis Guenée is one of our most common species. 
. Pyralis has narrow wings, the fore wings being oblong, with 
distinct lines, and the palpi are short, ascending. The Meal 
moth, P. farinalis Harris, is reddish gray at the base and hind 
edge of the fore wings, becoming more reddish towards the tip, 
with two whitish cross 
lines, the space between 
g, being ochreous. The 
<i larva is dull whitish, with 


E72 reddish brown head, 
~ and having reddish pro- 
thoracic and anal plates. 

It feeds on straw and 
corn, and Mr. Riley has 
found it feeding on clover. 
The Clover worm, 

a rf or Asopia costalis Fabr. 
Kig- 251. (Fig. 251; 1, 2, larva in 

different positions; 3, 7, cocoon; 4, pupa; 5, 6, moth), ac- 
cording to Riley, ‘‘ attacks and spoils clover for feeding pur- 
poses, both in the stack and mow, by interweaving and 
covering it with abundant white silken webs and black excre- 
ment that much resembles coarse gunpowder. The parent of 
these clover worms is a pretty little lilac-colored moth, with 
wide golden fringes,” and has been introduced from Europe. 
The moths fly late in June and in July, and they creep into all 
parts of the stack, as the larve have been found eight feet from 
the ground, though they are mostly found at the bottom. The 
larva is three-fourths of an inch long and is dull dark brown, 
with an olivaceous hue. Mr. Riley thinks there are several 
broods through the year, and suggests as a preventative to 


PYRALID. 329 


stack the clover on a good log or rail foundation so as to allow 
the air to pass up through from beneath. 

In Aglossa pinguinalis Harris, the Grease moth, the palpi are 
rather long, the fore wings are grayish brown clouded with a 
darker hue, and are crossed by two indented lines. The larva 
is of an uniform dark brown, with a darker head and _ protho- 
racic plate, and feeds on greasy horse clothes, etc. 

Another species of Aglossa (perhaps A. cuprealis) has been 
sent me by Prof. A. E. Verrill, who writes me that the larva does 
ereat damage to the old leather bound volumes in the library 
of Yale College, by eating out great patches and galleries in 
the leather covers, and also, in some cases, some of the glue 
and pasteboard. It spins a silken cocoon. The moth (Plate 8, 
fig. 20) differs from A. pinguinalis by the hind wings being 
pale whitish gray, instead of grayish brown. The palpi have 
the third joint one-third as long as the second. It is pale 
brown, with a slight reddish 
tinge, and the wings are 
crossed by two pale bands, 
with several pale costal 
spots. The outer band is 
heaviest on the costa and . 
inner angle, and faint in - ‘Fig. 252. 
the middle of the wing. The hind wings are pale, shining 
whitish, with no bands. It expands .90 of an inch. 

In Europe, Mr. Curtis states, the Aphomia colonella Linn. 
(Fig. 252) which also occurs with us, is a formidable foe of the 
humble bee, feeding upon its honey. When fully fed it spins a 
tough web of a close woolly texture, in which the caterpillar 
turns to a chrysalis (a). ‘‘The female moth creeps into the 
nest in June to deposit her eggs, and the caterpillars live in 
families sometimes of five hundred, to the total destruction -of 
the progeny of the poor humble bees. The moths are of a dirty 
white, the upper wings have a greenish and rosy tinge, with a 
line of black dots round the margin, a whitish space near the 
base, and two black lines near the costa in the male. The fe- 
male has two distinct, indented, transverse bars, and two black 
spots on the disc.” 

Hydrocampa and its allies are exceedingly interesting from 


330 LEPIDOPTERA. 


the aquatic habits of the larvee, which remind us of the Caddis 
worms. Cataclysta is at once known by its slender body and 
narrow wings, the hinder pair of which have a row of eye-like 
spots.along the hind margin. The larva is elongate, with a pale 
head, and is aquatic, feeding beneath the leaves of the Duck 
weed, living in a cylindrical silken case covered with leaves. 
The pupa has a long ventral projection, and is enclosed in the 
case of the larva. C. fulicaiis Clemens has, on the outer mar- 
gin of the hind wings, a row of five black lunules connected 
by intermediate metallic violet blue spots, and behind them a 
row of orange yellow dots. 
The larva of Paraponyx is provided with branchiz and spira- 
cles ; the pupa residifg in a cocoon among leaves under water. 
Hydrocampa has large white spots on the outer edge of the 
fore wings. The larva is rather thick, attenuated at each end, 
with a black head. It is aquatic, living in a flat case under 
the leaves of water lilies. The pupa resem- 
5) bles that of Cataclysta. 
ara, The genus Botys (Fig. 253) includes 
many species, in which the conical abdomen 
is longer than the wings, and the tip of 
Fig. 253. the front pair is often prolonged. The larva 
is said by Stainton to be lively, attenuated at each end and 
semitransparent, with warty spots. It feeds in rolled up 
leaves. ‘The pupa is elongate, smooth, enclosed in a slight co- 
coon among leaves. £B. verticalis Albin is whitish, with the 
outer edge of the fore wings dark grayish. The larva feeds on 
the nettle. B. citrina G. and R. is a bright yellow species. 
The genus Desmia is at once known by its resemblance to 
Botys, and by its black body and wings, spotted with broad 
white patches, while the male antennee are swollen in the middle. 
D: maculalis Westwood, the Grape leaf folder, is shiny black, 
with a white fringe on its wings, which are spotted in the mid- 
dle with white patches, and with two white bands on the abdo- 
men of the female. It is found chiefly in the Southern States, 
where it attacks the grape. The larva, according to Riley, who 
observed the moth in Southern Ilinois, is ‘‘glass-green, and 
folds a leaf, or attaches two, that may be close together, by aid 
of a few silken threads. It is very active, jumping and jerk- 


PYRALIDA. 331 


ing at the least touch. It acquires a flesh-colored hue 
prior to changing to a chrysalis, which it usually does just 
within the leaf. Many which thus changed with me on the 
21st of July, became moths on the 29th of the same month.” 

To the genus Phycita belongs the Apple leaf crumpler, or 
P. nebulo of Walsh, which in the West is known to strip the 
trees of their early leaves. It draws the leaves together by a 
web, and about the middle of June becomes fully grown, 
when it closes up its horn-like case, and at the end of the 
same month and early in July appears as a long, narrow-winged 
moth, somewhat like Nephopteryx, but with broader fore wings. 

Nephopteryx is a genus with very narrow wings, with the 
male antennz sinuous at the base. It feeds on various trees, 
while the larva of N. Hdmandsii Pack. (Plate 3, fig. 25 2a, 
larva; 2b, pupa), feeds on the cells of the humble bee. 

The genus Pempelia closely resembles Nephopteryx. Our 
most injurious species is the Gooseberry worm, which is unde- 
scribed. It may be called the P. 
grossularice (Fig. 254 ; a, cocoon) and 
is allied to the European P. semiru- 
bella. ‘Though familiar with the in- 
sect, and having raised the moth, our a Fig. 254. 
specimens were too much rubbed for identification, and we are 
indebted to Mr. Saunders of London, Canada, for very perfect 
specimens of the moth, and notes regarding its habits, confirma- 
tory of our own observations. The moth is pale gray, with a 
dark, transverse, diffuse band on the inner third of the wing, 
enclosing a zig-zag white line not reaching the costa. There is 
a discal discoloration, and beyond, a white zig-zag line with a 
long, very acute angle on the internal margin, and a row of 
marginal black dots, while the apex is white, and the veins and 
their branches white; it expands nearly an inch. As soon 
as gooseberries and currants are well formed, many turn pre- 
maturely red and dull whitish, which is due to the presence 
of a pale green, smooth worm, which, after eating out the inside 
of one berry, leaving a hole for the passage of the excrement, 
enters another berry making a passage-way of silk until it 
draws together a bunch of currants, or two or three gooseber- 
ries. During the last of June it pupates, while the moth does 


332 LEPIDOPTERA. 


not appear until the spring of the following year, Mr. Saun-: 
ders’ specimens having left the chrysalis May 8th. 

Crambus, so abundant throughout the summer in grass, is at 

once known by the long narrow wings being rolled around the 
body in a tubular form. The larva has sixteen legs, is whit- 
ish or dull colored, with large shining spots, and feeds on moss 
in silken galleries. Myr. Saunders has hatched the larvee from 
the eggs. ‘*They feed readily on grass, the blades of which 
they fasten together with silken threads, under which they live 
concealed ; they will also feed on clover.” Crambus mutabilis 
Clemens is grayish fuscous, the palpi a little darker, while the 
fore wings have a grayish median stripe, not extending beyond 
the disk, and the discal dot is dark brown. It is a variable and 
a common species. Other kinds are variously streaked with 
silvery white. 
' The Bee moth, G'alleria, has rather broad wings, which are 
indented on the outer edge. G. cereana Fabr. (Plate 8, fig. 
11) is dusky gray, streaked with purple brown on the outer 
edge, with a few dark brown spots on the inner margin. ‘The 
larva is yellowish white, with brownish dots. It constructs 
silken galleries running through the comb,’in which it feeds. 
It spins a thick white cocoon. Two broods of moths appear, 
one in April and May, the other in August. They lay their 
eggs at evening while the bees are resting. The caterpillars 
mature in about three weeks. 


Tortricipa Leach. The ‘ Leaf-rollers” are best character- 
ized by the shortness of the palpi, which project beak-like, and 
are rarely long enough to be curved in front of the 
head ; and by the oblong fore wings. They are of small 
size, rarely expanding over an inch, and are folded 

eS roof-like (Fig. 255) over the body. The fore wings are 
Pig. 255- broad, compared with those of the Tineide@, and 
are much rounded on the costa. They are variegated with 
.bands and spots, often of brilliant metallic hues, while the hind 
wings are dull colored like the body, the inner edge being folded 
fan-like against the body. The antenne are filiform and the 
legs are much shorter than in the Pyralids. They fly mostly by 
night, resting during the day upon the plant on which the larve 


e 


TORTRICIDA. 333 


feeds. They most abound in summer, though a few species 
are found in the spring and autumn. 

The larvee are cylindrical, usually transversely wrinkled, and 
nearly naked. The pupa is slender, and the rings of the 
abdomen armed with transverse rows of teeth. Many of 
the larger species roll up the leaves of trees, or gather them 
into a rude tent, with silken threads; others devour the inte- 
rior of fruit buds and seeds, or live in the tender shoots, or 
under the bark, or in the roots, while some live exposed on the 
leaves of plants. 

In Antithesia the palpi are hanes than the head, and the 
thorax is tufted behind ; the fore wings are more than twice as 
long as broad, the costa being regularly arched, while the apex 
is obtuse, and the apical third of the costa is white or ochreous. 
A, bipartitana Clem. has white fore wings, with a dark brown 
basal patch, and a central concolorous band, with two or three’ 
dark brown spots on the outer third of the costa. The Sate of 
the wing is spotted with brown, and there é 
is a pale brownish spot in the middle of : 
the white apical third of the wing. It is EA Ta 
not uncommon northwards. Wh 

Another species has been detected on ~“pvee 
the rose by Mr. F. W. Putnam. The larva Fig. : 
is yellowish green with a jet black head and prothoracic shield, 
and pupates late in June, the moth appearing during July. It 
is identical with the Antithesia pruniana of Hubner (Plate 8, 
fig. 18, natural size) a destructive moth in Europe, where it 
devours the plum, as its specific name indicates. The inner 
two thirds of the fore wings are marbled with black and lilac 
colored scales; the apical third being white, with three costo- 
apical dark spots, and the extreme apex black. 

The genus Siderea has rather long fore wings, the costa be- 
ing regularly arched, and the tip rather pointed, the outer edge 
being concave below the tip. Clemens, doubtfully, refers his 
S.? nubilana (Fig. 256; 7a, head) to this genus. The fore 
wings are brown, with dark brown markings, and there is a 
dark brown basal line and a central irregular dark brown band, 
which becomes ochreous brown in the middle of the wing, and 
seems to be separated from a conspicuous dark brown triangu- 


334 LEPIDOPTERA. 


lar patch, which is edged narrowly with ochreous. Near the 
inner angle are two dark brown oblique stripes. 

The typical genus TYortrix has the palpi much longer than 
the head, with the fore wings about twice as long as broad, and 
the costa arched abruptly at the base, while the outer edge is 
truncate and sometimes hollowed out below the tip. ZT. geli- 
dana Moschler is a common arctic form, and occurs commonly 
in northern Labrador, and has been detected 
on the Alpine summit of Mount Washington 
by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. He has also detected 
a new species which feeds on the cranberry, 
for which we suggest the name Tortrix oxycoc- 
cana. Its body is dark brown, with lighter 
hairs on each side of the abdominal segments, 
and fuscous at the tip. The fore wings are 
of a peculiar glistening gray, mottled with red- 
dish brown scales, especially towards the outer edge. There 
are no well defined spots or bands. The hind wings and body, 
and under surface of the wings are slate colored. The wings 
expand.1.15 inches. 

The Leptoris breviornatana of Clemens (Fig. 257; a, side 
view of the head and labial palpi; 6, fore wing; c, hind wing), 
which is referred to the genus Tortrix by Mr. C. T. Robinson, 
has tawny yellow fore wings, with the veins brown. An oblique 

b brown band arises on the basal 

EZ third of the costa, and runs to 

the middle of the inner margin, 
but does not reach it. On the 
costa is a brown patch. It lives 
in Virginia. Mr. Robinson also 

ASS informs me that in a forthcom- 

ing paper on this family he re- 

Fig. 258. fers the Ptycholoma? semifus- 

cana of Clemens (Fig. 258; a, head; 6, fore wing; ec, hind 

wing) to the present genus. ‘The fore wings are white along 

the costa and hinder margin, marked with pale brown, ochreous 

and tarnished silvery stripes and spots.” It ranges from 
Maine to Virginia. 

The genus Lozotenia has palpi rather longer than the head. 


TORTRICIDZ. 335 


It differs from Tortrix in the male having a fold or flap of scales 
extending nearly to the tip of the fore wing, while the outer 
edge is indented below the tip, which is rather produced up- 
wards. The larve of this genus feed in leaves, the edges of 
which are drawn together by silken threads, or in the stems and 
seeds of plants. JZ. rosaceana Harris (Plate 8, fig. 12; 12a, 
larva) is pale brown, with two oblique, darker reddish brown 
bands, and a triangular spot of the same color on the costa near 
the tip. The hind wings are ochreous yellow, and blackish 
within. The larva, early in June, binds together the leaves of 
‘the rose, apple and strawberry. It is plump and rather large, 
and of a pale yellowish green. We found, on the 23d of June, 
the fully grown larva on the leaves of the strawberry, doubling 
them up and binding them together by a few silken threads. 
The worm is pale livid, greenish above and paler beneath, with 
a conspicuous black dot on each side of the hinder edge of the 
prothorax. The head is very pale honey yellow, with two black 
spots: one near the insertion of the mandibles, and the other 
on the side near the base of the head. ‘The posterior half of 
each segment is transversely wrinkled a few times. The body 
is scattered over with a few minute tubercles, each giving rise 
to a fine hair. It is .80 of an inch long. One specimen spun 
its slight cocoon on June 26th, the pupa appearing June 30th. 
It is sometimes attacked by Ichneumons. The pupa is pointed 
on the vertex of the head, and on the back of each abdominal 
ring are two rows of spines. The moth usually appears the 
last of June. 

We have reared another species from the wild strawberry. 
It may be called the Lozoteenia fragariana. It is a very pretty 
moth expanding .80 of an inch, with red fore wings, darker on 
the outer half and with a large triangular white spot near the 
middle of the costa; the outer edge of the spot is hollowed out. 
The outer edge of the wing is pale, especially in the middle, 
and concolorous with the head and palpi, and thorax. The 
hind wings and abdomen are whitish buff. The hind wings 
are whitish beneath. The larva may be found in Maine, early 
in June, folding the leaves, and the moth appears in the mid- 
dle of the same month. 

The Lozotcenia gossypiana, or Cotton Leaf-roller, we describe 


336 LEPIDOPTERA. 


from the very characteristic drawings of Mr. Glover. The 
larva closely resembles that of L. rosaceana and is about the 
same size. It rolls up the leaf of the cotton into a loose cir- 
cular fold, and when fully grown spins a thin, loose, transpar- 
ent cocoon between the leaves. On the abdominal tip of the 
brown cocoon are three pairs of minute hooks, the two outer 
pairs supported on a pedicel, by which the chrysalis is re- 
tained in place in the cocoon. ‘The moth is the size of the 
L. rosaceana, being pale reddish brown, and with three darker 
bars, the inner one crossing the costal two-thirds of the wing, 
the middle and broadest crossing the wing obliquely, and ter- 
minating near the outer angle, while the third bar cuts off the 
apex of the wing. ‘The hind wings are paler, but dusky along 
the inner side. 

The species of Penthina may be recognized by the oblong 
fore wings, the apex being obtuse, sometimes a little falcate. 
An interesting species, according to information received from 
Mr. M. C. Reed of Hudson, Ohio, rolls up the leaves of the 
grape, and when the fruit becomes formed, eats the pulp and 
seeds, thus doing a two-fold injury to the vine. It may be 
called the Penthina vitivorana (Plate 8, fig. 22, enlarged). The 
head, thorax and palpi, and basal half of the antenne are ful- 
vous. The fore wings are dark slate brown. From the mid- 
dle of the costa proceeds a blackish band which curves to the 
middle of the outer third of the wing ; beyond is a linear curved 
costal band succeeded by another broader but quite short costal 
line ; the costa is tawny beyond, sending a tawny patch obliquely 
inwards. Near the margin is an irregular blackish patch and 
two dark spots on the costa, and a larger one at the apex. The 
hind wings and body are ‘dark slate color. It expands .40 of an 
inch. The first brood of caterpillars feeds on the leaves, ap- 
pearing in May (in Ohio), or as soon as the leaves are grown. 
The second brood appears when the grapes are nearly filled 
out, and then they feed on the pulp and seeds. Mr. Reed writes 
me that ‘‘in every instance where a grape was opened contain- 
ing a fully grown larva, the seeds were mere shells. They con- 
tinue their work until the grapes are fully ripe, and at that 
time on removing to a new berry, seem to make their home in 

the old one, which is attached by a web.” The larva turns 


TORTRICIDA. 337 


over the edge of a leaf to form a rude cocoon for the chrysalis. 
Mr. Read suggests destroying the leaves thus affected before 
they fall in autumn, as the larvee do not descend to the earth 
to undergo their transformations. 

Halonota ditfers from Tortrix in having the apex of the fore 
wings rather obtuse, and there is a pale blotch usually present 
on the middle of the inner margin. HH. simulana Clemens is 
brownish ochreous, with dull ochreous palpi, reddish at the 
tip; the fore wings are brown, with a slight brassy hue, and 
with an ochreous dorsal blotch; the costa is streaked with 
ochreous, and there are two violet streaks, one running be- 
neath the tip and the other to a faint eye-like patch, behind 
which, on the hinder margin, are three black spots. 

The genus Grapholitha is characterized by Stainton as hay- 
ing the palpi longer than the head, with the fore wings more 
than twice as long as wide, the costa being 


b 
slightly arched, and the apex rather pointed, za 
while the outer edge is a little hollowed out 

below the apex, and rounded at the inner an- : 


gle. The larvee live in the folded leaves of }====——=—=> 
shrubs, or in the tops of herbaceous plants, = 
or in their roots. Mr. Robinson refers the 
Steganoptycha? ochreana of Clemens, to Gra- 
pholitha (Fig. 259; a, head; b, fore wing; c¢, 
hind wing.*) The fore wings are pale yel- 
lowish, and the outer half of the costa is 
streaked with ochreous brown, and there is an eye-like patch 
which is white, and contains two ochreous brown streaks and 
two black dots. It was discovered in Virginia. Robinson also 
refers Clemens’ Euryptychia saligneana (Fig. 256; 8a) to this 
genus. It was bred by Mr. B. D. Walsh, in Illinois, from a 
willow gall. The fore wings are white, tinted with yellowish, 
with a dark brown basal patch, the wing beyond being nearly 
white varied with lead colored speckles, and striped over the 
venules with dull, leaden gray, transverse stripes, two of which 
near the anal angle, form a white eye-like patch. (Clemens.) 
Under the name of Callimosema scintillana (Fig. 256; 9), 


<\)) 


Ys! 


*The artist has represented the last branch of the median vein forked at the 
tip. It should have been the middle branch. (Clemens.) 


22 


338 LEPIDOPTERA. 


Clemens describes a moth with narrow fore wings, and a large 
eye-like spot across the inner angle, the venation being the 
same asin Joplocama. In this latter genus (Fig. 256; 10a, 
I. formosana Clemens) the wings are broader and have the 
costa of the fore wings dilated at the base, while the labial 
palpi are broad, and reach far beyond the front of the head. 
1b In Anchylopera the palpi are 
— Le shorter than the head, with the 
Se a fore wings broader than usual, 
and the costa somewhat obtusely 
arched towards the base, while 
the tip is often hook-like and 
the outer edge concave. The 
larva feeds between the united 
leaves of plants. A. spire foli- 
ana Clemens is white on the fore 
wings, with a large, reddish 
brown dorsal patch extending 
from the base to the middle of 
the wing, and an oblique band 
from the middle of the costa to 
about the centre of the wing; 
the costa beyond is streaked 
alternately with white and red- 
dish brown to the apex. The 
larva feeds on the leaves of 
Spireea opulifolia, or Nine-bark. 
It is pale green with a yellowish 
ee tinge. (Clemens. )* 
* Pig. 260. Mr. Fish has discovered an un- 
described species which feeds on the cranberry, and which we 
may call the Cranberry Anchylopera, A. vacciniana (Plate 8, 
fig. 21, enlarged). The moth is dark ash, the fore wings being 
whitish, dusted with brown and reddish scales, with white nar- 
row bands on the costa, alternating with broader yellowish 


* FIG. 260; la, represents the head of A. nubeculana, described by Clemens in 
the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia; 10, the vena- 
tion of the fore wing; and 1c, the hind wing; 2a, the head of 4. ocellana Clemens; 
2b, the fore wing; 2c, the hind wing; 3a, the head of A. mediofasciana Clemens; 
36 the fore wing; and 8c, the hind wing. 


TORTRICIDZ. 339 


brown bands, five of which are several times larger than the 
others, and from four of them irregular indistinct lines cross 
the wing. The first line is situated just beyond the inner third 
of the wing, and is often obsolete. The second line is the 
largest and is slightly bent once in the middle of the 
wing. There is a large brown spot parallel to the costa, 
being situated on the angle. The third line is oblique and 
stops before reaching the inner angle and is forked on the 
costa, while the fourth line is a short apical diffuse irregular 
line. The apex of the wing is dark brown, and is a little more 
acute than usual in the genus. The length of a fore wing is .20 
of aninch. It lays its eggs on the leaves during the month 
of August and a new brood of larvee appear in September, 
though they hatch mostly in the following spring, or early in 
June, and become fully grown in July. 

The larva seen fifom above is much like that of Lozoteenia 
rosaceana, but the head is a little larger in proportion to the 
rest of the body, being as wide as the body in its thickest part. 
The body is more hairy, while the prothorax is not dark. The 
chrysalis is rather slender, the body being contracted at the 
base of the abdomen, on the rings of which there are dorsal 
rows of fine spines. 

Mr. Fish writes me that ‘these larvee, called the Cranberry- 
vine worms, hatch about the first of June from eggs that have 
remained upon the leaves of the plant all winter. They com- 
mence to feed upon the tender growing shoots of the plant, 
drawing the leaves together with their web for shelter, conceal- 
ing themselves and feeding within. Before reaching their 
full size they, if very numerous, almost wholly destroy the 
leaves and tender shoots, giving the whole bog a dark dry ap- 
pearance as though a fire had been over it. This is why they 
are in some places known as ‘fire-worms.’ Having reached 
their full size they spin up among the leaves or among the 
dead leaves upon the ground. After remaining in the pupa 
state about ten or thirteen days the moths come out and de- 
posit their eggs upon the leaves. 

“This year the moths were out the last of June and first of 
July. In five or six days the eggs hatched and this second 
brood, which is usually the most destructive, mostly changed 


340 LEPIDOPTERA. 


to pup on the 20th of July. On the 26th of July the 
first moth came out and most were out before the 4th of 
August. I saw the moth at Sandwich as late as the 20th of 
August. Most of the eggs laid in August do not hatch until 
the following spring. I did succeed in finding two or three 
larvee in September, but they were rare at that time. The 
only sure means known of destroying them, is to let water upon 
the bog for twenty-four hours.” 

Another Tortricid larva, which seems to differ generically 
from the vine worm, in being thicker and having a larger, 
squarer prothoracic ring, and a less hairy body is called the 
‘“‘Fruit-worm.” According to Mr. Fish, these worms appear the 
first of August and work all through the month. The first signs 
of their presence are seen in the berries that are attacked turn- 
ing prematurely red. Most of them reach their full size before 
the first of September. In some places wliere the vines have 
been retarded by be- 
~ ing kept under water 
until the first of June 
previous (it is com- 
mon to cover the bogs 
with water when con- 
venient), they do not 
reach their full size until a few weeks later. When fully 
grown they enter the ground and spin their cocoons within a 
few inches of the surface. The cocoons are covered with grains 
of sand and are hardly distinguishable from small lumps of 
earth. They remain in the ground all winter. I do not know 
positively the perfect insect, as I have never been able to rear 
it in-doors. In the spring of 1867 I bred two species of Ich- 
neumons from these cocoons that had remained in the house 
over winter.” 

The Strawberry leaf-roller (A. fragariz Riley, Fig. 261; c, 
lines showing the dimensions of the moth; a, larva, natural 
size; b, the head and four succeeding rings of the body; d, 
the terminal ring of the abdomen, showing the anal legs) has, 
according to Riley, recently been doing much injury to straw- 
berry plants in Illinois and Canada. ‘It crumples and folds 
the leaves, feeding on their pulpy substance, and causing them 


TORTRICID &%. 3414 


to appear dry and seared, and most usually lines the inside of 
the fold with silk. ‘There are two broods during the year, and 
the worms of the first brood, which appear during the month 
of June, change to the pupa state within the rolled up leaf, 
and become minute reddish brown moths during the fore part 
of July. After pairing in the usual manner, the females deposit 
their eggs on the plants, from which eggs in due time hatches 
a second brood of worms. ‘These last come to their growth to- 
wards the end of September, and changing to pupz, pass the 
winter in that state. The moth expands from .40 to .45 of an 
inch. The head and thorax are reddish brown, with pale palpi 
and legs, and dusky antennze, while the tarsal joints are dusky 
at the tips. ‘The fore wings are reddish brown and streaked 
and spotted with black and white, as in the figure, while the 
hind wings and abdomen are dusky.” (American Entomologist, 
vol. i, p. 89.) 

The Coddling moth, Carpocapsa, has palpi longer than the 
head; the apex of the fore wings is rather obtuse, and the 
outer edge is suddenly hollowed out below the tip. The larvee 
feed in the interior of fruits. C. pomonella Linn. (Fig. 256, 
11 a) is gray, with numerous darker, transverse lines, and with 
a curved black line before the ocellated patch on the inner an- 
gle, which line is edged with a coppery tint. The moth lays its 
eggs on apple and pear trees early in summer in the blossom- 
end of the fruit, and the larva hatches in a few days, burrowing 
into the core. It matures in three weeks, when the apple drops 
to the ground and the larva transforms in a thin cocoon in 
crevices in bark, etc., and in a few days another brood of moths 
appear, though most of them remain in their cocoons through 
the winter as larvee, where we have found them under the loos- 
ened bark early in May. 

This formidable pest may be partially destroyed by gather- 
ing ‘‘ wind-falls,” though the larva often deserts the worm-eaten 
apple before it falls. The best remedy is that suggested by 
Dr. Trimble, who binds bands of hay about the trees from 
July until the middle of September. The larve crawl under 
these bands and there spin their silken cocoons, when every 
few days the bands can be removed and the worms de- 
stroyed. 


342 LEPIDOPTERA. 


Tineip” Leach. The Tineids are a family of great extent, 
and the species are very destructive to vegetation, having in- 
numerable modes of attack. They may be distinguished 
from the Tortricidae by their smaller size, while the narrow 
wings which lie on the top of, or are rolled around the body 
when at rest, are often falcate, or pointed acutely, and edged 
with a long fringe of exceeding delicacy. The maxillary palpi 
are greatly developed, while the labial palpi are of the usual 
size, and usually recurved in front of the head. The antennz are 
long and filiform. The larve are cylindrical, variously 
wrinkled transversely, and with from fourteen to sixteen feet. 
They often construct cases in which they live, and usually spin 
a slight silken cocoon. About 1,200 species are already known 
in Europe alone. ‘Those of this country have been mostly de- 
scribed by Dr. Clemens. 

In studying this interesting family, Stainton remarks that 
‘the elongated wings, the slender body and the long or very 
long fringes to the wings, are characters by which the Tineidz 
may generally be recognized at once; and the development of 
the palpi and their variety in form and structure, offer most 
tangible grounds for separating the greater number of the gen- 
era. Indeed, if the student will look at the head of a species 
to see whether it is hairy or smooth, if he will then notice the 
palpi, whether the maxillary palpi are developed and to what 
extent, and whether the labial palpi are slender, ascending or 
drooping, whether the second joint is densely clothed with 
scales, or bears a long protruding tuft, and if he will farther 
notice the form of the hind wings, which are either well rounded 
or very pointed, or indented towards the tip, he will be per- 
_ fectly surprised to see how easily he will arrange these insects 
into genera by their structure.” 

The larvee vary excessively in the number of legs, sixteen 
being the usual number, but in several genera (Gracilaria, Lith- 
ocolletis, ete.), we only find fourteen; in Nepticula, though 
the legs are but poorly developed, they number eighteen ; on the 
other hand the larvz of a few of the smaller genera (Antispila, 
Tinagma, etc.) are absolutely footless. 

For collecting and preserving these minute and delicate 
moths, which are called by collectors, micro-lepidoptera, especial 


TINEIDZ. 343 


instructions are necessary. When the moth is taken in the 
net, it can be blown by the breath into the bottom. ‘Then 
by elevating the hand through the ring, or on a level with it, a 
common cupping glass of about two inches in diameter, or a 
wine glass carried in the pocket, is placed on top of the left 
hand over the constricted portion, the grasp relaxed, and the 
insect permitted to escape through the opening into its interior. 
The glass is then closed below by the left hand on the outside 
of the net, and may be transferred to the top of the collecting 
box, when it can be quieted by chloroform” (Clemens) ; or the 
moths may be collected in pill boxes, and then carried home 
and opened into a larger box filled with fumes of ether or ben- 
zine or cyanide of potassium. In pinching any moths on the 
thorax, as is sometimes done, the form of that region is inva- 
riably distorted, and many of the scales removed. In search- 
ing for ‘‘ Micros” we must look carefully on the lee side of 
trees, fences, hedges, and undulations in the ground, for 
they avoid the wind. Indeed, we can take advantage of 
this habit of many Micros, and by blowing vigorously on the 
trunks of trees start the moth off into the net so placed as to 
intercept it. This method is most productive, C. G. Barrett 
states, in the ‘‘Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,” while a 
steady wind is blowing. 

In seeking for the larve we must remember that most of 
them are leaf miners, and their burrows are detected by the 
waved brown withered lines on the surface of leaves, and their 
‘¢ frass,” or excrement, thrown out at one end. Some are found 
between united leaves, of which the upper is crumpled. Others 
construct portable cases which they draw about the trunks of 
trees, fences, etc. Others burrow in the stems of grass, or in 
fungi, toadstools, and in the pith of currant or raspberry bushes. 
Most are solitary, a few gregarious. A bush stripped of its 
leaves and covered with webs, if not done by Clisiocampa (the 
American Tent Caterpillar), will witness the work of a Tineid. 
Buds of unfolded herbs suffer from their attacks, such as the 
heads of composite flowers which are drawn together and con- 
sumed by the larve. 

After some practice in rearing larvee it will be found easier 
and more profitable to search for the leaf miners, and rear the 


344 LEPIDOPTERA. 


perfect, fresh, and uninjured moths from them. In this way 
many species never found in the perfect state can be secured.* 

In raising ‘‘micro” larvee it is essential that the leaf in 
which they mine be preserved fresh for a long time. ‘Thus 
a glass jar, tumbler or jam-pot, the top of which has been 
ground to receive an air-tight glass cover, and the bottom 
covered with moist white sand, will keep a leaf fresh for a 
week, and thus a larva in the summer will have to be fed but 
two or three times before it changes; and the moth can be 
seen through the glass without taking off the cover; or a glass 
cylinder can be placed over a plant inserted in wet sand, havy- 
ing the top covered with gauze. Dr. H. G. Knagegs in treat- 
ing of the management of caterpillars in breeding boxes, 
enumerates the diseases, beside muscardine and cholerine, to 
which they are subject. Among direct injuries are wounds and 
bruises, which may be productive of deformities in the future 
imago; the stings of ichneumon flies, whose eggs laid either 
upon or in the body may be crushed with finely pointed scis- 
sors or pliers; frost bites, and suffocation chiefly from drown- 
ing. If the caterpillar has not been more than ten or twelve 
hours in the water it may be recovered by being dried on a 
piece of blotting paper and exposed to the sun. Larvee may 
also starve to death even when food is abundant, from loss of 
appetite, or improper ventilation, light, etc.; or they may eat 
too much, become dropsical, and die. Caterpillars undoubt- 
edly suffer from a contagious disease analogous to low fever. 
Many die while moulting, especially the larve of Butterflies, 
Sphinges, and Bombycids; others are carried off by diarrhea, 
which is generally caused by improper feeding on too juicy or 
relaxing food, when oak leaves or dry stunted foliage should 
be given them. To relieve constipation they should be fed 
with lettuce and other natural purgatives, and lastly, they may 
be attacked by fungi, especially, besides those previously men- 


*“Tp general, it may be said, the mines of the leaf miners are characteristic of 
the genus to which the larva may belong. A single mine once identified, enables 
the collector to pronounce on the genus of all the species he may find thereafter. 
This added to the ease with which the larve are collected, and the little subsequent 
care required to bring them to maturity, except to keep the leaves ina fresh and 
healthy state, makes the study of this group, in every respect, pleasant and satis- 
factory to the entomologist.” (Clemens.) 


TINEIDA. 345 


tioned, a species of Oidium. Such patients should be put in 
direct sunlight or dry currents of air. (Entomologist’s Monthly 
Magazine, June, 1868.) The pupe easily dry up; they should 
be kept moist, in tubes of glass closed at either end, through 
which the moth can be seen when disclosed. 

In setting micro-lepidoptera: ‘If the insect is very small I 
hold it by its legs between the thumb and finger of the left 
hand, whilst I pierce it with the pin held between the thumb 
and finger of the right hand; if the insect is not very small I 
use a rough surface, as a piece of blotting-paper, or piece of 
cloth, for it to lie upon and prevent its slipping about, and 
then cautiously insert the point of the pin in the middle of the 
thorax, as nearly as possible in a vertical direction. As soon 
as the pin is fairly through the insect, remove it to a piece of 
soft cork, and by pressing it in, push the insect as far up the 
pin as is required. 

‘For setting the insects I find nothing answers as well as a 
piece of soft cork, papered with smooth paper, and with 
grooves cut to admit the bodies. ‘The wings are placed in the 
required position by the setting needle, and are then retained 
in their places by a wedge-shaped thin paper brace, placed over 
them till a square brace of smooth card-board is placed over the 
ends of the wings.” (Stainton.) A small square of glass can 
also be laid on the wings to keép them expanded, and thus 
serve the same purpose as the paper braces. Linnzeus first set 
the example of having the specific names of the Tortricids 
end in ana and of the Tineids in ella, and at the present day 
the rule is generally followed by entomologists, who have also 
given the same terminations to the names of the smaller spe- 
cies of Pyralids, such as Pempelia, Crambus and allied genera. 

In the group of Tineids proper, the head is roughly scaled, 
with short and thick labial palpi, while the maxillary palpi are 
generally extremely well developed, and the antennz some- 
times (Adela) extremely long. The larve live in a portable 
case and feed on wool, hair, ete., and fungi, or decayed wood. 

Solenobia has very short labial palpi, which are almost con- 
cealed in the hairs of the mouth, and the case of the larva is 
shorter than usual. The unimpregnated females of this genus 
lay fertile eggs, so that one may breed a species for years with- 


- 346 s LEPIDOPTERA. 


out ever seeing a male. (Stainton.) Solenobia? Walshella 
Clemens is gray, varied with fuscous. The silken case is gran- 
ulated with fine sand; the larva is probably lichenivorous. 

In Tinea the head is rough, the maxillary palpi are usually 
folded and five jointed, while the labial palpi are cylindrical, 
hairy and sometimes bristly. The fore wings are 
= oblong ovate, and the hind wings ovate and clothed 
with scales. 

The common Clothes moth, Tinea flavifrontella 
Linn. (Fig. 262; fig. 263, a, larva, with its case, b; c, chrysa- 
lis, enlarged) is of a light buff color, with a silky iridescent lus- 
tre, the hind wings and abdomen being a little paler. The head 
is thickly tufted with hairs and is a little tawny. The wings are 
long and narrow, pointed acutely, with the most beautiful and 
delicate long silken fringe, which increases in length towards 
the base of the wing. The moth begins to fly about our apart- 

c b ments in May, individuals 
remaining through the sum- 
mer. They lay their eggs 
in woollens, though we have 
= “reared numerous specimens 
which had attacked a mass 
of cotton. Early in June 
we found numbers of the 
caterpillars in their flattened 
cylindrical cases which in this instance were white, the color 
of the substance they fed upon. The larva is whitish with a 
tolerably plump body, which tapers slightly towards the end 
of the body, while the head is honey yellow. The segments 
of the body are thickened above by two transverse folds. The 
body of the chrysalis is considerably curved, with the head 
smooth and rounded. The antennze, together with the hind legs, 
which are laid on the breast, reach to the tip of the abdo- 
men. On the upper surface of each ring is a short trans- 
verse row of minute spines, which aid the chrysalis in moving 
towards the mouth of its case, just before changing to a moth. 
When about to transform, the skin splits open on the back, 
and the perfect insect glides out. The skin is moulted with 
great rapidity. To avoid the ravages of this destructive moth, 


TINEID. 347 


woollens and furs should be carefully shaken and examined 
early in June. Dr. Harris states that ‘‘ powdered black pep- 
per strewed under the edge of carpets is said to repel moths. 
Sheets of paper sprinkled with spirits of turpentine, camphor 
in coarse powder, leaves of tobacco, or shavings of Russian 
leather, should be placed among the clothes when they are laid 
aside for the summer; and furs and other small articles can be 
kept by being sewed in bags with bits of camphor wood, red 
cedar, or of Spanish cedar, while the cloth lining of carriages 
can be secured forever from the attacks of moths by being 
washed or sponged on both sides with a solution of the corro- 
sive sublimate of mercury in alcohol, made just strong enough 
not to leave a white stain on a black feather.” ‘The moths can 
be most readily killed by pouring benzine among them, though 
its use must be much restricted from the disagreeable odor 
which remains, and c 

its inflammable na- 
ture. The use of a 
weak solution of car- 
bolic acid is also rec- 
ommended. Tinea 
tapetzella Linn., the 
Carpet moth, is black- 
ish at the base of the 
fore wings, the re- 
mainder being yellow- 
ish white, while the 
hind wings are dark gray, and the head white. The larva 
feeds on carpets, ete. 

Tinea: granella Linn. (Fig. 264 natural size, and enlarged, 
with the wings spread; a, larva, natural size and enlarged; 3, 
pupa, natural size and enlarged; ¢, grains of wheat held to- 
gether with a firm web) the Grain moth, is found flying in 
granaries during the summer. The female lays thirty or more 
minute eggs, one or two on each grain of wheat. The white 
worm hatches in a few days, eats its way into the grain, clos- 
ing the entrance with its castings, and after it has devoured 
the interior of one grain, unites others in succession to it, until 
it binds together by a fine web a number of them. When 


348 LEPIDOPTERA. 


nearly full grown they cover the grains with a very thick web. 
According to Curtis the larvee retire to cracks and crevices in 
the floor and walls of the granary, and construct their cocoons 
by gnawing the wood and working it up with their web until it 
has the form and size of a grain of wheat, wherein it remains 
through the winter, changing to a chrysalis early in the spring ; 
while two or three weeks after the moth appears. It is creamy 
white, with six brown spots on the costa, and with a long 
brown fringe. ‘To prevent its attacks empty granaries should 
be thoroughly cleansed and whitewashed, or washed with coal 
oil, and when the moths are flying numbers may be attracted 
to the flames of a bright light ; also when the larvee are at work, 
the grain should be shovelled over frequently to disturb them. 

The beautiful genus Adela is at once known by its exces- 
sively long antenne. The larva makes a flat case, and feeds 
on the leaves of various low plants, such as the wood Anemone 
and Veronica. The A. Ridingsella of Clemens has coppery 
brown fore wings, with a pale grayish brown mesial patch 
dusted with black, and four or five black spots at the inner 
angle, while the hind wings are fuscous. 

Hyponomeuta has a smooth head, with rather short, slender, 
reflexed, subacute labial palpi; the fore wings are white, dotted 
in rows with black, and on the base of the hind wings is a 
transparent patch. ‘The larvee are gregarious, and the pupa is 
enclosed in a cocoon. H. millepunctatella Clemens is white, 
with the base of the costa blackish, and with longitudinal rows 
of distinct black dots, two of which, one along the inner mar- 
gin, and one along the fold, are plain. The hind wings are 
blackish gray. 

In Depressaria the fore wings are unusually oblong, being 
rounded at the apex; and the hind wings are broader than 
usual, with the inner edge emarginate opposite the subme- 
dian vein, and rounded opposite the internal vein. The abdo- 
men is flattened above, with projecting scales at the sides. 
The larve of this genus are extremely active, and feed ona 
variety of substances; some in rolled up leaves of composite 
plants, some in the leaves and others in the umbels of the 
umbelliferous plants. Many of the worms descend from the 
plant on the slightest agitation, so that considerable caution is 


TINEIDA. 349 


. 


necessary in attempts to collect them. The full-fed larvee de- 
scend to the ground and change to pupz among the fallen 
leaves. The perfect insects have the peculiarity of sliding 
about when laid on their backs. D. atrodorselia Clem. is yel- 
low ochreous, with six or eight black costal dots, with a red- 
dish patch extending from the disc towards the tip of the wing. 
The head is rufous above, with the face blackish brown above 
and yellowish beneath. 

During the last summer we observed a locust tree which had 
some of the branches well nigh defoliated by an undescribed 
species of this genus which we may call the Depressaria robin- 
iella (Plate 8, fig. 14, natural size). The head, palpi and fore 
wings are light brick red, spotted irregularly with yellow, and 
the antennz are slate brown. The fore wings are a little 
darker in the middle, especially towards the inner edge. There 
is a submarginal darker brown band near the outer edge, which 
does not reach the costa, and on the outer edge is a row of 
minute black dots. The hind wings and abdomen are of a pale 
slate gray, and of the same color beneath, while the legs are 
of a very pale straw yellow. It differs from most of the spe- 
cies of the genus in having the apex of the fore wing less 
rounded than usual, and in this and other respects it is allied 
to the European D. laterella. The larva is thick-bodied, with 
a black head, and is green, the cervical shield being green. It 
devours the leaves, drawing them together by threads, and 
also eats the flower buds. It was most abundant in the last 
week of June. It turned to a chrysalis July 8th, and in about 
two weeks the moth appeared. 

In Gelechia the fore wings are rather long and pointed, and 
the hind wings are trapezoidal and more or less excavated below 
the tip. The terminal joint of the labial palpi is slender, al- 
most needle-like, smooth and pointed. This genus is of great 
extent and comprises a considerable diversity of species. The 
moth is extremely active. Clemens states that ‘‘the habits of 
the larvee are extremely varied, feeding upon leaves, flower- 
buds, young shoots, and in the interior of grain and seeds. The 
species that feed in buds and shoots are mostly in the larva 
state in spring and the beginning of summer; those that feed 
in and upon leaves are met with in summer and autumn, and 


350 LEPIDOPTERA. 


those that feed on seeds do so in the autumn and winter.” 
The Angoumois Grain moth, G. cerealella Linn. (Fig. 265), is 
ochreous, with a fuscous streak towards the base, and a few 
fuscous dots towards the tip of the wing, while the hind wings 
are grayish ochreous. The wings are sometimes unspotted. 
It feeds in wheat granaries, where it secretes itself within 
the grain, devouring the mealy substance. Réaumur, according 
to Mr. Stainton, thus speaks of the economy of material in the 
food of the larva of Gelechia cerealella. “A grain of wheat 
or of barley contains the precise quan- 
tity of food necessary to nourish the 
> larva from its birth till it is full fed. 
For if we open a grain inhabited by 
a younger and smaller larva, we find 
that there is more or less of the sub- 
stance of the grain still to be consumed, 
according to the size of the larva. 
But what is remarkable is, that in the latter case, we find 
at least as much and probably more excrement, and in larger 
pellets, than we find in a grain tenanted by an older larva.” 
It is thus driven to eat its excrement over once and perhaps 
more than once! We have received from Mr. F. G. Sanborn 
the larva (Fig. 266, much enlarged) of this moth, which had 
eaten out the kernel of grains of parching corn, leaving but a 
thin shell. The body is unusually short, thick and white, the 
tegument being very thin and transparent. Gelechia fungivo- 
rella Clem. has roseate white 
fore wings, dusted and banded 
with brown. Walsh states that 
‘‘the larva mines a cabbage- 
like gall (C. salicis-brassicoides), 
Fig 266. peculiar to Salix longifolia, and 
a pine-cone-like gall on Salix cordata, named C. salicis-stro- 
biloides by Osten Sacken.” The larva of a similar species, 
G. roseosuffusella, inhabits the fruit panicles of the sumach. 
Coleophora is a beautiful form, with long fringes to the 
wings, which are long and lanceolate, especially the hinder pair. 
The head is smooth above and in front, and the slender, simple 
antennz are sometimes thickened with scales as far as their 


Fig. 265. 


TINEID A. 351 


middle. The labial palpi are slender, rather porrected, with a 
slender prolonged tuft from the second joint, and the third 
joint is pointed. The larva is a case-bearer, changing to a 
pupa within the case. While these moths abound in the larva 
state, the adult insects are rarely met with. The leaf-feeding 
larvee are very easily found, as their presence may be detected 
by the pale blotches they form on the leaf they feed upon, 
while the seed-feeding larvee are much better concealed. 

“¢ Coleophora larvee do not well bear confinement in the hu- 
mid air of the breeding jar. ‘To be successful in rearing the 
larvee, one must use a pot of moistened sand, in which the food 
plant is placed, covered with a glass cylinder, with fine gauze 
tied over the top; or the plant may be kept in water and cov- 
ered with a cylinder of glass. For this purpose old chimney 
tops to lamps answer very well. The larve of this genus, taken 
in the fall of the year, hibernate in their cases until the fol- 
lowing spring, and feed upon the first leaves that put forth. 
They must not, therefore, be kept in a warm room during 
the winter. The pupz of the fall brood of larve thrive much 
better, likewise, if not kept in a warm room during the cold 
months. ‘The spring, or early summer brood of larvee, produce 
imagos in a few weeks after entering the pupa state, and hence 
it is much more satisfactory to collect early in the year than 
during the latter part.” (Clemens.) 

In C. rosefoliella Clem. the head and thorax are white, while 
_ the fore wings are pale grayish towards the base, clouded with 
dark brown from the middle to the tip, and the hind wings are 
dark brown. The case is silken, covered with granulations, 
cylindrical, slightly compressed, the mouth slightly deflexed 
and the opposite hook-like end turned down slightly. Its color 
is brown, varied with gray and reddish-brown granulations. 
The larva feeds in the spring on the common garden rose, and 
the case was found in winter attached to a thorn on one of the 
stems. C. rosacella Clem. also feeds in the spring on the rose 
and sweet briar. The case is made of the cuticle of the rose- 
leaf on which the larva feeds. It is a compressed cylinder, and 
dilated slightly in the middle of the under edge. Color dark 
ochreous. (Clemens.) Coleophora coruscipennella Clemens is 
a beautiful bronzed green species, with the terminal half of the 


352 LEPIDOPTERA. 


antennze white, ringed with brown. The fore wings are reddish 
violet on the apex, and the hind wings are dark brown. An 
unknown species is represented on Plate 8, fig. 17. It was 
found feeding on the pear the 5th of September, carrying about 
a flattened case of the form indicated in the figure, which is 
enlarged about five times. We have also found another Col- 
eophora larva, with a long, flattened, cylindrical case, alike at 
each end, constructed of the outer skin of the leaf. It was 
found late in September feeding on the apple. 

In the genus Batrachedra the wings are narrow, especially 
the hind ones which are sharply pointed, with a tuft near the 
base of the costa. B. salicipomonella Clemens (Fig. 267, vena- 
tion and side view of the head, enlarged), in its larval state, 
according to Mr. Walsh, inhabits the gall 
made by a saw-fly on the willow. 

Eluchista is a very extensive genus charac- 
terized by the long and slender, slightly re- 
curved palpi. The fore wings are smooth, 
elongate and rarely oblong, and the hind 
wings are narrow and pointed. The larva 
mines the leaves of grasses and allied plants. 
Over fifty species have been described in 
Europe. Clemens refers doubtfully to this genus, a Virginian 
species, Hlachista? orichalcella, which is of a beautiful metallic 
coppery color, while the hind wings and fringe are rather pale 


Fig. 267. 


ochreous. 

The genus Lithocolletis comprises very minute but most richly 
colored moths. The head is rough, the labial palpi filiform 
and drooping, while the fore wings are elongate, and the hind 
wings are linear lanceolate, with long fringes. They are often 
excessively abundant, are rather sluggish, but fly readily in the 
early morning. In Europe they are double-brooded, and hiber- 
nate in the pupa state (Clemens states that some hibernate as 
moths), appearing in the perfect state in spring, while a second 
brood of moths appear in August. The larvee have fourteen 
feet, and mine the leaves of trees, shrubs or low plants, sepa- 
rating either the upper or lower cuticle and feeding on the 
inner substance of the leaf. When the mine is on the upper 
surface, or at least most frequently when it is in this position, 


* 


TINEIDA. 353 


the leaf becomes folded and curved at the place mined, and the 
separated cuticle is gathered into folds, or covers the curved 
portion so as to make a capacious habitation. Some of the 
miners of the upper surface of leaves make large blotches, or 
tracts, and when the mines are fresh the separated cuticle is 
whitish and very noticeable. The miners of the under surface, 
cause the upper cuticle to become discolored in patches, and 
this with the fold of the side of the leaf is often sufficient to 
indicate the presence of a mine. Usually the species are con- 
fined to a single plant; some, however, feed on several allied 
plants. The larva seldom quits the mine and changes in it 
to a pupa. Some species either make no cocoon or only a very 
slight one, and others make one of grains of excrement woven 
together with silk. ZL. Fitchella Clemens (Argyromiges querci- 
foliella Fitch) is silvery white, with pale reddish saffron fore 
wings, slightly tinged with a brassy hue. It feeds on the oak, 
according to Dr. Fitch. 

LI. salicifoliella Clemens during the latter part of June or 
early in July mines the under surface of the leaves of the yel- 
low willow (Salix vitellina var. alba). JZ. juglandiella makes 
an elongated, rather wide tract on the upper surface of the 
leaves of the black walnut. 

During the last summer the larva of an undescribed species, 
which we may call Lithocolletis geninatella (Plate 8, fig. 15; a, 
larva; 6, pupa; c, its mine, the first three figures enlarged six 
diameters) was abundant on the apple and pear trees. The 
moth is of a dark slate gray, without any prominent markings, 
with ochreous hairs on the top of the head. There is a black 
round spot on the middle of the inner edge of the wing (omit- 
ted in the figure, which is drawn from a slightly rubbed speci- 
men). On the outer edge is an eye-like spot, pupilled with 
black, like the ‘‘eye” in a peacock’s tail. The antennz are 
dark, ringed with a pale slate color. It expands .30 of an inch. 
The larva is pale livid reddish with a black head and cervical 
shield, and .14 of an inch in length. It was first discovered 
about the middle of August, hanging from a branch suspended 
by a thread. From this time it became abundant, until the 
leaves began to fall in the first week of October; nearly every 
leaf on some of the pear and apple trees having a mine like 

23 


304 LEPIDOPTERA. 


that represented in Plate 8, fig. 15c. Usually the larya draws 
two leaves together, or folds one up, and as it eats its way | 
along the surface of the leaf, leaves its excrement filling up the 
space behind, thus making blotches and otherwise disfiguring 
the leaves. In this mine it transforms into a long slender 
pupa, which may be found surrounded with the castings of the 
larva. ‘The moths first appeared August 19th, and flew in-doors 
at night attracted by the light. 

Lithocolletis curvilineatella (Plate 8, fig. 16, enlarged) is a 
pale whitish species with yellowish scales, with a black line, 
which beginning on the middle of the costa, curves around to- 
wards the apex, ending in the usual eye-like spot on the outer 
edge, beyond which is a dark marginal line; in the middle of 
the wing near the inner side is a longitudinal black oval spot, 
paler within. The hind wings are pale gray, and the body and 
legs pale whitish yellow. The wings expand .30 of an inch. 
We never met with the larva, but the cocoon is long and slen- 
der, a little blunt at each end and white, with slight longitudinal 
ridges. It may be found attached to the bark on the branches 
of the apple tree in May and also in the autumn and winter. 
Besides differing from L. geminatella in making a regular co- 
coon, the pupa is a little stouter and the top of the head is 
blunter. 

Another species, which appears to be undescribed, we would 
call the Lithocolletis nidificansella (Plate 8, fig. 19, moth; 19a, 
cocoon) from the singular way the cocoon is suspended in a 
leaf like a hanging nest, by silken cords. The single speci- 
men figured was found early in September, the moth appearing 
on the 11th. The larva feeds on the pear, and when about to 
transform had evidently drawn the edges of the leaf together 
by a few threads, and then suspended its thin cocoon in the 
manner indicated in the figure, the position of the chrysalis 
being represented by the black line in the centre of the cocoon. 
The moth is silvery white, with gray hind wings. The fore 
wings are white, with golden bronze streaks and spots. The 
costa is white, with three oblique golden lines running out- 
wards from the edge of the wing towards the outer margin, the 
inner one being minute, and the outer one broad and less 
oblique than the others. Beyond, are three apical straight 


TINEIDZ. 355 


thread-like lines next the eye-like black dot, near which arises 
a slender pencil of long hairs. Below the costa the wing is 
spotted with gold, and there is a broad oblique golden dark 
band directed outwards and reaching to the middle of the 
wing. The costa is golden on the outer third of its length. 
The wings expand .36 of an inch. 

Lyonetia is closely allied to the preceding genus, and may 
be distinguished from it by the head being smooth, the scales 
being broad and flattened down. Mr. F. G. Sanborn first 
drew our attention to this moth, having reared it from cocoons 
found on the apple. From the singular habit of the larva in 
making a case instead of living in a mine in leaves, we would 
call it the Lyonetia saccatella (Plate 8, fig. 18; 18a, the larva ; 
180, the larva with its case, all a little enlarged). The moth 
is a perfect gem; its head and short antennz are pale gray 
and its fore wings are light slate gray on the basal half, and 
beyond bright orange, enclosing two white bands, one costal 
and the other arising from the inner edge, both nearly meeting 
in the middle of the wing, and edged externally with black. 
There is a square, black, very conspicuous spot near the fringe, 
in which is a long pencil of black hairs, not shown in the 
figure. The outer angle of the wing is dusky. It expands 
.20 of an inch. The larva is a little flattened green worm, 
and constructs a flattened oval case of the skin of the leaf 
which it draws about. The case is open at each end, and 
is roomy enough for the larva to turn around in. It be- 
comes fully grown by the last of August, and in Octo- 
ber we have found the cocoons attached to the bark of the 
tree, where they may also be seen through the winter and in 
the spring. 

The last important genus, Nepticula, contains the smallest 
known lepidopterous insects. ‘Many of them are excessively 
beautiful, resplendent with burnished copper, gold and silver 
scales. They may be observed in May and June, sitting on 
the trunks of trees or palings; but to see these atoms requires 
an experienced eye. Most of the species appear to be double- 
brooded, and are easily collected in plenty in the larva state. 
A nut-leaf, containing from twenty to thirty larve of Nepticula 
microtheriella, is no unusual sight. In Nepticula the antennse 


356 LEPIDOPTERA. 


are not half as long as the fore wings, which are rather broad 
while the hind pair are lanceolate. 

‘¢The larvee mine very narrow serpentine paths in the inte- 
rior of leaves, the mine being always on the upper surface. 
They vary much in form, being sometimes a slender gailery or 
line, either simple, or enlarged towards the end into a blotch. 
When the larva is full-fed it quits the mine, cutting for this 
purpose the separated cuticle, in order to weave a minute co- 
coon.” (Clemens.) NV. corylifoliella Clemens mines the hazel. 
N. platanella Clemens mines the button-wood tree, or syca- 
more, and NV. amelanchierella Clemens mines the leaves of the 
June berry in June and July. 


PreEROPHORID# Latreille. The small group of Plume-moths 
may be at once known by their fissured and plumed wings. 
The body is long and slender, with long antennz and legs. 
They are the lowest moths, the long slender abdomen and fis- 
sured wings being marks of degradation. The laryee have six- 
teen legs and are rather hairy. They form no cocoon, but, 
fastening themselves by the tail to a leaf or stem, shed their 
larva-skins and appear in the pupa state. Some of the pup 
are nearly as hairy as the larvee, others are quite naked. Most 
of the larvze feed in the early summer months, and the perfect 
insects appear rather later, though some may be seen in spring. 
(Stainton, Manual of British Butterflies and Moths.) 

In Pterophorus the hind margin of the fore wing is more or 
less deeply cleft, while the hind wings are almost divided into 
three separate slender lobes or plumes. The larvee live in the 
flowers and stems as well as on the leaves of plants. P. peri- 
scelidactylus Fitch (Plate 8, fig. 23 ; a, larva; b, pupa, enlarged) 
is tawny yellow, the fore wings having three large white spots 
and two bands beyond; the outer line is thread-like, the inner 
line being much broader on the costal division of the wing, re- 
appearing at-the base of the split in the wing, and below 
extending out to the lower half of the outer line. The hind 
wings are darker brown than the rest of the moth, while the 
third end shortest division of the wing is white, but brown at 
the end, with the fringe on the outer fourth of the wing still 
darker brown. The legs are white with tufts of brown scales 


PTEROPHORID. 357 


surrounding the hind legs. It expands .65 of an inch. The 
larvee, received from Mr. M. C. Reed, of Hudson, Ohio, were 
pale green, with a greenish yellow head. Along the body is a 
double dersal paler line, and whitish tubercles, from which pro- 
ceed very long uneven hairs, and the body is also covered with 
very short white hairs, giving a frosted appearance to the 
worm. They are about half an inch long. About the middle 
of June it changes to the singular chrysalis represented on the 
plate, and in about a fortnight appears as one of the most deli- 
cate and graceful of moths. It may be seen flying about our 
eraperies in midsummer, and is attracted to our apartments 
after nightfall by the lights within. It feeds upon the young 
leaves of the grape, hiding itself in a hollow ball made of 
leaves drawn together by threads. The pupa is slender, coni- 
cal, obliquely truncated at the head, with two long compressed 
horns placed side by side, and jutting upwards from the mid- 
dle of its back, and numerous smaller projecting points and 
ridges. It reminds one of the chrysalids of the butterflies, 
in its habit of remaining attached by its tail to the plant on 
which it feeds. ; 

In Alucita the wings are still farther subdivided, each wing 
being divided from the base into six distinct feathers. The 
larva of the European A. polydactyla feeds in the unopened 
buds of the honey-suckle. It is not hairy, and spins a co- 
coon. 


Fig. 269. 
Chrysophanus Thoe Westwood. 


358 DIPTERA, 


DPR A. 


Fires may be easily recognized by their haying but a single 
pair of wings, the hinder pair being aborted, and existing in a 
rudimentary state under the name of ‘‘halter.” The more es- 
sential character of the Diptera, however, consists in the greatly 
centralized, more or less globular thorax. Both the prothorax 
and metathorax are greatly aborted, and the legs are somewhat 
weak. As the second pair of wings are obsolete, the muscles 
adapted for flying are not developed. 

When the wings are entirely wanting, as in Chionea, the 
Spider fly, and the Spider-like Bat-tick (Nycteribia), the tho- 
rax becomes still more globular, and the head of Nycteribia 
shows a tendency to become immersed in the thorax, as in the 
spiders. . 

The abdomen is either short, conical and broad at the base, 
being rarely pedicellate ; or long and cylindrical, or flattened 
either horizontally or laterally. The conical form of the abdo- 
men accords with the quick jerky flight of the House fly, as 
compared with the steady slow flight of Tipula, whose abdomen 
is very long. The abdomen is composed of from five to nine 
distinct segments. As Lacaze-Duthiers states, the Diptera as 
a rule have no true ovipositor like that of bees, ete., though the 
three terminal rings are retracted within the abdominal cavity, 
and are capable of being thrust out like the joints of a telescope. 
When about to lay their eggs they simply place them in cracks 
or upon the substances that are to form the future food of the 
larva, having no organs for boring, though the female Tipulids 
are able to work the hard tip of the abdomen into the ground 
where they deposit their eggs. The terminal ring of the abdo- 
men in the males is provided with clasping organs. 

The head is very free from the thorax in the true flies, and 
is spherical, hemispherical or conical. The eyes are large, with 
very numerous facets, and often approach each other closely on 
the front of the head, especially in the males. The ocelli, when 
present, are placed on the vertex, and the antenne are in- 
serted below, in the middle (antero-posteriorly) of the front. 


DIPTERA. 359 


They are either long and evenly jointed, as in the Tipulide, 
often with long cilia, and sometimes verticillate, as in Ce- 
cidomyia; or, as in the House fly, the typical form is a 
short and stout, two to three-jointed antenna, ending in a 
bristle. 

In the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera only a portion of the 
mouth parts are used for sucking in food, but in the present 
group, the labrum, with the two pairs of appendages, 7. e., the 
maxille and mandibles, are (when all are well developed, as 
in the Mosquito) ensheathed partially within the labium, and 
with the last form a channel for the passage of the fluid food 
into the mouth. 

The labium forms the under side of the sheath, while the 
mandibles and maxillz are represented by simple setse, though 
the one, two, or three-jointed maxillary palpi are present, and 
in this last character the rostrum of the flies differs from the 
beak of the Hemiptera. As in the Hymenoptera, the lingua 
is well, though differently developed, terminating in a large 
fleshy knob which is divided into two fleshy flaps called the 
labellee. 

The wings are naked, as in the Hymenoptera, though fine 
hairs may be detected by the microscope on the veins, becom- 
ing most apparent in the Psychodz, where the wings are very 
hairy. In form they are long and narrow, the costal edge 
being straight, the apex of the wing obtusely rounded, while 
the oblique outer edge is very long and nearly parallel with 
the costa, where in the Lepidoptera it is nearly at right an- 
gles to it. The veins are six in number, and in their direction 
and branches (Fig. 270-271) correspond more closely with the 
venation of the Lepidoptera than any other suborder. The 
veins are straight, and with fewer branches than in the Lepi- 
doptera, but with more cross venules, which in the wing of 
the Tipulidew, remind us of the net-veined Neuroptera. 
When, as in the Cecidomyiz, the veins become in part ob- 
solete, only three veins remain, the costal, subcostal and 
median. The form and size of the cells, especially the submar- 
ginal ones, are of much use in distinguishing the species, while 
the changes in the costal and basal portion of the wing are 
the most important in classifying the genera and families. 


360 DIPTERA. 


The function of the halteres, or ‘‘ poisers,” is still problema- 
tical. Hicks and Leydig consider them as organs of hearing, 
while Goureau and Loew think they are concerned in the act 
of respiration. 

Besides the well known wingless genus Chionea, and the 
Flea, Sheep-tick, and Braula, Loew, the eminent German ento- 
mologist, enumerates several European species of Tipula, the 
females of which have the wings rudimentary ; and also a spe- 
cies of Limnobia (Idioptera). Epidapus is wingless in both 
sexes. ‘‘Psyllomyia, Apterina and Elachiptera, and species 
of Tachista, Chersodromia and Geomyza haye rudimentary 
wings in both sexes; in other forms the wings are only abbre- 
viated in both sexes (Sciomyza), or in those of the male or fe- 
male are smaller than in the other sex (species of Empis, 
Rhamphomyia, Idioptera and Tipula).” 


FIG. 270. Diagram of a wing with two submarginal and jive posterior cells (Cladura 
indivisa). Cells: —1, costal; 2, subcostal; 3, marginal; 3*, inner marginal; 4, sub- 
marginal; 5, second submarginal; 6-10, first to fifth posterior; 11, discal; 12, first 
basal; 13, second basul; 14, anal; 15, axillary; 16, spurious. Veins :—d 1, auxiliary; 
cm, first longitudinal; hk, mn, 0, second longitudinal; h 7, prefurca; k n, anterior 
branch of the second longitudinal vein; / 0, posterior branch of the second longi- 
tudinal vein; 7%, petiole of the first submarginal cell; 7p, third longitudinal; dq 
rst, fourth longitudinal; g 7, fork of its anterior branch; the posterior branch of 
this fork, ending in 7, is Mr. Loew’s anterior intercalary vein; s t, fork of the pos- 
terior branch of the fourth vein; the branch of this fork, ending in ¢, is Mr. Loew’s 
posterior intercalary vein; e w, fifth longitudinal; 7# v, sixth longitudinal; g w, 
seventh longitudinal. Cross-veins:—z, humeral; x x, subcostal; xxx, marginal; 
zx*, small, or anterior cross-vein; «**, great cross-vein.— From Osten Sacken. 


Fig. 270. 


Fig. 271 (1). Wing of Ortalis.—a, transverse shoulder-vein; 6, auxiliary vein; c, 
d,e, f, g and h, first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth longitudinal veins; 7, 
small or middle transverse vein; /, hinder transverse vein; 7, m, 7, 0, costal yein; 
~p, anterior basal transverse vein; g, posterior basal transverse vein; 7, rudiment 
of the fourth trunk; s, axillary incision; 4, B, and C, first, second and third costal 
cells; D, marginal cell; H, submarginal cell; #, G and A, first, second and third 
posterior cells; J, discal cell; K, first or large basal cell; Z, second basal cell, or 


DIPTERA. 361 


M. Marey has determined that a common fly when held cap- 
tive moves its wings 330 times a second; a honey bee 190 
times, and a cabbage butterfly (Pieris) nine times. The wings 
describe a figure 8 in the air. (Cosmos.) Landois, calcu- 
lating the rapidity of the vibrations by the sound- produced 


anterior of the small basal cells; J, third basal cell, or posterior of the small 
basal cells; 4, anal or axillary corner of the wing; O, alar appendage, (alula). 

FPiG. 271 (2). Wing of Empis.—t, anterior branch of the third longitudinal vein; 
u, anterior intercalary. 


Fig. 271. 


Fig. 271 (3). Wing of Dasypogon.—#t, anterior branch of the third longitudinal 
vein; w, anterior intercalary vein; v, posterior intercalary vein. — From Loew. 

Comparing the wing of Ortalis with that of the bee and butterfly figured on 
page 23, we should prefer to use the same terminology and call J, m, n, the margi- 
nal vein; 4,0, the costal; c,d and e the three branches of the subcostal vein; /, the 
median vein; hk, the submedian; and 7, the internal vein. In Macquart’s system, 
modified slightly by Sacken (fig. 270), b, 7, is the costal; em, the subcostal; d and e, 
the median; 7, the submedian, and g the internal vein. 


362 DIPTERA. 


thereby, states that the fly, which produces the sound of F, vi- 
brates its wings 352 times a second, and the bee, which makes 
the sound of A’, 440 times a second. ‘On the contrary a tired 
bee hums on E’, and therefore vibrates its wings only 330 times 
ina second. This difference is probably involuntary, but the 
change of ‘tone’ is evidently under the command of the will, 
and thus offers another point of similarity to a true ‘voice.’ 
A bee in the pursuit of honey hums continually and content- 
edly on A’, but if it is excited or angry it produces a very dif- 
ferent note. Thus, then, the sounds of insects do not merely 
serve to bring the sexes together; they are not merely ‘love 
songs,’ but also serve, like any true language, to express the 
feelings. (Sir John Lubbock’s Address before the London 
Entomological Society, 1868.) 

Landois describes the sound-producing organs in several 
genera of flies. ‘‘He distinguishes three different tones as 
emitted by these insects: during flight, a relatively low tone, 
a higher one when the wings are held so as to prevent their 
vibrating, and a higher still when the fly is held so that all mo- 
tion of the external parts is prevented. The last mentioned 
is the true voice of the insect; it is produced by the stigmata 
of the thorax, and may be heard when every other part of the 
body is cut away. ‘The first sound is caused by the rapid vi- 
bration of the wings in the air; the second is caused, or at all 
events accompanied, by the vibration and friction of the abdo- 
minal segments, and by a violent movement of the head 
against the anterior wall of the thorax.” ‘The halteres also 
assist in producing the sound. The vibration of the head in 
the Diptera during the emission of sound is regarded by this 
author as due to the transmission of movement from the tho- 
rax. (Zodlogical Record, 1867.) Landois also states that 
there are small species which give a deeper note than larger 
ones, on account of the wing-vibrations not being of the same 
number in a given time. (Lubbock.) 

The legs are slender, unarmed, except with stout bristles, as 
in Asilus ; the joints are simple, cylindrical; the tarsi are five- 
jointed, the terminal joint ending in two claws (ungues), be- 
tween which is the cushion, or pulvillus, consisting of two or 
three fleshy vesicles, often armed with hairs, which are tubular, 


DIPTERA. 3638 


and secrete an adhesive fluid, which is said to aid the fly in 
walking up-side-down on polished surfaces. 

The nervous system in the Diptera is characterized by a 
grouping of the thoracic ganglia into a single mass, from which 
proceed nerves to the abdomen; the abdominal ganglia being 
for the most part aborted. Thus in some Muscide, Cistrus, 
and Hippobosea, the nervous cord behind the cephalic portion,. 
consists of a single thoracic ganglion, which gives out nerves 
in different directions. ‘The higher Muscids, such as Syrphus 
and Conops have in addition one or two ganglia situated at 
the base of the abdomen. The higher groups, such as the 
Tabanide, Asilide and Bombylide have six ganglia, 
and the Empide, Tipulide and Culicide have more. 
The larvee usually have one more pair than the adult, having 
ten and sometimes eleven ganglia, with long COMMIS STIS, 
which are often double. 

The digestive system is less complex than usual. As in the 
two preceding suborders, on one side of the csophagus is a 
pedicellate sucking stomach which extends into the abdomen 
near the true chyle-making stomach. The latter is of the 
usual intestinoid form, enlarging a little anteriorly, with two 
ceecal appendages beneath on each side, near the cardiac ex- 
tremity. 

The four, rarely five, Malpighian vessels which correspond 
to the kidneys of vertebrates, are united before they open into 
the single or double common outlet. 

There are two main trachez, and two large air-sacs, one on 
each side, at the base of the abdomen. The system of trachez 
is simplest in the aquatic Tipulid larvee, resembling in this 
respect the Phryganeze, where the tracheze are subcutaneous 
and designed to extract the air from the water. 

The testes are generally colored, being provided with a pig- 
ment layer. They are oval, curved or tortuous glands, with 
a short efferent vessel (vas differens). The ovaries consist of 
three to four chambered tubes, and a short oviduct. The re- 
ceptaculum seminis is generally triple. <A true bursa copulatrix 
is wanting in the Diptera, but in ‘‘many Muscide the vagina 
has, as a seminal receptacle or uterus, a spacious and sometimes 
two-lobed reservoir in which the fecundated eggs are accumu- 


O64 DIPTERA. 


lated in great numbers, and remain until the larvee are sufii- 
ciently developed to be hatched, so that these animals are 
viviparous. In the pupiparous Hippoboscze, the female organs 
are formed on an entirely special type, corresponding with the 
remarkable mode of reproduction in these animals.” (Siebold.) 
Near the external opening of the oviduct is a pair of glands 
designed to secrete the gummy matter coating the eggs. 

The eggs of the Diptera are usually cylindrical, elon- 
gated and slightly curved, and the surface is smooth, not being 
ornamented as in the Lepidoptera. In the Tipulide@ the 
egos become mature as soon as the pupa skin is thrown off, 
when they are immediately laid. 

The larvee are footless, white, fleshy, thin skinned, cylindrical 
and worm-like, spindled or linear in shape. They have, in the 
higher families, as in the Tipulide, a distinct head ; but they 
are often headless, as in the Muscide, and are then called 
maggots. They live in mould, decaying organic substances, or 
in the water. Many maggots are provided with two corneous 
hooks, probably the mandibles, with which they seize their food. 

The pupa is either naked (Pupa obtecta, Fig. 276), like the 
chrysalids of moths, with the limbs exposed, as in the Zipu- 
lide ; or they are coarctate (pupa coarctata, Fig. 
272) as in the flies generally, the skin of the larva 
serving to protect the soft pupa within, as during 
the growth of the pupa the old larval skin separates _ 
from the newly formed pupa skin, which contracts 
slightly. It is then called the puparium, and is 
usually cylindrical and regularly rounded at each end 
like the cocoon of moths. Those which have the 
2. pupee obtected, when aquatic and active, are provided 
with gill-like filaments permeated with tracheze. 

The semipupa stage of Diptera, corresponds generally with 
that of the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. By an ingenious 
device Dr. Fitch succeeded in observing in the living imsect 
the processes by which the larva of the willow Cecidomyia 
(QO. salicis) turns to a pupa, and which is usually accomplished 
during the night. He states that ‘‘as the first step of this 
change, at the anterior end of the larva the cutis or opake 
inner skin becomes wholly broken up and dissolved into a 


DIPTERA. 365 


watery fluid, whereby the thin transparent outer skin or cuticle 
is elevated like a vesicle or blister, which occupies about 
a fourth of the length of the worm on its under side, but 
is much shorter on its back. The insect is now in its em- 
bryo-pupa state, having lost its larva form and having not 
yet assumed its pupa form. In the fluid contained in this vesi- 
cle, the wings, legs and antenne of the future fly now begin 
to be developed, whereby the sheaths of the wings at length 
come to be discerned immediately under the skin. ‘This skin 
is exceedingly thin, delicate and transparent, like the tunica 
arachnoides of the human brain, a mere film, as thin as a spi- 
der’s web. Eventually the insect, by gently writhing, ruptures 
this film at its anterior end, and gradually crowds it off down- 
wards to the lower end of the vesicle, carrying the minute 
black jaws of the larva with it. It there remains, becoming 
dry and torn into shreds which flake and fall off by the con- 
tinued motions of the insect. At the same time from the 
remainder of the surface not occupied by this vesicle, a still 
more slight and delicate film, appearing as though the worm 
had been wet in milk which had dried upon it, forming an ex- 
ceedingly thin pellicle or scurf, becomes separated by the same 
motions of the insect and drops off in minute scales scarcely 
to be perceived with a magnifying glass. And now the insect 
has acquired its perfect pupa form.” 

Frederic Brauer has proposed in his ‘‘ Monographie der 
Ckstriden,” a division of the Diptera into two large groups. 
This division is much more natural than the old one into those 
with coarectate and obtected pupz. The first group is the Dip- : 
tera orthorapha, comprising the Nemocera, or flies with long an- 
tennze, together with the Stratiomyide, Xylophagide, 
Tabanide, Acroceride (?), Bombylide, Asilide, 
Leptide, Therevide, Empide and Dolichopid@ (pass- 
ing over some small families whose metamorphoses are not 
Known). In these families the larva skin at the last moult 
splits down along the middle of the back of the three thoracic 
rings, while a transverse split on the first thoracic ring makes a 
T-shaped fissure. Through this the mummy-like pupa with free 
limbs escapes; or it remains within the loose envelope formed 
by the old larval skin, when this author calls it a ‘false pu- 
parium.” 


366 DIPTERA. 


In the second: group, the Diptera cyclorapha, the true coarc- 
tate, cylindrical, smooth puparium is formed by the contraction 
of the larva skin, but is very different in shape from the ma- 
ture larva; while this puparium remains in vital connection by 
means of trachez, with the enclosed pupa, which escapes from 
the puparium through a curved seam or lid in the anterior 
end, and not by a slit in the back. This group includes the 
Pipunculide, Syrphide, Conopide, stride, Mus- 
cide and Pupipara. 

Certain Diptera are injurious to crops, as gall producers, but 
indirectly the Tachinide are beneficial since they prey on cat- 
erpillars ; while the greater number act as scavengers in the 
water and on land, and thus as sanitary agents. Diptera enjoy 
a wider geographical range than other insects. None of the 
larger families are exclusively tropical; the Muscide@ and 
mosquitoes are found in the circumpolar regions in abundance, 
as well as in the tropics. They are the earliest to appear in 
spring and the latest to disappear in autumn. They are 
active at all times, in rain or sunshine, day or night, though 
the greater number prefer the sunshine. 

From their habit of living in vegetables, flowers, and other 
substances sometimes- eaten by persons, physicians occasion- 
ally are called to treat cases where dipterous larve have been 
swallowed and produced sickness. Among those most fre- 
quently vomited are larve of various Muscids, especially An- 
thomyia. ‘‘C. Gerhardt records a case in which a patient, after 
four days illness, vomited about fifty larvee of some dipterous 
insect, probably a large species of Muscidae. A. Laboul- 
bene describes and figures in the Annals of the Entomologi- 
cal Society of France, a larva of Teichomyza fusca Macquart, 
which is exceedingly abundant in the public urinals in France, 
and which lives in human urine. He identifies it with the 
larvee described and figured by Davaine in 1857, as having been 
evacuated from the intestines of a woman after she had suffered 
much pain. (Zoological Record for 1867.) Four other cases 
are on record of larve having been voided by the urinary pas- 
sages, or found living in urine, though, as suggested to us by 
Dr. Hagen, it is possible that in such cases, the worms were 
not voided, but lived in the urine previous to the time they 
were detected by the reporters of such cases. 


DIPTERA. 367 


Dr. J. Leidy reports in the Proceedings of the Academy of 
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for 1859, a case where a num- 
ber of specimens which ‘‘ appeared to be the larvee of the Blue- 
bottle fly,” were given him by a physician, having been vomi- 
ited from the stomach by a child. Also, a second case where 
numerous larvee of a species of Anthomyia, ‘‘ were given to him 
for examination by a physician who had obtained them from 
his own person. He had been-seized with all the symptoms 
of cholera morbus, and in the discharges he had detected nu- 
merous specimens of this, to him, unknown parasite. It was 
in the latter part of summer, and the larve, it is suspected, 
had ‘been swallowed with some cold boiled vegetables. Dr. 
Leidy had observed the same kind of larva in another case, 
accompanied with the ordinary phenomena of cholera mor- 
bus.” 

Isidore Geoffroy Saint Hilaire records a case of a larva of 
the common fly found living in the skin of an infant; while 
Dr. Livingston, according to Cobbold, detected a ‘solitary 
larva of a species which had taken up its residence in his leg. 
Dr. Kirk removed this parasite by incision; and on a second 
occasion he obtained a similar specimen. from the shoulder of 
a negro.” 

There are about 2,500 species of North American flies de- 
scribed, and it is probable that the number of living North 
American species amounts to 10,000. In Europe there are also 
about 10,000 known species, belonging to about 680 genera. 

The flies of this country, compared with the other groups, 
have been but little studied, though the habits of many are so 
interesting and the species very numerous. The different parts 
of the body vary much more than in the Hymenoptera and 
Lepidoptera, and in such a degree as to often afford compara- 
tively easy characters for discriminating the genera. 

Their habits are very variable. Fresh water aquaria are 
necessary for the maintenance of aquatic larvee. If quantities 
of swamp mud and moss with decaying matter are kept in boxes 
and jars, multitudes of small flies will be hatched out. Leaf- 
mining and seed-inhabiting species can be treated as micro- 
lepidoptera, and earth-inhabiting larvee like ordinary cater- 
pillars. Dung, mould in hollow trees, stems of plants and 


368 DIPTERA. 


toadstools contain numerous larvae or maggots, as the young 
of flies are called, which must be kept in damp boxes. 

Flies can be pinned alive, without killing them by pressure, 
which destroys their form; and numbers may be killed at once 
by moistening the bottom of the collecting box with creosote, 
benzine or ether, or putting them into a bottle with a wide 
mouth, containing cyanide of potassium. Minute species can 
be pinned with very slender pins, or pieces of fine silver wire, 
and stuck into pieces of pith, which can be placed high up 
on a large pin. In pinning long-legged, slender species, it is 
advisable to run a piece of card or paper up under their bodies 
upon which their legs may rest, and thus prevent their loss 
by breakage. Of these insects, as with all others, duplicates 
in all stages of growth should be preserved in alcohol, while 
the minute species dry up unless put in spirits. 

In the genuine flies the thorax is highly centralized; the 
maxilla are covered by the labrum, and the labium is not pro- 
vided with palpi. The females lay eggs from which the larvee 
are hatched. They are also divided into the Nemocera, com- 
prising those flies having long, thread-like, many-jointed an- 
tennve, and embracing the higher families, 7.e. the Culicide, 
Tipulide, Bibionide and Rhyphide ; while the remain- 
ing families of this division are included in the Brachycera, or 
flies with short antenne, such as the Wuscide, etc. But the 
fossil genera, Electra and Chryothemis, discovered by Profes- 
sor Loew in the amber of the Tertiary formation, and a North 
American genus of Xylophagide@, and the genus Rachicerus, 
have intermediate characters combining these distinctions, 
which are thus shown to be somewhat arbitrary. 


Curicip# Latreille. The family. of Mosquitoes or Gnats 
have the mouth-parts very long and slender; the maxille and 
mandibles are free and lancet-like. Figure 274 (A, larva; ¢, 
its respiratory tube; B, pupa; d, the respiratory tubes; a, the 
end of the abdomen, with the two oar-like swimming leaves, 
seen in profile at B, from drawings made by Mr. E. Burgess,) 
illustrates the transformations of a species inhabiting brackish 
water in the vicinity of Boston. The larve remain most of 
the time at the bottom feeding upon decaying matter, thus act- 


; CULICIDA. -— 369 


ing as scavengers and doing great benefit in clearing swamps 
of miasms. Occasionally they rise to the surface for air by a 
jerking movement, inhaling it through the star-like respiratory 
tube which connects with the trachee. 

The pupz have club-shaped bodies owing to the greatly en- 
larged thorax, with two respiratory tubes like those of Corethr zy 
situated on the thorax. They 
remain near the surface of 
the water wriggling towards 
the bottom when disturbed, 
aided by the two broad 
swimming caudal leaves. 
Though active in their hab- 
its they do not eat. The eggs 
are laid in a_boat-shaped ole 
mass, which floats on the surface of the water. About four 
weeks after hatching the imago appears, so that there are 
several broods during the summer. The females alone bite, 
the males not coming into our apartments but spending their 
lives in the retirement of the swamps and woods. : 

This genus abounds in the high Arctic regions as well as in 
the tropics. Culex pipiens 
Linn. inhabits Europe, and 
there are over thirty North 
American species described in 
various works. 

Figure 274 represents a ver- 
tical and side view of the head 
(greatly magnified) of a com- 
mon species of Culex found in 
Labrador. The antenne (qa) 
do not reach as far as the tip 
of the beak, and are supplied 
at each joint with a thin ver- 
ticil of hairs (by an oversight 
partly omitted in the upper fig- 
ure). The beak consists of a stout bristle-like labrum (not 
shown in the figure), the bristle-like maxille (ma, with their 
rather large three-jointed palpi mp) with the mandibles (m) 

24 


Fig. 274. 


370 - DIPTERA. 


which are thicker than the maxillz and barbed at the tip, and 
the single hair-like lingua, or tongue (/g). These six bristle- 
like organs are folded together within the hollowed labium (/), 
which is a little enlarged at the tip, and forms a gutter-like case 
for the rest of the mouth-parts. The mosquito, without any 
apparent effort, thrusts them, thus massed into a single awl-like 
beak, into the flesh, and draws in the blood through the chan- 
nel formed by the fine bristles, Westwood stating that the la- 
bium does not penetrate the flesh, but becomes bent upon 
the breast of the fly. He adds ‘‘it is supposed that, at 
the same time it instils into the wound a venomous liquid, 
which, while it enables the blood to flow faster, is the chief 
cause of the subsequent irritation.” So far as we are aware 
no poison glands have been demonstrated to exist in the head of 
flies, or other six-footed insects, and we are disposed to doubt 
whether any poison is poured into the wound, and to question 
whether the barbed mandibles are not sufficient to produce 
the irritation ordinarily accompanying the punctured wound 
made by the mosquito as well as other flies. 

A large mosquito, with two light spots on each wing (Axo- 
pheles quadrimaculatus Say), bites fiercety. It is abundant 
very early in the spring before other mosquitoes appear. It 
seems to hibernate in houses. The genus Corethra has the 
male antenne very long and densely hairy. The wings are 
finely ciliated as in Culex, and the inner edge has a short 
fringe. The beautifully transparent and delicate whitish larvee 
may be seen in early spring in quiet pools. Early in April 
the pupa state is assumed, disclosing the flies late in the 
month. 


Curronomip&% Westwood. Of this small family the genus 
Chironomus includes some small species which are mosquito- 
like, with feathered antenne, and abound in swarms in early 
spring before the snow disappears. The larvee are long, slen- 
der, worm-like ; sometimes of a blood-red color, and aquatic in 
their habits. While most of the larve of this genus live in 
fresh water, we have observed multitudes of the young of C. 
oceanicus Pack. living on floating eel-grass and in green sea- 
weeds at low water mark in Salem harbor. There are two 


CECIDOMYID A. 371 


broods of the larve, the first becoming fully grown the last of 
April, the other the last of September, 
the flies appearing about the middle of 
October. The larva (Fig. 275, a, en- 
larged about three times, with the head 
ereatly magnified; 6, the labrum; c, 
the mandibles; d, the labium) is cy- 
lindrical, whitish and about a quarter 
of an inch long. The single pair of 
fore legs (Fig. 276a) are provided with 
about twenty-five longitudinal rows of hooks, while the anal 
legs (Fig. 277; a, a portion of the dorsal vessel) terminate in 
a single crown of hooks which can be drawn 
=)\ in out of sight. The worms were found either 
“ creeping over the surface of the weeds, or if 
;{| about to pupate, concealed in a rude thin case 
4/ or tube, formed of the debris collected on the 
weeds. It feeds on sea-weeds and small 
worms. It remains in the pupa state (Fig. 
276) about two weeks, transforming into a fly 
(Fig. 278 male, and head of the female) which 
differs from the true Chironomi in having 
shorter antennee and smaller palpi, and also in 
the venation, and the longer thorax. Tanypus 
resembles Culex in its larva and pupa state, 
being of similar form. Lyonnet figures a 
larva which spins a movable case of silk and 
moss. The eggs of 7. varius are laid on the % == 
leaves of aquatic plants, and fastened together Fig. 27. 
with gluten. Some species of Ceratopogon, like the mosquito, 
are blood suckers. The larvee are, however, terrestrial, living 
in mushrooms, or under the bark of decaying trees. 


Fig. 276. 


Crcipomyip& Westwood. The group of Gall-flies comprises 
minute, delicate, slender-bodied species, whose bodies are 
clothed with long hairs. The wings have usually three or 
four longitudinal veins, and are folded. over the back. 
They are gall-flies, the female laying her eggs in the stalk of 
cereals, and in the stems, leaves and buds of various plants 


One DIPTERA. 


which produce gall-like excrescences inhabited by the larve. 
The Wheat-midge or Hessian-fly does not, however, produce 
such an enlargement, while other larvee only produce a folding 
of the leaf, swelling of a leaf-rib, or arrest the growth of a 
bud or stall. 

Before giving a special account of the Wheat-midge, so de- 
structive to wheat crops, let us, with the aid of Baron Osten 
Sacken’s résumé in the Smithsonian Monographs of North 
American Diptera, Part 1, take a glance at the habits of the 
family. As a rule the species prefer living plants, though sey- 
eral species of Epidosis and Diplosis live in decaying wood, and 

C. fuscicollis Meigen 

(?) has been reared 

by Bouché from de- 

caying bulbs of tulips 
and hyacinths. 

Others live under the 

bark of trees, in the 

cones of pines, or in 

fungi. Each species 

is, as a rule, confined 

to a peculiar species 

ef plant. Some of 
\, the larve live as 

guests or parasites 
in galls formed by other Cecidomyiz. Thus C. acrophila and 
C. pavida live socially in the deformed buds of Fraxinus; and 
Diplosis socialis inhabits the gall of Lasioptera rubi. The 
larvee of some species of Diplosis are parasitic among the plant- 
lice (Aphis). Some of the larve live on the surface of leaves, 
C. glutinosa having been found by Osten Sacken living on the 
surface of hickory leaves. 

The rather long, cylindrical eggs laid on the surface of 
leaves, etc., are generally hatched in a few days, though this 
period may be hastened or retarded by heat or cold. The 
young larvee are colorless and transparent, with age becoming 
reddish or yellow, or white. They are fourteen-jointed, a 
supposed supernumerary joint being placed between the head 
and the first thoracic segment. The last abdominal ring is 


CECIDOMYID &. 373 


sometimes provided with bristles or horny spinules, frequently 
curved, which aid the larvee in leaping, as they have been 
observed by Dufour to do. The head and mouth-parts are 
exceedingly rudimentary, consisting of a ring with two pro- 
cesses extending backwards; the soft fleshy labium protrudes 
through this ring; and from the upper part of the ring 
arise a pair of two-jointed organs, supposed to be rudimental 
antennz. On the under side of the body at the juncture of 
the first or prothoracic segment with the supernumerary seg- 
ment, is a horny piece called, provisionally, the breast-bone 
(Fig. 284, a), and which is present in most of the larvee of this 
group. ‘The larvee having no jaws, must suck in the sap and 
moisture through the mouth, or absorb it through the skin. 
They make no excrement, like the larvee of the Hive bee and 
Humble bee. Though their motions are ordinarily slow, just 
before pupation they are very active. The larvee are not 
known to moult, though probably the larva skin is shed by 
_ gradually peeling off in shreds, in this respect resembling the 
thin-skinned larvze of bees. 

Some larve of Cecidomyia before becoming pupze, leave 
their galls and descend to the ground, while others remain in 
them, where they spin a slight silken cocoon. Dr. Harris has 
described the mode of pupation of the larva of C. salicis Fitch, 
stating that ‘‘the approaching change is marked by an altera- 
tion of the color of the anterior segments of the larva, which 
from orange become red and shining, as if distended by 
blood. Soon afterwards, rudimentary legs, wings and antenne 
begin, as it were, to bud and put forth, and rapidly grow to 
their full pupal dimensions, and thus the transformation to the 
pupa is completed.” This process is undergone beneath the 
larva skin, out of which the pupa does not draw its body, as in 
the obtected diptera generally. The larva skin, dried and cy- 
lindrical in shape, thus serves as a cocoon to preserve the soft 
pupa from harm. ‘The semipupa of C. destructor thus ‘‘ takes 
the form and color of a flax-seed. While this change is going 
on externally, the body of the insect gradually cleaves from its 
outer dry and brownish skin. When this is carefully opened, 
the included insect will be seen to be still in the larva state.* 


*This “larva” is probably the semipupa, or ‘‘ beginning of the pupa state” 
(Harris), and may be compared with the semipupa of the Bee. (Fig. 27.) 


374 DIPTERA. 


It does not change its condition and become a true pupa until 
a few days before it discloses the winged insect.” 

The pupa resembles that of the fungus-eating Tipulids, 
such as Sciara. The bases of the antennz are often produced 
into horn-like points, which aid the pupa in working its way 
out from the gall before assuming the fly state, and for the 
same purpose the back of the abdomen is spinose, and often 
there are a few bristles at the tip. 

According to Dr. Harris, the Cecidomyia destructor Say, or 
Hessian-fly (Fig. 280), has two broods, as the flies appear in 
‘the spring and autumn. At each of these periods the fly lays 
twenty or thirty eggs in a 
crease in the leaf of the young 
plant. In about four days, 
in warm weather, they hatch 
and the pale red larve (a) 
‘“erawl down the leaf, work- 
ing their way in between it and 
the main stalk, passing down- 
wards till they come to a joint, 
just above which they remain, 
a little below the surface 
of the ground, with the head towards the root of the plant” (c). 
Here they imbibe the sap by suction alone, and by the simple 
pressure of their bodies they become embedded in the side of 
the stem. ‘Two or three larvee thus embedded serve to weaken 
the plant, and cause it to wither and die. The larve become 
full grown in five or six weeks, then measuring about three- 
twentieths of an inch in length. About the first of December 
their skin hardens, becomes brown and then turns to a 
bright chestnut color. This is the so-called flax-seed state, or 
puparium. In two or three weeks the “larva” (or more truly 
speaking, the semipupa) becomes detached from the old case. 
Jn this puparium the larva remains through the winter. To- 
wards the end of April or the beginning of May the pupa (Fig. 
280, 6) becomes fully formed, and in the middle of May, in New 
England, the pupa comes forth from the brown puparium, 
‘wrapped in a thin white skin,” according to Herrick, ‘* which 
it soon breaks and is then at liberty.” The flies appear just as 


CECIDOMYIDZ. 375 


the wheat is coming up; they lay their eggs:for a period of 
three weeks, and then entirely disappear. The maggots hatched 
from these. eggs take-the flax-seed form in June and July, and 
are thus found in the harvest time, most of them remaining on 
the stubble. Most of the flies appear in the autumn, but others _ 
remain in the puparium until the following spring. By burn- 
ing the stubble in the fall, their attacks may best be prevented. 
Among the parasites on this species, are the egg-parasites, 
Platygaster, and Semiotellus (Ceraphron) destructor Say (Fig. 
140), the latter of which pierces 
the larva through the sheath of the 
leaf. Two other Ichneumon para- _ 
sites, according to Herrick, destroy - 
the fly while in the flax-seed or 
semipupa state. The ravages of the 
Hessian-fly have been greatly 
checked by these minute insects, so 
that it is in many localities not so 
destructive as it was formerly. Dr. 
Fitch has suggested that the Euro- ihe Ue. 

pean parasites of this insect and the (. tritici, could be im- 
ported and bred in large quantities, so as to stop their ravages. 
With proper pecuniary aid from the State this seems feasible, 
while our native parasites might perhaps also be bred and 
multiplied so as to effectually exterminate these pests. 

The Wheat-midge, C. tritici Kirby, attacks the wheat in the 
ear. When the wheat is in blossom the females lay their eggs 
in the evening by means of the long retractile tube-like extrem- 
ity of the body, within the chaffy scales of the flowers, in 
clusters of from two to fifteen or more. In eight or ten days 
the eggs disclose the transparent maggots, which with age be- 
come orange colored, and when fully grown are one-eighth of an 
inch long. They crowd around the germ of the wheat, which 
by pressure becomes shrivelled and aborted. At the end of 
July and in the beginning of August the maggots become 
full fed, and in a few days moult their skins, leaving the old 
larva skin entire, except a little rent in one end of it. ‘‘Great 
numbers of these skins are found in the wheat ears immediately 
after the moulting process is completed.” Sometimes the 


376 DIPTERA. 


larva descends to the ground and moults there. Harris states 
that ‘‘it is shorter, somewhat flattened, and more obtuse 
than before, and is of a deeper yellow color, with an oblong 
greenish spot in the middle of the body. In this state, which is 
intermediate between the larva and pupa states, which has by 
Dr. Fitch been termed the ‘‘embryo-pupa,” and by us ‘ semi- 
pupa,” the insect spins a minute earthen cocoon, which, ac- 
cording to Dr. Fitch, is smaller than a mustard seed and 
remains in the ground. through the winter, burrowing to the 
depth of an inch beneath the surface. In the next June 
they are transformed to pupe, 
with the limbs free. When about 
to assume the adult state the 
pupa works its way to the surface 
‘in June and July. Its chief para- 

site, the Platygaster error Fitch 

(Fig. 185), is allied to P. tipule, 

NS which in Europe destroys great 
5 numbers of the midge. 
planes It is evident that deep plough- 
ing in the fall or spring will destroy many of the insects, and 
grain sown after the 15th or 20th of May, in New England, 
will generally escape their attacks. 

The wings of the Hessian-fly are blackish; those of the C. 
tritici are transparent. This last species is orange colored, with - 
long, slender, pale yellow legs, and the joints of the antennz 
are twenty-four in number in the male, and twelve in the fe- 
male. 

The Cecidomyia rigidcee Osten Sacken (C. salicis Fitch) forms 
a gall surrounded by the dry and brittle terminal bud at the 
end of the twigs of the willow. The single larva discloses the 
fly early in the spring. The bright yellow larva of C. grossu- 
larice Fitch, causes the gooseberry to turn red prematurely and 
become putrid. The pupa of C. pini-inopis is supposed by ~ 
Osten Sacken to be coarctate, the larva fastening itself to a 
pine leaf and remaining motionless until the resinous exuda- 
tion resulting from its attacks hardens, forming a cocoon-like 
pupa case or puparium. 

Mr. Walsh describes in the ‘‘ American Entomologist,” vol. 1, 


CECIDOMYID A. 377 


p-. 105, the gall formed by C. strobiloides O. Sacken (Fig. 281 ; 
a, natural size; 6, antenna; ¢, gall) which is simply an en- 
larged and deformed bud of Salix cordata. ey 
The fly appears in April, or early in May, 
oviposits in a terminal bud, and the gall attains 
its full size by the middle of July. The larva fy, 
hibernates in a thin cocoon, changing to a pupa @ ii 
in the spring. (Walsh.) Another willow gall | 
made by C. salicis-brassicoides Walsh occurs 
on the Salix longi- 
folia, the galls 
forming a mass i 
(Fig. 282) like Ws 
the sprouts on a Fig. 281, ¢. 
cabbage stalk. Mr. Walsh also 
describes the Grape-vine Apple 
Gall (Fig. 283, gall of C.? vitis 
pomum; a, natural size; b, a 
Fig. 281. section), the fly of which is 
unknown. The gall is divided into numerous cells, each con- 
taining a larva. It occurs on the wild Frost grape. The 
Grape-vine filbert gall (C.? vitis-cory- 
-loides Walsh, fig. 254; a, head of larva, 
showing the clove-shaped breast bone ; 
6, a bunch of galls, natural size; c, sec- 
tion of a gall, showing the cell the 
larva inhabits) is found on the wild %% 
Frost grape in Illinois. 

Walsh has described fourteen addi- 
tional species of Cecidomyiz inhabiting 
eight different species of willow. The 
specific character of the insects them- 
selves, are in all their stages of the 
slightest possible character, but the dif- 
ferent galls can be readily distinguished. 
These galls, according to Walsh and 
other authors, also afford a shelter to so- 
called ‘‘inquiline,” or guest species, such as the larvee of other 
species of Cecidomyia and species of Scatopse and Drosophila, 


378 DIPTERA. 


. 


Curculionid@e and minute Lepidoptera, together with 
Aphides and species of Thrips, which last are thought by 

Mr. Walsh to prey 
upon the cecidomyious 
larve. 


aS. 


\ The subdivisions of 
We) the large genus Ceci- 
“4 domyia are noticed by 
Osten Sacken in Part 
1 of the Smithsonian 

ig e283. Monographs of Dip- 
tera. As the student can refer to that work, we simply intro- 
duce the cuts showing the venation of the wing of each genus, 
without farther characterizing them. (Fig. 285, Cecidomyia ; 
286, Diplosis ; 287, Colpodia ; 288, Epidosis ; 289, Asynapta; 
290, Spaniocera ; 
291, Lasioptera). 
Another group of 
this family are 
Anarete and its 
allies (Fig. 292, 
Zygoneura; 293, 
Anarete ; 294, Ca- 
tocha; 295, Cam- 
pylomyza; 296, 
Lestremia) which 
are also related to 
the | Mycetophi- 
lids. 

We have al- 
ready referred, on 
page 51, to cer- 
tain. cecido- 
myians, which in 
the larval condi- 
tion produce 

Fig. 284. young. We figure 
(297) a species whose metamorphosis has been traced by 
Nicholas Wagner. The larva is cylindrical in form, like most 


Al 


WE 
Wi 
/ 


CECIDOMYIDZ. 379 


cecidomyian larvee, with the division between the segments in- 
dicated by rows of minute spines. From the germ-balls (a, 
nearest the posterior end of the body) the embryo is gradually 
formed (as at @ in the eighth and ninth rings of the body), 
when they assume a cylindrical form like the eggs of the adult 
fly of this family. These eggs may be compared with the 


Fig. 287. Fig. 288 
| Fig. 289 Fig. 290 , 
i ..). Se er 
Fig. 291. Fig. 292. Fig. 293. 
ge ee 
Fig. 294. Hig. 295. Fig. 296. 


‘“pseudova” of the Aphis, and are developed from the two 
large fatty bodies (corpora adiposa) which are situated one on 
each side of the body. These ‘‘false eggs” increase in num- 
ber and develop until the entire cavity of the mother larva be- 
comes distended with young worms like itself, and which are 
fmally born and may be compared with the wingless broods of 
Plant-lice.* 


*Baron Osten Sacken afterwards abandoned the hypothesis (stated on p. 209) 
that the females of Cynipide are impregnated by males inhabiting a different sort 
of gall. See the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, 1862, 
p. 249, § 3, Sexes of the Cynipide. : 


380 DIPTERA. 


Several species have been found in Europe under the bark 
of apple trees, etc. Loew states ‘that the species on which 
Wagner made his observations is nearly allied 
to the genus Heteropeza, but still more closely 
to the genus Monodicrana, from the amber of 
the Tertiary formation on the shores of the 
Baltic. (Zoological Record, 1865.) Meinert de- 
scribes a similar species of worm and its imago, 
under the name of Miastor metroloas, and charac- 
terizes the fly as having very short two-jointed 
palpi, and moniliform eleven-jointed antenne. 
The wings have three veins, the middle one of 
which does not reach the apex of the wing. 


Psycnopip« Zetterstedt. The principal genus 
in this small family is Psychoda, comprising 
small flies with broad, very short, oval whitish 
wings, which, like the body, are very hairy. 
They may be seen flying and leaping on the banks of, or on the 
surface of pools, and on windows. The larve live in dung. 
The larva of the European P. phalenoides (so named from its 
resemblance to a moth) is ‘“‘long, subfusiform and depressed, 
with a slender, straight cylindrical tail, longer than the pre- 
ceding segment. ‘The pupa has two short appendages, thick- 
ened at the tips behind the head. The abdomen is tapering.” 
(Westwood.) 


Treutip# Latreille. The Daddy-long-legs or Crane-flies 
are well known by their large size and long legs, and from their 
close resemblance in form have probably given rise to the 
humorous stories of giant mosquitoes, which sometimes appear 
in newspapers. They are characterized by their slender an- 
tennze and palpi, and their remarkably long legs, while the 
abdomen is very slender and cylindrical in shape; the group 
chiefly differs, however, from other flies, according to Baron 
Osten Sacken (Monograph of the Diptera of North America, 
Part iv), in the presence of a transverse V-shaped suture 
across the mesonotum; by the completeness of the venation, 
and the presence of a well developed ovipositor, ‘with its two 


TIPULIDE. 381. 


pairs of long, horny, pointed valves.” The larve (Fig. 298, 
natural size, a larva of this family found living under stones 
in a running brook at Burkesville Junction, Va. In the 
American Naturalist, vol. ii, it was 

referred to Tabanus) differ from LT ine 
those of the neighboring families in , 

having but a single pair of spiracles Fig. 298. 
at the anal end of the body. The head is rather large, and 
‘‘embedded nearly up to the mouth in the first thoracic seg- 
ment; the mandibles are horny and strong, and forked at the 
end.” The body is grub-like, of a uniform grayish, brownish, 
or whitish color, and consists of twelve segments. 

“The larvee of Ctenophora, living in wood, have a soft, 
white, smooth skin, similar to that of the larve of longicorn 
beetles, or of the Asilid@, living in similar conditions. 
The larva of Tipula living in the soil, or the larvee of those 
species of Ctenophora which are found in wood so far de- 
composed as to be like soil or vegetable mould, have a much 
tougher skin, and are covered with a microscopic, appressed 
pubescence. This toughness, as well as some stiff bristles, 
scattered over the surface of the skin, is probably useful in 
burrowing. Thus the larva of Trichocera, digging in vegeta- 
ble mould or in fungi, is covered, according to Perris, with mi- 
croscopic erect bristles. The larva of Ula, living in fungi, has, 
according to the same author, still longer bristles. Those larvee 
living in water (as some Limnobina) are soft and slimy, of a 
dirty greenish color, and with a peculiar clothing of appressed 
microscopic hairs, not unlike those of the larvee of Stratiomys. 
The most anomalous of all the Tipulideous larve are those of 
the Cylindrotomina. That of Cylindrotoma distinctissima 
lives upon the leaves of plants, as Anemone, Viola, Stellaria, 
almost like a caterpillar. It is green, with a crest along the 
back, consisting of a row of fleshy processes. The larva of 
Cylindrotoma (Phalacrocera) replicata, according to Degeer, 
lives in the water, on water plants, and is distinguished by nu- 
merous filaments, which, although resembling spines, are flexi- 
ble and hollow on the inside. Degeer took them for organs of 
respiration.” (Osten Sacken.) 

The larve move by means of minute stiff bristles arising 


382 DIPTERA. 


from transverse swellings on the under side of the body. 
‘«The end of the body is truncated, and the two spiracles are - 
placed upon the truncature,” from the edge of which part arise 
usually four retractile processes. 

In the aquatic larva of Ptychoptera there is a long respira- 
tory tube at the end of the body. The pupe (Fig. 299, under 
side, enlarged twice, represents a pupa of this family) 
have usually on the thorax two horn-like processes, 
representing the thoracic spiracles, and in Ptychoptera 
|} one of these processes acquires a great length, in order 
to allow the pupa to breath under water. 

The Tipulids, like other flies with soft bodies which 
contract in drying, should, as Osten Sacken suggests, 
be studied from fresh specimens, especially when the 
thorax and abdomen, with the ovipositor, are to be ex- 
Fig. 259. amined. ‘The Tipulids of the United States, east of the 
Mississippi river, closely represent those of Europe, while Os- 
ten Sacken states that a few species are found to be common to 
both countries ; and he farther states, with regard to the 7 ip- 
ulide, that ‘* whenever the North American fauna differs from 
the European in the occurrence of a peculiar generic form, or in 
a marked prevalence of another, this difference is due, either to 
an admixture of South American forms, or of forms peculiar 
to the amber fauna.” 

The genus Tipula com- 
prises the largest individuals 
of the family, and the species 
may be seen early in May fly- 
ing over grassy fields. The 
larvee live in garden mould and under moss in fields and woods. 
T. trivittata Say is one of our most common species. 

In the genus Limnobia the body is very slender and delicate, 
though stouter than in Dicranomyia, a closely allied genus, the 
larvee of which are probably aquatic. ‘The larvee live in de- 
caying vegetable matter, especially in wood and fungi.” ‘* Van 
Roser discovered the larve of the European Z. annulus (closely 
allied to L. cinctipes Say) in decayed wood. They are like an 
earth-worm in size, as well as in color, and line their burrows 
with a kind of silken web.” (Osten Sacken.) 


TIPULIDZA. 383 


The genus Styringomyia (Fig. 300, wing) is an anomalous ge- 
nus found in gum copal brought from Zanzibar. Of three other 
anomalous genera belonging here Osten Sacken 
describes Rhamphidia, of which the rostrum is \ if 
long, but shorter than the thorax, with species 
common to Europe and America, and also found 
in amber; Yoxorrhina which is found both in 
North and South America, and Hlephantomyia _ 
which occurs only in North America, and has af 
very slender filiform rostrum, almost as long as / 
the body. E. Westwoodii O. Sacken is found in \ 
the Northern States and Canada. 

EHrioptera and its allies have two submarginal cells and the 
tibiz are without spurs at the tip. In Hrioptera the wings are 
pubescent along the veins only, giving the whole wing a hairy 
appearance. HH. venusta O. Sacken has yellowish wings, with 
two brown bands, and is a common species in the Atlantic 
States. According to Osten Sacken Chionea ‘is 
closely allied to Erioptera. It is wingless, with six- 
jointed antennze of anomalous structure, and stout, 
hairy feet, and a short abdomen, which, according to 
Harris is provided with a ‘‘sword-shaped borer, 
resembling that of a grasshopper.” ‘‘'These insects 
occur on snow in winter, the larvee live underground, 
apparently upon vegetable matter, and have been de- 
seribed in detail by Brauer in the Transactions of 
the Zoological and Botanical Society of Vienna for 
1854.” C. valga Harris (Fig. 301, enlarged; fig. 
302, larva of the European C. araneoides Dalman) 
is reddish brown, with paler legs. 

Another section of this large family is represented 
by the genus Limnophila, in which there are two 
submarginal cells, usually five posterior cells, and Fis. 30- 
the wings and eyes are smooth, and the antenne sixteen- 
jointed. The larve live in decayed wood. The larva of the 
European L. dispar digs longitudinal burrows in the dry stems 
of Anglica sylvestris. ‘It is cylindrical, glabrous, of a livid 
gray, with a horny black head.” (Osten Sacken.) 

The anomalous genus Trichocera has pubescent eyes and 


384 DIPTERA. 


distinct ocelli on the sides of the frontal tubercle. The species 
appear in swarms, flying up and down in their mazy dances, 
especially at twilight early in spring, though they may be seen 
late in autumn and on warm days in winter. ‘They live in de- 
caying vegetable matter. Pedicia 

e isa gigantic crane-fly, embracing 
‘ the largest flies of the family, 
-.d and with Trichocera is the only 
Fig. 303. . genus of this family having ocelli. 

P. albivitta has hyaline wings, with the costa, the fifth longi- 
tudinal vein and the central cross veins margined with brown. 
The body is 1.4 of an inch in length. The larva of an Euro- 


a 


pean species lives in well water. 

The genus Cylindrotoma and its allies, resemble Tipula in 
the course of the veins lying in the vicinity of the stigma, and 
Osten Sacken illustrates the re- a 
semblances by the accompanying : 
drawings, of which Fig. 303 rep- 
resents the venation near the 
stioma of Cylindrotoma; Fig. Jae hh 
304 that of the European Phalacrocera replicata, closely allied 
to the preceding genus, and Fig. 305 that of a genuine Tipula. 

Ptychoptera is rather stout-bodied and has a singular mem- 
branous spatulate organ, ciliated on the margin, which is 
inserted at the base of the halteres. (Osten Sacken.) P. ru- 
focincta O. S. is black with reddish bands on the feet. 

The larva of the Evropean P. paludosa has a long respira- 
tory tube at the end of the body, which it raises to the surface 

a of the water, and in the pupa 
b ‘fone of the horny processes 
which distinguishes the thorax of 

Cc all the pupe of the Tipulide, 

is enormously prolonged, like- 

Fig. 305. . wise, for the purpose of breath- 

ing under water. (Osten Sacken.) The very singular genus 
Bittacomorpha is an aberrant form, resembling the neu- 
ropterous Bittacus. The antenne consist of twenty joints, 
and the first joint of the tarsi is very much thickened, while 
the abdomen is very long and slender. B. clavipes Fabr. is 


MYCETOPHILIDA. 385 


black with a white stripe on the mesonotum, the metanotum 
and flanks being white, and the legs banded with white. It is 
a widely diffused species, 
and presents a most sin- 
gular appearance when fly- 
ing, as it moves slowly, 
with its feet variegated IE UE. 

_ with snow-white, and extending like the radii of a circle. (Os- 
ten Sacken.) In the genus Protoplasma (Fig. 306, wing) there 
are six posterior cells in the wing. P. Fitchii O. Sacken is 
brownish gray, with brown bands on the wings. 


Myceropnirip# Macquart. This family comprises small 
flies, capable of leaping to a considerable height, and provided 
with two or three ocelli, but not having a proboscis. While 
the antennze are usually simple, as in all other Diptera, those 
of Platyroptilon Miersii Westwood are forked, having a 
branch one-half as long as the antenna itself. The thorax does 
not have a transverse suture, and the wings are without a discal 
cell, while the coxve are greatly elongated, and the tibiz are all 
armed with spurs. The larvee are subcylindrical and smooth, 
with locomotive bristles beneath, and eight pairs of stig- 
mata; they are in color white or yellowish. They are gregari- 
ous, living in decaying vegetable matter, fungi, or in dung, one 
species forming a gall. ‘They shed their skin several times be- 
fore becoming fully grown. Osten Sacken states that the larva 
of Sciophila which covers the surface of the fungus it feeds in 
with a web, is long and almost serpentiform, while those of 
Bolitophila and Mycetophila are shorter and stouter, and that 
of Sciara is intermediate. The pupz of this family are 
smooth, with rounded angles and edges, whereas those of 
Tipula are sharp and pointed. ‘They are enclosed in a silken | 
cocoon. Some species of Sciara do not, however, spin cocoons. 
The larva of Mycetophila scatophora Perris ‘‘carries on its 
back a sheath formed of its own excrements and moulded by 
means of a peculiar undulatory motion of the skin. The 
pup remain within the sheath, but before assuming this state 
the larva extends the sheath anteriorly in a short neck, and 
tapestries it on the inside with a pellicle, which renders it 

25 


386 DIPTERA. 


more tough and resisting.” The larvee of one genus sometimes 
live gregariously with those of other genera. Thus Osten 
Sacken found that the ‘‘larve of Sciophila appeared in a de- 
caying fungus only after the transformations of Mycetophila 
were entirely completed. For two or three weeks the eggs of 
the former remained apparently dormant among the bustle of 
so many larvee of the other species.” (Osten Sacken.) Leja 
resembles Sciophila in its habits. The larve of Sciara have 
no bristles on the tubercles of the under side of the body, usu- 
ally present in the family. They are more gregarious than 
the other genera, and have the singular propensity of sticking 
together in dense patches, generally under the bark of trees. 
When fully grown they sometimes march in processions in a 
dense mass, sometimes several feet long, and two to three 
inches broad, and half an inch in thickness, whence the Ger- 
mans call them ‘“ Army-worms.” To the same genus belongs 
the S. (Molobrus) mali of Fitch, the apple midge, whose larva 
is glassy white and devours the interior of apples. 

Professor E. D. Cope describes in the Proceedings of the 
Philadelphia Academy, 1867, page 222, a procession of a spe- 
cies of Sciara observed in September by William Kite, in Ches- 
ter County, Penn., where he had observed this army-worm for 
three consecutive years. ‘This company (consisting by rough 
estimation of about 2,400) extended over a length of about 
twenty-two inches, with a breadth of from three-fourths of an 
inch in the thickest part, to about one-eighth of an inch at the 
head, and one-tenth at tail; five or six worms deep in thicker 
parts. They advanced at the rate of four inches in five 
minutes, the hinder ones working their way over the top of — 
the rest.” These larvee were about one-half an inch long, 
semitransparent, with black heads. Mr. Kite observed another 
procession July 8th, which was six feet six inches long. These 
trains were attacked by larvee of Staphylinids, ants, dipterous 
larvee and other predaceous insects. Seven other persons in 
this country have witnessed similar trains, one of which was 
observed in Lee, Mass. 

The larva of Mycetobia, which agrees closely with that of 
Rhyphus, is found living in putrescent sap under the bark of 
the elm tree. We have found, through the summer, great num- 


r 


MYCETOPHILIDA. 387 


bers of an undescribed species (Fig. 307; a, larva; 0, pupa, 
magnified three times. Fig. 308, head of the larva greatly en- 
larged; a, antenna; J, labrum; m, mandible; ma, maxille? 
mp, maxillary palpi? g, gena?) which seems to differ from 
Dufour’s figure of the European M. pallipes in the form of the 
wings and their venation, as well as in the 
form of the pupa. The larvee were first seen 
in abundance on the 26th of June in the 
crevices of the bark of the elm from which 
flowed a sour sap mingled with dust, and in 
this putrescent mass the slender white worms 
elided swiftly about. The body is long and 
slender, scarcely tapering towards either end, 
and consists of twelve segments besides the 
head. Like the larva of Scenopinus and 
Thereya, each abdominal ring is subdivided 
by a well defined false suture ; but the hinder 
division in this larva is about one-fourth 
shorter than the rest of the ring. It is .36 Me SN 

of an inch long. The head is pale honey yellow, and the body 
pure white. ‘The three thoracic rings are marked posteriorly 
with honey yellow, with a pair of large round pale spots low 
down on the side of each ring. It moves with great activity, 
keeping its mouth-parts constantly moving, pushing them into 
; _ the dirt. The pupze were found sticking 
straight out from the bark, being attached 
—{—--™ by the spines on the tail. They were 
Mae ff Gulls \ , straight, long, cylindrical, the thorax 
being but little larger than the base of 
the abdomen. The head is square in 
front, ending in two lateral horns, and 
the abdomen is covered with stout 
spines, especially at the tip. It is .20 
of an inch long, and is pale honey yel- 
low and covered with dirt. The flies appeared June 27th, and- 
for six weeks after flew about the trees. The head is black, 
the thorax and abdomen brown, with a leaden hue; the abdo- 
men is a little paler, being whitish beneath, but darker towards 
the tip. The legs are pale, a little darker externally, especially 


Fig. 308. 


388 DIPTERA. 


towards the tips of the joint, and the hind tarsi are a little 
dusky. Its length is .10 of an inch, not including the an- 
tenne. It may be called the Mycetobia sordida. 


Puricipa& Westwood. While this group has been considered 
by many writers as forming a distinct ‘“ order,’ or suborder of 
insects, equivalent to the Diptera, under the name of Aphanip- 
tera, we prefer, with Straus Durckheim, to consider them 
as wingless flies, and perhaps scarcely more abnormal than 
Nycteribia or Braula. Instead of placing 
them at the foot of the suborder, we prefer, 
in accordance with a suggestion made by 
Haliday (Westwood, Class. Insects, vol. 
il, p. 495, note), who places them near the 
Mycetophilids, or ‘‘fungivorous ‘Tipulids,” 
to consider them as allied to that group. 
The body is much compressed; there are 
two simple eyes which take the place of the 
compound eyes, the epicranial portion of 

wis 802 the head being greatly prolonged, while the 
labrum is wanting, and the labium is small and membranous ; 
the three-jointed labial palpi, always absent in other diptera, 
are long and slender. The form of the larva, including the 
shape of the head and its habit of living in dirt, and its way 
of moving about, as also its transformations, certainly ally the 
flea with the Mycetophilids. 

We have received from Dr. G. A. Perkins of Salem, the eggs 
and larvee of the species infesting the cat, from which we have 
also hatched the young larve. The eggs (of which, according 
to Westwood, eight or ten are laid by one female) were shaken 
from the cat’s fur, whence they are said to fall upon the floor 
and. there hatch, the larvee living in the dust and dirt on the 
floor, and feeding on decaying vegetable substances. The 
ege is oval cylindrical, and one forty-fifth of an inch long. 
The larva when hatched is .06 of an inch long (Fig. 3809, the 
larva four days old; a, antenna; 0, end of the body) white, 
cylindrical, the sides of the body being a little expanded, 
giving it a slightly flattened appearance when seen from above. 
The segments are rather convex, the sutures being deeply im- 


PULICIDZ. 389 


pressed. There are four long hairs on the side of each ring, 
becoming longer towards the end of the abdomen, where they 
are longer than the body is thick. The terminal segment of 
the body is considerably smaller than the one preceding it, and 
has two long spines arising from .the tergal part of the ring; 
these spines seem to assist the larva in moving through the 
hairs and dust in which it lives. ‘The well developed head is 
rounded, conical, narrower than the prothoracic ring, pale 
honey yellow, and with long three-jointed antenne. 

Mr. Emerton, who made the drawings here given, informs 
me that the larvee, when fifteen days old, did not differ from 
those freshly hatched. I have been unable to discover that it 
moults. Westwood states that ‘‘when fully grown, which 
occurs in summer in about twelve days, the larvz enclose 
themselves in a 
small cocoon of 
silk. Rosel, how- 
ever, observed 
that some of the 
larvee underwent 4 
their transforma- a 
tions without 
forming any co- 
_ coon.” ‘The pu- 
pais quite inac- 
tive, with the legs 
enclosed in separate cases. The period of the duration of 
the pupa state varies from eleven to sixteen days.” Our 
specimens were hatched early in October, and they probably 
pass the winter before changing, as Westwood states that 
they pass the winter in the larva state. The species here rep- 
resented (Fig. 310, 6, maxille, and their palpi, a; d, the man- 
dibles, which are minutely serrated ; c, labial palpi, the labium 
not being shown in the figure) was found on the person of a 
man, though it seems to differ specifically from Westwood’s 
figure of P. irritans Linn., the human flea; other species live 
on the dog, cat, squirrel, and other quadrupeds and various 
birds. The antenne are concealed in a small cavity situated 
behind the simple eyes and are four-jointed; in P. musculi 


390 DIPTERA. 


Duges, they are external. Kirby describes a gigantic species two 
lines long, from British America. As a preventive measure in 
ridding dogs of fleas we would suggest the frequent sweeping 
and cleansing of the floors of their kennels, and renewing of 
the straw or chips composing their beds—chips being the best 
material for them to sleep upon. Flea-aftlicted dogs should be 
washed every few days in strong soapsuds, or weak tobacco, or 
petroleum water. A writer in the ‘*Science-Gossip” recom- 
mends the use of Persian Insect Powder, one package of 
which suffices for a good sized dog. ‘The powder should be 
well rubbed in all over. the skin; or the dog, if small, can be 
put into a bag previously dusted with the powder; in either 
case the dog should be washed soon after.” 

One of the most serious insect torments of the tropics of 
America is the Sarcopsylla (Rynchoprion of Oken) penetrans 
Linn., called by the natives, the Jigger, Chigoe, Bicho, Chique, 

or Pique. (Fig. 311 much en- 
-larged; a, the gravid female, 
natural size). The female during 
the dry season, bores into the 
feet of the natives (though it also 
lives in dogs and mice, which 
accounts for its presence in houses), the operation requir- 
‘ing but a quarter of an hour, usually penetrating under the 
nails, and lives there until her body becomes distended with — 
eggs; the abdomen swelling out to the size of a pea. The 
presence of the insect often causes distressing sores. The 
Chigoe lays about sixty eggs, according to Karsten, deposit- 
ing them in a sort of sac on each side of the external opening 
of the oviduct. The larve do not live in the body of the 
parent, or of its host, but, like those of Pulex, live free on 
the ground. The best preventatives against its attacks are 
cleanliness and the constant wearing of shoes or slippers when 


in the house, and of boots when out of doors. 


Sumutipz Loew. Simuliwm molestum (Fig. 312; a, larva 
of this or an allied species, magnified), the Black-fly, represents 
this family. Its antenn are eleven-jointed; the palpi are 
four-jointed, with long, fine terminal joints, and the ocelli are 


BIBIONIDA. 391 


wanting, while the posterior tibiee, and first joint of the hind 
tarsi are dilated. The body is short and thick. The labrum 
is free, sharp as a dagger, and the proboscis is well 
developed and draws blood profusely. The species 
are numerous. The Black-fly, so well known as 
the torment of travellers in the North, is black, 
with a broad silvery ring on 
the legs. We have received a 
large species from Mr. E. T. 
Cox, called in the West the | — 
Buffalo fly. On the prairies 
of Illinois it has been known 
to plague horses to death by /[. 
its bite. The S. (Rhagio) 
Columbaschense Fabr. in Hungary abounds in im- 
mense numbers, often killing cattle. Other species 
abound in the American tropics where they are a 
great scourge. The cylindrical larva of the Euro- Fis. 3!, 4. 
pean species is furnished with short antenne and two flabelli- 
form appendages. On the under side of the prothorax is a 
thick conical and retractile tubercle, and there are several 
curved filaments at the end of the body. The pupa has eight 
very long lateral filaments on the front of the thorax, and the 
posterior end of the body is enclosed in a semioval membra- 
nous cocoon, open in front, and posteriorly attached to some 
plant. The fly leaves the pupa beneath the water. 


Bisronip# Macquart. This group is characterized by hay- 
ing three ocelli and the prothorax much developed; the wings 
have no discal cell. The coxe are not prolonged and the em- 
podium (supplementary cushion) is proportionally long, while 
the pulvilli are sometimes wanting. The typical genus, Bibio 
of Geoffroy, has short, nine-jointed antenne, five-jointed palpi, 
and the eyes of the male are large and contiguous, while those 
of the females are small. The larvee are cylindrical, footless, 
_with ten spiracles, and furnished with transverse rows of short 
hairs, being found in dung, but they mostly feed ‘on the roots 
of grass, whole patches of larve appearing as if winter-killed. 
Robins destroy immense numbers of them. Westwood has 


392 DIPTERA. 


found the pupz enclosed in smooth oval cells ; they are naked, 
the thorax gibbous, with the rudimental wings and legs very 
short. Libio albipennis Say, a white-winged species, is double- 
brooded, and flies in swarms in June and October, alighting 
slowly on the passer-by. 


Ruypuip& Loew. This family is known by the wings hay- 
ing a perfect discal cell, while the empodium resembles a 
pulvillus; the pulvilli being wanting. The single genus 
Rhyphus has short fourteen-jointed antennz, the second joint 
of the palpi swollen, and the legs are not spiny. Sthyphus 
alternatus Say, is common on windows. 

The succeeding families belong to the Brachycera, or short- 
horned flies. 


XYLOPHAGID (Macquart). This family is known by the 
three basal cells of the wings being very prolonged, the an- 
nulated third joint of the antennz always without a style or 
terminal bristle, and by the spurred tibiz. Xylophagus has 
ten-jointed antennee, with the ovipositor very long. The larva 
is cylindrical, with an oblique scaly plate on the tail, while the 
head ends in an acute horny point. Loew doubtfully refers 
the genus Bolbomyia, found fossil in the Prussian Amber, to 
this group. 


Srratromyip Latreille. The wings in this group have the 
three basal cells much prolonged, and the costal vein reaching 
only to the middle of the wing. The third joint of the an- 
tennz is sometimes subdivided into several portions. The 
tibiz are spurless and the pulvilliform empodium is much 
developed. The coarctate pupa retains the larva skin nearly 
in its original form. The genus Beris is easily distinguished 
by having seven, instead of five (the usual number) abdominal 
segments visible. In Sargus the eyes of the males approxi- 
mate much closer than in the females. They are showy insects, 
with bright metallic colors, and are widely distributed over the 
earth. The ‘larva lives in the earth, is oval oblong, narrowing 
before ; the head is scaly, with two ocelli, and armed with two 
hooks, while the body is hairy. Fig. 313 represents a pupa 


TABANID A. 393 


belonging probably to this family. Stratiomys has a broad flat- 
tened abdomen, and the scutellum spined. The larve are 
aquatic, being apodal and flattened, and slen- 
der especially at the end of the body, which is 
elongated and has a simple terminal spiracle 
‘‘surrounded by a great number of bearded 
hairs, which form a coronet, and which are 
capable of being closed up so as to retain a - 
bubble of air, and by the assistance of which 
the insect suspends itself at the surface of the 
water for respiration. On assuming the pupa. 
state, the insect floats at liberty in the water, 
the enclosed pupa occupying only the anterior _ fig. 313. 
portion of its larva skin.” 


Tapanip# Latreille. In this important family the three 
basal cells of the wings are much prolonged ; the third longitu- 
dinal vein is furcate, and the tegulie are rather large. The pro- 
boscis of the male has four, that of the female six bristles. The 
third joint of the antennze is annulate and always without 
style or bristle. The eyes are large, and the thorax oblong and 
flattened above. The female Horse-flies are troublesome from 
their formidable bite. The pupz are obtected, resembling the 
adult flies. Pangonia has a proboscis often longer than the 
body itself. Chrysops, the Golden-eyed fly, is very trouble- 
some, unceasingly flying about one’s head, striving to alight 
and draw blood. The two basal joints of the antenne are 
prolonged, hairy, the third spindle-shaped. Chrysops niger 
Macquart and C. vittatus Wiedemann are the two most abun- 
dant species. 

Tabanus, the Horse-fly, is known by its large size and 
powerful biting and sucking apparatus. Like the mosquito, 
the male horse-fly does not bite, but lives on the sweets of 
flowers. The accompanying sketch shows the structure of the 
proboscis of the female of the Green-head fly, Tabanus lineola 
Fabr. (Fig. 314; a, five terminal joints of the antenne; /b, 
labrum; m, mandibles; ma, maxille; mp, the two-jointed, 
large, stout, maxillary palpi; 7, the tongue). Its bite is most 
painful and poisonous to many. Mr. Walsh has shown, 


394. DIPTERA. 


however, that in its larval state the horse-fly is useful to man, 
as it feeds on snails and probably the larve of other root- 
eating insects. The larve of other species are aquatic, living 
under submerged objects. Walsh describes 
a greenish transparent larva which is cylin- 
drical, twelve-jointed, the body being most 
slender towards the head, which is small, 
truncate, conical, the anterior part capable 
of extension, with short, fleshy, exarticulate 
antenne and without ocelli. There are six 
pairs of dorsal fleshy tubercles. On the un- 

Fig. 314. der side of the abdominal segments are six 
retractile false legs, and a single anal retractile proleg. It 
is, when disturbed, vigorous and restless, swimming quickly, 
often elevating the anal slit, in which the stigmata are probable 
placed, out of the water to take in the air. The pupa is cylin- 
drical, obtuse at the head, tapering a little posteriorly, and is 
of a pale yellowish brown. There are six 
tubercles at the mouth, above which are 
the trigonate three or four-jointed antenne. 
The abdominal segments are furnished with 
a ring of appressed bristles directed back- 
wards, and the anal spine is large, trun- 
cated, and terminates in six small, stout spines. TZ. atratus 
Fabr. is a common species; it is black, covered with a whitish 
bloom, and expands nearly two inches, while the Tabanus cinctus 
Fabr., or Orange-belted horse-fly, is smaller and less abundant. 
Of the smaller species the Zabanus lineola Fabr. (Fig. 315) 
is so named from the whitish line along the abdomen. This 
fly is our most common species, thousands of them ap- 
pearing during the hotter parts of the summer, when the sun 
is shining on our marshes and Western prairies; horses and 
cattle are sometimes worried to death by their harassing bites. 
In cloudy weather they do not fly and they perish on the cool 
frosty nights of September. 


Leprtip# Meigen. This family is easily distinguished from 
the preceding by the simple third joint of the antenne, which 
are provided with a simple or thickened styliform bristle. 


ASILID 2. 395 


- The tibize are spurred; the larve slender, cylindrical; the 
body widening posteriorly, terminates in two points, while 
the pupa is naked, incomplete, with transverse rows of 
spines on the abdomen, becoming largest at the tip. The 
larva of Leptis vermileo Fabr. lives at the bottom of holes 
which it makes in sand, and thus, like the ant-lion, entraps 
other insects. 


>), Cyrtip# Loew. Known by the greatly inflated thorax and 


abdomen this family is of but small extent, comprising species 
which have the proboscis rather obsolete, or long and bent be- 
neath the body. Such are the genera Cyrtus, Acrocera and 
Oncodes. The genus Hirmoneura represents the family H1r- 
MONEURID& of Loew. 


Mypvasip& Leach. This family, represented in this country 
by the single genus Midas, is easily known by the large size of 
the species, and by the long clavate antennee, the fleshy labium, 
and the minute empodium. The larva and pupa are 
said by Harris to almost exactly resemble those of 
the rapacious Asilide. The larva of Midas clavatus 
Drury is cylindrical, whitish, tapering before and 
almost rounded behind, with two spiracles in the last 
segment but one of the abdomen, and is two inches 
long. It lives and undergoes its transformations in 
decaying logs. (Harris.) The pupa (Fig. 316, drawn 
from a specimen in the Harris collection) is about “\ 
an inch and a quarter long, brown, nearly cylindrical, MS *1° 
with a forked tail; there are eight spines on the forepart of 
the body. Midas fulvipes Walsh has similar habits and its 
transformations are similar; the larva is insectivorous. — 


Asirip& (Asilici) Latreille. These large, stout, Robber-flies, 
as the Germans style them, are covered with stiff hairs, and 
have long abdomens. The third joint of the antenne is sim- 
ple; the labium forms a horny sheath, and the empodium is 
like a horny bristle. They are rapacious, seizing other insects 
and flying off with them, like the fossorial hymenoptera. Da- 
sypogon (Fig. 271, 38, wing) has the second longitudinal vein 


396 DIPTERA. 


running into the border of the wing, while the anterior tibiz 
end in a hooked spine. 

The genus Laphria is large, stout-bodied, very hirsute, the 
second longitudinal vein’runs into the first, and the style of 
the antenne is either thick and stout, and generally wanting, or 
entirely obsolete. In their loud buzz, swift, peculiar flight and 
general appearance, the species strikingly resemble humble 
bees. Laphria thoracica Fabr. is nearly an inch long, and is 
black with yellow hairs on the thorax. Asilus is much longer, 
with an acutely pointed prolonged abdomen, and the species are 
often nearly naked, while the more essential characters lie in 
the union of the second longitudinal vein with the first, and the 
termination of the antennz in a distinct bristle. The larvee 
of Asilus sericeus Say, which feed on roots of the rhubarb 
plant, according to Dr. Harris, are yellowish white, about 
three-quarters of an inch long, a little flattened and tapering 
at each end, with a small brown, retractile head, which is pro- 
vided with two little horny brown hooks. The brown pupa is 
naked, with a pair of tubercles on the front of the head, three 
spines on the side, a forked tail, and a transverse row of fine 
teeth across each abdominal segment, by which they are en- 
abled to work their way to the surface. The Trupanea apivora 
Fitch, or Bee-killer, captures the honey bee on the wing, one 
having been known to kill 141 bees in a day. (Riley.) 


TuEerevip& Westwood. This small group is characterized 
by the wings having the three basal cells much prolonged ; the 
third longitudinal vein is furcate, and the antennz have a ter- 
minal style of variable form, sometimes wanting. There is no 
empodium, and the labium is fleshy. The larva is very long 
and slender, the abdominal rings having a double segmented 
appearance, with two respiratory tubes at the end of the body. 
They are found in garden mould and rotten wood. The pupa is 
oblong, with two spines on the front of the head, and three on 
the side of the thorax. Westwood states that the larva of a 
species of Thereva, which is like a wire-worm in shape, feeds 
on the pup of some moths. 


Bomsyitup Latreille. These pretty flies are very hirsute, 


SYRPHIDEA. 397 


with an oval body and long proboscis; the wings have the 
three basal cells much prolonged, with the anterior intercal- 
ary vein present almost without exception, the posterior always 
wanting. The third joint of the antenne is simple, and the 
empodium quite rudimentary. They are exceedingly swift on 
the wing and are found in sunny paths and glades early in the 
spring and throughout the summer. They can only be cap- 
tured when alighted on the ground. The eggs are laid in the 
nests of bees, and the half cylindrical, long, fleshy, smooth, 
unarmed larvee devour the bee larvee, while the pupa is spiny, 
armed on the head with horny lamellz. In the genus Bomby- 
lius the body is ovate, with long dense hairs and a small head. 
The eyes of the male are grown together, and the legs are very 
slender. A species is known in England to lay its eggs at the 
opening of the holes of Andrena, whose larvee and pupee are 
devoured by the larvee of the fly. Systropus is very long and 
slender, and wasp-like, as in Conops, with the proboscis equal- 
ling the thorax in length. The genus Anthrax is more flattened 
and oblong in shape than Bombylius, with a short proboscis ; 
the eyes are not connected in the males. The species are 
gaily colored, the wings often partially black ; they fly in paths 
in the hottest days of summer. The larvee are parasitic on 
bees, and in their transformations closely resemble those of 
Bombylius. Audouin has found Anthrax morio in the nest of 
Anthophora, and Westwood has found the pupa-skin in the 
nest of Megachile, while the larva has, in England, more re- 
cently been found to be parasitic in the nests of certain An- 
drenidse. We have received from Mr. J. Angus the larva and 
pupa (Plate 4, figs. 6, 7) of Anthrax sinuosa Wiedemann, 
which is parasitic in the nest of Xylocopa Virginica. 


Syrpuip# Leach. These gaily colored flies, so useful to ag- 
riculturists from their habit of feeding upon Plant-lice, closely 
resemble the wasps in form and coloration, having hemis- 
pherical heads, large broad eyes, and rather flattened bodies 
ornamented with yellow bands and spots. The wings have the 
three basal cells much prolonged, the third longitudinal vein 
simple, a spurious longitudinal vein between the third and fourth 
longitudinal veins ; while the fourth longitudinal vein is united 


398 DIPTERA. 


at its end with the third, and there is no intercalary vein. The 
genital armor of the male is unsymmetrical, and there is no 
empodium. ‘They hover in the hot sun 
over and about flowers, resting upon 
them to feed on their sweets. The 
larvee either live in the water, when the 
body ends in a long extensile breathing 
tube; or are terrestrial, living in decay- 
ing wood, or parasitically in nests of 
bees, or, as in Syrphus, live among plant- 
lice. The singular spherical larva of Mi- 
crodon globosus (Fig. 317; a, puparium ; 
S, spiracular tubercles; v, vent; 0, 
anterior view of the same; c, larva just 
before pupation) is found, according to 
Mr. Sanborn, under sticks in company 
with shells. 

Milesia strikingly resembles, in its style of coloration and 
form, the common large yellow wasp. The antennz are short, 
drooping, with a stout oval terminal joint, and a subterminal 
bristle. I. excentrica Harris, with its yellow spots and bands 
resembles a wasp. 

Eristalis is well known by its aquatic ‘‘rat-tailed” larvee, the 
abdomen terminating in a long respiratory tube equalling the 
body in length, with two stigmata at the end, which they pro-— 
trude out of the water. There are seven pairs of prolegs, more 
distinct than in any other genus in the entire suborder. The 
pupa is found buried in the earth. The body of the larva shor- 
tens and hardens, forming the puparium, which is provided 
with four horns, serving as organs of respiration. 

The species of Hristalis* are seen flying abundantly about 


* Jules Kunckel has recently detected a true peritrachial circulation in Eristalis, 
thus confirming the discoveries of Blanchard and Agassiz. He saw the blood 
imprisoned between the inner air tube and the envelope of the trachea, and pene- 
trating into the capillary termination of those trachez, and saw the flow of the 
blood globules in the peritracheal space. This peritracheal circulation thus seems 
to correspond with the arterial circulation of the vertebrate animals, and the mi- 
nute branches of the tracheze are capillaries, and the blood is arterial. ‘ En 
résumé, the trachee of insects, air tubes in their central portion, blood vessels in 
their peripheral portion [7. e., the space surrounding the air tube] become at their 
extremities true arterial capillaries.” ‘The blood in the peritracheal space re- 
mains through all its course in contact with the oxygen; it arrives at the capilla- 


SYRPHIDA. 399 


flowers in the spring, and are common throughout the spring. 
They scoop up the pollen of the flowers with their maxille. 
We have received from Mr. E. T. Cox the 
puparium (Fig. 318) of a species which in- 
habits the salt vats of the Equality Salt ~ 
Works of Gallatin County, Ill. The pupa- 
rium of a species of Helophilus closely re- 
sembling that figured by Westwood (Class. Insects, Fig. 131, 
8), has been found living in the salt water canal of the 
Naumkeag Factory leading 
| into Salem Harbor, and is in 
the Museum of the Peabody 
Academy. = 
Closely allied to Eristalis is 
the genus Merodon, of which 
M. bardus Say (Fig. 319; a, 
puparium, natural size) is fre- 
Fig. 319. quently met with. Its thorax, 
the first abdominal ring and the side of the second are cov- 
ered with short yellow hairs; it is .70 of an inch in length. 
The puparium is of the same length, and 
is cylindrical, ending suddenly in a re- 
spiratory filament a little longer than the 
body; it is quite stout, contracting be- 
yond its middle into a slender filament. 
On each abdominal ring is a pair of small, 
low, flattened tubercles crowned by a 
number of radiating spinules. Its larva 
is undoubtedly aquatic, like that of Eris- 
talis. Mr. Sanborn has also reared from the pupa state MW. 
Narcissi, which probably lives in the soil about 
decaying bulbs, as the puparium has no respira- 
. tory tube, but instead a very short sessile trun- 
cated projection, scarcely as long as it is thick, 


Fig. 318. 


Big. 321. _ with a pair of stigmata in the end; the body is 


cylindrical and rounded alike at each end, with a slight con- 


‘vies perfectly vivified; it is a true arterial blood. These capillaries are not in 
communication with the venous capillaries; the blood is taken up by the tissues, 
it nourishes them and flows into the venous lacuns, and the lacunar currents 
carry it to the dorsal vessel.” Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1868. 


400 DIPTERA. 


traction behind the middle of the head; its surface is rough- 
ened with transverse wrinkles, but no regularly marked sutures, 
indicating the divisions between the segments, are apparent. 
It has been introduced from Europe, according to Mr. Sanborn, 
by the importers of Dutch bulbs. 

The well known genus Syrphus (Fig 520, 8. politus Say) so 
useful in reducing the immense numbers of plant-lice, lays a 
single egg in a group of plant-lice, which hatches out a footless, 
eyeless, flattened, transversely wrinkled, gaily colored green and 
purple maggot (Fig. 321) having a very extensile body, which 
enables it to reach up and grasp the Aphis by the peculiar 
sucking mouth-parts. When fully grown the larva adheres by 
means of a glutinous secretion to a leaf, its body contracts and 
hardens, forming a half cylindrical puparium. 

The species of Volucella are parasitic in their habits, the 
larvee feeding on those of Bombus. They are long, ‘‘narrowed 
in front, transversely wrinkled, with fine lateral points, and the 
tail is armed with six radiating points; the mouth is armed 
with two bifid mandibles, and three pairs of tentacula.” 
(Westwood.) The pupz are not known. The fly would be 
easily mistaken for a bee, nearly attaining the size of the 
worker Humble-bee, being remarkably plump and hirsute. J. 
Kunckel states that in Europe two species are known to live 
in the nests of Vespa. 


Conorip& Leach. The species of this family bear some 
resemblance to the wasp, Eumenes, from their long, slen- 
der, pedicelled abdomen. The three basal cells of the wings 
are large, the third closed, more or less remote from the pos- 
terior border, and all the longitudinal veins are simple. The 
eyes in both sexes are smaller than in the preceding family, 
being separated. The proboscis is, with a few exceptions, 
much prolonged, and the third joint of the antennz has either 
an apical style or a thick dorsal bristle. The male genital 
armor is symmetrical and turned beneath the abdomen. The 
flask-shaped larva of Conops is ‘soft, whitish, eleven-jointed, 
with a long neck and a mouth armed with lips and hooks (man- 
dibles), and two lateral elevated plates supporting the two 
spiracles.” It was found by Lachat and Audouin living in the 


CONOPIDZ. 401 


abdomen of Bombus. It is also said by St. Fargeau to live in 
the nest of Vespa, and Conops flavipes was bred, according to 
Curtis, from the body of Osmia. 

Mr. S. S. Saunders has observed in Epirus the habits of a 
species which lives in the abdomen of Pompilus audax Smith. 
The fly lays its eggs in June in the adult Pompilus, probably 
ovipositing between the abdominal segments. During August 
the larvee become fully grown, probably in ten or fifteen days. 
The puparium is oval, of an uniform, deep, piceous hue, and the 
fly works its way through the first and second abdominal rings 
of the wasp, whose abdomen then breaks in two. Saunders 
also found a similar Conops larva in Sphex flavipennis, cap- 
tured at the same time and place as the Pompilus; also a 
smaller species of 
Conops was bred 
from the abdomen 
of Odynerus. 
We have also 
bred a_ species 
from one of two 
species of Bom- 
bus, either B. 
vagans or B. fer- 
vidus. 

In Myopa the antennal bristle is subterminal, and the probos- 

cis is twice elbowed. Westwood has observed Myopa atra fly- 
ing about sand-banks in which were tht burrows of various bees, 
and by other authors the genus is said to be parasitic on bees. 


a 


Fig. 322. 


fie The genus Pipunculus represents a small group in which 


the head is almost entirely occupied by the eyes, the front and 
face being exceedingly narrow, while the antennez have a basal 
bristle. 

Loew considers the genus Scenopinus as the type of a dis- 
tinct family, hinting at its relationship with the Bombyliide. 
The genus is known by the short antenne, without style or bris- 
tle ; and by the short proboscis with its broad fleshy end. The 
larvee are long, very slender, much like those of Thereva, and 
the pupa is much like that of Leptis. Mr. Sanborn has reared 
S. pallipes Say (Fig. 3822; a,larva). The larva is found under 

26 


402 DIPTERA. 


carpets, and is remarkable for the double segmented appearance 
of all the abdominal segments, except the last one, so that the 
body, exclusive of the head, seems as if twenty-jointed instead 
of having but twelve joints. The head is conical, one-third 
longer than broad, and of a reddish brown color, while the 
body is white. It is .65 of an inch in length. The larva is 
also said to live in rotten wood, and is too scarce to be destruc- 
tive to carpets. The fly is black, with a metallic hue, and 
with pale feet. 

The genus Platypeza also represents the Platypezide@ of 
Meigen, the antennze of which have an apical bristle, with the 
male genital armor (hypopygium) turned symmetrically under 
the abdomen. The middle tibise are provided with spurs, and 
the empodium is wanting. The larva is flat, with rigid curved 
bristles along the side. It lives in rotten mushrooms. 


Empip# Leach. The species of this family closely resemble 
the Asilidz in their long body, incumbent wings, and rapaci- 
ous, carnivorous habits. The first joint of the antennz is not 
much shortened, and the third joint has an apical or dorsal 
bristle, while the empodium is usually membranaceous and of a 
linear form. The head is small, spherical, the eyes united in 
the male; the proboscis is horny, without a distinct tongue, 
and bent upon the breast. The slender larvee, whose segments 
are much constricted, are found in garden mould. The species 
hover in swarms over standing water, flying backwards and for- 
wards as if by a commort impulse. They appear very early in 
the spring, or in autumn. The genera Hybos and Tachydromia 
represent small groups which are closely allied to Empis. 


Do.icHopopip# Latreille. Loew has characterized this 
well marked family as generally comprising metallic green, 
brisk and restless Diptera of small or medium size, predatory 
on other insects, and living principally in damp situations ; the 
larvee living under ground or in decaying wood. ‘The head is 
hemispherical, the eyes large and hairy, the antennz are 
stretched straight out, with a two-jointed bristle. The probos- 
cis is short and stout, concealed above by the single jointed, 
usually scale-shaped palpi, with a wide opening which can be 


CSTRIDZ. 403 


shut by the protruding suctorial flaps. The wings do not have 
the auxiliary vein running towards the anterior margin ; the an- 
terior basal cell is very short ; and the discoidal cell coalescent 
with the second basal cell, while the posterior basal cell is very 
small. They are mostly ‘‘found on the leaves of aquatic plants, 
on stones partly overflown with water, on dams and near water- 
falls ; some of them are able to run rapidly over the water, even 
when it is rippled by the wind (Hydophorus) ; others are fond 
of salt or brackish waters (Aphrosylus, Thinophilus and some 
Hydrophorus) ; the species of Medeterus prefer dry situations, 
and are found on stumps of trees, fences, etc., even in very 
dry and hot weather.” 


CEstrip& Leach. Bot-flies, Breeze-flies. In these flies, so 
interesting in their habits, the body is stout, hairy, like the 
Humble bees, and they are easily recognized by having the 
opening of the mouth very small, with rudimentary oral or- 
gans. The middle part of the face is exceedingly narrow, and 
the minute antennee are inserted in rounded pits. The eggs 
hatch very soon after laying, and Riley (First Annual Report 
on the Noxious Insects of Missouri, p. 164) thinks, from the 
testimony of three independent witnesses, that the sheep bot- 
fly is viviparous, the larve hatching within the body of the 
parent, who deposits in the nostrils of the sheep the ‘‘ perfectly 
formed and living grub.” 

The larvee are, in general, thick, fleshy, footless grubs, con- 
sisting of eleven segments exclusive of the head, which are 
spined and tuberculated, the former in rows, which enable them 
to move about readily when living under the skin or in the 
frontal sinus and thus greatly irritate the animals on which they 
live. The stigmata are placed in a scaly plate on the thick- 
ened posterior end of the body. The mouth of the cutaneous 
larvee consists simply of fleshy tubercles, while in those species 
that live in the stomach and frontal sinuses of their hosts, it is 
provided with horny hooks. While in this state they moult 
twice, and then attain their full size. They feed on the puru- 
lent matter originating from the irritation produced by the 
movements of their bodies. Just before assuming the pupa 
state, the larva leaves its peculiar habitat, descends into the 


404 DIPTERA. 


ground, and there becomes a coarctate pupa, enclosed within 
the old larva skin, and remaining in connection with it by 
means of four trachez. 

The genus Gastrophilus has very small 
mouth-parts, the deep lying palpi being 
somewhat spherical, and the 
proboscis nearly obsolete, 
while the abdomen is sessile. 
The ‘species are of medium 
size, short and thick, and very hairy. The female 
lays her eggs on the horse’s hips, or forelegs, by 
which the larvee are introduced into the stomach. 
The body of the larva widens posteriorly ; the 
mandibles are not visible, and the maxillz con- 
stitute the so-called mouth-hooks, by which the 
larva grapples and adheres to the walls of the 
horse’s stomach. The rudimentary antennze are Fis. 324. 
indicated by an ocellus-like point. The Horse Bot-fly, Gas- 
trophilus equi Fabr. (Fig. 323; fig. 324, larva), in its perfect 
state is pale yellowish, spotted with red, with a grayish yellow 
hirsuties; the thorax is banded with black, or sometimes, 


though rarely, reddish hairs. The hinder trochanters are 
hooked in the males, and tuberculated in the females, and the 
wings are banded with reddish, with two spots at the apex. 
The larvee live from May till October, and when fully grown, 
hang by their mouth-hooks on the edge of the rectum, whence 


CSTRIDZA. 405 


they are carried out in the excrement. ‘The pupa state lasts 
from thirty to forty days, and the perfect fly appears the next 
season from June to October. 

In Hypoderma the palpi are entirely wanting. The species are 
either very large, or of medium size, and often quite small, coy- 
ered with fine dense hairs. The legs are long and slender. The 
Hypoderma bovis Degeer (Fig. 325, a, larva) or Bot-fly of the ox, 
is black, densely pilose; the front of the head is dirty ashen, 
with whitish yellow hairs. The naked black thorax is twice 
broadly banded with yellow and white; the scutellum has 
slight tubercles; the abdomen is black, with a basal white or 
yellowish band, a mesial black band, and at the end is a reddish 
orange band of hairs. The larve are found during the month 
of May and in the summer in the tumors on the backs of cattle, 
and when fully grown, which is generally in July, work their 
way out and fall to the ground. 
They exist in the puparium twen- 
ty-six to thirty days, and the fly 
appears from June to September. 
This species is found over all the 
civilized portions of the world. 
Hypoderma tarandi Linn. infests, 
in like manner, the Reindeer. 
The genus @stromyia is thought 
to inhabit the Hare. Mstrus ovis 
Linn., the Sheep Bot-fly, is of a 
dirty ash color, with a fuscous ashen, banded, and obscurely 
spotted thorax. The abdomen is marbled with yellowish and 
white flecks, and is hairy at the end. The larva lives, during 
April, May and June, in the frontal sinus of the sheep, and also 
in the nasal cavity, whence it falls to the ground. It changes 
to a pupa in twenty-four hours, and the fly appears during the 
summer. Cuterebra has the third joint of the antennz oval or 
elliptical and the bristle is dorsal and feathered; the species 
are short, very plump and hairy flies, with a proboscis elbowed 
at the base, and with a metallic shining rounded abdomen. 
The larvee live in subcutaneous bots beneath the skin of vari- 
ous animals. One species (the C. emasculator of Fitch) lives 
in the scrotum of the squirrel, which it is known to emasculate. 


406 DIPTERA. 


Mr. 8. S. Rathvon has reared C. buccata Fabr. (Fig. 326, and 

side view) from the body of a striped squirrel, the larvee haying 

emerged from the region of the kidneys.” (American Ento- 

mologist, p. 116.) Other species live in the Opossum and 

different species of field-mice. Cuterebra horripilum Clark is 

found throughout the United States, and C. ewniculi Clark lives 
| in the hare and rabbit, in the Southern States, and is found, 
| according to Coquerel, in the bots of horses. 

The genus Dermatobia includes the Ver macaque, of Cayenne 
and Mexico, found beneath the skin of man in tropical America, 
and it is disputed whether it be a true indigenous ‘ Céstrus 
hominis,” or originally attacks the monkey, dog, or other mam- 
mal, In Cayenne the species attacking man is called the Ver 

(@ Macaque; in Brazil (Para) Ura; in Costa 
Rica, Torcel; in New Grenada, Gusano 
peludo, or Muche. The D. noxialis Goudot? 
(Fig. 327) Ver moyocuil, lives on the dog, 
and is found in Mexico and New Grenada. 
The larve are long, cylindrical, S-shaped, 
differing greatly in form from others of this 
family. The flies are closely allied to those 
of the preceding genus. 

Dr. Leidy states in the Proceedings of the 
Philadelphia Academy (1859), that several 
specimens of the larva of a bot-fly were ob- 
tained by Dr. J. L. Leconte in Honduras, 
| from his travelling companions. They were ‘‘ usually found be- 

neath the skin of the shoulders, breasts, arms, buttocks and 
| thighs, and were suspected to have been introduced when the 
persons were bathing.” ‘‘ Dr. Leconte informs us that his com- 
I | panions were not aware of the time when the eggs of the larve, 
\ | obtained by him, were deposited in their bodies. He also states 
i that the presence of the larva gave rise to comparatively little 
| uneasiness.” 
4 According to Krefft a species of Batrachomyia is parasitic 
| upon four species of Australian frogs. The larve are found 
| | between the skin and the flesh behind the tympanum ; they are 


of a yellow color and may be squeezed through a small open- 
ing that exists over them. When they quit the frog the latter 


MUSCID 2. 407 


dies. The change to the pupa state is usually effected on the 
lower surface of a piece of rock in some damp locality. The 
perfect insect emerges in thirty-two days. (Gunther’s Zoologi- 
cal Record, 1864.) 


coh hag. do Mouscrp Latreille. The common House-fly, the Blue-bottle 

et: (dae fly, and the Flesh-fly, at once recall the appearance of this 
family, which is one of great extent, and much subdivided by 
entomologists. The antennz are three-jointed, the terminal 
joint being flattened and with a plumose bristle in the typical 
species. The proboscis ends in a fleshy lobe, with porrect 
single-jointed maxillary palpi. ‘The four longitudinal veins of 
the wing are simple; the first of the two veins on the hinder 
edge often approaching that on the apex of the wing; the tarsi 
have two pulvilli, and the abdomen is five-jointed. The larvee 
are footless, cylindrico-conic, narrowing in front, with a head 
variable in form, and with hook-like maxille. There are often 
two pairs of spiracles, one on the terminal ring of the body, 
and the other pair on the protlforacic segment. ‘The pupa is 
enclosed in the puparium, generally cylindrical, but sometimes 
preserving the original shape of the larva. The celebrated 
“Tsetze” fly (Glossina morsitans Westwood) is a member of 
this family. It kills cattle by its painful bite, though its in- 
jurious nature is said to have been overrated. It is allied to 
Stomoxys, the species of which bite very sharply. S. caltricans 
has a well developed proboscis, enabling it to bite severely. 
It is often found in houses. 

The species of the genus Tachina, like the Ichneumonide, are 
parasitic in caterpillars, and others are found in the nests of 
bees. They are stout flies, covered with bristles, with the eyes 
much larger in the males than in the other sex. The bristle 
of the antenne is bare or with a very short pubescence. The 
thorax is short, and the first posterior cell is closed, or but 
slightly opened, and the legs are short. The abdomen is oval 
or cylindrical, and the first segment is much shortened. The 
larvee are oval, with the segments much constricted; they have 
no head; the last segment bears two spiracles. 7. (Senomet- 
opia) militaris Walsh lays its egos, from one to six in num- 
ber, on the Army worm (Leucania unipuncta), “fastening 


408 DIPTERA. 


them by an insoluble cement on the upper surface of the two 
or three first rings of the body. The eggs hatch often after 
the caterpillar has gone under ground to transform, and in 
fifteen to nineteen days, or the last of September, the flies ap- 
pear. TZ. (Lydella) ee w Riley (Fig. 3828) preys on the 
larvee of the Colorado potato 
beetle. Other species of gen- 
era allied to Tachina, accord- 
Pp ing to Dufour, are parasitie on 
beetles, etc ; thus, Cassidomyia 
preys on Cassida, Hyalomyia 
on Brachyderes, and Ocyptera 
attacks Pentatoma; and he 
thinks that Chartophila jfloralis 
feeds either on the food or the 
ge Ssb young itself of Andrena. 

Sarcophaga, the Flesh-fly, has a small head, with the antennal 
bristle plumose or hairy, naked at the tip; the first posterior 
cell only slightly opened, or® closed, with large tegule and 
stout legs. The flesh-fly, Sarcophaga carnaria Linn., is black, 
the thorax streaked with gray, and the abdomen checkered 
with whitish. The female is viviparous, that is, the 
larvee hatch and live within the oviduct. The ova- 
ries are large, arranged in a spiral manner and con- 
tain sometimes 20,000 eggs. We have reared Sarco- 
phaga nudipennis Loew from the cells of Pelopzeus 
flavipes, the Mud-dauber, which had been stored with 
spiders, the flies making their appearance on the first 
of July, a few days before the wasps issued from the 
cells. The parent flies had probably laid their eggs 
in the spiders before the cells were closed by the 
wasps. The nests were brought from Texas: 

Fig. 329. Musca has plumose antennz, while in Stomoxys 
they are pectinated. Dufour states that the allied genera, 
Lehinomyia, Gonia, Dexia and Siphonia are also viviparous. 
Musca (Lucilia) Cesar Linn. the Blue-bottle fly, and Musca 
(Calliphora) vomitoria Linn. the Meat-fly, deposit their eggs 
(fly-blows) upon meat and decaying animal substances, and 
during the late war were grievously tormenting to our soldiers, 


MUSCIDA. 409 


laying their eggs in the wounds, especially of those left on the 
field-over night. The larva of M. Cesar (Fig. 329) is of very 
rapid growth. It is of an ‘elongated conical form, pointed 
towards the head, which is furnished with two fleshy horns,” 
and horny mouth-parts, and a pair of rudiments of branchi 
on the prothoracie ring. The body is suddenly truncated, the 
end being furnished with a pair of stigmata. The pupa trans- 
forms in the ground, within a puparium of the usual long, cy- 
lindrical form. 

Dr. Chapman of Appalachicola, writes to Mr. Sanborn that 
this fly, ‘‘ attracted by the stench of a mass of decaying insects 
which have perished in the leaf of Sarracenia, ventures in and 
deposits its eggs, and the larve devour the festering heap. 
These in turn, on becoming flies, are 
unable to get out of their prison, perish, 
and are added to the putrefying mass : 
that had nourished thei.” 

F. Smith notices in the Transactions 
of the Entomological Society of Lon- 
don, 1868, the ‘‘ Warega” fly of Brazil, 
which is said to be the ‘‘pest of both 
man and animals; it is a species of 
Musca, and is said to lay its eggs in the 
skin; large and terrible swellings are 
formed. The mode of extracting the 
maggot is to cut an opening, and to press it out—a most 
painful operation. These wounds are very difficult to cure.” 

The House-fly, Musca domestica Linn., is common in the 
warmer parts of the year, and hibernates through the winter. A 
study of the proboscis of the fly reveals a wonderful adaptability 
of the mouth-parts of this insect to their uses. We have already 
noticed the most perfect condition of these parts as seen in the 
horse-fly. In the proboscis of the house-fly the hard parts are 
obsolete, and instead we have a fleshy tongue-like organ (Fig. 
330), bent up underneath the head when at rest. The maxillee 
are minute, and the palpi (mp) are single-jointed, and the man- 
dibles (m) are comparatively useless, being very short and 
small compared with the lancet-like jaws of the mosquito or 
horse-fly. But the structure of the tongue itself (labium, 7) is 


} 


410 DIPTERA. 


most curious. When the fly settles upon a lump of sugar or 
other sweet object, it unbends its tongue, extends it, and the 
broad knob-like end divides into two flat, muscular leaves (/), 
which thus present a sucker-like surface, with which the fly laps 
up liquid sweets. These two leaves are supported upon a 
framework of tracheal tubes, which act as a set of springs 
to open and shut the muscular leaves. In the preceding figure, 
Mr. Emerton has faithfully represented these modified trachee, 
which end in hairs projecting externally. Thus the inside of 
this broad fleshy expansion is rough like a rasp, and as Newport 
states, ‘‘is easily employed by the insect in scraping or tearing 
delicate surfaces. It is by means of this curious structure that 
the busy house-fly occasions much mischief to the covers of our 
books, by scraping off the albuminous polish, and leaving tra- 
cings of its depredations in the soiled and spotted 
appearance which it occasions on them. It is 
by means of these also that it teases us in the heat 
of summer, when it alights on the hand or face 
to sip the perspiration as it exudes from, and is 
condensed upon, the skin.” 

Every one notices that house-flies are most 
abundant around barns in August and Septem- 
ber, and it is in the ordure of stables that the 
early stages of this insect are passed. No one 

Fig. 331. has traced the transformations of this fly in this 
country, but we copy from Bouché’s work on the transforma- 
tions of insects, the rather rude figures of the larva (Fig. 351), 
and puparium (a) of the Musca domestica of Europe, which is 
supposed to be our species. Bouché states that the larva is 
cylindrical, rounded posteriorly, smooth and shining, fleshy, 
and yellowish white, and is four lines long. The puparium is 
dark reddish brown, and three lines in length. It remains in 
the pupa state from eight to fourteen days. In Europe it is 
preyed upon by minute ichneumon flies (Chalcids).  Idia 
Bigoti, according to Coquerel and Mondiere, produces a disease 
in the natives of Senegal, probably by ovipositing on the skin, 


a 
z3 
[Ze 
ae) 
Cea) 
Caer 
eas) 
Gea), 
ony 
Cay, 
oy, 


thus giving rise to hard red fluctuating tumors, in which the 
larva of this fly resides. 
The species of the genus Anthomyia, seen about flowers, in 


te r1pit bh 


MUSCIDZ. 411 


the larva state live in decaying vegetable matter and in privies. 
They are smaller flies than the foregoing genera, with smaller 
alulae, and the fourth longitudinal vein of the wing is straight, 
thus leaving the first posterior cell fully open. . The larve are 
generally much like those of the meat-fly, but are thicker, 
while others, described as belonging to this genus, are said to 
be flattened and hairy. 

The Radish-fly, Anthomyia raphani Harris, abounds in the 
roots of the radish, the fly appearing towards the end of June. 
Another species, the Onion-fiy, Anthomyia ceparum (Fig. 332), 
causes the leaves of the onion to turn yellow and die from 
the attacks of the larve in the roots. The larve mature in 
two weeks, transform in the root, and two weeks later disclose 
the flies. Mr. Walsh 
suggests that the 
larve may be de- 
stroyed by pouring 
boiling hot water 
over the young 
plants, which, with- 
out injuring the on- 
ions, destroys the 
maggots. The 
Seed-corn Maggot, the larva of Anthomyia zew Riley (Fig. 344, 
p- 419, a, larva; 6, puparium; c, kernels eaten), destroys, 
in New Jersey, the kernels of sprouted corn before it comes up. 
The Cabbage maggot, the larva of A. brassiccee Bouché, a com- 
mon fly in Europe, has been found in Michigan to be injurious 
to the cabbage. (Riley.) -The hairy maggots of A. cunicularis 
or an allied species, live in rotten turnips. (Harris.) The pu- 
parium (Plate 3, fig. 5, 5a) of another species has been found 
by Mr. F. W. Putnam in the nests of the humble bee. 

In Ortalis the front is quite prominent, the clypeus is greatly 
developed, the opening of the mouth wide, and the proboscis 
much thickened. This genus comprises variously banded and 
spotted flies, which may be seen walking along leaves vibrating 
their wings. They feed on the leaves, and afterwards the 
pulpy fruit of the cherry, olive and orange. Another Onion- 
fly, discovered by Dr. Shimer in Illinois, is the Ortalis flexa 


LS 


412 DIPTERA, 


of Wiedemann (Fig. 333; a, larva). ‘The fly differs from the 
Anthomyia ceparum, besides more important respects, in hay- 
ing black wings with three broad curved bands. The maggot 
feeds in the root thus killing the top of the plant. 

A species of Trypeta, according to F. Smith, which in Brazil 
is called the ‘‘ Berna” fly, deposits its eggs in wounds, both 
on man and beast. ‘‘It is remarkable from having the apical 
segment of the ab- 
domen elongated 
into a long oviposi- 
tor. Mr. Peckolt 
says the negroes 
suffer much from 
the attacks of this 
fly, which frequent- 

a Fig. 333. ly deposits its eggs 
in their nostrils whilst they are sleeping, and such are the 
effects of its attacks, that, in some cases, death ensues.” 
(Transactions of the Entomological Society, London, 1868, 
p- 135.) 

To the genus Lonchea, Osten Sacken refers, with consider- 
able doubt, a fly, which I have found in abundance, raising 
blister-like swellings on the twigs of the willow. They were 
fully grown in April. 
The larva (Fig. 334, 
fly ; a, the larva; 6, 
the pupa) is curved, 
cylindrical, tapering 
nearly alike towards 
each extremity, 

Fig. 334. though the thoracic 
region is the thickest. The rings are thickened upon their pos- 
terior edges, so that they appear contracted in the middle. It 
is glassy green, with two little elongated tubercles placed near 
each other at a little distance from the end, where in the pupa 
they are terminal. It is .15 of an inch long when fully ex- 
tended. The pupa-case, found late in May, is oval, long, cy- 
lindrical and obtuse at both ends; the anterior end is more 
blunt; the first segment of the body is minute and forms the 


MUSCID 2. 413 


lid, which opens when the fly makes its exit, and bears two 
small slender tubercles which project-upwards. The posterior 
end bears two terminal spine-like tubercles similar to those on 
the head, but projecting horizontally. The puparium is glassy 
green, and the limbs of the enclosed pupa can be partially seen 
through the skin. The rings are (especially on the thorax) 
spinose, being the remnants of the rows of spines around the 
hind edge of the larval segments. It is .15 of an inch long. 
The pupa lies a short distance from the opening of its burrow, 
which is about half an inch long, and is situated between the 
wood and the bark. 
The larva before pupa- 
ting eats away the bark, 
leaving a thin outer 
scale, or roundish black 
space which can be 
folded back like a lid, 
which the fly pushes 
open when it emerges. 
Several swellings occur 
eu the twig in the space 
of six inches. The fly appeared the 25th of June. Dufour 
states that in Europe Lonchea nigra lives in the outer bark of 
the oak, and another under the bark of the poplar, while still 
another species makes a sort of gall in the dogsgrass. 

The genus Sphyracephala is remarkable for its stalked eyes, 
which are placed on long stems going out from the sides of 
the head. Some species are found fossil in the Prussian 
amber. SS. brevicornis Say is rather rare. 

Afihide.e— The Cheese maggot is the larva of Piophila casei (Fig. 335) 
a shining black fly, three-twentieths of an inch long, with the 
four posterior legs yellowish, and with transparent wings. 
The whitish larva is cylindrical, and .22 of an inch in length, 
and is acutely pointed towards the head and truncated behind, 
with two long horny stigmata in the middle of the truncature, 
and two longer fleshy filaments on the lower edge. When 
moving it extends its mouth-hooks, and pulls itself along by 
them. Mr. F. W. Putnam has called my attention to the 
power of leaping possessed by the maggot. When about to 


414 DIPTERA. 


leap the larva brings the under side of the abdomen towards 
the head, while laying on its side, and reaching forward with 
— its head, and at the same time extending its mouth- 
hooks, grapples by means of them with the hinder edge 
of the truncature and pulling hard, suddenly with- 
draws them, jerking itself to a distance of four or 
five inches. The Wine-fly (Fig. 536, puparium) also 
belongs to the same genus, and with its puparium 
may be found floating in old wine and cider. 

Several species of the genus Ephydra have been 
Fig. 336. found living in salt water. Mr. E. T. Cox has sent 
us specimens of Ephydra halophila Pack. (Fig. 337; a, wing ; 
b, puparium), which in the pupa state lives in great numbers 
in the first graduation house of the Equality Salt Works of 
Gallatin County, Illinois. The larva itself we have not seen, 
but the puparium is cylindrical, half an inch long, the body 
ending in a long respiratory tube forked at the end. The fly 

% itself is coppery green, 
Se with pale honey yellow 
legs, and is .15 of an inch 
in length. Another spe- 
cies has been found by 
Professor B. Silliman liy- 
ing in great abundance in 
Mono Lake, Cal., and in 
the Museum of the Pea- 
body Academy are pu- 
paria of this genus from 
Labrador, and from under 
sea-weed on Narragansett 
Bay, and a pool of brack- 
b ish water at Marblehead ; 
Fig. 337. they are noticed by the 

author in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Essex Institute,” vol. vi. 

The Apple Fly, or Drosophila, has habits like the apple 
midge. Mr. W. C. Fish has described in the ‘‘ American 
Naturalist,” the habits of an unknown species (Fig. 338; 4, 
larva), which he writes me has been very common this year in 
Barnstable County, Mags. He says that ‘‘it attacks mostly 


MUSCIDA. 415 


the earlier varieties, seeming to have a particular fondness for 
the old fashioned Summer, or High-top Sweet. The larve en- 
ter the apple usually where it has been bored by the Apple- 
worm (Carpocapsa), not uncommonly through the crescent-like 
puncture of the curculio, and sometimes through the calyx, 
when it has not been troubled by other insects. Many of 
them arrive at maturity in August, and the fly soon appears, 
and successive generations of the maggots follow until cold 
weather. I have frequently found the pup in the bottom of 
barrels in a cellar in the winter, and the flies appear in the 
spring. In the early apples, the larvee work about in every 
direction. If there are D 
several in an apple, they f= 4 
make it unfit for use. (=== 
Apples that appear per- == 
fectly sound when taken (—=—) 
from the tree, will some- SEE” 
times, if kept, be all alive 
with them in a _ few Fig. 336. 
weeks.” Other species are known to inhabit putrescent 
vegetable matter, especially fruits. Mr. B. D. Walsh also des- 
cribes in his ‘‘ First Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of 
Illinois,” another apple fly, Trypeta pomonella Walsh, which 
destroys stored apples, and has been found troublesome in va- 
rious parts of the country. 

Dia ee In England Oscinis granarius Curtis lives in the stems of 
wheat. The Oscinis vastator Curtis does serious damage to 
wheat and barley crops in England, by eating the base of the 
stalk. The larvee are fully grown late in June, and a month 
later, the fly appears. Their attacks are restrained by numer- 
ous Pteromali, and a minute Proctotrupid (Sigalphus caudatus) 
oviposits in the egg of the Oscinis. Other allied species in the 
larva state cause the stems of wheat and barley to swell twice 
their usual size, which disease is termed in England the gout. 

The larvee of Chlorops lineata Fabr. in Europe, destroy the 
central leaves and plant itself, the female laying her eggs on 
the stems when the wheat begins to show the ear. In a fort- 
night the eggs hatch, and the fly appears in September. Curtis 
also states that Chlorops Herpinii Guérin, attacks the ears of 


416 DIPTERA. 


barley, from six to ten larve being found in each, and by de- 
stroying the flowers render the ear sterile. Oscinis frit Linn. 
in Europe inhabits the husks of the barley, and destroys one- 
tenth of the grain. Linnzeus calculated the annual loss from 
the attacks of this single species at half a million dollars. 
Ploughing and harrowing are of no use in guarding against 
these insects, as they do not transform in the earth; the best 
remedy lies in the rotation of crops. Many of these small 
flies, like the micro-lepidoptera, are leaf-miners, and are not 
readily distinguished from 


C\ them when in the larva state. 

Of the genus Phora, a 

European species (P. incras- 

sata Fig. 339; a, larva; 8, 

: puparium) frequents bee 
a 6 


hives, and is thought by some 
Mi Sa to produce the disease 
which is known among apiarians as ‘ foulbrood.” 

In the pupiparous Diptera, namely, those flies which are born 
as pupze from the body of the parent, the larva state having 
been passed within the oviduct, the thorax is more closely 
agelutinated than before; the head is small and sunken in 
the thorax, and in the wingless species this consolidation of 
the head and thorax is so marked as to cause them to bear a 
remarkable resemblance to the spiders. Spider-like in their 
looks, they are spider-like in their habits, as the names Spider- 
flies, Bat-ticks and Bird-ticks, imply a likeness to the lower 
spiders or ticks. The antennz are very deeply inserted and 
partially obsolete; the labrum is ensheathed by the maxille, 
and the thoracic nervous ganglia are, as in the Arachnida, 
concentrated into a single mass. 


Hrprososcip® Westwood. The Forest-flies and Sheep 
Ticks are characterized by the horny and flattened body, the 
horizontal flattened head received into the front edge of the 
thorax, the large eyes, the rudimentary papilla-like antennz 
placed very near together, and the proboscis is formed by the 
labrum and maxille, whose palpi are wanting; the labium is 
very short; wings with the veins present only on the costal 


HIPPOBOSCIDA. 417 


edge, the others either aborted or only partially developed. 
They resemble the lice in their parasitic habits, living beneath 
the hairs of vertebrates, especially of bats, and are abundant 
beneath the feathers 
of birds. 

These flies differ 
from all other insects 
in their peculiar mode 
of development, which 
reminds us of the 
intra-uterine life of 
the vertebrate foetus. 
According to Dufour 
and Leuckart they 
have an irregular uterus-like enlargement of the oviduct, which 
furnishes a milk-like secretion for the nourishment of the 
larvee. The body of the larve, for each female produces but 
one or two young, when first hatched is not divided into rings, 
but is smooth, ovate, ege-like, forming a puparium-like case in 
which the larvee transform to pup immediately after birth. 

The Forest-fly or Horse-tick, Hippobosca Latreille, has no 
ocelli, with five stout veins on the costal edge of the wing; 
thorax broad, and the proboscis short and 
thick. We figure a species* of this genus 
(Fig. 340) which was found on the Great 
Horned Owl. Its body is much flattened, 
adapted for its life under the feathers, where 
it gorges itself with the blood of its host. 
The genus Lipoptena, which has ocelli, with : 
only three costal veins, a long slender probos- Fig. 341. 
cis, and a small thorax, is remarkable for living in its wing- 
less state on the Deer, but when the wings are developed it is 
found on the Grouse (Tetrao). The Bird-tick, Ornithomyia, 
has ocelli, a short proboscis and six costal veins, and there 
are numerous species, all bird parasites. 


Fig. 340. 


* Hippobosca bubonis n. sp. female. Uniform horn color, with a reddish tinge, 
and blackish hairs; legs paler, with dark tarsi, body beneath paler; tip of abdo- 
men black, with long bristles. Length of body .30 inch; of a wing .34 inch. Dif- 
fers from H. equine in being larger, and in its uniform reddish color. Taken Oct. 
5; Museum of the Peabody Academy of Science. 


27 


418 DIPTERA. 


In the wingless Sheep-tick, Melophagus ovinus Linn. which 
is often very troublesome (Fig. 341, and puparium), the head 
is wider than the thorax, the proboscis is as long as the head 
itself, the limbs are short and thick, and the bristly abdomen 
is broad and not divided into joints. 

The genus Carnus, which was placed in the Conopid@ by 
Nitzsch, seems rather to belong here. C. hemapterus Nitzsch, 
is ‘‘of the size of a flea, with minute rudi- 
ments:of wings, and is parasitic on birds 
of the genus Sturnus.” 


Nyctrrisip# Leach. The Bat-ticks are 
remarkably spider-like, with a beaker-like 
head, without eyes, haying four ocelli, 
or else entirely blind. The finger-like, 
two-jointed antennz are situated on the 
under side of the head. The proboscis is 
feather-like, the palpi very large and _ por- 
rect; the legs are of great size, with the © 
basal joint of the tarsi of remarkable length, and the hairy 
abdomen is composed of six segments. They are very small 
parasites, one or two lines in length. Westwood has extracted 
the puparium from the body, showing the close relationship 
of these strange forms to Hippobosca. Nycteribia Westwoodii 
Guérin (Fig. 342) is an East Indian species. 


Fig. 342. 


Brav tina Gerstaecker. The Bee-lice are wingless, minute, 

blind insects, with large heads; the thorax is transverse, ring- 

shaped, half as long as 

Y the head ; the abdomen 

is round, five-jointed, 

and the legs are thick, 

with long claws ena- 

bling them to cling to 
Es the hairs of bees. 

THAN x The genus Braula 

Ra ULL may be compared with 

Fig. 343. the flea, its body being 

flattened vertically, while that of the flea is flattened lat- 


i 


BRAULINA. 419 


erally. While the transformations of Braula show it to be 
undoubtedly a degraded Muscid, with a true puparium; those 
of the flea, with its worm-like, more highly organized larva, 
and the free obtected pupa show that, though wingless, it 
occupies a much higher grade in the dipterous series. “Braula 
ceca Nitazsch (Fig. 343, and larva) is found living parasitically 
on the honey bee in Europe, and has not been detected in this 
country. 

The antennze are short, two-jointed and sunken in deep 
pits. It is from one-half to two-thirds of a line long. The 
larva is headless, oval, eleven-jointed and white in color. On 
the day it hatches from the egg it sheds its skin and changes 
to an oval puparium of a dark brown color. It is a body para- 
site, one or two of them occurring on the body of the bee, 
though sometimes they greatly multiply and are very trouble- 
some to the bee. 


Anthomyia zee Riley. 


We now take up the second series of suborders of the hexa- 
podous insects, in which the different segments of the body 
show a strong tendency to remain equal in size, as in the larva 
state ; in other words there is less concentration of the parts 
towards the head. In all these groups the prothorax is greatly 
developed, generally free, while the wings tend to conceal the 
two posterior thoracic segments, and the body generally is 
elongated, flattened or angulated, not cylindrical as is usually 
the case in the preceding and higher series. The degraded 
wingless forms resemble the worm-like Myriapods, while, as we 
have seen above, the wingless flies resemble the Arachnida. 
The imago (especially in the Hemiptera, Orthoptera and cer- 
tain Neuroptera) resembles the larva; that is, the metamor- 
phosis is less complete than in the preceding groups. 


420 COLEOPTERA. 


COLEOPTERA. 


In the highest suborder of this series, the Coleoptera, we 
find the most complete metamorphosis and the greatest speci- 
alization of parts, with 
a more complete con- 
centration of them to- 
wards the head than in 
the lower  suborders. 
They are at once rec- 
ognized by the elytra, 
or thickened horny fore 
wings, which are not 
actively used in flight 
(the hind wings being 
especially adapted for 
that purpose), while 
they cover and encase 
the two posterior seg- 
ments of the thorax 
and the abdomen. The 
prothoracic ring is 
greatly enlarged, often 
excavated in front to re- 
ceive the head. These 
‘ characters are very per- 
sistent; there are few 
aberrant forms and the 

\ suborder is remarkably 
* homogeneous and easily 
Zi limited. 

(\ The head is free from 
Fig. 345. the thorax, but less so 

than in the preceding suborders ; it is scarcely narrowed behind, 

. and its position is usually horizontal. The eyes are usually 


Frag. 345, under surface of Harpalus caliginosus. (After Leconte.) a, ligula; 
b, paraglosse; c, supports of labial palpi; d, labial palpus; e, mentum; /, inner 
lobe of maxilla; g, outer lobe of maxilla; k, maxillary palpus; 7, mandible; &, 


COLEOPTERA. 421 


¥ 


quite large, and there is but a pair of ocelli, when present, or 
there may be but a single ocellus. The antenne are generally 
inserted just in front of the eyes, and rarely between them as 


Fig. 346. 


in the previous suborders. They are either filiform where the 
joints are cylindrical, as in the Carabide, not enlarging 
towards the end, or serrate, as in the Hlaterid@, where the 


buccal opening; 7, gula or throat; m, m, buccal sutures; n, gular suture; 0, pro- 
sternum; p, episternum of prothorax; p!, epimeron of prothorax; q, @, g'!, Coxe; 
r,7!, r'', trochanters; s,s’, s'', femora or thighs; ¢, ¢',¢'’, tibiz; v, v2, v?, etc., ventral 
abdominal segments; w, episterna of mesothorax (the epimeron is just behind it); 
zx, mesoternum; y, episterna of metathorax; y’, epimeron of metathorax; z, meta- 
sternum. 

FiG. 346, upper surface of Necrophorus Americanus. (After Leconte.) a, man- 
dible; b, maxillary palpus; c, labrum; d, epistoma; e, antenne; /, front; g, vertex; 
h, occiput; i, neck; &, eye; 1, pronotum (usually called prothorax); m, elytron; n, 
hind wing; 0, scutellum (of mesothorax); p, metanotum (or dorsal surface of meta- 
thorax); g, femur or thigh; 7, 7, 7, tergites of the abdomen; s, s?, s*, spiracles or 

stigmata; ¢, v’, ¢”, tibiz; v, tibial spurs; w, tarsi. 


422 COLEOPTERA. 


. 


joints are triangular and compressed, giving thereby a serrate 
outline to the inner edge; or clavate, as in the Silphide, 


Fig. 347. 


where the enlarged terminal joints give a rounded club-shaped 
termination ; lamellate, when the terminal joints are prolonged 


Fig. 348. 


internally, forming broad leaf-like expansions, as in the Sca- 
rabeide, while the geniculate antenna is produced when 


Fie. 347. Different forms of antenne: 1, serrate; 2, pectinate; 3, capitate (and 
also geniculate); 4, 5, 6, 7, clavate; 8, 9, lamellate; 10, serrate (Dorcatoma); H, ir- 
regular (Gyrinus); 12, two-jointed antenna of Adranes ceecus. 

Fic. 348. 1, bipectinate; 2, flabellate antennz; 3, maxille of Bembidium; 4, of 
Hydrophilus; 5, of Pselaphus; 6, maxillary palpus of Ctenistes; 7, of Tmesipho- 
rus; 8, of Tychus.— From Leconte. 


COLEOPTERA. 423 


the second and succeeding joints make an angle with the first. 
The mandibles are always well developed as chewing organs, 
becoming abnormally enlarged in Lucanus, while in certain 
Scarabeidee they are small and membranous. 

The maxille (Fig. 348) are supposed to prepare the food to 
be crushed by the mandibles. The body of the maxilla con- 
sists of the cardo; a second joint, stipes, to which last are 
attached two lobes and a palpus. In certain Cicindelida 
and Carabide, the outer lobe is slender and two-jointed like 
a palpus. The maxillary palpi are usually four-jointed, some- 
times ‘with one joint less, and in but a single instance is there 
any additional joint, as in Aleochara. 

The mentum is generally square or trapezoidal, varying in 
size. The labium bears the ligula, and supports the labial 
palpi, and varying much in form, is thus important in classifi- 
eation. The labial palpi are usually three-jointed, sometimes 
two-jointed, or with no joints apparent, as in certain Staphy- 
linide, according to Leconte. 

The greatly enlarged prothorax is free and very movable, 
the pronotum or dorsal piece, considered to be formed origi- 
nally of four pieces, is usually very distinct from the pieces 
composing the flanks, though sometime they are continuous. 
The two hinder rings of the thorax are covered up by the 
wings and do not vary in form so as to be of much use in 
classification. ‘They are respectively composed of a preescutum, 
scutum and scutellum, and postscutellum, the first and fourth 
pieces being more or less aborted. The pieces composing the 
flanks are partly concealed by the great enlargement of the 
dorsal parts of the segment, much more so than in the prece- 
ding suborders, the side pieces being much smaller and more 
difficult to trace; and these flank-pieces (pleurites) help form 
the under surface of the body, where in the Hymenoptera, 
Lepidoptera and Diptera, they are greatly enlarged, forming 
the bulging sides of the body. 

The epimera and episterna of both the meso- and metatho- 
rax, Leconte states, are of much value in classification, especi- 
ally those of the mesothorax, ‘‘ according as they reach the 
middle cox, or are cut off from them by the junction of the 
episterna with the metasternum.” The thickened horny an- 


424 COLEOPTERA. 


terior pair of wings (elytra), often retain traces of the original 
veins, consisting of three or four longitudinal lines. Their 
office in flight seems to be to assist the hind wings in sustain- 
ing the body, as but rarely when the insect is on the wing do 
the elytra remain quiet on the back. The membranous hind 
wings are provided with the usual number of principal veins, 
but these are not subdivided into veinlets. The wing is long, 
narrow and pointed, with the costal edge strong, being evi- 
dently adapted for a swift and powerful flight. 

In the running species, such as many Carabidae, the 
hind wings being useless, are aborted, and very rarely in some 
tropical Lampyride and Scarabeide are both pairs of 
wings wanting in both sexes, though, as in the Glow-worm 
and some of its allies the females are apterous. The legs 
are well developed, as the beetles are among the most power- 
ful running insects. The coxee are large and of much use in 
distinguishing the families. The trochantine is usually present 
in the forelegs, but often absent in the middle pair; the tro- 
chanters, or second joint of the leg, is small, circular, ob- 
liquely cut off, and the femur and tibia lying next beyond 
are of varying form, correlated with the habits of the insect, 
the hinder pair becoming oar-like in the swimming Dytiscide 
and some Hydrophilidew, while in the Gyrinide both 
pairs of hind legs become broad and flat. The number of 
tarsal joints varies from the normal number, five, to four and 
three joints, the terminal joint as usual being two-clawed. 
These claws are only known to be wanting in Phanzeus, a 
Scarabeeid, and the aberrant family Stylopid@. According 
to the number of the tarsal joints the families of Coleoptera 
have been grouped into the Pentamera (five-jointed), the Tet- 
ramera (four-jointed), the Trimera (three-jointed), and Hete- 
romera, which are four-jointed in the hind pair, while the first 
and second pairs are five-jointed. 

The abdomen, usually partly concealed by the wings, is ses- 
sile, its base broad; in form it is usually somewhat flattened. 
The tergal and sternal portion of each ring is connected 
usually by the membranous pleural piece, which represents 
the epimera and episterna of the thorax, and on which the stig- 
mata are situated. While in the other suborders the typical 


COLEOPTERA. : 425 


number of abdominal segments is ten, no more than nine haye 
been traced in the Coleoptera. 

A few genera are capable of producing sounds by rubbing 
the limbs or elytra over finely wrinkled surfaces, which in 
Trox are situated on the side of the basal segments of the ab- 
domen, and in Strategus on the tergum of the penultimate seg- 
ment of the abdomen, while such a surface is found in Ligyrus 
on the surface of the elytra. 

The nervous system is subject to great variation in the Cole- 
optera. The ganglia may be fused into three principal mas- 
ses, as in the Lamellicorns, Curculionide@ and Scolytide, 
where the first mass corresponds to the prothoracie ganglia, 
the second and larger to the second and third thoracic ganglia, — 
usually separated in the other suborders, while the third oblong 
mass represents the whole number of abdominal ganglia, from 
which radiate the nerves which are distributed to the muscles 
of the abdomen and the reproductive system. In the Cistel- 
ide, Hdemeride and Cerambycide, the abdominal por- 
tion of the nervous cord occupies the whole body, and there 
are five ganglia in the abdomen. These two types of the ner- 
vous cord sometimes run into each, but are always distinct in 
the larva state. 

The alimentary canal is very simple in the flesh-eating spe- 
cies, going directly, without many convolutions to the anus, 
but in the vegetable feeders it is very long and greatly con- 
voluted. ‘The gizzard is oval in shape, its internal folds being 
armed with hooks. There are two salivary glands. The urin- 
ary tubes are either four or six in number. 

‘¢The phosphorescent organs of the Lampyride@ and cer- 
tain Hlateridce consist of a mass of spherical cells, filled 
with a finely granular substance and surrounded by numer- 
ous trachean branches. ‘This substance which, by daylight, 
appears of a yellow, sulphur-like aspect, fills in the Lam- 
pyride, a portion of the abdominal cavity, and shines on the 
ventral surface through the last abdominal segments, which are 
covered with a very thin skin ; while with the Hlateride, the 
illumination occurs through two transparent spots, situated on 
the dorsal surface of the prothorax. The light produced by 
these organs, so remarkably rich in tracheze, is undoubtedly the 


426 COLEOPTERA. 


result of a combustion kept up by the air of these vessels. 
This combustion explains the remission of this phosphores- 
cence observed with the brilliant fire-flies, and which coin- 
cides, not with the movements of the heart, but with those of 
inspiration and expiration.” (Siebold.) 

The tracheze of the Coleoptera are always highly developed. 
In the larva state they arise from two principal trunks. In the 
adult, however, they branch out directly near each stigma and 
distribute branches which communicate with other main trunks. 
In those species which fly most, both the fine and larger 
tracheze end in vesicles, which are distributed in great abun- 
dance all over the body. In the Luwcanide@ they are especi- 
ally numerous, thus lightening the bulk of the enormously 
developed head. 

The ovaries are arranged in the form of branches of few or 
numerous tri- or multilocular tubes; the receptaculum seminis 
is wedge-shaped and often arcuate, communicating with the 
copulatory pouch by a long flexuous spiral seminal duct, and 
there is a bursa copulatriz usually present. The testes vary in 
consisting of two long coca, or two round or oblong folli- 
cles, or pyriform and placed like a bunch of grapes on the 
extremity of the vasa deferentia, or as in the Lamellicorns, 
Cerambycide, Curculionide and Crioceride, they are 
round, flattened, disc-like, and are situated, two to twelve in 
number, on each side of the body. ‘The organ of intromission 
is very extensible, composed of the terminal segments of the 
body, which form a broad flattened, hairy canaliculated piece. 

The larvee when active and not permanently enclosed (like 
the Curculio) in the substances that form their food, are elon- 
gated, flattened, wormlike, myriapodous-looking, with a large 
head, well developed mouth-parts, and with three pairs of tho- 
racic feet, either horny, or fleshy and retractile, while there is 
often a single terminal prop-leg on the terminal segment of the 
body and a lateral horny spine. The larve of the Ceram- 
bycide are white, soft and more or less cylindrical, while 
those of the Curculionide@ are footless or nearly so, and 
resemble those of the Gall-flies, both hymenopterous and dip- 
terous. 

The pupz have free limbs, and are either enclosed in cocoons 


a 


COLEOPTERA. 427 


of earth, or if wood-borers in rude cocoons of fine chips and 
dust, united by threads, or a viscid matter supplied by the in- 
sect. None are known to be coarctate, though some Coccin- 
ellee transform within the old larva skin, not rejecting it, as 
usual in the group, while other pupze are enclosed in the cases 
in which the larve lived. In some Staphylinide the pupa 
shows a tendency to become obtected, the limbs being soldered 
to the body as if it were enclosed in a common sheath. Gen- 
erally, however, the antennz are folded on each side of the 
clypeus, and the mandibles, maxillz and labial palpi appear as 
elongated papille. The wing-pads being small, are shaped 
like those of the adult Meloe, and are laid upon the posterior 
femora, thus exposing the meso- and metathorax to view. 
The tarsal joints lie parallel on each side of the middle line 
of the body, the hinder pair not reaching to the tips of the 
abdomen, which ends in a pair of acute prolonged forked in- 
eurved horny hooks, which must aid the pupa in working its 
way to the surface when about to transform into the beetle. 

The number of living species is between 60,000 and 80,000, 
and over 8,000 species are known to inhabit the United States. 
There are about 1,000 fossil species known. ‘They are found 
as low down as the Coal Formation, though more abundant in 
the Tertiary deposits and especially the Amber of Prussia. 

Coleoptera have always been the favorites of entomologists. 
They have been studied, when in their perfect state, more than 
any other insects, but owing to the difficulty of finding their 
larvee, and carrying them through their successive stages of 
growth, the early stages of comparatively few species are 
known. 

The most productive places for the occurrence of beetlés are 
alluvial loams covered with woods, or with rank vegetation, 
where at the roots of plants or upon their flowers, under leaves, 
logs and stones, under the bark of decaying trees, and in 
ditches and by the banks of streams, the species occur in the 
greatest numbers. Grass lands, mosses and fungi, the surfaces 
of trees and dead animals, bones, chips, pieces of board and 
excrement, should be searched diligently. Many are thrown 
ashore in sea-wrack, or occur under the debris of freshets on 
river banks. Many Carabide@ run on sandy shores. Very 


428 COLEOPTERA. 


early in spring stones can be upturned, ants’ nests searched, 
and the muddy waters sifted for species not met with at other 
times of the year. 

For beating bushes a large strong ring-net should be made, 

with a stout bag of cotton cloth fifteen inches deep. This is a 

very serviceable net for many purposes. Vials of 

“i alcohol, a few quills stopped with cork, and close 

tin boxes for larve and the fungi, etc., in which 

they live, should be provided ; indeed, the collector 

should never be without a vial and box. Beetles 

should be collected largely in alcohol, and the 

Fig. 349. colors do not change if pinned soon after being 

taken. Coleoptera should be placed high up on the pin, as in- 

deed all insects should. The pin should be stuck through the 

right elytron (Fig. 349) so that it shall come out beneath or 

between the middle and hind pair of legs. Small species 

should be pinned with minute pins, which can be afterwards 
mounted on higher ones. 


CrcinpeLtipm Leach. The Tiger Beetles have very large 
heads, much broader than the prothorax, very long curved jaws 
and long, slender legs. The outer lobe of the maxillee is biar- 
ticulate, the inner usually terminated by an articulated hook. 
The eleven-jointed antennz are inserted on the front above 
the base of the mandibles. They are brownish or 
greenish with metallic and purplish reflections, marked 
with light dots and stripes. They abound in sunny 
paths and sandy shores of rivers, ponds and the 
ocean, flying and running swiftly, and are thus very 
difficult to capture. The larvee (Fig. 350) are hideous 
in aspect ; the head is very large with long jaws; the thoracic 
rings large and broad, and the ninth ring has a large tubercle 
which ends in a hook, by which the hunch-backed grub can 
climb up its hole, near the entrance of which it lies in wait for 
weaker insects. These holes may always be found in sandy 
banks frequented by the beetles. 

While all the species living in the United States are ground 
beetles, in the tropics there are some which live on trees. H. 
W. Bates states that Ctenostoma and its allies have a greater 


Fig. 350. 


CICINDELID&. 429 


resemblance to ants than to the Cicindelz proper, so much so 
that when the insects are seen prowling in search of prey along 


Fig. 352. Fig. 353. 
the slender branches of trees, they can scarcely be distinguished 
from large ants of the Ponera group. 

The genus Amblychila has the third joint of the ee 


Fig. 354. Fig. 355. Fig. 356. Fig. 357. 


palpi longer than the fourth, and the first joint of the labial 
palpi very short, while the epipleurz are wide. Omus differs 
in the wider epipleurze ; both genera inhabit the Pacific States, 


Fig. 358. 


and the former is found as far east as Kansas. Tetracha (Fig. 
351, T. Virginica Hope) has the first joint of the labial palpi 
elongated. In Cicindela and allies, the third joint of the max- 


430 COLEOPTERA. 


illary palpi is shorter than the fourth. This country is very 
rich in species, among the most common of which are C. gen- 
erosa Dejean (Fig. 852); C. vulgaris Say (Fig. 353); C. pur- 
purea Olivier (Fig. 354); C. hirticollis Say (Fig. 355); C. 
sexguttata Fabr. (Fig. 356), a bright green active species with 
six golden dots; and C. punctulata Olivier* (Fig. 357). 


Carabip# Leach. This is a family of very great extent, 
and one very difficult to limit. In form the species vary 
greatly ; the antenne are inserted behind the base of the man- 
dibles under a frontal ridge ; maxillze with the outer lobe pal- 
piform, usually biarticulate, while the inner lobe is usually 


Fig. 359. 


curved, acute and ciliate, with spines. The epimera and epi- 
sterna of the prothorax are usually distinct ; the three anterior 
seoments of the abdomen, usually six, rarely seven or eight in 
number, are connate. The legs are slender, formed for run- 
ning ; anterior and middle coxe globular, posterior ones dilated 
internally, and the tarsi are five-jointed. + 


* FIG. 358 illustrates the external anatomy of this family :—1, head of Cicindela; 
2, maxille of Cicindela; 3, mentum of Omus; 4, mentum of Tetracha; 5, mentum 
of Cicindela; 6, antennz of the same; 7, abdomen of the male of the same; 8, pos- 
terior coxa of the same; 9, anterior tarsus of Omus (male); 10, anterior tarsus of 
Cicindela. — From. Leconte. 

+F ra. 359 illustrates the external anatomy of the Carabid@:—1, extremity of 
the anterior tibia of Carabus, inner face ; 2, maxillxe of Cychrus; 3, head of Cychrus; 
4, head of Carabus; 5, antenna and part of head of Loricera; 6, mentum of Carabus; 
7, maxilla of Carabus; 8, under surface of Pasimachus; 9, under surface of meso- 
and metathorax of Metrius; 10, anterior tibia of Metrius; 11, under surface of 
meso- and metathorax of Physea; 12, antenne of Pasimachus; 13, mentum of 
Pasimachus; 14, maxilla of Pasimachus; 15, anterior tibia of Pasimachus; 16, 
head of Promecognathus; 17, mentum of Pseudomorphus, showing the indistinct 
gular suture.— From Leconte, 


CARABIDZ. 481 


They are, with few exceptions, predaceous beetles; they are 
runners, the hind wings being often absent. Their colors are 
dull metallic or black. They run in grass, 
or lurk under stones and sticks, or 
under the bark of trees, whence 
they go out to hunt in the night- 
time. They may be found also 
in great numbers under the debris 
of freshets and under stones in ¢ 
the spring. 

The larve are found in much 
the same situations as the beetles, and are 
generally oblong, broad, with the terminal 
ring armed with two horny hooks 
or longer filaments, and with a 
single false leg beneath. 

The genus Omophron, remark- 
able for its rounded convex 
form, and wanting the scutellum, 
is found on the wet sands by 
rivers and pools, where also Ela- 
; phrus occurs, which somewhat 
resembles Cicindela. It has 
slightly emarginate anterior 
- tibize, with large prominent eyes, 

Fig. 362. and rows of large shallow ocel- 
late holes on the elytra. The 
genus Calosoma is well known, 
being common in fields, where it lies 
in little holes in the sod, in wait for its 
prey. Ihave seen C. calidwm Fabr. 
(Fig. 360) attacking the June bug 
(Lachnosterna fusca) tearing open 
its sides. Its larva (Fig. 361) is 
black. C. scrutator Fabr. (Fig. 362) 
is a still larger species with bright 
green elytra. It is known, accord- z Bug: ie 
ing to Harris, to ascend trees in search of canker-worms. 

Carabus has similar habits, but differs in having the third 


Fig. 361. 


Fig. 360. 


432 COLEOPTERA. 


joint of the antenne cylindrical, while that of Calosoma is 
greatly compressed. C. serratus Say (Fig. 363 ; a, pupa of the 
<i, European C. auronitens) is black bordered with 
purple. The closely allied species of Cychrus, of 
rich purple and blue tints, differ in the longer head, 
the deeply bilobate labrum, and in having four of 
[ the antennal joints smooth, with thickly striated 
elytra. (We figure some unknown larve of this 
family which are allied to 
Carabus; Fig. 364, natural , 
size; Fig. 365, a little en- , 
larged; a, mouth parts; 6, - 
end of the body, and Fig. 
366, a larva apparently of the 
Fig. 364. same genus.)  Pasimachus 
elongatus Lec. (Fig. 367) has been 
found, according to Walsh, to prey on 
the Doryphora, or Potato beetle. 
The genus Scarites and its allies have Fig .355. 
the anterior toothed palmate tibiz more 
or less produced at the apex, with a 
pedunculate abdomen. In Scar- 
ites and Pasimachus the basal 
joint of the antenna is very long ; 
the former having the mavxille 
rounded at the tip, and the tho- 
rax rounded behind, while in 
\, Pasimachus, the thorax is dis- 
E> Bate tinctly angulated, and the max- 
illee are hooked. In Clivina the basal joint of the an- Fis. 366. 
tenne is short, the mandibles flat and acute, and the clypeus 
is not emarginate. 4 
In Harpalus and allies the epimera of the mesotho- 
rax do not extend to the coxe, and the mesosternum 
is large, widely separating the middle coxe. Of this 
group Brachinus (B. fumans Fabr. Fig. 368), the 
Bombardier beetle, with its narrow head and cordate 
Fig. 368. prothorax, is remarkable for discharging with quite 
an explosion from its anal glands a pungent fluid, probably 


ee 7 vy 


Ar 


N : : 


\ a 
Nu wy 


rl Za 


CARABID ZA. 433 


of usc as a protection against its enemies. They are yellow- 
ish red, with bluish and greenish elytra. Helluomorpha 
(H. preusta Lap. Fig. 869; a, mentum) has a, ‘ 
large mentum and much compressed antenne.  "¢% 
Galerita is similar but 
much larger, with a red /[j 
thorax, and blue or black * (W 
elytra. Fig.370represents / \ 
the larva; Fig. 371 the pupa 
of G. Lecontet Dejean, a Southern species. 
Casnonia has a rhomboidal head, with 

a long narrow neck and a cylindrical tho- 
rax. C. Pensylvanica De- 
jean (Fig. 372) is not un- 
common, being found 
under stones. ‘The species _ 
of Lebia are found upon 
flowers, especially the 
golden rod, in August and 
September. They are gaily 
colored, with the head con- 
stricted behind and the 
thorax pedunculate. The species of 
Platynus (P. cupripenne Say, Fig. 373) 
are often of brilliant metallic green and red colors. In Cymin- 
dis, which is hairy, the head is not constricted behind, and the — 
last joint of the labial palpi is dilated. In Prerosti- 
chus, which is a genus of great extent, the three basal 
joints of the antennze are smooth, the 
,| anterior tibiz are thickened at the ex- 
tremity, and the dilated tarsal joints are e 
triangular or cordate. The species are Fig. 372. 
black and of common occurrence. Amara differs 
in the head not being narrowed behind, the slightly 
Fig. 373. emarginate labrum and the elytra being without 
the usual punctures. Zimmerman states that the species are 
annual, or double brooded annually ; the eggs, which are laid 
beneath the surface of the soil, do not mature for several 
days after coupling; the larve moult once, live six to eight 

‘ 28 


434 COLEOPTERA. 


weeks, and the pupa lives half that time; the beetles often 
hibernate. The larva has the general form of that of Poecilus. 

The species of Harpalus are large, 
with a very square prothorax. /. 
caliginosus Say (Fig. 374) is bene- & 
ficial in eating cut-worms and other 
injurious larvee. Fig. 375 represents - 
a larva supposed to belong to this or 4 
+ an allied genus. The blind Anoph- = 
* thalmus Tellkampfit Erichs. from the 
Mammoth Cave, has no eyes, while & 
the legs are very long, especially ci \ 
the narrow fore tibie; but in T7e- | 


Fig. 374. 


chus, which is closely allied to the blind Cave Beetle, 
the eyes are as large as usual, and the legs stouter. Fig. 375. 
Bembidium com- 
prises species of 
very small size 
rs oa == and variable in 
j x form, in which the 
2(8) z(\a)) J entering tibize are 
Beye’: not dilated at the 
base. They are found abundantly under the refuse of 
freshets and tides, preying upon dead animal matter 
and other insects, and a species of Cillenum, 
closely allied to Bembidium, is known to seize 
the beach-flea, Gammarus, and devour it. 
Fig. 376 (A, a little enlarged; B, head; ¢, 
mandible; e, antenna; f, labium and its two- 
jointed palpi; g, maxille; h, 7, 7, under side 
of different abdominal rings) represents the 
/) larva of a Ground beetle, which, according to 
Fig. 377. Walsh, preys upon the larva of the Plum cur- 
culio while under ground. Fig. 377 represents the Fig. 37s. 
supposed larva of a European species of Chicenius, and Fig. 
378 what we suppose is the larva of a beetle allied to Cillenum. 


Ampuizoip& Leconte. The genus Amphizoa (Fig. 379, A. 
insolens ; a, antenna; 0, labrum; c, mandibles; d, maxillx; e, 


DYTISCIDZ. 435 


ligula; f, mentum; g, prosternum, front, and h, side view; 7, 
under side of the rest of the body, showing the six ventral seg- 
ments of the abdomen; j, anterior tarsus: from Horn) found 
in Northern California, is the sole representative of this family 
and differs from the preceding family in the metasternum be- 
0) 


Fig. 379. 
ing truncate behind, and not reaching the abdomen. A. inso- 
lens Lec. is an anomalous form, being subaquatic, and in its 
structure and habits connecting the Carabide with the suc- 
ceeding family. 


Dytiscip% McLeay. The Diving Beetles, or Water Tigers, 
are oval flattened elliptical beetles, which differ from the Car- 
abide in the form of the hinder coxze, which are very large, 
touching each other on the inner edge, and externally reaching 
the side of the body, entirely cutting off the abdominal seg- 
ments from the metathorax, while the oar-like swimming legs 
are covered with long hairs, and the hinder pair are much flat- 
tened. The larvee are called ‘‘ water tigers,” being long, cy- 
lindrical, with large flattened heads, armed with scissor-like 
jaws with which they seize other insects, or snip off the tails 
of tadpoles, while they are even known to attack young fishes, 
sucking their blood. They are known to moult several times, 
four or five days intervening between the first two periods of 
moulting, and ten days between the latter. The body ends in 
a pair of long respiratory tubes, which they protrude into the 
air, though eight pairs of rudimentary spiracles exist. When 
about to transform the larva creeps on to the land, constructs 
around cell, and in about five days assumes the pupa state, 
and in two or three weeks the beetle appears, if in summer, or 


456 COLEOPTERA. 


if in autumn hibernates as a pupa, to transform to a beetle in 
the spring. 

In Haliplus the antenne are ten-jointed, bristle-shaped, and 
the legs are scarcely adapted for swimming, being narrow. 
The body is very convex, spotted with black or gray, while 
the elytra are covered with rows of punctures. In the remain- 
ing genera, the types of the family, the antenne are eleven- 
jointed and the hind legs oar-like. ‘‘’The laryee differ not only 
by their dorsal segments being armed with spines, which gives 
them a very grotesque appearance, but by their possessing only 
one claw, and by their anal segment (which is rudimentary 
in all other Dytiscidz) being enormously elongated and forked, 
so that the anus is placed on the under side of this pe- 
culiar tail, and the spiracles of the eighth pair, which are ter- 
minal and tube-like in other Dytiscid@ here become lateral 
and quite plain.” (Schiodte.) In Colymbetes and Agabus the 
anterior tarsi of the males are broad, oblong, and covered be- 
neath with cups of equal, or nearly equal, size. Agabus differs 
in having the thorax as wide at the base as at the middle, or 
still wider. In Dytiscus the ovate, not very convex body is 
usually broader behind the middle, and the last joint of the 
palpi is not elongated, while in Acilius which is usually 
banded, the intermediate tarsi of the male are not dilated. 
The males of these two genera often have the elytra deeply 
furrowed, while those of the females are smooth. Dytiscus 
fasciventris Say and Acilius mediatus Say are common in all 
our ponds northward. ‘ 


Gyrintp# Latreille. Whirligigs. These oval bluish black 
beetles are easily distinguished by their peculiar form and 
habits. They are always seen in groups, gyrating and circling 
about on the surface of pools, and when caught, give out a 
disagreeable milky fluid. Like the previous family, upon being 
disturbed, they suddenly dive to the bottom, holding on by 
their claws to submerged objects. They carry down a bubble 
of air on the tip of the abdomen, and when the supply is ex- 
hausted rise for more. ; 

The cylindrical eggs are placed by the female, end to end, 
in parallel rows on the leaves of aquatic plants, and the larve 


HYDROPIILIDZE. A437 


are hatched in about eight days. They are myriapodous in 
form, with a pair of large, long, lateral respiratory fllaments 
on each segment, much as in the larva of 
Corydalus. They become fully grown in Au- i 
. rust, crawl out of the water and spin an oval 
cocoon, within which the pupa remains a 
imonth, and then appears as a beetle. In Gy- 
rinus (Fig. 380, G. borealis Aubé; Fig. 381, 
larva of a European species) the scutellum is 
distinct ; the species of Dineutus, of which D. Ameri- 
canus is a type, are larger, and lack the scutellum. 

Fig. 381. Schiodte states that the larve of Carabide, 
Dytiscide and Gyrinide differ from those of other Coleop- 
tera in having double claws, while in the others the tarsus is 
undivided and claw-like. 


Fig. sv. 


Hypropuitip#’ Leach. Carnivorous as larve, but when 
beetles, vegetable eaters, and living on refuse and decaying 
matter, this family unites the habits of the foregoing families 
with those of the scavenger Silphids. They are aquatic, small, 
convex, oval, or hemispherical beetles, in which the middle and 
posterior feet are sometimes adapted for 
swimming; the antennz are short, and the 
palpi very long and slender. The females 


spin a silken, turnip-shaped nidus for their % 
.eges, fifty to sixty in number, which ends y 


in a horny projection, serving as a respira- 

tory tube to supply the young larvee with 

air as they are hatched. Others carry the 

cocoon about with them on the under side 

of the body. ‘To spin this large amount of 

silk, they are provided with two large silk 

glands, with external spinnerets. The larvee 

hatch in from two to six weeks, and moult 

three times ; when mature they are long, cy- 

lindrical, tapering rapidly towards the pos- 

terior end, with short legs, while the head is 1g: 234k 
flattened above and very convex beneath, with the mandibles 
elevated much as in the larva of Cicindela, enabling them to 


458 COLEOPTERA. 


seize their food by throwing their heads back and extending 
the jaws. When handled ‘‘it becomes placid, and emits a 
blackish fetid fluid from the mouth accompanied by a slight 
noise.” The larva of the European H. piceus Linn. (Fig. 382) 
becomes mature in two months, then ascends to the bank, 
forms an oval cocoon, and transforms to a beetle in about 
forty days. 

In the genus Spercheus (S. tessellatus Melsheimer) the mid- 
die and hind tarsal joints are equal in length. The females of 
the European species carry the eggs in a silken nidus beneath 
their abdomens, and as the eggs are hatched every eight or ten 
days, others are laid to keep up the supply. 

Hydrophilus is large, oval, olive black, with smooth elytra, 
and the prosternum is small, with a long spine on the meta- 
sternum. In the larvee the lateral appendages of the abdomen 
are soft, flexible, ciliated, and assist in buoying up the heavy 
fleshy body (for which purpose the antenne are ciliated) but 
they do not serve for respiration, as in Berosus, another 
European genus of this family. (Schiodte.) H. triangularis 
Say is a large pitchy black species. In Hydrobius the last 
joint of the maxillary palpi is longer than the preceding. 
Spheridium and its allies are characterized by an ovate, con- 
vex or hemispherical form, being black, with the elytra often 
spotted or margined with yellow, aud with ten rows of punc- 
tures or strie, though in Cyclonotwm there are no strie. In 
Cercyon the mesosternum is not produced, and the prosternum 
is keeled over. ‘In the larve of Cercyon and Spheridium, 
which represent the [lydrophiline type modified for life on dry 
land (though in humid places) we find neither lateral abdomi- 
nal appendages nor even true feet, the animal wriggling its 
way through the debris amongst which it lives, whilst the last 
abdominal segment is the largest of all and is often armed 
with hooks.” (Schiodte.) 


SirpHip& Leach. The Carrion or Sexton beetles are useful 
in burying decaying bodies, in which they lay their eggs. By 
living in the vicinity of carrion, and by their very clavate 
antennze and flattened head and body, and the black nauseous 
fluid they give out, the common species are readily recognized. 


SCYDM NIDA. 439 


The larvz are crustaceous, flattened, with the sides of the 
body often serrated, black, and of a fetid odor. They undergo 
their transformations in an oval cocoon. In Necrophorus (Fig. 
346, N. Americanus Oliv.) the antennze have ten apparent 
joints, and the rounded club is 


=< from Labrador) is a common spe- 


first. In Necrophilus the third joint 
is as long as the first. . Surina- 
mensis Fabr. has a yellow thorax 
with a central irregular black spot. 
Catops and its allies live in fungi, 
carrion and ants’ nests, and are 
small, black, oval insects. The 
Fig. 381. eyeless Adelops hirtus Tellk. is blind, wanting the 
eyes, and is found in Mammoth Cave. Anisotoma and allies, 
with eleven-jointed antennz, are oval and sometimes hemis- 
pherical, and capable of being rolled up into a ball. 
They are of small size and found in fungi, or under 
the bark of dead trees. Agathidium (Fig. 385, larva 
of the European A. seminulum) has the club of the 
antennz three-jointed. Clambus and allies comprise 
exceedingly minute species, found in decaying vege- 
table matter. 
An aberrant form is Brathinus, two species of which, 
B. nitidus Lec. and B. varicornis Leec., have been 
found from Lake Superior to Nova Scotia, about the F's: 3- 
roots of grass in damp places. According to Leconte, they are 
small shiny insects of graceful form, and distinguished by the 
prominent middle coxe. 


ScyrpManip#® Leach. The species of this small group differ 
from the Pselaphide to which they are closely allied by their 
long elytra and distant conical posterior coxze. They are mi- 


440 COLEOPTERA. 


nute, oval, brown, shiny insects found under stones near water, 
under bark and in ants’ nests. Scydmenus is the typical genus. 


Psetarnip& MacLeay. In this group the labial palpi are 
very small, while the four-jointed maxillary palpi are of re- 
markable length; the eyes are composed of large lenses, and 
are sometimes wanting ; the elytra are short, truncated, beneath 
which the wings, when present, are folded and the legs are 
long and the femora are stout, while beyond the leg is usually 


‘slender. ‘‘The species are very small, not exceeding one- 


eighth of an inch in length, and are of a chestnut-brown color, 
usually slightly pubescent ; the head and thorax are most fre- 
quently narrower than the elytra and abdomen, which is con- 
vex and usually obtuse at tip. Many are found flying in 
twilight ; their habits at other times are various, some being 
found in ants’ nests, while others occur under stones and bark. 
North America seems to be rich in this family ; more than fifty 
species are known to me, and several of the genera have not 
occurred in other countries. This family closely approaches 
the Staphylinide, but the ventral segments are fewer in 
number, and not freely moving, and the eyes are composed of 
large lenses.” (Leconte.) The genus Claviger and its allies 
Adranes cecus Leconte, which is found in ants’ nests in North- 
ern Georgia, have antennz with less than six joints; it is 
blind, and the antennze have only two joints. Pselaphus and 
its allies have eleven-jointed, rarely ten-jointed antennee. 


SrarHyLtinip«® Leach. The Rove-beetles are easily recog- 
nized by their long linear black bodies, with remarkably short 
elytra, and seven to eight visible horny abdominal segments. 
The mavxille are bilobate, usually ciliated, with four-jointed 
palpi, except in Aleochara, when there is an additional joint ; 
the antenne, variable in form and insertion, are usually eleven- 
jointed, and while the legs are variable in length and form, 
the anterior coxe are usually large, conical, prominent and 
contiguous. Though sometimes an inch in length, they are 
more commonly minute, inhabiting wet places under stones, 
manure heaps, fungi, moss, under the bark or leaves of trees. 
Many species inhabit ants’ nests, and should be carefully 


STAPHYLINIDA. 441 


sought for on dewy mornings under stones and pieces of wood, 
which should be taken up and shaken over a white cloth or 
paper; or the whole nest should be sifted through a rather 
coarse sieve, when the small beetles will fall through the 
meshes. The eggs are very large. The larve (Fig. 386, un- 
der side of a larva probably belonging to this family, from 
Maine, enlarged twice) closely resemble the beetles, being 
narrow, the segments of very equal size, the terminal ring 
forming a long prop-leg, on each side of which there 
is a long ciliate seta. In the pup the hind wings 
are not folded beneath the elytra, but extend below, 
meeting upon the breast. 

In the true Staphylini the anterior coxze are promi- 
nent and their coxal cavities are open behind. Aleo- 
chara and its allies are difficult to distinguish, as the 
characters separating them are but slightly marked ; 
they have the maxillary palpi moderate in length, with 
the second and third joints also of moderate length, { 
the fourth small, subulate, distinct, and in Aleochara F's: 386. 
itself there is an additional very small fifth joint. In Homo- 
lota, numerous in species, the ligula is short and bifid, and the 
first to the fourth joints of the hind tarsi decrease in length. 
In Tachyporus and allies the prothoracic spiracles are visible ; 
the anterior coxz are large, conical and prominent, with the 
trochanters very distinct, while the antennze are inserted under 
the lateral margin of the front. The species are 
usually convex above, with the thorax always ample, 
arched and highly polished, and the abdomen conical, 
sometimes very short. They are found partly in~ 
fungi, partly under bark. Dr. Leconte, whom we 
have been quoting, states that the species of Bolito- 
bius usually have the head much elongated; when, 
however, the head is oval, they approach closely to 
the genus Quedius of the next tribe, but are recog- & 
nized by the antenne being inserted at the lateral Fis: 87. 
margin of the front, near the eyes, and not at the anterior 
angle of the frontal margin, as in Quedius. 

In Staphylinus the antenne are inserted on the anterior mar- 
gin of the front, inside of the base of the mandibles, but dis- 


442 COLEOPTERA. 


tant from each other; the thorax is punctured and pubescent, 
the middle coxze slightly separate, while the abdomen is nar- 
rowed at the tips. Fig. 887 represents the larva of this or a 
closely allied genus found in a humble bee’s nest. Philonthus 
differs in having the femora unarmed. ‘The species 
live in decaying matters and excrement. ‘The spe- 
cies of Peederus (Fig. 388, the larva of the European 
P. tempestivus Erichs.) are found under stones, etc., 
near water. 

In Stenus, of which S. stygicus Say and S. Juno 
Fabr. are types, the eyes are large and prominent, so 
that the head resembles that of Cicindela and the 

Fig. 388. antennze are inserted upon the front between the 
eyes; the labrum is entire and rounded anteriorly, the para- 
elosse are dilated, rounded, and the body is coarsely punctured, 
while that of its nearest ally Dianous is finely punctured and 
, the paraglosse are connate and indistinct. 

Another small group of genera is repre- 
sented by Oxyporus, which is found in fungi, 
and which has a large head, with 
large long mandibles crossing each 
other, and five-jointed tarsi; and 
Oxytelus which is found in wet 
places and in dung, and has three- 

a jointed tarsi, with a row of spines 
on the front tibiz, and the middle coxe 
separated. 

Fig. 389. Anthophagus cesus?, Harris Correspond- 
ence ¢Fig. 389; a, maxilla), is found in wet ground where 
spearmint grows, of which it diffuses a strong odor. 

In Omalium the antennee are inserted under the lateral mar- 
gin of the front, the elytra are long, and the tibiz finely spi- 
nous. Micralymna is closely allied, but differs in the elytra 
being very short. The genus Micropeplus is squarish in form 
and connects the present family with the one following. 


Histrerip® Leach. As stated by Leconte, ‘this is a very 
well defined family of insects, moderately numerous, nearly all 
of a shining black color, with the elytra variously sculptured 


TRICHOPTERYGIDA. 443 


with striz ; some few species of Hister and Saprinus have the 
elytra marked with red, and a few of the latter genus are 
metallic in color. The form of the body is variable; those of 
the first group are oblong and flat, with prominent mandibles ; 
the others are round, oblong oval, globose, some depressed 
and some convex. The species live under the bark of trees, in 
excrement and in carcasses. When disturbed the insects 
retract the antennz and feet, appearing as if dead, The an- 
tennze are geniculate, the eighth and following joints forming 
a compact annulated, rounded or (rarely) triangular club. 
The elytra are truncate behind, leaving two segments of the 
abdomen uncovered. ‘The linear flattened larvee have the ter- 
minal ring ending in two biarticulated appendages, and a 
single anal prop-leg. ‘The larva of the European Hister x. 
merdarius (Fig. 390) lives in cow dung, forming a cell in 
which it transforms, and like Andrenus, the pale brown 
pupa retains the larva skin about it. In Hister the head 
is retracted and bent downwards, and the club of the 
antenna is round and annulated. Hister interruptus A. 
Beauy. and A. marginicollis Lec. are common northward. Fig. 390 

The genus Heterius differs in the antennal club being 
obconical, truncate and solid. The species are found only in 
ants’ nests early in the spring. In Saprinus the antennz are 
inserted under the margin of the front; the antennal cavities 
being at the sides of the prosternum proper. ‘The species are 
mostly found in carrion. 


Scapuipup# Macleay. ‘This family,” according to Dr. 
Leconte, ‘‘contains small oval or rounded oval, convex, very 
shining insects, living in fungi. The sides of the thorax are 
oblique, and the head small, so as to make the body somewhat 
pointed in front; the thorax is very closely applied to the 
front, and the elytra are broadly truncate, permitting the tip 
of the conical abdomen to appear.” In Scaphidiwm the an- 
tenn are clavate, the eyes emarginate, the posterior tibiz are 
not spinous, and the first joint of the posterior tarsi longest. 


TRICHOPTERYGID& (Trichopterygia Erichson). This incon- 
siderable family comprises the smallest beetles known. The 


444 COLEOPTERA. 


eleven-jointed antenne, which are verticillate, with long hairs, 
are inserted at the margin of the front, and the club is long 

and loosely articulated. The beetles live under the bark 
8 of trees and in ants’ nests. The larvee are carnivorous, 

being very active, without ocelli, and with cylindrical 
bodies, with four-jointed antennze and long four-jointed 
legs. Trichopteryx is known by its pubescent body, 
and laminate posterior cox. One species is one-third 
of a line long; others are still smaller. The larva 
of the European T. intermedia Gillmeister (Fig. 391, 
enlarged) feeds on Poduree. 


Asia 


Fig. 391 


Poatacrip# Erichson. ‘‘A small number of oval or 
rounded oval, convex, shining insects, constitute this family. 
They are found on flowers, and sometimes under bark. The 
elytra have sometimes approximate rows of small punctures, 
but more usually only a sutural stria. The scutellum is larger 
than usual, triangular. One of the four genera (Tolyphus) 
of this family is wanting in our fauna. The other three are 
separated by the form of the posterior tarsi.” (Leconte.) In 
Phalacrus the anterior and posterior tarsi are of the same 
length. The larvee are vegetable feeders, living in the flowers 
of composite plants. 


Niriputart# Latreille. This family includes small oval or 
elliptical, flattened beetles, which are sometimes almost globu- 
lar. The head is suddenly narrowed before the insertion of 
the antenne, thus forming a short beak, and the antenne may 
be partially retracted into a groove under 
the eyes. The larve are both carnivorous 
and vegetable-feeders; they are elongated, 
with two to four-jointed antenn, three ocelli 
on each side, with a flattened hairy body, 
ending in four small, horny, recurved tuber- 
cles. The pups may be found under the 
surface of the ground in earth and sawdust. 
Carpophilus has the second and third ‘abdominal segments 
short, while the first, fourth and fifth are longer, and the claws 
are simple. Carpophilus antiquus Mels. is a well known spe- 


Fig. 392. 


COLYDIIDZ. 445 


cies. Nitidula and its allies are elliptical depressed, often 
with a broad margin; the elytra covers the whole abdomen, or 
leaves merely the tips exposed. In WNitidula the last joint of 
the labial palpi is not thicker than the preceding, and the 
species often have two red spots on the elytra, as in Nitidula 
bipustulata Fabr. In Epurea, which is found under stones and 
bark, the last joint of the palpi is large and thick. Omosita 
colon Fabr. is also spotted twice with red; the genus may be 
recognized by the antennal grooves diverging behind, following 
the outline of the eyes, while in the males the sixth abdominal 

eoment is wanting. Jps is much longer and larger, with trun- 
eate elytra, and the head is immersed in the thorax to the 
eyes. Ips sanguinolentus Say has a broad red band on the 
elytra, with two large round dots. Ips fasciatus Say (Fig. | 
391, and larva; found in the roots of the squash by Mr. M. C. 
Read) has two broad interrupted yellow bands on the elytra; 
both species occur about flowing sap in spring. Ips ferruginea 
of Europe lives on the young of Hylesinus ligniperda. Rhizo- 
phagus depressus is known in Europe to attack the larvee of 
Hylurgus piniperda, according to Dufour. 


Monotromip# Chaudoir. The species of this inconsiderable 
group are much like the preceding family in form, but as Le- 
conte states, differ from them in the anterior coxze being small, 
rounded and separated. ‘They occur under the bark of trees. 


Trocositip# Kirby. This group, usually united with the 
preceding family, is distinguished by the bilobate maxille, with 
the short, four-jointed maxillz and the short undilated tarsi. 
They generally live under bark, but some have been trans- 
ported over the whole world in grain. In Trogosita, which 
comprises long insects, with the thorax narrowed behind, the 
ligula is entire, the tibiz are not spinous, and the thorax is 
prominently angulated in front. 


CoLtypup# Erichson. The small globular anterior and 
middle coxze, and the four-jointed simple tarsi will enable them, 
Leconte states, to be readily distinguished from any of the 
neighboring families. The species are of small size, usually 


446 COLEOPTERA. 


rather long and cylindrical, and occur in fungi, in the earth, or 
under the bark of trees. Colydium is slender, with finely 
striate elytra, and the anterior tibize have one spur enlarged 
and hooked; while the first joint of the tarsi is elongated. 
C. elongatum is stated by European authors to attack the larvae 
of Platypus, a genus allied to Scolytus. 


Ruyssoprp& Erichson. This group, by some authors united 
with the preceding family, simulates the form of the Carabids. 
The antenne are, however, composed of equal globular joints, 
and the head is strongly constricted behind into a neck. They 
are found under bark. In Rhyssodes the eyes are placed upon 
the side, and in the other genus, Clinidium, upon the upper 
surface of the head. 


Cucusip& Latreille. The species of this family are very 
much flattened long insects, with flat, strongly emarginated 
elytra, and the abdomen has five full segments, equal in length. 
They are found under bark. The larve are quite transparent, 
with the terminal joint ending in two horny curved hooks. 
The antenne are four-jointed, the limbs provided with a single 
claw, and there are five ocelli on each side of the head. In Syl- 
vanus, Which is of small size, the nine to eleven-jointed an- 
tennze do not have the first joint elongated as usual, while the 
terminal ones are enlarged. Sylvanus Surinamensis Linn. is 
one-fourth of a line long, of a rusty brown color, and covered 
with short yellowish hairs. The larva is a flattened yellowish 
white grub, with the terminal joint somewhat conical. It breeds 
in bran, rice and wheat. Cucujus is a bright scarlet flattened 
insect, with punctured elytra, and three faintly marked smooth 
lines. The larve differ from those of Sylvanus by having two 
horny tubercles at the end of the abdomen; they are often 
found in granaries. 


CrypropHacip® Kirby. This family differs from the pre- 
ceding group in the ereater length of the first abdominal ring, 
the thickened body, and in the thorax being as wide as the 
elytra. Antherophagus is readily known by its resemblance to 
Epurza among the Vitidulide, as its head and body is flat, 


MYCETOPHAGID. 447 


the front not prolonged, and in the male is deeply excised at 
the tip. The antenn of the female are clubbed as usual, and 
the mandibles are prominent and suddenly incurved at 
the tips. Itis often found on flowers in the perfect 
state. We have found the larvee (Fig. 393; a, end 
of abdomen) of <Antherophagus ochraceus Say (Plate 
3, fig. 4) in the nests of humble bees during July and 
August. They are whitish, and .32 of an inch in 
length. The beetles are of a pale honey yellow, with \, 
little darker antennze, legs and elytra, while the ends Pax 

of the antennal joints, the base of the coxee and tibiae, Fig. 393. 

and tip of the terminal joint of the tarsi are black. 
F i cae larva os the Hueco Cryptophagus hirtus Gyll. 
- (Fig. 394) is found in cellars. 


Drropontipz Leconte. In these insects the 
transverse form of the anterior and posterior cox 

Fig. 394. (which latter are slightly separated), dilated inter- 
nally, forming a small plate to protect the insertion of the 
thigh, distinguishes this group from all the preceding 
families, and approximates it somewhat to the families yy 
following the Elateride. — 


Laturipvip#& Redtenbacher. Leconte states that 
the insects of this small family are of very small size, 
found flying in twilight, and also under bark and 
stones; they are of graceful form, the elytra being 
usually wider than the thorax; the species of Bonvou- 
loiria and most of the species of Lathridius (Fig, 
395, larva of L. minutus Linn., enlarged) are very Fis: 3. 
remarkably sculptured, with elevated lines on the thorax. 


Oranup#z Leconte. Othnius wumbrosus Lec. is the type of 


this family. It occurred in Nebraska, near the Rocky Moun- 
tains. 


Mycrtornacipm Leach. The genus Mycetophagus is finely 
punctured with closely appressed hairs; the anterior coxal 
cavities are open; the tarsi are four-jointed and filiform, the 


448 COLEOPTERA. 


anterior pair in the males having but three joints; the frontal 
suture is always distinct and usually deep; the eyes are trans- 
verse and the antenne gradually enlarged externally. 


Dermestip& Leach. These well known insects have the 
head small and deflexed, with short mandibles, rounded eyes, 
with a single ocellus; the prothorax is short, sometimes exca- 

ver vated for the reception of the antennz, which are in- 
ae serted in front of the eyes and are usually eleven-jointed, 
=== and the legs are short, somewhat contractile, the tarsi 

being five-jointed. In Byturus the mandibles have sey- 
eral teeth, and the claws are armed with a large basalt 
Fig. 396-tooth. They are small oval brown beetles found eating 
flowers. Mr. J. L. Russell of Salem, has called my attention 
to the ravages committed by B. wnicolor Say on the raspberry ; 
it eats the flowers and makes long holes in the leaves, and for 
two or three summers has been very abundant. Hand picking 
was found to be the best remedy. Every entomologist dreads 
the presence of Dermestes and Anthrenus in his cabinet. 
The ugly, bristly, insidious larva, which so skilfully hides 
in the body whose interior it consumes, leaving only 
the shell ready to fall to pieces at the slightest jar, can 
be kept out only with the greatest precautions. Der- 
mestes lardarius Linn., the larger of the two, is oblong 
oval, with short legs, black, with the base of the elytra 
oray buff, covered by two broad lines. It is timid and 
Fs. 397.slow in its movements, and when disturbed seeks a 
shelter, or mimics death. We have found the larva (Fig. 
396) of probably another species of Dermestes, crawling up 
the side of an out-house. It was nearly twice the size of 
D. lardarius. Attagenus pellio Stephens is another insect 
which infests museums. It is shorter than Dermestes, black, 
with two dots on the wing covers. The larva (Fig. 397, en- 
larged three times) is long and slender, cylindrical, with red- 
dish brown hairs closely appressed to the body, giving it a 
silky, shining appearance. The abdomen ends in a long pen- 
cil of hairs. 

Anthrenus varius Fabr. (Fig. 398; a, larva; b, pupa) is 
rounded oval, with transverse waved lines. Its larva is thick, 


GEORYSSIDZA. 449 


with long bristles, which are largest on the end of the body. 
They are generally destructive in museums, and prey on stuffed 
specimens of all sorts. The beetles fly about early in spring 
and then lay their eggs. The insect is found in all its stages 
through the year. They may be killed like the Clothes-moth, 
also found in museums, by saturating the specimen infested 
by them with benzine. To pre- 
vent their attacks, they should 
be kept out of collections by 
keeping benzine in constant 
evaporation in open vessels. 
Camphor and turpentine and 
creosote are also very useful. $ b 

Insects recently prepared should ; Fig. 398. 

be placed in quarantine, so we may be sure none of the mu- 
seum pests will be introduced into the drawers or cases of the 
cabinet while either in the egg or larva state. Their presence 
in cabinets may be detected by the dust they make falling on 
the white surface beneath. Specimens thoroughly impregnated 
with carbolic acid, or arsenic, or corrosive sublimate, will not 
be attacked by them. 


gh 


Byrruip#® Leach. Pill Beetles. This group has the head 
retracted under the thorax, with the parts of the mouth more 
or less protected by the prosternum; the legs are short, stout 
and retractile, and the antennz are clavate. The typi- 
cal species are ‘‘oval or rounded, very convex, dull 
black or bronzed insects, covered with a fine, easily 
removed pubescence, forming varied patterns.” In 
Byrrhus all the tarsi are retractile. We have taken 
Byrrhus Americanus Lec. in Labrador, on the stems 
of the ‘‘ Labrador tea.” They are found in cold 
mountainous districts. The larve (Fig. 399, larva i 
of B. pillula Illiger, a European species found in moss) are 
fleshy, cylindrical, with the last two rings of the body larger 
than the others. 


\ 


Fig. 399. 


Groryssipz Heer. This family consists of but a single 
genus, characterized by Leconte as comprising small, rounded, 
29 


| 


450 COLEOPTERA. 


° 


convex, roughly sculptured, black insects, found at the mar- 
gins of streams, on wet sand; they cover themselves with a 
mass of mud, so that no part of the insect is visible. Georys- 
sus pusillus Lec. is our only species. 


Parnip& MacLeay. These are aquatic beetles, having a 
retractile head, and are often found clinging to submerged 
stones, both in the larval and pupal states. The body of 
the beetle is ‘‘ clothed with a fine pu- 
bescence, enabling a film of air to be 
preserved beneath the water.” The 
larvee are hemispherical like a basin. 
“The larva of Psephenus Lecontei 
Hald. (Fig. 400, under side, enlarged | 
three times) is an elliptical object, 

Fig. 400. with the margins widely extended be- 
yond the body, and is seen on stones under the water of rapid 
streams; it is especially abundant in the rapids of Niagara, 
and differs in no important particular from the larva of Heli- 
chus of the next subfamily. It respires by branchial fila- 
ments.” (Leconte.) Hlmis (Fig. 401, larva of a European 
species) is known by the narrow, elongate scutellum. 


“ 


Fig. 401. 


Heterocerip® Macleay. ‘‘ This family consists of but a 
single genus, Heterocerus; it is represented in every portion 
of our territory. The species are numerous, but very similar 
in form and color, so that care is necessary in distinguishing 
them. They are oblong or subelongate, oval, densely clothed 
with short, silky pubescence, very finely punctuate, and of a 
brown color, with the elytra usually variegated with undulating 
bands or spots of a yellow color. They live in galleries 
which they excavate in sand or mud at the margin of bodies 
of water, and, when disturbed, run from their galleries and take 
flight, after the manner of certain species of Bembidium.” 
(Leconte.) 


Lucanip™ Latreille. This family is closely allied to the 
next, and is often united with it, as it differs chiefly from 
the outer lamellate joints of the antenne not being so closely 


SCARAB AIDA. 451 


united into a compact club, as in'the Scarabeida, and the 
mentum is usually large. The genus Lucanus, called the Stag- 
horn beetle, is of large size, with enormously developed jaws 
in the male, as in Lucanus 
dama Fabr. (Fig. 402, 
dé). The larva of Lu- 
canus dama (Fig. 403, and 
cocoon, natural size) is 
long, thick, nearly cylin- 
drical, and the corneous 
rust-colored head is armed 
with two large jaws. Liv- 
ing in rotten wood, like 
the Cerambycide, it 
constructs a cocoon of the 
chips it makes. The larva 
of the European ZL. cervus 
is stated by Roesel to live 
six years. Harris states that they lay their eggs in crevices of 
the bark of trees, especially near the roots. The larvee resem- 
ble the grubs of the Scarabzeans in color and form, but are 
smoother, being less. 
wrinkled. Dorcas bre-' 
vis Say (Fig. 404) -is 
an exceedingly rare in- 
sect whose habits are 
unknown. In Passalus 
cornutus Fabr., belong- 
ing to a more aberrant 
genus, the body is long 

Fig. 403. and flattened with a 
short bent hook on the head, and the elytra deeply striate. 
Madam Merian describes the larva of Passalus as being a 
thick fleshy worm, with a small scaly head, six legs, and 
slender posteriorly ; it lives in decaying wood. 


Fig. 402. 


ScaRAB#ID& Erichson. This family, the Lamellicornia of 
Latreille, is one of immense extent, being divided into more 
than 700 genera, comprising some 6,000 species, or three- 


452 : COLEOPTERA. 


fourths as many Coleoptera as are known to live in this 
country. They comprise the mammoths among insects, and it 
is in the tropics that we meet with the most numerous and 
bizarre, as well as gigantic forms. Always 
», readily recognized by their clubbed lamel- 
late antenne, the terminal joints being 
expanded into broad flat leaves, which, at 
the will of the insect, can be closely shut 
into a compact club, or loosely expanded 
fan-like, and laid under the projecting cly- 
peus, so overhanging the mouth-parts as 
to give rise to the terms beetle-horned, 
and ‘*beetling ;” 


these insects, by their 
robust, thick, often square body, short fos- 
sorial legs, with large hooked claws for seizing leaves and 
stems, have been well known to all observing persons, however 
slight their entomological knowledge. The larve are thick 
and fleshy cylindrical grubs, with a corneous head, and rather 
long four-jointed antennze; the ocelli are generally wanting ; 
the legs are stout and long, without claws, and the last ab- 
dominal segment is soft and baggy. The body 
is often very transparent, the tracheze appear- 
ing through. Fig. 405 represents a singular 
larva (magnified twice) of this family from 
Mr. Sanborn’s collection. 

The genus Copris and allies are known by 
their rounded form, and the broadly expanded 
elypeus, which covers in the mouth-parts. In 
some species (those of Deltochilum) the anterior 
tarsi are wanting either in the females or both 
sexes; and in some species a stridulating ap- 
paratus ‘is found on the upper surface of the 
abdomen. In Copris the labial palpi are dilated, 
the first joint of the antennal club does not receive the others, 
and the claws are distinct. The larva of C. Carolina Fabr., 
while, according to Osten Sacken, having the general appear- 
ance of the larve of the Lamellicorns, is much thicker and 
eurved up, the back being much swollen and ‘distended into 
a hump-like expansion. It is about two inches long and of a 


Fig. 404. 


SCARABAIDA. 453 


dirty yellowish white. Each larva was found enclosed in 
a globular case of dung or earthy matter, about an inch and a 
quarter in diameter.” (Proceedings of the Entomological 
Society of Philadelphia, vol. i, pl..1, fig. 1.) 

The closely allied Phaneus carnifexr MacLeay is common 
southward, and easily known by its brilliant copper colored 


thorax and bright. green elytra, and by the large horn on the 


head of the male. These insects are called ‘‘’Tumble-bugs,” as 
they enclose their eggs in pellets of manure, holding them be- 
tween their hind legs, and rolling them away to a place of safety. 
The species of Aphodius live also in manure; they are quite 
small, nearly cylindrical, with the mouth-parts concealed by 
the clypeus ; the antennez are nine-jointed, the club consisting 
of three joints, and the lobes of the maxillee are membrana- 
ceous, unarmed, while the upper parts of the eyes are visible in 
repose. Aphodius fimetarius Linn., which is black with bright 
red elytra, has been introduced from Europe, and is abundant 
in woods, flying over dung; it is now common in the carriage 
road of Mount Washington. Fig. 406 represents the larva of 
the European A. fossor Linn. Chapuis and Candéze 
found it in manure in spring. Greotrupes has eleven- 
jointed antennz, with the club three-jointed, the mid- 
dle coxze are contiguous, and while the club of its 
nearest ally, Bolbocerus, a shorter insect, is large 
and lenticular in form, that of the present genus 
is lamellate, as usual. Geotrupes splendidus Fabr.ig Fis: 406 

a common beetle, with a bright shining green body, flying in 
paths and wood roads late in the summer. The species of 
Trox differ in having slightly fossoriai legs; they are oblong 
convex, the surface being very rough and covered with dirt 
which is scraped off with difficulty. They live in dried decay- 
ing animal matter, and, according to Leconte, ‘‘possess a dis- 
tinct stridulating organ; it is an elliptical plate, with pearly 
reflections, occupying the upper part of the external face of 
the ascending portion of the first ventral segment, and is coy- 
ered by the elytra; on the inner surface of the elytra, near the 
margin, about opposite the thorax, is an oval, smooth, polished 
space, which has, probably, some connection with the stridu- 
lating organ.” The larva of ‘* Trox Carolina Dej.” (T. scabro- 


454 COLEOPTERA. 


sus Beauv. Fig. 407), is described by Chapuis and Candéze as 
coming from New Orleans. 

Melolontha and its allies come next in the series. They feed 
exclusively on living plants. The genus Acratus was estab- 
lished by Dr. Horn for A. flavipennis Horn (Fig. 
408; a, antenna; b, maxilla; c, mentum; d, mandi- 
ble; e, anterior leg and tarsal claw) found in Ari- 
zona. The genus Dichelonycha is distinguished by 
the front margin of the thorax being narrow and 

Vig. 407. membranous, with equal claws, cleft at the tip. Di- 
chelonycha elongatula Schonh. ts a long green beetle, with long 
legs, and of a metallic green color; it is found in June on the 

q Q leaves of the birch. 
——> = Macrodactylus — sub- 
72D spinosus Fabricius, the 

well known Rose-bug 

or Rose-chafer, is 

brown, covered with 

ochreous scales; the 

Fig. 408. legs, tarsi and claws 

are very long and slender. It overruns garden plants, especi- 

ally injuring the rose leaves. Dr. Harris has observed the 

transformations of this insect. The nearly globular whitish 

eggs, about thirty in number, are deposited by the female 

from one to four inches beneath the surface of the soil, and are 
hatched in about twenty days. The whitish 


. (/ 
larva becomes fully grown in the autumn, and Gs 
4 Ml 


is then three-quarters of an inch long and an 
eighth of an inch wide. In October it descends 


below the reach of frost, and in the next (s 
May is transformed to a pupa in an oval a b 


earthen cell. The pupa is yellowish white, Eos ae 


somewhat of the form of the beetle, with short wings; its 
antennze and legs folded on its breast, with its white body 
surrounded by a thin film. The beetles may be often seen in 
clusters on low bushes in partially cleared fields having just 
appeared from their cocoons. Dr. Horn has described the 
genus Plectrodes for a Californian species, P. pubescens Horn 
(Fig. 409; a, maxilla and palpus; 0, tarsal claw). The well 


SCARAB EID. 455 


known June-bug or Dor-bug, Lachnosterna fusca Frohl (Fig. 
410, 411, larva; 412, side view of pupa), lives as a larva on 
the roots of grass and is often turned up by the spade or 
plough. It is then a large fleshy grub, very com- 
monly met with, and is injurious to growing corn 
and wheat. ‘The pupa is found in its rude earth- 
en cocoon in May. The beetles are very injuri- : 
ous to the leaves of fruit trees. They are chest- 
nut brown, with yellowish hairs beneath, and 
nearly an inch in length. There are several 
smaller, closely allied species. Melolontha (Geoliy= Bhs: awe 
phylla) variolosa Harris differs in its enormously developed 
six-jointed lamellate antennal club, that of the female being 
much smaller. 

In Anomala the body is small, the an- 
tenn nine-jointed, and the mandibles when 
at rest do not project beyond the clypeus. 
Such is Anomala varians Fabr., which is 
very injurious to the vine in June and 
July. Pelidnota punctata Linn. has similar 
habits. It is oblong oval, very convex 

Fig. 411. above, with dull brownish yellow elytra, 
with three large black dots on each side. It is often abun- 
dant on grape-vines in July and August, and proves very 
injurious. 

The Cotalpa lanigera Linn. (Fig. 413; a, larva) or the Gold- 
smith beetle, is nearly an inch long, bright yellow, with long 
white, woolly hairs beneath, where it is metallic 
ereen. It often injures fruit and shade trees, and 
Mr. S. Lockwood states that in the larva state it 
destroys the roots of the strawberry plant. He 
remarks that on the 16th of June a pair of Cotal- 
pas coupled, and in the evening the female bur- 
rowed beneath the dirt, reappearing the next 
morning, having meanwhile laid at different 
depths, and singly, fourteen white, long, oval eggs ; 
on the 13th of July the larve hatched, being five-sixteenths 
of an inch long. (American Naturalist, vol. ii, p. 441.) 

In Dynastes the labial palpi are inserted on the sides of the 


456 COLEOPTERA. 


mentum, which is acuminate in front; the head and thorax are 
armed with large horns in the males; the first joint of the pos- 
terior tarsi is not elevated, and there are no stridulating or- 
gans. Our only species is Dynastes Tityrus Linn., found in 
the Southern States. It is over two inches long, of a greenish 
gray color, with black spots scattered irregularly over the ely- 
tra. Dynastes Hercules Linn., one of the giants of the family, 
is about six inches long. 

The genus Cetonia and its allies are flower beetles; their 
mandibles are feebly developed and in part membranous and 
concealed with the other oral organs beneath the clypeus; and 
in flying they ‘‘do not raise or expand the elytra, as most Cole- 
optera do, but pass the wings from the side, under the elytra, 
which do not at all 
embrace the sides of 
the body.” (Leconte.) 

The immense Go- 
liath beetles of the 
western coast of 
Africa belong to the 
genus Goliathus, in 
which the clypeus of 
the males is generally 
forked or armed with 
horns. Dr. Harris has proposed the name of Hegemon ‘for 
the subgenus, including the princely Scarabeus Goliathus of 
Linneus, together with the still more magnificent Goliathus 
Drurit of Westwood, and the G. Cacicus of Gory and Per- 
cheron.” Of Hope’s subgenus Mecynorhina, the Scarabeeus 
Polyphemus of Fabricius is the type; it is velvet green above, 
with a pale .buff head and markings, and is two and a half 
inches long, exclusive of the horns. Dr. Harris has also 
described as new to science M. Savagit which has a velvet 
green thorax, and velvet black elytra, with tawny bands and 
spots; it is about two inches long. The G. Goliathus is per- 
haps the largest of all the Coleoptera ; specimens measuring 
nearly four inches. Dr. G. A. Perkins of Salem, Mass., who 
collected a large part of the fine series of specimens of these 
Goliath beetles in the Museum of the Peabody Academy of 


SCARAB ZIDZA. 457 


Science, informs me that they are found in the tops of trees 
where they feed on flowers and on sap exuding from wounds 
in the bark, like the Cetoniz, and that the natives obtain 
them by jarring the trees. Harris states that ‘it appears, 
from the observations of Dr. Savage, that the food of the 
Goliath beetles is fluid, like that of the Trichii and Cetonia, 
insects belonging to the same natural family, but the latter live 
chiefly on the nectar of flowers, and the former on the sap of 
plants. The long bushes on their jaws, and the diverging 
rows of hairs that line their lower lips, are admirably fitted for 
absorbing liquid food; while their horny teeth afford these 
beetles additional means for obtaining it from the leaves and 
juicy stems of plants, when the blossoms have disappeared.” 

From Cetonia, Lacordaire has separated the genus Huryomia, 
distinguished by the untoothed maxille, by the clypeus being 
usually parabolic, sometimes parallel and rarely emarginate in 
front. Huryomia Inda Linn. attacks 
ripe peaches, spoiling them for the 
market. They are found about run- 
ning sap in April and flying in fields in # 
May, and a new brood appears in Sep- 
tember. In Osmoderma the elytra are 
not sinuate on the sides, the prothorax 
is narrower than the elytra and usually rounded on the sides. 
Osmoderma scabra Dej. is a large long-legged beetle of a cop- 
pery purplish black color. The larva lives in decaying cherry 
and apple trees. According to Harris it is a whitish fleshy 
grub, with a reddish corneous head, and closely resembles the 
grub of the common dor-beetle. In autumn it forms an oval 
cocoon by gluing together the chips it makes, and the beetle 
appears in July. 


Fig. 414. a 


Burrestip& Leach. This very extensive family is known 
by the serrated antennze, the outer joints of which are usually 
furnished with pores, which are either diffused on the sides, 
or concentrated in a cavity (fovea) on the under side or at the 
tip. The head is deeply sunken up to the elliptical eyes, and 
the labrum is small and prominent, while the mandibles are 
short and stout.’ The legs are short, the tibiz are usually 


458 COLEOPTERA. 


slender, and the species are generally long, flattened beetles 
of very tough thick consistence, and are found on flowers, or 
sunning themselves on the bark of trees in midsummer. The 
larvee are flattened footless grubs, with the 
prothoracic ring greatly enlarged. 

In Chalcophora the antennal pores are dif- 
fused on the sides of the joints, or only on 
the lower margin; the mesosternal 
suture is indistinct ; the antennz are 
inserted in small foveze, and the pos- 
terior tarsi have the first joint elon- 
gated. CC. Virginiensis Drury is one 
of our most common species, and 
may be seen flying about pine trees 
in hot days in May and June. Its 
larva bores into pines, often proving 
very injurious. 

Dicerca is noted for having the tips of 
the elytra lengthened out and diverging 
from each other. Dicerca divaricata Say is 
frequently met with; it is smoother than 
usual and highly polished with a 
bronzed hue. The elytra are 
marked with numerous fine regu- 
lar impressed lines and small ob- 
long square elevated black spots. 
The larve attack the wild cherry 
and the garden cherry and peach. 
Dicerca lurida Fabr. is found on 


; the trunks and limbs of the = : 
Fig. 416. hickory. ( 
The genus Chrysobothris differs in having the 


antennze inserted at the inner extremity of two short 
oblique grooves, by which the front is narrowed ; 
the anterior femora are strongly toothed, the third 
joint of the tarsi is truneate, while in the hind tarsi the first 
joint is elongated. The species are rather broad and flattened, 
with impressed bands and spots on the elytra. Chrysobothris 
Jemorata Fabr. (Fig. 414; a, larva; Fig. 415, larva of the 


Fig. 417. 


BUPRESTIDZA. 459 


same genus, found under bark of oaks) is greenish black above, 
with a brassy polish; it infests the apple and oak, in which. it 
lives one year. C. Harrisit Hentz inhabits the small limbs of 
the white pine. It is also very injurious to apple trees and red 
maples. To prevent its attacks Fitch recommends placing a 
piece of soap in a fork in the tree so that it will be washed: 
down by the rains over the bark, while young trees may be 
rubbed with soap; this is an excellent remedy against the 
attacks of all kinds of borers. 

The genuine species of Buprestis occur in Europe. The 
largest species of this family known to us is the Huchroma 
Columbica Mann. which occurs in Central and 
South America. It is two and a half inches 
long and metallic green. Mr. McNiel has sent 
to the Museum of the.Peabody Academy sey- | 
eral immense white larve (Fig. 416, natural 
size), from Nicaragua, which are, without much 
doubt, the young of this gigantic beetle. 

The small, flattened, ovate, angular Brachys Fig. 418. 
is probably a leaf miner, as such are the habits of the closely 
allied genus Trachys (VT. pygmea, Fig. 417, larva; 418, pupa), 
as observed in Europe where it mines the leaves of the Malva 
and Alcza, according to M. Leprieur. 


Turoscip& Laporte. This small group has been separated 
from the succeeding family; the species differ in not having 
the power of leaping, owing to the immovable thorax. In 
Throscus the antenne are terminated by a three-jointed club. 


Evaterip& Leach. A very large and easily limited family, 
in which the serrate, eleven-jointed antenne, are inserted upon 
or under the margin of the front, in grooves, while the head is 
retracted, though sometimes free as usual from the prothorax, 
between which and the mesothorax is a loose articulation, 
enabling the species to leap in the air by a sudden jerking 
movement, which Dr. Leconte thus describes: ‘‘a few of the 
species of the first subfamily (Eucnemide) and a majority of 
those of the third (Elateridz), possess the singular power 
of springing in the air when placed on the back. This is 


460 COLEOPTERA. 


effected by extending the prothorax so as to bring the proster- 
nal spine to the anterior part of the mesosternal cavity, then 
suddenly relaxing the muscles so that the spine descends 
violently into the cavity, the force given by this sudden move- 
ment causes the base of the elytra to strike the supporting 
surface, and by their elasticity the whole body is propelled 
upward.” 
The larvee, known by the name of Wire-worms, are vegetable 
feeders, living on the roots of grass, wheat, corn, potatoes, 
turnips and other garden vegetables. Fig. 419 (enlarged 
? four times) represents a larva of this family found by 
Mr. Sanborn in the roots of the squash vine. The eggs 
are laid probably in pastures and fallen ground where 
the surface is undisturbed, or in the vicinity of rotten 
wood. The larve moult three times, and some species 
are known to live in this state five years. When fully 
grown they transform in an earthen cocoon, and may 
be seen rising out of the ground during the summer, 
especially in June. The larvee are very long cylin- 
drical (whence their name wire-worm), hard-bodied and difti- 
cult to kill, and are generally pale testaceous, or yellowish red 
in color. They have only six thoracie legs, and a slight anal 
prop-leg ; the body is flattened towards the head and tail. 
Eucnemis differs from the true Elaters in the serrate an- 
tennz being inserted in approximate grooves at the margin of 
the thorax beneath, which makes the clypeus narrow. The 
Rene _./ species do not leap so vigorously as those of 
Be y other leaping genera. Jornax differs from 
Eucnemis in the antennz being filiform. 
In Adelocera (Fig. 420, A. obtecta Say) the 
third joint of the antennz is equal to, or 
larger than the fourth. In later and its 
allies, the antennz are widely separated, 
being inserted in small cavities (fovea) 
under the margin of the front, and before 
the eyes. Alaus oculatus Esch. is the largest 
Elater we have, the scutellum is oval, and the elytra have a 
broad margin. The genus Elater has the front of the head 
convex and margined quite broadly, and the thorax is always 


Fig. 419. 


Fig.. 420. 


ELATERIDZ. 461 


narrowed in front, with the tarsi ciliate beneath, and entirely 
simple. later obliquus Say is a small species about a quarter 
of an inch long, of a leathery brown color, and yellowish red 
on the prothorax and base of the elytra. In _»@ 
Agriotes and allies the front is very convex, es 
the edge of which is higher than the labrum; the 
antennz are slender, scarcely serrate, the first 
joint being a little longer than usual. e 

In Ludius the front is convex, but not mar- | i 
gined behind the labrum, the angle of the hind f \ 
cox are acute and prominent, while the meso- Fis: 421. 
sternum is not prominent. Mr. Walsh has found the larva of 
LL. attenuatus Say (Fig. 421; fig. 422, larva) which lived in 
decaying wood for two years in his breeding jar. The 
genus Agriotes has the margin of the prothorax bent 
down in front, while in Dolopius it is straight. -Agqriotes 
mancus Say is a pale reddish brown species, while A. 
stabilis, much more abundant northward, is slenderer, 
of a darker hue, with a dark shade along the inner 
edge of each elytron. D. pauper Lec. is a 
small species found northward. 

Melanotus includes some of our most com- 
mon species, such as M. communis Gyll., which 
is of the usual dull brown color. The genus 
may be known by the front being moderately 

“- convex, margined anteriorly, and the antennze 
are serrate, with the first joint of the usual size, while 
the prothorax is lobed in front, and the claws are 
strongly pectinate. Fig. 423 represents a larva prob- 
ably of this genus. 

In Limonius and Athous the front is margined, the 
mouth placed farther forward from the prosternum, 
the coxal plates are narrow, gradually dilated inwards, : 
and the first joint is only moderate in length. In Fis. 423. 
Limonius the first tarsal joint is scarcely longer than the 
second, while in Athous the first tarsal joint is elongated, and 
the prosternal lobe is long. JLimonius plebeius Lec. and JL. 
ectypus Say are obscure reddish brown insects, with a slight 
fine pubescence. 


462 COLEOPTERA. 


In Corymbites the front is more or less flattened, and the 
coxal plates are narrow externally. C. wripennis Lee. is a 
shiny dark greenish species and is found northward. C. viri- 
dis Say is dull mahogany brown, mottled with a fine 
erayish bloom. C. cylindriformis Germ. is more com- 
mon, and of the usual dull reddish brown.  C. triun- 
dulatus Lec. is frequently found in New England, and 
has three transverse waved bands on the pale elytra ; 
it is found on the blossoms of the rhubarb plant. C. hierogly- 
phicus Harris (Fig. 424,elytra) is a similar form. 

To the genus Pyrophorus belong the different species of Fire- 
flies of Central and South America. P. noctilucus (Fig. 426, 
natural size) is dark rusty brown, and has two large eye-like 
' luminous spots on the sides of the 
thorax, and another at the base of 
the abdomen. Dr. G. A. Perkins in 
the ‘‘American Naturalist,” vol. ii, 
p. 428, states that ‘‘by placing the 
luminous parts of one insect quite 
near the paper, very fine print can be 
easily read by its aid, though I can- 
not imagine the light, even of a large 
number, to be sufficient for any practi- 
eal illuminating purposes as has been 
affirmed by some writers. The Cuban 
ladies make a singular use of these 


living gems, sewing them in lace 
bags, which are disposed as ornaments upon thei dresses, 
or arranged as a fillet for their hair.” 

The species of Melanactes are large shining black insects 
found under stones, and are known by having the coxal plates 
eradually dilated inwards. The larvee (Fig. 426, a luminous 


larva of this genus discovered by Mr. Sanborn in Roxbury, 


Mass.) are luminous and differ from others of this family, ac- 
cording to Osten Sacken, by their small sunken,head, and the 
presence of a pair of ocelli. The abdomen ends in a prop-leg. 


Creprionip® Westwood. This family differs from the pre- 
ceding group in the greater number (six) of abdominal seg- 


SCHIZOPODIDZ. 463 


ments, the well developed tibial spurs, the expansion of the 
anterior tibize at the apex, and in the close cennection between 
the front and the labrum. ‘The females are found at the @n- 
trance of holes which they excavate in the ground. (Leconte.) 
In Cebrio the labrum is separated by suture from the front, and 
the anterior tibiz are entire. Cebrio bicolor Fabr. is found in 
the Southern States. 


Rureicerip#£ Latreille. In this small group the head is 
prominent and the maxille have usually but a single lobe; the 
eleven-jointed antennz are inserted before and in front of 
the eyes, under ridges, and are serrate in the females and 
frequently flabellate in the males. The larvee, in their general 
appearance, resemble those of the 
Elateride or Tenebrionide, be- 
ing cylindrical, the head almost of the 
same breadth as the body, which is 
hard and horny, more or less dark 
brown, and in Zenoa picea Beauy. is a 
little more than an inch in length. 
“The eighth segment is punctate all 
around, and more densely than the 
others. The posterior part of this segment is obliquely 
truncate, and is closed posteriorly by a round, flat, horny 
piece, punctate on the outside and which can, to a certain ex- 
tent, be opened and closed like a lid, being connected by a 
hinge superiorly, and an expanding membrane inferiorly. This 
lid is to be considered as the ninth segment of the abdomen.” 
(Osten Sacken.) The larva, with the adult Zenoa picea, was 
found under bark in Southern Illinois by Mr. Walsh. San- 
dalus (S. petrophya Knoch, and tarsus, Fig. 427), with short 
antenne, flabellate in the males, is found in various species 
of cedars. 


Scuizopopip Leconte. This small group is represented 
by only a single species, Schizopodus letus Leconte. It resem- 
bles in form a Galleruca; it is of a metallic green color, 
coarsely punctured, with red elytra, and is nearly six-tenths 
of an inch long. The head is bent down, closely affixed to 


464 COLEOPTERA. 


the prothorax, and the eleven-jointed antennz are inserted 
immediately in front of the eyes, under a slight promi- 
nence. 


Dascytiip& Guérin. This group embraces genera differ- 
ing much from each other; the head is usually bent down, 
sometimes prominent; the antennze are eleven-jointed, distant 
at their insertion immediately in front of the eyes, being 
placed under a slight ridge, and the mandibles are not promi- 
nent. They all live on aquatic plants, and the larve are 
either like those of the Scarabeide, being provided with 
short four-jointed antennze, and without ocelli, as in Afopa ; or 
they are long, ovate, with distinct ocelli, long bristle-like an- 
tennze and very well developed limbs, as in Cyphon. The genus 
Prionocyphon has the first joint of the antennze much dilated, 
and the joint of the labial palpi is inserted on the side of the 
second ; in Cyphon the palpi are normal. Baron Osten Sacken 
describes the larva of Prionocyphon discoideus Say as being 
long, flattened: ovate, like a sow-bug (Oniscus) with sharp 
lateral edges, the body slightly attenuated before and behind, 
of a leathery consistence, dull pale yellowish, and four-tenths 
of an inch in length. It was found by Mr. Walsh in the hol- 
low of an oak stump filled with water, in which it ‘‘ vibrated 
vigorously up and down a pencil of hairs proceeding from a 
horizontal slit in the tail; this pencil is composed of three - 
pairs of filaments, each beautifully bipectinate. When at the 
surface this larva generally, but not always, swims on its back, 
keeping its body slightly below the surface, and striking with 
its feet, so as to jerk from point to point, in a curved line. The 
pencil of hairs touches the surface all the time. ‘'Occasion- 
ally, says Mr. Walsh, ‘‘a bubble of air is discharged from the 
tail. Generally, when it is beneath the surface, the anal pencil 
is retracted entirely. It has the power of jerking its body sud-' 
denly round, and darting up and down with great vigor. Its 
remarkably long antennze are constantly vibrating, like those 
of terrestrial insects. The pupa is white, with large black 
eyes which are very conspicuous beneath, and two short black 
setze on the occiput. The body is covered with a short, white, 
erect down or pubescence. ‘The antennz are about two-thirds 


LAMPYRID&. 465 


the length of the body, placed lengthwise beneath, side by 
side. The body is scarcely two-tenths of an inch long. 


Lampyrip& Leach. The species of the family of Fire-flies 
resemble the Elaters, but they are shorter and broader, and 
of softer consistence. ‘The head is usually immersed in the 
thorax ; the usually eleven-jointed, serrate, rarely pectinate or 
flabellate antenneze are inserted on the front rather closely 
together in the typical genera. The elytra never strongly 
embrace the sides of the abdomen, are sometimes short, and 
in some foreign genera entirely wanting in the females. The 
anterior coxee are contiguous, conical, with a large trochantine ; 
the middle coxe are oblique, and the hinder ones transverse ; 
while the legs are 
slender or com- 
pressed and of mod- 
erate length. The 
larvee are rather 
long, flattened, | 
blackish, with pale 
spots on the angles 
of each segment. 

In Lycus the an- — 
tenn are inserted 
in front of the eyes, 
at the base of the =. 
long beak into Fig. 432. Fig. 430. Fig. 428. 
which the head is prolonged, and the sides of the thorax are 
somewhat foliaceous. The female of the Glow-worm, Lam- 
pyris, of Europe is wingless. She lays her eggs, which are of 
large size, in the earth or upon moss and plants; the larva 
(Fig. 428, female of a species of this genus from Zanzibar), 
which feeds on snails, is said to become fully grown in April, 
and in fifteen days assumes the imago state. An anonymous 
French author states, according to Westwood, that when the 
larva is ready to assume the pupa state, instead of slitting 
the skin in a line down the back, a slit on each side of the 
three thoracic segments is made, separating the upper from 
the lower surfaces.” While the female is large and larva- 

30 


466 COLEOPTERA. 


like, the much smaller male has broad elytra and a rather nar- 
row slender body. 

In the genus Photinus, of which there are numerous species 
in this country, the antennee are compressed, or nearly filiform, 
and the species differ 
from those of Lampy- 
ris, by the females 
having wings. Nearly 
all have phosphor- 
escent glands in the 
last abdominal seg- 
ments. 

The editors of the ‘“ American Entomologist,” p. 19, give 
the history of P. pyralis Linn. (Fig. 429; a, larva; e, under- 
side of a segment; f, head; d, a leg; 6, pupa in its cocoon of 
earth; c, the. adult). The larva lives in the 
ground, feeding on earthworms and soft bodied 
insects. When fully grown, or during the latter 
part of June, it forms an oval cavity in the earth 
and pupates, and in ten days becomes a beetle. 

In Photuris the wings and elytra are complete 
in both sexes, while the head is narrowed behind, 
and the labrum is distinct. P. Pensylvanica De- 
Geer (Fig. 430, and 431, larva) is our most com- 
mon species, and the larva figured I regard as 
belonging to this species. It is not uncommonly met with in 
the evening shining brightly as it crawls along, and is blackish 
and crustaceous like a pill bug. Another Photuris 
larva (Fig. 452) I have found under a stone in 
May. It is represented as in the act of walking, 
the feet on one side of the body moving alter- 
nately with those on the other. This is the mode 
in which insects usually walk. 

Fig. 433 (enlarged three times) represents a 
very singular larva, evidently belonging to this 

Fig. 433. family, and related to the genus Drilus. It was 
found by Rey. E. C. Bolles, at Westbrooke, Maine, under 
leaves, and it probably, like other larve of this family, is 
carnivorous. Its body is very flat, with the sides of the head 


Fig. 429. 


MALACHIDZ. 467 


and each ring of the body produced into a remarkably long, 
soft, fleshy tubercle, while there are two rows of black spots 
along the back. 

In the genus Phengodes, the females of which are not yet 
known in this country, the third and following joints of the 
antenne emit two very long, slender and flexible pubescent 
branches from near the base; the second and third joints are 
very short. The elytra are one-third the length of the abdo- 
men, and are strongly divergent and subulate. Dr. Leconte 
describes Phengodes plumosa Oliv. as being testaceous, with the 
antenne, excepting the base, and the narrow tips of the elytra 
fuscous, and the sides of the thorax broadly depressed ; it oc- 
curs from New York to Texas. In Chauliognathus the antennze 
are filiform; the elytra are as long or nearly as long as the 
abdomen and rounded at tip, while 
the anterior margin of the thorax is a 
rounded. C. Pensylvanicus DeGeer 7 i 


(Fig. 434; a, larva; 6, head en- pn 
larged ; c, labium; d, labrum; e, a ac 
leg; f, maxilla; g, antenna; h, man- 

dible), in the larva state devours HSS ot 

the grubs of the plum curculio. (American Entomologist, i, 
p- 30.) In Telephorus the head is never concealed by the tho- 
rax, and the latter is rounded from the sides along the front 
margin, the front of the head is emarginate at tip; the claws 
are toothed, being rarely cleft. The species are found on the 
leaves of trees in June. Walsh states that the larva of 7. 
Carolina Fabr. preys on wood-feeding larve. Mr. P. S. 
Sprague has reared the larva of 7’. bilineatus Say. He found 
it near Boston under stones in spring, when it pupates, and 
early in May becomes a beetle. It is found on the leaves of 
the birch as soon as they are expanded. 


Maxracuip Redtenbacher. This small group, often united 
with the preceding family, is chiefly distinguished by the an- 
tenn being inserted on the sides of the front, and by the body 
in some genera being furnished with soft extensible vesicles, 
while the abdominal segments are in part membranous. Mala- 
chius and its allies are of small size. Some of them resemble 


468 COLEOPTERA. 


at first sight some Staphylinide; they frequent flowers and 
the banks of ponds and streams. ‘The females of Microlipus 
are apterous. 


Creripx Kirby. These beautiful flower beetles are known 
by the prominent head, the usually emarginate eyes, and 
the usually eleven-jointed antennz inserted at the sides of 
the front, and either serrate or pectinate, with the outer joints 
enlarged, forming a serrate, or rarely a compact club. Their 
~~ bodies are slender, with slender legs. 

They are rapid in their movements, 
and run like ants (which they much 
resemble when in motion) over flowers 

WSs 2D and trees to feed on the sweets and 
sap. The larvee are carnivorous and infest the nests of bees. 
They are flattened, hairy grubs, the tip of the abdomen end- 
ing in two horny points. Those of the genera 
Corynetes and Necrobia live on dead animal 
matter. 

In Priocera (Fig. 455, P. undulata Say) the eyes 
are coarsely granulated ; the antenne are serrate, 
and the maxillary palpi are cylindrical In *'® ** 
Elasmocerus (EK. terminatus Say, ¢, Fig. 436) the antenne are 
ten-jointed, the last joint being very long and _ flat. 

The genus Trichodes is known by the maxillary palpi being 
somewhat dilated, otherwise it agrees with the succeeding 
genus. JZ. Nuttallii Kirby is 
abundant in August on the 
flowers of Spirzea alba; its larva 
is to be looked for in the nests 
of bees. In Europe 7. apiarius 
Linn. (Fig. 437; a, larva; 3, 
-pupa) has long been known to 
} devour the young bees. In its 
: x perfect state it is found on 
: flowers. 

In Clerus the head is large, the eyes not very prominent, 
finely granulated, the antennal club is somewhat triangular ; 
the maxillary palpi are not dilated, and the posterior tarsi are. 


CUPESIDZ. 469 


moderate in length and broadly dilated. Thanasimus differs 
in the body being hairy, while the posterior tarsi are longer 
and scarcely dilated. The long narrow slender pink larvee can 
be found under the bark of dead pine trees where they probably 
prey upon the larvee of Hylurgus and Hylobius. The larve 
of Clerus are of a beautiful red color. The European Clerus 
alvearius infests the nests of the Mason-bees, Osmia and Meg- 
achile. ‘The larva when hatched, first devours the grub of 
the bee in the cell in which it is born and then proceeds from 
cell to cell, preying upon the inhabitant of each until arrived 
at maturity. It is in this situation, also, that it undergoes its 
changes in a small cocoon, which it has previously constructed, 
making its escape from the nest in the beetle state, where the 
hardness of its covering sufficiently defends it from the stings 
of the bees.” (Westwood.) 


LymexyLip& Leach. This small group, chiefly interesting 
as containing a genus which has proved of great mischief to 
the ship timber of Europe, from its boring habits, is distin- 
guished by the head being bent down and 

narrowed behind ; by the usually very large oo 
eyes, the two ciliate lobes of the maxille, 

the palpi of which are stout, four-jointed, 

and in the male very large and flabellate, | (\ 
while the mandibles are short and obtusely 

bidentate. The body is long and narrow, Wig. 438. 

with slender legs. The genus Lymeaxylon has five abdominal 
segments. The larva is very long and slender, with the first 
thoracic segment dilated into a large hood, while the terminal 
ring is produced into a large obtuse lobe. In Europe it 
greatly injures oak trees and ship timber, but our species 
(Lymexylon sericeum Harris, Fig. 438, and antenne, legs and 
palpi) is too rare to be of any harm at present. 


Currsip® Lacordaire. Leconte states that ‘the affinities 
of this family are very obscure; in the form and insertion of 
the antenne it is similar to the first genera of the next family, 
but other characters, such as the form of the coxe and the re- 
tractility of the legs, are at variance. The body is covered 


470 COLEOPTERA. 


with small scales as in the genera alluded to.” Cupes capitata 
Fabr. is black with the head red; while Cupes cinerea Say is 
pale gray, with darker lines. They are found under the bark 
of decaying trees, and also occasionally in houses. (Leconte.) 


Prinipaz Leach. These are small beetles, often of an ob- 
scure brown color, somewhat oval in shape, and truncated 
behind ; the nine-jointed filiform antennze are inserted on the 
front, or sides of the front; the head is retractile, frequently 
protected by the prothorax ; the 
labrum is distinct ; the maxillee 
have two ciliate lobes, and the 
é ZA maxillary palpi are short and 
-=) four-jointed. The legs are slen- 
der, contractile, and the insect 
when disturbed draws them up 
and feigns death. In Prinus 
the antennze are inserted on the 
Fig. 439. front very close together, the 
legs are long, not contractile, with large trochanters ; the teeth 
of the mentum are acute, and the labrum is rounded. The 
males differ from the short and thickened females in being long 
and narrow. ‘The beetles are found about out-houses, the wood 
of which they perforate in various directions. Ptinus fur Linn. 
(Fig. 438 ; a, larva), the most commonly diffused — 
species, is known to attack museums and collec- 
tions of insects. It is .15 of an inch in length, 
and uniformly chestnut brown in color. The larva 
here figured was found eating the dried contents 
of a shell in the Museum of the Peabody 
Academy of Science. 

Sitodrepa panicea Fabr. (Fig. 440, pupa) is a 
small insect like Anobium, of a pale reddish 
brown color, with much paler dense hairs. It is .13 of an inch 
long. The larva resembles in its form that of Ptinus, but the 
body is much thicker, not growing smaller towards the head 
as in that genus; the end of the body is smooth, obtusely 
rounded, with fine hairs; it is .08 of an inch long and un- 
doubtedly grows larger. It occurred in all its stages and in 


Fig. 440. 


PTINID®. 471 


great abundance in several nests of Vespa in the Museum 
of the Peabody Academy, where it undoubtedly eat the dried 
remains of the wasps; it was extensively preyed upon by a 
Pteromalus-like Chalcid. 

The genus Anobium is cylindrical, the eleven-jointed an- 
tennz are distant from each other at base and inserted immedi- 
ately in front of the eyes, the mesosternum is flat, and 
the anterior coxz are nearly contiguous. The larva 
is thick and fleshy, resembling some Scarabeeid larvee 
in the fleshy baggy tip of the abdomen, except that 
they do not, lay on their side when walking. They 
construct a silken cocoon interweaving the particles 
of dust they make. A. notatum Say is blackish 
above, varied with ashen, and the posterior angles of the pro- 
thorax are rather acute. In Europe they are called Death- 
ticks, as the ticking made by them in the walls of houses, a 
familiar sound in this country, was supposed by the supersti- 
tious to announce the death of persons, though: it is but a 
sexual call. Doubt having been thrown on the statement that 
Anobium causes the ticking noise, Mr. H. Doubleday states 
in the ‘‘ Entomologist,” vol. iii, p. 66, ‘‘I can speak positively 
with regard to the Anobium, and I assure you that this little 
beetle produces the loud ticking sound by raising itself upon 
its legs as high as it can, and then striking the head and under 
part of the thorax against the substance upon which 
it is standing, generally five or six times in succes- 
sion, and it always chooses a substance which pro- 
duces the most sound. It is evidently a call note 
from one individual to another, as you very rarely 
hear one rap without its being immediately answered 
by another.” Mr. Sanborn has reared the larva (Fig. 441, en- 
larged) of Ernobius mollis Fabr., which is a near ally of Ano- 
bium. 

Bostrichus and its allies are distinguished by- their long 
bodies, the head being usually bent down and covered by the 
hood-like thorax; the antennze are distant and the anterior 
coxe are contiguous. They are found in fungi or under bark. 
In Bostrichus the front is margined on the sides. In Amphi- 
cerus the front is not so margined. The apple twig borer, A. 


Fig. 442. 


472 COLEOPTERA. 


bicaudatus Say (Fig. 442) in the valley of the Mississippi, is 
very injurious to apple trees, boring under the bark of small 
twigs ‘‘just above one of the buds, and on cutting into them 
it will be noticed that a cylindrical hole, about the size of a 
common knitting needle, extends downwards from the perfora- 
tion above the bud, through the very heart of the twig, for the 
length of an inch and a half.” (Walsh.) The larva which I 
have received from Dr. Shimer, has much the same form as 
that of Lyctus, but the head is more prominent and also the 
sides of the body. The anterior half of the body is consider- 
ably thicker than behind and the legs are provided with long 
hairs ; the end of the body is smooth and much rounded. It 
is .J0 of an inch long. 

Specimens of [hizopertha pusilla have been introduced, Le- 
conte states, into wheat distributed from the Patent Office. 
In this last genus the eighth and ninth joints of the antennze 
are triangular. 

In the genus Lyctus the head is prominent, the body long 
and narrow, and the club of the antenna is two-jointed, while 
the outer apical angle of the anterior 
tibize is prolonged. We have received 
from Dr. H. Shimer, Z. opaculus Lec., 
in all its stages (Fig. 443; a, larva; 
b, pupa). The beetle is chestnut 
brown, with short yellowish hairs and 
puncto-striate elytra; it is .20 of an 
inch in length. The larva is white, its body is cylindrical, 
thick and fleshy, with a small head and strong black mandibles ; 
the thoracic rings are thickest. It is .17 of inch long. Ac- 
cording to Dr. Shimer it eats the wood of dead grape vines. 


Croip& Leach. This small group is known by the maxillz 
being exposed at the base, the two ciliate lobes of which are 
flattened, and the eight to ten-jointed clavate antenne are in- 
serted at the anterior margin of the eyes ; the head is protected 
by the prothorax, which is cylindrical, rounded in front, with 
the lateral margin distinct. The species of the genus Cis, 
which have ten-jointed antennz, are very small, cylindrical, 
dark colored, gregarious beetles, which live under the bark of 


TENEBRIONIDA. - 473 


trees, and in dry, woody species of fungi. Some males have 
the head and anterior margin of the thorax horned. 


TeNneBRIONID# Latreille. This is not a very easily limited 
family ; the most trenchant characters, however, are stated by 
Leconte to be these: the two-lobed maxillz have the smaller 
lobe sometimes armed with a terminal corneous hook; the 
palpi four-jointed ; the mandibles are usually short, robust and 
furnished with a basal tooth; the eyes are usually transverse, 
and the antenne are generally inserted under the sides of the 
head, or at least under a small frontal ridge, and are usually 
eleven-jointed, clavate, subserrate or very rarely pectinate, as 
in Rhipidandrus. The elytra are rounded at tip, covering the 
abdomen, and frequently embracing its sides very far down, 
while the hind wings are frequently wanting. The legs vary 
in length; the anterior coxe are globose, without any 
trochantine ; the hind tarsi are four-jointed, and the ab- 
domen has five free segments, the first three appearing 
more closely united than the others. The larve are 
slender, flattened, horny, resembling the wire-worms ; 
from two to five ocelli on each side, or wanting entirely, 
and the last ring of the body often has two spines. The 
larvee (Fig. 444, larva of an unknown species) moult 
several times, and when about to transform make no co-™* *# 
coon, the beetles appearing in about six weeks. Dr. Leconte 
says that the distribution of the genera of this family is very 
remarkable. Of those without wings scarcely any are common 
to the two continents. With the exception of three, they are 
not represented in North America, east of the longitude of 
the mouth of the Platte or Nebraska River; from that point 
they increase in number of genera, species and individuals, 
until in California they form the characteristic feature of the 
insect fauna.” : 

We can only notice a few genera, interesting to the general 
reader, and refer the special student, as heretofore, to Dr. Le- 
conte’s able treatment of the Coleoptera previously cited. 

The genus Blaps, in which the hind wings are obsolete, does 
not oceur in this country, being represented by numerous spe- 
cies of Hlodes and Promus. The European Blaps mortisaga is 


474 COLEOPTERA. 


the Church-yard beetle. Dr. Pickells states, according to West- 
wood, that ‘tone of these beetles was immersed repeatedly 
in spirits of wine, but revived after remaining therein all 
night, and afterwards lived three years.” The larvee are eaten 
by the women in Egypt, after being roasted. 

In Upis the legs are long, with small tibial spurs, while the 
tarsi are clothed beneath with a silky, golden pubescence, the 
hind tarsi being long, and 
the epipleur are gradually 
narrowed towards the base 
of the elytra. Upis eceram- 
boides Linn. is a fine large, 
deep purple black beetle, 
with roughly  shagreened 
elytra, and is found under 
the bark of trees. In Tene- 
brio the body is long ovate 
and winged, the legs are 
slender, the femora swollen less than usual, with larger tibial 
spurs; the tarsi are clothed with a rigid pubescence, and the 
epipleuree extend to the tip of the elytra. Yenebrio molitor 
Linn., the Meal worm, is found in all its stages about corn 
and rye meal; it is frequently swallowed with food. ‘*It is 
also very destructive to ship-biscuits packed in casks, which 
when opened are found eaten through in holes by these insects 
and their larve.” (Westwood.) The larva is about an meh 
long, cylindrical, smooth and glossy, with the terminal seg- 
ment semicircular, slightly serrated on the edges, and termi- 
nated in a single point. An allied beetle in Brazil is known 
to eject a caustic fluid, and in Europe some are known to cover 
themselves with this fluid. In Boletophagus the antennz are 
eleven-jointed and the eyes are entirely divided. B. cornutus 
Panzer (Fig. 445, Orcas larva; b, pupa, ¢), as its name im- 
plies, lives in those fungi, which, according to Dr. Leconte, 
either grow upon trees or under bark, and may be known by the 
front of the head being prolonged and margined anteriorly and 
on the sides, covering the mouth above, often thus dividing 
the eyes, while the dull black body is covered with stout tuber- 
cles. It is found in all its stages in fungi, in August. The 


MELANDRYIDZ®. 475 


larva is long and narrow, cylindrical, the head free from the 
body, rounded, with stout, broad, triangular mandibles; the’ 
tip of the abdomen is square, with a sharp spine on each 
side. It is .80 of an inch in length, and of a dark chestnut 
brown color. 


/EciaLitip£ Leconte. This family is represented by a sin- 
gle species, gialites debilis Lec., from Russian America. 


CistrLip# Latreille. This group, as Leconte states, ‘ap- 
proaches very nearly to the more degraded forms of the T’ene- 
brionide@, and the degradation of structure is carried still 
farther by the anterior coxze becoming conical, prominent, and 
contiguous in certain genera. The only characters to be relied 
on for isolation in this family are, first, the pectinate claws ; 
and second, the anterior coxal cavities being closed behind. 
They are fonnd on leaves and flowers, or under bark.” _Alle- 
cula at first sight somewhat resembles an Elater. Cistela dif- 
fers from its allies in having the last joint of the maxillary 
palpi longer than wide. 


Lacrip2 Westwood. This inconsiderable family differs 
from the Tenebrionide, in the greater prominence of the 
anterior coxee, and the dilated penultimate joint of the tarsi, 
though the larvee differ in being rather long, almost as wide as 
long, convex above, and with the exception of the large head 
are thickly covered with hairs. ‘There are two genera, Arthro- 
macra and Statyra, which are found on leaves and under bark. 


Monommip# Lacordaire. This little group is a very distinct 
one, composed of small, black, oval, flattened beetles. Mon- 
omma is confined to the Eastern Continent, and a species of 
Hyporhagus is found, one on the eastern, the other on the 
Pacific side of this country. | 


MELANDRYIDH Leach. This group comprises a few species 
of elongate form, with two basal impressions on the prothorax, 
and the first joint of the hind tarsi is always much elongated. 
They are found under bark and in fungi. In Melandrya the 


476 COLEOPTERA. 


head is bent forward, the base of the prothorax is sinuous, 
but not distinctly lobed, and the elytra are striate. MW. striata 
Say is found in the Atlantic States. 


Pytuipa Lacordaire. This is a small group of mostly 
northern species found living under bark and stones. Pytho 
and its allies resemble some Tenebrionide. 


CEpEMERID# Latreille. This group comprises insects of 
moderate size, and, according to Leconte, generally found on 
plants, though some species of Asclera live on the ground near 
water, and Microtonus sericans is a very small brown sericeous 
insect, found on leaves in the Atlantic States. 


CrepnaLow#. Leconte places in a distinct family, the single 
species, Cephaloon lepturides Newman, which is found on 
plants northward. 


Morpetiip£ Leach. These are curious small, wedge- 
shaped, glistening, pubescent, black beetles, which occur in 
abundance on the flowers of Golden-rods and asters, and when 
disturbed leap off like fleas, or slip suddenly to the ground. 
Anaspis has the fourth joint of the anterior and middle tarsi 
very small, and the body is fusiform, with oval eyes. In Mor- 
della the body is wedge-shaped, the eyes are finely granulated, 
the scutellum is triangular, and the last joint of the mavil- 
lary palpi triangular or securiform. The larvz are said to live 
in the pith of plants during autumn, and are long, subcylin- 
drical, and the sides of the rings are furnished with fleshy 
tubercles. Mordellistena differs in the hind tibiz having sub- 
apical and oblique ridges. 


Antuicip® Latreille. Of this small group, Votoxus anchora 
Hentz is noted for having the head prolonged over the 
mouth into a horn; it is found in marshy places. Leconte 
states that Tanarthrus salinus Lee. flies and runs on salt mud 
like a Cicindela; it oceurs in the Colorado desert. The nu- 
merous species of Anthicus live in sandy places near water. 
Formicomus is ant-like, being wingless. 


MELOIDE. ATa 


Pyrocuroi# Latreille. A small group of beetles which 
are found under the bark of trees; they generally have a red- 
dish thorax contrasting with the black head and elytra. ‘The 
branches of the pectinate male antenne are rigid in Pyrochroa, 
and very slender and flexible in Dendroides ; in Schizotus they 
are of an intermediate form, and somewhat flexible.” (Le- 
conte.) The larva of Dendroides is a very flat whitish grub, - 
with two large curved spines on the tail; it lives 
under the bark of pines and other trees. ‘Two species 
of this genus, D. concolor Newman and D. Canadensis 
Latr., are equally common in New England. Fig. 
446, enlarged, represents the larva of a species of 
Pyrochroa, of which P. flabellata Fabr. is a type. 


Mertor Gyllenhal. This is a family of great in- 
terest from the parasitic habits of the larvee, which dif- 
fer remarkably from the adult forms. The head is 
much bent forwards, and is suddenly constricted far Fis. 44. 
behind the eyes into a small neck; the eleven-jointed antennze 
are inserted at the sides of the front, before the eyes; the 
elytra are variable in form, but when abnormally shortened, 
are ovate, rather than square at the tip, and the hind wings are 
often absent. The legs are long, the hind tarsi are four- 
jointed, the penultimate joint usually cylindrical. They are 
soft-bodied, cylindrical, slender beetles, and are always found 
on flowers. The larve are ovate, flattened, often very minute 
and then somewhat resembling the Pediculi in habits. Meloé 
is a large dark blue beetle found about buttercups and crawl- 
ing on grass in May and again late in August. The elytra are 
small and short, overlapping each other on the large ovate 
full abdomen; the claws are cleft, the male antennz are 
twisted and knotted. The eggs are laid in the ground, prob- 
ably near the nests of bees, for in the early spring, the young 
larvee recently hatched are found on the bodies of various 
bees, such as Bombus, Halictus and Andrena, and also various 
Syrphi and Muscee frequenting the flowers of the willow in 
April, whence they are conveyed by the agency of the bees. 
On these flowers we have found them in abundance. They are 
very active in their habits, and difficult to rear in confinement, 


478 COLEOPTERA. 


which can only be done by confining the bees on which they 
are found, and supplying them with flowers. When the bee 
becomes exhausted by the loss of fluids drawn out by its para- 
site, it is quickly deserted by these minute torments for a 
newly introduced and more lively bee. The 
length of the larva at this period (Fig. 447) 
is .06 of aninch. It differs very remarkably 
from those of the neighboring families, which 
are generally oval, being long and linear- 
oblong, flattened. The three thoracic rings 
are of equal size, transversely oblong, the 
head being of nearly the same size with one 
of the thoracic segments, and provided with 
short antennse. The legs have long claws 
with an intermediate long pad. From the tip 
of the abdomen proceed two pair of sete, the 

‘Fig. 447. inner one much longer than the other pair. 
It is shorter than that of M. violaceus, figured by Newport, who 
has, with great sagacity, cleared up the remarkable history of 
this genus. It is undoubtedly the young of our common Weloé 
angusticollis Say (Fig. 448). The larvee are conveyed by the 
bees themselves into their nests where they prey on the larvee 
and bee bread. When full-fed and ready to pass through their 
transformations, instead of at once as- 
suming the pupa state, they pass . 
through what has been called by Fabre 
a ‘*¢hypermetamorphosis.” In other 
words the changes in form preparatory 
to assuming the pupa state are here 
more marked than usual, and are al- 
most coequal with the larva and pupa 
states, so that the Meloé instead of 
passing through only three states (the 
egg, larva and pupa) in reality passes through these and two 
others in addition which are intermediate. Fabre states that 
the larva, soon after entering the nest of its host, changes its 
skin and assumes a second larval form (Fig. 449) resembling 
a lamellicorn larva. Newport, however, who with Siebold has 
carefully described the metamorphosis of Meloé, does not men- 


MELOID. 479 


tion this stage in its development. In this stage the larva is 
said to be motionless; the head is mask-like, without movable 
appendages, and the feet are represented by six tubercles. 
This is, properly speaking, the ‘“‘semipupa.” This 
form, however, according to Fabre, changes its skin 
and turns into a third larval form (Fig.450). After 
some time it assumes its true pupa form (Fig. 451) 
and finally moults this skin to appear as a beetle. 
In Horia and allies the head is large, square behind, 
and the front is not prolonged beyond the base of the antennz. 
Horia sanguinipennis Say is now placed by Leconte in the 
genus Tricrania, which differs in the last joint of 
the maxillary palpi being longer than the third, and 
by the triangular head. It is found in the nest of 
the humble bee, and in the West Indies a species 
\os—j of Horia is found in the nests of Xylocopa teredo, a 
Sey species of carpenter bee. 
Sitaris, an European genus, has much the same 
Fis. 0. habits as Meloé. Its egos are laid near the entrance 
of bees’ nests, and at the very moment, according 
to Fabre, that the bee lays her egg in the honey- 
cell, the flattened, oval, Sitaris larva drops from 
the body of the bee upon the egg and feasts upon 
its contents. It then feeds on the honey in the 
cell of the bee and changes into a white, cylindri- 
cal, nearly footless grub, and after it becomes full- 
fed, and has assumed the supposed ‘ pupa” 
state, the skin, without bursting, encloses a kind 
of hard ‘‘pupa” skin which is very 
similar in outline to the former larva, Fig. 451.~ 
and within this skin is found a whitish larva, which 
directly changes into the true pupa. These 
changes M. Fabre calls a ‘‘ hypermetamorphosis,” 
but it will probably be found that the two so- 
called ‘‘pupa” states, imrhediately preceding the 
Fig. 42. final génuine pupa state he describes, are but 
changes of the semipupa, and can be paralleled in some de- 
gree by the remarkable changes of the bee and moth noted 
by us previously. 


Fig. 449. 


480 _ COLEOPTERA. 


The Blister beetles, of which Lytta (Cantharis) affords many 
species, secrete the substance known as ‘‘Cantharadine.” The 
Spanish-fly is 
used in commerce, 
and is a_ bright 
shining green spe- 
cies. Our native 
forms, which as 
well as Meloé, 
when dried, can 

Fig. 453. be used for pro- 
ducing blisters, are dark colored. Their larvee have the same 
form as that of Meloé; it remains yet to ascertain their 
true habits, though Latreille states that they live beneath the 
ground feeding on the roots of vegetables. Among 
the species of Blister beetles which are especially 
injurious to the potato are Lyita vittata Fabr. (Fig. 
452), L. cinerea Fabr. (Fig. 453, a), L. murina Lec. 
(Fig. 453, 6), and L. marginata Fabr. (Fig. 454). 

Phodaga alticeps Lec. (Fig. 455; 1, front of male ; 
2, profile of male; 3, anterior tibia and tarsus; 4, 

Fig. 454. middle tibia; 5, claw; from Horn) is a Californian 
species, remarkable for the great differences between the 
sexes, in the form of the legs and tarsi. 


RuiperpHorip& Gerstaecker. This family is characterized 
by Leconte as having a vertical head, with perfect mouth- 
parts, affixed to the prothorax by a very slender neck, which 
is entirely contained within the prothorax, while the vertex is 

a s g usually elevated. The eleven-jointed 

\ antenne (ten-jointed in the female of 

} 4 certain species) are pectinate or flabel- 
late in the males, and frequently serrate 

Fig. 455. in the females. The prothorax is as 

large as the elytra at Base, much narrowed in front, and the 
elytra, rarely covering the abdomen, are usually narrowed be- 
hind, diverging on the back. The legs are long and slender, 
with filiform tarsi, and the claws are pectinate or toothed, be- 
ing rarely simple. They are found on flowers. The larval 


| 


2 
{( 


STYLOPIDZ. 481 


forms are not yet known. Jthipiphorus is a wedge-shaped 
genus, not found in America. A. Finnicus Paykull is said to 
be a parasite on Chrysis, the cuckoo wasp. It is here repre- 
sented by two genera, Macrosiagon and Emmenadia which are 
wedge-shaped, with coarsely punctured and sparsely pubescent 
bodies, with the vertex of the head much elevated. In Myo- 
dites the elytra are very small. The species are found on Soli- 
dago or Golden-rod in August. The genus Metoecus is allied 
to Myodites. Metoecus paradoxus Linn. is in Europe a para- 
site in the nests of wasps (Vespa) eating the larvee. 

In the genus &hipidius the males have short pointed de- 
hiscent elytra, while the females are entirely wingless and 
worm-like. It is a parasite on Blatta Germanica. They are 
to be looked for in this country, where they have not yet 
occurred. 


StyLtopip# Kirby. This most anomalous family, both as 
regards the structure and the habits of the few species compos- 
ing it, were for a long time excluded from the Coleoptera by 
systematists generally, and by Gerstaecker they are even now 
placed in the old ‘“‘order” Strepsiptera. They are minute 
forms, and have been characterized thus by Dr. Leconte. 
‘«Oral organs atrophied except the mandibles and one pair of 
palpi. Head large, transverse, vertical, prolonged at the sides, 
forming a stout peduncle, at the end of which are situated the 
eyes, which are convex and very coarsely granulated. Antennze 
inserted on the front, at the base of the lateral processes of 
the head; forked in one genus. Prothorax exceedingly short. 
Mesothorax short, bearing at each side a slender, coriaceous 
club-shaped appendage, with the inner margin membranous: 
this appendage represents the elytra. Metathorax very large, 
greater in bulk than the rest of the body, with the sutures of 
the dorsal pieces all distinct. The postscutellum is conical and 
prolonged far over the base of the abdomen ; wings very large, 
fan-shaped, with a few diverging nervures; the epimera are 
very large, and project behind almost as far as the postscutel- 
lum. Abdomen small, with from seven to nine segments. 
Legs short ; anterior and middle coxe cylindrical, prominent ; 
hind coxz very small, contiguous, quadrate; tibiae without 

31 


482 COLEOPTERA. 


spurs; tarsi without claws, joints each with a membranous 
lobe beneath.” The females are sac-like. They live enclosed 
in the body of the bee. 

In Stylops the antennz are six-jointed, and in Xenos they 
are four-jointed. From the middle of May until late in June 
both sexes of Stylops may be found in ‘‘stylopized” individu- 
als of Andrena and Polistes. The flattened triangular head 
of the female may be seen projecting from between the abdomi- 
nal segments of the bee,.and sometimes there are two or three 
of them. On carefully drawing out the whole body of a female 
Stylops Childreni (Fig. 456; a, ab- 
domen of bee enclosing the female 
Stylops ; b, top view), which is very 
extensible, baggy and full of a thin 
fluid, and examining it under a high 
power we found multitudes, at 
least three hundred, of very minute 
Stylops larvee, like particles of dust 
issuing in every direction from the 
body of the parent. Most of them 
escaped from near the head, over 
which they ran, as they must do, 
when the parent is in its natural 
position, in order to get out upon 
the surface of the bee. It thus ap- 
pears that the young (Plate 3, fig. 6, 6a) are hatched within 
the body of the parent, and are therefore viviparous. The 
head of the female is flattened, triangular, nearly equilaterally 
so, with the apex or region of the mouth obtuse, and the two 
hinder angles each containing a minute simple eye; the larger 
part of the head above consists of the epicranium, which is 
narrow in front, with the edge convex; the mandibles are 
obsolete, being two flattened portions lying in front of the 
gena and separated from that region by a very distinct 
suture; no clypeus or labrum can be distinguished. The 
mouth is transverse and opens on the upper side of the head, 
while in front, owing to the position of the mouth, lies the 
rather large labium and the rounded papilliform maxille. 

The larva is elliptical in form, the head semioyal, while the 


Fig. 456. 


STYLOPID A. 483 


tip of the abdomen is truncate; the sides of the body are 
straight, there being no well defined sutures between the seg- 
ments; seen laterally the larva is thickest at the metathoracic 
ring. Two simple eyes are situated near the base of the head. 
The body is.so transparent that the intestine can be traced 
easily to just before the tip, where it ends in a cul de sac. The 
two anterior pairs of legs 
are much alike; coxe 
short; femora and tibise 
small, cylindrical ; a slen- 
der tibial spur; the tarsi 
consisting of a single 
clavate joint equalling 
the tibia in length, being 
much swollen at the tip, 
and without claws. The 
hind tarsi are longer, 
very slender, two-jointed, the terminal one being bulbous. The 
terminal styles, inserted in the tenth abdominal ring, are a little 
more than one-half the length of the body, which is covered 
with long setose scales. In their movements these infinitesi- 
mal larve were very active, as they scrambled over the body 
of the parent, holding their caudal setze nearly erect. 

On the last of April we caught a male Stylops Childreni West- 
wood (Fig. 457, and 458) in the same net with a stylopized 
Andrena placida, and as the abdo- 
men of the male was long and very 
extensile, its tip being provided with 
a capacious forceps for seizing the 
body of the female, it is most proba- 
ble that the female described belonged to the same species, and 
that at this time the short-lived male, for this one lived but for 
a day in confinement after capture, unites sexually with the 
female. It appears then that the larve are hatched during 
the middle or last of June, from the eges fertilized in April, 
and which are retained within the body of the parent. The 
larvee then crawl on to the body of bees and penetrate within 
the abdomen of those that are to hibernate, and live there 
through the winter. The entire body of the male is, with the 


484 COLEOPTERA. 


head and antenne, of a velvety black, the abdomen slightly 
brownish, while the legs and anal forceps are pale resinous 
brown, and the tips of the tibixe and the tarsal joints pale 
testaceous. It is about one-fourth of an inch in length. 

The succeeding families comprise the divisions Tetramera 
and Trimera of early authors, in which the penultimate joint 
of the tarsi is but slightly developed, forming an enlargement 
at the base of the last joint, with which it is closely 
united. 


Brucuip# Leach. This small family comprises Curculio-like 
beetles of short rounded form which are noted for their activity 
and readiness to take flight when disturbed. They differ from 
the Curculionide in the proboscis being folded on the chest, 
the antennze being short and straight and inserted in a cavity 
next to the eyes. There are 300 species of Bruchus known. 
Bruchus pisi Linn., the Pea weevil, is found in peas in the 
spring at sowing time. It appears soon after the pea is in 
flower, laying its eggs on the flowers. The young larva feeds 
in the growing pod, on the pulp of the pea. Peas infested 
with them should be soaked in boiling hot water before sowing. 
Bruchus fubi Linn. in like manner infests the bean. 


CurcuLionip& Latreille. The weevil family may be at once 
recognized by the head being lengthened into a long snout or 
proboscis (used for boring into objects when about to oviposit), 
near the middle of which are situated the long, slender, elbowed 
antenne. At the extremity of the snout are situated the 
mouth-parts, which are much reduced in size, the palpi having 
small rounded joints. Their bodies are hard and generally 
round and often very minute. They are very timid and 
quickly feign death. The larve are white, thick, fleshy, foot- 
less prubs, with fleshy tubercles instead of legs, and are armed 
with thick curved jaws. They feed on nuts, seeds, the roots, 
pith and bark of plants, leaves or flowers, and especially 
the fruits, while some are leaf-miners and others are said to 
make galls. Preparatory to transforming they spin silken 
cocoons. The number of species already known is immense, 
being not less than from 8,000 to 10,000, and upwards of 650 


CURCULIONID@. 485 


genera have been already described by Schonherr and others, 
of which we can notice but afew of the most important. 

Brenthus and its allies differ from the following genera in 
their remarkably long and slender bodies, the snout being 
stretched straight out, not bent down as usual; while the 
slightly clavate antenne are not elbowed. Dr. Har- —. 
ris gives the history of B. septemtrionalis Herbst | 
(Fig. 459). The female in midsummer punctures 
with her long snout the bark of the white oak. 
The grub, when hatched, bores into the solid wood ; < 
it is nearly cylindrical, whitish, except the last seg- 
ment, which is dark brown and horny, and is 
obliquely hollowed at the end, which is dentate, forming a 
scoop by which the larva clears its gallery of chips. There 
are three pairs of legs and an anal prop-leg. The pupa is 
described as being white, with the 
head bent on the chest between the 
wings and legs. On the back are 
rows of sharp teeth, with two larger 
thorns at the anal tip. 

Harris states that ‘‘the different 
kinds of Attelabus are said to roll 

Fig. 460. Fig. 461. up the edges of leaves, thereby 

forming little nests of the shape and size of thimbles to con- 
tain their eggs and to shelter their young, which 
afterwards devour the leaves.” <A. analis Iliger 
(Fig. 460) is dull red, with dark blue antennz 
and legs. In Rhynchites the head is not con- 
tracted behind into a neck. J. bicolor Fabr. 
injures various roses, wild and cultivated. It , 
is red above, with the antenne, legs and sides * 
of the body black. 

The little seed weevils, Apion, are pear-shaped 
and generally black. Apion Sayi Schonh. 
(Fig. 461) lives in the pods of the wild Indigo. It is black 


and one-tenth of an inch in length. Balaninus, the nut-_ 


weevil, is oval in shape, with a very slender snout, nearly as 
long as the body. B. nasicus Say (Fig. 462) is found on 
hazel bushes, and probably infests the nuts. Harris describes 


486 COLEOPTERA. 


it as being dark brown, and clothed with very short, rust- 
yellow, flattened hairs, which are disposed in spots on its 
wing covers. It is nearly 
three-tenths of an inch long, 
exclusive of the snout. 

The genus fHylobius has 
the antennze inserted before 
the middle of the snout, not 
far from the sides of the 
mouth. The Pine weevil, 
Hylobius pales Herbst, is 
very destructive to pines, the pitch-pine especially. This 
deep chestnut colored weevil is very abundant in May and 
June. It has a line on the thorax, and yellowish white dots 
scattered over the body, while the thighs are toothed beneath, 
and the slender cylindrical snout is nearly as long as the tho- 
rax. The larve are found under the bark. In old trees it 
burrows under the bark, its galleries extending irregularly over 
the inner surface of the bark and in the sap wood. 

The White-pine weevil, Pissodes strobi 
Peck (Fig. 463; a, larva; 06, pupa), 
equally destructive with the former, is a 
smaller beetle, more slender, and oblong 
oval in form. It is rust-colored brown, 
with two white dots on the thorax, a 
white secutellum, and behind the middle 
of the elytra, which are punctured in 

TBS aE rows, is a transverse white line. Harris 
states that its eggs are deposited on the leading shoots of 
the pine, probably on the outer bark, and the larva when 
hatched bores into the shoot, and thus distorts the tree for life. 
The pupa is found just under the bark, the beetles appearing 
in the autumn, though in much greater numbers in May. 

We have found this insect, in all its stages of growth, 
under the bark of the white pine the last of April, the 
larvee being the most numerous. The larva is white, foot- 
less, cylindrical, with a pale reddish head. It is .52 of an 
inch long, and transforms in a cell. The pupa is white, the 
tip of the abdomen being square, with a sharp spine on each 


Fig. 463. 


CURCULIONIDZ&. A87 


side. It is .30 of an inch long. An insect that would be 
readily mistaken for the Hylobius pales is the Otiorhynchus sul- 
catus of Fabricius (Fig. 464), which is of much the same color, 
but with a thicker body. 

The Plum Gouger, Anthonomus prunicida Walsh, resembles 
the Plum curculio in its habits, and, according to Walsh, is 
equally as common in Northern and Central Illinois. It makes 
a round puncture in the plum, sometimes five or six, from 
which the gum copiously exudes. Instead of living, however, 
in the pulp, it devours the kernel and usually transforms inside 
the stone of the fruit. ‘‘The thorax of the plum gouger is 
ochre-yellow ; the head and hinder parts slate-color, the latter 
with irregular white and. black spots. In common with the 
other species of the genus to which it belongs its snout usually 
projects forward, whereas that of the Curculio usually hangs 
perpendicularly downwards.” (Walsh.) A. sycophanta Walsh 
is brown-black and was bred by Mr. Walsh from the galls of 
various saw-flies found on the willow, and he supposes that this 
species, ‘‘ while in the larva state, must destroy the egg or the 
very young larva of the gali-making Nematus, just as A. cra- 
teegi Walsh evidently does ; which was found in an undescribed 
Cecidomyian gall on the thorn bush, and just as the larva of 
A. scutellatus Schonh. gradually destroys the young plant-lice 
among which it lives; otherwise the two larvee would exist in 
the same gall.” Walsh has also bred A. tessellatus Walsh from 
the Cecidomyian gall, C. s. brassicoides. It is ‘‘a very con- 
stant species and easily recognizable by the tessellate appear- 
ance of the elytra.” A. quadrigibbus Say punctures the apple, 
making from one to twenty holes in the fruit. 

The Cranberry weevil, as we may call it, or the Anthonomus 
suturalis Lec., is a minute reddish brown beetle, with the beak 
one-half as long as the body, just beyond the middle of which 
the antennze are inserted. The head is darker than the rest 
of the body, being brown black. The thorax is a little darker 
than the elytra and covered very sparsely with short whitish 
hairs ; the scutellum is whitish, and the elytra are shining red- 
dish brown, with the striae deeply punctured, the interstices 
being smooth. It is .13 of an inch long including the beak. 
Mr. W. C. Fish writes me that in the middle of July he 


488 COLEOPTERA. 


detected this little weevil laying its eggs in the buds of the 
cranberry. ‘‘It selects a bud not quite ready to open, and 
clinging to it, works its snout deep into the centre of the bud. 
An egg is then deposited in the hole made, when the beetle 
climbs to the stem and cuts it off near where it joins the bud, 
which drops to the ground and there decays; the egg hatching 
and the grub going through its transformations within.” The 

larva is long and rather 
8 ie slender, cylindrical, the 
4 body being of uniform 
thickness and curved ; the 
head is pale honey yel- 
low; the jaws tipped with 
black; the rings are very 
convex, especially the pro- 
thoracic one; it is white, 
with a few fine pale hairs, and is .08 of an inch in length. 

The Magdalinus olyra Herbst (Fig. 465; a, larva; b, pupa; 
the thorax of the larva is enlarged by the pupa growing be- 
neath ; the pupa from which the drawing was made is not fuily 
developed, since the tip of the fully grown pupa ends in two 
spines) may be found in all its stages early in May under the 
bark of the oak. The larva is 
white, with the head freer from 
the body than in Pissodes strobi 
(though it is not so represented 
in the figure). The body of the 
beetle is biack, punctured, and 
the thorax has a lateral tubercle 
on the front edge, while the tarsi 
are brown with whitish hairs. It 
is a quarter of an inch long. 

Fig. 466. Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst, 
the Plum -ieevil (Fig. 466; a, larva; b, pupa; ¢, beetle; d, 
plum stung by the weevil) is a short, stout, thick weevil, 
and the snout is curved, rather longer than the thorax, 
and bent on the chest when at rest. It is dark brown, 
spotted with white, ochre-yellow and black, and the surface is 
rough, from which the beetle, as Harris says, looks like a 


Fig. 465. 


CURCULIONIDZ. 489 


dried bud when shaken from the trees. When the fruit is set, 
the beetles sting the plums, and sometimes apples and peaches, 
with their snouts, making a curved incision, in which a single 
ego is deposited. Mr. F. C. Hill shows that the curculio 
makes the crescent-shaped cut after the egg is pushed in ‘so 
as to undermine the egg, and leave it in a kind of flap formed 
by the little piece of the flesh of the fruit which she has under- 
mined. Can her object be to wilt the piece around the egg 
and prevent the growing fruit from crushing it?” (Practical 
Entomologist, ii, p..115.) The grub hatched therefrom is a 
little footless, fleshy white grub, with a distinct round light 
brown head. The irritation set up by these larve causes 
the fruit to drop before it is of full size, with the larva still 
within. Now full-fed, it 
burrows directly into the 
ground and there trans- 
forms during the last of 
the summer. In three 
weeks it becomes a beetle 
It also attacks many other 
garden fruits, such as the 
cherry, peach and quince. 
Drs. Harris, Burnett and 
others, think the larva is 
but a temporary occupant Fig. 467. 

of the wart on plumb and cherry trees, and not a cause of 
the disease. ‘The best remedy is jarring the trees, and catch- 
ing the larve in sheets and burning them. Dr. Hull’s ‘‘cur- 
culio catcher” is an excellent invention for destroying these 
insects ; it consists of a large inverted white umbrella, fixed 
upon a large wheelbarrow split in front to receive the trunk 
of the tree, against whicheit is driven with force sufticient 
to jar the cureulios from the tree into the umbrella. 

The genus Ceutorhynchus is a small, short, thick curculio, 
which attacks the seeds of the radish and allied plants. We 
have noticed a pale gray species on the radish, which probably 
inhabits the seeds. 

The genus Calandra has a slender snout slightly bent down- 
wards, a coarsely punctured thorax nearly half as long as the 


490 COLEOPTERA. 


whole body, while the elytra are furrowed and do not quite 
cover the tip of the abdomen. The Grain Weevil, Sitophilus 
granarius Linn. (Fig. 467; e, and natural size; b, pupa, en- 
larged), is pitchy red in color and about an 
eighth of an inch long, and is immensely prolific. 
This great pest, both as a larva and beetle, con- 
sumes wheat after it is stored up, being very 
abundant in granaries. The larva devours the 
inside of a hull, leaving the shell whole, so that 

Fig. 468. its presence is not readily detected. To prevent 
its attacks Ularris recommends that the wheat be kept cool, 
well ventilated and frequently stirred. 

A similar weevil, Sttophilus oryze Linn. (Fig. 467; e, and 
natural size), attacks the grains of rice and also of wheat; it 
differs in having two large red spots on each elytron, and it is 
abundant in the South, where it is called the ‘* black weevil.” 

The Grape Curculio, Celiodes ineequalis Say (Fig. 468 ; 469 ; 
a, grape disfigured by the larva; 0, larva), has lately, according 
to Walsh, been very destructive to 
grapes, stinging the fruit and thus 
destroying whole bunches of them. 
The presence of the larva in the 
grape may be known by a discolora- 
tion on one side of the berry as if 
prematurely ripening, though it be 

Weg aoue the last of June or early in July. Late 
in July or early in August the grub may be found fully grown, 
when it drops to the ground and descending a little beneath 
the surface transforms, and the beetle appears early in Sep- 
tember. It is grayish black, the elytra black freckled with 
eray spots, and striated, with large punctures. The legs are 
dull brick red; the femora are unarmed, while the four anterior 
tibiz have a large rectangular tooth near the base. It is from 
.09 to .11 of an inch in length. As a preventative against 
their attacks, the vines should be thoroughly shaken each day 
in June. 

Another larva (Fig. 470), probably of this family, has been 
discovered by Mr. W. Saunders of London, Canada, in the 
seeds of the grape, causing the berries to shrivel. 


SCOLYTIDZ. 491 


The Potato-stalk Weevil, Baridius trinotatus Say (Fig. 471; 
a, larva; b, pupa; c, adult), is a common species in the Mid- 
dle and Western States, where it causes the stalk to wilt and 
die, hence all stalks so affected should be burnt. ‘The beetle 
is of a bluish or ash gray color, distin- 
guished as its name implies, by having 
three shiny black impressed spots at the 
lower edge of the thorax. The female 
deposits a single egg in an oblong slit 
about one-eighth of an inch long, which she has previously 
formed with her beak in the stalk of the potato. The larva 
subsequently hatches out and bores into the heart of the stalk, 
always proceeding downward towards the root. When fully 
erown it is a little over one-fourth of an inch long, and is a 
soft, whitish, legless grub, with a scaly head.” (Riley.) Fig. 
472 represents the larva of 
B. vestitus Schonherr, which 
bores into the stems of the 
tobacco plant in Mexico. 

Mr. Huntington has ob- 
served the Grape Cane gall 
eurculio, Baridius Sesostris 
Lee. (Fig. 473) in the larval 
state in large bunches near the joints of the Clinton grape on 
Kelly’s Island, near Sandusky, Ohio, and has also found the 
beetle in considerable numbers. The larva closely resembles 
that of the Potato Baridius. Riley states that the gall 
is formed during the previous autumn while the tender 
cane is growing. ‘It has almost invariably a longitu- 
dinal slit or depression on one side, dividing that side 
into two cheeks, which generally have a rosy tint.” 
It pupates late in June, and early in July the adult Fig. 47. 
appears. It may be known by its polished elytra and punce- 
tured thorax. It is pale reddish, with a stout beak, equalling 
the body in length, and each elytron has a swelling on the 
outer edge near the base, and another near the tip. It isa 
tenth of an inch long. It is the Madarus vitis of Riley. 


Scotytip2 Westwood. These cylindrical bark borers are 


492 COLEOPTERA. 


rounded beetles of an elongate cylindrical form, truncated be- 
fore and behind. They mine under the bark of trees, running 
their winding galleries in every direction. They rarely attack 
a living healthy trees. They are usually brown 
a or black in color. The rounded head does not 
end in a snout and is deeply sunken in the 
thorax; the clavate antennze are somewhat el- 
bowed, while the palpi are very short; the 
elytra are often hollowed at the end, and 
; the short stout legs are toothed on the under 
Fig. 473. side of the femora, and the tarsi are slender and 
narrow. The eggs are laid in the bark, whence the larve on 
being hatched bore straight into the sap wood, or mine between 
the bark and sap wood. They are like those of the preceding 
family, fleshy, cylindrical, footless larvee, wrinkled on the back. 
When fully grown in the autumn they gnaw t& 
an exit for the beetle, taking care to leave a 
little space closed in front of their burrow to | 
conceal the pupa. The bark of trees infested 
by them should be scraped and whitewashed. 
Hylurgus terebrans Oliy. (Fig. 474) is a rather 
large red species, very abundant in spring. Fig. 474. 
It is found under the bark of pines associated with Pissodes, 
though the larva is smaller and more cylindrical. It mines the 
inner surface of the bark, slightly grooving the sap wood, and 
pupates in April, appearing as a beetle in great numbers on 
warm days early in May. Aylurgus dentatus Say 
infests the cedar. 

The Scolytus destructor of Olivier often does much 
injury to old and decaying elm trees in Europe. 
Capt. Cox exhibited to the Entomological Society of 
London a piece of elm three feet long, which was 
scored by the lateral tubes of this insect, which he 
estimated must have given birth to 280,000 larvee. 

The various species of Scolytus, Tomicus and Xyloterus give 
rise to the disease called fireblight, by their ravages beneath 
the twigs of fruit trees, causing the bark to shrivel and peal 
off as if a fire had run through the orchard. The best method 
of restraining their attacks is to peal off the affected bark, ex- 


CERAMBYCID®. 43 


posing the eggs and larvee to the air, when the birds will soon 
destroy them. TJ. monographus does great damage by drilling 
holes in malt-liquor casks in India. It was calculated that 
sometimes 134,000 holes were drilled in the staves forming a 
single cask. Immersion in boiling water has been found an 
effectual remedy. (Morse.) 

Also associated with Pissodes, we have found in April the - 

galleries of Tomicus pint Say branching out from a common 
centre. They are filled up with fine chips, and, according to 
Fitch, are notched in the sides ‘‘in which the eggs have been 
placed, where they would remain undisturbed by the 8 
beetle as it crawled backwards and forth through the * 
gallery.” These little beetles have not the long snout 
of the weevils, hence they cannot bore through the 
outer bark, but enter into the burrows made the pre- 
ceding year, and distribute their eggs along the sides. 
(Fitch.) TY. aylographus Say (ig. 475) is often a Fig. 475. 
most formidable enemy to the white pine in the North, and the 
yellow pine in the South. The genus Cryphalus is a slenderer 
form. A species, probably the C. materarius of Fitch (Fig. 
476), has been found by Mr. Huntington of Kelly’s Island, to 
bore into empty wine casks and spoil them for use. 


CreramBycip# Leach. (Longicornia Latreille). This im- 
mense family, numbering already nearly 4,000 known species, 
comprises some of the largest, most showy, as well as the most 
destructive insects of the suborder. They are readily recog- 
nized by their oblong, often cylindrical bodies, the remarkably 
long, filiform, recurved antennee, and the powerful incurved 
mandibles. Their eggs are introduced into the cracks in the 
bark of plants by the long fleshy extensile tip of the abdo- 
men. The larve are long, flattened, cylindrical, fleshy, often 
footless whitish grubs, with very convex rings, the prothoracic 
segment being much larger and broader than the succeeding, 
while the head is small and armed with strong sharp mandi- 
bles adapted for boring like an auger in the hardest woods. 

These borers live from one to three years before transform- 
ing, at the end of which time they construct a cocoon of chips 
at the end of their burrows, the head of the pupa lying next 


494. COLEOPTERA. 


to the thin portion of bark left to conceal the hole. As quoted 
by Baron Osten Sacken in an interesting article on the laryal 
forms of some of our native beetles, Erichson states that ‘* not- 
withstanding the great similitude between the larvee of Longi- 
corns, some important differences in the structure of those 
belonging to the four subdivisions of this family may be no- 
ticed. The larvee of the Lamiide differ more than the others, 
on account of the total absence of feet, and the position of the 
first pair of stigmata which is placed in the fold between 
the pro- and mesothoracie segments, less abruptly separated 
than the others. The other larve have this first pair on the 
sides of the mesothorax, and have feet, 
which, however, are sometimes so small 
as to be perceptible only when magni- 
fied, even in large sized larvee. The 
Cerambycide (Cerambyx, Callidium and 
allies) have, on the posterior side of the 
prothorax, above and below, a fleshy, 
transverse fold, separated by a furrow 
from the horny disc of this segment. 
In the Prionidz and Lepturide, the 
same fold is visible only on the under 
side. The Lepture have a large flattened 
head, as broad as the prothorax, whereas 

Vig. 47. in the other Longicorn larvee the head is 
small and much narrower than the thorax. The larve of the 
Prionidze show the least differences from those of the Eep- 
turide ; and that of Spondylis is remarkably allied to the lat- 
ter.” “The pupa is at first soft and whitish, and it exhibits 
all the parts of the fature beetle under a filmy veil which in- 


wraps every limb. The wings and legs are folded upon the 
breast ; the long antenne are turned back against the sides of 
the body, and then bent forwards between the legs.” (Har- 
ris.) The beetles mostly hide by day and fly by night. 
Parandra brunnea Fabr. is much unlike the remaining genera, 
being Tenebrio-like in form, with a broad head and short an- 
tennz, and shining red in color. The larva is described by 
Osten Sacken as having a yellowish cordate head, with a large 
prothorax and fleshy tubercles on the upper and under side of 


CERAMBYCIDZ. 495 


the segments, with the first pair of stigmata placed on the 
sides of the mesothorax. It is found in dead beach trees. 

The Orthosoma unicolor Drury (Fig. 477) is a light bay col- 
ored beetle found flying from the middle of July until Septem- 
ber. We haye found the larva (Fig. 478) in the rot- 
ten stumps of the pine, and in the Western States 
Riley states that a larva (Fig. 479, head and tho- 
rax seen from beneath), probably of this species, 
eats the roots of the grape-vine, hollowing out and 
sometimes severing the root and killing the vine. 

Prionus brevicornis Fabr. is a very large, not un- 
common beetle, of an ovate shape and pitchy black 
color, with short, thick jaws, and 
antenne about half as long as 
the body. ‘The larve, Harris 
states, are as thick as a man’s 
thumb, and are found in the 
trunks and roots of the Balm of 
Gilead and Lombardy poplar. 

Fig. 479. Crossidius pulchrior Bland (Fig. 480), 
from Nebraska, is a pale reddish beetle, with the antenne, 
head, base and the large mark on the disk of the elytra and 
legs black. An allied form is Hburia? Ulkei Bland 
(Fig. 481, showing the sculpturing of the head) which is 
described as coming from Cape St. Lucas, Lower Cali- 
fornia. 

The larva of Stenocorus putator Peck (Fig. 482; a, 
larva, just about transforming; b, pupa) nearly ampu- 
tates the branches of the black and white oaks. After becoming 
mature in the trunk, and just before undergo- 
ing its transformations, it gnaws off a branch 
which falls to the ground, containing the larva, 
which changes to a beetle in midsummer, and 

Ig: asl lays its ege near the axilla of a leaf stalk or 
small stem. The beetle is a very slender one, with antennz 
longer than the body in the males, the third and fourth joints 
of which are tipped with a small spine or thorn. It is dull 
brown, with gray spots. The Banded hickory borer, Chion 
(Cerasphorus) cinctus Drury, makes long galleries in the 


Fig. 478. 


Fig. 489. 


496 ’ COLEOPTERA. 


trunks of hickory trees, the worm often working its way out of 
the wood after it has been made into articles of furniture or 
carriages. The Ase- 
mum mostum Halde- 
man (Fig. 483; a, a, 
larva; 6b, pupa), we 
have found in all its 
stages under the bark 
of oaks, early in May. 
The larva is footless, 
white; the head is 
rather large, white, 
with strong black jaws 
convex on the outer side; the body is uniform, gradually 
diminishing in width posteriorly; it is .60 of an inch long. 
The pupa is .44 of an inch long. The beetle is about half an 
inch long and is dark brown, with very thick femora. +4 
It flies the last of May. I have received a larva of this 
species from Dr. Shimer, which was found by him boring 
in the grape-vine. The genus Callidium has antenne fig. 434 
of moderate length, a broad rounded prothorax, and a flattened 
body behind. ‘The larvee are unusually flattened, with a broad 
horny head, small stout man- 


~ dibles, and six small legs, and 
os they are said to live in this. 


Fig. 482. 


6 \ 345 
state two years. Callidium 
Js antennatum Newman is en- 


tirely blue; it bores in pine 

wood and in red cedar, min- 

\ ing under the bark.  C. semi- 

circularis Bland (Fig. 484) is 

Fig. 483. reddish brown, with a white 

band on each elytron, enclosing a rather large, semicircular, 
black spot. It was discovered in Pennsylvania. 

Clytus has a more cylindrical body, and spherical prothorax, 
besides being beautifully banded with golden, on a dark 
ground. Clytus speciosus Say injures the maple. We have 
taken the beetle on the summit of Mount Katahdin in Maine. 
The beetle lays its eggs in July and August, and the larvee 


CERAMBYCID#. 497 


bore in all directions through the tree. Osten Sacken de- 
scribes the larva of C. pictus Drury, the Hickory-tree borer 
(Fig. 485; a, larva; 0, pupa), as being ‘‘six to seven-tenths 
of an inch in length, being rather long, somewhat flattened 
club-shaped, the thoracic segments being considerably broader 
than the abdominal ones, but at 
the same time distinctly flattened 
above and below.” The pupa has a 
numerous pointed granulations 
on the prothorax, and similar 
sharp spines on the abdominal 
segments. ‘‘On the penultimate Fig. 485. - 
segments, these projections are larger and recurved anteriorly 
at the tip; there are six in a row near the posterior margin, 
and two others more anteriorly. The last segment has four 
similar projections in a row.” The male of the 
Locust tree borer, C. robinie Forster (Fig. 486, 
&), according to Walsh, differs from that of C. 
pictus ‘“‘in having much longer and stouter an- 
tenne and in having its body tapered behind to 
a blunt point,” while the females ‘‘are not dis- 
tinguishable at all.” It does great injury to the 
Locust tree, and appears in the beetle state in September, 
while C. pictus, the Hickory tree borer, appears in June. C. 
araneiformis Oliv. (Fig. 487) has been detected on a wharf in 
Philadelphia; it was first described as coming from 
St. Domingo. ~ 

The Long-handed Acrocinus, A. longimanus Fabr. 
(Fig. 488, larva, natural size), is a gigantic insect, 
allied to Prionus, but with enormously developed fore 
legs, the whole body, including the fore legs, when out- 
stretched measuring ten inches ; it is brown, beautifully 
banded with red and buff. M. Sallé has found the larva 
at Cordova, Mexico, under the bark of a Ficus. It grows 
larger in Brazil. Leiopus is a diminutive ally of Lamia. Dr. 
Shimer has detected the larva of L. xanthoxyli Shimer, under- 
mining the bark of the prickly-ash, when the wood has recently 
died. It is a footless borer, “‘of whitish and pink orange 
colors, about one-fourth of an inch long.” In the burrows 

82 


Fig. 486. 


Fig. 487. 


498 


COLEOPTERA. 


formed by the larvee he found May 25th, several pink-orange 
y sy ’ g 
pupze, ‘invariably lying with their heads outwards ; their long 
antennz folded over the wing-cases obliquely down on the 


., sides, passing beneath the posterior pair 
} of legs, a little beyond them and then 


curving up over the breast, reach the 
head.” The beetle is related to L. alpha 
Say, and is gray, with bands and spots of 
blackish pubescence ; it is .25 of an inch 
long. Two species of ichneumons were 
found by Shimer to prey upon the beetle. 

In Monohammus the antennz are of 
great length. WM. titillator Fabr. is brown 
mottled with gray; while a slenderer spe- 
cies, M. scutellatus Say, of a peculiar dark 
olive green, with a whitish scutellum, bores 
in the white pine. 

The singular habits of the Girdler, Onci- 
deres cingulatus Say (Fig. 489), have thus 
been described by Professor Haldeman 
in the Pennsylvania Farm Journal, vol. i, 
p. 34. ‘*This insect was first described 
by Say in ne Journal of the eee of 


Natural Sciences, vol. v, p. 272, 1825, and its 
habits were discovered by us sid published in 


our ‘Materials towards a History of the Col- |i 


eoptera longicornia of the United States ;’ Am. 
Phil.) Lfrans:, vol. x. p. 02,2837. 

‘¢Tn our walks through the forest our atten- 
tion was frequently drawn to the branches and 
main shoots of young hickory trees (Carya 
alba), which were girdled with a deep notch in 
such a manner as to induce an observer to be- 
lieve that the object in view was to kill the 
branch beyond the notch, and extraordinary as 
it may appear, this is actually the fact, and the 


Fig. 489. 


operator is an insect whose instinct was implanted by the 
Almighty power who created it, and under such circumstances 
that it could never have been acquired as a habit. The effect 


CERAMBYCIDA. 499 


of girdling is unknown to the insect, whose life is too short 
to foresee the necessities of its progeny during the succeeding 
season. 

“This insect may be seen in Pennsylvania during the two 
last weeks in August and the first week in September feeding 
upon the bark of the tender branches of the young hickories. 
Both sexes are rather rare, particularly the male, which is rather 
smaller than the female, but with longer antenne. The female 
makes perforations in the branches of the tree upon which she 
lives (which are from half an inch to less than a quarter of an 
inch thick), in which she deposits her eggs; she then proceeds 
to gnaw a groove of about a tenth of an inch wide and deep 
around the branch, and below the place where the eggs are 
deposited, so that the exterior portion dies and the larva feeds 
upon the dead wood and food which is essential to many 
insects, although but few have the means of providing it for 
themselves or their progeny by an instinct so remarkable. 

‘‘Where this insect is abundant, it must cause much damage 
to young forests of hop-poles by the destruction of the prin- 
cipal. shoot. We have known insects which, from 
their rarity, could hardly be regarded as ‘noxious,’ 
increase to such an extent as to be very destructive, 
and the locust trees (Robinia pseudacacia) have had 
their foliage withered during the few last summers 
from such a cause (Cecidomyia robiniz Hald.) which 
has caused these trees to wither since that period, 
particularly in August, 1868.” The Tridentate 
Compsidea, C. tridentata Oliv. (Fig. 490, larva, en- 
larged three times), is a dark brown beetle, with a 
rusty red curved line behind the eyes, two stripes on Fis. 490. 
the thorax, and a three-toothed stripe on the outer edge of 
each wing-cover, and is about half an inch long. It lives under 
the bark of elms, occasionally doing much damage. (Harris.) 

The larva of Psenocerus pini Oliv. (supernotatus Say) which 
burrows in the stem of a climbing plant, supposed to be 
the grape, Osten Sacken describes as being three-tenths of an 
inch long, subcylindrical or prismatical, the pro- and meso- 
thorax being a little broader than the other segments, and the 
whole body sparsely beset with fine golden hairs. 


500 COLEOPTERA. 


This insect, according to Fitch, also does much injury to the 
currant, eating the pith ‘‘through the whole length of the 
stalk and leaving it filled with a fine powder. It is about 
the first of June that the parent insect deposits her eggs upon 
the currant stalks, and the worms get their growth by the 
close of the season. They repose in their cells through the 
winter, changing to pupz with the warmth of the following 

spring, and. begin to appear abroad in their perfect 
state as early as the middle of May, the sexes pairing 
immediately after they come out.” (Fitch.) In August, 
1868, I received from Dr. P. A. Chadbourne, President 
of Madison University, several branches of the apple 
containing larve, which in the next spring changed to 
this beetle. ‘They were very injurious to orchards in 
Fis. 49l. his vicinity, and this seems to be the first instance 
of its occurrence in the apple. The larva (Fig. 491, en- 
larged thrice) is nearly half an inch long; it is footless, 
white, with the head scarcely half as wide as the body and con- 
siderably flattened ; the segments are rather convex, each hay- 
ing two rows of minute warts, and the tip is rather blunt, with 
a few fine golden hairs. It devoured the sap wood and under 
side of the bark and also the pith, thus locally killing the 
terminal twigs, and causing the bark to 
shrivel and peel off, leaving a distinct line 
of demarcation between the dead and living | 
portions of the twig. Each larva seemed to 
live in a space one and one-half inches long, 
there being five holes through the bark within 
the space of as many inches. On the 16th 
of August the grubs seemed to have accom- 
plished their work of destruction, as they 
were fully grown. The beetle is from .13 to 
.20 of an inch long, and may be known by its dark, reddish 
brown, cylindrical body, with a high tubercle at the base 
of the elytron, an oblique yellowish white line on the basal 
third, and a broad curved white line on the outer third of the 
elytron, or wing-cover. 

Saperda candida Fabr. (bivittata Say, Fig. 492) the well 

known Apple tree borer, flies about orchards in July in New 


CHRYSOMELID 2. 50] 


England, in May and June in the Western States, usually at 
night, but we once observed it flying in the hottest part of the 
day. At this time the female lays her eggs in the bark near 
the roots. The nearly cylindrical larve are whitish fleshy 
erubs, with a small horny head, while the prothoracic ring, 
as usual, is much larger than the others, the two preceding 
ones being very short, and from thence the body narrows to 
the tip. It bores upward into the wood, where it liyes two or 
three years, finally making a cocoon eight or ten inches from 
its starting point, in a burrow next to the bark, whence it 
leaves the pupa state (which begins early in June) in midsum- 
mer. It also infests the wild apple, quince, pear, June-berry, 
mountain-ash and hawthorn. Riley advises soaping the trunk 
of the tree to prevent the beetle from laying its eggs, and 
when the tree is infested with them to cut through the bark at 
the upper end of their borings and pour in hot water, while in 
the autumn the bark should be examined and the young worms 
that had been hatched through the summer may be dug out 
and destroyed. 

We have found what we supposed to be the young larvee of 
Desmocerus cyaneus Fabr. in the stems of the elder; the beetle 
is a handsome purple and white Longicorn. We have found 
Rhagium lineatum Olivier living in- old trunks of pine trees. 
The antennz are no longer than the breadth of the body. It 
makes a cocoon of chips, and the beetle appears in the autumn, 
not, however, leaving the tree until the spring. 


CurysoMeLip® Latreille. The Leaf-beetles are oval or 
oblong, often very thick and convex above, with short an- 
tenne, round prominent eyes, with a narrow cylindrical 
thorax, and the hinder thighs often much thickened in the 
middle, while the abdomen has five free segments. The larvee 
are short, rounded, cylindrical or flattened, generally of soft 
consistence, usually gaily colored, and beset with thick flat- 
tened tubercles or branching spines, and well developed tho- 
racic feet. There are estimated to be from 8,000 to 10,000 
species. ‘They are found feeding, both in the larva and adult 
stages, on leaves, either on the surface, or, as in Hispa and 
several species of Haltica, their larvee are leaf-miners. 


502 COLEOPTERA. 


The genus Donacia connects this family with the preceding. 
It has a rather long body and unusually long antenne. D. 
prowima Kirby is dark blue, and Donacia Hirbyi Lacordaire 
is of a shining coppery hue. The larvee live in the stems of 
water plants, and make a leathery cocoon in the earth before 
transforming. 

The Grape-vine Fidia (F. viticida Walsh, Fig. 495) is very 
injurious to the grape in the Western States, from its habit of 
‘cutting straight elongated holes of about an eighth of an 
=. inch in diameter in the leaves, and when numer- 
Sf ous so riddling the leaves as to reduce them to 
mere shreds.” It is chestnut brown, and cov- 
ered with short whitish hairs, giving it a hoary 
appearance. Riley states that it is very abun- 
dant in the vineyards in Missouri, where it pre- 
fers Concord and Norton’s Virginia grapes, 
while it occurs on the wild grape-vine and on the leaves of 
the Cercis Canadensis. ‘‘It makes its appearance during the 
month of June, and by the end of July has generally disap- 


- peared, from which fact we may infer that there is but one 


brood each year.” The vines should be often shaken and 
chickens turned in to feed upon them when it is possible. 
Crioceris is 
known by its 
rather long 
body, and the 
prothorax be- 
ing narrower 
than the ely- 
tra. The an- 
tenne are 
rather long, 
the fore coxze are swollen, pressed together, and the claws 
are either free or united at the base. We have no native 
species, but Crioceris asparagi Linn. has been introduced 
into gardens about New York, doing much injury to the 
asparagus. Fitch describes it as being about a quarter of an 
inch long, with a tawny red prothorax and three bright lemon 


yellow spots on each elytron. The larya is soft-bodied, twice 


CHRYSOMELIDZ. 503 


as long as thick, the body thickening posteriorly, and of a 
dull ash gray or obscure olive, with a black head and legs. 
Lema trilineata Olivier (Fig. 494; a, larva; b, terminal joints 
of abdomen; c, pupa; d, eggs) occurs in great abundance 
on the leaves of the potato. The dirty yellowish larve are 
found on it abundantly, and hide themselves by covering their 
bodies with their own excrement. They mature in about two 
weeks, transform in earthen cells cemented with a gummy 
exudation discharged from the mouth, and in a fortnight, 
being about the first of August, the beautiful yellow and black 
striped beetle, with a reddish head and prothorax, appears. 
Hispa is also a miner in the larva state. Hispa (Uroplata) 
rosea Harris (Fig. 495) is supposed by Harris to mine the 
leaves of the apple tree. Harris describes it as being ‘‘of a 
deep or a tawny reddish yellow color above, 
marked with little deep red lines and_ spots. 
There are three smooth, longitudinal ribs on each 
elytron, spotted with blood-red, and the space 
between these lines are deeply punctured in 
double rows ; the under side of the body is black, 
and the legs are short and reddish. They meas- Fig. 495. 
ure about one-fifth of an inch in length.” ‘*The larvee burrow 
under the skin of the leaves of plants, and eat the pulpy 
substance within, so that the skin over and under the place 
of their operations, turns brown and dies, having somewhat 
of a blistered appearance, and within these blistered spots 
the larvee or grubs, the pup or the beetles, may often be 
found. The eggs of these insects are little rough, blackish 
grains, and are glued to the surface of the leaves, sometimes 
singly, and sometimes in clusters of four or five together. The 
grubs of our common species are about one-fifth of an inch in 
length, when fully grown. The body is oblong, flattened, rather 
broader before than behind, soft, and of a whitish color, ex- 
cept the head and the top of the first ring, which are brown, 
or blackish, and of a horny consistence. It has a pair of legs 
to each of the first three rings; the other rings are provided 
with small fieshy warts at the sides, and transverse rows of 
little rasp-like points above and beneath. The pupa state lasts 
only about one week, soon after which the beetles come out of 


504 COLEOPTERA. 


their burrows.” Hispa (Uroplata) suturalis Fabr. mines the 
Locust tree, and often proves very destructive in the Middle 
and Western States. They are flat, the body behind being 
broad and square, and the elytra are generally ridged and 
furrowed. 

Cassida aurichalcea Fabr., the yellow Helmet beetle, is hem- 
ispherical, flattened, so that the edges of the wings are very 
thin; and the larva is broad, oval, 
- flattened, and by means of two spines 
terminating its upturned abdomen, 
holds its old cast larva skin over its 
body as a means of protection. Dur- 
ing the last week in July we have 
found the larve in all stages of 
growth very abundant on the Morn- 
ing-glory in our garden, eating holes in the leaves. In the 
young the head and legs are more prominent than in the old. 
It pupates the last of July and early in August. 

The Chelymorpha cribraria Fabr. (Fig. 496; a, pupa) we 
have found in all its stages on the leaves of the silk-weed late 
in July and early in August, and in one instance in Salem it 
occurred in abundance on the leaves of the raspberry. The 
larva differs from that of Cassida aurichalcea, not only in its 
greater size, but the body is thicker and narrower ; the head is 
freer from the thorax, and the spines are simple, not spinula- 
ted. The body is yellow and less protected by the cast skin. 
When about to transform, the larva attaches itself to the leaf 
by a silken thread, a few segments from the end where the 

end of the body of the future pupa is situated. 

he It is .45 of an inch long. The pupa is broad 

and rather flattened, dark and spotted with 

Fig. 497. yellow and covered with a whitish powder, 

causing the yellow portions to appear more prominently ; along 

each side of the abdomen is a row of five spines, and there are 

four spines on the anterior edge of the prothorax; it is .40 of 
an inch in length. 

Fig. 497 represents, according to Harris, ‘‘ the larva, nearly 
full size, of Galeruca gelatinarie Fabr. or an allied species, 
found abundantly on Ambrosia elatior, July 30th. They 


Fig. 496. 


CHRYSOMELID®. 505 


live on the upper surface of the leaves and devour the cuticle 
and parenchyma above, leaving the lower cuticle untouched. 
It is of a dirty yellowish white color, with black tubercles 
bearing white bristles. Length one-fourth of an inch.” (Har- 
ris Correspondence, p. 267.) 

‘We have found Galeruca marginella Kirby (Fig. 498; a, 
larva; 0, pupa) in all its stages of growth on Myrica gale, . 
during the middle of August, 
in Northern Maine. The 
larva is shining black, coria- 
ceous above, and the body =i 
is elongated, flattened, with “ /t 
a small orbicular black head. ‘ 
The upper side of the body 
is hard, from the close prox- 
imity of the black flattened ° 
tubercles. Beneath, whitish; on the side is a row of small 
black brown tubercles, and along the middle of the body is a 
row of transversely linear brown tu- 
bercles, on each side of which is a 
minute dot-like tubercle. It is not 
hairy, and measures .25 of an inch in 
b- ~| length. When about to transform it 
S fastens itself by its tail to the surface 
of a leaf. The pupa is brown-black. 
The beetle is umber brown, testaceous 
on the edges of the elytra, the legs being also testaceous, 
while the prothorax is pale, with three dark brown spots, 
of which the central one is T-shaped. 

The Striped Squash beetle, Diabrothica : 
vittata Fabr. (Fig. 499, a, larva; 6, pupa Aete 
seen from underneath; Fig. 500, adult) ap- , ee 
pears on squash vines as soon as they are Fig. 501. Fig. 500. 
up, and at once devours them unless their attacks are pre- 
vented. Covering the vines with cotton or a box covered with 
muslin or millinet is the only sure remedy, while on a large 
scale powdered charcoal, or lime is used, to be sprinkled on the 
leaves. Mr. Gregory, says the ‘¢‘ American Agriculturist,” re- 
lies upon plaster, or oyster-shell lime, which may be shaken 


Fig. 499. 


506 COLEOPTERA. 


from a small sieve while the leaves are wet with dew or rain; 
to be applied as soon as the plants are up. He objects to the 
use of air-slacked stove lime, as it is apt to be too caustic and 
injure the plant. Dr. H. Shimer has given an account of the 
habits of this insect in the ‘‘ Prairie Farmer,” and has sent me 
specimens of the insect in its different stages. He states that 
the grub in June and July ‘eats the bark and often perforates 
and hollows out the lower part of the stem which is beneath the 
ground, and the upper portion of the root, and occasionally 
when the supply below fails, we find them in the vine just 
above the ground.” It hibernates in the pupa state. ‘*The 
larva arrives at maturity in about a month after the egg is laid ; 
it remains in the pupa state about two weeks, and the beetle 
probably lives several days before depositing her eggs, 
| so that one generation is in existence about two months, 

“and we can only have two, never more than three 
broods in one season.” He has found them boring in 
- the squash and muskmelon vines as late as October Ist. 
The larva is a long, slender, white, cylindrical grub, with a small 
brownish head. The prothorax is a little corneous. The tho- 
racic legs are very slender, pale brown; the end of the body is 
suddenly truncated, with a small prop-leg beneath. Above is 
an orbicular brown space, growing black posteriorly and ending 
in a pair of upcurved, vertical, slender black spines. It is .40 
of an inch long. It will be seen that both in its boring habits 
and its corresponding, remarkable, elongated, cylindrical, soft 
white body, that this larva varies widely from that of Galleruca, 
to which the beetle is closely allied. The pupa is .17 of an 
inch long, white, with the tip of the abdomen ending in two 
long acute spines arising from a common base. The Twelve- 
spotted Diabrothica (Fig. 501, D. duodecim-punctata Fabr.) 
is injurious to the leaves of the Dahlia. 

The genus Haltica, to which the little blackish Flea-beetles 
belong, is well known. The larve mine the leaves of the 
plants on which they afterwards feed. Haltica (Crepidodera) 
cucumeris Harris (Fig. 502) infests the cucumber. Harris de- 
scribes it as being “only one-sixteenth of an inch long, of a 
black color, with clay-yellow antenne and legs, except the 
hindmost thighs, which are brown. The upper side of the body 


Fig. 502. 


CHRYSOMELIDZ. 507 


is covered with punctures, which are arranged in rows on the 
wing-cases, and there is a deep transverse furrow across the 
hinder part of the thorax.” It not only kills young cucumber- 
vines, eating the seed leaves, but is found 
all through the summer eating holes in the 
leaves of various garden vegetables. 

The Grape-leaf Flea Beetle, H. (Grapto- 
dera) chalybea Illiger, eats the buds and 
leaves of the grape. It is a steel blue in- 
sect, often varying in its shades of color- 
ing, sometimes becoming greenish. It is ie Oe 
a little over three-twentieths of an inch in length. In Ohio, 
Mr. M. C. Reed noticed the sexes of this species, which Dr., 
Leconte considers as probably the Graptodera exapta of Say 
(Fig. 503), pairing May 6th. The larvee appeared the last of 
the month, and by the first week in June, and on the 30th of the 
same month, the beetles appeared. I have received specimens 
of the larva from Mr. Read. It is a yellowish white, cylindrical 
worm, with a jet black head and black tubercles, from each of 
which proceed several fine hairs. The prothorax is brown black 
above; on each succeeding ring of the XG a 

\ BH 


body are ten tereal black tubercles, the » 
oh ; Ges 
os 


two inner ones being long and narrow, 
and transverse, the others forming 
round dots. On each ring is a single : 

black dot just between the two lower p Big oU: 
larger tubercles. On the sides are two rows of black tubercles, 
and along the middle of the under side a row of transverse 
tubercles, on each side of which is a row of. dot-like tubercles. 
It is .85 of an inch in length. 

The Striped Turnip Flea beetle, H. (Phyllotreta) striolata 
Fabr. (Fig. 504; a, larva; 6, pupa), is black, with a waved yel- 
lowish stripe on each wing-cover, and is less than a tenth of an 
inch long. Dr. Shimer describes the larva as being white ; the 
head is of a pale brown color, and near the end of the body is a 
brown spot equal to the head in size; besides the thoracic legs 
there is a single anal prop-leg. It is .85 of an inch long. It 
feeds upon roots beneath the ground. The pupa is naked, 
white, and transforms in an earthen cocoon. In seventeen 


| 


508 COLEOPTERA. 


days from the time the larva ceases eating the beetle appeared. 
It then feeds on the seed leaves of cabbages and turnips and 
other garden vegetables, when it proves very injurious, 
while afterwards in June, when the plants have at- 
tained their growth, they sicken and die from the 
attacks of the larva in their roots. (American 
Naturalist, vol. ii, p. 514.) 

The Silk-weed Labidomera, ZL. trimaculata Fabr. (Fig. 505, 
larva) is found in its larval stage on the Silk-weed about the 
first of August. It is a thick hemispherical beetle, with a dark 
blue head and prothorax, and orange elytra, with three large 
blue spots on each wing-cover. It is one-half of an inch long. 


Fig. 506. 

The Colorado potato beetle, Doryphora decem-lineata Say 
(Fig. 506; a, eggs; b, the larve in different stages of growth; 
c, the pupa; d, beetle ; e, elytron, magnified; 7, leg, magnified) 
has gradually spread eastward as far as Indiana, from its 
original habitat in Colorado, having become very destructive 
to the potato-vine. It becomes a beetle within a month after 
hatching from the yellowish eggs; the larva is pale yellow 
with a reddish tinge and a lateral row of black dots. Messrs. 
Walsh and Riley state that ‘‘there are three broods of larvee 
every year in North Illinois and Central Missouri, each of 
which goes under ground to pass into the pupa state, the first 
two broods coming out of the ground in the beetle state about 


CHRYSOMELIDA. 509 


ten or twelve days afterwards, while the last one stays under 
ground all winter, and only emerges in the beetle state in the 
following spring, just 
in time to lay its eggs 
upon the young po- 
tato leaves,” which it --== 
devours to such an ex- 
tent as to sometimes 
almost cut off the en. fj 
tire crop in certain lo- *{N 
cealities. The Editors * 
of the ‘‘ American En- 
tomologist,” from whom we have quoted, enumerate and 
figure various beetles, hemiptera, and a species of Tachina fly 
(Lydella doryphorze Riley) which mostly prey upon the larve. 
Dr. H. Shimer shows, in the ‘‘ American Naturalist,” vol. ii, 
p- 91, that a dry and hot summer is very unfavorable to the 
development of this insect, the pupze dying for want of suffi- 
cient moisture in the soil. The best remedy against its attacks 
is hand picking. 

A very closely allied species or variety, the D. juncta Ger- 
mar (Fig. 505), may be easily confounded with the other spe- 
cies, but differs, according to Walsh, in the head 
of the larva being paler, while in the beetle the third 
and fourth stripe from the outside are united, where 
they are distinct in the D. 10-lineata, and the legs 
are entirely pale yellow, with a dark spot on the 
femora. It feeds on the wild potato, not eating 
the cultivated species, and has always been an inhabitant of the 
Western and Southern States. 

Chrysomela is an oval oblong genus, and its ally, Calligrapha, 
is very convex, hemispherical ; the species are gaily spotted and 
banded; Calligrapha scalaris Lec. is abundant on the alder. 
The larve (Fig. 506, larva of C. Philadelphica Linn.) are 
thick and fleshy, with a row of black spiracles along the side 
of the body, and a dark prothoracic shield. 

Eumolpus auratus Fabr. is a shining, rich golden green bee- 
tle, found on the dog’s-bane. 

Chiamys is a little oblong, cubical, roughly shagreened, 


510 COLEOPTERA. 


metallic greenish beetle, found in abundance on leaves south- 
ward. The larva of Chlamys plicata Olivier, according to 
Mr. S$. H. Scudder, who has reared it from the sweet-fern, is a 
sac bearer, drawing after it a rounded, flask-shaped, blackish 
sac, within which it withdraws when disturbed. Laryee appar- 
ently belonging to this species were found by Mr. Emerton on 
grass in pastures in July. They are interesting as being true 
sac-bearers, recalling Psyche helix and other sac-bearing moths, 
and the Phryganeids. Fig. 507 represents the larva in the act 
of walking, the head and thoracic segments protruding from 
the case. The case is a quarter of an inch long and one-half 
as thick, being oval cylindrical. It is 
black and appears to be formed of 
little pellets of vegetable matter 
chewed by the larva and applied to the 
Fig. 507. edge, with a seam along the middle of 

the under side, which readily spreads open when the sac is 
pressed.’ The case is a little contracted before the mouth, 
where the pellets are a little larger than elsewhere. The larva - 
is of the form of those of others of the family, but the body is 
slenderer in front of the abdomen, and the legs are longer 
than usual. The abdomen is suddenly thickened and curved 
at right angles, the tip being rather pointed.. The body is 
white, with a brown-black head and dark brown legs, and a 
prothoracic corneous piece, with a corneous piece at the inser- 
tion of each leg. It is, in its natural curved posture, .25 of 
an inch long. In the Museum of the Peabody Academy are 
several minute chalcid parasites reared from C. plicata. 

Cryptocephalus is a short, cylindrical genus, numbering nearly 
800 species. 


Eroryiipa Westwood. This family is very largely devel- 
oped in tropical America, and is known by the large, flattened 
antennal club, which consists of three joints. Most of them 
are supposed to be leaf insects, while the more northern spe- 
cies live in fungi. 


Enpomycuip Leach. In this small group are genera whose 
bodies are oval, with antennee longer than the head, which with 


COCCINELLID®. d11 


the trapeziform prothorax, distinguish them from the allied 
families. An interesting form from New Hampshire, the Phy- 
maphora pulchella of Newman (Fig. 508), is described by 
Harris (Correspondence, p. 256) as being rust-red, with paler 
feet and antenne, the head being black; there is a broad 
black band across the middle of the elytra, and 
the tips are black. 


CoccoineLiip® Latreille. The characteristic form 
Fig. 50s. of the ‘Lady-birds” is well known. ‘They are 
hemispherical, generally red or yellow, with round or 
lunate black spots. The species are difficult to dis- 
criminate, and number upwards of 1,000. Some in- 
dividuals belonging to different species have been 
known to unite sexually, but producing sterile eggs. 
The yellow long oval eggs are laid in patches, often in a group 
of plant-lice, which the larvee greedily devour. They are rather 
long, oval, soft-bodied, pointed behind, with the prothorax 
larger than the cther rings, often gaily colored and beset with 
tubercles or spines, and when about to turn to a pupa, the larva 
attaches itself by the end of the body to a 
leaf, and either throws off the larva skin, 
which remains around its tail, or the old 
dried skin is retained, loosely folded about 
the pupa as a protection, thus simulating the 
coarctate pupa of the flies. The Spotted Fig. 510. 
Hippodamia, H. maculata DeGeer (Fig. 509) is pale red, with 
thirteen black spots on the body, and is quite common, while 
the H. convergens Guerin (Fig. 510, with larva and pupa) is 
common southwards. In Coccinella the body is smooth, hemi- 
spherical, with the hind angle of the prothorax acute. 

The eggs of the common Two-spotted Coccinella, O. bipunc- 
tata Linn., are laid in May on the bark of trees, and those 
of another brood are laid in June and hatched July 1st. They 
are oval, cylindrical, orange yellow, and are attached in a bunch 
of about twenty-five, by one end to the bark. They hatch 
out when the leaves and their natural article of diet, the Aphis, 
appear, and may be found running about over the leaves of 
various garden shrubs and trees. The body is black with flat- 


| | 


Die COLEOPTERA, 


tened tubercles spinulated above; on each side of the first 
abdominal segment is a yellowish spot, and there is a broad 
yellowish spot in the middle of the fourth segment, and one 
on each side. On June 28th we found several fully grown 
larvee a quarter of an inch long, transforming into pupe, 
with a freshly transformed beetle. The larva begins the opera- 
tion by attaching very firmly, with a sort of silky gum, its tail 
to the leaf, the point of attachment not being the extreme tip, 
but just before it, where the tip of the abdomen of the pupa is 
situated. Meanwhile the body contracts in length and widens, 
the head is bent upon the breast, and in about twenty-four 
hours the skin splits open and discloses the pupa. The body 
of the pupa is black ; the head is also black, and 
the prothorax is black and yellowish pink, with 
a black dot on each side, and a smaller black 
dot on each edge; the mesothorax, wing-covers, 
scutellum and legs, are shining black. The ab- 
iH dominal rings are pale flesh-colored, with two 
Fig. 511. —_ rows of large black spots on each side, the spots 
being transverse ; the terga of the fourth to the seventh seg- 

ments are separated, the body being arched and leaving 
zB 


a deep furrow between. The beetle is orange yellow, 
with a black head and prothorax; the side of the pro- 
thorax is whitish, with a central diamond-shaped white Fis: °2- 
spot, and, behind it a much longer whitish spot. The beetle 
derives its specific name from the two black dots on the elytra. 
It hibernates, and might be used to clear house-plants of plant- 
lice. The Nine-spotted Coccinella, C. novemnotata Herbst 
(Fig. 511, and pupa), and the Three-banded Coccinella, C. tri- 
fasciata Linn. (Fig: 512), are also not uncommon species. 
The Fifteen-spotted Lady-bird, Mysia 15-punctata Olivier, 
is black on the head and prothorax, with seven black spots on 
the brownish red elytra, and a black spot on the scutellum ; it 
is seven-twentieths of an inch in length. The larva closely re- 
sembles that of Coccinella, but along the body are six rows of 
stout spinulated spines ; the upper surface of the body is black, 
with a pale spot on the hinder edge of the prothoracic ring; 
the body is pale beneath. It is half an inch long. The pupa 
is pale, not black like that of the Coccinellz known to us, and 


COCCINELLID®. 513 


is sixteen-spotted, with three additional rows of dark spots 
on the abdomen. The body is broad and flat, with a row of 
three spines on each side of the abdomen, and is .40 of an 
inch long. 

In Chilocorus the margin of the elytra is dilated, and the 
lunate prothorax is rounded behind. C. bivulnerulus Mulsant 
(Fig. 513) is black, with two yellow spots. 

The genus Scymnus is hemispherical, pubescent, with short, 
abruptly clavate antennz. Ihave received from 
Dr. H. Shimer the larva and adult of Scymnus cer- 

-wicalis Muls. which he found in the holes of insects ” 
boring in the Prickly-ash. The body is subcylin- ¢ 
drical, pale whitish, much longer and slenderer and = Fs: 518- 
narrower than in Coccinella, with a small black round head ; the 
legs are long and slender, more so than in Coccinella. The 
rings are rather convex, not tuberculated above, 
though provided with a few hairs. It is .12 of an inch 
long. The beetle is reddish brown, with very dark 
Mig. 514. Prussian blue elytra, and is .10 of an inch long. 

Epilachna borealis Thunberg (Fig. 514) is yellowish, with 
seven large black patches on each elytron. ‘The larve, 
according to Osten Sacken, are common on the leaves of the 
pumpkin. It is yellow, with long, brown, branched spines, 
arranged in rows of six on each segment, except the first tho- 
racic segment, which has only four. The pupa’ instead of 
spines has short bristles, especially on the thorax.” 


Fig. 515. 
The Pea Weevil. 


33 


514 .HEMIPTERA. 


In the remaining suborders, the metamorphosis is, with the 
exception of most of the Neuroptera, generally ‘ incomplete,” 
the active larva and pupa closely resembling the adult, and 
often scarcely distinguishable from it except in being wingless. 
This similarity of the adult condition to the larval and pupal 
forms, as well as the equality in size of the different segments 
of the body, the aquatic habits of many of the species, and 
the numerous genuine parasites found among them, are indica- 
tive of their low rank. 


HEMIPTERA. 


Tus suborder, including the true “bugs,” plant-lice, bed- 
bug and body-lice, may be briefly characterized by the beak- 
like sucking mouth-parts, composed of the mandibles and 
maxillee, which are ensheathed by the large expanded labium, 
while the labrum is small and short; by the free, large protho- 
rax, the usually angular short body, and the irregularly veined 
wings, the veins being but few in number, while the fore wings 
are often half coriaceous and opake. The metamorphosis is 
incomplete. There are many wingless parasitic forms, and 
many aquatic species. 

The triangular head is nearly always sunken into the pro- 
thorax, and is small in proportion to the rest of the body; the 
eyes are small, nearly globular and very prominent, and 
the three ocelli are set far back, while the short, bristle-like, or 
filiform antennz, composed of from five to nine joints, are in- 
serted below and far in advance of the eyes, so that the front 
is broad and flat. The mouth-parts are greatly produced into 
a solid hard beak. The mandibles and maxille are long and 
style-like, the latter without palpi; they are ensheathed at 
their base by the canaliculate labium, which has obsolete 
palpi, while the lingua is short, but slightly developed, its 
function of tasting the food, owing to the peculiar habits of 
the suborder, being thrown into disuse. The labrum is well 
developed, being generally acutely triangular. The thorax is 
constrected on the coleopterous type, the prothorax being 
broad above, and the wings, when folded, concealing the rest 


_HEMIPTERA. 515 


of the body, while the side pieces (the epimera and episterna) 
are large and of much the same form as in the Coleoptera, and 
the legs are situated close together, with coxze and trochanters 
very similar to those of the Coleoptera. The body is usually 
very flat above, or, in the more or less cylindrical species, 
somewhat broad and flat. The body is less concentrated 
headwards than in the Coleoptera, though much more so than 
in the Orthoptera, and in this respect, as well as in other 
essential characters, the group is intermediate between these 
two suborders. Both pairs of wings are very equal in size 
and alike in shape, except in the higher families where they 
are very unequal, the hinder pair being very small. They are 
generally very regularly ovate in shape, the costal edge being 
much curved and rounded towards the obtusely rounded apex ; 
the outer edge is long and very oblique, and the inner edge 
short, though often longer than the outer edge in the lower 
families: The type of venation is rather peculiar in this sub- 


order, as the costal veins are large and stout, while, as seen in — 


the wings of Aphis, the median veins are sent out from the 
costa; indeed there is no central powerful vein in the middle 
of the wing; in other words the wing is scarcely differentiated 
into its three special regions, so well seen in the Hymenoptera 
and Lepidoptera, and especially the Orthoptera. The surface 
is net-veined rather than parallel-veined, but there are few 
veinlets, and the interspaces are large and few in number, 
and in this respect most Hemiptera show their superiority 
to the Orthoptera and Neuroptera. In the lower section of 
the suborder, the Heteropterous Hemiptera, the thickening of 


the basal half of the wing tends to obliterate all traces of the. 


veins, and especially the veinlets. 

The legs are slender, and often very long, owing to the great 
length of the femora and tibise, while the tarsi, like those of 
the lowest Coleoptera, are two or three-jointed. 


The abdomen has six to nine segments apparent, though . 


the typical number is eleven, according to Laecaze-Duthiers. 
The stigmata are very distinct, being often raised on‘a tubercle. 
On the basal ring of the abdomen are two cavities in which 
are sometimes seated vocal organs, as in the male Cicada, and 


in the metathorax of. some species-are glands for secreting a- 


Fire Ae ee el a I a ee 


516 HEMIPTERA. 


foul odorous fluid. Lacaze-Duthiers has given a sectional view 
of Ranatra (Fig. 516; v, dorsal vessel; 1, intestine; n, ner- 
vous cord) which shows the relation of the elements of an 
abdominal segment. tv, is the tergum; Em, the epimerum; 
Es, the episternum, and s, the sternum. . 

The ovipositor and the genital armature are generally con- 
cealed within the tip of the abdomen, being rarely exserted so 
as to form a prominent part of the body. It differs greatly in 
its development, and is difficult to reduce to a common type. 
Lacaze-Duthiers states that we may consider the abdomen of 
the Hemiptera as consisting of ten or eleven segments, accord- 
ing as we consider the horny ring, lying between the abdomen 
and thorax as the basal ring of the abdomen, or not. He re- 
gards the former view as the true one. This author contends 
that in Ploa the tergum of the first and second abdominal 


; y segments (proto and deutotergites) are coal- 


EM _- 
EEN w™ 4 esced, and that the original sutures are marked 
» (Oh , : ; ; 
= by simple strize, while at the opposite end of 


“s ' the abdomen the genital and anal outlets are 
ei separated by three rings, i.e., the eighth, 
ninth and tenth. 

In the Cicadide and Phytocoris the ovipositor is per- 
fect and much as described in the Hymenoptera. In the 
Fulgoride, Nautocoris, Ploa and Notonecta, the eighth 
segment is complete, while the ovipositor is more or less in-_ 


complete, and it often happens that a reunion of secondary 


pieces represents a principal piece, and that the elements of 
the two postgenital rings are articulated together by overlap- 
ping each other. 

In Ranatra, Nepa and Gerris is a third modification of the 
ovipositor, where the postgenital segment is incomplete, and 
the sternal appendages and sternum of the segment bearing 
the ovipositor only remain, the other parts being aborted. In. 
the Pentatomids and Cimex there is no ovipositor, but the 
aborted elements are more or less developed, so as to be 
identifiable. 

The nervous system consists, besides those of the head, of 
two thoracic ganglia, of which the anterior is the smaller, which 
send off two main trunks to the abdomen. 


HEMIPTERA. 517 


The cesophagus is usually small and short, while the much 
convoluted stomach is very long and subdivided, first into a 
large, straight, glandular portion; second, into the convoluted 
smaller part, and third, in some Pentatomids and Coreide 
there is a third stomach ‘‘ consisting of a very narrow, slightly 
flexuous canal, on which are inserted two or four rows of 
closely aggregated glandular tubes.” (Siebold.) The Cicad- 
ide, and most Heteropterous Hemiptera, have very large lobu- 
lated salivary glands, divided into two unequal portions, and 
often with long digitiform processes. 

In the aquatic species of the Naucoride and Nepide 
there are only two stigmata at the end of the abdomen. In 
Nepa and Ranatra the stigmata are situated at the base of a 
long tube. ‘There are four long urinary tubes. The ovaries 
are formed of from four to eight tubes arranged in a verti- 
cillate manner about the end of the short oviduct. In the 
Psyllide and Cicadide, however, they are composed, in 
the first family, of from ten to thirty unilocular tubes, and in 
the second, of from twenty to seventy bilocular tubes. The 
receptaculum seminis consists of one or two small caeca, and the 
Cicadide are the only Hemiptera which have a copulatory 
pouch, this consisting of a pyriform vesicle. ‘‘'The viviparous 
Aphide differ from those which are oviparous, in that their 
eight ovarian tubes are multilocular and their oviducts entirely 
without appendages, while with the second, or oviparous, these 
eight tubes are unilocular, and there is a seminal receptacle 
and two sebaceous glands.” (Siebold.) The testes vary 
greatly in number and form, consisting of from one to five 
tubuliform or rounded glands. 

The active larvee of the Hemiptera, like those of the Orthop- 
tera, resemble closely the imago, differing mainly in possessing 
the rudiments of wings, which are acquired after the first 
moulting. After two or more changes of skin they pass into 
the pupa state, which differs mainly from that of the larva in 
having larger wing-pads. While the development of the imago 
ordinarily occupies the summer months, in the Aphides it 
takes but a comparatively few days, but in the Seventeen-year 
Locust as many years as its name indicates. An exception 
to this mode of development is seen in the larva of the male 


- 


ee eee ee ae ee a 


518 HEMIPTERA. 


Coccus, which, as in the higher suborders, spins a silken co- 
coon, and changes into an inactive pupa. 

Apterous individuals, especially females, sometimes occur, 
especially in the aquatic Hydrometra, Velia and Limnobates, 
and in many other genera the hind pair of wings are often 
absent. 

The embryological development of such Hemiptera as haye 
been observed (7.e., Corixa, according to Dr. Brandt’s re- 
searches), corresponds.very closely with that of the Neurop- 
tera (Calopteryx and Diplax). 

There are about 12,000 species living and fossil. Some 
species are of great size, especially the Hydrocores, a division 
containing the aquatic genera, Velia, Nepa, Belostoma and 
Notonecta, and which first appeared in the Jurassic formation. 

Latreille divided the Hemiptera into the Heteroptera and 
Homoptera. The latter are the higher in rank, as the body is 
more cephalized, the parts of the body more specialized, and 
in the Aphide@, which top the series, we have a greater sex- 
ual differentiation, the females being both sexual and asexual, 
the latter by a budding process, and without the interposition 
of the male producing immense numbers of young, which feed 
in colonies. The species are smaller than in the Heteroptera, 
and are all terrestrial. The Heteropterous Hemiptera, on the 
other hand, are larger, the body is less compactly put together, 
the abdomen and thorax are elongated, the head is small com- 
pared with the rest of the body, and the species are large, 
some of great size (a sign of degradation among insects), and 
several families are aquatic, indicating a lower grade of devel- 
opment, while representatives of these were the first of the 
suborder to appear in geological times. Their affinities are 
with the Orthoptera and Neuroptera, while the Adphide@ and 
Homoptera generally, on the other hand, whose bodies are 
more cylindrical, ally themselves with the first and higher se- 
ries of suborders. 

In the Homopterous Hemiptera the fore pair of wings are 
generally transparent and usually net-veined, lying with the 
hind pair, which are considerably smaller, roof-like upon the 
body, and the head is held vertically, where in most Heterop- 
tera it is horizontal and flattened. 


rg 


7 ; APHIDA. — 519° 


~ Apnip# Latreille. The Plant-lice have antenne with from: 


five to seven joints, and generally longer than the body. The 
ocelli are wanting, and the beak is three-jointed and developed 
in both sexes. The legs are long and slender, with two-jointed 
tarsi. The males and females are winged, and also the last 


brood of asexual individuals, but the early summer broods 
are wingless. Their bodies are flask-shaped, being cylind- 


rical, the abdomen thick and rounded, and in Aphis and 
Lachnus is provided with two tubes on the sixth segment for 


the passage of a sweet fluid secreted from the stomach. The 


wings are not net-veined, having few veins, which. pass. out- 
wards from the costa. They are usually green in color, with 
a soft powdery bloom which exudes from their bodies. 

Bonnet first discovered that the summer brood of wingless 
imdividuals were born of virgin parents, hatched from eggs 
laid in the autumn, and that the true winged sexes composed 
the last generation, which, united sexually, and that the female 
-daid egos in the autumn which produced the spring brood of 
asexual wingless individuals. 

Dr. W. I. Burnett gives the following brief summary oo the 
mode of development in this group. In the early autumn 
the colonies of plant-lice are composed of both male and 
female individuals ; these pair, the males then die, and the 
females begin to deposit their eggs, after which they die also. 
Early in the spring, as soon as the sap begins to flow, these 
egos are hatched, and the young lice immediately begin to 
pump up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, increase rap- 
idly in size, and in a short time come to maturity. In this 
state it is found that the whole brood, without a single excep- 
tion, consists solely of females, or rather, and more properly, 
of individuals which are capable of reproducing their kind. 
This reproduction takes place by a viviparous generation, there 
being found in the individuals in question, young lice, which, 
when capable of entering upon individual life, escape from 
their progenitors, and form a new and greatly increased col- 
ony. ‘This second generation pursues the same course as the 
first, the individuals of which it is composed being, like those 
of the first, sexless, or at least without any trace of the male 
sex throughout. These same conditions are then repeated, and 


a i a a 


520 HEMIPTERA. 


so on almost indefinitely, experiments having shown that the 
power of reproduction under such circumstances may be exer- 
cised, according to Bonnet, at least through nine generations, 
while Duval obtained thus eleven generations in seven months, 
his generations being curtailed at this stage not by a failure 
of the reproductive power but by the approach of winter, 
which killed his specimens; and Kyber even observed that a 
colony of Aphis dianthi, which had been brought into a con- 
stantly heated room, continued to propagate for four years in 
this manner, without the intervention of males, and even in this 
instance it remains to be proved how much longer these phe- 
nomena might have 
been continued.” Dr. 
Burnett, from whom 
we quote, considers 
this anomalous mode 
of increase of indi- 
viduals as a process 
of budding, and that 
= the whole series, like 
8 the leaves of a tree, 
constitutes but a sin- 
gle generation, which 
results from the union 
of the sexes in the 
previous fall. It has 
Fig. 517. always been sup- 
posed that the final autumnal set of individuals were males 
and females alone. But Dr. Burnett states: ‘‘The terminal 
brood has hitherto been considered, as far as I am aware, to be 
composed exclusively of males and females, or, in other words, 
of perfect insects of both sexes. I was surprised, therefore, on 
examining the internal organs of the non-winged individuals, 
to find that many of these last were not females proper, but 
simply the ordinary gemmiparous form. Moreover so great 
was the similarity of appearance between these two forms— 
true females and gemmiparous individuals—that they could 
be distinguished only by an examination of their internal 
genitalia.” 


~ 
RN 
S 
\ 


APHID. 521 


MM. Balbiani and Signoret have discovered that the com- 
mon European Aphis aceris produces, besides young of the 
normal form, a singular dimorphous form (Fig. 517), first de- 
scribed in 1852 by Mr. J. Thornton, under the name of Phyl- 
lophorus testudinatus, and afterwards called Periphyllus testudo 
by M. Van der Hoeven. The chief characteristic of this re- 


markable form, which is flattened, scale-like, is the series of . 


leaf-like scales surrounding the body and bordering the appen- 
dages, while the upper side of the abdomen is covered with 
_ hexagonal figures. The generative apparatus is also very ru- 
dimentary. It does not produce young, and the insects them- 
selves do not increase in size after birth, being scarcely one 
millimetre in length. ‘‘They undergo no change of skin, 
neyer acquire wings like the reproductive individuals, and their 
antenne always retain the 
five joints which they pre- 
sent in all young Aphides 
before the first moult.” 
(Science Gossip, 1867, p. 
204.) 

Aphides are found upon 
every part of plants. 
Some species which are Fig. 518. 
wingless, are found on the roots of plants, others on the stems 
of twigs, others roll up leaves, or form gall-like swellings on 
leaves ; the grain Aphis sucks the sap of the kernel. Ants are 
fond of the sweet excretions from the abdominal tubes, and 
often keep them captive in their nests like herds of cattle. 
Syrphus flies, Coccinelle, etc., keep them within proper limits 
in nature. Various species of Aphidius kill larger numbers 
than we imagine. ‘‘ When an Aphis has received an egg from 
one of these parasites it quits its companions and fastens itself 
by its ungues to the under side of a leaf, when it swells into a 
globular form, its skin stretched out and dried up, and in a 
short time the perfect parasite escapes by a circular hole, the 
mouth of which sometimes remains like a trap door.” In 
the Museum of the Peabody Academy is an apple twig almost 
covered with dead Aphides, each perforated by a hole from 
which an Aphidius had escaped. 


| 
(| 
iM | 


522 HLEMIPTERA. 


In Aphis the seven-jointed antennz are longer than the body, 
the two basal joints short and thick, the seventh the longest, 
and near the end of the abdomen there are two long honey 
tubes. Aphis avene Fabr. is abundant and very injurious to 
the ears of wheat, sucking out the sap and greatly reducing the 
bulk of the corn. In certain years it has spread over the 
country in immense numbers. Aphis mali Fabr. (Fig. 518, 
winged female; Fig. 519, asexual female), and A. malifolice 
Fitch are found on the.apple; A. cerasi Fabr. on the cherry ; 
A. persice Sulzer on the peach, and A. brassice Linn. on the 
cabbage. There are about thirty species known in this 
country. 

In Lachnus the sixth joint of the antennz is shorter than 
the seventh, and the honey tubes are very short. Lachnus 
strobi is found on the white pine bushes often in great numbers. 
Lachnus carye Harris is a very large species 
which lives on the Hickory. Mr. Walsh states 
that he has ‘‘noticed in the autumn, numerous 
apterous females on the same tree, which lived 
many days and laid their eggs in confinement, 
but died without assuming wings.” The genus Hriosoma ditfers 
in having no honey tubes, and in having only two median (dis- 
coidal) cells. The species are covered with a woolly flocculent 
substance, secreted from the abdomen, though no special 
olands for this purpose have yet been discovered, while but lit- 
tle ‘‘honey” is exuded from the orifices of the aborted honey- 
tubes. Evriosoma lanigera Hausmann, the Apple-blight, is 
black, with the abdomen honey yellow. The eggs are laid in 
the axils of the branches, especially near the roots of the tree, 
if there are any suckers present, and are enveloped in the pow- 
dery substance of the abdomen of the female. By their stings 
in the bark numerous warts and excresences are produced, 
the leaves turn yellow and drop off, and the tree often dies. 
Professor Verrill has found, about the middle of October, 
among the wingless individuals, ‘‘a large number of both males 
and females having well formed and rather large wings, but in 
other respects closely resembling the rest.” 

The genus Adelges was proposed by Vallot for certain broad, 
flattened plant-lice, which attack coniferous trees, often raising 


_-APHIDA. ~ 523 


swellings on twigs like pine and spruce cones. The antenne 
are short, five-jointed and slender; there are three straight 
veinlets arising from the main subcostal vein and directed out- 
wards, and there are no honey tubes; otherwise these insects 
closely resemble the Aphides. A species (Fig. 520; a, pupa 
seen from beneath) closely related to the European <Adelges 
(Chermes) coccineus of Ratzburg, and the A. strobilobius of 
Kaltenbach, which have similar habits, we have found in abun- 
dance on the spruce in Maine, where it produces swellings at 
the end of the twigs, 
resembling in size 
and form the cones 
of the same tree. 

- Under the name 
of Hamamelistes Dr. 
Shimer describes a 
species, Hl. cornu a Fig. 520. 

(Fig. 521, wings), which inhabits ‘‘ obliquely conical or horn- 
like galls on the upper side of the leaf of Hamamelis Virgin- 
ica, the Witch Hazel, opening on the under side of the leaf.” 
In this genus the ‘‘wings are laid flat on the back in repose, 
extending much beyond the body,” while the honey tubes are 
either small or obsolete, and the antenne are short, being from 
three to five-jointed. 

The genus Thelaxes differs in the wings being folded flat 
on the back, and there are but two veins in the hind wings, 
one subcostal, the other median. Thelaxes ulmicola Walsh 
inhabits galls on the leaves of the elm. Mr. 

Walsh states that the winged females are black SAS 
and more or less pruinose. In Byrsocrypta the 

wings are steeply roofed, according to Walsh, SS 
and in the six-jointed antenne ‘the sixth Fig. 521. 
joint is nearly as long as the fourth and fifth together.” ‘This 
genus also consists of several gall-inhabiting species. In the 
species of Pemphigus, which produce gall-like excresences on 
plants, the fourth to the sixth antennal joints are nearly equal 
in length, and, as in Byrsocrypta, there are two median veins, 
the third vein of the wing being simple, while in Eriosoma it is 
forked. Mr. Walsh has ‘ascertained from repeated observa- 


524 HEMIPTERA. 


tions the very curious fact, that the ants fetch the larve of 
Pemphigus formicetorum Walsh home to their nests from the 
roots on which they feed, and place them in little clusters of 
fifty or sixty individuals, where they soon elaborate such a 
dense mass of white cottony matter as to entirely conceal 
them.” (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Phila- 
delphia, i, p. 307.) 

Pemphigus formicarius is attended by Formica aphidicola. 
Mr. Walsh, who describes it, states that ‘‘two kinds of larvee 
occurred in company; the 
first, when recent, scarcely 
twice as long as wide and 
whitish; the second, when 

——— recent, three times as long 
Fig. 522. as wide and cinereous. From 
the latter I bred five winged individuals.” 

Another species, the Vagabond Pemphigus, P. vagabondus 
Walsh (Fig. 522), so-called from its habit of wandering to 
very great distances in its native forests, raises large galls 
(Fig. 528) on the tops of the cotton-wood and balsam pop- 
lars; and the ‘“‘old blackened galls hang on to the twigs for 
several seasons, giving the tree a singular appearance when 
the leaves are 
off in the winter 
time.” A sin- 
gle female be- 
gins the gall, 
whose young 
soon multiply, 
leaving the gall 
in September. 
Mr. Walsh has 
also described 

Fig. 523. the Sumac gall 
(Fig. 524) caused by a smaller species, the Pemphigus rhois of 
Fitch, and also the Cockscomb-elm gall (Fig. 525) made by 
the P. ulmicola of Fitch, which infests young white elm trees, 
often densely covering the leaves. ‘‘By the end of June or 
the beginning of July, the gall becomes full of winged plant- 


— 


COCCID A. 525 


lice, when the slit on the under side of the leaf, through which 
the mother plant-louse built up the gall early in the spring, 
gapes open and allows 
the insects to escape 
into the open air.” 
(American Entomolo- 
gist, p. 108.) 

The Editors of the 
. * American Entomolo- 
gist” describe and fig- 
ure the Apple root 
plant-louse, Hriosoma 
(Pemphigus) pyri of 
Fitch (Fig. 526; a, the 
gall; 6, larva; c, fe- 
male; d, leg; e, beak; i 
jf, antenna of female; "Fig. 524. 
g, of larva), which occurs sometimes in great abundance, form- 
ing, in October, galls like potatoes, and two to three inches in 
diameter, on the roots of apple trees, just beneath the surface 
of the ground. 

The European 
Chermes (Pemphi- 
gus) abietis has two 
sorts of females, 


and is parthenogen- ——_ 


ous, according to = 


Leuckart. 


Coccip# Fallen. 
The Bark-lice have 
six or more joints 
to the antenne ; the 
tarsi are two-jointed, the beak wanting in the males, in which 
the hind wings are usually wanting, while the scales made by 
the females are usually flattened, scale-like, or rounded hemi- 
spherical. The wingless, scale-like, adult females, by a retro- 
grade development, in which the legs and rings of the body 
become aborted, remind us of the Barnacles and allies among 


Fig. 525. 


526 HEMIPTERA. 


Crustacea, and like them, they can scarcely be referred to the 
type of Articulates at all, while other forms, such as C. cacti 
in its larval state, resemble Glomeris, or the Isopods, among 
Crustacea. On the other hand the males have been mistaken 
for some Neuroptera, and the male Coccus, with its long anal 
stylets and the single pair of fore wings, may be likened to 
an Ephemera. The genera Aspidiotus and Lecanium are par- 
thenogenous, as in the Aphide. 

In Aleurodes both sexes are winged and of similar form, the 
antennee are six-jointed, with the second joint lengthened, and 
in the fore wings, 
which are spread out 
as in Lepidoptera, 
there is but a single 
vein, the median. We 
have received from 
Mr.J. L. Russell, the 
young and adult of 
a species which oc- 
curred in great num- 
bers on his house- 
plants and especially 

Fig. 526. on the tomato leaves. 

The winged forms appeared early in September. The larvee 
are green and scale-like, rounded oval, and the pup retain the » 
same form and are smooth beneath, but with minute hairs 
above and on the edges. The adult is yellowish white, with 
snow-white wings, and is about .04 of an inch in length. 
The body of the imago nearly formed, 
with black eyes, can be seen through the 
thin pupa skin. In Dorthesia the males 
only are provided with wings; the an- 
tenn are long, nine-jointed, and the 
abdomen is oval, ending in a bushy mass 
of threads. The genus Coccus differs in 
that the two-winged males haye ten- 
Hg ETE jointed antenne and two anal bristles. 

The females have nine-jointed antennz, and are covered with a 
flattened, hemispherical. scale. The Cochineal insect, Coccus 


-COCCIDA. ~ 527 


(Pseudococcus) cacti (Fig. 527, male, with wingless female, 
natural size and enlarged) secretes masses of Cochineal from 
its body. The males are carmine red, with light brown wings, 
and the anal setz, or bristles, are two and one-half times 
longer than the body, which is three-fourths of a line long, 
while the female is one line in length, rounded in form, 
and covered with a heavy bloom. It lives in Mexico on the 
Cactus coccinellifer, and has been introduced into Spain and 
Algiers and the Madeira islands. Coccus mannipaius of 
Ehrenberg is found at Sanai 
growing on the Tamarix, and pro- 
duces by its attacks the gum-like 
secretion called ‘‘manna.” Coc- 
cus lacca Kerr lives in the East 
Indies on the Ficus religiosa, and 
produces the lac of commerce. 
When found on the twigs it is 
called stick lac, but after it hee been pounded, and the 
greater part of the coloring matter extracted by water, it is 
called seed lac; when melted down into cakes after it has 
been strained and formed into thin scales, lump lac and shell 
lac. 
Mr. T. Glover has figured three species of Coccus found by 
him living on the orange in Florida, and all seem to be new to 
science. The first we may call Coccus Gloverii (Fig. 528, a, 
male; 6, female; d, linear scale, enlarged) which differs from 
the others by not having, according to Glover’s drawing, the 
usual pair of caudal filaments. It occurs on the bark and 
leaves, especially on the outer ede ge,and _ 
along the midrib. Another species is - 
represented at Fig. 528, c. The third ¢ 
species is allied to the Coccus citri 
Boisduval, which has been very injuri- 
ous to the orange in the Maritime Alps 

in Northern Italy. It has, besides a Fig. 529. 

linear scale like that represented in Fig. 528, d, an oval scale 
(Fig. 529, a, male; b, female, enlarged ; c, oval scale), and the: 
female has two long caudal filaments. The hymenopterous . 
parasite, Coccophagus, preys on this genus. 


528 HEMIPTERA. 


Other bark-lice belonging to another genus, Lecanivm, are 
found in hot-houses ; they differ from the preceding in being 
flat, scale-like, without any traces of rings, and have eight- 
jointed antenneze, while the males have nine joints to the an- 
tennee, and are two-winged. JL. hesperidum Linn. is found on 
the orange. 

The Editors of the American Entomologist (p. 14) describe 
the Lecanium Maclure (Fig. 530, b) which lives on the twigs 
and leaves of the Osage orange. ‘‘The dark part is the scale 
covering the insect, and this scale, as usual in the genus to 
which the insect belongs, is of a blood brown color. The pale 
part is snowy white, and is composed of a fine cottony down 
enveloping the eggs and young larve.” A similar species, L. 
acericola (Fig. 
530, a) ‘infests 
the bark as well 
as leaves of the 

common maple.” 
<“) The common 

bark-louse of the 
‘Apple tree be- 
longs to the genus 
_ Aspidiotus (A. 
— conchiformis) and 
does more injury 
to that tree than 
any other insect 
known. Itis also 
‘found on the cur- 
rant, plum and 
pear. (Eaey 
The female is 

Hig. 530. shaped like an 
oyster shell. There are from ten to one hundred eggs laid 
by the female. Westwood states that the males of this genus 
are very broad, with broad wings, and a central anal appen- 
dage, but without the usual caudal filaments. The puparium 
has a double shield. 

Mr. Riley has studied the habits of the A. conchiformis 


YY LP] 
Ve 


SS E=PAA 


= 


EE 


my 


\\\\ 
Se 


COCCIDA. 529 


Gmelin (Figs. 531, 582) in Illinois, and states that June 6th 
most of the eggs were hatched, though the young had not left 
the scales ; on the 9th the weather being ‘exceedingly warm,” 
the young (Fig. 532, 2) were found running all over the twigs ; 
on the 11th they all became fixed, and the day after a white 
waxy secretion began to issue from the body in the shape of 
very fine, delicate threads (3). On the 22d they had increased 
materially in size, the waxy secretion vanished soon 

Y ) 


rn — 


mM i 


x 


after the last date, leaving what appeared to be the 
body of a yellowish brown color, though in reality ) 
the body is underneath and separate, and has lost all 
trace of members. On the 6th of July the secretion 
rapidly increased and assumed an oval form, and 
the insect was of the form indicated at 5. On the Ys ‘ 
10th the scale presented the appearance indicated at | 
4. Two days after a third plate began to be secreted yy 
from the posterior end of the insect, and enlarged i OGG 
rapidly, becoming of the same color as the back. By Wiig 
the first of August their nomen was to ail. “UueaUeI Ge 


is only 05 of an inch long, ane ecoupyine about ll 


half the space within (7). On the 12th of August Fig. 531. 
they began to lay eggs, and by the 28th all had ceased egg-lay- 
ing, while the body shrivelled up. ‘There is but a single brood, 


Fig. 532. 


the eggs laid late in summer, hatching in the following spring. 

Thus it appears, according to Riley’s observations, and as Har- 

ris supposed, that the shell-like scale is secreted from the sur- 
34. 


530 HEMIPTERA. 


face of the body, and is identical with the flocculent matter, or 
down, that exudes from certain Aphides and the shell lac insect 
and related forms. On the other hand, Dr. Shimer, who has 
given the fullest history of this insect, and was the first to 
make observations for the most part similar to those recorded 
above, considers that the scale consists of the several (three) 
cast skins of the larva, ‘‘cemented by some kind of an exuda- 
tion to the bark.” This insect can be best exterminated by 
scraping the bark, and then washing the trees with soapsuds a 
few days after the trees blossom, just as the young are. about 

i, hatching. Dr. Shimer has discovered a mite 
/< (Acarus? malus Shimer) which sucks the 
eges in autumn. 

Another species, which is native, the As- 
pidiotus Harrisit of Walsh (Figs. 535, 534, 
A, B, showing the two kinds of scales) dif- 
fers in the scale being oval, ‘‘ almost entirely 
flat, and of a pure milk white color,” with 
red eggs, while those of the Oyster shell 
bark-louse are milk white, and the larvze 
are at first blood red. It occurs on the apple 
and pear, and is far less injurious than the 
other species. 


Fig. 533. Psytuip& Latreille. These small Leaf- 
hoppers are found hopping over the surface of leaves and often 
raising galls. They are flattened and provided with short legs 
and a broad head, and covered with a white cottony mass in 
the larva state. In the mature insect the forked antennez are 
eight to ten-jointed, with two slender terminal bristles forming 
the fork. There are three remote ocelli; the beak is three- 
jointed, reaching to the 
middle of the chest, and 
the epimera of the meta- 
thorax terminate behind in 
an acute spine on each 
side. The limbs are short, 
with thickened shanks, and two-jointed tarsi. The wings are 
thickened and folded roof-like over the body, and the three 


Fig. 534. 


CICADELLINA. ool 


veins, costal, median and submedian, are usually each di- 
vided but once. ; 

The genus Psylla has the bristle-shaped antennze as long as 
the body, and a distinct pterostigma. The species are very 
numerous, each species of tree having its peculiar leaf-hopper, 
but scarcely any have been yet described. Psylla pyri is 
brownish orange, with a greenish abdomen. It is very injuri- 
ous to the pear tree. 

In Livia the antenne are shorter than the body, with a very 
large and thick basal joint, and flattened eyes. Livia vernalis 
Fitch is bright ferruginous ; the breast and tips of the antenne 
are black, while the legs are pale rust-red. It is .15 of an inch 
in length, and is found in vessels of sap of the sugar maple, 
according to Dr. Fitch. 


CrcaDELLINA Burmeister. The true Leaf-hoppers have a 
broad, triangular head obtusely pointed in front, with a large 
triangular scutellum not concealed by the wings when at rest, 
and the ocelli are either two in number or entirely wanting. 
The short, two-jointed antenne end in a bristle, being inserted 
on the upper edge of the front, just before the eyes. The large 
prothorax is broad and flattened and transversely oblong. The 
fore wings are thickened, and the hind legs are long, being 
fitted for leaping. . 

Many species inhabiting grasses, such as Heleochara and 
Aphrophora, while in the larva state suck the sap of grasses 
and emit a great quantity of froth, or in some cases a clear 
liquid, which in the former case envelops the body, and thus 
conceals it from sight. It is then vulgarly called ‘toad’s 
spittle.” In Typhlocyba, which comprises many small species, 
there are no ocelli; the scutellum is rounded, and the front is 
slightly concave. The species of this and the following genera 
by their attacks on various vines and fruit trees often kill 
them. They are among the greatest pests of gardeners. The 
injury is produced by their beaks in feeding, and by the ovi- 
positor in puncturing the leaves, in which they lay their eggs. 

In Erythronewra the head is crescentiform, about as broad 
as the thorax, with the vertex rounded down to the front, with- 
out an angular edge ; the ocelli are situated between the vertex 


itt) i 


ys} HEMIPTERA. 


and the front, and almost as near each other as the eyes, while 
the fore wings are without closed cells in the disk. The spe- 
cies most injurious to the grape-vine is the Lrythroneura vitis 
Harris (Fig. 535). It is pale yellow, with two red lines on 
the head, while the hinder edge of the thorax, including the 
scutellum, the base of the fore wings, with a broad band across 
their middle, are scarlet, and the wings are tipped with black. 

In Jassus the species are larger than the foregoing, with 
stouter bodies. The head is very broad and short, concave at 
base, and the ocelli are placed between the eyes on the front, 
which is broader than long, and the ovipositor is recurved. 
Jassus irroratus Say is not uncommonly seen on herbage. 

The common Heleochara communis Fitch, a grass green spe- 
cies, is found in great abundance in damp, grassy places, in 
company with the yellow-legged, closely allied, Aulacizes mol- 
lipes Say and the Proconia quadrivittata Say, which has the 
vertex flattened and four scarlet stripes on the wings. In Tef- 
tigonia the antennze are half as long as the body. T. bifida 
Say is common in 
erass. In Cercopis the 
prothorax is large and 
hexagonal. 

The Clastoptera pro- 
teus of Fitch is a 
common insect in blue- 
berry fields and cran- 
berry pastures. It is 
short and thick, with a bright yellow head, with a black band 
on the front margin of the vertex, and a broader one on the 
front, and a black dot near the apex of the elytra, while the 
legs are yellowish white, and the tarsi are black. It varies 
greatly in its colors. In Aphrophora the head is of moderate 
size, with two ocelli approximate on the crown of the head; 
the prothorax is trapezoidal and the posterior tibize have two 
teeth. A. quadrinotata Say is found on grape-vines. 


Fig. 535. 


Furcormx Leach. This family, as stated by Westwood, is 
at once known by having only three distinct joints in the an- 
tennee, and the two ocelli are placed beneath the eyes. The 


CICADARIA. 533 


head is very large; the body is high and convex, often com- 
pressed laterally. The hind legs are thickened and enlarged, 
adapted for leaping purposes. Some of the strangest shapes 
among insects are found in this group. This is due to the great 
development of the forehead, or vertex of the head, which is pro- 
longed either angularly, or into a long snout-like process, as in 
Fulgora, while in other species it is as long as the entire body. | 

‘“The species of some genera, such as Plata limbata, Phenax 
variegata, Lystra auricoma and L. lanata, emit a waxy white 
secretion, made into a fine white wax, which is much esteemed 
in China and the East Indies.” (Westwood.) 

The Lantern-fly, Fulgora, attains an immense size when 
compared with other Hemiptera, being between two and three 
inches long. The head is large with a prolongation much 
longer than the head, which is said by novices and some nat- 
uralists, though doubted by others, to be luminous at night, 
whence its name. The Fulgora lanternaria Linn. occurs in 
Surinam, and /’. (Hotinus) candelaria Linn. is found in China. 
Mr. Caleb Cooke of Salem, who resided several years in Zan- 
zibar, Africa, informs me that the Lantern-fly is said by the 
natives to be luminous. ‘They state that the long snout lights 
up in the night, and in describing it, say ‘‘its head is like a 
lamp.” (Aeetchua kana-tah.) 

In Flata the base of the head is concealed by the front edge 
of the prothorax, the front of the head is long and slender, 
without any middle keel ; the wings are very broad and rounded. 

Anotia Bonnetii Kirby is found, according to Fitch, on wil- 
lows about the middle of September. Otiocerus Coquebertii 
Kirby is found on beech and oak trees, and sometimes on the 
grape-vine, according to Fitch. 

The genus Delphaw has a very broad front, with sharp edges 
and a forked keel along the middle; the antennze are two- 
jointed, the articulations long and thickened at the end. Del- 
phax arvensis Fitch is pale yellow, unspotted, with the elytra 
and wings nearly pellucid. It is common in fields of wheat 
early in June. 


Crcapari& Latreille. These interesting insects, commonly 
called “locusts,” are large and wedge-shaped, with a large 


iif 


534 HEMIPTERA. 


broad head and prominent eyes. The males haye a musical 
apparatus beneath the wings on the basal ring of the abdomen, 
which acts like a ket- 
tle drum, producing 
a loud, penetrating, 
shrillsound. Cicada 
rimosa of Say, our 
} smallest species, be- 
gins to be heard a 
little before the mid- 
dle of June. The 
C. pruinosa Say is 
larger and appears 
later, being an au- 
tumnal species. Pro- 
Fig. 536. fessor A. E. Verrill 

has observed this species in Norway, Me., laying its eggs in 
the stems of Solidago or Golden-rod. It made a longitudinal 
incision with ragged edges into the pith of the plant, then with 
its oviposi- 
tor forced its 
eges a little 
distance 
down in the 
pith below 
the external 
opening ; 
there were 
two rows of 
egg@s suc- 
ceeding the 
first single 
one, each 
pair diverg- 
ing out- 
wards, the 
Fig. 537. lower ends 

of each pair nearly touching each other, and all placed very 
near together. The habits of the Seventeen year locust, Cicada 


CICADARI A. 535 


septendecim Linn. (Fig. 536, A; g, drum; c, d, male genital 
hooks; B, C. Cassinii Fisher; g, drum; e, f, genital hooks. 
Fig. 537, c, with expanded wings) which does not in- ja, 
habit Northern New England, are well described by ( 
Harris and Fitch. The young larve feed on the roots } 
of the oak and apple, clustering upon the roots and suck- 
ing the sap with their beak-like mouths. They live f 
seventeen years. Different broods appear in different | 
localities, so that each year they are seen in some part 
of the country. ia 
The Editors of the American Bhtomoloaist. p. 63, give fA} 
additional information regarding its habits. It appears | 
during the last half of May, and disappears about the Ae 
fourth of July, and the eggs hatch between the twentieth ide 
Wf! of July and the first of August. The eggs (Fig. fj 
( 537; d, e, enlarged) are deposited in pairs in Bye 
the terminal twigs of different species of decidu- F 
ous trees, especially the oak (Fig. 538, punc- \ 
tured twig; Fig. 539, a twig which has been Fis-*- 
punctured and then healed over). The larvee hatch 
out in about six weeks after they are laid, and (Fig. 
540, newly hatched larva) drop to the ground in 
which they live feeding on roots of trees for nearly 
seventeen years, the pupa state (Fig. 537; a, b, cast 
pupa and skin; c, adult) lasting but a few days. 
When about to transform into the winged state they 
ascend to the surface, making cylindrical burrows, 
‘“‘firmly cemented and varnished so as to be water- 
Fig. 539. proof.” Mr. 8. 8. Rathvon has observed that in low 
and wet localities the pupze extend these ‘galleries from four 
to six inches above ground (Fig. 541; a, full view ; 6, section) 
leaving an orifice of egress even 
with the surface (¢). In the = 
upper end of these chambers 
(c) the pupze would be found 33-7 
awaiting their approaching 
time of change. They would Fig. 540. 
then back down to below the level of the earth, as at d, and 
issuing forth from the orifice would attach themselves to 


Hil | 
MI 


il 


536 HEMIPTERA. 


the first object at hand, and undergo their transformations 
in the usual manner.” (American Entomologist, p. 64.) 

The ovipositor of Cicada, as we have observed it in a rudi- 
mentary state in the pupa, closely resembles that of A®schna 
(Fig. 21), and essentially agrees with that of Bombus, the 
basal pair of blades arising from the eighth segment of the ab- 
domen, as in the humble bee, and the two succeeding pairs 
forming the ovipositor itself (the outer pair forming a sheath) 
arising from the ninth segment. 


Noronectip# Latreille. The Water Boatmen somewhat 
resemble the Tettigoniz, but their habits are aquatic; their 
hind legs are very long, 
ciliated, and formed for 
swimming. The body 
is convex above, but flat 
beneath; the head is 
large and nearly as wide 
as the rest of the body, 
with a broad and round- 
ed front; the antenne 
are four-jointed, con- 
cealed beneath the eyes, 
~== and the ocelli are want- 
~ ing. The different spe- 
cies of Corixa are com- 
mon ineyery pool. Their 
motions are rapid, diving when disturbed rapidly to the bot- 
tom and seizing hold of submerged objects. They fly well, but 
walk with difficulty. The genus is characterized by the 
single-jointed fore tarsi, which are flattened and strongly 
ciliated ; the prothorax is large, covering the mesotho- 
rax.. C. interrupta Say is not uncommon in pools. 

In Notonecta the body is somewhat prismatic in form, 
and hairy beneath, where in Corixa it is smooth. The 
fore tarsi are three-jointed, and the hind legs are very 
long. Roesel states that ‘the eggs (which are attached 
to the stems and leaves of aquatic plants, and are of an oval 
form) are hatched in fifteen days; the young make their ap- 


Fig. 542. 


NEPID®. oar 


pearance at the beginning of the spring, and the parent sur- 
vives until they have arrived at maturity.” (Westwood.) The 
recently hatched young are broad, oval and flattened. Noto- 
necta undulata Say (Fig. 542) and WN. irrorata Say are our more 
common forms. The genus Plow differs from the preceding, 
in the fore wings being coriaceous, and “united together by 
a straight suture.” 


Nepip# Leach. These insects have very flat bodies which 
are either oval or very long and linear. The head is sunken 
into the thorax, with large eyes, but no ocelli. The antenne 
are short, three or four-jointed, and concealed in a cavity under 
the eyes; the beak is three-jointed. The fore wings are mem- 
branous, and the fore feet are raptorial, while the hind limbs 
are formed for swimming. In Nepa and Ranatra the body 
terminates in a long breathing tube, and the tracheary system 
in these two genera is very peculiar, being very largely devel- 
oped on the under side of the body. There is a large air- 
bladder within the metathorax, leading from the spiracle, which 
evidently lightens the insect during its flight. In the abdomen 
the spiracles are only present on the third to the fifth rings; 
they are not, however, simple clefts in the walls of the body 
but are closed by a sieve-like membrane, so that they perform 
the function of tracheal gills. (Gerstaecker. ) 

The genus Belostoma comprises the most gigantic forms of 
the suborder, some species being from three to four and a half 
inches long. The body is oval, elliptical, flattened; the eyes 
are large and the second to the fourth antennal joints provided 
with hook-like expansions. The fore tarsi are two-jointed, with 
a single claw, and the hinder limbs are broad, flat, but not 
fringed. The larvee are provided with two claws on the fore 
tarsi. ‘‘ The females of some species of Belostome carry their 
eggs upon their backs, arranging them in a single layer with 
great symmetry.” (Westwood.) Belostoma Haldimanum Leidy 
is not uncommon in our waters. It is three inches and a half 
in length, and has black patches on the under side of the body, 
while in B. grisea Say, which is of the same size, the under 
side is unspotted. Professor A. E. Verrill has sent me the 
eggs and freshly hatched young of one of our New England 


ill 


538 HEMIPTERA. 


species of Belostoma, the former of which he found in the 
spring ‘funder an old log just at, but above, the edge of the 
water. On the 18th of June they hatched out a most amusing 
flock of young bugs, nearly as large as squash bugs, and light 
yellowish green in color, which soon changed to dark gray.” 
The young, two days old and previous to moulting, were .35 
of an inch long. The eggs are smooth, cylindrical, .16 of an 
inch long, and are deposited in a mass of about ninety eggs, 
attached by the posterior end to a mass of silk-gum. ‘They 
partially overlap each other, and the young escape by a round 
lid, indicated by a semicircular white line. 

The genus Ranatra is remarkable for its long linear body, 
terminating in the long respiratory tube. The prothorax is 
greatly elongated, while the 
mesoscutellum is short. ‘The 
eges of the genus Ranatra are 
more elongated than in Nepa, 
and are furnished above with 
two slender sete. According to 
Rosel, they are deposited at 
random in the water, but Geoffroy 
states that they are introduced 
into the stems of aquatic plants, 
the elongated filaments being 
alone exposed. Our most com- 
mon form is Ranatra fusca Beau- 
vois (Fig. 543). 

The genus Nepa has very short 
three-jointed antenne, the two 
last joints being expanded later- 
ally. The body is flat, oval, 
with two long respiratory tubes, 
while the thorax is trapezoidal, 
and the mesoscutellum is very 
large; the thighs are dilated, 
with a notch to receive the tibia, 
which is curved and soldered to the tarsus. The genus is very 
predaceous, feeding like Ranatra and others on the larvee of 
Ephemere, . ‘The eggs are deposited in the water; they are 


Fig. 543. 


PLOTERES. 539 


oval, and surmounted by seven elongated filaments, which 
serve, while the egg is in the oviduct, to form a kind of cup 
for the reception of the succeeding egg, but which are recurved 
when the egg is discharged.” (Westwood. ) 


GALGuULID& (Galgudini) Burmeister. This small group con- 
sists of a few species which have the hind legs formed for 
running. The body is short, broad, flattened, and the head is 
broad with pedunculated eyes, and the four-jointed antennee 
are concealed beneath the eyes, while the ocelli are present. 
These insects are said to live on the edge of the water, *‘ bury- 
ing themselves in the sand, especially in the larva state.” 
The group is interesting as forming a connecting link between 
the aquatic and terrestrial plant-eating species. 

In Galgulus the third antennal joint is small, the fourth 
minute and rounded. G. oculatus Fabr. is uniformly brown, 
the upper surface granulated, and beneath blackish. 


Proteres Latreille. These insects are long, narrowing 
alike towards both ends, being shaped like a wherry, and with 
their long legs they course over the surface of ponds and 
streams, moving backwards and forwards with great facility. 
They are among the earliest spring insects. The body beneath 
is furnished with a coating of plush, to repel the water. The 
four-jointed antenne are long and slen- 
der, and the fore legs are partially rap- 
torial for seizing their prey. Wingless 
insects (evidently mature, as they are 
found coupling) occur in this family, as 
among the Cimicidw. Thus, there 
are apterous forms in the genera Gerris, 
Hydrometra and Velia, while in Pyrrho- 
coris apterus and Prostemma guttula 
there are individuals partially winged, 
‘‘which no one regards otherwise than as specifically identical 
with the full-winged specimens of the same species, ... but 
must be compelled to regard them as imagines with peculiar 
characters of their own, somewhat analogous to the neuters, 
or undeveloped females of the bee; but yet more perfect than 


Fig. 544. 


540 HEMIPTERA. 


that kind of imago, being capable of reproduction.” (West- 
wood.) 

In Velia the triangular head is sunken in the thorax up to 
the eyes; the ocelli are wanting; the thorax is large, and the 
wings are present. 

The well known genus Gervris has the ocelli present, the ab- 
domen long and slender, while the prothorax is very large, coy- 
ering the mesothorax. The eggs of a European species are 
preyed upon by a species of Telias, according to Mecznikow. 
Gerris paludum Fabr. (Fig. 544) and G. rufoscutellatus Fabr. 
a reddish species, are abundant on our streams. The larve 
are much shorter and with broader bodies than the adults. 

The genus Hylobates has the first antennal joint as long as 
the two following ones together; both ocelli and wings are 
wanting ; the mesothorax is very large, and elongated posteri- 
orly, and the fore legs are short, outstretched, with thickened 
femora, while the middle pair of limbs is the longest. The 
species are found swimming on the surface of the ocean in the 
tropics far from land. 


Repuvup (Reduvini) Latreille. The characters of this 
family are these: head free from the thorax, elongated, nearly 
cylindrical, with prominent eyes and two ocelli; the antennz 
are of moderate length, slender towards the end, and the beak 
is stout and incurved ; the tarsi are three-jointed and the legs 
are long and fitted for running. These insects are among the 
most predaceous of the Hemiptera. 

The group begins with an aquatic genus Limnobates, which 
connects this family with the preceding one; it runs over the 
surface of pools like Gerris. The body is linear; the protho- 
rax is as long as the rest of the thorax, and the hind wings 
are wanting. 

Ploiaria is aremarkably slender, thread-like insect, with long 
hair-like posterior legs, reminding us of Tipula. The species 
are raptorial and are frequent in gardens. P. brevipennis 
Say is reddish, with wings, and the feet are ringed near the 
knees. Its ally, Hmesa, resembles ‘‘the thinnest bits of sticks 
fastened together,” according to Westwood. ‘The body is long 
and thin, hair-like, and the antenne are long and delicate; the 


REDUVIIDA. 541 


fore legs are raptorial, with long and thin coxe. The wings 
are either wanting, or they reach only to the middle of the ab- 
domen. Emesa longipes DeGeer has a white head, ia 
with a brown band under the eyes; the femora are 
annulated with brown, and tipped with white. 

In Salda the body is small, elliptical and flat; the /) 
antennz are long and thread-like, half as long as 
the body. The beak reaches to the end of the breast, 
the second joint being at least six times as long as Fig. 545. 
the first, and the legs are short and slender. The species are 
found mostly in Europe along the shores of the ocean and 
inland waters. 

The genus Nabis is known by the anterior tibize having an 
apical cushion ; the beak is slender, extending to the hind legs. 
Nabis ferus Linn. is abundant in gardens, feeding on insects. 
An allied and common form is the Pirates picipes of Herrich 
Schaeffer (Fig. 545). The P. biguttatus Say has been found 
between the mattrasses of a bug-infested bed in south Illinois, 
and probably feeds on the bed-bug. (American Entomolgist, 
jOs Bas) 

The allied genera Prostemma (P. 
euttata), and Coranus (C. subap- 
terus) ‘‘are interesting on account 
of their being generally found in an - 
undeveloped imago state; the latter 
being either entirely apterous or with 
the fore wings rudimental, although 
occasionally met with having the four 
wings completely developed.” Mr. 
Westwood thinks that, especially in hot seasons, these apterous 
insects acquire full sized wings, in accordance with the same 
opinion of Spinola, whom he quotes. 

The type of the family is the genus Reduvius of Fabricius, 
which may be recognized by its second and third antennal 
joints being much longer than the first, while the fourth is 
hair-like. The limbs are densely hirsute, and the beak is short 
and stout. Reduvius personatus Linn., a black species, is said 
to feed upon the bed-bug. ‘The larva and pupa have the in- 
stinct to envelope themselves in a thick coating of particles of 


Fig. 546. 


542 HEMIPTERA. 

dust (DeGeer) and so completely do they exerine this habit 
that a specimen shut up by M. Brullé, and which had under- 
gone one of its moultings during its imprisonment, divested 
its old skin of its coat of dust, in order to recover itself there- 
with.” (Westwood.) The Evagoras viridis Uhler MS. is said, 
by the Editors of the ‘‘ American Entomologist,” to devour the 
plum curculio. 

In Harpactor the head is convex behind the eyes; the ocelli 
are distant, knobbed, and the first antennal joint is as long 
as, and stouter than, the two succeeding ones together. Har- 
pactor cinctus Fabr. (Fig. 546; 6, beak) attacks the larva of 
the Colorado Potato-beetle. Another member of this family, 
the Conorhinus sanguisuga of Leconte, is said to occur in 
beds, its bite being very painful. (American Entomologist, 
p. 87.) 


Cortst® Latreille. In this very extensive family, which is 
especially rich in species in the tropics, where they are gaily 
colored, the head is flat, extended horizontally, and sunken up 
to the eyes within the prothorax. The antennz are long, fili- 
form, often clavate at the tip, and from three to five-jointed. 
The two ocelli are almost always present, while the beak-sheath 
(labium) is four-jointed. The tarsi are generally three-jointed, 
and the claws are provided with two suctorial pads. The 
membranous wing-covers have distinct, often forked, longitu- 
dinal veins. 2 

We follow Gerstaecker in retaining Latreille’s family Cor- 
isize, which includes the ‘‘ Lygaeidze,” ‘* Coreidee” and ‘* Penta- 
tomidee” of recent authors, as they all agree in the general 
form of the body, and, as stated by Gerstaecker, in the struc- 
ture of the antenne, the uniform presence of two ocelli, the 
longitudinal veins of the fore wings, and the hardness of 
the crust of the body; these characters separate them from 
the preceding groups. 

In Lygzeus and allies (Lygzeidee) the scutellum is of the 
normal size; the antenne are four-jointed, and are attached to 
the under side of the head, and the beak is tolerably long. In 
Lygeeus the head is elongated acutely, the eyes globular, the 
ocelli distinct, and the antennz are slender, scarcely half as 


CORISIA. 543 


long as the body, and slightly clavate. Lygceus turcicus Fabr. 
is a typical form. Pyrrhocoris apterus Linn. is usually apter- 
ous ; occasionally specimens are found with wings. It inhabits 
Europe. 

The Chinch bug, Rhyparochromus leucopterus Say (Fig. 547) 
is a great enemy of our wheat crops, and, as its specific name 
indicates, it may be known by the white fore wings, contrasting 
well with a black spot on the middle of the edge of the wing. 
It is about three-twentieths of an inch in length. Harris also 
states that ‘‘the young and wingless individuals are at first 
bright red, changing with age to brown and black, and are 
always marked with a white band across the back.” Shimer 
says the female is ‘‘occupied about twenty days in laying her 
egos, about 500 in number. The larva hatches in fifteen days 
and there are two broods in a season, the first brood maturing, 
in Illinois, from the middle of July to the middle of August, 
and the second late in autumn.” According to Harris, the 
‘“‘eoos of the chinch bug are laid in the ground, in which 
the young have been found, in great abundance, at the depth 
of an inch or more. 
They make their 
appearance on 
wheat about the 
middle of June, 
and may be seen 
in their various 
stages of growth 
on all kinds of 
grain, on corn, 
and on herds- it 
grass, during the Fig. 547. Fig. 548. 
whole summer. Some of them continue alive through the win- 
ter in their places of concealment.” They also attack every 
description of garden vegetables, attacking principally ‘the 
buds, terminal shoots, and most succulent growing parts of 
these and other herbaceous plants, puncturing them with their 
beaks, drawing off the sap, and from the effects subsequently 
visible, apparently poisoning the part attacked.” This species 
is widely diffused. I have taken it frequently in Maine, and 


544 HEMIPTERA. 


even on the extreme summit of Mount Washington, in 
August. 

Dr. Shimer in his ‘* Notes” on the chinch bug, says that it 
‘‘attained the maximum of its development in the summer of 
1864, in the extensive wheat and corn fields of the valley of the 
Mississippi; and in that single year three-fourths of the wheat 
and one-half of the corn crop were destroyed throughout many 
extensive districts, comprising almost the entire North-west, 
with an estimated loss of more than one hundred millions of 
dollars in the currency that then prevailed,’ while Mr. Walsh 
estimates the loss, from the ravages of this insect in Illinois 
alone, in 1850, to have been four millions of dollars. 

In the summer of 1865, the progeny of the broods of the 
preceding year were almost entirely swept off by an epidemic 
disease, so few being left that on the 22d of August, Dr. 
Shimer found it ‘‘almost impossible to find even a few cabinet 
specimens of chinch bugs alive” where they were so abundant 
the year before. ‘‘ During the summer of 1866 the chinch bugs 
were very scarce in all the early spring, and up to near the 
harvest I was not able, with the most diligent search, to find 
one. At harvest I did succeed in finding a few in some locali- 
ties.” ‘*This disease among the chinch bugs was associated 


with the long-continued wet, cloudy, cool weather that pre- 


vailed during a greater portion of the period of their develop- 
ment, and doubtless was in a measure produced by deficient 
light, heat and electricity, combined with an excessive humidity 
of the atmosphere.” In 1868 it again, according to the Edi- 
tors of the ‘‘ American Entomologist,” ‘‘did considerable dam- 
age in certain counties in Southern Illinois and especially 
in South-west Missouri.” Fig. 548 represents the Anthocoris 
insidiosus Say, called the False Chinch bug; it is often mis- 
taken for the chinch bug, with which it is sometimes found 
associated. 

In the “‘Coreide” the scutellum is still of the usual size; 
the antenne are four-jointed ; while the basal joint of the beak 
is generally the longest. 

Westwood states that the Ooreus marginatus of Europe ‘in 
flight makes a humming noise as loud as the hive bee,” and 
the eggs of this species have been observed by Andouin to be 


CORISI A. 545 


‘‘of a splendid golden appearance.” The larvee and pup of 
several species of Coreus have been observed by Westwood 
to ‘differ from the imago in wanting ocelli, possessing only 
two joints in the tarsi (although there is a slight indication 
of an articulation in the middle of the terminal joint) ; their 
antennz also are much thicker, especially the intermediate 
joint. The pupa of C. scapha differs also from the imago in 
having the margins of the abdomen notched.” Several adult 
forms of this group are known to be partially wingless. 

The Squash-bug, Corews (Gonocerus) tristis DeGeer (Fig. 
549) is very destructive to squash-vines, collecting in great 
numbers around the stem near the ground, and sucking the 
sap with its stout beak. It is a large, blackish brown insect, 
six-tenths of an inch long, and dirty yellowish beneath. It 
hibernates, leaving the plant in October. About 
the last of June the sexes meet, and the females 
‘“lay their eggs in little patches, fastening them 
with a gummy substance to the under side of the 
leaves. The eggs are round, and flattened on 
two sides, and are soon hatched. The young 
bugs are proportionally shorter and more rounded 
than the perfect insects, are of a pale ash color, #8 4° 
and have quite large antenne, the joints of which are some- 
what flattened. As they grow older and increase in size, after 
moulting their skins a few times, they become more oval in 
form, and the under side of their bodies gradually acquires a 
dull ochre-yellow color.” (Harris.) The young attack ,the 
leaves, causing them to wither up. Successive broods are 
said to appear through the summer. Professor Verrill has 
found, with the assistance of Professor 8. W. Johnson, of Yale 
College, that the odor of this and other hemipterous insects 
bears the most resemblance to that of the formate of oxide of 
anyl, or the formate of anylic ether. It is probable that this 
substance is its most essential and active ingredient. (Pro- 
ceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, xi, p. 
160.) 

Tn Neides the body is remarkably thin and slender, repeat- 
ing the form of Ploiaria, or of Spectrum among the Orthoptera. 

In Alydus the body is small, slender, the head prolonged, 

30 


— 


546 HEMIPTERA. 


while the ocelli are very near together, and the last antennal 


, joint is often twice as long as the two preceding ones together. 


Alydus eurinus Say is a widely diffused species. An allied 
genus is Ithopalus. Another species of this group is the 
Metapodius nasalus of Say, which, in the Western States, 
injures cherries by sucking them. 

In the last group (Pentatomidz, which we place next to the 
Membranacei, because they are less allied to the Homoptera, 
and are more nearly related to Cimex) the scutellum is very 
large, often covering more than one-half the abdomen, and in 
this respect they at least remind us of those Orthopterous 
genera in which the same character prevails. 

This is a group of great extent, with bright colors and often 
of large size. The head is received into the large broad, short 
prothorax, and the body is generally ovate. The second joint 
of the beak is the longest. 

The various species are found on shrubs, sucking the leaves 
or often transfixing caterpillars on their beaks and carry- 
ing them off to suck their blood at leisure. DeGeer describes 
the eggs as being generally of an oval form, attached to leaves 
at one end by a glutinous secretion, the other being furnished 
with a cap, which the larva bursts off when it hatches out. 
The larvee are more convex and less flattened than the adults. 
““DeGeer has made an interesting observation relative to the 
care with which the females of a species of this family (Acan- 
thosoma grisea), found on the birch, defend their young. In 
the month of July he observed many females accompanied by 
their respective broods, each consisting of from twenty to forty 
young, which they attended with as much care as a hen does 
her brood of chickens.” (Westwood.) 

In Pentatoma the antenne are five-jointed ; the beak is slen- 
der, reaching to the end of the breast, with its first joint lying 
in the furrow on the throat. The scutellum is two-thirds the 
length of the abdomen. Pentatoma tristigma Harris has a 
series of three or four black dots on the under side of the 
abdomen, of which the posterior one is largest. It is seven- 
twentieths of an inch long. Pentatoma ligata Harris is a large 
green species, widely edged all around, except the head, with 
pale red. 


THRIPIDA. 47 


In Phioéa the body is much flattened, and expanded laterally 
into leaf-like flaps. The antennez are three-jointed, the first 
joint of which is longest. P. corticata Drury is a peculiar 
form, which occurs in Brazil. 

Arma spinosa Dallas (Fig. 550, b; a, beak, seen from be- 
neath; c, beak of Euschistus punctipes Say) is useful since it 
preys on the larva ofthe Doryphora. 
Another bug of this group, the Stiretrus Wx we 
jimbriatus Say (Fig. 551) has similar ] 
habits. | 

In Thyreocoris the wing-covers are } , 
nearly covered by the scutellum, which « 6 e 
is wider behind than before. The body Fig. 550. 
is short and transverse, being broader than long, and scale-like 
or semicircular in shape. Thyreocoris histeroides Harris re- 
sembles a Hister beetle, and is greenish black, with dull honey 
yellow antennze. The species of Corimelena are of much the 
same form, and usually-shining black. C. pulicaria Germar, 
according to Riley, injures strawberry-vines and grape-vines in 
Illinois. In the genus Tetyra the scutellum covers nearly the 
whole abdomen, but leaves the side of the wing-covers exposed. 
The antennz are slender; the first joint is longer than the 
second, the third being the shortest, and the fifth is twice 
as long as the fourth. Tetyra marmorata Say is a variegated 
species, the costal margin of the wing being 
provided with transverse fuscous lines. 

The genus Scutellera is remarkable for the 
great size of the scutellum, whence its name is 
derived. ‘This piece, which is elongated trian-  ¢ 
gular, covers not only the entire abdomen, but 
also the wings; the antennez are five-jointed, 
the two first joints small, the three last ones 
long, quite large. The species are adorned with gay metallic 
colors, and are especially abundant in the Island of Sunda. 
(Gerstaecker.) Scutellera viridipunctata Say is piceous, with 
green impressed punctures. It is seven-twentieths of an inch 
long, and is found in Florida. 


Fig. 551. 


Turipip£ (Thripsides) Fallen. This interesting group 


048 HEMIPTERA. 


bears much the same relation to the Corisi@ as the lice do to 
the Membranacei (Cimex), or Podura and Lepisma to the 
Neuropterous families above them. A comparison with the 
Mallophaga is still better, for in Thrips (Fig. 552) we find, 
as in the last named group, free, biting mouth-parts, accom- 
panied by a general degradation of the body. Though the spe- 
cies are winged, yet the wings are partially aborted; they are 
long, narrow, linear, both pairs of equal size, as in the typical 
Neuroptera, and by the frequent absence of any veins, either 
longitudinal or transverse, and the long delicate silky fringe, 
remind us strikingly of some minute degraded hymenopterous 
Proctrotrypide, Pteratomus (Plate 5, fig. 8), for example. 
The mandibles are bristle-like ; the maxille are flat, triangular, 
bearing two to three-jointed palpi, and the labial palpi are 
_ present, but very short, 
LZ end composed of but two 
== or three joints. 

Chiefly on account of 
these characters these in- 
sects were placed in a dis- 
tinct order, termed Thy- 
sanoptera by Haliday, and 
by many recent authors 

Fig. 552. they have been widely 
separated from what seem to us their nearest allies. Latreille, - 
however, recognized their affinities to the Homoptera, while 
stating that in their free biting mouth-parts they resembled 
the Orthoptera, to which Geoffroy referred them. To us they 
appear to be, as it were, degraded Lygeeids, and to preserve 
the general form of that group, in the long head, the stout, 
thickened fore limbs, and the large, square prothorax. They 
have both compound and simple eyes, the latter three in 
number. 

The antennz are long and slender, with from five to nine 
joints. In some species the fore wings are comparatively 
well developed, or, as Haliday states, they are ‘transformed 
into broadish elytra, ciliated only behind, and with longitudinal 
and transverse nerves. In some species the wings are want- 
ing, at least in the males.” (Westwood.) ‘The abdomen is 


THRIPIDA. 549 


terminated in the male by a long attenuated joint, by a four- 
valved borer in the female.” 

The eggs of Phizothrips have been compared to those of 
Culex, by Haliday, ‘‘ being cylindric, rounded at one end, and 
crowned with a knob at the other.” Both the larva 
(Fig. 554) and pupa are active, being found in the 
same situations as the adult. The larve are of softer 
consistence, pale, or reddish, and the thoracic rings are 
similar to each other, while in the pupa ‘‘the articula- 
tions of the limbs are obscured by a film, and the wings 
enclosed in short fixed sheaths. The antennz are 
turned back on the head, and the insect, though it moves 
about, is much more sluggish than in the other states.” (Hali- 
day in Westwood’s ‘‘ Introduction,” etc.) 

The different species occur under the bark of trees, and are 
very injurious to grain and flowers, eating holes in the leaves 
or corollas, and sucking the sap from the flowers of wheat, in 
the bottom of which they hide. 

In Phleothrips and allies (Fig. 5538, P. coriacea Haliday ?) 
both sexes have the abdomen terminating in an acute point, 
being either the ovipositor of the female, or the slender termi- 
nal tube-like joint of the male. The wings are almost with- 
out veins, with long cilia, and at rest folded one upon the other. 
The antenne are eight-jointed. Three ocelli are present in the 
winged species, but in the wingless forms they are absent. 

The Phleothrips mali of Fitch appears ‘‘in a roundish cavity 
near the tip end of the young fruit.” Dr. Fitch describes 
another species (P. caryze) which is found in singularly shaped 
galls on the hickory, ‘‘ which resemble a long, slender pod 
thrust half-way through the leaf.” This author doubts, how- 
ever, whether these galls are made by these insects. He also 
states that ‘‘the insect within, when disturbed, turns its tail 
upward over its back in a menacing manner, the same as the 
rove beetles (Staphylinide) do, and when the point of a needle, 
which had been pressed upon one of these insects, is touched 
to the tip of the tongue, unless my imagination greatly de- 
ceives me, it will frequently be found to impart a peculiar acid 
biting sensation.” 


A second group (Terebrantia Haliday) includes the genus 


=. oe 


Fig. 554. 


550 HEMIPTERA. 


Thrips, in which the females are provided with a four-valved 
compressed ovipositor which lies in a furrow in the two last 
abdominal segments. The fore wings are thickened, elytri- 
form, with two longitudinal continuous veins. The antennz 
are, for the most part, nine-jointed. Thrips cerealium Haliday 
is dark reddish brown, and very injurious to wheat. 


Carsint Burmeister. The species of this family are very 
numerous and very active in their habits, running swiftly 
and easily rising on the wing. ‘They are fond of fruits, and it 
is the little Capsi which give such a nauseous taste to the rasp- 
berry, which they feed upon. The females are distinguished 


from the males ‘“‘by having the ovipositor nearly half the 


length of the body, somewhat sabre-shaped, and received into 
a slit on the under side of the abdomen.” ‘The body in this 
group is convex, oval, and of a soft consistence, and ‘‘ distin- 
guished by the elongated antennze having the second joint 
often thickened at the tip, and the terminal joints very slen- 
der, the rostrum long and four-jointed, while the ocelli are 
wanting. The pupa of Capsus Danicus is clothed with short 
and somewhat clavate hairs.” (Westwood.) 

In Capsus the body is elliptical or oval; the head is triangu- 
lar, convex. Capsus quadrivittatus Harris is yellow, with four 
black bands. Phytocoris differs from Capsus, according to Har- 
ris, in having a smaller head, while the thorax is wider behind 
and narrower in front. PP. linearis Beauv. is a fifth of an inch 
long; the head is yellowish with three narrow, longitudinal, 
reddish stripes ; the thorax has a yellow margin, with five longi- 
tudinal yellow lines upon it. The male is much darker colored. 
It is excessively common on all kinds of plants. It appears 
early in April, but is most abundant in summer. In the genus 
Miris the head is elongated triangular; the basal joint of the 
antenne is thickest, whereas in the preceding genus the second 
joint is the stoutest. Miris dorsalis Say is pale yellowish 
rufous, immaculate, and the antenne are rather stout, tapering, 
and rufous. 


Memsranactt Latreille. This family includes the Bed-bug, 
and it is from this insect that the name ‘‘bug” has been. ex- 


MEMBRANACEI. od1 


tended to the entire suborder. The antenne are four-jointed, 
with the tip clavate or knobbed. The ocelli are, for the most 
part, wanting; the beak is gutter-like, with a three-jointed 
sheath (labium). The tarsi are three-jointed, without any 
foot-pads. In Cimex the beak reaches, when laid upon the 
breast, as far as the fore coxee ; the legs and antennz are Ccoy- 
ered with fine hairs; the second antennal joint is longest. 
The prothorax is elliptical, and the metathorax is nearly as 
broad as the circular abdomen; the wings are wanting. 

The habits of Oimex lectularius Linn., the bed-bug (Fig. 
555), are too well known to require any farther mention here. : 
It is exceedingly tenacious of life, and ordi- 
nary bug-powders and other applications are 
useless unless the most scrupulous cleanliness is |- 
exercised besides. The eggs are oval, white, ! 
and the young bugs escape by pushing off a lid 
at one end of the shell. They are white trans- 
parent, differing from the perfect insect in havy- : 
ing a broad triangular head, and short and thick antenne. 
Indeed, this is the general form of the louse, to which the larva 
of Cimex has a very close affinity. Some Cimices are para- 
sites, infesting pigeons, swallows, etc., in this way also show- 
ing their near relation to the lice. 

The bed-bug is rust-red, with brown hairs, and is two 
and a half lines in length. It lives as a parasite on the do- 
mestic birds, such as the dove. Mr. James McDonald writes 
me that he has found a nest of swallows on a court house in 
Towa, swarming with bed-bugs. In Europe the Cimex hirun- 
dinis Herr. Schaeff. lives on the swallow; Cimex pipistrelli 
Jenyns lives on the bat; and Cimex columbarius is found in 
pigeon houses. 

Westwood states that the bed-bug is eleven weeks in attain- 
ing its full size. DeGeer has kept full sized individuals in a 
sealed bottle for more than a year without food. The Cock- 
roach is the natural enemy of the bed-bug, and destroys large 
numbers. Houses have been cleaned of them after being 
thoroughly fumigated with brimstone. 

Bed-bugs, as well as other bugs, plant-lice, etc., may be de- 
stroyed by a preparation consisting of thirty parts of unpuri- 


| 


I) 


552 HEMIPTERA. 


fied cheap petroleum, mixed with 1,000 parts of water. It 
can be introduced into holes and cracks in houses, and sprin- 
/ kled on plants. The cracks of bedsteads may be 
Hee filled with mercury; and benzine will also effectually 
bh dislodge them, as well as boiling water. The benzine 
“\. may be applied by means of a surgical instrument 
Fig. 556. called the Atomizer. 

In Syrtis the head is small, compressed laterally, and the 
fore legs are raptorial, thus allying the genus with Reduvius. 
Syrtis (Phymiata) erosa Fabr. (Fig. 556) has swollen fore legs, 


* and a deep groove on the head; it is useful in devouring 


Aphides. 


In Tingis the beak reaches to the end of the breast, and the 
fore legs are simple, the thorax and wing-covers are spread 
out leaf-like, and the species are of small size. 7. hyalina 
Herrich-Schaeffer is abundant on the willow. TZ. hystricellus 
Richter (Fig. 557, upper and under side, magnified twenty 
diameters) is a Ceylonese species. It ‘‘sticks close to the 
under side of the Bringall leaf, and there undergoes all its 
changes, from the larval to the perfect state. The larve are 
black.” (Science-Gossip, p. 84, 1869.) 


PEDICULINA. 553 


In Aradus the beak is longer than the head, the prothorax 
is widely expanded, while the wing-covers are rounded at the 
base. A. crenatus of Say has the cylindrical edge of the abdo- 
men obtusely crenated. The species are found under the bark 
of trees. 


Peprcutrna Burmeister. Lice. In these low degraded Hem- 
iptera, which stand in the same relation to the rest of the 
Hemiptera as the Flea does to the more perfectly organized 
Diptera, the body is wingless, with a small indistinctly jointed 
thorax, while the abdomen is large, oval, with nine segments. 
The antenne are filiform, five-jointed, and the eyes are minute, 
not faceted. The tarsi are two-jointed, with a large hook-like 
terminal joint, which is bent back towards the basal joint. 
The mouth-parts still preserve the form of a beak-like sucker, 
bué it is fleshy and retractile, and the body is white, and of 
minute size. The species of Pediculus are blood-suckers, and 
parasitic on man and various species of Mammalia; different 
species being found on different regions of the 
body. Different varieties, according to Dr. W. I. 
Burnett, are found living on the bodies of different 4 
races of men. . 

Two species live on man; Pediculus humanus 
capitis DeGeer (Fig. 558) inhabits the head, while 
the Body Louse, P. corporis of DeGeer (P. vesti- 
menti Nitzsch) is found elsewhere. These two 
species are difficult to distinguish, they are so Fig. 558. 
closely allied. Professor J. C. Schiddte, a Scandinavian 
naturalist, has recently published an elaborate treatise on this 
genus, and describes the mode of attack used by these disgust- 
ing creatures. It thrusts its minute beak into the skin, and 
sucks in the blood by means of its large sucking stomach or 
‘‘pumping ventricle.” Schiddte placed one of these insects 
on his hand, and observed its movements through a glass. 
After the creature had fixed its beak or haustellum into his 
hand this naturalist noticed that ‘‘ at the top of the head, under 
the transparent skin, between and a little in advance of the 
eyes, a triangular blood-red point appears, which is in contin- 
ual movement, expansion and contraction alternating with 


. 


554 HEMIPTERA. 


increased rapidity. Soon this pulsation becomes so rapid that 
several contractions may be counted in a second. However, 
we must turn our attention elsewhere, for the whole digestive 
tube is now in the most lively peristaltic movement, filling it- 
self rapidly with blood, as is easily observed ; the long cesopha- 
gus is particularly agitating, throwing itself from one side to 
another inside the neck, bending itself so violently as to re- 
mind one of the coiling of a rope when being shipped on deck.” 

Schiodte states that the sucking organ or beak is a ‘* dark 
brown protruding haustellum, provided with hooks at each ex- 
tremity, out of which an excessively delicate membranaceous 
tube, of varying length, is hanging. This pumping ‘‘ventri- 
cle” (which is undoubtedly homologous with the pumping 
stomach of most sucking insects, such as the Diptera, Lepidop- 
tera and Hymenoptera) Schiodte has discovered in ‘‘ those 
Coleopterous larvee which have powerful organs for biting, 
placed at a distance round a very minute 
mouth-opening, such as the larvee of Carabi, 
Hydrophili, and Hister, as well as in the 
larvee of Dytisci, which suck through the 
mandibles.” 

AN The same author also shows that the mouth 

Fie. 559. of Pediculus differs from that of Hemiptera 
generally in the circumstance that the labium is capable of 
being retracted into the upper part of the head, which there- 
fore presents a little fold, which is extended when the labium 
is protruded. He also shows that those parts which were, by 
mistake, thought to be palpi and mandibles by Erichson, 
Jurine and Landois, are simply lobes on the under side of a 
chitinous band. 

In Pediculus the thorax is a little smaller than the elongated 
abdomen, and all the tarsi are two-jointed. The genus Phthi- 
rius has a very small thorax, with the abdomen much wider 
than the head, and the fore tarsi have but a single joint. 
Phthirius pubis Linn. (Fig. 559), the Crab louse, is found on 
the pubic region of man and also on the head. 


Mariopnaca Nitzsch. The Bird-lice live on the hair of 
Mammalia and feathers of birds. In this group there are dis- 


MALLOPHAGA. 555 


tinct jaws. The flattened body is corneous, hard above, and 
the head is horizontal, with three to five-jointed antenne ; the 
eyes are small and simple; the mandibles are small, like a 
hook, and the maxillary palpi, when present, for they are some- 
times wanting, are four-jointed, while the labial palpi are two- 
jointed. The thorax is small and but two-jointed apparently, 
as the meso- and metathorax are united together. The abdo- 
men is from nine to ten-jointed, while the short thick limbs 
have two-jointed tarsi and one or two claws. 

Nearly every mammal and bird has its special mallophagous 
parasite, so that the number of species is actually very large. 

These insects are considered by Burmeister as forming a 
passage from the Hemiptera into the Orthoptera, as they pos- 
sess free biting mouth-parts, especially free mandibles, which 
are not as in the rest of the suborder fused together with the 
other parts to form a sucking tube. 

In the genus Philopterus of Nitzsch the antenne are fili- 
form, five-jointed, and the labial palpi are wanting. Nirmus 
is an allied genus; both live on birds. 

Trichodectes canis DeGeer lives on the dog, and has three- 
jointed antennee, and the tarsi are provided with a single claw. 
The females have two movable hooks on the penultimate ring 
of the abdomen. 

In the genus Liotheum and allies, the antennz are club- 
shaped, four-jointed, and the labial palpi are distinct. Lio- 
theum anseris Sulzer lives on the goose and swan. 

Gyropus has no labial palpi; there is a single tarsal claw for 
clinging to the skin of its host. Gyropus porcelli Schrank is a 
third of an inch long and lives on the Porpoise. 


Fig. 560. 
Lemophieus adusius Lec., a Cucujid; see p. 446. 


1) 


Or 
oh 
lor) 


ORTHOPTERA,. 


ORTHOP TE RAY 


Tus suborder may be briefly characterized as having free 
biting mouth-parts, with highly developed organs of nutrition 
and digestion. The first pair of wings are somewhat thickened 
to protect the broad net-veined hinder pair, which fold up like 
a fan upon the abdomen, and the hind legs are large and 
adapted for leaping. The transformations are less complete 
than in the previous groups, the larvee and pupz being both 
active and closely resembling the imago. All the species are 
terrestrial, the more typical forms having remarkable powers 
of flight, besides leaping powerfully. 

The grasshopper is the type of the group, the other families 
bearing more or less resemblance to the allied suborders, 
especially the Neuroptera. The head is very large, and much 
more bulky than in the Coleoptera or Hemiptera, the mouth- 
parts being so large, requiring large and broad pieces to sup- 
port the muscles of the head; its position is vertical, rarely 
becoming horizontal. The ocelli are two or three in number, 
while often obsolete. The eyes are small, very convex, and 
placed far apart. The antenne are filiform, often of great 
length, and exceeding the length of the body several times, the 
joints being very numerous and much alike in size and shape. 
The clypeus is large, the suture very distinctly separating the 
base, and the labrum is large, with the edge rounded, slightly 
bilobate, and partially concealing the mandibles, which are 
strong and large, and toothed within. They are more perfect 
than in other insects, presenting both cutting and grinding 
surfaces. The mavxille are very distinctly lobed, the outer lobe 
(galea) somewhat dilated and (in the Blattariz) ensheathing 
the long, sharp-toothed inner lobe, and the palpi are five- 
jointed. The mentum is large and transverse, while the labium 
is divided into four lobes like the maxillee, the outer pair (para- 
glossx) resembling those of the maxillz, and in the true grass- 
hoppers (Acrydium), being expanded into a broad, flattened, 
smooth, concave plate. The labial palpi are from three to four- 
jointed. The lingua is large, fleshy and channelled above. 


ORTHOPTERA. 557 


As in the Coleoptera, the prothorax is greatly developed 
over the other segments, and the mesothorax is rather smaller 
than the metathoracic ring. The pronotum is very large, 
broad and flattened above, while the other two segments are 
concealed by the wings when at rest, and the parts are soft 
and membranous. The sternum of each ring is very large, 
broad and flat, resembling that of Libellula, while the two 
fore pairs of legs are normal in size, though the fore legs are 
often raptorial, as in Mantis; or fossorial, as in Gryllotalpa. 
The hinder pair are enormously developed for leaping purposes. 

The fore wings are generally long and narrow, somewhat 
thickened, like parchment, or thin, transparent, and more or 
less rounded, while the hind pair are broad and large, 
folding in longitudinal plaits on the back. Both wings are 
net-veined, but not so much so as in the Neuroptera, as the 
longitudinal veins are larger and more regular, while innumer- 
able cross veins, still more regular than in the Neuroptera, 
though more numerous, give a characteristic facies peculiar to 
the Orthopterous wing. There are also numerous wingless, 
degraded genera, which resemble the young of other genera. 
The body is usually much compressed, or greatly flattened 
(Blattariz), or long and cylindrical, as in the Walking Stick. 
The abdomen consists of eight or nine distinct segments, while 
the tenth forms part of the ovipositor, being somewhat abor- 
ted, the tergite only in some cases remaining, and there is in 
addition in the Locustari@, according to the views of La- 
caze-Duthiers, the tergite of an eleventh abdominal ring. We 
will notice more fully than usual the structure of the ovipositor, 
as it is of great systematic value. The genital armature is 
more complex than in the Hymenoptera, and is generally very 
large and exserted, so as to form a conspicuous part of the 
body. In its simplest form, in Forficula, it is represented 
only by a single tergite, all the other appendages being absent. 
In the Locustarie, however, the typical form is seen, consist- 
ing of a tergite and the epimera supporting the tergo-rhabdite, 
while the episternum supports the sterno-rhabdites, and the 
oviduct opens out under the sternite. There are thus four 
pieces attached to the single ninth ring; the oviduct opening 
between the eighth and ninth segments, while the anal opening 


_— ee 


558 ORTHOPTERA. 


is under the eleventh ring in all the Orthoptera, according to 
Lacaze-Duthiers’ researches. The female genital armature is 
farther complicated, in the Locustari@ especially. The 
eleventh segment is composed of five parts, which surround 
the anus. 

Two of these are lateral filaments which are, in one case, as 
in Mantis tessellata (Fig. 23), multi-articulate, and are proper 
sensory organs, like the antennze, and must be regarded, in our 
view, as homologous with the anal prop-legs of Lepidoptera and 
other insects, and as true-jointed appendages like the thoracic 
legs, and jointed appendages of the head, such as the palpi 
and antennze. They also form the anal stylets of the Gry/- 
lide, ete. These anal stylets are articulated to the posterior 
edge of the tenth tergite, as Lacaze-Duthiers states, and thus 
seem to us to be properly appendages of that ring, which, as 
this author affirms, ‘‘ presents two. articulating teeth for this 
purpose.” The two other elements are ‘‘ triangular, surround- 
ing the anus with three valves, which, by their union, form a 
sort of pyrimidal body,” which he calls the ‘‘ subgenital or pre- 
genital plate.” There are then, two systems of appendages, 
as we have before stated; 7.e., the genital armature, consist- 
ing of two pairs of non-articulated stylets, and the single pair 
of anal articulated stylets, which are the homologues of the 
thoracic legs, together with the pre-anal plate. 

The same parts are present in the male, being converted into_ 
large, clasping, hook-shaped stylets, for retaining a firm hold 
of the female during sexual union. 

The eggs as they pass from the oviduct between the valves 
are deposited in a hole in the ground, made by the powerful 
ovipositor. Certain Locustaric imitate the Cicada in laying 
them methodically in the stems of plants, which are drilled out 
by the valves of the ovipositor, which are slightly toothed on 
the outer sides and easily move on one another, somewhat as 
in the Saw-fly and Cicada. ‘‘The eggs of the Gryllide are 
laid either singly in the ground, in irregular clusters in subter- 
ranean passages, or uniformly in a single row, in the pith 
of twigs; those of the Zocustari@ are never laid singly, 
but either in the pith of plants, in regular clusters in the 
ground, or in regular rows on stems of plants; those of the 


ORTHOPTERA. 559 


Acrydii are always laid in rudely regular clusters, in the 
ground.” (Scudder.) 

The nervous system closely resembles that of the Neurop- 
tera; it is in all three stages composed of three thoracic, and 
six or seven abdominal ganglia, extending the whole length of 
the body, and united by double commissures. The splanchnic 
system, or analogue of the great sympathetic nerve in verte- 
brates, is highly developed in the Acridii and in Gryllotalpa, 
having in front two pairs of ganglia, and posteriorly one or 
two, while in the Blattariew and Phasmida the single 
nerve is most developed. 

Organs of hearing are stated by Siebold to occur in the 
Acridii, consisting of two fossz or conchs, surrounded by a 
projecting horny ring, and at the base of which is stretched 
a membrane resembling a tympanum. On the internal surface 
of this membrane are two horny processes, to which is attached 
an extremely delicate vesicle filled with a transparent fluid, 
and representing a membranous labyrinth. This vesicle is in 
connection with an auditory nerve, which arises from the third 
thoracic ganglion, forms a ganglion upon the tympanum, and 
terminates in the immediate neighborhood of the labyrinth by 
a collection of cuneiform, stafi-like bodies, with very finely 
pointed extremities (primitive nerve-fibres?), which are sur- 
rounded by loosely aggregated, ganglionic globules. The 
Locustarie and Gryllide have a similar organ, situated 
in the fore legs directly below the coxo-tibial articulation. 
M. Hensen confirms the accuracy of this description in 
the ‘Zeitschrift fur Wissenschafliche Zoologie,” vol. xvi, 
1867. 

The highly developed alimentary canal has the crop (pro- 
ventriculus) separated by a deep constriction from the cesoph- 
agus, and the gizzard is provided internally with from six to 
eight rows of horny denticulated plates situated on ridges, 
with numerous smaller teeth between, so that the whole num 
ber of teeth amount to 270. The stomach is of even width, 
not usually making more than one-half of a turn, or one turn; 
its cardiac extremity is provided with from two to eight cca. 
The salivary glands are highly developed, ‘consisting of two, 
four, or six botryoidal masses, situated in the thorax, and hay- 


/ 


It 


560 ORTHOPTERA. 


ing long excretory ducts, besides, also, often having long 
pedunculated reservoirs. 

The number of chambers in the dorsal vessel is usually 
eight. The respiratory system does not differ essentially from 
that of other insects, though in the Acridii most of the trans- 
verse anastomosing trachez have large air-reservoirs, greatly 
assisting in lightening the body for their long-sustained 
flight. 

The urinary tubules are short and very numerous, from 
twenty to one hundred and fifty and over, surrounding the 
pylorus. The ovaries, two in number, consist of numerous 
multilocular tubes, while the seminal receptacle consists of a 
pedunculated vesicle, whose closed extremity is dilated into 
a pea-shaped vesicle, forming the capsula seminis. In most 
Orthoptera the testes consist of long fasciculated follicles sur- 
rounded by a common envelope, and many have in addition 
highly developed accessory glands, surrounding a short ductus 
ejaculatorius. 

The larvee of the Orthoptera materially differ only in size 
from the adult, and the pupe are distinguished from them by 
having the rudiments of wings. They attain the adult state 
by simple moultings. Several cases are on record of pup 
of grasshoppers being found sexually united. In 1867 Mr. 
Trimen exhibited to the Entomological Society of London ‘‘a 
grasshopper of the genus Peecilocerus, of which he had found 
the pupze im copula; it was not an isolated case, for he had 
seen hundreds of pairs of the nymphs at Natal.” 

Some of the largest insects are included in this suborder, in 
fact the majority are larger than those of other suborders, and 
it will probably be found that many large grasshoppers and 
Mantide will weigh nearly as much as any Goliath or Her- 
cules beetle, the largest of insects. 

The Orthoptera range, in time, from the Upper Devonian 
formation ; and among the earliest forms were some Neuropter- 
ous-like Locustarie and Blattari@, which are likewise, 
with the Neuroptera, the earliest known forms of insect life. 
In the carboniferous rocks they become more numerous, but 
the forms are most numerous and best preserved in the Ter- 
tiary formation, especially in the Amber of Prussia. 


ORTHOPTERA. 061 


ere are abou species. known, which attain ir 
There bout 5,000 I , which att the 
greatest development in size and numbers in tropical countries. 
n studying these insects, the proportions of the head, o 
In studying th ts, the proport f the head, of 
the prothorax, of the wings, of the hind legs, and the external 
genital parts, should especially be taken into account. The 
ornamentation varies greatly even in the same species, and 


therefore large numbers of individuals are necessary to ensure | 


a proper knowledge of any species. 

The different sounds produced by Orthoptera should be care- 
fully studied ; every species can be distinguished by its pecu- 
liar note, and as in different families the musical apparatus 
varies, so each family has a characteristic chirrup, or shrilling, 
consisting of a harsh, grating, rasping noise. 

Mr. Scudder has contributed to the ‘“* American Naturalist,” 
ii, p. 113, an interesting article on the sounds produced by 
some of our native species of Grasshoppers, and has even 
reduced their notes to a written music. He states that grass- 
hoppers stridulate in four different ways: ‘‘ first, by rubbing 
the base of one wing-cover upon the other, using, for that pur- 
pose, the veins running through the middle portion of the 
wing ; second, by a similar method, but using the veins of the 
inner part of the wing; third, by rubbing the inner surface of 
the hind legs against the outer surface of the wing-covers ; and 
fourth, by rubbing together the upper surface of the front edge 
of the wings and the under surface of the wing-covers. ‘The 
insects which employ the fourth method stridulate during flight, 
—the others while at rest. To the first group belong the 
Crickets (Gryllidze) ; to the second the Green or Long-horned 
Grasshoppers (Locustariz) ; to the third and fourth, certain 
kinds of Short-horned or Jumping Grasshoppers (Acrydii).” 

The transformations of grasshoppers need careful study. 
For this purpose their eggs should be sought for, and the de- 
velopment of the embryo in the egg be noted; also the follow- 
ing facts should be ascertained: the date of deposition of the 
eggs ; the manner of laying them; how long before the embryo 
is hatched; the date of hatching; how many days the pupa 
lives; so also of the pupa and of the imago, while the inter- 
vening changes should be carefully observed. Crows and 
blackbirds feed on their eggs and larvee, and hens and turkeys 

36 


562 ORTHOPTERA. 


feed greedily upon young and old. Ichneumon parasites prey 
upon them, and also the lower worms, such as Filaria, Grega- 
rina and Gordius, and the red mites attack them. Mud wasps 
provision their nests with the young. 

Orthoptera can be easily preserved in strong alcohol, and 
may afterwards be taken out and pinned and set at leisure. 
They can be killed with cyanide of potassium, or ether, with- 
out losing their colors, as they would do after remaining long 
in alcohol. They should be pinned through a little triangu- 
lar spot between the bases of the elytra, or fore wings, when 
the wings can be spread to advantage. They are also often 
pinned through the prothorax, or through the right elytron, as 
in Coleoptera. In pinning these insects for transportation care 
should be taken to put in additional pins crossing each other 
on each side of the abdomen, and in like manner to steady the 
hind legs, which are very apt to fall off if too much jarred. . 


GryLiip& Latreille. The Crickets have a somewhat cylin- 
drical body, a large vertical head, with elliptical eyes; the 
ocelli are often wanting, and the long filiform antennz arise 
from in front of and between the eyes. The wings are of mod- 
erate size, net-veined, lying flat on the back; the fore pair are 
ovate, the costal edge of the fore wings being bent abruptly 
down on the sides of the body, while the hinder pair are trian- 
gular. They, like the succeeding families, leap actively, the 
hind femora being enlarged. The genital armature is largely 
developed, forming long and slender stylets, often nearly as 
long as the body. ‘‘The subgenital plate is formed by the 
seventh sternite. The eighth abdominal segment is rudimen- , 
tary and concealed beneath the seventh segment. The ninth 
segment, situated beyond the outlet of the ovipositor is incom- 
plete. Its elements, appearing to be four in number, are devel- 
oped into a large solid borer. The ninth sternite is bifid, its 
episternite not being developed.” (LL. Duthiers.) A second 
type is observed in Gryllotalpa, where the subgenital plate is 
formed by the eighth sternite, instead of the seventh, and the 
incomplete sternite and tergite of the ninth segment are pres- 
ent, much like those of the other abdominal rings. The oviposi- 
tor is very long, while the hairy stylets arise from the eleventh 


GRYLLIDA. 063 


abdominal ring and are very long. In the male the long anal 
hairy stylets are retained, while the parts representing the ovi- 
positor are aborted. The shrilling of the male is a sexual call, 
made by raising the fore wings and rubbing them on the hind 
wings. The noise is due to the peculiar structure of the fore 
wings, the middle portion of which forms, by its transparent 
elastic surface, on which there are but few veinlets, a resonant 
drum, increasing the volume of sound emitted by the rubbing 
of the jfile on the upper surface of the hind pair of wings. 
This file is the modified internal vein, the surface of which is 
ereatly thickened, rounded and covered closely with fine teeth. 
In the females the wings are not thus modified, and they are 
silent. They have been known to lay 800 eggs, glued together 
in acommon mass. In July the larvee appear, and by the last 
of August the grass is alive with fully grown crickets, their 
loud chirruping resounding through the warm days and nights 
of autumn. ‘The species are generally dull black or brownish, 
and in the tropics attain to a large size. 

In the genus Tridactylus the males have the anterior tibiz 
three-fingered, 7.e., the tibia has a lateral hooked appendage 
to which the. tarsus is attached, while a long hooked projec- 
tion takes the place of the feet. The species are minute, 
the largest known, 7. apicalis Say, being one-fifth of an inch 
long. It is found in the Southern States, while Tridactylus 
terminalis Uhler is found northward. The Mole-cricket, Giryl- 
lotalpa, so-called from the enlarged fossorial fore feet, lives in 
wet, swampy soil, by ponds and streams, where it raises ridges 
while constructing its subterranean galleries in search of 
insects. Its fore legs are adapted like those of the mole 
for digging, and are remarkably short and stout, much flat- 
tened and armed with solid tooth-like projections. Their eggs, 
from 300 to 400 in number, are laid in the spring in tough 
sacks, in galleries. Very rare northward, they are more com- 
mon in the Middle and Southern States. 

Gryllotalpa borealis Burmeister is found in New England, 
burrowing in moist earth near ponds. The Southern species is 
Gryllotalpa longipennis Scudder, and in the West Indies an- 
other species ravages the Sugar-cane. The genus Gryllus in- 
cludes the common crickets. The European House-cricket, 


ia 


Oe 


564 ORTHOPTERA. 


G. domesticus Linn., has been introduced into the vicinity of 
New York, as stated by Mr. James Angus. Our two largest 
species are the Gryllus luctuosus Serville, known by the great 
length of the fore wings, which project beyond the abdomen ; 
and Gryllus abbreviatus Serville, which is found in the Middle 
States. The most common New England species is the Gryllus 
neglectus of Scudder, from which Gryllus niger Harris differs 
in its much shorter ovipositor. The small 
cricket so abundant in our fields is Nemobius 
vittatus Harris, a brownish striped species ; 
the genus differs from Gryllus in the last joint 
of the maxillary palpi being double the length 
of the penultimate, while in Gryllus, it is of 
the same length. In Gcanthus niveus Serville 
(Fig. 561, male; fig. 562, female ; fig. 30, fore 

Fig. 561. wings of male and female, showing the broad 
thin portion between 6 and c, used in producing the shrilling 
noise) the wings are broad and very transparent, narrower in 
the female, the hind legs very long and slender, and the male 
is ivory white. The males make a loud shrilling noise, and 
both sexes are found on plants, especially the grape-vine. 
Mr. W. Saunders states that the 
female does considerable injury 
to the raspberry and plum twigs 
by boring into the branches for 
the purpose of laying its egos, and the Editors of the ‘‘ Ameri- 
can Entomologist” state that it severs grapes from the 
branches. This genus leads to the next family. 

Mr. Scudder has described in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Bos- 
ton Society of Natural History,” Archegogryllus priscus, a fossil 
cricket from the coal formation of Ohio. ‘‘One broken hind 
leg and a fragment of a wing were found; the leg was notice- 
able in having the tibia furnished with several large promi- 
nences, while the femur was smooth.” 


Fig. 562. 


Locustari Latreille. The large green Locusts are easily 
distinguished by their large heads, and their compressed 
bodies. The front from being vertical often inclines inwards, 
owing to the greatly enlarged vertex, which is often produced 


LOCUSTARIA. 565 


into a horn. The ocelli are either present or obsolete, and the 
eyes are globular in shape. The antenne are of great length, 
as are the legs, which are long and slender. The prothorax is 
saddle-shaped, and the wings are thin, the anterior pair slightly 
thickened, while the hinder pair are broad, these insects taking 
long flights. The base of the upper wings is transparent, form- 
ing a drum by which the males produce a loud shrilling; and 
they also rub the hind legs against the wings as do the 
Acrydii. Seudder states that ‘‘the day song of some Locus- 
tarians differs from that of the night.” The abdomen is not 
of great length, while the ovipositor and male claspers are 
greatly developed, and are of much importance in classifica- 
tion. Lacaze-Duthiers describes the typical form as having 
the subgenital plate formed by the eighth sternite, while the 
ninth ring is complete. Its elements form the ovipositor, 
composed of six pieces, which are large and long, for boring 
into the earth and twigs in laying the eggs. The ninth ster- 
nite is bifid. Similar parts in the males are formed for clasp- 
ing the body of the female, and are large and long. The eggs 
are laid in the autumn, and the young hatch in the spring. 

The wingless genera have curved, cylindrical bodies, with 
long antennz, and are very active, leaping very vigorously ; 
they are brown in color, and inhabit caves or live under stones. 
Ceuthophilus is a wingless genus, in which the pronotum does 
not extend over the mesonotum. C. maculatus Say has the pos- 
terior tibize of the male waved. It is common under stones. 
C. stygius Scudder is found in the caves of Kentucky, and Ha- 
dencecus subterraneus Scudder is found in Mammoth Cave. It 
is a slender form, the antennz exceeding the length of the 
body several times. Udeopsylia differs from the following 
genus, Daihinia, according to Scudder, ‘‘in the longer, more 
slender, less robust, and less spiny legs, in the somewhat more 
slender body and smaller head, in the shorter maxillary palpi, 
and in the structure of the tarsal joints,” the first and fourth 
being equal in length, while the two middle ones are small, 
the second joint overlapping the third above. U. robusta 
Haldeman is found in Nebraska. In the interesting genus 
Daihinia, the “tarsal joints of the anterior and posterior pair 
are only three in number, the first and last being of nearly 


566 ORTHOPTERA. 


equal length, with a single small joint between them, a very 
interesting exception to the almost universal rule among the 
Locustarie.” The Katydid, Cyrtophyllum concavum Say 
(Fig. 563), has the fore wings concave, much produced in the 
middle. The eggs, according to Harris, are ‘‘ slate colored, and 
are rather more than one-eighth of an inch in length. They 
resemble tiny, oval, bivalve shells in shape. The insect lays 
them in two contiguous rows along the surface of a twig, the 
bark of which is previously shaved off, or made rough with her 
piercer. Each row consists of eight or nine eggs, placed some- 
what obliquely, and overlapping each other a little, and they 
are fastened to the twig with a 
gummy substance. In hatching 
the egg splits open at one end, 
and the young insect creeps 
through the cleft.” In Phyllop- 
tera the wings are narrower, but 
still concave, and the ovipositor 
is of moderate size, while in 
Microcentrum it is very small. 
P. oblongifolia Burmeister is 
abundant in September, in New 
England, being found farther 
northward than the Katydid, and 
when it flies it makes a whizzing 
noise, compared by Harris to 
Fig. 563. that of a weaver’s shuttle. He 
also states that ‘“‘the females lay their eggs in the autumn 
on the twigs of trees and shrubs, in double rows, of seven or 
eight eggs in each row. These eges in form, size and color, 
and in their arrangement on the twig, strikingly resemble 
those of the Katydid. Phaneroptera has still narrower wings 
than the genera hitherto noticed, and the ovipositor is more 
sharply turned upwards. The P. curvicauda of DeGeer (P. 
angustifolia Harris) is very abundant, being the most common 
species in Northern New England. 
In Conocephalus the front of the head is produced into a 
cone. The species, generally pea green, often present brown 
individuals. C. ensiger Harris is a commonly distributed spe- 


AORYDII. 567 


cies. Mr. S. I. Smith has observed a female of this species 
‘¢ with the ovipositor forced down between the root-leaves and 
the stalk of a species of Andropogon, where the eggs are 
probably deposited.” 

Xiphidium is a genus of smaller size, with the ovipositor 
nearly straight. X. fasciatum Serville is green, with a brown 
stripe on the head and thorax. It is common in gardens. | 
According to Hagen and Scudder an undescribed species of 
Xiphidium makes longitudinal punctures in the pith of the 
Cotton plant. 

In Orchelimum the ovipositor is large, ensiform, and up- 
curved. O. vulgare Harris (Fig. 32, d, the file in the male 
wing which rubs on the concave expansion of the other wing) 
has a-large transparent shrilling organ, and is a more robust 
form than the preceding species. Locusta viridissima Linn. is 
a common form in Europe. Westwood states that “Hyperho- 
mala virescens Boisd. from New Guinea, is distinguished by the 
prothorax extending completely over the abdomen like a pair 
of elytra,” and that Condylodera tricondyloides from Java, in 
the elongated, constricted prothorax and fine blue colors, ex- 
actly imitates the Cicindelous genus Tricondyla. 


Acrypu Latreille. Grasshoppers have the body much com- 
pressed, the head large, the front vertical, the ocelli generally 
present, while the antennze are short, the greatest number of 
joints being twenty-four. The prothorax is very large, some- 
times reaching beyond the abdomen, and the wings are 
deflexed ; the hind legs are enlarged for leaping, and the tarsi 
are three-jointed. The stridulating noise is produced by rub- 
bing the thighs against the fore wings, which are long and 
narrow, while the hind wings are broadly triangular. The ovi- 
positor, with its accessory pieces, consists of a subgenital 
plate formed by the seventh sternite; the ninth segment is 
complete, and the blades (tergo-rhabdites) composing the ovi- 
positor consist of three secondary pieces united together be- 
tween them. These rhabdites are short, thick, somewhat 
conical, and corneous. The eggs are laid in a cocoon-shaped 
mass covered with a tough glutinous secretion, and containing 
from fifty to one hundred eggs. The pup are distinguished 


568 ORTHOPTERA. 


from the larvee in having large wing-pads. On the basal joints 
of the abdomen are two cavities covered each with a mem- 
brane, and containing a vesicle filled with liquid, which is sup- 
plied by a nerve sent from the third thoracic ganglion. They 
were considered -by Latreille and Burmeister to be vocal or- 
gans, but more correctly it would seem, by J. Miller and yon 
Siebold as organs of hearing. 

This family embraces insects of gigantic proportions. The 
migratory locust (Acrydium migratorium) is a most destructive 
insect from its voracity and immense numbers. Swarms of 
grasshoppers are common in the far West where they commit 
ereat havoc in crops. Our Caloptenus femur-rubrum has at 
times, though not of late years, gone in immense swarms. 
The larvee of many species live through the winter, and appear 
often in March on unusually warm days. 

In the genus Opomalea the acute antennze are broad and 
flattened at base. In O. brachyptera Scudder the fore wings 
are but little more than one-half the length of the body. In 
Chloeditis the hinder edge of the pronotum is square or 
rounded; there are no foveole on the vertex, and the lateral 
carinee of the pronotum is parallel, or quite nearly so. 

Chioedltis conspersa Harris is light bay, sprinkled with black 
spots, with a black line on the head behind each eye, and ex- 
tending upon the thorax. Stenobothrus differs in having fove- 
ole on the vertex, and the lateral ridges on the pronotum — 
incurved. Mr. S. I. Smith states that the structure of the 
ovipositor of this species is ‘‘ beautifully adapted to a remark- 
able habit in the manner of depositing the eggs, which seems 
not to have been noticed before among Orthoptera. The eggs 
are deposited in old logs, in the under sides of boards, or in 
any soft wood lying among the grass which these insects 
inhabit. By means of the anal appendages the female exca- 
vates in the wood a smooth round hole about an eighth of an 
inch in diameter. This hole is at first almost perpendicular 
but is turned rapidly off in the direction of the grain of the 
wood, and runs nearly parallel with, and about three-eighths 
of an inch from the surface; the whole length of the hole 
being an inch or an inch and a fourth. <A single hole noticed 
in the end of a log was straight. The eggs, which are about 


ACRYDII. 569 


a fourth of an inch in length, quite slender and light brownish 
yellow, are placed in two rows, one on each side, and inclined 
so that, beginning at the end of the hole, each egg overlies the 
next in the same row by about half its length. The aperture 
is closed by a little disk of a hard gummy substance. I have 
seen many of the females engaged in excavating the holes, 
and they always stood with the body in the direction of the . 
grain of the wood, and apparently did not change their posi- 
tion during the operation. When one was just beginning a 
hole it was very easy to see the upper appendages rise and 
open, and each time scrape away a little of the wood. During 
this operation a frothy fluid is emitted from some part of the 
abdomen, but whether it serves to soften the wood or to 
lubricate the appendages and the sides of the hole I did not 
- determine.” (Proceedings of the Portland Society of Natural 
History, i, p. 146.) SS. curtipennis Harris is a very common 
Species, and at once recognized by its very short wings. 

In the genus Tragocephala the vertex of the head is promi- 
nent, the front rather oblique, sloping inwards, and the pro- 
thorax is acutely angulated posteriorly. TZ. infuscata Harris 
and T. viridifasciata Harris are common species; the former 
is dusky brown, the hind wings transparent, pale greenish 
yellow next to the body, with a large dusky cloud near the 
middle of the hind. margin, and a black line on the front 
margin; while the latter is green, with dusky fore wings 
broadly banded with green. 

Pezzotettic closely resembles Caloptenus, except that in 
some of the species it is wingless. P. borealis Scudder is 
found in British America, and also on the tops of the moun- 
tains of New Hampshire and Maine. In the P. alpinus Kollar 
of Europe there are short wings. The genus Caloptenus has 
but a slight mesial ridge on the prothorax; the lateral ridges 
vary in size, and the sternal tubercle is very large, while the 
tip of the male abdomen is much swollen. Caloptenus femur- 
rubrum Harris (Fig. 564, b) is the common Red-legged grass- 
hopper. It varies greatly and has been so abundant in New 
England and Canada, though not of late years, as to become a 
public calamity. It has been seen very rarely on the Labrador 
coast, and it is a very widely distributed species, ranging from 


070 ORTHOPTERA. 


Labrador to the Mississippi. The Caloptenus spretus Uhler 
(Fig. 564, a), appears in‘immense numbers in the country be- 
tween the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, and extending 
from the Saskatchewan river on the north to Texas. Mr. Seud- 
der states that ‘‘a third, whether belonging to the same species 
or not is still uncertain, has invaded at different times, nearly 
all the country lying within the boundaries of the United 
States, between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean.” 

Dr. Lincecum thus describes the ravages of C. spretus in 
Texas: ‘‘Last spring the young were hatched from the egg 
in the early days of March; by the middle of the month they 
had destroyed half the vegetation, although the insects were 
wingless and not larger than a house-fly. The first winged 
specimens were seen high in 
the air at about three in the 
afternoon ; as alight northerly 
breeze sprang up, millions 
dropped to the earth, cover- 
ing the ground in an hour, 
and destroying every green 
thing with avidity. During 
the night they were quiet, but 

Fig. 564. at daybreak commenced to 
eat, and continued until ten in the morning,.when they all flew 
southward. At about three o’clock in the afternoon of the | 
same day another swarm arrived, ten times as numerous as 
the first; these again took flight the following day ; and thus 
they continued, coming and going, day after day, devouring 
the foliage and depositing their eggs. At first they selected 
bare spots for this purpose, but finally the whole surface of 
the earth was so broken up by their borings that every inch 
of ground contained several patches of egos. This visitation 
was spread over many hundreds of miles.” C. bivittatum Say 
is a large dull green, or olive colored species, with red legs, 
and is very abundant in gardens. 

Romalea microptera, called the ‘‘Lubber grasshopper” in 
Florida, feeds on the leaves of the orange. (Glover.) It is 
nearly three inches long; the prothorax is keeled, and the 
wings only cover half of the abdomen. The larva is reddish, 


ACRYDII. 571 


while the adult is yellowish brown with dark patches and 
spots. 

In Acrydium the spine on the chest is very prominent, and 
the mesial crest above is well marked, while the tip of the 
male abdomen is not swollen. <Acrydiwm alutacewm Harris is 
nearly two inches long, and expands over three inches. It is 
brownish yellow, with a paler yellow stripe on the top of the 
head and thorax. 

To the genus Tropidacris, separated from Acrydium by Mr. 
Scudder, belongs certain gigantic grasshoppers nearly four 
inches in length and expanding some eight inches, with gaily 
colored hind wings. JT’. cristata Linn. has pale, greenish blue 
hind wings; it is 
reported from Asia 
and Africa, and is 
widely distributed 
through tropical 
South America. 7. 
duxz Drury has brick 
red hind wings and 
expands nearly sev- 
en inches ; its range 
is from Texas to 
Panama. j iN 

(dipoda is a large : 
and well known ge- 
nus, in which there is no spine between the fore legs, and the 
front of the head is vertical and swollen: @dipoda Carolina 
Linn. is pale yellowish brown, the wings black with a broad yel- 
low hind margin, and it expands over three and a half inches. 
It is abundant everywhere. (CM. sulphurea Fabr. has deep yel- 
low wings, with a broad dusky band beyond the middle, while 
CZ. corallina Harris has hind wings of a rich coral red. @. 
canthoptera Germar (Fig. 565) ranges from New England to 
the Mississippi. It is reddish brown; the prothorax has a high 
rounded unbroken ridge; the fore wings are flecked with small 
dusky spots; the hind wings are yellow at the base, fuscous 
beyond and clouded at the tip; the hind shanks are dusky, 
with a pale band beiow the knee. The wings of the male ex- 


Fig. 565. 


— 


———————————ee 


aire te ~ 


572 ORTHOPTERA. 


pand two and a quarter inches; those of the female three 
inches. Mr. Scudder has discovered a chalcid parasite in the 
egos of Gidipoda Carolina. 

In Tettiz the pronotum is prolonged beyond the abdomen, 
and the antennee are thirteen to fourteen-jointed, while Tefti- 
gidea differs from it by having twenty-two-jointed antennze, and 
a thicker, shorter body. Tettix granulata Kirby has a very 
prominent vertex, with the front border angulated. 

Tettigidea lateralis Say is a common species, and may be 
found, like all the other allied species, in the spring and au- 
tumn. It is pale brown, with the sides of the body blackish ; 
the prothorax is yellowish clay colored, and the fore wings 
have a small white spot at the tips. 

Batrachidea has but twelve joints to the antennze, and other- 
wise differs from Tettix in its more compact shorter body, and 
more distant eyes, while the mesial crest on the prothorax is 
very high. In B. cristata Harris the crest is high, regularly 
arched, and on each side of the prothorax are two shallow 
grooves; the surface is rough, with a dark squarish spot on 
each side above the terminal half of the fore wings. Saussure 
describes an aquatic Tettix from Ceylon. 

The genus Proscopia is wingless, with the front produced 
into a long slender cone, while the whole body is long and 
cylindrical, somewhat as in Diapheromera. The antennz are 
very minute, six to eight-jointed, and the legs are long and 
slender. P. gigantea Klug is six inches long, and occurs in 
Brazil at Para. 


Puasmipa Leach. The Walking-sticks, or Spectres, are slug- 
gish insects found on twigs and leaves, to which they bear-a 
strong resemblance, and are neither raptorial as regards their 
fore legs, nor leapers, like the grasshoppers. Their bodies are 
remarkably long and linear, and the wings either aborted and 
very small, or strikingly leaf-like. The head is horizontal, 
long, while the antenne are rather short, and the abdomen is 
nearly twice as long as the rest of the body. 

The subgenital plate is formed by the largely developed 
eighth sternite, while the ninth segment is incomplete, the 
sternum consisting of a membranous fold. According to L. 


PHASMIDA. 573 


Duthiers there are eleven abdominal segments, and the anal 
stylets are not articulated as in the Mantide@, but are long 
corneous claspers, and in some cases, very much like those of 
Libellula, as in Acrophylla, while the eleventh ring is a little 
triangular tergite, situated between the anal claspers. The 
ege-sac in Diapheromera femorata Say (Fig. 566, 3), our com- 
monly diffused species, is flattened elliptical, with a lid in» 
front which can be pushed open by the embryo when about to 
hatch, and is deposited in the autumn. 
The young when hatched are linear, and 
much like the adults except that they 
are wingless. ‘The male is considerably 
smaller than the female, and much more 
slender. In Phasma, a tropical genus, 
the two sexes are winged, the antennz 
-are about as long as the body, and the 
limbs are slender. P. 4-guttatwm Bur- 
meister is between two and three inches 
in length, and green on the costal border 
of the hind wing, and rose colored be- 
hind. It lives in Borneo. The genus 
Prisopus differs from the other two 
genera in the shortened mesothorax ; 
the legs are much flattened and leaf- 
like; the abdomen is longer than the 
thorax, flattened beneath, and widened 
on the sides posteriorly. P. spiniceps 
Burmeister is a Brazilian species, and is Fig. 566. 
two anda half inches long. PP. flabellicornis Stoll, according to 
A. Murray, spends the whole of the day under water adhering 
to stones in the mountain streams of Brazil, and towards dusk 
flies about; it is the only truly aquatic Orthopteran known. 
The genus Phyllium, found only in the East Indies, most re- 
markably imitates various leaves, one species having its fore 
wings so veined and colored as to resemble most strikingly a 
dried and withered leaf. The wings are often very large and 
broad, and as if to aid in carrying out the analogy the legs 
have broad leaf-like expansions. The antennz of the males are 
twenty-four-jointed, while in the females they are much shorter, 


74. ORTHOPTERA. 


cr 


consisting of but nine joints. The P. siccifolium Linn. is green, 
and about three inches long. It lives in the East Indies. 


Mantip Latreille. These raptorial Orthoptera are easily 
recognized by their large size, the enormous spinous fore legs, 


| ‘i Fig. 567. 
| adapted for seizing other insects like the raptorial Hemiptera, 
and which has given them the name of Soothsayers and 
Prophets, from their devotional attitude when 
watching for their prey. They are worshipped 
by the Hottentots as tutelary divinities. The 
head is horizontal, triangular in front, with 
long filiform antennee; the prothorax is very 
long, and the broad wings are thin, net-veined, 
with long parallel veins, more strongly resem- 
bling the Neuroptera in this respect than any 
other family. The abdomen is long, linear 
oval. ‘The subgenital plate is formed by the 
eighth sternite, the oviduct opening between 
the seventh and eighth segments. ‘The ninth 
segment is complete. The elements of this 
ring are but little developed, scarcely surpass- 
ing the subgenital plate; the two episternites — 
are distinct, and between them is the small 
} ninth sternite.” The stylets are concealed by 
the broad expanded sternum of the seventh 
seoment, while the antenna-like appendage (or 
anal style, Fig. 23) is sometimes many jointed, 
and is said by Lacaze-Duthiers to be appended 
to the eleventh segment of the abdomen. The 
mass of eggs laid by the female is attached to twigs, and 
enclosed in a flattened subovate case (odtheca) of hardened 
silk. The eggs are infested to some extent by chalcid para- 


BLATTARIA. 575 


sites. The young are long and linear. The Race-horse, Man- 
tis Carolina Linn. (Fig. 567; fig. 568, eggs, natural size), 
occurs in the Southern and Western States, and in the tropics 
occur the allied genera Vates, Empusa, Harpax and Schizoce- 
phala. According to Mr. T. Glover the eggs of Mantis 
Carolina are laid in a packet about an inch long attached to 
leaf-stalks and twigs. The body of the recently hatched young 
is linear and turned up at each end, and it devours caterpillars 
and insects, holding them in the fore legs with a firm grasp 
by applying the spined tibize and tarsi against the more stoutly 
spined femora, and then sucking their blood at its leisure. Pro- 
fessor Sanborn Tenney tells me he has observed the female 
after sexual union devour the male. Burmeister says that 
Mantis argentina Burm., of Buenos Ayres, seizes and. eats 
small birds. The genus Hremophila (EK. Ehrenbergi of Burm- 
eister) inhabits the deserts of Northern Africa, where it re- 
sembles the sand in color. 


Biatrart#& Latreille. The Cockroaches are flattened ovate, 
with the head rounded and partially concealed by the expanded 
prothorax. The fore wings are large, ovate, not much smaller 
than the hind wings; the antenne are long and filiform, many 
jointed. The bilobate subgenital plate is formed by the eighth 
sternite ; the ninth abdominal ring is complete, the sternite 
being small and lodged between the two episternites which are 
soldered into a single annular piece. The anal stylets are 
short. The species, which are almost invariably reddish 
brown, or paler, are nocturnal, hiding by day, and are found 
under stones. They are fond of heat, the house cockroaches 
frequenting heated rooms. While the common species are 
troublesome from eating garments, etc., they do great service 
in clearing houses and ships of bed-bugs, which they greedily 
devour. The eggs are laid in a bean-shaped capsule (odtheca) 
which is divided into two apartments, each containing a row 
of separate chambers, about thirty in number, each of which 
encloses an egg. Many days are required for oviposition, and 
the female may be seen running about with the capsule par- 
tially protruding from her body. During this period embryos 
are forming within the capsule, and very soon after it is 


576 ORTHOPTERA. 


dropped the laryee are hatched. The common cockroach, 
Blatta (Stylopyga) orientalis Linn. has rudimentary wings in 
the female, while in the male they are shorter than the body. 
In Periplaneta the wings are longer than the body, and the 
supradnal plate is deeply fissured and the abdomen much 
swollen. Periplaneta Americana Linn. is a commonly dis- 
tributed species. The genus Platymodes differs from the pre- 
ceding one in its narrower and longer body, and the supradnal 
plate is not fissured; the anal stylets are much shorter and 
turned down, while the wings extend beyond the abdomen, the 
anterior pair being well rounded at the tips. Platamodes Pen- 
sylvanica DeGeer is pale, shining, reddish brown, and the an- 
tenn reach back to the tips of the fore wings. It is found in 
~ woods under stones, entering 
houses by night. 

In Ectobia the wings are well 
developed, and the basal joints of 
the tarsi are shorter than the 
others. The Ectobia Germanica 
Stephens (Fig. 569, male and fe- 
male) is a pale species, and is 
very abundant in houses in and 

Fig. 569. about Boston, where it is called 
the ‘*Croton bug.” Ectobia lithophila Harris is very common 
in woods under stones in New England. The third joint of 
its antennz is as long as the next five, collectively. 

In Cryptocercus both sexes are wingless; the antennz are 
half as long as the whole body, and the abdominal appendages 
are not exserted, being very short. C. punctulatus Scudder is 
Known by its thickly punctured body and dark mahogany 
brown color, with reddish beneath. It is found southwards. 

In Pycnoscelus the males are wingless ; no females have yet 
been found. It differs from Cryptocercus in having a larger 
head ; the eyes are placed closer together, and the stylets are 
slender, cylindrical, of about the same length as the cerci and 
inserted just within them. Plate 1, fig. 2 represents the wing 
of an extinct species of cockroach (Blattina?) discovered by 
Mr. Barnes in the coal formation of Nova Scotia. While most 
of the remains of cockroaches found in the Carboniferous rocks 


FORFICULARIZ.. 577 


of this country and Europe have’ been referred to the genus 
Blattina, Mr. Scudder describes, in the ‘‘ Palzeontology of Illi- 
nois,’” a form under the name of Mylacris eS ly (Fig. 
570, upper wing; Fig. 571, : 
prothorax) which was found in 
the lower part of the true coal 
measures at Morris, Illinois. 


Forricutari£ _ Latreille. 
The Earwigs are very unlike 
other Orthoptera, and are 
readily distinguished by their narrow flattened bodies, with 
short wing-covers, like the Staphylinidc among beetles, on 
which account Linnzus placed them among the Coleoptera. 
The head is free, flat, horizontal; the ocelli are wanting, and 
the eyes round ; the antennze arise from under the eyes, and are 
filiform and twelve to forty-jointed. The elytra are short and 
thick, while the rounded, broad, hind wings are folded under- 
neath so as to be almost entirely concealed by the anterior pair. 
The female genital armature is described by Lacaze-Duthiers 
as composed of a subgenital plate formed by the eighth ster- 
nite, while the eighth and ninth abdominal rings 
are partly aborted, and only represented by two 
horny ares closely soldered to the tergite of the 
tenth ring. The rhabdites of the eleventh ring are 
greatly developed, forming the immense forceps, 
which are often as long as the whole body. This family was 
ranked as a separate order by Leach and Kirby, under the name 
of Dermaptera, and were called Huplexoptera by Westwood. 

They are nocturnal insects, hiding in the day time between 
leaves and in flowers, flying about at dark. They feed on the 
corollas of flowers and on fruit, and will eat bread and meat. 
They are rare insects in this country, though troublesome in 
Europe from their great numbers. An Alpine species lives 
under stones in Europe. In Forficula the antenne are fifteen- 
jointed. Spongophora bipunctata Scudder has two pale spots 
on the elytra. In: Labia the antenne are less than twelve- 
jointed. Labia minuta Scudder is yellowish brown, with the 
sides of the abdomen and the head reddish brown. 

37 


Fig. 571. 


578 NEUROPTERA. 


NEUROPTERA. 


THESE insects have the body, as a whole, more elongated 
than in other insects, with large broad, net-veined, thin, mem- 
branous wings, both pairs being very equal in size, the anterior 
pair being sometimes smaller than the hind wings, while in 
some genera the hind ones are either diminished in size or 
obsolete. The mouth-parts are free, the mandibles being well 
developed, and the abdomen is long and slender, with the 
genital armor always present, but made on the simplest plan, 
not forming a sting. The metamorphosis is either incomplete 
or complete; accordingly the pupa is either active or inactive 
and when inactive resides in a cocoon. The greater number 
of species are aquatic; and several degraded forms (Lepisma, 
etc.) bear a strong resemblance to the Myriapods. 

The description of the head and mouth-parts of the Orthop- 
tera applies well to the Neuroptera, but the head is horizontal, 
flatter, and the mouth-parts are less symmetrical, certain parts 
being greatly developed over others. As a general rule that 
part of the head situated behind the mouth is larger, in propor- 
tion to the rest of the head, than usual in the larve of the 
higher insects, and also the mouth-parts are much larger and 
less compact. Thus the head of a Neuropterous larva may be 
actually larger than the entire thorax of the same insect; in 
the Hymenopterous and Lepidopterous larve it is the reverse, 
the head is often smaller than even the prothoracic ring. 

The mouth-parts are inclined to become very large, and in 
the larva of Libellula the labium is enormously developed, 
masking the jaws and other parts when at rest, and capable 
of great extension, while it is armed with powerful hooks, 
being modified palpi, for seizing other insects. 

The thorax is large, the segments being well developed, and 
the prothorax is usually large and square, but in what in many 
respects are the most typical insects of the group, the Ephe- 
meride and Libellulide, the prothorax is very small, as in 
the highest insects, and in the latter group the greatly enlarged 
flanks of the mesothorax seem to take its place. 


NEUROPTERA. 579 


The wings are large, and in the Libellulide they are in 
constant use. The legs are generally of: simple structure, 
these insects neither walking nor leaping much. Rarely, as in 
Mantispa, are they adapted for seizing their prey, as they are 
in many Hemiptera and Orthoptera. 

The abdomen of the Neuroptera is composed, according to 
Lacaze-Duthiers, of eleven segments (arthromeres), and the 
ovipositor is constructed on the same plan as in the Hymen- 
optera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera, though in the different 
families the characters vary much more than in the higher sub- 
orders, in this respect perfectly according with the anatomy 
of the other parts of the body in the different groups. He 
states, however, as observation has taught us, that in its 
structure the ovipositer is simpler-than in other insects, and 
the farthest removed from that of the Hymenoptera. 

Lacaze-Duthiers, whose work is necessarily incomplete from 
treating of the female ovipositor alone, not regarding the 
analogous parts in the other sex, considers the Neuropterous 
ovipositor (taricre) as having three types of structure. The 
simplest is found*in Libellula, in the abdomen of which there 
are ten segments much alike; ‘the eleventh is more complex 
than the others; it has the same structure as in /Mschna. It 
is especially in the division of [the family containing] Libellula 
and its allies that the two appendages take the form and the 
function of pincers, and that the special word ‘forcipate,’ has . 
been used. ‘These forceps serve, as is well known, for clasping 
organs, and to enable them to perform the very long prelimi- 
naries to fecundation.” The outlet of the oviduct lies between 
the eighth and ninth segments. 

The nervous system of the Neuroptera consists of the cere- 
brellum, with its lateral productions, the optic nerves, forming 
a cylinder extending between the eyes and presenting four 
swellings. (Leidy.) There are three thoracic and eight ab- 
dominal ganglia which are of very uniform size, and connected 
by double commissures. (See Fig. 43.) The nervous cord is 
very equably developed and the brain portion is relatively 
smaller than in the higher suborders. 

Professor Leidy has described the digestive organs of Cory “y- 
dalus cornutus, which may serve as a type for the rest of the 


580 NEUROPTERA. 


suborder. It agrees with most other genera of the group in 
having a long cesophagus, which is dilated posteriorly into a 
spacious proventriculus, which extends as far back as the fifth 
abdominal segment. The large intestine presents a large con- 
volution, and abruptly dilates into an oval or fusiform ccecum 
in its lower third, which latter opens into the rectum. In 
some genera there is a long sucking stomach inserted on one 
of the sides. In Corydalus this is only present in the pupa, 
and is aborted in the imago; so also in the larva the “proven 
triculus, with its apparatus of stomachal teeth,” is adapted to 
the carnivorous habits of the insect, but in the pupa the teeth 
disappear, ‘‘while in the imago we find the esophagus again 
lengthened, still contracted at its commencement, but gradu- 
ally dilating until it forms a capacious Florence flask-shaped 
proventriculus, or gizzard.” (See Fig. 45.) 

‘With the Perlide the gizzard is wanting, but the upper 
extremity of the stomach has from four to eight cceca point- 
ing forwards. With the Libellulide@ the csophagus is long 
and large, and protrudes somewhat into the straight, oblong, 
constricted stomach, which is without cceca, and is succeeded 
by a very short ileum and colon. The digestive tube of the 
Ephemeride, which in their perfect state take no food, is 
feebly developed. Its walls are very thin throughout, and the 
cesophagus is directly continuous with the stomach, which is a 
bladder-like dilation, and succeeded by a short, straight intes- 
tine. The predatory Panorpide, which are rapacious, differ 
notably from the other Neuroptera, and resemble rather the 
preceding order (Orthoptera). The cesophagus is short and 
straight, and in the thorax is succeeded by a spherical muscu- 
lar gizzard which is lined internally with a brown chitinous 
membrane covered with stiff hairs. ‘The stomach is tubular 
and straight; the ileum makes two convolutions before pass- 
ing into the long colon.” (Siebold.) In Lepisma the cesoph- 
agus terminates in a ‘kind of crop, which is succeeded by a 
globular gizzard provided with six teeth.” 

There are two simple, short, salivary glands in the Sialide, 
while in the Phryganeid@w and Hemerobide ‘they are 
ramified and highly developed, It is quite remarkable that 
there is, in this respect, a sexual difference with the Panor- 


NEUROPTERA. 581 


pide; the males have three pairs of very long, tortuous tubes, 
while with the females the only vestiges of this apparatus are 
two indistinct vesicles.” (Siebold.) 

In their larval state the aquatic Neuroptera breathe by 
false gills, or branchial trachez ; these generally consist of 
slender filaments situated on the sides of the abdominal seg- 
ments. These filaments are fleshy, and penetrated by trachee, 
which take up the oxygen from the water. In the larvez of the 
Phryganeide these false gills are simple, ‘rarely ramified, 
and united in groups of from two to five, which stand out to- 
wards the back.” Siebold also states that ‘‘ with those of the 
Ephemeride each of the anterior abdominal segments has 
a pair of these branchize which are sometimes ramified in the 
most varied manner, and sometimes consist of two kinds, 
some being lamelliform and alternating with the others which 
are fasciculate. With all the Hphemeridee these organs have 
movements which are sometimes slow and rhythmical, and 
sometimes rapid and oscillatory. . . . The trachean branchize 
of Atschna, Libellula and the other Libellulide@ are formed 
upon a wholly different plan. They are situated in the very 
large rectum, and consist of numerous epithelial. folds which 
are traversed by a great number of very fine branches of many 
large trachean trunks. (Fig. 62, 2.) The rectum is, moreover, 
invested by a very highly developed muscular tunic, and its 
orifice has three pyramidal valves which regulate the entrance 
and the escape of the water required for respiration.” 

In the larval and adult insect there are four main trunks to 
the tracheary system, two on each side, and much less com- 
plicated than in other insects. 

There are generally six or eight long, flexuous urinary or 
Malpighian vessels. In the Neuroptera the ovaries ‘‘ consist 
always of multilocular tubes,” and the two testes are, in the 
Perlide, Ephemeride and Libellulide, composed of ‘a 
multitude of round follicles, disposed botryoidally around 
along dilated portion of each of the deferent canals. . . . 
With Panorpa the two testicles are very simple and ovoid; 
but with the other species they consist of two tufts of long or 
round follicles. With Myrmeleon and Hemerobius they are 
oval and surrounded by a distinct envelope. The two deferent 


il 


582 NEUROPTERA. 


canals are short, and always have on their lower extremity two 
long or ovoid accessory follicles.” (Siebold.) 

The classification of the Neuroptera is difficult from the 
lowness of the type, which presents an unusual number of deg- 
radational forms, such as are indicated beyond, and because 
the different families vary so much among themselves, and 
contain forms which mimic the higher groups of insects. 
Though the type is the lowest among hexapodous insects, yet 
there constantly recur characters which are found only in the 
highest insects. For example the Phryganeide@ are Neu- 
ropterous throughout, yet there are many of the less impor- 
tant characters which ally them most intimately with the 
Lepidoptera, especially the Tineide. 

However all Neuroptera agree in the lax composition of 
the body, inducing a worm-like, elongated form. The meta-, 
morphoses are, in the more typical families, less complete than 
in other insects, except the Hemiptera and Orthoptera, and 
upon the whole the organs of vegetative life are largely devel- 
oped over those of animal life, making them generally very 
sluggish in their motions (though the adult Libellulidz are an 
exception), and inducing an abnormal size of the body, as this 
suborder contains many of the largest and most monstrous of 
insects. The researches of Professor Dana and Messrs. Hartt 
and Seudder show that the Neuroptera shared with the Orthop- 
tera the possession of the low marshy lands of Devonian and 
Carboniferous times, and the forms discovered in the rocks of 
those periods indicate that they were often of gigantic propor- 
tions, and among the most degraded of their type. 

Dr. Anton Dohrn has described, under the name of Euge- 
reon Bockingi (Fig. 572), perhaps the most remarkable fossil 
insect yet discovered. It “occurred in the Permian formation 
in Germany. Te considered it as combining Hemipterous and 
Neuropterous. characters, though more closely allied to the 
Neuroptera. Dr. Hagen writes me that ‘‘ Eugereon belongs to 
Dictyoneura Goldenberg, and is perhaps identical with one of 
the species described and figured by Goldenberg.” Dictyo- 
neura is said by Goldenberg to resemble the Neuropterous 
genus Semblis. Dr. Hagen also informs me that Gerstaecker, 
after an examination of Bocking’s specimen, ‘* thinks Eugereon 


NEUROPTERA. 583 


is next related to the Ephemerina. The parts of the mouth 
haye nothing of the Hemiptera about them and they are even 
more related to 


the Diptera.” wae 29 14I9390IDI=F ID 
While wewould © —~pyeoomy Ge 

defer to the ta ce 
judgment of : 
these distin- 
‘guished — ento- 
mologists who 
have actually 
studied the fos- 
sil itself, yet 
judging from 
Dohrn’s draw- 
ing we would 
refer the insect 
to the Neurop- 
tera, and would 
suggest that in 
certain charac- 
ters we are strongly reminded of certain more abnormal genera 
of Hemerobide and the Panorpide. The wings while 
closely resembling the Ephemerids, as Dr. Hagen has sug- 
gested to us, also, in our opinion, recall those of an African 
species of Palpares, and of the fore wings of Nemoptera, and 
the antennee and beak-like mouth-parts seem analogous to 
those of Panorpa and Boreus.* 


oy, 


Fig. 572. 


Fie. 572. Hugereon Bockingi Dohrn, enlarged three diameters; A, a, lab- 
rum; 0, first pair of jaws (mandibles); c, second pair (maxille); e, labial palpi; 
J, fragments of antennz; m, portion of legs; n, middle tibiz. C, a,b, antennex; D, 
a, head; b, fore femora; c, prothorax; d, prosternum(?); EH, tarsus and end of the 
tibia of the left fore leg. — After Dohrn. 

*Krichson and Siebold have grouped the Termitid@, Psocide, Embidea, 
Ephemeride and Libellulide under the name of “false” Neuroptera, and con- 
sidered them as Ovthoptera, restricting the Neuroptera to the Sialidw, Hemero- 
bide, Panorpide and Phryganeide, and this classification has been adopted 
by most continental entomologists. Now while believing in the unity of the Neu- 
ropterous type, and that the so called “ false” Neuroptera (especially the May-flies’ 
and the dragon-flies) are really the most typical of the suborder, being the most 
unlike other insects, do not we have many characters in these paleozoic net- 
veined insects, which unite more intimately the so called false and true Neurop- 
ters? We would not forget the analogies shown in these fossil net-veined insects 


d84t NEUROPTERA. 


It is a rather large insect, the head and mouth-parts measur- 
ing thirty-nine millimetres, the three thoracic rings twenty- 
eight millimetres, and the part preserved of the right upper 
wing forty-four millimetres, and of the right under wing fifty- 
one millimetres. The antenne are long and thread-like, as in 
Panorpa, and the venation of the wings are of the Neuropter- 
ous type, while the elongated mouth-parts are Hemipterous in 
appearance, though the labial palpi (Ae) are well developed, 
being usually absent in the Hemiptera. It is the most puz- 
zling form yet brought to light, and has been compared by 
Dr. Dohrn to the fossil Archzeopteryx of the Solenhofen slates, 
referred by some naturalists to the birds, and by others to the 
reptiles. 

We have shown elsewhere* that the Neuropterous families, 
except the most typical, 7.e., the Mphemeride and Libellu- 
lide, mimic every other suborder of insects. They are in 
fact comprehensive or synthetic types, combining, as do all 
decephalized, embryonic forms, the structures of the other sub- 
orders of insects, and thus presenting, in advance, features 
which remind us of characters more fully wrought out in higher 
and more compactly finished groups of insects. 

As regards the preservation of the dragon-flies, Mr. Uhler 
states that ‘the large, brilliant green dragon-flies (Cordu- 
lina), as well as the yellow, brown-striped Gomphina, haying 
the eyes wide apart, will furnish new species in almost all parts 
of the country. In order to preserve specimens in the neatest 
manner it is well to slip them immediately, when caught, into 
paper bags of suitable size; first taking care to lay back the 
wings so that they will be applied together, to prevent mutila- 
tion. These paper bags may be placed loosely in a box carried 
for the purpose. They can thus be taken out at leisure, killed 
by applying a camel’s hair pencil, dipped in sulphuric ether, 
chloroform, or benzine, to the under side of the body, and then 
have the wings spread by placing them upon the setting 


to the Orthoptera, and which serve to unite the two suborders more intimately ~ 
than ever. Indeed entomologists in the future may unite the Orthoptera and 
Neuroptera (in the Linnzean sense) into a single suborder equivalent to the Coleop- 
tera or Hymenoptera, and these two groups may stand as two subordinate divi- 
sions just as the “Homoptera” and ‘“ Hemiptera” are subdivisions of the Lin- 
nean group of Hemiptera. 


* Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History, viii, p. 590. 


TERMITIDA. 385 
e 


boards. In most species the colors change after death, hence 
it is important to make short descriptions of the colors before 
killing the specimens.” ‘The smaller, more slender and deli- 
cate Neuroptera should be pinned directly in the collecting 
box. Many species are caught by a light in the night time, 
such as Polystoechotes nebulosus and the Phryguneide; 
and a bright light placed in damp situations by streams, etc., 
will attract large numbers, the smaller species, like moths, be- 
ing attracted a great distance by light. For the proper study 
of the genera of these insects, and often of the species, they 
should be collected in alcohol, so as to be studied in a flexible 
state. Dr. J. L. Leconte has published in the ‘American 
Naturalist,” ili, p. 307, some new directions for the preserva- 
tion of insects which will apply to these as well as other 
insects. ‘‘Surgical art has given to us an instrument by which 
a poisonous liquid can be rapidly and most effectively applied 
to the entire surface of large numbers of specimens as they 
stand in the cabinet boxes, without the trouble of moving 
them. Irefer to the ‘ Atomizer.’ 

‘Opinions may vary as to the nature of the liquid poison to 
be used, but after several trials I have found the following 
formula to be quite satisfactory; it produces no efilorescence, 
even on the most highly polished species, while the odor is 
quite strong, and persistent enough to destroy any larvee or 
egos that may be already in the box:—Saturated alcoholic 
solution of arsenious acid, eight fluid ounces; Strychnine, 
twelve grains ; Crystallized carbolic acid, one drachm ; Mineral 
naphtha (or heavy benzine) and strong alcohol, enough to 
make one quart. I have not stated the quantity of naphtha, 
since there are some varieties of light petroleum in commerce 
which dissolve in alcohol only to a slight extent. These should 
not be used. The heavier oils which mix indefinitely with alco- 
hol are the proper ones, and for the two pints of mixture ten 
to twelve fluid ounces of the naphtha will be sufficient. Care 
should be taken to test the naphtha on a piece of paper. If it 
leaves a greasy stain which does not disappear after a few 
hours it is not suitable for this purpose. 

‘‘The best form of atomizer is the long, plated, reversible 
tube; it should be worked with a gum elastic pipe, having two 


586 NEUROPTERA. 

= 
bulbs to secure uniformity in the current. The atomizing glass 
tubes and the bottle which usually accompany the apparatus 
are unnecessary: a common narrow-necked two ounce bottle 
will serve perfectly to hold the fluid.” 

The aquatic larvee and pupze can easily be reared in aquaria 
in jars and tumblers, taking care that the weaker species are 
separated from those more powerful and bloodthirsty. The 
little Entomostraca, or water-fleas, serve as food for many of 
the smaller species. With very little care many species can be 
raised in this way, and so little is known of their transforma- 
tions that figures and descriptions would be of great value. 
The interesting and varied habits of the different families can 
be also easily noted. They can be called summer insects, since 
few are found late in the fall or early in the spring, though 
several Perlidw, Hemerobius, Boreus and several species of 
Phryganeids are found ere the snow bas gone in the spring, 
and a few species of the latter family are found in November. 


Termitipa Leach. The White Ants in the different grades 
of individuals, and their complex economy, foreshadow the for- 
micaries of the ant and the hive of the bee. The bodies of the 
winged individuals are shaped somewhat like that of the ant, 
but they differ in the long, narrow, straight, finely net-veined 
wings, the costa of which is remarkably straight, while both 
wings are equal in shape and size, with the veins arranged in 
the same manner in both. The head is of moderate size, hori- 
zontal; the eyes are rather small, globose, and between them 
are two ocelli, the third and more anterior one being nearly 
obsolete. The antennze are short, with about twenty joints, 
and the mandibles are small triangular, with fine teeth on the 
cutting, or inner edge. ‘The abdomen is ovate and shorter 
than in the Neuroptera generally. In all these points, as well 
as in their habits, the white ants are the most perfectly organ- 
ized of the Neuroptera. They are more cephalized, their 
bodies are developed more headwards, and their intelligence 
and remarkable instincts ally them also, intellectually, with the 
most perfect of insects, the Bees, Wasps and Ants. Thus in 
the lowest suborder of insects we find features which strikingly 
remind us of the highest insects. Nature constantly repeat- 


TERMITIDA. 587 


ing the same idea in different groups, here leaps over as it 
were whole groups of insects, as if by prophecy pointing out 
the advent of still more perfect forms and higher intelligences. 
Geology teaches us that the white ant and other Neuroptera 
preceding in time, as they do in structure, their higher ana- 
logues. 

The genus Calotermes differs from Termes in its small head, 
the large, transverse, oblong prothorax, the veined costal area, 
and in the tarsi being furnished with an apical plantula (or 
foot-pad situated between the claws). C. castaneus Burmeis- 
ter is almost cosmopolitan, occurring in Western and tropical 
America. In Termopsis the head is large, the ocelli are ab- 
sent, and the prothorax is small, otherwise it agrees with Calo- 
termes. TJ. angusticollis Linn. is found in the Pacific States. 
The type of the family, Termes, has a large rounded head, 
with two ocelli, and a small heart-shaped prothorax ; the costal 
area is free, while the foot-pad (plantula) is absent. Our com- 
mon white ant, Termes flavipes Kollar is found from Massachu- 
setts southward, under stones, sticks and in stumps. It is of 
a chestnut color, head and prothorax black brown, with brown- 
ish antennze ringed with a paler hue, with white, very delicate 
wings, and the mouth, tibiz and tarsi are yellow. ‘The work- - 
ers are white, with honey yellow heads. The white ants of 
Africa live together like ants in colonies of vast extent. 
The males and females are winged and closely resemble 
each other as usual. There are two wingless forms; the 
soldiers, which have large square heads, and long powerful 
mandibles, with a large prothorax, and the workers which 
have small rounded heads and minute, nearly obsolete mandi- 
bles. ‘There also occur among the workers certain individuals 
(Nasuti) which have the front of the head prolonged into a 
horn. All these wingless individuals are asexual, the organs 
of reproduction being undeveloped. ‘They have been consid- 
ered to be larvee by eminent authorities, but they are found in 
the nest in abundance when the males and females have arrived 
at maturity. They must, thereforé, be considered like the 
workers among bees and ants, as individuals specialized, or set 
apart for the performance of certain duties involving the in- 
crease and preservation of the entire colony. Thus the sol- 


588 NEUROPTERA. 


diers, as they are termed by Smeathman, with their warlike 
aspect, act as ‘‘sentinels and soldiers, making their appearance 
when the nest is invaded, attacking the intruders and inciting 
the laborers to work. The more peaceful and laborious 
workers are estimated to be one hundred times more numerous 
than the soldiers.” ‘*They collect food, form covered ways, 
guard the males and females and take care of the eggs and 
young.” (Westwood.) While most of the species burrow in 
wood, or under ground, others, as in the Termes fatale Linn. 
(T. bellicosus Smeathman), raise conical hillocks of remarkable 
strength and firmness, often ten or twelve feet high. After 
impregnation the females, as in the case of the ants, lose their 
wings. They are then conducted into the interior of the nest 
by the workers. Here the body of the female gradually be- 
comes enormously distended with eggs, being over two inches 
in length, and it is known to lay 80,000 in the course of a day. 

The pupa of Termes lucifugus, a French species, was found 
by Latreille in the spring, with four white tubercles, or wing 
pads. Other pup are described and figured by Westwood, 
which by their long wing-pads, prolonged beyond the abdomen, 
closely resemble the Homopterous adult Cercopide. Fossil 
Termites occur in the coal formation of Germany. 


Embip# Burmeister. These are small insects, forming a 
connecting link between the white ants and Psocus; they are 
characterized by the linear depressed body, with the head free 
from the thorax, the wings equal in size, with few veins, and 
triarticulate tarsi. The larvae are found under stones and are 
protected by a cocoon which they renew at each moulting of 
the skin. (Gerstaecker.) Hmbia Savigni Westwood is found 
in Egypt. 

A species of Olyntha? the only genus of this family found 
in North America, is stated by Hagen to occur in Cuba. 


Psocrpa Leach. These minute insects would be easily mis- 
taken for Aphides, both the wingless as well as the winged 
individuals. ‘Their bodies are oval, the head free from the 
prothorax, which is small and partially concealed by the wings. 
The wings are unequal in size, and with few veins, thus depart- 


PSOCIDA. 089 


ing widely from the usual Neuropterous type of venation, and 
closely resembling that of the plant-lice. Mr. R. McLachlan 
states (Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine) that ‘‘the eggs are 
laid in patches on leaves, bark, or other objects, and the fe- 
males cover them with a 
web. The larve and pup 
ereatly resemble the per- | 
fect insects.” The larve 
closely resemble the pupe ; 
the ocelli in these states 
are absent, and the tarsi are 
two or three-jointed, accord- 
ing to the species. He has 
observed individuals with 
but partially developed 
wings. ‘‘Inall their states 
they probably feed on dry 
vegetable substances and 
lichens. They are univer- oH 
sally common, living more Fig. 573. 

or less in societies on tree trunks and palings, and amongst 
the herbage of trees, especially firs, larches and yews, and 
some species in houses and warehouses. I believe that both 
sexes possess the power of spinning a web, not distinguishable 
from that of spiders. They are exceedingly active and diffi- 
cult of capture.” (McLachlan.) 

In the nearly wingless genus Clothilla, from California, there 
are no ocelli, the wings are incomplete, and the tarsi three- 
jointed. Clothilla picea Motschulsky is but .04 of an inch long 
and pitchy black in color, with a brassy reflection. In the 
nearly wingless Atropos the ocelli are wanting and the tarsi 
are three-jointed, while the rudimentary wings form minute 
square pads. The A. divinatorius of Otho Fabricius is a little 
pale, louse-like insect, seen running over books and in insect 
cases, where it does considerable injury to specimens. The 
Atropos is in England ealled the ‘*death-watch,’ and is sup- 
posed to make the ticking sound heard in spring. Mr. E. 
Newman (Entomologist, iii, p. 66) has bred ** Psocus pulicarius, 
or some allied species, from Atropos pulsatorius” (Fig. 573.) 


590 NEUROPTERA. 


The genus Psocus, which closely resembles in its appear- 
ance and habits the Aphides, though the species are not suck- 
ing insects, has three ocelli, two or three-jointed tarsi, and well 
developed wings. The species are very numerous, and abound 
during the close of summer. Psocus venosus Burm. is said by 
Fitch to live on the maple, while P. salicis he describes as 
being found on the willow. 

Pertip& Leach. This group comprises those Neuroptera 
with long flattened bodies, the sides of which are parallel, while 
the prothorax is large; the antennee are long and thread-like, 
and the wings are unequal in size, the posterior ones being 
broad, triangular. The labial palpi are present, while the 
mandibles exist ordinarily in a rudimentary state. The wings 
are usually charged with many irregular transverse veins, and 
when folded flat on the back, extend beyond the abdomen. 
The tarsi are three-jointed, and there are, in the typical genera, 
two terminal sete on the abdomen. The pup are active, with 
prominent wing-pads. They are found in rivers under stones, 
while the adults are found resting on leaves and in low damp 
places. The larve resemble the adult, except in being wing- 
less, and bear a general resemblance to the larve of certain 
Ephemerids, showing the near relationship of the two families. 

The genus Pteronarcys is remarkable for retaining in the 
adult state external gill-like filaments attached to the under 
side of the prothorax. It consequently lives in exceedingly 
moist places, much nearer the water than Perla. P. regalis 
Newman is fuscous, the head is no broader than the thorax, 
while in P. proteus Newman the head is broader than the pro- 
thorax and the abdomen is yellowish beneath. . 

In Perla the wings are veiny, the transverse veins few and 
very regular, while the hind wings have a large, plicated anal 
space. The palpi are thread-like, and there are two abdominal 
setze. Westwood remarks that ‘there is a very great diversity 
in the sexes of the typical genus Perla, the males being much 
smaller than the females, with very short wings#’ Perla ab- 
normis Newman is yellowish fuscous, and the wings are sub- 
hyaline with the veins clay-yellow. 

The genus Jsopterya is characterized by the wings having 


PERLIDZ. 591 


the transverse veins few in number, almost absent, and there 

is no basal space in the posterior wings. The palpi are seta- 
-ceous, the last joint being shortest. Isopterya Cydippe New- 
man is pale yellow and immaculate. 

Capnia is known by the wings being veiny, with the trans- 
verse veins very few and regular ; the anal area of the posterior 
wings is large, plicate, and the palpi are filiform, with the last 
joint ovate, longer than the preceding one, and there are two 
setee. Capnia pygmea Burm. is shining black, with gray hairs. 
It is common in New York in February, according to Dr. Fitch. 
The species of Teniopteryx have the wings inrolled and veined, 
with the transverse veins very scarce, rather regular; the anal 
area of the posterior wings is large and plicated ; the palpi are 
filiform, with the last joint ovate. ‘There are no abdominal 
sete, and the tarsi are divided into three long equal joints. 
They fly early in spring and late in the autumn, and south- 
wards, during the winter. T. frigida Hagen is black, with 
grayish hairs, with a gray band on the middle and another at 
the apex of the nearly transparent wings. In Nemoura the 
wings are veiny, flat, and the transverse veins are few, very 
regular, the veins of the pterostigma forming an X. The anal 
area of the posterior wings is large and plicate, and there.are 
no caudal setae. The males are smaller than the females, with 
shorter wings. WV. albidipennis Walker is piceous, shining, 
with whitish wings. The genus Leuctra differs from Nemoura 
in the wings being rolled in when at rest. JZ. tenuis Pictet is 
fuscous, with three elevated lines on the disk of the thorax. 


Under the name Palewopterina, Scudder has described a 
group considered by him as a distinct family which comprises 
but three fossil species discovered in the Carboniferous forma- 
tion at Morris, Illinois. The fragments of the first species 
found were described by Professor J. D. Dana in 1864, under 
the name of Miamia Bronsoni (Plate 1, fig. 1, the dotted lines 
represent the parts restored by Mr. Scudder). He states 
that this msect ‘‘while Neuropterous in wings, closely ap- 
proaching the Semblids, has broad costate femurs, and even a 
large spinous joint to the anterior legs, peculiarities which 
seem to be almost inconsistent with the Neuropterous type, 


592 NEUROPTERA. 


although in part characterizing the Mantispids, and which are 
in complete harmony with the Orthopterous type.” (American 
Journal of Science and Arts, 1864, p. 33.) 

Professor Dana farther states ‘‘that in the 
broad costate femurs of the second pair of 
legs and the form of the prothorax, it ap- 
proaches the Orthopters of the Phyllium 
family, and is very unlike any known Neu- 
ropters.: The anterior legs are peculiar in 
having a large and broad femur armed aboye 
with very slender spines as long as the joint, 
three of which, though mutilated, are seen in 
the specimen. But something of this kind 
is observed under Neuropters in the Mantis- 
eae Rais pids. It is quite probable that these anterior 
Fig. 574. legs were prehensile, as in Mantispa, and the 
fact that the tibia and tarsus are not in sight in the specimen, 
favors this conclusion. . . . There appears to have been a pair 
ef short obtuse appendages at the extremity of the abdomen, 
much as in Phyllium. The 
-head is mostly obliterated.” 
Mr. S. H. Scudder in the 
‘* Memoirs of the Boston So- 
H\\ ciety of Natural History” for 
} 1867, shows that the vena- 
) tion of this genus recalls fea- 
tures of several other Neu- 
ropterous families, such as the 
Termitide, the Hemero- 
bide and Sialide. 

Mr. Scudder, who has given 
a restoration of this remark- 
a able insect, ‘states that the 
Fig. 575. head is somewhat like that of 
Perla, being oval, depressed, with long oval lateral eyes. 
These two authors disagree as to the ‘‘fore legs” @Dana), Mr. 
Scudder calling the parts so designated by Professor Dana, 
the head. Gerstaecker states his opinion that Miamia is 
“‘without doubt a Perlarian.” 


EPHEMERIDA. 593 


Mr. Scudder has more recently described in the ‘“ Palzon- 
tology of the Illinois Geological Survey,” iii, p. 566, two other 
forms of this group. He remarks, ‘‘the two specimens before 
me, with wings better preserved than in the individual of Mia- 
mia Bronsoni, prove that my delineation of the conjectural 
parts of the wing structure of the Palwopterina was in part 
erroneous, and give evidence of a closer relationship of the 
Palzopterina to the ancient Termitina than I had supposed 
possible.” A second species of Miamia from Morris, Illinois, 
he calls M. Dane (Fig. 574; all the specimens occurred in 
balls of iron stone). It is four-fifths smaller than M. Bron- 
soni. Healso remarks, ‘‘the other fossil which I would refer 
to the Palewopterina is Chrestotes lapidea (Fig. 575). The 
genus differs from Miamia in the shortness and rotundity of 
the wings,” and in the venation, some points of which remind 
him of the Blattaria. 


EPHEMERIDm Leach. The May-flies, or Ephemerids, as 
their name implies, are, when fully grown, very short-lived 
insects, the adult living but a few hours. The body is slender 
and weak, being very long; the prothorax is of moderate size ; 
the antennze are subulate, or awl-like, being very small, as in 
the Libellulide, while the parts of the mouth are rudimen- 
tary, the insect taking no food in the adult or imago state. 
The wings are very unequal in size, the hinder pair being much 
smaller, or in some instances (Cloé and Caenis) entirely 
aborted ; the transverse veins are either few or numerous; the 
tarsi are four or five-jointed, and appended to the long, slender 
abdomen are two or three long caudal filaments. 

The sexes unite while on the upper surface of the water, and 
after a short union the female drops in the water her eggs ‘‘in 
two long, cylindrical yellow masses, each consisting of numer- 
ous minute eggs.” Walsh states that he possesses a ‘‘sub- 
imago of Palingenia bilineata, which oviposited in that 
state.” The. larve live in running water and prey on small 
aquatic insects, the body being long and flat, with long hair- 
like antennee, and small eyes situated on the side of the head, 
the ocelli not usually being present, and long sickle-shaped 
jaws, while along each side of the abdomen are leaf-like or 


38 


594 NEUROPTERA. 


bushy false gills, and the body ends in long feathered anal 
hairs. They live, it is stated, two or three years, and reside 
in burrows in the mud, under stones, or among grass and 
weeds, where they may be taken with the water-net in great 
abundance, and are beautiful objects for the aquarium. Lub- 
bock states that Chloéon passes through twenty-one moultings 
of the skin before it assumes the imago state; the pup are 
active and have, as a general rule, the rudiments of wings. 
After leaving the pupa ‘skin the insect (subimago), when its 
wings are expanded, takes a short flight, and then casts an- 
other skin before reaching the final imago state. They often 
fly in immense numbers, and become stranded in winrows 
along the borders of lakes. The perfect insects should be 
preserved in alcohol for study, as they shrivel up when pinned. 
They should be described when alive if possible. 

The genus Ephemera of Linnzus has three long and equal 
caudal sete; the fore wings are present, with very numerous 
transverse veins, while the eyes are remote, and in the males 
simple. Hphemera decora Walker is luteous, with the end of 
the antennez black and a reddish band on the side of the body. 

The remains of a gigantic form described by Mr. Scudder 
under the name of Platephemera antiqua (Plate 1, fig. 3) has 
been discovered by Mr. C. F. Hartt in the Devonian formation 
of New Brunswick. Another fossil wing, Haplophlebium 
Barnesti (Plate 1, fig. 8), accompanying the preceding, has 
been doubtfully referred to the May-flies by Mr. Scudder. It 
indicates a very large species. Mr. Scudder also figures, in 
the Palzontology of the Illinois Geological Survey, certain fos- 
sils from lower Carboniferous strata, which ‘‘appear to be the 
wings of insects, and, being probably more nearly allied (p. 
571) to the Hphemeride than to other Neuroptera, should 
be grouped under the generic name Ephemerites.” 

In Palingenia there are three caudal sete, the middle one 
being short, and sometimes almost absent in the males. ‘There 
are four wings with very numerous transverse veins, and the 
eyes are remote and simple. P. bilineata Say is a common 
species and one of the largest of the family ; it is found floating 
on the surface of lakes. It is greenish yellow, with a reddish 
stripe on the side of the prothorax. The genus Buétis has but 


4 


EPHEMERIDZ. 595 


two abdominal sete, while the four wings are provided with 
numerous cross-veins. The eyes are simple, and in the males 
of large size and placed very near each other. Baétis inter- 
punctata Say is a yellowish white species tinged with green, 
with an arcuate black line on the front, and a lateral black 
point, while the prothorax has one black stripe on the side. 

The singular genus Betisca is very thick-bodied, and differs 
from the other Ephemerids in the fifth abdominal joints being 
twice as long as any of the others. 
The pupa (Fig. 576, 1; a, lateral 
tooth; 11, antenna; in, section of 
the abdomen, the numerals indicat- 
ing the segments; a, branchie, 
above which is a flap, 0) ‘‘ differs,” 
according to Walsh, ‘‘from all de- 
scribed Ephemerinous pupese in the 
antenne being eight-jointed or there- 
abouts, not multiarticulate, and also 
in the branchiz being internal and 
not used for locomotive purposes, 
and from all larve and pupze, and indeed from all known 
hexapod insects in any of their states, in the pro-, meso- and 
metanotum being connate and confluent, and extending over 
one-half of the abdomen in the form of a large, dilated, convex 
carapace, or shield, thus giving the in- 
sect a very Crustacean appearance.” 
The larva, early in its life, has rudi- 
mentary wings, as in many grasshoppers, 
but in the pupa state they are not 
present. 

Near Baétis comes Potamanthus, which 
has three caudal setz and four wings 
provided with numerous cross-veins ; the 
eyes in the males are double, large -and Fig. 577. 
approximate. The Potamanthus cupidus of Say is black, with 
a broad dorsal stripe and a lateral impressed line on each side 
of the thorax. P. marginatus Zetterstedt (Fig. 577), a boreal 
European species, we have found in abundance in Labrador fly- 
ing over pools in July. 


Fig. 576. 


596 NEUROPTERA. 


In Cloé there are but two caudal setz, and though there are 
usually four wings, yet the hinder pair are sometimes wanting, 
and there are few transverse veins. The eyes in the males 
are double, large and approximate. Cloé pygmea Hagen is 
brownish gray, with the feet and 
setae white, and the wings hya- 
line. It is a Canadian species. 

Ceenis differs in having three 
caudal setz, with no hind wings 
developed, and few cross-veins, 
and the eyes in the males are 
very simple and remote. Cenis 
hilaris Say is small and whitish, 
with black eyes, and the thorax is 
pale fulvous, with short obscure 

Fig. 578. lines beneath and on the sides. 

Hagen states that the most abnormal Ephemerid is Oligoneu- 
ria, distinguished by the abortive condition of the legs, the 
large size of the longitudinal veins of the wings, the rarity of 
the transverse veinlets, and by a long bristle-like appendage 
at the base of the fore wing. A closely allied genus has been 
described by Dr. Hagen under the name Lach/ania. It has 
two caudal filaments, where Oligoneuria has three, and there 
are three strong transverse veins in the fore wings. LL. abnor- 
mis Hagen (Fig. 578, enlarged) is a Cuban species. 


Mr. Scudder regards as the type of a distinct family, which 
he calls the. Hemeristina, a single form, the Hemeristia 
occidentalis of Dana, which occurred with Miamia Bronsoni in 
the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Illinois. Mr. Scudder de- 
fines this family as consisting of ‘‘ Neuroptera of large size. 
The prothorax is quadrangular, narrower than the meso- and 
metathorax, though not proportionally so much so as in the 
Paleopterina,; the femora (probably the front pair) are as 
in the Palwopterina, but proportionally broader. Wings 
large, long, about twice as broad beyond the middle as near 
the base, the costal border convex in its outer half, with nu- 
merous and prominent cross-veins but no reticulations ; when 
au rest, overlapping quite completely, even close to the base, 


LIBELLULID&. . 597 


much as in the Perlari@, and probably with the sides pro- 
tected near the base by the deflected marginal and scapular 
(subcostal) areas.” Scudder shows that while the venation is 
much the same as in Hemerobius, as stated by Professor Dana, 
it also resembles that of the Stalid@ and Ephemeride@ and 
Libellulide. Gerstaecker thinks that Hemeristia ‘‘at least 
stands nearer to the Hphemeride than to any other family.” 
(Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, vol. v.) 


LiseLLuLip#& Latreille. Dragon-flies, Devil’s-darning-nee- 
dles, or Mosquito Hawks, are readily known by the enormous 
head and thorax, with the remarkably long, slender, cylindrical 
abdomen. The head is large and globular, with immense eyes 
often encircling the head. The large square thorax is remark- 


* Fig. 579. 


able for the small size of the tergal parts, while the pieces 
composing the flanks are greatly enlarged, rising up especially 
in front, taking the place of the prothorax, which is usually 
very large in the Neuroptera generally, but is in this family 
greatly aborted, as these insects scarcely ever walk. As in 
the Hphemeridc the antenns are short and setiform, and 
the mouth is not furnished with palpi. The wings* are large, 


* Fic. 579. Venation of a fore wing of Gomphus. Veins.—a, a, costal vein; 6, 
subcostal vein; c,c, median vein; d, submedian vein; e, postcostal vein. Sectors— 
(branches springing from areas, veins, cross-veins, or other sectors). ff, princi- 
pal sector; g, nodal sector; h, subnodal sector; &, median sector; mm, short sec- 
tor; m, upper sector of the triangle (normally a prolongation of d@); 0, lower 
sector of the triangle (normally a prolongation of e); 0’, 0’', its branches. (The 
figure gives an angle where o’ bifurcates from 0, which should have been a flow- 
ing curve. Both n and o should have been engraved as springing from the lower 
angle of the triangle, ¢.) Cross-veins.—p, nodus; qg, are or arculus; 777, - - - ante- 
cubitals. (The basal antecubital is wrongly engraved as dislocated with that of 


598 NEUROPTERA 


densely reticulated, very equal in size, and in some cases the 
hind wings are a little larger than the fore wings. The tarsi 
are three-jointed, and the second abdominal segment of the 
males is furnished with accessory genital organs. 

‘‘Landois notices a peculiar sound-producing organ in this 
family, and figures that of A%schna juncea. It is situated in 
the prothoracic stigmata, which are placed quite at the front 
of the thorax, and concealed by the head. These stigmata are 
large elongated slits, one margin of which is simple, whilst 
the other bears a sort of chitinous comb of about twenty teeth, 
between which an exceedingly delicate membrane is extended. 
The metathoracie stigmata, which in general are the chief or- 
gans of sound in this part of the body, are smaller, and bear 
on one side a semilunar valve with stiff hairs.” (Gunther’s 
Zoological Record for 1867.) 

‘* During the pairing of the sexes, which takes place during 
flight, the male seizes the neck of the female with his anal 
claspers ; the female then curves the end of its abdomen to 
the second abdominal ring of the male, which has a swollen 
expansion of the under surface, containing in a longitudinal 
cleft the intromittent organ, which conveys the seminal fluid 
from the bladder-like cavity into the body of the female. But 
since the outlet of the testicle opens on the ninth segment 
of the abdomen, the males previous to union with the other 
sex, must fill the copulating sac with the seminal fluid, by 
curving its abdomen upon itself. After the union has been 
effected the females generally let go of the males. In many 


. 

the second or subcostal series); sss, ---- postcubitals. Areas and Angles.—#, the 
triangle (discoidal) ; w, internal triangle; V, anal triangle; W, basal area (or space); 
ax, median area (or space); y, membranule; z, anal angle in the male, the dotted 
line z' showing the form of the anal corner of the wing in the female Gomphus. 
(The angle z ought to have been engraved as much more acute and sahent.) A A, 
discoidal areolets (in the figure two ranges of them commencing with three). 
B, pterostigma; C, its basal (or internal) side prolonged in the normal manner; D, 
“ quadrangle,” “quadrilateral,” or ‘area above the triangle,” bounded above by 
m, below by d, basally by g, and terminally by an unnamed cross-vein; HEE, 
postcostal area (or space). 

Of the above pterological parts, g and its sectors, 7,s, ¢, Wh y, B, and in the 
Calopterygina and Agrionina ‘the quadrilateral” (D), and “ the postcostal area” 
(EB), are the most important in classification.— From Hagen with modifications by 
Walsh. Following the nomenclature adopted in this work, aa would indicate 
the marginal vein; 0, the costal; c, the subcostal; @, probably the median, and e, 


the submedian vein. 


LIBELLULIDA. 599 


species of Libellula, however, during oviposition, the male 
retains his hold on the neck of the female, and both fly over 
the surface of standing water, the female touching the surface 
of the pool with the tip of her abdomen, and letting the eggs 
fall into the water. 

“‘In some genera (Libellula, Agrion) the two sexes of a spe- 
cies differ greatly in color, the males having bright variegated 
colors, while the females are dusky, being more of one color. 
The males of many species have, on the abdomen, several days 
after exclusion from the pupa case, a bluish powdery exuda- 
tion. The genus Calopteryx and allies differ sexually in the 
color of the wings.” (Gerstaecker.) 

‘‘ Brauer indicates the occurrence of dimorphism in the fe- 
males of some species of the genus Neurothemis, some of 
them having the wings very richly veined, as in the males, 
whilst others have widely netted veins like those of the ordi- 
nary Libellule.” (Gunther’s Zoological Record for 1867.) 

During July and August the various species of Libellula and 
its allies most abound. The eggs are attached loosely in 
bunches to the stems of rushes and other water-plants. In 
laying them, the dragon-fly, according to Mr. P. R. Uhler’s 
observations, ‘‘alights upon water-plants, and, pushing the 
end of her body below the surface of the water, glues a bunch 
of eggs to the submerged stem or leaf. Libellula auripennis 
I have often seen laying eggs, and I think I was not deceived 
in my observation that she dropped a bunch of eggs into the 
open ditch while balancing herself just a little way above the 
surface of the water. I have also seen her settled upon 
the reeds in brackish water with her abdomen submerged in 
part, and there attaching a cluster of eggs. I feel pretty sure 
that L. auripennis does not always deposit the whole of her 
egos at one time, as I have seen her attach a cluster of not 
more than a dozen small yellow eggs. There must be more 
than one hundred eggs in one of the large bunches. The eggs 
of some of the Agrions are bright apple-green, but I cannot 
be sure that I have ever seen them in the very act of oviposi- 
tion. They have curious habits of settling upon leaves and 
grass growing in the water, and often allow their abdomens to 
fall below the surface of the water. Sometimes they fly against 


600 NEUROPTERA. 


the surface, but I never saw what I could assert to be the pro- 
jecting of the eggs from the body upon plants or into the 
water. The English entomologists assert that the female 
Agrion goes below the surface to a depth of several inches to 
deposit eggs upon the submerged stems of plants.” The 
Agrions, however, according to Lacaze-Duthiers, a 
French anatomist, make with the ovipositor a little 
notch in the plant upon which they lay their eggs. 
These eggs hatch during the middle of the sum- 
mer, and the young larva (Fig. 62) when first hatched 
differs from the more mature larva (Fig. 580), in not 
Fig. 580. having the rudiments of wings, and in the long, 
spider-like legs. The larva is very active in its habits, being 
provided with six legs attached to the thorax, on the back of 
which, after the first one or two moults, are the little wing- 
pads, or rudimentary wings. The large head is provided 
with enormous eyes, while a pair of 
simple, minute eyelets (ocelli) are 
placed near the origin of the small 
bristle-like feelers, or antenne. 
Seen from beneath, instead of the 
formidable array of jaws and ac- 
cessory organs commonly observed 
in most-carnivorous larvae, we see 
nothing but a broad, smooth mask 
covering the lower part of the face, 
but when some unwary insect comes 
within striking distance the battery 
of jaws is unmasked, and opens 
‘upon the victim. This mask (Fig. 
581, under side of head of a dragon- 
fly larva, with the labium fully ex- 
tended; a, 2’, x”, the three subdivi- 
sions ; 7/, maxillee. For other details 
of the head of the larva of Diplax, 
Fig-' 581. see p. 60) is peculiar to the young, 
or larva and pupa, of the dragon-fly. It is the labium, or under 
lip greatly enlarged, and armed at the broad spoon-shaped 
extremity (#) with two sharp hooks, adapted for seizing and 


LIBELLULIDA. 6OL 


retaining its prey. At rest, the terminal half is so bent up 
as to conceal the face, and thus the creature crawls about, to 
all appearance, the most innocent and harmless of insects. 

Not only does the immature dragon-fly walk over the bottom 
of the pool or stream it inhabits but it can also leap for a con- 
siderable distance, and by a most curious con- 
trivance. By a syringe-like apparatus lodged 
in the end of the body, it discharges a stream 
of water for a distance of two or three inches 
behind it, thus propelling the insect forwards. 
This apparatus combines the functions of loco- 
motion and respiration. There are, as usual, 
two breathing pores (stigmatu) on each side of Fig. 582. 
the thorax. But the process of breathing seems to be mostly 
carried on in the tail. The trachez are here 
collected in a large mass, sending their 
branches into folds of membrane lining the 
end of the alimentary canal, and which act like 
a piston to force out the water. The entrance 
to the canal is protected by three to five tri- 
angular horny valves (Fig. 582, 9, 10; Fig. 
583, side view), which open and shut at will. When open 
the water flows in, bathing the internal gill-like organs which 
extract the air from the water. This is then 
suddenly expelled by a strong muscular effort. 
'In the smaller genera, Agrion (Fig. 584, side 
view of false-gill, showing but one leaf), Lestes 
and Calopteryx, the respiratory leaves, called the 
tracheary, or false-gills, are not enclosed within 
the body, but form three broad leaves, permeated 
by trachez, or air-vessels. They are not true 
gills, however, as the blood is not aerated in 
them. They only absorb air to supply the tra- 
chez, which aerate the blood only within the 
general cavity of the body. These false gills also 
act as rudders to aid the insect in swimming. 

It is easy to watch the dragon-flies through their 
transformations, as they can easily be kept in Fis. 584. 
aquaria. Little, almost nothing, is known regarding their 


Fig. 583. 


602 NEUROPTERA. 


habits, and any one who can spend the necessary time and 
patience in rearing them, so as to trace up the different stages 
from the larva to the adult fly, and describe and figure them 
accurately, will do. good service to science. Mr. Uhler states 
that we know but little of the young stages of our species, 
but ‘‘the larva and pupa of the Libellula may be always known 
from those of the @schne by their shorter, deeper, and more 
robust form, and generally by their thick clothing of hair.” 

The pupa (Fig. 585, pupa probably either of AZschna con- 
stricta or AX. clepsydra) scarcely differs from the larva, except 
in having larger wing-pads. It is still active, and preys on 
other insects. When the insect is about to assume the pupa 
state the body, having outgrown the larva, 
skin, by a strong muscular effort opens a 
rent along the back of the thorax, and 
the insect having fastened its claws into 
some object at the bottom of the pool, 
the pupa gradually works its way out of 
the larva skin. It is now considerably 
larger than before. Immediately after 
this tedious operation its body is soft, 
but the crust soon hardens. This change, 
with most species, probably occurs early 
in summer. 

When about to change into the adult 
fly the pupa climbs up some plant near 
the surface of the water. Again its back 
yawns wide open, and from the rent our dragon-fiy slowly 
emerges. For an hour or more it remains torpid and listless, 
with its flabby, soft wings remaining motionless. The fluids 
leave the surface, the crust hardens and dries, rich and varied 
tints appear, and the dragon-fly rises into its new world of 
light and sunshine. 

In Agrion and its allies (Agrionina) the antennz are four- 
jointed, the eyes are small compared with those of Libellula, 
and distinct; the wings are equal, while the abdomen is cylin- 
drical and long and slender. In Calopteryx the wings are 
very broad and densely reticulated ; the pterostigma is absent 
in the males, that of the females irregular and areolate; the 


Fig. 585. 


LIBELLULID. 603 


basal space has no transverse veins, and the male appendages 
are forcipate. (Hagen.) Calopteryx apicalis Burm. is shining 
brassy green, with long black feet. 

In Lestes there are two antecubital transverse venules; the 
fourth apical sector is broken; the postcostal space is simple ; 
and the quadrangular space is trapezoidal, 
with the exterior inferior angle acute; ‘ 
the pterostigma is large, oblong, and the 
appendages in the male are forcipated. 
Lestes eurina Say is biue, varied with 
green and violet. The beautiful genus 
Agrion has the apical sector straight, the 
postcostal space simple, the quadrangular 
space trapezoidal, with the exterior inferior angle acute; the 
pterostigma small, rhomboidal, while the male abdominal ap- 
pendages are short. <Agrion civile Hagen is brassy-black, 
varied with blue or green, with a hairy head and thorax. A. 
saucium Burm. (Fig. 586) is red, variegated with black, and is 
a common species. 

In the group -dschnina the wings are unequal, and all the 
triangles of the wing are of the same form. In Gomphus and 
its allies the 
wings are un- 
equal, the 
hinder ones be- 
ing broader, 
and the trian- & 
gles of both 
pairs of wings 
have no trans- 
verse veins. 
Gomphus fra- 
ternus Say is 
yellow spotted Fig. 587. 
with black, with black feet. The genus Anaz differs in the 
anal angle of the posterior wings being rounded in the male, 
and the abdomen has a lateral interrupted ridge. Anaa Junius 
Drury is a large and widely spread species; it is green, spot- 
ted with blue and fuscous, with a yellowhead. _dschna differs 


604 NEUROPTERA. 


in having the anal angle of the posterior wings of the male 
acute. _dschna heros Fabr. is one of our largest and most 
abundant dragon-flies. It is fuscous, marked with yellowish 
green, and with two oblique green stripes on the side of the 
thorax. 

In the third group of this immense family, the Libellulina, 
the wings are unequal, and the triangle of the anterior wings 


Fig. 588. 
is dissimilar, while the anterior genital hamule of the male is 
free. In Cordulia the anal angle of the posterior wings of the 
male is acute, and the body is brassy green. C. tenebrosa Say 
is found in the Western 
States. 

The genus Libellula is 
= characterized by the short, 
S => rather flattened abdomen, 
We SS narrowing rapidly towards 

the tip, and the male clasp- 

ing organs are scarcely visi- 

ble. Libellula trimaculata 

DeGeer (Fig. 587, male) is 

Fig. 589. 4 = 

: so called from the three 

dark clouds on the wings of the female. The male differs in 
having a dark patch at the front edge of the wings, and a sin- 
gle broad cloud just beyond the middle of the wing. Libel- 


SIALIDZ. 605 


lula quadrimaculata Linn. (Fig.-588) is reddish yellow, with 
four dark clouds on the wings which are yellow anteriorly on 
the base. In Diplax the abdomen is a little shorter than the 
wings, and is slender, 


flattened, compressed at \ciep 


the base, while the feet 
are long and slender. ~ 
Diplax rubicundula Fabr. GE 
is a very abundant spe- 
cies, being yellowish red. 
Diplax Berenice Drury 
(Fig. 589, male ; fig. 590, t 
female) is black, with the Fig. 591. 
head blue in front, spotted with yellow, while the thorax and 
abdomen are striped with yellow. There are fewer stripes on 
the body of the male. D. Elisa Hagen (Fig. 591) is black, 
with the head yellowish aad 
> with greenish yellow spots 
on the sides of the thorax 
and base of the abdomen. 
The Nannophya bella of 
Uhler (Fig. 592) is asmaller 
form, with an unusually — 
short abdomen, and _ the 
reticulations of the wings 
are large and simple. It is 
black, while the male is frosted over with a whitish powder. 


S1atip# Leach. This family is not a numerous one, but the 
species are interesting as comprising some of the largest of in- 
sects. Hagen defines the group briefly 
as having the body short and _ thick, 
while the prothorax is large and square. 
The antenne are long and setaceous; 
the wings are large, reticulated, the pos- 
terior ones with the anal space plicated, 
and the tarsi are five-jointed. 1NTSe ake 

‘‘The female of Sialis,” according to Westwood, ‘deposits 
an immense quantity of eggs, which she attaches one by one 


606 NEUROPTERA. 


to rushes or other aquatic plants. They are of a cylindrical 
form, terminating at the top in a sudden point; they are at- 
tached side by side with the greatest regularity.” The larve, 
as in those of Corydalus, are broad and flattened, with a pair 
of long, thick, respiratory filaments attached to the side of 
each ring of the abdomen. The body of the pupa is curved, 
with the wings laid along the breast, much as in the Phry- 
ganeid pupe. The larva is active and predaceous, being 
armed with strong jaws. When full-fed it leaves the pools or 
streams in which it has been living and makes an earthern cell 
in the bank, in which the inactive pupa undergoes its remain- 
ing transformations. 

In Sialis the prothorax is large and square, almost equal in 
size to the head; there are no ocelli; the antenne are filiform, 
and the wings irregularly net-veined, the veins being stout. 
The fourth joint of the tarsi is 
dilated and twice lobed. The 
larva is much like that of Cory- 
dalus, but differs in having the 
abdomen terminating in a 
‘Jong and slender setose tail.” 
Sialis infumata Newman (Fig. 593, caudal appendages of the 
male, from Walsh) is black, with the head not narrower be- 
hind, while S. Americana Rambur is rust-red, and the head is 
narrower behind. The wings expand about an inch. 

Chauliodes is a much larger insect, with a quadrangular pro- 
thorax nearly as large as the head. There are three ocelli 
placed close together, and the antenne are either pectinated or 
serrated. The wings are veiny, the transverse veins slender. 
The joints of the tarsi are cylindrical, and the caudal appen- 
dages of the male are conical and simple. Walsh describes the 
larva of C. rastricornis Rambur as resembling that of Cory- 
dalus, but being much smaller, measuring 1.60 of an inch, and 
the abdomen has one segment less, with no caudal setz, ‘so 
that Chauliodes forms a connecting link in this respect between 
Corydalus and Sialis, the larva of which is said to have ‘one 
long, slender, setose tail,’”” and the under side of the abdomen 
is ‘‘entirely destitute of the remarkable paddle-like branchix 
found in Corydalus.” The pupa resembles that of Corydalus. 


Fig. 593. 


' swith some dark mark- 


* 
SIALIDA. © 607 


Chauliodes pectinicornis Linn., our most common species, is 
yellowish ashen, with reddish pectinated antenn. In C. ser- 
ricornis Say the antenne are serrate. In Corydalus, the largest 
form known, the pro- 
shorax is square but 
narrower than the head 
and the antenne are 
stout but filiform. The 
male of C. cornutus 
Linn. (Fig. 594, fe- 
male; fig. 595, male ; 
fig. 596, pupa ; fig. 597, 
larva), has very long 
‘mandibles, about twice 
as long as the head, 
whence its specific 
name. According to 
the Editors of the 
«¢ American Entomol- 
ogist,” the eggs of 
this insect (Fig. 598) 
are ‘oval, about the 
size of a radish seed, 
and of a pale color, 


h 
I 


- a 
Qacotnsoosss 


iy - 
ponnancT OA = 
f NV, : 
i PAS jl ; 
{ > 


ings. They are usu- 
ally deposited in a 
squarish mass upon 
reeds or other aquatic 
plants overhanging the 
water.” Hagen does 
not ‘* think that the 
lateral filamentous ap- 
pendages are connect- 
ed with respiration ; 
the little sponges at Ja 

the base of the filaments and a little behind them are the true 
pranchix.” ‘The reason that the larva of Corydalus has both 
branchise and spiracles is, that it lives, like Sialis, some weeks 
out of the water before its transformation.” (Hagen.) 


% 


608 NEUROPTERA. 


The genus Raphidia is not aquatic in its habits as it is found 
under the bark of trees pursuing small insects. The adult has 
a long neck (prothorax), which is much narrower than the head, 
and the antennze are short and filiform, while the ovipositor of 
the female is long and ensiform, probably enabling it to deposit 
its eges in the chinks in the bark. The larva is long and 
slender; before 
transforming it 
makes no cocoon. 
At first the pupa 
is inactive, but 
according to Mr. 
Waterhouse 
(Westwood’s In- 
troduction), it be- 
comes active 

while the imago 
mre skin is develop- 
Mi <—— ing, and walks 
UG ai N about, as the pu- 
pa skin is exceed- 
ingly thin. The 
genus is only 
found on the Pa- 
cific coast of this 
continent, anoth- 
er proof of the 
analogy of the in- 
sect fauna of the 
Western shores 
of this country 
to that of Europe, 
where this genus 
also abounds. 

In their form and habits, including both those of the larva, 
and of the partially active pupa, which wiggles violently and 
even leaps, as the larva does, as stated by Percheron, whom 
Mr. Westwood quotes (jouit de la meme faculté de contorsion et 
de sauts, que la larve exécute a un si haut degré), haye we not 
brought forcibly ‘before us the Thysanura? 


Fig. 505. 


HEMEROBIDA. 609 


Hemeropip Leach. The Aphis Lions and Lace-winged 
flies, which are included in this family, have long, slender, cy- 
lindrical bodies. The wings are large, with numerous veins, 
the posterior ones with no anal space; the ocelli are usually 
absent, and the tarsi are five-jointed. 

The larvee vary considerably in form, but are usually flat- 
tened or short, thick, ovate and fleshy, with large sickle-like 
mandibles; ‘‘the under side of these organs is deeply grooved, 
and the maxilla, which are nearly equal to 
them in size, and of a similar form, play in 
this groove.” (Westwood.) With these they 
pierce the bodies of their victims and suck 
out their juices. The sides of the abdominal 
segments are fringed and have lateral tuber- 
cles bearing a thin tuft of radiating hairs. 

The body of the pupa is more cylindrical, 
being curved, and with the limbs and wings 
folded to the breast. The larva spins a silken 
cocoon, and the pupa is inactive. 

In Alewronia the body is covered with a 
whitish powder; the eyes are reniform, and 
the antenn are moniliform. The wings are 
ciliated; the longitudinal veins are few in 
number, while the transverse ones are almost 
absent. Aleuronia Westwoodii of Fitch is a Wig: 596- 
very small insect, being black, covered with a whitish pow- 
der, with a pale abdomen and feet. The singular genus 
Coniopteryz, whose larva somewhat resembles a Smynthurus, 
one of the Thysanura, showing the close relationship of 
these aberrant forms, is characterized by Hagen as being 


_. powdered with whitish scales, having globose eyes and monili- 


form antenne. The wings are not ciliated, the longitudinal 
veins are few, and there are some transverse veins. ‘The pos- 
terior wings of the males are small. Coniopteryx vicina Hagen 
is black, covered with grayish powder, and the wings have 
eight longitudinal veins, all joined together by a single trans- 
yerse vein. It is about one-seventh of an inch in length. 
Yaliday (in Westwood’s Introduction) thinks that the larva of 
the European C. tineiformis preys on plant-lice. When about 


610 NEUROPTERA. 


to transform it spins an ‘‘orbicular pouch of fine white silk 
of close texture, generally on the trunk of a tree, in chinks of 
the bark, or among moss. ‘The pupa is quiescent.” 

The singular genus Nemoptera is at once recognized by the 
remarkably long, narrow, linear hind wings which reach far 
beyond the abdomen. The larva has a remarkably long, 
almost filiform thorax, and was de- 
scribed under the name of Necro- 
philus. The species are found in 
Western Asia and in Northern 
Africa. 

The genus Hemerobius has mo- 
niliform antenne, the wings having 
the subcostal and median veins 
joined together at the apex, and the 
costal space of the anterior wings 
is broader at the base, with a re- 
current forked vein; the transverse 
series of venules are gradate (like 
a pair of steps). We have found in 
Maine a larva (Fig. 599, tergal and 
side view) of this genus on the bark 
of a birch tree in October, where it 
was seen preying on Aphides, and 
had covered its abdomen with the 
empty skins of its victims, forming 
a thick mantle as seen in the figure. 
Hemerobius alternatus Fitch is white 
or yellowish, varied with fuscous, 
with tawny hairs. According to 

Fig. 597. Fitch it is found upon pine and 
hemlock bushes. JH. occidentalis Fitch has hyaline wings, not 
mottled as usual with smoky dots or clouds, but adorned with 
two faint parallel lines; it expands .388 of an inch. I have 
raised specimens, referred to this species by Dr. Hagen, 
which occurred in the pupa state (Fig. 600), in considerable 
numbers under a cloth wrapped around a pear tree in a 
garden in Salem. The cocoon is oval, cylindrical, dense, and 
surrounded by a much thinner mass of silk more globular 


HEMEROBID®. 611 


in form. The partially active pupz crawled out of the co- 
coons, and were,found scattered about in the paper containing 


them. 


The genus Polysteechotes is of much larger size than Heme- 
robius or Chrysopa, and Hagen suggests that the larva is 


aquatic. P. punctatus Fabr. is widely distributed, 
flying lazily at night-fall. The aberrant genus Man- 
tispa is a most interesting form, from the great length 
of the prothorax, which with other characters remind 
us strikingly of the Orthopterous genus Mantis. The 
fore legs are, like those of Mantis, adapted for seizing 
Mantispa brunnea Say is our most 
common species, occurring in the Middle and Western 
States and southwards to Central America. . 
Chrysopa (Fig. 601, eggs, larva, and adult of C. 


other insects. 


hin the larva state it preys on plant- | 
F lice. Its body is slender, with deli- Fis- 558. 


perla of Europe), the Lace-winged 
Fly, is abundant and of great use, as 


cate gauze-like wings, and is generally green, 
with golden eyes. When disturbed it often 
emits a foetid otlor. Their eggs, supported by 
long pedicels, are often laid in a group of 
Aphides or in plants infested by them. When 
hatched the voracious larva finds its food 
ready at hand, and destroys immense numbers 
of plant-lice, whence its name, Aphis-lion. It 


turns to a pupa late in summer, and thus passes the winter 


within a very dense, round, whitish cocoon situated 
‘in the crevices of bark, etc. 

In Europe gardeners search for these Aphis-lions 
and place them on fruit trees overrun with lice, 
which they soon depopulate. The Chrysopa ocu- 
lata of Say (Fig. 602, and eggs) is our most abun- 
dant form. It gives out a foul smell when handled. 
By this genus we are led to the Ant-lion, or Myrme- 
leon. It is a larger insect than any of the fore- 


going genera, and reminds us in many respects of the dragon- 
flies. The antenne are short and stout, clavate, while the body 


612 NEUROPTERA. 


is very long and slender, and the wings are long, narrow and 
densely veined. The larva (Fig. 603) bears a close resemblance 
to that of Chrysopa. It makes a pitfall in fine sand at the bot- 
tom of which it hides, leaving only the tips of its mandibles in 
sight, which are extended 
and ready to seize any 
insect which may fall 
into them. The pupa re- 
tains the large mandibles 
and uses them in cutting 
: its way out of its cocoon. 
Myrmeleon obsoletus Say (Fig. 604) is not rare in the warmer 
parts of the country, and has been found at Salem, Mass., by 
Dr. E. P. Colby. MM. abdominalis Say has also been found as 
far north as Milton, Mass., by 
Mr. J. Schofield. Mr. R. Tri- 
auEEE , nen, speaking of the Entomo- 
Pig, 6024) ihe) 4) tn logy of Natal, South Africa 
(Entomological Monthly Magazine), notes the habits 
of a ‘‘*huge Myrmeleon, of the genus Palpares, the 
spotted and variegated aspect of whose wings will 
cause you to mistake them for moths. . . . These 
great insects are very unlike Libel lulid@ in their 
flight, flapping wildly and irregularly about, as'if their Fs- °°: 
muscular apparatus were too weak to wield their stretch of 
wings. In repose the wings are folded above each other so as 
to form an acute-angled roof above the abdomen. They differ 
in this respect from the long-horned Ascalaphi, which deflect 
the wings on either side, 
and hold the abdomen 
erect or nearly so.” 
Ascalaphus with its 
long filiform knobbed 
antenne, and broad 
wings and gay colors is 
ep Ets the butterfly among Neu- 
roptera. It flies in the heat of the day, seeking the hottest 
places and is abundant in the deserts of the East. The body 
and feet are short and the large wings are less densely veined 


Fig. 601. 


PANORPID. 613 


than in Myrmeleon. The eggs when laid are hedged: around 
by little pales like a fence ‘‘and are so placed that nothing can 
approach the brood ; nor can the young ramble abroad till they 
have acquired strength to resist: the ants and other insect: ene- 
mies. The abdomen of the larva is depressed and oval, with 
ten pectinations on each side.” (Westwood.). It closely re- 
sembles that of Myrmeleon. .McLachlan states that the eggs 
of Ascalaphus macaronius were observed by Kollar deposited 
on a grass stem. Ascalaphus hyalinus. Latr. is found in the 
Southern States and Mexico. 


Panorriw# Leach.» This family is interesting as affording 
a passage from the winged: Neuroptera: to the degraded wing- 
less forms which are often excluded from the suborder by 
writers, and placed: apart. by themselves under the title of 
Thysanura. Hagen thus defines the group: ‘body eylindri- 
cal or conical ; head exserted ; antennze shorter than the wings ; 
mouth rostrated; lateral palpi biarticulated ; prothorax small ; 
wings either almost absent or narrow, equal, longer than the 
body, narrowed at base; the posterior wings with no anal 
space ; tarsi of five joints.” 

In Panorpa, the Scorpion Fly, so called from the long for- 
ceps-like tip of the male abdomen, there are.three ocelli and 
the wings are narrow. ‘The genital organs of the male are 
greatly lengthened out, and are forcipated, with the last seg- 
ment inflated; the two: tarsal hooks are serrated, and the an- 
tenne are bristle-like. : 

Lacaze-Duthiers selects the. ovipositor of Panorpa as being 
an intermediate type, as regards complexity, between Libellula 
and Adschna. ‘* When disturbed, the female of Panorpa. Ger- 
manica or communis, darts. out a long slender tube towards 
the disturbing object. Soon a little drop of a whitish liquid 
appears at its extremity; it is a means of defence. While at 
rest the conical. abdomen, terminating in a point, appears to 
be composed of a less number of segments.” At first sight 
there seems to be but two, though in reality there are three 
segments between the oviduct and the anal outlet, since the 
ninth ring is very small.and partly aborted, being concealed 
beneath the others. The eleventh.segment. consists of five: 


614 NEUROPTERA. 


pieces, a tergite, two sternal scales, and two appendages articu- 
lated to the tergal piece. 

M. Lacaze-Duthiers does not extend the comparison of the 
ovipositor of Panorpa to thoseof Podura and Smynthurus, but 
we can see how easy the transition is. Only let the long flexi- 
ble ovipositor of Panorpa be permanently extended, which in 
insects usually involves its being bent and appressed to the 
under side of the abdomen, and with a few other slight modifi- 
cations we have the leaping ovipositor of the Podura and its 
allies ! 

The larva is terrestrial, as Stein has found the pupa buried an 
inch deep in moist earth, at the foot of an alder stump. (West- 
wood.) Brauer states that the larva is long, cylindrical, with 
long filaments arising from tubercles 
3on the body. In its general appear- 
ance it resembles certain caterpillars, 
and also Phryganeid larve. P. ru- 
fescens Rambur (Fig. 605, enlarged) 
is the most common form in New 

Fig. 605. England. It is of a yellowish red 
color, with the antenne black, except the three or four basal 
joints which are reddish. It is about half an inch long and 
the wings expand an inch. : 

The Tipula-like genus Bittacus, though it has four wings, is, 
in its remarkably slender body and long legs, much like the 
Crane-flies. There are seven species in this country, one of 
which, B. pilicornis Westwood, has been found in Canada and 
New York. The winter insect, Boreus, is wingless in the fe- 
male sex, and in its habits and form as well as its minute size, 
reminds us strikingly of Podura and Lepisma, though the re- 
semblance has not to our knowledge been specially noticed by 
entomologists. In this genus the ocelli are absent, and the 
males have very imperfect style-like wings, while the females 
are entirely wingless. ‘‘The abdomen of the female is termi- 
nated by a three-jointed ovipositor, the under side of which is 
defended by a produced valve-like bilobed plate arising from 
the under side of the seventh segment. The male has the 
abdomen terminated by two short, recurved, attenuated, pilose 
styles.” (Westwood.) In this description we are reminded of 


PHRYGANEIDZ. 615 


the Spring-tails (Podura), which leap by means of the long ovi- 
positor, and corresponding male organs, bent beneath the body. 

Dr. Fitch has described two forms of these winter insects 
which, like Podura, occur in moss and are found leaping on the 
snow. Boreus nivoriundus is about one-seventh of an inch 
long, and is reddish, with a bronze tinge, while B. brumalis is 
entirely brassy-black, and is a still smaller species. 

We must not pass over the singular genus Merope, which is 
interesting in this connection. It has no ocelli, while the 
compound eyes are large, reniform and united on the top of 
the head. The antenne are short and thick, narrowed at the 
apex, while the wings are broad, with numerous transverse 
veins, and the male abdomen has large forceps. The Merope 
tuber of Newman is very rare. It is clay yellow (luteous), and 
expands nearly an inch. Hagen remarks that ‘the genus and 
species are very singular and abnormal; perhaps the most re- 
markable of all hitherto known Neuroptera. It certainly be- 
longs to the Panorpina.” 


PHRYGANEID# Latreille. Some of the members of this 
family bear a striking resemblance to the smaller moths, such 
as the Tineidw. As characterized briefly by Dr. Hagen, 
their bodies are compressed, cylindrical; the head is free, an- 
tenn long, thread-like, the mouth is imperfectly developed, 
and the labial palpi are triarticulate. ‘The prothorax is small ; 
the wings longer than the body, with few transverse veins, 
while the posterior wings have the anal space large, plicated 
(rarely absent), and the tarsi are five-jointed. In all these 
characteristics, together with the cylindrical form of the larva, 
the quiescent pupa which is very much like that of a moth with 
its wings and limbs free, instead of being soldered together, 
and in the habits of the larva, which in some genera resemble 
those of the Sialide, this family stands above the Neurop- 
tera to be hereafter mentioned, and in a serial arrangement, 
such as we are forced to make in our books, this seems to us 
to be their proper place, while in nature they appear to us to 
stand off by themselves parallel with the Sialide and 
Hemerobide, certain genera of which, in the imago state 
(such as Coniopteryx), they closely resemble, while they seem 


616 NEUROPTERA. 


to rank higher than the Panorpide@, which next to the 
Thysanura are in our view the lowest family among the Neu- 
roptera. 

The larvee are more or less cylindrical, with well developed 
thoracic feet, and a pair of feet on the end of the abdomen, 
varying in length. The head is small, and like that of a Tor- 
tricid larva, which the Caddis or Case-worm, as the larva is 
called, greatly resembles, not only in form, but in its habit of 
rolling up submerged leaves. They also construct cases of bits 
of sticks, sawdust, or grains of sand, which they drag. over the 
bottom of quiet pools, retreating within when disturbed. They 
live on vegetable matter, and on water-fleas (Entomostraca) 
and small aquatic larve. When about to pupate they close 
up the mouth of the case with a grating, or as in the case of 
Helicopsyche by a dense silken lid with a single slit, and in 
some instances spin a slight, thin, silken cocoon, within which 
the pupa state is passed. The pupa is much like that of the 
smaller moths, except that the wings and limbs are free from 
the body. Dr. Hagen informs me that after leaving its case 
it makes its way over the surface of the water to the shore, 
sometimes going a long distance. ‘‘Westwood states that 
‘‘the females deposit their eggs in a double gelatinous mass, 
which is of a green color, and is retained fora considerable 
time at the extremity of the body; the mass is subsequently 
attached to the surface of some aquatic plant, and Mr. Hyde- 
man has observed the female of Phryganea grandis creep down 
the stems of aquatic plants under the water, very nearly a foot 
deep, for the purpose of oviposition.” A. Meyer mentions 
several instances of the union of the sexes of different species 
of this family, with the production of fertile eggs. (Ginther’s 
Zoological Record for 1867.) 

Only one exception to the aquatic habits of this family is 
the Enoicyla pusilla Burmeister which, according to Me- 
Lachlan, in Europe ‘lives out of the water amongst moss at 
the roots of trees. The larva is destitute of the external 
respiratory filaments common to almost all eaddis-worms, but 
the spiracles are not very evident. E. pusilla is also remark- 
able, inasmuch as the female is wingless, and little resembling 
the male.” Von Siebold discovered that an Ichneumon (Agrio- 


PHRYGANEID A: 617 


typus armatus) attacks the fully grown larva of a Phryganea 
(Aspatherium), which inhabits a smooth cylindrical case, 
which the Ichneumon converts into a pupa case by spinning 
a long broad band of silk around the anterior opening. (Ger- 


staecker. ) 


In Neuronia and Phryganea the maxillary palpi differ in the 
two sexes, and there are two spurs on each of the fore legs, 


and four on the middle and hind legs. The maxil- 
lary palpi in the males are four-jointed, in the females 
five-jointed, and there are three ocelli. Neuronia 
differs from Phryganea in having its 

-antennee a little shorter than the wings, 
y whereas in the latter they are longer, 
* and the fore wings are hairy. Neu- 
ronia semifasciata Say is fulvous, with 

_ the fore wings transversely flecked with 
brownish-black, a small basal spot, and an abrupt, 
median streak at the hinder margin of the wing, while 
the disk has two yellowish spots, and there is a short 


Fig. 607. 


fuscous subapical: band on the hind wings. Fig. 606 Fig. 606. 
represents the case of the European Phryganea grandis Linn. 
In the group Limnophilides the maxillary palpi of the males 


Fig. 608. 


curring at Hudson’s Bay. Limnophilus rhom- 
bicus Linn. (Fig. 607, case made of bits of moss) 


are three, those of the fe- 
males five-jointed; _ocelli 
three ; anterior wings rather 
narrow, the apex obliquely 
truncated or rounded. In 
Limnophilus the tibial spurs of the three pairs 
of legs are arranged thus, 1, 3, 4 (¢.e., one 
spur on the front pair of tibizx ; 
three on the middle, and four 
on the hinder pair), and the , 
apex of the anterior wings is ff 
truncated. JL. perpusillus Y 
Walker is a boreal species, oc- 


Fig. 609. 


is an ochreous species, with luteous hairs. Fig. 608, a, case, 
represents a case-worm which we have found in great. abund- 


618 NEUROPTERA. 


ance in Labrador. Though we have not reared the imago we 
suppose it to be the Limnophilus subpunctulatus of Zetterstedt, 
the most abundant species we met in Labrador. The case 
is straight, cylindrical, and built of coarse gravel, and the 
larva is a thick, cylindrical, whitish worm. Fig. 609 repre- 
sents the case of L. flavicornis Fabr., a European species, 
which is often constructed of small shells. Fig. 

ge 610 illustrates the case of the European JL. pellu- 

cidus Olivier, which is formed of large pieces of 

Fig. 611. leaves laid flat over each other. 

In Sericostoma the ocelli are wanting, and the palpi are 
pilose, the maxillary palpi of the males are four-jointed, cover- 
ing the face like a mask. S. Americanum Walker is black 
with black hairs; the antennz’ are twice the length of the 
body, while the anterior wings are much longer than the hind 
ones. Fig. 611 represents the tube of a European species of 
this genus. 

In Helicopsyche the spurs are arranged thus: 2, 2, 4, and 
the maxillary palpi of the males mask the face, being recurved. 
We have found the larvee of Helicopsyche glabra Hagen (Fig. 


612, x, lunate patch on the basal abdominal ring; 4, front 
view of the head, enlarged; m, mandible; e, eye; 0, vertical 
view of the end of the abdomen, enlarged), about changing 
to pup, the middle of July, in Wenham Lake, Mass. One 
had spun its operculum and lay with its head just behind 


PHRYGANEIDA. 619 


it. The body of the larva is curved, though not spirally, and 
when out of the case it is cylindrical, thickest on the basal 
ring of the abdomen, and is pale greenish, while the head, 
thorax and legs are brownish; it is .25 of an inch in length. 
The head is hairy and is smaller than usual, a little narrower 
than the thorax, with black, acute unidentate mandibles. 
The thoracic rings are horny above, somewhat hairy, and 
the legs are slender and hairy. The abdomen 
ends rather abruptly, with two short tubercles 
ending in a hook, both sides being alike, the 
body throughout as symmetrical as other larve Fig. 613. 
of this family, though living in a helicoid case. On each side 
of the basal segment of the abdomen is a lunates corneous, 
hairy spot, by which the larva probably retains its hold in the 
case when the head and thorax are protruded. The case is 
usually very regularly helix-like in form, though the umbilicus 
varies in size. It is composed of fine grains of sand so 
arranged that the outer a 
surface is smooth. .It is 
closed during the pupa 
state by a dense, silken 
concave, suborbicular 
operculum, with concen- 
tric lines, rounded on the 
side, and but slightly con- 
vex on the other, with a 
slightly curved slit for the 
passage of water situated 
on the less convex side, 
each side of the slit be- 
ing provided with slender 
straight teeth which near- 
ly touch each other, thus 
forming an imperfect 
grate. The larva does 
not spin a cocoon. Fig. | Fig. 614. 
613 represents the case of H. arenifera Lea, from Indiana. 
Mr. J. A. McNiel has brought from Pulvon, west coast: of 
Nicaragua, similar larva, belonging to a species very closely 


620 NEUROPTERA. 


allied to that described above. They differ in being a little 
larger and more hairy. The case is similar, though with a 
rough exterior. The pupa (Fig. 614, a, antennz, curved back 
behind the eyes ; 7, labrum ; m, mandibles ; mp, maxillary palpi; 
w, wings) of this Nicaraguan larva is curved in a slightly 
spiral manner, the antennz are curved over and behind the 
eyes, reaching to the seventh abdominal ring; the maxillary 
palpi are laid backwards on the side of the thorax, and the 
labial palpi lie between them, though diverging from each 
other. The wings are pressed to the body under the legs, 
the latter being fringed with long hairs. On the end of the 
abdomen are two slender tubercles ending in fine hairs, and 
alike on both sides, the pupa, like the larva, being symmetri- 
cal throughout. The larvee seem to live in clear water on a 
sandy bottom, often attached to submerged sticks, © 
} unio shells, ete. 

In Leptocerus the antennze of the males are ex- 
tremely long; tibial spurs thus: 2, 2, 2. ZL. niger 
Linn. is black, shining, with black hair; the antennze 
are black, the basal half annulated with snow-white, 
while the basal joint is reddish ; the feet are luteous, 
the intermediate ones being snow-white, while the 
Fig. 65. anterior wings are steel-blue black, and the hind 

wings blackish. It is found in Europe and the United States. 
Fig. 615 represents, Dr. Hagen informs me, a case of either 
this species or L. sepulchralis Walker, or else a similar species. 
The larva builds a thin, long, conical, sandy tube supported 
between two needles of the pine. The specimens figured were 
found by Rey. E. C. Bolles at Westbrook, Maine. é 
In Setodes the species are snow-white; the spurs are ar- 
ranged thus: 0, 2, 2. S. candida Hagen is pale yellow, with 
the anterior wings snowy white. It occurs in the Southern 
States. McLachlan states that ‘*some species 
of Setodes make delicate little tubes, entirely: 


ania formed of a silky secretion, without any mix- 
Fig. 616. ture of extraneous matters.” Fig. 616 repre- 


sents a tube of a European species of Setodes formed of sand. 
In Hydropsyche and allies the ocelli are three in number, or 
entirely wanting, while the last division of the maxillary palpi 


PHRYGANEID. 621 


is very long, filiform and multiarticulate. In Hydropsyche the 
spurs are arranged thus: 2, 4, 4. The antennz are rather 
long and slender, the ocelli are: absent, and the intermediate 
feet of the female are dilated. HH. scalaris Hagen is black 
gray, with white hairs, and the antennze are yellowish, and 
obliquely striated with black at the base; the first joint is 
covered with snow-white hairs. Philopotamus has three ocelli, 
and the tibial spurs are arranged thus: 2, 4, 4. 

In Rhyacophila the maxillary palpi have the last joint entire, 
straight, shorter than the rest; while there are three ocelli, and 
the tibial spurs are arranged thus: 3,4,4.. Jt. fuscula Walker 
is rust-red, with some black hairs and a subfuscous spot on 
each side of the thorax. It comes from Hudson’s Bay. 


Another curious Neuropterous insect found in the iron-stone 
concretions of Morris, Ill., is the Megathentomum pustulatum 
of Scudder (Fig. 617, natural size), described and figured by 
him in the ‘ Palzon- 
tology of the Illinois 
State Geological Sur- 
vey.’ ‘*The fragment 
represents a wing (ap- 
parently an: upper one) 
of a Neuropterous in- 
sect. It is gigantic in 
size, very broad, with 
distant nervures, sim- 
ple infrequent divarica- 
tions, and in the outer 
half of the wing, which 
alone is presented, a 
cross neuration, composed solely of most delicate and irregu- 
lar veinlets. ‘The wing is also furnished with a great number 
of larger and smaller discolored spots, the surfaces of the 
larger ones irregularly elevated.” Mr. Scudder thinks the 
wing is allied to that of Coniopteryx, adding ‘‘it appears to 
belong to a family hitherto undescribed. I do not know of a 
single insect, living or fossil, which approaches it in the struc- 
ture of the wings.” 


622 NEUROPTERA. 


The two succeeding families were by Latreille placed in a 
group by themselves (Thysanura), which was considered 
equivalent to the Neuroptera, or Diptera, for example. More 
recently they have been placed among the Neuroptera, though 
Burmeister considered them as Orthopterous, by the close re- 
semblance of the mouth-parts of Lepisma, especially the la- 
bium, to those of the Blattari@. But in descending through 
the last three families thysanurous characters have constdntly 
revealed themselves, as we have shown above, and the tran- 
sition from some Sialidan, Hemerobid and Panorpid forms is 
not so abrupt as it might seem. Indeed these low, apterous 
insects stand in the same relation to the rest of the Neurop- 
tera as the Flea does to the rest of the Diptera, or the Lice 
and Thrips to the higher Hemiptera. In all these degraded 
forms the metamorphosis is but slightly marked. The pupa 
is active and closely resembles the larva, where in the higher 
insects, such as the butterfly or bee, the pupa bears a close 
_resemblance to the adult, winged form. 

These interesting, minute, wingless forms, also afford a pas- 
sage from the true winged insects to the Myriapods, by the uni- 
form size of the rings of the body, which form a continuous 
series from the head to the opposite extremity, as in the genus 
Lepisma and allies, without showing the usual well marked 
division into head, thorax and abdomen. Even the place of 
abdominal legs is supplied in Lepisma by the rows of small 
stylets which prop up the long slender abdomen. 


LepismMatip& Burmeister. Bristle-tails. These agile crea- 
tures, which are revealed by turning over stones and sticks in 
damp situations, and are often seen about houses, have a long 
flattened body, with metallic scales, in form somewhat like 
those of butterflies. The antenne are very long, setiform, 
many-jointed ; the mouth-parts are free, with long palpi; the 
maxillary palpi being seven-jointed and the labial palpi four- 
jointed. The mandibles are stout, sunken in the head, and 
armed with teeth for gnawing. The prothorax is very large, 
and all the rings of the body are of much the same size, so 
that the insect bears a general resemblance to the Myriapods. 
The anal stylets are long and large, which with the smaller 


CAMPODE. 623 


ones inserted on the subterminal rings of the abdomen aid 
greatly in locomotion, though these insects run with great ra- 
pidity and do not leap like the Podwride@, and thus remind 
us, as well as in their general appearance, of cer- 
tain wingless cockroaches. 

In Lepisma (Fig. 618) the eyes are minute, con- 
sisting of twelve simple eyes, with short bristles 
on the tip of the abdomen, of which three arc 
longest, while Machilis differs in having compound 
eyes, and longer abdominal bristles. Lepisma 
saccharina Linn., or an allied species, is often very 
common in houses, where it eats holes in silks and 
silken tapestry, devours the paste and eats holes 
in the leaves of books. Mr. W. C. Fish has sent 
_me several pieces of willow from a wicker basket 8: ©! 
which he said had been bored longitudinally by these insects, 
the holes being perfectly round and less in diameter than the 
body of the insect; hundreds of these animals were scalded 
out of the basket. 


CampopE® Meinert. Under this name Dr. Meinert has 
established a family consisting of two but little known genera, 
which have flat and elongated bodies and no springing appara- 
tus, nor eyes, and though the author excludes the Lepismee from 
the Thysanura, we would suggest that the Campodez seem 
intermediate between the running Lepisme and the springing 
Podure. ‘The antennz are setaceous or filiform, and the feet 
are adapted for running, with distinct, elongated, two-clawed 
tarsi. There are two anal cerci arising from the tenth and last 
abdominal segment. There are six thoracic spiracles, the 
Poduree having none (Meinert). The genus Japya of Haliday 
has short, inarticulate, horny anal cerci. J. solifugus Haliday 
lays few eggs, but those very large. It lives under stones and 
when disturbed resembles ‘‘a Lithobius in the character of its 
movements,” and bears a remarkable resemblance to a young 
Forficula. The other genus, Campodea Westwood, has long, 
many-jointed, filiform anal cerci, and the body, especially the 
upper side, is covered with sete. C. fragilis Meinert of Ea- 
rope lives in moist earth and under stones. . 


624 NEUROPTERA. 


Popurip& Burmeister. The Spring-tails are the typical 
Thysanura, as they differ more than Lepisma and allies from 
all other insects. The anal bristles, which are free in Lepisma, 
are here united and bent beneath the body, forming the 
“spring” by which they leap to a prodigious height for such 
minute insects. The body is cylindrical, not flattened, and is 
covered either with hairs or scales. The four or six-jointed 
antennz are short and thick, and the eyes are simple, usually 
four to eight on each side. The mouth-parts are not well de- 
veloped, though mostly present, the mandibles being small, 
with minute teeth, and the maxillary palpi entirely wanting 
(Gerstaecker), though Lubbock states that the ‘‘second pair 
of maxille [labium] are membranous and delicate.” The pro- 
thorax is small, convex, while the two hinder thoracic rings 
are large and similar to each other. The legs are stout, with 
tarsi consisting of but a single joint. The abdomen consists 
of six, sometimes only three segments, with a long anal stylet 
forming the forked tail, or ‘‘spring,” beneath. (Gerstaecker.) 
They are found in gardens, or hot-beds, on manure heaps in 
winter, and on the snow; they may also be seen leaping on the 
surface of the water in quiet pools. ‘‘ According to Nicolet 
these insects are very prolific, as he found 13860 eggs in a sin- 
ele individual. The embryo is developed in twelve days. 
They moult often, and at periods of fourteen days each. 

The intestinal canal consists in great part of a long and 
voluminous chyle-making stomach, into the lower end of which 
six free Malpighian tubes pour their contents. (Nicolet.) In 
Papirius Saundersii, as in many other apterous Articulata, the 
testis is formed on the same type as the ovary. On each side 
of the body is a simple tube opening into a triangular reser- 
voir with its base in front. The nervous system of Smynthurus 
consists, according to Nicolet, of four ganglia, with a double 
connecting cord. Two of these ganglia occupy the head and 
form the cesophageal collar. The two others consist of a tho- 
racic and one abdominal ganglion. There are in Podura four 
pairs of stigmata in the four basal rings of the abdomen. Next 
to the two main trachez are six pairs of rather long vesicles 
united with them by loops. (Gerstaecker.) 

Lubbock states that in Smynthurus there are but two spira- 


PODURIDZ. 625 


cles, adding that ‘‘it is very unusual for an articulate animal 
‘to have only two spiracles, and their position is still more ex- 
traordinary, for they open on the under side of the head, 
immediately below the antenne, ... on the 
inner side of the basis of the mandibles.” 
‘“‘In the manner of subdivisions the traches 
of Smynthurus differ from those of the true in- 
sects, and agree more closely with the Myria- 
poda and tracheal Arachnida, in the fact that 
they do not often give off branches nor form 
tufts, but generally divide dichotomously, and 
run considerable distances without a separa- 
tion.” (Mr. Lubbock, whom we have just 
quoted, states that Papirius has no trachee.) 
In Smynthurus the ovaries consist, according 
to Lubbock, of a single egg-tube. (He also 


states that he has been unable to detect the Fig. 619. 
oS 2=== presence of any such tubes in the 
~ eee p yi 


St species of Smynthurus he examined. 
Linnean Transactions, p. 441.) 

In the genus Podura the body is 
long, with four-jointed antenne, and 
the flexible spring-tail is short, while 
in Desoria, whieh is found in the 
Alps, the tail is long. The genus 
Degeeria is known by the ovate body, 
and basal half of the spring equal- 
ling the fork in 

s length. A species f 
Fig. 620. (Fig. 619) closely 
resembling the European D. nivalis Nicolet, 
we have found in summer resting on the 
leaves of the Clematis. The Lepidocyrtus al- 
binos Nic. (Fig. 620) is a minute pearly white 
species found in Europe; its scales (Fig. 
621) are thin and with distinct markings. 

Smynthurus is short, differing greatly in ASS GPs 
form from Podura, and bears a striking resemblance to the 
larva of Coniopteryx. The body is short, nearly spherical, and 
40 


626 ARACHNIDA. 


in its form approaches the spiders, as noticed by Latreille. 
The four-jointed antennee are long and elbowed, while there 
are eight simple eyes on each side of the head. The species 
are found on the leaves of garden plants, and when disturbed 
leap like fleas, which they much resemble. In Papirius of 
Lubbock, the antenne are said to be ‘‘four-jointed, but with- 
out a well marked elbow, and with a short terminal segment, 
offering the appearance of being many-jointed.” 


ORDERII. ARACHNIDA. 


Tue typical forms of this order have the body divided into 
two regions, the head-thorax (cephalothorax) and abdomen. 
The head is sometimes quite distinct, but is generally sunken 
into the thorax, which bears four pairs of legs, while the abdo- 
men has no organs of locomotion, though the abdomen is pro- 
vided with three pairs of jointed appendages (the spinnerets), 
which are, however, homologous with the legs. The metamor- 
phosis is very incomplete in the lower forms, while in the 
spiders there is none at all after the animal leaves the egg. 
The head is without antenne, or compound eyes. The order 
shows its close relationship with the Dipterous insects, especi- 
ally when compared with the wingless Chionea and Nycteribia, 
and its lowest forms (certain mites) bear a close resemblance 
to some of the lower Crustacea, as the young stages and em- 
bryonic development are remarkably similar. The typical 
forms of the order homologize too closely with the apterous 
insects to allow them to be separated as a distinct class. We 
shall see below that the rank here assigned to the group ac- 
cords well with their anatomical characters and habits. 

In some genera there is a decided line of demarcation 
between the head and the thorax, which is, however, very 
distinct during embryonic life, and we do not perceive that 
gradual transition from mouth-parts to swimming legs which 
obtains in the Crustacea. The order, however, has much 
lower, more degraded forms than the Myriapods even, as 
the genus Demodex testifies, which may recall readily certain 
intestinal worms. This we would consider as but an example 


ARACHNIDA. 627 


of what often occurs among all degraded forms, of a recur- 
rence to the archetypal form of the articulate type, and not for 
this reason, as some authors have done, would we place the 
Arachnids of Latreille in a class by themselves, below the 
Myriapods; nor on recurring to the spiders alone, with their 
high organization and wonderful instincts, would we follow 
Professor Owen and others in placing them even above the 
true insects. 

We must look upon the Spider as a hexapodous insect, de- 
graded, wingless, and partially decephalized. A part of the 
elements, constituting the head in insects, have been, as it 
were, withheld from the head and detained in the thorax, which 
has thus an increase in one pair of limbs. On the other hand, 
the sensorial, or pre-oral, region of the head, is wanting in two 
most important members, 7. e., the compound eyes and the an- 
tenne. Both Zaddach and Claparéde state that there are no 
organs in the spiders homologous with the antennze of insects. 
The simple fact that the homology of the organs generally is 
so close between the two groups shows that they must fall into 
the same class. ‘The same can be said of the Myriapods. 

The circulatory system is very perfect in the spiders and 
scorpions, but in most of the lower mites there is no dorsal 
vessel, or vascular system at all, the fluids being supposed to 
circulate in the general cavity of the body, ‘‘and by the aid 
of the muscular movements and the contractions of the intesti- 
nal canal, transferred in an irregular manner hither and thither 
in the visceral cavity and in the extremities.” (Siebold.) In 
the Phalangide there is a distinct, three-chambered dorsal 
vessel, or heart. In the spiders and scorpions, however, the 
vascular system is highly organized, as shown by Newport (in 
the Scorpions), and Claparéde (in Lycosa). Here then, is, as 
in Sphinx, a dorsal and ventral vessel with lateral veins, or ve- 
nous sinuses, performing the functions of true veins. The main 
dorsal vessel is mostly situate in the abdomen, as the lungs 
have their seat in that region, where the most important respi- 
ratory function, that of supplying the blood with fresh oxygen, 
is performed. Claparéde has shown that in Lycosa the blood 
flows through the dorsal vessel from the head, instead of towards 
the head, as in the six-footed insects. 


628 ARACHNIDA. 


The nervous system consists of a small brain, a group of 
thoracic ganglia and a few abdominal ganglia, which, however. 
are aborted in the spiders. The cerebral ganglia, or brain, lie 
just above the cesophagus, and send down two cords embrac- 
ing the throat, and also distribute nerves to the ocelli and 
mouth-parts. 

In the mites (Acarina), where the body is oval, and not 
divided into the two distinct regions, there is no brain, and 
but a single ganglion lodged in the abdomen, from which are 
distributed the nerves supplying the head and the peripheral 
parts. In the spiders the brain is of considerable size, and the 
_ thoracic ganglia or ‘*subcesophageal ganglia,” are large, send- 
ing off on each side four large 
@ processes from which proceed 
the nerves supplying the feet. 

In the scorpion (Pedipalpi) 
the nervous system is still more 
highly organized. The brain is 
not large; it is composed of 
the two spherical supercesopha- 
geal ganglia fused together, 
sending off the usual nerves to 
the mouth-parts. This brain- 
like organ is connected by two 
filaments with the ventral gan- 
glionic mass, formed by the 
| < fp. probable union of several gan- 

LL. q glia, and situated in the middle 

Fig. 622. of the false cephalothorax. ‘The 

continuation of the nervous cord consists of seven abdominal 
ganglia, with the commissures united into a single cord. 

The maxillary palpi, functionally, take the place of antenne, 
showing how one organ may perform the office of another in a 
different group of animals. It is also evident that the spider 
combines in the same organ the senses of taste, smell and feel- 
ing, which are supposed in insects to reside in the two pairs of 
palpi and the antennee. 

The alimentary canal is formed, according to Siebold, on two 
types. In the mites and spiders, the stomach is produced lat- 


\ 


TH \ 


ARACHNIDA. 629 


erally into large coecal appendages (Fig. 622, alimentary canal 
of Tegenaria civilis; a, stomach, with cwca; c, liver; d, renal 
organ; e, fat body), and then passes into a short, small intes- 
tine, going straight to the end of the body. In the Pedipalpes 
(Phrynidz and Scorpions) the intestinal canal is more simple, 
not having any ceecal dilatations to the very small stomach. 

The salivary glands are often of large size, especially in 
Ixodes, and are thus adapted to their flesh-eating habits, much 
saliva being needed to moisten their food. In the spiders and 
scorpions the liver is well developed and distinct from the in- 
testinal tube, being in the spider a brown or dirty yellow mass 
filling a large part of the abdominal cavity and enveloping 
most of the other viscera. 

As during the growth of the young spider the head is thrown 
back on top of the thorax to which it is thus most closely uni- 
ted, it follows that the simple eyes, from two to twelve in 
number, are situated on the upper surface of the cephalo- 
thorax, while no other sensory organs, 7.e., the compound eyes 
and antennz, are ever developed. Thus in the adult spider 
the mandibles seem to be pushed far in front of the ocelli, and 
to occupy what is originally the proper or normal site of the 
ocelli, and in insects of the antennee, which no doubt has led 
most authors to homologize them with the antennze of hexa- 
podous insects. Claparéde says ‘all the appendages are post- 
oral, hence there are no organs homologous with the antenn.” 
Thus the mouth-opening is brought far forward ; it is flanked on 
each side by a mandible (Plate 11, fig. 3, c, a, movable claw, or 
fang), a large, powerful limb, which does not move horizontally 
- but vertically ; behind are the large, well developed maxillze 
(Plate 11, fig. 2, 6; 7, maxillary palpus; 8, male palpus), with 
their long, leg-like palpus. Thus the function of the insectean 
antenne must, in the spiders, reside in the maxillary palpi. 
Claparéde’s researches on the embryology of the spiders and 
mites have demonstrated that the front pair of legs of Arach- 
nids are homologous with the labial palpi of insects, which, 
as we have previously stated (p. 59), in the latter, are late in 
embryonic life thrown forwards, and associated with the max- 
ille and other mouth-parts, while in the Arachnids they retain 
their embryonic position and are grouped with the legs (see 


630 ARACHNIDA. 


fig. 59, 4) and are usually of the same form. Thus one cepha- 
lic segment of insects is permanently retained in the thorax 
among the Arachnids, whereas we have seen in the embryo of 
the dragon-fly (Figs. 59, 61, 4) it assumes an intermediate 
position between the head and thorax, the remaining anterior 
part of the head being clearly separated by a deep suture. In 
Fig. 59, we see the labial palpi (4) grouped with the three pairs 
of legs; a position permanent in the Arachnida. The dragon- 
fly, at the period represented by Fig. 59, p. 57, may be legiti- 
mately compared with the scorpion, especially Cyclopthalmus, 
from the coal measures. 

While, as Blackwall states, nothing is known with certainty ~ 
concerning the organs of smell and hearing in spiders, Mr. 
t. Beck ‘‘ suggests that spiders are capable of distinguishing 
sounds to some extent by means of very delicate waving hairs 
which are found on the upper surfaces of their legs. During 
life they move at their peculiarly cup-shaped bases, with the 
least motion of the atmosphere, but are immovable after 
death. It is well known that sound is due to vibrations which 
are generally conveyed by undulations of the air; now I am 
perfectly satistied that if these undulations are of a certain 
character the hairs I am alluding to, upon the spider’s leg, will 
move, and I wish you particularly to notice that they are of 
different lengths, so that some might move whilst others would 
not, and also that the longest is at the extremity of the leg, 
and therefore can receive an undulation which might die away 
higher up. I may just mention that there is a group of these 
peculiar hairs on the flea. ‘The legs of a spider are most sen- 
sitive organs of feeling, if they do not also embrace those of 
hearing.” (Entomologist, London, 1866, iii, p. 246.) 

The four thoracic feet have seven joints, and it is probable 
that the two basal joints homologize with the coxa and tro- 
chantine of insects, in which the two joints are retracted, side 
by side, and closely fused together. The tergal part of the 
thoracic segments is large, overlapping the pleural, while the 
sternum is a rather large, broad breast-plate. The abdomen 
is generally somewhat spherical, and in but few instances is it 
drawn out and the rings well developed, as in the scorpion. 
In the mites it is fused closely with the cephalothorax. 


ARACHNIDA. 631 


In the genus Hersilla we see clearly that the three pairs of 
spinnerets are but modified legs. ‘The second and inner pair 
are generally the smallest, while the third and largest pair are 
the most posterior. ‘Their office is to reel out the silk from the 
silk-glands. The tip of the articulated spinnerets ends in a 
cone, perforated by myriads of little tubes (over 1,000 in 
Epeira, about 300 in Lycosa, and a less number in the smaller 
species) through which the silk escapes in ‘excessively delicate 
threads, which unite to form the common thread visible to the 
naked eye. (Plate 11, fig..4, spinnerets of Epeira vulgaris en- 
larged twenty-five diameters ; fig. 5, a spinning tube.) 

The Acarina are supposed to have glands analogous to the 
silk glands, whose product, like sill, hardens on exposure to 
the air, and by which certain parasitic genera, such as Uro- 
poda, fix themselves solidly to their host. Siebold states also, 
that ‘‘many species of Hydrachna fix, by a kind of glue, the 
anterior portion of their body on aquatic plants, and in this 
position await the completion of their moulting. The organs 
secreting this substance have not yet been discovered. It is 
well known that the European Tetranychus telarius spins 
large webs on the leaves of trees and on house-plants. 

The reproductive system is much as described in insects, ex- 
cept that the external appendages are rarely developed in 
either sex. The genital armor is situated at the base of the 
abdomen ; it is concealed when present under the skin. 

In the Acarina the two ovaries open on the middle of the 
abdomen, or on the under side of the thorax, either between 
or behind the last pair of legs. In Hydrachna the oviduct 
opens into an ovipositor by which the insect is enabled to lay 
its eggs under the skin of the fresh-water mussel on which it is 
parasitic, and other mites oviposit in a similar way under the 
epidermis of plants. 

In most spiders the two ovaries have their outlet in an ori- 
fice situated between the two lung-sacs. They have a distinct 
receptaculum seminis, especially marked in Epeira. ‘The 
Scorpionide have three ovaries, consisting of as many lon- 
gitudinal ones, united by four pairs of transverse ones.” The 
outer two of the former are oviducts, leading out at the base 
of the abdomen. 


632 ARACHNIDA. 


The testes of Ixodes consist of four or five pairs of unequal 
follicles, opening out near the base of the abdomen.” The 
males are distinguished from the females by their larger ‘‘ cheli- 
ceres” (maxillary palpi) and larger pair of clasping legs. In 
the spiders the testes are ‘‘two long, simple, interlaced ceca, 
concealed beneath the hepatic lobes,” which lead by two def- 
erent canals to the base of the abdomen, through a simple 
fissure, which, however, is not applied to the vulva. The com- 
plicated hollow spoon-shaped palpi are supposed to be the in- 
tromittent organs. ‘*‘ They are filled with sperm and applied to 
the entrance of the vulva. For this purpose the last joint of 
the palpi, which is always hollow and much enlarged, contains 
a soft spiral body, terminated by a curved, gutter-like, horny 
process. Beside this there is an arched, horny filament, and 
several hooks and other appendages of the most varied forms. 
These appendages are protractile and serve, some to seize the 
female, and others as conductors of the sperm.” (Siebold.) 
While the majority of the Arachnida are developed as usual 
after the laying of the eggs, a few, such as the scorpions and 
Oribatide and other mites, are known to be viviparous, 
and it is probable that an alternation of generations occurs in 
some of the lower mites. The Tardigrades are hermaphro- 
dites. 

The Arachnida breathe both by trachez and lung-like organs. 
The mites, the false scorpions, the harvest-men and Solpu- 
gide are provided with trachee, communicating externally 
by means of spiracles, generally two in number, and concealed 
between the anterior feet. In Hydrachna, which lives con- 
stantly beneath the water, the trachez ‘‘ possess probably, the 
power to extract from the water, the air necessary for respira- 
tion.” (Siebold.) In the false scorpions a pair of lateral stig- 
mata are situated on each of the two basal rings of the 
abdomen. From these spring ‘‘four short, but large trachean 
trunks from which arise numerous unbranched trachez spread- 
ing through the entire body.” In the Solpugide there are 
three pairs of stigmata and the trachez ramify and are distrib- 
buted much as in insects, and in the Phalangide the tra- 
cheary system is well developed, arising from two stigmata 
opening between the insertion of the posterior legs. 


ARACHNIDA. 633 


In most of the spiders (such as Segestria, Dysdera and Ar- 
gyroneta) there are both a tracheary system and lungs. The 
two stigmata, from which these tracheze lead, open near the 
pulmonary opening.. In two other genera, Salticus and Micro- 
phantes, there are two stigmata situated at the posterior end of 
the abdomen. Siebold calls attention to a tracheary system 
in many Aranez opening by a transverse fissure ‘placed near 
the spinnerets. From this opening a main trunk leads in, 
soon dividing into four simple trachez, which are not round as 
usual, ‘“‘but are flattened, riband-like, and without the trace 
of a spiral filament; these extend, with a gradual attenuation, 
to the base of the abdomen. . . . The air received into these 
organs is separated into as fine portions as that of the lungs.* 

The so called lungs of the spiders are little round sac8 open- 
ing by transverse fissures on the under side of the base of the 
abdomen. The inner surface is divided into thin lamella, 
connected together like the leaves of a book. Each of these 
is formed by a membranous fold, between the two leaves of 
which the air enters from the general cavity of the lung, and 
is divided into very minute portions. No traces of blood ves- 
sels have been found in these pulmonary lamelle.” (Siebold.) 

Among the organs of special secretion the poison and silk 
glands require description. There are two poison glands 
emptying into the throat, and thence opening out through hol- 
lows in the jaws. (Plate 11, fig. 3, a, 6.) In the scorpion the 
poison gland is lodged in the last abdominal segment at the 
base of the sting. 

The silk, as contained in the olands, is a viscid transparent 
fluid, which on exposure to the air hardens into silk ; it is drawn 
out by the legs through three, rarely two pairs of spinnerets. 
There are usually five of these glands lodged in the abdomen, 
and the “threads probably have different qualities, according 
to the glands from which they are secreted.” (Siebold.) 

“To form the thread this liquid is drawn through the tubes, 


* According to Dr. Burnett, Blanchard regards these anomalous trachez as 
only elongated pulmonary sacs. Leuckart, however, considers that these organs 
are only a sort of trachez deprived of the usual spiral filament to keep their walls 
from collapsing, and he considers that the pulmonary sacs of the spider are sim- 
ply modified trachez.— Dr. W. I. Burneti’s Translation of Siebolds’s Anatomy of 
the Invertebrata. 


634 ARACHNIDA. 


which divide it into such small fibres that it dries almost im- 
mediately on coming in contact with the air. The spider has 
the power of uniting these fibres into one or several threads, 
according to the purpose for which they are to be used. The 
thread commonly used for the web is composed of hundreds 
of simple fibres, each spun through a separate tube. As the 
thread runs from the body it is guided by the hind feet, which 
hold it off from contact, with surrounding objects, until the 
desired point is reached, when a touch of the spinners fastens 
it securely.” (Emerton, American Naturalist, ii, p. 478.) 

The eggs are laid but once a year in June. The evolution 
of the embryo begins immediately, and goes on with a rapidity 
according with the temperature. The egg consists, as Herold 
observed, simply of a vitelline membrane, but no chorion; it 
is perfectly homogeneous, and has no micropyle. The contents 
are an emulsion of fatty globules suspended in a scanty 
amount of liquid, which should not be confounded with the al- 
bumen (or white) of the eggs of vertebrates. No trace of the 
‘Coerminative vesicle” has as yet been traced in the eggs of 
insects, though perhaps it has been overlooked from its trans- 
parency.- 

The first stages in the egg after they are laid, are the follow- 
ing: at the surface of the vitellus appear, here and there, 
small, very clear and perfectly circular spots; they are the 
nucleus of the future blastoderm (primitive skin, from which 
the organs of the embryo successively originate or ‘‘ bud” 
out). These nuclei act as centres of attraction on the mole- 
cules of the vitellus for the formation of the cellules. The 
unmodified vitellus diminishes in the same proportion as the 
peripherie layer of granules increases. The granules multiply 
rapidly, and soon the surface of the egg appears to be divided 
into a certain number of areas, each of which is occupied in 
the centre by a circular and transparent space surrounded with 
small opake granules, which become less and less dense as we 
go to the outer surface. ‘These hexagonal cellules form an uni- 
form layer over the entire surface of the egg; it is the blasto- 
derm. Up to this time the changes precisely accord with those 
observed in the hexapodous insects. 

The next stage is the formation of ventral tubercles, the ru- 


ARACHNIDA. 635 


diments of the limbs of the embryo. The first change is the 
formation of the “primitive streak,’ or the splitting of the 
blastoderm, which is due to a local multiplication of the cel- 
lules along the median line of the egg. 

These tubercles result from a simple thickening of the blas- 
toderm, and what is ultimately destined to be the back (tergum). 
of the animal, arises from a similar thickening of the blasto- 
derm, which he calls the ‘‘ primitive cumulus.” This mass, 
easily distinguished by its whiteness, always floats on the top 
of the yolk of the egg, keeping its position next ‘the eye of 
the observer. The “cumulus,” at first almost hemispherical, 
elongates over the surface of the blastoderm, becoming pyri- 
form. ‘This region is the posterior, or anal, pole of the egg. 


Fig. 624. Fig. 623. Fig. 625. 


We see the ‘‘cumulus” spreading from the anal pole over the 
surface like a veil, but it is less white than the polar region. 
This veil continues to spread over the entire surface to a pole 
opposing the anal, which Claparéde terms the cephalic pole. 
Each pole forms a very prominent projection. At this stage 
the body of the embryo becomes well marked and subdivided, 
worm-like, into rings. (Fig. 623.) The extent of the dorsal 
region is greatly limited, while that’ of the ventral side is 
greatly increased. 

‘The entire ventral region, occupying most of the whole egg, 
is homologous with the primitive ventral streak. It is at this 
time that the formation of the protozoonites (elemental rings, 


636 ARACHNIDA. 


or primordial segments) takes place. Six of these zones or 
segments arise between the cephalic and anal poles; these 
zones represent the ventral arcs. The two anterior rings bear 
the mouth-parts, the mandibles and maxillz ; while the others 
form rings corresponding to the four pair of feet. These pro- 
tozoonites are very transitory, only existing for a short period ; 
they gradually retreat towards the ventral side, enlarge and 
nearly touch each other. : 

The embryo (Fig. 624) now grows much longer, and new em- 
bryonal segments are formed in the abdomen just as they grow 
out in the worms, and Myriapods, and also in the Crustacea, ac- 
cording to Rathke’s researches. Thus while the cephalothora- 
cic rings appear simultaneously the abdominal segments appear 
one after the other. The first one appears between the last tho- 
racic ring and the anal ‘‘ hood,” or pole. Meanwhile the lateral 
extremities of the protozoonites have become enlarged ; these 
enlargements form the appendages. These tubercles, or rudi- 
mentary limbs, appear on the abdominal as well as on the tho- 
racic rings (Fig. 625). This fact is one of great interest, as 
showing a resemblance to the Crustacean with its abdominal 
legs, and more especially to the abdominal footed Myriapods, 
and the larve of many true six-footed insects. Thus the 
young spider is at first like a caterpillar, having ‘‘ false,” de- 
ciduous, abdominal legs. Five abdominal rings are present in 
Pholcus. 

Next follows the development of the ‘post-abdomen,” or 
tail, which being differentiated from the anal pole or ‘‘ hood,” 
becomes detached from the yolk mass, and is folded back upon 
the embryo, just as the abdomen of a crab is folded in an op- 
posite way to the ventral side of the body.* 

This ‘‘post-abdomen,” after dividing into three segments, 
disappears completely during the growth of the embryo. This 
is the more interesting, as the ‘“‘post-abdomen” of the scor- 
pion is retained permanently. Meanwhile the two cephalic 


* And in like manner the cephalic lobes, containing the ocelli, are seen in the 
author’s figures folded back upon the base of the head, so that the antenns are 
never developed, and the mandibles of the spider take their place, in advance of 
the eyes. The structure and succession of the rings of the insectean head are 
most readily explained, and some clue is given to their number and succession 
by comparison with the embryo of spiders. 


ARACHNIDA. 637 


lobes have developed, and the blastoderm has divided into a 
dermal, or outer layer, and a muscular, or inner layer of 
cells. The outer layer forms the chitinous body-wall, or crust, 
while from the inner layer are developed the digestive, vascu- 
lar and other organs besides the muscles. 

After the rudiments of the appendages are formed the epi- 
mera appear. At this period we are struck with the perfect 
identity between all the appendages of the body at their first 
origin. In the Arachnida the formation of the primitive seg- 
ments takes place much sooner than in most other articulates, 
where they often do not appear until after the rudiments of the 
limbs are developed. 

Another characteristic of the evolution of the spiders is 
the tardy appearance of the rudiments of the legs. The ven- 
tral ares, or protozoonites, subdivide into ventral and pleural 

parts, which signalize the formation of the permanent rings 
of the body. The authov’s figures 
and statement show, though he 
does not state the fact clearly, 
that development progresses from 
each end of the body towards the 
centre, aS we have shown* to be 
the case in insects. Thus the 
posterior half of the body repeats 
the mode of development and 
general form of the anterior, or 
cephalic pole. 

The third period in the life of 
the embryo dates from the forma- Fig. 626. 
tion of the ventral rudiments to the exclusion of the spider. 
The first change consists in the lengthening and meeting 
of the rudimentary legs. The mouth-parts develop first. 
At this period the limb-bearing (pleural) region of the 
body separates and the sternal piece or breast-plate appears 
as a ‘‘slower, later formation.” Now the thoracic legs grow 
much more rapidly than the mouth-parts and lie interlocked 
upon the breast. (Fig. 626.+) When the first pair of legs are 


* Proceedings Boston Society of Natural History, Feb. 7, 1866. 
{ Fic. 626, m, mandibles; mz, maxille; 1, fourth pair of legs; p, postabdomen. 


. 


638 ARACHNIDA. 


long enough to cross each other the jointed structure of the 
limbs disappears, and they soon become divided into their 
usual number of joints, though the tarsal joints are the last to 
be perfected. At this time the maxille become differentiated. 
or split up, into the basal lobe and its appendage, or palpus. 
Claparéde compares the basal lobe tc the coxa of the legs, 
though it is formed long before the cox of the feet them- 
selves. The anterior pair of appendages form the mandibles. 

The formation of the head is next in order. The ‘cephalic 
lobe” is divided into what the author calls two ‘‘procephalic 
lobes,’ separated by a deep incision, and at this period the 
head appears very distinct from the thorax. Afterwards the 
anterior or ante-oral part of the head is, as in the case of the 
‘¢post-abdomen,” folded back on the top, and then closely sol- 
dered to the thorax, thus forming the so called ‘‘cephalo- 
thorax.” These procephalic lobes are separated by a third 
lobe or ‘‘triangular plate” which grows up between them, 
forming the epichile. ‘The mouth first appears as a longitu- 
dinal furrow in this triangle, the posterior border of which 
becomes the so called labium (‘‘glossoide” of Latreille). The 
labium thus originates in the spiders in an entirely different 
way from the appendages, and is not formed, as’ Brullé sup- 
posed, by the soldering of the maxille, hence we shall adopt 
Latreille’s term ‘‘glossoide” for this piece. 

The two procephalic lobes afterwards unite, and are soldered 
together on the median line, to form the anterior face of the 
head. This approach takes place from above, over the buccal 
frame (epichile). The mandibles are thus in advance of the 
mouth, though primitively behind it. ‘*The head is then in 
the embryo of the spider very distinct from the thorax. Only 
towards the end of embryonic life does the soldering of the 
‘cranium’ and of the prothorax become so intimate that their 
limits become indistinct. It is only from this moment that 
there exists a true cephalothorax.” (Claparéde.) 

Towards the end of embryonic life the simple eyes appear, 
arising from four little furrows, called the ‘‘ ophthalmic fur- 
rows.” They are colored by the deposition of a small quantity 
of pigment. They appear at an earlier period in the Acarina. 

Formation of the heart and viscera. After the walls of the 


ARACHNIDA. 639 


body and its appendages have been formed the dorsal vessel 
appears. It is formed thus: when the division of the blasto- 
derm into its muscular and outer layers takes place. the cells 
multiply and are heaped up along the median line of the body, 
so as to form a sort of cordon (cord), not only in the abdomi- 
nal, but in the thoracic region of the body. The vessel prob- 
ably originates in the spaces between the cells, but the author 
has been unable to trace either its origin or that of the blood- 
corpuscles. But the rudimentary heart soon presents rhyth- 
mic pulsations, and in the limbs we see the arteries filled 
with a homogeneous fluid, in which can be detected the pres- 
ence of small corpuscles, moving by impulses synchronous with 
the systole of the dorsal vessel, showing that this fluid is the 
blood. The heart already presents several dilatations (cham- 
bers) corresponding to the abdominal segments. 

The nervous system does not appear to be formed when the 
embryo assumes the ventral instead of the dorsal position. 
The digestive system is very rudimentary when the embryo 
quits the egg. The alimentary canal is probably hollowed out 
of the middle of the vitelline mass, being a membranous tube 
formed around the remaining yolk mass. The lungs and spin- 
nerets are well formed when the embryo is hatched, while the 
eyes appear later. 

The same processes of development go on in the scorpions, 
the ‘‘post-abdomen” of the Araneina (which we have seen 
folded back on the base of the abdomen and finally to disap- 
pear) in them being retained, forming the long, articulated 
‘‘tail;”’ thus the distinction into abdomen and post-abdomen 
is very artificial as the two parts merge into each other, especi- 
ally in Solpuga, Chelifer and Phrynus. 

In the mites the arrest of development is still more marked, 
as the three regions of the body are in the adult not differen- © 
tiated, and the entire body assumes an oval form, the abdomi- 
nal parts being short, thus strikingly resembling the embryo 
of Pholeus, and the spiders generally, as seen in Claparéde’s 
figures. 

In the Acarina there is a true metamorphosis, the larve 
of some forms when first hatched being worm-like; then there 
is an oval stage when the young mite has but three pairs of 


640 ARACHNIDA. 


feet (though in others at this stage there are four pairs), and 
after another moulting the fourth pair of limbs appear. The 
young mite is analogous to the ‘‘Nauplius” stage of many 
low Crustacea. 

Claparéde* has observed in Atax Bonzi, which is a parasite 
on the gills of fresh-water mussels, that out of the originally 
laid egg (Plate 9, fig. 3, embryo of. Tyroglyphus siro, which 
closely resembles the earliest stages of the embryo of Atax; 
md, mandibles; mx, maxille; p’—p’”, legs; vt, yolk. Fig. 4, 
front view of the same; rR, beak; p, maxillee), not a larva, but 
an egg-shaped form hatches, which he calls a ‘‘deutovum.” 
(Pl. 9, fig. 1, bursting of the egg-shell into two halves, mo, on 
the day that the deutovum, dm, hatches out; md, mandibles ; 
mex, maxille ; p’’, third pair of legs; /h, body cavity ; sp, com- 
mon beginning of the alimentary canal and nervous system; 
amb, hemaboeba, amceba-like bodies, which represent the blood 
corpuscles ;¢there being no circulation of the blood, the move- 
ments of the hemabcba constitute a vicarious circulation. 
Fig. 2, the deutovum free from the first egg-shell; lettering 
same as in Fig. 1, oc, rudiments of the simple eyes; Rr, beak; 
h, h’, rudimentary stomach and liver). From this deutovum 
(which is not the ‘‘amnion” of insects) is developed a six- 
footed larva. This larva passes into an eight-footed form, the 
“second larva,” (the ‘‘nymph” or pupa, of Dujardin and 
Robin) which transforms into the adult mite. The pupa dif- 
fers from the adult in having longer feet, and four instead of 
ten genital cups, the latter being the usual number in the adult. 

The larve are elongated oval, with six long legs and four 
ocelli. They swarm for a short time over the gills of the mus- 
sel they are living on and then bore into the substance of 
the gill to undergo their next transformation. Here the young 

‘mite increases in size and becomes round. The tissues soften, 
those of the different organs not being so well marked as in 
the first larval stage. The limbs are short and much larger 


*The development of spiders and of the Arachnids generally, has been traced 
by Rathke, Herold, and more especially by Claparéde, in a work of great ability, 
from which we have drawn the preceding account, often using the author’s own 
words. His observations were made on various genera of spiders (Pholcus, etc.) 
His ‘“ Studies on Mites,” from which Plate 9 is copied, appeared in Siebold’s and 
KOlliker’s Journal of Scientific Zoblogy, 1868, part iv. 


ARACHNIDA. 641 


than before, the whole animal assuming an embryo-like appear- 
ance, and moving about like a rounded mass in its enclosure. 
Indeed is this process not (though Claparéde does not say so) 
a histolysis of the former larval tissues, and the formation of a 
new body, as in the change of the six-footed insect beneath the 
larva skin, where the pupa is formed? A new set of limbs 
grow out, this time there being four instead of three pairs of 
legs, while the old larval skin is still embraced within the 
membrane containing the second larval rounded mass. Soon 
the body is perfected, and the pupa, as we may properly call it, 
slips out of the larval membrane. 

The ‘second larva” after some time undergoes another 
change ; the limbs grow much shorter and are folded beneath 
the body, the animal being immovable, while the whole body 
assumes a broadly ovate form, and looks like an embryo just 
before hatching, but still lying within the egg. This may also 
be comparable with the formation of the adult fly within the 
puparium. (Compare Weismann’s account of this process in 
Musca, pp. 63, 64.) This period seems to be an exact repeti- 
tion of the histolysis, and the formation of new tissues for the 
building up of a new body which preceded the pupal stage, 
while the adult mite slips out of its pupal membrane just as 
the pupa threw off its larval membrane. ‘This process, again, 
may be compared to an adult butterfly, or fly, emerging from 
its pupal membrane. 

Thus the mites, at least several species, pass through a series 
of metamorphoses similar to those of such insects as have a 
complete metamorphosis (except that the Acarian pupa is 
active), while the absence of such a metamorphosis in the 
spiders is paralleled by the incomplete metamorphosis of the 
Orthoptera and many Neuroptera, which reach adult life by 
simple moultings of the skin. 

In the genus Myobia there is not only a deutovum, besides 
the original egg, but also a tritovwn-stage. The eggs of this 
mite are long, oval and conical at the posterior end. The em- 
bryo, with the rudiments of limbs, is represented by Fig. 5 of 
Plate 9. The little tubercles md and ma, represent the man- 
dibles and mavxille, while the three pair of legs, p/p/p'”, bud 
out from the middle of the body; /c represents the head-plate. 

41 


642 ARACHNIDA. 


The mawxille and mandibles finally unite to form a beak (R 
Fig. 6) and the three pairs of feet (p'p"p’’) are folded along 
the median line of the body. The farther development of the 
embryo is now for a time arrested, and a peculiar toocth-like 
process (Fig. 7, d) is developed. Claparede thinks that by 
means of this the anterior end of the egg-shell is cut off, and 
the embryo protrudes through, when, as in Fig. 7, it is seen 
to be surrounded by a new membrane, the deutoyum (df), 
equivalent to that of Atax. The front pair of legs ( p’') have 
erown larger and stand out in front and on each side of the 
beak (rR). The growing embryo again forces off the anterior 
end of its deutovum, and the oval end of the egg protrudes 
through, and is surrounded by another membrane. This is the 
tritovum. The embryo is now surrounded by the membrane 
of the tritovum, and also by the deutovular membrane and the 
original egg-shell, the last two having lost a small portion of 
their anterior ends. During the tritovam-stage the fore pair 
of feet become curved in like claws, and the beak sinks down 
into the body. 

Now the six-footed larva (Fig. 8) breaks through the shell 
and closely resembles the adult (Plate 9, fig. 9). The first 
pair of feet, modified for grasping the hairs of the field-mouse, 
on which it is a parasite, take the place of the maxille, which 
have been arrested in their development, and the mandibles 
(pr) assume a style-like form. After one or more moultings of 
the skin a fourth pair of feet (p’’’) are acquired, and the adult 
form results, which the author considers as the type of a new 
-family of Acarina. Claparéde also suggests the affinity of 
Myobia to the Tardigrades (Echiniscus and Lydella), especially 
from the study of the structure of the style-like mandibles and 
their supports. We feel convinced, after examining Clapa- 
réde’s figures and descriptions that this comparison is very 
significant, and this has led us to consider the Tardigrades 
as a family of true mites, related to Myobia and Demodex. 

A French naturalist, C. Robin, has recently observed in cer- 
tain bird sarcoptids, to which the parasite of the Downy 
Woodpecker noticed above is allied, ‘‘that the males pass 
through four, and the females through five stages, indicated as 


follows: (1) the egg, on issuing from which the animal has the 


' ARACHNIDA. 643 


form of (2) a hexapod larva, followed by the stage of (3) octo- 
pod nymphe [four-footed pup], without sexual organs. (4) 
From some of these nymph issue: a, sexual males, after a 
moult which is final for them; b, from others issue females 
without external sexual organs, resembling the nymphe, but 
larger, and in some species furnished with special copulatory 
organs. Finally, after a last moult following copulation, these 
females produce (5) the sexual and fecundated females, which 
do not copulate, and in the ovary of which eggs are to be seen. 
No moult follows that which produces males or females fur- 
nished with sexual organs; but previously to this the moults 
are more numerous than the changes of condition.” ‘The larvee 
undergo from two to three moults before passing to the state 
of nymphe.” These latter also undergo two or three moults. 
(Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1868, p. 78.) 

In some other species of mites no males have been found, 
and the females have been isolated after being hatched, and 
yet have been known to lay eggs, which produced young with- 
out the interposition of the males. This parthenogenesis has 
been noticed in several species. But few fossil Arachnids 
have been yet discovered. Roemer has described a spider 
from the coal formation of Germany under the name of Proto- 
lycosa, while two species of scorpions, and a Phalangium-like 
spider have been detected in the same formation in this 
country.. 

In studying spiders, of which we have several hundred spe- 
cies, the number and relative situation of the eyes, and the 
relative length of the different pairs of legs, should be noticed ; 
their webs and the manner of constructing them; their habi- 
tats, whether spreading their webs upon or in the ground, or 
in trees, or on herbage, or whether the species are aquatic, or 
erratic, and pursue their prey without building webs to entrap 
_ them, should be observed. So, also, how they deposit their 
eggs, and the form and appearance of the silken nidus, and 
whether the female bears her eggs about her, and how this is 
done, whether holding on to the egg-sac by her fore or hind 
legs, should all be carefully noticed. Care must be taken not 
to mistake the young for full-grown, mature species, and de- 
scribe them as such. Spiders can be reared in boxes as 


644 ARACHNIDA. 


insects. The only way to preserve them is to throw them into 
alcohol; when pinned they shrivel up and lose their colors, 
which keep well in spirits. 

The colors of spiders vary much at different seasons of the 
year, especially during the frosts of autumn, when the changes 
produced are greatest. All spiders are directly beneficial 
to agriculture by their carnivorous habits, as they all prey 
upon insects, and do no harm to vegetation. Their instinets 
are wonderful, and their habits and organization worthy of 
more study than has yet been paid them in this country. We 
have no species poisonous to man, except when the state of 
health renders the constitution open to receive injury from 
their bite, just as mosquitoes and black flies often cause 
serious. harm to some persons. 

The Arachnids are divided into three groups, or suborders, 
the Araneina, the Pedipalpi, and the Acarina. 


ARANEINA. 


THE Spiders are distinguished from other Arachnids by hay- 
ing mandibles used exclusively for biting, a spherical, sac-like 
abdomen, not divided into segments, and attached to the head- 
thorax by a slender pedicel. The maxillze resemble the tho- 
racic feet. They breathe both by lungs and trachez, and do 
not undergo a metamorphosis, the young on being hatched hay- 
ing four pairs of legs. 

The mandibles (Plate 11, fig. 3, front view, with the eight 
ocelli above) are vertical and end in a powerful hook, in the 
end of which opens a duct (Plate 11,3 a,b) connected with the 
poison gland situated in the head. The maxillz, represented 
by the so called palpi, though in reality the maxillz themselves, 
with a flattened coxal lobe at the base (Plate 11, fig. 2, , palpi 
of female; fig. 8, do. of male) are simple in the female, but in 
the male the terminal joint is enlarged and modified greatly as 
an accessory genital organ. The cephalothorax is not jointed, 
and there are usually eight, rarely six, simple eyes (ocelli). 
In the genus Nops from Cuba there are, however, only two, 
while in certain cave-inhabiting species, according to Menge, 


ARANEINA. 645 


such as the Anthrobia Mammothia of Tellkampf from Mam- 
moth Cave, and other spiders inhabiting European caves, there 
are none. 

We quote an interesting account of the habits of spiders, 
especially the mode of spinning their webs, published by Mr. 
J. H. Emerton in the ‘‘ American Naturalist” (ii, p. 478), who 
-has studied our native species with much care. 

“The feet of spiders are wonderfully adapted for walking ou 
the web. Each foot is furnished with three claws (Plate 11, 
Fig. 6, a, 6, 6), the middle one of which (a) is bent over at the 
end, forming a long finger for clinging to the web, or for guid- 
ing the thread in spinning. The outer claws (e, e) are curved 
and toothed like a comb. Opposite the claws are several stiff. 
hairs (c) which are toothed like the claws, and serve as a 
thumb for the latter to shut against. 

‘¢ When a spider wishes to build a web she usually selects a 
corner, so that the structure may be attached on several sides. 
She then runs a few threads along the objects to which the web 
is fastened, to facilitate her passage from point to point. The 
web is commenced by a line or two across the point where the 
centre is to be, which is not usually the geometric centre, but 
nearer the top than the bottom. Radiating lines (Plate 11, fig. 
1, 6, 6, 6) are then spun from the centre in all directions. In 
doing this the spider often crosses from one side of the web 
to the opposite, so that the finished portion is always tightly 
drawn, and the tension of the completed web is the same in 
every part.” 

‘Having finished the framework, the spider begins near the 
centre and spins a thread (Fig. 1, ¢, ¢, c) spirally, around 
the web to the circumference, fastening it to each radius as it 
crosses. The distance between the spirals varies with the size 
of the spiders, being about as far as they can reach. This 
spiral thread serves to keep the parts of the web in place dur- 
ing the rest of the process, and is removed as fast as the web 
is finished. It also furnishes a ready means of crossing from 
one radius to another where they are farthest apart. All the 
thread spun up to this stage of the process is smooth when 
dry, and will not adhere if touched with a smooth object. 

‘The spider, having thus formed the web, begins to put in 


646 ARANEINA. 


the final circles at the outside, walking around on the scaffold- 
ing previously prepared, which she gradually destroys as she 
proceeds, until in the finished web only a few turns in the cen- 
tre are left. The thread of the circles last spun is covered with 
viscid globules, strung upon it like beads at short distances. 
If an insect comes in contact with the thread, it immediately 
adheres, and its struggles only bring a larger part of its body 
into contact with the web. Dust and seeds also stick to the 
web, so that in a single day it is often so clogged as to be of 
no farther use. The web also becomes torn by the struggles 
of the prey, and by wind and rain, so that it requires repair 
or renewal every night. In mending a web the spider usually 
removes all except the outside threads, biting them off and 
rolling them into a hard ball between her jaws, so that when 
released it will drop quickly to the ground. This probably 
gave rise to the opinion, sometimes advanced, that the old web 
is eaten by the spider. 

‘¢ When the web is finished she stations herself in the centre, 
where a small circle is left free of the adhesive threads. Her 
usual position is head downward, with each foot on one of the 
radii of the web, and the spinners ready to fasten themselves 
by a thread at the least alarm. She often remains in her hole 
with one foot out, and resting on a tight thread connected with 
the centre of the web, so that any vibration is quickly detected. — 
If the web be gently touched the spider will rush into the cen- 
tre, and face towards the disturbed part. She will then jerk 
smartly several of the radii leading in that direction, to see if 
the intruder is a living animal. If this test is followed by the 
expected struggle she runs out towards the victim, stepping as 
little as possible on the adhesive threads, seizes it in her jaws, 
and as soon as it begins to feel the effects or the bite, envelops 
it in a silken covering, and hangs it up to suck at her leisure. 
In spinning this envelope the insect is held and turned around 
mainly by the short third pair of feet, while a flat band of 
threads is drawn from the spinners by the hind pair working 
alternately like the hands in pulling a rope, and wound over it 
in every direction, so that in a few seconds it is so covered as 
to be unable to move a limb. When a web is shaken by the 
wind the spider will sometimes draw in all her feet towards her 


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TETRAPNEUMONES. 647 


body, thereby tightening the web in every direction so that the 
vibration is prevented. 

“The construction of nets for catching food is not the only 
use of the thread made by these spiders. They seldom move 
from place to place without spinning a line after them as they 
go. They are able by its use to drop safely from any height, 
and when suspended by it are carried by the wind across wide 
spaces without any exertion on their part, except to let out the 
thread. The crevices in which they pass the winter and the 
leisure hours of summer, are partly lined and enclosed by a 
coating of silk resembling that used for confining captured in- 
sects. The eggs are enclosed in a cocoon of the same mate- 
rial, and there the young remain until they are strong enough 
to shift for themselves, growfng to nearly double their size 
without apparent nourishment. 

‘Several hundred young are produced by a single female, 
but probably it is seldom that one-tenth of this number ever 
reach adult size. Nearly all the spiders which we see in webs 
are females or young. ‘They spend most of their time in the 
vicinity of their webs, and many doubtless pass their lives 
within a few yards of the place of their birth. The adult males 
are seldom seen building or occupying webs: they remain con- 
cealed during the day, and at night wander about from web to 
web. When young there is no obvious difference between the 
sexes, but as the time for the last moult approaches, the ends 
of the palpi of the male swell to several times their former 
size. When the time for the final moult arrives, both sexes 
retire to their holes and cast off the skins of their entire bodies, 
even to the claws. This process obliges them to remain con- 
cealed until the new skin has acquired sufficient strength and 
firmness, when they again return to their webs. The females 
still resemble the young, except in size, but the males are 
distinguished from them by the greater length of their limbs, 
the diminished size of the posterior half of the body, and the 
large and complicated joints of the palpi (Plate 11, fig. 8).” 


TETRAPNEUMONES Latreille. The large hairy species of 
Mygale differ from other spiders in haying four lung-sacs and 
as many stigmata, and only two pairs of spinnerets, of which 


648 ARANEINA. 


one pair is very small, while there are eight ocelli. The differ- 
ent species make cylindrical holes in the earth; that of M. 
nidulans of the West Indies is closed by a lid of earth covered 
beneath with silk. Mygale avicularia Linn., the Bird spider, 
seizes small birds and sucks their blood. M. Hentzii (Fig. 
627, natural size) ranges from Missouri southward. - 


DipneumMONES Latreille. In the remaining genera of spiders 
there are two lung-sacs, two or four stigmata, and three pairs 


Fig. 627. 


of spinnerets. They are divided into two groups, the ‘‘Sed- 
entary” and “Wandering” spiders. The sedentary species 
have the ocelli usually arranged in two transverse rows; they 
spin webs in which they remain and seize their prey. In the 


DIPNEUMONES. 649 


genus Dysdera there are six ocelli, of which four lie in the front 
row; the cephalothorax is small, long, oval, and the first pair 
of legs are the longest. The species dwell in silken tubes, 
under stones or in crevices. D. interrita Hentz is a New 
England species. In Drassus there are eight ocelli, and the 
hindermost pair of feet are the longest. 

Clubione includes those species which have eight ocelli, the 
four hinder ones, with the two outer ones on the front row, 
forming almost a semicircle; the fore legs are the longest. 
They construct under the bark of trees, under leaves or be- 
neath stones, tubes of very white silk, from which they make 
nocturnal expeditions for food. C. tranquilla Hentz is com- 
mon in the United States. C. medicinalis Walkenaer has been 
used as a vesicant. The 
Water spider of Europe, 3 
Argyronetu aquatica Linn., ‘4 
lives beneath the water, | 
where it makes its nest and 


cocoon, which is filled with Sy 
air. 

The genus Tegenaria has : A 
the ocelli arranged in two 4 Fall, 


slightly curved rows, the f 
third pair of feet are shorter 
than the others, and the ab- 
domen is oval. The species 
are ‘‘sedentary, making in Fig. 628. 
obscure corners a horizontal web, at the upper part of which 
is a tubular habitation, where the spider remains motionless 
till some insect be entangled in the threads.” (Hentz.) 
T. medicinalis Hentz is ‘‘pale brown, turning to bluish black ; 
cephalothorax with a blackish band on each side; abdomen 
varied with black, or plumbeous and brown; feet varied with 
blackish.” It ‘is found in every cellar or dark place in the 
_ country. For some time the use of its web as a narcotic, in 
cases of fever, was recommended by many physicians.” 
(Hentz.) Fig. 628 (enlarged) represents 7. atrica, a European 
species. 

Filistata is a closely allied genus. F. hibernalis Hentz 


650 ARANEINA. 


‘makes a tubular habitation of silk in erevices on old walls or 
rocks, throwing out an irregular web which is spread on the 
wall or stone around the aperture. ... In walking it uses 
the palpi like feet, and these organs are very long, particularly 
in the male.” According to Hentz it is found in South Caro- 
lina and Alabama. ; 

The two genera Pholeus and Theridion belong to Latreille’s 
group, ‘‘Inequitele,” comprising those forms in which the 
first pair of limbs are usually the longest. In Pholeus the legs 
are very long and slender. According to Hentz the species 
are ‘‘sedentary, making in dark corners a yery loose web of 
slender threads, crossed in all directions. The eggs are col- 
lected together without a silk covering, which the mother car- 
ries with her cheliceres” (maxillary palpi). This genus ‘by 
the extreme length of its legs resembles Phalangium. ‘The 
species belonging to it may be found in apartments seldom 
visited, particularly churches and cayes. They shake their 
body when threatened by an enemy, but seem to have very 
weak means of offence, and to feed on the very smallest prey.” 
P. Atlanticus Hentz inhabits the Southern States. 

In Theridion the four inner ocelli are larger than the four 
outer ones, and the first and last pair of limbs are the longest. 
Hentz states that the species are sedentary, forming a web 
made of threads crossed in all directions, while the cocoons 
are of various shapes. A majority of the species are very 
small, and their webs made on the tops of weeds, in bushes, 
or in retired corners, are familiar to every one. TJ. vulgare 
Hentz varies ‘‘from a cream white to a livid brown, or plum- 
beous color.. The cephalothorax is dull rufous, the abdomen 
with various undulating lines, and the feet have more or less 
distinct, dark or plumbeous rings.” Hentz says that ‘there 
is probably no spider so abundant in the United States. It 
makes an irregular web in somewhat retired corners, and usu- 
ally in dark situations, but occasionally also in the. open air.” 
It catches large insects and hangs them up to its nest. Hentz 
says of the 7. studioswm which he has described, that ‘‘ when 
its web is destroyed it does not abandon its cocoon, which is 
orbicular and whitish, and is placed in the central part of the 
web. The mother then grasps it with her cheliceres, and de- 


DIPNEUMONES. 651 


fends her progeny while life endures. She also takes care of 
her young, making a tent like that of social caterpillars for 
their shelter, and remaining near them till they can protect 
themselves.” It occurs in South Carolina and Alabama. 
Hentz says of 7. verecundum Hentz, a jet black species found 
in the Southern States, that ‘‘it is very common under stones, 
logs, or clods of earth, where it makes a web, the threads of 
which are so powerful as to arrest the largest Hymenopterous 
insects, such as humble bees. Its bite, if I can rely on the 
vague description of 
physicians unac- 
quainted with ento- 
mology, is+ somewhat 
dangerous, producing 
alarming nervous dis- 
orders. Fig. 629 rep- 
resents Theridion ri- 
parium (lower figure, 
male; upper, female, 
enlarged), of Europe. 

Hpeira is readily 
known by the large 
globular abdomen. 
The species are ‘‘sed- 
entary, forming a web 
composed of spiral 
threads crossed by 
other threads depart- 
ing from the centre; they often dwell in a tent constructed 
above the web; the cocoons are of various forms. ZH. vulgaris 
Hentz (Plate 11, fig. 12) is pale gray, with a pitchy black ab- 
domen, with various winding white marks, and a middle one in 
the form of a cross. It spins a regular geometrical web, and 
is almost domesticated, being found about the* outside of 
houses and in gardens. EH. domiciliorum Hentz is a gray or 
brownish species, and is found in dark rooms. 

The genus Nephila comprises large spiders, with long cylin- 
drical abdomens. WV. plumipes (Fig. 630, natural size) is found 
in the Southern States. Dr. B. G. Wilder has given an ac- 


652 ARANEINA. 


count of its habits, and considers its silk, if the spider could be 
reared in sufficient quantities, as of commercial value. The 
males (upper figure) are minute in size, compared with the 
females. 

The genus Thomisus is characterized by the small size of the 
cheliceres, and the first and second pair of feet are either the 
longest, or the second alone are longest. ‘The species ‘‘ wander 


Fig. 630. 


after their prey, making no web, but casting irregular threads, 
with a flattened cocoon, usually placed under leaves, and 
watched by the mother till the young are hatched.” (Hentz.) 
T. vulgaris Hentz is ‘‘pale gray, with four impressed dots on 
the abdomen; the body is flat, and the legs are covered with 
indistinct darker rings. This spider, commonly seen on fenc- 


DIPNEUMONES. 653 


ing or prostrate timber, like those of the same genus, moves 
sidewise and backwards, but it is much more active than J. 
celer. When pursued by an enemy, like Attus and Epeira, it 
leaps and hangs by a thread, which supports it in the air.” 
It is a widely diffused species. 7’. celer Hentz is also a widely 
distributed species, and is ‘‘found usually on blossoms, where 
it remains patiently waiting for Diptera, other small insects, 
and even butterflies, which it secures with amazing muscular 
power.” 

The three remaining genera belong to Latreille’s group of 
‘¢ Wanderers,” as they spin no web. The species of Dolomedes 


. 


Fig. 631. 


(Fig. 631, from Harris’ Correspondence) wander after their 
prey, making no web, except while rearing their young, and 
hiding under stones, sometimes diving under water ; the cocoon 
is usually orbicular, and is carried by the mother. D. lanceo- 
latus Hents# ‘‘is always found near or on water, running on it 
with surprising agility, preying often on large aquatic insects. 
A female of Dolomedes was twice found on high bushes by my 
friend, T. W. Harris, in Milton, Mass., ‘on a large, irregular 


654 ARANEINA. 


loose, horizontal web, at one extremity of which was situated 
her follicle, or egg-bag, covered with young. The parent ap- 
peared watching them at some distance.’ This spider can 
dive and stay a considerable time under water, to avoid its 
enemies. It was found in March, in Alabama, under stones 
near a stream of water.” It ranges northwards to Massachu- 
setts. 

The Tarantula belongs to the genus Lycosa, which comprises 
large stout hairy spiders, with large cheliceres and moderately 
sized fangs, with the fourth pair of feet the longest and the 
third pair shortest. The species make no web, wandering for 
their prey, and hiding under stones. They frequently make 
holes in the ground in which they dwell, spinning at the orifice 
a ring of silk which forms a consolidated entrance like a trap 
door. The cocoon is usually orbicular, and is often carried 
about by the mother, while the young are borne about on the 
back of her abdomen. (Hentz.) JL. tarantula Linn. is the cele- 
brated Tarantula of Italy and Spain. Its bite is commonly 
supposed to produce the effects termed ‘‘tarantism,” but Dr. 
Bergsoe has proved that tarantism is rarely due to the bite of 
the tarantula, which is comparatively harmless. 

The Lycosa fatifera of Hentz is said by him to be bluish 
black, with the cephalothorax deeper in color at the sides; the 
cheliceres are covered with rufous hairs, and have a red eleya- 
tion on their outer side near their base. It is one of the largest — 
species of the genus. ‘This formidable species dwells in 
holes, ten or twelve inches in depth, in light soil, which it digs 
itself; for the cavity is always proportionate to the size of the 
spider. The orifice of the hole has a ring made chiefly of silk, 
which prevents the soil from falling in when it rains. This 
Lycosa, probably as large as the Tarantula of the south of 
Europe, is common in Massachusetts, but we have not heard 
of serious accidents produced by its bite. Its poison, how- 
ever, must be of the same nature and as virulent.” (Hentz.) 

In the leaping spiders, Salticus, the cephalothorax is usually 
large, square, and the abdomen is oval cylindrieal. Hentz 
says that they wander after their prey, making no web, but 
concealing themselves in a silken valve, for the purpose of 
casting their skin, or for hibernation. The Saltiews (Attus) 


PEDIPALPI. 655 


familiaris of Hentz is a common species throughout the United 
States. It is pale gray, hairy, and the abdomen is blackish, 
with a grayish angular band edged with whitish. Hentz says 
that it is almost domesticated in our houses, and dwells in 
cracks around sashes, between clapboards, etc., and may be 
seen on the sunny side of the house, and in the hottest places, 
wandering in search of prey. It moves with agility and ease, 
but usually with a certain leaping gait. . . . Before leaping 
this Attus always fixes a thread on the point from which it 
departs ; by this it is suspended in the air, if it miss its aim, 
and it is secure against falling far from its hunting grounds. 
These spiders, and probably all other species, a day or two 
before they change their skin, make a tube of white silk, open 
at both ends; there they remain motionless till the moulting 
time arrives, and even some days after are seen there still, 
probably remaining in a secure place, for the purpose of re- 
gaining strength and activity.” 


PEDIPALPI. 


Unper the term Pedipalpi we would embrace besides the 
Pedipalps of Latreille, the Solpugids and Phalangids. They 
all agree in having the maxillary palpi greatly enlarged and 
usually ending in a forceps, and the abdomen distinctly 
jointed, with the end, sometimes, as in the scorpions, pro- 
longed into a tail. In the retention of the tail in some of the 
forms the abnormally enlarged maxille, the jointed cephalo- 
thorax and abdomen, which in the scorpions reminds us of the 
Myriapods, we have characters which place the Pedipalps be- 
low the true spiders. 3 

Sotpucip# Gervais. In this group, the species of which 
are large, hairy, spider-like animals, the cephalothorax is 
clearly jointed, and the abdomen is elongated; respiration 
is carried on by tracheze. Solpuga may at once be known by 
the enormous, though not very long, maxillary palpi. S. 
araneoides Pallas inhabits Southern Russia. S. (Galeodes) 
Americana Say inhabits the Southern States. 


656 PEDIPALPI. 


PHALANGIDz Gervais. In the group of Harvest-men the 
cephalothorax is not jointed; the abdomen is short and thick, 
and the maxillary palpi end in a simple claw; the mandibles 
are well developed and end in a forceps. The legs are 
exfremely long. ‘They breathe through tracheze. They occur 
about houses, especially in shady places and in woods and 


. Fig. 632. 


fields. ‘‘They are carnivorous, feeding on small insects, and 
are said to be especially addicted to Aphis-eating.” (Wood.) 

The genus Phalangium has no spines on the palpi, and has 
two simple eyes. The species have been well described by 
Dr. H. C. Wood, jr. (Proceedings of the Essex Institute, vol. 
vi), some of whose illustrations appear here, so that the spe- 
cies here mentioned can be easily identified. P. dorsatum Say 


PHRYNIDZE. 


(Fig. 632, a, female, natural size ; 


657 


b, male, natural size; e¢, 


penis, anterior and lateral view, enlarged) has been found from 


northern New York to Washington. 
When handled it emits a drop of 
an odorous clear fluid. We have 
found it frequently in Salem. 

P. ventricosum Wood (Fig. 633, 
a, trochanter ; b, femora; c, mandi- 
bles; d, maxillary palpus, male? 
natural size) is widely distributed 
in the United States. Acanthocheir 
is an eyeless genus with spiny palpi. 
A. armata Tellkampf is found in 
Mammoth Cave. In Gonyleptes the 
cephalothorax is much enlarged, 
and overhangs the abdomen. G, 
ornatum Say (Fig. 634, male, a, 
under surface; 6, upper surface, 
natural size; c, penis) is found in 


Fig. 633. 


the Southern States; the species are quite numerous in South 


America. 


Under the name of Archetarbus rotundatus (Fig. 635) Mr. 
Scudder describes a fossil Pedipalp, which seems to be ‘‘ allied 


Fig. 634. 


to the Phalangide and to the 
Phrynide. In its fragmentary 
state one can scarcely judge with 
certainty of its exact relationship. 
The arrangement of the legs ac- 
cords well with both families. The 
broad attachment of the thorax to 
the abdomen is a Phalangidan char- 
acteristic, while the size and shape ~ 
of the abdomen, the number of the 


_ abdominal segments and the crowd- 


ed state of the central portions of 


the basal ones, indicate closer affinities to the Phrynide. 


Purynipa Sundeval. 


42 


Whip-scorpions. In this group the 


658 PEDIPALPI. 


anterior pair of legs are very long and slender, being much 
snaller than the others, while the maxillary palpi are very 
large; there are eight simple eyes, and the abdomen is eleven 
to twelve-jointed, while there are two pairs of 
| stigmata, and they also breathe by lungs. Phry- 
nus is at once known by the excessively long, 
whip-like, multiarticulate fore legs, which ap- 
parently perform the office of antenne; the body 
is short and broad, and has no appendage to the 
\ abdomen. P. reniformis Fabr. is fourteen lines 
long, and is found in Brazil. P. asperatipes Wood 

Fig. 635. «+ occurs in Lower California. No species occur 
in the United States. The genus Thelyphonus is known by 
the oblong body, ending usually in a slender many-jointed 
filament. 7. caudatus Fabr. is fifteen lines long, and inhabits 
Java. T. giganteus Lucas occurs in the South-western States 
and in Mexico. 


CHERNETIDZ Menge. (Pseudo-scorpiones Latreille.) The 
False-scorpions are at once known by their large maxillary 
palpi like the scorpion’s claw. The abdomen is eleven-jointed, 
flattened, without any appendage, and 
the living forms are minute; they 
breathe by trachee. They are found 
running about dusty books and in dark ~ 
places and feed on mites and Psoci. 
They are often found attached to the 
leg of some fly or other insect by which 
they are transported about. ‘The fe- 
male chelifer bears the eggs, seventeen 
in number, in a little bunch under her 

Fig. 636. abdomen near the opening of her sex- 
ual organs. Menge has observed the Pseudo-scorpions cast 
their skin in a light web made for that purpose. The little 
animal remained five days in the web after its metamorphosis, 
and did not assume its dark colors for four weeks. Three 
months after it returned to the same web for hibernation. 
Menge describes eight species from the Prussian Amber, be- 
longing to genera still living, and Corda one (Microlabris 


SCORPIONIDZ®. 659 


Sternbergi) from the coal formation in Bohemia, one inch long. 
Schiodte has found a curious blind species in the caves of 
Adelsburg, and it is very probable that a closer examination 
of the Kentucky caves will give a similar American species.” 
(Hagen.) In Chernes there are no eyes. C. Sanborni Hagen 
is found in Massachusetts. 

In Ohelifer there are two eyes. C. cancroides Linn. (Fig. 
636, enlarged) is dark brown, with many short spines on the 
thorax. It occurs in Massachusetts and Illinois. 


Scorpionip& Latreille. The Scorpions are well known by 
the immense forceps-like maxille, and the long til continu- 
ous with the thorax, and end- 
ing in a powerful sting, in which 
is lodged a poison sac. The body 
is more distinctly divided into seg- 
meuts than any other Arachnids, 
and hence the scorpions bear, as 
Gerstaecker suggests, a strong 
analogy to the Myriapods. The 
genus Scorpio is restricted to those 
species which have six ocelli. S. 
Alleniti Wood is our only North 
American species and is found in 
Lower California. Our other spe- 
cies are mostly comprised in the 
genus Buthus, which has eight 
ocelli. B. Carolinianus Beauvois 
(Fig. 637) ranges from the South- 
ern Atlantic States through Texas Big. 637. 
northward into Southern Kansas. ‘Scorpions are dangerous 
in proportion to their size, their age, the state of irritation they 
may be in, and the temperature of the climate in which they 
reside. The wounds, however, even of the largest species are 
rarely fatal.” (Moquin Tandon. ) 

Messrs. Meek and Worthen have described (Paleontology 
of the Illinois Geological Survey, iii, p. 560) two fossil scor- 
pions from the lower part of the coal measures of Illinois, 
which are as highly developed, and bear a very close resem- 


~ (b\fd >, 
a ny 
dV O 
7 \ 
panel 
Acie 
eo 
Jem i 
Hii: 
y 
i 
Wie ARR | 
a }) 
(\ ay 
\ 
ND 
ww 
Pep -$ 
{| a | 
i) 


{ 


“Ke 


660 ACARINA. 


blance to the living species. The Hoscorpion carbonarius of 
Meek and Worthen is said by them to closely resemble Buthus 
hirsutus from California. The other fossil scorpion is the Ma- 
- zonia Woodiuana M. and W., which differs from any known 
living forms in not having any lateral eyes. Very different 
and belonging to a much more degraded and embryonic type 
is the Oyclophthalmus Bucklandi from the Coal Measures of 
Bohemia, in which the tail is continuous with the body, being 
unusually thick. 


. ACARINA. 


Tue Mites differ from other Arachnids by their oval or 
rounded bodies, which are not articulated, the cephalothorax 
being merged with the abdomen; the mouth-parts are adapted 
either for biting or sucking, and they breathe by trachee. 
They are usually minute in size; the ticks, which are some- 
times half an inch in length, comprising the largest forms. 
They appear first in geological history in the Prussian Amber, 
where species of Trombidium and Hydracha occur. 


Bpoetitipe Dugés. This inconsiderable family is represented 
by small mites with long, five-jointed maxillary palpi, and from 
two to six ocelli, which are sometimes wanting. The limbs 
are long and thick. The young closely resemble the adults. 
The genus Bdella has legs of nearly equal length. B. longi- 
cornis Linn., an European species, is scarlet red, with four 
ocelli, and is half a line in length. 


Trompipip# Leach. The species of this family are red 
mites, with either claw-like or style-like maxillary palpi, and 
short mandibles, with the terminal joints scissor-like and op- 
posed to each other. The genus Tetranychus has slender style- 
like maxillee, and two ocelli. The two fore pair of legs arise 
at a long distance from the hind ones, the first pair being the 
longest. TJ. telarius Linn. the little red mites of our hot- 
-houses spin webs on rose leaves. It is yellowish, with two red- 
dish yellow spots on the sides, and is one-half a line long. 


IXODIDA. 661 


It may be killed by showering sulphur over the leaves. In 
Europe it is found on the linden tree. The young of this spe- 
cies, according to Claparede, passes through an Ixodes-like 
stage, as regards the mouth-parts, for this reason we place the 
Ixodide below them. 


Hypracunip® Sundeval. The Water-mites are known by 
having the maxillary palpi short, with five terminal hooks, or 
bristles, at the end. The legs gradually increase in length, the 
hindermost pair being longest; they are ciliated, with two 
claws. There are two ocelli. These mites swim in fresh and 
sometimes salt water, and are seen running over water-plants. 
The young differ so much from the adults that they were de- 
scribed by Audouin under the name of Achlysia. In Ay- 
drachna the mandibles are needle-shaped, and the third joint 
of the maxillz is the longest. ‘The body is oval, with the 
limbs adapted for swimming, and there are two eyes. Hy- 
drachna concharum is parasitic throughout life on the gills of 
fresh water mussels. Others are parasitic during early life on 
fresh water Hemiptera and Coleoptera. 

In Ataw the body is oval, solid and corneous. The mandi- 
bles end in a stout curved claw, and the five-jointed maxillary 
palpi end in an acute point. The species are red in color and 
live in flowing streams ; when in their early, and in some cases 
their adult stages, they are parasitic in the gills of mussels. 


Ixopip# Leach. The Ticks are mites of gigantic size, with 
bodies of a leathery consistence. The three to four-jointed 
maxillz are small, not reaching beyond the beak. The man- 
dibles are saw-like, being covered towards the end with teeth, 
with from two to four terminal hooks, and, with the large 
spatulate, dentate ‘‘olossoide” of the maxille, form a beak 
which the tick pushes into the skin of its host. The ocelli are 
often wanting; and the legs are slender, with two claws, 
and in the young a distinct membranous foot-pad. The 
recently hatched young (Fig. 638, a, glossoide; b, mandibles ; 
c, maxillary palpi; e, adult gorged with blood) is six-footed, 
the legs being very long, and the head and mouth-parts are 
much larger in proportion to the rest of the body than in the 


662 ACARINA. 


adult, while the tripartite division of the body is very distinct, 
the thorax being distinct from the head and abdomen. 

The genus Argas closely resembles Ixodes. Gerstaecker 
states that the Argas Persicus Fisher is very annoying to tray- 
ellers in Persia. Travellers in the tropics speak of the in- 
tolerable torment occasioned “by wood ticks, Ivodes, which, 
occurring ordinarily on shrubs and trees, attach themselves to 
all sorts of reptiles, beasts and cattle, and even man himself 
as he passes by within their reach. Sometimes cases fall 
within the practice of the physician who is called to remove 
the tick, which is found sometimes literally buried under the 
skin. Mr.J.Stauffer writes me, that ‘‘on June 23d the daugh- 
ter of Abraham Jackson (oleretl), playing among the leaves 
in a wood, near Springville, 
Lancaster County, Penn., on 
her return home complained 
of pain in the arm. No at- 
tention was paid to it till the 
next day, when a raised tu- 
mor was noticed, a small 
portion protruding through 
the skin, apparently like a 
splinter of wood. The child 
was taken to a physician 
who applied the forceps, and — 
after considerable pain to the 
child, and labor to himself, extracted a species of Ixodes, 
nearly one-quarter of an inch long, of an oval form, and brown 
mahogany color, with a metallic spot, like silver bronze, cen- 
trally situated on the dorsal region.” ‘This tick proved, from 
Mr. Stauffer’s figures, to be without doubt, Jvodes unipunctata 
Pack. (Plate 10, fig. 11, enlarged). It has also been found in 
Massachusetts by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. The Ivodes albipictus 
Pack. (Fig. 638, adult gorged with blood, and the six-footed 
young, with the mouth-parts of the young enlarged, and d, a 
foot showing the claws and sucking disc), was discovered by 
Mr. W. J. Hays in great numbers on a moose which had been 
partially domesticated. The females lay their eggs from the 
first of May until the 25th of June, the ‘‘eggs being forced out 


ORIBATID. 663 


in large masses.” ‘On the 3d of J uly the entire mass of eggs 
seemed to hatch out at once, the shell opening like a clam and 
releasing a six-legged insect.” (Hays.) The opening of the 
oviduct is just behind the head, between the anterior pair of 
feet, so that the eggs appear as if ejected from the mouth. 
Another species is the Jwodes bovis (Plate 10, fig. 10), the 
common cattle tick of the Western States and Central America, 
which is allied to the European J. ricinus. It is very annoying 
to horned cattle, gorging itself with their blood, though by no 
means confined to them alone, as it lives indifferently upon the 
rattlesnake, the iguana, small mammals, and undoubtedly any 
sort of animal that brushes by its lurking-place in the forest. 
It is a reddish, coriaceous, flattened, seed-like creature, with 
the body oblong oval, and contracted just behind the middle. 
When fully grown it measures from a quarter to half an inch 
in length. We have received it from Missouri, at the hands 
of Mr. Riley; and Mr. J. A. McNiel has found it very abun- 
dantly on horned cattle, on the western coast of Nicaragua. 


Gamasip& Leach. These mites have scissor-like mandibles, 
free. maxille, with joints of equal length, and hairy legs of 
similar size and form, while the ocelli are obsolete. They live 
parasitically on the bodies of other animals. The genus Gam- 
asus has long mandibles, with curved, five-jointed, acutely 
pointed maxillary palpi; the body is oval, flattened, the skin 
dense, and the first and last pair of legs are somewhat longer 
than the middle ones. G. coleoptratorwm Linn. is clear, red- 
dish yellow, and about a third of a line long. It occurs in 
Europe on beetles, especially species of Geotrupes and Necro- 
phorus. The same, or a closely allied species, is found in this 
country. Uropoda vegetans DeGeer, a similar form, also lives 
on beetles. The genus Dermanyssus has shorter jointed max- 
illary palpi than in Gamasus. D. avium Dugés lives on birds, \ 
and D. pipistrelle Gervais on bats. In Pteroptus the terminal 
joint of the maxille is very long. Pt. vespertilionis Dufour is 
a parasite of the bat. 


Orisatip# Nicolet. In these mites the body is very hard 
and horny. The four-jointed maxillary palpi are short, with 


664 ACARINA. 


the first joint very large, forming a toothed eating surface. 
The ocelli are nearly obsolete, and the legs have from one to 
three claws. The cephalothorax has generally two wing-like 
projections, and two or three cup-shaped 
pedicellated stigmata on the edge. They 
generally live on vegetable matter. In 
Oribates the side of the cephalothorax is 
produced often into wing-like processes, 
with the abdomen orbicular, flattened, 
sometimes emarginate. The European 
O. alatus Hermann is smooth, blackish 
brown, and lives under moss. In Nothrus 
the body is elongated, somewhat quadrangular, and has no 
lateral expansions, while the legs are stout, with tripartite 
claws. We have observed an undescribed species of this genus 
sucking the eggs of the canker-worm in Salem. It may be 
called Nothrus ovivorus (Fig. 639). It is reddish brown, with 
a dense hard body, with the edge of the abdomen expanded 
evenly, and with three 
slender capitate processes 
on the cephalothorax. 


\ég vf 
piu Ks 
Ae y Acarip&. This family 
\ = 7 z > comprises the true mites, 
ZS 


which have soft, thin- 
skinned _ bodies, with 
either scissor or style-like 
mandibles, the latter form- 
ing a retractile horny 
tube. The maxille are 
obsolete, as well as the 

ocelli. The claws are 

sometimes provided with 
a sucker. The members of this, and the following groups, 
are among the most lowly organized of articulates, and are 
found living parasitically on the skin of other animals, or 
buried within their integuments, while certain acari have 
been detected within the lungs and air passages, the bloodves- 
sels and the intestinal canals of vertebrate animals. The 


Fig. 640. 


. 


ACARID®. 665 


genus Cheyletus is remarkable for having the maxille very large, 
and like a pair of legs, with the ends tripartite, the outer 
division being curved and. clawlike, while the two innermost 
are slender lobes pectinated on the inner side; the mandibles 
are style-like. A European species (Fig. 640) feeds on Cheese- 
mites. It is thought by Mr. R. Beck that another species of 
Cheyletus is parthenogenous, as ‘‘he obtained several genera- 
tions from the first individual, without the intervention of a 
male.” (Science-Gossip, 1869, p. 7.) Mr. J. H. Gregory, of 
Marblehead, Mass., has found a species of this genus, which we 
may call Cheyletus seminivorus (Plate 10, fig.6). It injured the 
seeds of the cabbage stored up during the winter by sucking 
them dry. The genus Tyroglyphus is known by the body being 
elongated oval, with scissor-like mandibles, and outstretched 
four-jointed feet, with a long stalked sucking disc at the end. 
T. domesticus DeGeer is in Europe common in houses. 

Many people have been startled by statements in newspapers 
and more authoritative sources, as to the immense numbers of 
sugar mites, 7’. sacchari (Fig. 641), found 
in unrefined or raw sugar. According to 
Professor Cameron, of Dublin, as quoted 
in the “Journal of the Franklin Insti- 
tute,” for November, 1868, ‘‘Dr. Hassel 
(who was the first to notice their general 
occurrence in the raw sugar sold in Lon- 
don) found them in a living state in no 
fewer than sixty-nine out of seventy-two 
samples. He did not detect them in a 
single specimen of refined sugar. In an 
inferior sample of raw sugar, examined in Dublin by Mr. 
Cameron, he reports finding five hundred mites in ten grains 
of sugar, so that in a pound’s weight occurred one hundred 
thousand. They appear as white specks in the sugar. The 
disease known as grocer’s itch is, undoubtedly, due to the 
presence of this mite, which, like its ally the Sarcoptes, works 
its way under the skin of the hand, in this case, however, of 
cleanly persons. 

Closely allied to the preceding is the Cheese-mite, 7. stro 
Linn., which often abounds in newly made cheese. Lyonnet 


Fig. 641. 


666 ACARINA. 


states that during summer this mite is viviparous. TJ. farine 
DeGeer, as its name indicates, is found in flour. Other species 
have been known to occur in ulcers. 

We figure the larva of the European Typhlodromus pyri 
(Plate 10, fig. 4) the adult of which, according to A. Scheuten, 
is allied to Tyroglyphus, and lives under the epidermis of the 
leaves of the pear. There are but two pairs of legs present, 
and the body is long, cylindrical and worm-like. Fig. 5, plate 
10, represents the four-legged larva of another species of 
Typhlodromus. 

The Itch mite belongs to the genus Sarcoptes, in which the 
body is rounded ovate, with needle-like mandibles, and with 
short three-jointed legs. The female differs from the male in 
having the two hinder pairs of legs only partially developed, 
and ending in a long bristle. S. scabiei Linn. (Plate 10, fig. 
7, female) was first recognized by an Arabian author of the 
twelfth century as the cause of the disease which results from 
its attacks. It buries itself in the skin on the more protected 
parts of the body, forming minute galleries, by which its pres- 
ence is detected, and by its puncturcs maintains a constant 
irritation. 

Other species are known to infest the cat, dog and swine. 
They are best destroyed by the faithfnl use of sulphur oint- 
ment. Various species of an allied genus, Dermatodectes, live 
in galleries on different species of domestic animals; thus D. 
equi lives in the skin of the horse, D. bovis in cattle, and D. 
ovis in sheep. Various Sarcoptids occur on birds; among 
them are species of Dermaleichus. On March 6th, Mr. C. 
Cooke called my attention to certain female mites (Plate 10, 
fig. 1) which were situated on the narrow groove between the 
main stem of the barb and the outer edge of the barbules of 
the feathers of the Downy Woodpecker, and subsequently we 
found the other forms indicated in Plate 10, figs. 2 and 3, in 
the down under the feathers. These long worm-like mites are 
probably the females of the singular male Sarcoptes-like mite, 
represented by Figs. 2 and 3 of the plate, as they were found 
on the same specimen of woodpecker at about the same date. 

The female (though there is probably a still earlier hexapo- 
dous stage) of this Sarcoptid, which we may call Dermaleichus 


ACARIDZ. 667 


pici-pubescentis, has an elongated, oblong, flattened body, with 
four short legs, provided with a few bristle-like hairs, and end- 
ing in a stalked sucker, by aid of which the mite is enabled to 
walk over smooth, hard surfaces. The body is square at the 
end, with a slight median indentation, and four long bristles of 
equal length. They remained motionless in the groove on the 
barb of the feather, and when removed seemed very inert and 
sluggish. The male (Plate 10, fig. 3) is a most singular form, 
its body being rudely ovate, with the head sunken between the 
fore legs, which are considerably smaller than the second pair, 
while the third pair are twice as large as the second pair, and 
directed backwards, and the fourth pair are very small, not 
reaching the extremity of the body, which is deeply cleft, and 
supports four long bristles on each side of the cleft, while other 
bristles are attached to the legs and body, giving the creature 
a haggard, unkempt appearance. The genital armature is - 
situated between the largest or third pair of legs. A preced- 
ing stage of this mite, which may be called the pupa, is repre- 
sented on Plate 10, fig. 2. It (all the figures of this sarcoptid 
being drawn to one scale by Prof. A. M. Edwards, 
and magnified one hundred and fifteen diameters) 
looks somewhat like the adult, the body being shorter 
and broader, but without any genital armature. 

We figure on Plate 10, figs. 8 and 9, greatly en- 
larged, a most remarkable mite, discovered by New- 
port on the body of a larva of a wild bee, and 
described by him under the name of Heteropus ven- 
tricosus. Fig. 8, in the plate, represents the body 
of the fully formed female. In this stage it reminds us Fig. 642. 
of Demodex and the Tardigrades. After attaining this form 
its small abdomen begins to enlarge until it assumes a globu- 
lar form (Plate 10, fig. 9) and the mass of mites look like little 
beads. Mr. Newport was unable to discover the male, and 
thought that this mite was parthenogenous. Another singular 
mite is the Demodex folliculorum (Fig. 642), which was dis- 
covered by Dr. Simon, of Berlin, buried in the diseased folli- 
cles of the wings of the nose in man. It is a long, slender, 
worm-like form, with eight short legs, and in the larval state 
has six legs. This singular form is among the lowest and 


668 ACARINA. 


most degraded of the order of Arachnids. It will be seen that 
‘the adult Demodex retains the elongated, worm-like appear- 
ance of the larvee of the higher mites, such as Typhlodromus. 
This is an indication of its low rank, and hints of a close rela- 
tionship to the Tardigrades. 


TarpigraDA Doyere. (Arctisca). The Tardigrades, or 
Bear animalcules, referred by some to the worms, were consid- 
ered as mites by O. F: Miller in 1785, and a species was de- 
scribed by him under the name of 
Acarus ursellus. They have also been 
referred to the Rotatoria by Dujardin, 
and were, by Schultze, considered as 
parasitic Entomostraca allied to Ler- 
nea. With Miller we would consider 
them as insects belonging to the Aca- 
rina, and venture, after studying Clapa- 
rede’s admirable work, ‘‘Studien an 
Acariden,” containing an account of 
the genus Myobia, to consider the Tar- 
digrades as a ‘family of; > mites: = Im 
form, as indicated by the accompanying 
figures, copied from Doyeére’s valuable 
memoir, they are essentially mites, and 
allied in form to Demodex ands He- 
teropus, though in their internal organi- 
Fig. 643. zation differing from all other insects 
in being true hermaphrodites. Muller observed that they 
moulted their skins.. The mouth is adapted for sucking, 
with style-like mandibles like those of Myobia. There are two 
ocelli, and the worm-like body is cylindrical, consisting of four 
thoracic segments behind the head, bearing four pairs of short, 
thick legs, ending in three or four claws (in these characters 
reminding us of the Peripatus, a worm with a large, fleshy 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE 10.—FIG. 1, Dermaleichus pici-pubescentis Pack., fe- 
male. Fre.2, young male. Fre. 3, adult male. Fia. 4, larva of Typhlodromus 
pyri Scheuten (after Scheuten). Fic. 5, larva of another species of Typhlodromus 
(after Scheuten). FIG. 6, Cheyletus seminivorus Pack. Fic. 7, Sarcoptes scabiet 
DeGeer (after Gervais). Fic. 8, Heteropus ventricosus Newport, fully formed fe- 
male. FiG.9, gravid female of the same (after Newport). Fre. 10, Zvodes bovis 
Riley. Fic. 11, Ixodes unipunctata Pack. All the figures are enlarged. 


TARDIGRADA. 669: 


leg-like process attached to the sides of each ring of the body 
and ending in a pair of claws). In size they are microscopic 
and live in standing water among plants, and like the Rota- 
toria revive after being apparently dead and dried up. They 
were called Tardigrades from their excessively slow motions. 
The eggs are very large and are laid by the parent after the 
last moult; the young is born with its full complement of legs, 
and moults several times before arriving at maturity. The 
eggs of some genera are smooth, while those of Macrobiotus 
are spherical and covered with little knob-like projections. 

Milnesium tardigradum Schrank (Fig. 643, 7, mouth-parts ; 
b, alimentary canal; .ov, ovary) is a fifth of a line long; while 
Emydium testudo Doyére (Fig. 644, magnified one hundred 
and twenty times) is another European species. None have 
yet been noticed as occurring in this country. 


Emydium testudo. 


670 MYRIAPODA. 


ORDER III. MYRIAPODA. 


Tue Myriapods are readily known by their long, cylindrical 
or somewhat flattened bodies, which are composed of from ten 
(counting the head as one) to over two hundred rings. The 
head is free from the rest of the body, and is much like that 
of insects, while the thoracic rings are scarcely distinguishable, 
either in form or the character of their appendages, from the 
numerous abdominal rings, so that the head, instead of being 
soldered to the thorax as in the spiders, is here free, while 
the thorax is merged in the abdomen. 

The head of Cermatia shows how closely the highest Myria- 
pod agrees with the insects. The few (sixteen) segments 
composing the body (counting the head as one); the large 
compound eyes, the long filiform antenne, and well developed 
palpi, farther show the close relationship of this form to the 
insects. The habits of this genus also remind us of the spi- 
ders, as they are predaceous and are said to leap after their 
prey. 

In the Myriapods generally the mouth-parts are of the same 
number, and follow each other in the same order as in the 
insects. Thus in advance of the mouth there are first the 
ocelli, and immediately behind them the antenne; behind 
the mouth are the mandibles, the maxillze with their palpi, and 
the labial palpi. As each of these organs is represented by an 
elemental ring we have at least five segments in the head. 

In the embryo of Julus the rudiments of the first pair of 
legs are soon aborted, and thus the first thoracic ring bears 
no legs in adult life. The legs are composed of a coxa, a 
femur, a tibia and a tarsus, as in the higher insects. 

As shown by Newport the nervous, digestive, respiratory 
and reproductive systems very closely resemble those of the 
larvee of insects, as does the external form of these animals. 

Newport states that the nervous system of Myriapods ap- 
proaches nearer, in the simplicity of its formation, to that of 
the Annelids than that of the larve of insects. ‘‘In the 
Chilopoda it has the form of a double cord connected by large 


MYRIAPODA. 671 


ganglia in each segment, as in most of the Annelida, Crusta- 
cea and Insecta; but in the vermiform Chilognatha, which 
former researches have proved to me are most nearly con- 
nected to the Annelida, the two parts of this double cord, are 
so closely united laterally as to appear like a single cord that 
gives off a multitude of small nervous trunks at its sides 
throughout its whole length, but without distinct ganglionic 
enlargements at their origin.” The brain is ‘“‘composed of at 
least four pairs of ganglia.” ; 

The digestive system comprises the long, tubular salivary 
glands, of which two are found on each side of the cesophagus 
and stomach, opening by a long excretory duct into the mouth ; 
and Professor Leidy has described two others which are 
placed on each side of the cesophagus, and are pyriform, con- , 
glomerate, and cellular in structure. Also the long intestinal 
canal which is much as described in the higher insects; while, 
as in Julus, according to Leidy, ‘‘at the termination of the 
proventriculus, there open two biliary tubes, and from it, sur- 
rounding the commencement of the ventriculus, is suspended 
a broad, white, opaque, reticulated band, apparently composed 
like the reta adiposa of insects.” 

The circulatory system is of a much lower type than in 
insects, and in.Julus it approaches, according to Newport, by 
its rudimentary development that of the worms. The vascular 
system consists of a dorsal vessel, or heart, with very numerous 
separate chambers, almost equal to the segments of the body, 
which connects with another system of vessels lying on the 
under side of the body between the alimentary canal and the 
nervous cord. This plexus of vessels thus forms ‘‘a vascular 
collar around the anterior part of the alimentary canal.” ‘At 
each constriction of the heart in the Julid@, between two 
chambers, there are two transverse lateral orifices, as in In- 
sects,” which Newport supposes to be either the terminations 
of delicate veins, or simple apertures admitting the blood from 
the venous sinuses in the body. 

The tracheary system is much as in the six-footed insects, 
and the stigmata have the same relative position, but are 
placed on the alternate segments of the body. 

In the Chilopoda the sexual system is much as in the six- 


672 CHILOPODA. 


footed insects, and the orifices are placed at the end of the 
body. The ovary is a long single tube, which opens in the last 
ring of the body; while in the lower suborder, Chilognatha, 
there is only a single long ovarian tube, provided with two 
short oviducts which open on the third segment of the body 
from the head. The male organs in the Chilopods are much 
more complicated than in the other Myriapods, and the two or 
three, or even the single. testicular tube, open on the end of 
the body, while in the Chilognaths, such as Julus, there are 
two testes which lead out by a vas deferens to the orifice situ- 
ated on the third thoracic ring. The order is divided into two 
suborders, 7. e., the Chilopoda and Chilognatha of Latreille. 


CE LOue: © DrAS 


Tuts group is characterized by each ring being simple and 
not divided into subsegments, and bearing but a single pair of 
feet, while the head is divided into two regions, one placed 
before the mouth, the other behind the mouth. The sexual 
outlet is situated at the end of the body. 

This suborder is the highest, as it contains those Myriapods 
which have the fewest segments to the body, thus approaching 
the six-footed insects and spiders. ‘They are active, rapacious 
in their habits, and by the division of the head into the two 
regions, movable on each other, they can almost emulate the 
insects in their powers of seizing their prey. As stated by 
Professor Wood *, their highly organized muscular and nervous 
system, the compactness of their intestinal apparatus, and the 
length and power of their legs, all betoken habits of great 
activity ; whilst the formidable nature of their mandibles, and 
the sharp spines, both lateral and terminal, with which their 
feet are armed, fit them for predatory warfare. Thus it will 
be seen that the Chilopods are the more animal, while the 
Chilognaths are the more vegetative ; this is due to the greater 
concentration of the body headwards, and the more compact 
build of the body behind the head. 


*The Myriapoda of North America, by Prof. H.C. Wood jr., M.D., Philadel- 
phia, 1865. 


LITHOBIIDZ. 673 


It is probable that the Centipedes and their allies appeared 
at a much later period in the earth’s history than the Chilog- 
naths, as the earliest form of the present suborder known to us 
is the Geophilus proavus of Muenster, from the Jurassic rocks, 
whilst the oldest Myriapod, one of the Julide, is, according 
to Dawson, found in the lower Carboniferous rocks of Nova 
Scotia, and Dr. Anton Dohrn has recently described a Julus 
from the coal formation of Germany. 


Crurmatip# Leach. This group is characterized by having 
only sixteen rings to the body, while the legs and antennz have 
more numerous joints than usual. The head is large, very free 
from the body, with compound eyes, as in the six-footed in- 
sects, and long spiny palpi, while the tergites, or scuta, are 
but eight in number, and there are nine pairs of spiracles. 
The female ovipositer is forceps-like, while the corresponding 
male appendages are style-like. The species are the 
most gaily colored of the order, being striped along 
the body and banded on the legs. Cermatia for- 
ceps Rafinesque is greenish-brown, with three longi- 
tudinal stripes of deep green. 


Litnosipa2 Newport. In this and the remain- 
ing families of this suborder the antenne are short, 
and the eyes simple and sometimes wanting. In 
the present family there are fifteen tergites, and the 
antennz are longer than in the succeeding group. 
In Lithobius the antenne are forty-jointed, and Fig. 645. 
the head is broad and flat. The species of this genus attack 
earth-worins, grappling with them for several hours, and after 
killing them, suck their blood. They will, in confinement, de- 
stroy each other. Their bite is poisonous to small articulates. 
The European L. forficatus, according to Newman (‘ Ento- 
mologist” 1866, ili, p. 342) is preyed upon by Proctotrupes 
calear of Haliday. Lithobius Americanus Newport (Fig. 645) 
is a widely diffused species, and erroneously passes by the 
name of Ear-wig. It is found everywhere, under sticks and 
about manure-heaps, where it feeds upon insects and earth- 
worms. 


43 


674 CHILOPODA. 


The genus Bothropolys of Wood, differs in having small, 
almost round punctiform excoriations arranged in three or 
four series on the coxa. The B. multidentatus of Newport is 
found in the Eastern United States, and is recognized by 
having from thirty-two to thirty-seven ocelli on each side of 
the head. 


ScoLopenpDRID& Leach. The Centipede is the type of this 
family. There are from twenty-one to twenty-three feet-bear- 
ing segments, with few or no ocelli, while the last pair of feet 
are thickened and generally spinous. This genus comprises 
the most gigantic of all Myriapods, Scolopendra 
gigantea Linn. from the East Indies, being nine 
inches long. S. heros Girard is our largest 
species, and is found in the Southern States. 
The bite of the Centipede is dangerous; the 
poison is conveyed from two glands in the 
throat, along a canal in the jaws. 

The genus Scolopocryptops differs in having 
no ocelli, and twenty-three feet-bearing see- 
ments, while the antenn are seventeen-jointed. 
S. sexspinosa Say (Fig. 646) is common about 
Philadelphia, and is found in Iowa; it is deep 
orange, with yellow, somewhat compressed feet, 
with three spines on each of the last pair of - 
feet. Wood describes the manner of moulting 

Fig. 645. in this species. The skin had been crowded back 
so as to cover only the last two or three rings. The cast skin 
contains the skin of the head and all its appendages, even to 
the maxillz and maxillary palpi. The anterior portion of the 
skin was so torn as to show that the process of shedding proba- 
bly began by the creature’s withdrawing its head from its case, 
and then thrusting it out between some of the anterior sterna, 
completing the process by pushing the skin back with its legs, 
and aiding them by a peculiar wriggling motion. The exuyia 
had most of the posterior segments entire, showing that the 
occupant had been withdrawn from it like a hand from a glove.” 
Wood also states that the female guards her young by laying 
on her side, and then coiling her body passes them along by a 


PAUROPODID &. 675 


‘rapid cilia-like action of her feet;” thus arranging them sat- 
isfactorily to herself. 


Grornirip® Leach. These Myriapods are very long and 
‘slender, with from thirty to two hundred segments, each 
formed of two complete, but unequal subsegments, and bearing 
but a single pair of feet. There are no ocelli; the antennz 
are fourteen-jointed, and the anal feet are short and style-like. 

In Mecistocephalus the ‘ cephalic segment,” or anterior part 
of the head is more than twice as long as broad, while in 
Geophilus the same region of the head is square. 
M. fulvus Wood is fulvous, polished, with a light. 
orange head; according to Wood it is most often 
found under the inner bark of decaying logs of 
the locust tree. Geophilus cephalicus is an unu- 
sually broad species found near Philadelphia. G. 
bipuncticeps Wood (Fig. 647) is found in the 
Western States and Sonora. 

In Strigamia the cephalic segment is small, 
short, and generally somewhat triangular. S. 
bothriopus Wood is a bright red robust species, and 
inhabits Philadelphia. S. chionophila Wood is a 
diminutive species, being only three-fourths of an 
inch long; it is found far north, at Fort Simpson, 
on the Red River of the North. The largest spe- 
cies known is S. epileptica Wood from Oregon, 
which is five and a half inches long. The last pair of male 
feet are represented by Wood to be antenniform, those of the 
female being small, short, and preserving the usual shape of 
the leg. This is an interesting instance of the antero- 
posterior symmetry of these animals, here more strongly’ 
marked than usual. : 


etree, 


Fig. C47. 


Pavuropopip# Lubbock. The sole member of this family is 
the Pauropus, which Sir John Lubbock discovered in England 
living among decaying leaves. ‘‘The body is composed of ten 
segments, including the head, and is convex, with scattered 
hairs ; there are nine pairs of legs, and the antenne are five- 

- jointed, bifid at the extremity and bearing three long jointed 


676 CHILOGNATHA. 


appendages.” The two species, P. Hualeyi and P. peduncula- 
tus of Lubbock are white, and about one-twentieth of an inch 
in length. Lubbock regards this remarkable form as a ‘‘con- 
necting link between the Chilopods and Chilog- 
naths, and also as bridging over to a certain 
extent the great chasm which separates them 
from other articulata.” No trachez could be 
detected. The six-footed young (Fig. 648) had 
the first pair of legs attached to the first seg- 
ment behind the head, the two other pairs to 
the following one. The resemblance of Pauro- 
pus to those Poduree, such as Achorutes, in 
which the “spring” is very short, is certainly 

Fig. 648. remarkable. We may, therefore, consider the 
Pauropus as a connecting link between the Myriapods and 
the Neuroptera. 


CHILOGNAT HA. 


In this division of the Myriapods the body is divided into 
numerous segments, each furnished with two pairs of short 
legs, and the antenne are short, with but few joints. 

They are the lowest insects, and in Julus, with its large 
number of rings of the same form, we have a good illustration - 
of the vegetative repetition of the zoological elements, or 
segments, composing the body, which is the reverse of what 
obtains in the cephalized honey bee, for instance, and reminds 
us strikingly of the Worms. In the genus Brachycybe, a remote 
ally of Polydesmus, we are strongly reminded of some crus- 
‘ taceans, such as the Isopods, and the posterior end of the 
body of this Myriapod, in the broad lateral expansions of 
the segments, even recalls the tail of a trilobite. 

Wood states that the eyes are frequently absent, and when 
present they are generally numerous and collected in patches 
near the base of the antenne. The long, cylindrical-bodied 
Julus is the typical form of the suborder, while the flattened 
dilated Polydesmus is a more aberrant form. 

The mouth-parts are either, as.in Julus, formed for feeding 


POLYDESMID®. «677 


on decaying vegetable matter, or tube-like, as in Brachycybe 
and allies, the parts being converted into. a tube or beak. 


Giomerip# Leach. In this group the eyes are arranged in 
a linear series, and the antenne are placed on the front of the 
head. The body is half-cylindrical, short and plump, with from 
twelve to thirteen segments. The head is large and free, with 
the first thoracic ring small, while the last abdominal ring is 
large and shield-shaped. ‘The genital openings in both sexes 
are situated just behind the insertion of the second pair of 
limbs. In Glomeris the body consists of twelve rings and 
seventeen pairs of limbs, while in Spherotherium the body is 
made up of thirteen rings and twenty-one pairs of feet. The 
species are exotic, Glomeris marginata Latreille being found 
in Europe, and the Spherotheria in the tropics. 


PotypEsMID# Leach. In this group the body is. much flat- 
tened, the sterna overarching the scuta, to which they are 
closely cemented, and the scuta are furnished with lateral 
laminee. ‘The head is large and massive, the absence of eyes 
and the small antennze point to a state of low development of 
the special senses. The female genitalia are placed in the 
third segment, just posterior to the second pair of legs. They 
are generally more or less hidden within the body ; 
the male organs are situated in the seventh segment, +=j-— 
replacing the eighth pair of legs. They generally == 
project from the body so as to be very prominent.” 
(Wood.) 

In Polydesmus the body is much flattened, with broad 
lateral expansions to. the rings. Polydesmus Cana- = 
densis Newport is deep brown, with pubescent scarcely 
clavate antennze; each of the scuta have eight scales, 
arranged in a double series. The male appendages Fig. 
are hairy, with a curved terminal spine of moderate length. 
The female appendages ‘consist of a pair of bodies shaped 
somewhat like the crest of a helmet. Along their free margin 
is an opening surmounted by a double series of teeth-like pro- 
cesses. It is found in the Northern and Middle States. P. 
erythropygus Brandt (Fig. 649) inhabits the Middle and 


678 CHILOGNATHA. 


Western States. In Polyxenus the body is short, clothed with 
short penicillate scales, and there are thirteen pairs of feet.: 
(These scales, or hairs, as has been remarked to us by Mr. 
Sanborn, are remarkably like the hairs of Dermestes, and this 
homology is another proof that the Myriapods are an order of © 
the class Insecta.) P. fasciculatus Say is about a tenth of an- 
inch in length. It has been detected by Mr. Sanborn under 
the bark of trees near Boston, and I have found it in Salem in 
the same situations, and also at Nantucket. 


» JutiwH% Leach. Thousand Legs. Millepedes. This group 
embraces the typical species of this suborder. The body is: 
almost perfectly cylindrical, with the sternum greatly reduced 
in size, those of the posterior subsegments being almost: 
absent, while the tergum is greatly in excess. The head is 
large, with often rather long and filiform antennz, and simple 
eyes arranged in variously shaped patches near the base of 
the antenne. 

In Julus the body is slender and seldom more than three 
inches long; the sides of the first scutum are produced in 
the female, while the antennz are long and filiform. Wood 
says the males are ‘‘ farther distinguished by a peculiar altera- 
tion of the first pair of feet, which are transformed into a pair 
of very large, thick organs,” which probably serve as clasping 
appendages. Julus is found commonly under sticks, ete. It 
is long, cylindrical, hard, with numerous feet, short and weak, 
attached to the under surface of the body nearly in the middle 
of the abdomen. The antenne are short and filiform. They 
crawl rather slowly, and at rest curve the body into a ring. 
They live on vegetable substances, or eat dead earth-worms or 
snails. ‘‘In the spring the female deposits her eggs in masses 
of sixty or seventy, in a hole excavated for the purpose under 
the ground ; after three weeks or more the young make their 
appearance.” (Van der Hoeven.) Newport states that when 
hatched the young Julus consists of eight rings, including the 
head. The body of the embryo, seen from above, is com- 
pressed and wedge-shaped, being broadest at the second and 
third segments. For many days (seventeen) after hatching, 
the embryo is surrounded by a membrane which Newport re- 


JULIDA.: :; 679 


gards as the analogue of the amnion, or vitelline membrane, 
of the vertebrates. This membrane is at the end of the body. 
connected with another, which in the unburst shell is external 
to the ‘‘amnion,” and lines the interior of the shell. New- 
port compares this with the chorion of vertebrates. Before the 
amnion is thrown off the embryo moults, 
and six new segments appear (Fig. 650, 6), 
and minute tubercles bud out on the under 
surface of the six and seventh rings, as at a. 
The new segments are always developed be- 
tween the last and penultimate ones, as has 
been observed in the worms, the crustacea, 
the spiders, and as I have observed in the em- 
bryo of the Dragon-fly. In the young Julus 
no legs grow out on the third segment from 
the head, but the outlet of the oviduct of 
the female is placed on this segment. The 1p HED. 
male organs find their outlet on the sixth ring from the head. 
/ Julus Canadensis Newp. is brownish chestnut, ornamented 
with a black dorsal line, and a lateral row of black dots. The 
body consists of fifty-three segments. It is found 
in the Northern States and Canada. 

J. multistriatus Walsh (Fig. 651) inhabits the 
Western States. The genus Spirobolus has a much 
larger, thicker body, and a rather small head, with 
short antennz, often lying partially hidden in a 
groove in the side of the head. Sptrobolus margi- 
natus Say is deep brown, annulated with red, and 
consists of from fifty-three to fifty-seven segments. 
The male appendages are described by Wood as 
formed of two outer parts, and a connecting yoke-like 
piece. 

To this family without much doubt, as Dr. Dawson 
states, belongs the Xylobius sigillarie of Dawson 
(Plate 1, fig. 4) from the Lower Carboniferous rocks Fis. 1. 
of Nova Scotia. This, in its short, thick antenne, and small 
head, rather approaches Spirobolus than Julus, though the 
antenne are shorter, while the twelve ocelli represented in Dr. 
Dawson’s figure (Air-Breathers of the Coal Period. Montreal, 


680 CHILOGNATHA. 


1863. Plate vi, fig. 58-61) are arranged much as in S. margi- 
natus. It differs remarkably, however, in the raised posterior 
margin of the segments, giving a serrate outline to the body, 
while the body tapers more rapidly towards each end than 
any recent form known to us. In this respect it seems to 
combine the characters of the present family and that of 
Spirostrephon, a genus in many respects intermediate between 
the Polydesmide and the Siphonantia, or sucking Myri- 
apods. Four spiracles are represented on the tenth to the 
thirteenth segments from the head. 

The genus Spirostrephon is in many respects intermediate 
between this and the succeeding family. The head is free, as 
in Polydesmus, but the sterna are soft as in the Siphon- 
antia. 


SrpHonanTiA Brandt. In the sucking Myriapods (Sugantia 
of Brandt) we meet with the lowest, most vegetative, worm- 
like forms of the order. According to Wood the head is very 
small and concealed beneath the prothoracic ring. The parts 
of the mouth are fused and united into a sucking tube for the 
imbibition of fluids. The eyes are either present or absent, 
and the scuta, or tergites, may be prolonged laterally into 
laminze which afford protection only to the back and flanks, 
the central part of the abdomen being soft. The feet are 
small and hidden beneath the broad body, while the male ap- 
pendages are placed on the seventh segment. 

In the genus Octoglena the eyes are eight in number, 
arranged in two converging rows. O. bivirgata Wood is 
brown, with a reddish stripe on each side, with about forty- 
five segments to the body. 

In Brachycybe the rostrum is acute, much shorter than the 
antennee, while the body is broad and flattened. The male 
appendages, or clasping organs, are, as shown in Dr. Wood’s 
figures, simply modified feet adapted for clasping purposes, 
as they are in Polydesmus, and are, therefore, not homologous 
with the male appendages of insects, which are differently de- 
veloped and grow out from a different portion of the segment. 
The Brachycybe Lecontei of Wood is from Georgia, and has 
long lateral expansions to the tergites. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDER. 


TuHIS calendar applies mostly to the New England states, where the appearances 
of the insects here enumerated have been recorded. It should be borne in mind that 
the season of New York city is about two weeks in advance of that of Boston, 
and that of Virginia and Illinois about a month or six weeks earlier. It is designed 
to be of special use to farmers and gardeners as indicating the times of appear- 
ance of injurious insects. When only the generic name is given several species 
appear simultaneously. The reader in noticing an insect mentioned here can turn 
to the index and find in the body of the work an account of its habits. 


MARCH. 


Bombus, queens; a few Ichneumons and Chalcids; Vanessa; Grapta; a few 
specimens of Noctuidz, Tortricidz and Tineidz; Ephippophora caryana; Canker 
worm, females and males; Anthomyia; Tachina; Chironomus; Anophiles; Bibio; 
Chionea; Valga, on the snow; Trichocera hiemalis; Cicindelw and Carabide; 
Dytiscidz, and other water beetles; Aquatic Hemiptera; Capnia and Tzniopteryx; 
Boreus. ' 


APRIL. % 


1st-15th.— Formica; Brephos; Adela, on willows; Aphodius; Ptinus fur; Der- 
mestes; Anthrenus; Attagenus; Epurea; Ips; Eilychnia; Larva and female of 
Meloé on bodies of wild bees and wasps; Ceuthophilus. 

16th-30th.— Polyommatus; Lyczna; Thecla; Coddling moth (Carpocapsa); mos- 
quitoes and larve; Bombylius; Burying beetles; Euryomia Inda; Buprestids; 
Chalcophora Virginica; Castings of Saperda candida; Cylindrical bark borers 
(Lomicus, Xylographa); Hylurgus; Pissodes strobi; Hylobius pales; Phytocoris. 


MAY. 


Ist-15th.— Xylocopa, Ceratina, Osmia, Andrena and Halictus. nesting; Colias; 
Argynnis Bellone; Melitea Myrina; Chrysophanus Phileas; Clisiocampa larva 
hatching out; Scoliopteryx; Drasteria; Coremia; Gooseberry Pempelia; Tipulide; 
Hessian-fly and Wheat-midge; Cecidomyia; Syrphus; Eristalis; Squash beetle; 
Plum weevil; Hister; Clerus; Elater; Limonius; Cratonychus; Meloé; Calli- 
grapha; Cidipoda corallina; Tragocephala infuscata, viridifasciata; Libellula; 
Hemerobius. 

18th-3lst.—Cynips; Selandria rose and cerasi, laying eggs; Strawberry Emphy- 
tus larva; Papilio Turnus; Pontia oleracea; Melitza Phaéton, larva; Argynnis; 
Thanaos; Hesperia; Alypia octomaculata; Sphinx; Ceratomia 4-cornis; Sesia; 
Hyphantria textor; Arctia; Leucarctia; Agrotis and cut-worms; Hypena humuli, 
hop-vine worm; Grapholitha and other leaf-rolling lary on apple and pear; Vine 
Penthina larva; Carpet moth; Chrysops; Geotrupes; Haltica on turnip, tomato, 
cucumbers, etc; Apion; Asemum mestum; Gastrophysa ceeruleipennis; Galleruca. 


(681) 


652 ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDER. 


JUNE. 


1st-15th.—Pristophora identidem, cranberry fly larva; Nematus ventricosus, 
larva; Cynips; Eurytoma hordei in straw; Pteromalus; Abia, larva; Papilio As- 
terias; Kudamus Tityrus; Smerinthus; Abraxas ribeavia; Scotosia undulata; 
Antithesia pruniana, larva; larve of Lithocolletis salicifoliella, juglandiella; Nep- 
ticula villosella; Cranberry Anchylopera larva; Strawberry Anchylopera larva; 
Grape Pterophorus larva; Anisota pellucida; Icthyura; Tabanus; Tephritis; 
Oscinis; Laphria; Asilus; Bot-flies; June beetle, Lachnosterna; Areodes lani- 
gera; Pelidnota punctata; Serica sericea; Apion Sayi; Macrodactylus subspin- 
osus, Rose chafer; Dicerca divaricata; Chrysobothris fulvoguttata and Harrisii; 
Alaus oculatus; Attelabus analis and bipunctulatus; Rhynchites bicolor; Arrhen- 
odes septentrionis; Telephorus;,Corymbites; various fireflies, Photinus and 
Photuris; Colorado potato beetie; Coccinella; Pemphigus vititolie; Apple bark 
louse, Aspidiotus conchiformis; Cicada rimosa; Gidipoda Carolina; Panorpa. 

18th-30th.—Megachile nesting; Pristiphora grossulariz, larva; Neonympha Eury- 
tris; Grapta Progne, larva; Cynthia cardui, larva, Atalanta larva; Limenitis 
Missippus; Nyimphalis Ephestion; Meiitea Phaéton, Pharos, Harrisii; Satyrus 
Nephele; Actias Luna; Eudryas grata, larva; Trochilium tipuliforme; Ageria exit- 
iosa; Platysamia Cecropia; Telea Polyphemus; Hypena humuli; Desmia maculalis; 
Crambus; Asopia costalis; Gooseberry Pempelia larva; Philampelus; Chero- 
cumpa; Halesidota; Datana ministra; Eacles imperialis; Citheronia regalis; 
Hyperchiria Io; Loxotenia rosaceana; Carpocapsa pomonella, larva; Limacodes; 
Locust Depressaria larva; Strobisia levipedella; Coleophora; Tinea, clothes-moth ; 
Cerura borealis; Bryophila; Pterophorus larve; Sarcophaga; Anthomyia raphani, 
radish fly; Scolytus pyri; Cerasphorus cinctus; Monohammus titillator; Anomala 
varians; Fidia viticida; Desmocerus palliatus; Hispa suturalis; Lytta cinerea; 
Grape Celiodes larva; Squash bug, Coreus tristis; Lecanium quercifex; Chinch 
bug; Thrips; Cicada 17-decim; Tettigonia rose; Chrysopa, Phryganea; Neuronia. 


JULY. 


1st-15th.—Wasps nesting; Pine Lophyrus larve; Meliteea Harrisii; Hesperia 
Hobomoc; Satyrus Alope; Deilephila; Darapsa; Harrisina Americana; Alypia 
octomaculata; Phragmatobia rubricosa; Pyrrharctia Isabella; Euphanessa; Ha- 
dena arctica; Catocala; Dahlia Gortyna larva, boring the stems; Phlox worm; 
Ennomos subsignaria, Angerona crotataria and many other Phalenidz: Phycita 
nebulo, and many other Pyralide and Tortricidae; Simulium; Cistrus; Ortalis 
flexa; Acinia; Limnobia; Monohammus scutellatus; Trichodes humeralis; Lep- 
tura Canadensis; Buprestis fasciatus; Grape Baridius; Reduvius; many Libel- 
lulz. 

16th-31st.— Pristiphora grossularie; Tremex Columba; Heteropterus margin- 
atus; Polyommatus Comyntas; Thecla falacer; Danais, larva; Argynnis Idalia 
and Aphrodite; Hgeria cucurbite ; Sphinx larvee; Utetheisa bella; Lithosia casta ; 
Ichthyura albosigma; Clisiocampa; Lagoa crispata, Xyleutes robinizw; Apatela 
Americana; Agrotis telifera, devastator; Hypena humuli, 2d brood of larve; Bra- 
chytenia malana; Antithesia pruniana; Pterophorus; Coleophora; Nepticula; 
Gracilaria; Elachista; Lema trilineata; Anthonomus prunicida; Eumolpus aura- 
tus; Prionus laticollis; Orthosoma unicolor; Leptostylus; Monohammus marmo- 
ratus; Lucanus capreolus, dama; Clytus; Saperda; Osmoderma scabra; Cran- 
berry Anthonomus; Tettigonia fabe; Clastoptera. 


AUGUST. 


Ist-15th.— Many bees and wasps; Crabronide; Nyssonide; Bembecide; Lar- 
rid; Sphex, Pompilus and other fossorial wasps; Cimbex larva; Pelecinus and 
various Chalcids and Proctotrypide; Gceticus makes its cocoon; Gortyna zex; 
Agrotis subgothica; Plusia; Heliothis; Northern Army worm (Leucania); Nepti- 


‘ ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDER. 683 


cula; Gelechia; Lyonetia; Phalenidze and Noctuide; Cranberry Antithesia; 
Saperda calcarata; Clytus; Tettigoni# and many other Hemiptera, Grain Aphis 
and other Aphides; Coccide; Phymata erosa; Cicanthus niveus; Chloéaltis; 
Acheta; Nemobius, and other grasshoppers. i 

16th-31st.— Orgyia; larvae of many moths and butterflies; Lycomorpha pholus; 
Apple Lithocolletis larva; Sac-bearing Lyonetia larva; Tomicus and other bark 
boring beetles; Girdler Oncideres ; Psocide ; second brood of Chrysopa. 


SEPTEMBER. 


Ants swarm; Males and females of Bombus; Nymphalis Disippe; Gastropacha 
Americana, larva; Limacodes, larva; Boll worm (larva); Zerene catenaria; Larvze 
of various Lithocolletis, Bucculatrix and other Tineids; Sciara larva; Carabide; 
Clytus pictus oviposits on locust; Meloé; Membracis bimaculata; Pemphigus rais- 
ing galls; Lachnus strobi. 


OCTOBER. 


Qceticus, and larve of various Tineids; Algeria pyri; Canker worm moth; 
Anisopteryx; Hibernia tiliaria; Bdellia somnulentella; Rhagium lineatum matures, 
but hibernates in its cell; Hemerobius, and larva. 


The Driver Ant, see p. 181 


Ths 
oy, 


GLOSSARY. 


Acuminate. Ending in a prolonged point. 

Anastomosing. Inosculating or running 
into each other like veins. 

Annulate. When a leg, antenna, etc., is 
surrounded by narrow rings of a dif- 
ferent color. 

Apodous. Foottess. 

dreolate. Furnished with small areas; 
like a net work. i 

Aristate. Furnished with a hair. 

Aurelia. Ancient term for pupa. 


Blastoderm. The primitive skin of the 
embryo. 

Blastodermic cells. 
the blastoderm. 

Bullate. Blistered. 


The cells forming 


Calcarated. Armed with spurs. 

Cancellate. Crossed by limes going at 
right angles to each other. 

Capitate. Ending ina knob. 

Carina. An elevated keel-like ridge. 

Carpus. The pterostigma. 

Cellule. A little space surrounded by 
veins on the wing. 

Chela. Terminal portion of a foot, with 
a movable lateral toe, like the claw of 
a crab or mandibles of arachnids. 

Chrysalis. The pupa of Lepidoptera. 

Concolorous. -Of the same color with 
another part. 

Ciliate. Fringed. [ashes. 

Cinereous. Ash color; color of wood 

Cingula. A colored band. 

Clavate. Club-shaped. : 

Coarctate. Contracted; compact. 

Confluent. Running into each other. 

Connate. United. 

Cordate. Heart shaped. 

Coriaceous. Leather-like, thick, tough, 
and somewhat rigid. 

Corneous. Of a horny substance; re- 
sem)ling horn. 

Crenate. . Scalloped, with rounded teeth. 

Cupreous. Coppery in color. 


Dentated. Furnished with teeth. 
Depressed. Flattened down. 

Dilated. Widened, expandéd. 
Dimidiate. Half round. 

Discal. Relating to the disk; discoidal. 


Edentulous. Destitute of teeth. 
Emarginate. Notched; terminating in an 
pa "wih Suu: 
ntire. ings) with a simple, not in- 
dented, Bde ae 
Epistoma. That part of the face between 
the front and labrum. 
Hruca. The larva. 


Excurved. Curved outwards. 

Exserted. Protruded; opposed to in- 
closed. 

Exuvia. Cast-off skin. 


Facies. Appearance, aspect. 

Falcate. Sickle-shaped. 

Fascia. <A stripe broader than a line. 

Fauna. An assemblage of animals peo- 
pling a region or country. 

Fenestrated. Marked with transparent 
spots surrounded by a darker color, 
like window panes. 

Ferruginous. Rust-colored. 


Filiform. Thread-like. 

Flavescent. Somewhat yellow. 
Flexuous. Almost zigzag. 
Foliaceous. Leaf-like. 

Forcipated. Forceps-like. : 


Fovea. A more or less rounded depres- 
sion. 

Free. Unrestrained in articulated move- 
ment; not soldered at the points of 
contact. 

Front. The fore-face, bounded by the 
eyes, the vertex, and often beneath by 
the epistoma, or clypeus. 

Fuliginous. Of the color of dark smoke. 

Fulvo-eneous. Brazen, with a tinge of 
brownish yellow. | deer. 

Fulvous. Tawny; color of the common 

Furcated. Forked. 

Fusco-testaceous. Dull reddish brown. 


Fuscous. Dark brown; approaching 
black. 
fusiform. Spindle-shaped; gradually 


tapering at each end. 


Ganglion. A centre of the nervous sys- 
tem, containing nerve cells, and re- 
ceiving and giving out impressions. 

Geminate. Arranged in pairs; twin. 

Gemmiparous. Asexual generation by 
new individuals arising as buds from 
the body of the parent. 

Glabrous. Smooth; opposed to hairy, 
downy, villous. ~ 

Glaucous. Gray; bluish green. 


Hamule. A little hook. 

Hastate. Halberd shaped. 

Haustellate. Furnished with a proboscis 
or tongue-like mouth. 


Hexapodous. Provided with six feet. 

Hirsute. Clothed with shaggy hairs. 

Hyaline. Transparent; of the color of 
water. 


Hypostoma. The clypeus in diptera. 


Incrassated. Thickened; swelled out on 
some particular part. 
_ (685) 


686 GLOSSARY. 
Infumated. Clouded. Reticulated. Marked like net work. 
Infuscated. Darkened with a blackish | 2evolute. Rolled backwards. 
tinge. Rostrum. The beak or sucking mouth- 
Interrupted. Suddenly stopped. parts in Hemiptera. 
Involuted. Rolled inwards spirally. Rufescent. Somewhat reddish. 
Irrorated. Fyeckled; sprinkled with | Rufous. Reddish. 
atoms. Itugose. Wrinkled. 
Lamelliform. Sheet or leaf-like. Sanguineous. Blood-red. 
Limbate. When a disk is surrounded by | Scabrous. Rough like a file; with small 
a margin of a different color. raised dots. 
Lamina. A plate or sheet-like piece. Scalloped. Edge marked by rounded 
Linear. Like a line. hollows, without intervening angles. 


Lineated. Provided with line-like marks. 


Mandibulate. Furnished with mandi- 
* -bles; opposed to haustellate. . 
Marginated. Surrounded by an elevated 

or attenuated margin. 
Membranaceous. Thin; skinny, 

semi-transparent like parchment. 
Mucronate. Ending ina sharp point. 
Mutic. Unarmed. 


and 


Nymph. Old name for pupa. 


Obcordate. Inversely heart-shaped. 
Obovate. Inversely ovate; the smaller 
end turned towards the base. 


Obsolete. Not distinct; or almost lost to 
view. 

Obtected. Covered. 

Ochreous. Of amore or less deep ochre 
color. 

‘Olivaceous. Olive colored. 

Operculum. <A lid; a small valvular ap- 
pendage. ; 

Oval. Egg-shaped. 

Ovate. More or less oval. 

Oviposition. The act of depositing eggs. 

Petiolated. Supported on a stem. 

Piceous. Pitchy,, color of pitch; shining 
reddish black. 

Pilose. Clothed with pile, or dense 
down. 

Process. A projection. 

Produced. Drawn out; prolonged. 

Pruinose. Frosty. 

Pseudova. Unimpregnated eggs, which 


produce young, as in those laid by 
virgin Aphides. 


Pubescent. Coated with very fine hairs, 
or down. 

Pulverulent. Dusty. 

Punctured. Marked with numerous 
small impressed dots. 

Raptorial. Adapted for seizing prey. 

Recurved. Curved backwards. 


Reniform. Kidney shaped. 


Sericeous. Having the surface with a 
silk-like gloss, usually from the pres- 
ence of minute, dense hairs. 

Serrated. Like saw-teeth. 

Setaceous. Bristle-like. 

Sesstle. Not stalked. 


Sinuated. Scooped out. 

Spinous. Armed with spines. 

Spurs. Stiff bristles, or spines, on the 
tibiee. 

Stria. A line usually depressed; some- 


times composed of punctures. 
Subaduncate. Somewhat hooked or 
curved. 
Subulate. Shaped like an awl. 
Sulcate. With groove-like excavations. 
Suture. A seam, or impressed line; 


usually between segments. 


Tawny. Fulvous; a pale dirty yellow. 

Teneral. A state of the imago (Neurop- 
tera) after exclusion from the pupa, in 
which it has not iully completed its 
coloring, clothing, etc. 


Tessellate. Spotted like a checker-board. 

Testaceous. Dull red; brick color. 

Tomentose. Covered with fine matted 
hairs. 

Truncated. Cut squarely off. 

Tuberculose. Covered with tubercle-like 
prominences. 

Uncinate. Hooked at the end. 

Unequal. Differing in size, or length. 


Unguiculate. Armed with a hook or nail. 


Valvule. A small valve-like process. 

Ventral. Relating to the under surface 
of the abdomen. 

Verticillate. Placed in whirls. 

Verriculate. With thickset tufts of par- 
allel hairs. 

Verrucose. . Covered with 
prominences. 

Villose. Clothed with soft, rather long 
hairs. 

Vulva. Orifice of the oviduct, 


wart-like 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


‘Beauy., Beauvois. Boisd., Boisduval. Burm., Burmeister. 
Dej., Dejean. 


Dahlb., Dahlbom. Den., Dennis. 
oltz. Fabr., Fabricius. 
and Robinson. Guen., Guenée. 
Herrich-Schaeffer. Hiibn., Hiihner. 
nXus. 
Sauss., Saussure. 
Fargeau. 


Frohl., Frohling. 
Gyll., Gyllenhal. 

Latr., Latreille. 
Mann., Mannerheim. Mels., Melsheimer. 
Schief., Schiefermiiller. 
Tellk., Tellkampf. Walk., Walker. 


Clem., Clemens. 
Erich., Erichson. Esch., Esch- 
Gray., Gravenhorst. G. and R., Grote 
Hald., Haldeman. H. Sch., 

Lec., Leconte. Linn., Lin- 
Pack., Packard. 


Oliv., Olivier. 
St. Farg., St, 


Schonh., Schonherr. 


Ne) HS 


‘Abdomen, 14. 

Abdominal legs, 21. i 

Abia caprifolium, 216. A. cerasi, 217. 

Abraxas ribearia, 321. 

Acanthocheir armata, 657. 

Acanthosoma grisea, 546. 

Acarida, 664. 

Acarina, 623, 631, 638, 639, 642, 644, 660, 638. 

Acarus ursellus, 368. 

Achlysia, 651. A 

Achorutes, 676. 

Achatodes zee, 311. 

Acidalia enucleata, 323. A. nivosaria, 323. 

Acilius mediatus, 435. 

Acoloithus Americana, 282. 

Acraea violx, 251. 

Acratus flavipennis, 454. 

Acrocera, 395. 

Acrocinus longimanus, 497. 

pemonyeta aceris, 305. A. oblinita, 304. 

Acrophylla, 573. 

Acrydii, 559, 567. 

Acrydium aleutaceum, 571. 

- Actias Azteca, 298. A. Luna, 234, 298. 

Adela Ridingsella, 348. 

Adelges coccineus, 523. 

‘ Adelocera obtecta, 460. 

Adelops hirtus, 439. 

Adranes czecus, 422, 440. 

Aigeriade,277. Algeria caudata, 278. Ad. 
exitiosa, 277. _ Ai. polistiformis, 278. 
Ai. pyri, 278. AX, quinque-caudata, 279. 
fH. tipuliforme, 27). 

ZEigialites debilis, 475. 

ADgialitide, 475. 

Aischna, ovipositor of, 16. Alschna, 579, 
581. Au. clepsydra, 602. Ad. constricta, 
602. Ai. heros, 604. AU. juncea, 598. 

Agabus, 435. 

Agamic reproduction, 49. 

Agathidium seminulum, 439. 

Agenia acceptus, 173. A. brevis, 173. 
A. congruus, 173. 

aeloves cuprealis, 329. A. pinguinalis, 


Agrion, 599, 601, 602. Ovipositor of, 16. 
A. Civile, 603. A. saucium, 603. 

Agrionina, 598, 603. 

Agriotes, 461. A. mancus, 461. 

Agriotypus armatus, 616. 

Agrotis, 243. -A. Cochrani, 306, 308. A. 
devastator, 306. A. subgothica, 306. 
A. Suffusa, 306. A. telifera, 306. A. 
tessellata, 308. 

Air-breathers, 679, 

Air vesicles, 42. ; 

Alaus oculatus, 460. 

Aleochara, 423, 440, 441. 

Aleurodes, 626. 

Aleuronia Westwoodii, 609. 


Alimentary canal, 34. 
Allantus basilaris, 224. 
Allecula, 475. 

Allotria, 213. 

Alucita, 202. A. polydactyla, 357. 

Alydus eurinus, 546. 

Alypia octo-maculata, 281. 

Alyson oppositus, 162. 

Amara, 433. 

Amblychila, 429. 

Amblynotus, 212. 

American Silk-worm, 195. 

American Tent Caterpillar, 343. 

Ammophila arenaria, 171. A. cementa- 
via, 171. A. hirsuta, 171. <A. luctuosa, 
ii A. sabulosa, 170, 171. A. urnaria, 
171. 

Amnion, 678, 679. 

Amphicerus bicaudatus, 471. 

Amphidasys cognataria, 322. 

Amphizoa insolens, 435. 

Amphizoidea, 434. 

Ampulex Sibirica, 166. 

Anagrus, 202 

Anal cerci, 22. 

Anal forceps, 21. 

Anal plate, 30. 

Anaphes, 202. 

Anarete, 378. 

Anarta algida, 316. 

Anaspis, 476, 

Anax Junius, 603. 

Anchylopera fragariz, 340. A. medio- 
fasciana, 338. A.nubeculana, 338. A. 
ocellana, 338. A. spiresfoliana, 338. 
A. vacciniana, 338. 

Andrena, 141, 142, 148, 145, 145, 408. A. 
vicina, 144. 

Andrenetz, 142. 

Andrenus marginicollis, 443. 

Angerona crocataria, 319. 

Angoumois Grain-moth, 350. 

Anisopteryx, 231. A. pometaria, 324. 
A. vernata, 200, 324, 325. 

Anisota rubicunda, 300. 
300. 

Anisotoma, 439, 

Anobium notatum, 47. A. paniceum, 131. 

Anomala, varians, 455. 

Anomalon vesparum, 127, 150, 195. 

Anomis xylina, 313. 

anomie arcens, 181. 


A. senatoria, 


A. Burmeisteri, 


Anopheles quadrimaculatus, 370. 
Anophthaimus Tellkampfii, 434. 

Anotia Bonnetii, 533. 

Antenne, 26. 

Antennary segments, 20, 68. 

Antherzea Yama-mai, 296. [447. 
Antherophagus, 445. <A. ochraceus, 131, 


(687) 


688 


Anthicidz, 476. 

Anthicus, 476. 

Anthidium, 135 

Anthocharis cardamines, 
dite, 46. 

Anthocoris insidiosus, 544. 

Anthomyia, 131. <A. brassice, 411. A. 
ceparum, 411. A. cunicularis, 411. <A. 
raphani, 411, A.urcana, 150. A. zex, 

_ AI, 419. 

Anthonomus cratzgi, 487. 
487. A. quadrigibbus, 487. A. scutel- 
latus, 437. A. suturalis, 487. A. syco- 
phantn, 487. A. tessellatus, 487. 

Anthophagus cesus? 442. 

Anthophora, 29, 141 205, 397. 
135. <A. megachilis, 206. 
136. 

Anthophorabia, 114, 135, 136, 202, 206. A. 
megachilis, 131, 137. 

Anthrax, 131. A. morio, 3897. 
osa, 132, 140, 397. 

Anthrenus varius, 448. 

Anthribide, 53. 

Anthrobia Mammothia, 645. 

Antispila, 342. ([338. 

Antithesia bipartitana, 333. A. pruniana, 

Ant lion, 611. 

Apatela ‘Americana, 504. 

Apathus, 131, 142. A. Ashtonii, 181. 

Aphidee, 112, 517, 519. 

Aphides, 48, 50, BA, 161, 202, 378. 

Aphidius, 198, 203, 521. A. avenaphis, 198. 
A. triticaphis, 198. 

Aphis, 69, 198, 203, 213, 872,879. A. aceris, 
521. A. avene, 522. A. brassice, 522. 
A. cerasi, 522. A. dianthi, 520. A.mali, 
522. A. malifolize, 522. A. persice, 522, 

Aphis lion, 609, 611. 

Aphodius fimetarins, 453. A. fossor, 453. 

Aphomia colonella, 329. 

Aphrophora quadrinotata, 532. 

Aphrosylus, 403. 

Apiarix, 115, 147. 

Apion Sayi, 485. 

Apis arCIaCey 117. 

Apochrysa, 79. 

Apoica pallida, 154, 156. 

Apophyllus, 50, 211. 

Aporus fasciatus, 174. 

Apple fly, 383, 414. 

Apple leaf crumpler, 331. 

Apple tree borer, 500. 

Arachnida, 104, 625, 632. 

Arachnids, 629, 630, 640, 648, 660. 

Aradus cr enatus, 553. 

Ayanea diadema, 193. 

Ayranee, 633. 

‘Araneina, 639, 644. 

Archegogry llus priscus, 564. 

Archetarbus rotundatus, 657. 

Archimulacris Acadica, 78. 

Archyptera, 24. 

Arctia, 239. A. Anna, 286. <A. caja, 63. 
A. pudiea, 284. A. virgo, 286. 

Arctians, 280. 

Arctisca, 667. 

Argas Persicus, 622. 

Argynnis Aphrodite, 255. A. Atlantis, 
252. A: Bellona, 253. A. Diana, 253. 
A. Idalia, 252. A. Montinus, 253. <A. 
Myrina, 253. 

Argyromizes quercifoliella, 353. 

Argyroneta, 633. A. aquatica, 649. 

Arma spinosa, 547. 


hermaphro- 


A. prunicida, 


A. abrupta, 
A. taurea, 


A. sinu- 


INDEX. 


Army worm, 77, 195, 197, 203, 386, 407. 

Arthromacra, 475. 

Arthromere, 9, 16. 

Articulata, 1, 3, 6. 

Ascalaphus, 54, 612. 
A. macaronius, 613. 

Asclera, 476. 

Asemum meestum, 496. 

Asexual forms, 49. 

Ash, mountain, slug, 222. 

Asilide, 395. 

Asilus 362. A. sericeus, 396. 

Asopia costalis, 328. 

Asparagus beetle, 76, 502. 

Aspatherium, 617. 

Aspidiotus, 50. A. conchiformis, 528. A. 
Harrisii, 530. 

Astata unicolor, 165. 

Asynapta, 378. 

Atax, 642, 661. A. Bonzi, 640. 

Athalia centifoliz, 44, 

Athous, 461. 

Atopa, 464, 

Atropos divinatorius, 589. 
rius, 589. 

Attaci, 234. 

Atta clypeata, 186. 

Attagenus pellio, 448. 

Attacus, 235. <A. Atlas, 
297. A. Mylitta, 296. 
A. Yama-mai, 296. 

Attelabus analis, 485. 

Attus, 194, 655. 

Augochlora purus, 143, 156. 

Aulacizes mollipes, 532. 

Aulacodes nigriventris, 195. 

Aulax, 212. 


Betisca, 595. 

Baétis interpunctata, 595. 

Balaninus nasicus, 485. 

Baridius trinotatus, 491. 
491. B. vestitus, 491. 

Bark lice, 11. 

Batrachedra salicipomonella, 352. 

Batrachidea cristata, 572. 

Batrachomyia, 406. 

Bat-ticks, £16, 118. 

Bdella Jongicornis, 660. 

Bdellide, 660. 

Bear animalcules, G68. 

Bed bug, 551. 

Bee killer, 396. 

Bee louse, 418. 

Bee moth, 382. 

Bee, venation of, 23. 

Belostoma, 80, 518. 
Haldimanum, 537. 

Bembecida, 164, 

Bembex fascia ta, 164. B. ‘oatbare 164. 
B. tarsata, 164. 

Bembidium, 422, 434. 

Beris, 392. 

“ Berna” fly, 412. 

Berosus, 438. 

Bethylus fuscicornis, 201. 

Bibio albipennis, 392. 

Bibionide, 391. 

Bicho, 390. 

Biorhiza nigra, 211. 

Bird lice, 554. 

Bird sarcoptids, 642. 

Bird ticks, 416, 417. 

Bite of insects, 43. 

Bittacomorpha, 54. B. clavipes, 884. 


A. hyalinus, 613. 


A. pulsato- 


296. A. Aurota, 
A. Pernyi, 296. 


B. sesostris, 


B. grisea, 537. B. 


INDEX. 


Bittacus, 54. B. pilicornis, 614. 

Black fly, 390. 

Blaps mortisaga, 473. 

Blastoderm, 55. 

Blastophaga grossorum, 207. 

Blatta, 194. B. Germanica, 481. 
entalis, 576. 

Blattariz, 575. 

Blattina, 574, 577. 

Blood, 37. 

Blue-bottle fly, 407, 408. 

Boarmia gnopharia, 322. 

Bolbocerus, 453. 

Bolbomyia, 392. 

B)letophagus cornutus, 474. 

Bolitobius, 441. 

Bolitophila, 385. 

Bombardier beetle, 432. 

Bombus, 53, 54, 65, 180, 132, 135, 146, 400. 

B. fervidus, 401. 

Bombus, head of, 30. 

Bombycide, 209, 234, 258, 285. 

Bombyliide, 395. 

Bombylius, 54, 154, 397. 

Bombyx Huttoni, 295 B. mori, 293, 294, 
295. B. neustria, 300. B. phedima, 384. 

Bonvouloiria, 447. 

Boreus, 493, 583, 585, 614. 
615, B. nivoriundus, 615. 

Bostrichus, 471. 

Bot fly, 25, 403. 

Bothropolys multidentatus, 674. 

Botys citrina, 330. B. verticalis, 330. 

scachinus fumans, 432. 

Brachyara, 392. 

Bvachycybe, 676. B. Lecontei, 680. 

Brachyderes, 498. 

Brachys, 459. 

Bracon, 197, 198. 

Braconide, 197. 

Branchie, 41. 

Brathinus nitidus, 439. 


B. ori- 


B. brumalis, 


B. varicornis, 


Od. 
Bzeaula, 46, 360, 388. 
Braula caeca, 127, 419. 
Beaulina, 418. 
Breeze-flies, 403. 
Brenthus septentrionalis, 485. 
Brephos infans, 316. 
Bristle tails, 622. 
Bruchide, 484. 
Bruchus fabi, 484. B. pisi, 484, 513. 
Buprestide, 159, 457. 
Pubs Carolinianus, 659. B. hirsutus, 
8) . 
Butterflies, hermaphroditism in, 288. 
Butterfly, venation of, 23. 
Butternut saw-fly, 22. 
Button-wood Tremex, 228. 
Byrrhide, 449. i 3 
Byrrhus Americanus, 449. B. pillula, 449. 
Byrsocrypta, 523. F 
Byturus unicolor, 448. 


Cabbage butterfly, 219. 
Cabbage maggot, 411. 
Caberodes metrocamparia, 320. 
Caddis or case-worm, 6, 615. 
Caddis-flies, 235. 
Caenis, 593. GC: hilaris, 596. 
Calandra, 489. 
Callalucia vermiculata, 283. 
Callidium antennatum, 496. 
Calligrapha Philadelphica, 509. C. scal- 
aris, 509. 
44 


689 


Gallimome, 212. 

Callimorpha Lecontei, 286. 
to-marginata, 285. 

Callimosema scintillana, 337. 

Callochlora chloris, 290. 

Cailosamia Promethea, 237, 298. 


C. interrup- 


Calosoma calidum, 431. C. scrutator, 
451. 
Caloptenus bivittatus, 570. C. femur- 


ruber, 659. C. spretus, 570. 
Calopterygina, 598. 
Catopteryx, 599, 601, 602. C. 
Calotermes Castaneus, 587. 
Campodea fragilis, 623. 
Campodee, 623. 
Campylomyza, 378. 

Canker worm, 70, 324. 

Canker-worm moth, 200. 

Capnia pygmea, 591. ° 

Capsini, 550. [550. 

Capsus Danicus, 550. C. quadrivittatus, 

Carabide, 421, 423, 424, 427, 430, 435, 437, 
445. 

Carabus auronitens, 432. C. serratus, 432. 

Cardo, 28. 

Carnus hemapterus, 418. 

Carpenter-bee, 152. 

Carpet moth, 347. 

Carpocapsa pomonella, 341. 

Carpophilus antiquus, 444. 

Carrion or Sexton Beetle, 438. 

Caryborus, 79, 80. 

Case-tly, 6. 

Casnonia Pensylvanica, 433. 

Cassida, 408. C. aurichalcea, 504. 

Cassidomyia, 408. 

Castnia, 280. 

Cataclysta fulicalis, 330. 

Catocala, 302. C. piatrix, 317. C. ultro- 
nia, 317. 

Catocha, 378. 

Catops, 439. 

Cebrio bicolor, 463. 

Cebrionide, 462. 

Cecidomyiz, 202, 205. 

Cecidomyia acrophila, 372. C. artemisiz, 
199. C. destructor, 3738, 374. C. fusci- 
collis, 372. C. glutinosa, 372. C. gros- © 
sulariz, 376. C. pavida, 372. C. pini- 
inopis, 376. C. rigid, 376. C. robiniz, 
499. C. salicis, 364, 373, 876. C. salici- 
brassicoides, 377. C. strobiloides, 377. 
C. tritici, 375, 376. C? vitis-coryloides, 
377. 

Cecidomyide, 371. 

Cecropia moth, 27, 234, 298. 

Cells of the Honey bee, 120. 

Cemonus inornatus, 161. 

Centipedes, 10, 673, 674. 

Cephalization, 9. 

Cephaloide, 476. 

Cephaloon lepturides, 476. 

Cephalothorax, 8. : 

Cephus, 215. C. abbreviatus, 227. C. tri- 

‘maculatus, 227. 

Cerambycide, 425, 426, 493. 

Ceraphron, 199. C.armatum, 200. 

Cerasphorus cinctus, 495. 

Ceratina, 143, 219. C. dupla, 134, 140. 

Ceratocampade, 299. 

Ceratomia Amyntor, 274. 

Ceratopogon, 371. 

Cerceris, 146. C. bupresticida, 159. C. 
deserta, 159. C. tricincta, 159. C. tuber- 
culata, 159. 


apicalis, 603. 


690 


Cercopide, 588. 

Cercopis, 532. 

Cercyon, 488. 

Cermatia, 670. C. forceps, 673. 

Cermatide, 673. 

Ceropalus bipunctata, 174. 
sonii, 175. 

Cetonia, 455, 457. 

Coumbopnilt maculatus, 565. C.stygius, 

65 

Ceutorhynchus, 489. 

Chalcidide, 202. 

Chalcids, 161, 207, 410. 

Chalcis albitrons, 203. C. bracata, 203. 

Chalcophora Virginiensis, 458. 

Chalicodoma micraria, 192. 

Chartergus chartarius, 154. 

Chartophila floralis, 403. 

Chauliédes pectinicornis, 607. C. rastri- 
cornis, 606. C. serricornis, 607. 

Chauliognathus Pensylvanicus, 467. 

Cheese maggot, 413. 

Chelifer, 639. C. cancroides, 659. 

Chelymorpha cribaria, 504. 

Chermes, 50,523. C. abietis, 525. 

Chernes. C. Sanborni, 659. 

Chernetidz, 658. 

Cherry slug, 222 

Cheyletus, 665. C. semenivorus, 668. 

Chigoe, 390. 

Chilocorus bivulnerulus, 513. 

Chilognatha, 671, 676. 

Chilopoda, 670, 672. 

Chilopods, 672, 676. 

Chinch bug, 543. 

Chion cinctus, 495. 

Chionea, 358, 559. C. araneoides, 383. C. 
valga, 333. 

Chionobas, 75, 262. C. Bore, 263. C. 
Calais, 263. C. Chrixus, 263. C. Jutta, 
263. C. no, 263. C. semidea, 263. 

Chigue, 390. 

Chironomide, 370. 

Chironomus oceanicus, 370. 

Chironomus larva, 21. 

Chitine, 1, 9. 

Chlenius, 434. 

Chlamys plicata, 510. 

Chloéaltis conspersa, 568. 

Chloéon, 594. 

Chlorion cyaneum, 167. 

Chlorops Herpinii, 415. C. lineata, 415. 

Cheerodes iran eyereava, 319. 

Chrestotes lapidea, 593. 

Chrysididee, 190, 199. 

Chrysis, 157, 191, 192. C. hilaris, 192. 

Chrysobothris temorata, ,458. C. Harrisii, 

Chrysomelide, 501. 

Chrysopa, 47, 79. 
lata, 611. 

Chrysophanus Americanus, 264. C. Thoe, 
264, 357. 

Chrysops niger, 393. C. vittatus, 393. 

Cicada canicularis, 163. C. Cassinii, 535. 
C. pruinosa, 534, C. rimosa, 534. C. 
septendecim, 535. 

Cicadellina, 531. 

Cicadide, 515. 

Cicindela generosa, 430. C. hirticollis, 
430. C. “punctat a, 430. CO. purpurea, 
ios: C. sexguttata, 430. C. vulgaris, 
43 

Cicindelide, 423, 428. 

Cidaria diversilineata, 325. 


C. Robin- 


¢ 


C. perla, 611. C. ocu- 


INDEX. 


Cillenum, 434. 

Cimbex Americana, 215. 

Cimex, 516. C. columbarius, 551. C. 
hirundinis, 551. C. lectularius, 551. C. 
pipistrelli, 551. 

Cioidz, 472. 

Circulatory system, 37. 

Cis, 472. 

Cistela, 475. 

Cistelidée, 425, 475. 

Citheronia Mexicana, 299. 
299. C.sepulcralis, 299. 

Cladius isomera, 226. 

Cladomacra macropus, 114. 

Cladura indivisa, 360. 

Clambus, 439. 

Classification of insects, 104. 

Clastoptera proteus, 532. 

Claviger, 440. 

Clavola, 25. 

Cleptes semiaurata, 192. 

Cleride, 438. 

Clerus, 468. C. alvearius, 469. 

Clinidium, 446. 

Clisiocampa, 156, 196, 343. 
cana, 207, 238, 301. 

Clivina, 482. 

Cloaca, 35. 

Cloé, 593. C. pygmea, 596. 

Clothes moth, 845. 

Clothilla picea, 589. 

Clover worm, 3828. 

Clubione holosericea, 1938. C. medicin- 
alis, 649. C. tranquilla, 649. 

Clypeus, 29. 

Clytus, 159. C. araneiformis, 497. C. pic- 
tus, 497.: C. robinie, 497. C.speciosus, 
496. 

Coccus cacti, 527. C. citri, 527. C. lacca, 

527. C. manniparus, 527. C. Gloverii, 5.7. 

Coccide, 112, 525. 

Coccinella bipunctata, 511. C. novem- 
notata, 512. C. trifasciata, 512. 

Coccinellide, 511. 

Coccophagus, 527. 

Coccus cacti, 526. 

Cochlidiz, 288. 

Cockchafer, 71. 

Cockroach, 194, 575. 

Cocoons of Silk Worms, 240. 

Coddling moth, 341. 

Coeliodes ineequalis, 490. 

Ceelioxys octodentata, 141. 

Ceelodasys (Notodonta) unicornis, 292. 

Coleophora — coruscipenuella, 301. 
rosacella, 351. C. roszfoliella, 351. 

Coleoptera, 420, 421. Antenne of, 422. 
Number of species of, 427. 

Colias, 244. C. interior, 251. C. Labra- 
dorensis, 250. C. occidentalis, 251. C. 
Philodice, 250. 

Collecting insects, 84. 

Colletes, 141, 143, 147. 

Colon, 36. 

Colorado potato beetle, 408, 508. 

Colpodia, 378. 

Colydide, 445. 

Colydium elongatum, 446. 

Colymbetes, 436. 

Common fly, 361. 

Comprehensive types, 54. 

Compsidea tridentata, 499. 

Condylodera tr icondyloides, 567. 

Coniopteryx, 625. C. tineiformis, 6c9. C. 
vicina, 609. 


C. regalis, 


C. Ameri- 
C. disstria, 301. 


INDEX. 


Conocephalus ensiger, 566. 

Conopide, 400, 418. : 

Conops, 131, 353. C. flavipes, 401. 

Conorhinus sanguisuga, 542. 

Conotrachelus nenuphar, 488. 

Copris, 47. C. Carolina, 451. 

Coptera, 201. C. polita, 201. 

Coranus subapterus, 541. 

Cordulia tenebrosa, 604. 

Cordulina, 584. 

Coreide, 542. 

Corethra, 65, 370. S 

Coreus marginatus, 544. C. scapha, 545. 
C. tristis, 545. 

Corimelzena pulicaria, 547. 

Corisiz, 512. 

Corixa interrupta, 536. 

Corn, insects injurious to, 306, 311, 350. 

Cornen, 25. 

Corydalus, 79. C. cornutus, 33, 579, 607. 

Corymbites eripennis, 462. C. viridis, 
462. -C. cylindriformis, 462. C. triun- 
dulatus, 462. C. hieroglyphicus, 452. 

Corynetes, 468. 

Costa, 23. 

Cotalpa lanigera, 455. 

Cotton Anomis, 313. 

Cotton Boarmia, 322. 

Cotton Heliothis, 315. 

Cotton Leaf roller, 335. 

Cotton Plusia, 312. 

Coxa, 20. 

Crabro, 146, 197. C. sex-maculatus, 159. 
C. singularis, 158, 160. C. stirpicola, 
158. 

Crabronidee, 149, 155, 157, 195. 

Crambidia pallida, 285. 

Crambus, 235. C. mutabilis, 332. 

Cranberry Anchylopera, 338. 

Cranberry Cidaria, 325. 

Cranberry Pristiphora, 217. 

Cranberry Tortrix, 334. 

Cranberry weevil, 487. 

Crane-flies, 380. 

Crepidodera cucumeris, 506. 

Cressonia juglandis, 274. 

Crickets, 562. 

Crioceride, 426. 

Crioceris asparagi, 502. 

Crocota ferruginosa, 285. 

Crossidius pulchrior, 495. 

Croton bug, 576. 

Crustacea, 636. 

Crustaceans, typical, 5, 7, 8. 

Cryphalus materarius, 493. 

Cryptocephalus, 510. 

Cryptocercus punctulatus, 576. C. mul- 
tispinosus, 190. 

Cryptophagide, 446. 

Cryptophagus hirtus, 447. 

Cryptus, 193, 197, 395. C? ornatipennis, 


Ctenistes, 422. 
Ctenocerus, 114. 
Ctenophora, 381. 
Ctenostoma, 428. 
Crenaene 239, 280. C. Virginica, 234, 


Cuckoo bee, 141, 147. Cuckoo flies, 191. 
Cucujide, 446. 

Cucujus, 446. 

Cucumber flea beetle, 506. 

Culex pipiens, 369. 

Culicide, 368. 

Cupes capitata, 470. C. cinerea, 470. 


691 


Cupeside, 469. 

Curculionide, 159, 378, 425, 426, 484. 

Currant Abraxas, 321. 

Currant Borers, 279, 500. 

Currant Pristiphora, 217. 

Cuterebra buccata, 406. C.cuniculi, 406. 
Me emasculator, 405. C. horripilum, 
406. 

Cut-worms, Remedies for, 308. 

Cychrus, 482. 

Cyclonotum, 438. 

Cyclopthalmus, 630. C. Bucklandi, 660. 
Cylindrotoma, 384. C. distinctissima, 
381. C.(Phalacrocera) replicata, 381. 

Cymatophora caniplaga, 304. 

Cymindis, 433. 

Cynipidee, 205, 208. 

Cynips, 50, 202. C. confluens, 209, 211. 
C. divisa, 209. C. folii, 209. @. galle- 
tinctoriz, 211. C. quercus-aciculata, 
208. C. quercus-futilis, 210, 211. C. 
quercus globulus, 210. C. quercus-pa- 
lustris, 211., C. querceus-papillata, 210. 
C. seminator, 210. C. tubicola, 210. 

Cynthia, 244. 

Cyphon, 464. 

Cyrtidze, 395. 

Cyrtophyllum concayum, 566. 


Daddy-long-legs, 380. 

Daihinia, 565. 

Danais, 245. D. archippus, 251. 

Dascyllide, 464. 

Dasypogon, 361, 395. 

Death’s head Sphinx, 284. 

Deciduous legs, 21. 

Deformities of Insects, 83. 

Degeeria nivalis, 625. 

Betlephila lineata, 275. D. chameenerii, 
276. 

Delphax arvensis, 533. 

Demodex, 626, 642. D. folliculorum, 69, 
667. 

Dendroides Canadensis, 477. OD. 
color, 477. 

Depressaria atrodorsella, 349. D. later- 
ella, 349. D. robiniella, 349. 

Dermaleichus pici-pubescentis, 666. 

Dermanyssus avium, 663. D. pipistrel- 
lee, 663. 

Dermaptera, 577. 

Dermetobia moyocuil, 406. D. noxialis, 
406. : 

Dermatodectes bovis, 666. D. equi, 666. 
D. ovis, 666. 

Dermestes lardarius, 448. 

Dermestide, 448. 

Derodontide, 447. 

Desmia maculalis, 330. 

Desmocerus cyaneus, 506. 

Desoria, 625. 

Development of Insects, 54. 

Devil’s darning needles, 597. 

Dexia, 408. 

Diabrotica duodecim-punctata, 506. D. 
vittata, 505. 

Dianous, 442. 

Diapheromera femorata, 573. 

Diapria cecidomyiarum, 199. 

Diastrophus, 212. 

Dicerca divaricata, 458. D. lurida, 458. 

Dichelonycha elongatula, 454. 

Dictyoneura, 582. 

Dimorphism, 52. 

Dineutes, 79, 80. D. Americanus, 437. 


con- 


692 


Diplax, 55, 60, 600. D. Berenice, 605. D. 
Elisa, 605. D. rubicundula, 605. 

Diplolepariz, 208. 

Diplolepis confluens, 155. 
tus, 140. 

Diplonychus, 80. 

Diplosis, 378. D. socialis, 372. 

Dipneumones, 648. 

Diptera, 358. Number of species of, 267. 
Venation of, 360. 

Diseases of insects, 81, 344. 

Diving Beetles, 435. 

Dolerus arvensis, 222. ° 

Dolichopodide, 402. 

Dolomedes lanceolatus, 653. 

Dolopius stabilis, 461. D. pauper, 461. 

Donacia Kirbyi, 5J2. D. proxima, 502. 

Dor bug, 455. 

Dorcas brevis, 451. 

Dorcatomma, 422. 

Dorsal vessel, 37. 

Dorthesia, 526. 

Dorylus, 181. * 

Doryphora decem-lineata, 508. D. juncta, 
509. 

Dragon-flies, 584, 597, 630, 679. 

Drassus, 649. 

Drasteria erechtea, 317. 

Drilus, 466. 

Drop-worms, 318. 

Drosophila, 377, 414. 

Dryopteris rosea, 293. 

Ductus ejaculatorius, 44. 

Dynastes, 455. D. Hercules, 456. D. 
Tityus, £56. 

Dysdera, 633. D. interrita, 649. 

Dytiscide, 424, 435, 436, 437. 

Dytiscus, 53. D. tasciventris, 436. 


D. confluen- 


Eacles imperialis, 300. 

Earwigs, 577. 

Eburia ? Ulkei, 495. 

Echiniscus, 642. 

Echinomyia, 408. 

Keiton Mexicana, 186. E. Sumichrasti, 
186. 

Ectatomma ferruginea, 184. 

Ectobia Germanica, 576. E. lithophila, 
576. 

Edema albifrons, 292. 

Eggs, 46. 

Egg-parasites, 198. 

Hiphosoma annulatum, 195. 

Elachista ? orichalcella, 352. 

Elaphrus, 451. 

Elasmocerus terminatus, 468. 

Elater, 460. E. obliquus, 461. 

Elateride, 421, 425, 459. 

Elephantomyia Westwoodii, 383. 

Elis costalis, 177. 

Ellema Harrisii, 271. 

Ellopia, 318. E. fasciaria, 320. E. flagit- 
jaria, 320. 

Elm butterfly, 260. 

Elm Ennomos, 321. 

Elm Tremex, 228. 

Elmis, 450. 

Elodes, 473. 

Embia Savigni, 588. 

Embide, 588, 5388. 

Emesa longipes, 541. 

Emmenadia, 481. — 

Emphytus maculatus, 220. 

Empide, 402. 

Empis, 361. 


INDEX. 


Empretia stimulea, 289. 

Empusa, 575. 

Emydium testudo, 669. 

Encyrtus, 223. E. Botus, 207. 
207. KE. varicornis, 207. 

Endomychide, 510. 

Endropia tigrinaria, 320. 

Ennomos magnaria, 321. E. subsignaria, 
321. 

Enoicyla pusilla, 616. 

Entomological journal, 103. 

Entomological systems, 106. 

Entomological works, 97. 

Entomostraca, 616. 

Eoscorpion carbonarius, 660. 

Epeira domiciliorum, 651. E. yulgaris, 
631, 651. 

Epeolus, 141. E. variegatus, 147. 

Ephemera decora, 594. 

Ephemeridee, 578, 580, 581, 583, 593. 

Ephemerids, 583, 593. 

Ephemerina, 583. 

Ephemerites, 594. 

Ephydra halophila, 414. 

Epicranium, 29. 

Epidosis, 3872, 378. 

Epilachna borealis, 513. 

Epimera, 9. 

Epipharyx, 20, 29. 

Epipone nitidulans, 203. 

Epirus, 401. 

Episternum, 9. 

Epurea, 445, 446. 

Erastria carneola, 316. 

Erebus Agrippina, 318. E. odora, 318. 

Eremophila Ehrenbergi, 575. 

Erioptera venusta, 383. 

Eriosoma lanigera, 522. 

Eristalis, 398. 

Ernobius mollis, 471. 

Erotylide, 510. 

Erythroneura vitis, 532. 

Eucera, 141. E. maculata, 136. 

Eucerceris zonatus, 159. 

Eucheira socialis, 244. 

Euchroma Columbica, 459. 

Euclea Monitor, 289. 

Euchronia Maia, 299. 

Eucnemis, 460. 

Eudamus Bathylus, 269. E. Tityrus, 269. 

Eudryas, 280. E. grata, 281. E. unio,.282. 

Eugereon Beckingi, 54, 78, 582. 

Eulophus basalis, 207. 

Eumenes, 147, 155,156. E: coarctata, 207. 
E. fraterna, 156. E. tinctor, 192. 

Eumolpus auratus, 509. 

Euphanessa mendica, 285. 

Eupithecia miserulata, 325. 

Euplexoptera, 577. 

Eupyrrhoglossum Sagyra, 277. 

Euremia, 280. - 

Euryomia Inda, 457. 

Enryptychia saligneana, 337. 

Eurytoma, 203, 205, 212. E. flavipes, 205. 
E. hordei, 203, 205. E. secalis, 205. 

Euscirrhopterus Poeyi, 282. 

Euura orbitalis, 218. E. perturbans, 218. 
E. salicis-ovum, 218. 

Evagoras viridis, 542. 

Evagorus, 80. 

Evania, 194, 195. E. levigata, 194. 

Evaniide, 194. 

Eyes, 25. 


E. Reate, 


E. pyri, 525. 


Facets of eye, 25. 


INDEX. 


False legs, 17. 

False Scorpions, 632. 

Fatty body, 37. 

Fauna, 71. 

Femur, 21. 

Fidia viticida, 502. i i 

Fidonia piniaria, hermaphrodite, 45. 

Figites, 212. EF. (Diplolepis) 5-lineatus 
208. 

Figitidee, 212. 

Filaria, 83. 

Filistata hibernalis, 649. 

Fire fly, 462, 465. 

Fire-worms, 339. 

Fir saw fly, 224. 

Flagellum, 26. 

Flata, 112. F. limbata, 533. 

Flea, 11, 360, 388. 

Flesh fly, 407, 408. 

Flight of Insects, 32. ; 

Foenus, 194, 195. EF. jaculator, 195. 

Forest-flies, 416. 

Forficula, 54, 577. 

Forficulariz, 577. 

Formica flava, 183. F. fulvacea, 183. F. 
fusca, 180. F. herculanea, 183. F.Pen- 
sylvanica, 183. F. rubra, 183. EF. san- 
guinea, 180, 182, 183. 

Formicariz, 179. 

Formicomus, 476. 

Fornax, 460. 

Fossil Diptera, 368. 

Front of the head, 31. 

Fruit-worm, (Cranberry) 340.. 

Fulgora candelaria, 533. F. lanternaria, 
533. 

Fulgoride, 532. 

Fungus eating-flies, 199. 


Galea, 28. 

Galerita Lecontei, 433. 

Galeruca gelatinariz, 504. 
ella, 505. 

Galesus, 201. 

Galgudini, 539. 

Galgulus oculatus, 539. 

Galleria cereana, 332. 

Gall-flies, 199, 208, 371. 

Gall-midges, 199. ‘ 

Gamaside, 663. 

Gamasus coleoptratorum, 663. 

Gastropacha Americana, 300. 

Gastrophilus equi, 404. 

Gelechia cerealella, 350. G. fungivorella, 
350. G. roseosuffusella, 350. 

Gena, 28. 

Generation, organs of, 43. 

Genital organs, 16. 

Geographical Distribution, 71. 

Geological Distribution, 77. 

Geometra iridaria, 323. 

Geometridae, 303. 

Ceophilide, 675. 

Geophilus bipuncticeps, 675. 
icus, 675. G. proayus, 673. 

Georysside, 449. 

Georyssus pusillus, 450. 

Geotrupes, 663. G. splendidus, 453. G. 
stercorarius, 32. 

Gerris, 516, 539. G. paludum, 540. 

G. rufoscutellatus, 540. 

Gills, 41. 

Girdler, 498. 

Gizzard, 35. 

Glaucopis, 280, 283. 


G. margin- 


G. cephal- 


693 


Glomeride, 677. 

Glomevis marginata, 677. 

Glossina morsitans, 407. 

Glow-worm, 421. 

Glyphe, 203. 

Golden-eyed fly, 393. 

Goldsmith beetle, 455. 

Goliathus cacicus, 456. G. Drurii, 456.. G. 
Goliathus, 456. 

Gomphina, 584. 

Gomphus, 597. G. fraternus, 603. 

Gonatopus lunatus, 199. 

Gonia, 408. 

Gonocerus, 545. 

Gonyleptes ornatum, 657. 

Gooseberry Midge, 376. 

Gooseberry Pempelia, 331. 

Gooseberry Pristiphora, 217. 

Gooseberry saw-fly, 217, 219. 

Gooseberry worm, 331. 

Gordius, 82. 

Gortyna flavago, 310. G. nitela, 310. G. 
leucostigma, 310. 

Gorytes flavicornis, 163. 

Gracilaria, 342. 

Grain moth, 347, 350. 

Grain weevil, 490. 

Gramatophora trisignata, 304. 

Grape Acoloithus, 282. 

Grape Alypia, 281. 

Grape Anomala, 455. 

Grape Baridius, 491. 

Grape Borer, 278. 

Grape Cidaria, 325. 

Grape Desmia, 330. 

Grape Eudryas, 281. 

Grape Fidia, 502. 

Grape-leaf Flea beetle, 507. 

Grape-leaf folder, 330. 

Grape Penthina, 336. 

Grape Philampelus, 275. 

Grape Pterophorus, 356. 

Grape Thyreus, 276. 

Grape weevil, 490. 

Grapholitha, 337. 

Grapta c-argenteum, 260. G. comma, 260. 
G. Faunus, 260. G. interrogationis, 259. 

Graptodera chalybea, 507. G. exapta, 507. 

Grasshoppers, 555. 

Grease moth, 329. 

Green-head fly, 393. 

Grotea anguina, 197. 

Gryllide, 558, 562. 

Grylloralee borealis, 563. G. longipennis, 

Gryllus abbreviatus, 564. G. campestris, 
60. G. domesticus, 5%3. G. luctuosus 
554. G. neglectus, 564. G. niger, 564. 

Guest gall-flies, 212. 

Gyrinide, 424, 436, 437. 

Gyrinus, 422. G. borealis, 437. 

Gyropus porcelli, 555. 


Hadena chenopodii, 309. 

Hadenececus subterraneus, 555. 

Halesidota cary, 287. H. maculata, 287. 
H. tessellaris, 287. 

Halictus, 141, 142, 144,145. H.paralellus, 
145 


Haliplus, 436. 

Halonota simulana, 337. 

Haltica chalybea, 507. 
505. H. striolata, 507. 

Hamamelistes cornu, 523. 

Haplophlebium, 594. 


H. cucumeris, 


694 


Harpactopus, 157 

Harpactor SING, 542. 

Harpalus, 542. H. caliginosus, 420, 434. 

Harpax, 575. 

Harvest-men, 632, 656. 

Hatching of the larva, 61. 

Head, appendages of, 24. 
20. Structure of, 18. 

Hearing, organs of, 559. Sense of, 26. 

Heart, 37. Developinent of,,42. 

Hedychrum bidentulum, 191. HL. dimidi- 
atum, 192. H. lucidulum, 191. H. re- 
giumn, lL. 

Hegemon, 455. 

Helichus, 450. 

Heliconia Melpomone, 251. 

Helicopsyche, 616. H. arenifera, 619. H. 
glabra, 619. 

Heliocheilus paradoxus, 815. 

Heliothis armigera, 315. 

Helluomorpha prieusta, 433. 

Helochara communis, 532. 

Helophilus, 399. 

Hemeristia occidentalis, 77, 596. 

Hemeristina, 595. 

Hemerobiide, 237, 580, 583, 609, 622. 

Hemerobius, 581, 585. H. alternatus, 610. 
H. occidentalis, 610. 

Hemiptera, 514. 

Hemiteles, 193. 

Hepiali, 301. 

Hepialus, 11, 233, 
H. mustelinus, 302. 

Hermaphrodites, 45. 

Herminia jucchusialis, 328. 

Hersilla, 631. 


Segments of, 


Hesperia Hobomoc, 269. H. Mystic, 270. 


H. Wamnsutta, 270. 
Hespevians, 269. 
Hessian-fly, 200, 202, 207, 372. 
Heteerius, 443. 
Heteroceride, 450. 
Heteromera, 424. 
Heterometabolia, iii. 
Heteropus en eicosts: 186, 667, 668. 
Hexapoda, 21 
Hibernation, 42. 

Hickory girdler, 498. 
Hickory saw-fly, 224. 
Hickory tree borer, 495, 497. 
Hipparchia, 252. 


Hippobosca, 368, 364. H. bubonis, 417. 


Hi. equine, 417. 
Hippoboscide, 416. 
Hippodania Convex gens, 511. 

lata, 511. 
Hirmoneura, 395. 
Hispa rosea, 503. 
Histeride, 442. 
Hister interruptus, 443. 

443. 

Hockeria, 203. 
Homolota, 441. 
Homoptera lunata, 318. 
Homothetus fossilis, 77. 
Honey-ant, 184. 
Honey bees, 45, 50, 52, 116, 147, 361. 
Honeysuckle saw fly, 216. 

Hop butterflies, 259, 260, 265. 

Hop Hepialus, 302. 

Hop Hypena. 327. 

Hop-vine moth, 327. 

Horia sanguinipennis, 479. 
Hornet, 150. 

Horntails, 227. 


H. macu- 


Hi. suturalis, 504. 


H. merdarius, 


236. H. humuli, 302. 


INDEX. 


Horse bot fly, 404. 

Horse fly, 593. 

Horse tick, 417. 

House fiy, 40/, 409. 

Humble bee, 130, 131, 194, 198, 329. Sting 
of, 15. 

Ily alomyi ia, 404, 

Hybernia tiliavia, 325. 

Ilybos, 402. 

Hy bridity, 54. (661. 

Hydrachna, 631, 632, 660. H. concharum, 

Hy drachnide, 661. 

Hydrobius, 438. 

Hydrocampa, 329, 330. 

Hydrocoris, 518. 

Hydrometra, 539. 

Hydrophilidz, 424, 437. 

Hydrophilus, 422. 

Hydrophorus, 403. 

Hydropsyche scalaris, 621. 

Hylobates, 540. 

Hylobius pales, 486. 

Hylotoma McLeayi, 217. 

Hylurgus dentatus, 492. 
445. H. terebrans, 492. 

Hymenoptera, 107. 

Hypena humuli, 327 

Hyperchiria varia, 399. 

Hyperhomala virescens, 567. 

Hy permetamorphosis, 67. 

Hyphantria cunea, 287. 

Hypoder ma bovis, 405. 

Hypodermis, 63. 

Hy ponomeuta millepunctatella, 348. 

Hypoprepia fucosa, 284, 285 

Hyporhagus, 475. 

Hypselonotus, 80. 


Ibalia, 213. 

Icaria guttatipennis 121, 155, 156. 

Ichneumonide, 192. 

Ichneumon, 135, 146. 
I. paratus, 197. 

Idia Bigoti, 410. 

Idioptera, 360. 

Imago, 70. 

InequiteJe, 650, 

Tnostemma inserens, 201. 

Inquiline, 212. 

Insects bisexual, 45. 

Insect Crust, composition of, 9. 

Insect years, 76. 

Intestine, 35. 

Introduced species, 76. 

Toplocama formosana, 338. 

Ips fasciatus, 445. I. ferrugineus, 445. I. 
sanguinolentus, 445. 

TIsopteryx Cydippe, 591. 

Itch mite, 656. 

Ithomia, 251. 

Ixodidae, 661. 

Ixodes, 629, 632. I. albipictus, 662. I. 
bovis, 663, 668. I. ricinus, 663. I. uni- 
punctata, 662, 668. 


H. piceus, 438. 
H. triangularis, 438. 


H. piniperda, 


H. textor, 286. 
H. tavandi, 405. 


T. ovulorum, 200. 
I. suturalis, 196. 


Japyx solifugus, 623. 

Jassus irror atus, 532. 

Jigger, 390. 

Joint-\worm, 203, on 205. 

Juglans squamosa, 224. 

Julide, 671, 673, 678. 

Julus, 62, 671, 673, 676, 678. J. Canaden- 
sis, 679. J. multistriatus, 679. 

June beetle, 27, 455. 

Junonia coenia, 261. 


INDEX. 


Katydid, 536. , 
Killing insects for the Cabinet, 87. 


Labellum, 29. 

Labia minuta, 577. 

Labidomera trimaculata, 508. 

Labidus, 185. : 

Labium, 23. 

Labrum, 29. 

Lace winged flies, 609, 611. 

Lachlania abnormis, 595. 

Lachneides, 300. 

Lachnosterna, 27. Li. fusca, £55. 

Lachnus cary, 522. L. strobi, 522. 

Lacinia, 28. 

Lady bird, 511. 

Lemophleus adustus, figure of, 555. 

Lagoa crispata, 288. 

Lagviide, 475. 

Lamellicornia, 451. 

Lamellicorns, 425, 425. 

Lamprocolletes, 114. 

Lampyrida, 421, 425, 465. 

Lampyris, 465. 

Laphria, 54. LL. thoracica, 396. 

Large Black Cut-worm, 306. 

Larrada argentata, 165. 

Larra unicincta, 164. 

Larride, 164. 

Larve, preservation of, 95. 

Larva state, 62. 

Lasioptera, 378. L. rubi, 372. 

Lathridiide, 447. 

Lathridius minutus, 447. 

Leaf beetles, 5ul. 

Leaf cutter bee, 135, 135. 

Leaf rollers, 332. 

Lebia, 433. L. (Dromius) linearis, 14). 

Lecanium, 50, 526. ML. acericola, 528. L. 
hesperidum, 528. L. McClure, 528- 

Legs, false, 17, 21. Joints of, 20. 

Leiopus alpha, 497. LL. xanthoxyli, 497. 

Lema trilineata, 503. 

Lepidocyrtus albinos, 425. 

Lepidoptera, 229. Digestive system of, 
237. Nervous system of, 237. 

Lepisesia flavofasciata, 277. 

Lepisma, 578, 58), 622. L. sascharina, 623. 

Lepismatide, 622. 

Leptide, 394. 

Leptis vermilio, 395. 

qeplocerus niger, 620. L. sepulchralis, 
620. 

Leptoris breviornatana, 334. 

Leptures, 494. 

Lestes, 601. L. eurina, 603. 

Lestremia, 378. 

Leucania unipuncta, 196, 203, 305, 313. 

Leucarctia acrza, 286. 

Leucosomus ophthalmicus, 159. 

Leucospis atlinis, 203. L. Poeyi, 203. 

Leuctra tenuis, 591. 

Libellula, 578, 579, 581, 599, 602. L. auri- 
pennis, 599. ML. luctuosa, 84. LL. quad- 
rimaculata, 604. L. trimaculata, GOL. 

Libellulidz, 578, 579, 580, 581, 583, 597. 

Libellulina, 604. 

Libythea Bachmanii, 264. 

Lice, 553. 

Ligula, 28. 

Ligyrus, 425, 

Limacodes, 228. IL. scapha, 290. 

Limenitis Arthemis, 262. L. Ephestion, 
262. IL. Misippus, 261. 

Limnobates, 540. 


[95. 


Rearing of, 


Limnobia annulus, 382. 

Limnpop.na, 5381. 

Limnophila dispar, 383. 

Limnophilides, 617. 

Limnophilus flavicornis, 618. L. pellu- 
cidus, 618. UL. perpusillus, 617. Lb. 
rhombicus, 617. L. subpunctulatus, 
618. 

Limonius ectypus, 461. L. plebeius, 461. 

Linden slug, 222. 

Lingua, 2‘). 

Liotheum anseris, 555. 

Lipoptena, 417. 

Lithacodes fasciola, 290. 

Lithentomum I[arttii, 77. 

Lithobiide, 673. 

Lithobius Americanus, 673. 
tus, 673. 

Lithocolletis, 342. L. curvilineatella, 354. 
L. Fitchella, 358. L. geminatella, 353, 
304. L. juglandiella, 353. L. nidifican- 
sella, 354. L. salicifoliella, °53. 

Lithosia argillacea, 281. Li. casta, 284. 

Lithosians, 280. 

Livia vernalis, 531. 

Locustariz, 557, 564.. 

Locusta viridissima, 48, 557. 

Locusts, 564. 

Locust Depressaria, 349. 

Locust Eudamus, 269. 

Locust gall midge, 499. 

Locust tree borer, 497. 

Lonchea nigra, 413. 

Lonchoptera, 68. 

Longicornia, 493. 

Lophyrus, 114, 219. L. Abbotii, 226. L. 
abdominalis, 226. L. abietis, 224, 220. 
L. Americana, 226. L. compar, 226. L. 
Fabricii, 226. Li. insularis, 226, I. Le- 


L. forfica- 


contei, 226. LL. pinetum, 225. Li. pini- 
Vigidee, 225, 226. 

Louse, 11. 

Lozotenia fragariana, 335. -L. gossypi- 


ana, 3.5. L. rosaceana, 335, 336. 

Lubber grasshopper, 570. 

Lucanide, 425, 450. 

Lucanus dama, 451. L. cervyus, 32, 451. 

Ludius attenuatus, 461. 

Lycena comyntas, 265. L. neglecta, 265. 

Lycomorpha Pholus, 283. 

Lycosa, 627, 631. L. fatigera, 654. L.ta- 
rantula, 654. 

Lyctus opaculus, 472. 

Lycus, 465. 

Lyda inanita, 215. L. scripta, 226. 

Lydella, 642. 

Lygeide, 542. 

Lygeus, 542. L. turcicus, 543. 

Lymexylide, 469. 

Lymexylon sericeum, 469. 

Lyonetia saccatella, 355. 

Lystra auricoma, 533. L. lanata, 533. 

Lytta vittata, 480. L. cinerea, 480. L. 
murina, 480. LL. marginata, 480. 


Macaria granitata, 323. 

Machilis, 623. 

Macrobiotus, 669. Y 

Macrodactylus subspinosus, 454. 

Macrogiossa stellatarum, 277. 

Macrolepidoptera, 242. 

Macrosiagon, 481. 

Macrosila Carolina, 274. 
272. M. cluentius, 274. 
maculata, 272. 


M. cingulata, 
M. quinque- 


696 


Madarus vitis, 491. ? 

Mag dalinus olyra, 488. 

Malachide, 457. 

Malachius, 467. 

Male genital organs, 16. 

Mallophaga, 55t. 

Mamestra arctica, 311. 

Mandibles, 27. 

Mandibular segments, 20, 58. 

Mantide, 574. 

Mantis, 54. M. argentina, 575. M. Caro- 
Lna, 575. 

Manti-pa, 54,579. M. brunnea, 611. 

Mantispids, 5:2. 

Mantis tessellata, ovipositor of, 17. 

Masaris vespoides, 157. 

Mason bee, 138, 297. 

Maxille, 27. 

Maxillary segments, 20, 58. 

May flies, 593. 

Mazonia Woodiana, 660. 

Meat fly, 408. 

Mechanitis, 251. 

Mecistocephalus fulvus, 675. 

Mecynorhina Savagei, 455. 

Medeterus, 403. 

Megachile, 208, 397. M. brevis, 137. M. 
centuncularis, 135, 138. M. integer, 137. 
M. muraria, 191. M. Poeyi, 203. 

Megathenatomum pustulatum, 621. 

Melanactes, 452. 

Melandrya striata, 476. 

Melandryide, 475. 

Melanism, 75. 

Melanotus communis, 461. 

Melecta, 136, 141. 

Melipona, 128. M. fulvipes, 129. 

Meliten Anicia, 258. M. Chalcedon, 258. 
M. Havrrisii, 257. M. Ginone, 257. M. 
Pickardii, 255. M. Phaeton, 255. M. 
Texana, 258. M. Tharos, 255. 

Melittia cucurbite, 279. 

Mellinus bimaculatus, 162. 

Meloé, 6,131, 427. M. angusticollis, 478. 
M. violaceus, 478. 

Meloide, 477. 

Melolontha, 454. M. variolosa, 455. 

Melophagus, 46. M. ovinus, 418. 

Membranacei, 550. 

Mentum, 27, 28. 

Mermis albicans, 127. 

Merodon bardus, 399. 

Merope tuber, 615. 

Masochorus, 193. 

Metabolia, iii. 

Metapodius nasalus, 546. 

Methoca Canadensis, 178. 

Metoecus paradoxus, 481. 

Metrocampa, 318. M. margaritata, 320. 

Miamia Bronsoni, 77, 591. M. Dane, 593. 

Miastor, 25. M. metroloas, 51, 380. 

Micoceras, 53. 

Micralymma, 412.. 

Microcentrum, 553. 

Microdon globosus, 398. 

Microgaster. 193, 198, 203. M. nephopte- 
ricis, 131, 1°8. 

Microlabris Sternbergi, 659. 

Microlepidoptera, 242. 

Microlipus, 468. 

Micropeplus, 442. 

Microphantes, 633. 

Micropya, 47. 

Microtonus sericans, 476. * 

Midas clavatus, 395. M. fulvipes, 395, 


M. picta, 312. 


M. narcissi, 399. 


INDEX. 


Milesia excentrica, 398. 

Millepedes, 678. 

Milnesium tardigradum, 669, 
Miltogramma punctata, 147. 

Mimesa, 162. 

Mimetic forms, 53. 

Miris dorsalis, 550. 

Mischocyttarns labiatus, 155, 156. 

Mies 628, 652, 639. Transformations of, 


Mole cricket, 563. 

en eala Carolina, 164. 
64, 

Monodontomerus, 136, 205. 

Monohanmius scutellatus, 498. M. titil- 
lator, 498, 

Monomma, 475. 

Monommide, 475. 

Monotomide, 445. 

Mordella, 207, 476. 

Mordellidz, 476. 

Mordellistena, 476. 

Morpho Epistrophis, 262. M.Menelaus, 
2:2. M. Polyphemus, 262. 

Mosquito hawks, 597. 

Motions of Insects, 32. 

Musca, 641. M. (Calliphora) vomitoria, 
408. M. domestica, 409, 410. M. (I.u- 
cilia) Ceesar, 408, 409. M. yomitoria, 64. 

Muscardine, 82. 

Muscide, 164, 407. 

Muscles, 31. 

Muscular power, 32. 

Music of insects, 362, 561, 563. 

Mutilla, 176, 177. M. Europea,179. M. 
ferrugata, 179. M. occidentalis, 179. 

Mutillariz, 177, 181. 

Mycetobia pallipes, 387. M. sordida, 888. 

Mycetophagide, 447. 

Mycetophagus, 447. 

Mycetophila scatophora, 385. 

My cetophilide, 385. 

Mydaside, 395. 

Mygale avicularia, 648. 
648. M. nidulans, 648. 

Mygnimia Mexicana, 175. 
175. 

Mylacris anthracophila, 577. 

Mymar pulchellus, 201. 

Myobia, 641, 642. 

Myodites, 481. 

Myopa atra, 401. 5 

Myriapoda, 10, 104, 625, 670. 

Myriapods, 626, 627, 636, 670. 

Myrmecocystus Mexicanus, 184. 

Myrmeleon, 581, 611. M. abdominalis, 
612. M. obsoletus, 612. 

Myrmica molefaciens, 185. M. molesta, 
185. 

Myrmicariz,-181. 

Myrmosa, 177. M. unicolor, 178. 

Mysia 15-punctata, 512. 

Mystacides, 6. 

Myzine sexcincta, 177. 


M. 4-fasciata, 


M. Hentzii, 172, 
M. ustulata, 


Nabis ferus, 541. 

Nannophya bella, 605. 

Nautocoris, 516. 

Necrobia, 468. ‘ 

Necrophilus Surinamensis, 439. 

Necrophorus, 663. N. Americanus, 421, 
439. 

Nectarina, 153. N. mellifica, 154. 

Neides, 545. 

Nematocampa filamentaria, 390. 


INDEX. 697 
Nematus, 217. N. conjugatus, 214. N.| Gstrus, 363. C2. hominis, 406. CM. ovis, 
405 


grossularie, 214. N. trilineatus, 220. N. 

vertebratus, 219. N. ventricosus, 50, 
219. 

Nemobius vittatus, 564. 

Nemoptera, 610. 

Nemoura albidipennis, 591. — 

Neonympha, 262. N. Eurytris, 264. 

Nepa, 516, 518, 537, 538. N. cinerea, 47. 

Nephila plumipes, 651. 

Nephopteryx Edmandsii, 131, 198, 331. 

Nepidee, 537. ‘ 

Nepticula, 342. N. amelanchierella, 356. 
N. corylifoliella, 356. N. microtheriella, 
355. N. platanella, 356. 

Nerice bidentata, 292. 

Nervous system, 33. 

Neuronia semitasciata, 617. 

Neuroptera, 578. 

Neuroterus, 50. 

Neurotherius, 599. 

Nirmus, 555. 

Nitidula bipustulata, 445. 

Nitidulariz, 444. 

Nitidulide, 446. 

Noctua, 243. 

Noctuelitz, 302. 

Noctuide, 238, 303. 

Noctuids, 292. 

Nomada, 131, 141, 212. N. imbricata, 142. 
N. pulchella, 142. 

Nops, 644. 

Nothrus ovivorus, 664. 

Notocyphus, 173. 

Notodonta, 292. 

Notonecta, 516, 518. N. irrorata, 537. 
undulata, 537. 

Notonectidz, 536. 

Notoxus anchora, 476. 

Nudaria mundana, 285. 

Nycteribia, 358, 388, 626. N. Westwoodii, 
418 


Nycteribidz, 418. 

Nymphes, 79. 

Nyssia, 322. N. hispidaria, 54. 
Nysson lateralis, 163. 
Nyssonide, 162. 


Oak Biorhiza, 211. 

Oak Cynips, 210. 

Oak gall flies, 210. 

Oat-louse Aphidius, 198. 

Occiput, 29, 30. 

Ocellary segments, 20, 58. 

Ocelli, 19, 25. 

Ocinari, 295. 

Octoglena bivirgata, 680. 
2yptera, 408. ‘ 

Odontomachus clarus, 182. 

Odor of bugs, 545. 

Odynerus, 147, 154, 162, 206, 211, 401. O. 
albophaleratus, 155, 156. O. leucome- 
las, 156, 218. 

Gicanthus, 24. Gi. niveus, 564. 

Ciceticus, 231, 291. 

Gicodoma, 177. G:. cephalotes, 188, 189. 
@. Mexicana, 187,188. CE. sexdentata, 
189. C&. Texana, 189. 

Qicophylla smaragdina, 184. 

Gdemeride, 425, 476. 

Gidipoda Carolina, 571. G&. corallina, 
571. CE. xanthoptera, 571. 

Gsophagus, 35. 

Qstride, 403. 

Cistromyia, 405. 


N. 


Oil beetle, 478. 

Oligarces paradoxus, 51. 

Oligoneuria, 596. 

Olyntha ? 588. 

Omalium, 442. 

Omophron, 431. 

Omosita colon, 445. 

Omus, 429. 

Oncideres cingulatus, 498. 

Oncodes, 395. 

Onion fly, 411. 

Oniscus, 2. 

Ophion, 195. O. macrurum, 195. 

Opomalea brachyptera, 568. 

Ophthalmic ring, 19, 58. 

Orange belted horse-fly, 394. 

Orchelimum gracile, 168. O. vulgare, 24, 
168, 567. 

Orgyia, 70, 231. O. leu- 
costigma, 288. 

Oribates alatus, 664. 

Oribatidz, 632, 663. 

Ormyrus, 212. 

Ornithomyia, 417. 

Ornithoptera Priamus, 245. 

Ortalis, 360. O. flexa, 411. 


O. antiqua, 288. 


Orthoptera, 556. 


Orthosia, 2438. 

Orthosoma unicolor, 495. 

Oryetes nasicornis, 176. ©. simia, 176. 

Oscinis frit, 416. O. granarius, 415. O. 
vastator, 415. 

Osmia, 155, 206, 401. 
O. lignaria, 139. 
pacitica, 14], 156. 
simillima, 140. 

Osmoderma scabra, 457. 

Othniide, 447. 

Othnius umbrosus, 447. 

Otiocerus Coquebertii, 533. 

Otiorhynchus sulcatus, 487. 

Ovary, 35, 44. 

Oviduct, 35, 44. 

Ovipositor, 15. 

Ox Bot fly, 405. 

Oxybelus emarginatus, 163. 

Oxyporus, 442. 

Oxytelus, 442. 


O leucomelana, 138. 
O. lignivora, 139. O. 
O. paretina, 138. O. 


Pederus, 442. 

Palzxopterina, 591, 593, 596. 

Pale cut-worm, 310. 

Palingenia bilineata, 593, 594. 

Palpares, 583, 612. 

Palpiter, 28. 

Pangonia, 393. 

Panorpa, 54, 581, 583. 

Panorpa Germanica, 613. P. communis, 
613. P. rufescens, 614. 

Panopea carnea, 164. 

Panorpid, 622. 

Panorpidée, 580, 583, 613. 

Panorpina, 615. 

Panurgus, 141. 

Paper wasp, 148. 

Papilio, 54, 236, 237, 245. P. Asterias, 196, 
239, 245, 247. P. brevicauda, 245, 246, 
247. P. Daunus, 247. P. Glaucus, 53, 
247. P. Memnon, 53. P. Ormenus, 53. 
P. Pammon, 53. P. Philenor, 248. P. 
Romulus, 53. P. Troilus, 247. P. Tur- 
nus, 53, 240, 247. 

Papilionide, 75, 244. 


698 


Papirius, 625, 626. P. Saundersii, 624. 

Paraglossa, 29. 

Parandra brunnea, 494. 

Paraponyx, 330. 

Parnassius Smintheus, 248. 

Parnide, 450. 

Parnopes, 192. 

Parthenogenesis, 48. 

Pasimachus elongatus, 432. 

Passalecus mandibularis, 161. 

Passalus cornutus, 451. 

Patagia, 15. 

Pauropodide, 675. 

Pauropus Huxleyi, 675. 
tus, 675. 

Pea weevil, 4843 figure of, 513. 

Peach tree borer, 277. 

Pear slug, 222. 

Pear Treméx, 228. 

Pebrine, 82. 

Pedicia albivitta, 384. 

Pedicil, 26. 

Pediculina, 553. : 

Pediculus corporis, 553. PP. humanus 
capitis, 553. P. vestimenti, 553. 

Pedipalpi, 628, 644, 655. 

Pedipalps, 655, 657. 

Pelecinus polycerator, 195. 

Pelidnota punctata, 455. : 
Pelopzus, 174. P. cxruleus, 169. P. 
flavipes, 156, 169, 170, 408. 
Pempelia grossulariz, 331. 

bella, 331. 

Pemphigus formicarius, 524. P. formi- 
cetorum, 524. P. rhois, 524. P. ulmi- 
cola, 524. P. vagabundus, 524. 

Pentamera, 424. 

Pentatoma, 408. 
ligata, 546. 

Pentatomide, 516, 542. 

Penthina vitivorana, 336. 

Pepsis ¢yanea, 175. P. elegans, 175. P. 
formosa, 175. P. heros, 175. , 

Perga Lewisii, 215. 

Perilampus platygaster, 206. P. triangu- 
lavis, 206. 

Periplaneta, 194. P. Americana, 195, 576. 

Periphyllus testudo, 521. 

Peritracheal circulation, 39. 

Peritreme, 13. 

Perla abnormis, 590, 

Perlidze, 580, 581, 586, 590. 

Postabdomen, 56. 

Perophora Melsheimerii, 292. 

Pezomachus, 70, 1938, 194, 197, 203. 

Bezzotethix alpinus, 569. P. borealis, 
569. 

Phalacrocera replicata, 384. 

Phalacride, 444. 

Phalacrus, 444. 

Phalenide, 234, 318. 

Phalangide, 627, 632, 656, 657. 

Phalangids, 655. 

Phalanginum dorsatum, 656. 
cosum, 657. 

Phanzus, 424. P. carnifex, 453. 

Phaneroptera curvicauda, 566. 

Pharynx, 35. 

Phasma 4-guttatum, 573. 

Phasmida, 572. 

Pheidole notabilis, 185. 

Oe 

Phenax variegata, 533. 

Phengodes plumosa, 467. 

Phigalia pilosaria, 54. 


P. pedunceula- 


P. semiru- 


P. tristigma, 546. P. 


P. ventri- 


P. providens, 


| Platysamia, 293. 


INDEX. 


Philampelus vitis, 275. 

Philanthine, 157, 158. 

Philanthus. 146, 442. 
P. ventilabris, 8, 158. 

Philopotamus, 621. 

Philopterus, 555. 

Phloéa corticata, 547. 

Phlceothrips carye, 549. P. mali, 549. 

Phlox worm, 315. 

Phobetrum, 289. P. pithecium, 290. 

Phodaga alticeps, 480. 

Pholcus, 636, 639. P. Atlanticus, 650. 

Phora incrassata, 127, 416. 

Photinus pyralis, 466. 

Photuris Pensvlyanica, 466. 

Phryganea grandis, 616, 617. 

Phryganeidz, 236, 580, 581, 582, 583, 615. 

Phryganeids, 290, 586. 

Phryganide, 193. 

Phryganidia, 290. 

Phrynide, 629, 657. 

Phrynus, 639. P. asperatipes, 658. P. 
reniformis, 655. 

Phthirius pubis, 554. 

Phycita nebulo, 331. 

Phyllium siccifolium, 574. 

Phyllophorus testudinatus, 521. 

Phylloptera oblongifolium, 566. 

Phyllotreta striolata, 507. 

Phymaphora pulchella, 511. 

Phymata, 552. 

Phytocoris, 516. P. linearis, 550. 

Pieris, 54, 237, 361. P. oleracea, 249. P. 
Protodice, 249. P. rap, 76, 249. 

Pill beetles, 449. 
Pimpla, 193, 196. 
ovivora, 193. 

fata, 193. 
Pine Lophyrus, 226. 
Pine saw-fly, 224. 
Pinning insects, 88. 
Piophila easei, 413. 
Pipunculus, 401. 
Pique, 390. 
Pirates biguttatus, 541, 
Pissodes strobi, 486. 
Planiceps niger, 174. 
Plant-lice, 198, 397, 400, 519. 
Platephemera antiqua, 77, 594. 
Plateeceticus Gloverii, 291. 
Platygaster, 200, 325, 375. 
376, P. tipule, 201, 376. 
Platymodes Pensylvanica, 576. 
Platynus cupripenne, 433. 
Platypeza, 402. 
Platypteryx geniculata, 293. 
Platypus, 440. 
Platyroptilon Miersii, 385. 
P. Cecropia, 234, 298. 


P. apivorus, 158. 


P. Fairmairii, 193. P. 
P. pedalis, 196. P. ru- 


P. picipes, 541. 


P. error, 201, 


P. Euryale, 298. 

Plecia, 80. 

Plectrodes pubescens, 454. 

Pleurite, 9. 

Ploa, 516, 537. 

Ploiaria brevipennis, 540. 

Ploteres, 539. 

Plume moths, 356. 

Plum gonger, 487. 

Plum slug, 222. 

Plum weevil, 488. ' 

Plusia alticola, 313. P. divergens, 313. 
P. ignea, 313. P. montana, 313. P. 
precationis, 312. 

Podura, 11, 615, 62-4. 

Podure, 623, 625. 


INDEX. 


Poduride2, 6238, 624. 

Peecilocerus, 560. 

Poison glands, 43. 

Poison of insects, 48. 

Polistes, 121, 147, 149. BP. annularis, 151, 
156. P. Canadensis, 151, 152, 153. P. 
lanio, 153. 

Polybia, 153, 154, 155. 

Polydesmide, 677. 

Polydesmus, 676. P. Canadensis, 677. P. 
erythropygus, 677. 

Polyergus rufescens, 182. 

Polynema ovulorum, 202. 

Polyphemus, 240. 

Polyphylla, 455. 

Polyrhachis arboricola, 184. 

Polysteechotes, 12, 236. P. nebulosus, 
585. P. punctatus, 611." 

Polyxenus fasciculatus, 678. 

Pompilide, 114, 171. 

Pompilus, 25. P.arctus, 173. P.audax, 
401. BP. cylindricus, 173. P.formosus, 
172. P.funereus, 174. P. Marie, 173. 

Ponera, 179. P. ferruginea, 182. 

Postscutellum, 11. 

Potamanthus cupidus, 595. 
tus, 595. 

Potato beetle, 503, 508. 

Potato-stalk weevil, 49. 

Prescutum, 11. 

Preservative fluids, 89. 

Preserving insects, 84. 

Prestwichia, 114. 

Priocera undulata, 468. 

Priocnemis unifasciatus, 178. 

Prionida, 494. 

Prionocyphon discoideus, 464. 

Priononyx Thome, 167. 

Prionus brevicornis, 495. 


P. margina- 


Prisopus flabellicornis, 573. P. spini- 
ceps, 573. 

Pristiphora grossularie, 217. P. identi- 
dem, 217. P. idiota, 217. P. syco- 


phanta, 218. 
Procephalic lobes, 55. 
Proconia quadrivittata, 532. 
Proctotrupes, 199. 
Proctotrupid fly, 131. 
Proctotrupii, 198. 
Proctotrypidz, 198. 
Promus, 473. 
Prophets, 574. 
Propodeum, 66. 
Prop-legs, 21. 
Proscopia gigantea, 572. 
Prosopis affinis, 143. P. elliptica, 143, 
Prostemma guttata, 541. P. guttula, 539. 
Protolycosa, 643. 
Protoplasma Fitchii, 385. 
Proventriculus, 35. 
Psammotherma, 114. 
Pselaphide, 439, 440. 
Pselaphus, 422, 440. 
Psen caliginosus, 191. P. leucopus, 162. 
Psenides. 211. 
Reenecarus pini, 399. P. supernotatus, 
Psephenus econtei, 450. 
Paci domme bicolor, 187. 

87. 

Pseudoscorpiones, 658. 
Pseudovarium, 49. 
Pseudovum, 49. 
Psoci, 658. 
Psocide, 583, 588. 


P. flavidula, 


699 


Psocus, 54, 69. P. pulicarius, 589. P. 
salicis, 590. P.yvenosus, 590. 

Psyche helix, 290. 

Psychine, 290. 

Psychoda phalznoides, 380. 

Psychomorpha epimenis, 281. 

Psylla pyri, 531. 

Psyllidz, 530. 

Pteratomus, 110 114. 
202. 

Pteromali, 415. 

Pteromalus, 193, 202, 205, 206. P. apium, 
Boke P. clisiocampe, 206. P. vanessz, 
206. 

Pteronarcys proteus, 590. P. regalis, 590. 

Pterophoride, 356. ' 

Pterophorus, 202. P. periscelidactylus, 
356. 

Pteroptus vespertilionis, 663. 

Pterostichus, 433. 

Ptilodontes, 292. 

Ptinide, 197, 470. 

Ptinus fur, 470. 

Ptycholoma? semifuscana, 334. 

Ptychoptera, 382. P. paludosa, 384. P. 
rufocincta, 384. 

Pulex irritans, 389. P.musculi, 389. 

Pulicide, 588. 

Pulvillus, 21. 

Pyenoscelus, 576. 


Pyralide, 326. 

Pyralis, 195. BP. farinalis, 328. 

Pyrameis Atalanta, 261. P. cardui, 261. 
P. Huntera, 261. 

Pyrochroa flabellata, 477. 

Pyrochroidz, 477. 

Pyromorpha dimidiata, 283. 

Pyrophorus noctilucus, 462. 

Pyrrharctia isabella, 239, 286. 

Pyrrhocoris apterus, 48, 539, 543. 

Pythidz, 476. 

Pytho, 476. 


Quedius, 441. 


P. Putnamii, 131, 


Race horse, 575. 

Radish fly, 411. 

Rapnidia, 608. 

Raphiglossa odyneroides, 157. 
Ranatyra, 516, 537. R. fusca, 538. 
Ranatra, abdomen of, 17. 
Raspberry slug, 222. 

Rectum, 35. 

Red-legged Grasshopper, 569. 
Reduvini, 540. 

Reduvius personatus, 541. 
Respiration, 42. 

Respiration, organs of, 40. 
Rhabdites, 15. 

Rhagium lineatum, 501, 
Rhamphidia, 383. 
Rhipidandrus, 473. 

Rhipidius, 48. 

Rhipiceride, 463. 
Rhipiphoridz, 480. 

Rhipiphorus Finnicus, 481. 
Rhipiphorus paradoxus, 149. 
Rhizopertha pusilla, 472. 
Rhizophagus depressus, 445. 
Rhodites dichlocerus, 212. R. rosx, 212. 
Rhopalosoma Poeyi, 197. 
Rhopalum pedicellatum, 158, 161. 
Rhopalus, 546. 

Rhyacophila fuscula, 621. 
Rhynchites bicolor, 485. 


700 


Rhyparochromus leucopterus, 543. 
Rhyphide, 392. 

Rhyphus alternatus, 392. 
Rhyssa atrata, 196, 228, 
Rhyssa lunator, 196, 228. 
Rhyssa persuasoria, 193. 
Rhyssodes, 446. 
Rnyssodide, 446. 

Rice weevil, 490. 
Robber- flies, 395. 
tuomalea microptera, 570. 
Rose bug, 464. 

Rose chater, 454. 

Rose gall fly, 212. 

Rose slug, 222. 
Rotatoria, 668. 
Rove-beetles, 440. 


Salda, 541. 

Salivary glands, 36. 

Salix cordata, 218. 

Salticus, 633. S. (Attus) familiaris, 654. 
Samia, 298. §. Cynthia, 296. 

Sandalus petrophya, 463. 
Sand wasps, 157. 
Saperda bivittata, 500. 
Saprinus, 443. 

Sapysay 178. S. Martinii, 176. S.repanda, 


s. 


S. candida, 500. 


eaveo phase: 213. S. carnaria, 408. 
nudipennis, 170, 408. 

Sarcopsylla penetrans, 390. 

Sarcoptes scabiei, 666, 668. 

Sargus, 392. 

Saturnia Promethea, 239. 

Satyrus, 262. S. ‘Alope, 263. S. Neanere! 
268. 

Saw-flies, 213. 

Scape, 26. 

Scaphidiidee, 443. 

Scaphidium, 443. 

Scarabzide, 422, 424, 451. 

Scarites, 432, S. Pyrachmon, 83. 

Scatopse, 377. 

Scenopinus, 1. S. pallipes, 401. 

Schizocephala, 575. 

Schizopodide, 463. 

Schizopodus ltus, 463. 

Schizotus, 477. 

Sciara, 374. §.(Molobrus) mali, 386. 

Sciophila, 385. 

Scleroderma contracta, 178. 

Scolia, 231. S. Azteca, 176. S. bicincta, 
176. S.flavifrons, 176. S.oryctophaga, 
176. S. quadrimaculata, 176. 

Scoliade, 175. 

Scolopendra gigantea, 674. S. heros, 674. 

Scolopocryptops sexspinosa, 674. 

Scolytide, 49, 425. 

Scolytus, 446. S. destructor, 492. 

Scorpio Allenii, 659. 

Scorpion fly, 613. 

Scorpionide, 631, 659. 

Scorpions, 627, 629, 643, 659. 

Scutellera viridipunctata, 547. 

Scydmeenus, 440. 

Scydmenide, 439. 

Scymnus cervicalis, 513. 

Secretion, organs of, 43. 

Sedentary spiders, 648. 

Seed-corn maggot, 411. 

Segestria, 638. 

Selandria caryz, 224. S. cerasi, 222. S. 
rose, 223. §. rubi, 222. S. tiliz, 222. 
S. vitis, 222. 


ee 


INDEX. 


Semblis, 582. 

Semiotellus (Ceraphron) destructor, 
375. 

Semi-pupa, 67. 

Sericostoma Americanum, 618. 

Series of insects, 104. 

Sesia, 54. S. diffinis, 277. 8. Thysbe, 277. 

Setina aurita, 284. 

Setodes candida, 620. 

Sheep bot-fly, 405. 

Sheeptick, 360, 416, 418. 

Sialidee, 237, 580, 583, 605. 

Sialis Americana, 606. S. infumata, 606. 

Siderea? nubilana, 333. 

Sigalphus caudatus, 415. 

Silk moth, 50. 

Silk w eed. Labidomera, 508. 

Silpha Lapponica, 439. 

Silphidee, 422, 438. 

Simulidz, 390. 

Simulium molestum, 390. 
Columbaschense, 891. 

Siphonantia, 680. 

Siphonia, 408. 

Siphonura, 207. 

Sirex, 193. 

Sitaris, 479. 

Sitodrepa panicea, 470. 

Sitophilus granarius, 490. S. oryze, 490. 

Size of insects, normal, 107. 

Skippers, 269. 

Smell, organs of, 26. 

Smerinthus exczecatus, 275. 
tus, 275. S. Saree 275. 

Smynthurus, 624, 625 

Snout- moths, 326. 

Solenobia ? Walshella, 346. 

Solpuga, 639. S. araneoides, 655. 
(Galeodes) Americana, 655. 

Solpugidee, 632, 655. 

Solpugids, 655. 

Soothsayers, 574. 

Sounds pr oduced by insects, 362, 561, 563. 

Spaniocera, 378. 

Spanish fly, 480. 

Species of insects, number of, 103. 

Specific names, 345. 

Spectres, 572. 

Spercheus tessellatus, 438. 

Sperm, 44 

Sphwrotherium, 677. 

Sphecodes, 142, 143. S. dichroa, 143. 

Sphegide, 142, 149, 165, 166. 

Sphex, 142. ce flavipennis, 401. S. 


207, 


8. (Rhagio) 


S. gemina- 


Ss. 


ich- 


neumonea, 167. 8. Lanierii, 169. S. 
tibialis, 168. 

Sphinges, 236. 

Sphingide, 238, 27. 

Sphinx, 627. S. chersis, 272. S. drupi- 
ferarum, 272. 8. gordius, 272. S. Kal- 


mie, 272. S. ligustri, 63, 237. 
Sphinx ligustri, anatomy of, 30. 
Spheeridium, 438. 
Sphyracephala brevicornis, 413. 
Spider fly, 358, 416. 

Spiders, 643, BLL. 

Spiders, evolution of, 637, 638. 

Spider’s web, method of spinning, 645. 
Spilosoma Virginica, 287. 

Spinnerets, 21. 

Spiracle, 40. 

Spirobolus marginatus, 679. 
Spirostrephon, 680. 

Spondylis, 494. 

Spongophora bipunctata, 577. 


INDEX. 


Spring beetles, 459. 

Spring- -tails, 615, 624. 

Squash bectle, 505. 

Squash vine borer, 279. 

Stag beetle, 32. 

Staphylinide, 181, 423, 427, 440, 577. 

Staphylinus, 54, 441, 

Statyra, 475. 

Steganoptycha? ochreana, 337. 

Stemma, 25. 

Stenobothrus curtipennis, 569. 

Stenocerus, 53. S. putator, 495. 

Stenopoda, 80. 

Stenus Juno, 442. S. stygicus, 442. 

Sternite, 9. 

Sterno-rhabdites, 15. [lata, 302. 

Sthenopis, 236, 237. S. argenteomacu- 

Stigmus, 142. S. fraternus, 158, 161. 

Stilbum splendidum, 192. 

Sting, 14. 

Stipes, 28. 

Stiretrus fimbriatus, 547. 

Stizus speciosus, 163. 

Stomach, sucking, 35. 

Stomoxys caltricans, 407. 

Strategus, 425 

Stratiomyide, 392. 

Stratiomys, 393. 

Strawberry Corimelzna, 547. 

Strawberry Emphytus, 221. 

Strawberry saw fly, 221. 

Strawberry leaf roller, 340. 

Strawberry Lozotenia, 335. 

Strepsiptera, 481. 

Strigamia bothriopus, 675. S. chionophi- 
la, 675. S. epileptica, 675. 

Stylopide, 424, 481. 

Stylops, 34, 131, 143, 146, 149, 194, 691. S. 
Childrenii, 131, 482. 

Stylopyga, 576. 

Styringomyia, 383. 

Submentum, 28. 

Sucking myriapods, 680. 

Sugantia, 680. 

Sugar mite, 665. 

Sylvanus Surinamensis, 446. 

Symmetry, antero-posterior, 2, 21. 

Symmetry, bilateral, 2. 

Synerges, 212. 

Syneca, 153. 8S. cyanea, 154. 

Synophrus, 212. 

Syrphide, 164, 397. 

Syrphus, 54, 363, 398, 400. 

Syrtis erosa, 552. 

Systropus, 397. 


Tabanide, 393. 
Tabanus atratus, 394. T. cinctus, 394. 
T. lineola, 393, 394. 
Tachina, 395 T. (Lydella) doryphore, 
408. T. (Senometopia) militaris, 407. 
Tachina-like fly, 131, 147. 
Tachydromia, 402. 
Tachyporus, 441. 
Tachytes aurulentus, 165. 
Teniopteryx frigida, 591. 
Tanarthrus salinus, 476. 
Tanypus varius, 371. 
Tapinoma tomentosa, 183. 
Tardigrada, 668. 
Tardigrades, 45, 69, 632, 642. 
Tarsus, 21. 
Tatua, 153. -T. morio, 122, 154, 156. 
Tegenaria atrica, 649. T. ‘civilis, 629. T. 
medicinalis, 649. 


.Tipula, 360, 381. 


701 


Telea Polyphemus, 11, 195, 243, 297. 

Yeleas, 199, 200. T. Linnei, 200. 

Telephorus Carolina, 467. T. bilineatus, 
467. 

Tenebrio molitor, 474. 

Tenebrionide, 473. 

Tent-caterpillar, 207. 

Tenthredinide, 213. 

Tergite, 9, 14. 

Terias Dela, 251. TT. Lisa, 251. 

Termes, 54. T. bellicosus, 588. T. fatale, 
588. T. flavipes, 587. T. lucifugus, 588. 

Termites, 588. 

Termitidz, 583, 586, 593. 

Termopsis angusticollis, 587. ‘ 

Testis, 35, 44. 

Tetracha Virginica, 429. 

Tetralonia, 114. 

Tetramera, 424, 484. 

Tetranychus telarius, 631, 660. 

Tetrapneumones, 647. 

Tettigidea lateralis, 572. 

Tettigonia bifida, 532. 

Tettigoniz, 163. 

Tettix granulata, 572. 

Tetyra marmorata, 547. 

Thaumatosoma, 114. 

Thecla Acadica, 265. T.humuli,265. T. 
Mopsus, 266. T. Niphon, 265. T. stri- 
gosa, 267. 

Thelaxes ulmicola, 523. 

Thelyphonus caudatus, 658. T. 
teus, 658. 

Thereya, 596. 

Therevide, 395. 

Theridion studiosum, 650. T. verecun- 
dum, 651. T. vulgare, 650. 

Thinophilus, 403. 

Thomisus celer, 652, 653. 
652. 

Thorax, structure of, 11. 

Thousand Legs, 678. 

Thripide, 547. 

Thrips, 69, 80, 378. T. cerealium, 550. 

Throscide, 459. 

Thyatira, 304. 

Thyreocoris histeroides, 547. 

Thyreopus, 159. T. latipes, 160. 

Thyreus Abbotii, 276. 

Thyridopteryx, 290. T. ephemerzformis, 
289,291. T. nigricans, 289. 

Thvsanoptera, 548. 

Thysanura, 608, 609, 613, 622, 623. 

Ticks, 66]. 

Tiger Bectles, 428. 

Tinagma, 342. 

Tinea, 201. TT. flavifrons, 346. T. gran- 
ella, 347. T. tapetzella, 347. 

Tineidz, 303, 234, 342, 582. 

Tineide, transformation of, 67. 

Tineids, 236, 237. 

Tingis hyalina, 552. T. hystricellus. 

Tiphia inornata, 177. 

T. trivittata, 382. 


“ 


gigan- 


T. vulgaris, 


Tipulide, 199, 381. 
Tmesiphorus, 422. 
Tobacco worm, 274. 
Tolype Velleda, 300. 
Tolyphus, 444. 
Tomicus monographus, 493. T. pini, 493. 
T. xylogr: aphus, 493. 
Tortricide, 332. 
Tortricodes, 290. 
Tortrix gelidana, 334. 


T. oxycoccana. 
334 ma é 


702 INDEX. 


Torymus Harvisi' 205, 

Touch, sense of, 26. 

Toxophora fasciata, 164. 

Toxorhina, 383. 

Trachea, 40. 

Trachys pygmeza, 459. Uae: 

Tragocephala infuscata, 569. T. viridi- 
fasciata, 569. 

Transformations of insects, 561. 

Transportation of insects, 94. 

Trechus, 434. 

Tremex, 196. T. Columba, 228. T. lati- 
tarsus, 228. 

Trichil, 457. 

Trichiosoma bicolor, 216. T. triangulum, 
216. 

Trichocera, 381, 383. 

Trichodectes canis, 555. : 

Trichodes apiarius, 127, 468. T. Nuttallii, 
468. 

Trichopterygide, 443. 

Trichopteryx intermedia, 444. 

Tricondyla, 567. 

Tricrania, 479. 

Rr: idactylus apicalis, T. terminalis, 563. 

Trigona, 128, 129. T. carbonaria, 229. 

Trigonalys Dbipustulatus, 153. 

Trilocha, 295. 

Trimera, 424, 484. 

Trochanter, 21. 

Trochantine, 21. 

Trogosita, 445. 

Trogositide, 445, 

Trogus exesorius, 196. 

Trombidide, 660. 

Trombidium, 660. . 

Tropidacris cristata, 571. T. dux, 571. 

Trox, 425. T. Carolina, 453: T. scabro- 
sus, 453. 

Trupanea apivora, 396. 

Trypeta, 412. T. pomonella, 415. 

Trypoxylon, 195. TT. frigidum, 162. T. 
politum, 162. 

Tsetze fly, 407. 

Tumble bug, 47. 

Turnip flea beetle, 507. 

Tychus, 422. 

Typhlocyba, 69, 531. 

Typhlodromus pyri, 666, 668. 

Typhlopone, i79. T. pallipes, 181. 

Tyroglyphus domesticus, 665. T. farine, 
666. T. sacchari, 665. T. siro, 640, 
665. 


Udeopsylla robusta, 565. 

Ula, 381. 

Upis ceramboides, 474. 

Urania Leilus, 319. 

Urapteny ss politia, 319. U. sambucaria, 
319 


Urinary tubes, 43. 

Urinary vessels, 35. 

Urite, 14. 

Urocerid, 227 

Uiocerus albicornis, 227. 

Uroplata rosea, 503. U. suturalis, 504. 
Uropoda, 631. U. vegetans, 663. 
Utetheisa bella, 285. 


Vanessa Antiopa, 206, 244, 258. V. Cali- 
fornica, 259. V. Milbertii, 259. V. ur: 
tice, 237 


Variety breeding, 75. 

Vas deferens, 35. 

Vasa deferentia, 44. 

Vates, 575. 

Velia, 518, 538, 540. 

Venation, 22. 

Venation of Lepidoptera, 229. 

Ventriculus, 35. 

Ver macaque, 406. 

Ver moyocuil, 406. 

Vertex of the head, 31. 

Vesicule seminales, 45. 

Vespa, 147, 195, 400. V. arenaria, us, 149. 
Vv. erabr o, 150. V. maculata, 148. V. 
orientalis, 148. V. rufa, 123. V.vulga- 
ris, 123. 

Vespariz, 147, 

Vine slug, 222, 

Volucella, 131, 149, 400. 


Wandering spiders, 648. 
Walking sticks, 572. 
Warega fly, 409. 

Wasp, 8. 

Water boatmen, 536. 
Water fleas, 616. 

Water mites, 661. 

Water tigers, 435. 

Wax, 111. 

Weeping willow saw-fly, 220. 
Weevils, 484. 

Wheat beetles, 446. 
Wheat-fly, 199. 

Wheat joint worm, 203. 
Wheat-louse Aphidius, 198. 
Wheat-midge, 201, 372 
Wheat moths, 347, 350. 
Whip scorpions, 657. 
Whirligigs, 536. 

White ant, 130, 586. 
White-pine saw-ftly, 225. 
Willow Cecidomyia, 364. 
Wine-cask borer, 493. - 
Wine-fly, 414. 

Wings, 22. 

Wire worms, 460. 
W-marked cut-worm, 309. 
Wood ticks, 662. 

Wood wasp, 8, 157. 


Xanthia, 243. i 

Xanthoptera semicrocea, 316. 

Xenoneura antiquorum, 77. 

Xenos, 482. 

Xiphidium fasciatum, 567. 

Xiphidria albicornis, 227. 

Xyela infuscata, 226. 

Xyleutes robiniz, 301. X. crepera, 302. 

Xylobius sigillariz, 679. 

Xylocopa, 139. X. violacea, 134. X. Vir- 
ginica, 168, 397. 

Xylophagide, 392. 

Xylophagus, 392. 


Yellow-legged Barley-fly, 205. 


Zenoa picee, 463. 

Zerene catenaria, 323. 

Zoonule, zodnite, 9. ‘ 
Zygena exulans, 280. 

Zygenide, 234, 237, 279. 

Zy goneura, 378. 


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