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LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


PLATE    XXXII. 


GREEN  WOODPECKER. 


ALLEN'S    NATURALIST'S   LIBRARY. 
EDITED   BY   R.    BOWDLER   SHARPE,    LL.D.,    F.L.S.,   ETC. 


A  HAND-BOOK 


TO   THE 


BIRDS 


OF 


GREAT   BRITAIN 


BY 


R.    BOWDLER    SHARPE,    LL.D., 

ZOOLOGICAL   DEPARTMENT,    BRITISH    MUSEUM. 


VOL.  1L 


LONDON : 

W.    H.   ALLEN    &   CO.,   LIMITED, 

13,  WATERLOO  PLACE,  S.W. 
1896. 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 


WYMAN    AND    SONS,     LIMITED, 

PRINTERS, 
LONDON    AND    REDHILL. 


PREFACE. 


I  HAVE  but  a  few  words  to  add  to  the  prefatory  remarks 
which  will  be  found  in  the  first  volume.  I  therein  sketched 
out  the  plan  of  the  work  which  I  proposed  to  follow.  Since 
the  issue  of  the  first  volume,  two  species  have  been  added  to 
the  British  list.  Of  the  Sub-alpine  Warbler  (Sylvia  subalpina), 
a  specimen  was  shot  in  St.  Kilda  in  June,  1894,  by  Mr.  J.  S. 
Elliot,  as  recorded  by  me  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  British  Orni- 
thologists' Club,  Vol.  IV.  p.  ix.  Coues'  Redpole  (Cannabina 
exilipes)  has  been  obtained  by  Dr.  Bendelack  Hewetson  near 
Easington  on  the  west  coast  of  Yorkshire  during  the  winter  of 
1893-94,  as  has  been  recorded  by  Mr.  John  Cordeaux  in  the 
"Naturalist"  for  March,  1894  (p.  84). 

While  the  criticisms  on  the  first  volume  of  the  "  Handbook" 
have  been  wholly  favourable  and  kindly,  three  notices  in  par- 
ticular have  appeared,  in  reply  to  which  I  should  like  to  say  a 
few  words. 

Dr.  P.  L.  Sclater  seems  to  imply  ("  Ibis,"  1894,  p.  566)  that 
the  nomenclature  adopted  by  me  in  the  "  Handbook  "  is  intro- 
duced into  my  writings  for  the  first  time,  and  he  alludes  par- 
ticularly to  the  names  of  the  genera  in  the  Family  Corvidce,  but 
these  names  are  not  of  my  own  foundation.  I  adopted  them, 
after  monographing  the  whole  of  the  Family  in  the  "Catalogue 


VI  PREFACE. 

of  Birds,"  twenty  years  ago.    My  conclusions  have  been  follow( 
by  naturalists  in  many  countries,  and,  I  hope,  will  continue  to, 
be  so.     I  would  further  remark  that  Dr.  Stejneger's  "  incon-| 
venient  discoveries  "  have  not  had  a  "great  attraction  "  for  me, 
as  my  kindly  critic  suggests.     I  really  hate  all  these  changes  of, 
names,  and  I  have  always  had  a  great  sympathy  with  the  pro-^ 
posal  of  Mr.  Seebohm  to  adopt  only  the  best-known  name  for 
a  species,  but  the  "  auctorum  plurimorum  "  system  of  nomen- 
clature, though  very  good  in  theory,  would  not  work  well  in  \ 
practice,  for  a  name  in  a  majority  one  year,  might  turn  out  taj 
be  in  a  minority  two  years  hence,  and  so  there  would  again  be 
no  stability  in  our  nomenclature. 

It  is  certainly  unfortunate  that  so  many  older  names  for 
common  species  have  been  unearthed  during  recent  years, 
but  that  is  surely  not  the  fault  of  the  authors  themselves, 
but  of  their  descendants,  who  have  not  taken  the  trouble  to 
search  the  whole  of  the  literature.  I  have  used  in  the  present 
"  Handbook  "  such  names  as  I  believe  to  be  not  only  the  right 
ones,  but  those  which  in  future  are  most  likely  to  be  adopted 
by  ornithologists  generally;  and  I  cannot  agree  with  Dr.  Sclater 
that,  because  this  little  "Handbook"  is  "confessedly  in- 
tended for  popular  use,  it  would  have  been  wiser  to  adhere 
to  ordinary  nomenclature  and  to  avoid  an  unnecessary  multi- 
plicity* of  genera."  This  is  exactly  what  I  think  ought  not  toj 
be  done  for  in  a  book  which  has  such  a  wide  sale  as  the; 
"  Naturalist's  Library,"  it  is  more  important  to  teach  the 
reader  the  nomenclature  most  likely  to  be  in  vogue  in  the 
future,  than  to  serve  up  to  him  names  which  a  very  little  study 
on*  his  part  wilPenable  him  to  discover  to  be  out  of  date. 

Mr.  Harting  has  also  written  a  friendly  notice  of  my  firstj 
volume  in  the  "Zoologist"  for  1894  (pp.  468-472),  but  he] 
also  complains  that  there  is  so  much  that  is  "  new "  in  the; 
book.  It  really  looks  as  if  he  had  allowed  much  recent  work- 


PREFACE.  Vll 

to  escape  his  notice,  and  has  only  just  woke  up  to  the  fact  that 
things  have  been  moving  since  he  wrote  his  "Handbook  to  the 
Birds  of  Great  Britain  "  in  1872.  The  arrangement  followed 
in  my  book  was  duly  set  forth  by  me  in  my  "  Classification  of 
Birds  "  in  1891,  and  there  is  therefore  nothing  wonderful  in  an 
author  following  his  own  ideas.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Mr. 
Harting's  remarks  on  my  nomenclature,  and  if  he  had  studied 
the  Crows  as  diligently  as  he  has  done  the  Wading  Birds,  he 
would  probably  have  found  little  difficulty  in  recognising  that 
the  black  plumage  of  the  former  birds  is  really  their  only 
warranty  for  inclusion  in  a  single  genus  Corvus,  and  that  the 
characters  for  generic  separation,  when  properly  weighed,  are 
as  important  as  the  genera  of  Charadriida,  which  -Mr.  Harting 
accepts  without  hesitation.  Some  of  the  changes  in  nomen- 
clature at  which  he  "stands  aghast"  might  have  paralysed  him 
at  any  moment  during  the  last  twenty  years,  and,  as  I  have 
already  said,  the  genera  of  the  Corvidce  are  none  of  them  of 
my  own  invention. 

Mr.  Harting,  moreover,  entirely  misunderstands  the  principle 
of  the  duplicate  generic  and  specific  names  by  which  such  titles 
as  Graculus  graculus  are  arrived  at.  It  is  not  adopted  for  the 
sake  of  attaching  the  name  of  the  typical  species  to  that  of 
the  genus.  That  this  must  often,  and  in  fact  generally,  occur, 
is  really  a  matter  of  chance,  and  I  am  sorry  that  the  mere 
act  of  restoring  Linnean  specific  names  to  their  original  posi- 
tion has  resulted  in  the  duplication  of  the  name,  but  then  the 
Linnean  names  ought  never  to  have  been  used  in  a  generic  t 
sense.  Thus,  if  Linnaeus  called  the  Partridge  Tetrao  perdix, 
the  name  perdix  ought  to  be  retained  at  all  costs  for  the  species. 
When  Perdix  was  taken  in  a  generic  sense  and  the  species  was 
called  Perdix  cinerea,  I  contend  that  it  ought  never  to  have 
been  allowed,  and  if,  in  restoring  the  Linnean  specific  name  of 
perdix,  it  results  that  the  oldest  generic  name  is  also  Perdix, 


Viii  PRKFACK. 

and  the  species  has  to  be  called  Perdix  perdix  (L.),  I  can  onh 
say  that  I  am  sorry,  but  it  cannot  be  helped. 

Canon  Tristram's  paper  on  the  "  Use  and  Abuse  of  Generic 
Names"  ("Ibis,"  1895,  pp.  130-133)  expresses  the  ideas  of 
old-fashioned  ornithologist  on  modern-day  work,  but  my  critic 
has  not  shown  the  consistency  of  opinion  which  might  have  be< 
expected  from  the  author  of  such  an  emphatic  diatribe  as  tl 
which  he  has  directed  against  me  and  my  methods  of  worl 
Genera  are,  according  to  Canon  Tristram,  entirely  arbitral 
and  to  be   employed   only  for  our  convenience,  and  name 
should  not  be  bestowed  when  there  is  only  a  single  species  t< 
represent  them.     In  order  to  grasp  my  critic's  full  meaning, 
consulted  the  published  "Catalogue"  of  his  collection,  and  thei 
I  found  the  whole  of  the  Thrushes  placed  under  the  genus  Tut 
dus,  though  this  is  exactly  the  instance  he  quotes  in  his  critiqut 
in  which  these  birds  ought  absolutely  to  be  classified  under  the 
heading  of  the  two  genera,  Turdus  and  Merula.   Then,  in  order 
to  determine  what  characters  Canon  Tristram  considered  to  be 
of  generic  value  in  the  only  instance  in  which  he  has  shared 
my  crimes  with  me,  I  find  that  the  Seychelles   Scops-Owl  was 
considered  by  him  to  be  worthy  of  a  new  generic  name,  Gym- 
noscops,  from  the  fact  that  "  its  ear-tufts,  if  any,  are  only  rudi- 
mentary, and  its  tarsi  wholly  unfeathered,  excepting  a  narrow 
line  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  down  the  front  of  the  tar- 
sus, while  the  back  of  the  joint  is  entirely  bare."     Slender  dis- 
tinction enough,  as  the  describer  himself  seems  to  think,  for 
he  adds :    "I  venture  to  think  that  these  differences  entitle 
it  at  least  to  sub-generic,  if  not  generic,  rank."     After  this  ad- 
mission of  what  constitutes  a  generic  or  sub-generic  difference, 
I  am  surprised  that  Canon  Tristram  should  have  ventured  to 
stigmatise   as    "new   fangled,"   "absolutely  capricious,"  &c., 
genera  which  are  founded  on  quite  as  strong  characters  as  he 
allows  to  be  sufficient  in  his  own  case. 


PREFACE.  IX 

He  then  proceeds  to  make  a  somewhat  startling  comparison 
as  to  the  number  of  generic  names  which  figure  in  my  volumes 
of  the  ''Catalogue  of  Birds,"  viz.,  108,  as  compared  with 
those  written  by  my  coadjutors,  Mr.  Seebohm  and  Dr.  Gadow, 
"neither  of  whom  invented  a  single  new  genus,"  Mr.  Osbert 
Salvin  (one),  Mr.  Edward  Hargitt  (four),  Captain  Shelley  (five), 
Mr.  Ogilvie-Grant  (six),  Count  Salvadori  (twelve),*  "  while  Dr. 
Sharpe  in  10^  volumes  has  favoured  us  with  108  new  genera. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  '  genus-standard '  of  Dr.  Sharpe  must  be 
very  different  from  that  of  Messrs.  Hargitt,  Seebohm,  Salva- 
dori, and  others,  who,  in  9^  volumes,  have  been  content  with 
28  new  genera,  as  against  his  108."  A  more  manifestly  un- 
fair method  of  comparison  could  hardly  be  conceived,  and  I 
wonder  at  Canon  Tristram  attempting  to  prove  his  point  by 
means  of  the  above  figures.  Mr.  Seebohm  worked  out  the 
Thrushes  and  Warblers,  a  well-worn  field,  over  much  of  which 
he  had  travelled  in  print,  before  he  wrote  Vol.  V.  of  the  "Cata- 
logue." Dr.  Gadow's  volumes  dealt  with  Paridfe,  Laniidce, 
Nectariniida,  Meliphagida,  all  of  which  had  been  much 
studied  and  written  about  before  he  undertook  this  portion 
of  the  "Catalogue."  Captain  Shelley,  for  instance,  had  just 
completed  a  Monograph  of  the  Nectar iniidce.  The  Shrikes 
and  Tits  had  received  much  attention  from  several  ornitholo- 
gists, and  Count  Salvadori  and  Dr.  Meyer  had  already  swept 
the  board  of  such  new  genera  as  might  have  fallen  to  Dr. 
Gadow's  share  in  the  Meliphagida,  by  publishing  a  number  of 
new  genera  not  long  before  the  latter  commenced  to  work  at 
the  "  Catalogue."  Mr.  Salvin's  volume  consisted  mainly  of 
the  Humming  Birds  (Trochilida)^  and  it  is  wonderful  that  he 
even  found  one  new  genus  to  characterise,  seeing  that  the 
family  had  been  monographed  over  and  over  again,  by 

*  To  have  been  quite  fair,  Canon  Tristram  should  have  added  two  new 
genera  of  Swifts  (out  of  nine  ! )  published  in  Mr.  Hartert's  half  volume. 


X  PREFACE. 

Gould,  Reichenbach,  Heine,  Mulsant,  and  worked  at  by  Vc 
Berlepsch,  Boucard,  and  others  for  years,  to  say  nothing 
Mr.  Salvin's  own  previous  study  of  the  Family.  Mr.  Hargitt 
four  new  genera  of  Woodpeckers  were  reserved  for  publicati< 
in  the  "Catalogue,"  and  so  were  Mr.  Ogilvie-Grant's  fe 
generic  names  of  Hornbills  and  Game-Birds,  but  all  th< 
families  had  been  monographed,  some  of  them  more  thj 
once,  before  the  authors  began  their  "  Catalogues,"  and  thei 
fore  the  chance  of  there  being  any  genera  which  had  escap( 
notice  by  previous  writers  was  extremely  small,  and  the  sai 
may  be  said  of  the  volumes  written  by  Captain  Shelley  ai 
Count  Salvadori. 

On  the  other  hand,  fair  play  would  have  demanded 
acknowledgment  of  the  fact  that  the  groups  of  birds  whi< 
fell  to  my  lot  in  the  "Catalogue"  had"  been  practically  ui 
worked  before,  and  it  is  not  in  the  least  surprising  that, 
monographing  such  difficult  families  as  Babbling-Thrushes 
Finches,  Starlings,  &c.,  a  close  study  should  discover  generi 
differences,  while  many  of  the  larger  birds,  such  as  Bustard 
and  Cranes,  had  not  been  monographed  for  many  year 
before  I  did  them  in  the  "Catalogue."  My  views  are, 
dare  say,  not  those  of  the  older  school  of  ornithologists,  an 
more  than  are  those  of  Dr.  Reichenow  and  other  "  German 
friends,"  or  those  of  Mr.  Ridgway  and  Dr.  Stejneger,  th 
"  American  cousins,"  who  are  evidently  regarded  by  Cano 
Tristram  as  the  cause  of  my  backslidings  ! 

The  whole  question  appears  to  me  to  be  a  very  simple  one 
Canon  Tristram  evidently  does  not  like  what  he  calls  th 
"new-fangled"  ideas  of  some  of  the  younger  school  o 
ornithologists,  because  they  were  not  in  vogue  in  his  younger 
days,  but  the  collections  which  are  now  in  the  cabinets  of  the 
British  Museum  provide  a  completeness  of  material  with 
which  our  forefathers  were  totally  unacquainted.  It  was 


PREFACE. 


XI 


only  to  be  expected  that  the  close  study  involved  in  the 
preparation  of  the  "  Catalogue  of  Birds  "  would  result  in  the 
discovery  of  new  genera,  but  there  is  a  sure  test  as  regards 
the  calibre  of  our  work  in  store  for  Canon  Tristram,  for 
myself,  and  for  every  other  writer.  Future  generations  will 
judge  the  value  of  our  labours,  and  that  which  is  good  will 
be  preserved,  and  that  which  is  bad  will  be  cast  into  outer 
darkness. 

I  have  to  thank  Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  Mr.  W.  E.  de 
Winton,  and  Mr.  Robert  Read  for  assisting  me  with  notes  for 
the  present  volume,  and  special  acknowledgments  are  due  to 
Count  Salvador!  for  the  notes  he  has  given  me  on  the  Ducks 
and  Geese. 

R.    BOWDLER   SHARPE. 


SYSTEMATIC    INDEX. 


ORDER  PICIFORMES L 

SUB-ORDER  PICI a 

FAMILY  PICID^E 3 

SUB-FAMILY  PICIN^ 4 

LXXVI.  GECINUS,  Boie.            5 

i.  viridis  (L.) 5 

LXXVII.  DENDROCOPUS,  Koch.          7 

1.  major  (L.).         ...         •••         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  8 

2.  villosus  (Forst.).            ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  10 

3.  pubescens  (L.) u 

4.  minor  (L.).          ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  12 

SUB-FAMILY  lYNGIN^) 15 

LXXVIII.  IYNX,  L 16 

I.  torquilla,  L.       ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  16 

ORDER  COCCYGES 19 

SUB-ORDER  CUCULI 19 

SUB-FAMILY  CUCULIN/E 21 

LXXIX.  COCCYSTES,  Gloger 21 

I.  glandarius  (L.).  ...          ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  21 

LXXX.  CUCULUS,  L 23 

I.  canorus,  L.         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  24 

LXXXI.  COCCYZUS,  Vieill 30 

1.  americanus  (L-).              ...           ..         ...         ...  30 

2.  erythrophthalmus  (Wils.).         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  32 

ORDER  CORACIIFORMES 33 

SUB-ORDER  CYPSELI 34 

FAMILY  CYPSELID^E 35 

SUB-FAMILY  CYPSELIN^E.            38 


XIV  SYSTEMATIC    INDEX. 


LXXXII.  MICROPUS,  Meyer  u.  Wolf 

1.  melba(L.).          

2.  apus  (L.).  

SUB-FAMILY  CILETURIN.E 

LXXXIII.  CH/ETURA,  Steph 

I.  caudacuta  (Lath.) 

SUB-ORDER  CAPRIMULGI 

FAMILY  CAPRIMULGID^:.  41 

LXXXIV.  CAPRIMULGUS,  L 4« 

1.  europseus,  L.      ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  45 

2.  regyptius,  Licht. 

3.  ruficollis,  Temm.  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  51 

SUB-ORDER  MEROPES 5; 

FAMILY  MEROPIM; 

LXXXV.  MEROPS,  L 54 

1.  apiaster,  L.        ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  54 

2.  philippinus,  L.  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  57 

SUB-ORDER  UPUP^ 58 

FAMILY  UPUPID^: , 59 

LXXXVI.  UPUPA,  L 59 

i.  epops,  L.  59 

SUB-ORDER  HALCYONES 62 

FAMILY  ALCEDINID^E 64 

SUB-FAMILY  ALCEDININ^) ...  64 

LXXXVII.  CERYLE,  Boie 64 

i.  alcyon  (L.).  •••  ...  •••  ...  ...  ...  ...  65 

LXXXVIII.  ALCEDO,  L 66 

i.  ispida,  L.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  67 

SUB-ORDER  CORACLE 70 

FAMILY  CORACIIDyE 70 

LXXXIX.  CORACIAS,  L.  71 

1.  garrulus,  L ...         ...  71 

2.  abyssinicus,  Bodd 74 

3.  indicus,  L.          ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  75 


SYSTEMATIC    INDEX.  XV 

PAGE 

ORDER  STRIGES 76 

FAMILY  BUBONID^: 77 

XC.  BUBO,  Cuv .  ...  78 

I.  bubo  (L.) 78 

XCI.  SCOPS,  Savign 81 

i.  scops  (Linn.) 81 

XCII.  NYCTEA,  Steph 84 

I.  nyctea  (L.).         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...          ...         ...  84 

XCIII.  SURNIA,  Bum 87 

1.  ulula(L.) 87 

2.  funerea(L.) 89 

XCIV.  CARINE,  Kaup 90 

I.  noctua  (Scop.).  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  91 

XCV.  Asio,  Briss.            93 

1.  otus  (L.).            94 

2.  accipitrinus  (Pall.).         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  96 

XCVI.  SYRNIUM,  Sav 100 

I.  aluco  (L.)  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  100 

XCVII.  NYCTALA.  102 

I.  tengmalmi  (Gm.)  103 

FAMILY  STRIGID.E 106 

XCVIII.  STRIX,  L 107 

i.   flammea,  L.        ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  108 

'  ORDER  ACCIPITRES in 

,  SUB-ORDER  PANDIONES in 

I  XCIX.  PANDION,  Sav 112 

i.  haliaetus  (L.) 112 

SUB-ORDER  FALCONES 116 

I  FAMILY  VULTURID.E 116 

KC.  GYPS,  Savign 116 

i.  fulvus  (Gm.) 117 

CI.  NEOPHRON,  Savign.             ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  120 

i.  percnopterus  (L.).         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  120 

FAMILY  FALCONIM: 123 


XVI  SYSTEMATIC    INDEX 

PAC 

SUB-FAMILY  ACCIPITRIN^ 124 

CII.  CIRCUS,  Lacep i: 

1.  cyaneus  (L.).       ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  i2< 

2.  pygargus  (L. ) 

3.  ceruginosus  (L.).  

CIII.  ASTUR,  Lacep 

1.  palumbarius  (L.).  ...         ...         ...         ...  135 

2.  atricapillus  (Wils.).        ...         ...         ...          ...         ...         ... 

CIV.  ACCIPITER,  Briss.    ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ... 

I.  nisus  (L.).  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ... 

SUB-FAMILY  BUTEONI1SLE 

CV.  BUTEO,  Cuv.  143 

1.  buteo  (L.).          ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  143 

2.  desertorum  (Baud.).      ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  11 

3.  borealis  (Gm.) 151 

4.  lineatus  (Gm.).   ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  11 

SUB-FAMILY  AQUILINE 

CVI.  ARCHIBUTEO,  Brehm 153 

i.  lagopus  (Gm.).    ...          ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  154 

CVII.  AQUILA,  Briss 156 

1.  chrysaetus  (L.) 156 

2.  maculata  (Gm.).  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  159 

CVIII.  HALIAETUS,  Savign 162 

I.  albicilla  (L.).       ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  163 

CIX.  ELANOIDES,  Vieill.  166 

i.  furcatus  (L.).       ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  166 

CX.  MILVUS,  Cuv.  167 

1.  milvus(L.) 168 

2.  migrans,  Bodd.  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  171 

CXI.  ELANUS,  Sav 173 

i.  cseruleus  (Desf.).  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  174 

CXII.    PERNIS,  Cuv I76 

i.  apivorus(L-) 177 

SUB-FAMILY  FALCONING !8o 

CXIIT    ?ALCO,  L.  180 

I.  peregrinus,  Tunst i$i 


SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 


FALCO— (continued}. 

2.  subbuteo,  L.       ...         ...         ...         ...         ...   184 

3.  cesalon,  Tunst ...  187 

:CXIV.    HlEROFALCO,  CUV 191 

1.  candicans  (Gm.).  .    ...  191 

2.  islandicus  (Hanc.).         194 

3.  gyrfalco  (L.) 197 

CXV.  CERCHNEIS,  Boie.  200 

1.  tinnunculus  (L.).  ...         ...         201 

2.  cenchris  (Naum.).  ...         ...         ...         ...         204 

3.  vespertina  (L.) 207 

ORDER  PELECANIFORMES 210 

SUB-ORDER  PELECANI 210 

SUB-ORDER  PHALACROCORACES 211 

CXVI.  PHALACROCORAX,  Briss.  211 

1.  carbo(L.).          211 

2.  graculus  (L.) 215 

SUB-ORDER  SULE 218 

FAMILY  SULID^) 218 

CXVII.  DYSPORUS,  Illig.  218 

I.  bassanus  (L.).     ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  218 

ORDER  PH£!NIOOPTERIFORMES 221 

CXVIII.  PH^ENICOPTERUS,  L 222 

I.  roseus,  Pall 222 

ORDER  ANSERIFORMES 223 

FAMILY  ANATID^E 224 

SUB-FAMILY  ANSERINE 224 

CXIX.  CHEN,  Boie 225 

i.  hyperboreus  (Pall.) 225 

CXX.  ANSER,  Briss 227 

1.  anser  (L.) 227 

2.  albifrons  (Scop.).  230 

3.  fabalis  (Lath.) 232 

4.  brachyrhynchus,  Baillon.          234 


XV111  SYSTEMATIC    INDKX. 

PAGE 

CXXI.  BRANTA,  Scop 236 

1.  leucopsis  (Bechst.) 236 

2.  bernicla  (L.).      ... ...         ...  239 

2.  ruficollis  (Pall.).  243 

SUB-FAMILY  CYGNIN^E 246 

CXXII.  CYGN us,  Bechst.  ...        ... 246 

1.  musicus,  Bechst.  ...         ...         ...         ...  247 

2.  bewicki,  Yarr.    ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  252 

3.  olor(Gm.) 254 

SUB-FAMILY  ANATIN^) 257 

CXXIII.  TADORNA,  Flem 257 

i.  tadorna  (L.) 258 

CXXIV.  CASARCA,  Bp 260 

i.  casarca  (L.).  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  262 

CXXV.  SPATULA,  Bok 265 

i.  clypeata  (L.) 265 

CXXVI.  ANAS,  L 269 

i.  boscas  (L.).  ...  269 

CXXVI  I.  CHAULELASMUS,  Gray 272 

i.  streperus  (L.) ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  273 

CXXVIII.  Mareca,  Steph 276 

1.  penelope  (L.) 276  t 

2.  americana  (J.  F.  Gmelin).         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  281 

CXXIX.  NETTION,  Kaup 282 

1.  crecca(L.) 282 

2.  carolinense  (Gm. ) 285 

CXXX.  DAFILA,  Steph -.. 286 

i.acuta(L.).  287 

CXXXI.  QUERQUEDULA,  Steph.  ...  290 

1.  querquedula  (L.).  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  291 

2.  discors  (L.).        ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  294 


LIST    OF    PLATES. 


XXXII.  —  Green  Woodpecker. 
XXXIII. —Cuckoo. 
XXXIV.— Kingfisher. 
XXXV.— Roller. 
XXXVI.  —  Snowy  Owl. 
XXXVII.— Little  Owl. 
XXXVIII.— Tawny  Owl. 
XXXIX.— Tengmalm's  Owl. 
XL.— Barn-Owl. 
XLI. — Egyptian  Vulture. 
XLII.—  Hen-Harrier. 
XLIIL— Marsh-Harrier. 
XLIV. — Common  Buzzard. 
XLV.— Golden  Eagle. 
XLVI.— White-tailed  Sea-Eagle. 
XLVIL—  Swallow-tailed  Kite. 
XLVIIL— Kite. 
XLIX.— Honey-Kite. 

L. — Greenland  Falcon. 
LI.— Kestrel. 
LII.— Shag. 
LIII.— Gannet. 
LI V.— White-fronted  Goose. 
LV. — Heads  of  Swans. 
LVI.—  Common  Sheld-Duck. 
LVIL— Shoveler. 
LVIII.— Fig.  i.  Teal. 

Fig.  2.  American  Teal. 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


BRITISH    BIRDS. 


PICINE  BIRDS.    ORDER  PICIFORMES. 

"  WOODPECKERS  and  their  kin  "  might  be  the  popular  title  of 
this  Order  of  birds,  but  it  includes  two  Families  which  cannot 
be  called  Woodpeckers  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  viz.,  the 
Puff-Birds  (Buccones]  and  the  Jacamars  (Galbiilcz).  The  two 

!  latter   Sub-orders  are   only   found   in  Central  and  Southern 

,  America,   and    are    thus   characteristic    of   the    Neotropical 

i  Region,  t'.e.,  the  Tropical  Region  of  the  New  World. 

The  Woodpeckers,  on  the  other  hand,  are  almost  cosmo- 
politan in  their  distribution.  They  are  found  in  every  part  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  Africa,  as  well  as  North  and  South  America, 

•  ranging  far  to  the  north  and  south,  but  they  are  absent  in  the 
Australian  Region.  Thus  they  are  entirely  unknown  in  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  New  Zealand  and  Australia 
itself,  nor  do  we  meet  with  any  Woodpecker  in  the  Papuan  or 
Malticcan  islands,  until  we  come  to  Celebes.  The  fauna 
of  this  island  exhibits  features  which  are  partly  Australian 

f.  and  partly  Indian,  but  in  possessing  Woodpeckers  and  Mon- 
keys (cf.  Forbes,  Nat.  Libr.  Primates,  ii.  p.  250),  its  zoological 
affinities  incline  to  the  Indian' Region.  Wallace's  line,  which 
passes  between  the  islands  of  Bali  and  Lombock,  has  also 

i  been  supposed  to  show  an  absolute  barrier  between  the  terres- 
trial  fauna  of  the  Indian  and  Australian  Regions,  and  it  is  so 
in  the  majority  of  cases :  nevertheless,  two  genera  of  Wood- 
peckers cross  it,  as  lyngipicus  grandis  and  Dendrocopus  analh 

'  are  found  in  Lombock  and  Flores. 

8  B 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


THE  WOODPECKERS.    SUB-ORDER  PICI. 

Externally  these  birds  may  be  distinguished  by  their  "  zygo- 
dactyle  "  foot.  "  Yoke-footed  "  is  another  name  frequently 
applied  to  them,  but,  described  in  simple  language,  they  may 
be  said  to  have  two  toes  "in  front "  and  two  " behind."  This 
may  seem  a  very  unscientific  way  of  characterising  the  Wood- 
peckers, but  it  is  the  first  character  to  look  for  in  one  of 
these  birds.  Then  they  have  usually  a  stiffened  tail  of  sharp- 
pointed  feathers — but  not  in  every  case,  for  the  Wrynecks 
and  Piculets  have  soft-plumaged  tails,  while  some  Passerine 
Birds,  such  as  the  Tree-Creepers  (Ccrthiida),  also  possess 
spiny  tails  (cf.  vol.  i.  p.  119),  as  do  also  the  South  American 
Spine-tails  (Dendrocolaptid(Z\  so  that  this  cannot  be  reckoned 
a  peculiar  characteristic  of  Woodpeckers.  Then,  again,  turn- 
ing to  anatomical  structure,  we  find  that  the  Woodpeckers 
have  a  long  and  extensile  tongue,  the  bones  of  which,  the 
"hyoid  cornua"  as  they  are  called,  extend  backwards  ovei 
the  skull.  The  tongue,  thus  capable  of  extension,  and  of 
enormous  length,  is  furnished  with  muscles  which  enable  the 
bird  to  dart  it  out  and  retract  it  in  the  most  extraordinary 
manner.  This  extensile  tongue  is  found  in  the  Wrynecks  as 
well,  but  is  not  a  character  exclusively  diagnostic  of  the  Wood- 
peckers, for  two  North  American  genera,  Sphyropicus  and 
Xenopicus  have  an  ordinary  tongue,  as  in  the  majority  of  Pas- 
serine Birds.  On  the  other  hand,  an  extensile  tongue  is  found  in 
the  Humming-Birds  ( Trochilidce]  and  Sun-Birds  (Nectariniidce) 

The  following  description  of  the  mechanism  of  the  Wood 
pecker's  tongue  is  copied  from  that  given  by  Sir  William  Flowei 
in  the  Bird-Gallery  of  the  British  Museum. 

"  In  the  majority  of  the  Picida  the  tongue  is  long,  vermiform, 
pointed,  and  barbed  at  the  tip.  To  permit  of  its  being  pro- 
jected or  withdrawn  as  required,  the  hyoid  cornua  are  pro 
longed  backward,  sliding  in  a  sheath  which  curves  round  the 
top  of  the  skull.  The  sub-lingual  glands  are  greatly  developed, 
secreting  a  viscid  fluid  which  covers  the  tongue  and  causes  in- 
sects to  adhere  to  it.  The  peculiar  modification  of  these 
organs  and  their  application  in  procuring  food  are  closely 
analogous  to  those  found  in  the  Ant-Eaters  and  several  other 
Mammals,  and  in  the  Chameleon  among  Reptiles, 


THE  WOODPECKERS.  3 

"In  some  species  the  hyoid  cornua  slide  backwards  and 
forwards  in  the  sheath  as  the  tongue  is  retracted  or  protruded ; 
in  others,  as  in  the  common  English  Green  Woodpecker,  their 
ends  are  fixed  to  the  sheath,  and  the  protrusion  of  the  tongue 
is  caused  by  the  action  of  the  genio-hyoid  (protractor  lingua) 
diminishing  the  curve  in  which  the  cornua  lie  when  the  tongue 
is  withdrawn." 

Another  curious  anatomical  feature  in  the  Woodpeckers  is 
found  in  the  base  of  the  skull,  the  vomer  being  slender  and 
split,  with  the  lateral  halves  separated.  The  late  Professor 


k 


Ventral  view  of  skull  &t  Dendrocopus  major  (enlarged).  [From  the  Cata- 
logue of  the  Osteological  Specimens  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons.],  mpl.  p.  maxillo-palatine  process,  //.  palatine,  pg.  pterygoicl. 

W.  Kitchen  Parker  described  this  feature  of  the  Woodpecker's 
skull  as  "  saurognathous,"  on  account  of  its  Saurian  or  Rep- 
tilian character. 

Other  anatomical  characters  may  be  added  for  the  definition 
of  this  Sub-order,  and  may  be  found  in  all  recent  works  on 
.vian  anatomy,  but  they  need  not  be  further  mentioned  here. 


THE   WOODPECKERS.     FAMILY   PICID^E. 


The  late  Mr.  Edward  Hargitt,  our  best  authority  on  this 
Family,  and  to  whose  work  we  are  indebted  for  much  of  the  in- 
formation here  given,  divides  the  Picidce  into  three  Sub-families, 


B    2 


4  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

viz.,  the  Woodpeckers  (Pidnce\  the  Piculets  (Picumnina)  am 
the  Wrynecks  (lyngince}.    The  second  of  these  Sub-families  lu 
a  soft  and  rounded  tail,  without  spiny  shafts.     It  consists 
about  forty  species  of  very  small  size,  mostly  found  in  Centr 
and  South  America,  but  also  represented  in  Africa,  as  well  as 
the  Himalayan  and  kindred  ranges  of  mountains  in  Asia. 

Both  the  Woodpeckers  and   Wrynecks  are  represented  ii 
Great  Britain,  the  former  by  three  species,  the  latter  by  a  single 


THE   TRUE   WOODPECKERS.     SUB-FAMILY 
PICIN.E. 

Some  forty-five  genera  are  comprised  in  this  Sub -family, 
which  two  are  natives  of  Great  Britain.     Besides  the  thr 
species  which  are  residents,  there  are  several  which  have 
chronicled  as  having  wandered  to  the  British  Isles.    The  Gre, 
Black  Woodpecker  (Picus  martins]  has  been  recorded  over  an 
over  again,  but  a  careful  enquiry  into  all  the  records  by  M 
J,   H.  Gurney,  has  thrown  doubt  on  every  one  of  the  occur- 
rences, and  it  is  indeed  a  very  unlikely  bird  to  wander  from  its 
Scandinavian  home.     The  only  specimen  examined  by  me  in 
the  flesh,  in  this  country,  had  its  crop  filled  with  insects,  which 
I  sent  for  examination   to   the    late  Professor  Westvvood  of 
Oxford,   and  they  were  pronounced  by  him  not  to  be  British, 
but  Swedish,  species  !    The  Great  Black  Woodpecker  measures 
seventeen  inches  in  length,  is  entirely  black  above  and  below, 
the  male  having  a  red  crown,  while  in  the  female  the  red  colour 
is  confined  to  the  occiput. 

The  White-backed  Woodpecker  (Dendrocopus  leuconotus}  is 
said  to  have  occurred  in  the  Shetland  Islands.     The  specimen 
believed  to  be  of  this   species  was  figured  by  the  late  Mr. 
Gould  in  his  "  Birds  of  Great  Britain,"  and  it  appeared  to  me 
at  the  time  to  be  a  young  D.  leuconotus.     Recent  observers, 
however,  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  bird  was  only 
a  young  of  the  Spotted  Woodpecker.     D.  leuconotus  may  t 
distinguished,  when  adult,  by  its  pure  white  rump,  contrastir 
with  the  black  of  the  upper  back ;  the  male  has  the  head  an 
occiput  red,  and  the  female  has  these  parts  black.     The  tot 
length  is  about  ten  inches,  and  the  wing  a  little  over  five  an 
a   half  inches.     Its   native   home   is   Northern   and   Centr 


THE   GREEN    WOODPECKERS.  5 

Europe,  and  its  range  extends  across    Southern    Siberia    to 
Manchuria  and  Corea. 

THE  GREEN  WOODPECKERS.     GENUS   GECINUS. 

Gecinus,  Boie,  Isis,  1831,  p.  542. 

Type,  G.  viridis  (Linn.). 

This  genus  constitutes  a  familiar  Old  World  type  of  Wood- 
pecker, comprising  seventeen  species,  all  greatly  resembling 
each  other  in  appeaiance.  The  best-known  is  our  European 
bird,  G.  viridis,  which  is  represented  in  Spain  by  Sharpe's 
Green  Woodpecker  (G.  sharpii],  and  in  North-east  Africa  by 
Vaillant's  Green  Woodpecker  (G,  vaillanti),  while  in  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  Europe  and  Asia  other  species  are  distributed ; 
several  being  inhabitants  of  the  Indian  Region  as  far  south  as 
Sumatra  and  Java. 

In  the  genus  Getinus  the  feathering  of  the  neck  is  full  (in 
many  species,  called  the  "  Narrow-necked  "  Woodpeckers,  the 
plumage  of  the  neck  is  very  scanty),  the  opening  of  the  nostrils 
is  covered  with  close-set  feathers  or  bristles,  the  outer  anterior 
toe  is  about  equal  in  length  to  the  outer  posterior  toe,  which, 
again,  is  equal  in  length  to  the  tarsus.  The  wing  is  moderately 
long,  and  the  tail  is  composed  of  strong  and  spiny  feathers, 
the  outer  one  on  each  side  being  so  short  that  it  is  often 
overlooked,  as  it  is  hidden  by  the  under  tail-coverts  ;  this  is 
called  the  "  dwarf "  tail-feather.  The  bill  is  nearly  straight, 
and  there  is  a  distinct  ridge  in  the  culmen  (cf.  Hargitt,  Cat. 
Birds  Brit.  Mus.  xviii.  p.  3). 

THE   GREEN    WOODPECKER.       GECINUS    VIRIDIS. 
(Plate  XXXII.]. 

Picus  viridis,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  175  (1766);  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii.  p. 

91  (1840). 
Gecinus  viridis,  Dresser,   B.  Eur.  v.  p.    77,  pi.   285   (1871)3 

Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  457  (1881) ;   B.  O.  U.  List 

Br.  B.  p.  79  (1883);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  364  (1884); 

Saunders,    Man.   p.    263  (1889);  Hargitt,   Cat.   B.   Brit. 

Mus.  xxiii.  p.  36  (1890) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  pt.  xvi. 

(1890). 
Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  uniform  yellowish-olive; 


6  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  brighter  chrome-yellow,  the 
feathers  being  tipped  with  this  colour ;  quills  externally  gre< 
with  dull  white  spots  on  the  outer  aspect  of  the  primaries,  tl 
inner  webs  spotted  with  white  ;  crown  of  head  crimson,  as  als 
a  broad  moustachial  stripe ;  nasal  plumes  and  fore-part  of  face 
black ;  sides  of  face  and  under  surface  of  body  light  yellow- 
ish or  yellowish-white ;  throat  paler ;  the  vent  and  under  tail- 
coverts  with  crescentic  dusky  marks  or  bars  ;  bill  blackish,  tl 
base  of  the  lower  mandible  yellow ;  feet-  grey ;  iris  white. 
Total  length,  about  12*5  inches;  culmen,  17;  wing,  6*4;  tail 
47;  tarsus,  1-3. 

Adult  Female. — Like  the  male,  but  has  the  moustachial  stri] 
black.     Total  length,  12  inches;  wing,  6-4. 

Young. — Resemble  the  adults,  but  much  duller  green  11 
colour,  with  dusky  bars  on  the  upper  surface;  forehead  an< 
eyebrow  black,  with  tiny  white  spots ;  sides  of  face  blackish, 
streaked  with  white ;  a  black  moustache,  minutely  spotted  witl 
white ;  under  surface  of  body  yellowish-white,  profusely  spott 
with  blackish. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Most  common  in  the  southern  coun- 
ties, but  plentiful  in  many  of  the  midland  districts,  as  far 
the  south  of  Yorkshire.     North  of  this  it  is  rare,  and  has  onl] 
been  found  breeding  occasionally  in  the  Border  counties.     Ii 
Scotland  it  can  only  be  of  occasional  occurrence,  and  from 
Ireland  it  has  been  but  twice  recorded. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally   distributed    over 
Europe  as  far  east  as  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  Caucasus,  ai 
Persia.     It  occurs  throughout  France  and  Italy,  but  does  n< 
cross  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  replaced  in  the  Spanish  Penii 
sula  and  Portugal  by  Gecinus  sharpii.     It  breeds  in  Norway  uj 
to  63°  N.  lat. ;  in  Sweden  and  Russia  up  to  about  60°  N.  lat 
That  it  is  not  a  migratory  species  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  il 
has  occurred  but  once  in  Heligoland. 

Habits.— The  noisy  laugh  of  the  "  Yaffle  "  (as  this  bird 
popularly  called  in  the  days  of  Chaucer,  and  is  even  now  knowi 
by  the  same  name  in  many  country  districts  of  the  south 
England)  is  a  sound  familiar  enough  to  visitors  to  the 
Forest  and  other  parts  of  England,  where  the  bird  is  still  to 
found.     The  Green  Woodpecker  is  indeed  more  often  heai 


THE   TIED   WOODPECKERS.  7 

than  seen,  but  it  may  occasionally  be  detected,  as  it  wends  its 
way  from  tree  to  tree  with  a  dipping  flight,  exposing  the  yellow 
of  its  back  as  it  flies  away.  It  is  more  often  seen  near  the 
ground  than  the  two  other  British  Woodpeckers,  and  it  may 
sometimes  be  observed  flying  from  one  small  tree  to  another 
in  the  hedgerows.  Another  reason  for  its  ground-frequenting 
habits  is  that  it  feeds  largely  on  ants,  and  commits  great  havoc 
among  the  nests  of  these  industrious  little  insects.  When  it 
alights  on  a  large  tree,  it  generally  commences  at  the  bottom, 
and  works  its  way  to  the  top  with  great  rapidity,  though,  if  the 
bird  be  conscious  of  the  proximity  of  a  stranger,  it  generally 
keeps  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  tree,  and  its  upward  progress 
is  marked  only  by  an  occasional  sight  of  its  head,  as  it  peers 
round  to  take  a  glance  at  the  intruder.  It  finds  much  of  its 
food  beneath  the  bark  of  old  trees,  and  it  is  therefore  gener- 
ally to  be  observed  in  parks  and  old  forests,  these  being  the 
favourite  home  of  the  Green  Woodpecker.  Its  food  consists 
almost  entirely  of  insects,  but  it  is  also  said  to  eat  nuts  and 
acorns,  and  occasionally  wasps  and  bees,  as  well  as  their  grubs. 
When  hammering  at  the  bark  of  a  tree,  the  bird  receives  con- 
siderable support  from  its  stiffened  tail-feathers. 

Nest. — None.  The  eggs  are  laid  at  the  bottom  of  a  hole, 
hewed  by  the  birds  themselves,  on  the  chips  of  wood  accu- 
mulated during  the  excavation  of  the  nest-hole.  The  latter  is 
often  situated  at  but  a  short  distance  from  the  ground,  and  the 
circular  entrance  to  the  nest  is  so  perfectly  made  that  it  might 
have  been  executed  by  an  expert  carpenter  rather  than  by  the 
bill  of  a  bird.  As  a  rule  only  hollow  trees  are  attacked,  but  it 
is  an  undoubted  fact  that  occasionally  sound  trees  are  attempted, 
with  the  result  that  the  Woodpecker  has  to  desist  in  its  effort 
to  bore  a  nest-hole,  and  is  driven  to  seek  a  more  rotten  tree  for 
its  operations. 

Eggs. — From  five  to  seven,  or  even  eight,  in  number.  Pure 
white  and  glossy  in  appearance.  Axis,  i'25-i*i5;  diam., 
o'95  0*85. 

THE  PIED  WOODPECKERS.     GENUS  DENDROCOPUS. 
Dendrocopus,  Koch,  Baier.  Zool.  i.  p.  72  (1816). 

Type,  D.  major  (L.). 
Of  the  Pied  Woodpeckers  about  forty  species  are  known,  and 


8  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

their  colouring  is,  as  their  name  implies,  principally  black  and 
white.  The  majority  of  them  are  northern  birds,  being  found 
in  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  and  also  in  North  America.  In 
the  New  World  the  genus  reappears  in  a  curious  way,  as  no 
species  is  found  to  the  south  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  until 
D.  lignanus  and  D.  mixtus  are  met  with  from  Peru  to  Chili, 
and  in  Southern  Brazil  and  Argentina. 

There  are  but  two  species  resident  in  the  British  Islands,  a 
large  and  a  small  one,  which  are  described  below. 

I.  THE  GREAT  SPOTTED  WOODPECKER.   DENDROCOPUS  MAJOR. 

Picus  major.  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  176  (1766)  ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v. 

p.  19,  pi.  275  (1871);  Seeb.  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  354  (1884);  Lil- 

ford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  pt.  vii.  (1888). 
Picus  pipra,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  80  (1840). 
Dendrocopus  major,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  470  (1881); 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  77  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.  p.  265 

(1889);  Hargitt,  Cat.  B.  Br.  Mus.  xviii.  p.  211  (1890). 

Adult  Male — General  colour  above  black  and  white;  the 
scapular  plumes  white,  slightly  dingy ;  quills  spotted  or  barred 
with  white,  the  spots  or  patches  on  the  closed  wing  giving  the 
appearance  of  five  bars ;  tail  black,  the  four  median  feathers 
entirely  of  this  colour,  the  next  ones  black  at  the  base,  white 
at  the  tip  with  black  bars  ;  nasal  plumes  black ;  forehead 
drabby-brown;  crown  of  head  and  nape  blue-black,  the  occiput 
red  ;  sides  of  face  white  ;  a  broad  moustachial  band  of  black 
connected  with  the  black  nape ;  under  surface  drabby-brown 
from  the  throat  to  the  breast;  remainder  of  under  surface 
crimson ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  white,  the  lower 
coverts  spotted  with  black  ;  "  bill  slaty-black ;  legs,  feet,  and 
claws  dark  brown  ;  iris  red  "  (H.  Seebohm).  Total  length,  10 
inches;  oilmen,  i'i  ;  wing,  5*5  ;  tail,  37  ;  tarsus,  ro. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour,  but  having  no 
red  on  the  occiput ;  the  entire  head  is,  in  consequence,  black. 
Size  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  male. 

Young. — More  dingily  coloured  than  the  adults,  especially 
below,  the  crimson  on  the  abdomen  being  very  dull.  They  may 
easily  be  told  by  their  red  crowns,  by  the  white  tips  to  the 


THE   PIED   WOODPECKERS.  9 

primary  quills,  and  by  the  dusky  stripes  on  the  flanks  and 

thighs. 

The  large  size  of  the  present  species  prevents  its  being  mis- 
taken for  any  of  the  other  Pied  Woodpeckers  included  in  the 
British  list.  It  may  also  be  recognised  by  its  having  the  back 
and  rump  black.  The  North  American  P.  villosus^  which  ap- 
i  proaches  it  in  size,  has  a  white  streak  down  the  middle  of  the 
back. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  somewhat  local  bird,  and  one  oi 
the  most  difficult  to  observe,  on  account  of  its  shy  nature.  It 
is  found  nesting  in  the  woodlands  of  the  southern  and  mid- 
land counties  of  England,  but  is  rare  to  the  north  of  Yorkshire. 
In  Wales  it  is  a  scarce  species,  and  in  Scotland  it  is  not  now 
known  to  breed.  In  some  years  considerable  numbers  visit  the 
British  Islands  during  the  autumn  migration,  especially  the 
eastern  coasts,  as  in  1886,  1887,  and  again  in  1889.  It  has  only 
been  noticed  in  Ireland  at  scattered  intervals,  and  has  never 
been  found  breeding  in  that  country. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  Distributed  throughout 
Europe  in  suitable  localities,  reaching  just  beyond  the  Arctic 
Circle  in  Scandinavia,  and  found  as  far  as  Archangel  in 
Northern  Russia,  but  the  most  northern  limit  recorded  in 
the  Ural  Mountains  is  64°  N.  lat.  Thence,  according  to  Mr. 
Hargitt,  its  range  extends  across  Southern  Siberia  to  Amurland 
and  Corea.  The  British  Museum  possesses  examples  of  the 
Great  Spotted  Woodpecker  from  Portugal,  Spain,  N.  Italy, 
and  from  Asia  Minor.  The  above-named  authority  also  con- 
siders the  bird  of  the  Canary  Islands  to  be  the  same  as  our 
British  species,  though  there  is  a  tendency  to  a  darker  under 
surface  in  the  specimens  from  these  islands.  In  every  direction 
races  of  Dendrocopus  major  are  found,  which  take  its  place  in 
other  countries  of  the  Palaearctic  Region.  Thus  D.  tissa,  a 
white-breasted  form,  is  found  in  Eastern  Siberia  and  Kamt- 
chatka ;  Z>.  poelzcvni,  a  dark  form,  in  the  Caucasus  ;  D.  leucop- 
terus,  a  pale  form  again,  in  Central  Asia,  &c. 

Habits. — No  birds  are  more  difficult  to  study  in  the  field  than 
the  Woodpeckers,  and  the  present  species,  with  us,  is  one  of  the 
shyest  of  birds.  Its  presence  is  sometimes  made  known  by  its 


io  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

call-note,  which  our  best  field-naturalists  render  as  "  tchick 
or  "chink."     It  is  certainly  a  peculiar  call,  and,  when  one 
recognised,  is  not  likely  to  be  mistaken.     Mr.  Seebohm  ah 
states  that  it  has  a  second  note  like  " the  syllable  tra."     Thi 
I  have  not  noticed,  but  the  other  resounding  note  may  oftei 
be  heard  in  our  woodlands,  though  the  bird  itself  will  be  rai 
observed.     In  the  spring-time  both  this  Woodpecker  and  it 
smaller  cousin,  D.  minor,  produce  a  loud  noise  by  drumming 
with  their  bills  on  the  branches  or  twigs  of  a  tree,  and  thes 
vibrating  taps  are  generally  supposed  to  be  a  signal  or  call-nc 
between  the  sexes.     Certainly  this  noise  can  be  heard  at 
considerable  distance.     The  food  of  the  Great  Spotted  Woe 
pecker  consists  of  insects  of  all  sorts,  which  it  procures  aft< 
the  manner  of  its  kind  by  hammering  at  the  bark  of  a  tree  ai 
prising  it  off.     It  also  feeds  on  fruit  and  nuts,  acorns,  berrit 
&c.     It  is  the  only  British  Woodpecker  which  is  a  migrant 
and  nearly  every  year  considerable  numbers  cross  the  oces 
When  I  was  in  Heligoland  with  Mr.  Seebohm,  five  your 
D.  major  were  brought  to  us  alive  one  Sunday  morning,  having 
been   caught   by  boys   in  the  potato-fields,  where  they  had 
dropped  to  rest,  in  an  exhausted  state. 

Nest. — None.  As  with  other  Woodpeckers,  the  eggs  are  laid 
on  chips  or  powdered  wood  at  the  end  of  a  hole,  hollowed 
in  nearly  every  case  by  the  birds  themselves.  The  eggs  are 
laid  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  both  birds  are  said  to  assist 
in  their  incubation. 

Eggs. — From  five  to  seven  in  number,  sometimes  eight  being 
known.  Axis,  ro-ri5;  diam., 


II.    THE    HAIRY    WOODPECKER.       DENDROCOPUS    VILLOSUS. 

Picus  villosus,  Forster,  Phil.  Trans.  Ixii.  p.  383  (1772). 
Dendrocopus   villosus,   B.   O.   U.   List  Br.    B.  p.    77   (1883 

Saunders,  Man.  p.  266  (1889) ;  Hargitt,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mu 

xviii.  p.  230  (1890). 

Adult  Male. — Of  moderate   size.     Black  and  white,  with 
broad  white  stripe  down  the  middle  of  the  back ;  scapular 
rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  black ;  four  centre  tail-feathe 
black,  the  next  one  black  for  the  basal  half,  white  for  the  te 


THE    PIED   WOODPECKERS.  II 

minal  half,  the  two  outer  feathers  white  with  a  black  spot  at 
the  base ;  none  of  the  tail-feathers  barred ;  wing-coverts  and 
all  the  quills  spotted  with  white;  nasal  plumes  buffy-white, 
tipped  with  black;  a  scarlet  band  on  the  occiput.  "Bill 
bluish-grey,  towards  the  end  black;  feet  bluish-grey;  iris 
brown"  (J.  J.  Audubori).  Total  length,  8-5  inches;  culmen, 
1-25;  wings,  4-85;  tail,  3-0;  tarsus,  0-85. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  having  no  scarlet 
band  on  the  occiput.  Total  length,  8-5  inches ;  wing,  4-8. 

Young. — Differs  from  the  adults  in  having  the  feathers  of  the 
crown  tipped  with  orange-red. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — On  two  occasions  the  Hairy  Wood- 
pecker is  said  to  have  occurred  in  the  British  Islands,  both 
occurrences  having  taken  place  in  Yorkshire :  one  a  hundred 
years  ago,  and  another  near  Whitby  in  1849.  The  latter 
specimen  has  been  presented  by  Mr.  F.  Bond  to  the  British 
Museum. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — According  to  Mr.  Hargitt, 
North  America,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  eastern  base  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  sometimes  to  the  west  of  the  latter. 

III.    THE    DOWNY    WOODPECKER.       DENDROCOPUS    PUBESCENS. 

PICKS pubescens,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  175  (1766). 
Dendrocopus pubescens^  Hargitt,  Cat.  Birds  Brit.  Mus.  xviii.  p. 
238  (1890). 

Adult  Male. — Of  small  size.  Black  and  white,  with  a  broad 
white  stripe  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  distinguished 
by  having  bars  on  the  lateral  tail-feathers ;  a  red  band  on  the 
occiput.  Total  length,  6  inches;  culmen,  0*65;  wing,  375; 
tail,  2-3 ;  tarsus,  0-65. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  with  more  or  less 
white  on  the  occiput,  which  has  no  red  band  on  this  part  of 
the  head.  Total  length,  6  inches  ;  wing,  3-9. 

Young  Male. — Like  the  adult,  but  wanting  the  red  occipital 
band;  the  whole  of  the  feathers  of  the  crown  being  tipped 
with  red,  with  dusky  bases;  the  occiput  spotted  with  dull 
white ;  some  obscure  dusky  stripes  on  the  sides  of  the  body 
and  under  tail-coverts. 


12  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Has    only   occurred  once,    when 
specimen  was  shot  by  the  Rev.  O.  Pickard  Cambridge,  F.R.S. 
near  his   home  at  Bloxworth  in  Dorsetshire,  in  December 
1836.     Some  doubt  has  been  thrown  on  the  authenticity 
the  specimen  in  Mr.  Cambridge's  possession,  and  it  has  beer 
hinted  that  the  specimen  might  have  been  changed  by  th( 
bird-stuffer  who  mounted  it.      I  have  written  to  the  ownei 
about  the  bird  in  question,  and  he  tells  me  that  he  has  not  the 
slightest  doubt  that  the  specimen  he  still  has  in  his  house  is 
the  identical  one  which  he  shot.     Sixty  years  ago,  a  Down] 
Woodpecker  would  have  been  worth  much  more  money  to 
dealer  than  a  Lesser  Spotted  Woodpecker,  and  it  would  n< 
have  been  worth  while  for  anyone  to  have  changed  the  om 
species  for  the  other.     D.  pubescens  has  once  been  shot  neai 
Elbeuf  in  France. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  North  American  species 
occurring  as  far  as  Alaska  in  the  north-west,  and  Florida  ii 
the  south. 

IV.    THE    LESSER    SPOTTED    WOODPECKER.        DENDROCOPUS 
MINOR. 

Picus  minor,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.   176  (1766)  ;   Dresser,  B.  Eur. 

v.  p.  53,  pi.  282  (1872) ;  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  359  (1884) ; 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  pt.  x.  (1889). 
Picus  striolatus,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  86  (1840). 
Dendrocopus  minor,  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  477  (1882); 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  78  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.  Br. 

B.  p.  267  (1889) ;  Hargitt,  Cat.  Br.  Brit.  Mus.  xviii.  p.  252 

(1890). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  black  and  white ;  scapulars 
white,  the  lower  ones  white  barred  with  black ;  lower  back  barred 
with  black  and  white  ;  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  black ;  quills 
black,  spotted  on  the  outer  web  with  white,  and  barred  on  the 
inner  web ;  four  central  tail-feathers  black,  the  others  for  the 
most  part  white,  barred  with  black,  the  outermost  or  "dwarf" 
feather  black  with  a  white  tip;  crown  of  head  crimson,  the 
feathers  having  dusky  bases  and  concealed  white  spots ;  sides 
of  hinder  crown,  occiput,  nape,  and  hind-neck  black  ;  fore- 
head pale  buff,  brownish  at  base ;  sides  of  face  and  sides  of 


THE    PIED    WOODPECKERS.  13 

neck  white,  the  ear-coverts  light  brown ;  a  black  moustachial 
stripe  running  up  behind  the  ear-coverts,  and  widening  on 
the  sides  of  the  neck  ;  under  surface  of  body  brownish-white, 
clearer  white  on  the  throat ;  sides  of  body  with  narrow  streaks 
of  black,  the  streaks  taking  the  form  of  arrow-head  spots  on 
the  under  tail-coverts ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  white, 
with  a  few  dusky  spots;  "bill,  legs,  and  feet  dark  slate-grey  ; 
iris  reddish-brown  "  (If.  Seebohm).  Total  length,  5 '8  inches: 
oilmen,  075;  wing,  3'6  ;  tail,  2-4 ;  tarsus,  o'6. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  without  any  red  on 
the  crown,  the  forehead  and  fore-part  of  the  latter  being 
buffy-white.  Total  length,  5-8  inches  ;  wing,  3-6. 

Young. — Similar  to  the  adults,  but  more  dingy  and  sooty- 
brown  above ;  no  brown  colour  on  the  base  of  the  forehead ; 
only  the  centre  of  the  crown  crimson,  the  feathers  being  dingy- 
white  at  the  base. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Inhabits  nearly  the  same  districts  as 
the  Great  Spotted  Woodpecker,  and  is  in  many  parts  of  the 
south  of  England  the  most  plentiful  of  the  three  species  of 
Woodpecker  indigenous  to  this  country.  Lord  Lilford  says 
the  same  with  regard  to  Northamptonshire.  Northwards  it  be- 
comes rarer,  and  is  local  and  not  plentiful  in  Yorkshire.  In 
the  old  park-lands  of  the  Thames  Valley  it  is  frequently  to  be 
noted,  and  it  is  even  a  bird  of  the  London  district,  for  I  have 
seen  a  specimen  killed  in  Kensington  Gardens,  and  the  species 
is  frequently  to  be  seen  near  Ghiswick.  It  visits  some  elm- 
trees  in  my  own  garden,  and  can  be  seen  and  heard  on  almost 
any  winter's  afternoon  in  the  grounds  of  the  "  Chiswick  Golf 
Club." 

In  Scotland  and  Ireland  the  Lesser  Spotted  Woodpecker 
has  only  occasionally  been  noted,  but  Mr.  Robert  Service  has 
given  to  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  notice  of  its  capture  on  three 
occasions  in  the  Solway  district. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  present  species  is 
generally  distributed  throughout  Europe,  but  is  decidedly 
less  frequent  in  the  south,  though  it  is  found  in  Algeria  and 
is  a  resident  in  the  Azores.  In  Scandinavia  it  breeds  as  far 
as  70°  N.  lat.,  and  in  Russia  it  is  to  be  found  as  far  north  as 
Archangel  and  to  about  67°  N.  lat.  on  the  Petchora  and  the 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


Ob.     Mr.  Hargitt  considers  that  specimens  from  the  Ussui 
River  in  Eastern  Siberia,  and  from  the  island  of  Yezo,  cannc 
be  separated  from  D.  minor,  though  he  admits  that  individual 
from    the   last-named   locality   are    not    typical.     The    sam< 
authority  states  that  from  the  Southern  Urals,  "across  Siberij 
north    of   about    55°    N.    lat.    into    Kamtchatka  and   Berinj 
Island,"  the  place  of  D.  minor  is  taken  by  D.  pipra,  a  specie 
which  differs  from  D.  minor  in  being  purer  white  below  anc 
in   having   scarcely  any  streaks  or   spots   on  the  under  tail- 
coverts,  while  the  black  bars  on  the  lower   back  and  rumi 
are    scarcely  discernible.     In   the  Caucasus  another  specie 
D.  quadrifasciatus,  replaces  D.  minor.     Little  is  known  of  this 
species,  which  is  said  to  show  only  four,  instead  of  five,  white 
bars  on  the  wing,  when  the  latter  is  closed.     A  very  distinct 
form,  D.    danfordi,    is   found   in   Asia   Minor,    easily  recog- 
nised  by  the   black   line  of  the   moustache  being   directe 
upwards  behind  the  ear-coverts  and  joining  the  black  of  the 
occiput. 

Habits. — This  species  is  more  often  to  be  observed,  at 
in  the  south  of  England,  than  any  of  the  three  English  Wood- 
peckers, and  it  differs  a  good  deal  in  its  habits  from  the  Great 
Spotted  Woodpecker.     In  flight,  as  in  size,  it  much  more  re- 
sembles the  Nuthatch,  and  its  note  is  a  sort  of  compromise 
between  that  of  the  latter  species  and  that   of   a  Wryneck. 
In  fact  its  cry,  when  heard  in   winter,  is  somewhat  startling 
from  its  similarity  to  the  Wryneck's  call,  until  one  remembers 
that  the  last-named  bird  is  far  away  in  the  south,  and  that 
the  oft-repeated  note  can  only  be  that  of  the  Lesser  Spottee 
Woodpecker.     It  certainly  descends  more  often  to  the  lowe 
branches  of  the  big  trees  than  does   D.  major,  and  is  not 
unfrequently  seen  hanging  under  a  bough  or  climbing  up  th< 
smaller  twigs  of  a  large  elrn  or  poplar.     Its  nest  has  also  beei 
found  at  low  elevations,  but  as  far  as  my  own  experience  goe 
the  nest  is  a  difficult  one  to  obtain,  and  near  Cookham  ii 
Berkshire,  where  the  bird  is  by  no  means  uncommon,  the  ne 
is  exceptionally  difficult  to  reach,  as  it  is  usually  placed  in 
high  and  rotten  branch  of  a  poplar  tree.     At  times  it  descene 
to  the  orchards,  and  the  late  Mr.  John  Henry  Gurney  told  me 
of  a  pair  which  frequented  the  orchard  in  a  house  where  he 


THE    WRYNECKS.  15 

was  staying,  and  allowed  him  to  observe  their  ways  at  a  short 
distance  from  his  window. 

The  food  of  the  present  species  consists  mainly  of  insects, 
which  it  obtains  by  splitting  off  the  bark  of  the  trees,  but,  like 
other  Woodpeckers,  it  will  also  feed  on  fruit  and  berries, 
though  it  never  seems  to  descend  to  the  ground  to  feed  on 
ants  like  the  Green  Woodpecker.  The  drumming  on  a  small 
branch  of  a  tree,  supposed  to  be  a  call-note  between  the  sexes, 
is  often  heard  in  the  spring. 

Nest.  —  None.  A  neatly  made  hole  is  drilled  into  a  dead  or 
decayed  branch  by  the  birds  themselves,  and  there  at  the 
distance  of  six  or  eight  inches  downwards,  the  eggs  are  laid  in 
a  small  chamber,  on  the  chips  of  wood  or  the  powdered  dust 
caused  by  the  excavation.  Such  a  nest-hole  can  be  seen  in 
the  Bird-Gallery  of  the  British  Museum,  and  is  the  identical 
one  described  by  Mr.  Gould  in  his  "  Birds  of  Great  Britain." 
This  bird  often  takes  advantage  of  any  hole  which  it  may  find 
in  a  decaying  tree  and  may  be  found  nesting  in  a  pollard 
willow  or  an  ancient  fruit-tree. 

Eggs.  —  From  five  to  eight  in  number.  They  are  laid  about 
the  middle  of  May,  and  are  pure  ivory-white.  Axis  0*8-0-9  ; 
diam.,  o'55-o*7. 


THE   WRYNECKS.     SUB-FAMILY 

The  Wrynecks  constitute  a  little  group  of  Woodpeckers, 
with  a  soft-plumaged  tail,  rather  long,  and  variegated  and 
mottled  like  the  general  colour  of  the  upper  surface  of  the 
body.  The  bill  is  stout  and  shorter  than  the  head,  and  the 
nasal  aperture  is  not  concealed  by  bristly  plumes,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  is  exposed  and  partially  hidden  by  an  overhanging 
membrane.  The  feet  are  zygodactyle  and  resemble  those  of 
a  Woodpecker  in  every  respect,  and  the  long  extensile  tongue 
is  exactly  fashioned  like  that  of  the  other  members  of  the 
Family  Pidda. 

The  Wrynecks  are  represented  by  a  single  genus  lynx. 
This  name  is  written  "  Yunx"  in  most  works  on  Natural 
History,  b\t,  as  Dr.  Henry  Wharton  has  pointed  out,  the  name 
is  derived  from  iu£«,  "  to  cry  out  "  :  hence  lynx. 


i6 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


THE   WRYNECKS.     GENUS   IYNX. 

Yunx,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  172  (1766). 

Type,  /  torquilla  (L.). 

Only  four  species  of  Wryneck  are  known,   three  of  whicl 
are  resident  in  Africa  and  peculiar  to  that  continent.     Th< 
are  /.  pectoralis^  which  ranges  from  Natal  to  the  Transvaal,  am 
the  Congo  Region  in  the  west,  /.  pukhricollis,  confined  to  the 
Upper  White  Nile  districts,  and  /.  ccquatorialis,  from  Shoa  and 
Southern  Abyssinia.     The  fourth  species  is  the  Wryneck  of 
Europe. 

I.    THE   COMMON    WRYNECK.       IYNX   TORQUILLA. 

Yunx  torquilla^  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  172  (1766) ;  Macg.  Br.  iii. 
100  (1840). 

lynx  torquilla?  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  103,  pi.  289  (1875) 
Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  487  (1881) ;  B.  O.  U.  Li< 
Br.  B.  p.  80  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  372  (1884) 
Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  261  (1889);  Hargitt,  Cat. 
Brit.  Mus.  xviii.  p.  560  (1890). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  variegated,  brown  and  grey 
and  rufous  with  black  markings  and  vermiculations,  including 
the  tail,  the  latter  grey  with  irregular  bars  of  white  and  black ; 
the  scapularies  and  inner  secondaries  rather  more  rufous  than 
the  back,  with  black  median  stripes ;  sides  of  face  and  sides 
of  neck,  throat,  and  chest,  buff  with  narrow  bars  of  black,  the 
chin  whiter ;  a  whitish  streak  above  the  ear-coverts,  which  are 
rufous-brown,  barred  with  black;  under-parts  creamy-white, 
with  a  shade  of  rufous  on  the  upper  breast  and  sides  of  the 
body  and  thighs,  with  black  arrow-head  shaped  markings  or 
spots ;  under  tail-coverts  buff,  with  faint  black  markings ; 
"  bill,  feet,  and  claws  pale  greyish-brown ;  iris  light  brown  " 
( W.  Macgillivray).  Total  length,  6-5  inches;  culmen,  o'6; 
w»ng>  3*35  ;  tail>  2'6;  tarsus,  07. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  in  colour  to  the  male.  Total  length, 
6-5  inches;  wing,  3-15. 

Young. — Similar  to  the  adults,  but  without  any  spots  on  the 
abdomen. 


THE    WRYNECKS.  17 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor,  arriving  early  in 
April,  and  leaving  in  September.  It  is  principally  to  be  found 
in  the  south  of  England,  but  becomes  rarer  in  the  Midlands, 
and  farther  north  it  must  be  considered  a  scarce  bird,  though 
the  species  has  occurred  in  most  of  the  Scottish  counties,  and 
it  has  been  met  with  in  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands. 
In  Ireland  it  has  been  noted  but  twice,  in  the  summer  of  1878, 
and  again  in  the  Arran  Islands,  on  the  6th  of  October,  1886. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed  through- 
out Europe,  having  reached  even  to  the  Fseroe  Islands.  In 
Scandinavia  it  is  found  up  to  62°  N.  lat,  and  it  also  visits  the 
neighbourhood  of  Archangel,  but  is  not  found  so  far  to  the 
north  in  its  Asiatic  range,  which  is  believed  to  extend  across 
Siberia  to  Kamtchatka  and  the  Japanese  Islands.  The  Asiatic 
Wryneck  was  for  a  long  time  believed  to  be  a  different  species, 
as  it  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  European  bird,  but  it  is 
now  considered  to  be  identical  with  the  latter  (cf.  Hargitt,  Cat. 
B.  Brit.  Mus.  xviii.  p.  560).  In  winter  our  Wryneck  retires  to 
Africa,  but  does  not  go  so  far  south  as  many  of  our  European 
migrants,  as  it  is  not  known  to  wander  farther  than  Kordofan 
in  North-east  Africa,  and  Senegambia  on  the  west  coast. 
Doubtless  most  of  the  Wrynecks,  which  breed  in  Northern 
Europe,  go  no  farther  in  winter  than  to  Northern  Africa, 
though  in  most  of  the  Mediterranean  countries  the  species  is 
regarded  as  a  bird  of  passage  only.  In  the  East,  the  winter 
homes  of  the  species  appear  to  be  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
Indian  Peninsula  and  in  Southern  China. 

HaMts. — From  the  fact  of  its  arriving  about  the  same  time  as 
the  Cuckoo,  the  Wryneck  has  acquired  its  popular  name  of 
"  Cuckoo's  Mate."  It  has  been  said  to  reach  this  country  as 
early  as  March,  and  even  to  occur  during  the  winter  months. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  the  species  has  not  been  mis- 
taken for  the  Lesser  Spotted  Woodpecker,  which  is  a  resident 
bird  in  Great  Britain.  The  cry  of  the  latter  species  might 
easily  be  mistaken  for  that  of  the  Wryneck,  when  heard  in  the 
depth  of  winter. 

In  many  parts  of  the  south  of  England  the  bird  is  called  the 
"Pee-pee,"  from  its  curious  note,  which  is  a  musical  and  oft- 
repeated  iteration  of  the  above  syllables.     It  visits  the  neigh- 
8  c 


i8 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


bourhood  of  London  regularly  on  migration,  and  is  heard  ever 
spring  in  my  own  garden  at  Chiswick.  It  even  nests  in  the 
western  suburbs,  and,  by  constant  care  in  driving  off  the 
hostile  Starling,  Dr.  Giinther  has  succeeded  in  protecting  th< 
Wrynecks  in  his  garden  at  Kew,  to  which  the  birds  returm 
for  several  years  in  succession.  Like  its  relations,  the  Wood- 
peckers, the  Wryneck  is  a  very  shy  bird,  and  its  peculiar  not( 
is  the  chief  indication  of  its  presence  in  the  neighbourly 
It  is  met  with  in  all  kinds  of  situations,  but  is  most  commonl] 
seen  in  orchards  and  park-lands,  and  it  frequents  the  vicinity 
of  habitations  in  a  much  more  familiar  degree  than  do  any  of 
the  Woodpeckers  ;  so  that  it  will  not  disdain  to  accept  th( 
accommodation  of  nesting-boxes  put  up  in  the  trees  for  its 
especial  benefit. 

Although  a  true  member  of  the  Family  Piridce^  by  reason  ol 
the  structure  of  its  foot  and  its  extensile  tongue,  the  Wryned 
is  not  given  to  climb  trees  in  the  same  way  as  the  above  men- 
tioned birds,  as  its  soft-plum  aged  tail  would  be  of  no  service  t< 
it  in  climbing,  and  it  is  therefore  often  to  be  seen  perched  on 
a  branch  like  an  ordinary  Passerine  bird,  while  it  not  unfre- 
quently  visits  the  ground.  On  occasion,  however,  it  runs  up 
a  tree  exactly  like  any  true  Woodpecker,  and  I  once  shot  a 
Wryneck  as  it  was  climbing  up  the  woodwork  of  the  Great 
Western  Railway  bridge  at  Bourne  End  on  the  Thames. 

The  food  of  the  Wryneck  consists  entirely  of  insects,  and 
ants  and  their  eggs  constitute  its  favourite  food.     Although, 
from  its  feeding  so  much  on  the  ground,  it  accumulates,  in  a 
state  of  nature,  a  considerable  amount  of  grit  into  its  stomach, 
I  have  found  young  Wrynecks  very  difficult  to  rear,  since  aftei 
a  time,  the  rape  seed  and  soaked  bread,  which  suits  them  s( 
well  for  a  time,  ultimately  irritates  their  tongue  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  to  produce  inflammation,  and  I  have  always  had  to  1( 
my  pretty  pets  fly,  that  they  might  find  their  proper  food  fc 
themselves  in  the  woods. 

The  name  of  "  Snake-Bird,"  often  applied  to  the  present 
species,  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from   the  curious  way  ii 
which  a  wounded  or  captured  bird  writhes  and  twists  its  loi 
neck  about,  while  the  darting  out  of  the  tongue  has  doubtles 
had  something  to  do  with  the  idea  of  a  snake. 


THE   CUCKOOS.  19 

Nest. — None.  The  eggs  rest  upon  the  dry  chips  or  dead  wood 
at  the  end  of  the  hole,  which  is  generally  selected  and  not  ex- 
cavated by  the  birds  themselves.  Sometimes  a  nest-hole  is 
somewhat  enlarged,  but  the  Wryneck  never  seems  to  hammer 
out  a  hole  like  the  Woodpeckers.  The  nest-hole  varies  in 
depth,  and  sometimes  the  eggs  are  deposited  at  a  considerable 
distance  in  the  tree,  while  at  other  times  the  hole  is  shallow, 
and  the  eggs  can  be  seen  from  the  entrance. 

Eggs. — From  six  to  eight  in  number,  sometimes  as  many  as 
ten  ;  and  an  instance  is  recorded  by  Mr.  Norgate  of  a  female 
Wryneck  laying  forty-two  eggs  for  two  years  in  succession 
(1872-3).  As  Mr.  Seebohm  remarks,  in  1874  "her  reproduc- 
tive powers  were  apparently  exhausted,  as  only  one  egg  was 
laid,  and  in  1875  the  place  was  deserted  ! "  The  eggs  are  pure 
white,  a  little  larger  than  those  of  the  Lesser  Spotted  Wood- 
pecke-,  and  not  so  glossy  as  the  eggs  of  the  latter  bird.  They 
measure  o'55-o'65  inch  in  diameter;  axis,  o'8-o'95. 

CUCULINE    BIRDS.    ORDER    COCCYGES. 
THE  CUCKOOS.    SUB-ORDER  CUCULI. 

The  Cuckoos  have  a  scansorial  or  climbing,  i.e.  a  zygodac- 
tyle,  foot,  with  two  toes  directed  forwards  and  two  backwards. 
The  hallux,  or  hind-toe,  is  served  by  the  flexor  longus  hallucis 
tendon  only,  while  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  toes  are  con- 
nected with  the  flexor  perforans  digitorum.  In  this  respect 
Cuckoos  resemble  the  Game-Birds.  The  palate  is  bridged  or 
"  desmognathous,"  and  there  are  no  basipterygoid  processes  ; 
there  is  no  "  after-shaft "  to  the  feathers,  and  the  oil-gland  is 
nude.  The  number  of  tail-feathers  is  only  ten,  except  in  the 
South  American  genera,  Guira  and  Crotophaga,  where  they  are 
eight  in  number. 

By  the  above  combination  of  characters  the  Cuckoos  may 
be  recognised  from  all  other  birds,  and  the  only  other  Sub- 
order of  the  Coccyges  consists  of  the  Musophagi,  the  Plantain- 
Eaters  or  Touracous  of  Africa.  These  are  closely  allied  to 
the  Cuckoos,  but  have  the  feet  only  semi-zygodactyle,  the 
fourth  toe  not  being  fully  directed  backwards  as  in  the  True 
Cuckoos.  In  habits  and  mode  of  nesting  they  also  differ 


C    2 


20 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


greatly  from  Cuckoos,  and  are,  moreover,  entirely  confined  t 
the  Ethiopian  Region. 

The  Family    CucitUdce,  which   is   co-equal   in    extent  wit 
the   Sub-order,  as   defined   above,  contains  six  Sub-familie 


.  F.n. 


Left  foot  of  a  Cuckoo  (Endynamis  cyanocephald),  to  show  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  plantar  tendons.  [From  the  Catalogue  of  Osteological  Speci- 
mens in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.]  F.H.,  Flexor 
longiis  halhicis  :  F.P.,  Flexor  perforans  digit  arum. 

viz.,  the  True  Cuckoos  (Cuculince\  found  all  over  the  world, 
the  Lark-heeled  Cuckoos  ( Centropodinct),  distributed  over  the 
tropical  portions  of  the  Old  World,  the  Bush  Cuckoos  (Pha>m- 
cophaince),  inhabiting  the  tropics  in  Africa,  India,  and  the 


THE   CRESTED   CUCKOOS.  21 

Indo-Malayan  Sub-region,  and  the  three  Sub-families  Neo- 
morphince,  Diplopterince,  and  Crotophagina,  which  are  only  to 
be  met  with  in  the  tropics  of  the  New  World.  In  the  British 
Islands  we  have  only  to  deal  with  the  first  of  these  Sub-families. 

THE  TRUE  CUCKOOS.     SUB-FAMILY    CUCULIN^B. 

These  chiefly  differ  from  the  other  members  of  the  Family 
in  their  long  and  pointed  wing,  showing  that  they  are  birds  of 
strong  flight,  the  majority  of  the  species  being  migratory,  and 
some,  like  our  Common  Cuckoo,  traversing  enormous  dis- 
tances. In  the  other  Sub-families,  such  as  the  Lark-heeled  and 
the  Bush  Cuckoos,  the  wing  is  concave  and  fits  closely  to  the 
shape  of  the  body,  showing  that  the  birds  are  not  migratory  and 
incapable  of  sustained  flights. 

Captain  Shelley,  the  latest  exponent  of  the  family,  recog- 
nises seventeen  genera  of  the  Cuculince,  of  which  three  have 
to  be  treated  of  as  British. 

THE   CRESTED    CUCKOOS.     GENU$.  COCCYSTES. 

Coccystes,  Gloger,  Handb.  Naturg.  p.  203  (1842). 

Type,  C.  glandarius  (Z.). 

Of  the  eight  species  composing  this  genus,  five  are  peculiar 
to  Africa,  one  is  Indian,  one  inhabits  both  Africa  and  India, 
while  the  eighth  is  a  migratory  bird,  which  nests  in  Southern 
Europe  and  visits  Africa  in  the  winter.  All  the  species  have  a 
conspicuous  crest  of  elongated  feathers,  and  have  the  nasal 
aperture  elongated,  so  as  to  form  a  linear  oval. 

I.    THE    GREAT   SPOTTED    CUCKOO.       COCCYSTES    GLANDARIUS. 

Cuculus glandarius.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  169  (1766) ;  Seebohm, 

Br.  B.  ii.  p.  386  (1884). 
Coccystes  glandarius,  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  ii.  408  (1881); 

Dresser,  B.   Eur.  v.   p.    219,  pi.  300  (1874);  B.  O.  U. 

List  Br.  B.  p.  84  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  p.  279  (1889); 

Shelley,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xix.  p.  212  (1891). 
Oxylophus  glandarius ,  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  pt.  xvi.  (1890). 
Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  ashy-brown,  with  white 


22  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

tips  to  the  quills  and  the  upper  tail-coverts  ;  ciown  of  hea< 
pale  grey ;  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  a  broad  collar  of  buff 
under  surface  of  body  white,  with  a  tinge  of  buff  on  the  thro; 
and  fore-neck  ;  under  wing-coverts  buff;  bill  blackish,  with  the 
base  of  the  lower  mandible  pale  yellow  ;  feet  leaden-grey  ;  iris 
dark  brown.  Total  length,  16  inches;  culmen,  1*2  ;  wing,  8*5 
tail,  8-8;  tarsus,  1-3. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  with  a  good  deal 
chestnut  on  the  quills,  which  appears  to  vanish  with  age, 
that  there  is  at  last  no  difference  between  the  sexes,  beyoi 
that  the  female  is  a  little  smaller.     Total  length,    15   inches 
wing,  7-7. 

Young. — Resembles  the  adult,  but  always  has  the  greater 
of  the  quills  chestnut ;  the  throat  is  darker  and  more  rufoi 
and  the  fore-part  of  the  head  is  black. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Has  occurred  twice  in  the  Briti; 
Isles,  once  in  Ireland  in  1842,  when  a  specimen  was  cam 
alive  in  March  of  that  year.  It  was  found  in  an  emaciate 
condition  on  the  Island  of  Omey,  off  the  coast  of  Connemai 
Mr.  Howard  Saunders  says  that  the  specimen,  which  is  now 
in  the  Museum  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  is  in  immature 
plumage,  which  fact  accounts  for  the  caution  of  his  statement, 
that  it  was  captured  probably  in  March  1842.  A  second 
example  is  in  the  Newcastle  Museum,  and  was  shot  near 
Bellingham  in  Northumberland  on  the  5th  of  August,  1870. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Principally  a  Mediterranean 
species,  arriving  in  Southern  Spain  early  in  March  and  leaving 
in  the  first  days  of  August.  It  has  occurred  accidentally  in 
Northern  Germany,  Southern  France,  and  Northern  Italy, 
and  to  most  of  the  Mediterranean  countries,  as  far  east  as 
Asia  Minor,  it  is  a  regular  visitor.  Its  farthest  eastern  range 
appears  to  be  Northern  Persia.  It  is  a  resident  bird  and  nests 
i  i  Egypt  and  North-western  Africa,  but  the  only  known  breed- 
ing place  within  strictly  European  limits,  is  the  southern  hall 
of  Spain,  where  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  has  found  it  nesting  as 
far  north  as  Madrid.  It  is  also  a  visitor  to  the  Canary  Islands. 
In  winter  it  migrates  to  Senegambia  and  the  Gold  Coast,  and 
also  visits  Southern  Africa. 

Habits. — Like  the  other  members  of  this  Family,  the  Great 


THE   TRUE   CUCKOOS.  23 

Spotted  Cuckoo  feeds  entirely  upon  insects.  It  is  parasitic 
upon  various  species  of  Magpies  and  Crows,  sometimes  even 
placing  its  egg  in  the  nest  of  a  Raven.  Magpies,  however,  and 
occasionally  the  Blue-winged  Magpie  ( Cyanopolius  cyanus]  are 
its  most  frequent  victims,  and  Mr.  Saunders  says  that  he  has 
found  four  Cuckoo's  eggs  deposited  in  a  Magpie's  nest  along 
with  six  of  the  rightful  owner's.  Lord  Lilford,  who  has  given 
an  excellent  account  of  the  habits  of  the  present  species,  says 
that  the  greatest  number  of  Cuckoo's  eggs  found  by  him  in  one 
next  was  eight,  with  five  of  a  Magpie.  "In  almost  every  case  in 
which  we  found  eggs  of  both  species  together,  the  Cuckoo's 
eggs  were  more  advanced  towards  hatching  than  those  of  the 
rightful  proprietor  of  the  nest."  The  voice  of  the  male  bird  is 
said  by  Mr.  Saunders  to  be  a  harsh  "  kark-kark"  and  that  of 
the  female  to  be  like  the  words  "  burroo-burroo "  rapidly  re- 
peated. 

Nest. — None;  the  bird  being  parasitic,  as  described  above. 

Eggs. — Although  bearing  some  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
Magpie,  the  eggs  of  the  Great  Spotted  Cuckoo  can  be  told  by 
their  elliptical  shape,  and  by  the  smoother  texture  of  their  shell. 
The  ground-colour  is  pale  greenish-blue,  with  spots  of  brown, 
and  underlying  purplish-grey  spots ;  in  some  cases  the  spots  are 
evenly  distributed  over  the  egg,  while  in  others  they  are  col- 
lected round  the  larger  end,  imitating  the  Magpie's  egg  in  the 
frequent  possession  of  a  zone.  The  eggs  of  the  Great  Spotted 
Cuckoo  vary  considerably  in  size,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  measure- 
ments. Axis,  1-25-1-4  inch;  diam.,  0-95-1-05. 

kTHE  TRUE   CUCKOOS.    GENUS    CUCULUS. 
Cuculus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  168  (17 65). 
Type,  C.  canorus  (L.). 
The  True  Cuckoos  have  no  crest,  and  are  distinguished  fur- 
ther by  their  rounded  nostril,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  swollen 
membrane.     The  wings  and  tail  are  long,  and  the  latter  is  fan- 
shaped. 

They  are  found  in  nearly  every  country  of  the  Old  World, 
some  of  them,  like  our  Common  Cuckoo,  inhabiting  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  the  north  during  summer,  and  migrating 


24  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

southwards  in  the  autumn,  while  in  some  of  the  tropical  coui 
tries  the  species  remain  all  the  year  round. 

I.  THE  COMMON  CUCKOO.   CUCULUS  CANORUS. 

Cuculus  canorus,  Linn.  Syst. 'Nat.  i.  p.  165  (1766);  Macgil 
Br.  B.  iii.  p.  109  (1840) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  ii. 
387  (1880);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  199,  pi.  299  (1878) 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  83  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii. 
378  (1884) ;  Saunders,  Man.  p.  277  (1889) ;  Shelley,  Cat 
B.  Brit.  Mus.  xix.  p.  245  (1891);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br. 
pt.  xviii.  (1891). 

(Plate  XXXIII.'] 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  leaden-grey,  with  a  slig 
greenish  gloss,  the  upper  tail-coverts  with  white  edges  and  bars 
quills  dark  brown,  with  white  notches  on  the  inner  webs ;  tail 
feathers  slaty-black,  with  white  ends  ;  on  each  side  of  the  shai 
twin  spots  of  white,  the  inner  webs  notched  with  white,  but  nc 
complete  bars  across  the  feathers ;  sides  of  face  and  throat 
rather  lighter  grey  than  the  head ;  remainder  of  under  surface 
of  body  white,  regularly  barred  with  black,  with  a  tinge  of  buf 
on  the  abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts ;  axillaries  and  under 
wing-coverts  barred  with  black ;  bill  black,  light  yellow  at  the 
base  of  the  lower  mandible ;  feet  yellow ;  iris  yellow.     Total 
length,  14  inches  ;  culmen,  0*9  ;  wing,  8-9  ;  tail,  7'o ;  tarsus,  0*8. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  a  trifle  smaller,  and 
distinguished  by  the  rufous  shade  on  the  fore-neck.  Total 
length,  12-5  inches;  wing,  8-3. 

"Young. — Very  different  from  the  adults.  Dark  brown  or 
ashy-brown,  barred  with  rufous,  and  with  a  white  edging  to 
the  feathers,  producing  a  strongly  mottled  appearance  ;  on  the 
back  of  the  neck  a  white  spot ;  under  surface  of  body  buffy- 
white,  barred  with  blackish-brown,  more  broadly  on  the  throat ; 
tail  barred  with  rufous. 

There  is  also  a  rufous  or  "hepatic"  phase  of  plumage  in  the 
Cuckoo,  which  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  young  birds  only. 
In  this  plumage  the  general  aspect  of  the  bird  is  tawny-rufous 
or  cinnamon,  barred  with  blackish,  the  bars  less  distinct  or 
forming  only  spots  on  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts ;  tail- 
feathers  rufous,  tipped  with  white,  before  which  is  a  sub- 


PLATE    1 


CUCKOO. 


THE   CUCKOO.  25 

terminal  black  band,  the  feathers  being  irregularly  barred  with 
blackish  ;  under  surface  of  body  buffy-white,  barred  with  black, 
the  buff  colour  deeper  on  the  throat.  By  some  naturalists  it  is 
supposed  that  this  "  hepatic  "  stage  lasts  throughout  the  bird's 
life,  but  I  have  seen  specimens  moulting  from  it  into  the  grey 
plumage  of  the  fully  adult  bird. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor,  arriving  in  April, 
somewhat  irregularly  in  some  years,  when  the  seasons  are  back- 
ward, and  leaving  about  the  end  of  July.  The  young  birds, 
however,  are  later  in  their  departure,  and  are  sometimes  seen 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  September.  The  males  come  a  few 
days  before  the  females,  and  greatly  out-number  the  latter.  It 
visits  every  portion  of  the  British  Islands,  and  even  the  out- 
lying isles. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Cuckoo  has  been  known 
to  visit  the  Fseroe  Islands,  and  is  found  nearly  everywhere 
throughout  Europe  and  Northern  Asia  to  Kamtchatka,  but 
it  does  not  visit  the  tundras  of  Siberia,  according  to  Mr.  See- 
bohm.  In  Norway  it  extends  its  range  almost  to  the  North 
Cape,  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Petchora  and  the  Ob  it  reaches 
to  66^°  N.  lat,  on  the  Yenesei  to  67°,  and  in  Eastern  Siberia 
it  has  been  recorded  from  the  Stanovoi  Mountains  (62°  N.  lat.) 
by  Middendorf.  It  breeds  throughout  the  Mediterranean  coun- 
tries, but  is  chiefly  known  as  a  migrant,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  it  in  India,  as  only  a  few  breed  in  the  Himalayas.  I  saw 
it  not  uncommonly  at  Simla  in  the  summer  of  1885. 

The  winter  home  of  the  Cuckoo  extends  throughout  the 
African  continent,  as  it  occurs  at  that  season  on  the  Gold 
Coast,  and  it  is  also  found  in  South  Africa.  Throughout  the 
whole  of  the  Indian  Peninsula  it  likewise  extends  in  winter, 
and  even  reaches  Australia. 

Habits. — The  natural  economy  of  the  Cuckoo  is  of  such  an 
extraordinary  nature,  that  a  whole  volume  could  easily  be 
written  on  the  life-history  of  this  curious  and  interesting  bird. 
The  peculiar  facts  connected  with  its  breeding  are  worthy  of 
a  prolonged  study,  and  there  is  doubtless  much  still  to  be 
discovered  respecting  the  behaviour  of  the  bird  during  the 
breeding-season.  That  there  is  a  great  predominance  in  the 
number  of  males  over  that  of  the  females  which  visit  this 


26  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

country,  is  now  an  admitted  fact,  and  the  constant  followii 
of  the  female  bird  by  several  of  the  opposite  sex,  not 
allows  of  no  opportunity  for  pairing  for  life,  but  takes 
every  possibility  of  her  having  time  to  build  a  nest.     That  tl 
Cuckoo  is  polyandrous  seems  to  be  equally  certain,  and  tl 
note  of  the  female  is  also  different  from  that  of  the  mal 
wh'ch  is  the  bird  which  utters  the  well-known  "  Cuckoo  " 
The  female's,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  "  whittling  "  or  "  ware 
burbling  "  cry,  unlike  that  of  any  other  British  bird,  and,  wh< 
uttered,  is  quite  sufficient  to  set  all  the  male  Cuckoos  calling  fc 
some  distance  round.     The  flight  of  the  Cuckoo  is  very  simil 
to  that  of  a  Hawk,  and  the  appearance  of  one  on  the  wii 
is  the  signal  for  its  being  mobbed  by  Swallows,  Martins, 
other  small   birds,  just  as  if  it  were  really  a  Bird  of  Pn 
Whether  the  smaller  species  really  mistake  it  for   a   Hai 
or  really  recognise  it  as  a  common  enemy  which  brings  dis 
ter  at  times  on  their  progeny,  one  can  hardly  say,  but  that 
Accipitrine  character  is  useful  to  the  Cuckoo  can  hardly 
doubted,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  narrative  which  Mrs.  Frasci 
has  given  of  a  singular  occurrence   which  came  under   her 
notice. 

This  lady  had  found  a  Stonechat's  nest,  and  was  engaged 
in  painting  a  picture  in  its  vicinity,  when  she  saw  a  female 
Cuckoo  fly  down  to  the  ground  with  an  egg  in  its  bill.  At  the 
same  moment  the  male  Cuckoo  swooped  down  near  the  Stone 
chats,  when  the  foolish  little  birds  at  once  flew  to  attack  it  and 
drive  it  from  their  nest,  and  pursued  it  for  some  distance, 
during  which  interval  the  female  Cuckoo  quietly  approached 
the  nest  and  dropped  her  egg  into  the  latter.  She  then  uttered 
her  peculiar  call,  and  was  immediately  joined  by  the  male,  anc 
both  birds  flew  off  together  in  triumph. 

The  Cuckoo,  having  laid  her  egg,  carries  it  about  in  her  bill 
and  places  it  in  the  nest  which  she  selects  as  a  suitable  one  foi 
the  well-being  of  her  youngster  when  it  is  hatched.  To  th< 
fact  that  Cuckoos  have  been  shot  with  an  egg  in  their  mouth  u 
no  doubt  due  the  myth  that  the  bird  devours  eggs,  no  on< 
having,  apparently,  surmised  that  the  egg  which  the  bird  wa.< 
carrying  might  be  its  own  !  Having  deposited  the  egg,  it 
generally  supposed  that  the  old  female  takes  no  further  interest 
in  its  offspring,  and  certainly  it  would  appear  that,  by  theii 


THE   CUCKOO.  27 

earlier  departure,  the  adult  Cuckoos  leave  their  young  to  find 
their  way  south  by  themselves.  They  are,  however,  by  no 
means  the  only  birds  which  act  thus. 

The  history  of  the  young  Cuckoo  in  the  nest  of  the  foster- 
parents  is  that,  being  hatched  about  the  same  time  as  the  young 
of  the  rightful  occupant,  the  interloper,  while  still  blind  and  in 
an  apparently  helpless  condition,  manages  to  hoist  the  other 
little  blind  nestlings  over  the  side  of  the  nest,  so  that  they 
perish,  and  it  endures  to  receive  the  unremitting  care  of  the 
pair  of  small  birds,  in  whose  nest  the  mother  Cuckoo  may  have 
placed  her  egg.  This  story  was  first  related  by  Dr.  Jenner,  to 
whom  we  owe  the  discovery  of  vaccination,  and  we  have  heard 
that  some  "  anti-vaccinationists  "  have  carried  their  fanaticism 
so  far,  that,  from  their  dislike  of  the  founder  of  the  practice  of 
vaccination,  they  would  wish  to  throw  doubts  on  the  authen- 
ticity of  Dr.  Jenner's  observations  on  the  habits  of  the  Cuckoo  ! 
Some  few  years  ago,  however,  the  proceedings  of  the  young 
Cuckoo,  in  ejecting  from  the  nest  its  young  foster-brothers  and 
sisters,  were  observed  by  Mrs.  Hugh  Blackburn,  who  sketched 
the  operation.  We  do  not  know  whether  the  anti-vaccination- 
ists wish  to  accuse  this  lady  of  an  untruthful  record,  but  they 
will  scarcely  be  inclined  to  doubt  the  evidence  of  the  late  Mr. 
John  Hancock,  who  also  was  a  witness  to  the  method  of  the 
young  Cuckoo  in  ejecting  the  other  occupants  of  the  nest  (Tr, 
North,  and  DurhamNat.Hist.Soc.viii.pt.  2, pp.  210-217, 1886). 
The  fanatics  may  not  even  be  satisfied  with  this  evidence,  but 
it  will  be  sufficient  for  every  ornithologist. 

The  small  size  of  the  egg  laid  by  the  Cuckoo,  considering 
the  bulk  of  the  bird,  is  another  peculiar  feature  in  its  economy. 
Great  diversity  of  colour,  also,  is  one  of  its  characteristics,  and 
considering  the  various  types  of  eggs  laid  by  the  Cuckoo,  it  is 
not  wonderful  that  the  theory  exists  that  the  bird  places  its  egg 
in  the  nest  of  a  species,  the  eggs  of  which  most  resemble  its 
own  in  colour.  That  there  is  great  truth  in  this  theory  I 
firmly  believe,  otherwise  it  would  be  difficult  to  account  for  the 
fact  that  blue  Cuckoo's  eggs  should  be  placed  in  the  nest  of 
a  Redstart,  which  likewise  lays  blue  eggs.  In  the  British 
Museum  are  such  clutches  of  eggs,  and  also  blue  eggs  placed 
in  the  nest  of  a  Pied  Flycatcher,  the  eggs  of  which  are  also 
blue.  The  fact  of  the  Cuckoo  producing  a  blue  egg  was  for 


yi 


28  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY 

some  time  doubted  in  England,  though  well-known  in  Ger 
many ;  but  the  question  was  set  at  rest  by  two  English  orni- 
thologists, Mr,  Henry  Seebohm  and  Mr.  H.  J.  Elwes  who,  were 
collecting  together  in  Holland,  and  who  received  a  nest  of 
Redstart's  eggs,  one  of  which,  larger  than  the  rest,  was  said  t 
be  that  of  a  Cuckoo.  The  eggs  proved  to  be  hard-set,  wit 
well-formed  young  inside  They  were  alike  blue  in  colou 
but  on  trying  to  blow  the  larger  egg,  the  foot  of  the  little  bird 
— a  zygodactyle  foot — protruded  from  the  hole,  and  effect- 
ually proved  that  the  tiny  occupant  was  a  veritable  Cuckoo. 

In  England  the  most  common  victims  are  the  Pied  Wagtai 
the  Reed- Warbler,  and  the  Meadow  Pipit ;  and  in  each  case 
there  is  a  remarkable  similarity  in  colouring  of  the  Cuckoo'; 
egg  to  that  of  the  foster-parent  which  she  selects.  It  is  su 
posed  that  the  coloration  of  the  Cuckoo's  egg  is  an  heredita 
faculty,  and  that  each  female  Cuckoo  lays  a  particular  type 
egg.  This  is  in  all  probability  the  case,  and  Cuckoos  whi 
lay  blue  eggs  come  of  a  stock  which  has  been  hatched  fro 
blue  eggs,  and  will  continue  to  lay  them,  and  deposit  them 
the  nest  of  some  blue-egg-laying  species. 

Among  the  various  types  of  Cuckoo's  eggs  in  the  collectio 
of  the  British  Museum  are  many  which  are  exact  copies  of  t 
eggs  of  other  birds.  In  some  instances  the  likeness  is  truly 
markable,  and  it  is  curious  to  see  the  large  egg  lying  in  the  n 
by  the  side  of  the  smaller  ones  of  the  rightful  parent,  precisely 
similar  in  colour,  but  double  the  size,  looking  in  fact,  like  a 
double-yolked  egg  of  the  species.  In  the  above-named  collec- 
tion are  Cuckoo's  eggs  showing  the  exact  colour  and  markings 
of  the  eggs  of  the  birds  victimised  by  the  parasitic  bird — Pied 
Wagtail's,  Yellow  Wagtail's,  Blue-headed  Wagtail's,  Meadow- 
Pipit's,  Tree-Pipit's,  Skylark's,  Chaffinch's,  Reed-Warbler's, 
Sedge- Warbler's,  Orphean  Warbler's,  £c.  But  these  eggs  are 
not  always  deposited  in  the  nests  of  the  species  where  the  eggs 
of  the  foster-parent  exactly  resemble  those  of  the  interloper. 
In  none  of  the  Hedge-Sparrow's  nests,  for  instance,  have  we  a, 
blue  Cuckoo's  egg,  and  it  is  curious  to  find  an  egg  like  that  of 
a  Skylark  or  a  Tree-Pipit  deposited  in  the  nest  of  a  Marsh- 
Warbler  or  a  Chiff-chaff,  the  eggs  of  which  are  so  differently 
coloured  that  the  sombre  Cuckoo's  egg  lies  in  striking  con- 
trast, and  it  is  wonderful  that  the  little  owners  of  the  nest 
do  not  detect  the  fraud.  This  dissimilarity  in  the  colour  of 


i 


THE   CUCKOO.  29 

the  Cuckoo's  egg  probably  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  bird 
cannot  find  at  the  time  a  nest  ready  for  its  reception,  and  is, 
therefore,  obliged  to  put  it  into  the  first  nest  where  there  are 
freshly-laid  eggs,  which  will  ultimately  be  hatched  at  the  same 
time  as  the  young  Cuckoo,  and  therefore  allow  the  latter  the 
opportunity  of  turning  out  its  little  nest-fellows,  and  receive  the 
entire  attention  of  the  two  foster-parents,  who  find  all  th.ir 
time  taken  up  in  feeding  the  voracious  youngster.  A  striking 
instance  of  the  above  fact  was  noticed  by  my  friend,  Mr.  C. 
Bygrave  Wharton,  who  observed  a  female  Cuckoo  haunting  the 
vicinity  of  his  grounds  at  Totton  in  the  New  Forest  for  some 
days.  He  at  length  discovered  a  Cuckoo's  egg  in  the  nest  of  a 
Sedge-Warbler,  and,  beyond  the  larger  size  of  the  egg,  there 
was  absolutely  nothing  to  distinguish  the  egg  of  the  Cuckoo 
from  those  of  the  rightful  owner.  Some  five  days  afterwards 
he  found  an  egg  of  the  Cuckoo  of  the  same  "  Sedge- Warbler  " 
type,  but  this  time  in  the  nest  of  a  Reed-Bunting,  whose  eggs 
were,  of  course,  of  a  wholly  different  pattern.  This  seemed  to 
show  that  the  egg  laid  by  the  Cuckoo  was  like  that  of  the 
Sedge-Warbler,  and  that  on  the  first  occasion  the  bird  had 
found  a  nest  ready  to  hand,  but,  in  the  case  of  the  second  egg, 
no  Sedge- Warbler  in  the  neighbourhood  had  a  nest  ready,  and 
therefore  the  Cuckoo  was  forced  to  put  it  into  the  nest  of  the 
Reed-Bunting.  Such  instances  could  no  doubt  be  multi- 
plied, but,  as  we  have  before  hinted,  the  natural  history  of 
our  Common  Cuckoo  is  such  a  complex  subject  that  a 
book  might  easily  be  written  about  the  bird  and  its  peculiar 
habits. 

That  the  Cuckoo  lays  its  eggs  at  intervals  has  long  been 
believed,  but  Dr.  Rey,  a  well-known  German  oologist,  has 
recently  given  his  opinion  that  the  interval  between  the  de- 
position of  the  eggs  is  much  shorter  than  is  generally  supposed, 
and  that  a  single  female  will  lay  from  seventeen  to  twenty-two 
eggs  !  Much  has  been  surmised  as  to  whether  the  old  Cuckoos 
take  any  interest  in  their  offspring  after  it  is  hatched,  but 
Professor  Newton  writes,  "  of  the  assertion  that  the  Cuckow* 

*  Professor  Newton  always  calls  the  bird  the  "  Cuckow,"  which  is  the 
form  "of  the  more  scholarly  English  ornithologists,  as  Montagu  and 
Jenyns"  (cf.  Diet.  B.  p.  118).  The  bird  itself,  however,  says  "  Cuckoo," 
and  even  the  above  learned  writer  admits  that  the  oldest  English  spelling  of 
the  name  seems  to  have  been  "  Cuccu" 


30  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIERARY. 

herself  takes  any  interest  in  the  future  welfare  of  the  egg  si 
has  foisted  on  her  victim,  or  of  its  product,  there  is  no 
dence  worth  a  moment's  attention."     It  is  certain  that  tl 
young  Cuckoos  are  left  to  find  their  way  south  in  the  autui 
entirely  by  themselves,  the  old  birds  having  left  long  befoi 
and  in  the  British  Museum  are  three  birds  shot  by  myself 
the  same  day  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  the  same  spot,  whi< 
must  have  been  migrating  south  in  company. 

The  food  of  the  Cuckoo  appears  to  consist  entirely  of 
sects,  and  it  is  a  true  friend  of  the  farmer  and  gardener,  esj 
cially  as  it  is  believed  to  be  the  only  kind  which  devours  tl 
larvre  of  the  Tiger-Moth — the  "Woolly  Bear,"  as  it  is  general! 
called.  Most  birds  decline  to  eat  this  creature,  but  tl 
stomach  of  the  Cuckoo  has  been  found  completely  lined  wit 
the  hairs  from  off  this  caterpillar's  body. 

Nest—  None;  the  bird  being  parasitic. 
Eggs. — Variable   to   an   extraordinary  degree,  as   describe 
above. 

THE   AMERICAN   CUCKOOS.     GENUS   COCCYZUS. 

Coccyzus,  Vieill.  Analyse,  p.  28  (1816). 

Type,  C.  americanus  (L.). 

The  American  Cuckoos  have  much  the  same  form  as  the 
ordinary  True  Cuckoos  of  the  Old  World,  but  are  rather  plainer 
in  colour,  without  bars  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  and 
have  the  nostril  oval  in  shape.  They  also  make  nests,  and  are 
not  parasitic,  as  far  as  is  known. 

Two  species  have  wandered  to  Europe,  but  they  can  only  be 
regarded  as  occasional  visitors,  of  accidental  occurrence. 

The  members  of  the  genus  Coccyzus  occur  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  the  New  World,  visiting  the  temperate  regions 
of  North  America  in  summer,  and  occurring  throughout  tro- 
pical America  as  far  south  as  the  Argentine  Republic,  but  not 
visiting  the  extreme  south  of  the  South  American  continent. 

I.    THE   YELLOW-BILLED    CUCKOO.       COCCYZUS    AMERICANUS. 

Cuculus  americanus,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  170  (1766). 


THE    YELLOW-BILLED    CUCKOO. 


ceyzus  americanus,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  137  (1840);  Dresser, 
B.  Eur.  v.  p.  227,  pi.  301,  fig.  2  (1876);  Newton,  ed. 
Yarr.  ii.  p.  414  (1881) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  84  (1883); 
Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  390  (1884);  Saunders,  Man.  p.  280 
(1889);  Shelley,  Cat.  B.  xix.  p.  308  (1891). 

hilt  Male. — Above  brown,  glossed  with  olive  on  the  mantle ; 
tail  black,  tipped  with  white,  except  the  centre  feathers,  which 
iare  like  the  back ;  quills  externally  brown  and  also  brown  at 
!the  ends,  internally  rufous ;  eyebrows  greyish ;  ear-coverts 
rather  darker  brown  ;  cheeks  and  under-surface  of  body  white ; 
under  wing-coverts  white,  tinged  with  buff.  Bill  dark  horn- 
colour,  paler  below  the  nostrils,  the  lower  mandible  for  the 
most  part  orange-yellow;  feet  leaden-grey;  iris  dark  brown. 
Total  length,  n  inches;  oilmen,  n  ;  wing,  5-5;  tail,  6'o ; 
tarsus,  i'o. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
io-8  inches  ;  wing,  5-6. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  purely  accidental  visitor.  Four  in- 
stances of  its  occurrence  have  been  recorded :  in  co.  Cork,  in 
the  autumn  of  1825  ;  near  Dublin,  in  1832  ;  near  Aberystwith, 
in  October,  1870;  and  on  Lundy  Island,  in  October,  1874.  It 
has  also  been  obtained  in  Belgium,  and  in  Italy  near  Turin. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Found  principally  in  the 
Eastern  United  States,  eastward  to  the  Missouri  Plains,  breed- 
ing as  far  south  as  Texas,  and  extending  on  the  west  to  Cali- 
fornia, though  Mr.  Ridgway  considers  the  western  bird  to  be 
distinct,  and  names  it  C.  ocridentalis.  It  also  occurs  in  the 
West  Indian  Islands  and  breeds  there. 

Habits. — Very  similar  to  those  of  our  own  Cuckoo,  but  differ- 
ing from  that  species  in  the  habit  of  building  its  own  nest,  rear- 
ing its  own  young,  and  being  an  affectionate  parent.  According 
to  "Wilson,  it  begins  to  pair  early  in  May,  and  commences  to 
build  its  nest  about  the  loth  of  that  month,  retiring  to  some 
shady  and  retired  woodland  for  that  purpose.  There  seems  to 
be,  even  with  this  well-behaved  parent,  the  same  difference  in 
time  between  the  deposition  of  the  eggs  as  is  to  be  found  in 
the  case  of  Cuculus  canorus.  Audubon  relates  that  he  found 
a  nest  in  which  were  five  young  Cuckoos  and  two  eggs.  Two 


32  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

of  the  young  birds  were  sufficiently  advanced  to  scramble 
of  the  nest,  and  the  other  three  were  of  different  ages,  one  beii 
just  hatched,  another  several  days  old,  and  the  third  still  furtl 
advanced,  covered  with  "  pen  "-feathers,  so  that  it  would  ha 
been  able  to  fly  in  about  a  week.     His  friend  Mr.  Rhett, 
whose  garden  this  nest  was  found,  assured  him  that  he  hs 
known  as  many  as  eleven  young  Cuckoos  to  be  reared  in 
nest  in  the  course  of  one  season.     The  late  Dr.  Brewer  sa> 
that  the  breeding-season  lasts  from  one  to  four  months,  so  tt 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  nesting-habits  of  the  American  Cuck( 
differ  strikingly  from  those  of  their  European  cousins. 

Nest. — In  the  construction  of  this,  little  art  is  displayed, 
is  made  of  a  few  sticks  and  twigs  without  any  perceptible 
cavity,  and  has  a  few  green  weeds  and  apple-blossoms  intc 
mixed. 

Eggs. — Uniform  light  bluish-green,  which  rapidly  fades,  eve 
in  a  cabinet,  according  to  Dr.  Brewer.  Axis,  1-2-1-3  incl 
diam.,  o '9-1-0. 


II.    THE    BLACK-BILLED    CUCKOO.       COCCYZUS 
ERYTHROPHTHALMUS. 

Cuculus  erythropthalma,  Wilson,  Am.  Orn.  iv.  p.  16  (1811). 
Coccyzus  erythrophthalmus,  Dresser,  B.  Eifr.  v.  p.  231,  pi.  301, 
fig.  i   (1876);    B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  85  (1883);   Saun- 
ders,  Man.  p.   280  (1889);  Shelley,  Cat.  B.  xix.  p.  311 
(1891). 

Adult  Male. — Similar  to  C.  americanus,  but  distinguished  by 
the  narrow  white  tips  to  the  tail  feathers,  which  have  a  black 
sub-terminal  band.  There  is  no  chestnut  lining  to  the  quills, 
which  have  only  a  little  rufous-buff  colour  at  the  base ;  bill 
black,  with  sometimes  a  little  yellow  at  the  base  of  the  lower 
mandible ;  feet  leaden-grey ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length, 
inches;  culmen,  0*9  ;  wing,  6'o;  tail,  6*5  ;  tarsus,  0-95. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  io'8  inch 
wing,  4-8. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Has  occurred  once  near  Belfast,  in 
September,  1871.  Another  example  has  been  obtained  near 
Lucca  in  Italy,  in  1858. 


wer 

:; 


THE   PICARIAN    BIRDS.  33 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — According  to  Mr.  Ridgway, 
this  species  inhabits  the  Eastern  United  States,  as  far  north 
as  Labrador  and  west  to  Manitoba  and  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
visiting  in  winter  Central  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  the 
northern  part  of  South  America. 

Habits. — Very  similar  to  those  of  C.  americanus,  excepting 
that  the  bird  is  perhaps  even  more  shy  and  retiring  in  its  ways. 
Like  the  last-named  bird,  it  builds  its  own  nest,  and  is  a  most 
affectionate  parent.  Dr.  Brewer  tells  of  an  instance  where  the 
female  had  been  killed,  and  the  male  bird  successfully  brought 
up  the  brood  of  five  young  ones. 

Nest. — According  to  Dr.  Brewer,  the  nest  is  built  in  an  ever- 
green bush  or  small  sapling.  It  is  rather  neatly  constructed  of 
twigs,  occasionally  lined  with  moss,  withered  catkins,  or  blossoms 
of  plants. 

Eggs — Glaucous-green  or  verditer-blue.  Axis,  i'ii;  diam., 
0*78  inch  (Ridgway). 

THE  PICARIAN  BIRDS.     ORDER  CORACIIFORMES. 

In  this  Order  are  comprised  several  Sub-orders  of  birds, 
most  of  which  are  inhabitants  of  the  Tropics,  and  do  not 
immediately  concern  us  here.  Such  are  the  Guacharos 
(Steatornithes\  the  Frog-mouths  (Podargi\  the  Madagascar 
Rollers  (Leptosomati\  the  Hornbills  (Bucerotes\  the  Mot-mots 
(Momoti),  the  Todies  (Todi\  the  Humming-Birds  (Trochili), 
and  the  Colies  (Colit).  All  these  Sub-orders  have  remarkable 
characteristics,  and  contain,  as  a  rule,  but  few  species,  which 
represent  the  various  Sub-orders  in  the  Tropics  of  both  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds. 

All  the  Picarians  differ  from  the  Passerine  Birds  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  tendons  of  the  foot,  the  flexor  perforans 
digitorum  being  connected  with  the  hallux. 

As  a  rule  they  lay  white,  or  at  least  uniform  pale-coloured 
eggs,  which  are  always  hidden  from  sight  in  the  hole  of  a  tree, 
or  under  the  shelter  of  a  building  or  rock.  The  young  are 
born  naked,  and,  as  far  as  is  known,  the  form  of  development 
of  the  feathers  is  peculiar,  the  feather  remaining  long  in  its 
sheath,  so  that  a  young  Picarian  is  covered  soon  after  its  birth 

8  D 


34  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

with  an  array  of  pen-feathers.     As  soon  as  these  have  reached 
a  development  which  makes  the  youngster  look  like  a  sma1! 


Young  Kingfisher,  to  show  the  pen-feathers. 

Porcupine,  the  sheath  breaks  and  falls  off,  and  the  feathers 
cover  the  body  at  once. 


THE  SWIFTS.    SUB-ORDER  CYPSELI. 

The  Swifts  and  the  Night- Jars  have  generally  been  associat 


-I 


in  recent  classifications  of  birds  with  the  Humming-Birds,  as 
forming  an  Order  Machrochires.     The  association  of  the  Swifts 


THE   SWIFTS. 


35 


with  the  Swallows  as  joint  members  of  the  Order  Fissirostres 
has  long  been  recognised  as  a  mistake,  the  Swallows  being 
aberrant  Passeriformes,  and  the  Swifts  being  really  aberrant 
Picarice.  They  are,  however,  the  most  Passerine  of  the  Pica- 
rian  birds,  as  they  have  a  distinctly  Passerine,  or  aegithogna- 
thous,  palate;  in  other  respects  they  are  Picarian,  though  in 
many  points  they  are  aberrant  members  of  the  Order. 

In  some  form  or  other,  Swifts  are  found  nearly  all  over  the 
world,  except  in  the  high  north  and  the  extreme  south.  Where 
no  true  Swifts  occur,  as  is  the  case  in  some  of  the  Pacific 
Islands,  their  place  is  taken  by  the  edible  Swiftlets  (Collo- 
calia),  those  curious  little  cave-haunting  birds,  which  make 
the  nests  so  highly  prized  by  the  Chinese  and  others  for  the 
manufacture  of  bird's-nest  soup.  In  Borneo  these  caves  are 
leased  for  the  purposes  of  revenue,  those  which  are  frequented 
by  Collocalia  fuciphaga,  which  makes  the  purest  white  nest, 
being  of  more  value  than  those  inhabited  by  C.  linchii  or  by 
species  which  make  "black"  or  "moss"  nests,  these  not  being 
so  useful  for  culinary  purposes.  These  are,  however,  birds  of 
the  Tropics,  and  in  the  British  Islands  we  have  but  to  notice 
three  species,  one,  Micropus  opus,  a  regular  summer  visitor, 
one,  M.  melba,  of  rare  occurrence,  and  one,  Ch&tura  caudacuta,  a 
very  rare  visitor,  of  accidental  occurrence  only. 

THE  TRUE   SWIFTS.     FAMILY   CYPSELID^. 

The  Swifts  are  remarkable  for  their  very  wide  gape,  the 
mouth  being  cleft  to  below  the  level  of  the  eyes.  The  wing, 
although  so  powerful  in  flight,  has  less  feathers  in  its  compo- 
sition than  the  bulk  of  Passerine  Birds,  for  there  are  only  ten 
primaries,  while  the  secondaries  are  less  than  nine  in  number, 
but  the  quills  are  all  very  strong  and  pointed,  so  that  no  birds 
on  earth  exceed  the  Cypsdida,  in  their  power  of  flight.  That 
of  our  Common  Swift  is  rapid  enough,  but  this  is  nothing  when 
compared  with  the  lightning-like  rapidity  with  which  some  of 
the  Spine-tailed  Swifts  (Chcetura)  traverse  space.  I  remember 
one  Indian  experience  in  particular,  when  we  stopped  for  the 
night  at  Solon,  on  the  road  to  Simla,  arriving  there  just  as 
twilight  was  approaching.  While  dinner  was  preparing,  I 
stood  outside  on  the  road,  looking  over  that  wonderful  Hima- 
layan scenery  which  I  am  never  likely  to  see  again,  the  tre- 

D    2 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


mendous  mountains  above  and  the  deep  valley  below,  with 
the  setting  sun  illuminating  the  glorious  peaks  of  the  hill-tops, 
and  throwing  into  shade  the  depths  lying  below  my  feet.  I 
was  conscious  of  an  occasional  buzz  of  wings  past  my  face, 
and  soon  discovered  that  the  roof  of  the  Dak  Bungalow  was 
tenanted  by  a  colony  of  the  small  Indian  Swift  (Micropus 
affinis),  who  were  dashing  out  every  moment  with  the  speed  of 
an  arrow,  or  perhaps  one  might  say,  with  the  velocity  of  a  rifle- 
bullet.  I  had  no  gun  with  me — if  I  had,  it  would  have  been 
useless, — but  I  marked  the  holes  whence  the  birds  came  forth, 
and  armed  myself  with  a  butterfly-net.  It  is  needless  to  tell 
anyone  who  has  seen  these  birds  in  flight  that  I  did  not  catch 
one  of  them.  The  fast  approaching  darkness,  which  hindered 
my  vision,  served  to  sharpen  that  of  the  birds,  which  easily 


Sternum  of 
Hirundo  rustica. 


v. 

Sternum  of 
Micropus  apus. 


avoided  me,  but  I  shall  never  forget  the  pace  at  which  the  little 
creatures  darted  out  from  beneath  the  roof  of  the  house  and 
whizzed  past.  When  I  had  turned  my  head  they  were  half-a-mile 
away  over  the  valley,  giving  just  a  glimpse  of  the  white  band 
on  the  rump,  which  enabled  me  to  detect  to  which  species 
they  belonged.  I  am  informed  by  some  of  my  Anglo-Indian 
friends  that  the  flight  of  M,  affinis  is  as  nothing  compared  with 
that  of  a  Chcetura,  to  which  the  term  of  "  greased  lightning  " 
can  easily  be  applied. 

In  addition  to  the  characteristic  rapidity  of  their  flight,  the 
Swifts  further  differ  from  the  Swallows,  with  which  they  have 
been  associated  by  so  many  writers,  in  having  only  ten  tail- 


THE   SWIFTS.  37 

feathers  instead  of  twelve.  The  breast-bone  is  very  small,  and 
has  a  high  keel,  indicative  of  a  powerfully-developed  pectoral 
muscle,  and  the  hinder  margin  is  one-notched. 

Then,  again,  the  bones  of  the  wing  in  the  Swift  are  peculiar, 
the  humerus  being  very  short,  the  fore-arm  being  longer,  and 
the  bones  of  the  manus  extremely  long. 

These  are  some  of  the  most  striking  differences  between  the 
Swifts  and  the  Swallows,  and  there  are  numerous  others  which 


I        v 

Wing-bones  of  Hirundo  rustica. 

have  been  described  by  Parker,  Shufeldt,  Lucas,  Ridgway, 
and  other  competent  anatomists.  In  their  segithognathous 
palate  there  is  strong  fundamental  evidence  that  they  cannot 
be  placed  far  from  the  Passerine  Birds  in  the  natural  system, 
and  the  Swallows  are  doubtless  their  nearest  allies  in  the  latter 
Order. 

Mr.  Ernst  Hartert,  who  is  the  latest  exponent  of  the  classi- 
fication of  the  Cypselidcz  (Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xvi.  pp.  434-518), 


Wing-bones  of  Microptts  apus. 

divides  the  Family  into  three  Sub-families  :  the  Cypsetina,  or 
True  Swifts,  with  feathered  toes  and  only  three  phalanges  to 
the  outer  and  middle  toes ;  the  Chceturince^  or  Spine-tailed 
Swifts,  with  the  toes  unfeathered,  and  four  phalanges  to  the 
outer  and  middle  toes,  the  tail  short  and  exceeded  by  the  wings; 
and  finally,  the  Tree  Swifts  (Macroptery gina\  with  a  long 
forked  tail,  not  exceeded  by  the  wing.  It  is  not,  however, 
necessary  to  enter  further  into  the  differences  of  the  three 


38  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

groups  of  Cypselidcz,  as,  in  a  work  on  "  British  Birds,"  only  the 
True  Swifts  concern  us  directly,  the  Spine-tailed  Swifts  very 
little,  and  the  Tree  Swifts,  which  are  exclusively  tropical,  not 
at  all. 

THE  TRUE   SWIFTS.     SUB-FAMILY   CYPSELIN^E. 

The  characters  of  this  Sub-family,  as  detailed  above,  are 
the  feathered  toes,  and  the  presence  of  only  three  phalanges 
in  the  outer  and  middle  toes. 

THE  TYPICAL  SWIFTS.     GENUS   MICROPUS. 

Micropus,  Meyer  und  Wolf,  Taschenb.  i.  p.  280  (1810). 

Type,  M.  apus  (L.). 

In  this  genus  the  toes  are  very  strong,  without  feathers,  and 
all  four  are  directed  forwards,  the  same  interval  dividing  each 
toe  from  its  neighbour. 

The  typical  Swifts  are  principally  birds  of  the  Old  World. 
Two  species  only  occur  in  South  America,  in  the  Andes  of 
Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Bolivia,  and  these  species  appear  to 
descend  to  lower  levels  in  winter  and  to  visit  Argentina,  but 
over  the  whole  of  Brazil  and  Amazonia  the  genus  is  unrepre- 
sented, while  in  North  America  its  place  is  taken  by  the  Pied 
Swift  (Aeronantes).  In  Europe  and  Asia  the  Swifts  are 
summer  visitors,  not  breeding  far  north,  and  leaving  for  their 
winter  quarters  very  early  in  the  autumn.  A  considerable 
number  of  resident  species  are  found  in  Africa,  which  is  also 
the  winter  home  of  our  two  British  species. 

I.   THE  WHITE-BELLIED   SWIFT.      MICROPUS   MELBA. 

Hirundo  melba,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  345  (1766). 

Cypselus  melba,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  611  (1840);  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.  iv.  p.  603,  pi.  269  (1874) ;  Newton's  ed.  Yarr.  ii.  p. 

372  (1874);  B.  O.  U.  List,  p.  74  (1883);  Seebohm,  Br. 

B.  ii.  p.  297  (1884) ;  Saunders,  Man.  p.  253  (1889). 
Micropus  melba,  Hartert,  Cat.  B.  xvi.  p.  438  (1892). 

Adult  Male. — Distinguished  by  its  large  size  and  white  abdo- 
men. General  colour  above  mouse-brown,  darker  on  the 


THE   TYPICAL   SWIFTS.  39 

win^s  and  tail ;  under  surface  of  body  white,  with  a  band  of 
dark  brown  across  the  chest,  the  feathers  composing  it  being 
narrowly  edged  with  white ;  under  tail-coverts  and  marginal 
under  wing-coverts  also  edged  with  white ;  flanks  broWn  and 
edged  with  white,  before  which  is  a  sub-terminal  bar  of  darker 
brown ;  bill  black ;  feet  dull  flesh-colour ;  iris  dark  brown. 
Total  length,  8-5  inches;  oilmen,  0-5  ;  wing,  8-45;  tail,  2-5  ; 
outer  feathers,  3-5  ;  tarsus,  0*6. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  8-3  inches  ; 
wing,  8-3. 

Young. — Similar  to  the  adults,  but  having  white  fringes  to 
thd  brown  feathers. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Of  accidental  occurrence  only,  though 
it  has  been  recorded  more  than  twenty  times.  In  Scotland  it 
has  not  yet  been  noticed,  but  has  occurred  in  Ireland  once,  a 
specimen  having  been  captured  near  Dublin,  in  March,  1833. 
The  other  instances  of  its  capture  have  taken  place  between 
the  months  of  June  and  October. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  regular  summer  visitor  to 
the  Alps  of  Southern  Europe,  wandering  occasionally  to 
Northern  France,  Germany,  and  Heligoland.  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  states  that  the  species  nests  in  the  cliffs  of  Nolay  on 
the  western  frontier  of  Burgundy,  as  well  as  in  the  Vosges  and 
Savoy.  In  Switzerland  it  is  a  well-known  species,  and  its 
range  extends  through  the  mountains  of  South-eastern  Europe 
as  far  east  as  Persia  and  the  Himalayas.  Its  winter  home 
appears  to  be  in  Northern  and  North-eastern  Africa,  and  it 
extends  also  over  the  whole  of  the  Indian  Peninsula  and 
Ceylon.  In  Eastern  and  Southern  Africa  its  place  is  taken  by 
a  resident  species,  M.  africanus,  which  has  been  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  as  M.  melba,  but  it  is  now  separated  as  a 
distinct  species  by  Mr.  Hartert. 

Habits. — This  large  Swift  is  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the 
localities  it  inhabits,  and  is  particularly  to  be  noticed  round 
the  Cathedral  at  Berne,  which  is  tenanted  by  a  large  colony  of 
these  birds  every  summer.  They  arrive  in  that  town  in  April, 
and,  like  other  Swifts,  often  suffer  from  hunger  and  cold,  if  the 
weather  happens  to  be  inclement,  and  Dr.  Fatio  and  Professor 


40  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Studer  say  that  many  perish,  as,  of  course,  the  supply  of  insects, 
on  which  these  birds  entirely  depend,  fails  them.  The  nest  is 
a  rough  structure,  formed  of  many  materials,  all  of  which  are 
procured  by  the  Swifts  on  the  wing,  as  the  short  feet  and  long 
wings  of  the  bird  prevent  its  rising  when  once  it  gets  on  the 
ground,  and  so  it  is  often  captured  when  benumbed  with  cold. 
Thus  the  nest  is  composed  of  earth  procured  from  the  crevices 
of  rocks,  leaves,  paper,  feathers,  &c.,  all  the  materials  being 
glued  together  into  a  compact  mass  by  means  of  the  birds'  own 
saliva.  The  eggs  are  laid  before  the  nest  is  completed,  and 
much  of  the  structure  is  consolidated  by  the  sitting  birds,  both 
male  and  female  sharing  the  duties  of  incubation.  In  their 
habits  the  White-bellied  Swifts  are  very  regular,  issuing  forth 
from  their  retreats  at  break  of  day  and  foraging  for  food  for 
some  hours,  then  resting  in  their  homes  during  the  best  part 
of  the  day,  and  sallying  forth  again  about  five  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  and  flying  about  till  dark.  They  are  very  quarrel- 
some and  irritable  in  their  nature,  and  make  a  considerable 
noise  and  clatter  in  the  places  where  they  take  up  their 
abode. 

Eggs. — Generally  two  in  number,  but  sometimes  three  or 
even  four,  though  it  is  supposed  that  no  female  lays  more  than 
two  eggs.  Eggs  pure  white.  Axis,  i'i-i'25;  diameter,  075- 
0-8. 

II.   THE  COMMON   SWIFT.      MICROPUS   APUS. 

Hirundo  apus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  344  (1766). 

Micropus  murarius,  Meyer  und  Wolf,  Taschenb.  p.  281  (1783); 

Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  618  (1840). 
Cypselus  apus,  Dresser,  B.   Eur.  iv.  p.   583,  pi.  266  (1881) ; 

Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  364  (1882);  B.  O.  U.  List 

Brit.  B.  p.  74  (1883);  Seeb.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  292  (1884); 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  part  v.  (1887) ;  Saunders,  Man. 

Brit.  B.  p.  251  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Sooty-black  with  a  slight  greenish  gloss,  the 
forehead  slightly  whiter ;  chin  dull  white,  with  a  few  shaft-lines 
on  some  of  the  feathers ;  under  wing-coverts  with  faintly  in- 
dicated whitish  margins,  these  being  sometimes  visible  on  the 
under  tail-coverts ;  bill  black ;  feet  dark  brown ;  iris  dark 


THE   TYPICAL   SWIFTS.  41 

brown.     Total  length,   7  inches;    culmen,  0*3;   wing,    67; 
centre  tail-feathers,  17  ;  lateral  ones,  2-9  ;  tarsus,  0-35. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  6 '6  inches; 
wing,  6-4. 

Young.— Similar  to  the  adults,  but  browner,  the  forehead 
whiter,  and  the  feathers  having  whitish  edgings. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain, — A  common  summer  visitor  to  England 
and  Scotland,  but  rarer  and  of  more  irregular  occurrence  in  the 
north  and  west  of  the  latter  country.  In  Ireland,  according 
to  Mr.  R.  J.  Ussher,  it  breeds  in  every  county,  sometimes 
nesting  in  cliffs. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Swift  is  distributed  in 
summer  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and  winters  in  South 
Africa  and  Madagascar.  It  has  been  noticed  as  high  as  70°  N. 
lat.  in  Norway,  and  has  been  found  breeding  at  69°  N.  lat. 
Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  it  is  only  an  accidental  visitor  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Archangel,  and  is  not  found  higher  than 
lat.  60°  N.  in  the  Urals.  He  also  records  the  species  as  breed- 
ing regularly  in  Dauria,  Mongolia,  and  North  China,  but  the 
Swift  of  these  regions  is  doubtless  the  pale  form  called  by 
Swinhoe  Cypselus  pektnensts,  a  light-coloured  eastern  race  of 
our  Common  Swift,  which  ranges  eastward  from  Sind  to  North 
China,  and  winters  to  the  southward,  though  it  appears  also 
to  visit  South  Africa  on  its  migrations.  Another  light-coloured 
form  of  M.  apus  is  the  Pallid  Swift  (M.  murmus),  which  visits 
Egypt  and  the  Mediterranean  countries  in  summer,  and  ex- 
tends its  eastern  range  as  far  as  Sind,  wintering  in  South 
Africa. 

Habits. — The  Swift  is  one  of  our  latest  arrivals  in  summer, 
and  one  of  the  first  of  the  migrants  to  leave  our  shores.  It 
comes  towards  the  end  of  April  or  early  in  May,  and  departs 
in  August,  though  a  few  belated  individuals  are  seen  as  late  as 
the  end  of  September  on  our  southern  coasts,  and  even  later 
records  of  its  stay  have  been  established.  Its  approach  north- 
ward is  very  gradual,  for  whereas  the  first  arrivals  make  their 
appearance  in  the  South  of  Europe  in  March,  it  is  not  till  April 
that  they  appear  in  Central  Europe,  and  in  the  more  northern 
parts  of  their  range,  such  as  Lapland,  they  are  not  seen  till 


42 

June.     Many  succumb  from  cold  and  subsequent  starvation, 
from  arriving  too  early,  before  the  frosts  have  quite  left  us. 

As  a  rule  the  Swifts  are  most  active  towards  the  evening, 
when  they  fly  about  in  parties,  dashing  round  the  houses  or 
towers  in  which  their  nests  are  placed,  screaming  vociferously 
in  concert.  Their  food  consists  entirely  of  insects,  which  are 
seized  upon  the  wing.  Nevertheless;  at  certain  times,  the 
Swift  may  be  seen  hawking  over  the  low  ground,  over  a  river, 
or  high  in  the  air,  even  in  the  brightest  sunshine,  so  that  it  is 
evident  that  the  daylight  does  not  deter  it  from  issuing  forth 
from  its  recesses,  though  it  is  undoubtedly  in  the  twilight  that 
the  bird  is  most  active. 

The  short  legs  of  the  Swift  incapacitate  it  from  walking  on 
the  ground,  and  its  long  wings  are  obviously  in  the  way ;  but  it 
is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  bird  can  never  rise  from  the 
earth,  as  the  contrary  has  been  proved.  It  is,  however,  never 
seen  to  settle  voluntarily  on  the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting material  for  its  nest,  as  can  always  be  observed  in  the 
case  of  the  Swallows  and  the  Martins.  From  the  situations 
in  which  it  builds  its  nest  or  in  which  it  roosts,  it  can  always 
shuffle  to  the  openings  and  launch  itself  into  the  air. 

Nest- — A  rough  structure  of  straws  and  like  material,  mixed 
with  a  few  feathers  and  wool,  and  cemented  together  by  the 
saliva  of  the  bird.  It  is  sometimes  placed  in  the  crevice  of  a 
cliff  or  building,  or  at  the  protected  base  of  a  spout,  but  is 
more  often  placed  under  the  roof  of  some  building. 

Eggs. — Pure  white,  of  an  elongated  oval  shape.  Generally 
two  in  number,  often  three,  and  more  rarely  four,  the  texture 
of  the  shell  being  always  more  rough  than  in  the  eggs  of  the 
Swallows.  Axis,  0*95-1  "05  ;  diam.,  o'65-o'7. 

THE   SHORT-TAILED   SWIFTS.     SUB-FAMILY 
CH^ETURIN^E. 

This  Sub-family  contains  a  number  of  species,  mostly  tropi- 
cal in  their  habitat.  They  have  the  toes  with  the  usual  four 
joints,  and  the  tarsi  bare  of  feathers.  The  tarsi  are  long, 
equalling  the  length  of  the  middle  toe,  but  the  tail  is  very 


THE   NEEDLE-TAILED    SWIFTS.  43 

short,  and  scarcely  forked  at  all.  The  wings,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  extremely  long,  and  project  far  beyond  the  tail. 

In  the  Sub-family  Chaturina  are  included  the  edible  Swifts 
(Collocalia),  which  might  very  well  be  separated  as  a  separate 
Sub-family,  on  account  of  their  peculiar  nesting-habits.  Mr. 
Hartert  includes  them  with  the  Chczturince,  though  they  have 
not  spiny  tail-feathers. 

The  Short-tailed  Swifts  are  found  in  most  parts  of  the  world, 
but  do  not  extend  very  far  north,  especially  in  the  Old  World. 

THE  NEEDLE-TAILED  SWIFTS.    GENUS   CH^TURA. 

Ch&tura,  Steph.  Gen.  Zool.  xiii.  pt.  2,  p.  76  (1826). 

Type,  C.  pelagica  (Linn.). 

The  members  of  this  genus  vary  very  much  in  size,  and  in- 
clude both  the  largest  and  some  of  the  smallest  Swifts.  They 
can,  however,  always  be  told  by  the  stiffened  shafts  of  the  tail- 
feathers,  the  points  extending  beyond  the  tip  of  the  tail  and 
presenting  the  appearance  of  spines. 

The  geographical  range  of  the  genus  includes  nearly  the 
; whole  of  America  from  north  to  all  but  the  extreme  south. 
In  the  Old  World,  species  are  found  from  Amoorland  in 
;  Eastern  Siberia  south  to  India,  and  the  Malayan  Region  to 
Australia,  as  well  as  the  whole  of  Africa  below  the  Sahara. 

I.   THE   NEEDLE-TAILED   SWIFT.      CH^ETURA   CAUDACUTA. 

'Hirundo  caudacuta.  Lath.  Ind.  Orn.  Suppl.  ii.  p.  57  (1801). 

Acanthyllis  caudacuta,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  iv.  p.  613,  pi.  270 
(1880);  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  ii.  p.  371,  note  (1874); 
B.  O.  U.  List,  p.  74  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.  p.  255 
(1889). 

Chcdura  caudacuta,  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  303  (1884) ;  Har- 
tert, Cat.  B.  xvi.  p.  472  (1892). 

Adult  Male. — Of  large  size.     Upper  surface  of  the  body  pale 

ijbrown,  shading  off  into  lighter  brown  on  the  lower  back,  the 

Irump  with  white   bases  to   the   feathers ;   upper  tail-coverts 

olack,  glossed  with  steel-blue ;  wings  and  tail   black,  with  a 

i^loss  of  green  or  steel-blue,  very  distinct  on  the  upper  wing- 


44  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

coverts,  the  innermost  secondaries  conspicuously  paler,  whitish 
on  the  inner  webs ;  crown  and  nape,  as  well  as  the  sides  of 
the  head,  glossy  blackish-brown  ;  forehead  and  lores  white ; 
under  surface  of  body  sooty-brown,  with  white  bases  to  the 
feathers  of  the  lower  abdomen  and  lower  flank-feathers,  the 
latter  being  glossy  blue-black  •  throat  white ;  vent  and  under 
tail-coverts  also  white ;  under  wing-coverts  blackish-brown, 
with  a  slight  metallic  gloss  ;  bill  black ;  feet  brown.  Total 
length,  8  inches  ;  culmen,  0*35  ;  wing,  8-2  ;  tail,  2*3  ;  tar- 
sus, o  6. 

Adult  Female, — Similar  to  the  male,  but  slightly  smaller. 

Young, — Similar  to  the  adults,  but  with  less  white  on  the 
forehead,  and  to  be  distinguished  by  some  brownish  spots  on 
the  under  tail-coverts. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  and  occasional  visitor,  having 
only  been  met  with  on  two  occasions,  both  in  the  middle  of 
summer.  One  was  shot  at  Great  Horkesley,  near  Colchester, 
on  the  8th  of  July,  1 846,  and  another  towards  the  end  of  July, 
1879,  near  Ringwood  in  Hampshire.  In  the  latter  case,  two 
were  observed  flying  for  some  days  over  the  River  Avon.  The 
species  has  not  been  obtained  anywhere  else  in  Europe,  and 
the  Needle-tailed  Swift  is  apparently  one  of  those  birds  which, 
for  some  reason  or  other,  sometimes  wanders  westward,  out  of 
the  ordinary  course  of  its  migrations. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  breeding  range  of  this 
species  extends  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Krasnoyarsk  in 
Siberia  eastwards  to  Amoorland  and  South-eastern  Mongolia, 
as  well  the  northern  islands  of  Japan.  In  winter  it  migrates 
by  way  of  China  to  Australia. 

Habits, — Very  similar  to  those  of  our  Common  Swift, 
arrives  in  its  northern  quarters  about  the  end  of  April  or 
beginning  of  May,  and  departs  in  August,  a  few  staying  on 
September.  On  migration  vast  flocks  are  often  seen.  Its 
powers  of  flight  are  prodigious,  and  it  is  often  noticed  at  a 
great  height  in  the  air.  It  also  visits  the  lowlands  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  mountain  f  istnesses  in  which  it  breeds,  and  is 
there  noticed  hawking  over  the  ground  in  company  with  otl 
Swifts. 


ilia,    ;. 

ites 

j 


THE   TRUE    NIGHT-JARS.  45 

THE  NIGHT-JARS.    SUB-ORDER  CAPRIMULGI. 

These  birds,  familiarly  known  as  Goat-Suckers,  have  much 
similarity  to  the  Swifts  as  regards  their  structure,  but  differ  from 
them  in  many  points  of  anatomy.  One  great  difference,  how- 
ever, is  seen  in  the  character  of  the  nestlings,  which  are  covered 
with  down.  The  palate  is  generally  said  to  be  "  schizogna- 
thous,"  but  in  Caprimulgus  it  seems  to  be  segithognathous 
(see  infra\  and  basipterygoid  processes  are  present.  In  the 
character  of  the  plumage  they  differ  entirely  from  the  close- 
set,  hard  feathering  of  the  Swifts,  and  are  remarkable  for  the 
soft  and  delicate  nature  of  their  body-feathers,  which  are  like 
those  of  the  Owls,  and  even  resemble  the  latter  in  their  zig- 
zag markings  and  spots.  They  are  almost  all  crepuscular 
birds,  coming  out  to  seek  their  food  in  the  twilight,  though 
they  can  fly  very  fairly  in  the  daytime,  but  do  not  willingly  take 
flight  unless  disturbed. 

The  Night-Jars  are  distributed  all  over  the  world,  except  in 
the  extreme  north  and  south,  and  they  are  also  absent  in  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

There  are  two  families,  the  True  Night-Jars  (Caprimulgidce) 
and  the  Moth-plumaged  Night-Jars  (Nyctibiid(e\  the  latter  being 
I  only  found  in  Tropical  America. 

THE  TRUE  NIGHT-JARS.     FAMILY 
CAPRIMULGID^:. 

Distinguished  by  their  pectinated  middle  claw,  which  has  a 

j  comb-like  edge.     Only  four  phalanges  are  found  in  the  outer 

!toe.     The  gape  is  very  wide,  and  when  the  mouth  is  opened, 

the  extent  is  enormous,  and  in  most  cases  is  beset  with  a 

number  of  strong,  spiny  bristles. 

The  range  of  the  Family  extends  nearly  all  over  the  globe, 
with  the  exceptions  above  stated.  It  contains  about  eighteen 
genera,  some  of  which  are  beautifully  decorated  and  carry  long 
streamers  in  the  wings  and  tail,  or  have  other  ornamental 
plumes  during  the  breeding-season. 

THE  TRUE   NIGHT-JARS.     GENUS   CAPRIMULGUS. 
Caprimulgus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  346  (1766). 

Type,  C.  europaus  (Linn.). 
In  these  birds  the  skull  is  segithognathous,  with  the  vomer 


46 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


truncated  in  front,  and  basipterygoid  processes  are  present. 
The  spinal  feather-tract  is  well  defined  on  the  neck,  but  is 
forked  on  the  back,  as  in  the  Swallow.  A  hind-toe  is  always 
present,  and  is  connected  with  the  flexor  perforans  digitorum. 
The  mouth  is  widely  split,  the  gape  opening  to  behind  the  eye, 
and  is  furnished  with  strong  bristles.  As  a  rule  in  this  Family, 
the  sexes  are  very  much  alike  in  colour,  but  the  male  has  a  white 
spot  on  the  primaries  and  at  the  end  of  the  outer  tail-feather, 
this  being  replaced  in  the  female  by  a  fulvous  spot.  The  wing; 


Ventral  aspect  of  cranium  of  Caprimulgus  curopans  (enlarged)  to  show 
the  vomer.  Letters  as  before.  [From  the  Catalogue  of  Osteological 
Specimens  in  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.] 

is  very  long  and  pointed.  The  young  are  covered  with  down, 
and  are  helpless  for  some  time  after  birth,  being  fed  by  theii 
parents. 

Night- Jars  are  found  over  almost  the  entire  surface  of  the 
globe,  the  species  which  visit  the  northern  temperate  regions 
being  strictly  migratory ;  but  in  the  Tropics  a  large  number  01 
resident  species  are  found,  and  are  met  with  everywhere,  excepi 
in  the  extreme  south  of  South  America  and  the  islands  oi 
Oceania. 


THE    NIGHT-TARS. 


47 


I.    THE   COMMON   NIGHT-JAR.      CAPRIMULGUS   EUROPjEUS. 

Caprimulgus  europaus,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  346  (1766);  Macg. 
Br.  B.  iii.  p.  633  (1840);  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  ii.  p.  377 
(1874);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  iv.  p.  621,  pi.  271  (1875); 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  75  (1883);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii. 
p.  309  (1884);  Saunders,  Man.  p.  257  (1889);  Hartert, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xvi.  p.  526  (1892);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  part  xxii.  (1892). 

Adult  Male. — Mottled  all  over,  the  general  colour  of  the 
upper  surface  being  dark  ashy-grey,  with  darker  brown  vermi- 
culations,  taking  the  form  of  broad  lanceolate  spots  on  the 
crown;  the  nape  streaked  with  dull  ochraceous-buff;  on  the 
scapulars  some  longitudinal  streaks  of  black  and  ochraceous- 
buff;  wing-coverts  spotted  with  the  latter  colour;  primary 
quills  blackish,  with  rufous-buff  spots  on  both  webs ;  the  three 
outer  primaries  with  a  large  rounded  spot  of  white  on  the 
inner  web ;  the  two  outer  tail-feathers  with  a  large  white  spot, 
about  an  inch  long,  at  the  tip ;  throat  blackish-brown,  nar- 
rowly barred  with  rufous-brown  and  spotted  with  white ;  breast 
coloured  like  the  upper  surface ;  abdomen  fulvous,  barred  with 
blackish-brown,  these  bars  less  distinct  on  the  under  wing-  and 
tail-coverts,  which  are  rather  more  rusty ;  bill  black  ;  feet  red- 
dish-brown ;  iris  black.  Total  length,  10-5  inches;  oilmen, 
0-55;  wing,  7-8;  tail,  5-5;  tarsus,  075. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  having  the  white 
spots  on  the  primaries  and  outer  tail-feathers  replaced  by 
spots  of  ochreous-buff,  which  have  also  a  few  brown  specks 
upon  them.  Total  length,  10*5  inches;  wing,  7*5. 

Young. — Resemble  the  adults,  but  are  rather  duller  in  colour 
and  have  the  spots  on  the  primaries  and  outer  tail-feathers 
ochreous-buff,  as  in  the  old  female. 

Nestling — Covered  with  down  of  a  greyish  shade,  darker 
above  and  paler  below. 

This  species  is  distinguished  by  the  white  or  buff  spots  on 
the  inner  web  of  the  primaries  and  at  the  ends  of  the  outer 
tail-feathers,  and  by  the  absence  of  a  distinct  rufous  collar 
round  the  hind-neck. 

Eange  in  the  British  Islands — A  regular  summer  visitor,  arriving 


48  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

about  the  middle  of  May  and  leaving  in  September,  though, 
according  to  Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  it  will  sometimes  remain 
"in  the  mild  south-west  of  England"  until  November.  It  is 
found  throughout  the  United  Kingdom  in  summer,  ranging  to 
the  far  north  of  Scotland,  but  occurring  only  as  a  straggler  in  the 
Orkneys,  Shetlands,  and  the  outer  Hebrides.  In  Ireland,  Mr. 
R.  J.  Ussher  records  it  as  breeding  in  most  of  the  counties, 
but  being  more  scarce  in  the  north  and  west. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Extends  over  the  whole  of 
Europe,  being  found  as  far  north  as  60°  N.  lat.  in  Scandinavia, 
and  reaches  about  50°  N.  lat.  in  the  Ural  Mountains  and  the 
Valley  of  the  Yenesei.  Mr.  Seebohm  believes  that  it  does  not 
extend  farther  east  than  Irkutsk.  Its  winter  home  is  in  South 
Africa,  where  it  is  met  not  uncommon.  It  may  also  extend 
as  far  as  Persia  in  summer,  but  the  species  which  inhabits  this 
country  and  Central  Asia  is  a  paler  form  of  the  Night- Jar, 
known  as  Caprimulgus  unwini,  which  apparently  winters  in 
North-western  India. 

Habits. — Although  it  may  occasionally  be  flushed  during  the 
day  from  the  place  where  it  is  resting,  the  Night-Jar  is  a  bird 
of  the  twilight,  and  only  comes  out  of  its  own  accord  in  the 
gloaming.  Its  favourite  haunts  are  the  districts  covered  with 
fern  and  bracken,  but  it  also  frequents  park-land,  and  I  have 
more  than  once  started  one  from  the  open  road.  Its  mottled 
plumage  tends  to  conceal  it  so  effectually,  when  on  the  ground, 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  perceive  it  even  in  broad  day- 
light, and  it  is  only  in  the  evening  that  the  Night-Jar  is  in  evi- 
dence. Seated  lengthwise  on  a  bough,  or  on  the  top  of  a  post, 
the  bird  utters  its  "  churring  "  note — a  sound,  once  heard,  never 
to  be  forgotten — and  it  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  noises 
of  a  summer  night.  It  is  from  this  peculiar  vibrating  call  that 
the  Night-Jar  has  got  the  popular  name  of  "Churn "-Owl  in  some 
parts  of  the  country.  When  flying  it  has  also  a  call-note, 
somewhat  Owl-like,  very  well  rendered  in  Mr.  Seebohm's  book 
as  co-ic^  co-ic.  This  it  utters  when  flying,  and  it  is  accompanied 
by  a  kind  of  cracking  noise,  which  is  apparently  produced  by 
striking  its  wings  together  over  its  back,  after  the  manner  of  a 
Wood-Pigeon.  Often  when  on  a  moth-hunting  expedition  in 
St.  Leonard's  Forest,  in  Sussex,  my  nightly  round  to  the  trees 


THE    TRUE    NIGHT-JARS.  49 

at  the  bottom  of  a  little  valley  has  been  enlivened  by  the  aerial 
gambols  of  the  Goat-Suckers  above  my  head,  and  I  have  heard 
the  bird  make  the  sound  very  distinctly,  and  seen  it  in  the  air 
at  thirty  or  forty  yards'  distance,  silhouetted  against  the  sky. 
It  always  seemed  to  arrest  its  flight  for  an  instant,  as  if  the 
wings  were  clapped  together  over  the  back,  and  I  have  noticed 
the  same  hesitation  when  the  bird  makes  the  noise,  as  it 
often  does,  after  rising  from  the  ground.  The  "churring" 
notes  are  decidedly  ventriloquial,  and  are  given  out  with  great 
power.  The  late  Mr.  Frederic  Bond  told  me  that  he  was  once 
"  sugaring  "  for  moths  in  Windsor  Forest,  and  as  it  was  too 
early  to  commence  his  rounds,  he  sat  down  against  the  foot  of 
a  tree  to  rest,  and  dropped  off  to  sleep,  when  he  was  awakened 
suddenly  by  a  din  which  startled  him  nearly  out  of  his  wits  for 
the  moment.  A  Night-Jar  had  settled  on  a  neighbouring  bough, 
and  had  commenced  to  "  churr."  The  food  of  the  Night-Jar 
consists  almost  entirely  of  insects,  and  it  devours  large  num- 
bers of  cockchafers  and  beetles.  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  it 
eats  slugs,  and  Macgillivray  found  that  it  also  devoured  cater- 
pillars. Whether  the  large  bristles  which  beset  the  gape  are 
of  use  to  it  in  catching  its  prey  is  not  known  for  certain,  and 
they  are  probably  only  an  extreme  development  of  this  feature, 
which  is  found,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  in  all  fly-catching 
birds.  Certain  it  is  that  some  Night-Jars,  with  similar  habits 
to  our  own  species,  are  almost  devoid  of  these  rictal  bristles. 
Another  puzzling  character  found  in  the  Night-Jar  is  the  pec- 
tinated claw  on  the  middle-toe,  and  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
imagine  the  use  of  this  comb-like  appendage.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  it  is  of  use  to  the  bird  in  retaining  a  firm 
hold  on  the  bark  of  the  trees,  when  it  sits  along  a  bough. 
Another  use  for  the  comb  has  been  suggested  in  the  cleaning 
of  the  long  rictal  bristles  from  the  debris  of  the  moths  and 
beetles  on  which  the  bird  feeds.  Dr.  Giinther,  who  had  some 
young  Night-Jars  for  some  time  in  confinement,  tells  me  that 
the  only  use  which  he  found  the  birds  to  make  of  this  pecti- 
nated claw  was  to  scratch  the  surface  of  a  chair  or  sofa  on  which 
they  were  sitting.  Thus  it  may  be  a  useful  appendage  in 
scratching  or  distributing  the  earth  for  the  purpose  of  seeking 
its  food. 

Nest. — None ;  the  eggs  being  laid  in  a  slight  depression  of 
8  E 


50  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

the  earth,  which  becomes  a  little  more  evident  as  the  period 
of  incubation  progresses. 

Eggs. — Only  two  in  number,  of  a  peculiar  shape,  being  equally 
rounded  at  either  end,  like  those  of  Swifts,  and  still  more  like 
those  of  Sand-Grouse.  They  are  very  light  in  colour,  being 
pure  white,  or  creamy-white,  with  two  kinds  of  markings  or 
spots.  The  underlying  ones  are  of  a  violet-grey  colour,  and 
always  visible,  while  the  distinctive  spots  are  brown,  either 
light  or  dark,  and  distributed  over  the  egg  in  different  ways, 
either  as  spots,  or  large  blotches,  or  lines.  Axis,  1-2-1*35 
inch;  diameter,  0-85-0-95. 

II.   THE   ISABELLINE   NIGHT- JAR.      CAPRIMULGUS   ^EGYPTIUS. 

Caprimulgus  cegyptius,  Licht.  Verz.  Doubl.  p.  59  (1823); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  iv.  p.  629,  pi.  272  (1877) ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Br.  B.  ii.  p.  315  (1884);  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  260 
(1889) ;  Hartert,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xvi.  p.  562  (1892). 

Adult  Male. — Very  pale  in  colour,  isabelline  and  sandy-buff, 
with  blackish  markings  pronounced  on  the  head  and  again  on 
the  scapulars,  where  they  are  larger ;  quills  deep  brown,  ex- 
ternally spotted  or  banded  with  brownish-buff,  the  inner  webs 
notched  with  white  for  some  distance,  but  not  quite  reaching 
to  the  shaft;  tail-feathers  like  the  back,  but  banded  with 
black,  the  outer  feathers  becoming  more  uniform  near  the 
tips  ;  under  surface  of  body  very  pale,  with  two  distinct  spots 
of  white  on  the  throat ;  abdomen  pale  sandy-isabelline,  with 
narrow  bars  of  blackish,  which  disappear  on  the  lower  abdomen, 
but  are  again  distinct  on  the  under  tail-coverts ;  bill  dark 
brown;  feet  reddish-brown;  iris  black.  Total  length,  10-5 
inches  ;  culmen,  0*55  ;  wing,  about  8 ;  tail,  5-1  ;  tarsus,  0-8. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  10*6 
inches  ;  wing,  8*5. 

Young. — Similar  to  the  adults,  but  rather  more  rufous. 

Characters. — Distinguished  from  C.  europceus  by  its  paler 
coloration,  and  by  the  pattern  on  the  inner  web  of  the  primary 
quills,  these  being  indented  with  white. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor,  having  occurred 


THE   TRUE   NIGHT- JARS.  5! 

only  once,  a  specimen  having  been  recorded  from  Mansfield 
in  Nottinghamshire  by  Mr.  Whitaker.  It  was  shot  there  on 
the  23rd  of  June,  1883.  It  is  by  no  means  an  unlikely  bird 
to  occur  in  England,  as  it  evidently  wanders  westward,  on 
occasions,  from  its  eastern  home.  One  specimen  has  been 
obtained  in  Heligoland,  three  in  Malta,  and  one  in  Sicily. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.— The  home  of  this  species  is 
in  the  desert  countries  of  Northern  Africa  from  Algeria  to 
Egypt  and  Nubia.  Thence  it  ranges  to  the  Caspian,  and 
eastwards  to  Turkestan  and  Afghanistan.  Its  occurrence  with- 
in European  limits  is,  as  mentioned  above,  purely  accidental. 
It  appears  to  winter  in  N.  E.  Africa. 

Habits. — With  the  exception  that  the  Isabelline  Night-Jar  is 
a  bird  of  the  deserts,  it  is  very  similar  in  habits  to  our  common 
species,  passing  the  day  in  retirement,  when  its  sandy-coloured 
plumage,  assimilating  to  the  ground  around  it,  doubtless  affords 
the  bird  entire  protection  from  observation.  Those  travellers 
who  have  observed  the  species  in  North-eastern  Africa,  have 
remarked  that  several  individuals  are  generally  seen  together, 
but  this  is  probably  during  the  season  of  migration  only. 
Captain  Shelley  procured  four  males  together  in  March,  and 
he  thinks  that  the  sexes,  in  all  probability,  migrate  in  flocks. 
|This  is  very  likely,  as  Von  Heuglin  also  remarks  that  the 
'specimens  which  he  shot  out  of  large  flocks  of  fifty  proved  to 
ibe  all  females. 

Nest. — None ;  a  depression  being  formed  in  the  sand  or 
;,mder  the  shade  of  a  bush. 

Eggs. — Two  in  number,  very  similar  to  those  of  our  Common 
^ight-Jar,  but  smaller,  and  with  the  ground-colour  cream y- 
rellow. 

j     III.    RED-NECKED    NIGHT-JAR.       CAPRIMULGUS    RUFICOLLIS. 

mfoprimulgus    ruficollis,    Temm.   Man.    On.    p.  438    (1820)  ; 

Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  ii.  p.  386  (1874) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  iv. 

p.  633,  pi.  273  (1874) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  75  (1883) ; 

Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  317  (1884) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B. 

p.  259  (1889) ;  Hartert,  Cat.  B.  xvi.  p.  531  (1892). 
;  1  Adult  Male — General  colour  above  sandy-grey,  mottled  and 

E  2 


52  ALLEN'S  NATURALISTS  LIBRARY. 

spotted  with  black ;  the  markings  on  the  scapulars  large  and 
well-developed,  being  longitudinal,  like  the  accompanying  buff 
markings  ;  wing-coverts  with  bright  fulvous  spots  ;  quills  deep 
brown,  with  chestnut  spots  and  bars,  the  three  outer  primaries 
having  a  large  white  spot  on  the  inner  web,  this  being  some- 
times visible  on  the  fourth ;  the  three  outer  tail-feathers  with 
a  large  white  spot  at  the  end,  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
depth ;  crown  mottled  with  longitudinal  black  spots,  bordered 
with  rufous-buff;  round  the  hind-neck  a  broad  collar  of  golden- 
or  rufous-buff;  throat  like  the  upper  surface,  with  two  large 
white  patches,  and  with  broad  blackish  bars  on  the  fore-neck ; 
abdomen  buff  with  brown  bars,  the  under  tail-coverts  more 
uniform.  Bill  blackish-brown  ;  feet  dull  brown ;  iris  black. 
Total  length,  12  inches;  culmen,  0*5;  wing,  about  8*0;  tail, 
67  ;  tarsus,  cry. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  and  having  the  white  spots 
on  the  primaries  and  tail-feathers  as  in  that  sex.  Total  length, 
12  inches;  wing,  8'o. 

Young. — Paler  in  colour  than  the  male,  the  black  markings 
less  pronounced,  and  the  white  spots  on  the  quills  and  tail- 
feathers  less  strongly  indicated. 

Characters. — Distinguished  from  our  Common  Night- Jar  by 
its  larger  size  and  by  having  a  white  spot  on  the  primaries  and 
tail-feathers  in  both  sexes.  As  in  C.  europceus,  the  inner 
webs  of  the  primaries  are  not  uniform  in  colour,  but  it  may 
be  at  once  recognised  by  the  broad  rufous  collar  on  the  hind- 
neck. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor  only,  one  having 
been  killed  at  Killingworth,  and  examined  by  the  late  Mr.  ; 
John  Hancock  in  the  flesh  on  the  6th  of  October,  1856. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Red-necked  Night-Jar  is  i 
an  inhabitant  of  Southern  Spain,  where  it  comes  every  sum- 
mer and  breeds.     It  has  also  been  obtained  in  Languedoc  and 
Provence  in  the  south-east  of  France,  as  well  as  in  Malta  and 
Dalmatia.     It  probably  winters  in  the  oases  of  the  Sahara.  ! 
but  its  exact  winter  habitat  has  not  yet  been  discovered,  nor  j 
has  it  yet  been  found  in  West  Africa. 

Habits. — Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  who  is  well  acquainted  with 


\ 


THE    BEE-EATERS.  53 

the  species  in  Southern  Spain,  says  that  there  is  nothing  dis- 
tinctive about  its  food  and  habits.  In  the  southern  half  of 
the  Spanish  Peninsula  it  "frequents  the  cool  chequered  shade 
of  the  woods  during  the  greater  part  of  the  day." 

Eggs. — Similar  to  those  of  C.  europaus,  but  rather  larger  and 
more  boldly  marked.     Axis,  1-2-1-3  inch;  diam.,  0-9-1 'o. 


THE  BEE-EATERS.     SUB-ORDER  MEROPES. 

This  is  a  group  of  birds  confined  to  the  Old  World.  Five 
genera  are  recognised,  all  very  similar  in  structure,  appearance, 
and  habits,  the  birds  being  generally  of  bright  coloration,  with 
a  curved  bill,  and  long  wing  and  tail.  The  latter  is  sometimes 
forked,  sometimes  square,  but  in  the  typical  species  the  middle 
tail-feathers  are  elongated. 

The  palate  is  bridged  or  desmognathous,  and  there  are  no 
basipterygoid  processes  present.  The  breast-bone  has  four 
notches  on  its  hinder  margin,  and  the  episternal  process  is 
perforated  so  that  the  foot  of  each  coracoid  meets  through  this 
opening  :  as  a  rule  in  birds  the  coracoids  are  kept  apart  at  the 
base  by  this  process.  This  is  a  singular  character,  found  in 
Game-Birds,  and  also  in  the  Hoopoes  and  Hornbills.  The 
feet  are  syndactyle  or  gressorial,  the  sole  being  flat  and  the 
toes  united  together,  as  in  the  Kingfishers  and  other  groups 
of  birds,  which  were  formerly  united  under  the  name  of 
"Fissirostres,"  or  "Wide-gaping  Birds,"  of  which  the  Bee-Eaters 
were  always  reckoned  a  component  Family.  The  fourth  toe  is 
united  to  the  third  as  far  as  the  last  joint,  the  second  toe  being 
united  to  the  middle  one  for  the  basal  joint  only.  The  tail- 
feathers  are  only  ten  in  number. 

The  bill  is  long  and  gently  decurred,  both  mandibles  follow- 
ing the  same  direction  at  the  tip. 

The  Bee-Eaters  are,  as  a  rule,  resident  birds  in  the  countries 
in  which  they  live.  Africa  possesses  the  greatest  number  of 
species,  but  those  which  range  into  the  temperate  portions  of 
the  Northern  Hemisphere  are  migratory,  and  only  appear  in 
summer,  and  then  never  go  very  far  north.  Species  are  found 
in  most  of  the  tropical  portions  of  the  Old  World,  and  range 
south  to  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  Australia. 


54  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

THE   TRUE  BEE-EATERS.     FAMILY   MEROPID^E. 

There  are  no  Sub-families  among  the  Bee-Eaters,  and  con- 
sequently the  whole  of  the  five  genera  admitted  by  ornitholo- 
gists are  placed  under  the  heading  of  the  Meropida,  the  Family 
characters  being  the  same  as  those  of  the  Sub-order,  given  in 
detail  above. 

THE  LONG-TAILED   BEE-EATERS.     GENUS   MEROPS. 
Merops,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  182  (1766). 

Type,  M.  apiaster,  L. 

As  most  of  the  Bee-Eaters  have  the  tail  square  or  slightly 
forked,  it  is  very  easy  to  recognise  a  member  of  the  genus 
Merops  by  the  elongated  central  feathers  of  the  tail,  these  being 
produced  beyond  the  other  tail-feathers,  and  somewhat  pointed. 
About  seventeen  species  of  Merops  are  known  to  science,  and 
they  are  distributed  over  Africa,  India,  and  Australia,  and  ex- 
tend to  the  temperate  portions  of  Europe  and  Northern  Asia. 

I.    THE   COMMON   BEE-EATER.      MEROPS   APIASTER. 

Merops  apiaster,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  182  (1766);  Macg.  Br.  B. 
iii.  p.  685  (1840);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  155,  pi.  295 
(1877)  ;  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  ii.  p.  435  (1874),  B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.  p.  82  (1883);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  321 
(1884) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  ix.  (1888) ;  Saunders, 
Man.  Br.  B.  p.  273  (1889);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 
xvii.  p.  63  (1892). 

Adult  Male. — Crown  of  head  and  hind-neck  chestnut,  this 
colour  overspreading  the  mantle  and  gradually  disappearing 
on  the  scapulars  and  back,  which  are  creamy-buff;  lower  back 
washed  with  blue ;  the  upper  tail-coverts  entirely  pale  blue ; 
forehead  white,  followed  by  a  line  of  blue,  which  unites  with  a 
narrow  eyebrow,  which  is  first  blue,  and  then  shades  off  into 
green  ;  the  crown  separated  from  this  blue  eyebrow  by  a  green 
shade ;  lesser  wing-coverts  green,  the  rest  of  the  coverts  light 
chestnut,  like  the  secondaries,  which  have  black  tips  ;  primary 
quills  blue',  blackish  towards  the  tips,  the  inner  secondaries 
green,  bluish  towards  their  ends ;  tail-feathers  green,  edged 
with  blue,  the  centre  ones  blue,  greener  near  the  base ;  lores 
and  a  streak  through  the  eye  black,  like  the  ear-coverts ;  cheeks 


THE    LONG-TAILED    BEE-EATERS. 


55 


blue  in  front,  white  behind ;  throat  bright  yellow,  with  a  black 
band  across  the  lower  throat;  under  surface  of  body  green- 
ish-blue ;  the  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  ochreous-buff, 
washed  with  green  along  the  edge  of  the  wing ;  quills  dusky 
below,  ochreous  buff  along  the  inner  web ;  bill  black  ;  feet 
greyish-brown;  iris  lemon-yellow  or  red.  Total  length,  10 
inches;  culmen,  1-65;  wing,  57;  tail,  4-5  ;  tarsus,  0-35. 

Adult  Female. — Like  the  male,  but  often  washed  with  green  on 
the  head  and  back.  Total  length,  9-5  inches  ;  wing,  5-9. 

Young. — Much  paler  in  colour  than  the  adults,  and  having 
the  under  surface  of  the  body  much  greener,  and  wanting  the 
black  bar  across  the  lower  throat ;  the  eyebrow  green ;  the 
upper-parts  coloured  as  in  the  adults,  but  much  greener,  and 
having  a  wash  of  pale  green  over  the  whole,  including  the 
light  parts  of  the  back  and  scapulars. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  visitor  to  the  south  of  Eng- 
land, generally  occurring  in  spring.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders 
states  that  over  thirty  instances  have  been  recorded  "  south  of 
Derbyshire  in  England  and  Pembrokeshire  in  Wales."  In 
Scotland  and  the  south  of  Ireland  the  Bee-Eater  has  also  been 
noticed  on  a  few  occasions,  but  the  bulk  of  the  captures  have 
taken  place  in  England. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Common  Bee-Eater 
visits  the  whole  of  Southern  Europe  in  spring,  and  extends 
eastwards  to  Central  Asia,  Afghanistan,  and  Cashmere.  It 
breeds  throughout  the  whole  of  this  range,  and  winters  to  thq 
southward,  visiting  Sind,  and  the  extreme  north-western  dis- 
tricts of  the  Peninsula  of  India,  as  well  as  the  countries  of  the 
Persian  Gulf.  It  extends  its  migrations  throughout  the  whole 
of  Africa,  and  even  reaches  the  Cape  Colony,  where  it  is  said 
to  breed  a  second  time. 

Habits. — This  is  one  of  the  most  brightly  coloured  birds 
of  Europe,  and  its  brilliant  plumage  renders  it  so  conspicu- 
ous that  there  is  little  chance  of  its  escaping  observation  on 
the  rare  occasions  when  it  visits  this  country.  In  Spain  it 
arrives  during  the  last  days  cf  March  and  early  in  April,  and 
Colonel  Irby  states  that,  near  Gibraltar,  Bee-Eaters  pass  in 
great  numbers  from  the  loth  to  the  i4th  of  the  latter  month, 


56  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

generally  flying  high  in  the  air,  almost  out  of  sight,  seldom  stop- 
ping or  descending  near  the  ground.  They  cross  the  Straits  for 
the  most  part  early  in  the  day,  flight  following  flight  for  hours  in 
succession,  always  exactly  in  the  same  direction,  due  north. 
The  latest  date  on  which  Colonel  Irby  noticed  a  flight  going 
north  was  the  7th  of  May.  The  return  migration  takes  place 
early  in  the  year,  about  the  end  of  July  and  the  early  part  of 
August,  the  29th  of  .August  being  the  latest  day  on  which  a 
Bee-Eater  was  seen  by  the  above-named  observer. 

The  Bee-Eater  commences  to  nest  directly  after  its  arrival, 
and  the  eggs  are  laid  about  the  second  week  in  May,  some 
time  being  occupied  in  excavating  the  tunnels,  at  the  end  of 
which  the  nesting-chamber  is  excavated.  Some  of  these  are  of 
great  length,  extending  for  some  eight  or  nine  feet  in  the  banks 
of  rivers,  and  Colonel  Irby  states  that  the  bills  of  the  birds  be- 
come much  worn  away  by  the  process  of  boring,  but  grow 
again  to  their  normal  length  in  course  of  time.  The  holes  are 
sometimes  drilled  into  the  ground  "  in  a  slightly  vertical  direc- 
tion, or  into  an  elevated  mound,"  when  no  suitable  river-banks 
are  available  for  their  work.  Generally  the  birds  nest  in  large 
colonies,  but  occasionally  only  a  few  holes  are  found  together, 
and  Colonel  Irby  says  that  vast  quantities  of  eggs  and  young 
birds  must  annually  be  devoured  by  Snakes  and  Lizards.  The 
habits  of  the  Bee-Eater  also  render  it  an  object  of  detestation 
to  the  peasantry,  as  the  birds  swoop  down  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  hives  and  carry  off  numbers  of  the  bees,  so  that,  as  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders  records,  "  sacks-full  of  birds  are  taken  in 
Spain  by  spreading  a  net  over  the  face  of  an  occupied  bank, 
and  pouring  water  into  a  parallel  trench  cut  at  some  distance 
back."  It  is  as  well,  therefore,  that  the  Bee-Eater  does  rear  a 
second  brood  far  away  in  South  Africa,  for  it  has  many  enemies 
in  its  northern  home,  and  none  greater  than  its  own  beautiful 
plumage,  which  causes  it  to  be  frequently  in  demand  as  an 
ornament  (!)  for  ladies'  hats.  "  During  my  stay  at  Gibraltar," 
writes  Colonel  Irby,  "  Bee-Eaters  decreased  very  much  in  the 
neighbourhood,  being  continually  shot  on  account  of  their 
bright  plumage  to  put  in  ladies'  hats.  Owing  to  this  vile 
fashion,  we  saw  no  less  than  seven  hundred  skins,  all  shot  in 
Tangier  in  the  spring,  which  were  consigned  to  some  dealer  in 
London." 


THE    LONG-TAILED    BEE-EATERS. 


57 


The  food  of  the  Bee-Eater  consists  entirely  of  insects,  and 
besides  the  bees  which  it  devours  in  such  numbers,  it  also  eats 
quantities  of  wasps,  locusts,  and  beetles.  Its  note  is  a  single 
one,  variously  rendered  by  ornithologists  as  "  teerrp "  or 
"quilp." 

Nest. — None.  A  long  tunnel  is  excavated  in  the  ground  or 
in  a  bank,  and  the  eggs  are  deposited  in  a  chamber  at  the  end, 
on  the  bare  soil. 

Eggs- — From  five  to  six  in  number  ;  pure  white,  glossy,  and 
nearly  round.  Axis,  1*05  inch;  diam.,  0*9. 

II.    THE   BLUE-TAILED    BEE-EATER.       MEROPS    PHILIPPINUS. 

Merops  philippinus,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  183  (1787);  Saunders, 
Man.  p.  274,  note  (1889);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 
xvii.  p.  71  (1892). 

Merops  philippensis,  Hancock,  Cat.  B.  Northumb.  p.  28  (1874) ; 
Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  ii.  p.  442,  note  (1874). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  green,  the  mantle  and 
scapulars  being  of  the  same  colour  as  the  back ;  lower  back, 
rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  blue ;  no  white  on  the  forehead 
or  eyebrow,  the  former  having  a  narrow  line  of  blue;  tail 
blue ;  bill  black ;  feet  blackish ;  iris  scarlet.  Total  length, 
1 1 '3  inches;  oilmen,  i'8;  wing,  5*3;  tail,  3*5;  middle  tail- 
feathers,  5-0;  tarsus,  0-45. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  1 1*5  inches; 
wing,  5-15. 

Characters. — Distinguished  from  M.  apiaster  by  the  green, 
not  chestnut,  mantle,  the  green  scapulars,  the  blue  tail,  and 
by  the  yellow  throat  being  succeeded  by  a  shade  of  chestnut ; 
there  is  also  no  black  band  in  the  fore-neck. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Has  occurred  on  one  occasion  near 
Seaton  Carew,  in  Northumberland,  in  August,  1862.  It  is 
extraordinary  that  this  species  should  have  wandered  to  Eng- 
land, but  the  occurrence  is  vouched  for  by  Mr.  John  Hancock, 
one  of  the  most  conscientious  ornithologists  which  this  country 
has  ever  produced,  and  must,  therefore,  be  accepted. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — An  Indian  species,  inhabiting 
the  whole  of  the  Indian  Peninsula  and  Ceylon,  and  extending 


58  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

eastwards  through  the  Burmese  countries  and  Siam  to  South- 
ern China.  It  is  further  distributed  through  the  Malayan 
Peninsula  and  Archipelago  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  Java, 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  Timor,  and  Celebes. 

Habits, — These  resemble  those  of  the  Common  Bee-Eater, 
and  as  the  species  is  not  likely  ever  to  occur  in  Great  Britain 
again,  a  few  words  only  are  necessary  on  this  subject.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Hume,  it  "  breeds  from  March  to  June,  pretty  well 
all  over  Continental  India,  in  well-cultivated  and  open  country. 
Like  all  the  rest  of  the  Family,  it  nests  in  holes  in  banks. 
The  holes  are  rarely  less  than  four  feet  deep,  and  sometimes 
extend  to  seven  feet.  In  diameter  they  vary  from  two  to  two 
and  a  half  inches." 

Nest. — None  as  a  rule,  but  sometimes  the  chamber  has  a 
thin  lining  of  grass  and  feathers,  not  seen  in  the  nesting-place 
of  any  other  of  the  Indian  Bee-Eaters. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number;  pure  white,  glossy,  and  nearly 
round.  Axis,  o'82-o'97  inch  ;  diam.,  o-67-cr85. 

THE  HOOPOES.    SUB-ORDER  UPUP^E. 

The  Hoopoes  have  a  bridged,  or  "  desmognathous,"  palate, 
and,  like  the  Bee-Eaters,  have  the  anterior  process  of  the 
sternum,  or  breast-bone,  perforated,  so  as  to  receive  the  feet; 
of  the  coracoid  bones.  The  sternum  has  two  notches  on  its 
posterior  margin.  The  oil-gland  is  tufted  ;  there  are  no  blind 
intestines  cr  caeca,  and  the  spinal  feather-tract  is  forked  in  the 
upper  back  ;  of  the  plantar  tendons,  the  flexor  perforans  digi- 
torum  is  split  into  three  branches,  leading  to  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  digits,  but  not  to  the  first,  and  the  hind  aspect  of 
the  tarsus  (planta  tarsi)  is  scaled  transversely,  as  in  the  Larks. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  Hoopoes  have  marked  Pas- 
serine affinities,  but  they  are  also  allied  to  the  Hornbills 
(Bucerotes\  which  they  resemble  in  another  curious  feature. 
The  nest  is  placed  in  the  hole  of  a  wall  or  of  a  tree,  and  the^ 
female  is  fed  by  the  male  during  the  period  of  incubation, 
though  she  is  not  plastered  in  by  her  husband,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  Hornbills. 


THE    HOOPOES.  59 

The  Hoopoes  may  be  divided  into  two  Families,  the  True 
Hoopoes  (Upupidce)  and  the  Wood-Hoopoes  (Irrisoridce). 
The  latter  are  peculiar  to  the  forest-  and  bush-districts  of  Africa, 
and  have  a  good  deal  of  metallic  colour  in  their  plumage. 
The  tail  is  very  long  and  wedge-shaped,  and  the  nostril  has  a 
well-developed  operculum,  or  shelf,  to  it. 

THE  TRUE   HOOPOES.     FAMILY   UPUPID^. 

This  Family  contains  but  a  single  genus,  Upupa,  with  five 
species,  all  very  much  resembling  each  other  in  appearance. 
They  have  an  erectile  crest,  shaped  like  a  compressed  fan  and 
ornamented  with  a  sub-terminal  bar  of  black.  The  bill  is 
long  and  slender  and  decurved  towards  the  end.  The  other 
principal  characters  will  be  found  under  the  heading  of  the 
Sub-order. 

THE  HOOPOES.  GENUS  UPUPA. 

Upupa>  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  183. 

Type,  U.  epops.  Linn. 

Of  the  five  species  known  to  science,  the  Common  Hoopoe 
has  the  widest  distribution  in  Europe,  South-eastern  and  North- 
western Africa,  eastwards  to  China  and  Japan,  as  well  as  the 
Peninsula  of  India,  in  the  southern  portion  of  which  its  place 
is  taken  by  the  Indian  Hoopoe  (U.  indica\  which  extends 
throughout  the  Burmese  countries  to  Southern  China  and 
Hainan.  In  Somali-land  a  distinct  species,  U.  soma/ensis, 
occurs,  and  in  Madagascar  U.  marginata  takes  the  place  of  our 
European  bird.  The  fifth  species,  U.  africana,  is  found  over 
South  Africa,  and  extends  to  the  Congo  on  the  west  and  to 
Zanzibar  on  the  east ;  it  is  a  smaller  and  more  richly-coloured 
bird,  and  has  no  white  band  on  the  primaries. 

I.    THE  COMMON   HOOPOE.      UPUPA   EPOPS. 

Upupa  epops,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  183  (1766);  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii. 
p.  41  (1840);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  179,  pi.  298  (1871); 
Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  ii.  p.  419  (1874) ;  B.  O.U.  List  Br.  B. 
p.  83  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  334  (1884) ;  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  vii.  (1888) ;  Saunders,  Man.  p.  275 
(1889);  Salvin,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xvi.  p.  4  (1892). 


60  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  light  brown,  the  scapulars 
tipped  with  buffy-white  and  crossed  with  a  band  of  buff,  which 
is  broadly  edged  with  black ;  rump  white ;  primaries  black, 
with  a  broad  band  of  white,  in  the  form  of  a  spot  on  the  inner 
web  of  the  first  primary,  and  again  on  the  eighth,  ninth,  and 
tenth,  where  the  white  bar  takes  the  form  of  a  transverse  spot ; 
the  external  aspect  of  the  wing  barred  with  black  and  white  ; 
head  and  neck  pale  vinous-rufous,  including  the  crest,  which 
is  a  little  darker ;  the  crest-feathers  tipped  with  black,  before 
which  is  a  sub-terminal  bar,  before  which,  again,  is  a  bar  of 
white,  not  defined  on  its  junction  with  the  rufous  of  the  rest  of 
the  feather ;  throat  and  breast  also  vinous-rufous,  the  abdomen 
very  pale  buff;  flank-feathers  streaked  with  blackish  along 
their  inner  webs  ;  under  tail-coverts  white ;  tail  black,  with  a 
median  white  bar,  which  crosses  the  other  feathers  diagonally, 
so  as  to  approach  the  tip  on  the  outermost  pair.  Bill  blackish, 
flesh-coloured  at  the  base  of  both  mandibles  ;  feet  black ;  iris 
brown.  Total  length,  12  inches;  oilmen,  2*2  j  wing,  57  ;  tail, 
4-0  ;  tarsus,  o'S. 

Adult  Female — Similar  to  the  male. 

Young. — Like  the  adults,  but  a  little  duller  and  browner  in 
colour. 

Range  in  Great  Britain — The  Hoopoe  may  be  considered  a 
regular  spring  migrant,  and  it  has  occurred  in  nearly  every 
part  of  the  United  Kingdom,  including  the  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land Isles,  as  well  as  the  outer  Hebrides.  If  the  bird  we 
not  so  conspicuous  an  object  and  so  tame,  it  is  almost  certaii 
that  it  would  nest  regularly  in  England,  and,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  a  Hoopoe  is  almost  sure  to  be  shot  by  way  of 
welcome  in  this  country,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  has  bred  in 
many  of  the  southern  counties  of  England. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed  through- 
out Southern  Europe,  and  nesting  in  the  Mediterranean  coun- 
tries, and  in  Central  Europe  as  far  north  as  Denmark  and 
Southern  Sweden.  It  wanders  even  to  the  Faeroes  and  Spits- 
bergen, and  the  North  of  Russia  and  Norway,  but  does  not 
breed  in  these  high  latitudes.  Its  eastern  range  extends  through- 
out Central  Asia  to  China  and  Japan.  It  arrives  in  the  south 
of  Europe  in  the  middle  of  February,  and  Colonel  Irby  notes 


THE    HOOPOES.  6 1 

the  earliest  arrivals  near  Gibraltar  as  the  i6th  to  the  i8th  of 
that  month,  though  the  greater  number  pass  northward  in 
March,  returning  during  August,  September,  and  October. 
The  winter  home  of  the  Hoopoe  is  in  Senegambia  and  North 
eastern  Africa,  the  Central  Asian  individuals  doubtless  winter- 
ing in  North-western  India,  and  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
birds  in  Southern  China. 

HaMts — It  is  a  pity  that  the  indiscriminate  slaughter  of  this 
pretty  bird  deprives  us  in  this  country  of  an  opportunity  of 
seeing  the  Hoopoe  in  a  state  of  nature,  for  it  is  admitted  by 
everyone  who  has  had  that  privilege  as  being  a  very  graceful 
bird  in  its  movements  and  ways,  particularly,  says  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders,  "at  the  time  of  courtship,  when  the  bird  struts 
about  with  crest  erect,  uttering  a  note  resembling  a  soft  bu-bu 
(whence  the  Spanish  term  Abubilla\  or  hoop-hoop,  to  which, 
and  not  to  its  crest,  it  owes  its  English  and  French  names." 

The  nest  is  placed  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  and  in  some 
countries  of  Europe  the  bird  has  disappeared  or  become  re- 
duced in  numbers,  owing  to  the  cutting  down  of  old  timber. 

To  look  at  a  Hoopoe,  one  could  scarcely  imagine  a  more 
neat  and  cleanly-looking  bird,  and  yet  its  nesting  habits  are 
often  disgusting.  The  material  of  which  the  nest  is  composed 
is  of  the  slightest,  but  it  is  surrounded  by  ordure  of  some  kind, 
which,  according  to  Mr.  Howard  Saunders'  experience  in 
Spain,  "causes  an  intolerable  stench,  which  is  subsequently 
increased  by  the  droppings  of  the  female  and  young."  In 
China,  according  to  Mr.  Swinhoe  it  is  known  by  the  name  of 
"  Coffin-Bird,"  as  it  breeds  in  the  holes  of  exposed  Chinese 
coffins,  and  Pallas  relates  his  finding  a  nest  in  the  chest  of  a 
decaying  corpse. 

The  Hoopoe  feeds  on  insects  and  worms,  boring  in  the 
ground  with  its  long  bill  for  the  former.  It  devours  a  large 
number  of  worms  and  insects  of  various  kinds,  beetles,  cater- 
pillars, grasshoppers,  &c.  It  is  said  that  the  bird  always 
throws  up  its  food  into  the  air  and  catches  it  in  its  bill,  before 
swallowing  it,  a  very  Hornbill-like  habit,  and  one  which  has  a 
bearing  on  the  relationship  of  the  Hoopoes  to  this  Family. 

For  my  own  part,  I  have  no  doubt  as  to  the  relationship 
of  the  Hoopoes  with  the  Hornbills,  and  another  remarkable 


62  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

feature  is  common  to  the  two  families.  Just  as  the  male 
Hornbills  feed  their  females  in  the  nest,  so,  it  would  appear, 
do  the  Hoopoes.  It  is  true  that  the  male  does  not  plaster  the 
female  in  the  tree,  like  the  Hornbill  does,  but  there  is  plenty 
of  evidence  that  the  male  Hoopoe  brings  all  the  food  to  the 
female,  though  the  latter  occasionally  comes  out  and  takes  a 
flight  before  returning. 

The  note  of  the  Hoopoe,  as  observed  in  China  by  Swinhoe, 
"  is  produced  by  puffing  out  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  ham- 
mering on  the  ground  at  the  production  of  each  note,  thereby 
exhausting  the  air  at  the  end  of  the  series  of  three  notes, 
which  make  up  its  song.  Before  it  repeats  the  call,  it  repeats 
the  puffing  of  the  neck  with  a  slight  gurgling  noise,  When  it 
is  able  to  strike  its  bill,  the  sound  is  the  correct  hoo-hoo-hoo, 
but  when  perched  on  a  rope,  and  only  jerking  out  the  song 
with  nods  of  the  head,  the  notes  most  resemble  the  syllables 
hoh-hoh-hoh." 

Eggs. — Four  to  seven  in  number ;  grey  or  greenish-olive  or 
stone-colour,  without  spots.  When  first  laid,  they  are  of  a  pale 
greenish-blue  colour,  which  soon  fades.  Axis,  0-9-1-1  inch; 
diam.,  07. 


THE  KINGFISHERS.    SUB-ORDER  HALCYONES. 

Birds  of  ungainly  form  but  mostly  of  brilliant  plumage,  the 
Kingfishers  are  found  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  world.  They 
are  most  numerous  in  the  Old  World,  as  America  possesses  but 
one  genus,  Ceryk,  of  which  the  Belted  Kingfisher,  Ceryle  alcyon, 
is  the  type,  but  the  genus  ranges  throughout  the  New  World, 
from  the  high  north  even  down  to  Chili. 

In  the  Old  World  there  is  scarcely  a  country  that  docs  not 
possess  a  Kingfisher  of  some  sort  or  another,  belonging  to  one  of 
the  two  types  recognised  in  the  Family,  which  is  divided  into 
Fish-eating  Kingfishers  (Alccdinincs)  and  Insect-  or  Reptile- 
eating  Kingfishers  (Dacelonina).  The  former  have  a  long  thin 
bill,  much  compressed,  fit  for  cleaving  the  water,  and  generally, 
but  not  always,  a  short  rudder-like  tail.  This  is,  indeed,  by 
no  means  an  universal  characteristic,  and  among  the  Insect- 


THE   KINGFISHERS.  63 

eating  Kingfishers,  there  are  several  which  have  a  short  tail 
like  the  true  AlcedinincR,  and  yet  live  in  forests  and  never  feed 
on  fish. 

The  palate  is  bridged,  or  desmognathous ;  there  are  no 
basipterygoid  processes ;  the  hallux,  or  first  hind-toe,  is  con- 
nected with  the  flexor  perforans  digitorum,  and  the  sole  of 


Ventral  aspect  of  the  bill  of  the  Giant  Kingfisher  (Dacelo  gigas],  to  show 
the  desmognathous  palate.  [From  the  Catalogue  jf  Osteological  Specimens 
in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.]  Letters  as  before. 

the  foot  is  flat,  the  front  toes  being  ui.ited  together  for  the 
greater  part  of  their  extent — hence  the  birds  are  Anisodactyle. 

The  eggs  are  white  and  hidden  from  sight,  as  with  other 
Picarian  "Birds,  being  mostly  deposited  in  the  hole  of  a  bank  or 
tree.  The  young  are  hatched  naked,  but  the  feathers  are 
developed  in  well-marked  lines  or  "  tracts,"  and  are  for  a  long 
time  enclosed  in  the  sheath,  imparting  a  singularly  bristly 
appearance  to  the  nestling  (see  p.  34). 

Of  the  Insect-eating  Kingfishers,  of  which  we  have  no  re- 
presentatives in  the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  the  nearest 
allies  to  our  own  Kingfisher  are  the  African  genus  Ispidina, 
and  the  Indian  and  Moluccan  genus  Ceyx,  the  latter  having  only 
three  toes.  The  large  genus  Halcyon,  consisting  of  bush-  and 
forest-frequenting  birds,  is  widely  spread  over  Africa,  India, 


64  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

China,  and  extends  even  to  Australia  and  Oceania.  One 
species,  Halcyon  smyrnensis,  even  reaches  Asia  Minor  and  Pales- 
tine. The  beautiful  Racket-tailed  Kingfishers  (Tanysipteni)  are 
forest-haunting  birds,  feeding  chiefly  on  insects,  and  having 
long  tails  like  a  Bee-Eater  or  a  Racket-tailed  Parrot  (Prioni- 
turus\  while  the  largest  of  all  Kingfishers  are  the  Giants  or 
"  Laughing  Jackasses"  of  Australia.  These  birds  feed  mostly 
on  reptiles. 

THE  TRUE   KINGFISHERS.     FAMILY 
ALCEDINID^:. 

The  Kingfishers  constitute  in  fact  a  single  Family,  co-equal 
with  the  Sub-order  Halcyones,  and  consequently  the  characters 
of  the  latter  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Family  Alcedinidce.  It 
is  divided  into  two  Sub-families,  which  are  not  very  strongly 
characterised,  but  they  may  be  separated  more  by  their  habits 
than  by  any  structural  features.  Thus  they  are  divided  into 
Alcedinince  and  Dacelonince,  the  latter  Sub-family  not  concern- 
ing us  here,  as  no  member  of  it  reaches  the  British  Islands. 

THE   FISH-EATING    KINGFISHERS.     SUB-FAMILY 
ALCEDININ^E. 

The  Kingfishers  of  this  Sub-family  are  mostly  of  the  type  of 
the  British  species,  Alcedo  ispida,  which  is  mainly  a  piscivorous 
bird,  but  it  likewise  embraces  the  genus  Ceryle,  of  which  the 
Belted  Kingfisher  is  the  type,  as  well  as  the  Stork-billed  King- 
fishers (Pelargopsis]  of  Asia,  the  Crested  Kingfishers  (Cory- 
thornis)  of  Africa,  and  the  Three-toed  Kingfishers  (Alcyone)  of 
Australia  and  Malaisia.  All  of  these  birds  have  a  narrow,  com- 
pressed bill,  very  long  and  thin,  and  are  almost  entirely  fish- 
eaters. 

THE   BANDED   KINGFISHERS.     GENUS   CERYLE. 

Ceryle,  Boie,  Isis,  1828,  p.  316. 

Type,  Ceryle  rudis  (L.). 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  found  throughout  the  New 
World,  as  well  as  in  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  greater  part 


THE    BANDED    KINGFISHERS.  65 

of  tropical  Asia,  extending  throughout  the  Indian  Peninsula 
and  Ceylon  to  China  and  Japan,  but  not  penetrating  farther 
than  Tenasserim  and  the  Indo-Chinese  countries.  One  pecu- 
liar character  of  the  genus  Ceryle  is  that  the  sexes,  contrary 
to  the  usual  rule  in  Kingfishers,  differ  in  colour,  the  female 
possessing  an  additional  band  on  the  breast.  The  genus 
differs  also  from  the  genus  Alcedo  in  having  a  long  tail,  in  this 
respect  resembling  the  Stork-billed  Kingfishers  (Pelargopsis)  of 
the  Indian  Region.  The  best  known  species  of  the  genus 
Ceryle  is  probably  the  Black-and-White  Kingfisher  (Ceryle 
rudis\  which  is  a  frequent  object  of  interest  to  the  traveller  in 
Palestine  and  the  Nile  Valley,  where  it  attracts  attention  by  its 
habit  of  hovering  in  the  air,  like  a  Kestrel  Hawk. 

I.    THE   BELTED    KINGFISHER.       CERYLE   ALCYON. 

Alcedo  alcyon.  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  180  (1766). 

Ceryle  akyon,  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  ii.  p.  452  (1881);  B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.  p.  81  (1883);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  348 
(1884);  Saunders,  Man.  p.  270  (1889);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B. 
xvii.  p.  125  (1892). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  slaty-blue,  with  a  well- 
developed  crest  of  the  same  colour ;  round  the  hind-neck  a 
white  collar ;  wing-coverts  spotted  with  white ;  quills  black, 
with  white  tips,  the  outer  webs  with  white  spots,  the  second- 
aries externally  slaty-blue  with  white  spots  ;  tail  also  slaty-blue, 
banded  and  spotted  with  white ;  under  surface  of  body  white, 
with  a  broad  band  of  slaty-blue  across  the  upper  breast,  the 
flanks  also  mottled  with  slaty-blue  ;  bill  black ;  feet  dark 
bluish-grey ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  1 2  inches  ;  oil- 
men. 2-0  ;  wing,  6-4  ;  tail,  3 '2  ;  tarsus,  0*3. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male  in  having  a  second  band 
of  rusty-red  on  the  breast,  below  the  grey  one,  the  flanks  being 
also  rufous.  Total  length,  11-5  inches;  wing,  6-4. 

Young  Male. — Resembles  the  old  female,  and  has  two  bands 
on  the  breast  like  the  latter.  The  second  rufous  band,  how- 
ever, is  narrower  than  that  of  the  old  hen-bird,  and  the  band 
on  the  upper  breast  has  a  strong  admixture  of  rufous,  as  well 
as  the  flanks. 

8  F 


66  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY 

Young  Female. — Resembles  the  young  male,  but  has  always 
rufous  axillaries,  and  the  flanks  are  rufous  like  the  lower  breast- 
band.  The  band  on  the  fore-neck  has  also  a  good  deal  of 
rufous. 

Range  in  the  British  Islands. — An  accidental  visitor  from  North 
America,  of  which  two  examples  have  been  recorded  from 
Ireland,  one  said  to  have  been  obtained  in  Co.  Meath  in 
October,  1 845,  and  another  in  Co.  Wicklow  in  November  of 
the  same  year.  "  No  other  instances,"  writes  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders,  "of  the  occurrence  of  this  species  in  Europe  is 
known,  nor  has  it  been  obtained  in  Greenland  or  Iceland,"  and 
he  deems  it  inexpedient  to  admit  to  the  British  List  "an 
American  bird  which — assuming  the  accuracy  of  the  records — 
had  probably  escaped  from  confinement." 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  greater  part  of  North 
America  from  Alaska  southwards,  migrating  south  in  winter  to 
Central  America  and  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Antilles. 

Habits. — All  accounts  of  the  life-history  of  the  Belted  King- 
fisher show  that  the  bird  has  very  similar  habits  to  our  own 
Alcedo  ispida^  nor  is  its  food  entirely  confined  to  fish,  as  it 
will  also  eat  insects,  and  even,  on  occasion,  small  Mammalia. 
Like  the  Pied  Kingfisher  of  Egypt,  it  also  hovers  in  the  air  like 
a  Kestrel,  as  our  own  Kingfisher  sometimes  does.  The  nesting- 
chamber  is  excavated  by  both  parents,  and  the  tunnel  leading 
to  it  is  hollowed  out  by  the  birds  themselves,  sometimes  to  a 
depth  of  fifteen  feet. 

Nest. — None. 

Eggs.— Six  in  number,  more  rarely  seven;  pure  white,  glossy. 
Axis,  i '3-1  "4  inch  ;  diarn.,  1*05. 

THE  BLUE  KINGFISHERS.     GENUS  ALCEDO. 

Alcedo,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  178  (1766). 

Type,  Alcedo  ispida  (L.). 

The  Kingfishers  of  this  genus  are  easily  recognisable  by  their 
short  tails  and  short  crests.  In  the  genus  Ceryle  the  tail  is 


THE   COMMON    KINGFISHER.  67 

longer  than  the  bill,  in  Alcedo  the  bill  is  much  longer  than 
the  tail.  So  it  is  in  the  African  genus  Corythornis  and  the 
Australian  genus  Alcyone,  both  of  which  are  fish-eaters,  but 
Alcyone  has  only  three  toes,  and  Corythornis  has  a  long  droop- 
ing crest,  which  distinguishes  it  at  once  from  Alcedo. 

I.    THE   COMMON    KINGFISHER.       ALCEDO    ISPIDA. 

Alcedo  ispida.  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  179  (1766);  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii. 
p.  671  (1840);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  113,  pi.  290(1875); 
Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  ii.  p.  443  (1881);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p. 
8 1  (1883);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  341  (1884);  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  viii.  (1888) ;  Saunders,  Man.  p.  269 
(1889);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  xvii.  p.  141  (1892). 

(Plate  XXXIV.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  greenish-blue,  the  scapular 
feathers  slightly  streaked  with  brighter  blue ;  the  back,  rump, 
and  upper  tail-coverts,  rich  cobalt-blue,  sometimes,  in  very  old 
individuals,  deep  blue  ;  wing-coverts  like  the  back,  the  median 
and  greater  series  spotted  with  greenish-cobalt ;  bastard-wing, 
primary-coverts  and  quills  blackish,  externally  blue ;  tail- 
feathers  also  blue,  with  black  shafts;  crown  of  head  greenish- 
blue,  with  bands  of  dusky-black,  and  with  a  shaft-stripe  of 
greenish-blue ;  lores  blackish,  with  a  streak  of  orange-rufous 
above,  the  sides  of  the  face  and  ear-coverts  being  also  orange- 
rufous  ;  cheek-stripe  bright  blue,  with  dusky  bars ;  on  each 
side  of  the  neck  a  band  of  buffy- white  feathers,  slightly  tinged 
with  orange-rufous  ;  under  surface  of  body  rich  orange-rufous, 
the  throat  buffy-white  ;  the  sides  of  the  upper  breast  greenish- 
blue;  bill  black;  feet  coral-red;  iris  dusky-brown.  Total  length, 
7-5  inches;  culmen,  175  ;  wing,  3-1;  tail,  1-5  ;  tarsus,  0-35. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  not  quite  so  bright  in 
•colour,  and  always  to  be  distinguished  by  having  the  basal  half 
£>f  the  under  mandible  red.  Total  length,  7*0  inches;  culmen, 
i'55;  wing,  3-0;  tail,  1-4;  tarsus,  0-3. 

Young. — Much  more  dingy  in  colour  than  the  adults,  and 
always  to  be  distinguished  by  the  ashy  margins  to  the  feathers 
of  the  fore-neck  and  breast,  which  impart  an  ashy  shade  to  this 
portion  of  the  body. 

F    2 


68  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARV 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Universally  distributed,  but  rarer  in 
the  north  of  Scotland.  To  a  great  extent  migratory,  though 
many  individuals  remain  throughout  the  year. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Found  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  Europe,  but  not  extending  to  the  northern  portions  of 
the  Continent.  Thus  it  is  only  an  accidental  visitor  to  Den- 
mark and  Southern  Scandinavia,  and  extends  rarely  as  far  north 
as  St.  Petersburg.  In  India  and  China  a  smaller  race  occurs, 
of  a  more  vivid  blue  colour,  but  the  Kingfishers  of  Egypt, 
Central  Asia,  and  Sind  are  perfectly  intermediate  in  colour  and 
size,  and  it  is  impossible  to  recognise  the  eastern  race  (Alcedo 
bengalensis]  as  distinct,  and  therefore  we  may  consider  the 
Common  Kingfisher  as  an  inhabitant  of  the  Palasarctic  and 
Indian  Regions,  merely  noting  that  in  its  eastern  habitat  the 
bird  is  rather  smaller  and  more  highly  coloured.  The  King- 
fishers which  leave  England  in  the  autumn  do  not  apparently 
travel  farther  south  than  the  Mediterranean  countries,  and  even 
here  the  species  is  said  to  be  resident,  and  to  nest  regularly  in 
small  numbers. 

Habits. — The  protection  from  shooting,  which  has  of  late 
years  been  afforded  to  our  beautiful  Kingfisher  on  the  Thames, 
has  certainly  contributed  to  an  increase  in  the  number  of  the 
species,  and  its  bright  plumage  may  now  be  seen  at  almost 
any  time  of  the  year.  It  is  unnecessary  to  add  that  the  beauty 
of  the  river  scenery  is  much  enhanced  by  the  presence  of 
such  a  pretty  bird  as  the  Kingfisher,  whose  beauty  might  be 
allowed  to  atone  for  any  delinquencies  in  the  way  of  catching 
small  trout. 

The  flight  of  a  Kingfisher  is  usually  advertised  by  its  note 
which  is  a  peculiarly  shrill  dissyllabic  one — a  kind  of  "  h'wee 
h'wee  " — uttered  as  the  bird  flies  along  at  a  prodigious  rate, 
with  a  rapid  beating  of  his  powerful  rounded  wings,  the  bill 
being  held  straight  out.  It  by  no  means  follows,  however,  that 
the  bird  is  flying  over  the  water  all  the  way,  for,  as  often  as  not, 
the  Kingfisher  rises  to  a  considerable  height  and  takes  a  swift 
turn  through  a  portion  of  the  woods  or  across  a  meadow,  rejoin- 
ing the  stream  a  little  farther  on.  It  is  a  quarrelsome  species, 
and  jealous  of  intruders,  so  that  a  chase  often  takes  place,  if 
another  Kingfisher  should  happen  to  interfere  with  the  fishing- 


THE   COMMON    KINGFISHER. 


69 


rights  of  an  established  owner.  A  vigorous  battle,  accompanied 
by  any  amount  of  shrill  screaming,  is  the  consequence,  and 
when  the  weaker  bird  turns  tail,  he  is  pursued  by  the  victor 
with  great  fury,  the  chase  being  often  carried  on  high  in  the 
air.  When  thus  seen,  the  occasional  glimpses  of  the  brilliant 
blue  backs  and  chestnut  breasts  of  the  birds,  as  they  shoot 
along,  are  always  pleasing. 

In  the  autumn,  the  number  of  Kingfishers  on  any  large  river 
is  increased  by  the  influx  of  birds  which  have  been  nesting  in 
out-of-the-way  places,  and  have  frequented  brooks  and  lakes 
during  the  summer.  A  considerable  autumnal  migration  takes 
place,  and  the  Kingfisher  may  then  be  seen  on  our  southern 
coasts  in  some  numbers,  frequenting  reedy  ditches  and  sluices, 
and  not  uncommonly  the  open  shore,  where  the  birds  feed  on 
small  shell-fish.  The  principal  food  of  the  Kingfisher,  how- 
ever, consists  of  fish,  and  these  it  catches  with  great  dexterity, 
sitting  generally  on  an  exposed  post  or  bough,  from  which  it 
keeps  a  keen  eye  on  the  water  below.  The  speed  with  which 
it  flies  from  one  perch  to  another,  often  crossing  a  field  in 
passing  from  haunt  to  haunt,  is  truly  wonderful,  as  is  also  the 
way  in  which  it  will  suddenly  arrest  its  flight  on  arriving  at  its 
station,  and  settle  down  without  any  apparent  slowing  off  of  its 
headlong  flight.  When  first  settled,  the  bird  often  bobs  its 
head  up  and  down  and  from  side  to  side,  and,  in  the  act  of 
perching,  it  may  be  seen  to  elevate  the  tail,  as  if  to  secure  an 
immediate  balance. 

Nest. — None,  that  can  properly  be  so  called.  The  birds 
bore  for  themselves,  in  a  sandy  bank,  a  long  tunnel,  at  which 
both  male  and  female  labour.  At  the  end  of  this  tunnel  is  a 
chamber,  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  Sometimes  stones  or 
roots  obtrude  in  the  course  of  the  boring,  and  the  birds  have 
to  seek  another  place,  but  in  one  instance  I  remember  finding 
a  nest  with  seven  eggs  in  the  middle  of  a  wood,  and  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  river.  An  old  tree  in  a  bed  of 
sand  had  been  blown  down  and  its  roots  were  exposed  and 
standing  out  into  the  air.  Underneath  these  overhanging 
roots  the  birds  had  mined  their  tunnel,  which,  after  a  foot  or 
so,  was  obstructed  by  roots  of  considerable  size,  but  the  birds 
had  driven  their  hole  over  and  under  these  obstructions,  until 


70  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

the  chamber  was  reached.  In  this  particular  instance  the 
tunnel  and  nest-chamber  were  quite  clean,  but  these  are  some- 
times in  an  extremely  dirty  condition,  and  Mr.  Seebohm  men- 
tions that  in  one  which  he  examined,  "the  bottom  of  the 
passage  was  lined  with  a  black  or  dark  green  glossy  substance 
smelling  strongly  of  fish,  and  almost  as  sticky  as  bird-lime." 
This  is  formed  of  the  castings  and  droppings  of  the  birds,  and 
the  mass  often  swarms  with  maggots.  The  eggs  are  generally 
laid  upon  a  small  heap  of  white  fish-bones,  cast  up  by  the  birds, 
and  this  constitutes  the  whole  of  the  "  nest." 

Eggs. — Six  or  seven,  rarely  eight  or  nine,  in  number.  They 
are  pure  white,  very  glossy,  and  nearly  round.  Axis,  0*95  inch ; 
diam.,  075  inch. 


THE  ROLLERS.  SUB-ORDER  CORACLE. 

These  birds  constitute  a  group  of  Old- World  Picarians,  of 
brilliant  colour  and  somewhat  Crow-like  in  form.  They  are 
undoubtedly  nearly  allied  to  the  Kingfishers  and  Bee-Eaters, 
though  they  have  not  got  the  long  bills  of  the  two  last-named 
groups  of  birds.  The  palate  is  desmognathous,  or  "  bridged," 
and  there  are  rudimentary  basipterygoid  processes,  while  the 
breast-bone  has  four  notches  in  its  posterior  margin.  The 
feet  in  the  Rollers  are  very  much  like  those  of  the  Kingfishers, 
that  is  to  say,  "  Anisodactyle,"  the  soles  being  flat  and  the  toes 
united  together  for  a  short  distance  by  a  membrane,  the  outer 
one  being  joined  to  the  middle  one  at  the  extreme  base,  and 
to  the  inner  one  for  the  basal  joint.  The  Family  of  Rollers  is 
divided  into  two  Sub-families,  the  Ground  Rollers  (Brachy- 
pteraciina)  and  the  True  Rollers  (Coracitnce).  The  former 
contains  three  ground-loving  genera,  all  remarkable  for  their 
very  long  legs,  and  confined  to  Madagascar,  while  the  True 
Rollers  are  found  in  the  temperate  and  tropical  portions  of  the 
entire  Old  World. 

THE   TRUE   ROLLERS.     FAMILY   CORACIID^E. 

The  species  of  Coraciidce  at  present  known  to  us  are  but 
twenty-one  in  number,  and  they  are  contained  in  two  genera, 


PLATE    XXXV. 


ROLLER. 


THE    ROLLERS.  7  l 

Coradas  and  Eurystomus.  They  are  all  birds  of  brilliant 
plumage,  especially  remarkable  for  the  bright  blue  colour  of 
the  wings  and  tail ;  but  the  Broad-billed  Rollers  (Eurystomus\ 
which  have  a  wide  and  slightly-hooked  bill,  are  found  in 
Africa  and  the  Indian  and  Australian  Regions,  even  extending 
to  China  and  Eastern  Siberia,  while  the  True  Rollers,  which 
have  a  much  narrower  and  more  slender  bill,  are  not  found  in 
the  Australian  Region  at  all. 


THE   TYPICAL   ROLLERS.     GENUS   CORACIAS. 

Coracias,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  150  (1766). 
Type,  C.  garrulus  (L.). 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  Rollers  are  somewhat 
like  Crows  in  shape,  and  it  is  doubtless  this  Corvine  aspect 
and  the  brilliant  blue  of  their  plumage  that  leads  to  their 
being  called  "  Jays "  in  so  many  countries,  particularly  in 
India.  The  bill  is  also  Corvine,  and  the  nostrils  are  placed 
near  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible,  and  are  hidden  by  bristly 
plumes.  The  tail  consists  of  twelve  feathers,  and  the  outer- 
most on  each  side  is  sometimes  produced  to  a  considerable 
length  in  some  African  species.  The  Common  Roller  likewise 
exhibits  a  tendency  to  an  elongation  of  the  outer  tail-feather. 
The  base  of  the  bill  is  beset  with  several  strong  bristles. 

I.    THE   COMMON    ROLLER.       CORACIAS    GARRULUS. 

Cor -arias  garrulus ;  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  159  (1766);  Macg.  Br.  B. 
iii.  p.  540  (1840);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  141,  pi.  293 
(1871);  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  ii.  p.  428  (1881);  B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.  p.  82  (1883);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  ii.  p.  321 
(1884);  Saunders,  Man.  p.  271  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Br.  B.  part  xii.  (1890);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  xvii.  p.  15  (1892). 

(Plate  XXXV.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  light  tawny-brown  ;  head 
greenish-blue,  the  forehead  and  eyebrow  whitish,  the  hinder 
part  of  the  latter  greenish-blue  like  the  crown ;  lores  black ; 
fore  part  of  cheeks  and  chin  white;  sides  of  face,  cheeks,  and 


72  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

under  surface  of  body  light  greenish-blue,  paler  on  the  abdo- 
men and  under  tail-coverts ;  lower  back  and  rump  purplish- 
blue  ;  wing-coverts  greenish-blue,  those  along  the  edge  of  the 
wing  purplish-blue  ;  quills  black,  the  outer  web  greenish-blue 
at  the  base,  shading  into  purple ;  primary  quills  externally 
greenish-blue,  the  secondaries  externally  purple ;  centre  tail- 
feathers  dull  oily-green,  the  remainder  greenish-blue  for  two- 
thirds  of  the  outer  web  and  black  on  the  inner  web,  the  ends 
of  the  feathers  greenish-blue  with  a  black  shaft,  the  blue  in- 
creasing in  extent  on  the  outside  tail-feathers,  the  outermost 
having  a  black  spot  at  the  tip  ;  bill  blackish  horn-colour ; 
feet  dark  yellow ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  12  inches; 
culmen,  1*3;  wing,  7*5;  tail,  4*8;  tarsus,  0*85. 

Adult  Female. — Liks  the  male  in  plumage.  Total  length, 
1 2  inches  ;  wing,  7  -4. 

Young  Birds. — Resemble  the  adults,  but  are  much  duller  in 
colour,  the  head  and  neck  being  oily-green,  the  blue  on  the 
wings  not  so  bright,  and  the  greenish-blue  portion  shaded  with 
brown  ;  the  colour  of  the  under-parts  much  duller,  and  the 
outer  tail-feathers  not  tipped  with  black. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  occasional  visitor  in  spring  and 
autumn.  It  has  occurred  over  a  hundred  times,  and  has  been 
met  with  as  far  north  as  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland  Isles,  as 
well  as  in  Ireland,  where  some  half-dozen  notices  of  its 
capture  have  been  recorded.  It  is,  however,  in  the  southern 
and  eastern  counties  of  England  that  the  Roller  has  most 
frequently  occurred. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Roller  is  a  summer 
migrant  to  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  being  more  plentiful 
in  the  south,  arriving  in  April  and  departing  in  August.  It  is 
found  in  Northern  Germany,  and  breeds  in  Sweden  as  far  as 
61°  N.  lat,  and  as  far  as  St.  Petersburg  in  Russia.  Its  eastern 
range  extends  to  the  Altai  Mountains  and  to  Cashmere,  while 
it  also  occurs  as  far  north  as  Omsk  in  Siberia.  The  winter 
home  of  the  Common  Roller  is  in  Africa,  where  it  reaches  the 
Cape,  passing  through  Egypt  and  through  Eastern  Africa  to 
arrive  at  its  winter  home.  The  bird  breeds  in  Cashmere, 
and  apparently  a  few  winter  in  North-western  and  Central 


THE   ROLLERS.  73 

India,  but  the  bulk  of  the  individuals  bred  in  Asia  probably 
turn  west  and  migrate  to  Africa  in  a  south-westerly  direction, 
as  do  many  other  Asiatic  birds. 

Habits. — The  Roller  is  strictly  an  arboreal  species,  and  is  not 
at  all  at  home  on  the  earth,  where,  doubtless,  its  flat-soled 
feet  are  not  adapted  for  walking.  Nevertheless,  it  seeks  for 
most  of  its  food  on  the  ground,  but  in  a  Picarian  manner, 
that  is  to  say,  by  darting  on  its  prey  from  a  perch,  like  a 
Bee-Eater  or  a  Kingfisher.  Mr.  Seebohm  observes  : — "  A 
favourite  mode  of  feeding  adopted  by  the  Roller  is  to  sit  on 
some  clod  of  earth  or  other  vantage-ground  and  wait  patiently 
until  it  sees  a  beetle  or  a  locust  moving,  then  to  suddenly 
pounce  down  and  capture  the  prize."  It  is  also  a  frequenter 
of  reed-beds,  on  which  it  is  said  to  perch  when  on  the  look 
out  for  frogs. 

The  name  of  Roller  is  applied  to  this  bird  on  account  of 
its  curious  habit  of  "  rolling  "  or  tumbling  in  the  air,  like  a 
Tumbler-Pigeon.  Sometimes  a  whole  flock  of  Rollers  will 
indulge  in  this  strange  evolution,  and  Canon  Tristram  relates 
how  he  saw  large  flocks  of  Rollers  on  migration  near  Mount 
Tabor  in  Palestine,  on  the  i2th  of  April.  One  of  these 
flocks  congregated  on  some  trees  near  a  fountain,  and  made 
as  much  noise  as  a  colony  of  Rooks.  "  After  a  volley  of 
discordant  screams,  one  or  two  birds  were  observed  to  start 
from  their  perch  and  commence  a  series  of  gambols  and 
somersaults  in  the  air ;  then  in  a  moment  or  two  the  whole 
flock  followed  their  example,  this  strange  performance  being 
repeated  many  times  in  succession." 

The  same  author  writes  of  this  species : — "  Brilliant  and 
conspicuous,  both  in  plumage,  note,  and  manners,  the  Rollers 
attract  attention  everywhere,  and  are  found  in  every  kind  of 
country  alike — woodland,  plain,  desert,  ravines,  ruins, — always 
perching  where  they  can  see  and  be  seen."  They  are  by  no 
means  entirely  forest-loving  birds,  and  are  found  in  well- 
timbered  country  as  well  as  in  the  open  plains,  where  there 
are  plenty  of  trees,  on  which  the  Rollers  love  to  perch  on  some 
conspicuous  branch,  where  their  bright  colour  renders  them 
visible  for  a  long  distance  off. 

The  note  of  the  Roller  is  very  harsh,  and  is  rendered  by 


74  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Mr.  Seebohm  as  "  wrack,  wrack,"  something  like  the  sound 
made  by  a  ratchet-drill.  In  Spain,  according  to  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders,  the  note  is  rendered  by  the  words  "  Carlanco, 
Carlanco." 

The  Roller  is  a  late  breeder,  and  never  commences  to  lay 
before  May,  often  not  until  the  end  of  that  month  in  some 
countries. 

Nest. — Very  slight,  or  none  at  all.  The  bird  selects  a  con- 
venient hole  in  a  tree,  a  building,  or  even  in  a  bank,  and 
though  not  a  gregarious  bird  at  the  nesting-time,  it  has  been 
found  in  Palestine,  by  Canon  Tristram,  nesting  in  holes  in  a 
bank,  excavated  by  the  birds  themselves.  The  nest  is  a  slight 
structure  of  twigs  or  grass  with  hair  or  feathers,  but  when  the 
hole  of  a  tree  is  selected,  or  a  deserted  Woodpecker's  hole 
used  as  a  nesting-place,  the  eggs  are  deposited  on  chips  ot 
wood,  without  any  attempt  at  a  nest. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number,  rounded  in  shape,  and 
glossy  white.  They  measure:  axis,  1*5  inch;  diam.,  i'i5 
inch. 


II.    THE   ABYSSINIAN    ROLLER.       CORACIAS    ABYSSINICUS. 

Coracias  abyssinicus,  Bodd.  Tabl.  PI.  Enl.  p.  38(1783);  See- 
bohm, Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  331  (1884);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.  xvii.  p.  19  (1892). 

Coracias  leucocephalus,  Saunders,  Man.  Brit.  B.  p.  272,  note 
(1889). 

Adult  Male. — Exactly  like  C.  garrulus,  but  with  the  outer 
tail-feather  on  each  side  produced  to  a  great  length;  bill 
black;  feet  greenish-yellow;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  18 
inches;  culmen,  1*05;  wing,  6-7;  tail,  5*4;  outer  tail-feather, 
11-3;  tarsus,  0-85. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Two  specimens  of  this  most  unlikely 
visitor  to  Great  Britain  are  said  to  have  been  obtained  in 
Scotland.  Mr.  Small,  the  well-known  taxidermist  of  Edin- 
burgh, states  that  the  male  was  shot  near  Glasgow  about  the 
year  1857,  and  was  preserved  by  him.  A  female  bird  was 
shot,  not  long  afterwards,  about  forty  miles  from  the  plac 


THE   ROLLERS.  ye, 

where  the  male  had  been  shot.     Like  Mr.  Howard  Saunders- 
(I.e.),  I  give  the  story  "for  what  it  is  worth." 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — This  Roller  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  Soudanese  Sub-region  of  Africa,  and  is  found  in  Sene- 
gambia,  on  the  Niger,  and  extends  to  North-east  Africa.  It 
has  never  been  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  African  con- 
tinent, and  no  more  improbable  visitor  to  the  north  of  Europe 
could  well  be  imagined. 


III.    THE    INDIAN    ROLLER.       CORACIAS    INDICUS. 

Coratias  indicus.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  159  (1766);  Sharper 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xvii.  p.  10  (1892). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  drab-brown,  slightly  glossed 
with  oily-green;  rump  greenish-blue,  washed  with  purple; 
wing-coverts  greenish-blue,  the  lesser  coverts  bright  purplish- 
blue  ;  quills  also  purplish-blue,  the  inner  secondaries  like  the 
back,  the  primaries  with  a  broad  sub-terminal  band  of  silvery- 
blue,  decreasing  in  size  towards  the  centre  of  the  wing ;  centre 
tail-feathers  green,  the  remainder  purplish-blue  at  the  base, 
succeeded  by  a  broad  band  of  silvery-cobalt,  and  ending  in 
i  a  band  of  purplish-blue;  crown  and  nape  green,  with  a 
greenish-blue  eyebrow ;  base  of  forehead  sandy-buff,  succeeded 
by  a  shade  of  purplish-lilac ;  sides  of  face,  throat,  and  chest 
purplish-lilac,  the  feathers  streaked  with  greenish-white  shafts ;. 
breast  lilac-brown ;  abdomen,  thighs,  and  under  wing-  and 
tail-coverts  silvery-cobalt ;  bill  blackish-brown  ;  feet  brownish- 
yellow  ;  eyelid  and  naked  skin  round  the  eye  pale  gamboge ;. 
iris  greyish-brown.  Total  length,  12  inches;  culmen,  i'^-y 
wing,  7'3;  tailr5*o;  tarsus,  0*95. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length,. 
12  inches;  wing,  7-15. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  Roller  was  shot  at  Muckton,  near 
Louth,  in  Lincolnshire,  on  the  27th  of  October,  1883,  by  a 
cottager,  and  was  entered  in  the  Migration  Report  for  1883 
(p.  47)  as  Coracias  garrulus.  The  specimen  in  question  has- 
now  become  the  property  of  Mr.  John  Cordeanx,  and  turns 
iout  to  be  the  Indian  Roller. 


76  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.— A  well-known  inhabitant  ofj 
the  Indian  Peninsula  and  Ceylon,  ranging  westwards  through^ 
Baluchistan  to  Persia,  and  even  to  Asia  Minor. 

Habits— Similar  to  those  of  Coradas  garrulus. 


THE  OWLS.    ORDER  STRIGES. 

The  Owls  have  generally  been  considered  to  be  Birds  cf| 
Prey,  and  to  form  a  part  of  the  Order  Acdpitriforme^ 
which  embraces  all  the  Vultures,  Hawks,  and  Ospreys.  Thai 
Owls,  however,  possess  so  many  peculiar  characteristics,  ths.tt 
by  many  modern  zoologists  they  are  considered  to  be  very  dis-| 
tinct  from  Hawks,  and  there  is  a  good  deal  to  be  said  as  t3J 
their  separation  from  that  group  of  birds,  but  I  cannot  adm  tfo 
the  wide  divorce  which  Dr.  Gadow  seeks  to  introduce  betwee  it* 
the  Acdpitres  and  the  Striges.  According  to  the  paper  pul>| 
lished  by  the  last-named  gentleman  (in  the  "  Proceedings  "I 
•of  the  Zoological  Society  for  1892,  pp.  229-256)  on  the  "Classi-i 
fication  of  Birds,"  the  Owls  come  under  his  Order  Coradiformesl 
following  the  Parrots  (Psittad\  but  also  included  in  the  samel 
Order  as  the  Swifts,  Trogons,  and  the  bulk  of  Picarian  Birds.! 
That  the  Parrots  should  come  between  the  Picarians  and  thel 
Owls  seems  to  be  a  very  feasible  proposition,  for  there  arel 
many  Parrots  which  have  Owl-like  propensities,  and  even  a] 
Strigine  appearance ;  but,  when  all  things  are  considered,  the! 
Owls  must  be  reckoned  more  Birds  of  Prey  than  anything  else,! 
and  even  Dr.  Gadow  has  to  admit  that  the  bill  and  feet  in  hi  a 
Sub-order  Striges  are  "  raptorial  "  and  nothing  else,  even  if  hisj 
other  characters  are  more  or  less  Picarian. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  Owls  are  related  to  the(l 
Acdpitres  through  the  Pandiones^  i.e.,  the  Ospreys,  or  Fishing-3 
Eagles,  which,  like  the  Owls,  have  the  fourth  toe  reversible,'! 
while  the  proportions  of  the  tibio-tarsus  and  the  tarso-met«'i4| 
tarsal  bones  are  exactly  the  same  as  those  of  the  Owls.  Among! 
the  latter,  also,  there  are  several  species  of  Fishing-Owls  which, J 
have  bare  feet,  and  the  soles  covered  with  spicules  like  thel 
Ospreys.  However  much,  therefore,  we  may  regard  the  Ow's 


THE   TRUE   OWLS.  77 

as  forming  a  separate  Order,  these  features  of  relationship  with 
the  Ospreys  must  never  be  overlooked. 

Owls  are  distinguished,  as  a  rule,  by  their  soft  and  downy 
plumage  and  by  their  large  and  rounded  heads,  with  the  eyes 
directed  forwards >  not  laterally  placed  as  in  Eagles  and  Hawks. 
The  face  is  generally,  but  not  always,  surrounded  by  a  disk  of 
stiffened  feathers,  a  feature  only  seen  in  the  Harriers  and 
Harrier-Hawks  among  the  Accipitres. 

As  the  Owls  are  mostly  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  the 
plumage  is  very  soft  and  the  flight  noiseless,  so  that  the  birds 
are  able  to  steal  upon  their  prey  without  being  heard ;  and  the 
wings  are  very  broad,  with  soft  webs  to  the  quills,  which  pro- 
duce no  sound  when  the  bird  is  flying.  The  young  birds, 
when  hatched,  are  covered  with  down,  generally  white,  but  in 
some  species  black ;  they  are  fed  in  the  nest  by  the  parent 
birds  for  a  considerable  time. 

The  Owls  may  be  divided  into  two  Families,  of  which  the 
Barn-Owl  is  the  type  of  the  StHgtda,  while  all  the  rest  of  the 
Owls  belong  to  the  Bubonidce,  of  which  the  Eagle-Owl  may  be 
taken  as  the  type. 


THE  TRUE   OWLS.     FAMILY   BUBONID^E. 

In  these  birds  the  hinder  margin  of  the  breast-bone,  or 
sternum,  has  two  or  more  clefts  or  fissures;  the  furcula,  or 
merry-thought,  is  free,  and  not  attached  to  the  keel  of  the 
sternum.  There  is  no  serration  on  the  inner  margin  of  the 
claw  of  the  middle  toe,  and  the  latter  is  longer  than  the  inner 
toe. 

There  are  two  Sub-families  of  the  True  Owls,  the  Bubonince, 
which  have  the  facial  disk  imperfect  and  less  developed  above 
the  eye,  and  the  Syrnnnte,  in  which  the  disk  is  perfect. 

In  the  Bubonina  are  included  all  the  Fishing-Owls  (Ketupd), 
the  Eagle-Owls  (Bubo),  the  Tufted  Owls  (Scops),  the  Snowy 
Owls  (Nyctea),  the  Hawk-Owls  (Surnia\  the  Little  Owls 
\Carine),  the  Burro  wing-Owls  (Speotyto\  and  the  Pigmy  Owls 
\Glaucidiuni),  besides  some  other  tropical  genera,  of  which  we 
have  no  representatives  in  Europe. 


?8  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

THE  EAGLE  OWLS.     GENUS  BUBO. 
Bubo,  Cuvier,  Regne  Anim.  i,  p.  331  (l8l7)- 

Type,  23.  bubo  (L.). 

These  Owls  may  be  first  recognised  by  their  large  size,  and 
by  the  long  tufts  of  plumes  on  .ach  side  of  the  crown.    The 


Sternum  of  Bubo  bubo,  to  show  notches  and  furcula.     [From  the 
Catalogue  of  Birds  in  the  British  Museum.] 

feet  are  thickly  clothed  with  feathers,  and  the  wings  are  not 
very  long  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  birds,  and  do  not 
reach  to  the  end  of  the  tail. 

The  Eagle-Owls  are  found  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia,  extending  to  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
imt  not  beyond,  into  the  Australian  Region.  They  are  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  New  World  from  north  to  south,  being 
absent  only  in  some  of  the  districts  unsuitable  to  their  habits. 

I.    THE    EAGLE-OWL.       BUBO    BUBO. 

Strixbubo,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  131  (1766). 

Bubo  ignavus,  Forster;  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.   168 

(1872);  Dresser,    B.    Eur.    v.   p.    339,    pi.  315    (1873); 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  ii.  p.  14  (1875);  B-  O.  U.  List 

Br.    B.   p.  90   (1883);    Saunders,   Man.  Br.  B.  p.   299 

(1889). 


THE    EAGLE-OWL. 


Bubo  maximus,  Fleming  ;  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  428  (1840)  •  S-eb 
Br.  B.  i.  p.  187  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xL 
(1889). 

Adult  Male.—  Of  large  size.  Blackish  above,  mottled  and 
freckled  with  yellowish-buff  or  tawny  markings  ;  ear-tufts,  3  V. 
inches  in  length,  black,  with  tawny  markings  on  the  inner  ones  • 
nape  and  hind-neck  lighter  than  the  rest  of  the  upper  surface,' 
taway-buff,  with  broad  black  centres  and  narrow  black  cross- 
lines  ;  scapulars  externally  whitish  or  pale  tawny,  with  a  few 
black  cross-lines  ;  quills  dark  brown,  barred  with  tawny-buff 
the  bars  freckled  with  black,  the  inner  webs  for  the  most  part 
tawny,  with  irregular  black  markings;  centre  tail-feathers 
blackish,  with  buff  vermiculations,  the  rest  more  or  less  dis- 
tinctly barred  with  tawny-buff,  the  inner  webs  bright  tawny, 
with  irregular  blackish  mottlings,  more  distinct  towards  the 
ends  of  the  feathers  ;  lores  and  region  of  the  eye  whitish  • 
sides  of  neck  like  the  hind-neck  ;  chin  and  fore-neck  white' 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  band  of  tawny,  black-centred 
feathers;  crop  tawny-buff;  centre  of  breast  white;  rest  of 
under  surface  tawny-buff,  the  chest-feathers  streaked  with 
black  and  spotted  or  barred  with  irregular  lines  of  black  • 
bill  blackish  horn-colour  ;  iris  orange.  Total  length,  26  inches  • 
wing,  18-6;  tail,  11-2  j  tarsus,  3*2. 

Adult  Female.—  Similar  to  the  male,  but  larger.  Wino-  18-2 
inches. 

Nestling.  —  Covered  with  down  of  a  dull  white  colour. 

Range  in  Great  Britain.—  Of  rare  and  accidental  occurrence. 
Many  of  the  records  doubtless  refer  to  specimens  escaped 
from  confinement,  as  the  bird  is  often  kept  in  aviaries,  and  not 
^frequently  breeds  in  captivity.  It  is,  therefore,  difficult  to 
determine  whether  the  Eagle-Owls  which  have  from  time  to 
time  been  recorded,  have  actually  wandered  to  Great  Britain, 
or  have  been  escaped  individuals.  Some  undoubtedly  wild 
birds  have,  however,  been  taken  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland 
Isles,  on  the  mainland  of  Scotland,  and  in  some  parts  of  Eng- 
land ;  so  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  bird  occasionally 
visits  us  from  the  Continent.  The  statement  of  its  occurrence 
m  Ireland  is  untrustworthy,  as  the  specimen  recorded  by  Dr. 


So  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Burkitt,  as  shot  in  Co.  Waterford  on  the  27th  of  January, 
1851,  after  being  ascribed  to  B.  virginianus,  proved  on  examina- 
tion to  be  the  South  African  Bubo  maculosus,  and  was  doubt- 
less of  the  same  origin  as  the  Gold-vented  Bulbul,  Pycnonotus 
capensis  (see  Vol.  I.,  p.  318). 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed  through- 
out Europe  and  Northern  Africa,  being  replaced  in  Central 
Asia  by  Bubo  turcomanus^  a  pale  form  which  extends  west- 
wards into  South-eastern  Russia,  and  which  has  occurred  in 
the  Himalayas.  The  typical  form  is  said  to  re-occur  in 
Eastern  Siberia  and  Corea,  and  to  extend  to  China,  and  a 
specimen  from  the  Goto  Islands,  about  fifty  miles  to  the  west 
of  Nagasaki,  is  in  the  Norwich  Museum.  So  far  as  is  known 
the  Eagle-Owl  has  never  occurred  in  the  Japanese  Islands,  the 
bird  so  identified  having  proved  to  be  Bubo  blakistoni,  which 
also  inhabits  Corea  and  North-eastern  Siberia. 

Habits. — The  Eagle-Owl  is  one  of  the  largest  and  one  of  the 
most  ferocious  of  all  the  nocturnal  Birds  of  Prey,  and  even  in 
confinement  has  been  known  to  attack  its  owner  without  any 
provocation.  It  creates  great  havoc  among  the  larger  game, 
and  devours  not  only  Grouse,  but  Rabbits  and  Hares,  as  well 
as  Pheasants  and  Partridges.  Mr.  Seebohm  states  that  in  the 
northern  forests  it  also  feeds  upon  Crows  and  Jays,  as  well  as 
devouring  mice  and  rats. 

The  Eagle-Owl  breeds  early,  laying  its  eggs  in  March  or  in 
the  beginning  of  April,  and  generally  selects  the  old  nest  of 
some  other  bird.  It  sometimes  chooses  the  hole  of  a  tree,  but 
not  unfrequently  nests  on  the  ground  or  usually  on  the  ledge 
of  a  rock. 

Although  this  fine  Owl  generally  hunts  by  night,  it  is  not  much 
disturbed  by  the  daylight,  and  is  able  to  take  excellent  care  of 
itself,  while  the  nest  is  often  in  an  exposed  situation,  in  the  full 
glare  of  the  light.  Several  observers  who  have  tried  to  shoot  the 
parent  birds  at  the  nest,  admit  that  this  is  nearly  impossible  to 
do,  as  the  birds  appear  to  notice  the  intruder,  however  care- 
fully concealed. 

Nest. — None  to  speak  of,  and  sometimes  consisting  merely 
of  a  slight  hollow  in  the  ground.  The  young  are  often  found 


THE   TUFTED    OWLS.  8  I 

resting  on  the  debris  of  the  animals  caught  by  the  old  birds, 
and  the  heaps  of  castings  thrown  up  by  the  latter,  no  other 
attempts  at  a  nest  having  been  made. 

Eggs. — Two  or  three  in  number.  Like  those  of  other  Owls, 
they  are  white,  but  are  somewhat  rough  in  texture.  They  are 
easily  distinguished  by  their  large  size,  measuring  as  follows : 
axis,  2-15-2-55  inches;  diam.,  1-85-1-95. 

THE  TUFTED  OWLS.     GENUS   SCOPS. 

Scopst  Savigny,  Descr.  de  1'Egypte,  p.  291  (1809). 

Type,  Scops  scops  (L.). 

These  little  Tufted  Owls  are  really  diminutive  representa- 
tives of  the  great  Eagle-Owls,  from  which  they  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  their  small  size,  though  they  have  the  same 
elongated  "  ear-tufts,"  or  bunches  of  erectile  plumes,  on  the 
side  of  the  crown,  as  their  larger  relatives.  They  have  re- 
latively longer  wings  than  the  Eagle-Owls,  but  are  much 
more  strictly  nocturnal  in  their  habits  than  the  latter  birds. 
Though  Mr.  Seebohm  separates  them  under  the  genus  Scops,  he 
says  that  he  only  did  so  for  the  sake  of  convenience.  This  may 
be  the  case,  if  external  appearances  only  are  to  be  taken  into 
consideration,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  careful  com- 
parison of  anatomical  and  osteological  characters  would  un- 
doubtedly show  that  the  two  genera  are  distinct.  For  our 
purpose,  the  size  of  the  two  birds  is  sufficient,  and  there  need 
be  no  difficulty  in  recognising  the  largest  Scops  from  the 
!  smallest  Bubo. 

I.    SCOPS    SCOPS.      THE   SMALL   TUFTED   OWL. 

>  Strix  scops,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  132  (1766). 
\\Scops  aldrovandi,  Macgill.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  422  (1840). 
iScops  giu,  Newt.  ed.  Varr.  Br.  B.  i.  p.   173  (1872);  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.   ii,  p.  47  (1875);    Dresser,  B.  Eur. 
v.  p.  329,  pi.  314  (1876);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  89 
(1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  iii.  (1886);  Saun- 
ders,  Man.  p.  297  (1889). 

scops,  Seeb.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  193  (1883). 
Adult  Male — Above  grey,  mottled  all  over  with  vermiculations 

Q 


82  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY 

and  pencillings  of  brown  or  blackish,  with  central  streaks  of 
black  down  the  shafts  of  the  feathers;  ear-tufts  grey,  exter- 
nally sandy-brown,  with  white  cross-markings;  hind-neck 
greyer  than  the  back ;  outer  web  of  the  scapulars  white  or 
buff,  broadly  tipped  with  black,  and  so  forming  a  more  ©r 
less  distinct  shoulder-patch  ;  wing-coverts  like  the  back,  the 
median  and  greater  series  with  large  spots  of  white  on  the 
outer  web ;  sides  of  face  grey,  with  a  few  dusky  cross-lines,  the 
ear-coverts  with  a  sandy  tinge,  especially  below  the  eye ; 
behind  the  ear-coverts  a  crescent-like  line  of  black,  extending 
on  to  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  chin  whitish ;  throat  and  sides  of 
neck  clear  grey,  with  brown  cross-lines,  and  washed  with  orange- 
buff,  the  shafts  of  the  feathers  black ;  under  surface  of  body 
greyish,  with  more  or  less  orange-buff,  the  black  shaft-lines 
distinct,  especially  on  the  flanks ;  feathers  of  the  breast  and 
sides  of  the  body  lighter,  with  whitish  bars  on  most  of  them ; 
lower  flanks  and  under  tail-coverts  white,  with  one  or  two 
sandy-buff  bars,  and  scarcely  any  blackish  vermiculations ; 
thighs  and  tarsal  plumes  orange-buff,  with  a  few  brown  bars ; 
bill  black ;  toes  brown ;  claws  white  at  base,  nearly  black  at 
tip;  iris  yellow.  Total  length,  7-5  inches;  wing,  5-9;  tail, 
2*9;  tarsus,  0-95. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  8  inches ; 
wing,  6-15. 

The  Small  Tufted  Owl,  usually  called  the  Scops  Owl,  is 
readily  distinguished  by  its  size  from  the  other  Tufted  Owls  of 
Europe,  such  as  the  Eagle-Owl,  the  Long-eared,  and  the  Short- 
eared  Owls.  The  members  of  the  genus  Scops  are  distributed 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  globe,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Australian  Region,  and  it  is  as  well  to  remind  my  readers  that 
the  European  species  is  easily  recognisable  by  the  description 
and  figures  of  the  bird  quoted  above.  This  warning  is  the  more 
necessary,  as  I  have  had  some  little  Tufted  Owls  submitted  to 
me  at  the  British  Museum  which  proved  to  be  Scops  brasiliensis 
and  other  exotic  species,  which  could  only  have  been  escaped 
specimens,  or  individuals  brought  from  afar  to  deceive  the 
unwary  and  obtain  the  ridiculous  price  which  is  often  paid  for 
specimens  asserted  to  have  been  captured  in  Great  Britain. 

The  American  Tufted  Owl  (Scops  asio)  has  been  said  to  have 


THE    TUFTED    OWLS.  83 

been  twice  captured  in  England,  once  in  Yorkshire  and  once 
in  Norfolk;  but  neither  Professor  Newton  nor  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  attach  any  credence  to  the  statements,  and  the 
occurrences  are  probably  on  a  par  with  those  accompanying 
the  alleged  record  of  Scops  brasiliensis  and  others,  with  which 
I  am  familiar. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Only  a  very  occasional  visitor,  which 
has  occurred  in  all  three  kingdoms.  It  has  been  obtained  in 
several  English  counties,  and  at  least  three  of  the  captures  in 
Norfolk  are  deemed  authentic ;  and  it  has  been  recorded  from 
Essex,  Yorkshire,  Middlesex,  Buckinghamshire,  Berkshire, 
Wiltshire,  Cornwall,  Pembrokeshire,  Lancashire,  and  Cumber- 
land. One  record  from  Sutherlandshire  is  also  admitted,  as 
well  as  three  from  Ireland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed  over 
Central  and  Southern  Europe,  but  not  extending  into  the 
northern  provinces  or  into  Scandinavia.  In  winter  it  migrates 
into  North-eastern  Africa  and  Senegambia;  but  in  Africa 
generally  a  dark  form,  S.  capensis,  is  found,  and  to  the  east- 
ward the  Tufted  Owls  are  represented  by  several  allied  races, 
the  exact  ranges  of  which  have  not  been  yet  satisfactorily  de- 
termined. 

Habits. — The  Small  Tufted  Owl  is  almost  entirely  a  nocturnal 
bird,  feeding  chiefly  on  insects,  but  also  devouring  occasionally 
mice  and  shrews,  and,  according  to  Naumann,  small  birds  and 
frogs.  Its  presence  is  generally  detected  by  its  note,  for  the 
bird  is  seldom  to  be  seen,  though,  according  to  some  observers, 
it  flies  about  in  the  daylight;  as  a  rule,  however,  this  little 
Owl  only  emerges  from  its  retreat  in  the  evening,  when  it 
sallies  forth  in  quest  of  its  food.  The  note  is  described  by 
Mr.  Seebohm  as  monotonous  as  a  passing  bell,  and  almost  as 
melancholy.  "To  my  mind,"  he  says,  "this  note  is  exactly 
represented  by  the  syllable  ahp,  repeated  in  an  unvarying  and 
desponding  strain  every  ten  or  twenty  seconds.  This  bird  is 
generally,  if  sparingly,  distributed  all  over  Greece,  from  the 
seashore  almost,  if  not  quite,  up  to  the  pine-regions  on  the 
mountains.  I  have  often  listened  to  the  note  as  I  lay  in  my 
camp-bed  in  a  peasant's  cottage  at  Agoriane,  half-way  up  the 
Parnassus,  where  it  was  almost  too  cold  to  sleep  with  comfort ; 

G    2 


84  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

and  I  have  heard  it  from  the  hotel  at  Buyukdere,  on  the  Bos- 
phorus,  when,  with  window  wide  open,  the  heat  made  it  still 
more  difficult  to  pass  the  night  in  happy  unconsciousness  even 
of  ornithological  sounds."  By  most  observers  the  note  is  said 
to  be  "kid,"  whence  its  scientific  name  of  giu. 

The  Small  Tufted  Owl  comes  back  to  Europe  in  March, 
and  migrates  south  again  in  September  and  October,  though  a 
few  remain  in  Southern  Spain  during  the  winter,  as  Colonel 
Irby  has  observed  them  in  January. 

Nest. — Little  or  none,  as  with  most  Owls.  The  site  generally 
selected  by  this  little  species  is  a  hole  in  a  wall,  or  more  often 
in  a  hollow  tree,  where  the  nest,  such  as  it  is,  is  principally 
composed  of  the  castings  of  the  old  birds. 

Eggs. — Five  or  six  in  number ;  pure  white  and  nearly  round. 
Axis,  1-2-1-3;  diam.,  n-ri5. 

THE   SNOWY  OWLS.     GENUS  NYCTEA. 

Nyctea,  Stephens,  Gen.  Zool.  xiii.  pt.  2,  p.  63  (1826). 

Type,  Nyctea  nyctea  (L.). 

The  genus  Nyctea  contains  but  one  species,  the  great 
Snowy  Owl,  which  is  easily  recognised  by  its  white  plumage 
and  its  thickly-feathered  toes.  Its  dense  plumage  shows  that 
it  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Arctic  Regions,  and  it  is,  moreover,  a 
day  Owl,  like  its  smaller  relation,  the  Hawk-Owl  (Surnia).  It 
differs  from  the  Eagle-Owls  in  the  small  size  of  the  "ear-tufts," 
and  in  most  individuals  these  are  so  small  as  not  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  general  plumage  of  the  head,  so  that,  as  a 
rule,  the  Snowy  Owl  is  classed  as  one  of  the  un-tufted  series 
of  Owls.  A  specimen  from  Archangel  in  the  British  Museum, 
however,  shows  that  ear-tufts  are  sometimes  present,  and  I 
believe  that  I  was  the  first  to  draw  attention  to  this  fact  in  the 
"Catalogue"  of  the  Striges  in  the  British  Museum  (Cat.  B. 
ii.  p.  125). 

Only  one  species  of  the  genus  Nyctea  is  known,  inhabiting 
the  northern  regions  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds. 

I.  THE  SNOWY  OWL.   NYCTEA  NYCTEA. 

Strix  nyctea,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  125  (1766). 
Syrnia  nyctea,  Macgill.  Br,  B.  iii.  p.  407  (1840). 


PLATE 


SNOWY        OWL. 


THE    SNOWY    OWLS.  85 

Nyctea  scandiaca  (L.),   Newt.    ed.    Yarr.   Brit.    B.    i.    p.    187 
(1872);    Dresser,    B.    Eur.   v.    p.   287,  pi.    310  (1873); 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  ii.  p.  125  (1875);  B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.  p.  87  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Brit.  B.  p.  293 
(1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xviii.  (1891). 
Surnia  nyctea,  Seeb.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  177  (1883). 
(Plate  XXXVI.} 

Adult  Male. — Pure  white  above  and  below,  with  a  longitu- 
dinal spot  of  brown  on  the  hinder  crown  and  on  the  wing- 
coverts  ;  on  the  quills  a  few  remains  of  brown  bars,  and  on  the 
tail-feathers  a  small  spot  near  the  end  of  the  central  rectrices  ; 
bill  and  claws  blackish  horn-colour;  iris  deep  yellow.  Total 
length,  23  inches;  wing,  167  ;  tail,  9'6  ;  tarsus,  about  2-1. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  a  trifle  larger.  Total 
length,  26  inches;  wing,  18-3. 

Young  Birds. — Not  so  pure  white  as  the  adults,  with  bars  of 
dusky-brown  both  above  and  below,  the  quills  and  tail  being 
also  banded. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Snowy  Owl  becomes  whiter 
with  age,  and  that  the  very  old  individuals  lose  their  markings 
almost  entirely,  though  it  is  a  question  whether  the  females 
ever  become  perfectly  snow-white  and  lose  their  spots  and 
bars.  American  specimens  appear  to  have  the  toes  more 
thickly  clothed  with  feathers  than  European  examples. 

Nestling. — Covered  with  down  of  a  sooty-brown  colour. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  occasional  visitant,  occurring 
chiefly  in  winter,  and  being  noticed  nearly  every  year  in  the 
Orkneys  and  Shetland  Islands.  It  has  also  been  recorded 
many  times  from  Scotland,  as  well  as  on  various  occasions  in 
England  and  Ireland.  Although  many  of  the  Snowy  Owls 
winter  in  the  vicinity  of  their  arctic  home,  it  is  plain  that  a 
considerable  southward  migration  takes  place,  and  Thompson 
mentions  that  a  flock  of  these  Owls  accompanied  a  ship  half- 
way on  the  voyage  between  Labrador  and  Ireland,  while  Mr. 
Seebohm  one  morning  found  a  couple  perched  on  the  masts 
of  the  ship  in  which  he  was  returning  from  the  Petchora  round 
the  North  Cape,  and  when  the  vessel  was  out  of  sight  of  land. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Snowy  Owl  is  an  in- 
| habitant  of  the  high  north  in  both  Hemispheres,  and  breeds 


86  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

beyond  the  region  of  forest-growth.  Colonel  Feilden,  during 
the  voyage  of  the  Alert  towards  the  North  Pole,  found  this 
Owl  nesting  in  Grinnell  Land  as  high  as  82°  33'  N.  lat.  It 
arrived  there  on  the  2Qth  of  March  and  left  at  the  end  of 
August.  In  some  of  its  northern  haunts,  however,  the  Snowy 
Owl  is  but  a  straggler,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Faeroe  Islands, 
Iceland,  and  Spitsbergen,  though  it  is  common  and  chiefly  a 
resident  in  the  Kola  Peninsula,  Novaya  Zemlya,  Waigatz  Land, 
and  Franz  Josef  Land.  In  Russia  its  breeding-range  occasion- 
ally extends  farther  south,  and  in  winter  it  wanders  (in  some 
seasons  occurring  in  some  numbers)  as  far  south  as  the  United 
States,  and  to  many  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  while  it  has 
even  been  found  in  Turkestan  and  the  Indus  Valley. 

Habits. — The  Snowy  Owl  is  a  bird  of  the  tundra,  or  barren 
grounds,  and  nests  in  the  Arctic  Regions  of  both  Hemispheres 
beyond  the  limit  of  forest-growth.  Its  distribution  is  some- 
what affected  by  the  abundance  of  Lemmings,  which  con- 
stitute its  principal  food,  as  Professor  Newton  says,  occa- 
sionally "  following  those  destructive  little  Rodents  along  the 
mountain  ranges  to  lower  latitudes,  generally  keeping,  however, 
on  the  fells.  It  is  thus  often  found  to  breed  abundantly  in  a 
district  wherein  for  many  years  before  it  had  only  been  known 
as  a  straggler."  Mr.  Nelson  states  that  in  Alaska,  in  a  good 
Lemming  year,  the  Snowy  Owls  have  been  seen  dotting  the 
country  here  and  there,  as  they  perched  on  the  scattered  knolls, 
and  they  then  make  their  nests  on  the  ground,  on  the  sides  of 
the  hills. 

Besides  the  Lemming,  which  constitutes  its  principal  food, 
the  Snowy  Owl  feeds  on  Hares  and  other  game,  particularly 
Grouse  and  Ptarmigan,  and  it  has  been  known  to  accompany 
sportsmen  and  seize  the  birds  as  they  fell,  before  the  hunter 
could  recover  them.  It  is  also  said  to  catch  fish,  and  will 
pursue  and  hunt  Ducks  and  other  water-fowl.  The  note  of 
the  bird,  when  on  the  wing,  is  said  by  Wheelwright  to  be  a 
loud  "  krau-au,"  repeated  three  or  four  times,  but  it  is  seldom 
heard  unless  the  bird  is  excited. 

Nest. — Made  of  a  little  moss  or  lichen,  with  a  few  feathers. 
The  eggs  are  often  laid  upon  the  bare  ground,  or  in  a  little 
hollow  scooped  in  the  reindeer-moss.  They  are  not  laid  all 


THE   HAWK-OWLS.  87 

at  once,  but  apparently  at  a  considerable  interval,  so  that  nest- 
lings of  all  sizes,  as  well  as  freshly  laid  eggs,  are  found  in  the 
same  nest,  the  warmth  of  the  more  advanced  young  birds 
doubtless  contributing  to  the  hatching  of  the  more  recently 
laid  eggs. 

Eggs. — Six  to  eight  in  number,  occasionally  more ;  creamy- 
white,  rather  rough  in  texture,  and  more  elongated  than  those 
of  the  Eagle  Owl,  which  they  nearly  equal  in  size.  Axis,  2'i- 
2 -3  inches;  diam.,  1-65-1 -8. 

THE  HAWK-OWLS.     GENUS   SURNIA. 

Surma,  Dumeril,  Zool.  Anal.  p.  34  (1800). 

Type,  S.  ulula  (L.). 

The  members  of  the  genus  Surma  are  two  in  number,  one 
species  being  found  in  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  and  the 
other  in  North  America.  They  are  much  smaller  than  the 
Snowy  Owl,  which  they  resemble  in  their  habit  of  hunting  by 
day,  and  like  that  species,  the  Hawk-Owls  have  no  elongated 
ear-tufts  on  the  head.  The  tail,  too,  is  much  longer  than  in 
the  Snowy  Owl,  being  nearly  of  the  same  length  as  the  wing, 
and  is  wedge-shaped,  the  feathers  being  graduated. 

I.    THE   HAWK-OWL.      SURNIA   ULULA. 

Strix  ulula,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  133  (1766). 

Surma  ulula,   Dresser,   B.   Eur.  v.  p.  301,   pi.  311   (1872); 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  ii.  p.  129  (1875);  B-  O.  U. 

List  Br.  B.  p.  88  (1883). 
Surnia  funerea,  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xiii.  (1890). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  sepia-brown,  with  bars  of 
white ;  scapulars  externally  pure  white,  forming  a  longitudinal 
patch ;  crown  white,  barred  with  dark  brown,  the  bars  broader 
towards  the  nape,  which  is  white  with  a  few  brown  shaft-lines 
and  margins  on  the  feathers  ;  a  large  black  patch  on  each  side 
of  the  neck  ;  lesser  and  median  wing-coverts  like  the  back, 
with  large  oval  spots  of  white ;  quills  ashy-brown,  with  bars 
of  lighter  brown,  the  primaries  tipped  with  white,  the  second- 
aries more  broadly  ;  tail  ashy-brown,  with  nine  narrow  bars  of 
dull  white,  purer  white  on  the  inner  web ;  an  indistinct  eye- 


&8  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

brow,  as  well  as  the  sides  of  the  face,  white ;  the  ear-coverts 
tipped  with  black,  and  forming  a  crescentic  line  down  the 
hinder  margin  of  the  latter  ;  throat  white,  separated  from  the 
chest,  which  is  also  white,  by  a  band  of  dusky-brown  feathers  ; 
remainder  of  under  surface  white,  narrowly  banded  with  brown, 
the  bars  less  distinct  on  the  lower  abdomen,  but  again  pro- 
nounced on  the  under  tail-coverts;  bill  light  yellow;  claws 
blackish-brown  ;  iris  bright  yellow.  Total  length,  14  inches ; 
wing,  97;  tail,  7*5;  tarsus,  about  1*0. 

Young  Birds. — Resemble  the  adults,  but  are  more  dingy-brown 
in  colour,  and  do  not  show  the  white  spots  on  the  scapulars 
and  wing-coverts  so  distinctly ;  the  white  on  the  throat  and 
fore-neck  is  also  less  distinctly  indicated. 

The  Hawk-Owl  is  easily  recognised  from  the  other  British 
species  of  Owl  by  its  long  and  wedge-shaped  tail,  and  by  its 
regularly  banded  under  surface. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Although  some  half-a-dozen  specimens 
of  Hawk-Owls  have  been  obtained  in  Great  Britain,  it  would 
seem  that  the  European  species  comes  but  seldom,  and  it  is  the 
American  species  which  principally  visits  us.  Such  British 
specimens  as  have  been  examined  by  competent  judges  have 
proved  to  be  Surniafunerea  and  not  S.  ulula,  but  of  the  latter 
I  exhibited  a  specimen  before  the  Zoological  Society  in  1876, 
which  had  been  shot  near  Amesbury  in  Wiltshire,  and  which 
was  an  undoubted  European  Hawk-Owl.  Doubtless  the  spe- 
cimen obtained  in  the  Shetlands,  which  was  destroyed  by  moth, 
was  also  a  wanderer  from  Scandinavia. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Throughout  the  pine-regions 
of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Northern  Asia  to  Kamt- 
chatka,  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  the  Siberian  bird  differs  from 
the  European  form  in  having  the  under-parts  purer  white,  and 
the  dark  parts  darker  and  greyer.  It  has  occurred  in  Alaska. 
The  winter  range  of  the  Hawk-Owl  does  not  extend  far  to  the 
south  of  its  breeding  area,  but  it  occasionally  visits  Denmark 
and  Northern  Germany,  and  has  occurred  in  Poland,  Austria, 
and  Northern  France.  It  also  winters  in  Central  and  Southern 
Russia,  but  in  Northern  Turkestan  it  is  a  resident,  and  has  not 
been  found  migrating  farther  south. 


THE   HAWK-OWLS.  89 

Habits. — The  name  of  "  Hawk  "-Owl  is  very  well  applied  to 
this  species,  as  in  many  of  its  ways  it  is  more  like  a  Hawk 
than  an  Owl,  and  has  even  a  Hawk-like  note.  It  pursues  its 
prey  in  the  daylight,  and  is  a  fierce  and  daring  bird,  often 
attacking  a  man  in  defence  of  its  nest.  Like  the  Snowy  Owl 
it  feeds  largely  on  Lemmings,  and  follows  the  migrations  of 
this  small  rodent.  It  will  also  devour  mice,  and  even  larger 
game,  such  as  the  Willow-Grouse,  but  likewise  eats  insects. 

Nest. — None ;  the  eggs  being  laid  in  the  hole  of  a  tree,  on 
the  chips  of  the  wood  at  the  bottom  of  the  nest-hole.  This 
Owl  will  also  take  possession  of  nesting-boxes  placed  for  Ducks 
to  breed  in. 

Eggs. — From  five  to  eight  in  number ;  white,  and  somewhat 
smooth  and  glossy.  They  are  laid  at  different  intervals,  as 
with  the  Snowy  Owl,  and  incubation  lasts  from  about  the 
middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of  June.  Axis,  1*5-1  '65;  diam., 
1-25. 

II.    THE   AMERICAN    HAWK-OWL.       SURNIA    FUNEREA. 

Strix  funerea^  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  133  (1766). 

Syrnia  funerea,  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  404  (1840). 

Surnia  funerea,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.   Brit.   B.   i.  p.   183   (1872); 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  309,  pi.  312  (1872);  Sharpe,  Cat. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.   ii.  p.   131  (1875);  B.  O.  U.  List  Brit.  B. 

p.  88  (1883);  Seeb.  Br.  B.  i.  p.   183  (1883);  Saunders, 

Man.  Brit.  B.  p.  295  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Similar  to  S.  uMa,  but  having  the  bars  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  body  broader  and  more  of  a  vinous-brown 
or  rufous  colour  ;  bill  yellow  ;  iris  bright  yellow.  Total  length, 
15  inches;  wing,  9-5  ;  tail,  8'o. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour,  and  of  about 
the  same  size.  Total  length,  14  inches;  wing,  9-2. 

Range  in  the  British  Islands. — Four  instances  of  the  occurrence 
of  this  American  species  in  the  British  Islands  are  authentic  : 
one  in  Cornwall,  in  March,  1830;  another  near  Yatton  in 
Somersetshire,  in  August,  1847  ;  one  near  Glasgow,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1863;  and  a  fourth  near  Greenock,  in  November,  1868. 
The  two  other  occurrences  of  Hawk-Owls  have  already  been 
referred  to  as  belonging  to  the  European  form. 


9°  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — An  inhabitant  of  the  northern 
portion  of  North  America,  extending  its  winter  range  to  the 
northern  border  of  the  United  States. 

Habits. — Very  similar  to  those  of  the  European  species,  and 
the  bird  is  distinguished  by  the  same  fierceness  with  which  it 
will  attack  anyone  who  ventures  near  its  nest.  According  to 
Mr.  L.  M.  Turner's  observations  in  Alaska,  the  Hawk-Owls 
fly  equally  well  by  night  or  by  day. 

Nest. — None ;  the  bird  generally  selecting  a  hole  in  a  tree, 
as  with  the  European  species.  Mr.  Dall  relates  that  in  the 
Lower  Yukon  River  he  found  the  bird  breeding  in  the  top  of 
an  old  birch-stub  about  fifteen  feet  from  the  ground,  the  eggs 
being  deposited  on  the  bare  wood,  and  being  incubated  by  the 
male  bird. 

Eggs. — Similar  in  size  and  appearance  to  those  of  the  Euro- 
pean Hawk-Owl. 

THE   LITTLE   OWLS.     GENUS    CARINE. 

Carine>  Kaup,  Nat.  Syst.  Vog.  Eur.  p.  29  (1829). 

Type,  C.  noctna  (L.). 

The  Little  Owls  form  a  small  group  of  about  six  species, 
which  are  found  in  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  North-east 
Africa,  and  through  Central  Asia  to  Northern  China,  as  well 
as  throughout  the  Indian  Peninsula  and  the  Burmese  countries. 
In  no  case  does  the  size  of  these  small  Owls  exceed  8  inches 
and  they  have,  moreover,  a  curious  swollen  pea-shaped  nostril, 
in  which  the  nasal  opening  is  pierced.  The  wing  is  rounded, 
the  first  primary  not  falling  very  far  short  of  the  tip  of  the 
second.  The  fifth  primary  has  an  indentation  on  the  inner 
web,  which  is  escalloped  like  the  first  four  quills.  The  toes 
are  thickly  feathered  at  the  base,  and  the  hind  part  of  the 
tarsus  is  always  concealed  by  plumes.  These  Little  Owls  of 
the  genus  Carine  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Pigmy 
Owlets  ( Glaucidiuni),  of  which  no  example  has  yet  been  found 
in  Great  Britain,  though  there  is  a  species  found  in  Europe, 
viz.,  Glaucidium  passerinum.  The  Pigmy  Owlets  occur  in 
nearly  every  part  of  the  World,  with  the  exception  of  Australia 
and  the  Austro-Malayan  Islands. 


i 


THE   LITTLE   OWLS.  91 

I.    THE   LITTLE   OWL.      CARINE    NOCTUA. 

Strix  noctua,)  Scop.  Ann.  i.  p.  22  (1769). 

Syrnia  psilodactyla,  Macgill.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  417  (1840). 

'Carine  noctua>  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  178  (1872);  Sharpe, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  133  (1875). 
Noctua  noctua,  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  i.  p.  174  (1883). 
Athene  noctua^  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  357,  pi.  317  (1871), 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  91  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B. 

part  iii.  (1886);  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  291  (1889). 
(Plate  XX 'XVI 7.) 

Adult  Female. — Size  small.  Brown,  with  oval  white  spots,  more 
or  less  concealed  by  the  feathers  of  the  upper-parts;  quills 
brown,  notched  with  white  on  the  outer  web,  and  barred  with 
white  on  the  inner  one ;  upper  tail-coverts  brown,  barred  with 
white;  tail-feathers  brown,  tipped  with  whitish,  and  crossed 
with  four  bands  of  whity-brown ;  head  brown,  streaked  with 
triangular  spots  of  white ;  a  patch  of  white  on  the  nape ;  face 
white,  the  ear-coverts  marked  with  brown  ;  under  surface  of 
body  white,  with  a  band  of  brown  across  the  fore-neck,  the 
breast  and  abdomen  streaked  with  brown,  the  flanks  with  a 
few  brown  bars ;  under  tail-coverts  streaked  with  brown  ;  quills 
brown  below,  spotted  on  the  outer  webs,  and  barred  on  the 
inner  webs  with  yellowish- white ;  bill  yellow,  slightly  tinged 
with  greenish  ;  feet  greyish-yellow ;  iris  yellow.  Total  length, 
11-5  inches;  wing,  67;  tail,  3-5;  tarsus,  1-3. 

Adult  Male. — Similar  in  colour  to  the  female,  but  a  trifle 
smaller.  Total  length,  8*5  inches  ;  wing,  6*0  ;  tail,  3*0;  tarsus, 
I 'I, 

Young  Birds. — More  dingily  coloured  than  the  adults,  and 
more  broadly  streaked  on  the  under  surface ;  the  white  mark- 
ings on  the  upper  surface  rather  more  distinctly  indicated. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor  to  England 
only,  not  having,  as  yet,  been  recorded  from  Scotland  or 
Ireland.  The  Little  Owl  is  so  often  kept  in  confinement  that 
escaped  specimens  cannot  be  rare,  and  consequently  it  is  very 
difficult  to  say  whether  an  occurrence  of  the  species  in  Eng- 
land is  due  to  an  accidental  visit  from  the  Continent,  or 
whether  the  individual  in  question  has  escaped  from  confine- 


92  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

ment.  Fifty  years  ago  Waterton  set  some  specimens  free  in 
Yorkshire,  and  this  experiment  has  been  since  tried  by  several 
naturalists,  notably  Mr.  St.  Quintin  in  Yorkshire,  Lord  Lil- 
ford  in  Northamptonshire,  and  Mr.  Meade-Waldo  in  Hamp- 
shire. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Europe  generally,  but  only  an 
occasional  visitant  to  Scandinavia.  In  South-eastern  Europe 
the  colour  is  decidedly  paler  and  a  rufous  race,  Carine  glaux^ 
which  is  found  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  extends  to  Persia. 
Thence  a  race,  with  thickly-feathered  toes,  C.  bactriana^  takes 
its  place  in  Central  Asia,  and  ranges  into  Northern  China. 

Habits. — The  Little  Owl  is  as  much  diurnal  as  nocturnal  in 
its  habits,  and  feeds  upon  mice,  small  birds,  and  all  kinds  of 
insects,  grasshoppers,  moths,  beetles,  &c.  I  can  cordially  re- 
commend this  bird  as  a  tame  and  amusing  pet,  and  one  which 
will  speedily  clear  a  kitchen  of  black-beetles.  Two  tame 
Owls  of  this  species  were  most  useful  in  this  respect,  as,  un- 
fortunately, in  the  suburb  of  London  in  which  I  resided  some 
ten  years  ago,  black-beetles  were  a  very  disagreeable  reality. 
Hedgehogs  in  the  kitchen  at  night  were  undoubtedly  useful, 
but  the  best  sport  was  obtained  with  my  Little  Owls,  of  which 
I  had  a  pair.  Every  night  the  gas  was  turned  low,  and  the 
Owls  sat  on  our  hands  like  trained  Hawks.  Their  bright  little 
eyes  were  turned  in  every  direction,  and  the  advent  of  a  beetle 
was  announced  by  a  vigorous  "  bobbing "  of  their  heads. 
Before  I  could  see  the  noxious  insect,  the  Owls  would  leave 
their  perch  on  my  hand  and  noiselessly  glide  down  and  cap- 
ture the  unsuspecting  horror.  Then  they  would  stand  over  it, 
with  one  wing  spread  out,  as  if  to  protect  the  savoury  morsel 
from  the  vulgar  world,  which  knows  not  the  delicacy  of  a  black- 
beetle.  Then  grasping  it  in  their  toes,  holding  it  like  a  Parrot, 
as  if  with  a  hand,  they  would  munch  it  up  contentedly,  till  not 
even  an  antenna  was  left  to  mark  the  place  of  slaughter.  How 
many  beetles  one  of  these  Owls  would  kill  in  an  evening  would 
be  Difficult  to  say.  I  used  to  leave  them  on  the  gas-bracket  to 
work  out  their  role  of  extermination,  but  the  mess  that  they 
made  during  the  night  ended  in  a  "  revolt  of  the  daughter," 
backed  up  by  the  servants,  and  they  had  once  more  to  be 
banished  to  their  cage  in  the  garden. 


THE    HORNED    OWLS. 


93 


Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  the  flight  of  the  Little  Owl  reminded 
him  very  much  of  that  of  a  Bat.  "  It  was  not  an  undulating 
flight,  but  a  steady,  slow,  beating  of  the  wings,  without  any 
apparent  exertion ;  and  yet  there  was  a  butterfly-like  uncer- 
tainty about  it,  as  if  it  continually  changed  its  mind  and  slightly 

altered  its  course At  Athens  it  was  very  common 

on  the  Acropolis,  and  was  evidently  breeding  in  holes  in  the 
rocks  and  ruins.  In  the  Parnassus  we  often  heard  its  curious 
note,  cuc-koo-vah' -ee,  cuc-koo-vaH -ee^  and  were  told  that  it  re- 
mained there  all  the  year.  It  may  be  seen  perched  on  a  tree, 
a  rock,  or  on  the  roof  of  a  house." 

Nest. — None,  or  a  small  collection  of  rubbish  gathered  in 
the  vicinity.  The  Little  Owl  breeds  from  the  middle  of  April 
to  the  middle  of  May,  and  the  nest  is  placed  in  a  hollow  tree, 
or  in  the  cleft  of  a  rock,  or  in  the  roof  of  a  house,  and  Mr. 
Seebohm  says  that  he  has  seen  one  under  the  roots  of  a  tree. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number;  pure  white,  and  oval  in 
shape.  Axis,  i '3-1  '4  inches;  diam.,  i*o5-i*i5. 

With  the  next  genus  we  commence  the  Sub-family  SyrniincR^ 
to  which  it  is  difficult  to  apply  an  English  name,  as  the  Sub- 
family embraces  Owls  of  very  different  appearance,  some  of 
them  having  ear-tufts,  as  in  the  genus  Asio>  while  the  Wood- 
Owls  (Syrnium  and  Nyctala)  have  no  tufts  on  the  head.  All 
the  members  of  the  Syrniincz  have  the  facial  disk  complete, 
extending  as  far  above  the  eye  as  it  does  below  it,  and  the 
ear-conch  is  larger  than  the  eye,  and  is  closed  by  a  very 
distinct  operculum. 

THE    HORNED    OWLS.      GENUS    ASIO. 

Asifl,  Briss,  Orn.  i.  p.  28  (1760). 
Type,  Asia  otus  (L.). 

These  Owls  are  distinguished  by  the  very  distinct  tufts  of 
feathers,  or  "horns,"  on  the  head,  which  are  always  present, 
though  they  are  longer  in  some  species  than  in  others.  The 
cere  is  also  strongly  marked,  and  is  longer  than  the  culmen. 
Seven  species  of  Horned  Owls  are  known,  and  they  are  found 
in  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  but  they 


94  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

appear  to  be  absent  in  West  Africa,  the  Malayan  Sub-region, 
Australia,  and  Oceania,  though  a  species  occurs  in  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  and  another  in  the  Galapagos  Islands. 

I.    THE    LONG-EARED    OWL.       ASIO    OTUS. 

Strix  otus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  491  (1766);  Seebohm,  Br. 

B.  i.  p.  160  (1883). 
Asio  otus,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  453  (1840) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr. 

Brit.  B.  i.  p.  158  (1872);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  ii. 

p.  227  (1875);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  p.  251,  pi.  303  (1876); 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  86  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br. 

B.  p.   283  (1889);    Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxiii. 

(1893). 

Adult  Male. — Blackish-brown  above,  mottled  all  over  with 
orange-buff;  all  the  dorsal  plumes  silvered  with  white,  with 
vermiculations  of  dark  brown;  scapulars  and  greater  wing- 
coverts  with  a  large  oval  spot  of  white  on  the  outer  web  ;  quills 
greyish-brown,  with  hoary  tips,  barred  with  darker  brown, 
more  broadly  on  the  primaries,  which  have  the  interspaces 
orange-buff,  the  dark  bars  more  broken  up  on  the  secondaries  ; 
tail-feathers  greyish-brown,  with  orange-buff  at  the  base,  and 
crossed  with  seven  bands  of  darker  brown,  the  bands  being 
ten  in  number  and  narrower  on  the  outer  feathers;  head  pale 
orange  buff,  the  feathers  centred  with  black,  and  vermiculated 
with  dusky  on  the  sides;  feathers  on  the  sides  of  the  neck 
much  whiter,  the  cross-lines  nearly  obsolete ;  frontal  feathers 
greyish-white,  with  minute  brown  frecklings;  ear-tufts  i  finches 
long,  blackish,  more  or  less  orange-buff  on  the  outer  web  and 
white  on  the  inner  one ;  face  dusky-white,  the  feathers  round 
the  eye  blackish ;  feathers  of  ruff  white,  all  the  feathers  tipped 
with  black,  forming  a  frill ;  chin  whitish  ;  rest  of  under  surface 
of  body  orange-buff,  the  breast-feathers  for  the  most  part  white, 
centred  longitudinally  with  blackish-brown,  with  a  few  cross 
vermiculations  ;  bill  dusky  horn-colour ;  claws  horn-colour ; 
iris  orange-yellow.  Total  length,  13*5  inches;  wing,  ii'6; 
tail,  6-0 ;  tarsus,  1*6. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour  and  of  about 
the  same  size.  Total  length,  14  inches  ;  wing,  11-5  ;  tail,  6-5  ; 
tarsus,  i '6. 


THE    HORNED    OWLS. 


95 


Young. — Coloured  like  the  adults,  but  the  markings  not  so 
pronounced.  The  nestling  is  covered  with  grey  down,  with  a 
good  deal  of  orange-buff. 

The  slender  body,  with  the  long  ear-tufts,  the  black  streaks 
on  the  breast-feathers,  and  the  blackish  cross-markings  on  the 
plumage,  distinguish  the  Long-eared  Owl  from  all  the  other 
British  species.  Its  smaller  size  prevents  its  being  mistaken  for 
the  Great  Eagle-Owl. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Wherever  pine-woods  or  fir-plantations 
occur  throughout  the  British  Islands,  the  Long-eared  Owl  is  to 
be  found,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  county  in  which  it  is  not  a 
resident,  while  in  Ireland,  Mr.  Ussher  states  that  it  is  common 
in  most  counties,  and  breeds  in  every  one  of  them.  It  nests 
in  the  Hebrides  in  favourable  localities,  but  is  only  a  visitor  to 
the  Orkneys  and  Shetland  Islands.  A  considerable  increase  in 
the  number  of  the  species  takes  place  in  the  autumn,  when  a 
good  many  migrate  into  our  islands. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — In  its  favourite  haunts,  the 
present  species  is  distributed  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe, 
and  extends  throughout  Southern  Siberia  to  the  Japanese 
Islands,  occurring  also  in  the  Himalayas,  where  it  appears  to 
breed,  and  it  winters  in  wooded  districts  in  the  plains  of  India. 
In  Scandinavia  and  Northern  Russia  it  ranges  as  high  as  63° 
N.  lat.  and  to  59°  in  the  Ural  Mountains.  The  birds  which  breed 
in  many  parts  of  Europe  are  only  found  to  do  so  in  the  moun- 
tain forests,  and  in  winter  they  descend  to  the  lower  ground. 
The  species  is  also  found  in  the  Azores,  Madeira,  and  the 
Canaries,  and  also  inhabits  Northern  Africa.  In  North  America 
the  Long-eared  Owl  is  replaced  by  a  darker  race,  Asio  ameri- 
canus. 

Habits. — This  Owl  is  a  strictly  nocturnal  species  and  is  seldom 
found  in  the  day-time,  though,  if  disturbed  and  frightened,  it 
will  fly  out  into  the  daylight,  which  does  not  seem  to  incon- 
venience it  much.  As  evening  closes  in,  however,  it  becomes 
more  active,  and  commences  to  hunt  in  the  twilight.  It  seems 
never  to  make  a  nest  for  itself,  but  will  appropriate  the  old 
nest  of  any  other  bird  which  appears  suitable.  Thus  the  nests 
of  Crows,  Magpies,  Sparrow-Hawks,  or  Wood-Pigeons  may 
be  used,  and  these  are  merely  slightly  flattened,  and  a  little 


96  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

wool  is  sometimes  found  in  them,  as  well  as  the  pellets  or 
castings  of  the  birds.  In  many  of  the  fir-clumps  on  the  downs 
of  our  southern  counties,  a  pair  of  Long-eared  Owls  may  be 
found,  the  nest  being  in  the  most  retired  and  darkest  por- 
tion of  the  clump,  where  no  sunlight  penetrates.  Here  the 
Owls  rest  during  the  day,  either  side  by  side,  or  perhaps  drawn 
up  against  the  trunk  of  a  fir,  and  perfectly  motionless.  On 
the  approach  of  dusk,  however,  their  awakened  interest  is 
manifested  by  a  snapping  of  the  bill,  a  noise  which  can  be 
heard  a  long  way  .off;  and  they  may  be  seen  quartering  over 
the  ground  with  a  slow  and  noiseless  flight,  though  I  have 
never  seen  them  play  or  tumble  in  the  air,  as  Barn-Owls  will 
often  do.  They  never  appear  to  hoot,  but  are  described  as 
uttering  a  barking  kind  of  note,  and  also  "mewing"  like  a 
young  kitten.  Mr.  Norgate,  who  has  contributed  some  in- 
teresting notes  on  the  species  to  Mr.  Seebohm's  "  History  of 
British  Birds,"  believes  that  this  "  cat  "-like  note  is  that  of  the 
young  birds,  but  at  Avington  in  Hampshire,  where  Captain 
Shelley  and  myself  have  found  several  nests,  this  noise,  which 
Mr.  Norgate  has  so  correctly  described,  was  often  heard  by  us, 
but  there  were  no  young  in  the  nests  we  examined,  and  there- 
fore it  is  probably  also  uttered  by  the  old  birds.  The  food  of 
this  species  consists  of  mice,  rats,  and  small  birds. 

The  Long-eared  Owl  breeds  early  in  the  year,  and  eggs  have 
been  found  at  the  end  of  February.  Besides  the  above-men- 
tioned nests  adopted  by  the  species,  it  will  also  occupy  an  old 
Squirrel's  drey,  or  even  the  nest  of  a  Heron. 

Nest. — As  mentioned  above,  this  species  does  not  build  a 
nest  itself,  but  uses  the  old  nest  of  a  Squirrel  or  some  bird. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six,  sometimes  seven.  They  are  some- 
what oval  in  shape,  pure  white,  and  slightly  glossy.  Axis,  i  "5- 
r8  inch;  diam.,  1-15-1*35  inch. 

II.    THE   SHORT-EARED   OWL.      ASIO   ACCIPITRTNUS. 

Strix  accipitrina,  Pall.  Reis.  Russ.  Reichs.  i.  p.  455  (1771). 

Asia  brachyotus   (Forst.),  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  461    (1840);      j| 

B.  O.  U.  List   Br.  B.  p.  86  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br. 

B.  part  xi.  (1889). 


THE    HORNED    OWLS.  97 

Asia  acdpitrinus,    Newt.  ed.    Yarr.    Brit.    B.   i.    163    (1872); 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  ii.  p.  234  (1875);  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.  v.  p.  257,  pi.  304  (1876)  ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p. 

285  (1889). 
Strix  brachyotus,  Seeb.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  167  (1883) 

Adult  Male.— General  colour  above  pale  ochraceous-buff,  with 
longitudinal  dark  brown  centres  to  the  feathers,  imparting  a 
streaked  appearance ;  scapulars  much  paler  on  their  outer  mar- 
gins ;  quills  rufous-ochre,  tipped  with  whitish,  and  inclining  to 
fulvous  near  the  base,  all  the  feathers  chequered  with  dark  brown 
bars,  much  narrower  on  the  inner  web;  tail-feathers  ochraceous, 
tipped  with  whitish,  and  crossed  with  seven  continuous  brown 
bars  on  the  centre  ones,  reduced  to  five  on  the  outer  ones, 
where  the  bars  are  much  narrower  and  disappear  near  the 
base ;  plumes  of  forehead  dark  brown,  narrowly  margined  with 
ochraceous  ;  facial  ruff  whitish,  slightly  washed  with  ochre,  and 
having  minute  triangular  spots  of  dark  brown  ;  facial  aspect 
dull  white,  the  lores  brownish,  the  region  of  the  eye  black  ; 
ear-tufts  half  an  inch  long  and  coloured  like  the  crown ;  chin 
whitish ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of  body  buffy-white, 
washed  with  golden-buff  on  the  breast  and  sides,  the  breast- 
feathers  broadly  streaked  with  brown  down  the  centre,  these 
streaks  becoming  very  narrow  on  the  lower  breast  and  abdo- 
men, and  disappearing  on  the  thighs  and  under  tail-coverts  ; 
under  wing-coverts  white,  faintly  tinged  with  ochre,  with  a 
blackish  patch  on  the  outer  lower  greater  coverts  ;  bill  brown- 
ish-black; claws  brownish-black;  iris  orange.  Total  length, 
14  inches;  wing,  12-4;  tail,  6-5;  tarsus,  175. 

Adult  Female— Similar  in  colour  and  markings  to  the  male, 
but  deeper  in  colour,  especially  on  the  under  surface,  which  is 
rich  ochre ;  the  bands  on  the  centre  feathers  six  in  number, 
four  or  five  on  the  outer  ones.  Total  length,  15 '5  inches; 
wing,  12-5. 

Young  Birds— Similar  to  the  adults,  but  much  darker,  and 
having  the  quills  underneath  clouded  with  brown,  without  any 
transverse  bars,  and  having  a  dark  brown  spot  or  bar  about 
half  way  down  the  first  primary. 

The  Short-eared  Owl  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  Long- 


98  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LTHRARY 

eared  Owl  by  the  shortness  of  the  ear-tufts  and  by  the  absence 
of  minute  cross-vermiculations,  which  are  so  plentiful  in  the 
Long-eared  Owls,  the  feathers  being  broadly  striped  with  brown 
both  above  and  below. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Short-eared  Owl  breeds  in  such 
haunts  as  are  suitable  to  it  in  the  north  of  England  and  in 
Scotland,  as  well  as  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands.  It  also 
nests  sparingly  in  the  eastern  counties  of  England.  In  Ireland 
it  occurs  as  an  autumn  and  winter  visitant,  but  is  not  included 
as  a  breeding  species  in  the  latest  list  of  Mr.  R.  J.  Ussher. 
Over  the  greater  part  of  England  it  is  chiefly  met  with  in 
autumn  and  winter,  when  a  considerable  migration  of  the 
species  takes  place. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Unlike  the  Long- eared  Owl, 
the  present  species  has  not  been  recorded  from  Iceland,  though 
it  occasionally  wanders  to  the  Faeroe  Islands.  It  nests  through- 
out Northern  Europe,  and  even  in  South  Russia  and  the  Cau- 
casus, while  it  probably  breeds  throughout  Northern  Asia,  as 
it  has  been  found  to  do  so  in  Eastern  Siberia  and  Kamtchatka. 
Throughout  the  central  and  southern  countries  of  Europe  it  is 
known  as  a  migratory  species,  and  it  also  passes  through  China 
on  migration,  to  winter  in  Southern  China,  Burma,  and  the 
Indian  Peninsula. 

In  the  New  World  the  Short-eared  Owl  is  found  from  the 
Arctic  Regions  to  the  very  extreme  of  South  America.  Slightly 
modified  forms  are  met  with — Asia  galapagensis,  in  the  Gala- 
pagos Islands,  and  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Asio  sandivichen- 
st's.  A  dark  species,  A sio  c.ipensis,  is  met  with  in  South  Africa, 
and  occurs  also  in  Marocco  and  Southern  Spain,  and  is  said  to 
interbreed  with  our  own  Short-eared  Owl.  With  the  exception 
of  Australia  and  the  Malayan  Peninsula  and  islands,  our  bird 
may  be  said  to  have  an  almost  cosmopolitan  range,  though  it 
is  doubtful  whether  it  ever  extends  in  winter  below  North- 
eastern Africa,  the  sole  evidence  of  its  having  been  met  with 
in  South  Africa  resting  on  a  specimen  sent  alive  to  the  Zoo- 
logical Gardens  many  years  ago,  and  said  to  have  come  from 
Natal. 

Habits. — In  winter  time  and  during  the  shooting-season,  the 


THE    HORNED    OWLS. 


99 


Short-eared  Owl  is  often  flushed  in  open  ground,  such  as  tur- 
nip-fields, especially  towards  the  end  of  October,  when  the 
general  migration  of  the  species  takes  place  in  England,  about 
the  time  of  the  coming-in  of  the  Woodcock.  From  the  latter 
circumstance  it  is  probably  called  in  so  many  places  the 
"  Woodcock  "  Owl,  or  this  name  may  also  be  acquired  by  its 
similarly  twisting  flight.  It  is  essentially  a  bird  of  the  open, 
and  I  have  even  seen  it  on  the  south  coast,  frequenting  the 
banks  and  reedy  ditches  of  Pagham  Harbour  in  Sussex,  where 
I  once  shot  an  early  migrant  on  the  3rd  of  September.  It 
flies  well  in  the  daylight,  and  may  often  be  seen  hunting  for 
food  in  the  full  glare  of  the  sun,  which  seems  to  incommode 
this  species  but  little.  It  feeds  on  all  the  small  Rodents,  and 
was  of  great  use  during  the  vole-plague  in  1892,  when  the 
Short-eared  Owls  came  to  the  rescue  of  the  farmers,  and  as 
many  as  four  hundred  of  their  nests  were  found  in  the  infected 
districts  of  Southern  Scotland.  The  same  flocking  of  Owls 
occurred  during  a  similar  plague  many  years  ago  in  the  Forest 
of  Dean  in  Gloucestershire.  The  Short-eared  Owl  is  also  said 
to  feed  on  small  birds,  as  well  as  occasionally  on  bats,  fish, 
reptiles,  and  beetles.  During  his  recent  expedition  to  the 
Salvage  Islands,  which  lie  between  Madeira  and  the  Canaries, 
Mr.  Ogilvie-Grant  found  two  pairs  of  Short-eared  Owls  on  the 
largest  island  of  the  group,  where  they  found  plenty  of  food  in 
the  shape  of  a  powerful  little  mouse,  which  fed  in  turn  on  the 
unfortunate  Petrels  (P.  marina)  which  were  breeding  in  num- 
bers on  the  summit  of  the  rocky  island. 

Nest.— On  the  ground,  often  in  quite  an  exposed  situation. 
No  regular  nest  is  made,  the  eggs  being  laid  in  a  depression 
of  the  ground,  or  in  a  tuft  of  heather,  in  the  moorland 
districts. 

Eggs. — From  six  to  eight  in  number,  and  sometimes  as  many 
as  twelve  have  been  found.  They  are  generally  laid  in  May, 
but  have  also  been  found  as  early  as  the  first  week  in  April. 
The  eggs  are  very  much  like  those  of  the  Long-eared  Owl, 
white,  and  with  scarcely  any  gloss.  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that 
some  examples  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  those  of 
the  Hawk- Owl.  Axis  1-55-1  65  inch  ;  diam.,  1-2-1-3. 

H    2 


TOO  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

THE  WOOD-OWLS.     GENUS   SYRNIUM. 

Syrnium,  Savign.  Descr.  de  PEgypte,  p.  208  (1809). 

Type,  S.  aluco  (L.). 

Although  the  Wood-Owls  have  the  same  curious  ear-conch 
as  the  Horned  Owls,  they  may  easily  be  distingushed  from 
the  latter  by  the  absence  of  ear-tufts,  and  by  the  cere  being 
shorter  than  the  culmen.  The  bony  shell  of  the  ear-conch 
is  similar  in  form  on  either  side  of  the  skull,  both  sides  of 
which  are  symmetrical,  whereas  in  Nyctala  (vide  m/rd,  p.  103) 
the  opposite  is  the  case. 

The  Wood-Owls  are  found  all  over  the  New  World  fron 
north  to  south,  and  also  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Olc 
World,  with  the  exception  of  the  Australian  Region. 

I.    THE    WOOD-OWL,    OR    TAWNY    OWL.       SYRNIUM    ALUCO. 

Strix  ahico,  Linn.   Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  132  (1766);  Newton,  ed 

Yarr.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  146  (1872). 
Ulula  ah...),  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  438(1840);  Seeb.  Br.  B.  i 

p.  154  (1883). 

Syrnium  aluco,  Sharps,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  ii.  p.  247  (1875) 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  271,  pi.  306  (1879) ;  B.  O.  U.  Lis 
Br.    B.  p.   87    (1883);    Saunders,    Man.  Br.   B.    p.   28- 
(1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  partxi.  (1889),  parts  xxii 
and  xxv.  (1892-93). 

(Plate  XX XVI  11^ 
Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  ashy-grey,  with  generallj 
a  slight  tinge  of  rufous,  the  feathers  with  dark  longitudina 
centres  and  zigzag  cross-lines,  imparting  a  vermiculated  ap 
pearance  to  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface ;  outer  scapular 
with  a  large  oval  spot  of  white  ;  quills  light  brown,  barre( 
with  darker  brown,  the  quills  freckled  with  dusky  at  the  tips 
and  on  the  light  ashy  or  rufescent  bars  which  are  seen  on  th 
outer  web ;  tail  brown,  mottled  with  ashy  spots  and  lines,  th 
outer  feathers  with  dark  brown  bars,  about  six  in  number 
head  rather  greyer  than  the  back,  considerably  mottled  wit! 
white  spots,  especially  on  the  hind-neck ;  lores  and  feather 
round  the  eye  whitish ;  ear-coverts  ashy  with  dusky-brow 
bars ;  tail-feathers  profusely  barred  with  white  or  buffy-whit 
and  dusky-brown ;  under  surface  of  body  ashy-white,  wit 


PLATE     XXXVIt 


TAWNY       OWL. 


THE   WOOD-OWLS.  IOi 

distinct  black  longitudinal  centres  to  the  feathers,  which  are 
also  laterally  barred  and  freckled,  but  not  always  completely 
banded ;  quills  dark  brown  below,  with  about  six  lighter  bars, 
those  near  the  base  yellowish-white ;  bill  whitish  horn-colour  ; 
claws  horny- white  at  base,  darker  at  tip  ;  iris  blue-black. 

Rufous  Phase.— Exactly  like  the  grey  phase  in  plumage,  but 
rufous  where  the  other  is  grey  or  brown. 

Nestling. — Covered  with  greyish-white  down,  the  first  feathers 
yellowish,  with  dark-brown  cross-markings  ;  bill  ivory-white  at 
the  end  of  both  mandibles. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Tawny  Owl  is  found  in  most  of 
the  wooded  districts  of  Great  Britain,  though  it  is  said  to  be 
decreasing  in  numbers,  owing  to  the  persecution  it  is  sub- 
jected to  on  account  of  its  supposed  destructiveness  to  game. 
It  is,  perhaps,  more  plentiful  in  the  northern  districts  of  Eng- 
land than  in  the  south,  and  is  distributed  over  the  greater  part 
of  Scotland,  as  well  as  the  Isle  of  Skye  and  some  of  the  inner 
Hebrides.  It  has  not  been  found  in  Ireland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Distributed  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  and  Northern  Africa,  and  extends  to 
Palestine  and  Syria.  It  is  plentiful  in  Norway  up  to  Trondh- 
jem  Fiord,  but  is  rarer  to  the  north.  In  Sweden  it  is  not 
found  so  far  north,  and  does  not  extend  to  Archangel.  In 
Eastern  Russia  the  limit  of  its  range  is  said  to  be  lat.  58°, 
and  it  has  been  met  with  in  the  Caucasus,  but  not,  so  far  as 
known,  in  Siberia.  In  the  Himalayas  it  is  represented  by  a 
distinct  form,  Syrnium  nivicoluin,  and  this  is  probably  the 
species  which  occurs  in  Turkestan.  Mr.  Seebohm  considers 
this  eastern  form  of  the  Tawny  Owl  to  belong  to  the  same 
species  as  our  European  bird,  but  in  this  conclusion  he  is 
certainly  mistaken. 

Habits. — The  Tawny  Owl  is,  as  a  rule,  nocturnal  in  its 
habits,  and  seldom  flies  in  the  daylight.  If,  by  any  accident, 
it  has  been  driven  from  the  dark  recesses  in  which  it  loves  to 
pass  the  day,  it  may  be  seen  perched  on  a  large  bough  or 
against  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  absolutely  immoveable,  and  appa- 
rently incapable  of  any  action  in  the  sunlight.  Usually,  how- 
ever, it  seeks  repose  in  the  day-time  in  some  dark  hollow  of  an 


102  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

ancient  tree.  As  night  approaches,  the  Tawny  Owl  becomes 
more  active,  and  its  note  is  often  heard — "  hoo-hoo,  hoo- 
hoo-hoo,"  a  wailing  cry,  which  resounds  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, and  is  certainly  not  one  of  the  least  interesting  sounds 
of  a  still  summer  night. 

The  food  of  the  Tawny  Owl  consists  of  small  Rodents  and 
insectivorous  Mammals  which  stir  forth  in  the  dark,  and  it  will 
also  eat  frogs  and  fish,  and  occasionally  small  birds,  while  its 
occasional  onslaughts  on  young  game-birds  and  rabbits  are  not 
to  be  gainsaid. 

Nest. — In  defence  of  its  nest  this  Owl  is  sometimes  very  bold, 
and  will  swoop  down  and  attack  the  intruder.  The  nesting- 
place  is  very  varied,  and  although  generally  to  be  found  in  a 
hollow  tree  or  an  old  ivy-covered  ruin,  or  even  an  outhouse,  the 
bird  will  sometimes  select  an  old  nest  of  some  other  bird,  such 
as  a  Rook,  a  Magpie,  or  a  Sparrow-Hawk,  while  its  nesting  in 
rabbit-burrows  has  also  been  chronicled,  to  say  nothing  of  such 
curious  sites  as  a  disused  dog-kennel,  as  related  by  Mr.  A.  W. 
Johnson  in  Mr.  Seebohm's  work  on  British  Birds.  The  same 
gentleman  also  states  that  he  has  known  the  eggs  to  be  laid  on 
the  bare  ground,  "  somewhat  concealed  by  the  thick  foliage  of 
the  lower  branches  of  a  fir." 

Eggs.  —Three  or  four  in  number  ;  white,  smooth,  and  rather 
glossy.  Axis,  175-1-95  inch;  diam.,  1-5-1-6. 

THE  DOWNY  OWLETS.      GENUS   NYCTALA. 

Nyctala,  Brehm,  Isis,  1828,  p.  1271. 

Type,  N.  tengmalmi  (Gm.). 

The  species  of  the  genus  Nyctala  are  diminutive  represen- 
tatives of  the  Wood-Owls,  but  they  differ  from  all  the  species 
of  the  genus  Syrnium  in  their  small  size,  and  in  the  curious 
conformation  of  the  ear-conches,  which  are  different  on  either 
side  of  the  head,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Professor  Collett, 
of  Christiania. 

This  may  have  something  to  do  with  the  sense  of  hearing  in 
the  genus  Nyctala,  but  nothing  is  known  on  this  point.  Apart 
from  the  small  size  of  the  birds,  the  thick  feathering  of  the 


PLATE    XXXIX 


' 


TENGMALM'S        OWL. 


THE   DOWNY   OWLETS. 


103 


toes  distinguishes  Nyctala  from  Syrnium^  as  far  as  the  British 
avifauna  is  concerned. 

The  Saw-whet  Owl  (Nyctala  acadica)  of  North  America  has 
been  said  to  have  occurred  in  Yorkshire,  but  the  occurrence  is 
not  considered  genuine. 

i.  TENGMALM'S  OWL.     NYCTALA  TENGMALMI. 

Strix  tengmalmi)  Gm.  Syst  Nat.  i.  p.  291  (1788) ;  Seeb.  Br. 

B.  i.  p.  164  (1883). 

Ulula  tengmalmi,  Macgill.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  445  (1840). 
Nyctala  tengmalmi,  Newt,  ed,  Yarr.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  154  (1872)  ; 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  319,  pi.  313  (1872);  Sharpe,  Cat. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.  ii.  p.  284  (1875) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p. 

88(1883);  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  289(1889);  Lilford, 

Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxx.  (1895). 

(Plate  XXXIX.} 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  light  brown,  plentifully 
spotted  and  mottled  with  white,  especially  on  the  scapulars, 
where  the  white  markings  are  very  conspicuous  ;  fore-part  and 
sides  of  crown  rather  darker  than  the  back,  with  numerous 


(3) 


Skull  of  Tengmalm's  Owl,  to  show  the  posiiiun  of  the  ear-conches 
(after  Collett). 

triangular  spots  of  white,  with  a  "wig"  of  looser  plumes  on  the 
hind-neck,  where  the  plumage  is  fuller,  these  parts  being  barred 
with  white ;  the  median  and  greater  coverts  with  large  oval 
spots  of  white  on  the  outer  web;  quills  brown,  tipped  with 
greyish,  spotted  on  the  outer  web,  and  broadly  notched  oa 


104  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARV. 

the  inner  web  with  white ;  tail  brown,  with  five  rows  of  white 
bars ;  face  white,  with  the  lores  and  a  large  patch  in  front  of 
the  eye  black  ;  ruff  very  distinct,  and  composed  of  dark  brown 
feathers,  thickly  spotted  with  white  ;  this  ruff  continued  under 
the  chin,  which  is  white,  as  also  the  fore-neck  ;  remainder  of 
under  surface  of  body  white,  mottled  with  brown  markings, 
especially  on  the  breast,  the  flanks  streaked  with  brown,  the 
breast  more  spotted;  under  wing-coverts  white,  with  small 
brown  spots ;  the  greater  series  ashy-brown,  spotted  with 
white,  like  the  inner  lining  of  the  quills,  which  are  ashy- 
brown  below,  barred  with  white,  the  bars  larger  and  more 
ovate  on  the  secondaries  ;  bill  dull  yellow ;  iris  bright  yellow. 
Total  length,  9^5  inches  ;  wing,  67  ;  tail,  4*4  ;  tarsus,  075. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  slightly  larger.  Total 
length,  10-5  inches;  wing,  7-5  ;  tail,  4*8  ;  tarsus,  0*85. 

Young. — Differs  considerably  from  the  adult.  Chocolate- 
brown,  darker  on  the  sides  of  the  face  and  ear-coverts  ;  lores, 
fore-part  of  cheeks,  and  eyebrow  white,  with  blackish  bristles 
on  the  former  ;  scapulars  and  uppe*  tail-coverts  with  concealed 
white  spots  ;  tail  brown,  with  three  rows  of  white  spots,  not 
continuous ;  under  surface  of  body  chocolate-brown,  the  breast 
and  abdomen  mottled  with  white ;  feathers  of  the  thighs  anc 
feet,  as  well  as  the  under  tail-coverts,  yellowish  white,  with  a 
few  brown  spots. 

Tengmalm's  Owl  is  often  confounded  with  the  Little  Ow 
(Carine  noctua),  but  there  ought  to  be  no  difficulty  in  dis 
tinguishing  the  two  species.  Both  are  devoid  of  horns,  like 
the  Tawny  Owl,  but  Tengmalm's  Owl  is  a  more  northerr. 
bird,  and  more  thickly  clothed  with  feathers  than  the  southerr 
Little  Owl.  The  plumage  is  altogether  more  dense  and  softei 
in  the  first  place,  and  the  species  can  at  once  be  distinguished 
by  the  feathering  which  covers  the  toes,  leaving  the  claws  onl> 
discernible.  In  the  Little  Owl  the  feathering  of  the  toes 
much  more  sparse,  and  the  joints  of  the  toes  are  plainly  visi 
ble.  Tengmalm's  Owl  is  also  a  darker  bird,  and  is  verj 
plainly  spotted  with  white  on  the  head,  and  especially  on  the 
facial  ruff.  The  face,  too,  is  pure  white,  with  a  very  con- 
spicuous black  patch  on  the  lores  and  in  front  of  the  eyes. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  occasional  visitor  in  spring  anc 


THE    DOWNY    OWLETS.  105 

autumn.  Less  than  twenty  authentic  records  of  the  occurrence 
of  the  species  within  our  limits  have  been  published,  and  prob- 
ably not  more  than  sixteen  or  seventeen  are  genuine.  The 
counties  in  which  Tengmalm's  Owl  has  been  captured  are 
Northumberland,  Yorkshire,  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Kent,  and 
Somerset,  Shropshire,  Lancashire,  and  Cumberland,  most  of 
these  instances  having  occurred  during  autumn.  Two  Scot- 
tish records  are  known,  one  in  the  Orkneys,  and  one  in  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  but  no  specimen  has  yet  been  procured  in 
Ireland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Tengmalm's  Owl  is  an  in- 
habitant of  the  mountain  regions  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds, 
for  I  have  never  been  able  to  discover  the  specific  distinctness 
of  the  American  form,  the  so-called  Nyctala  richardsoni.  It 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  pine-forest  region  south  of  the  Arctic 
Circle  from  Scandinavia  to  Eastern  Siberia,  and  again  in 
North  America.  In  Lapland  it  breeds  as  far  north  as  68° 
N.  lat.,  in  the  Ural  Mountains  up  to  59°  N.  lat.  On  the 
River  Ob  Dr.  Finsch  obtained  it  in  lat.  61°,  and  Mr.  See- 
bohm's  collectors  have  sent  specimens  from  Krasnoyarsk  in 
Siberia.  The  species  is  plentiful  in  Eastern  Siberia  round 
Lake  Baikal,  and  also  as  far  as  Sidemi  in  Ussuri  Land,  but 
has  not  yet  been  detected  in  Kamtchatka 

In  winter  Tengmalm's  Owl  migrates  to  a  certain  extent,  but 
is  not  found  very  far  to  the  south.  It  breeds  in  the  Car- 
pathians and  the  Alps  in  the  forests,  as  well  as  in  the  Vosges 
and  the  mountains  of  South-eastern  France. 

Habits. — Although  principally  a  nocturnal  species,  Teng- 
malm's Owl  does  not  appear  to  be  incommoded  by  the  day- 
light ;  and,  indeed,  in  the  northern  localities  where  the  species 
breeds,  the  sun  never  sets,  and  there  is  scarcely  any  difference 
between  night  and  day.  Its  food  consists  of  small  rodents, 
such  as  mice  and  lemmings,  as  well  as  insects  and  small 
birds,  and  Taczanowski  states  that  in  Eastern  Siberia  this 
little  Owl  is  detested  by  the  trappers,  as  it  is  continually  being 
taken  in  the  snares  set  for  the  Ermine,  and  the  bird  is  there- 
fore considered  a  nuisance. 

Wheelwright  says  that  the  note  of  Tengmalm's  Owl  is  a 
soft  whistle,  which  is  heard  only  in  the  evening  and  at  night. 


io6  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

M.  Godlewski,  a  well-known  Siberian  traveller  and  collector, 
speaks  of  one  of  these  birds  which  became  very  tame  in  con- 
finement, and  imitated  the  crowing,  of  a  cock,  the  howling  of 
a  dog,  and  the  cries  of  other  domestic  animals. 

Nest. — None.  The  eggs  are  generally  placed  in  a  hollow 
tree,  the  holes  of  the  Great  Black  Woodpecker  being  often 
used  ;  and  Wolley,  to  whom  we  owe  much  of  our  knowledge  of 
the  breeding  habits  of  the  present  species,  obtained  some  eggs 
from  the  nest-boxes  which  are  put  by  the  inhabitants  for  the 
Golden-eye  Duck  to  breed  in.  These  nesting-places  are  formed 
of  pieces  of  logs,  hollowed  out  and  with  a  hole  cut  in  the  side. 
The  bird  breeds  early  in  May,  even  in  its  northern  home,  and 
eggs  were  taken  by  Wolley  at  the  end  of  May  and  during 
June. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  seven,  and,  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  says, 
occasionally  as  many  as  ten.  They  are  white,  and  vary  in 
shape,  some  being  rounder  and  some  more  elongated.  Axis, 
i -3  inch;  diam.,  1-05. 

THE   WHITE  .OWLS.     FAMILY   STRIGIDJS. 

Apart  from  their  peculiar  and  unmistakeable  visage,  the 
White  Owls  differ  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  Order 
Striges  in  two  easily  recognisable  characters.  One  of  these 


Middle  toe  of  Strix  flammed,  to  show  the  pectination  of  the  claw. 
[From  the  Catalogue  of  Birds  in  the  British  Museum,  vol.  ii.  p.  290.] 

consists  in  having  the  inner  and  middle  toes  of  about  equal 
length,  while  the  middle  toe  has  a  pectinated  or  comb-like 
edge  on  its  inner  aspect. 


THE   BARN-OWLS. 


107 


Another  character  is  seen  in  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone, 
which  has  no  fissures  or  clefts  in  its  hinder  margin,  and  at  the 
same  time  thefurcula,  or  "merry-thought,"  is  joined  to  the  keel 
of  the  sternum. 

The  White  Owls  are  almost  cosmopolitan,  and  are  found 
even  in  the  Pacific  Islands.  There  are  two  sections  of  White 
Owls,  which  may  be  distinguished  as  Barn-Owls  and  Grass- 
Owls,  the  latter,  as  their  name  implies,  frequenting  dense  grass- 


Sternum  of  Strix flammed,  to  show  the  junction  of  the  furcula  and  the 
outline  of  the  hinder  margin.  [From  the  Catalogue  of  Birds  in  the  British 
Museum,  vol.  ii.  p.  289.] 

land.  Both  the  known  species  of  Grass-Owls  are  easily  recog- 
nised by  their  uniform  brown  upper  surface,  instead  of  having 
vermiculations  on  the  back,  like  the  Barn-Owls,  and  they  are 
often  separated  by  naturalists  under  a  separate  genus,  Scelo- 
strix.  One  of  the  species,  6*.  capensis,  inhabits  South  Africa, 
while  the  second,  S.  Candida,  is  found  in  India  and  China, 
the  Philippines,  North  Australia,  and  re-occurs  in  the  Fiji 
Islands. 


THE   BARN-OWLS.     GENUS   STRIX. 
Strix,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  133  (1766). 

Type,  S.flammea  (L.). 
The  Barn-Owls,  on  the  other  hand,  are  birds  which  love  the 


io8 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


dark  recesses  of  a  building  or  a  tree,  rather  than  the  open 
grass-country.  Seven  forms  of  the  Common  Barn-Owl  are 
recognised  by  naturalists,  but  these  birds  vary  in  plumage 
considerably,  and  they  are  all  so  closely  connected  by  inter- 
mediate forms,  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  where  one  race  ends 
and  another  commences  its  range. 

The  most  distinct  of  the  Barn-Owls  are  the  large  Strix 
castanops  and  S.  novce  hollandm  of  Australia,  all  the  other 
species  being  merely  forms  of  the  ordinary  Barn-Owl  (S. 
flammed].  Some  of  these,  however,  are  fairly  recognisable  as 
races,  especially  the  pale  form,  S.  delicatula,  of  Australia  and. 
Oceania,  and  the  island  races  from  the  Cape  Verd  Islands 
(Strix  insularis),  and  the  Galapagos  Islands  (Strix  punctatis- 
sima\  both  of  which  are  very  dark  and  thickly  spotted  forms. 

I  am  still  under  the  same  impression  as  in  1875,  when  •! 
wrote  the  second  volume  of  the  "  Catalogue  of  Birds,"  tha: 
"there  is  one  dominant  type  of  Barn-Owl  which  prevail >] 
generally  over  the  continents  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,! 
being  darker  or  lighter  according  to  different  localities,  but) 
possessing  no  distinctive  specific  characters." 

I.    THE    BARN-OWL.       STRIX    FLAMMEA. 

Strixflammea,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  133  (1766);  Macgill.  Bril 
B.  iii.  p.  473  (1840) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  ii.  p.  29] 
(1875) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  i.  p.  237,  pi.  302  (1879) ;  B.  Q\ 
U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  85  (1883);  Saunders.   Man.  Br.  B.  p 
281  (1889);   Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xiv.  (1890). 

Alitco  flammeus,   Newt.  ed.  Yarf.    Brit.  B.  i.  p.   194  (1872) 
Seeb.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  148  (1883). 
(Plate  XL.} 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  orange-buff,  with  whit 
spots  at  or  near  the  end  of  each  feather,  relieved  by  a  corn 
spending  spot  of  blackish;  the  back  and  scapulars  mottle; 
with  silvery -grey ;  quills  orange-buff,  shading  off  into  whiti.s 
near  the  base  and  on  the  inner  webs,  the  secondaries  rath< 
deeper  orange,  tipped  with  whitish,  the  innermost  secondarit 
mottled  with  grey  like  the  back  ;  tail  whitish,  washed  with 
orange,  the  centre  feathers  slightly  speckled  with  brown,  the; 
markings  disappearing  towards  the  outer  feathers,  which  a: 


PLATE       X 


BARN     OWL 


THE    BARN-OWLS.  IOQ 

entirely  white  ;  face  pure  white,  with  a  patch  of  rufous  in  front 
of  the  eye  ;  feathers  of  the  ruff  glistening  white,  those  on  the 
upper-part  washed  with  orange,  the  lower  feathers  sub-termin- 
ally orange  with  a  tiny  apical  margin  of  blackish,  rather  more 
distinct  on  the  gular  portion  of  the  ruff;  rest  of  under  surface 
of  body  pure  white,  as  well  as  the  thighs  and  under  tail- 
coverts  ;  under  wing-coverts  also  white,  the  lower  primary 
coverts  greyish,  like  the  lower  surface  of  the  quills,  which  are 
greyish-white  underneath  ;  bill  nearly  white ;  claws  brown  ;  iris 
black.  Total  length,  13  inches;  wing,  11-9;  tail,  5-0;  tarsus, 

2'2. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  13  inches  : 
wing,  iro. 

The  above  description  refers  to  the  ordinary  Barn -Owl  as  it 
is  usually  seen  in  England  ;  but  on  the  continent  of  Europe  a 
darker  form  occurs,  remarkable  for  its  dark  grey  upper  surface, 
whereon  very  few  of  the  lighter  markings  and  spots  are  dis- 
cernible, while  the  under  surface  is  also  deep  orange,  with 
numerous  "  arrow-head  "-shaped  spots  of  dusky-brown.  This 
dark  form  is  occasionally  found  in  Great  Britain,  but  very 
rarely,  and  these  individuals  may  be  visitors  from  the  Conti- 

1  nent,  perhaps  from  Schleswig,  where  only  the  dark  phase  of 
the  Barn-Owl  is  met  with.  Mr.  De  Winton  recently  pre- 
sented to  the  British  Museum  a  pair  of  birds  from  Workum 
in  Friesland,  which  proved  to  be  a  male  and  female  of  the 

:  dark-phased  Barn-Owl,  showing  that  the  difference  between 
the  light  and  dark  forms  is  not  dependent  on  age  or  sex,  as 
indeed  is  known  from  both  males  and  females  of  our  British 
bird  being  white-breasted. 

Nestling. — Covered  with  pure  white  down,  the  face  slightly 
rufescent. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Barn-Owl  is  found  all  over  Great 
Britain,  and  breeds  in  all  the  counties  of  England  and 
sparingly  also  in  every  county  of  Ireland.  In  Scotland,  too, 
it  is  found  nesting  in  small  numbers  as  far  north  as  Caith- 
i  ness  and  in  the  Inner  Hebrides,  but  in  decreasing  numbers 
beyond  the  Lowlands. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — As  already  stated,  the  Barn- 
Owl  is  nearly  cosmopolitan,  but  it  does  not  range  very  far 


no  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

north,  either  in  the  Old  or  New  Worlds;  about  40°  N.  lat.  and 
40°  S.  lat.  being  the  limit  of  the  Barn-Owl  on  the  American 
continents.  In  many  places  it  is  a  local  bird,  and  seems  to 
extend  its  range  with  civilisation,  following  in  the  footsteps 
of  man,  in  the  vicinity  of  whose  homesteads  are  abundance 
of  mice. 

In  Europe  the  Barn-Owl  nests  no  farther  north  than  the 
south   of  Sweden  and  the   Baltic  Provinces.     It  extends  to  • 
Central  Russia  and  is  then  apparently  absent  throughout  the  j 
whole  of  Siberia  and  Northern  Asia,  as  well  as  China.     It  is 
likewise   unknown   in    Greece   and   the   countries   of  South- 
eastern Europe,  but  is  found  in  Northern  Africa  and  Pales- 
tine, and  throughout  the  whole  of  Africa.     It  likewise  extends 
in  slightly  modified  forms  over  the  entire  Indian  and  Austra- 
lian Regions,  being  also  found  in  the  islands  of  Oceania. 

Habits. — The   Barn-Owl  is  a  nocturnal  species,  and  never 
ventures  out  in  the  daylight  of  it  own  accord.     In  the  twilight, 
however,  it  issues  forth,  and  in  Avington  Park  in  Hampshire, 
where  the  late  Sir  Edward  Shelley  protected  them,  I  have 
seen  two  and  three  of  these  pretty  birds  flying  about  in  the 
early  evening,  over  the  bracken,  and  playing  with  each  other  in 
the  air.     Their  movements  were  full  of  grace  and  activity,  as 
they  sailed  over  the  ferns  and  gambolled  with  each  other  in  ; 
the  most  playful  manner.     The  number  of  mice  which  a  Barn- 
Owl  catches   in  a  single  night  is  truly  astonishing.     Water- 
ton  says  that  the  birds  will  bring  a  mouse  to  their  nest  every 
twelve  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  a  nest  in  Avington  Park  was  i 
found  by  us  to  have  over  forty  freshly-killed  field-mice,  which 
must  have  been  caught  during  the  preceding  night.     Where  I 
encouraged  the,  present  species  will  take  advantage  of  any  tub  • 
or  shelter  put  up  for  its  accommodation,  and  will  nest  freely. 

The  food  of  the  Barn-Owl  consists  principally  of  mice,  but  I 

it  will  also  catch  rats  and  bats,  as  well  as  voles  and  shrews,  ; 

and  small  birds,  while  it  has  also  been  known   to  take  fish.  ' 

It  is  a  great  friend  to  the  farmer  and  gardener,  and  does  no  } 

harm  to  game,  so  that  it  ought  to  receive  protection  from  every  ' 
landed  proprietor   and   game-preserver ;   instead  of  which  it 
is  to  be  feared  that  ignorant  prejudice  against  the  Owls  still 

contrives    the  slaughter  of  a  number  of  these  useful  birds,  : 


THE    OSPREYS. 


although   of  late   years    thejr  services  in  the   destruction  of 
vermin  has  been  more  generally  recognised. 

Nest. — None.  Sometimes  the  eggs  are  surrounded  by  cast- 
up  pellets,  but  no  regular  nest  is  made.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
May,  seldom  as  early  as  April,  but  young  birds  have  been 
found  as  late  as  November  and  December. 

Eggs. — From  three  to  seven  in  number  ;  white,  with  little  or 
no  gloss.  Axis,  1-5-17;  diam.,  1-1-1-3. 

THE   BIRDS  OF  PREY.     ORDER  ACCIPITRES. 

Without  fully  enumerating  the  many  anatomical  and  osteo- 
logical  characters  which  distinguish  these  birds,  it  is  sufficient 
to  note  that  Accipitrine  Birds  have  a  desmognathous,  or 
"  bridged,"  palate,  and  the  external  characters  are  easily  recog- 
nisable. Thus  the  hooked  and  raptorial  bill  is  peculiar  to  the 
Birds  of  Prey,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  cere,  or  bare  skin 
at  the  base  of  the  bill.  The  Passerine  Family  of  Shrikes,  or 
Laniidce.  have  also  a  hooked  or  raptorial  bill,  but  they  have  no 
cere,  and  lack  the  powerful  talons  which  are  also  a  conspicuous 
ifeature  in  the  Accipitres.  The  young  birds  are  covered  with 
idown,  and  remain  in  a  helpless  condition  in  the  nest  for  a 
^considerable  period,  being  nurtured  by  the  old  birds  on  animal 
food.  As  a  general  rule,  the  female  is  a  larger  and  more 
owerful  bird  than  the  male. 


THE   OSPREYS.     SUB-ORDER   PANDIONES. 

The  Ospreys  occupy  an  intermediate  position  between  the 

Dwls  and  the  typical  Birds  of  Prey.    The  skeleton  is  especially 

3wl-like,  but  the  eyes  are  placed  laterally  in  the  head,  and  there 

s  no  facial  disk.      Like  the   Owls,  however,  the  outer  toe  is 

evcrsible,  and  is  capable  of  being  turned  forwards  or  back- 

vards,  a  great  advantage  to  a  fish-catching  bird,  and  the  sole 

>f  the  foot  is  covered  with  numerous  small  spicules,  which  are 

>f  great  advantage  to  the  Osprey  in  holding  its  finny  prey. 

The  range  of  the  Ospreys  is  almost  cosmopolitan,  and  there 

only  one  species  representing  the  Sub-order.     The  Osprey 


Ti2  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

of  Australia  and  the  Moluccas  is  a  smaller  bird,  but  cannot  be 
considered  a  distinct  species,  while  the  American  Osprey  I 
consider  to  be  absolutely  identical  with  the  ordinary  bird  of 
the  Old  World. 

There  is  but  one  genus  in  the  Sub-order,  namely  the  genus 
Pandiont  Savigny,  Descr.  de  PEgypte,  p.  272  (1809). 

Type,  P.  haliaetus  (L.). 
the  characters  of  which  have  been  alluded  to  above. 

I.    THE    OSPREY.       PANDION    HALIAETUS. 

Falco  haliaetus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  129  (1766). 

Pandion  haliaetus,  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  239(1840);  Newton, 

ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  30  (1871);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.   Brit. 

Mus.  i.  p.  449  (1874)  ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.   139,  pi. 

387  (1876) ;  Seeb.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  55  (1883)  ;  B.  O.  U.  List 

Br.  B.  p.  105  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  347  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dark  brown,  the  feathers 
with  indistinct  edges  of  paler  brown ;  quills  blackish,  the 
primaries  uniform  whity-brown  below,  the  secondaries  whitish 
on  the  inner  web,  and  indistinctly  barred  with  ashy-brown:, 
tail  almost  uniform  brown,  the  inner  webs  whitish  with  obso-;> 
lete  bars  of  ashy-brown  ;  head  brown,  mottled  with  white 
bases  to  the  feathers;  from  behind  the  eye  a  broad  white 
streak,  extending  down  the  sides  of  the  neck;  the  ear-coverts 
blackish-brown ;  sides  of  neck  like  the  back ;  sides  of  face 
and  under  surface  of  body  white,  the  chin  and  fore-part  of 
cheeks  slightly  streaked  with  dark-brown ;  breast  with  brown 
centres  to  the  feathers;  some  of  the  flank- feathers  and  the 
axillaries  marked  with  rufous-brown,  like  the  breast ;  bill  black, 
the  cere  blue ;  feet  blue ;  iris  yellow.  Total  length,  24  inches  ; 
culmen,  175;  wing,  i9'8;  tail,  9-5;  tarsus,  2-4. 

Adult  Female. — Resembles  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length. 
21  inches;  wing,  19-0. 

Young. — Chocolate-brown,  the  feathers  plainly  edged  with 
buflfy-white,  more  broadly  on  the  secondaries  and  upper  tail 
coverts;  crown  black,  with  white  edges  to  the  feathers,  im 
parting  a  streaked  appearance ;  nape  white  ;  tail-feathers  brown. 


THE   OSPREYS.  i  T  - 

*    *vi 

tipped  with  white,   and  barred   with  sepia-brown  and  ashy- 
brown  alternately. 

Nestling. — Covered  with  sooty-brown  down,  the  down  of  the 
centre  of  the  back,  along  the  bend  of  the  wing,  and  on  the 
breast  and  flanks  dusky  white ;  the  dorsal  feathers  dark 
brown,  broadly  tipped  with  ochraceous-buff ;  crown  and  ear- 
coverts  blackish  ;  eyebrow  and  throat  white. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Though  formerly  said  to  breed  on 
the  south  coast  of  England,  and  in  the  Lake  district  up  to 
within  a  century  ago,  the  eyries  of  the  species  are  now  con- 
fined to  a  few  places  in  Scotland.  The  species  is,  in  fact, 
threatened  with  extinction  in  the  British  Islands,  as  its  eggs 
still  command  a  high  price,  and  therefore  afford  a  strong 
temptation  to  the  keepers  of  those  few  places  in  Scotland 
in  which  the  species  is  still  preserved.  At  present,  however, 
the  Osprey  breeds  in  Scotland,  but  it  is  only  owing  to  the  in- 
telligent protection  of  a  few  landowners  that  the  species  has 
persevered  so  long  as  an  indigenous  British  species. 

A  considerable  number  of  Ospreys  occur  in  various  portions 
of  our  islands,  on  the  inland  lakes  and  the  sea- shores,  especially 
in  the  estuaries  of  our  southern  rivers,  and  usually  in  autumn. 
Most  of  these  specimens  are  young  individuals,  and  it  is  only 
during  these  wanderings  that  the  Osprey  has  occurred  in  Ire- 
land at  all,  though,  as  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  remarks,  there 
are  in  that  island  numbers  of  suitable  places  for  its  nidifica- 
tion. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Osprey  is  found  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  world,  but  only  in  places  suited  to  its  shy 
habits,  and  affording  it  a  supply  of  its  food.  It  breeds  through- 
out Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  but  in  the  latter  continent  it  is 
probably  only  a  migrant,  though  it  nests  on  the  Dahlak  Islands 
in  the  Red  Sea.  In  Australia  and  the  neighbouring  Moluccas, 
the  Ospreys  are  smaller  and  rather  darker  in  plumnge,  and 
have  been  separated  as  a  distinct  species  under  the  name  of 
Pandion  leucocephalus.  The  Australian  Ospreys,  however,  can 
only  be  looked  upon  as  a  smaller  race  of  our  European  bird. 

Habits. — The  food  of  the  Osprey  consists  entirely  of  fish,  and 
on  inland  waters  it  catches  any  kind  that  can  be  reached  easily 

8  I 


ii4  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

near  the  surface  of  the  water,  from  Salmon  and  Trout  down- 
wards to  the  smaller  species.  Its  spiky  soles  and  powerful 
talons  enable  it  to  hold  the  fish  in  security,  and  so  tightly  does 
it  grasp  its  prey  that  the  talons  are  unlocked  with  difficulty, 
and  instances  have  been  known  of  the  bird  having  been 
carried  below  the  water  and  drowned,  when  it  has  struck  a  fish 
stronger  than  itself. 

The  favourite  breeding-haunt  of  the  Osprey  is  a  forest  where 
there  is  water  in  the  vicinity,  in  which  it  can  obtain  a  sufficient 
supply  of  fish,  and  solitude  and  quiet  are  the  conditions  which 
it  loves  best.  In  America,  and  even  in  certain  parts  of  Europe, 
the  bird  is  gregarious,  and  several  pairs  nest  in  company.  Mr. 
Seebohm  mentions  an  instance  in  which  he  observed  them 
thus  nesting  on  an  island  in  a  Pomeranian  lake,  and  in  North 
America  as  many  as  three  hundred  pairs  of  Ospreys  have  been 
known  to  breed  in  a  similar  situation.  When  hunting  for  its 
prey,  this  large  Fishing-Eagle  goes  to  work  very  much  like  a 
gigantic  Kestrel,  sailing  quietly  along  above  the  water,  and 
occasionally  hovering  over  it,  and  then  descending  on  the  fish 
with  a  plunge  which  can  be  heard  for  a  long  distance.  The 
bird  is  said  often  to  disappear  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water, 
while  at  other  times  it  appears  to  catch  the  fish  with  its  talons 
without  wetting  its  feet  to  any  great  extent.  The  close-set 
feathering  of  the  thighs  and  the  bare  tarsus  and  toes  are  dif- 
ferent from  the  general  aspect  of  an  Accipitrine  bird's  leg,  but 
the  long  thigh-feathers  and  feathered  feet  of  an  ordinary  Eagle 
would  be  decidedly  a  drawback  to  a  bird  like  the  Osprey,  whose 
legs  are  so  often  in  the  water. 

Nest. — This  is  a  gigantic  structure,  whether  it  be  placed  on 
a  tree  or  on  some  ruin  in  an  inland  lake.  Mr.  Seebohm 
writes  :  "  From  the  great  weight  and  bulkiness  of  the  Osprey's 
nest,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  same  situation  is  resorted  to 
for  many  years  in  succession,  the  branches  which  support  it 
are  not  unfrequently  distorted  in  growth  and  flattened.  In 
other  cases  the  Osprey  has  several  favourite  eyries  in  one 
chosen  locality,  and  appears  to  utilise  them  in  turn,  like  the 
White-tailed  Eagle  or  the  Peregrine.  As  a  rule  the  largest  tree 
in  the  forest,  the  patriarch  of  the  timber,  is  selected  to  hold 
the  nest,  which  is  built  at  varying  heights  from  the  ground, 


THE   OSPREYS.  •  1 15 

sometimes  on  the  topmost  branches,  flattened  by  its  weight, 
more  rarely  at  a  distance  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  from  the  ground 
on  one  of  the  broad-spreading  limbs.  But,  when  the  Osprey's 
nest  is  on  ruins,  it  is  often  at  a  far  less  elevation,  and  when 
built  on  rocky  islands,  it  is  not  unfrequently  but  a  few  feet 
from  the  ground,  built  amongst  the  grey  lichens  and  tufts  of 
polypody  fern.  On  the  southern  shores  of  the  Baltic,  north  of 
Stettin,  surrounding  the  inland  lakes  which  form  the  delta  of 
the  Oder,  are  vast  forests  which  form  a  perfect  paradise  for  the 
Osprey.  Lonely  forests  within  easy  access  of  fresh-water  lakes 
are  the  favourite  breeding-places  of  this  bird.  He  generally 
selects  the  loftiest  tree  in  the  forest,  his  main  object  being 
apparently  to  be  able  to  rise  at  once  from  the  nest  without 
being  incommoded  by  the  branches  of  trees.  Thus  it  often 
happens  that  the  nest  is  visible  at  the  distance  of  a  mile.  The 
structure  is  enormously  large,  and  from  three  to  four  feet  in 
diameter,  and  occasionally  as  high.  It  is  usually  placed  upon 
the  summit  of  a  pine-tree,  one  having  a  dead  top  being  pre- 
ferred. At  the  outside  it  extends  so  far  over  the  branches  that 
it  is  very  often  difficult  to  reach.  The  foundation  is  made  of 
branches  intermixed  with  decaying  vegetable  matter  and  sods  ; 
the  upper  surface  is  flat,  and  consists  of  finer  twigs  covered 
over  with  green  and  dry  grass,  the  eggs  being  laid  in  a  slight 
hollow  in  the  middle,  not  more  than  a  foot  across,  and  scarcely 
two  inches  deep." 

Eggs. — The  eggs  of  the  Osprey  are  among  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  of  the  Birds  of  Prey,  and  are  very  finely  marked  as  a 
rule.  The  ground-colour  is  white,  which  is  sometimes  entirely 
hidden  by  the  red  or  purple  blotches  which  congregate  at  the 
larger  end  of  the  egg.  Those  with  large  blotches  of  colour 
are  the  commonest  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  handsome, 
for  occasionally  the  markings  are  much  smaller,  and  take  the 
form  of  spots,  streaks,  and  marblings,  which  are  distributed 
over  the  whole  surface.  Axis,  2'35-2'6  inches;  diam.,  i"j-i'g. 


I    2 


n6  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

THE    TRUE    RAPTORIAL   BIRDS.    SUB-ORDER 
FALCONES. 

The  name  Falcones  has  been  adopted  for  the  bulk  of  the 
Birds  of  Prey,  because  the  Falcons  may  be  considered  the 
most  typical  of  all  the  Hawks,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
present  Sub-order  includes  every  Accipitrine  Bird  except  the 
Ospreys  and  the  Owls.  From  both  of  these  groups  of  birds 
the  Falcones  differ  in  not  having  a  reversible  outer  toe,  and 
from  the  Owls  they  are  further  distinguished  by  the  absence 
o'f  the  facial  disk  and  the  presence  of  a  cere. 

Putting  aside  the  American  Turkey  Vultures  and  the  Con- 
dors, which  form  a  separate  Sub-order,  and  are  quite  distinct 
from  the  ordinary  Birds  of  Prey,  we  may  divide  the  remaining 
species  into  two  main  families,  Vulturidce  and  Falconida. 

THE   VULTURES.     FAMILY   VULTURID^. 

The  principle  character  by  which  a  Vulture  is  known  is  by 
its  bare  head,  which  is  either  quite  naked  or  only  scantily 
clothed  with  down.  There  is  generally  a  ruff  of  feathers  or 
down  round  the  neck,  but  true  feathers  are  never  developed 
on  the  crown  of  the  head.  The  feet  are  strong,  but  are  not 
formed  for  grasping,  as  in  the  rest  of  the  Hawks,  but  rather 
for  holding  their  prey  firmly,  while  they  tear  it  to  pieces  with 
their  powerful  bills.  They  feed  almost  entirely  on  carrion, 
and  never  capture  anything  in  full  flight.  They  are  entirely 
peculiar  to  the  Old  World. 

THE  GRIFFON  VULTURES.     GENUS   GYPS. 

Gyps,  Savigny,  Descr.  de  1'Egypte,  p.  232  (1809). 

Type,  G.  fulvus  (Gm.). 

All  the  species  of  Griffon  Vulture  have  down  on  the  crown, 
and  a  ruff  round  the  neck.     They  are  all  birds  of  large  size 
and  have  an  immense  bill,  with  a  perpendicular  oval  nostril. 
The  toes  are  very  long,  and  the  middle  one  even  exceeds  the 
tarsus  in  length.     Their  general  colour  is  brown,  sometime 
rather  tawny,  in  some  species  nearly  white  or  creamy-white 


THE   GRIFFON    VULTURES. 


117 


while  Riippell's  Vulture  (Gyps  rueppellt)  is  remarkable  for  the 
whitish  tips  to  the  feathers  of  the  upper  surface.  The  Griffon 
Vultures  are  distributed  over  the  Mediterranean  Region  in 
Europe,  the  whole  of  Africa,  the  Indian  Peninsula,  and  the 
Burmese  provinces  down  to  the  Malayan  Peninsula. 

I.    THE   GRIFFON    VULTURE.       GYPS    FULVUS. 

Yultur  futons,  Gm.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  249  (1788). 

Cvps  fulvus,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  i  (1871);  Sharpe, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  6  (1874);    Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p. 

373)  pis-  3*9,  320  (l879)  ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  4 

(1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  91  (1883);  Saunders,  Man. 

Br.  B.  p.  301  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxiii. 


Adult  Male.  —  Ashy-fulvous  above,  with  a  slight  shade  of  grey 
on  some  of  the  feathers,  some  of  which  are  darker  brown, 
giving  the  bird  a  mottled  appearance  ;  wing-coverts  a  little 
paler  than  the  back,  the  greater  series  edged  and  tipped  with 
creamy-white  ;  lower  back  and  rump  darker  brown  ;  the  upper 
tail-coverts  pale  ochraceous-buff  ;  quills  and  tail  black,  slightly 
shaded  with  brown,  the  secondaries  broadly  edged  with  ashy, 
the  inner  ones  tipped  with  ochraceous-buff;  ruff  round  the 
neck  white,  and  composed  of  downy  feathers;  crop-patch 
brown  ;  under  surface  of  body  creamy-brown,  with  narrow 
whitish  shaft-lines  ;  cere  bluish-black  ;  bill  yellowish-white 
horn-colour  ;  feet  lead-colour  ;  iris  reddish-orange.  Total 
length,  about  40  inches  ;  culmen,  3*7  ;  wing,  about  29^0  ;  tail, 
i2'o  ;  tarsus,  4*4. 

Adult  Female.  —  Smaller  than  the  male  (Newton). 

Young  Birds.  —  More  tawny  than  the  adults  ;  the  ruff  round 
the  neck  composed  of  lanceolate  feathers,  which  are  whitish, 
with  tawny  margins  ;  crop-patch  rufous  fawn-colour,  like  the 
rest  of  the  under  surface,  with  a  whitish  mark  down  the  centre 
of  each  feather.  Total  length,  about  38  inches  ;  wing,  27*0. 

The  bird  which  I  separated  in  1874  as  the  Spanish  Griffon 
(Gyps  hispaniolensis}  is  now  considered  by  ornithologists  to 
be  the  young  of  G.  fulvus,  in  which  the  ruff  is  downy  instead 
of  being  composed  of  lanceolate  feathers.  I  accept  this  verdict 
at  present,  but  it  is  much  to  be  desired  that  the  changes  of 


n8  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

plumage  in  these  Griffon  Vultures  was  more  thoroughly  studied. 
Unfortunately  for  science,  the  habits  of  the  Griffons  and  the 
food  they  eat,  or  rather,  perhaps,  the  condition  in  which  they 
eat  it,  renders  the  preservation  of  Vultures  such  an  unsavoury 
task  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  any  naturalist  to  undertake 
the  task  of  preserving  a  series  of  specimens.  My  friend  the 
late  Mr.  W.  Davison,  who  skinned  many  Vultures,  told  me 
ihat  he  always  poured  a  good  dose  of  carbolic  acid  into  the 
gullet  of  the  birds,  before  he  dared  to  attempt  the  task  of 
skinning  them.  Anyone  who  sees  the  Bengal  Vultures  (Pseudo- 
gyps  bengalcnsis)  sitting  on  the  Towers  of  Silence  in  Bombay, 
row  upon  row,  packed  tightly  side  by  side,  and  knows  the 
name  of  the  food  that  distends  their  crops,  may  be  excused 
from  wishing  to  make  a  Museum  specimen  of  them,  even 
if  he  saw  that  their  state  of  plumage  was  interesting,  or  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  be  described  for  a  proper  understanding  of 
the  life-history  of  the  species. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  very  rare  and  occasional  visitor. 
Though  rumours  are  afloat  that  other  Griffon  Vultures  have 
been  seen  and  recognised  by  competent  observers,  whose  testi- 
mony would  be  received  without  hesitation  by  all  ornitholo- 
gists, there  is  but  a  single  example  which  is  so  far  authenticated 
as  British.  In  the  spring  of  1843,  a  specimen,  which  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders  affirms  to  be  a  young  bird  (i.e.  a  bird  of 
the  previous  year),  was  caught  by  a  boy  on  the  rocks  near  Cork 
Harbour,  and  was  presented  by  Lord  Shannon  to  the  Museum 
of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  it  still  remains. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  bird  like  the  Griffon, 
which  undoubtedly  wanders  far  in  search  of  food,  and,  an 
absentee  from  a  district  on  one  day,  is  present  on  the  next  in 
numbers,  if  a  battle  has  taken  place,  and  food  is  plentiful,  is 
not  the  easiest  bird  of  which  to  trace  the  exact  geographical  dis- 
tribution. Furthermore,  much  of  our  information  is  a  matter 
of  conjecture,  as  few  people  bring  back  skins  of  the  Vultures 
they  see,  that  identification  may  be  rendered  certain. 

The  Indian  Griffon  is  allowed  to  be  a  separate  race  or  sub- 
species under  the  name  of  Gyps  fulyescens,  Hume,  but  its 
range  is  very  doubtfully  determined,  and  so  the  eastern  limits 
of  the  Griffon  of  Europe  is  still  a  matter  of  conjecture. 


THE   GRIFFON    VULTURES.  119 

Supposing  that  the  Spanish  Griffon  is  not  distinct,  a  fact  by 
no  means  yet  proved  with  certainty,  for  lack  of  specimens,  the 
range  of  Gyps  fulvus  may  be  said  to  extend  over  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries,  and  probably  extends  far  into  the  Soudan,  as 
Major  Denham  brought  one  back  from  his  adventurous  journey 
across  Africa.  I  often  think  that  if  the  brave  traveller  had  not 
brought  a  bulky  Griffon's  skin,  but  had  collected  small  birds  to 
the  same  extent,  what  an  insight  he  might  have  given  us  to  the 
avifauna  of  Central  Africa,  which  remains  an  unknown  quan- 
tity to  the  present  day  !  The  European  Griffon  undoubtedly 
frequents  North-eastern  Africa  and  the  Red  Sea  district,  as 
far  south  as  Aden,  and  extends  eastwards  through  Asia  Minor 
to  Persia,  and  probably  to  Turkestan,  though  here  the  reigning 
species  may  be  the  Indian  Gyps fulvcscens. 

HaHts. — The  Griffon  Vulture  preys  exclusively  on  dead 
animals,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  seeks  its  prey 
entirely  by  sight  and  not  by  the  sense  of  smell,  as  many  ob- 
servers have  suggested.  Captain  Willoughby  Verner,  who 
has  climbed  to  many  Griffons'  eyries,  says  that  the  stench 
about  the  nests  is  dreadful,  "  an  indescribable  sickly  odour." 
Mr.  Seebohm  writes  :  "  The  stench  of  the  Griffonries  is 
almost  insupportable.  The  entrance  to  the  cavern  or  cleft 
in  the  rock  looks  as  if  pails  of  whitewash  had  been  emptied 
upon  it ;  and  the  effluvia  of  ammonia  and  putrefaction  are 
overpowering  to  all  but  the  most  enthusiastic  oologist.  One 
visit  to  the  nest  of  a  Vulture  is  sufficient  to  dispose  for  ever 
of  the  theory  that  these  birds  hunt  by  scent,  and  are  en- 
dowed with  highly-sensitive  olfactory  nerves.  The  only  con- 
dition in  which  the  existence  of  animal  life  seems  possible  in 
a  Griffonry,  is  in  the  case  of  animals  absolutely  devoid  of  any 
sense  of  smell  whatever." 

When  in  flight,  a  Griffon  Vulture  is  a  grand  bird,  and  will  sail 
almost  for  a  distance  of  a  mile  without  once  flapping  its  wings, 
and  in  the  air  they  float  round  and  round  without  a  movement 
of  the  wings,  probably  by  some  inclination  of  the  primaries, 
which  sometimes  seem  to  be  curved  upwards.  In  the  Hima- 
layas I  have  seen  them  thus  sweep  over  the  tops  of  the  high 
mountains  and  glide  across  the  valleys  with  a  sailing  flight, 
till  one  could  scarcely  judge  the  distance,  without  any  appa- 
rent movement  of  their  wings. 


i2o  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

The  Griffon  is  an  early  breeder,  and  begins  to  repair  its 
nest  in  January,  laying  towards  the  end  of  February  or  in 
March. 

Nest, — Composed  principally  of  sticks,  and  placed  on  a 
ledge  of  an  almost  inaccessible  rock,  or  in  a  hole  or  cave. 

Eggs. — One,  occasionally  two  ;  generally  white  without  mark- 
ings, but  sometimes  streaked  or  blotched  with  pale  reddish- 
brown.  Some  eggs  are  even  handsomely  marked  with  the 
latter  colour.  Axis,  3*7;  diam.,  2*8. 

THE  SCAVENGER  VULTURES.  GENUS  NEOPHRON. 

Neophron,  Savigny,  Syst.  Ois.  de  PEgypte,  p.  238  (1808). 

Type,  N.  percnopterus  (L.). 

The  Neophrons  are  distinguished  by  their  small  size  and 
very  slender  bills,  the  nostrils  being  placed  horizontally  in  the 
latter.  Four  species  of  these  Scavenger  Vultures  are  known 
to  science,  two  of  them  white  and  two  brown  in  colour.  The 
latter  have  the  crop-patch  feathered,  and  are  confined  to 
Africa,  one  of  them,  N.  pileatus,  being  found  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  continent,  and  the  other,  N.  monachus,  being  an 
inhabitant  of  North-eastern  Africa  and  certain  parts  of 
Western  Africa. 

Of  the  two  white  Scavenger  Vultures  which  have  the  crop- 
patch  bare  instead  of  feathered,  the  one  which  is  found  in 
Europe  is  the  best  known,  and  extends  throughout  the  Medi- 
terranean Region,  being  replaced  in  India  by  a  closely-allied 
form,  N.  ginginianus. 

I.  THE  EGYPTIAN  SCAVENGER  VULTURE.   NEOPHRON 
PERCNOPTERUS. 

Vultur  percnopterus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  123  (1766)  ;  Seeb. 

Hist.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  n  (1883). 
Neopliron   percnopterus,    Macg.    Br.    B.    iii.    p.    166    (1840) ; 

Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  6  (1871);  Sharpe,  Cat. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  17  (1874);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  39, 

pi.    322  (1879);    B.   O.  U.  List   Br.   B.    p.   92  (1883); 

Saunders,   Man.  Br.  B.  p.  303  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 

Br.  B.  part  xxiii.  (1893). 

(Plate  XLL] 


PLATE       XLI. 


EGYPTIAN       VULTURE 


THE   SCAVENGER    VULTURES.  121 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  white,  with  a  little  tinge  of  rust- 
colour  on  the  neck-hackles ;  the  primaries  black,  externally 
ashy-white  at  the  base ;  the  secondaries  dark  brown,  exter- 
nally ashy-white ;  the  head  bare  and  yellow,  with  a  little  scanty 
down  on  the  throat,  and  with  a  few  whitish  feathers  in  front 
of  the  eye  ;  chest  bare  ;  bill  pale  horny-brown  ;  feet  yellowish- 
white;  iris  red  or  reddish-brown.  Total  length,  25  inches; 
culmen,  2*8 ;  wing,  19*2 ;  tail,  io'o ;  tarsus,  3-5. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour. 

Young  Birds. — Differ  from  the  adults  in  being  blackish-brown 
in  colour,  with  fulvous  tips  to  the  feathers.  As  the  birds  grow 
older,  the  mantle  and  the  wing-coverts  become  more  and  more 
of  an  ochre  shade,  till  they  gradually  assume  the  white  plumage 
of  the  adults ;  fore  part  of  head  and  neck  dirty  grey. 

Kange  in  Great  Britain. — Two  specimens  are  all  that  have  been 
obtained  within  our  limits,  and  the  Egyptian  Vulture  must  be 
reckoned  as  one  of  our  rarest  and  most  occasional  visitants. 
Two  birds  were  observed  in  October,  1825,  in  Bridgewater 
Bay  in  Somersetshire,  and  one  of  them,  a  young  bird,  was  shot. 
In  September,  1868,  another  was  killed  in  Essex,  at  Peldon. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Chiefly  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Mediterranean  countries,  extending  eastwards  to  Central  Asia, 
and  said  to  occur  also  in  North-western  India.  It  is  found  in 
Southern  France  and  throughout  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  breed- 
ing also  in  the  Canaries,  Madeira,  and  the  Cape  Verd  Islands. 
Thence  it  extends  eastwards  on  both  sides  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  Egypt  and  North-eastern  Africa,  to  the  Caucasus, 
Persia,  and  Turkestan.  In  winter  it  wanders  south  through 
Africa  down  to  the  Cape  Colony.  In  the  Indian  Peninsula  it 
is  represented  by  a  closely  allied  form,  Neophron  ginginianus, 
which  has  a  yellow  bill,  and  is  rather  smaller  in  all  its  dimen- 
sions. In  confinement  Colonel  Irby  says  that  it  takes  three 
years  for  a  Neophron  to  assume  the  adult's  white  plumage,  but 
in  a  wild  state  he  believes  that  it  is  donned  with  great  rapidity. 

Habits — The  Scavenger  Vulture  is  a  filthy  bird,  according  to 
human  notions,  but  is  a  useful  one  in  the  hot  climates  where  it 
lives.  It  arrives  early  in  Europe,  and  the  earliest  dates  of  its 
northward  migration  near  Gibraltar  is  the  23rd  of  February, 


122  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

though  the  bulk  of  the  migration  takes  place  in  March,  the! , 
laying  of  the  eggs  taking  place  about  the  ist  of  May. 

The  food  of  the  present  species  consists  of  all  kinds  oft 
carrion,  dung,  and  putrefying  substances  of  all  sorts.  It  will! 
take  its  meal  from  a  carcase  after  the  Hyaenas  and  Griffons! 
have  had  their  share,  and  even  frequents  the  sea-shore  to  I 
pick  up  rotten  fish  thrown  up  by  the  tide.  Though  repul-1 
sive  in  its  habits,  everyone  admits  that  the  Neophron  is  al 
fine  bird  on  the  wing.  In  the  Himalayas  I  found  the  Indian! 
representative  of  the  genus  inhabiting  the  lower  valleys,  where  1 
they  sailed  majestically  backwards  and  forwards,  scanning  the! 
ground  below.  At  Simla  they  never  ascended  to  the  higher! 
portions  of  the  mountains,  where  the  Griffons  were  to  be  seen  I 
topping  the  crest  in  the  early  morning  on  their  far-reaching  | 
course,  but  hundreds  of  feet  down  below  one  could  see  the  I 
White  Scavengers  sailing  in  the  valley  in  circles  or  in  a  direct  I 
line. 

From  their  habits  one  can  gather  the  idea  of  what  their  nest  t 
may  be  like.     Here  is  the  description  given  by  that  excellent  I 
observer,  Colonel  Irby,  in  his  work  on  the  "  Ornithology  of  fi 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  "  : — "  The  nest  is  often  easily  accessible  I 
from  below,  and,  placed  on  a  ledge  of  some  overhung  rock,  I 
generally  at  the  top  of  a  sierra,  is  composed  of  a  few  dead  I 
sticks,  always  lined  with  wool,  rags,  and  rubbish,  such  as  a  I 
dog's  head,  boars'  tusks,  dead  kittens,  foxes'  skulls  and  fur,  I 
rotten   hedge-hogs,    dead   toads,    dead    snakes,  skeletons   of  I 
snakes,   lizards,  mummified  lizards,  lizards'  heads,  carapaces  I 
of  the  water-tortoise,  rotten  fish,  excrement  both  of  man  and  | 
beast,   bones,  bits  of  rope  and  paper.     In  one  nest  Major 
Verner  found,  among  a  heap  of  filthy  rags,  a  number  of  meal- 
worms.    Probably  the  Neophron  had  picked   up  a  bag  with 
some  flour  in  it.     Naturally,  from  the  above-mentioned  con- 
tents,  their   nests  are   most   offensively   odoriferous ! "      He 
further  adds  : — "  They  are  probably  among  the  foulest  feeding 
birds  that  live,  and  are  very  omnivorous,  devouring  any  animal 
substance,  even  all  sorts  of  excrement :  nothing  comes  amiss 
to  them." 

Nest. — A  mass  of  sticks  and  rubbish,  as  described  above. 
As  a  rule  in  Southern  Europe,  the  nest  is  placed  on  the  ledge 


THE   ACCIPITRINE    BIRDS.  £23 

""  jof  a  rock,  and  not  often  on  a  tree,  but  this  sometimes  happens. 

[The  Indian  Scavenger  Vulture,  however,  often  nests  on  a  tree, 

^[appropriating   the   old  nest  of  some  other  bird,  just  as  the 

^Egyptian  Vulture  in  Greece  and  other  countries  of  the  Mediter- 

•  ranean  will  make  use  of  the  disused  nest  of  a  Laemmer-geier, 
or  Bearded  Eagle,  and  lays  its  eggs  among  the  carapaces  which 
that  bird  has  collected,  after  having  cracked  them  upon  the 

i  bald  skulls  of  the  descendants  of  ^Eschylus,  or  upon  the  rocks 
which,  in  modern  times,  do  duty  for  that  convenient  mode  of 

•  breaking  up  Tortoises. 

Eggs.  —  These  are  generally  very  handsome,  being  profusely 

"r  spotted  with  red  on  a  white  ground.    The  amount  of  red  mark- 

ing varies  considerably.     They  are   generally  two   in  number, 

•  and  often  only  one  egg  is  laid,  while  on  very  rare  occasions 
'.three  have  been   met  with.     Axis,   2-5-275   inches;   diam., 


THE  TRUE   RAPTORIAL,   OR   ACCIPITRINE, 
BIRDS.     FAMILY   FALCONID^E. 

Although  the  name  of  Falconida  is  generally  in  use  for  the 
Birds  of  Prey  as  a  whole,  the  Family  includes  a  number  of 
;Vccipitrine  forms  which  are  far  removed  from  the  Falcons, 
Jarhich  the  name  of  the  Family  would  imply  as  being  the  most 
r  j;ypical.  Between  the  True  Falcons  and  the  Vultures  are  found 

number  of  intermediate  types,  which  are  divisible  into 
sub-families.  Thus  we  have  the  Caracaras  of  South  America 
'  Polyborin(Z\  Ground  Birds  of  Prey,  with  their  toes  connected 
a  membrane.  To  these  the  Secretary-Bird  of  Africa  is 
ikin,  but  presents  so  many  points  of  structural  difference  that 
t  may  be  considered  the  type  of  a  separate  Sub-family  (Ser- 
mntariince))  now  peculiar  to  Africa,  but  found  in  ancient  times 
n  France.  Of  the  general  mass  of  Accipitrine  Birds,  which 
mve  only  a  slight  membrane  connecting  the  outer  and  middle 
:oes  at  the  base,  we  have  four  Sub-families  :  the  Long-legged 
Hawks  (Accipitrina),  such  as  the  Harriers,  Goshawks,  and 
sparrow-Hawks  ;  and  the  shorter-legged  series,  comprising  the 
Buzzards  (Buteonina\  the  Eagles  (Aquilina),  and  the  Falcons 
[Falconince). 

With  the  web-footed  Birds  of  Prey  we  have  nothing  to  do, 


124  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

as  they  are  American  and  African,  but  the  Long-legged  Hawks 
concern  us,  as  representatives  of  the  principal  genera  are  found 
in  Great  Britain,  and  constitute  the  first  Sub-family  of  our  true 
Raptores,  or  Birds  of  Prey. 

THE   LONG-LEGGED   HAWKS.     SUB-FAMILY 
ACCIPITRIN^:. 

In  these  birds  the  membrane  between  the  toes  exists  only 
at  the  base  of  the  outer  and  middle  toes,  which  are  joined 
together  by  a  web.  The  tibia  is  very  long,  as  well  as  the 
tarsus,  and  these  two  portions  of  the  leg  are  about  equal  in 
length,  whereas  in  Buzzards,  Eagles,  and  Falcons  the  tibia 
is  conspicuously  longer  than  the  tarsus.  The  Long-legged 
Hawks  comprise  the  Harriers,  Goshawks,  and  Sparrow- 
Hawks  of  Europe,  as  well  as  many  tropical  forms,  such  as 
the  Gymnogenes  of  Africa  (Polyboroides\  curious  reptile- 
eating  Hawks,  apparently  distant  relations  of  the  Secretary 
Bird,  but  not  so  powerful  as  the  latter  bird,  which  is  a 
ground-loving  and  walking  species,  whereas  the  Gymnogene 
is  forest-loving  and  arboreal  in  its  ways,  It  has,  moreover 
the  curious  faculty,  not  yet  discovered  in  the  Secretary,  which, 
is  a  weak-kneed  individual  from  all  accounts,  of  being  ablt 
to  turn  its  leg  backwards  or  forwards  at  will  by  an  apparent 
dislocation  of  the  tibio-tarsal  joint,  an  advantage  in  the  catch- 
ing of  reptiles  which  is  said  to  be  shared  by  its  relative,  the 
American  genus  Geranospizias.  To  this  section  of  the  Birds 
of  Prey  belong  also  the  Chanting-Goshawks  (Mdierax)  of 
Africa. 

THE   HARRIERS.     GENUS   CIRCUS. 

Circus,  Lacep.  Mem.  de  ITnst.  Paris,  iii.  p.  506  (1806). 

Type,  C.  cyaneus  (L.). 

The  Harriers  are  as  nearly  as  possible  cosmopolitan  birds. 
They  do  not  extend  very  far  north,  and  affecting,  as  they  do, 
localities  suited  to  their  mode  of  life,  they  are  absent  from 
some  of  the  forest-clad  regions  of  both  Hemispheres.  Then 
is  not,  however,  a  single  continent  that  is  without  its  Harrier 
and  these  birds  are  found  in  North  and  South  America,  Africa 


n 


THE   HARRIERS. 


125 


Europe  and  the  whole  of  Asia,  Australia  and  New  Zealand, 
and  even  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Although  they 
are  really  Long-legged  Hawks,  of  the  same  type  as  the  Sparrow- 
Hawks,  the  ruff  which  they  have  round  their  face  has  suggested 
their  alliance  with  the  Owls,  and  it  is  usual  in  works  on  Natural 
History  to  find  the  Harriers  placed  near  the  Owls  on  account 
of  this  peculiarity,  which,  however,  is  shared  by  the  Ruffed 
Gos-Hawks  (Micrastur\  and  no  one  has  as  yet  suggested 
that  the  latter  are  allied  to  Owls.  In  my  opinion,  this  single 
character  shows  no  absolute  affinity  whatever  between  the 
Harriers  or  the  Ruffed  Gos-Hawks  and  the  Owls,  which  are 
altogether  distinct  and  separate.  That  the  genus  Mtcrastur  and 
the  genus  Circus  have  certain  relationship  is  further  proved  by 
the  fact  that  both  genera  have  the  hinder  aspect  of  the  tarsus 
covered  with  reticulate  scales. 

Three  species  of  Harriers  are  found  in  Great  Britain.  They 
are  all  now  more  or  less  rare,  but  were  more  common  before 
the  draining  of  the  marsh-lands  deprived  them  of  so  much 
of  their  congenial  habitat. 

I.    THE    HEN-HARRIER.       CIRCUS   CYANEUS. 

Falco  cyaneus.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  126  (1766). 
Circus  cyaneus,  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  366  (1860);  Newton, 
ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  132  (1871);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.  i.  p.  52  (1874);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  431,  pis.  75, 
76  (1879);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  93  (1883);  Seebohm, 
Brit.  B.  i.  p.  128  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  307 
(1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  part  xxi.  (1892). 

(Plate  XLIL) 

Adult  Male. — Clear  blue-grey  or  bluish  ash-colour,  lighter  on 
the  greater  wing-coverts,  which  are  silvery-grey ;  under-parts 
white,  the  throat  and  upper  breast  blue-grey ;  base  of  fore- 
head and  lores  whitish,  the  ruff  also  mottled  with  white; 
primary  quills  black  both  above  and  below,  with  a  white 
base  to  the  inner  web;  the  secondaries  silvery-grey,  with 
black  shafts,  and  an  indistinct  sub-terminal  band  of  black ; 
upper  tail-coverts  white;  tail-feathers  ashy-grey,  tipped  with 
white,  the  four  central  feathers  uniform,  the  rest  more  or  less 
white  on  the  inner  webs,  with  remains  of  ashy  bars;  cere 
yellow :  bill  bluish-black ;  feet  yellow,  claws  black ;  iris 


126  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

yellow.     Total  length,  22  inches;  culmen,  1*15;  wing,  13*5; 
tail,  8-5  ;  tarsus,  0-9. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male,  and  rather  larger. 
Brown,  the  feathers  of  the  crown  slightly  washed  with  rufous ; 
nape  and  hind-neck  pale  tawny-buff,  streaked  with  dark 
brown  ;  the  scapulars  and  wing-coverts  with  large  oval  spots  ofl 
pale  tawny-buff;  quills  brown,  with  whitish  tips,  the  second- 
aries externally  washed  with  ashy-grey,  barred  with  blackish- 
brown,  these  bars  very  distinct  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
wing ;  upper  tail-coverts  white  ;  tail  greyish-brown,  tipped  with 
whitish,  and  crossed  with  five  bands  of  darker  brown,  of  which 
the  sub-terminal  one  is  much  broader ;  the  light  bands  on  the 
outer  tail-feathers  pale  creamy-buff,  shaded  with  ashy;  feathers 
of  the  forehead  and  above  and  below  the  eye  whitish ;  ear- 
coverts  and  cheeks  rufous,  streaked  with  dark  brown  ;  facial 
ruff  buffy-white,  streaked  with  brown ;  sides  of  neck  and 
under  surface  of  body  pale  tawny-buff;  the  lower  breast  and 
abdomen  whitish,  all  broadly  streaked  with  brown,  rather  more 
narrowly  on  the  thighs  and  abdomen,  where  the  streaks  are 
somewhat  tinged  with  rufous  ;  flanks  and  axillaries  dark  brown, 
marked  on  both  webs  with  rounded  spots  of  creamy-buff;  cere 
greenish-yellow  ;  bill  blackish  ;  feet  yellow  ;  iris  reddish-brown. 
Total  length,  23  inches;  wing,  i5-i5'6;  tail,  io'3-iro;  tar- 
sus, 3-15. 

Young  Birds. — The  young  male  is  brown  like  the  old  female, 
but  is  always  to  be  recognised  by  its  smaller  size,  as  the  wingj 
never  exceeds  14  inches  in  length.     The  plumage  is  always 
more  rufous  than  in  the  old  female,  especially  on  the  lower] 
parts  and  about  the  head  and  neck ;  facial  ruff  clear  fulvous,] 
streaked  with  dark  brown;  feathers  above,  around,  and  below 
the  eye  pure  white,  forming  a  very  conspicuous  facial  patch  ; 
under  surface  of  body  tawny-rufous,  with  dark  brown  streaks, 
narrower  on   the   abdomen  ;    upper   tail-coverts   white,   with 
streaks  of  rufous-brown  ;  tail  tawny-rufous,  with  a  buff  tip,  and 
crossed  by  four  blackish  bands. 

A  young  female  is  like  the  old  female,  but  has  the  bars  on 
the  tail  rufous. 

Characters. — An  adult  male  Hen-Harrier  can  always  be  told 


THE    HARRIERS.  127 

by  its  bluish-grey  plumage,  white  upper  tail-coverts,  uniform 
white  thighs,  and  the  bluish-ashy  colour  of  the  throat  and 
chest.  An  adult  female  can  always  be  recognised  by  having  a 
"scallop,"  or  indentation,  on  the  outer  web  of  the  fifth  pri- 
mary quill.  This  character  is  also  sufficient  to  tell  the  young 
birds  of  the  Hen-Harrier  from  those  of  Montagu's  Harrier. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  present  species  was  formerly 
much  more  generally  distributed  as  a  breeding-species  than  it 
is  now.  Its  numbers  have  been  decreased  by  its  being  shot 
down  by  gamekeepers,  and  the  bringing  into  cultivation  of 
much  of  the  waste-land  in  which  the  species  delights  has  also 
been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  its  diminution  in  numbers. 
At  one  time  the  Hen-Harrier  used  to  breed  in  many  counties 
of  England  and  Wales,  but  in  most  of  these  it  has  ceased  to 
do  so  for  the  reasons  above-mentioned.  In  the  Highland 
counties  of  Scotland  the  species  still  nests,  as  well  as  in  the 
Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  and  also  in  the  Hebrides.  In  Ireland 
Mr.  Ussher  states  that  it  breeds  sparingly  in  Kerry  and  Gal- 
way,  and  possibly  still  in  Antrim,  Queen's  County,  Tipperary, 
and  Waterford,  but  has  become  very  scarce.  It  seems  to  have 
been  exterminated  from  Donegal  and  Londonderry. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Throughout  the  greater 
part  of  Europe  the  Hen-Harrier  is  chiefly  known  between 
spring  and  autumn,  and  it  is  probably  only  in  the  British 
Islands  that  any  remain  during  the  winter.  It  breeds  in 
Northern  Europe,  and  has  been  noticed  by  Dr.  Collett  from 
East  Finmark,  and  Wolley  found  it  breeding  in  Lapland  beyond 
68°  N.  lat,  according  to  Professor  Newton.  Mr.  Seebohm 
states  that  he  has  seen  the  Hen-Harrier  on  the  tundras  of 
Northern  Russia  and  Siberia,  more  than  a  hundred  miles 
beyond  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  its  range  extends  across  Siberia 
to  Corea  and  the  Japanese  Islands.  In  suitable  localities  the 
species  breeds  in  Central  Europe  from  Denmark  and  Ger- 
many to  the  Alps  and  Carpathians,  as  well  as  in  Central 
France.  In  winter  it  migrates  south  and  visits  North-eastern 
Africa,  India,  and  China,  in  all  of  which  countries  it  appears 
in  some  numbers  in  the  cold  season. 

Habits. — The  Hen-Harrier  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  fens  and 
moors,  where  it  may  be  seen  quartering  the  ground  in  search 


128  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

of  its  food,  which  consists  of  small  mammals  and  reptiles, 
these  forming  its  chief  subsistence,  though  it  will  also  catch 
small  birds,  and  devour  both  eggs  and  nestlings  of  Game- 
Birds.  Professor  Newton  describes  the  flight  of  the  Hen- 
Harrier  as  performed  apparently  without  much  labour,  easy 
and  buoyant,  but  not  rapid,  and,  except  in  the  breeding- 
season,  generally  within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  which  they  examine  with  great  care,  making  close  and 
diligent  search  for  any  object  of  food  They  have  been  ob- 
served to  hunt  the  same  ground  regularly,  and  a  male  bird  has 
been  seen  to  examine  a  large  wheat-stubble  thoroughly,  cross- 
ing it  in  various  directions,  always  about  the  same  hour  in  the 
afternoon,  and  for  many  days  in  succession. 

Taczanowski  says  that  the  present  species  feeds  on  rodents, 
frogs,  lizards,  large  insects,  and  the  eggs  and  chicks  of  small 
birds,  but  it  also  often  catches  the  old  birds  on  their  nests  or 
when  they  are  hiding  in  the  grass.  Sometimes  it  will  pursue 
the  small  birds  as  they  fly  up  from  the  latter,  but  if  the 
Harrier  does  not  manage  to  catch  them  at  once,  it  soon 
relinquishes  the  chase.  It  will  sometimes  capture  Sandpipers, 
Quails,  Plovers,  and  other  birds.  The  eggs  which  it  devours 
are  mostly  those  of  small  birds  which  breed  on  the  ground, 
such  as  the  small  Plovers,  but  Ducks'  nests  are  but  seldom 
plundered  by  it,  as  it  does  not  often  frequent  the  places  where 
those  birds  breed. 

Nest. — The  nest  is  placed  on  the  ground,  and  according  to 
Taczanowski,  who  has  given  a  very  interesting  account  of  the 
habits  of  this  Harrier,  it  is  often  situated  in  the  brushwood 
in  the  middle  of  the  prairies  or  marshes,  and  in  many  localities 
in  corn-fields.  The  nest  is  generally  in  a  dry  situation,  never 
in  very  moist  places,  more  often  on  the  flat  ground  than  on 
any  small  elevation.  The  nest  contains  few  branches,  and 
never  rushes ;  as  a  rule,  on  a  bed  composed  of  some  sort  of 
rameaux,  the  bird  deposits  a  layer  of  fine  and  long  dry  grass, 
so  as  to  form  a  compact  mass,  flattened  down,  about  two  feet 
wide  and  four  or  five  inches  high,  slightly  hollowed  towards 
the  centre  of  the  nest.  The  eggs  are  generally  four  in  number, 
more  rarely  three.  The  female  sits  very  close,  and  will  not 
move  even  when  a  man  passes  quite  near  to  the  nest,  but  the 


THE   HARRIERS. 


I29 


male  is  extremely  vigilant,  and  as  soon  as  he  perceives  an 
enemy,  he  comes  towards  him  with  a  cry,  and  suddenly  utter- 
ing a  note  like  "  ker-ker-ker,"  produced  at  short  intervals,  he 
continues  to  charge  and  reveals  at  once  the  situation  of  the 
nest.  The  female  will  not  budge  from  the  nest,  and  is  not 
more  wary  even  after  she  has  been  fired  at.  Both  parents  are 
very  assiduous  in  their  care  of  the  young  ones. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number,  bluish-white  in  colour, 
with  occasionally  yellowish-brown  or  rusty  markings.  Axis, 
17-2-0  inches;  diam.,  1-25-1-5.  The  Hen-Harrier  is  rather 
a  late  breeder,  and  lays  its  eggs  towards  the  end  of  May  and 
throughout  the  month  of  June. 

ii.   MONTAGU'S  HARRIER.    CIRCUS  PYGARGUS. 
Fako  pygargus.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  148  (1766). 
Circus  cmeraceus,  Mont;  Macg.  Brit.   B.   iii.  p.  378(1840); 

Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  138  (1871)  ;  Seeb.  Brit.  B.  i. 

p.  131  (1883). 
Circus  pygargus,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  64  (1874) ; 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  423,  pi.  328  (1878) ;  B.  O.  U.  List 

Br.  B.  p.  93  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  309  (1889) ; 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxvii.  (1893). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  bluish-grey,  the  wing- 
coverts  slightly  darker  than  the  back,  and  having  a  terminal 
spot  of  dark  ash-colour ;  primary-coverts  and  secondary-quills 
silvery-grey,  narrowly  tipped  with  white,  and  crossed  by  two 
bands  of  black,  very  plainly  seen  on  the  under  surface  of  these 
quills ;  primary-quills  black,  the  inner  ones  shaded  with  grey 
towards  the  tips  and  on  the  inner  web ;  upper  tail-coverts 
white,  ashy-grey  at  the  tips,  with  a  sub-terminal  shade  of  deep 
ashy  colour,  and  sometimes  with  two  ashy-grey  bands ;  tail- 
feathers  cindery-grey,  the  two  central  ones  uniform,  the  re- 
mainder crossed  with  five  broad  bars  of  ashy-black,  more 
rufous  on  the  outer  feathers,  which  have  the  interspaces  white ; 
lores  whitish  ;  the  facial  ruff  cindery-grey  like  the  head  ;  throat 
and  breast  pale  bluish-ashy;  abdomen,  flanks,  thighs,  and 
under  wing-  and  tail-coverts  white,  with  distinct  longitudinal 
streaks  of  rufous  fawn-eolour ;  axillaries  with  large  diamond- 
shaped  cross-markings  of  rufous;  cere  greenish-yellow;  bill 

8  K 


130  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

blackish;  feet  yellow;  iris  yellow.     Total  length,  1 8  inches  ; 
culmen,  n  ;  wing,  i3'5-i5'o;  tail,  9-8;  tarsus,  2-3. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male.  Nearly  uniform 
brown  above,  with  slight  remains  of  rufous  margins  to  the 
feathers ;  head  and  hind-neck  streaked  with  pale  rufous,  as  well 
as  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  the  facial  ruff;  ear-coverts  nearly 
uniform  brown,  the  feathers  under  the  eye  whitish  ;  quills  dark 
brown,  the  primary-coverts  and  primaries  shaded  with  grey  ex- 
ternally, and  barred  with  darker  brown,  more  distinctly  under- 
neath, where  the  quills  are  buffy  white  on  the  inner  web,  the 
inner  secondaries  being  brown  like  the  back;  upper  tail-coverts 
white ;  tail  brown,  tipped  with  paler  brown  and  crossed  with 
five  bands  of  darker  brown,  the  interspaces  paler  and  more 
rufescent  on  the  outer  rectrices,  inclining  to  whitish  on  the 
inner  web ;  under  surface  of  body  buffy  white,  with  rufous 
centres  to  the  feathers,  giving  a  distinctly  striped  appearance  ; 
cere  dull  yellow;  bill  black;  feet  yellow;  iris  hazel.  Total 
length,  19  inches;  wing,  15-3  ;  tail,  87  ;  tarsus,  1*4. 

Young  Birds. — Dark  brown  like  the  old  female,  with  pale 
tawny  margins  to  the  feathers  of  the  upper  surface,  the  white 
upper  tail-coverts  with  broad  tawny-buff  edges  and  narrow 
shaft-lines  of  dark  brown  ;  head  and  neck  rich  tawny  colour, 
the  feathers  centred  with  dark  brown  and  imparting  a  mottled 
appearance ;  lores,  eyebrow,  and  fore-part  of  ear-coverts  white, 
the  latter  washed  with  rufous ;  tail-feathers  deep  tawny  colour, 
inclining  to  buff  at  the  tip,  and  crossed  with  four  or  five  black- 
ish bands,  the  central  feathers  uniform  ashy-brown  with  five  dis- 
tinct black  bands  ;  throat  whitish  ;  facial  ruff  and  entire  under 
surface  of  body  clear  tawny-buff,  with  a  few  streaks  of  reddish- 
brown  on  the  upper  breast,  flanks,  and  upper  wing-coverts. 

Characters. — Montagu's  Harrier  is  a  smaller  bird  than  the 
Hen-Harrier,  and  the  adult  male  is  easily  distinguished  from 
the  male  of  the  latter  by  the  white  thighs,  which  have  also  rufous 
streaks,  or  spots.  The  throat  and  chest  are  ashy-grey.  The  adult 
female  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Hen-Harrier  by  the 
simple  test  of  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  notch  in  the  outer 
web  of  the  fifth  primary.  If  there  is  no  notch,  then  the  bird 
is  Montagu's  Harrier  and  not  the  Hen-Harrier.  This  same 
test  will  distinguish  the  young  birds  of  the  two  species,  and  I 


THE   HARRIERS.  131 

may  say  that  these  characters,  suggested  as  specific  by  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders  more  than  twenty  years  ago,  have  over  and 
over  again  been  proved  by  me  to  hold  good. 

Montagu's  Harrier,  like  several  other  species  of  the  genus 
Circus,  is  subject  to  melanism,  and  old  birds  are  sometimes 
found  nearly  black,  while  the  young  birds  have  also  a  melanistic 
phase,  this  being  often  the  case  in  English-killed  specimens. 

Range  in  Great  Britain — A  spring  and  summer  visitor,  chiefly 
to  the  southern  and  eastern  counties,  in  some  of  which  it  still 
breeds,  recent  instances  having  been  recorded  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  Dorsetshire,  and  Norfolk.  It  has  also  been  known  to 
nest  in  Wales,  and  even  as  far  north  as  the  Solway  district  in 
Western  Scotland,  but  everywhere  in  the  north  of  England  it 
must  be  considered  a  rare  and  occasional  visitor  only.  In  Ire- 
land it  has  occurred  on  four  occasions,  in  Co.  Wexford  and 
Co.  Wicklow. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  present  species  does 
not  extend  its  range  so  far  north  as  the  Hen-Harrier,  and  the 
neighbourhood  of  St.  Petersburg  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland 
appear  to  constitute  the  northern  limits  of  the  species  in 
Europe.  In  Central  Europe  and  in  Central  and  Southern 
Russia  it  breeds  generally,  and  in  Spain  it  is  a  resident  in 
suitable  localities,  receiving  a  large  accession  of  numbers  in 
winter.  At  this  season  of  the  year  it  not  only  migrates  to 
Northern  Africa  and  the  Canaries,  but  passes  down  the  Nile 
Valley,  even  to  the  Cape  Colony.  Eastwards  the  species  is 
found  as  far  as  Turkestan  and  South-western  Siberia,  but 
has  never  been  recorded  from  Eastern  Siberia.  The  eastern 
winter  range  extends  to  the  Indian  Peninsula  and  the  Burmese 
Provinces. 

Habits. — This  species  is  said  by  Colonel  Irby  to  possess  a 
lighter  and  more  Owl-like  flight  than  the  other  European 
Harriers,  and  the  wings  are  longer  in  proportion  than  in  the 
other  species  of  the  genus  Circus.  It  arrives  in  Central  Europe 
in  March  and  April,  and  leaves  in  October. 

Not  only  during  its  winter  migrations  is  the  present  species 
gregarious,  but  it  appears  frequently  to  nest  in  company,  and 
Colonel  Irby  found  a  colony  of  fifteen  or  twenty  pairs  breeding 

K  2 


132  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

in  a  marsh  near  Lixus  in  Marocco  at  the  end  of  April,  and  he 
could  see  with  his  telescope  the  hen-birds  "sitting  dotted 
about  the  marsh."  Montagu's  Harrier  hunts  for  its  food  in 
the  usual  manner  of  these  birds,  and  is  also,  like  all  Harriers, 
very  destructive  to  the  eggs  of  other  birds,  of  which  it  eats  a 
great  number.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  relates  that  he  took  two 
unbroken  eggs  of  the  Crested  Lark  from  the  crop  of  a  male  of 
one  of  these  Harriers,  with  the  crushed  remains  of  others,  but 
with  the  exception  of  this  evil  propensity,  the  bird  devours 
large  numbers  of  small  rodents,  frogs,  snakes,  and  lizards,  as 
well  as  locusts,  grasshoppers,  and  other  insects.  Small  birds 
also  fall  victims  to  its  rapacity,  but  the  Harrier  does  not  pursue 
them  in  full  flight,  but  pounces  on  them  on  the  nest  or  on  the 
ground. 

Mr.  Seebohm  writes  : — "  Its  long  and  pointed  wings  give  an 
especial  gracefulness  to  its  flight.  Now  it  darts  rapidly  with 
half-closed  wings,  now  it  makes  a  sudden  turn  with  one  wing 
elevated,  and  now  it  sails  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  with 
motionless  outspread  wings ;  but,  with  all  its  apparent  power 
of  flight,  it  seldom,  if  ever,  pursues  small  birds  if  they  attempt 
to  escape."  Montagu's  Harrier  has  also  the  habit  of  sailing 
in  wide  circles,  like  many  other  Birds  of  Prey.  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  describes  the  female,  which  he  put  off  the  nest  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  as  "  flying  away  in  repeated  and  ever  widen- 
ing circles.  The  same  feature  was  remarked  on  the  return  to 
the  nest :  the  wide  circles  gradually  narrowed,  and  the  wings 
were  suddenly  closed  as  the  bird  swept  over  the  nest  and 
dropped  upon  it."  The  last-named  observer  also  states  that 
the  young  birds  sometimes  circle  and  hover  with  outspread 
wings  and  tail,  like  Kestrels,  though  less  steadily,  and  the  white 
colour  of  the  tail-coverts  distinguishes  the  species  at  a  glance. 

Nest. — A  very  slight  one,  generally  a  mere  hollow  in  the 
ground,  lined  with  dry  grass.  In  the  fens,  however,  Mr. 
Saunders  says  that  it  is  substantially  built  of  sedge.  A  nest 
found  by  Mr.  Seebohm  in  Germany  in  a  field  of  rye  is  thus 
described  by  him  : — "  There  was  no  hole  whatever  in  the 
ground :  the  rye  had  only  been  trampled  down,  and  a  slight 
but  somewhat  neat  nest  made  of  corn-stalks,  and  lined  with 
a  little  dry  straw.  The  nest  was  rather  more  than  nine  inches 


PLATE     XLIII. 


d 


MARSH -HARRIER. 


THE   HARRIERS.  13$ 

in  diameter,  and  about  two  inches  and  a  half  deep  in  the 
middle." 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number,  laid  at  intervals  about 
the  end  of  May.  They  are  bluish-white,  but,  on  rare  occasions, 
have  some  pale  reddish  spots.  Axis,  i -6-1-8;  diam.,  1-3-1 -45. 

III.    THE   MARSH-HARRIER.      CIRCUS   ^ERUGINOSUS. 

Falco  (zruginosus.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  130  (1766). 
Circus  aruginosus,  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  382  (1840);  Newt. 
ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  127  (1871);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.  i.  p.  69  (1874) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  415,  pis.  326, 
327  (1878) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  92  (1883) ;  Saunders, 
Man.  Br,  B.  p.  305  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part 
xiv.  (1890). 

(Plate  XL! II.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dark  brown,  the  feathers 
slightly  margined  with  rufous ;  lesser  wing-coverts  buffy-white, 
with  dark  brown  centres;  outer  greater-coverts,  primary-coverts, 
and  secondaries  bluish-ashy,  slightly  tipped  with  white,  the 
innermost  secondaries  brown,  washed  with  more  or  less  ashy- 
grey  ;  primary-quills  blackish-brown,  paler  at  the  tips,  creamy- 
white  at  the  base  of  the  inner  web,  increasing  in  extent  towards 
the  secondaries,  which  are  entirely  light  ashy  below;  upper 
tail-coverts  white,  slightly  washed  with  grey,  and  tinged  with 
rufous ;  tail  uniform  bluish  ash-colour,  paler  and  somewhat 
fulvescent  underneath ;  entire  head  and  neck  creamy-buff, 
streaked  with  dark  brown,  the  mantle  being  also  slightly 
streaked ;  facial  ruff  indistinct,  of  the  same  colour  as  the 
rest  of  the  head  and  neck ;  sides  of  face  and  throat  white, 
narrowly  streaked  with  dark  brown,  the  hinder  margin  of  the 
ear-coverts  uniform  brown ;  under  surface  of  body  creamy-buff, 
the  breast  longitudinally  streaked  with  brown ;  abdomen  and 
thighs  more  rufous,  with  fulvous  edges  to  the  feathers,  so  that 
they  appear  to  be  streaked  with  buff;  under  wing-coverts  and 
axillaries  uniform  buffy-white,  the  latter  having  brown  shaft- 
lines  ;  cere  greenish-yellow ;  bill  blackish ;  feet  yellow,  the 
claws  black;  iris  bright  yellow.  Total  length,  22-5  inches; 
culmen,  1*55;  wing,  i6'o;  tail,  io'o  ;  tarsus,  3-4. 

Adult  Female. — In  1874,  when  I  wrote  the  first  volume  of 
the  "  Catalogue  of  Birds,"  I  was  under  the  impression  that 


134  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

fully  adult  females  of  the  Marsh-Harrier  resembled  the  male 
in  plumage,  nor  am  I  yet  convinced  that  both  in  this  species 
and  Montagu's  Harrier,  the  full  plumage  of  the  female  birds  is 
not  a  counterpart  of  that  of  the  males.  I  am  bound  to  con- 
fess, however,  that  recent  observers  have  not  confirmed  my 
opinion.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  and  Colonel  Irby,  both  of 
whom  have  seen  numbers  of  this  Harrier  in  life,  describe  the 
female  as  brown  above,  chocolate-brown  below,  with  a  creamy- 
white  margin  to  the  carpal  bend  of  the  wings,  and  the  head 
buff  or  creamy-white,  streaked  with  blackish-brown.  The  tail 
is  entirely  brown. 

Young  Birds. — At  first  the  plumage  of  the  young  bird  is  en- 
tirely chocolate-brown,  including  the  head.  The  latter  gradu- 
ally becomes  creamy-white  like  that  of  the  old  female,  which 
the  bird  then  closely  resembles.  The  iris  is  blackish. 

Characters. — Apart  from  its  much  larger  size,  the  Marsh- 
Harrier  is  further  distinguished  from  the  other  two  British 
species  by  its  rufous  thighs,  which  sometimes  have  whitish 
spots  or  margins  to  the  feathers.  The  tail  in  the  adult  male 
and  female  is  uniform  grey,  and  this  last  character  will  dis- 
tinguish the  melanistic  birds  also,  though  these  have  darker 
coloured  thighs,  in  fact  almost  blackish  in  tint.  Young  birds, 
apart  from  their  large  size,  may  unfailingly  be  distinguished  by 
having  the  outer  web  of  the  fifth  primary  notched,  the  chest 
perfectly  uniform,  with  no  streaks,  the  chin  and  centre  of  the 
breast  creamy-buff,  and  the  inner  webs  of  the  primaries  uni- 
form. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Marsh-Harrier  may  now  be 
considered  only  an  occasional  visitor  to  the  British  Islands, 
though  it  was  formerly  a  regular  breeder  in  the  fen  districts  of 
England,  and  its  nest  has  been  recorded  from  many  counties. 
Occasional  captures  in  Scotland  are  recorded,  but  the  evidence 
as  to  its  nesting  is  not  satisfactory.  In  Ireland,  however,  it 
still  nests,  and  Mr.  Ussher  says  that  it  "  breeds  sparingly  in 
Queen's  County  and  Galway,  and,  probably,  also  in  King's 
County  and  Westmeath,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  exter- 
minated in  Donegal,  Londonderry,  Tyrone,  Down,  Monaghan, 
Fermanagh,  Kilkenny,  Tipperary,  Cork,  and  Mayo,  and  has 
now  become  very  rare." 


THE   HARRIERS. 


135 


Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Marsh-Harrier  is  found 
generally  throughout  Europe  in  suitable  localities,  but  does 
not  extend  very  far  north,  though  it  breeds  in  Southern 
Sweden,  and  as  far  eastward  as  the  Valley  of  the  Ob,  an,d  even 
extends  to  Turkestan.  It  has  never  been  recorded  from 
Central  or  Eastern  Siberia,  being  replaced  in  the  latter  country 
by  Circus  spilonotus,  a  very  distinct  species,  easily  recognised 
in  its  adult  plumage,  but  scarcely  distinguishable  in  its  young 
stages  from  C.  ceruginosus.  The  supposed  occurrence  of  our 
Marsh-Harrier  in  Japan  is  doubtless  a  mistake,  and  the  species 
which  has  been  found  there  must  be  C.  spilonotus.  The 
winter  home  of  the  Marsh-Harrier  is  in  the  Indian  Peninsula, 
where  it  is  also  believed  by  Mr.  Hume  to  breed,  when  the 
flooded  condition  of  the  country  renders  suitable  spots  avail- 
able, and  it  is  also  said  to  wander  as  far  as  the  Transvaal  in 
South  Africa,  though  here  it  meets  with  an  allied  species, 
C.  maurus,  the  young  of  which  is  so  very  similar  to  that  of 
C.  ceruginosus,  that  great  caution  is  necessary  in  the  deter- 
mination of  specimens  from  the  countries  inhabited  by  other 
species  of  Marsh-Harriers.  In  most  of  the  Mediterranean 
countries  the  species  breeds,  receiving  a  great  influx  of  indivi- 
duals in  the  winter,  when  the  birds  bred  in  the  north  flock 
southward  on  migration. 

Habits. — Like  the  other  Harriers,  the  present  species  feeds 
on  small  mammals,  snakes,  and  other  small  reptiles,  and  also 
devours  a  large  number  of  eggs  and  young  birds.  It  will  also 
take  sitting  birds  by  surprise,  but  does  not  seem  capable  of 
capturing  them  in  full  flight,  though  it  will  seize  a  wounded 
bird,  and  follow  the  sportsman  in  the  hope  of  picking  up 
some  quarry.  Colonel  Irby  writes  of  the  species  in  Spain : — 
"  The  Marsh-Harriers  are  a  perfect  pest  to  the  sportsman,  as, 
slowly  hunting  along  in  front,  they  put  up  every  Snipe  and 
Duck  that  lie  in  their  course,  making  them  unsettled  and 
wild.  Cowardly  and  ignoble,  they  are  the  terror  of  all  the 
poultry  which  are  in  their  districts,  continually  carrying  off 
chickens,  and,  like  other  Harriers,  they  are  terribly  destruc- 
tive to  the  eggs  and  young  of  all  birds.  On  account  of 
these  propensities,  I  never  let  off  a  Marsh-Harrier,  unless  it 
spoiled  sport  to  fire  at  one.  Sometimes  when  at  Casas  Viejas, 
and  the  Snipe  were  scarce,  to  pass  away  the  time,  we  used  to 


136  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

lie  up  in  the  line  of  the  Harrier's  flight  to  their  roosting- 
places ;  for  they  always  take  the  same  course,  and  come,  even- 
ing after  evening,  within  five  minutes  of  the  same  time.  Upon 
one  occasion,  a  friend  and  myself  killed  eleven,  and  during 
that  visit  accounted  for  over  twenty.  We  also,  on  every  pos- 
sible opportunity,  destroyed  the  nest  and  shot  the  old  ones ; 
but  it  was  the  labour  of  Sisyphus,  for  others  immediately  ap- 
peared. However,  there  was  a  visvble  diminution  of  their 
numbers  about  Casas  Viejas.  We  never  found  rats  in  their 
nests  or  crops,  and  believe  that  they  have  not  the  courage 
to  kill  them :  small  snakes,  frogs,  wounded  birds,  eggs,  and 
nestlings  form  the  main  part  of  their  prey." 

Nest. — The  Marsh-Harrier  is,  in  many  places,  gregarious 
during  the  breeding-season  and  many  nests  are  found  in  the 
same  vicinity;  at  least  this  is  the  case  in  Southern  Spain 
and  Marocco.  The  nest  is  made  of  dead  sedge  and  reeds 
with  a  few  small  branches,  these  being  added  to  from  time 
to  time.  It  is  occasionally  found  in  a  tree,  but  is  generally 
placed  in  a  reed-bed,  sometimes  on  the  ground  and  among 
low  brambles,  always  near  water,  but  sometimes  far  from  any 
marshes.  A  disused  nest  of  a  Coot  or  Water-Hen  is  often 
adopted. 

Eggs. — From  three  to  six  in  number ;  pale  bluish  white,  very 
rarely  with  any  pale  brown  markings.  When  fresh  blown,  and 
held  up  to  the  light  they  show  a  bluish  tinge.  Axis,  r8-2'i ; 
diam.,  1-55. 

THE  GOS-IIAWKS.     GENUS  ASTUR. 

Astur,  Lacep.  Mem.  de  Flnst.  Paris,  iii.  p.  505  (1801). 

Type,  A.  pahunbarius  (L.). 

Although  belonging  to  the  long-legged  Hawks,  the  Gos- 
Hawks  are  much  more  stoutly  built  than  the  Harriers,  and 
have  no  facial  ruff  like  the  last-named  birds.  The  hinder 
aspect  of  the  tarsus,  also,  is  transversely  scaled,  and  not  arti- 
culate or  covered  with  a  network  of  small  scales  as  in  the 
Harriers.  They  comprise  birds  of  all  sizes,  just  like  the 
Sparrow-Hawks,  many  of  the  latter  exceeding  the  smaller 
Gos-Hawks  in  size.  There  is.  however,  one  character  by 


THE  GOS-HAWKS.  ^y 

which  these  two  genera  of  birds  can  be  told  apart.  The  Gos- 
Hawks,  as  we  have  already  said,  are  stouter  and  heavier  birds 
than  the  Sparrow-Hawks,  and  these  features  are  especially 
evidenced  by  their  large  bills  and  feet.  Thus  a  Gos-Hawk's 
bill  is  much  longer  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  its  head,  and 
the  middle  toe  is  shorter,  whereas  in  the  Sparrow-Hawks  the 
middle  toe  is  very  long,  and  the  bill  is  comparatively  small. 
Taking,  therefore,  the  length  of  the  ridge  of  the  bill  from  the 
cere  to  the  tip,  we  find  that  its  dimensions  go  more  than  twice 
into  the  length  of  the  middle  toe  in  a  Sparrow-Hawk,  but 
little  more  than  one  and  a  half  times  in  a  Gos-Hawk.  Other- 
wise the  two  genera  are  very  closely  assimilated,  and  all  the 
members  are  remarkable  for  their  short  wings,  in  direct  contrast 
to  the  long  wings  of  the  True  Falcons. 

The  Gos-Hawks  are  nearly  cosmopolitan  in  their  range, 
being  found  in  nearly  every  part  of  America  from  north  to 
south,  and  all  over  the  Old  World,  even  to  the  Oceanic 
Islands. 

I.   THE  COMMON   GOS-HAWK.       ASTUR   PALUMBARIUS. 

Falco palumbarius.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  130  (1760). 
AccipiterpahimbarhtS)  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  340  (1840) ;  Seeb. 

Brit.  B.  i.  p.  142  (1883). 
Astur  palumbarius,   Newt.   ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  83(1871); 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  95  (1874);  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.  v.  p.  587,  pi.  354  (1875) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  97 

(1883);  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  321  (1889);  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xix.  (1891). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  ashy-brown;  quills  brown, 
barred  with  darker  brown,  the  under  surface  of  the  wing  ashy- 
grey,  inclining  to  white  near  the  base  of  the  quills,  with  dark 
brown  cross-bars,  which  become  obsolete  on  the  inner  quills ; 
tail  ashy-brown,  tipped  with  white,  and  crossed  with  four  broad 
bands  of  dark  brown ;  upper  tail-coverts  ashy-brown,  with 
white  tips ;  crown  of  head,  ear-coverts,  and  sides  of  neck 
blackish;  the  hind-neck  slightly  mottled  with  white;  lores, 
cheeks,  and  a  line  above  the  ear-coverts  white,  streaked  with 
blackish ;  under  surface  of  body  white,  with  black  shaft-stripes 
on  the  feathers  of  the  throat  and  breast ;  the  entire  under  sur- 


138  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

face  thickly  crossed  with  bars  of  ashy-brown,  less  distinct  on 
the  thighs ;  under  tail-coverts  white ;  cere  yellow ;  bill  bluish 
horn-colour;  iris  orange.  Total  length,  19-5  inches;  oilmen, 
1*5;  wing,  12-2;  tail,  9-0;  tarsus,  3-0. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  a  little  larger  in  size, 
and  rather  darker  grey.  Total  length,  23  inches;  wing,  14-0  ; 
tarsus,  3*4. 

Young  Birds. — Much  browner  than  the  adults,  mottled  with 
white,  the  bases  of  the  scapulars  and  wing-coverts  being  white, 
and  all  the  feathers  margined  with  ochraceous-buff ;  head  and 
neck  rufous-ochre,  the  nape  inclining  to  whitish;  the  crown 
broadly  streaked  with  dark  brown,  the  hind-neck  largely 
marked  with  spade-shaped  spots  of  the  same  colour ;  forehead, 
eyebrows,  and  sides  of  face  whitish,  narrowly  streaked  with 
dark  brown ;  under  surface  of  body  ochraceous-buff,  inclining 
to  white  on  the  throat  and  under  tail-coverts,  the  entire  under 
surface  streaked  with  dark  brown,  narrowly  on  the  throat, 
thighs,  and  under  tail-coverts,  more  broadly  on  the  chest  and 
breast,  the  flanks  marked  with  large  spade-shaped  spots ;  tail 
dark  brown,  tipped  with  white,  and  crossed  with  five  distinct 
bands  of  darker  brown,  the  lighter  interspaces  inclining  to 
white  on  either  margin  of  the  feathers ;  feet  yellowish-brown, 
the  claws  black ;  cere  and  bill  as  in  adults ;  iris  yellow. 

Sometimes  the  young  birds  are  rusty-red  on  the  under  sur- 
face. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Many  years  ago  the  Gos-Hawk  is 
said  to  have  bred  in  the  British  Islands,  but  has  long  since 
ceased  to  do  so.  Speaking  of  the  bird  in  Scotland,  and  the 
evidence  of  its  breeding  there,  Professor  Newton  says  : — "  It  is 
not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that,  in  the  days  when  large 
forests  of  Scotch  firs  flourished  naturally  in  that  kingdom,  it 
inhabited  the  districts  so  occupied ;  still  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  considerable  confusion  has  arisen  from  the  fact 
that  in  several  places  its  common  name  has  been,  and  yet  is, 
applied  to  the  Peregrine  Falcon,  and  hence  some  caution  must 
be  used  in  accepting  all  the  testimony  as  to  its  former  abund- 
ance in  this  country."  Most  of  the  records  of  the  Gos-Hawk 
in  the  British  Islands  refer  to  young  birds  in  autumn  and 
winter,  at  which  seasons  the  species  is  a  tolerably  regular  mi- 


THE   GOS-HAWKS,  13^ 

grant.  Three  notices  of  the  occurrence  of  the  bird  in  Ireland 
have  been  published. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Gos-Hawk  is  a  resident 
in  most  parts  of  Europe  up  to  60°  N.  lat.,  and  extends  in 
the  north  to  Tromso  and  Archangel,  throughout  Russia  and 
Siberia  to  the  borders  of  the  Japanese  Sea,  breeding  through- 
out this  wide  range  wherever  suitable  forests  present  them- 
selves. It  is  resident  in  all  the  Japanese  Islands.  It  also 
breeds  in  the  Himalayas,  and  descends  in  winter  to  the  lower 
.valleys.  In  the  eastern  portion  of  its  range  it  seems  to  be 
more  strictly  migratory  than  it  is  in  Europe,  where  the  migrants 
are  principally  young  birds.  North-eastern  Africa,  Palestine, 
and  Egypt  seem  to  be  the  winter-quarters  of  most  of  these 
migrating  Gos-Hawk s  from  Northern  Europe. 

Habits. — The  name  Gos-Hawk  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Goose-Hawk,  though  it  is  doubtful  if  the  bird,  powerful  though 
it  be,  ever  attempts  to  capture  a  bird  as  large  as  a  Goose. 
The  list  of  animals  on  which  it  preys  is,  however,  a  sufficiently 
large  one :  hares,  rabbits,  small  rodents,  squirrels,  pheasants, 
partridges,  grouse,  clucks,  and  smaller  birds.  It  is  even  said, 
in  the  Himalayas,  to  capture  the  great  Moonal  Pheasants. 
Although  it  is  a  very  fierce  and  powerful  species,  it  is  capable 
of  being  trained  by  Falconers  into  a  very  useful  bird  for  the 
chase,  and  is  said,  by  those  who  know  it  well,  to  develop  great 
intelligence,  as  well  as  docility.  A  rabbit  has  little  chance 
with  a  Gos-Hawk,  for,  even  when  given  a  good  start,  the  easy 
speed  with  which  the  great  bird  sails  down  upon  it  speedily 
puts  an  end  to  the  chase,  and  it  is  as  nimble  as  the  rabbit  in 
doubling  and  twisting  in  its  tracks.  Mr.  Thompson  con- 
tributes to  Mr.  Hume's  "  Rough  Notes  on  Indian  Raptores  " 
an  exceedingly  interesting  account  of  the  way  in  which  the 
Gos-Hawk  is  flown  in  the  Himalayas.  He  writes  : — "  Despite 
all  that  has  been  said  about  these  short-winged  Hawks,  this 
bird  is  capable  of  attaining  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  as  a 
bold  and  rapid  flier,  a  fagless  worker,  and  affording  decidedly 
the  best  sport  that  can  be  had  in  a  forest  country.  I  have 
taken  a  Quail  in  the  middle  of  April  with  my  Gos-Hawks  flying 
straight  off  the  fist  at  the  quarry.  They  have  also  flown  at 
Partridge  and  Quail,  800  to  1,000  yards  from  where  they  were 
slipped.  When  first  put  to  the  quarry,  they  fly  with  outspread 


140  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

wings,  with  a  listless,  slow  motion  like  that  of  a  Great  Owl — 
admirably  described  in  Sir  John  Sebright's  little  pamphlet  on 
Hawking, — but  by  everyday  practice  and  constant  flying  at  the 
Black  Partridges,  high  feeding,  and  carefully  training  them  to 
become  familiar  with  men,  dogs,  and  all  other  objects  likely  to 
frighten  them,  they  become,  in  two  or  three  months,  perfect 
at  the  work.  One  bird  I  had  used  to  be  unleashed  at  my  tent- 
door,  and  would  fly  to  the  nearest  tree,  and  as  the  party  set 
out  through  forest  and  glade,  would  fly  from  tree  to  tree,  and 
thus  keep  on,  quite  up  to  the  beaters  and  the  dogs,  never  lag- 
ging behind  till  a  bird  was  flushed,  but  always  sufficiently 
forward  to  receive  the  quarry  as  it  rose.  ...  I  have  taken 
a  dozen  jungle-fowl  in  a  couple  of  hours  with  my  Gos-Hawks, 
using  dogs  to  flush  the  birds.  They  have  also  killed  Peacocks 
in  a  single  flight,  and  Hares,  without  having  been  hooded.  I 
have  also  taken  Teal  and  Ducks  in  wooded  swamps,  by 
appearing  at  the  water  at  a  point  whence  a  distant  view  could 
be  had  of  the  water-fowl.  The  Hawk,  on  being  shown  the 
Ducks,  would  fly  at  once  to  the  tree  nearest  to  them,  and  there 
wait  in  ambush.  The  beaters  were  then  sent  to  flush  the  fowl, 
one  of  which  the  Hawk  caught  in  the  air  as  the  flock  rose, 
almost  perpendicularly,  out  of  the  water." 

Nest. — The  Gos-Hawk  breeds  early :  at  the  end  of  April  or 
early  in  May.  The  nest  is  a  large  structure  of  sticks,  and  is 
often  occupied  for  years  in  succession,  and  being  added  to 
during  each  period  of  tenancy,  often  attains  to  great  dimen- 
sions. It  is  placed  in  a  beech-  or  fir-tree,  often  at  a  great 
height  from  the  ground,  occasionally  in  an  oak,  and  the  in- 
terior of  the  nest  is  lined  with  moss,  roots,  and  lichens, 
according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  but  not  with  green  leaves. 

Eggs. — From  three  to  five,  four  being  the  usual  number- 
They  are  pale  bluish-green,  almost  white,  and  on  rare  occa- 
sions spots  have  been  found  on  them.  According  to  Colonel 
Irby,  they  are  sometimes  so  stained  with  dirt  as  to  appear 
quite  yellow,  like  the  eggs  of  a  Grebe  which  had  been  sat  on 
for  some  time.  Axis,  2 '2-2 '45  ;  diam.,  17. 

II.    THE   AMERICAN    GOS-HAWK.       ASTUR    ATRICAPILLUS. 

Falco    atricapilluSy   Wilson,    Amer.    Orn.    vi.    pi.    52,    fig.    3 

(.812). 


THE   SPARROW-HAWKS. 


T4I 


Astur  atricapillus,  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  87,  note 
(1871);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  97  (1874)';  See- 
bohm,  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  145  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Brit.  B. 
p.  98  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Brit.  B.  p.  322,  note  (1889). 
Adult  Male. — Similar  to  A.  palumbarius,  and  of  about  the 
same  dimensions,  but  having  a  black  head,  and  the  markings 
on  the  under  surface  taking  the  form  of  freckles,  not  bars ; 
cere,  feet,  and  iris  yellow;  bill  bluish-black.  Total  length', 
20-5  inches;  culmen,  1*4;  wing,  12-9;  tail,  9-5;  tarsus,  2 '6. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  larger.  Total  length, 
24  inches;  wing,  14-0;  tarsus,  3-1. 

Young  Birds. — Resemble  the  young  of  A.  palumbarius. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Has  occurred  three  times :  once  in 
Scotland,  said  to  have  been  shot  in  Perthshire  by  a  keeper. 
Two  have  been  taken  in  Ireland  :  one,  according  to  the  late 
Sir  Victor  Brooke,  on  the  Galtee  Mountains  in  Tipperary,  in 
March,  1883,  and  another  near  Parson's  Town,  in  King's 
County,  was  recorded  shortly  after  by  the  late  Mr.  Basil 
Brooke. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  present  species  is  an 
inhabitant  of  North  America,  where  it  is  found  in  the  arctic 
portion  of  the  continent,  breeding  in  the  Northern  United 
States,  and  as  far  south  as  Colorado. 

Habits. — Similar  to  those  of  the  European  species. 

Brest. — In  trees. 

EggS. — Two  or  three ;  white,  or  glaucous-white,  sometimes 
very  faintly  marked  with  pale  brownish.  Axis,  2*31  inches; 
diam.,  170  (Ridgway). 

THE  SPARROW-HAWKS.     GENUS  ACCIPITER. 

Accipiter,  Brisson,  Orn.  i.  p.  310  (1760). 

Type,  A.  nisus  (L.). 

The  Sparrow-Hawks  are  considered  by  some  ornithologists 
to  belong  to  the  same  genus  as  the  Gos-Hawks,  and  vice  versa. 
As  already  mentioned,  however,  I  do  not  consider  these  birds 
to  be  generically  the  same,  for  the  Sparrow-Hawks  throughout 


142  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

the  world  have  always  the  same  little  bill,  combined  with  a  very 
long  middle  toe,  so  that  if  the  distance  of  the  culmen  from  the 
anterior  edge  of  the  cere  to  the  tip  of  the  bill  be  doubled,  this 
double  dimension  will  be  found  to  fall  short  of  the  length  of 
the  middle  toe  by  at  least  one-third.  This  character  will  be 
found  to  hold  good  in  all  the  Sparrow-Hawks  of  the  world, 
even  the  large  African  species,  A.  melanoleucus,  which  is  as 
big  as  a  Gos-Hawk,  being  found  to  offer  no  exception  to  this 
rule. 

Sparrow-Hawks  have  almost  the  same  cosmopolitan  distri- 
bution as  the  Gos-Hawks,  but  they  do  not  range  into  the  Pacific 
Islands.  About  thirty  species  are  known  to  science. 

I.    THE   COMMON   SPARROW-HAWK.      ACCIPITER   NISUS. 

Falco  m'sus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  130  (1766). 

Accipiter  m'sus,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  88  (1871);  Sharpe 

and  Dresser,   B.  Eur.  v.  p.  599,  pis.  355-358  (1871); 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  132  (1874)  ;  Seebohm,  Br. 

B.i.  p.  135(1883);  B.  O.  U.ListBr.  B.  p.  98  (1883);  Lil- 

ford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  parts  iv.  v.  (1887);  Saunders,  Man. 

Br.  B.  p.  323  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  bluish  slate-colour ;  wings 
like  the  back,  the  primaries  browner  and  barred  with  darker 
brown,  more  distinct  below,  where  the  inner  webs  of  the  quills 
are  ashy-white,  slightly  tinged  with  rufous ;  tail  bluish  slate- 
colour,  a  little  browner  than  the  back,  slightly  tipped  with 
whitish,  and  crossed  with  four  bars  of  darker  brown  ;  nape 
slightly  mottled  with  white  ;  forehead  and  eyebrow  somewhat 
washed  with  rufous ;  lores  whitish ;  cheeks  and  ear-coverts 
bright  rufous,  the  upper  margin  of  the  latter  slaty-blue,  like  the 
sides  of  the  neck ;  throat  whitish,  washed  with  rufous ;  re- 
mainder of  under  surface  white,  the  breast  narrowly  barred  across 
with  bright  rufous,  some  of  the  bars  being  tinged  with  brown 
and  becoming  narrower  towards  the  abdomen  and  thighs,  which 
are  almost  entirely  white,  like  the  under  tail-coverts;  flanks 
bright  rufous;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  white,  the 
former  spotted,  the  latter  barred  with  brown  ;  cere  yellow  ;  bill 
dark  horn-blue,  yellowish  at  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible ; 
feet  yellow;  iris  orange.  Total  length,  13  inches;  culmen, 
0-85;  wing,  8-15;  tail,  6-3;  tarsus,  2-3. 


THE   SPARROW-HAWKS.  j^ 

The  brown  shade  on  the  bars  of  the  under  surface  is  a  sign 
of  immaturity,  and  as  the  bird  gets  older,  the  rufous  increases, 
and  the  bars  get  less  and  less  distinct,  till  the  under-parts  are 
almost  entirely  rufous.  This,  however,  is  only  the  case  in  ex- 
tremely old  individuals. 

Adult  Female.— Larger  than  the  male,  and  rather  lighter  grey ; 
below  whitish,  with  ashy  bars,  narrower  than  in  the  male,  and 
having  a  large  tuft  of  downy  rufous  feathers  on  the  flanks. 
Total  length,  15*5  inches;  wing,  9-5;  tail,  7-0;  tarsus,  2-5. 

Young  Birds. — General  colour  above  sepia-brown,  all  the 
feathers  margined  with  rufous,  especially  on  the  crown  ;  occi- 
put and  nape  mottled  with  white ;  a  distinct  eyebrow,  cheeks 
and  ear-coverts,  white,  streaked  with  blackish,  the  hinder  mar- 
gin of  the  ear-coverts  brown,  washed  with  rufous  ;  quills  brown, 
barred  across  with  darker  brown,  more  distinct  on  their  lower 
surface  :  tail  ashy-brown,  with  whitish  tips,  and  crossed  with 
five  bars  of  darker  brown ;  under  surface  of  body  white,  the 
throat  narrowly  streaked  with  black,  the  fore-neck  and  chest 
with  broad  rufous  streaks,  the  flanks  and  thighs  distinctly  barred 
with  dark  brown  ;  under  tail-coverts  white ;  under  wing-coverts 
buffy-white,  with  numerous  spots  or  bars  of  dark  brown ;  iris 
pale  yellow. 

It  takes  some  time  before  the  young  birds  attain  the  adult 
plumage,  and  it  is  certain  that  they  breed  while  still  in  the  im- 
mature plumage.  The  first  adult  dress  with  bars  underneath 
seems  to  be  gained  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  pattern  on  the 
feather,  rather  than  by  a  complete  moult.  The  feathers  on  the 
chest  have,  in  the  first  stage  of  plumage,  a  broad  longitudinal 
centre  of  pale  rufous,  and,  as  time  goes  on,  this  alters  in  shape 
and  breaks  off  into  bars,  the  colour  being  distributed  laterally 
instead  of  longitudinally,  and  the  rufous  colour  giving  place  to 
dark  brown.  Thus  two  brown  bars  may  be  seen  on  a  feather, 
while  the  terminal  one  may  be  represented  by  a  heart-shaped 
spot  of  light  brown,  with  a  rufous  "  eye,"  the  last  remains  of 
the  streak  of  the  immature  plumage,  and  when  this  spot  of 
rufous  is  at  last  absorbed,  and  the  brown  bars  complete,  the 
.bird  shows  the  first  stage  towards  the  adult  plumage.  The  next 
change  is  by  a  moult,  which  seems  to  take  place  at  irregular 
seasons,  and  not  in  the  first  autumn,  as  with  most  birds,  and 


144  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

then  when  the  new  feathers  are  assumed,  they  are  always  barred, 
and  no  return  to  the  striped  breast  ever  takes  place,  but  the 
bars  on  the  under-parts  are  at  first  more  or  less  brown,  and 
become  more  and  more  rufous  with  each  successive  moult. 
The  numbers  of  bars  on  the  tail  are  also  indicative  of  the  age 
of  the  bird,  as  they  decrease,  as  it  gets  older,  from  five  to 
four. 

The  female  gains  her  adult  plumage  in  the  same  way  as  the 
male,  but  does  not  become  rufous  underneath ;  in  fact,  she 
gets  greyer  with  age,  and  the  rufous  tuft  of  down  on  the  sides 
of  the  body  becomes  more  pronounced. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Sparrow-Hawk  is  found  through- 
out the  three  kingdoms,  wherever  woodland  localities  occur, 
so  that  it  is  rarer  in  some  spots  than  others,  such  as  the 
Orkneys,  Shetlands,  and  Outer  Hebrides.  In  Ireland,  Mr. 
Ussher  says,  it  "breeds  commonly  wherever  there  are  any 
trees." 

A  considerable  migration  takes  place  in  the  autumn  to  the 
east  coast  of  Great  Britain ;  but  many  of  the  resident  birds  in 
England,  and  especially  Irish  individuals,  are  very  dark  in 
colour. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — This  species  is  found  every- 
where in  Europe,  and  extends  north  to  the  limits  of  forest- 
growth,  about  lat.  69°.  It  is  less  common  in  Southern 
Europe,  where  its  numbers  are  largely  reinforced  by  the 
migrants  from  the  north.  It  extends  to  Egypt  and  Kordofan 
in  the  winter,  and  at  that  time  of  year  also  visits  Aden. 

Eastward  it  extends  across  Siberia  to  Corea  and  the  Japanese 
Islands,  being  resident  in  these  countries,  as  it  is  also  in  the 
Himalayas,  where  it  breeds.  In  winter  it  visits  China  as  far 
south  as  Canton.  A  large  race,  A.  major,  is  recorded  from 
Switzerland,  and  a  dark-coloured  resident  race,  A.  melanochistus^ 
from  the  Himalayas. 

Habits. — In  its  ways  the  Sparrow-Hawk  is  a  miniature  edition 
of  the  Gos-Hawk,  possessing  all  the  fire  and  pluck  of  that 
bird,  but  of  course  being  much  less  powerful,  and  feeding 
on  smaller  game.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  woods,  and  is 
remarkably  swift  and  agile  in  its  movements,  sallying  forth 


THE    SPARROW-HAWKS.  145 

from  its  retreat  and  snatching  unsuspecting  birds  on  the  trees 
or  in  the  hedgerows.  A  Falcon  will  not  pursue  a  bird  which 
has  taken  refuge  in  a  tree,  but  I  have  seen  a  Sparrow-Hawk 
follow  a  Blackbird  through  a  tangled  willow-thicket,  doubling 
as  its  quarry  doubled,  till  it  drove  it  out  across  the  river  and 
might  have  caught  it,  had  I  not  been  interested  in  the  changes 
of  plumage  which  the  species  undergoes,  and  to  which  I 
have  alluded  above.  As  it  was,  I  forgot  for  the  moment  all 
about  the  Ducks  I  had  been  waiting  for  so  long,  and  bagged 
the  Sparrow-Hawk  for  the  British  Museum,  where  it  is  still. 

The  dread  with  which  the  bird  is  regarded  by  all  the  smaller 
species  shows  that  they  hold  the  Sparrow-Hawk  in  consider- 
able awe,  though  Swallows  and  Martins  will  mob  it  freely  as 
it  crosses  from  one  wood  to  another.  Its  method  of  capturing 
small  birds  is,  however,  mostly  by  seizing  them  unexpectedly, 
before  they  have  time  to  escape  by  hiding.  Thus  the  Hawk 
will  fly  along  the  side  of  a  wood  or  hedgerow,  and  suddenly 
snatch  a  small  bird  from  the  twig  on  which  it  sits  singing,  or 
drop  down  on  it  as  it  crouches  in  the  grass.  Besides  small 
birds,  it  also  catches  mice  and  rats,  but  it  can  be  very  destruc- 
tive to  chickens  and  young  Pheasants  and  Partridges,  and  is, 
therefore,  shot  and  trapped  by  keepers  on  every  occasion. 

Nest. — The  Sparrow-Hawk  breeds  in  May,  and  usually,  Mr. 
Seebohm  says  invariably,  builds  its  own  nest,  which  is  composed 
of  sticks,  and  the  tree  selected  appears  to  vary  according  to 
locality,  for  whereas  Mr.  Seebohm  gives  preference  to  the  oak, 
as  the  favourite  tree  selected  by  the  bird,  he  mentions  also 
the  alder,  and  not  unfrequently  a  pine-tree  as  a  nesting-site. 
My  own  experience  in  Hampshire,  where  I  have  taken  many 
nests  at  Avington,  is  in  favour  of  the  last-named  tree,  and  I 
never  remember  the  nest  being  built  in  any  other.  It  is  always 
placed  at  a  considerable  height,  and  near  the  trunk.  The 
female  sits  very  close,  and  I  remember  one  occasion,  when 
three  of  us  had  come  out  to  take  the  nest  and  shoot  the  old 
birds.  After  clapping  our  hands  and  knocking  the  tree  to 
see  if  the  old  bird  was  on  the  nest,  we  were  preparing  to  take 
up  our  stations  to  await  its  return,  when  it  occurred  to  me  to 
see  if  I  could  hit  the  nest  with  a  pine  branch  which  was  lying 
near.  My  first  attempt  sent  it  smartly  against  the  bottom  of 
8  L 


146  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

the  nest,  and  off  flew  the  bird  like  an  arrow,  taking  all  the 
party  by  surprise.  She  had  been  sitting  close  the  whole  time, 
and  had  disregarded  all  the  talking  and  noise  we  had  made 
beneath  the  tree.  After  flying  round  for  some  time,  at  a  great 
height  in  the  air,  above  the  nest,  she  disappeared  for  half  an 
hour,  when  she  suddenly  came  gliding  through  the  wood 
towards  her  home,  and  was  shot  by  Captain  Shelley.  The 
male  was  trapped  the  next  morning  on  the  nest,  and  both  birds 
proved  to  be  in  immature  plumage. 

Eggs. — The  eggs  of  the  Sparrow-Hawk  vary  greatly  in  their 
colour  and  markings,  and  are  sometimes  very  handsome.  The 
clutch  consists  of  from  three  to  four  eggs,  on  rare  occasions 
five.  The  ground-colour  is  a  faint  greenish-white  or  else  quite 
white,  and  sometimes  the  eggs  are  entirely  unspotted.  Others 
are  blotched  or  even  marbled  with  dark  reddish-brown,  in 
which  chestnut  and  lilac  are  mingled.  The  distribution  of 
the  markings  is  thoroughly  irregular,  for  sometimes  these 
brown  or  rufous  markings  are  distributed  over  the  whole  egg, 
and  are  more  or  less  broken  up  into  small  spots  or  blotches, 
while  in  others  the  rufous  markings  are  gathered  at  one  or 
other  end  of  the  egg,  leaving  its  opposite  pole  uniformly  white, 
while  in  certain  specimens  in  the  British  Museum  the  mark- 
ings form  a  ring  round  the  centre  of  the  egg,  leaving  the  two 
ends  unspotted  and  not  marked  in  any  way.  Axis,  i'55-i'75 ; 
diam.,  1-25-1-4. 

THE   BUZZARDS.     SUB-FAMILY   BUTEONIN^. 

In  all  the  remaining  Birds  of  Prey  we  find  the  legs  much 
shorter  than  in  the  Hawks  and  Harriers,  and  the  proportions 
of  the  tibia  and  tarso-metatarsal  bones  are  different,  the 
former  being  much  longer  than  the  latter,  and  not  equal  in 
length,  as  it  is  in  the  long-legged  Hawks. 

The  Buzzards  may  be  recognised  from  the  Eagles  and  Fal- 
cons, which  are  the  other  two  groups  of  these  shorter-legged 
Birds  of  Prey,  by  having  the  hinder  aspect  of  the  tarsus  scaled, 
and  not  reticulated.  By  this  character  we  know  that  some 
of  the  largest  of  Raptorial  birds,  such  as  the  Great  Harpy 
Eagle  (Thrasaetus  harpyia)  of  South  America,  are  Buzzards 


PLATE     XL  IV. 


THE   TRUE    BUZZARDS.  147 

and  not  true  Eagles.  As  a  rule,  the  members  of  the  Sub- 
family Buteonina  are  somewhat  sluggish  and  heavy  birds, 
not  possessing  the  dash  of  an  Eagle  or  a  Hawk,  but  resemb- 
ling the  former  in  general  appearance  and  build.  The  range 
of  the  Buzzards  is  almost  cosmopolitan,  though  the  Australian 
members  of  the  genus  are  not  typical  Buzzards,  and  are  more 
like  large  Gos-Hawks  in  appearance. 

THE  TRUE  BUZZARDS.  GENUS  BUTEO. 

Buteo,  Cuvier,  Lemons  Anat.  Comp.  i.  Tabl.  Oiseaux  (1800). 

Type,  B.  buteo  (L.). 

The  typical  Buzzards  have  rather  a  long  wing  and  a  head 
like  that  of  an  Eagle,  with  a  bony  shelf  above  the  eye,  a  long 
tail,  more  than  twice  the  length  of  the  tarsus,  which  is  never 
entirely  feathered.  The  nasal  aperture  is  a  long  oval,  and 
there  is  no  tubercle,  as  in  the  Falcons  and  some  other  Birds 
of  Prey.  The  Buzzards  are  found  throughout  the  northern 
parts  of  both  Hemispheres,  and  in  North  America  many  of 
the  species  are  migratory,  and  visit  South  America  in  winter. 
In  Africa  several  species  of  True  Buzzards  are  resident,  and 
they  are  found  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Asia,  but  do 
not  extend  below  Southern  China  and  the  Burmese  Provinces, 
being  absent  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  Archipelago. 

I.    THE   COMMON   BUZZARD.      BUTEO   BUTEO. 

Falco  buteo,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  127  (1766). 
Buteo  vulgaris,  Newt.   ed.  Yarr.   Brit.   B.   i.   p.  109  (1871); 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.   186  (1874);  Dresser,  B. 
Eur.  v.  p.  449,  pi.  331  (1875);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  i.  p.  117 
(1883) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  94  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man. 
Br.  B.  p.  311  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xvii. 
(1891). 
Buteo  fuscus,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  183  (1840). 

(Plate  XLIV.} 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  ashy-brown,  rather  paler 
on  the  scapulars  and  wing-coverts,  which  have  more  or  less 
distinct  white  margins ;  on  the  nape  some  white  streaks,  the 
forehead  and  sides  of  face  being  also  narrowly  streaked  with 

L  2 


148  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

white ;  under  surface  of  body  yellowish-white ;  the  breast, 
sides  of  body,  and  thighs  more  uniform  brown,  clouding  the 
whole  of  these  portions  of  the  under-parts ;  primary-quills 
dark  brown,  externally  shaded  with  ashy-grey,  with  distinct  bars 
of  darker  brown,  less  plainly  indicated  on  the  secondaries, 
which  are  paler  brown  like  the  back,  the  inner  webs  of  all  the 
quills  white  for  two-thirds  of  their  length ;  tail  ashy-brown, 
with  a  rufous  shade  towards  the  tip,  and  crossed  with  twelve 
or  thirteen  bands  of  darker  brown ;  cere  yellow ;  bill  bluish- 
black,  darker  towards  the  tip  ;  feet  yellow ;  iris  yellowish-brown. 
Total  length,  22  inches;  oilmen,  1*45;  wing,  i5'o;  tail,  9-0; 
tarsus,  3-1. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  and  very  little  larger. 
Total  length,  23  inches;  wing,  16*5;  tail,  9^5  ;  tarsus,  3*1. 

Young  Birds. — The  young  of  the  Common  Buzzard  is  always 
much  paler  than  the  adults,  and  frequently  has  the  head  and 
under  surface  of  the  body  creamy-white,  with  a  few  streaks  and 
spots  of  brown. 

I  consider  all  these  light-coloured  birds  to  be  immature, 
though  some  ornithologists  regard  this  pale  plumage  as  indica- 
tive of  albinism,  and  the  darker  forms  to  be  melanistic.  While 
admitting  that  Buzzards  have  a  tendency  to  melanism,  my  ex- 
perience has  been  that  the  birds  grow  darker  with  age,  and  have 
fewer  bars  on  the  tail  than  when  they  are  young. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — The  Common  Buzzard  is  by  no  means 
so  plentiful  in  the  British  Islands  as  it  used  to  be,  owing  to  the 
ill-advised  way  in  which  it  has  been  shot  down  by  game-pre- 
servers. In  Scotland  and  Wales,  however,  it  is  still  to  be  found 
in  the  wilder  districts,  and  in  many  parts  of  England  specimens 
are  obtained  on  migration  :  these  are  mostly  young  birds.  In 
Ireland  Mr.  R.  J.  Ussher  says  that  in  Donegal,  Londonderry, 
Antrim,  and  Down,  where  it  was  formerly  recorded  by  Thomp- 
son as  resident,  it  has  now  been  nearly  exterminated,  and  the 
bird  is,  therefore,  as  rare  in  its  ancient  habitat  as  it  is  in 
England. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Commonly  distributed  over 
the  greater  part  of  Western  Europe,  but  its  eastern  range  is  by 
no  means  satisfactorily  determined,  as  in  Russia  it  appears  to 


THE   TRUE   BUZZARDS.  149 

coalesce  with  the  range  of  Buteo  desertorum,  or  the  intermediate 
form  known  as  B.  zimmer manna.  In  Scandinavia  it  breeds 
as  far  as  60°  N.  lat,  but  its  eastern  range  is  believed  to  be 
the  Baltic  Provinces  and  the  Vistula.  It  is,  to  a  great  extent, 
a  migratory  species  in  the  autumn,  and  passes  over  Heligoland 
in  great  flights,  and  in  Southern  Europe  it  is  decidedly  local  as 
a  breeding  species,  and  in  the  Mediterranean  countries  it  again 
meets  its  rufous  ally,  B.  desertorum. 

Habits. — The  food  of  the  Buzzard  consists  largely  of  field- 
mice,  frogs,  reptiles,  especially  slow-worms,  and  occasionally 
small  birds.  It  will  therefore  be  admitted  by  all  that  this  Rap- 
torial bird  is  of  great  use  in  keeping  down  small  vermin,  and, 
like  the  Barn-Owls,  ought  to  be  rigorously  protected,  and  not 
shot  down,  as  is,  unfortunately,  too  often  the  case  with  both 
species.  In  Germany  the  utility  of  the  Buzzard  in  forest  dis- 
tricts is  better  recognised. 

In  its  ways  the  Buzzard  is  rather  a  sluggish  bird,  and  may 
often  be  seen  sitting  motionless,  sometimes  for  hours  together, 
on  a  tree  or  on  the  ground,  only  moving  when  it  sees  a  mouse 
or  other  small  prey.  At  other  times  it  circles  high  in  the  air, 
uttering  its  plaintive,  squealing  cry;  and  when  in  flight  the 
action  of  the  bird  is  described  by  all  observers  to  be  imposing 
and  graceful. 

Nest. — The  nest  is  generally  placed  in  a  tree,  but  sometimes 
on  rocks,  and  one,  taken  in  Ross-shire  a  few  years  ago,  is  in 
the  British  Museum.  The  birds  had  built  their  rough  nest  of 
sticks  on  the  floor  of  a  small  hollow  in  the  cliff,  in  a  well  shel- 
tered situation.  The  nest  is  made  of  rough  and  ragged  sticks 
for  a  foundation,  with  more  slender  twigs  on  the  top,  and  is 
rather  flat.  A  curious  habit  of  the  bird  is  to  line  the  nest 
with  green  leaves,  which  it  evidently  renews  from  time  to 
time.  Mr.  Seebohm  found  this  lining  of  green  leaves  in  ten 
out  of  eleven  nests,  some  of  which  contained  eggs  and  some 
young  birds ;  and  it  was  only  in  a  nest  in  which  the  young  ones 
were  far  advanced  that  the  lining  was  absent.  Buzzards,  how- 
ever, are  not  the  only  Birds  of  Prey  which  line  their  nests  with 
green  leaves,  but  the  object  of  this  proceeding  is  not  clear. 

Eggs. — From  two  to  four  in  number,  generally  three.     The 


150  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

ground-colour  is  white  or  faint  greenish-white,  and  the  eggs 
arc  often  quite  uniform,  or  show  faint  spottings  or  marblings  of 
pale  rufous.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  sometimes  richly 
marked  and  clouded  with  rufous  or  rufous-brown.  Every 
gradation  in  a  series  of  clutches  is  exhibited  in  the  Seebohm 
collection  in  the  British  Museum,  from  unsullied  white  eggs  to 
those  in  which  the  ground-colour  is  almost  hidden  by  a  con- 
fusion of  mottlings  and  cloudings  of  rich  chestnut  or  rufous- 
brown.  Axis,  2*i-2'4;  diam.,  i"j-i'g. 

II.  THE  DESERT  BUZZARD.   BUTEO  DESERTORUM. 

Falco  desertorum,  Baud.  Traite,  ii.  p.  164  (1800). 

Buteo  desertorum,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  i.  p.  179  (1874) ;  Dresser,  B. 
Eur.  v.  p.  457,  pi.  332  (1875) ;  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  i.  p.  122, 
note  (1883) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  94  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — Smaller  than  B.  buteo,  and  much  more  rufous, 
especially  on  the  upper  tail-coverts  and  tail ;  the  bars  on  the  tail, 
nine  or  ten  ;  cere  lemon-yellow  ;  bill  dark  lead-colour,  lighter 
near  the  throat  and  cere ;  feet  lemon-yellow ;  iris  light  hazel 
or  yellowish.  Total  length,  21  inches;  culmen,  1*55;  wing, 
13-4;  tail,  7-8;  tarsus,  3-0. 

Young  Birds. — Much  paler  than  the  adults,  especially  on  the 
under  surface,  the  tail  always  showing  a  rufous  tint,  and  having 
as  many  as  thirteen  bars. 

The  rufous  character  of  the  plumage  of  this  Buzzard  is  the 
best  test  for  recognising  it  from  the  Common  Buzzard,  but  it 
is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  distinguish  the  two  species,  as 
B.  desertorum  gets  very  dark  in  its  older  stages,  while  B.  buteo 
not  unfrequently  exhibits  a  shade  of  rufous  on  the  tail. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  present  species  has  been  sup- 
posed to  have  occurred  three  times  in  England  :  twice  in  North- 
umberland, and  once  at  Everley  in  Wiltshire,  where  a  speci- 
men was  shot  in  September,  1864.  The  two  Northumbrian 
birds  may  have  been  wrongly  identified,  but  the  Wiltshire 
example  was  considered  by  the  late  Mr.  J.  H.  Gurney  to  be  an 
undoubted  Desert  Buzzard. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — This   species  occurs  in  the 


THE   TRUE   BUZZARDS.  151 

Mediterranean  countries  and  in  South-eastern  Europe.  It  is 
a  common  species  in  certain  parts  of  Africa,  and  is  apparently 
only  a  rare  visitor  to  India,  the  specimens  often  identified  as 
B.  desertorum  from  this  country  being,  in  all  probability,  refer- 
able to  B.  plumipes. 

III.    RED-TAILED    BUZZARD.        BUTEO   BOREALIS. 

Falco  borealist  Gm.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  266  (1788). 
Buteo  borealis,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  188  (1874); 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  94  (1883). 

Adult  Male.— Of  large  size,  and  distinguished  by  its  rufous 
tail,  the  head  and  ear-coverts  being  smoky-brown,  varied  with 
darker  brown  streaks ;  the  tail-feathers  tipped  with  white  and 
crossed  with  a  sub-terminal  band  of  blackish-brown;  under 
surface  of  body  whitish,  the  breast  streaked  and  the  abdomen 
mottled  with  bars  of  dark  brown;  cere  and  gape  greenish- 
yellow  ;  bill  bluish-black ;  feet  yellow  ;  iris  pale  amber.  Total 
length,  21  inches  ;  culmen,  1-55  ;  wing,  15-1  ;  tail,  8-5  ;  tarsus, 
3'6. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  larger.  Total  length, 
25  inches;  wing,  17-5  ;  tail,  9-5  ;  tarsus,  3-8. 

Young  Birds. — Brown,  with  the  head  and  neck  streaked  with 
white ;  sides  of  face  whitish,  streaked  with  brown,  the  cheeks 
uniform  dark  brown  ;  tail  brown,  slightly  washed  with  rufous, 
and  crossed  with  nine  bars  of  darker  brown  ;  under  surface  of 
body  pure  white,  with  brown  stripes  on  the  throat,  broader  on 
the  breast,  the  abdomen  and  flanks  with  arrow-head  marks  of 
brown  ;  thighs  white,  with  small  transverse  spots  of  pale  rufous. 

Characters — The  red  tail  of  the  adult  sufficiently  distinguishes 
this  Buzzard.  The  young  birds  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
longer  wing,  and  by  the  particoloured  thighs,  but  as  there  are 
many  other  species  of  Buzzard  which  possess  these  characters, 
only  an  examination  by  an  expert  can  decide  any  of  the  young 
birds  belonging  to  the  genus  Buteo. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Red-tailed  Buzzard  is  said  to 
have  occurred  once  in  Nottinghamshire,  in  the  autumn  of 
1860,  and  is  recorded  in  the  list  of  the  birds  of  that  county  by 
Messrs.  Sterland  and  Whitaker. 


152  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. —  A  North  American  species, 
found  in  the  eastern  portion  of  that  continent,  and  westwards 
to  the  border  of  the  Great  Plains,  according  to  Mr.  Ridgway 
(Man.  N.  Amer.  B.  p.  232)  occurring  south  in  Eastern  Mexico, 
and  perhaps  extending  to  Panama. 

IV.    THE   RED-SHOULDERED    BUZZARD.       BUTEO   LINEATUS. 

Falco  UneatuS)  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  274  (1788);  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  191  (1874);  Newton,  ed.  Yarr. 
Brit.  B.  i.  p.  113  (1871);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  94 
(1883). 

Adult  Male. — Easily  distinguished  by  the  colour  of  the  lesser 
wing-coverts,  which  are  conspicuously  margined  with  rufous,  so 
as  to  form  a  shoulder-patch ;  the  quills  distinctly  spotted  with 
white  on  their  outer  webs ;  the  tail  with  from  four  to  six  alter- 
nate bars  of  black  and  white ;  cere  yellow ;  bill  bluish-black ; 
feet  yellow ;  claws  black ;  iris  bright  amber.  Total  length,  2 1 
inches;  oilmen,  i'4;  wing,  13*2;  tail,  8-5 ;  tarsus,  3-1. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — A  specimen  of  this  Buzzard  is  said 
to  have  been  obtained  in  Inverness-shire  in  1863,  but,  as  the 
Committee  of  the  British  Ornithologists'  Union  remark,  the 
record  is  probably  the  mistake  of  a  dealer. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.  —A  North  American  species, 
occurring  northward  to  Nova  Scotia,  and  westward  to  the  edge 
of  the  Great  Plains. 

THE   EAGLES.     SUB-FAMILY  AQUILINE. 

The  chief  distinguishing  character  of  the  Eagles  is  the  reti- 
culation of  the  hinder  aspect  of  the  tarsus.  This  is  very  often 
hidden  by  feathers,  but  traces  of  the  network  of  the  scales 
can  generally  be  found  on  parting  the  feathering  of  the  back 
of  the  tarsus.  The  species  of  Eagles  are  numerous,  and  they 
are  distributed  nearly  over  the  entire  globe ;  in  fact,  there  is  no 
portion  of  the  Old'  World  in  which  a  Sea-Eagle  of  some  kind 
does  not  occur.  There  is  great  variety  in  size  among  the 
members  of  the  Sub-family,  some  being  large  and  powerful, 
while  others  are  little  bigger  than  Sparrow-Hawks,  and  yet  be- 


THE   BUZZARD-EAGLES.  153 

long  typically  to  the  Eagles.  The  connection  between  them 
and  the  Buzzards  is  very  close,  while  by  way  of  the  Kites  they 
also  approach  the  Falcons. 

Among  the  Eagles  are  to  be  found  the  largest  of  the  Birds 
of  Prey,  such  as  the  Lsemmergeier,  or  "  Bearded  Vulture  "  as 
it  is  often  called,  a  bird  which,  though  structurally  an  Eagle, 
much  resembles  the  Scavenger  Vultures  in  many  of  its  habits. 
It  resembles  the  latter  in  being  bare-footed,  whereas  all  the 
species  of  the  true  Aquila  and  its  allied  genera  have  feathered 
tarsi.  In  this  feathered  group  are  included  all  the  beautiful 
Crested  Eagles  (Spizaetus)  and  the  Hawk-Eagles  (Eutolmaetus\ 
as  well  as  the  curious  Egg-devourer  (Neopus). 

The  bare-footed  section  comprises  all  the  Sea-Eagles  (Haliae- 
tus]  and  the  Snake-Eagles  ( Circaetus\  besides  a  number  of  tro- 
pical forms,  such  as  Haliastur,  which  is  half  a  Kite  and  half  a 
Sea-Eagle,  and  connects  the  latter  with  the  true  Kites. 

THE  BUZZARD-EAGLES.    GENUS  ARCHIBUTEO. 

ArchibuteO)  Brehm,  Isis,  1828,  p.  1269. 

Type,  A.  lagopus  (J.  F.  Gmelin). 

These  birds  have  always  been  considered  to  be  true  Buzzards, 
and  have  generally  been  placed  by  ornithologists  either  in  the 
genus  Buteo  or  in  close  proximity,  but  the  reticulation  of  the 
tarsi  shows  that  they  really  belong  to  the  Aquilincz.  In  writing 
the  "Catalogue  of  Birds  in  the  British  Museum,"  I  made  the 
curious  mistake  of  figuring  the  tarsus  of  Archibuteo  to  show 
that  it  was  reticulated  behind,  and  then  placed  the  genus 
among  the  Buzzards,  thus  stultifying  the  arrangement  I  had 
been  at  great  pains  to  emphasise — just  one  of  those  annoying 
faux  pas  which  one  makes  sometimes  without  any  apparent 
reason.  Mr.  Seebohm  discovered  my  mistake  and  went  so  far 
as  to  put  the  Rough-legged  Buzzards  into  the  genus  Aquila, 
because  Dr.  Gadow  had  found  resemblances  in  the  anatomy  of 
the  above-mentioned  species  and  the  Spotted  Eagle.  To  put 
these  two  birds  into  the  same  genus  is,  however,  more  than  Dr. 
Gadow  ever  intended,  and  although  the  Buzzard-Eagles  bear  a 
very  close  resemblance  to  the  True  Eagles,  the  nostril  is  not  ex- 
posed as  in  the  latter  birds,  and  is,  moreover,  vertical,  with  an 


154  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

overhanging  shelf,  whereas  in  the  Eagles  the  nostril  is  gener- 
ally a  perpendicular  oval,  and  exposed,  or,  in  rare  instances, 
round. 

I.    THE    ROUGH-LEGGED    BUZZARD-EAGLE.       ARCHIBUTEO 
LAGOPUS. 

Fako  lagopuS)  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  260  (1788). 
Bitteo  lagopus,  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.   193  (1840);  Newt.  ed. 
Yarr.  Br.  B.  i.  p.   117  (1871);  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p. 
313  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  part  xiv.  (1890). 
Archibuteo  lagopus,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  196  (1874); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  47 1>  pis.  334,  335  (l875) ;  B-  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.  p.  95  (1883). 
Aquila  lagopus,  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  i.  p.  in  (1883). 

Adult  Female. — General  colour  above  deep  brown,  the  head 
and  neck  white,  streaked  with  dark  brown,  especially  on  the 
cheeks  and  sides  of  the  head  ;  lesser  wing-coverts  and  scapulars 
with  white  bases,  and  margined  with  buff,  imparting  a  streaked 
appearance  to  these  parts  ;  quills  brown,  white  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  inner  web  ;  upper  tail-coverts  white,  with  a  sub- 
terminal  bar  of  brown ;  tail  white,  inclining  to  ashy-brown  and 
tinged  with  rufous  for  the  terminal  third  of  its  length,  the  tip 
white  with  a  broad  sub-terminal  bar  of  black ;  under  surface  of 
body  white,  the  throat  washed  with  buff  like  the  sides  of  the 
neck,  and  streaked  with  dark  brown,  more  broadly  on  the  breast; 
lower  breast  and  abdomen  dark  brown,  the  latter  mottled  with 
buff  in  the  centre ;  under  tail-coverts  white ;  thighs  and  tarsal 
plumes  buffy-white,  spotted  with  brown  ;  cere  yellow ;  bill  dark 
horn-colour ;  toes  yellow  ;  claws  dark  horn-colour  ;  iris  hazel. 
Total  length,  26  inches;  culmen,  1*45;  wing,  187;  tail,  io'o; 
tarsus,  3*1. 

Adult  Male. — Similar  to  the  female,  but  a  little  smaller.  Total 
length,  22*5  inches;  wing,  17*1  ;  tail,  10*0;  tarsus,  2'8. 

Young  Birds. — Resemble  the  adults,  but  are  rather  browner,  es- 
pecially below,  where  the  breast  is  more  streaked ;  the  tail  also 
brown  for  its  terminal  half,  with  no  perceptible  sub-terminal 
band. 

Characters. — Distinguished  from  the  ordinary  Buzzards  by  the 
feathered  tarsi,  and  from  any  of  the  feathered-legged  Eagles  by 
the  different  form  of  the  nostrils,  and  by  the  lesser  size. 


THE    BUZZARD-EAGLES. 


155 


Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  autumn  visitor,  occurring  in  some 
years,  as  in  1891,  in  great  numbers.  It  may  be  considered 
almost  a  regular  visitor  to  Scotland,  and  some  specimens  are 
obtained  in  the  eastern  counties  nearly  every  autumn,  but  it  is 
not  often  found  in  the  south  or  west  of  England,  and  only 
about  half  a  dozen  instances  of  its  capture  in  Ireland  have 
been  recorded.  The  species  has  even  been  said  to  breed  in 
Great  Britain,  but  the  evidence  is  by  no  means  satisfactory,  and 
more  exact  confirmation  of  the  fact  is  essential. 

Bange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Rough-legged  Buzzard- 
Eagle  is  distinctly  a  northern  bird,  being  commonly  distributed 
from  Scandinavia  into  the  valley  of  the  Lena  in  Siberia.  It 
breeds  in  Russia,  as  far  south  as  56°  N.  lat,  and  also  in  the 
Baltic  Provinces,  but  in  more  southern  latitudes  it  is  only 
known  as  a  winter  visitor,  occurring  at  this  season  of  the  year 
in  the  Pyrenees,  in  Italy,  and  the  Mediterranean  countries. 
In  North  America  it  is  represented  by  a  closely  allied  species, 
Archibuteo  sancti  johannis. 

Habits. — Very  little  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits  of  this 
species,  but  it  is  said  to  be  a  frequenter  of  the  open  country, 
rather  than  of  wooded  districts  like  a  Buzzard,  and  in  many 
of  its  habits  it  is  more  of  an  Aquila  than  a  Buteo.  It  has  a 
peculiar  "  mewing  "  cry,  like  that  of  a  cat.  Its  food  consists 
of  rabbits  and  other  small  Mammalia,  but  it  also  eats  reptiles 
and  captures  water-fowl.  Its  flight  is  said  by  Professor  Newton 
to  be  slow,  but  smooth,  and,  except  during  its  migrations,  is 
seldom  continued  for  any  great  length  of  time. 

Nest. — Composed  of  sticks,  according  to  Wolley,  who  took 
several  nests  of  this  species  in  Lapland.  He  says  :  "  The  nest 
was  small,  made  of  old  sticks,  with  a  few  twigs  of  the  fir  and  a 
little  of  the  black  hair-like  lichen  which  grows  so  abundantly  in 
the  northern  forests.  The  situation  was  near  the  edge  of  a 
great  marsh  with  trees  all  around.  Other  nests  were  in  taller 
trees,  and  were  larger  in  size,  and  the  bird  will  occasionally  use 
an  old  nest  of  the  Osprey." 

Eggs. — Three  or  four  in  number,  though  sometimes  only  two 
are  found.  The  ground-colour  is  a  dull  white  or  greenish- 
white,  and  although  the  markings  and  spots  vary  in  number  and 
intensity,  absolutely  white  eggs,  without  any  markings,  seem  to 


156  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

be  almost  unknown.  The  rufous  markings  are  generally  dis- 
tributed pretty  evenly  over  the  egg,  and  are  intermixed  with 
cloudings  of  a  lighter  brown,  principally  at  the  larger  end  of  the 
egg.  In  one  clutch  in  the  Seebohm  collection,  from  Fin- 
mark,  the  entire  eggs  are  clouded  with  pale  brown  mottlings, 
forming  here  and  there  large  blotches.  Axis,  2-1-2-35  ;  diain., 
1-65-1-8. 

THE  TRUE  EAGLES.  GENUS  AQUILA. 

Aquila,  Briss.  Orn.  i.  p.  419  (1760). 

Type.  A.  chrysaetus  (L.). 

Eagles  are  found  throughout  the  northern  parts  of  both 
Hemispheres,  as  far  as  Mexico  in  America,  and  in  the  Old 
World  throughout  Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia,  but  not  extend- 
ing into  the  Malayan  regions  or  to  Australia.  The  large  size 
of  the  Eagles  is  the  best  character  by  which  our  English  species 
can  be  distinguished,  but  the  Lesser  Spotted  Eagle  is  an  ex- 
ception, as  it  is  very  little  bigger  than  a  Buzzard.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  all  members  of  the  genus  Aquila  have 
feathered  legs,  and  thus  it  is  always  easy  to  tell  a  True 
Eagle  from  a  Sea-Eagle,  which  has  the  legs  devoid  of  fea- 
thers. The  claws,  or  talons,  of  the  Eagles  are  also  extremely 
powerful,  and  fitted  for  taking  large  prey,  presenting  a  marked 
difference  in  strength  to  the  talons  of  the  Vultures,  whose  feet 
are  adapted  for  holding,  not  seizing,  their  prey. 

I.    THE   GOLDEN   EAGLE.      AQUILA   CHRYSAETUS. 

Falco  chrysaetus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  125  (1766). 

Aquila  chrysaetus,  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  204  (1840);  Newt.  ed. 

Yarr.'Brit.  B.  i.  p.  n  (1871) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 

i.  p.  235  (1874);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  533,  pi.  345  (1880); 

Seeb.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  96  (1883) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  96 

(1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  317  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxv.  (1893). 

(Plate  XLV.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  blackish-brown,  often 
with  a  very  perceptible  purplish  gloss,  the  feathers  of  the 
mantle  and  the  wing-coverts  with  Daler  edges  ;  quills  blackish, 


N. 


\ 


\ 


THE   TRUE   EAGLES.  ^7 

ashy-brown  below,  the  secondary  quills  ashy-grey,  mottled  with 
brown,  the  terminal  third  of  the  feather  blackish ;  tail  ashy-grey, 
blackish  at  the  tip  and  browner  towards  the  base,  the  grey 
forming  an  irregular  band  across  the  middle  of  the  tail/  the 
basal  portion  of  which  is  also  mottled  with  grey ;  head  brown, 
the  nape  and  hind-neck  rich  tawny,  the  feathers  lanceolate  in 
shape,  with  brown  bases,  and  imparting  a  streaked  appearance 
to  this  part  of  the  neck ;  sides  of  the  face  light  tawny,  paler 
than  the  neck ;  cheeks  and  under  surface  of  body  blackish,  the 
feathers  mostly  brown  at  the  base,  and  the  feathers  of  the  leg 
pale. brown,  as  also  the  under  tail-coverts  ;  under  wing-coverts 
blackish ;  cere  yellow ;  bill  bluish  horn-colour,  darker  at  the 
tip;  feet  yellow,  claws  black;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  32 
inches;  oilmen,  2*6;  wing,  24-5;  tail,  13-0;  tarsus,  37. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour,  but  larger. 
Total  length,  35-5  inches;  wing,  27-5;  tail,  13*0;  tarsus,  3-8. 

Young  Birds. — These  can  always  be  distinguished  by  the 
colour  of  the  tail,  which  is  white  for  more  than  the  basal  half, 
and  brown  for  nearly  the  terminal  half,  so  that  there  is  a  very 
broad  band  at  the  end  of  the  tail ;  otherwise  the  colour  of  the 
young  birds  does  not  differ  very  much  from  that  of  the  adults, 
excepting  that  there  is  a  good  deal  of  white  at  the  bases  of  the 
feathers,  especially  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  which  is 
rather  lighter  brown  than  in  the  old  birds. 

Nestling. — Covered  with  white  down. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  breeding-range  of  the  Golden 
Eagle  is  now  restricted  to  the  highlands  of  Scotland  and  some 
of  the  western  isles,  where  the  bird  is  protected.  Formerly 
it  used  to  nest  in  the  Orkneys,  and  also  in  the  south  of  Scot- 
land, while  it  has  only  been  extinguished  as  a  breeding  bird  in 
the  Lake  district  during  the  last  hundred  years,  and  two  cen- 
turies ago  it  nested  in  Wales  and  Derbyshire.  Young  birds 
of  the  present  species  occur  in  the  lowlands  of  Scotland  not 
unfrequently,  and  more  rarely  visit  England,  but  the  reported 
captures  of  Golden  Eagles  generally  refer  to  young  White-tailed 
Eagles,  which  may  always  be  distinguished  by  their  bare  legs. 

In  Ireland,  Mr.  R.  J.  Ussher  says  the  chief  breeding-places 
of  "  the  Golden  Eagle  are  now  a  few  spots  in  Western  Mayo. 


158  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

It  breeds  still  more  sparingly  in  Western  Donegal,  and  prob- 
ably in  Western  Galway  and  Kerry,  but  it  has  ceased  to  breed, 
as  formerly,  in  Antrim,  Tyrone,  Down,  Tipperary,  Waterford,  | 
Leitrim,  and  Sligo,  but  visits  the  mountainous  parts  of  these  | 
counties  occasionally." 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Golden  Eagle  is  found 
throughout  the  mountains  of  Europe  and  Northern  Africa,  and 
extends  to  the  extreme  east  of  Asia,  as  far  as  Kamtchatka  and 
the  Japanese  Islands.  It  also  breeds  in  the  Himalayas.  Many 
races  or  sub-species  have  been  recognised,  chiefly  by  the  late 
Dr.  Severtzov  and  the  Russian  naturalists,  but  I  have  never 
been  able  to  recognise  more  than  one  species  of  Golden  Eagle, 
though  in  some  localities  the  birds  are  larger  and  darker  than 
in  others,  but  the  supposed  differences  in  the  amount  of  white 
on  the  tail-  and  body-feathers  are  dependent,  I  am  certain,  solely 
on  the  age  of  the  individuals,  and  are  never  specific. 

In  North  America  the  Golden  Eagle  is  found  in  the  moun- 
tainous regions  of  the  northern  parts,  but  has  not  yet  been 
noticed  in  Greenland. 

Habits. — Owing  to  the  destruction  which  this  large  Eagle  is 
capable  of  committing  on  sheep-farms,  the  bird  has  been  shot 
and  trapped  almost  to  extinction  in  the  British  Islands.  The 
principal  food  of  the  Golden  Eagle  in  Scotland  is  the  Blue 
or  Mountain  Hare,  and  it  also  captures  rabbits  or  an  occa- 
sional Grouse,  while  it  is  well  known  that  it  will  devour  carrion, 
which  propensity  often  leads  to  its  being  taken  in  traps.  The 
flight  of  a  Golden  Eagle  is  certainly  a  wonderful  sight  to  see, 
according  to  all  observers,  and  I  have  seen  nothing  finer  than 
the  flight  of  the  Eagles  in  the  Himalayas  (probably  Imperial 
Eagles),  soaring  round  and  round,  high  in  the  air,  without  any 
apparent  motion  of  the  wings,  the  ends  of  which  are  slightly 
upturned  in  soaring,  so  that  daylight  can  be  seen  between  the 
tips  of  the  long  primaries.  Then  follow  a  few  rapid  beats  of 
the  wings,  and  then  another  round  of  circular  movements, 
until  the  bird  winds  itself  out  of  sight  or  tops  the  mountain 
crest  into  the  next  valley.  Sometimes  the  bird  will  sit  motion- 
less on  a  rock  or  favourite  perch  for  hours,  but  it  is  when 
the  Golden  Eagle  is  on  the  wing,  that  we  can  understand 
why  its  majestic  movements  inspired  the  idea  that  it  was  the 


THE   TRUE    EAGLES.  jcjg 

"  King  of  Birds."  Otherwise  there  is  nothing  very  awe-inspiring 
in  the  habits  of  the  Eagle,  which  are  further  sullied  by  its  car- 
rion-eating propensities.  Mr.  Seebohm  says :  "The  Eagle  in  its 
habits  is  more  of  a  Vulture  than  a  Falcon,  and  his  motions 
are  sluggish,  cowardly,  and  tame,  compared  with  the  death- 
swoop  of  the  Peregrine,  or  the  brilliant  performance  of  the 
Sparrow-Hawk,  or  the  Merlin,  who  would  not  deign  to  feast 
on  such  lowly  fare." 

Nest. — The  Golden  Eagle  is  an  early  breeder,  and  its  nest 
has  been  found  while  the  country  was  still  covered  with  snow. 
The  young  are  hatched  by  the  end  of  April.  The  nest  is  a 
large  and  rough  structure  of  sticks  and  heather,  with  a  lining 
of  fern  and  moss  and  tufts  of  green  herbage.  It  is  often  as 
much  as  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  is  generally  placed  on  a 
cliff,  more  rarely  on  a  tree,  in  the  British  Islands  at  least. 

Eggs. — Two,  occasionally  three,  in  number.  They  vary  in 
colour  from  white  to  richly  marked  varieties.  Sometimes 
rufous  spots  are  distributed  over  the  whole  egg,  while  in  the 
more  handsomely  coloured  ones  the  whole  surface  is  clouded 
with  light  earthy-rufous,  while  on  some  of  these  clouded  eggs, 
bright  rufous  or  rufous-brown  markings  are  kiterspersed. 
Axis,  2*8-3*3  >  diam.,  2*25-2'45. 

II.    THE   LARGER    SPOTTED   EAGLE.      AQUILA  MACULATA.* 

Fako  maculates,  Gm.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  258  (1788). 

Aquila  ncevia,  Gm.  ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.   20  (1871)  ; 

Seebohm,  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  106  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B. 

p.  315  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  part  xxv.  (1893). 
Aquila  clanga,  Pall.;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  246  (1874) ; 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  499,  pi.  339  (1878) ;  B.  O.  U.  List 

Br.  B.  p.  96  (1883). 

*  The  difficulty  of  assigning  a  specific  name  for  the  Spotted  Eagles  has 
long  been  recognised  by  ornithologists,  and  the  smaller  of  the  three  races 
has  generally  been  called  Aquila  navia,  the  larger  form  A.  clanga,  and 
the  Indian  form  A.  hastata.  Dr.  W.  T.  Blanford  has  recently  reviewed  the 
the  whole  of  the  evidence,  and  accepts  the  verdict  that  the  Fako  navius 
of  Gmelin  refers  to  the  Common  Buzzard,  and  that  the  name  maculata 
belongs  to  the  larger  form,  generally  known  as  Aquila  clanga  of  Pallas. 
I  agree  with  Dr.  Blanford  in  adopting  this  name. 


160  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  and  below  dark  chocolate- 
brown,  almost  black.  The  wing-coverts  rather  lighter  brown, 
and  the  hinder  crown  and  nape  inclining  to  sandy-buff;  quills 
and  tail  almost  uniform  brown,  the  latter  with  a  few  greyish 
mottlings  or  indications  of  bars  in  old  individuals.  Total 
length,  26*5  inches;  culmen,  2-4;  wing,  20-5;  tail,  10-5;  tar- 
sus, 3-9. 

Adult  Female.—  Similar  to  the  male,  but  larger.  Total  length, 
29  inches;  wing,  21*5  ;  tail,  ir8;  tarsus,  4*2. 

Young  Birds. — Of  a  purplish-brown  colour  ;  wing-coverts  like 
the  back,  the  median  coverts  with  a  few  longitudinal  streaks  of 
dull  white,  which  become  much  larger  and  take  the  form  of 
oval  spots  on  the  greater  and  primary-coverts,  as  well  as  on  the 
tips  of  the  scapulars ;  the  quills  blackish,  the  secondaries 
rather  browner,  with  faint  bars  of  black,  and  oval  white  spots 
at  the  tips  like  the  scapulars  ;  lower  back  and  rump  with  dis- 
tinct triangular  spots  of  ochraceous-buff,  the  upper  tail-coverts 
almost  uniform  buffy-white ;  tail-feathers  blackish,  browner 
towards  their  ends,  which  are  tipped  with  whity-brown,  the 
feathers  crossed  with  three  or  four  bars  of  blackish-brown  near 
the  tips  ;  under  surface  of  body  blackish,  browner  on  the  chin, 
the  breast  streaked  with  pale  brown  down  the  centre  of  the 
feathers,  the  abdomen  and  feathers  of  the  leg  rather  more 
ochraceous  ;  under  tail-coverts  ochraceous-buff ;  under  wing- 
coverts  blackish,  the  axillaries  rather  browner  ;  greater  under 
wing-coverts  ashy-brown,  and  white  at  the  base  like  the  prim- 
ary-quills. Total  length,  2 6  inches;  wing,  20;  tail,  io'o  ;  tar- 
sus, 3-9. 

Characters. — An  adult  Spotted  Eagle  can  always  be  told  from 
an  adult  Golden  Eagle  by  its  smaller  size,  and  by  its  tail  being 
uniform  below.  This  character  will  also  distinguish  the  young 
birds  of  the  two  species,  the  Golden  Eagle  having  the  base  of 
the  tail  white,  and  showing  none  of  the  large  spots  on  the 
wings,  from  which  the  Spotted  Eagle  has  derived  its  popular 
name. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  and  occasional  visitant,  occur- 
ring apparently  only  in  late  autumn  and  winter.  Two  were 
obtained  near  Youghal  in  Ireland  in  January  1845.  Two 
more  have  been  shot  in  Cornwall  in  December  1860  and 


1HE   TRUE    EAGLES  !6r 

November  1861.  In  1875  a  Specimen  was  found  dead  on 
Walney  Island,  and  on  the  3ist  October,  1885,  another  was 
shot  in  Northumberland  (cf.  Saunders,  I.e.}.  In  November 
1891,  three  or  four  specimens  were  obtained  in  the  eastern 
counties.  Mr.  J.  H.  Gurney  states  that  all  the  British  speci- 
mens examined  by  him  belonged  to  the  larger  race  of  Spotted 
Eagle,  and  I  have,  therefore,  somewhat  taken  for  granted  that 
the  small  Spotted  Eagle  (A.  pomarina)  has  not  yet  visited  us. 
An  examination  of  every  specimen  killed  in  these  islands  is 
desirable,  as  Mr.  Seebohm  believes  that  the  Irish  and  Corn- 
wall specimens  belonged  'to  the  small  race. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — There  are  three  races  of 
Spotted  Eagle,  named  respectively  Aquila  pomarina,  A.  macit- 
lata,  and  A.  hastata.  The  first  two  of  these  are  found  in 
Europe,  A.  hastata  being  an  Indian  species  and  therefore  not 
concerning  us  in  the  present  work.  The  difference  between 
A.  pomarina  and  A.  maculata  consists  of  size  chiefly,  the 
latter  being  a  larger  and  a  darker  bird,  both  of  them  having,  in 
their  young  plumage,  the  distinct  spotting  of  the  wing.  A. 
pomarina  is  distinctly  smaller  than  A.  maculata,  and  has  the 
"wing  under  twenty  inches  in  both  male  and  female.  This 
smaller  race,  which  is  the  one  we  should  expect  to  be  the 
visitor  to  England  instead  of  A.  maculata,  breeds  in  Northern 
Germany  and  the  Baltic  Provinces  of  Russia,  and  is  found 
in  the  Pyrenees,  and  even  in  Spain  and  North  Africa,  but  is 
apparently  rare  in  all  the  Mediterranean  countries.  A.  poma- 
rina is  said  to  reach  to  Bessarabia  and  the  Caucasus,  and  in 
winter  migrates  down  the  Nile  Valley  to  Abyssinia,  and,  in  my 
opinion,  will  probably  be  found  still  farther  to  the  south. 

Aquila  maculata,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  bird  of  Turkey  and 
Southern  Russia,  occurring  also  in  Hungary,  and  reaching  in  its 
eastern  range  through  Central  Asia  to  Eastern  Siberia  and  Nor- 
thern China.  This  form  winters  in  India,  and  also  migrates  down 
the  Nile  Valley  to  Abyssinia  and  probably  farther  southward. 

HaMts. — The  Spotted  Eagle  is  said  to  resemble  a  Buzzard  in 
its  ways,  and  to  feed  on  frogs,  lizards,  snakes,  and  even  to  eat 
grasshoppers  and  other  insects,  while  it  will  also  devour  car- 
rion. It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  swampy  forests,  and  Mr.  See- 
bohm says  that,  during  his  search  for  the  nest  of  the  Spotted 
8  M 


162  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Eagle  in  Pomerania,  he  never  found  one  in  a  dry  forest.  The 
only  nest  which  I  have  seen  myself  was  in  Hungary,  and  was 
situated  not  more  than  forty  feet  from  the  ground,  in  a  forest 
through  which  we  proceeded  in  small  shooting  parties.  The 
bird  sat  so  close  that  none  of  the  party  suspected  that  the  nest 
was  tenanted  ;  and  when,  after  we  had  been  chatting  for  some 
minutes  below  the  tree,  the  Eagle  suddenly  flew  off,  we  were 
so  much  taken  by  surprise  that  she  was  missed  by  all  three  of 
the  party. 

Nest. — This  is  generally  a  large  structure,  and  Mr.  Seebohm 
gives  the  dimensions  of  one  found  by  himself  in  Pomerania  as 
four  feet  long,  two  and  a  half  feet  wide,  and  two  feet  high.  It 
was  very  flat,  like  the  nests  of  all  Birds  of  Prey,  the  depression 
in  the  centre  not  being  more  than  four  or  five  inches.  "  The 
foundation  was  composed  of  sticks  nearly  an  inch  thick,  but  at 
the  top  they  were  very  slender.  The  final  lining  was  slender 
beech-twigs  with  fresh  green  leaves  on  them.  There  was 
also  a  little  down  and  a  feather  or  two,  which  had  probably 
been  accidentally  rubbed  off  the  breast  of  the  parent  bird." 
Another  nest  was  lined  with  fresh  green  grass.  The  tree 
selected  by  the  Spotted  Eagle  is  generally  a  beech,  but  the 
nest  is  also  found  in  oak-  and  fir-trees. 

Eggs. — These  are  laid  early  in  May,  and  are  generally  two  in 
number.  Sometimes  only  one  is  found,  and  on  very  rare  oc- 
casions a  nest  has  been  known  to  contain  three  eggs.  They 
are  very  like  a  small  edition  of  Golden  Eagles'  eggs,  and  are 
alike  in  shape  at  both  ends,  but  they  are,  of  course,  smaller 
than  the  eggs  of  that  bird.  In  those  of  both  forms  of  Spotted 
Eagle  there  seems  to  me  to  be  an  occasional  tendency  for  the 
rufous  markings  to  congregate  at  one  end  of  the  egg,  which 
is  not  seen  in  those  of  A.  chrysaetus.  Axis  (in  eggs  of  A. 
pomarina),  2'3-2'6$  :  diam.,  i'g-2'i ;  axis  (in  those  of  A.  macu- 
lata),  2  45-2*65  ;  diam.,  i'g-2'i. 

THE   SEA-EAGLES.     GENUS   HALIAETUS. 
Haliaetus,  Savigny,  Syst.  Ois.  d'Egypte,  p.  254  (1809). 

Type,  H.  albidlla  (L.). 

The  Sea-Eagles  have  the  tarsi  bare  of  feathers,  and  the  extent 
of  the  bare  part  of  the  tarsus  is  less  than  the  length  of  the  middle 


THE   SEA-EAGLES. 


toe.  The  nostrils  are  perpendicular  ovals,  the  tail  is  slightly 
rounded,  and  the  bare  tarsus  is  scaled  in  front  and  reticulated 
behind. 

Members  of  the  genus  Haliaetus  are  found  in  the  northern 
portions  of  the  New  World,  but  are  not  known  from  Central 
or  South  America.  In  the  Old  World  they  are  found  almost 
everywhere,  and  one  species,  Haliaetus  hucogaster,  is  an  in- 
habitant of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  Australia,  and  even  ex- 
tends to  some  of  the  Oceanic  Islands. 

I.    THE   WHITE-TAILED    EAGLE.       HALIAETUS    ALBICILLA. 

Vultur  albirilla,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  123  (1766). 
Haliaetus  albicilla,  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  221  (1840) ;  Newt.  ed. 
Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  25  (1871);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 
i.  p.  303  (1874);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  551,  pi.  348 
(1875);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  97  (1883);  Seebohm, 
Br.  B.  i.  p.  87  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  319 
(1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  parts  xiii.  xvi.  (1890). 

(Plate  XL  VI.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  brown,  with  a  tinge  of 
sandy-colour  on  the  neck  and  wing-coverts,  many  of  the 
feathers  being  edged  with  pale  brown  or  ashy-grey ;  head  and 
sides  of  face  with  a  decided  tinge  of  ashy-grey,  the  ear-coverts 
browner ;  the  median  and  greater  wing-coverts  glossy  brown, 
with  whity-brown  margins ;  quills  black,  with  brown  shafts,  the 
primaries  externally  shaded  with  ashy,  the  secondaries  like  the 
back,  but  darker  brown  towards  their  tips ;  lower  back  and  rump 
dark  brown  ;  long  upper  tail-coverts  white,  slightly  varied  with 
brown  at  the  base  and  at  the  tips ;  tail  pure  white  ;  under 
surface  of  body,  brown,  the  throat  and  chest  whity-brown, 
with  dark  brown  central  streaks,  some  of  the  feathers  shaded 
with  ashy  ;  under  wing-coverts  and  inner  lining  of  quills  dark 
brown,  the  latter  inclining  to  ashy  ;  cere  and  bill  yellow ;  feet 
yellow,  the  claws  black;  iris  straw-yellow.  Total  length,  33^5 
inches;  oilmen,  3^0 ;  wing,  24-5;  tail,  ii'o;  tarsus,  4'!. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  larger.  Total  length, 
38  inches;  culmen,  3*8;  wing,  26-3;  tail,  i3'5;  tarsus,  4'6. 

Young  Birds. — The  young  are  much  darker  than  the  adults, 
and  much  more  mottled,  the  head  and  neck  being  blackish- 
brown,  the  long  feathers  slightly  tipped  with  fulvous-brown,  not 

M  2 


164  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

so  distinctly  on  the  crown  itself;  entire  back,  scapulars,  and  I 
median  wing-coverts  bright  fulvous-brown,  with  large  markings  I 
of  dark  brown  towards  the  tips,  imparting  a  strongly  mottled  j 
appearance  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  body ;  lesser  and  greater 
wing-coverts  dark  brown,  the  latter  slightly  mottled  with  whity- 
brown,  as  also  the  inner  secondaries,  the  quills  being  otherwise 
as  in  the  adults  ;   lower  back,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts 
light  brown,  the  long  coverts  mottled  with  whity-brown  ;  tail  of 
the  latter  colour,  the  centre  feathers   especially  whitish,  all 
irregularly  mottled  with  greyish-brown,  which  colour  is  most 
developed  on  the  edge  of  the  feathers ;  throat  dark  brown,  with 
white  bases  to  the  feathers,  the  sides  of  the  face  being  almost  | 
uniform  dark  brown ;  rest  of  under  surface  of  body  mottled 
like  the  back,  the  bases  of  the  feathers  being  fulvous-brown, 
mottled  with  dark  brown  down  the  centre  and  at  the  tip ;  under 
tail-coverts  and  thighs  rather  more  uniform  ;  under  wing-coverts 
entirely  dark  brown ;  cere  yellowish-brown ;   bill  black ;  feet 
yellow  j  iris  brown. 

Characters. — I  have  already  stated  that  the  unfeathered  legs 
of  the  White-tailed  Eagle  unfailingly  distinguish  it  from  the 
Golden  Eagle.  The  pure  white  tail  of  the  adult  is  a  further 
character,  and  the  mottled  plumage  and  whitish  tail  of  the 
young  birds  ought  to  render  identification  of  immature  speci- 
mens easy.  Indeed  it  is  only  by  gross  carelessness  that  the 
two  species  can  be  confounded,  and  yet  we  know  that  this  is 
often  the  case. 

Range  in  the  British  Islands. — Principally  observed  in  England 
as  a  migrant  in  autumn  and  winter,  though  it  formerly  bred  on 
many  parts  of  the  coast  and  in  the  Lake  district,  but  even  in 
the  south  of  Scotland  it  has  become  extinct  as  a  breeding  bird, 
and  places  like  Ailsa  Craig,  where  there  used  to  be  an  eyrie,  no 
longer  know  the  species  except  as  a  chance  visitor.  In  the 
western  isles  of  Scotland  it  still  breeds,  and  also  on  the 
northern  coast.  Mr.  Ussher  says  that  in  its  former  breeding- 
haunts  in  Donegal,  Antrim,  Dublin,  Wicklow,  Cork,  Clare,  and 
Galway  it  is  extinct ;  but  a  pair  has  bred  recently  on  the  coast 
of  Mayo,  and  another  pair  on  the  coast  of  Kerry. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  White-tailed  Eagle  is 
found  in  most  parts  of  Northern  Europe,  and  breeds  in  Scan- 


THE   SEA-EAGLES. 


dinavia,  Germany,  and  Russia,  as  well  as  in  the  valley  of  the 
Danube.  Eastwards  it  extends  across  Asia  to  Kamtchatka 
and  in  winter  the  species  is  found  to  the  southward  in  China 
and  Japan,  and  even  visits  India. 

In  North  America  its  place  is  taken  by  the  Bald  Eagle 
(Haliactus  leucocephalus\  but  the  European  species  extends  to 
Greenland,  where  it  is  resident. 

HaMts. — By  many  writers  this  species  is  spoken  of  as  the 
Sea-Eagle,  and  in  most  of  its  range  it  appears  to  frequent  the 
sea-coast,  but  it  is  also  found  on  inland  waters  and  lakes,  and 
is  probably  nowhere  more  plentiful  in  Europe  than  in  the  valley 
of  the  Danube.  The  food  of  the  White-tailed  Eagle  consists 
of  the  smaller  game,  such  as  hares,  young  deer,  and  ducks, 
and  it  also  feeds  largely  on  carrion.  It  will  likewise  catch 
fish,  and  in  Pomerania  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  it  often  makes 
considerable  havoc  in  the  carp-ponds.  Its  nature  is  said  to  be 
somewhat  cowardly,  and  one  of  these  Eagles  will  allow  itself  to 
be  driven  off  by  a  Peregrine  or  a  pair  of  Ravens. 

Nest — This  is  a  huge  structure  of  sticks,  added  to  year  by 
year,  until  it  attains  an  immense  size.  It  is  often  built  on  a 
rock  in  the  middle  of  a  lake  in  inland  districts,  but  the  site 
varies  a  good  deal,  and  the  nest  is  as  often  built  in  a  tree,  and 
on  rarer  occasions  on  the  ground.  In  Egypt  the  nest  has 
been  found  among  reed-beds,  and  similar  instances  have  been 
recorded  from  Europe.  It  is,  however,  often  placed  on  the 
ledges  of  cliffs,  and  is  composed  entirely  of  sticks  and  a  little 
heather,  with  some  coarse  grass  as  lining. 

Eggs. — Two  in  number ;  white  or  whity-brown,  when  they 
have  become  nest-stained.  The  brownish  markings  which  are 
sometimes  seen  on  them  are  apparently  always  the  result  of 
such  staining.  The  eggs  are  somewhat  smaller  than  those 
of  the  Golden  Eagle,  and  are  rounder  in  form,  and  coarser  in 
texture.  Axis,  2-7-3-15;  diam.,  2-2-2-5. 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  Kites,  whose  connection  with  the 
Eagles  is  maintained  by  such  forms  as  the  Brahminy-Kites(.£fo//- 
astur)  of  India  and  Australia,  which  approach  the  Sea-Eagles  in 
form,  but  have  the  manners  of  a  Kite.  In  Africa,  and  again  in 
North  America,  occur  the  Swallow-tailed  Kites,  of  which  Rio- 


1 66  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

cour's  Kite  (Naueltrus  riocourt)  is  the  representative  in  the 
former  continent,  its  place  being  taken  in  the  New  World  by 
the  following. 

THE   PIED   SWALLOW-TAILED   KITES.     GENUS 
ELANOIDES. 

Elanoides,  Vieillot,  N.  Diet.  d'Hist.  Nat.  xxiv.  p.  101  (1818). 
Type,  E.  furcatus  (L.). 

These  birds,  like  the  Eagles,  have  the  feet  bare,  but  they  are 
much  weaker  than  in  the  last  named  group,  and  have  not  such 
powerful  talons.  The  nostril  is  oblique,  and  is  generally 
closed  in  by  a  membrane  on  its  upper  margin,  so  that  the 
nasal  aperture  becomes  almost  linear  in  character.  The  tail 
is  very  long  and  distinctly  forked,  the  outer  tail-feather  being 
the  longest.  The  wing  is  also  of  great  length  and  even  ex- 
ceeds the  tail  in  dimensions. 

I.    THE   SWALLOW-TAILED    KITE.       ELANOIDES    FURCATUS. 

Fa Ico  furcatus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  129  (1766). 

Nauclerus  furcatus,  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  277  (1840);  Newton, 

ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  i.  p.  103  (1871) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Brit.  B. 

p.  100  (1883). 
Elanoides  furcatus,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  317  (1874) ; 

Seebohm  Br.  B.  i.  p.  63  (1883);    Saunders,  Man.  Brit. 

B.  p.  328,  note  (1889). 

(Plate  XLV1I.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  black,  varied  with  shades 
of  purple  or  green,  according  to  the  light ;  mantle  and  lesser 
wing-coverts  deep  velvety-black ;  wings  and  tail  externally  light 
slaty-grey,  with  a  slight  gloss  of  purple  or  bronzy-green,  the  latter 
tint  especially  developed  on  the  two  centre  tail-feathers ;  head 
and  neck  all  round  white,  as  well  as  the  hinder  part  of  the  back 
and  rump ;  the  entire  under  surface  of  the  body  pure  white ; 
upper  wing-coverts  white  at  the  base,  shaded  with  grey,  and 
glossed  with  green ;  under  wing-coverts  and  bases  of  inner 
secondaries  white ;  bill  dark  horn-blue ;  feet  light  milk-blue ; 
iris  rich  dark  reddish-brown.  Total  length,  2 1  inches ;  culmen, 
i'o;  wing,  17-0;  tail,  13*0;  tarsus,  1-4. 


\ 


THE   TRUE    KITES.  ^7 

Adult  Female.— Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  24  inches ; 
wing,  i6'8. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Swallow-tailed  Kite  is  so  firmly 
established  in  the  British  list  of  birds,  that  to  omit  it  would 
seem  to  be  a  mistake,  and  yet  the  claims  of  the  species  to  be 
considered  British  are  of  the  very  slenderest.  Two  specimens 
have  been  recorded  :  one  in  Argyllshire  in  1772,  and  another 
in  1823.  The  latter  bird  was  captured  alive,  but  made  its 
escape,  so  that  I  believe  I  am  correct  in  saying  that  no 
authentic  British  example  of  the  Swallow-tailed  Kite  exists  in 
any  private  collection  or  public  museum  in  this  country. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  range  of  this  species 
in  North  America  is  given  by  Mr.  Ridgway  as  extending 
over  the  tropical  and  warm-temperate  portions  of  continental 
America,  north  in  the  interior  regularly  to  Iowa,  Minnesota, 
Illinois,  &c.,  along  the  Atlantic  coast  casually  to  Pennsylvania 
and  Southern  New  England.  In  winter  the  species  migrates 
to  Brazil. 

Habits. — A  very  graceful  bird  on  the  wing,  soaring  to  a 
great  height.  It  appears  from  Audubon's  notes,  to  be  gre- 
garious to  a  great  extent,  feeding  on  the  wing,  and  catching 
insects  or  small  lizards  from  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  devouring 
also  large  grasshoppers,  caterpillars,  snakes,  and  frogs.  Mr. 
Dresser  also  says  that  they  feed  on  wasp-grubs,  and  will  carry 
off  a  nest  to  a  perch  and  there  pick  out  the  grubs. 

Nest. — Placed  on  a  high  tree,  made  of  sticks,  and  lined  with 
coarse  grass.  Mr.  Dresser  suggests  that  they  probably  breed  in 
society,  and  Mr.  Ridgway  says  that  the  nest  is  usually  found 
near  watercourses. 

Eggs. — Two  or  three  in  number ;  white  or  buffy-white,  boldly 
spotted  or  blotched,  chiefly  round  the  larger  end,  with  hazel- 
brown,  chestnut,  or  rich  madder-brown  (Ridgway]. 

THE  TRUE   KITES.     GENUS   MILVUS. 
Milvus,  Cuvier,  Leg.  Anat.  Comp.  i.  tabl.  Ois.  (1800). 

Type,  Milvus  milvus  (L.). 

The  Kites  have  the  same  oblique  nostril  as  was  described 
in  the  genus  Elanoides,  with  the  membrane  on  the  upper 


1 68  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

margin  closing  in  the  nostril,  so  that  the  nasal  opening  appears 
as  a  linear  slit.  The  tail  is  forked,  so  that  the  outer  feathers 
are  the  longest,  and  the  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  but  the 
difference  between  the  tips  of  the  primaries  and  secondaries  is 
more  than  that  of  the  fork  of  the  tail. 

The  True  Kites  are  birds  of  the  Old  World,  and  are  dis- 
tributed over  temperate  Europe,  as  well  as  Asia,  Africa,  and 
Australia. 

I.    THE   COMMON,    OR    RED    KITE.       MILVUS    MILVUS. 

Falco  milvus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  126  (1766). 

Milvus  regalis,  Roux;  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  265  (1840) ;  See- 

bohm,  Br.  B.  i.  p.  74  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B. 

part  xi.  (1889). 
Milvus  ictinus,  Sav. ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  92  (1871) ; 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.   Mus.  i.  p.  319  (1874);  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.  v.  p.  643,  pi.  361  (1875) ;  B-  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  99 

(1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  325  (1889). 

(Plate  XLFJIL) 

Adult  Male. — Above  brown,  with  rufous  margins  to  the 
feathers,  shading  off  into  buff  on  the  edges,  especially  on  the 
wing-coverts ;  primary-coverts  and  primary-quills  black,  with 
the  base  of  the  inner  web  white ;  the  secondaries  paler  brown, 
with  rufous  edges ;  the  lower  back  and  rump  dark  brown ; 
upper  tail-coverts  rufous,  washed  with  brown  ;  tail  rufous,  with 
fulvous  tips  to  the  feathers,  the  outer  feathers  darker  brown  on 
the  outer  web,  especially  towards  the  tips,  the  inner  web  with 
a  few  bars  of  dark  brown ;  head,  sides  of  face,  and  throat 
whitish,  streaked  with  dark  brown,  more  narrowly  on  the  latter  ; 
chest  pale  rufous,  the  feathers  margined  with  buff,  and  with 
broad  brown  centres ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of  body 
bright  rufous,  with  longitudinal  centres  of  dark  brown,  these 
streaks  more  narrow  on  the  thighs  and  under  tail-coverts;  under 
wing-coverts  and  axillaries  dark  brown,  with  rufous  margins, 
the  lower  series  greyish ;  cere  yellow;  bill  horn-colour ;  feet 
yellow;  iris  yellow.  Total  length,  24  inches ;  culmen,  i'8  ;  wing, 
20-4;  tail,  i5'o;  tarsus,  2*2. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.     Total  length,  24  inches; 
wing,  1 8  6. 
Young  Birds  are  distinguished  by  the  light  streaks  on  the  under 


PLATE      XLVIII. 


THE   TRUE    KITES.  169 

surface  of  the  body,  and  the  much  narrower  black  stripes  on 
the  under-parts. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Formerly  a  common  species  in  many 
parts  of  England  and  Wales,  but  now  extinct  in  most  of  its 
former  haunts,  though  it  is  said  still  to  nest  in  certain  places 
in  the  last-named  principality,  where  it  is  protected.  In 
Scotland,  also,  it  occasionally  breeds,  but  in  England  the  last 
nest  recorded  was  in  1870  in  Lincolnshire.  There  are  still 
living  people  who  can  remember  the  Kite  as  anything  but  a 
rare  bird,  and  the  Marquis  of  Huntly's  head  keeper  at  Aboyne 
could  recall  the  time  when  it  bred  regularly  at  Glentanar,  and 
was  always  known  as  the  "  Glentanar  Glead."  In  Ireland  it 
appears  never  to  have  been  plentiful,  and  only  some  half-a- 
dozen  instances  of  its  capture  have  been  recorded.  In  the 
Vliddle  Ages  it  was  a  common  species  in  England,  and  excited 
the  curiosity  of  foreign  visitors  by  its  abundance  in  the  streets 
of  London,  where  it  fed  upon  the  offal  and  garbage. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Throughout  the  greater  part 
of  Europe  the  Kite  is  met  with,  and  breeds  in  Central  Europe 
and  the  Mediterranean  countries,  remaining  in  Southern  Spain 
at  all  seasons,  though  the  number  is  slightly  increased  by 
arrivals  from  the  north  in  winter,  when  they  pass  over  to  North 

Alrica  during  the  autumn  migration.  Its  northern  range  in 
Scandinavia  is  about  61°  N.  lat.,  and  its  eastern  range  in  Russia 

s  bounded,  by  the  Dnieper  and  the  Governments  of  Tula  and 
Orel.  It  breeds  in  Palestine,  in  North  Africa,  and  is  also 

bund  in  Madeira,  the  Canaries,  and  the  Cape  Verd  Islands. 

Habits — However  much  the  Red  Kite  may  have  frequented 
the  cities  of  England  in  former  times,  as  its  relations  do  many 
of  the  eastern  cities  at  the  present  day,  the  species  is  now 
3anished  from  the  woods  which  it  still  frequented  early  in  the 
century,  and  is  now  only  to  be  found  in  the  wilder  parts  of 
Great  Britain.  In  many  of  the  woodland  districts  of  Northern 
Germany,  however,  it  is  still  a  common  bird,  and  Mr.  See- 
Dohm  gives  an  account  of  a  bird-nesting  excursion  in  Pome- 
rania,  when  he  took  several  nests. 

The  flight  of  the  Red  Kite  is  easy  and  graceful,  and  the 
forked  tail  of  the  bird  renders  it  readily  recognisable  on  the 


170  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

wing.  Its  well-known  powers  of  soaring  used,  in  former  days, 
to  make  it  an  object  of  pursuit  for  Falconers,  and  it  is  said 
that  on  some  occasions  both  the  Kite  and  its  pursuer  soared  to 
such  an  immense  height  as  to  become  invisible,  and  neither  Fal- 
con nor  quarry  were  ever  seen  again.  The  cry  of  the  Kite  is 
like  that  of  its  tropical  brethren,  a  "mewing"  one,  but  it  is  not 
heard  in  the  same  constant  and  irritating  querulous  manner, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  Govinda  Kites  in  India,  or  the  Egyptian 
Kites  in  Egypt.  With  the  Red  Kite  the  cry  is  principally 
heard  in  the  breeding-season. 

In  most  of  its  ways  the  Red  Kite  is  very  Buzzard-like,  and 
like  that  species,  it  captures  its  prey  more  by  surprise  and 
stealth  than  in  open  flight.  Its  diet  is  varied,  consisting  of 
the  smaller  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  and  frogs,  and  also  fish, 
but  the  remains  of  hares  which  have  been  found  in  the  nest  of 
the  Kite  are  probably  those  of  animals  killed  by  some  more 
powerful  depredator,  and  carried  off  by  the  Kite  after  the  animal 
has  been  despatched  and  partially  eaten  by  its  original  captor. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Grouse,  which  the  Kite  is  stated 
to  snatch  on  occasion,  for  one  can  hardly  imagine  a  weak-footed 
bird  like  the  Kite  capturing  a  powerful  bird  like  the  Red 
Grouse,  if  the  latter  were  in  its  full  strength ;  and  it  is,  there- 
fore, most  likely  that  only  diseased  or  wounded  birds  fall 
victims  to  the  Kite's  rapacity.  Besides  being  a  scavenger,  it 
will  also  take  young  birds  of  all  sorts,  and  in  the  old  days, 
when  the  species  was  common,  it  obtained  a  bad  name  as  a 
destroyer  of  young  chickens. 

Uest. — From  all  accounts  this  is  chiefly  remarkable  among 
the  nests  of  the  Birds  of  Prey  for  the  scraps  with  which  it  is 
ornamented.  It  is  generally  placed  in  a  tree,  though  in  certain 
places  it  has  been  found  on  rocks,  as  in  Northern  Africa,  for 
instance.  As  to  the  rubbish  with  which  a  Kite  decorates  its  nest 
of  sticks,  here  are  some  of  the  items  recorded  by  Mr.  See- 
bohm  as  found  by  him  in  those  he  visited  in  Pomerania : 
"  old  rags,  parts  of  newspapers,  a  piece  of  embroidery,  part  of 
an  old  stocking,  some  moss,  goat's  hair,  rags,  lumps  of  hair 
from  a  cushion,  brown  paper,  wool,  pig's  hair,  &c." 

Eggs. — From  two  to  three  in  number  ;  pale  greenish-white  01 
white,  many  of  them  with  spots  and  blotches  of  reddish-brown 


THE   TRUE    KITES.  T7I 

or  chestnut,  some  of  the  eggs  being  very  boldly  blotched,  and 
with  the  markings  almost  black.  The  red  blotches  are  not 
confined  to  either  end  of  the  egg,  as  a  rule,  though  sometimes 
this  is  the  case.  The  spots  are  generally  distributed  over  the 
egg,  when  they  occur,  and  serve  to  bring  into  relief  the  larger 
and  darker  blotches,  which  give  the  eggs  a  very  handsome 
appearance.  Axis,  2-1-2-35  inches;  diam.,  1*7-1-75. 

II.    THE   BLACK    KITE.       MILVUS    MIGRANS.* 

Accipiter  korschun,  Gm.  N.  Comm.  Petrop.  xv.  p.  444  (1771). 
Falco  migrant,  Bodd.  Tabl.  PI.  Enl.  p.  28  (1783). 
Milvus  migrant,  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  97  (1871); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  651,  pi.  362  (1876);  B.'O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.  p.  99  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.  Brit.  B.  p.  327  (1889); 
Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  part  xix.  (1891). 
Milvus  korschun,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  322  (1874). 
Milvus  ater,  Seebohm,  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  80  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dark  brown,  the  median 
wing-coverts  paler  brown,  with  darker  brown  shaft-stripes ; 
quills  dark  brown,  paler  on  their  inner  webs,  ashy-brown 
below,  paler  towards  the  base;  tail  dark  brown,  somewhat 
lufescent  towards  the  end,  with  very  indistinct  bars  of  darker 
brown  ;  head  all  round  and  throat  whitish,  with  dark  brown 
streaks,  the  ear-coverts  washed  with  brown ;  under  surface  of 
body  rufous-brown,  becoming  clearer  rufous  on  the  abdomen, 
ihe  breast  broadly  streaked  with  dark  brown,  more  narrowly 
on  the  abdomen,  flanks,  and  under  tail-coverts ;  under  wing- 
coverts  dull  brown,  washed  with  rufous  and  streaked  with  dark 
brown,  the  lower  series  ashy-brown ;  cere  and  gape  orange ; 
bill  black,  yellowish  at  base ;  feet  yellow,  claws  black  ;  iris  pale 
greyish-yellow,  surrounded  by  a  black  line.  Total  length,  22 
inches;  culmen,  i'6;  wing,  iS'i  ;  tail,  ii'o;  tarsus,  2*2. 

Adult  Female. —  Similar  to  the  male  in  plumage.  Total  length, 
22  inches;  wing,  i8'o. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — This  Kite  can  only  be  considered  as 

*  Though  I  still  believe  that  the  oldest  name  for  this  species  is  Milvus 
korschun  (Gm.),  the  name  is  a  barbarous  one,  and  as  it  has  no  similarity 
to  anything  Latin  or  Greek,  I  am  willing  to  discard  it  for  the  more  classi- 
cal one  of  M.  migrans,  which  has  been  generally  adopted  for  the  Black 
Kite  by  ornithologists  of  the  present  day. 


172  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

one  of  our  rarest  and  most  accidental  visitors,  for  it  has  only 
been  known  to  occur  in  the  British  Islands  on  one  occasion, 
an  adult  male  bird  having  been  trapped  in  the  deer-park  at 
Alnwick  in  Northumberland  in  May,  1866.  This  specimen  is 
now  in  the  Newcastle  Museum. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — This  Kite  is  found  in  most 
parts  of  Europe,  though  locally  distributed  in  many  portions 
of  the  Continent.  On  both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  it 
is  to  a  great  extent  resident  and  breeds,  especially  in  Northern 
Africa,  but,  though  nesting  throughout  Central  Europe,  it  does 
not  extend  to  Scandinavia,  being  again  found  throughout  Russia 
from  Finland  and  Archangel  to  the  Caspian  Sea.  Its  range 
extends  eastward  to  Persia  and  Turkestan,  but  farther  east 
its  place  is  taken  by  Milvus  govinda  and  M.  melanotis.  In 
winter  it  visits  Africa,  wandering  even  to  the  southern  por- 
tions of  the  continent. 

Habits. — Although  very  similar  in  its  ways  of  life  to  the  Red 
Kite,  the  present  species  seems  to  be  a  much  shyer  bird  than 
its  congener  in  Northern  Europe,  though  in  Southern  Europe 
and  the  Mediterranean  countries  it  is  much  commoner  and  is 
even  found  in  some  of  the  cities,  which  it  frequents  for  the 
sake  of  the  garbage  it  can  pick  up.  It  is  particularly  fond  ot 
fish,  and  is  often  to  be  seen  beating  over  lakes  and  rivers  in 
pursuit  of  fish  on  the  surface  or  in  the  shallows.  Its  food  like- 
wise consists  of  leverets,  rats,  mice  and  small  birds,  frogs, 
and  insects.  Although  mostly  found  in  forests  and  wooded 
districts,  the  Black  Kite  is  sometimes  met  with  in  unexpected 
localities,  and  Mr.  Dixon  states  that,  when  in  Algeria,  he  found 
the  Black  Kite  "  in  the  most  desolate  country,  both  on  the 
plains  and  at  altitudes  of  7,000  feet  in  the  Aures  Mountains." 
In  Mr.  Seebohm's  work  on  British  Birds  occurs  the  following 
note,  translated  from  the  writings  of  the  late  Professor  Bog- 
danow.  "  Upon  my  arrival  at  Astrachan,  I  was  greatly  sur- 
prised at  the  numbers  of  Black  Kites  living  in  the  town,  and 
at  their  tameness.  One  could  throw  hardly  anything  out  of 
the  window,  without  two  or  three  of  these  birds  pouncing  on 
it.  As  soon  as  the  August  fishery  commences,  all  these  birds 
leave  the  town  and  go  to  the  fishing-places,  where  the  small 
and  useless  fish  are  cast  away  by  the  fishermen.  The  different 
localities  inhabited  by  the  Kite,  and  its  occurrence  in  the 


THE    BLACK-SHOULDERED    KITES. 


'73 


steppes  and  valleys,  certainly  does  not  make  it  a  normal  in- 
habitant of  the  plains,  and  its  real  habitation  is  the  forest, 
where  it  breeds,  and  to  which  it  retires  to  roost.  In  the 
Volga  district  it  never  builds  anywhere  but  in  trees ;  but  in 
the  Volga  delta,  where  no  oaks  nor  any  other  high  trees  exist, 
it  constructs  its  nest  on  the  very  low  trees  which  sometimes 
grow  amidst  reeds.  In  the  wooded  parts  of  Kazan  their 
food  consists  of  young  hares,  moles,  mice,  and  small  birds, 
and  in  the  towns  and  villages  of  garbage.  In  the  river- 
valleys  it  preys  upon  frogs,  water-rats,  ducks  and  other  water- 
birds  ;  but  in  no  case,  and  in  no  place,  does  it  despise  carrion. 
Its  migration  from  the  province  of  Kazan  commences  in  Sep- 
tember, and  draws  to  a  close  in  October.  This,  however, 
largely  depends  upon  the  weather,  as  in  dry  and  mild  autumns, 
when  there  are  many  mammals  on  the  steppe,  it  leaves  later." 

Nest. — Made  of  sticks,  and  lined  with  some  rubbish  and 
scraps  of  paper,  bits  of  old  clothes  and  rags,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Red  Kite.  In  the  Eastern  Atlas,  Mr.  Osbert  Salvin  states 
that  the  nest  was  usually  built  amongst  the  roots  of  a  tree 
growing  out  of  a  rock.  Mr.  Seebohm  adds :  "  The  nest  is 
often  covered  with  fish-bones,  and,  according  to  Dr.  Holland, 
the  young  are  fed  on  reptiles  and  small  birds.  The  Black 
Kite  will  also  rob  the  nests  of  other  birds,  when  it  is  bringing 
up  its  young."  In  Southern  Spain,  Mr.  Howard  Saunders 
has  found  the  species  to  be  gregarious  during  the  nesting- 
season,  and  as  many  as  ten  nests  have  been  found  by  him  in 
a  small  patch  of  forest. 

Eggs. — Generally  two,  but  as  many  as  five  are  sometimes 
found.  They  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Red  Kite,  but 
they  are,  as  a  rule,  more  distinctly  marked  than  the  eggs  of 
the  last-named  species.  The  ground-colour  is  dull  white,  and 
the  reddish  blotches  are  distributed  irregularly  over  the  egg, 
being  sometimes  congregated  at  one  end,  sometimes  at  the 
other.  Some  eggs  are  clouded  all  over  with  pale  cinnamon- 
brown.  Axis,  2-05-2-3  inches;  diam.,  1-6-175. 

THE   BLACK-SHOULDERED    KITES.     GENUS   ELANUS. 

Elanus,  Savigny,  Syst.  Ois.  d'Egypte,  p.  274  (1809). 
These  are  perfectly  tropical  birds,  and,  like  the  Bee-Eaters, 
are  entirely  out  of  place  in  Great  Britain.     As,  however,  the 


174  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

occurrence  of  the  common  Black-winged  Kite  in  Ireland 
appears  to  be  beyond  question,  it  is  given  a  place  in  the  pre- 
sent work,  for  what  it  is  worth.  Like  all  Kites,  the  members 
of  the  genus  Elanus  have  the  feet  bare,  and  further  show  that 
they  are  Kites  and  not  Eagles  by  having  the  oblique  nostril 
which  is  one  of  the  features  of  the  Milvine  section  of  the 
Sub-family  Aquilincz.  At  the  same  time  they  approach  the 
True  Falcons  in  appearance,  and  more  especially  the  Honey- 
Kites  in  their  soft  feathering,  that  peculiar  "  feel "  of  plumage 
which  distinguishes  this  small  group  of  Hawks  to  the  student, 
and  enables  him  to  recognise  the  Falconine  Kites.  To  this 
group  of  Accipitrine  Birds  belong  the  South  America  genera 
Rosthramus  and  Leptodon,  as  well  as  Gainpsonyx,  and  the 
Old  World  genera  Gypoictinia,  Elanus,  Henicopernis,  Machce- 
rhamphus,  and  Pernis.  Of  these  Falconine  Kites  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  is  Machtzrhamphus,  of  which  the  species  are 
so  rare  in  museums  that  certainly  less  than  twenty  examples 
are  as  yet  known.  They  are  crepuscular  birds,  coming  out  in 
the  twilight  and  feeding  on  bats,  edible  swifts,  and  other 
night-flying  animals.  These  curious  black  Perns  are  found  in 
Southern  and  Eastern  Africa  and  Madagascar,  and  then  the 
genus  re-appears  in  Southern  Tenasserim,  Malacca,  Borneo, 
and  New  Guinea.  The  genus  Elanus  is  represented  in  every 
portion  of  the  tropical  globe,  and  is  absent  only  in  the  tem- 
perate parts  of  the  Palaearctic  and  the  Nearctic  Regions,  as  well 
as  in  Oceania. 


I.    THE    BLACK-SHOULDERED    KITE.       ELANUS    C^RULEUS. 

Falco  caruleus,  Desf.  Mem.  Acad.  Sci.  Paris,  1787,  p.  503,  pi, 

15- 

Elanus  c&ruleus,  Leach  ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  336 
(1874);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  v.  p.  663,  pi.  363  (1875);  B.  O. 
U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  100  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.  Brit.  B.  p. 
328,  note  (1889). 

Adult  Male — General  colour  above  blue-grey,  the  head  paler ; 
forehead  and  eyebrow,  lores  and  sides  of  face,  white ;  the  ear- 
coverts  washed  with  grey  ;  feathers  round  the  eye  black ;  lesser 
and  median  wing-coverts  black,  the  greater  series  blue-grey ; 


THE    BLACK-SHOULDERED    KITES.  175 

primary-coverts  and  quills  grey,  the  latter  white  at  the  base, 
the  shafts  black  ;  the  inner  quills  paler  and  the  inner  second- 
aries darker  grey,  like  the  back  ;  tail  ashy-white,  with  the  two 
centre  feathers  more  ashy-grey ;  under  surface  of  body  pure 
white,  including  the  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries;  cere, 
orbits,  and  feet  yellow ;  bill  black  ;  iris  carmine.  Total  length, 
13-2 inches;  culmen,  1*05;  wing,  io'6;  tail,  5*6;  tarsus,  1-4. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  1 2  -5  inches; 
wing,  io'2. 

Young  Birds. — These  differ  somewhat  from  the  adults,  being 
ashy-brown,  with  broad  ashy-white  tips  to  the  feathers  ;  tail  also 
ashy-brown,  whiter  on  the  inner  web  ;  wing-coverts  black,  as  in 
the  adults,  with  buffy-white  tips  ;  forehead  and  eyebrow  white, 
with  narrow  rufous-brown  streaks ;  sides  of  face  and  under 
surface  of  body  silky-white,  the  centre  of  the  breast  streaked  with 
rufous,  as  also  the  flanks ;  the  sides  of  the  breast  washed  with 
rafous  ;  iris  light  brownish-yellow,  or  pale  salmon-colour. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Has  only  been  noticed  once  in 
Ireland,  a  single  specimen  having  occurred  "  on  the  bog  of 
Horsestown  in  Co.  Meath  in  Ireland  ;  it  is  now  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Sir  John  Dillon,  at  Lismullen"  (More,  List  of  Irish 
Birds,  1885,  p.  6). 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Black-shouldered  Kite 
is  found  all  over  tropical  Africa  and  even  visits  Northern  Africa, 
where  it  breeds  and  in  some  localities  is  not  rare.  It  crosses  into 
Southern  Spain,  where,  however,  it  is  not  common.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  its  occurrences  in  South-eastern  Europe.  It 
is  found  also  in  the  Indian  Peninsula. 

Habits. — Colonel  Irby  says  that  this  species  is  easily  recog- 
nised on  the  wing  by  its  greyish-white  colour.  It  has  also  a 
peculiar  habit  of  hovering  at  about  thirty  yards  from  the 
ground,  with  the  wings  forming  a  sort  of  V  or  acute  angle  with 
the  body,  never  bringing  them  level  with  one  another,  till  it 
flies  off  to  take  up  a  fresh  position.  The  birds  are  rather  wary 
when  thus  engaged  in  hunting  for  their  prey.  In  India,  Mr. 
A.  O.  Hume  states  that  it  is  nowhere  seen  in  any  numbers, 
though  he  once  saw  more  than  a  dozen  pairs  hunting  over  the 
dry  reedy  bed  of  a  jheel  in  the  Delhi  district ;  they  feed  mostly 


176  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

on  large  grasshoppers,  but  also  catch  mice.  In  Egypt,  Mr. 
Stafford  Allen  says  that  the  bird  is  crepuscular  in  its  habits, 
feeding  largely  on  mice  and  beetles,  as  well  as  small  bird?. 

Mr.  Hume  likewise  speaks  of  the  curious  hovering  flight  of 
the  Black-shouldered  Kite.  He  says  : — "  They  hover  over  the 
grass  in  the  fashion  of  a  Kestrel,  or  perhaps  more  like  a  Snake-- 
Eagle (Circaetus  gallicus),  but  in  a  clumsier  and  heavier  manner. 
The  wings  point  upwards,  instead  of  being  retained  nearly 
horizontally  as  in  the  Kestrel,  and  the  legs  and  tail  hang  down 
in  a  manner  unlike  that  of  any  other  bird  I  have  yet  noticed. 
Thus  hovering,  they  after  a  time  slowly  descend,  and  when 
within  a  few  feet  of  the  ground,  generally  drop  suddenly.  They 
are  very  tame,  bold  birds,  passing  unconcernedly  within  a 
few  yards  of  a  sportsman,  when  busy  hunting,  over  fields  of 
grass,  and  sitting  composedly  on  the  bare  end  of  a  bough, 
whilst,  gun  in  h£nd,  one  walks  up  to  within  a  few  paces  of 
their  perch." 

Nest. — Composed  of  sticks  and  lined  with  grass  roots  and 
fibres,  and  always  built  in  a  tree. 

Eggs. — Three  or  four,  generally  the  latter  number,  on  rare 
occasions  five.  Ground-colour  yellowish-white  or  buffy-white, 
the  markings  varying  considerably.  Very  few  but  what  are 
richly  marked  with  chestnut ;  one  egg  in  the  Hume  collection, 
from  Poona,  being  white,  sparsely  powdered  with  reddish 
spots.  In  some  the  red  colour  is  congregated  at  one  or  other 
end  of  the  egg,  leaving  the  other  half  with  spots  only,  while  in 
some  very  handsome  specimens  the  whole  of  the  egg  is  clouded 
with  reddish-brown  and  chestnut,  leaving  the  white  ground- 
colour invisible.  Axis,  1-55-17  inch;  diam.,  1-2-1-25. 

THE   HONEY-KITES.     GENUS   PERNIS. 
Perm's,  Cuvier,  Regne  Anim.  i.  p.  322  (1817). 
Type,  P.  apivorus  (L.). 

The  Honey-Kites,  or  Perns,  generally  but  erroneously  called 
Honey-"  Buzzards  "  in  works  on  Natural  History,  are  birds  of 
the  Old  World  only,  their  place  in  North  and  South  America 
being  taken  by  the  Grey  Kite-Falcons  (Ictinia),  and  in  the 


PLATE     XL 


HONEY     KITE 


THE    HONEY-KITES.  1y- 

Neotropical  Region  especially  by  the  Double-toothed  Kite- 
Falcons  (Barpagus). 

rhe  Honey-Kites  are  found  throughout  temperate  Europe 
and  Asia  as  far  as  Japan,  and  occur  throughout  the  whole  of 
Irdia,  Ceylon,  the  Malay  countries  and  islands,  and  China. 
They  visit  Africa  only  on  migration,  and  are  unknown  in  the 
Australian  Region. 

The  members  of  this  genus  have  the  lores  densely  feathered, 
and  the  plumes  of  the  face  are  very  short  and  scaly  in  appear- 
ance, the  feet  are  weak,  and  the  toes  are  not  suited  for  killing 
prey  in  full  flight.  The  nostril  is  an  oblique  oval  of  a  some- 
what irregular  shape.  The  wings  are  long,  and  the  tail  is 
rounded  as  in  Elanus.  There  is  a  peculiar  softness  about  the 
plumage  of  these  Honey-Kites,  which  is  shared  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  genera  Baza>  Henicopernis^  and  Harpagus,  and  shows 
that  these  Birds  of  Prey  are  related  to  each  other,  forming,  in 
fact,  links  between  the  True  Kites  and  the  True  Falcons. 

I.    THE   HONEY-KITE.      PERNIS   APIVORUS. 

Faho  apivorus.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  130  (1766). 
Perm's  apivorus,  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  254  (1840) ;  Newton,  ed. 
Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  121  (1871);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 
i.  p.  344  (1874);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  3,  pis.  365,  366 
(1875);  Seeb.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  69  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List 
Brit.  B.  p.  100  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Brit.  B.  p.  328 
(1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  part  xxvii.  (1893). 

(Plate  XLIX.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  brown,  with  slightly  paler 
margins  to  the  feathers,  which  are  black-shafted ;  on  the  nape 
a  spot  of  white,  caused  by  the  white  bases  to  the  feathers ; 
greater  coverts  and  quills  darker  brown  at  their  ends,  exter- 
nally shaded  with  grey,  and  having  two  broad  bars  at  the  base, 
which  is  whitish  below ;  the  inner  webs,  particularly  of  the 
secondaries,  with  slight  greyish  frecklings ;  upper  tail-coverts 
rather  paler  brown  than  the  back,  barred  with  white  near  the 
base,  and  having  obsolete  white  tips ;  tail  pale  brown,  narrowly 
tipped  with  whitish,  the  base  also  mottled  with  white;  the 
tail-feathers  crossed  with  three  bands,  one  near  the  base  rather 
paler  brown,  one  in  the  middle  and  one  just  before  the  tip  of  the 
8  N 


178  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

tail  darker  brown,  the  sub-terminal  one  very  broad  ;  head  grey, 
this  colour  extending  on  to  the  sides  of  the  neck  ;  under  surface 
of  body  white,  narrowly  streaked  with  brown,  these  streaks 
widening  out  into  a  spade-shaped  spot  on  the  sides  of  the 
breast ;  flanks  and  abdomen  also  spotted  with  brown  ;  under 
wing-coverts  also  brown,  the  inner  ones  and  the  axillaries  white, 
with  a  few  brown  spots  or  bars'  the  lower  series  white  with 
broad  blackish  bars ;  cere  grey ;  bill  black ;  iris  straw-colour. 
Total  length,  25*5  inches;  culmen,  1*4;  wing,  17*2;  tail,  n*o; 
tarsus,  2-0. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
23  inches;  wing,  i6'6. 

Young  Bird. — Distinguished  by  its  brown  head  and  face,  and 
by  the  markings  on  the  tail,  which,  besides  the  two  brown 
bands  (one  median  and  one  sub-terminal),  has  the  basal  part 
varied  with  six  or  seven  broken  bars  or  mottlings.  The 
under  surface  of  the  body  is  dull  rufous-brown,  with  very  dis- 
tinct black  shaft-stripes,  the  under  tail-coverts  and  some  of  the 
breast-feathers  paler  and  more  buff  at  their  bases ;  the  head 
and  hind-neck  spotted  with  buff,  the  feathers  having  their 
points  of  this  colour  ;  forehead  and  eyebrow  white,  and  the 
wing-coverts  also  tipped  with  white. 

As  the  young  birds  progress  to  maturity  the  under  surface 
becomes  barred  with  white. 

Melanism. — The  Honey-Kite,  both  in  its  young  and  adult 
plumage,  is  very  subject  to  melanism,  and  examples  are  often 
shot  which  are  entirely  brownish-black. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  present  species  used  to  breed  in 
many  parts  of  England,  arriving  in  early  summer  to  nest  in 
the  wooded  districts,  but  the  beauty  of  its  eggs  and  the  rarity 
of  the  bird  have  caused  its  destruction  in  this  country,  and  of 
late  years  I  have  not  heard  of  any  being  taken  in  the  New 
Forest,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  last  stronghold  of  the 
Honey-Kite  in  England.  In  Ireland  it  appears  to  be  a  very 
rare  visitor,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Scotland,  in  parts  of 
which  the  species  used  to  breed.  In  autumn  a  few  examples 
are  procured  at  the  time  of  the  southward  migration,  and  it  has 
been  stated  to  occur  in  winter  occasionally. 


THE    HONEY-KITES.  J^Q 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.— The  Honey-Kite  returns  from 
its  winter  home  in  Africa  in  May,  and  passes  over  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar  in  large  numbers,  more  than  a  hundred  being  often 
seen  together.  In  September  it  passes  south  again,  but  in  less 
numbers  and  in  smaller  parties;  a  similar  stream  of  migration 
passes  over  the  Bosphorus.  The  breeding-range  of  the  species 
seems  to  extend  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Europe  to  South- 
ern Norway,  and  it  nests  in  Sweden,  Finland,  and  Russia  up 
to  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  probably  this  same  species  which 
extends  eastward  to  Turkestan,  and  Mr.  Seebohm  states  that 
he  has  received  a  specimen  from  Krasnoyarsk  in  Central 
Siberia.  He  also  believes  that  it  extends  through  Eastern 
Siberia  to  Japan  and  China,  but  it  will  probably  be  found  to 
be  the  eastern  race,  P.  ptilonorhynchus,  which  has  a  slight  crest, 
which  will  prove  to  be  the  dominant  species  of  Eastern  Asia. 
The  last-named  form  breeds  in  India  and  occurs*  throughout 
the  Burmese  and  Malayan  countries,  while  in  Java,  and  pro- 
bably in  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  its  place  is  taken  by  a  resi- 
dent form  which  is  very  dark  and  has  almost  as  long  a  crest  as 
a  Crested  Eagle  (Spizaetus). 

Habits. — In  the  northern  part  of  its  range  the  Honey-Kite  is 
a  late  arrival,  not,  as  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Seebohm,  so  much  on 
account  of  its  fearing  the  cold,  as  because  the  insects  which  form 
its  favourite  food  do  not  make  their  appearance  until  the  middle 
of  the  summer.  The  Honey-Kite  feeds  largely  on  wasps,  bees, 
and  their  larvae,  which  it  extracts  from  the  comb,  but  it  also 
devours  other  insects,  as  well  as  small  birds  and  mice,  slugs 
and  worms,  and  is  even  said  by  Mr.  Sachse  to  eat  berries  and 
small  fruits  in  autumn,  when  animal  food  fails.  The  nature  of 
its  food  renders  the  Honey-Kite  somewhat  of  a  ground-bird, 
and  it  is  said  to  run  with  comparative  agility. 

Nest. — As  a  rule  the  deserted  nest  of  some  other  bird  is 
utilised  by  the  Honey-Kite,  being  repaired  and  added  to  with 
fresh  twigs.  Both  sexes  assist  in  the  incubation  of  the  eggs, 
the  sitting-bird  being  fed  meanwhile  by  its  mate. 

Eggs. — These  are  laid  in  June,  and  are  mostly  two  in  num- 
ber, very  rarely  three,  but  even  four  have  been  known  to  occur. 
The  eggs  are  among  the  handsomest  of  those  of  Accipitrine 
Birds,  and  are  mostly  richly  clouded  with  two  shades  of  rufous, 

N    2 


i8o 


ALLEN'S    NATURALISTS    LIBRARY. 


the  overlying  blotches  being  of  the  deepest  chestnut,  in  fact 
almost  black.  Some  eggs  are  entirely  clouded  over  with 
lighter  chestnut,  while  in  others  the  buffy- white  ground-colour 
is  conspicuous,  and  half  of  the  egg  is  spotted  with  chest- 
nut, with  blotches  and  cloudings  round  the  larger  end,  and 
sometimes  quite  half  the  egg  is  clouded  and  blotched,  while 
the  other  half  is  only  sparsely  spotted.  Axis,  i'9-2-2  inches; 
diam.,  1-6-175. 

THE   TRUE   FALCONS.     SUB-FAMILY 
FALCONING. 

The  Falcons  have  the  tarsus  reticulated  and  covered  with  a 
network  of  scales  both  in  front  and  behind.  They  are  also 
distinguished  by  having  a  distinct  notch  or  tooth  in  the  bill. 
The  outer  toe  is  connected  to  the  inner  toe  by  a  membrane 
near  the  base,  and  the  tibia  is  considerably  longer  than  the 
tarsus,  imparting  a  great  strength  to  the  leg,  which  is  evidenced 
by  the  way  in  which  these  birds  strike  down  their  prey  in  full 
flight.  As  with  all  the  other  Sub-families  of  the  Birds  of  Prey, 
species  of  various  form  are  included,  from  the  feeble  Kite-like 
Cuckoo-Falcons  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  dashing  Peregrines 
on  the  other.  Included  in  this  Sub-family  are  the  tiniest  of  all 
the  Hawks,  viz.,  the  Pigmy  Falcons  or  Falconets  (Mtcrohierax)t 
birds  which  do  not  exceed  the  size  of  a  Butcher-bird  in  bulk, 
feed  on  insects,  and  lay  white  eggs  in  the  hole  of  a  tree.  These 
little  Falconets  inhabit  the  Himalayas,  the  Burmese  countries 
to  Southern  China,  as  well  as  the  Malayan  Peninsula  and  the 
Indo- Malayan  islands. 

THE  FALCONS.  GENUS  FALCO. 

Falco,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  124  (1766). 

Type,  F.  peregrinus,  Tunst. 

All  the  Falcons  have  a  distinct  tubercle,  or  pedestal,  in  the 
centre  of  their  nostrils,  which  are  round.  The  foot  is  powerful, 
and  the  talons  curved  and  very  sharp,  the  outer  toe  longer 
than  the  inner  toe.  The  wings  are  very  pointed,  and  the 
primaries  far  exceed  the  secondaries  in  length. 

The  Falcons  are  found  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  world. 


THE  FALCONS.  xgi 

I.  THE  PEREGRINE  FALCON,   FALCO  PEREGRINUS. 

Falco  peregnmiS)  Tunst.  Orn.  Brit.  p.  i  (1771) ;  Macg.  Br.  B. 
iii.  p.  294  (1840);  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  53 
(1871);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  31,  pi.  372  (1876);  See- 
bohm,  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  33  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p. 
102  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  334  (1889);  I-il- 
ford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xii.  (1890). 
l*alco  communis,  Gm. ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  376 

(1874). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  blue-grey,  much  paler 
towards  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts,  the  upper  surface 
barred  with  black,  the  bars  on  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts 
more  or  less  heart-shaped  ;  the  head,  neck,  and  upper  mantle 
blackish,  with  grey  bars,  more  or  less  indistinct  on  the  mantle ; 
cheeks,  ear-coverts,  and  a  moustachial  band  blackish ;  fore- 
head whitish ;  sides  of  neck  white,  forming  a  patch  of  white, 
separating  the  ear-coverts  from  the  hind-neck ;  under  surface 
of  body  white,  with  a  tinge  of  pale  fawn-colour  on  the  breast 
and  lower  abdomen  ;  the  throat  unspotted,  and  the  chest  with 
a  few  narrow  bars  of  blackish,  taking  the  form  of  spots  in  the 
centre  of  the  breast,  and  of  narrow  dart-shaped  lines  on  the 
under  tail-coverts;  the  quills  brownish-black,  the  primaries 
slightly  shaded  with  greyish,  the  secondaries  clearer  grey, 
crossed  by  dull  blackish  bars,  the  smaller  median  quills  tipped 
with  white  ;  tail-feathers  grey,  broadly  barred  with  black  and 
tipped  with  white,  the  bars  more  obscure  towards  the  tip  of 
the  tail,  which  is  darker  than  the  basal  portion;  cere  and 
eyelids  yellow ;  bill  blue,  blackish  towards  the  tip ;  feet  yel- 
low, the  claws  black  ;  iris  dark  hazel-brown.  Total  length, 
15  inches;  culmen,  1*2;  wing,  I2'o-i2§7;  tail,  6*5  ;  tarsus, 

2'°5- 

Adult  Female — Larger  than  the  male.  Total  length,  17 
inches;  culmen,  1*35;  wing,  14-5  ;  tail,  7-5  ;  tarsus,  2-3. 

Young  Birds. — Brown,  shaded  with  grey  on  the  upper  surface, 
the  feathers  of  which  are  edged  with  rufous  ;  head  and  neck 
rusty-buff,  the  sides  of  the  crown  and  occiput,  the  nape  and 
hind-neck,  the  feathers  behind  the  eye,  and  the  moustachial 
line  mottled  with  blackish ;  under  surface  of  the  body  rusty- 


1 82  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

buff,  with  mesial  longitudinal  spots  of  dark  brown,  fewer  on 
the  thighs,  and  represented  by  bars  on  the  under  wing-  and 
tail-coverts. 

The  full-grown  young  birds  may  always  be  told  by  the  rufous 
margins  to  the  feathers  of  the  upper  surface,  which  become 
whitish  on  the  upper  tail-coverts  and  tail-feathers,  the  latter 
spotted  on  the  outer  web  and  barred  on  the  inner  one  with  pale 
rufous  ;  the  under  surface  of  the  body  is  whitish,  the  throat 
unspotted,  but  all  the  rest  of  feathers  have  longitudinal  dark 
brown  centres,  the  markings  on  the  sides  of  the  body  being 
broader  and  more  dart-shaped ;  cere,  eyelid,  and  feet  bluish- 
grey. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Peregrine  breeds  on  many  rocky 
parts  of  the  coast  of  England,  and  in  some  places  there  has 
been  a  decided  increase  in  the  numbers  of  this  noble  Bird  of 
Prey,  so  that  on  the  Dover  cliffs  and  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  in 
the  south,  as  well  as  the  cliffs  of  Wales  and  the  Flamborough 
head-lands,  the  Peregrine  Falcon  is  more  in  evidence  than  for- 
merly, to  the  great  delight  of  the  ornithologist.  Although  in 
many  inland  parts  of  England  and  Wales  the  species  had  been 
exterminated,  this  was  never  the  case  in  Scotland,  and  it  breeds 
both  on  the  cliffs  and  in  the  interior,  while  it  also  inhabits  the 
rocky  islands.  In  Ireland,  according  to  Mr.  R.  J.  Ussher,  the 
species  breeds  in  numerous  places  all  round  the  rocky  coasts, 
and  in  the  mountain-cliffs  of  Tyrone,  Fermanagh,  Wicklow, 
Tipperary,  Waterford,  and  Galway. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Peregrine  Falcon  is 
found  throughout  the  northern  and  temperate  parts  of  the  Old 
World,  and  on  its  winter  migrations  visits  India  and  Africa. 
The  North  American  Peregrine  can  scarcely  be  considered 
to  be  different  from  the  European  bird.  In  South  America, 
Africa,  and  Australia  dark  resident  forms  of  Peregrine  are 
found,  all  of  which  may  be  considered  to  be  distinct  races,  and 
in  the  Mediterranean  countries  another  small  race,  with  black 
cheeks,  also  occurs,  viz.,  F.  punicus.  Again,  in  Java,  Sumatra, 
Borneo,  and  the  Philippines  is  found  a  beautifully  marked 
form,  of  very  dark,  rich  colour,  called  F.  ernesti,  and  the 
Himalayas  have  a  reddish-breasted  form,  F.  peregrinator.  All 
these  different  races  can  be  recognised  by  an  experienced  eye 


THE    FALCONS. 


as  distinct,  but  they  can  never  be  considered  more  than  races 
of  the  ordinary  Peregrine,  for  our  European  bird  varies  greatly 
in  the  colour  of  the  face,  having  the  sides  of  the  latter  some- 
times white,  and  sometimes  entirely  black,  while  the  amount 
of  rufous  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body  also  varies  greatly, 
being  more  rufous  in  some  individuals  than  others.  Thus 
examples  from  Greenland  and  those  from  Egypt  are  very 
richly  tinted,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  abundance  of  ducks 
and  other  prey  has  something  to  do  with  their  finer  appear- 
ance. 

Habits. — From  its  bold  spirit  and  fiery  dash,  the  Peregrine 
Falcon  has  always  been  considered  the  best  bird  for  the  pur- 
poses of  Falconry,  not  only  in  Europe,  but  also  in  the  countries 
of  the  East. 

In  a  wild  state  the  Peregrine  feeds  on  all  kinds  of  game, 
rabbits,  grouse,  partridges,  pigeons,  and  largely  on  ducks, 
water-fowl,  and  sea-birds,  and  for  the  sake  of  the  abundance 
of  the  latter  its  eyrie  is  often  found  on  the  rocky  cliffs,  where 
Puffins  and  Guillemots  congregate.  Sometimes,  when  bringing 
food  to  its  young,  it  will,  apparently  for  mere  wantonness,  strike 
down  a  Gull  or  Puffin  that  happens  to  fly  in  its  path,  and  send 
the  bird  headlong  into  the  sea  below.  Choughs,  Rooks,  and 
Magpies  are  also  captured  by  the  Falcons. 

The  nesting-place  is  tenanted  year  after  year,  and  if  one  of 
the  birds  be  shot  or  trapped,  the  survivor  is  not  long  in  finding 
another  mate.  The  breeding-season  commences  in  April. 

Nest. — In  this  country  the  nest  of  the  Peregrine  Falcon  is  to 
be  found  in  high  and  almost  inaccessible  cliffs,  a  mere  hollow 
being  formed,  without  any  real  attempt  at  a  nest,  but  in  other 
countries,  the  old  nest  of  a  Rook  or  Heron,  or  some  other  bird, 
in  a  tree,  is  selected,  while  in  the  north  of  Europe  the  bird 
nests  on  the  ground  in  the  open.  Beyond  the  debris  of  cast- 
up  pellets,  bones  of  birds  and  animals,  and  a  few  scattered 
feathers,  nothing  like  a  real  nest  is  ever  found. 

Eggs. — Two  or  three,  and  sometimes  four  in  number.  The 
eggs  of  the  Peregrine  are  richly  clouded  with  some  shade  of 
chestnut,  over  which  are  some  mottlings  of  darker  rufous,  often 
almost  black  in  intensity.  Sometimes  the  colour  is  uniform 


184  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

light  rufous,  with  cloudings  of  darker  chestnut  irregularly  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  of  the  egg,  accompanied  by  dots  and 
small  or  large  spots.  Occasionally  the  eggs  have  a  buffy-white 
ground-colour  with  reddish-brown  blotches.  Axis,  1-95-2-2; 
diam.,  1-55-1 -6. 

II.    THE   HOBBY.       FALCO   SUBBUTEO. 

Fako  subbuteoy  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  127  (1766);  Macg.  Brit. 
B.  iii.  p.  309  (1840);  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  65 
(1871) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  69,  pis.  378,  379  (1871); 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  395  (1874);  B.  O.  U. 
List  Brit  B.  p.  102  (1883);  Seebohm,  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  31 
(1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  parts  ii.  iii.  (1886); 
Saunders,  Man.  p.  337  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dark  slaty-grey,  inclining 
to  blackish  on  the  head,  much  clearer  on  the  lower  back  and 
rump ;  wing-coverts  like  the  back ;  quills  blackish,  with  rufous 
bars  on  the  inner  web ;  tail  slaty-grey,  also  barred  with  rufous 
on  the  inner  web;  forehead  and  eyebrow  whitish,  the  nape 
tinged  with  rufous ;  cheek-stripe,  feathers  below  the  eye  and 
along  the  upper  margin  of  the  ear  coverts,  black ;  hinder  part 
of  cheeks,  sides  of  neck,  throat,  and  entire  breast  creamy- 
white,  with  a  rufous  tinge,  the  latter  broadly  streaked  with 
black  down  each  feather,  with  a  greyish  shade  on  the  flanks 
and  vent;  thighs,  vent,  and  under  tail-coverts  rich  rusty-red  ; 
under  wing-coverts  buffy-white,  with  blackish  cross-markings ; 
cere,  orbits,  and  feet  yellow ;  bill  bluish-black,  yellow  at  base ; 
iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  11-5  inches;  culmen,  07; 
wing,  9-6  ;  tail,  5*5;  tarsus,  1-25. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  larger.  Total  length, 
13-6  inches;  culmen,  07;  wing,  io'6;  tail,  6'5  ;  tarsus,  1-4. 

Young. — Blackish,  with  buff  edges  to  the  feathers,  broader 
and  more  distinct  on  the  secondaries,  rump,  and  especially  on 
the  crown ;  forehead  and  eyebrow  buffy-white ;  cheek-stripe 
and  line  under  the  eye  black ;  sides  of  neck,  nape,  and  throat 
rich  creamy-buff;  under  surface  of  body  creamy-buff,  the  thighs 
and  under  tail-coverts  more  rufous;  the  breast  broadly  streaked 
with  black,  the  thighs  more  narrowly,  the  under  tail-coverts 


THE   FALCONS. 


185 


streaked  with  a  line  of  black;  under  wing-coverts  rufous 
numerously  barred  with  black ;  quills  and  tail  black,  banded 
with  rufous  on  the  inner  web,  the  tail-feathers  tipped  with 
rufous. 

Characters.— The  Hobby  in  its  adult  stage  is  very  easily  re- 
cognised by  its  uniform  rufous  thighs,  white  throat  and  breast, 
the  latter  being  striped  with  black.  The  young  Hobby  is  more 
like  a  young  Peregrine,  but  can,  of  course,  be  distinguished  by 
its  smaller  size. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor  to  England,  where 
it  breeds,  when  permitted  to  do  so  in  peace.  It  has  been 
known  to  nest  in  most  of  the  southern  and  eastern  counties, 
as  well  as  in  the  midlands,  and  on  rare  occasions  in  Yorkshire. 
In  Scotland  it  is  chiefly  known  as  a  rare  migrant,  but  Sir 
Edward  Newton  has  recorded  an  instance  of  the  nesting  of  the 
species  near  Dunkeld  in  1887.  It  has  never  been  known  to 
breed  in  Ireland,  though  some  half-a-dozen  occurrences  in 
that  island  have  been  chronicled. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Hobby  is  found  from 
Northern  Europe  across  Siberia  to  Kamtchatka.  It  breeds  in 
the  forests  of  Central  Europe  and  Scandinavia,  and  occasion- 
ally in  the  countries  of  Southern  Europe,  but  it  is  principally 
known  in  the  latter  as  a  spring  and  autumn  migrant.  In 
Northern  Europe  it  extends  to  the  Arctic  Circle  in  Lapland, 
and  in  Russia  up  to  65°  N.  lat.  In  winter  the  species  visits 
China,  the  Indian  Peninsula,  and  migrates  through  Eastern 
Africa  as  far  as  the  Cape. 

I  Habits. — The  Hobby  has  much  the  appearance  of  a  diminu- 
tive Peregrine,  but  does  not  possess  the  strength  or  courage  of 
the  larger  Falcon,  though  it  equals  it  in  fierceness  and  agility 
of  flight.  It  feeds  largely  on  insects,  especially  cockchafers 
and  dragon-flies,  and  when  these  are  plentiful,  it  gives  up  the 
chase  of  small  birds  in  a  great  measure,  and  lives  on  insects, 
which  it  catches  with  great  dexterity  on  the  wing,  devouring 
them  in  the  air  and  allowing  the  wings  and  wing-cases  to  fall 
to  the  earth.  In  some  of  these  flights,  Taczanowski  says  that 
it  will  occasionally  seize  a  Bat  in  its  career,  but  drops  the 
latter  without  touching  it  further. 


1 88  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

are  so  systematically  shot  down,  that  few  of  them  probably 
reach  the  mature  age  when  the  female  assumes  a  dress  like 
that  of  her  mate.  As  a  rule,  the  female  Merlin  is  brown,  the 
tail-feathers  being  also  brown,  tipped  with  white,  and  crossed 
with  five  bands  of  paler  brown  ;  the  under  surface  of  the  body 
whitish,  streaked  with  dark  brown.  Total  length,  12  inches; 
oilmen,  0-9;  wing,  8'8;  tail,  5-5;  tarsus,  i'5. 

Young  Birds. — General  colour  above  brown,  with  a  slight  shade 
of  ashy-grey,  paler  on  the  rump,  all  the  feathers  margined  with 
pale  sandy-rufous,  the  secondaries  with  concealed  bars  of  the 
same  colour ;  forehead,  eyebrow,  and  ear-coverts  whitish, 
narrowly  streaked  with  black,  the  latter  brownish  on  the 
hinder  part,  which  is  slightly  washed  with  rufous ;  throat 
creamy-white,  with  narrow  and  indistinct  shaft-lines  of  brown ; 
remainder  of  under  surface  of  body  whitish,  with  broad  streaks 
of  reddish-brown,  the  black  shaft-stripes  very  distinct ;  thighs 
with  smaller  brown  spots,  and  the  abdomen  and  under  tail- 
coverts  with  only  a  few  brown  markings ;  sides  of  body  reddish- 
brown,  marbled  with  large  white  spots ;  under  wing-coverts 
also  reddish-brown,  with  white  spots  like  the  sides  of  the  body ; 
quills  dark  brown,  notched  on  the  inner  web,  and  spotted  on 
the  outer  one  with  rufous ;  tail  dark  brown,  tipped  with 
whitish,  and  barred  with  pale  rufous. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  resident  species  in  Great  Britain, 
breeding  on  the  mountain  moorlands  and  descending  to 
more  cultivated  districts  at  lower  elevations  in  winter,  though 
a  considerable  migration  of  the  young  birds  from  the  shores 
of  England  undoubtedly  takes  place.  It  is  believed  to  nest 
on  Exmoor,  but  its  regular  breeding-haunts  commence  with 
the  moors  of  Derbyshire  and  North  Wales,  and  extend  thence 
northwards  to  the  Shetland  Isles.  The  record  of  its  breeding 
in  some  of  the  more  southern  counties,  though  frequently 
stated,  needs  confirmation  in  many  instances.  In  Ireland. 
Mr.  R.  J.  Ussher  says  that  "  it  breeds  sparingly  in  about  twenty- 
two  counties  in  the  mountain  districts,  and  also  in  some  parts 
of  the  great  red  bogs  of  the  central  plain." 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Merlin  inhabits  the 
mountain  districts  of  Northern  Europe,  and  breeds  also  in 
Iceland  and  the  Faeroes,  being  resident  in  the  last  named 


ea 


THE    FALCONS. 


(89 


islands.  It  is  recorded  from  Novaya  Zemlya,  and  breeds 
generally  throughout  the  mountains  of  Central  Europe  and 
Russia,  as  high  as  57°  N.  lat.  It  appears  to  extend  across 
Northern  Asia  to  Eastern  Siberia,  but  is  much  less  plentiful 
than  in  Europe,  and  nests  rarely.  It  has  not  been  recorded 
from  Kamtchatka,  and  is  mostly  known  as  a  migrant  in  Corea 
and  the  far  east,  visiting  China  and  Northern  India  in  winter. 
Our  European  birds  migrate  to  the  Mediterranean  countries 
and  North-eastern  Africa,  but  do  not  penetrate  so  far  south  as 
the  Hobby  in  the  latter  continent. 

Habits. — The  common  name  of  "  Stone  "  Falcon  goes  far  to 
explain  the  mode  of  life  of  the  Merlin,  which  is  essentially  a 
Falcon  of  the  rocks  and  moors.  Though  feeding  largely  on 
insects,  it  captures  many  species  of  birds  which  it  "flies  down  " 
like  a  thoroughbred  Falcon  and  after  the  manner  of  the  nobler 
Birds  of  Prey.  Larks  and  Thrushes  are  a  favourite  quarry,  and 
on  the  sea-coast  in  winter  it  raids  among  the  Dunlins  and 
other  shore-birds.  Many  writers  speak  of  the  pluck  and  dash 
of  the  Merlin,  but  it  is  one  of  the  easiest  of  all  Hawks  to 
tame,  and  is  readily  trained  to  fly  at  Larks  in  the  autumn, 
while  a  female  Merlin  will  take  Plovers  and  Pigeons.  It  has 
even  been  said  to  strike  down  Grouse  and  to  be  destructive 
;o  game,  and  on  the  latter  plea  many  of  these  little  Falcons 
•all  victims  to  the  gamekeeper's  gun,  but  the  late  Mr.  E.  T. 
Booth,  one  of  the  keenest  and  most  energetic  field-naturalists 
of  the  century,  combats  this  accusation  and  observes :  — 
"  Whether  it  is  that  my  experience  with  regard  to  this  bird 
las  been  too  limited  to  form  a  correct  judgment,  I  am  unable 
to  say,  but  I  hardly  think  that  they  are  the  desperate  charac- 
ters that  they  are  generally  described.  Those  which  I  have 
seen  in  the  south  were  usually  in  pursuit  of  small  birds,  and 
while  seeking  this  sort  of  prey  they  are  frequently  captured  in 
the  clap-nets  that  abound  near  Brighton.  On  the  Grouse- 
moors  in  the  north  I  have  examined  the  remains  of  the  victims 
that  the  Merlins  have  consumed  near  their  nests,  and  I  never 
found  anything  larger  than  a  Dunlin,  which  birds,  with  Larks, 
Pipits,  and  large  moths,  principally  of  the  egger  kind,  seemed 
to  make  up  their  bill  of  fare."  Lord  Lilford  writes : — "  In- 
quisitiveness  seems  to  be  a  prominent  trait  in  this  species,  for 
I  have  repeatedly  seen  wild  Merlins  come  to  observe  the  pro- 


1 90  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

ceedings  of  trained  Peregrines  on  the  wing,  and  more  than 
once  noticed  one  hovering  over  hooded  Hawks  on  their 
"cadge."  The  Merlin  seldom  flies  at  any  great  height,  ex- 
cept, of  course,  when  in  pursuit  of  any  soaring  quarry,  or 
bound  on  a  lengthy  journey.  In  our  district  of  Northampton- 
shire, where  this  species  is  by  no  means  rare  on  passage,  we 
generally  notice  it  flying  low  along  the  course  of  our  river  or 
tributary  brooks,  or  along  the  fence-sides,  in  search  or  in 
pursuit  of  small  birds.  An  old  Wagtail  or  Pipit  cuts  out  a 
Merlin's  work  for  her;  and  I  have  often  witnessed  beautiful 
and  prolonged  flights  at  these  birds,  which,  generally,  in  the 
winter  season,  terminated  in  favour  of  the  intended  victim." 
Lord  Lilford  also  disbelieves  in  the  damage  which  is  supposed 
to  be  wrought  by  this  little  Falcon  among  young  Game  Birds, 
as  he  points  out  very  truly  that  the  latter  are  jealously  pro- 
tected by  their  parents. 

A  curious  habit  of  the  Merlin  as  regards  the  tenacity  with  j 
which  it  adheres  to  its  nesting-place  is  related  by  Mr.  Seebohm.  I 
He  says  that  he  has  known  a  patch  of  heather,  only  some  I 
couple  of  yards  square,  which  had  a  Merlin's  nest  for  many 
years,  though  no  other  breeding-place  could  be  found  within  a 
distance  of  eight  or  ten  miles ;  and,  although  the  birds  were  j 
persistently  trapped  or  shot  by  the  gamekeepers,  year  after 
year,  a  pair  of  Merlins  always  tried  to  nest  in  the  identical 
spot  the  next  year,  only  to  be  destroyed  again.     As  they  were  \ 
never  allowed  to  rear  their  young,  it  could  not  be  the  latter 
which  returned  on  migration  to  the  favourite  spot,  and  its 
selection  year  after  year  is  a  very  curious  fact. 

The  Merlin  returns  from  its  winter  haunts  at  the  end  of 
March  or  the  beginning  of  April,  laying  about  the  middle  of 
May. 

Nest. — Generally  consisting  of  a  hole  scraped  in  the  ground, 
with  a  few  twigs  of  ling  or  dry  grass  and  roots.  On  the  moors 
it  is  built  generally  on  a  slope  among  the  heather,  and  in  other 
localities  on  the  ledge  of  a  rock. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number;  usually  of  a  clouded  red, 
varying  in  shade  from  light  or  deep  chestnut  to  a  reddish-choco- 
late tint.  The  ground-colour  is  mostly  obscured,  but  in  the 
rare  examples  where  the  cloudings  are  so  sparse  as  to  allow  the 
underlying  colour  to  be  seen,  the  latter  is  of  a  creamy-white,  and 


THE    GYR-FALCONS.  19 1 

the  chestnut  forms  small  spots  and  larger  blotches.  The  eggs 
of  the  Merlin  are  often  impossible  to  distinguish  from  those 
of  the  Hobby,  and  also  from  those  of  the  Kestrel,  though  they 
seem  never  to  vary  to  a  pale  form  like  so  many  of  the  Kestrel's 
eggs  do.  Axis,  i '45-1*6  inch;  diam.,  ri5-r25. 

THE  GYR-FALCONS.     GENUS  HIEROFALCO. 

HierofakO)  Cuvier,  Regne  Anim.  i.  p.  312  (1817). 

Type,  H.  candicans  (Gm.). 

The  Gyr-Falcons  are  giant  Kestrels,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
Saker  Gyr- Falcon  (Hierofalco  saker)  and  Henderson's  Gyr-Fal- 
con  (Hierofalco  hendersoni)  the  plumage  is  red  and  not  unlike 
that  of  a  Kestrel.  Both  the  Gyr-Falcons  and  Kestrels  differ  from 
the  true  Falcons  (Falco),  as  typified  by  the  Peregrine,  in  having 
the  outer  and  inner  toes  about  equal  in  length,  whereas  in 
every  true  Falcon  the  outer  toe  is  longer  than  the  inner  one. 
The  nostril  in  the  Gyr-Falcon  has  always  a  central  tubercle. 
The  tarsus  is  finely  reticulate  in  front,  and  is  not  double  the 
length  of  the  middle  toe.  Although  the  proportions  of  the 
toes  are  the  same  in  the  Gyr-Falcons  and  the  Kestrels,  the 
former  have  a  somewhat  less  pointed  wing,  the  distance  be- 
tween the  tips  of  the  primaries  and  secondaries  being  equal  to, 
or  less  than  half  of,  the  length  of  the  tail. 

The  true  Gyr-Falcons  are  all  birds  of  northern  countries, 
and  occur  throughout  the  whole  of  the  arctic  and  sub-arctic 
portions  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds.  The  Kestrel-like  Gyr- 
Falcons,  H.  saker,  H.  hendersoni,  and  H.  mexicanus,  have  a 
more  southern  habitat,  and  carry  the  range  of  the  genus  to 
Mexico  in  the  New  World,  and  to  South-eastern  Europe, 
Central  Asia,  and  India  in  the  Old  World. 

I.    THE   GREENLAND   GYR-FALCON.      HIEROFALCO   CANDICANS.* 

Falco  candicans,  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  275  (1788);  Newton, 
ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  36  (1871);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p. 
21,  pi.  368,  369  (1876) ;  Seebohm,  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  16  (1883) ; 
Saunders,  Man.  Brit.  B.  p.  331  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  part  xvii.  (1891). 

*  This  species  is  called  Falco  islandus  of  Briinnich  by  the  American 
ornithologists.  The  work,  however,  dates  from  1764,  and  was  therefore 
published  before  the  I2th  edition  of  Linnseus  in  1766,  which  is  the  recog- 


1 92  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Falco  gyrfalco  (nee  L.),  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  284  (1840). 
Hierofako  candicans,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus~  p.  411  (1874); 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  101  (1883). 

(Plate  L.) 

Adult  Male. — Snow-white,  with  scarcely  a  spot.  The  head 
and  under-parts  snowy-white,  entirely  unspotted,  or  perhaps 
with  a  few  black  stripes  on  the  nape ;  on  the  back  a  few  drops 
of  black,  some  inclined  to  be  longitudinal  in  shape,  others 
pear-shaped  or  oval  in  form;  quills  white,  with  remains  of 
spots,  or  notches,  on  the  outer  web,  and  a  few  fragments  of 
bars  on  the  inner  webs,  which  are  for  the  greater  part  white; 
tail  pure  white,  with  white  shafts ;  cere  and  orbits  yellow;  bill 
pale  yellow,  with  a  bluish  tip;  feet  pale  yellow;  iris  dark 
brown.  Total  length,  23  inches;  oilmen,  i'i;  wing,  14*5; 
tail,  7'8;  tarsus,  2-3. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  seldom  so  completely 
white.  Total  length,  23  inches;  culmen,  1*5;  wing,  16*2;  tail, 
9-5  ;  tarsus,  2-35. 

Young  Birds. — White,  but  never  with  a  pure  white  head  or 
under-parts,  being  streaked  with  brown,  the  pattern  some- 
what irregular  on  the  upper  surface,  and  confined  to  longi- 
tudinal streaks  on  the  under  surface ;  lores  and  sides  of  face 
streaked  with  brown ;  the  tail  white,  the  centre  feathers  with 
brown  cross-bands,  more  or  less  broken,  and  forming  only  spots 
or  mottlings  on  the  other  feathers. 

I  am  at  issue  with  some  of  our  most  distinguished  ornitho- 
logists as  to  the  changes  of  plumage  through  which  the  Green- 
land Gyr-Falcon  passes  in  arriving  at  maturity.  Many  of  them 
believe  that  the  differences  exhibited  by  a  series  of  specimens 
are  caused  by  there  being  a  light  and  dark  race,  while  I  con- 
sider that  every  difference  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  age  of 
the  bird. 

First  of  all,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  state  that  a  Green- 

nised  date  from  which  British  ornithologists  start.  Dr.  Stejneger,  however, 
says  (Auk,  ii.  p.  185)  that  "  English  authors,  starting  from  the  I2th  edition 
of  Linnaeus,  will  have  to  call  it  Falco  islandus,  Fabricius,  Faun.  Groenl.  p. 
58  (1780,  ex  Briinn.)."  As,  however,  the  name  otislandus  is  misleading, 
and  has  been  referred  to  the  Iceland  Falcon  by  most  European  authors,  it 
is  far  better  to  keep  to  the  clearly-defined  name  of  candicans,  about  which 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  and  hence  no  confusion. 


GREENLAND    FALCON 


THE   GYR-FALCONS. 


193 


land  Gyr-Falcon  can  be  told,  at  any  age,  by  its  yellow  bill,  and 
by  never  having  bars  on  the  flanks.  If  a  specimen  comes  from 
Greenland  with  a  blue  bill  and  with  cross-bars  on  the  flanks, 
it  is  not  a  Greenland  Gyr-Falcon,  but  Holboell's  Gyr-Falcon 
(Hierofalco  holboelli}.  All  the  Grey  Gyr-Falcons,  of  which  H, 
holboelli  is  a  light  arctic  race,  have  blue  bills  and  barred  flanks. 
The  above  characters  at  once  separate  the  Greenland  Gyr 
Falcon  from  the  Grey  Gyr-Falcons,  H.  gyrfalco  and  its  allies, 
of  which  H.  holboelli  is  one. 

The  young  H.  candicans  is  a  streaked  bird  with  longitudinal 
brown  streaks  on  the  flanks.  Of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt : 
but  many  white  birds  are  often  transversely  barred  with  black| 
while  others  are  white,  with  longitudinal  broad  streaks  in  the 
process  of  breaking  up  into  cross-bars  or  spots.  This  plumage 
I  believe  to  be  indicative  of  a  change  of  pattern  in  the  feather, 
which  is  effected  without  any  moult.  There  is  nothing  wonderful 
in  this  theory,  for  many  Hawks  and  other  birds  change  their 
colour  without  shedding  a  feather.  The  barred  specimens 
may  be  birds  of  the  second  year,  or  females,  which  always 
take  longer  to  assume  adult  plumage  than  the  males,  or  they 
may  even  be  due  to  hybridisation  with  Holboell's  Gyr-Falcon, 
though  I  never  like  to  adopt  this  last  "  refuge  for  the  destitute," 
in  the  case  of  changes  of  plumage  which  we  do  not  exactly 
understand.  My  conclusions  have  been  derived  from  speci- 
mens shot  in  a  wild  state,  and  I  decline  to  be  influenced  by 
observations  made  from  these  Gyr-Falcons  in  confinement,  for 
a  snowy-white  bird  like  the  present  species  would  assuredly  be 
influenced  by  confinement  in  a  smoke-laden  atmosphere  like 
that  of  England,  away  from  its  arctic  surroundings,  and  de- 
pending on  the  strength  necessary  to  perform  its  normal  func- 
tions of  moulting  on  the  food  supplied  to  it  in  a  menagerie. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor,  occurring  dur- 
ing the  autumn  and  winter  migrations.  Although  it  has  been 
recorded  at  intervals  in  various  counties  of  England,  most  of 
the  specimens  have  been  procured  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  as 
might  have  been  expected  in  a  wanderer  from  the  north. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Greenland  Gyr-Falcon 
is  a  typical  arctic  species,  and  only  occurs  within  European 
limits  during  the  autumn  and  winter,  when  a  few  individuals, 
3  o 


1 94  AU.KN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

mostly  young  birds,  wander  from  their  northern  home  and 
occur  in  more  southern  latitudes.  It  breeds  in  Northern 
Greenland,  and  probably  in  all  the  circumpolar  lands,  as 
Dr.  Stejneger  found  it  nesting  on  Bering  Island.  It  also 
breeds  in  north-eastern  Arctic  America,  and  may  possibly  do 
so  in  other  northern  portions  of  the  American  continent. 

Habits. — In  the  Middle  Ages  this  splendid  bird  was  in  great 
request  among  Falconers,  and  was  chiefly  used  for  the  capture 
of  Cranes  and  Herons,  and,  in  more  recent  Hawking  days, 
the  Greenland  Falcon  has  been  trained  to  catch  Hares  and 
Rabbits.  In  a  wild  state  it  feeds  on  Ptarmigan  and  Willow- 
Grouse,  as  well  as  Lemmings  and  other  pmall  animals,  and, 
like  the  Snowy  Owl,  it  has  to  migrate  south  in  winter,  when 
its  food-supply  disappears  from  the  arctic  tundras,  and  the 
country  is  covered  with  snow.  Although  a  powerful  bird,  the 
Greenland  Falcon  does  not  possess  the  dashing  spirit  of  the 
Peregrine,  and  Lord  Lilford  writes: — "My  experience  of  this 
bird  in  captivity  is  to  the  effect  that  it  is  extremely  docile,  and 
a  very  fine  and  powerful  flyer  and  stooper,  but  what  we  call  in 
Falconry  a  poor  "  footer,"  that  is,  it  is  not  able,  or  more  prob- 
ably not  disposed,  to  bind  to  and  grasp  its  quarry  firmly  ;  it  is 
also  by  no  means  hardy  of  constitution,  and  is  difficult  to 
keep  in  good  condition  for  field  purposes."  He  also  states 
that  an  old  gamekeeper,  John  Campbell,  told  him  that  he  had 
frequently  seen  Greenland  Falcons  near  Loch  Rannoch  in 
Perthshire  during  the  winter  months,  and  that  the  birds 
seemed  to  prefer  Rooks  to  any  other  quarry,  but  that  they 
made  the  wild-fowl  very  "  uneasy  " ;  he  never  saw  one  in  pursuit 
of  a  Red  Grouse,  but  once  saw  one  make  a  stoop  at  an  old 
Blackcock  ;  on  the  whole,  from  his  professional  point  of  view, 
he  did  not  look  upon  the  Greenlander  as  such  a  "bad  ver- 
min ! "  as  the  "  Hunting  Hawk  or  Peregrine." 

Nest. — None,  the  eggs  being  laid  upon  the  bare  rock,  but 
sometimes  the  old  nest  of  some  other  bird  is  adopted. 

Eggs. — Four  in  number. 

II.    THE   ICELAND   GYR-FALCON.       HIEROFALCO   ISLANDICUS. 

Falco  islandicus,  Hancock,  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  ii.  p.  247  (1839). 
Fdlco  gyrfalco->  pt.  Macg.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  284  (1840). 


THE    GYR-FALCONS.  ^ 

Falco  i shin du s  (nee  Gm.),  Newton,  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B    i   n    46 

(1871);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  25,  pis.  370,  371  (1876); 

Saunders,  Man.  Br.   B.  i.  p.  333  (1889);   Lilford,  Col 

Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxix.  (1894). 
Hierofalcoislandus,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  0.414  (1874}  • 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  102  (1883). 
Falco  gyrfalco-candicans,  Seebohm,  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  16  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — Entire  head  white,  with  blackish  shaft-streaks, 
very  narrow  on  the  forehead  and  broader  on  the  nape,  with  a 
slight  greyish  shade  under  the  eye  and  over  the  ear-coverts ; 
upper  surface  of  body  greyish-brown,  clearer  on  the  rump,  all 
the  feathers  tipped  and  barred  across  with  white,  these  bars 
sometimes  not  continuous;  quills  dark  brown,  with  narrow 
white  tips,  the  feathers  barred  on  the  inner  web,  but  notched 
and  freckled  on  the  outer  web  with  white ;  tail  ashy,  with  a 
white  tip,  alternately  barred  with  blackish,  the  intermediate 
spaces  being  ashy-white,  sometimes  freckled  with  blackish ; 
under  surface  of  body  white,  the  throat  almost  unspotted,  the 
chest  covered  with  central  streaks  developing  into  tear-drop 
spots  at  the  end ;  rest  of  under  surface  of  body  spotted  with 
blackish,  taking  the  form  of  bars  on  the  sides  of  the  body, 
under  tail-coverts,  and  flanks,  being  rather  numerous  and 
close-set  on  the  latter;  under  wing-coverts  white,  spotted  or 
half-barred  with  blackish  ;  bill  pale  horn-blue,  yellow  at  base 
of  lower  mandible ;  cere,  orbits,  and  feet  yellow ;  iris  dark 
brown.  Total  length,  22  inches;  culmen,  1-4;  wing,  14*6; 
tail,  9'o  ;  tarsus,  2*3. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  larger.  Total  length, 
24  inches;  culmen,  1*4;  wing,  16-0  ;  tail,  9*0;  tarsus,  2-4. 

Young  Birds. — Brown ;  all  the  feathers  of  the  upper  surface 
being  margined  with  whitish,  with  conspicuous  oval  spots  of 
white  on  the  upper  tail-coverts ;  tail  brown,  with  broad  bands 
of  whitish ;  head  whitish,  the  feathers  streaked  with  dark  brown 
down  the  centre,  the  hind-neck  more  conspicuously  mottled ; 
under  surface  white,  the  throat  unspotted  ;  all  the  rest  of  the 
feathers  conspicuously  centred  with  brown,  these  markings 
somewhat  oval  in  form,  excepting  on  the  flanks,  where  they 
are  irregular,  the  brown  occupying  the  greater  portion  of  the 
feather  ;  cere,  orbits,  and  feet  bluish-grey. 

O   2 


196  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Characters. — The  Iceland  Gyr-Falcon  is  one  of  four  or  more 
races  of  the  genus  Hierofalco,  which  are  distinguished  from  the 
Greenland  Gyr-Falcon  by  having  a  blue  bill  and  barred  flanks. 
Four  distinct  races  of  Grey  Gyr-Falcon  can,  I  think,  be 
certainly  recognised.  One  of  them  is  the  Black  Gyr-Falcon, 
Hierofalco  obsoletus  of  American  authors,*  from  Labrador. 
The  second  is  the  Iceland  Gyr-Falcon,  peculiar  to  Iceland,  re- 
presented in  Southern  Greenland  by  Holboell's  Gyr-Falcon  (H. 
holboelli\  while  the  fourth  is  the  well-known  Norwegian  Gyr- 
Falcon  (H.  gyrfalco),  which  I  believe  to  extend  from  Scandi- 
navia to  Eastern  Siberia,  and  to  North  America  also.  Whether 
the  various  other  races,  H.  uralensis,  H.  grebnitskii,  and  others, 
are  distinct  from  the  ordinary  H.  gyrfalco,  I  have  never  had 
enough  material  before  me  to  enable  me  to  pronounce  an 
opinion. 

Range  in  Great  Britain — Like  the  Greenland  Gyr-Falcon,  the 
present  species  is  only  an  accidental  visitor  in  winter,  and 
is  decidedly  less  frequent  than  the  last-named  bird,  It  has 
occurred  in  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England,  as  well  as  in 
Ireland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — My  opinion  is  that  this  Gyr- 
Falcon  is  peculiar  to  Iceland,  and  is  only  found  elsewhere  on 
accidental  migration.  In  Southern  Greenland  it  is  replaced 
by  H.  holboelli. 

Habits. — Very  little  has  been  recorded  of  the  Iceland  Gyr 
Falcon  in  its  native  home,  and  several  recent  observers  who 
have  visited  Iceland  have  not  seen  the  bird  at  all  during  their 
expeditions.  The  habits  are  doubtless  the  same  as  those  of 
the  other  species  of  the  genus.  It  feeds  on  Plovers  and  sea- 
fowl,  according  to  a  note  supplied  to  Mr.  Hewitson  by  Mr. 
Proctor,  who  visited  Iceland  and  found  remains  of  Whim- 
brel,  Golden  Plover,  Guillemots,  and  Ducks,  about  the  nest. 
Ptarmigan  also  are  largely  captured.  Faber  says  that  after 
the  nesting-season,  both  adult  and  young  birds  approach  the 
homesteads,  when  they  sit  on  elevations,  and  often  fight  with 
the  Ravens  (cf.  Newton,  l.c).  Lord  Lilford  writes  : — "  From 

*  In  1874  I  believed  this  name  of  Gmelin's  to  refer  to  a  Buzzard,  and 
not  a  Gyr-Falcon.  The  general  opinion,  however,  now  seems  to  be  that 
it  was  intended  for  the  latter. 


THE   GYR-FALCONS. 


I97 


a  Falconer's  point  of  view,  I  have  had  but  a  very  slight 
acquaintance  with  the  Iceland  Falcon,  and  am  not  inclined  to 
rate  her  highly,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  the  birds 
of  this  species  trained  in  this  country  have  necessarily  had  the 
great  disadvantage  of  a  sea-passage,  and,  in  many  instances, 
have  arrived  so  much  damaged  in  plumage  that  they  could 
not  be  put  on  the  wing  till  the  first  moult,  and  all  Falconers 
know  how  much  Hawks  suffer  from  a  lengthened  period  of 
inactivity.  Our  ancestors  seem,  however,  to  have  esteemed 
the  Icelanders  highly;  there  are  traditions  of  their  being 
trained  to  take  the  Kite,  and  in  more  recent  days  a  few  of 
these  Falcons  were  flown  at  Herons  in  the  Netherlands  with 
success.  ...  In  disposition  this  Falcon  seems  to  be 
tameable  enough,  but  by  no  means  remarkable  for  docility,  of 
a  somewhat  sluggish  temperament,  and  it  is  by  no  means  so 
hardy  as  might  be  expected  from  the  climatic  conditions  of  the 
country  of  its  origin." 

Nest. — Placed  on  the  ledges  of  cliffs,  and  formed  of  twigs 
and  dead  sticks,  and  lined  with  wool.  Mr.  Proctor  said,  of 
those  he  found  in  Iceland,  that  they  much  resembled  the 
nests  of  the  Raven.  The  old  nests  of  that  bird  are  probably 
often  utilised  by  the  Gyr- Falcon. 

Eggs. — Four  in  number,  the  ground-colour  being  dull  white, 
but  scarcely  visible  on  account  of  the  closeness  of  the  rufous 
clouding  in  many  specimens,  which  renders  the  general 
appearance  of  the  eggs  almost  uniform  rufous.  Other  eggs 
are  whity-brown,  mottled  and  blotched  with  reddish-brown, 
principally  near  the  larger  end.  Axis,  2-2-2-4  ;  diam.,  1-8-1-9. 

III.    THE    GREY    GYR-FALCON.       HIEROFALCO    GYRFALCO. 

Falco  gyrfalco,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  130  (1766);  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.  vi.  p.  15,  -pi.  367  (1875);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  i.  p.  16 

(1883);  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  334  (1889);  Lilford, 

Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  part  xxx.  (1895). 
Hierofalco  gyrfaJco,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  416  (1874) ; 

B.  O.  U.  List  Brit.  B.  p.  101  (1883). 

Adult  Male Above  blue-grey,  with  broad  greyish-black  cross- 
bands,  the  bars  in  alternate  series  of  black  and  grey ;  lower 


198  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

back,  rump,  upper  tail-coverts,  and  tail  much  clearer  blue- 
grey,  with  narrow  cross-bars  of  greyish-black,  these  bars  being 
of  the  same  width  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail ;  lores  and  fore- 
head whitish  ;  crown  of  head  grey,  mottled  with  black ;  the 
sides  of  the  head  from  behind  the  eye  and  the  nape  varied  with 
whitish  ;  cheek-stripe,  feathers  under  the  eye  and  on  the  upper- 
line  of  the  ear-coverts,  as  well  as  the  sides  of  the  neck,  greyish- 
black  ;  the  rest  of  the  face  whitish,  with  median  lines  of  black 
on  the  feathers  ;  wing-coverts  like  the  back  ;  quills  dark  brown, 
externally  mottled  and  freckled  with  grey,  not  forming  regular 
bars,  the  inner  secondaries  exactly  like  the  back ;  under  sur- 
face of  body  white,  the  throat  unspotted,  the  chest  longitudi- 
nally streaked  with  black,  widening  out  towards  the  apex  of 
the  feather ;  rest  of  the  body  rather  scantily  spotted  with  grey- 
ish-black, taking  the  form  of  bars  on  the  flanks,  under  tail- 
coverts,  and  axillaries  ;  under  wing-coverts  white,  with  black 
markings,  scarcely  equivalent  to  bars  ;  bill  blue,  black  at  tip ; 
feet  yellow ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  20  inches ;  cul- 
men,  1*3;  wing,  14*5;  tail,  8'o;  tarsus,  2*0. 

Adult  Female. — Slightly  darker,  and  a  little  larger  than  the 
male.  Total  length,  21  inches;  culmen,  1*4  ;  wing,  15*0;  tail, 
9-5;  tarsus,  2-15. 

Young. — Brown,  with  fulvous  spots  and  mottlings  on  the  edges 
of  the  scapulars  and  inner  secondaries,  and  rather  more  dis- 
tinct on  the  upper  tail-coverts ;  tail  dark  brown,  with  imperfect 
bands  of  fulvous ;  wing-coverts  and  quills  externally  dotted 
with  minute  fulvous  spots,  the  latter  internally  barred  with 
buff;  head  brown,  mottled  with  buffy-white  on  the  eyebrow, 
cheeks,  sides  of  neck,  and  especially  on  the  nape  and  hind- 
neck  ;  under  surface  of  body  white,  with  central  dark  brown 
patches  on  each  feather,  those  narrower  on  the  throat;  bill 
horn-blue,  yellow  at  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible  ;  feet  grey. 

Characters. — The  adult  male  of  the  Gyr-Falcon  is  wonderfully 
like  an  adult  Peregrine,  except  that  the  latter  has  always  a 
darker  shade  towards  the  end  of  the  tail,  which  is  never  seen 
in  a  Gyr-Falcon. 

The  Norwegian  race  of  the  Gyr-Falcon  is  always  distin- 
guished by  its  dark  head.  It  has,  of  course,  barred  flanks  like 


THE   GYR-FALCONS. 


199 


H.  islandicus  and  H.  holboelli,  but  is  much  darker  than  either 
of  these.  It  may  be  remarked  that  no  one  has  hitherto  been  able 
to  detect  any  differences  between  the  young  of  these  races. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  first  specimen  of  the  Norwegian 
Gyr- Falcon  actually  recorded  in  this  country  was  identified  by 
myself.  It  was  shot  by  one  of  the  attendants  in  my  depart- 
ment at  the  British  Museum,  Mr.  George  Hunt,  near  Orford 
in  Suffolk,  in  October,  1867,  and  remains  in  the  possession  of 
his  brother,  Mr.  E.  J.  Hunt,  all  our  efforts  to  purchase  the 
specimen  for  the  British  section  of  the  National  Collection 
having  proved  futile.  The  bird  in  question  was  immature, 
and  therefore  difficult  to  identify  with  certainty,  but  at  the  time 
I  examined  the  specimen  I  had  just  concluded  my  work  on 
the  Accipitres,  and  had  the  Gyr-Falcons  well  in  my  mind,  so 
that  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  specimen  was  correctly  identi- 
fied. It  was  shown  by  me  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  who  also  con- 
sidered it  to  be  a  Norwegian  Gyr-Falcon.  A  second  specimen, 
killed  in  Sussex,  had  been  in  Mr.  Borrer's  collection  since 
1845,  but  had  always  been  looked  upon  as  a  young  Iceland 
Gyr-Falcon,  till  Mr.  Gurney  recognised  it  as  an  adult  Norwegian 
Gyr-Falcon. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  exact  range  of  the 
present  species  is  very  difficult  to  determine,  as  it  has  been 
divided  by  naturalists  into  several  races,  and  it  is  impossible 
to  determine  the  value  of  the  latter  without  having  a  large 
number  of  specimens  together  for  comparison,  and  at  present 
no  Museum  possesses  a  sufficiently  complete  series.  It  is  an 
inhabitant  of  Scandinavia,  and,  in  my  opinion,  it  will  be  found 
to  extend  across  Siberia,  as  well  as  the  whole  of  the  northern 
part  of  the  New  World,  or,  as  the  American  naturalists  state, 
the  interior  of  Arctic  America,  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  Alaska. 

Habits. — In  their  manner  of  life  all  the  Gyr-Falcons  seem  to 
be  very  much  alike,  and  the  Norwegian  bird  resembles  the 
Iceland  Gyr-Falcon  in  its  flight  and  general  habits.  It  feeds 
principally'on  Ptarmigan,  but  it  also  captures  Whimbrel  and 
water-fowl  of  various  kinds. 

Nest. — For  our  information  as  to  the  nesting  of  the  Gyr- 
Falcon  we  are  almost  entirely  indebted  to  the  researches  of 
the  late  John  Wolley,  who  found  many  nests  in  Lapland. 


2oo  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

The  nest  is  generally  placed  on  a  ledge  of  rock  in  a  cliff,  and 
is  often  very  difficult  to  reach,  but  in  certain  districts  it  is  to 
be  found  in  a  tree,  and  Professor  Collett  states  that,  according 
to  his  experience,  the  Gyr-Falcon  almost  invariably  nests  in 
the  top  of  large  fir-trees.  Professor  Newton  well  remarks  : — 
"  The  curious  fact  that  the  Gyr-Falcon,  like  so  many  other 
Accipitres,  adapts  itself  to  circumstances,  breeding  in  trees 
where  rocks  are  wanting  near  places  which  abound  with  food 
for  its  offspring,  as  is  the  case  in  the  district  of  Hanhi-jarwi- 
maa,  will  not  escape  the  student's  notice,  and  will  furnish,  I 
think,  another  good  warning  against  too  hasty  generalisations 
with  regard  to  the  habits  of  a  bird  or  other  animal.  It  was 
not  until  the  fourth  summer  of  Mr.  Wolley's  residence  in  Lap- 
land that  he  became  acquainted  with  this  fact,  and  then,  as 
his  remarks  show,  he  was  justly  sceptical  concerning  it  at 
first."  (Ooth.  Woll.  p.  87). 

The  nest  is  made  of  stout  sticks,  and  is  used  for  many  years, 
where  the  birds  are  not  disturbed.  A  rude  lining  of  grass  is 
sometimes  present,  as  well  as  a  few  green  willow-twigs. 

Eggs. — Four  in  number,  the  variations  in  tint  being  well 
described  by  Mr.  Wolley  in  the  "  Ootheca  Wolleyana."  Those 
in  the  British  Museum  are  mostly  of  a  light  reddish  cast, 
dotted  and  stippled  with  reddish-brown  of  a  darker  tint.  Some 
of  the  specimens  show  a  ground-colour  of  reddish-white,  with 
somewhat  coarser  rufous  blotches  and  spots,  but  in  certain 
examples  the  colouring  of  the  egg  is  almost  entirely  rufous, 
without  any  markings  whatever.  Axis,  2-2-2-35  inches; 
diam.,  i'75-i'9- 

THE   KESTRELS.     GENUS  CERCHNEIS. 

Cerchneis,  Boie,  Isis,  1826,  p.  976. 
Type,  C.  tinnunculus  (L.). 

The  Kestrels  are  nearly  cosmopolitan,  and  there  is  scarcely 
a  country,  excepting  the  Pacific  Islands,  where  these  small 
Hawks  do  not  occur.  They  have  the  same  short  toes  as  the 
Gyr-Falcons,  the  outer  and  inner  toes  being  about  equal  in 
length,  but  the  wings  are  more  pointed  than  in  the  last-named 


PLATE      LI 


KESTREL 


THE    KESTRELS.  2OI 

birds.     They  are  true  Falcons,  with  a  tooth  in  the  bill,  and  a 
central  tubercle  in  the  nostril. 

With  the  exception  of  some  of  the  more  tropical  species, 
Kestrels  are  migratory  birds,  and  several  of  them  go  south  in 
immense  flocks,  as  has  been  noticed  by  many  observers  in 
their  winter  quarters  in  Africa.  They  are  principally  insect- 
feeders,  and  devour  large  numbers  of  locusts,  in  pursuit  of 
which  their  large  gatherings  often  take  place. 

I.    THE   COMMON    KESTREL.       CERCHNEIS   TINNUNCULUS. 

Falco  tinnunculus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  393  (1766);  Macg. 

Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  325  (1840);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.   113, 

pi.'  384  (1871);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  79  (1871) ; 

Seebohm,  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  45  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.  Brit. 

B.  p.   343   (1889);    Lilford,   Col.  Fig.  Br.   B.  part  xvi. 

(1890). 
Cerchneis  tinnunculus  (L.),  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  425 

(1874). 
Tinnunculus  alaudanus,  B.  O.  U.  List  Brit.  B.  p.  104  (1883). 

(Plate  LI.} 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  rufous  fawn-colour  or  pale 
chestnut,  with  a  few  arrow-head  shaped  marks  of  black,  plainer 
on  the  inner  secondaries ;  primary-coverts  and  quills  dark 
brown,  the  former  narrowly  margined  with  rufous,  the  primaries 
notched  with  white  for  about  two-thirds  of  their  length,  the 
inner  primaries  and  outer  secondaries  narrowly  edged  and 
tipped  with  buffy-white  ;  head  and  neck  clear  slaty-blue,  with 
narrow  black  shaft-stripes;  forehead  buffy-white,  as  also  a 
narrow  eyebrow;  cheeks  silvery-grey,  inclining  to  blackish 
below  the  eye,  and  on  the  fore-part  of  the  cheeks,  forming  a 
tolerably  distinct  moustache;  lower  back,  rump,  upper  tail- 
coverts,  and  tail  clear  slaty-blue,  the  latter  tipped  with  white, 
before  which  is  a  broad  sub-terminal  band  of  black ;  throat 
buff,  not  spotted ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of  body  rufous 
fawn-colour,  the  chest-feathers  mesially  streaked  with  black, 
these  black  centres  being  larger  and  more  oval  in  shape  on  the 
flank-feathers ;  thighs  clear  rufous,  unspotted ;  under  wing- 
coverts  white,  spotted  with  black;  bill  bluish  horn-colour, 
black  at  the  tip,  yellowish  at  the  base  ;  cere,  orbits,  and  feet 


202  ALLEN'S    NATURALIST'S    LIBRARY. 

yellow;  iris  brown.     Total  length,  12*5  inches;  oilmen,  175; 
wing,  9*2  ;  tail,  67  ;  tarsus,  1*6. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male  in  being  rufous  above, 
banded  with  black ;  on  the  rump  a  bluish  shade,  which 
overspreads  the  tail  in  very  old  individuals ;  head  rufous, 
streaked  with  black  ;  tail  rufous,  banded  with  black,  the  bands 
not  always  continuous,  the  tip  buffy-white,  with  a  sub-terminal 
band  of  black.  Total  length,  12-5  inches;  culmen,  075  ; 
wing,  9'2  ;  tail,  6'5  ;  tarsus,  i'6. 

Young  Birds. — In  first  plumage  the  young  male  and  female 
are  alike,  and  both  resemble  the  old  hen-bird,  but  are  rather 
paler,  and  have  more  distinct  stripes  on  the  back.  The  first 
signs  of  approaching  maturity  in  the  young  male  are  seen  on 
the  rump  and  tail,  which  generally  change  to  blue-grey,  before 
the  grey  head  is  assumed. 

In  1874  Mr  C.  Bygrave  Wharton  procured  a  female  Kestrel 
in  Hertfordshire,  which  had  a  slaty-blue  tail  like  the  male, 
with  black  bars,  the  rump  being  also  slaty-blue.  This  speci- 
men exemplifies  further  the  fact  that  I  have  already  noted, 
that  in  very  old  females  of  the  Birds  of  Prey  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  assume  a  plumage  like  that  of  the  males. 

Nestling — Covered  with  white  down. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Kestrel  is  found  in  every  county 
throughout  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  nests  in  the  wooded 
districts,  as  well  as  in  the  cliffs  of  the  sea-shore  and  inland 
mountains.  It  is  in  some  degree  migratory,  descending  to 
the  lower  ground  from  the  highlands  in  winter.  A  certain 
number  also  leave  the  country  in  the  autumn,  being  found 
on  our  southern  coasts  at  that  season  of  the  year,  while  an" 
influx  of  Kestrels  also  takes  place  from  Northern  Europe  to 
our  eastern  coasts. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Kestrel  is  almost  uni- 
versally distributed  throughout  the  Palaearctic  Region,  and 
breeds  up  to  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  a  summer  migrant  ta 
Central  Europe,  where  only  a  few  remain  during  the  winter. 
It  is  said  to  occur  throughout  Siberia,  but  in  Eastern  Siberia 
and  in  Japan  the  Kestrels  are  larger  and  darker  in  colour, 
and  it  is  this  dark  race,  C.  japonicus.  which  occurs  throughout* 


THE    KESTRELS. 


203 


[China.  Our  European  Kestrel  visits  the  Gold  Coast  in  winter 
and  extends  its  range  a  considerable  way  down  East  Africa,  and 
perhaps  to  the  southern  districts  of  the  continent.  India  is 
also  a  winter  home  for  the  species,  which  is  resident  in  the 
I  Himalayas. 

In  many  countries  bordering  its  southern  range  the  Kestrel 
jis  represented  by  a  dark  resident  race.     Thus,  in  the  Azores, 
[in  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  and  again  in  those  of  Southern 
idia  and  Burma,  there  is  a  distinct  difference  in  size  and  in 
deeper  colouration  of  the  Kestrels,  which  can  hardly  be 
)ked  upon  as  specific,  but  which  show  modifications  effected 
a  tropical  habitat. 

Habits — From  its  habit  of  hovering  in  the  air,  the  Kestrel  is 
mently  noticed  in  the  country,  where  it  is  known  in  many 
)laces  as  the  "Windhover."     It  is  to  be  seen  on  almost  any 
jvening  in   the   neighbourhood  of  the  stubble-fields,  where, 
is  if  held  in  the  air  by  a  thread,  it  hovers  on  the  look-out 
>r  field-mice.     If  unsuccessful  in  its  search,  it  will  circle  away 
:o  another  part  of  the  field,  and  then  commence  to  hover 
igain,  till  it  falls  like  a  bolt  on  its  unsuspecting  prey.     Its  food 
msists  not  only  of  mice,  moles,  and  other  small  mammalia, 
it  also  largely  of  insects,  frogs,  lizards,  &c.     Cockchafers  are 
favourite  food,  and  these  and  other  beetles  it  devours  on  the 
ring.     It  is  but  rarely  that  the  Kestrel  is  driven  by  sheer 
lecessity,  in  a  droughty  season  perhaps,  to  make  a  raid  on  the 
^heasant-coops  to  find  food  for  its  young,  and,  as  a  rule,  the 
bird  is  a  real  friend  to  the  farmer  and  gardener.     So  little  do 
small  birds  regard  it  as  an  enemy,  that  I  have  seen  a  Kestrel 
perched  on  a  straw-stack  and  surrounded  by  Sparrows,  who 
Lvere  pilfering  gaily  without  heeding  the  Hawk,  and  when  the 
ittle  birds  flew  off,  affording,  as  one  would  have  thought  a 
jplendid  opportunity  for  a  raid  on  such  a  flock,  the  Kestrel 
jiid  not  attempt  to  follow. 

That  they  can,  however,  when  hard  pressed  for  food,  be 
:idedly   destructive   to   young   game   has   been  proved  by 
jveral  observers,  and  Mr.  De  Winton  lately  shot  a  pair  in  the 
ict  of  killing  young  Pheasants.    This  is,  however,  undoubtedly 
rare  occurrence,  and  was  the  more  remarkable  in  this  instance, 
mse  this  particular  pair  seemed  to  be  the  only  delinquents  ; 
ill  the  other  Kestrels,  of  which  there  were  plenty  in  the  neigh- 


206  ALTJCN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Characters — To  distinguish  the  Lesser  Kestrel  from  the 
ordinary  Kestrel  of  England,  the  most  distinctive  characters 
are  the  whitish  claws,  and  the  uniform  rufous  back  in  the 
male,  while  the  female  can  only  be  told  from  the  female  of 
C.  tinnunculus  by  its  smaller  size  and  by  its  whitish  claws. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — This  species  certainly  deserves  a 
place  in  our  avifauna,  for,  although  it  was  not  admitted  to 
that  rank  in  1871  by  Professor  Newton,  since  that  date  so 
many  examples  of  the  Lesser  Kestrel  have  been  identified 
within  British  limits,  that  one  may  reasonably  believe  that  it 
occurs  more  often  than  is  generally  suspected,  and  that  it  is 
often  mistaken  for  the  Common  Kestrel.  At  least  four  instances 
of  the  occurrence  of  the  Lesser  Kestrel  in  Great  Britain  are 
known  to  have  taken  place.  The  first  was  shot  in  Yorkshire  in 
November  1867,  and  in  May,  1877,  another  adult  male  was 
captured  near  Dover.  Since  then  it  has  been  obtained  near 
Shankill  in  Co.  Dublin,  in  February,  1891,  and  also  in  the  Scilly 
Islands  in  March  of  the  same  year.  Two  specimens  which  had 
been  captured  at  sea  in  the  Mediterranean,  in  April,  1894, 
escaped  from  their  captors,  one  in  Northumberland  and  the 
other  in  Belfast,  and  Mr.  Robert  Patterson  wrote  to  the  "  Ibis" 
to  notify  the  fact,  in  case  a  Lesser  Kestrel  should  be  shot,  but 
I  have  not  heard  that  they  were  ever  seen  again. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Lesser  Kestrel  winters 
in  South  Africa,  whither  it  goes  with  the  flocks  of  other  small 
insect-eating  Hawks.  It  returns  in  the  spring  to  Europe  and 
is  plentiful  in  the  Mediterranean  countries,  arriving  in  February 
in  Spain.  A  few  pass  the  winter  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It 
is  only  an  occasional  visitor  to  Southern  France,  but  has  been 
taken  in  Germany  and  in  Heligoland,  as  well  as  in  the  British 
Islands.  Its  eastern  range  extends  to  Central  Asia,  and  it  has 
of  late  years  become  very  numerous  in  the  district  of  Orenburg 
in  Southern  Russia. 

Habits. — In  the  countries  of  Southern  Europe,  and  especially 
in  Spain,  the  Lesser  Kestrel  is  a  very  common  bird,  commenc- 
ing to  breed  about  the  end  of  April,  and  laying  its  eggs  about 
the  middle  of  May.  Its  food,  according  to  Mr.  Howard  Saun- 
ders,  consists  of  insects,  especially  cockchafers  and  other  beetles, 


THE    KESTRELS.  2O; 

and  grasshoppers.  He  says  that  the  stairs  and  other  approaches 
to  the  towers  frequented  by  this  and  the  larger  Kestrel  are 
often  "  covered  with  an  accumulation  of  wing-cases  and  ejected 
pellets  of  indigestible  matter."  In  general  habits,  flight,  and 
cry  the  present  species  is  said  by  Lord  Lilford  to  resemble  the 
Common  Kestrel,  but  in  his  opinion  it  is  a  more  entirely  in- 
sectivorous bird,  and  takes  its  prey  on  the  ground.  He  writes  : 
"  The  two  species  of  Kestrel  are,  I  think,  in  April  and  May, 
the  commonest  birds  in  Andalucia,  with  perhaps  the  exception 
of  the  Bee-Eater.  Every  church-steeple,  belfry,  and  tower, 
every  town  and  village,  every  ruin,  swarms  with  them.  I 
believe  I  am  not  at  all  beyond  the  mark  in  saying  that  I  have 
seen  three  or  four  hundred  on  the  wing  at  the  same  moment 
on  more  than  one  occasi  n,  notably  at  Castro  del  Rio  in  April, 
1864.  Both  species  of  Kestrel  continue  on  the  wing  long 
after  sunset." 

Nest. — No  nest  is  made  by  this  little  Kestrel,  and  the  eggs 
are  generally  laid  in  a  hole  of  a  building,  sometimes  within 
reach  of  the  ground.  In  the  Crimea,  Colonel  Irby  found 
them  nesting  in  holes  in  banks. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number,  though  occasionally  as  many 
as  seven  are  found.  Although  some  of  them  are  marked  like 
the  Common  Kestrel's,  and  are  only  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  eggs  of  the  latter  by  their  smaller  size,  the  series  in  the 
British  Museum  is  undoubtedly  paler  and  more  cinnamon  in 
tint  than  the  eggs  of  C.  tinnunculus.  The  eggs  are  minutely 
spotted  with  rufous,  and  less  boldly  blotched  than  the  eggs  of 
the  preceding  species,  and  the  markings  always  seem  to  me  to 
be  smaller  in  character.  Axis,  1*3-1  '5  inch;  diam.,  n-i'2. 

III.    THE    RED-FOOTED    KESTREL.       CERCHNEIS    VESPERTINA. 

Falco  vespertinus.  Linn.   Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  129  (1766);   Macg. 

Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  313  (1840);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  i.  p. 

69(1871) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  93,  pi.  382  (1871);  Seeb. 

Brit.  B.  i.  p.  42  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Brit.  B.  p.  339 

(1889). 
Cerchneis  vespertina,  Sharpe,    Cat.    B.    Brit.  Mus.   i.  p.  443 

(1874). 
Tinnunculus  vespertinus,  B.  O.  U.  List  Brit.  B.  p.  103(1883). 


208  ALLEN'S  JSTATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  leaden-grey,  the  wing- 
coverts  rather  paler,  the  greater  coverts  more  hoary-grey ; 
primary-coverts  and  quills  hoary-grey,  the  secondaries  darker 
and  more  like  the  back ;  tail  brownish-black ;  under  surface 
of  body  bluish-grey,  with  faint  indications  of  black  shaft-stripes; 
lower  abdomen,  vent,  thighs,  and  under  tail-coverts  rich  chest- 
nut ;  under  wing-coverts  leaden-grey ;  quill-lining  brownish- 
black  ;  cere,  orbits,  and  feet  bright  brownish-red  ;  claws 
yellowish-white,  with  horn-coloured  tips ;  bill  yellowish  horn- 
colour,  blackish  at  tip;  iris  light  brown.  Total  length,  11-5 
inches  ;  oilmen,  075  ;  wing,  9-8;  tail,  5'6;  tarsus,  1-15. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male.  General  colour 
above  bluish-grey,  with  transverse  black  bars  on  all  the  feathers, 
the  mantle  a  little  darker  and  more  ashy  ;  tail  also  bluish-grey, 
a  little  paler  towards  the  tip,  with  narrow  black  bars,  the  sub- 
terminal  one  much  broader ;  quills  brownish,  externally  ashy- 
grey,  barred  on  the  inner  web  with  whitish  ;  head,  hind-neck, 
and  under  surface  of  body  rufous,  inclining  to  buff  on  the 
under  tail-coverts  ;  forehead  whitish  ;  lores  and  feathers  round 
the  eye  greyish-black ;  sides  of  face  and  neck,  as  well  as  the 
throat,  yellowish-white,  with  faint  indications  of  a  pale  rufous 
moustachial  streak  ;  soft  parts  as  in  the  male,  but  less  bright. 
Total  length,  n  inches;  oilmen,  07;  wing,  97;  tail,  5*6; 
tarsus,  1*15. 

Young  Birds. — At  first  resemble  the  old  female,  and  have  the 
tail  barred  with  black  ;  the  fore-part  of  the  crown  whitish  ;  the 
feathers  of  the  mantle  edged  with  rufous ;  upper-part  of  ear- 
coverts  and  feathers  round  the  eye  greyish-black  ;  a  faintly  in- 
dicated moustachial  streak ;  throat  and  sides  of  neck  creamy- 
white  ;  under  surface  of  body  rufous,  paler  than  in  the  old 
female,  the  feathers  with  blackish  centres,  developing  into 
spots  at  the  end ;  cere,  orbits,  and  feet  reddish-yellow ;  claws 
yellowish-white,  with  dark  grey  tips. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor  in  spring  and 
summer,  rarely  occurring  in  autumn.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders 
states  that  the  species  has  been  reeorded  upwards  of  twenty 
times,  and  has  occurred  in  nearly  all  the  southern  and  eastern 
counties  of  England,  from  Cornwall  to  Norfolk,  as  well  as  in 
Denbighshire  and  Shropshire,  Yorkshire,  Durham,  and  North- 


THE    KESTRELS.  209 

umberland.  I  can  also  add  a  record  from  near  London,  for  a 
few  years  ago  a  beautiful  female  bird  was  brought  to  me  at  the 
British  Museum  in  the  flesh.  It  had  been  shot  near  Nunhead 
on  the  previous  day,  having  flown  into  a  tree  near  some  pigeon- 
shooting  grounds.  I  did  not  know  at  the  time  that  any  par- 
ticular interest  attached  to  the  records  of  the  Red-footed  Kes- 
trel in  the  South  of  England,  and  omitted  to  take  dorm  full 
particulars. 

Three  specimens  have  been  shot  in  Scotland,  and  one  was 
procured  in  Co.  Wicklow  in  Ireland  in  1832. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Red-footed  Kestrel  is  a 
bird  of  Eastern  Europe  and  Western  Siberia,  being  found  over 
the  greater  part  of  Russia,  and  as  far  east  as  Krasnoyarsk.  It 
breeds  also  in  Hungary,  and  has  occurred  as  far  north  as  65° 
in  Finland,  as  well  as  in  the  south  of  Sweden.  Professor  Menz- 
bier  thinks  that  an  extension  of  its  range  to  the  northern  pro- 
vinces of  Russia  has  taken  place  within  the  last  fifty  years,  and 
in  places  in  the  south  of  Russia,  such  as  the  steppes  of  Oren- 
burg, where  the  Red-footed  Kestrel  used  to  breed  freely,  it 
has  been  ousted  to  a  great  extent  by  an  influx  of  Lesser  Kes- 
trels of  late  years.  The  winter  home  of  the  present  species 
is  in  South  Africa,  to  which  it  migrates  in  immense  flocks 
along  with  Hobbies  and  Lesser  Kestrels.  In  Eastern  Siberia 
its  place  is  taken  by  an  allied  species,  with  white  under  wing- 
coverts,  called  C.  amurensis,  which  winters  also  in  South  Africa, 
but  is  there  found  chiefly  on  the  Zambesi  and  in  the  Transvaal, 
and  seems  to  preserve,  even  in  its  winter  home,  its  more  eastern 
habitat. 

Habits — This  little  Kestrel  is  one  of  the  prettiest  of  all  the 
Falcons,  and  is  remarkable,  for  the  difference  in  colour  be- 
tween the  sexes,  which  is  greater  than  in  the  majority  of 
Birds  of  Prey.  The  food  of  the  Red-footed  Kestrel  con- 
sists almost  entirely  of  insects,  which  it  catches  and  devours 
on  the  wing,  such  as  dragon-flies,  beetles,  moths,  and  grass- 
hoppers, while  in  company  with  other  birds  it  follows  the 
swarms  of  locusts  in  South  Africa.  In  all  its  ways  it  is  a  Kes- 
trel, and  has  the  same  querulous  cry.  In  its  nesting,  as  well 
as  on  its  migrations,  it  seems  to  be  gregarious,  for  it  is  often 
found  breeding  in  company. 

8  P 


210  ALT, EN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Nest. — The  present  species  does  not  build  a  nest  of  its  own, 
but  adapts  the  old  nest  of  a  Crow  or  Rook  to  its  wants. 

Eggs — The  British  Museum  possesses  so  few  eggs  of  this 
species  that  I  am  not  able  to  describe  them  at  length.  They 
appear  to  resemble  some  of  the  eggs  of  the  Common  Kestrel 
so  closely,  as  to  be  practically  inseparable.  According  to  Mr. 
Goebel,  who  has  taken  numbers  of  the  eggs  of  C.  vespertina  in 
Southern  Russia,  they  are  not  so  coarsely  grained  as  those  of 
the  Common  Kestrel,  have  much  less  lustre,  and  are,  on  an 
average,  smaller,  and  not  only  absolutely,  but  proportionately 
lighter.  The  colour  of  pur  Kestrels'  eggs  is  a  darker,  browner 
red  compared  with  the  yellower  red  of  C,  vespertina.  Axis, 
i  '2  5-1  '6  inch  ;  diam.,  i '0-1*2. 

THE   PELICAN-LIKE   BIRDS. 

ORDER  PELECANIFORMES. 

Tropic  Birds  (Phaetontes\  Frigate  Birds  (Fregati),  Pelicans, 
Cormorants,  and  Gannets — these  are  the  groups  of  birds 
which  constitute  the  large  order  Pekcaniformes.  These  birds 
have  also  been  united  together  under  the  heading  of  Stegano- 
podes,  all  of  them  having  the  hallux,  or  hind-toe,  united  to  the 
second  by  a  web,  so  that,  in  fact,  all  four  toes  are  connected  by 
a  membrane. 

THE   PELICANS.    SUB-ORDER  PELECANI. 

The  members  of  this  Sub-order  are  easily  recognised  by 
their  peculiar  bills  and  large  gular  pouches,  which  are  capable 
of  distension  to  an  enormous  extent.  A  Pelican  is  a  tropical 
bird  and  seldom  wanders  far  north,  though  recently  some  of 
these  birds  are  said  to  have  been  noticed  in  West  Jutland.  The 
White  Pelican  (P.  onocrotalus]  used  at  one  time  to  inhabit 
England,  as  its  bones  have  been  found  in  the  fens  of  Norfolk,  and 
Montagu  mentions  the  shooting  of  a  Pelican  at  Horsey  Fen 
in  1663,  but  this  was  believed  to  have  been  one  of  the  King's 
birds  escaped  from  St.  James'  Park.  The  species  can,  there- 
fore, scarcely  be  said  to  require  notice  in  the  present  Work, 
and,  indeed,  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  does  not  even  mention 
it  in  his  "  Manual." 


THE   CORMORANTS   AND    SHAGS.  211 

THE  CORMORANTS. 

SUB-ORDER  PHALACROCOPACES. 

As  in  all  the  Steganopodes,  the  Cormorants  have  a  desmog- 
nathous,  or  "bridged,"  palate,  and  they  have  the  four  toes 
all  joined  together  by  a  web.  They  have  also  a  remarkably 
hooked  bill,  with  a  sort  of  nail  at  the  end.  The  feet  in  these 
birds  are  placed  very  far  back,  and  the  thighs  are  feathered 
down  to  the  tarsal  joint. 

Cormorants  and  Shags  are  found  in  nearly  every  part  of 
the  world,  and  are  most  numerous  in  species  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere. 

THE  CORMORANTS  AND  SHAGS. 

GENUS  PHALACROCORAX. 

Phalacrocorax,  Briss.  Orn.  vi.  p.  511  (1760). 
Type,  P.  carbo  (Linn.). 

Any  number  of  anatomical  and  osteological  characters  can 
be  brought  forward  for  the  identification  of  the  Cormorants, 
but  in  a  book  dealing  only  with  British  birds  we  have,  happily, 
no  need  to  go  into  these  minuter  details,  for  our  two  species 
are  easily  recognisable  by  the  merest  tyro.  Thus  their  webbed 
feet,  with  all  four  toes  joined  together  by  a  membrane,  are  a 
leading  character;  secondly,  their  black  plumage  is  distinctive, 
and  their  hooked  bills  and  bare  faces  will  distinguish  them 
from  all  our  British  sea-birds,  except  the  Gannets. 

Two  species  inhabit  the  British  area,  the  Common  Cor- 
morant and  the  Green  Cormorant,  or  Shag,  and  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  distinguishing  these  black-plumaged  birds  from 
the  white-plumaged  Gannets. 

I.    THE    CORMORANT.       PHALACROCORAX     CARBO. 

Felecanus  carbo.  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  216  (1766). 

Phalacrocorax  carbo,  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p.  380  (1852);  Dresser, 
B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  151,  pi.  388  (1879);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br. 
B.  p.  105  (1883)  ;  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  143 
(1884);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  650  (1885);  Saunders, 
Man.  Br.  B.  p.  349  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B. 
part  xxii.  (1892). 

P    2 


212  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Adult  Female — General  colour  above  glossy  blue-black  from 
the  hind-neck  to  the  tail,  dividing  the  mantle  and  back  down 
the  centre ;  the  sides  of  the  mantle,  remainder  of  the  back, 
scapulars,  and  wing-coverts  bronzy-brown,  with  broad  edges  of 
blue-black  to  all  the  feathers;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts, 
and  quills  black,  externally  greyish-bronze,  the  feathers  with  a 
broad  black  margin  as  well ;  tail-feathers  slaty-black,  with  grey- 
ish shafts ;  crown  of  head  and  neck  glossy  blue-black,  with  a 
very  evident  nuchal  crest ;  under  surface  of  body  blue-black  ; 
sides  of  face,  ear-coverts,  cheeks,  and  upper  throat  creamy- 
white,  ascending  to  a  point  in  the  centre  of  the  chin,  which 
is  bare  like  the  lores,  region  of  the  eye,  and  fore-part  of  the 
cheeks ;  the  crown,  neck,  and  lower  throat  ornamented  with 
numerous  white  filaments,  which  completely  conceal  the  black 
ground-colour  ;  on  the  sides  of  the  lower  flanks  a  large  white 
patch ;  sides  of  upper  breast  bronzy-brown,  the  flanks  bor- 
dered with  black,  as  on  the  back;  under  wing-coverts  and 
axillaries  black ;  bill  brown  above,  slate-colour  below,  including 
edge  of  lower  mandible ;  gular  skin  lemon-yellow  ;  feet  black  ; 
iris  green.  Total  length,  32  inches;  oilmen,  2 '6;  wing,  12 '8; 
tail,  6'o;  tarsus,  2:5. 

Adult  Male. — Similar  to  the  female,  but  larger  and  with  the 
crest  somewhat  more  developed.  Total  length,  30  inches; 
wing,  12-5. 

Winter  Plumage — Black  like  the  summer  plumage,  but  not 
having  the  white  filaments  on  the  head  and  neck,  and  the 
white  patch  on  the  thighs  also  being  absent. 

Young  Birds. — Browner  above  than  the  adults,  and  with  black- 
ish margins  to  the  feathers,  which  are  greyish-brown  rather 
than  bronzy ;  the  head  and  neck  ashy-brown,  with  blackish 
centres  to  the  feathers  ;  sides  of  face,  throat,  and  fore-neck 
ashy-brown ;  chin,  upper  throat,  and  sides  of  face  dull  white  ; 
rest  of  the  under  surface  of  the  body  white,  the  sides  of  the 
body  brown,  as  well  as  the  under  tail-coverts ;  bill  pale  horn- 
colour  ;  cere  none ;  gular  skin  yellow ;  iris  light  green. 

The  adult  black  plumage  is  gained  apparently  by  a  change 
in  the  feather,  the  tip  of  which  becomes  gradually  black  or 
brown,  and  this  colour  spreads  by  degrees  over  the  whole 
plumage. 


THE   CORMORANTS    AND   SHAGS.  213 

Nestlings. — At  first  bare  and  of  a  leaden  grey-colour,  but 
afterwards  becoming  covered  with  dense  sooty-brown  down, 
and  remaining  in  this  till  they  are  more  than  half  the  size  of 
their  parents. 

Characters — The  Cormorant  may  be  told  from  the  Shag  by 
its  larger  size  and  by  having  fourteen  tail-feathers.  I  have  seen 
one  specimen  from  Hungary  which  had  fifteen  rectrices.  The 
colour  is  always  more  of  a  blue-black,  not  greenish  like  the 
Shag. 

The  white  filaments  which  adorn  the  head  of  the  Cormo- 
rant, and  the  occipital  crest,  are  apparently  retained  for  a  short 
time  only.  The  female  described  was  obtained  in  February, 
and  has  all  the  ornamental  plumes  developed  to  the  fullest 
extent,  including  the  white  patch  on  the  flanks,  but  these  are 
all  shed  by  the  time  that  nesting  commences,  so  that  the 
real  breeding  plumage  is  exactly  similar  to  that  of  the  winter 
dress  after  the  autumn  moult. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Although  mostly  a  bird  of  the  sea- 
coasts,  the  Cormorant  is  often  met  with  inland,  and  there  is 
scarcely  a  county  in  the  British  Islands  where  stragglers  have 
not  been  obtained  at  some  time  or  other.  It  is  found  in  most 
parts  of  our  area  on  the  coasts,  but  is  commoner  in  some  dis- 
tricts and  rarer  in  others,  where  the  Shag  predominates.  On 
the  east  coast  of  England,  between  the  Thames  and  the  Hum- 
ber,  it  is  rarer,  probably  on  account  of  the  absence  of  breeding- 
places  suitable  to  the  species,  but  north  of  Flamborough  and 
along  the  Scottish  coast  it  occurs  plentifully,  while  on  our  west- 
ern coasts  the  Shag  is  the  commonest  of  the  two  species.  Mr. 
Ussher  gives  a  long  list  of  the  counties  in  Ireland  in  which 
the  Cormorant  nests  on  the  coast,  and  he  says  that  several 
breeding  colonies  are  to  be  met  with  on  the  islands  of  inland 
lakes,  where  they  breed  on  trees,  such  as  Lough  Tawnyard  in 
Co.  Mayo,  Lough  Key  in  Roscommon,  and  Lough  Cutra  in 
Galway.  In  some  of  these,  he  says  that  the  Cormorants 
breed  in  company  with  Herons  in  high  trees. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.— The  Cormorant  is  distributed 
in  suitable  localities  throughout  Europe  and  Northern  Asia  to 
Japan.  It  breeds  in  India  and  Burma,  and  is  believed  to 
extend  to  Australia  and  also  to  South  Africa,  but  recently  the 


2I4 


ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 


species  of  Cormorant  inhabiting  the  African  continent  has 
been  considered  to  be  different  from  P.  carbo,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  say  what  is  the  exact  range  of  our  Cormorant  to  the  south- 
ward. It  occurs  in  Arctic  America  on  the  Atlantic  side,  and 
ranges  in  winter  as  for  south  as  New  Jersey,  but  has  not  been 
recorded  from  the  Pacific  side  of  North  America. 

Habits. — The  Cormorant  is  in  most  parts  of  England  a  sea- 
bird,  frequently  the  rocky  coasts  and  building  its  nest  on  the 
rocks,  but  in  many  places  it  builds  on  trees,  in  company.  In 
other  parts  of  its  range  it  has  been  known  to  build  its  nest  in 
reed-beds,  and  in  pollard  willows,  while  sometimes  a  colony 
of  Cormorants  will  be  found  to  occupy  quite  high  trees,  like 
Herons. 

The  food  consists  entirely  of  fish,  of  which  the  bird  devours 
a  great  number,  and  the  decaying  carcases  are  plentifully 
strewn  about  the  nesting-places,  so  that  a  visit  to  a  Cormo- 
rant's home  is  generally  trying  to  the  olfactory  sense.  The 
mess  .which  the  birds  make  is  also  rather  appalling,  the 
whole  of  the  rocks  on  which  they  breed  having  generally 
the  appearance  of  having  been  whitewashed.  On  land  the 
Cormorant  is  rather  a  sluggish  bird,  and  is  generally  seen 
perched  on  a  rock,  where  it  will  remain  for  hours  digesting  its 
food ;  but  in  the  water  it  is  a  splendid  swimmer  and  diver, 
employing  its  great  webbed  feet  to  singular  advantage,  and 
using  its  stiffened  tail  as  a  rudder  to  steer  itself  with,  bul 
not  making  much  use  of  its  wings.  Although  generally  nest- 
ing in  company,  at  other  times  of  the  year  Cormorants  are 
found  on  inland  rivers,  and  many  are  thus  obtained  during  the 
winter,  most  of  these  individuals  being  young  birds,  though 
old  ones  not  unfrequently  occur.  One  which  was  shot  near 
Cookham,  when  I  was  a  boy,  was  observed  for  several  days 
swimming  in  the  Thames,  with  its  body  submerged  and  only 
its  head  .nd  neck  protruding  out  of  the  water. 

Nest, — A  very  rough  structure  of  seaweed  or  sticks,  which  is 
added  to  year  by  year  in  places  where  the  birds  are  allowed 
to  nest  without  interference.  The  Cormorant  seems  to  have 
some  idea  of  decorating  its  nest,  for  Mr.  Doncaster  informed 
Mr.  Seebohm  that  he  found  one  in  which  the  birds  had  pulled 
a  long  spike  of  foxglove  and  had  twisted  it  round  the  nest  as 


of  sea,   ; 

Eggs. — 1 
green,  but 
ing,  which 


n. 


Phalacro.      • 
;   B.  Eur. 
p.    i  c 
(1884);  & 

Adult  Male,  - 
bo  itle  green  <  ;; 
velvety-black 
parts   ha-. 
"  inside  • 
naked  skin  oi 
feet  and 
Grant).     Toi. 
•:tail,  5-5;  tars: 

Adult  Fern  a;? 
wing,  10  '5. 

Young  Bir 

"edged  with  darker  brcv 
turns  to 
whity-brv 

the  thro  and 

feet  and 
tinguishr 
and  they 

The  black  plumage 
accompi 


THE   CORMORANTS    AND   SHAGS.  215 

a  lining.  There  is  also  generally  a  lining  of  fresh  green  leaves 
of  sea-parsley  or  some  other  plant,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm. 
Eggs. — Two  or  three  in  number.  The  ground-colour  is 
green,  but  this  is  generally  obscured  by  a  chalky-white  cover- 
ing, which  can  be  scraped  off.  Axis,  2*4-2-8  inches;  diam., 


II.  THE  SHAG.   PHALACROCORAX  GRACULUS. 

Pelecanus  graculus.  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  217  (1766). 

Phalacrocorax  graculus,  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p.  392  (1852);  Dresser, 
B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  163,  pi.  389  (1879);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B. 
p.  106  (1883);  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  151 
(1884);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  656  (1885);  Saunders, 
Man.  Br.  B.  p.  351  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part 
xxii.  (1892). 

(Plate  LIL] 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  and  below  black,  with  a 
bottle-green  or  oily-green  gloss,  all  the  feathers  margined  with 
velvety-black  on  the  mantle,  scapulars,  and  wing-coverts,  these 
parts  having  also  a  bronzy  reflection;  tail-feathers  twelve ; 
"  inside  of  mouth  and  skin  round  the  gape  pale  orange-yellow  ; 
naked  skin  of  chin  and  throat  black,  thickly  dotted  with  yellow ; 
feet  and  toes  blackish;  iris  bright  green"  ( W,  R.  Ogilvie- 
Grant).  Total  length,  27  inches;  culmen,  2-5;  wing,  iro; 
tail,  5-5;  tarsus,  2-35. 

Adult  Female.— Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  26  inches  ; 
wing,  10-5. 

Young  Birds Brown  above,  glossed  with  green,  the  feathers 

edged  with  darker  brown,  which  becomes  much  abraded  and 
turns  to  whity-brown,  the  tail-feathers  being  margined  with 
whity-brown ;  sides  of  face  and  under  surface  of  body  brown, 
the  throat  white,  and  the  lower  abdomen  also  dingy-white; 
feet  and  toes  reddish.  The  young  Shags  can  always  be  dis- 
tinguished from  young  Cormorants  by  their  twelve  tail-feathers, 
and  they  are  browner  underneath. 

The  black  plumage  is  assumed  in  the  first  spring,  and  is 
accomplished  by  a  gradual  darkening  of  the  feathers  of  the 


216  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

under  surface,  as  well  as  by  a  complete  moult  of  some  of  the 
feathers,  the  quills  being  entirely  renewed. 

Nestlings. — At  first  completely  bare  and  of  a  sooty  lead- 
colour,  afterwards  densely  covered  with  sooty-brown  down. 

In  the  winter  the  Shag  puts  on  a  crest,  which  is  shed,  like 
the  ornamental  filaments  of  the  Cormorant,  by  the  time  the 
nesting  commences  in  April,  but  Lord  Lilford  says  that  he  has 
shot  specimens  in  August  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall  which  still 
showed  remains  of  a  crest,  while  in  the  Mediterranean  he  never 
found  a  Shag  with  a  crest  at  any  season.  This  would  go  to  prove 
that  the  Shag  of  the  Mediterranean  is  a  different  species  from 
that  of  Northern  Europe,  as  has  been  insisted  upon  by  Profes- 
sor Brusina,  who  has  named  the  crestless  Shag  Phalacrocorax 
croaticus,  but  if  really  different,  it  will  have  to  bear  the  older 
name  of  P.  desmaresti. 

Kange  in  Great  Britain. — In  many  parts  of  England  the  Shag 
is  more  plentiful  than  its  larger  ally.  It  occurs  on  all  our 
rocky  coasts,  being  more  abundant  on  the  western  side  of 
England  and  Scotland,  especially  on  the  rocky  shores  of 
Wales  and  in  the  western  isles.  In  Ireland  Mr.  Ussher  says 
that  it  breeds  in  all  the  maritime  counties  frequented  by  the 
Cormorant ;  but  on  the  coasts  of  Galway  and  Mayo  it  appears 
to  be  much  more  numerous  than  that  species. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands — The  Shag  is  a  bird  of  Western 
Europe,  for,  though  it  is  common  on  the  coasts  of  Norway  and 
breeds  in  the  Faeroes,  it  has  not  been  met  with  farther  west  than 
Iceland,  and  is  almost  unknown  in  the  Baltic,  being  rare  along 
the  shores  of  the  North  Sea.  It  becomes  commoner,  however, 
on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  France  and  Portugal,  and  if  P. 
desmaresti  should  prove  to  be  only  P.  graculus  in  its  crestless 
stage,  then  the  range  of  the  Shag  will  extend  throughout  the 
Mediterranean. 

Habits. — The  Shag  is  essentially  a  maritime  species  and  is 
not  met  with  on  inland  waters,  though  it  does  occasionally 
occur.  It  feeds  entirely  on  fish  and  is  a  capital  swimmer  and 
diver,  and  that  it  can  descend  to  a  great  depth  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  it  has  been  caught  in  a  crab-pot  lying  twenty  fathoms 
down.  Lord  Lilford  has  given  a  most  interesting  account  of 
his  visits  to  some  of  the  breeding-places  of  the  Shag  in  the 


THE   CORMORANTS    AND    SHAGS. 


217 


Mediterranean,  from  which  I  make  the  following  extract,  as  it 
will  give  the  reader  a  good  idea  of  the  habits  of  these  birds. 
"A  Shag-cavern,  when  numerously  tenanted  during  the  breed- 
ing season,  is,  although  most  interesting  to  a  naturalist,  indeed 
a  gruesome,  and,  as  a  Highlander  would  say,  *  no  a  wholesome ' 
place.  On  pushing  into  one  of  these  caves  in  a  boat,  the 
smell  of  decaying  fish  is  almost  overpowering ;  a  rush  of 
great  dark  birds  comes  forth  above,  on  both  sides,  and  often 
almost  into  the  arms  and  faces  of  the  intruders  (we  always 
'backed '  in),  whilst  many  of  the  Shags  plunge  headlong  from 
the  ledges  into  the  sea,  and  dive  under  the  bpat. 

"  The  real  way  to  see  the  interior  in  all  its  weird  horror,  was 
to  illuminate  its  recesses  by  a  blue  light,  when  in  all  probability 
many  old  Shags  might  be  discovered  still  on  their  nests  or  on 
the  ledges,  twisting  their  long  necks  with  extraordinary  contor- 
tions, dazed  by  the  light,  and  uncertain  whether  to  go  or  to 
'  stand  by '  their  young.  However  they  might  decide  -this 
question,  we  generally  found  the  stench  so  horrible,  that,  after 
taking  in  the  scene,  we  were  glad  to  beat  a  speedy  retreat  and 
chase  any  young  Shag  that  might  have  taken  to  the  sea  and  be 
unable  to  fly,  with  a  view  to  capturing  him  alive — an  attempt 
that,  in  my  experience,  was  invariably  a  failure,  for,  although 
we  could  often  have. killed  these  youngsters,  had  we  been  so 
minded,  with  oars  or  boat-hook,  they  always  managed  to  dive 
and  conceal  themselves  amongst  the  boulder-stones  and  sea- 
weed at  the  foot  of  the  rocks." 

In  Great  Britain  also  the  Shags  prefer  to  nest  in  a  cave,  when 
such  is  available,  and  they  will  occupy  every  ledge  with  their 
nests  when  they  find  a  suitable  cavern.  In  other  places,  where 
there  are  no  eaves,  they  nest  on  ledges  of  cliffs,  and,  like  that 
of  the  Cormorants,  the  position  of  the  breeding-place  is  easily 
discernible  from  the  way  in  which  the  cliffs  are  whitewashed. 
The  flight  of  the  Shag  is  powerful  and  rapid,  and  it  may  often  be 
seen  skimming  along  above  the  level  of  the  water.  When  about 
to  dive,  the  bird  raises  itself  up  and  disappears  with  a  curve 
and  a  dip.  It  is  said  to  use  its  wings  as  well  as  its  feet  under 
the  water,  but  the  Shags  which  I  have  watched  in  confinement 
seemed  not  to  use  their  wings  at  all,  but  to  depend  upon  their 
feet  alone  to  propel  them.  When  a  fish  is  caught,  they  return 
to  the  surface  of  the  water  to  swallow  it. 


218  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Nest.  -  -A  bulky  and  rough  structure  of  sticks  or  seaweed 
with  sometimes  a  little  straw,  &c. 

Eggs. — Three  or  four  in  number,  but  often  only  two  are  laid 
They  resemble  those  of  the  Cormorant  and  have  the  sam< 
chalky  covering  to  the  shell,  but  are  somewhat  smaller.  Axis 
2'3~2'6  inches;  diam.,  i'35-i'5  inches. 

THE  GANNETS.    SUB-ORDER  SUL^J. 

The  Gannets  are  very  closely  allied  to  the  Cormorants,  an< 
like  them  have  all  the  four  toes  joined  together  by  a  web 
which  gives  them  great  swimming  and  diving  powers.  Ir 
osteological  and  anatomical  characters  they  are  also  very 
similar  to  the  Cormorants,  but  the  bill  is  nearly  straight  and 
only  slightly  deflected  at  the  tip,  not  being  hooked  as  in 
Phalacrocorax*  They  have  a  small  gular  sac,  which  is  for  the 
most  part  bare.  As  in  the  Cormorants,  the  feet  are  placed  far 
back  and  the  tarsus  alone  is  bare.  The  changes  of  plumage 
undergone  by  the  Gannets  is,  however,  quite  different  to  that 
of  the  Cormorants.  Gannets  are  found  all  over  the  world,  but 
do  not  go  very  far  to  the  north  or  south. 

THE  TRUE  GANNETS.  GENUS  DYSPORUS. 

Dysponts,  Illiger,  Prodr.  p.  279  (1811). 

Type,  D.  bassanus  (L.). 

I.    THE    GANNET.       DYSPORUS    BASSANUS. 

Pelecanus  bassanus,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  217  (1766). 

Sula  bassana,  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p.  405  (1852);  Dresser,  B.  Eur. 

vi.  p.  181,  pi.  392  (1880);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.   106 

(1883);  Saunders,   ed.   Yarr.  Br.   B.  iv.  p.   155  (1884); 

Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  643  (1885);  Saunders,  Man.  Br. 

B.  p.  353  (1889);   Lilford,   Col.   Fig.  Br.  B.   part  xii. 

(1890). 

(Plate  LIIL} 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  and  below  pure  white, 
with  a  tinge  of  ochreous-buff  on  the  head  and  neck ;  bastard- 
wing,  primary-coverts,  and  primary-quills  black;  tail-feathers 
white,  with  yellowish  shafts ;  bill  pale  bluish-grey,  tinged  with 


THE    GANNETS. 


219 


green  at  the  base;  bare  space  round  the  eyes,  lines  on  the  bill, 
and  gular  space  black;  feet  brownish-black,  the  scales  light 
greenish-blue  or  emerald-green  ;  claws  greyish-white ;  iris  pale 
yellowish-white.  Total  length,  33  inches;  culmen,  3-85  ;  wing, 
18*4;  tail,  8*3;  tarsus,  2*1. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male. 

Young  Birds. — When  first  hatched  the  nestlings  are  bare  and 
slaty-black  in  colour,  with  the  bill  and  naked  region  of  the  eye 
black.  As  they  progress  they  become  covered  with  dense 
white  down.  The  full  plumage  of  the  young  bird  is  greyish- 
brown,  spotted  with  white,  each  feather  having  a  triangular 
spot  at  the  end,  these  spots  being  very  numerous  on  the  head 
and  neck;  the  bastard-wing,  primary- coverts,  and  quills  are 
blackish,  rather  more  ashy  on  the  inner  webs,  the  innermost 
secondaries  tipped  with  white ;  tail-feathers  black,  with  white 
shafts ;  throat  greyish-brown,  spotted  with  white  like  the  upper 
surface ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of  body  dull  white,  mottled 
with  ashy-grey,  with  which  colour  the  feathers  are  tipped ; 
i  under  wing-coverts  blackish,  spotted  with  white.  After  the 
|  second  moult  they  become  more  uniform  below,  and  the  head 
and  neck  are  mottled  with  white,  and,  according  to  Mr.  See- 
bohm,  the  white  colour  gradually  predominates  after  the  third 
and  fourth  moults,  until  the  full  white  plumage  is  assumed 
after  the  fifth  moult. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Although  the  Gannet  occurs  on  all 
our  coasts,  the  breeding-places  are  confined  to  a  few  colonies, 
the  only  one  in  England  being  on  Lundy  Island,  but  another 
exists  on  the  island  of  Grassholme,  off  the  Pembrokeshire 
coast.  In  Scotland  the  best-known  places  are  Ailsa  Craig  and 
the  Bass  Rock ;  and  other  breeding  colonies  are  at  Boreray  in 
the  St.  Kilda  group,  Sulisgeir  or  North  Barra,  and  the  stack  of 
Suleskerry,  about  forty  miles  west  of  Stromness.  These  are 
all  the  places  mentioned  by  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  in  his  latest 
work.  In  Ireland,  Mr.  Ussher  says,  the  principal  breeding- 
place  of  the  species  is  the  Little  Skellig,  off  Kerry,  but  a  con- 
siderable colony  also  exists  on  the  Bull  Rock,  off  Cork,  as  was 
recorded  in  1868 ;  and  notwithstanding  that  a  lighthouse  has 
now  been  erected  there  since  1884-85,  the  number  of  nests  is 
estimated  at  from  one  hundred  and  eighty  to  two  hundred  by 


22O  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

the  light-keepers,  who  think  that  the  birds  are  increasing  in 
numbers. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — As  in  our  own  islands,  the 
breeding-places  of  the  Gannet  are  confined  to  a  few  localities, 
which  are  in  the  Western  Faeroes,  in  Iceland,  and  again  on 
the  Magdalene  Islands  and  other  rocky  islets  in  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence,  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  North  America.  The 
species  wanders  south  in  winter,  and  reaches  as  far  as  the 
Mexican  coast  in  America,  and  to  North  Africa  and  Madeira, 
but  its-'  southern  limits  in  winter  are  not  well  known,  and  it 
would  appear  to  be  represented  by  distinct  species  of  the 
genus  in  all  the  southern  continents. 

Habits.— The  Gannet  is  entirely  maritime,  and  is  only  found 
inland  when  driven  by  stress  of  weather  and  exhausted.  It 
lives  entirely  on  fish  and  destroys  a  large  number  of  herrings 
and  other  surface-feeding  species,  falling  on  them  from  a  height 
in  the  air,  as  it  does  not  dive  like  a  Cormorant.  Except  in  the 
winter,  when  single  specimens  are  met  with  on  our  coasts,  the 
Gannet  is  a  gregarious  bird,  nesting  and  fishing  in  company, 
and  some  idea  of  the  number  of  the  latter  may  be  gained  from 
the  figures  given  by  Mr.  Seebohm,  who  reckons  that  on  Sulis- 
geir  there  are  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pairs,  on  the 
Stack  of  Suliskerry  twenty-five  thousand  pairs,  and  the  same 
number  on  Boreray.  On  the  Bass  Rock  and  Ailsa  Craig  he 
puts  the  numbers  at  about  six  thousand  pairs  on  each.  When 
feeding  in  company,  as  they  do,  many  birds  are  caught  in  the 
fishing-nets. 

The  flight  of  the  Gannet  is  decidedly  grand,  as  the  bird 
swoops  along  at  a  prodigious  rate,  one  flap  of  the  wings  seem- 
ing sufficient  to  carry  it  for  a  great  distance.  At  first  appear- 
ing as  a  speck  on  the  horizon,  I  have  known  one  of  these  birds 
to  pass  over  my  boat  in  a  space  of  time  almost  incredible  ;  but 
the  long  pointed  wings  have  a  way  of  swinging  it  through  the 
air,  so  that  in  a  few  seconds  the  great  bird  looms  up  close, 
and  in  a  few  more  is  out  of  vision  behind  the  next  headland. 
Sometimes  the  Gannets  soar  to  a  great  height  and  wheel 
round  and  round,  seldom  settling  on  the  water  except  to  digest 
their  food  or  to  sleep.  They  are  capable  of  traversing  long 


THE    FLAMINGOES.  22I 

distances,  and  often  go  a  long  way  from  their  breeding-stations 
in  search  of  food. 

Eggs.— Only  one.  The  ground-colour  is  bluish,  but  is 
obscured  by  a  chalky  covering  as  in  the  case  of  the  Cormo- 
rants. Mr.  Robert  Read,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  many 
interesting  notes  on  British  birds,  writes  to  me:— "I  have 
taken  many  eggs  on  Ailsa  Craig.  Some  of  them  are  perfectly 
black  with  stains  from  the  birds'  feet,  but  if  a  Gannet's  egg  be 
soaked  in  warm  water  and  well  scrubbed  with  a  hard  brush,  all 
the  chalky  coating  can  be  removed,  and  there  is  then  present 
a  beautifully  dear-looking  bluish  egg,  in  texture  and  appear- 
ance much  resembling  that  of  a  Heron.  The  birds,  when 
sitting  hard,  hiss  like  a  common  Goose,  and  require  a  lot  of 
stirring  up  to  make  them  leave  their  eggs."  Axis,  2fS^-y^ 
inches;  diam.,  i'8-2'o. 

THE   FLAMINGOES. 

ORDER  PILENICOPTERIFORMES. 

Judged  by  their  long  legs  and  general  appearance,  the 
Flamingoes  would  appear  to  be  a  kind  of  aberrant  Stork,  and 
there  are  not  wanting  naturalists  who  consider  them  to  be 
more  of  a  Stork  than  a  Duck ;  but,  weighing  the  whole  of  the 
characters,  the  balance  in  favour  of  their  affinity  to  the  Ducks 
is  incontestable,  and  two  characters  seem  to  point  to  their  true 
affinity,  viz.,  the  possession  of  lamellae  on  the  edge  of  the 
bill,  and  the  downy  young,  which  are  able  to  run  about  and 
feed  themselves  soon  after  being  hatched.  No  Stork  has  these 
characteristics,  and  therefore,  if  the  Flamingo  has  certain  Stork- 
like  characters,  the  weight  of  evidence  is  in  favour  of  its  being 
a  Stork-like  Duck,  and  I  place  these  birds  in  my  system  of 
classification  between  the  Storks  and  the  Ducks  (cf.  Sharpe, 
Classif.  B.  p.  76).  The  outward  structure  of  a  Flamingo,  with 
its  long  legs  and  its  peculiar  bent  bill  and  long  neck,  is  suffi- 
cient to  distinguish  the  bird  from  any  other  member  of  the 
British  avifauna,  while  there  are  several  osteological  characters 
by  which  the  Flamingoes  can  be  distinguished.  As,  however, 
the  birds  concern  the  British  fauna  but  little,  there  is  no  need 
to  enlarge  on  the  minute  characters  of  the  group,  the  external 
ones  being  sufficient  to  distinguish  a  Flamingo  at  a  glance. 


222  ALLEN  S    NATURALISTS    LIBRARY. 

THE   TRUE   FLAMINGOES.     GENUS   PH^NICOPTERUS. 

Phanicoplerus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  230  (1766). 

Type,  P,  ruber,  Linn. 

The  Flamingoes  are  divided  by  Count  Salvador!  into  three 
genera,  Phcenicopterus,  Phaniconaias,  and  Ph&nicoparrus.  The 
latter  is  confined  to  the  Andes  of  Chili  and  Peru,  the  second 
to  Africa  and  North-western  India,  while  the  genus  Phanicop- 
terus  is  found  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  tropical  Old 
World,  with  the  exception  of  the  Australian  Region,  and  occurs 
again  in  the  Neotropical  Region. 

I.    THE   COMMON    FLAMINGO.       PH^ENICOPTERUS    ROSEUS. 

Phcenicopterus  roseus.  Pall.  Zoogr.  Rosso- Asiat.  ii.  p.  207 
(1811);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  yi.  p.  343,  pi.  410  (1879); 
Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  244  (1884) ;  id.  Man. 
Br.  B.  p.  383  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — White,  with  a  rosy  tinge,  especially  on  the  tail ; 
upper  wing-coverts  bright  scarlet ;  quills  black,  with  the  inner- 
most secondaries  rosy  ;  under  surface  white  with  a  rosy  tinge, 
the  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  bright  scarlet ;  bare  skin 
near  the  eye  and  base  of  bill  fleshy-pink  ;  end  of  bill  and 
edges  of  the  lower  mandible  black  ;  legs  and  feet  pinkish-red ; 
iris  pale  lemon-yellow.  Total  length,  50  inches;  culmen,  5*5  ; 
wing,  17*0;  tail,  7-0;  tarsus,  13-0. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  a  little  smaller. 

Young  Birds, — Brown  above,  with  darker  central  streaks  on  the 
feathers;  the  head  and  neck  whitish,  tinged  with  buff,  especially 
on  the  upper  neck  ;  under  surface  of  body  whitish,  with  a  tinge 
of  buff,  the  axillaries  pale  pink ;  base  of  bill  dull  pink  ;  legs 
dull  lead-colour. 

Nestling. — Covered  with  white  down,  greyer  on  the  back;  the 
bill  quite  straight. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — Flamingoes  are  so  often  kept  in  cap- 
tivity in  our  Zoological  Gardens  and  in  private  aviaries,  that  it 
is  quite  possible  that  an  individual  occasionally  escapes,  which 
may  account  for  the  odd  specimens  which  have  been  shot  in 
England.  Three  instances,  however,  of  the  capture  of  the 


THE   GEESE,    SWANS,    AND    DUCKS.  223 

Flamingo  in  England  are  undoubted,  and  no  evidence  has 
•been  forthcoming  that  in  any  of  the  cases  they  were  escaped 
birds.  The  first  was  taken  in  Staffordshire,  in  September,  1881, 
and  another  was  shot  near  Beaulieu  in  Hampshire,  in  November, 
1883,  having  been  flying  about  for  a  fortnight  after  a  great  gale 
from  the  south-west,  which  may  have  driven  the  bird  to  our 
shores.  Another  was  seen  in  the  Hoy,  near  New  Romney  in 
Kent,  in  August,  1884,  by  Captain  Shelley  ;  and  the  old  sports- 
man must  have  imagined  himself  back  in  Egypt,  when  he  saw  a 
Flamingo  flying  past  him  on  the  Kentish  coast.  Another  was 
shot  in  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  in  August,  1873,  but  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  thinks  that  this  may  have  been  an  individual  which 
escaped  from  the  Zoological  Gardens  on  the  iQth  of  July  in 
the  same  year.  Although  we  now  look  upon  the  occurrence  of 
a  Flamingo  in  England  as  something  extraordinary,  palaeonto- 
logists show  that  in  ancient  times  they  were  common  enough 
in  Central  Europe,  and  even  in  the  South  of  England. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Flamingo  is  a  bird  of 
Southern  Europe,  whence  it  extends  eastwards  from  the  Medi- 
terranean to  Lake  Baikal  in  Eastern  Siberia,  and  it  is  also 
found  breeding  in  India,  and  extends  to  Ceylon,  as  well  as  all 
over  Africa.  It  has  been  observed  occasionally  in  Switzerland, 
and  on  the  Rhine  it  has  been  seen  in  flocks. 

Habits. — The  Flamingo  breeds  in  the  salt-marshes  of  the 
Camargue  in  Southern  France,  and  in  Southern  Spain  and 
other  suitable  localities  in  Southern  Europe  and  the  Caspian 
district.  The  nest  is  made  of  mud,  and  the  bird  sits  on  it  with 
its  long  legs  doubled  up  under  it,  and  its  neck  twisted  round, 
so  as  to  rest  on  its  back.  The  eggs  are  two  in  number,  and  are 
of  a  chalky-white.  Axis,  3*55-37  inches;  diam.,  i'i5- 

THE  GEESE,   SWANS,   AND  DUCKS. 

ORDER  ANSERIFORMES. 

The  members  of  this  Order  have  a  bridged,  or  desmognathous, 
palate,  and  their  downy  young  are  able  to  run  about  in  a  few 
hours.  Besides  these  characters,  which  Mr.  Seebohm  believes 
to  be  thoroughly  diagnostic  of  the  Order,  there  are  many  others, 
chiefly  anatomical,  which  distinguish  the  Ducks  and  Geese. 


224  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

They  may  be  said  to  be  absolutely  cosmopolitan  in  their  range, 
and  no  country  is  without  them,  as  far  as  we  know. 

I  am  indebted  to  Count  Salvadori,  who  is  engaged  on  the 
twenty-seventh  volume  of  the  "Catalogue  of  Birds  in  the 
British  Museum,"  for  giving  me  his  scheme  of  classification  of 
the  Anseres  for  the  benefit  of  the  present  volume  ;  and  ever) 
one  who  knows  the  excellence  of  that  author's  work  will  under- 
stand that  his  advice  has  been  of  material  assistance  to  me. 
I  have  mainly  followed  the  order  of  Mr.  Howard  Saunders 
"  Manual  "  for  the  British  species,  which  varies  but  little  froir 
that  adopted  by  the  Count.  My  Order  Anseriformes  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  Family  Anatida  of  Count  Salvadori,  who  divides  the 
Family  into  eleven  Sub-families,  with  some  of  which,  being  ex- 
clusively tropical  forms,  we  need  not  concern  ourselves  further 
in  the  present  work.  Following,  therefore,  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible, Count  Salvadori's  system,  and  merely  altering  the  order 
of  the  Geese  and  Swans,  we  find  that  he  divides  the  Anatidce. 
into  three  divisions,  depending  on  the  presence  or  absence  of 
a  lobe  on  the  hind-toe.  Geese  and  Swans  have  no  lobe,  the 
True  Ducks  have  only  a  very  narrow  one ;  while  the  Diving 
Ducks  and  the  Mergansers  have  a  broad  lobe. 

THE  GEESE.     SUB-FAMILY  ANSERINE. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  Geese  are  distinguished  by  th< 
absence  of  a  lobe  on  the  hind-toe,  which  is  moderately  large 
the  bill  is  stout  and  high  at  the  base,  and  there  is  no  cere 
They  differ  from  the  majority  of  Ducks  in  not  having  an; 
metallic  colours  in  the  plumage  and  no  "  wing-speculum." 

The  typical  "  Grey  "  Geese  are  mostly  birds  of  the  northen 
parts  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres,  the  mos 
southern  species  being  Anser  indicus,  which  inhabits  Centra 
Asia  and  the  Indian  Peninsula,  and  Nesochen  sandwichensis, 
which  is  confined  to  the  Sandwich  Islands.  All  the  species  o 
"Black"  or  Brent 'Geese  are  birds  of  the  Arctic  Regions,  an< 
occur  in  temperate  latitudes  chiefly  in  winter.  In  the  Souther) 
Hemisphere  their  place  is  taken  by  the  Kelp  Geese  (Cloephaga 
of  South  America  and  the  Maned  Goose  (Chenonetta)  of  Au< 
tralia. 

Four  species  of  Geese  have  been  recorded  as  British,  whic 


THE   SNOW-GEESE.  22e 

are  now  very  properly  dropped  out  of  the  list,  viz.,  the  Sour- 
winged  Goose  (Plectropterus  gambensis\  the  Canada  Goose 
(Bermda  canadensis\  and  the  Bar-headed  Goose  (A.  indicus) 
All  these  birds  are  kept  in  confinement  in  this  country,  and 
there  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  the  specimens  which  have 
been  shot  were  simply  escaped  birds. 

THE    SNOW-GEESE.      GENUS    CHEN. 

Chen,  Boie,  Isis,  1829,  p.  563. 

Type,  C.  hyperboreus  (Pall.). 

The  genera  of  the  Geese  are  separated  by  Count  Salvador! 
according  to  the  character  of  the  serrations  on  the  cutting-edge 
of  the  upper  mandible,  and  the  outline  of  this  tomium,  or 
cutting-edge.  Thus  the  genera  Chen  and  Anser  have  the  latter 
decidedly  sinuated,  or  concave,  with  the  serrations  visible  from 
the  outside  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length.  The  species  of 
the  genus  Chen  are  remarkable  for  a  very  stout  bill,  and  for 
their  snow-white  or  bluish  colour,  with  black  wings.  The  genus 
is  arctic  in  its  habitat. 


I.    THE   SNOW-GOOSE.       CHEN    HYPERBOREUS. 

Anser  hyperboreus^  Pall.  Spiz.  Zool.  vi.  p.  25  (1767);  Seeb.  Br. 

B.  iii.  p.  490  (1885). 

Anser  albatus,  Cass. ;  Saunders,  P.  Z.  S.  1871,  p.  519. 
Chenalbatus  (Cass.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  409,  pi.  417,  fig.  2 

(1873);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  117  (1883). 
Chen  hyperboreus ;  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  275  (1885); 

id.  Man.  Br.  B.  393  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part 

xxvi.  (1893). 

Adult  Male.— General  colour  above  and  below  snowy-white, 
the  bird  being  everywhere  pure  white  except  on  the  wings  ; 
primary-coverts  ashy-grey;  primaries  black,  slightly  washed 
with  ashy  at  the  base ;  "  bill  purplish-red,  the  nail  whitish,  and 
the  intertomial  space  black;  feet  purple  or  orange-red,  the 
soles  dingy-yellow ;  iris  dark  brown,  eyelids  whitish "  (J?. 
Ridgway\  Total  length,  26-0  inches;  culmen,  2*1 ;  wing, 
i6'6;  tail,  5-5  ;  tarsus,  2'8. 

8  Q 


226  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Adult  Female.— Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  28-0 
inches ;  wing,  16-3. 

Young  Birds.— Greyish  above,  the  feathers  edged  with  ashy- 
brown  ;  the  crown  of  the  head  and  the  centre  of  the  back 
of  the  neck  brown ;  forehead  and  sides  of  face  ashy-white, 
slightly  tinged  with  yellowish-buff;  under  surface  of  body 
white,  greyish  on  the  fore-neck  and  chest ;  the  scapulars  brown 
like  the  back,  with  ashy  bases ;  lesser  wing-coverts  white, 
powdered  with  grey;  the  median  and  greater  coverts  ashy- 
grey,  with  white  edges,  the  amount  of  white  varying  greatly  on 
the  latter  series ;  bastard  wing-feathers  grey ;  primary-coverts 
and  quills  as  in  the  adult  birds ;  the  secondaries  ashy- brown, 
edged  with  white,  and  having  the  greater  part  of  the  inner 
webs  white;  inner  secondaries  dark  slaty-brown,  with  broad 
white  edges  to  both  webs ;  tail-feathers  white,  powdered  with 
ashy-brown. 

Range  in  Great  Britain.— Of  accidental  occurrence  only.  The 
first  instance  of  the  capture  of  this  species  was  made  known  by 
Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  who  noticed  two  young  Snow-Geese  in 
Leadenhall  Market  on  the  gih  of  November,  1871,  and  he  came 
at  once  to  tell  me  of  his  interesting  discovery.  We  returned 
forthwith  to  the  market  and  purchased  the  pair,  and  Mr.  Saun- 
ders, having  procured  from  the  salesman  the  name  of  his  corre- 
spondent, enlisted  the  aid  of  the  late  Sir  Victor  Brooke,  who  was 
then  in  Ireland,  and  by  this  means  the  clue  was  followed  up, 
and  it  was  ultimately  discovered  that  the  two  Geese  had  been 
shot  a  few  days  previously  on  til*  lake  of  Tacumshane  in  Co. 
Wexford.  A  third  was  shot  soon  after  in  Wexford  Harbour, 
but  was  not  preserved.  In  October,  1877,  a  flock  of  seven 
was  seen  near  Belmullet  in  Co.  Mayo,  and  two  were  captured. 
On  the  22nd  of  August,  1884,  an  adult  Snow-Goose  was  seen 
by  the  Rev.  H.  A.  Macpherson  on  the  coast  near  Allonby  in 
Cumberland.  Others  have  since  been  noticed  in  Yorkshire,  in 
1891. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.— The  home  of  this  beautiful 
bird  is  in  the  Arctic  Regions  of  North  America,  but  the  species 
probably  occurs  in  Eastern  Siberia.  It  breeds  in  Western  Arc- 
tic America,  and  migrates  in  winter  to  Japan,  and  in  America 
down  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  to  Southern  California.  It  has 


THE   TRUE   GEESE. 


been  observed  in  various  parts  of  Northern  Europe.  A  large 
eastern  form,  Chen  nivalis  (Forst.;  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  xxvii.  p. 
86),  is  found  in  the  United  States  on  migration,  and  reaches 
the  Bermudas.  Its  breeding-home  is  not  yet  known,  but  is 
believed  to  be  in  Arctic  America  to  the  east  of  the  Mackenzie 
River.  This  large  race  only  differs  from  the  true  C.  hyper- 
boreus  in  size,  and  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  it  can  be  separated 
from  the  latter  bird  specifically. 

Habits.—  Nothing  particular  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits 
of  the  Snow-Geese  in  their  arctic  home,  where  they  frequent 
the  tundras,  or  barren  ground,  feeding  on  grass  and  insects, 
and  in  the  autumn  on  berries. 

Nest.—  A  hollow  in  the  ground,  lined  with  down. 

Eggs.—  Dirty  white  in  colour,  and  usually  five  in  number. 
Axis,  3'i5~3'4  inches;  diam.,  2-05-2-2. 

THE  TRUE  GEESE.   GENUS  ANSER. 

Anser,  Briss.  Orn.  vi.  p.  261  (1760). 

Type,  A.  anser  (L.). 

The  true  Geese  are  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Old 
and  New  Worlds,  breeding  in  the  high  north,  and  migrating 
south  in  winter.  Four  species  occur  in  the  British  Islands, 
and  they  are  not  always  easy  to  distinguish,  but  they  have 
been  very  clearly  differentiated  by  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  in 
his  "  Manual  "  and  by  Count  Salvador!  in  the  "  Catalogue  of 
Birds."  The  nail  at  the  end  of  the  bill  is  white  in  A.  anser 
and  A.  albifrons,  and  blackish  in  A.fabalis  and  A.  brachyrhyn- 
chus,  and  the  colours  of  the  bill  and  feet  are  usually  distinc- 
tive characters,  but  too  much  stress  must  not  be  laid  on  these 
points,  as  they  do  not  always  hold  true,  while  possibly  some 
hybridisation  takes  place  among  the  Geese,  which  may  account 
for  the  appearance  of  the  characters  of  one  section  unexpectedly 
among  birds  of  the  other  section. 

I.  THE  GREY   LAG-GOOSE.       ANSER   ANSER. 

Anas  anser,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  197  (1766). 
Anser  ferus,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  589  (1852);  Salvad.  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  89  (1895). 

Q  2 


228  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Anser  cinereus,  Meyer;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  355,  pi.  411 
(1878);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  115  (1883);  Saunders, 
ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  253  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii. 
p.  500  (1885);  Saunders,  Man.  p.  385  (1889);  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxvi.  (1893). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  light  brown,  with  ashy 
centres  to  the  feathers  and  whity-brown  margins ;  the  lower 
back,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  lavender-grey ;  wing-coverts 
like  the  back,  but  the  lesser  series,  as  well  as  the  coverts  round 
the  bend  of  the  wing,  light  bluish-grey,  with  which  colour  the 
median  and  greater  coverts  are  tinged ;  bastard-wing  bluish 
grey,  with  somewhat  broader  white  margins,  and  shaded  with 
brown ;  primary-coverts  grey ;  primaries  blackish,  with  white 
shafts,  the  outer  ones  grey  for  a  considerable  portion  of  their 
length;  the  secondaries  blackish-brown,  narrowly  edged  with 
white ;  the  inner  secondaries  browner,  like  the  back ;  sides  of 
rump  and  long  upper  tail-coverts  white ;  centre  tail-feathers 
ashy-brown,  edged  and  tipped  with  white,  the  remainder 
blackish  on  the  outer  web  and  at  the  base,  the  dark  colour 
disappearing  towards  the  outermost,  which  are  white;  head 
and  neck  light  brown,  the"  feathers  of  the  hind-neck  somewhat 
lanceolated  and  forming  a  soft  ruff;  sides  of  face  light  ashy- 
brown,  with  a  narrow  line  of  white  fringing  the  base  of  the 
upper  mandible ;  under  surface  of  body  white,  the  throat  and 
chest  ashy-grey,  with  whitish  margins  to  the  feathers ;  the  breast 
and  abdomen  slightly  mottled  with  black  ;  thighs  grey ;  sides 
of  body  brown,  with  whity-brown  margins  to  the  feathers  ; 
under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  light  lavender-grey ;  bill 
flesh-coloured,  with  the  nail  white ;  feet  flesh-colour ;  iris  light 
brown.  Total  length,  30^0  inches;  oilmen,  2 '6;  wing,  17*8; 
tail,  7-0  ;  tarsus,  3-2. 

Adult  Female. — Similiar  to  the  male  but  smaller.  Total 
length  30*0  inches  ;  wing,  i6'o. 

Young  Birds. — Darker  than  the  adults  and  having  no  black  on 
the  under-parts. 

Characters. — The  white  nail  at  the  end  of  the  bill  distin- 
guishes this  species,  as  well  as  the  absence  of  any  conspicuous   | 
white  on  the  forehead,  combined  with  the  light  grey  of  the    ; 


THE   TRUE    GEESE.  22Q 

rump.      The  flesh-coloured  bill  and  feet   are  also  character- 
istic. 

Range  in  Great  Britain.— Although  formerly  nesting  in  Lin- 
colnshire, the  breeding-places  of  this  Goose  are  now  confined 
to  Scotland,  where  it  still  rears  its  young  in  Ross,  Caithness, 
and  Sutherland,  as  well  as  in  the  Hebrides,  where  it  is  still 
abundant  on  some  of  the  outer  isles.  It  is  not  mentioned 
by  Mr.  Ussher  as  a  breeding-species  in  Ireland.  In  winter 
the  Grey  Lag-Goose  occurs  in  flocks  in  other  localities  in 
Great  Britain,  but  seldom  on  either  the  east  or  west  coast  of 
England. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.— To  the  southern  counties  of 
Europe  this  species  only  comes  as  a  winter  visitor,  but  in 
Russia,  and  locally  in  Central  and  Northern  Europe,  it  is 
generally  distributed  in  summer.  In  Siberia  its  place  is  taken 
by  a  nearly  allied  species,  A.  rubrirostris  of  Hodgson,  which 
winters  in  India  and  China.  This,  according  to  Count  Sal- 
vadori,  is  a  somewhat  larger  bird,  with  heavier  bill  and  feet, 
and  has  more  black  on  the  under-parts — poor  characters  for 
separation,  but  from  the  series  in  the  British  Museum  I  am 
able  to  say  that  they  are  fairly  well  marked.  The  bill  is 
said  by  Dr.  Radde  to  be  flesh-coloured,  but  with  the  base  of 
the  upper  mandible  bright  red,  in  the  eastern  form. 

Habits. — Many  people  think  that  the  name  of  "Grey-lag," 
as  it  is  generally  written,  is  a  vernacular  corruption  of  "  Grey- 
leg,"  which,  as  the  bird  has  flesh-coloured  feet,  would  be  a 
misnomer ;  but  it  is  now  recognised  that  the  name  should  be 
written  Grey  "  Lag-Goose," indicating  the  goose  that  "lagged  " 
behind  to  breed  in  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire  in  former  times. 
When  unmolested,  the  present  species  feeds  all  day,  retiring  at 
night-time  to  secluded  places  on  the  sea-shore,  or  wherever 
it  can  rest  without  molestation.  Its  food  consists  of  various 
water-plants,  grass,  and  grain,  in  pursuit  of  which  it  is  to  be 
found  on  stubble-lands.  The  curious  feature  which  is  com- 
mon to  most  Geese,  of  a  very  rapid  moult,  renders  the  birds 
practically  defenceless  at  this  period  of  their  existence,  and 
they  then  either  hide  themselves  when  inland,  or  take  to  the 
water  for  protection  from  assault  when  they  are  no  longer 
able  to  fly.  At  other  times  they  fly  strongly  and  well,  and 


230  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

generally  take  the  form  of  a  V  when  flying  in  flocks  or  small 
parties. 

Nest. — The  Grey  Lag-Goose  is  a  somewhat  early  breeder, 
nesting  in  March  in  Germany,  and  in  Scandinavia  in  May. 
The  nest  is  a  large,  roughly-made  structure,  composed  of  dead 
reeds,  grass,  and  sedge,  with  sometimes  a  stick  or  two  added. 
Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  the  nest  is  often  a  foot  high  and  a  yard 
across,  and  "in  cold  climates  is  generally  lined  with  moss,  to 
which  down  is  added,  as  the  eggs  are  laid." 

Eggs. — From  five  to  six  in  number ;  pure  white,  but  soon 
getting  discoloured  to  a  creamy-white,  some  of  the  eggs  appear- 
ing also  to  be  naturally  of  a  dirty  yellowish-white  colour. 
Axis,  3'25-3'55  inches;  diam.,  2-1-2-55. 

II,    THE   WHITE-FRONTED   GOOSE.      ANSER   ALBIFRONS. 

Branta  albifrons.  Scop.  Ann.    I.    Hist.  Nat.  p.  69,  No.  87 

(1769). 
Anscr  albifrons,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  609  (1852);  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.  vi.  p.  375,  pi.  414  (1878);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p. 

116  (1883) ;  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  261  (1885) ; 

Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  505  (1885);  Saunders,  Man.  Br. 

B.  p.  387  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  pt.  x.  (1889); 

Salvad.  Cat,  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  92  (1895). 

(Plate  LI V.-] 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  resembling  that  of  A. 
anser,  but  darker,  especially  as  regards  the  lower  back  and 
rump,  which  are  dark  slaty-grey,  instead  of  light  bluish-grey ; 
the  grey  on  the  wings  is  also  darker  than  in  A.  anser,  and  the 
outer  greater  coverts  especially  are  greyer,  with  broader  white 
margins  ;  a  white  mask  extends  from  the  base  of  the  mandible 
across  the  forehead,  but  does  not  reach  to  the  line  of  the  eyes 
and  is  separated  from  the  brown  of  the  head  and  face  by  a 
shade  of  black  ;  under  surface  of  body  as  in  A.  anser,  but 
much  more  extensively  marked  with  black ;  bill  orange-yellow, 
with  a  white  nail  at  the  tip ;  feet  and  toes  orange ;  iris  dark 
brown.  Total  length,  30*0  inches  ;  culmen,  175;  wing,  i6fo; 
tail,  6-0 ;  tarsus,  2-65. 


230 


ALLEN  S    NATURALISTS 


generally  take  the  form  of  a  V  when  flying  in  flocks  or 
parties 

Nest.  —  The  Grey  ,  a  somewhat  early  br, 

nesting  in  Ma-  ud  in  Scandinavia  in 

c.ture,  composed  oi 

stick  or  two  added 
n  a  foot  high  and  a  yar 
lined  with  moss,  t 
, 


;  pure  white,  but  soon 
i  :ite,  some  of  the  eggs  appear- 

ing al  >y   of  a  dirty   yellowish-white   colour. 

Axisr  3-25-3-55  inches;  diam.,  2-1-2-55. 


;  HE   WHITE-FRONTED   GOOSE.      ANSER   ALBIFRONS. 

I'lfrons,  Scop.  Ann."  I.    Hist.   Nat.  p.   69,  No.  87 
69). 

,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  609  (1852);  Dresser,  B. 
p.  375,  pi.  414  (1878);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  }. 
:  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  261  (18 
i.  iii.  p.  505  (1885);  Saunders,  Man.  Br. 

ford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  pt.  x.  (18 
Sal--.  :2  (1895). 


• 

• 

u'e  extensively  marl 
site  nail  . 


ibling  that   of 

:*   bluish-(Ci 
"tser,  an-: I 
>roader  v. 
.     ;  the  maiv 

-  id  and  fa 
s  in  A.  anse:\ 
ck;  bill  orange-y 
.s  orange ;   iris  dark 


n.     Total  length,  ^i,  175;  wing,  16 

rsus,  2*65. 


THE  TRUE  GEESE.  2^1 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  a  little  smaller.  Total 
length,  26 'o  inches  ;  wing,  15. 

Young  Birds. — Darker  and  more  uniform  in  colour  than  the 
adults,  and  the  nail  at  the  end  of  the  bill  is  brown ;  the  under 
surface  is  more  uniform,  without  any  black  patches  or  bars. 

Characters. — The  White-fronted  Goose  is  a  smaller  bird  than 
the  Grey  Lag-Goose,  and  has  an  orange-coloured  bill  with  a 
white  nail  at  the  tip.  The  white  forehead  also  easily  dis- 
tinguishes it,  when  adult,  though  it  should  be  noted  that,  in  our 
figure,  the  white  is  rather  more  extended  than  it  should  be. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — This  Goose  does  not  breed  within  our 
limits,  and  is  only  a  winter  visitant,  with  a  somewhat  curious 
distribution,  as  is  detailed  by  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  and  Mr. 
Seebohm.  It  occurs  somewhat  sporadically,  and  is  rare  on 
the  east  coasts  of  both  England  and  Scotland,  is  commoner  in 
Ireland.  On  the  west  coast  of  Scotland  it  is  a  rare  visitor,  as 
a  rule,  and  on  the  Outer  Hebrides  is  only  an  occasional  visitor, 
but  on  Islay  is  said  to  be  the  most  common  of  all  the  Grey 
Geese. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  European  form  of  the 
White-fronted  Goose  breeds  in  the  high  north,  from  Green- 
land and  Iceland  to  Central  Siberia,  as  Mr.  Seebohm  found 
it  on  the  Yenesei,  and  he  states  that  it  passes  farther  to 
the  north  to  breed  than  either  the  Bean-Goose  or  the  Grey 
Lag-Goose.  In  America  a  large  form,  A.  gambeli,  is  found, 
which  can  only  be  considered  a  slightly  larger  race  of  our  A. 
albifrons,  and  this  race  breeds  in  Arctic  America  and  goes 
south  in  winter,  as  does  the  true  A.  albifrons,  which  in  the 
cold  season  occurs  throughout  Europe,  and  even  winters  in 
North-western  India  and  China. 

Habits. — The  same  as  those  of  the  Grey  Lag-Goose.  Mr. 
Seebohm  says  that  the  notes  are  somewhat  similar  to  those  of 
the  last-mentioned  species,  but  are  more  trumpet-like  in  tone, 
and  more  rapidly  repeated,  so  that  it  has  sometimes  been 
called  the  Laughing  Goose.  He  remarks  further  :— "  In  other 
respects  the  habits  of  the  White-fronted,  Bean,  and  Grey  Geese 
are  so  similar  that  the  description  of  one  might  almost  pass  for 
that  of  the  others." 


232  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Nest. — Described  by  Middendorf  as  placed  on  a  grassy  hillock, 
in  a  hollow  abundantly  lined  with  down.  Other  observers  state 
that  the  American  form  makes  sometimes  only  a  depression  in 
the  sand,  or  lines  the  nest  with  grasses  and  feathers  as  well  as 
down. 

Eggs. — From  five  to  seven  in  number,  though  as  many  as  ten 
have  been  found.  They  are  dull  yellowish-white.  Axis,  3-0- 
3-3  inches;  diam.,  2-0-2-2. 

III.    THE    BEAN-GOOSE.       ANSER    FABALIS. 

Anas  fabalis.  Lath.  Gen.  Syn.  Suppl.  i.  p.  297  (1787). 

Anas  segetum,  Gm.  S.  N.  i.  p.  512  (1788). 

Anser  segetum,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  595  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur. 

vi.p.363,pl.4i2(i879);B.O.U.ListBr.B.p.ii5(iS83); 

Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  265  (1885);  Seebohm, 

Br.  B.  iii.  p.  493  (1885);  Saunders,  Man.  p.  389  (1889) ; 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxvi.  (1893). 
4nser /abatis^  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  i.  p.  100  (1895). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  brown,  with  whity-brown 
edges  to  the  feathers ;  the  lower  back  and  rump  dull  slaty- 
blackish  ;  the  sides  of  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  white ; 
the  tail-feathers  blackish,  edged  and  tipped  with  white ;  the 
wirag-coverts  dark  slaty-grey,  the  inner  ones,  as  well  as  the 
median  and  greater  coverts,  brown,  rather  broadly  edged  with 
white,  like  the  inner  secondaries ;  the  bastard-wing  and  primary- 
coverts  grey ;  primaries  black  externally,  grey  for  the  most 
part ;  secondaries  black,  with  broad  white  edges ;  head  and 
neck  brown,  with  a  little  trace  of  white  at  the  base  of  the  upper 
mandible  and  along  the  base  of  the  forehead  ;  the  neck-feathers 
soft  and  lanceolate ;  under  surface  of  body  greyish-white ; 
throat  brown,  and  with  a  brown  shade  overspreading  the  fore- 
neck  ;  the  sides  of  the  body  mottled  with  ashy  or  dark  brown 
feathers,  which  are  broadly  edged  with  whity-brown ;  thighs 
ashy-brown  ;  under  wing-coverts  dark  slaty-grey,  the  axillaries 
more  blackish  ;  bill  black,  with  an  orange  band  in  the  middle ; 
nail  black  ;  feet  orange  ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  30-0 
inches;  culmen,  2-5;  wing,  18*0;  tail,  5-4;  tarsus,  3-1. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  a  little  smaller. 


THE   TRUE   GEESE.  233 

Young  Birds. — Darker  than  the  adults,  with  a  tinge  of  tawny- 
buff  about  the  neck. 

Characters.— Distinguished  by  the  black  nail  at  the  end  of  the 
bill,  the  orange  feet,  and  orange  band  across  the  middle  of  the 
bill. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Bean-Goose  does  not  breed  with 
us,  but  is  a  visitor  in  autumn  and  spring,  and  occurs  through- 
out the  winter  on  most  parts  of  the  coasts,  though  in  some 
localities  it  is  much  more  plentifully  observed  than  in  others. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — This  species  breeds  far  away 
to  the  north,  on  the  tundras  of  the  Petchora  and  the  Yenesei, 
and  also  in  Lapland  and  Scandinavia  above  64°  N.  lat.,  as 
well  as  in  Novaya  Zemlya.  It  also  nests  near  Archangel.  A 
specimen  procured  by  Mr.  Seebohm  in  the  valley  of  the 
Yenesei  is  referred  by  Count  Salvador!  to  the  true  Bean-Goose, 
but  in  Eastern  Siberia,  eastwards  from  the  Boganida  River,  its 
place  is  taken  by  an  allied  species,  A.  serrirostris,  which  breeds 
in  the  high  north,  and  winters  in  China  and  Japan.  The  Bean- 
Goose  of  Europe  winters  in  the  southern  countries  of  the  Con- 
tinent, and  is  abundant  in  most  of  them  at  that  season  of  the 
year,  as  it  is  also  in  Southern  Russia  and  the  Caspian. 

HaMts. — To  its  arctic  breeding-ground  the  Bean-Goose  be- 
takes itself  as  soon  as  there  is  any  sign  of  the  break-up  of  the 
cold,  and  of -the  ice  disappearing,  and  Mr.  Seebohm  has  given 
a  very  graphic  account  of  his  meeting  with  the  species  on  the 
Petchora  and  on  the  Yenesei  Rivers,  where  he  saw  the  first  birds 
on  the  9th  and  loth  of  May  respectively.  Small  flocks  passed 
during  the  next  fortnight,  but  on  the  wind  changing  to  the 
north,  and  the  frost  recommencing,  the  geese  were  seen  flying 
south  again.  When,  however,  the  full  migration  set  in,  he  says 
that  "  flock  after  flock  followed  every  few  minutes,  winging  their 
way  northwards  at  a  great  speed.  The  first  arrivals  flew  high  in 
the  air,  as  if  keeping  a  good  look-out  for  any  open  water,  but 
when  the  thaw  commenced  they  flew  low,  many  skimming  over 
the  surface  of  the  snow  on  the  ice  of  the  river,  below  the  level 
of  the  forests,  but  most  of  them  hugging  the  shore-line." 

After  the  young  are  hatched,  the  old  birds  begin  to  moult, 
and  for  this  purpose  retire  into  the  tundra,  accompanied  by  the 


234  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

goslings.  As  neither  young  nor  old  birds  are  able  to  fly,  these 
flocks  proceed  at  a  walking  pace,  and  at  these  times  numbers 
fall  victims  to  the  Samoyeds,  who  depend  largely  on  their  store 
of  these  birds  for  their  winter  food.  Mr.  Seebohm  met  with 
one  of  these  flocks  on  the  Petchora.  "  At  least  a  hundred  old 
geese,  and  quite  as  many  young,  perhaps  twice  or  thrice  that 
number,  were  marching  like  a  regiment  of  soldiers.  The  van- 
guard, consisting  of  old  birds,  was  half-way  across  the  stream, 
whilst  the  goslings  brought  up  the  rear,  and  were  running  down 
the  steep  bank  to  the  water's  edge  as  fast  as  their  legs  could 
carry  them.  The  green  grassy  banks  of  the  river,  where  the 
Geese  had  evidently  been  feeding,  were  strewn  with  feathers, 
and  in  five  minutes  I  picked  up  a  large  handful  of  quills.  They 
were  evidently  migrating  to  the  interior  of  the  tundra,  moulting 
as  they  went  along.  On  the  following  day,  our  stock  of  pro- 
visions being  entirely  exhausted,  we  sent  a  foraging  party  after 
this  flock  of  Geese,  who  met  with  them  a  few  versts  higher  up 
the  river,  and  secured  eleven  old  birds  and  five  goslings.  Most 
of  the  Geese  were  in  full  moult  and  unable  to  fly,  and  both  old 
and  young  made  for  the  water,  attempting  to  conceal  them- 
selves by  diving." 

Nest. — A  slight  hollow  scraped  in  the  soil  and  lined  with 
dead  grass,  moss,  sometimes  a  few  feathers,  and  always  plenty 
of  the  light  grey  down  of  the  bird  itself  (Seebohm). 

Eggs. — Three,  sometimes  four  in  number ;  creamy-white,  or 
yellowish-buff  when  stained,  and  with  scarcely  any  gloss.  Axis, 
2'95~3'4  inches;  diam.,  2'i$. 

IV.    THE   PINK-FOOTED   GOOSE.      ANSER    BRACHYRHYNCHUS. 

Anser  brachyrhynchus,  Baillon,  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  Roy.  d'Em. 
d'Abbev.  1833,  P-  74  \  Macg.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  602  (1852): 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  369,  pi.  413  (1878);  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.  p.  116;  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  iv.  p.  270  (1885): 
Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  498  (1885) ;  Saunders,  Man.  p.  391 
(1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxv.  (1893) ;  Salvad. 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  103  (1895). 

Anser  segetum  brachyrhynchus,  Seebohm,  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  498 
(1885). 

Adult  Male. — Similar  to  A.  fabalis,  and,  like   that  species, 


THE  TRUE   GEESE.  235 

having  no  white  outer  tail-feathers  ;  the  flanks  greyer  and  not 
so  marked  with  brown ;  the  grey  of  the  wings,  as  well  as  of  the 
lower  back  and  rump,  rather  lighter  than  in  A.  fabalis.  It  is, 
however,  easily  distinguished  from  that  species  by  its  pink  feet 
and  by  the  pink  band  on  the  bill.  Total  length,  26-0  inches; 
culmen,  r8;  wing,  16-5;  tail,  5-4;  tarsus,  3-0. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  smaller.  Total  length, 
25*0 inches;  wing,  i6'2. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — In  autumn  and  winter  considerable 
flocks  of  this  Goose  are  observed  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland 
and  England,  and  at  Holkham  in  Norfolk,  where  protection  is 
afforded  by  the  Earl  of  Leicester  to  the  wild-fowl,  numbers 
of  these  Geese  may  be  seen  in  the  autumn.  The  species  is 
not  often  recorded  from  the  south  or  the  west  of  England,  but 
it  visits  the  west  of  Scotland  and  the  Outer  Hebrides,  and  has 
only  once  been  recorded  from  Ireland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Pink-footed  Goose  is 
known  to  breed  in  Iceland  and  in  Spitsbergen,  and  is  probably 
the  species  noticed  by  Mr.  Leigh  Smith  on  Franz-Josef  Land, 
but  on  Novaya  Zemlya  only  the  Bean-Goose  was  observed  by 
Admiral  Markham.  It  has  not  been  proved  to  breed  in  Scan- 
dinavia, and  its  distribution  in  winter  in  Northern  Europe  is 
also  not  thoroughly  understood,  though  it  has  been  procured 
in  Holland,  in  Belgium,  and  in  France. 

Habits. — This  species  appears  to  be  exceedingly  shy,  wherever 
it  occurs,  whether  during  the  breeding-season  or  during  the 
winter,  but  very  little  has  been  recorded  of  the  nesting-habits 
of  the  Pink-footed  Goose.  In  Spitsbergen  it  is  said  to  nest 
mostly  on  the  low  rocks  near  the  coast,  and  Mr.  Chapman 
found  young  birds  and  moulted  feathers  in  such  situations,  but 
the  species  is  also  believed  to  nest  in  the  high  cliffs  a  mile  or 
two  from  the  sea,  according  to  Messrs.  Evans  and  Sturge. 

In  its  summer  home  the  Pink-footed  Goose  has  much 
the  same  habits  as  its  close  relation  the  Bean-Goose.  In 
winter,  when  it  visits  us  in  England,  it  is  found  feeding  in  the 
stubble-fields,  but  as  the  tide  falls  the  birds  betake  themselves 
to  their  favourite  sand-banks  and  rest  well  away  from  danger. 
This  is  certainly  the  case  with  the  Geese  at  Holkham,  for, 


236  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

although  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  they  only  go  out  to  the  sand- 
banks at  nightfall,  I  have  seen  flocks  of  them  flying  out,  day 
after  day,  as  soon  as  the  sand-banks  beyond  the  bar  at  Wells 
were  left  uncovered.  They  fly  very  high  in  the  air,  well  out 
of  gun-shot,  in  small  or  large  parties,  in  a  V  or  W  form,  and 
sometimes  a  couple  of  hundred  or  more  will  be  on  the  wing 
together,  flock  succeeding  flock,  and  the  sound  of  so  many 
Geese  at  once,  uttering  their  musical  "  tin-trumpet  "-like  call, 
is  one  which  never  fails  to  form  an  interesting  experience  to 
the  listener. 

Nest  and  Eggs. — Similar  in  character  to  those  of  the  Bean- 
Goose. 

THE  BRENT  GEESE.     GENUS   BRANTA. 

Branta^  Scop.  Ann.  I.  Hist.  Nat.  p.  67  (1769). 

Type,  B.  bernida  (L.) 

In  the  Brent  Geese  the  serrations  of  the  upper  mandible 
are  not  visible  from  outside,  and  the  cutting-edge  of  the  man- 
dible, or  tomium,  is  almost  straight. 

Count  Salvadori  recognises  eight  species  of  Brent  Geese,  all 
of  them  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  Old  and  New 
Worlds,  breeding  in  the  high  north,  and  coming  south  in  large 
flocks  in  winter.  The  large  Canada  Goose,  which  has  been 
kept  in  confinement  in  England  for  many  years,  and  from 
which  all  British-killed  examples  are  believed  to  have  escaped, 
is  a  North  American  species,  of  which  two  other  races  B. 
hutchinsi  and  B.  octidentalis^  are  recognised  by  American 
ornithologists.  The  series  in  the  British  Museum  is  insufficient 
for  me  to  determine  the  value  of  these  forms,  but  I  agree  with 
Count  Salvadori  that  they  appear  to  be  very  doubtfully  distinct. 
Branta  minima  is,  however,  a  small  and  well-defined  race 
belonging  to  Western  North  America.  B.  nigricans  has  the 
same  habitat,  but  occurs  also  on  the  coasts  of  Eastern  Asia. 
All  the  other  species  of  Branta  are  visitors  to  Britain,  and  are 
treated  of  in  the  following  pages. 

I.  THE  BERNACLE  GOOSE.   BRANTA  LEUCOPSIS. 

Anas  leucopsis,  Bechstein,  Orn.  Taschenb.  ii.  p.  424  (1803). 


THE    BRENT   GEESE.  2*7 

Bernicla  leucopsis,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  622  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B 

Eur.  vi.  p.  397,  pi.  415,  fig.  i.  (1878) ;  B.  O.  U.  Lister. 

B.  p.  118  (1883) ;  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  286 

(1885) ;  id.  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  397  (1889). 
Anser  kucopsis,  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  512  (i88q);  Lilford 

Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xi.  (1889). 
Branta   kucopsis,  Salvad.   Cat.   B.  Brit.    Mus.   xxvii    n    117 

(1895). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  ashy-grey,  with  white 
margins  to  the  feathers,  before  which  is  a  black  band,  so  that 
the  upper  surface  is  prettily  banded,  especially  on  the  wing- 
coverts  and  inner  secondaries ;  the  mantle  blackish,  like  the 
neck,  but  the  upper  back  banded  like  the  wings  ;  lower  back 
and  rump  black ;  sides  of  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  white ; 
tail  entirely  black ;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  pri- 
maries grey,  the  latter  black  towards  the  ends  ;  the  secondaries 
pearly-grey,  blackish  at  the  tips  and  on  the  inner  webs ;  fore- 
head and  crown  white  to  the  line  between  the  middle  of  the 
eyes  ;  the  middle  and  hinder  part  of  the  crown,  as  well  as  the 
whole  of  the  neck,  lower  throat,  fore-neck,  and  chest,  black, 
the  latter  obscured  with  dusky-brown  margins ;  lores  and 
feathers  in  front  of  the  eye  black,  browner  near  the  base  of  the 
bill  and  on  the  base  of  the  forehead ;  cheeks,  ear-coverts,  eye- 
brow, and  throat  pure  white ;  breast  and  abdomen  white ;  the 
sides  of  the  body  pearly-grey,  the  feathers  tipped  with  white, 
before  which  is  a  brownish  shade  producing  a  slightly  mottled 
appearance;  thighs  black;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries 
pearly-grey,  with  whitish  tips  and  dusky  sub-terminal  bars  like 
the  upper  wing-coverts ;  bill,  feet,  and  claws  black  ;  iris  dark 
brown.  Total  length,  30-0  inches  ;  culmen,  1*25;  wing,  15-0; 
tail,  5-3 ;  tarsus,  3-1. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  a  little  smaller. 

Young. — Differs  from  the  adults  in  having  some  black 
feathers  intermingled  with  the  white  of  the  cheeks ;  the  feathers 
of  the  back  and  wing-coverts  with  a  rufous  tinge  at  the  ends  ; 
the  grey  bars  on  the  flanks  darker,  and  the  legs,  according  to 
Count  Salvadori,  not  so  black  as  in  the  adults. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  winter  visitor  from  the  north,  but 
rare  on  the  eastern  coasts  of  our  islands,  and  decidedly  so  in 


238  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

the  English  Channel.  On  the  western  coasts  it  occurs  much 
more  plentifully,  and  it  frequently  arrives  in  thousands,  accord 
ing  to  Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Solway 
between  the  end  of  September  and  the  latter  part  of  March. 
In  the  western  isles  it  occurs  in  some  abundance,  and  also 
visits  the  south  of  the  Shetlands,  but  is  local  in  Ireland, 
though  abundant  at  certain  places  on  the  northern  and  east- 
ern coasts. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Very  little  is  known  of  the 
breeding-home  of  the  Bernacle  Goose,  for,  however  plentifully 
it  may  occur  in  winter,  we  are  still  in  want  of  information  as  to 
its  nesting.  It  may  breed  in  Iceland  and  Greenland,  but  there 
is  as  yet  no  proof  of  the  fact,  and  the  information  as  to  its  nest- 
ing in  Spitsbergen  and  Novaya  Zemlya  is  equally  unsatisfactory, 
though  it  is  extremely  probable  that  it  does  so,  and  the  rinding 
of  the  species  in  Northern  Spitsbergen  in  a  complete  state  of 
moult,  as  recorded  by  the  Rev.  A.  E.  Eaton,  is  almost  conclu- 
sive proof  that  the  species  breeds  there.  Professor  Collett  has 
recorded  the  nesting  of  the  species  on  Borgevaer,  one  of  the 
Lofoden  Isles,  but  this  may  be  an  exceptional  instance.  Mr. 
Trevor-Battye  says  that  it  breeds  on  the  Gusina  River  in  the 
island  of  Kolguev.  In  winter  it  is  occasionally  found  on  the 
shores  of  Hudson's  Bay,  and  occurs  at  this  season  in  Russia 
and  on  the  coasts  of  other  countries  in  Northern  Europe,  rarely 
wandering  to  the  Mediterranean  countries. 

HaMts. — These  resemble  the  habits  of  the  other  shore- 
haunting  Geese,  the  birds  feeding  on  grass  in  the  marsh-lands, 
and  retiring  to  sand-banks  to  rest.  One  of  the  best  accounts 
of  the  habits  of  the  Bernacle  is  that  given  by  the  Rev.  H.  A. 
Macpherson  in  his  "Vertebrate  Fauna  of  Lake-land."  He 
says  that  the  species  is  well-known  on  the  coast-line,  but  is  only 
abundant  on  certain  salt-marshes  between  Silloth  and  Floriston, 
and  has  been  observed  crossing  the  Pennine  Hills  on  migration. 
His  description  of  the  habits  of  the  Bernacle  corresponds  very 
closely  with  those  of  the  Pink-footed  Goose  as  noted  by  me  at 
Holkham.  "  When  the  tide  of  the  Solway  begins  to  ebb,  and 
isolated  sand-banks  appear  above  a  wild  waste  of  waters, 
Bernacles  often  rise  off  Rockliffe  marsh,  and  alight  again  on 
the  first  bars  exposed,  there  to  linger  until  another  and  more 


THE    BRENT   GEESE. 


239 


extended  sand-bank  becomes  dry.  Other  variations  occur  in 
their  daily  routine,  such  as  alighting  in  the  shallows  of  the 
estuary,  and  marching  in  a  line  to  the  brow  of  the  marsh  oppo- 
site, which  gained,  they  range  themselves  along  the  edge  of 
the  loose  turfs  of  the  saltings ;  or,  again,  they  alight  in  the 
water,  and  swim  a  short  distance.  They  are  never  long  silent, 
neither  do  they  associate  with  other  fowl.  They  generally 
leave  the  Solway  in  March  and  April,  but  sometimes  a  few 
linger  into  May.  At  that  season,  pinioned  Bernacles  exhibit 
much  restlessness,  and  display  symptoms  of  the  migratory  im- 
pulse by  loud  calls.  Those  shot  in  open  weather  are  con- 
sidered good  eating." 

Nest. — Unknown,  in  a  wild  state. 

Eggs. — Those  laid  in  confinement  are  white.     Axis,  2-75- 
2 '9  inches;  diam.,  i '85-2*0. 


II.    THE   BRENT   GOOSE.      BRANTA    BERNICLA. 

Anser  brenta,  Pall.  Zoogr.  Rosso-As.  ii.  p.  229  (1811);  See- 

bohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  508  (1885). 
Bernicla  brenta,  Macg.  Br,  B.  iv.  p.  629  (1852);    Dresser,   B. 

Eur.  vi.  p.  389,  pi.  415,  fig.  2  (1877);  B.  O.  U.   List  Br. 

B.  p.  117  (1883);  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  290 

(1885) ;  id.  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  399  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 

Brit.  B.  part  xxiv.  (1893). 
Anser  brenta glaucogaster  (Brehm.) ;  Seeb.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.   508 

(1885). 
Branta  bernicla^    Salvad.    Cat.    B.   Brit.   Mus.   xxvii.  p.   119 

(1895). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  greyish-brown,  decidedly 
slaty  ;  the  lower  back  and  rump,  as  well  as  the  central  upper 
tail-coverts,  darker,  the  latter  inclining  to  blackish ;  wing- 
coverts  like  the  back;  bastard- wing,  primary-coverts,  and  quills 
black,  the  innermost  secondaries  like  the  back ;  the  sides  of 
the  lower  rump  and  the  upper  tail-coverts  white,  and  hiding 
I  the  tail-feathers,  which  are  black ;  head,  neck,  and  upper 
mantle,  as  well  as  the  throat  and  fore-neck,  sooty-black,  with  a 
patch  of  white-tipped  feathers  on  each  side  of  the  neck  ;  breast 
and  abdomen  brownish-grey,  sharply  defined  against  the  black 


240  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

of  the  fore-neck,  and  shading  off  into  pure  white  on  the  lower 
abdomen,  vent,  and  under  tail-coverts  ;  the  sides  of  the  body 
and  flanks  mottled  with  broad  white  edgings  to  the  feathers, 
before  which  is  a  shade  of  brown  ;  under  wing-coverts  and 
axillaries  slaty-grey;  bill,  feet,  and  toes  black;  iris  dark  brown. 
Total  length,  2i'o  inches;  culmen,  1*35;  wing,  12*7;  tail, 
4'6 ;  tarsus,  2*1. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  a  little  smaller. 

Young  Birds. — Paler  grey  and  having  the  neck  entirely  black, 
and  may  be  distinguished  by  the  whitish  edges  to  the  wing- 
coverts  and  scapulars,  which  gives  them  a  spotted  appear- 
ance. 

Characters. — The  Brent  Goose  is  easily  recognised  by  the 
abnormal  length  of  the  upper  and  under  tail-coverts,  which 
reach  to  the  end  of  the  tail-feathers,  and  occasionally  even 
beyond  them,  so  that  the  tail  is  almost  completely  hidden. 
The  head  in  the  present  species  and  its  allies  is  entirely  black. 
The  under-parts  are  greyish,  or  whitish,  contrasting  strongly 
with  the  black  of  the  neck  and  chest. 

There  are  two  forms  of  the  Common  Brent  Goose,  both  of 
which  occur  in  England  and  appear  at  first  sight  to  be  specifi- 
cally distinct.  The  true  Branta  bernida,  which  is  supposed  to 
range  from  the  Taimyr  Peninsula  to  Novaya  Zemlya,  Franz- 
Josef  Land,  and  Spitsbergen,  has  the  belly  dark  grey,  and  Mr. 
Seebohm  considers  the  form  with  the  whitish  belly,  B.  glauco- 
gaster,  to  take  the  place  of  the  common  Brent  from  the  west 
coast  of  Greenland  to  the  Parry  Isles.  These  two  races  are 
further  supposed  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Pacific  Brent, 
B.  nigricans  (which  has  the  belly  nearly  as  black  as  the  throat 
and  chest),  by  the  white  markings  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  not 
meeting  in  front.  This  last  is  not  a  specific  character,  for  it 
is  found  occasionally  in  both  the  dark  and  light  forms  of  the 
Common  Brent.  Although  the  series  of  specimens  of  these 
Geese  in  the  British  Museum  is  not  a  large  one,  it  is  sufficient 
to  show  that  intermediate  specimens  between  the  light  and 
dark  forms  often  occur,  and  I  agree  with  Count  Salvadori  that 
they  cannot  be  separated  as  races.  Nor  is  the  restriction  of 
each  race  to  a  separate  geographical  area,  as  propounded  by 
Mr.  Seebohm,  confirmed  by  recent  researches,  for  a  specimen 


THE    BRENT    GEESE. 


24I 


of  the  white-breasted  form  from  Novaya  Zemlya  is  in  the 
Museum,  while  Mr.  Trevor-Battye  found  both  light  and  dark- 
breasted  individuals  on  Kolguev. 

Range  in  Great  Britain — The  commonest  of  all  the  Geese 
which  visit  our  shores  in  the  winter,  and  occurring  in  great 
numbers  in  certain  parts,  particularly  on  the  east  coasts  of 
England  and  Scotland,  as  well  as  in  Ireland.  On  the  western 
coasts  it  is  not  so  common  as  on  those  of  the  east  and  south. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Islands — How  far  north  the  Brent 
Goose  goes  during  the  breeding-season  is  not  yet  discovered, 
but  its  range  probably  extends  as  far  as  land  is  known.  From 
the  Taimyr  Peninsula  it  ranges  westward  throughout  the 
Arctic  Regions  in  summer,  the  dark-bellied  form  being  the 
principal  inhabitant  of  Novaya  Zemlya,  Spitsbergen,  Kolguev, 
&c.,  though  not  exclusively,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out, 
and  the  light-breasted  form  taking  its  place  from  Greenland  to 
the  Parry  Islands.  In  winter  it  migrates  south,  and  occurs 
along  the  coasts  of  Northern  and  Western  Europe,  even  occa- 
sionally visiting  the  Mediterranean  countries. 

Habits. — This  Goose  is  entirely  a  maritime  species,  and 
mostly  feeds  during  the  day-time.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders 
says  that  it  does  not  dive,  but  searches  on  the  ooze,  or  with 
head  and  neck  extended  below  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
shallow  places,  for  aquatic  plants,  "especially  grass-wrack 
(Zostera  marina)  and  laver  (Ulva  latissima) :  whence  the  local 
names  'Ware-Goose'  and  'Rood-Goose,'  *.*.,  'Root-Goose'; 
small  crustaceans  and  marine  insects  are  also  eaten.  The  call- 
note  is  a  loud  cronk  or  honk,  audible  at  a  considerable  distance." 

The  Brent  Goose  breeds  in  Kolguev  Island,  according  to 
the  admission  of  the  Samoyeds,  but  Mr.  Trevor-Battye  never 
saw  the  nest  or  the  egg.  Vast  numbers  of  old  and  young 
birds  appear  off  the  sand-banks  in  July,  and  he  describes 
in  a  graphic  manner  in  his  work,  "Ice-bound  on  Kolguev," 
the  way  in  which  the  Geese  are  trapped  on  that  island  by  the 
[Samoyeds — by  placing  a  large  net  supported  on  poles,  and 
sending  men  out  in  boats  to  drive  the  Geese  inland.  At  this 
time  of  year  the  Brent  Geese  are  moulting  and  cannot  fly,  and 
are  gradually  driven  into  the  trap  by  the  natives,  and  all 
[slaughtered.  On  the  occasion  when  Mr.  Trevor-Battye  wit- 
8  R 


242  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

nessed  this  capture,  3,325  Geese  were  taken,  of  which  no  less 
than  3,300  were  Brents.  Of  the  interesting  details  given  by 
the  author  there  is  not  space  to  extract  more  than  a  few  words, 
but  the  whole  scene  is  very  vividly  described  by  him.  "  Long 
before  we  could  see  the  boats,  for  the  mist  had  thickened,  we 
could  hear  shouting  and  the  cries  of  the  Geese,  but  after  a  bit 
first  one  boat  and  then  another  came  into  view.  On  the  men 
came,  but  very  slowly ;  now  pulling  across  a  creek,  now  push- 
ing the  arnoh  over  a  bit  of  mud  or  hauling  it  over  a  sand- 
ridge,  sometimes  leaving  it  altogether  and  running  off  to  head 
the  Geese.  So,  slowly,  they  came  zig-zagging  along. 

"  By  this  time  we  could  see  Geese  by  thousands  through 
the  mist.  I  could  even  distinguish  the  short  trumpet-note  of 
the  Brent  among  the  general  babel.  It  was,  indeed,  a  babel. 
How  to  convey  to  you  any  idea  of  it  I  do  not  know,  If  you 
can  imagine  many  hundred  farmyard  Geese  and  many  thousand 
cornets  all  sounding  together,  and  crowded  on  by  a  handful  of 
screaming  wild  men — if  you  can  imagine  all  this,  then  you  are 
not  far  off  the  mark.  .  .  . 

"  For  some  little  while  the  Geese  delayed  as  though  they 
felt  that  they  were  getting  too  much  inland,  or  suspected  a 
trap  in  front.  Then  the  boats  came  up  from  behind  and  the 
Geese  crowded  on.  They  didn't  like  going.  Sometimes  the 
leading  Geese  would  stop  and  wheel  about,  heading  right  into 

the  mass But  the  boats  came  steadily  on. 

Every  moment  I  looked  to  see  the  parents  escape  by  diving, 
or  expected  some  to  rise,  for  it  was  plain  enough  that  many 
were  full-winged.  Neither  of  these  things  they  did ;  only,  like 
a  pack  of  idiots,  they  '  wanked  '  and  swam  along.  The  grey 
Geese  dived.  The  Bean  and  the  White-fronts  behaved  exactly 
alike.  First  they  laid  out  their  long  necks  flat  on  the  water, 
as  their  fellows  did  on  the  land.  Then,  as  the  boats  came 
nearer,  they  sank  their  bodies  till  the  water  was  almost  over 
their  backs.  It  was  wonderfully  difficult  to  see  them — they 
looked  like  bits  of  stick.  When  a  boat  approached  a  bird,  it 
would  just  sink  its  head  and  shoot  forward  under  the  water. 
They  never  went  down  like  Diving-Ducks." 

"  And  now  the  body  of  Brents  was  exactly  opposite  the 
entrance  to  the  nets,  and  about  them  in  a  half-circle  were  the 
boats.  Round  and  round  they  swam,  but  refused  to  leave  the 


THE   BRENT   GEESE.  243 

water.  The  boats  did  not  dare  to  close  in,  for  fear  the  Geese 
should  break.  It  was  a  ticklish  moment — the  Geese  would 
not  make  the  land.  At  last  a  single  old  Goose,  a  Bean  he 
was,  stepped  out  and  ran  up  the  bank.  He  was  quickly 
followed  by  one  or  two  more,  and  then  by  the  first  of  the 
Brent.  And  now  that  they  had  started  they  went  quickly 
enough,  scrambling  after  one  another,  and  heading  into  the 
net.  Over  the  green  they  ran  like  a  flock  of  domestic  Geese. 
Sometimes  they  aimed  for  right  or  left,  but  then  the  children 
showed  themselves  and  the  Geese  were  turned.  The  last  bird 
was  in,  and  then  we  closed  the  rear.  Not  a  Brent  had  flown,  not 
a  Brent  had  dived,  not  one  escaped.  Of  all  that  army  every 
bird  was  in  the  net — a  dense  black  moving  mass."  The  kill- 
ing of  the  Geese  took  some  time,  and  then  they  were  divided, 
and  ultimately  cached.  "The  turf  cut  round  with  the  axe, 
where  the  cloudberry  grew  thickest,  was  torn  up  with  the 
hands ;  then  the  Geese  were  stood  on  their  tails  with  their 
heads  tucked  in,  till  the  girls  had  made  a  circular  group  some 
three  or  four  yards  across.  Then  the  turfs  were  rolled  back 
on  them  a  double  layer,  and  the  packing  was  complete." 

Nest. — The  nest  has  been  described  by  Colonel  Feilden, 
who  found  the  species  breeding  in  82^°  N.  lat,  during  the 
expedition  of  the  Alert  and  Discovery  to  the  Arctic  Regions. 
The  eggs  were  laid  in  the  third  week  of  June.  The  nests  were 
situated  on  the  sloping  hillsides  between  the  snow-line  and  the 
sea,  and  were  placed  in  a  slight  depression  of  the  ground,  with 
a  good  foundation  of  grass,  moss,  and  the  stems  of  saxifrages, 
and  plentifully  lined  with  a  warm  bed  of  down. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number ;  creamy-white,  with  a  slight 
gloss.  Axis,  2*6-2*95  inches;  diam.,  1*7 5-1 '9. 

III.    THE   RED-BREASTED    GOOSE.       BERNICLA    RUFICOLLIS. 

Anser  ruficollis,  Pallas,  Spicil.   Zool.  fasc.  vi.  p.   21,  tab.  v. 

(1769);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  515  (1885). 
Bernida  ruficollis,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  634  (1852);  Dresser, 

B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  403,  pi.  416  (1876) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B. 

p.   119   (1883);   Saunders,  ed.   Yarr.   Br.  B.  iv.  p.   281 

(1885);  id.  Man.   Br.  B.  p.   395  (1889);  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxi.  (1892);  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 

xxvii.  p.  124  (1895). 

R   2 


244  ALLEN'S    NATURALISTS    LIBRARY. 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  black,  including  the 
centre  of  the  lower  back  and  rump,  the  sides  of  the  latter 
being  pure  white  like  the  upper  tail-coverts  ;  wings  and  tail 
black,  with  greyish  white  margins  to  the  median  and  greater 
coverts  ;  crown  of  head  and  entire  hind-neck  black,  separated 
by  a  band  of  white  from  the  mantle  ;  sides  of  face  and  throat 
black ;  a  large  loral  patch  of  white ;  below  the  eye  a  small 
white  spot ;  ear-coverts  forming  a  large  chestnut  patch,  en- 
tirely encircled  by  white,  which  skirts  the  black  of  the  hind- 
neck  in  a  broad  line ;  lower  throat,  fore-neck,  and  sides  of 
neck  bright  chestnut,  separated  from  the  white  on  the  sides  of 
the  neck  by  a  line  of  black,  and  again  by  another  line  of  black 
across  the  lower  fore-neck,  this  black  line  being  continuous 
with  the  black  of  the  hind-neck ;  across  the  chest  a  narrow 
line  of  white,  continuous  with  the  white  band  across  the 
mantle  ;  entire  breast  black,  the  feathers  having  white  bases  ; 
the  entire  abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts  white,  as  well  as 
the  feathers  of  the  thighs,  some  of  which  are  black-tipped  ; 
sides  of  the  body  white,  the  lower  flanks  handsomely  banded 
with  black ;  axillaries  and  under  wing-coverts  black ;  bill 
nearly  black ;  feet  and  toes  dark  brown,  nearly  black ;  iris 
hazel.  Total  length,  20  inches;  oilmen,  i'o;  wing,  13*5; 
tail,  4 '6  ;  tarsus,  2-1. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  slightly  smaller. 

Young  Male — Has  the  same  markings  as  the  adult,  but  the 
chestnut  is  much  paler  and  the  black  is  tinged  with  brown, 
and  the  feathers  of  the  upper  surface  have  distinct  brown 
edges,  especially  on  the  wing-coverts  ;  the  white  bands  across 
the  upper  mantle  and  on  the  lower  fore-neck  are  not  so  well 
defined  as  in  the  old  bird. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  very  rare  visitor,  of  which  eight 
authenticated  occurrences  are  on  record,  the  first  dating  back 
to  1776,  when  a  specimen  was  procured  near  London,  and 
is  still  preserved  in  the  Newcastle  Museum.  Nearly  all  the 
occurrences  of  the  species  have  taken  place  on  the  east  coast, 
but  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  mentions  two  in  South  Devon,  and 
one  in  Caithness. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Red-breasted  Goose 
breeds  in  the  lower  valleys  of  the  Ob  and  the  Yenesei  Rivers 


THE   BRENT  GEESE.  245 

in  Siberia,  above  the  limit  of  forest-growth,  and  was  found 
breeding  by  Middendorf  on  the  Boganida.  It  winters  on  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  has  occurred  in  most  countries  of  Europe  at 
that  season  of  the  year,  Lord  Lilford  possesses  an  Egyptian 
specimen,  collected  by  the  late  Mr.  Stafford  Allen,  and  it  is 
no  doubt  an  occasional  winter  visitant  to  that  country,  as  the 
species  is  often  depicted  on  the  ancient  monuments. 

Habits. — The  Red-breasted  Goose  is  such  a  rare  bird  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  and  has  its  breeding-range  so  restricted 
to  Siberia,  that  very  little  has  been  recorded  about  the  habits 
of  the  species.  Mr.  Seebohm,  who  is  one  of  the  few  English 
naturalists  who  have  seen  this  Goose  in  a  state  of  nature,  has 
given  the  following  notes  on  it :  "  Radde  describes  its  great 
abundance  in  winter  on  the  islands  near  the  south-western 
shores  of  the  Caspian.  After  a  heavy  fall  of  snow,  the  fisher- 
men clear  a  space  on  the  grassy  islands,  and  often  catch  them 
in  such  numbers  in  nets  that  they  are  sold  at  from  five  to  ten 
kopecks  apiece.  When  they  begin  to  collect  before  migration, 
thousands  of  flocks  are  reported  to  be  seen,  and  it  is  stated 
that  the  worst  shots  obtain  as  many  as  two  hundred  birds 
during  the  season.  When  feeding  together  they  utter  a  short 
trumpet-like  note  ;  but  their  cry,  as  they  call  to  each  other  on 
migration,  is  a  double  note,  which  Finsch  says  is  easily 
imitated  with  the  aid  of  a  bit  of  birch-bark,  and  which  Pallas 
represents  as  resembling  the  sound  of  the  syllables,  shak-voy^ 
whence  its  local  name  among  the  Russian  sportsmen  of 
Obdorsk.  It  is  an  extremely  shy  bird  and  very  difficult- to 
shoot,  but,  curiously  enough,  reconciles  itself  at  once  to  con- 
finement, and  soon  becomes  very  tame.  The  only  information 
which  we  possess  respecting  its  winter  habits  is  that  furnished 
us  by  Radde,  who  states  that  it  is  a  very  gregarious  bird, 
always  seen  in  flocks  which  frequent  the  pastures  on  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Caspian  during  the  day,  and  retire  far 
out  to  sea  for  the  night." 

Nest. — Said  by  Mr.  Seebohm's  collectors  to  be  indistinguish- 
able from  that  of  the  Bean-Goose,  except  that  it  was  somewhat 
smaller. 

Eggs. — These  are  laid  early  in  July.  The  colour,  according 
to  Mr.  Seebohm,  is  "  creamy-white,  with  obscure  traces  of  an 


246  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

underlying  green  shell;  the  surface  is  rather  smooth  but  not 
glossy,  and  the  shell  is  very  fragile.  Axis,  2"j  inches  ;  diam., 
r8." 

THE   SWANS.     SUB-FAMILY   CYGNIN^E. 

These  birds  are  so  familiar  to  everyone  that  a  long  and  de- 
tailed description  of  their  characters  is  not  necessary.  They 
are  distinguished  by  two  features  which  prevent  their  being 
mistaken  for  any  other  of  the  Ducks  or  Geese  :  they  have  no 
lobe  on  the  hind-toe,  and  at  the  same  time  a  remarkably  long 
neck,  which  equals  or  even  exceeds  the  length  of  the  bird's 
body.  They  further  differ  from  the  Ducks  and  Geese  in 
having  the  lores  bare,  but  in  the  Chilian  Swan  (Coscoroba  CGS- 
coroba]  the  lores  are  feathered,  and  this  bird  seems  to  be  inter- 
mediate between  the  Swans  and  the  Geese.  In  some  of  the 
species  the  trachea  is  convoluted  and  enters  the  sternum. 

The  distribution  of  the  Swans  is  principally  arctic,  and 
they  breed  in  the  high  north  of  both  hemispheres,  but  a  true 
Cygnus,  the  Black-necked  Swan  (C.  melanocoryphus),  is  found 
in  South  America.  The  Black  Swan  ( Chenopsis  atratd]  is  con- 
fined to  Australia,  and  the  aberrant  genus,  Coscoroba,  to  the 
south  of  South  America. 

THE  TRUE   SWANS.     GENUS   CYGNUS. 

CygnuS)  Bechst.  Orn.  Taschenb.  ii.  p.  404,  note  (1803). 

Type,  C.  olor  (Gm.). 

Like  the  Geese,  the  Swans  moult  their  quill-feathers  after 
the  breeding-season,  and  become  equally  helpless,  being  able 
to  save  themselves  only  by  swimming,  as  they  are  incapable 
of  flight.  As  with  the  Geese,  they  are  then  captured  by  the 
dexterous  natives,  and  have  become  extinct  in  many  of  their 
old  breeding-haunts. 

With  regard  to  the  supposed  occurrences  of  the  Trumpeter 
Swan  (Cygnus  buccinator]  and  the  Whistling  Swan  (C.  ameri- 
canus)  in  England,  I  cannot  do  better  than  quote  the  opinion 
of  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  as  to  the  worth  of  the  records.  He 
observes  :  "  An  immature  Swan  shot  at  Aldeburgh  in  October, 
1866,  and  now  in  the  Ipswich  Museum,  is,  in  the  opinion  of 
Professor  Newton,  an  example  of  the  American  Trumpeter 
Swan,  C>  buccinator,  a  larger  species  than  the  Whooper  with  a 


k  bill.     It  ha<; 

repeatedly  hat-  >vity,  so  t1 

always  a  strong  probal.  escaping  befoi 

can   be  pinioned.     An  rican   sp< 

has  been  stated — but  on  fV  -—to  havt 

found  at  long  intervals 
is  C,  america?ius,  a  bin' 
though   larger   tha: 
having  patchc. 
deep  orange-c<- 
America!; 
the  walls  o 
whereas  in 
hori/ 
marked,  and  ar- 


El:. 

B.  p.  1 

(1885) 

Mai 
(18 


Br. 


. 
xxvii.  p.  26  (18 


Adnlt  K. 

ous-yellow  on : : 
black,  the  basal  p? 
ing  forward  along  each 
beyond  the  openings  of  (/,•• 
colour  only  reaches  ha 
membranes  black.     T 
:.  25-5;  tail,  8-5;  i 

Adult  Female. — Simila; 

Young  Birds. — Greyish 
and  the  I 


r "  (Saun 


• 


• 


THE   TRUE   SWANS.  247 

black  bill.  It  has  long  been  naturalised  in  this  country,  and 
has  repeatedly  hatched  its  young  in  captivity,  so  that  there  is 
always  a  strong  probability  of  the  cygnets  escaping  before  they 
can  be  pinioned.  Another  North  American  species  which 
has  been  stated — but  on  far  weaker  evidence — to  have  been 
found  at  long  intervals  in  the  shops  of  Edinburgh  poulterers, 
is  C.  americanus,  a  bird  which  is  smaller  than  the  VVhooper, 
though  larger  than  Bewick's  Swan,  which  it  resembles  in 
having  patches  of  small  size  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  but  of  a 
deep  orange-colour.  In  the  adults  of  our  Whooper  and  the 
American  Trumpeter  Swan,  the  loop  of  the  trachea  between 
the  walls  of  the  keel  of  the  sternum  takes  a  vertical  direction, 
whereas  in  Bewick's  Swan  and  in  C.  americanus  the  bend  is 
horizontal;  but  in  immature  birds  these  distinctions  are  less 
marked,  and  are  not  absolutely  invariable." 

I.    THE   WHOOPER   SWAN.      CYGNUS   MUSICUS. 

Anascygnus,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  194  (1766  ;  pt). 
Cygnus  musicus,  Macg.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  659  (1852);  Dresser,  B. 
Eur.  vi.  p.  433,  pi.  419,  fig.  4  (1880) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br. 
B.  p.  120  (1883);  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  308 
(1885);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  480  (1885);  Saunders, 
Man.  p.  401  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxv. 
(1893);  Sharpe.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  26  (1895). 

(Plate  LV.     Fig.  I.) 

Adult  Male. — White  all  over,  with  occasionally  some  ferrugin- 
ous-yellow on  the  head ;  u  anterior  part  of  the  bill  depressed  and 
black,  the  basal  part,  with  the  lores,  yellow,  this  colour  extend- 
ing forward  along  each  lateral  margin  of  the  upper  mandible, 
beyond  the  openings  of  the  nostrils,  which  are  black  ;  the  black 
colour  only  reaches  half-way  to  the  gape ;  legs,  toes,  and  their 
membranes  black.  Total  length,  about  5  feet ;  culmen,  4-2  ; 
wing,  25-5  ;  tail,  8*5  ;  tarsus,  4-2  "  (Salvadori). 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  a  little  smaller. 
Young  Birds. — Greyish-brown ;  "  beak  first  of  a  dull  flesh- 
colour,  the  tip  and  the  lateral  margins  black,  posteriorly  black, 
with  a  reddish-orange  band  across  the  nostrils,  and  with  the 
base  and  lores  pale  greenish-white "  (Salvadori) ;  "feet  flesh- 
colour"  (Saunders]. 


248  -  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Nestling. — Clothed  with  white  down. 

Characters. — There  is  no  knob  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  which 
has  nearly  the  basal  half  yellow ;  the  black  terminal  portion 
not  extending  above  the  nostrils,  and  only  reaching  laterally 
half-way  to  the  gape.  Culmen,  4*2  inches. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Whooper  or  Whistling  Swan,  as 
this  species  is  variously  called,  is  a  bird  of  passage,  or  a  winter 
visitor,  arriving  on  the  coasts  and  islands  of  Northern  Britain 
in  November,  and  remaining  till  the  spring,  sometimes  as  late 
as  May.  Hard  weather  will  bring  the  Swans  south,  and  they 
may  then  be  found  on  the  southern  coasts,  or  even  on  large 
sheets  of  inland  waters.  In  Ireland  they  are  said  to  be  far  less 
plentiful  than  Bewick's  Swan. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Whooper  breeds  in 
high  northern  latitudes  from  Iceland  eastwards  throughout 
Northern  Europe  and  Siberia,  wandering  south  in  winter  to 
most  of  the  Mediterranean  countries,  as  well  as  to  Central 
Asia,  the  Japanese  Islands,  and  China.  In  Norway  it  is  only 
found  nesting  above  the  Arctic  Circle,  but  in  Sweden  and  in 
Northern  Russia  it  is  found  as  low  as  62°  N.  lat. 

Habits. — Mr.  Seebohm  gives  the  following  excellent  account 
of  the  habits  of  the  Wild  Swan  : — "  When  Harvie-Brown  and 
I  were  in  the  valley  of  the  Petchora,  waiting  at  Ust  Zylma,  a 
little  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  for  summer  to  come,  one  of 
the  first  warnings  that  we  had  of  the  approaching  break-up  of 
the  winter  was  the  arrival  of  the  Swans.  At  first  they  arrived 
in  pairs.  The  earliest  date  was  on  the  nth  of  May;  every 
day  the  numbers  passing  over  increased,  and  occasionally  we 
saw  them  on  the  snow  or  on  the  ice ;  until  on  the  2oth,  when 
the  ice  on  the  river  broke  up,  the  last  Swan  appeared  to  have 
passed  us,  and  we  saw  no  more  of  them,  until  we  arrived  at 
their  breeding-grounds.  A  month  later,  when  we  had  reached 
the  tundra,  where  a  few  small  birches  and  willows  was  all  that 
was  left  of  forest-growth,  we  came  upon  the  breeding-ground  of 
the  Swans  in  the  delta  of  the  Petchora.  We  found  several 
nests  between  the  iQth  and  3oih  of  June.  The  Whooper  is  a 
very  shy  bird.  We  never  got  a  chance  of  a  shot,  except  once 
or  twice  from  a  boat.  We  saw  very  little  of  it  on  the  tundra, 


THE   TRUE    SWANS.  249 

the  lakes  probably  not  producing  the  particular  water-plants 
which  formed  its  favourite  food,  but  it  was  very  common  on 
the  islands  in  the  Delta,  and  was  especially  fond  of  the 
'  Kourias,'  long  reaches  of  water  running  inland  for  some 
little  distance,  and  often  fringed  with  willows.  Most  of  the 
islands  in  the  Delta  are  under  water  for  a  few  days,  when  the 
river  is  at  its  height,  but  they  are  nevertheless  generally  covered 
with  low  willow-trees,  and  very  often,  in  the  middle  of  an 
island,  there  is  a  little  lake.  By  cautiously  stealing  up  to  these 
lakes,  under  cover  of  the  willows,  we  frequently  obtained  the 
most  charming  glimpses  of  happy  families  of  Swans,  and  half 

dozen  different  species  of  Ducks,  feeding  in  delightful 
security.  The  Whooper  is  a  ten  times  handsomer  bird  than  a 
tame  Swan  in  the  eyes  of  an  ornithologist,  but  it  is  not  really 
so  graceful ;  its  neck  is  shorter,  and  its  scapulars  are  not  so 
plume-like.  Instead  of  sailing  about  with  its  long  neck  curved 
into  the  shape  of  the  letter  S  and  bent  back  almost  to  the 
fluffed-up  scapulars,  the  Whooper  seemed  intent  on  feeding 
with  his  head  and  neck  under  water.  At  the  slightest  noise 
the  neck  was  raised  erect,  and  the  head  turned  round  from  side 
to  side,  like  a  weathercock  on  a  steeple.  Even  in  July  the 
Whoopers  were  not  always  single  or  in  pairs,  and  we  frequently 
saw  half  a  dozen  swimming  together,  or  preening  their  feathers 
on  a  sand-bank.  We  sometimes  tried  to  drift  silently  down 
stream  within  gun-shot  of  some  of  these  small  parties  or  herds, 
as  they  are  called  in  the  technical  language  of  the  sportsman, 
but  they  were  too  many  for  us,  and  rose  with  a  tremendous 
splash,  their  wings  beating  the  water  for  twenty  or  thirty  yards, 
before  they  got  sufficient  way  on,  to  be  able  to  rise  high 
enough.  When  once  on  the  wing,  they  flew  with  great  speed, 
with  steady  beats  of  their  long  powerful  wings. 

"  On  migration  the  Whooper  is  a  very  gregarious  bird,  and  by 
far  the  greater  number  which  passed  us  in  the  valley  of  the 
Yenesei  on  the  way  north  were  in  herds,  which  generally  flew 
in  a  wedge-shaped  line ;  they  were  soon  out  of  sight,  and  some- 
times passed  over  us  at  a  great  height.  Many  a  time,  when 
struggling  with  snow-shoes  on  the  treacherous  half-melting 
snow  in  the  forest,  I  have  heard  their  trumpet-calls,  without 
being  able  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  them  between  the  trees.  The 
notes  of  the  Whooper  are  like  the  bass  notes  of  a  trombone, 


250  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

and  sometimes  almost  set  your  ear  on  edge ;  but  they  are  very 
short,  three  or  four  trumpet-blasts,  keeping  time  with  the 
upward  and  downward  strokes  of  the  wing.  It  is  not  known 
that  the  food  of  the  Whooper  differs  from  that  of  its  more 
southern  ally :  it  consists  chiefly  of  aquatic  plants,  water- 
insects,  and  molluscs." 

The  Rev.  H.  A.  Macpherson,  in  his  "Vertebrate  Fauna  of 
Lake-land,"  has  given  the  following  interesting  note  on  the 
Wild  Swan  as  observed  by  him  in  England : — 

"It  was  on  the  yth  of  February,  1891,  that  visiting  Monk- 
hill  Lough,  I  found  four  Wild  Swans  swimming  on  the  edge  of 
the  sedge.  Hearing  them  '  clanging]  I  at  once  conjectured 
that  they  must  be  Whoopers.  Soon  after  my  arrival  I  had 
irrefutable  evidence  of  their  specific  identity  in  their  well- 
defined  ''hooping]  the  action  which  accompanied  this  call 
being  already  familiar  to  me,  as  studied  in  a  pinioned  bird  at 
the  Zoological  Gardens.  They  were  feeding  in  company,  and 
all  four  necks  were  sometimes  straightened  or  bent  forward  at 
the  same  instant.  For  a  few  moments  they  would  observe 
silence,  then  they  '  hooped,'  and,  vociferating  their  peculiar 
clang,  they  all  fell  to  feeding  again.  So  closely  did  they  herd 
together  that  two  birds  might  often  be  mistaken  for  one. 
They  appeared  to  be  well  contented  with  their  new  quarters, 
paying  no  attention  to  the  barking  of  a  dog.  Once,  indeed, 
one  of  the  Whoopers  seemed  to  be  rather  startled  by  the  action 
of  a  Coot,  which  suddenly  bobbed  up  beside  it :  the  Swan 
flapped  its  wings  uneasily,  but  did  not  attempt  to  fly.  These 
WThoopers  swam  rapidly  through  the  water,  the  head  and  neck 
slightly  thrown  back,  and  the  black  butt  of  the  tarsus  standing 
out  in  bold  relief  against  the  white  body-colour.  Their  necks 
were  supple  and  arched  sinuously,  held  erect  when  the  birds 
were  at  '  attention,'  arched  when  they  fed,  but  twisted  in 
various  forms  to  rearrange  the  plumage.  Watching  the  four 
birds,  you  could  see  at  the  same  moment  one  fellow  resting 
with  neck  erect,  its  next  neighbour  arching  its  neck,  a  third 
shooting  its  neck  forward  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  S.  On 
the  whole  there  existed  a  wonderful  spontaneity  of  action  be- 
tween these  birds. 

"  On  the  9th  of  February  the  four  Whoopers  were  browsing 
in  the  sedge-beds  in  the  centre  of  the  lough.  A  solitary  Mute 


THE   TRUE    SWANS. 


251 


Swan  was  feeding  alone,  not  as  yet  daring  to  associate  with  the 
distinguished  strangers.  It  was  pleasant  to  contrast  the  long- 
drawn,  flat  bodies  of  the  Whoopers  with  the  more  rounded 
outline  of  Cygnus  olor.  The  wild  fellows  swam  together  ;  one 
and  another  arched  their  necks  backward  in  a  loop,  dipped 
gracefully  forward,  and  then,  raising  their  necks,  allowed  the 
water  to  trickle  over  their  shoulders.  This  was  their  method 
of  bathing,  but  there  was  nothing  violent  about  it.  On  the 
contrary  the  action  was  easy  and  majestic,  as  became  such 
lordly  fowl.  When  they  caught  sight  of  us  they  became  meta- 
morphosed at  once  into  a  '  stiff-necked  generation,'  and  hurried 
off  in  line  through  the  sedge.  Reaching  open  water  on  the 
other  side  they  became  somnolent,  first  one,  and  then  another, 
gracefully  reclined  at  ease,  floating  idly  on  the  water,  and 
burying  their  long  and  supple  necks  in  the  dense  feathering  of 
their  dorsal  plumage,  while  on  either  side  their  two  companions 
kept  vigilant  watch  with  necks  uplifted,  and  intent  to  detect 
any  signs  of  renewed  danger.  It  was  noontide,  and  the  winter 
sun  shone  out  upon  the  still  waters  of  the  lough  ;  before  us,  on 
the  farther  margin  of  the  bank  of  sedge,  floated  the  strange 
voyageurs,  behind  the  birds  was  a  tiny  sea  of  glittering  waters, 
against  which  the  forms  of  these  beautiful  strangers  looked 
dark  by  force  of  contrast.  Only  when  we  showed  more  openly 
did  the  Whoopers  forego  their  attitude  of  disengaged  ease ; 
hitherto  they  had  contented  themselves  with  occasionally 
uttering  their  trumpet-call,  but  now  a  bird  *  hooped]  and  again 
they  crossed  the  sedge,  this  time  in  a  fresh  direction.  So 
strongly  matted  together  was  the  aquatic  vegetation,  at  least  in 
one  place,  that  instead  of  swimming  through,  the  Swans  lifted 
their  legs  over  the  submerged  plants  which  barred  their  pro- 
gress ;  they  swayed  their  bodies  heavily  as  they  crossed  the 
barrier  and  regained  an  open  track  through  the  sedge.  All  at 
once  the  leader  sounded  his  bugle-call,  slightly  throwing  up 
the  head  when  expelling  the  sound.  A  second  bird  passed, 
and  the  leader  fell  back  in  the  file,  but  continued  to  sound  his 
musical  refrain  at  intervals.  We  found  it  difficult  to  describe 
their  *  clang '  on  paper.  When  we  showed  ourselves,  we  heard 
distinctly,  '  hoop-hooper-hoop '/  then  came  a  '  clang '  followed 
by  another  '  hoop.'  When  a  bird  hoops,  the  neck  is  stiffened ; 
this  exercise  is  generally  followed  by  a  slight  pause." 


250  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

and  sometimes  almost  set  your  ear  on  edge ;  but  they  are  very 
short,  three  or  four  trumpet-blasts,  keeping  time  with  the 
upward  and  downward  strokes  of  the  wing.  It  is  not  known 
that  the  food  of  the  Whooper  differs  from  that  of  its  more 
southern  ally :  it  consists  chiefly  of  aquatic  plants,  water- 
insects,  and  molluscs." 

The  Rev.  H.  A.  Macpherson,  in  his  "Vertebrate  Fauna  of 
Lake-land,"  has  given  the  following  interesting  note  on  the 
Wild  Swan  as  observed  by  him  in  England : — 

"It  was  on  the  yth  of  February,  1891,  that  visiting  Monk- 
hill  Lough,  I  found  four  Wild  Swans  swimming  on  the  edge  of 
the  sedge.  Hearing  them  '  clanging]  I  at  once  conjectured 
that  they  must  be  Whoopers.  Soon  after  my  arrival  I  had 
irrefutable  evidence  of  their  specific  identity  in  their  well- 
defined  ''hooping]  the  action  which  accompanied  this  call 
being  already  familiar  to  me,  as  studied  in  a  pinioned  bird  at 
the  Zoological  Gardens.  They  were  feeding  in  company,  and 
all  four  necks  were  sometimes  straightened  or  bent  forward  at 
the  same  instant.  For  a  few  moments  they  would  observe 
silence,  then  they  '  hooped,'  and,  vociferating  their  peculiar 
clang,  they  all  fell  to  feeding  again.  So  closely  did  they  herd 
together  that  two  birds  might  often  be  mistaken  for  one. 
They  appeared  to  be  well  contented  with  their  new  quarters, 
paying  no  attention  to  the  barking  of  a  dog.  Once,  indeed, 
one  of  the  Whoopers  seemed  to  be  rather  startled  by  the  action 
of  a  Coot,  which  suddenly  bobbed  up  beside  it :  the  Swan 
flapped  its  wings  uneasily,  but  did  not  attempt  to  fly.  These 
WThoopers  swam  rapidly  through  the  water,  the  head  and  neck 
slightly  thrown  back,  and  the  black  butt  of  the  tarsus  standing 
out  in  bold  relief  against  the  white  body-colour.  Their  necks 
were  supple  and  arched  sinuously,  held  erect  when  the  birds 
were  at  *  attention/  arched  when  they  fed,  but  twisted  in 
various  forms  to  rearrange  the  plumage.  Watching  the  four 
birds,  you  could  see  at  the  same  moment  one  fellow  resting 
with  neck  erect,  its  next  neighbour  arching  its  neck,  a  third 
shooting  its  neck  forward  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  S.  On 
the  whole  there  existed  a  wonderful  spontaneity  of  action  be- 
tween these  birds. 

"  On  the  9th  of  February  the  four  Whoopers  were  browsing 
in  the  sedge-beds  in  the  centre  of  the  lough.  A  solitary  Mute 


THE   TRUE    SWANS. 


251 


Swan  was  feeding  alone,  not  as  yet  daring  to  associate  with  the 
distinguished  strangers.  It  was  pleasant  to  contrast  the  long- 
drawn,  flat  bodies  of  the  Whoopers  with  the  more  rounded 
outline  of  Cygnus  olor.  The  wild  fellows  swam  together  ;  one 
and  another  arched  their  necks  backward  in  a  loop,  dipped 
gracefully  forward,  and  then,  raising  their  necks,  allowed  the 
water  to  trickle  over  their  shoulders.  This  was  their  method 
of  bathing,  but  there  was  nothing  violent  about  it.  On  the 
contrary  the  action  was  easy  and  majestic,  as  became  such 
lordly  fowl.  When  they  caught  sight  of  us  they  became  meta- 
morphosed at  once  into  a  '  stiff-necked  generation,'  and  hurried 
off  in  line  through  the  sedge.  Reaching  open  water  on  the 
other  side  they  became  somnolent,  first  one,  and  then  another, 
gracefully  reclined  at  ease,  floating  idly  on  the  water,  and 
burying  their  long  and  supple  necks  in  the  dense  feathering  of 
their  dorsal  plumage,  while  on  either  side  their  two  companions 
kept  vigilant  watch  with  necks  uplifted,  and  intent  to  detect 
any  signs  of  renewed  danger.  It  was  noontide,  and  the  winter 
sun  shone  out  upon  the  still  waters  of  the  lough  ;  before  us,  on 
the  farther  margin  of  the  bank  of  sedge,  floated  the  strange 
voyageurs,  behind  the  birds  was  a  tiny  sea  of  glittering  waters, 
against  which  the  forms  of  these  beautiful  strangers  looked 
dark  by  force  of  contrast.  Only  when  we  showed  more  openly 
did  the  Whoopers  forego  their  attitude  of  disengaged  ease ; 
hitherto  they  had  contented  themselves  with  occasionally 
uttering  their  trumpet-call,  but  now  a  bird  '  hoofed,  and  again 
they  crossed  the  sedge,  this  time  in  a  fresh  direction.  So 
strongly  matted  together  was  the  aquatic  vegetation,  at  least  in 
one  place,  that  instead  of  swimming  through,  the  Swans  lifted 
their  legs  over  the  submerged  plants  which  barred  their  pro- 
gress ;  they  swayed  their  bodies  heavily  as  they  crossed  the 
barrier  and  regained  an  open  track  through  the  sedge.  All  at 
once  the  leader  sounded  his  bugle-call,  slightly  throwing  up 
the  head  when  expelling  the  sound.  A  second  bird  passed, 
and  the  leader  fell  back  in  the  file,  but  continued  to  sound  his 
musical  refrain  at  intervals.  We  found  it  difficult  to  describe 
their  '  clang '  on  paper.  When  we  showed  ourselves,  we  heard 
distinctly,  '  hoop-hooper-hoop '/  then  came  a  '  clang '  followed 
by  another  c  hoop.'  When  a  bird  hoops,  the  neck  is  stiffened ; 
this  exercise  is  generally  followed  by  a  slight  pause." 


252  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Nest. — A  large  structure,  composed  of  dead  sedge  and  coarse 
herbage,  and  concealed  in  the  dense  willow-scrub  (Seebohm}. 

Eggs. — From  two  to  four,  but  sometimes  five  and  even  seven, 
eggs  are  found  ;  creamy-white  in  colour,  slightly  glossy,  and 
with  the  surface  granulated.  Axis,  4-5  inches;  diam.,  2-85. 

ii.  BEWICK'S  SWAN.    CYGNUS  BEWICKI. 

Cygnus  bewickii,  Yarrell,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  xvi.  p.  445  (1833); 
Macg.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  669  (1852);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p. 
441,  pi.  419,  fig.  3  (1880);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  121 
(1883);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  484  (1885);  Saunders, 
ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  315  (1885) ;  id.  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  403 
(1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xxv.  (1893);  Salvad. 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  29  (1895). 

(Plate  LV.      Fig.  4.) 

Adult  Male. — Entirely  white.  Similiar  to  C.  musicus,  but  of 
much  smaller  size ;  "  lores  and  basal  portion  of  the  bill  deep 
yellow,  but  this  colour  not  extending  below  the  nostrils " ;  re- 
mainder of  the  bill  black,  this  black  colour  reaching  on  to  the 
edges  of  the  gape,  and  sometimes  extending  along  the  culmen  \ 
feet  and  toes  dull  black;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  46-50 
inches;  culmen,  3*8 ;  wing,  21  "o;  tail,  8'8;  tarsus,  4*8  (Sal- 
vadori). 

Adult  Female. — Similiar  to  the  male,  but  a  little  smaller. 
Young  Birds. — Greyish-brown,  becoming  white  in  the  second 
winter,  but  having  the  bill  lemon-yellow ;  iris  yellow. 

Character.— Bewick's  Swan  can  be  easily  recognised  from  the 
Whooper  by  its  smaller  size,  and  by  the  colour  of  the  bill, 
which  has  not  only  nearly  all  its  basal  part  yellow  like  the 
lores,  but  is  further  distinguished  by  having  the  black  of  its 
terminal  portion  extended  for  some  distance  above  the  nostrils 
and  backwards  to  the  gape.  The  bill  is  much  smaller  than  in 
the  Whooper,  the  culmen  only  measuring  3*8  inches. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — In  England  this  Swan  must  be  con- 
sidered as  a  rarer  bird  than  the  Whooper,  but  on  the  Scottish 
coasts  and  the  Outer  Hebrides  it  occurs  much  more  plentifully 
than  its  larger  relative,  and  this  is  especially  the  case  in  Ire- 
land, where  it  is  sometimes  seen,  after  hard  frosts,  by  hundreds 
and  thousands. 


THE   TRUE   SWANS. 


253 


Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Bewick's  Swan  breeds  in 
North-eastern  Russia  and  in  Northern  Siberia.  It  may  even 
be  found  to  nest  throughout  the  Arctic  Regions  of  the  Old 
World,  more  especially  on  the  islands,  as  it  occurs  in  winter  in 
the  Japanese  and  Chinese  Seas.  Messrs.  Seebohm  and  Harvie- 
Brown  found  the  species  breeding  on  the  Petchora,  and,  until 
last  year,  this  was  the  most  western  breeding-range  recorded 
for  the  species,  but  Mr.  Trevor-Battye  has  now  procured  it  on 
Kolguev,  as  was  predicted  in  1885  by  Mr.  Seebohm  (Hist.  Br. 
B.  iii.  p.  485),  when  he  wrote  :  "  We  are  driven  to  believe  that 
the  Swans  which  are  known  to  breed  in  great  numbers  on  the 
island  of  Novaya  Zemlya  and  Kolguev,  and  of  which  the  species 
has  not  yet  been  determined,  are  Bewick's  Swans,  which  mi- 
grate east  in  autumn,  give  the  shores  of  Norway  a  wide  berth, 
and  drop  down  to  winter  on  the  western  coasts  of  our  islands." 
The  occurrences  of  the  species  on  the  coasts  of  Northern  Europe 
are  few,  with  the  exception  of  the  British  Islands,  though  it  has 
been  known  to  visit  even  the  Mediterranean  countries  occa- 
sionally. 

Habits — For  the  account  of  these  I  am  obliged  once  more  to 
give  an  extract  from  Mr.  Seebohm's  work  on  British  Birds,  as  he 
is  almost  the  only  naturalist  who  has  seen  this  Swan  in  its  breed- 
ing-haunts, and  has  given  an  account  of  its  habits.  He  writes : — 
"The  first  Swan  which  ventured  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic 
Circle,  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenesei,  during  the  weary  months 
when  Captain  Wiggins  and  I  were  waiting  for  the  arrival  of 
summer,  was  seen  on  the  5th  of  May.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  this  pioneer  soon  returned  to  the  south,  as  we  saw 
nothing  more  of  them  for  some  weeks.  On  the  9th  Geese  began 
to  arrive,  after  the  i6th  they  came  in  considerable  numbers ;  but 
we  saw  no  more  Swans  until  the  28th,  when  many  flocks 
passed  over.  During  the  next  fortnight  hundreds  of  large  and 
small  flocks  winged  their  way  over  our  heads,  after  which  we 
saw  no  more  of  them  until  we  got  down  to  the  Delta.  They 
are  quite  as  noisy  as  their  allies,  and  are  constantly  calling  to 
each  other  as  they  fly  over,  but  their  note  is  not  so  harsh. 
I  call  it  a  musical  bark  ;  Naumann  expresses  it  as  klung ; 
and  Sir  Ralph  Payne-Gallwey  as  tong,  musically  and  quickly 
uttered. 

"  Bewick's  Swan  is  quite  as  shy  and  difficult  of  approach  as 


254  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

its  ally  ;  but  there  is  not  the  slightest  necessity  to  shoot  this 
handsome  bird  in  order  to  identify  the  species.  It  is  fond  of 
walking  and  standing  on  the  mud  or  sand  on  the  banks  of  the 
rivers  and  lakes  where  it  feeds.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to 
mark  down  the  place,  find  the  heavy  footprints,  and  measure 
them.  The  impress  of  the  middle  toe  of  Bewick's  Swan,  from 
the  centre  of  the  ball  of  the  heel  to  the  centre  of  the  ball  next 
the  claw,  measures  five  inches  and  a  quarter ;  the  footprints 
left  by  the  Whooper  measure  an  inch  or  more  longer. 

"  Bewick's  Swan  scarcely  differs  from  its  ally  in  its  habits, 
food,  or  in  its  choice  of  feeding-  or  breeding-grounds.  Our 
trusty  Samoyede  servant  in  the  Petchora  brought  us  a 
Bewick's  Swan  which  he  had  shot  from  a  herd  of  nine,  as  they 
were  swimming  near  the  edge  of  a  large  lake.  He  succeeded 
in  stalking  up  to  within  thirty  paces  of  them,  when  they  caught 
the  alarm,  immediately  swam  up  close  together,  pausing  for 
a  moment  to  listen  with  upstretched  necks.  St.  John  de- 
scribes the  same  habit  of  the  Whooper  in  the  north  of  Scot- 
land." 

Nest. — This  is  said  by  Mr.  Seebohm's  collectors  to  be  like 
that  of  the  Whooper.  Mr.  Trevor-Battye  found  the  nest  of 
Bewick's  Swan  in  Kolguev,  and  says  that  it  was  a  mound 
about  2  feet  6  inches  in  height  and  4  feet  6  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  base.  "  It  was  perfectly  smooth  and  symmetrical,  taper- 
ing till  the  circular  top  was  no  more  than  about  two  feet  across. 
The  structure  was  entirely  composed  of  little  bunches  of  green 
moss,  with  the  exception  of  a  very  little  lichen,  and  a  chance 
bit,  here  and  there,  of  short  light  dead  grass,  pulled  up  with 
the  moss ;  of  course  there  were  no  green  grasses  or  reeds  as 
yet,  and  not  a  single  piece  of  dead  reed  had  been  used. 
There  was  a  thin  lining  only  to  the  nest  of  dead  grass,  mixed 
with  a  little  down." 

Eggs. — Two  or  three  in  number  ;  white  like  those  of  the 
Whooper,  but  smaller  and  less  glossy.  Axis,  3 '9-4*2  inches; 
diam.,  2 '5-2 '65. 

III.    THE    MUTE   SWAN.       CYGNUS    OLOR. 

Anas  olor,  Gm.  S.  N.  i.  p.  501  (1788). 


THE    TRUE   SWANS.  255 

Cygnus  olor,  D/esser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  419,  pi.  418  (1880) ; 
B  O.  U.  List  Br.  B  p.  119  (1883) ;  Satmders,  ed.  Yarr. 
Br.  B.  iv.  p.  324  (1885);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  476 
(1885);  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  405  (1889);  Salvad. 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  38  (1895). 

(Plate  LV.    Fig.  2.) 

Adult  Male.— White  all  over,  and  distinguished  from  the  other 
species  by  the  colour  of  the  bill,  which  is  described  by  Count 
Salvador!  as  follows: — "  Lores,  frontal  tubercle,  base  of  upper 
mandible,  nostrils,  nail,  edges  of  upper  mandible  and  entire 
under  mandible,  black ;  remainder  of  the  beak  reddish-orange  ; 
legs  and  feet  dull  black ;  iris  hazel."  Total  length,  about  5  feet ; 
culmen,  4-2  ;  wing,  27-0  ;  tail,  io-o;  tarsus,  4-5. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  a  little  smaller,  and 
with  a  smaller  tubercle  on  the  bill. 

Young  Birds.— Sooty-grey,  paler  on  the  neck  and  under  sur- 
face of  body  ;  bill  and  legs  grey.  The  nestlings  are  covered 
with  down  of  a  dull  ashy-grey  colour,  which  is  paler  and  in- 
clining to  white  on  the  lower  throat  and  breast. 

Characters. — In  the  Mute  Swan  the  keel  of  the  sternum  is 
simple,  and  is  not  entered  by  the  trachea,  as  in  the  foregoing 
species.  The  knob  on  the  bill  is  also  a  distinguishing  feature. 

Polish  Swan  (Cygnus  immutabilis}. — This  supposed  species 
(Plate  LV.,  Fig.  3)  is  said  to  have  white  cygnets,  and  in  the 
adult  birds  the  tubercle  is  less  developed,  and  the  legs  and 
feet  are  more  ashy-grey,  but  with  regard  to  the  latter  characters 
Mr.  Howard  Saunders  writes  : — "  Neither  Mr.  Bartlett  nor  I 
could  find  these  distinctions  in  old  birds  in  the  Zoological  Gar- 
dens which  had  been  white  as  cygnets."  Some  ornithologists 
still  believe  in  the  difference  of  the  Polish  Swan  as  a  species, 
and  the  Rev.  H.  A.  Macpherson,  in  his  "  Vertebrate  Fauna  of 
Lake-land,"  gives  a  figure  of  the  sternum  and  trachea  of  a  young 
bird,  which,  he  thinks,  show  characters  defining  the  Polish  from 
the  Mute  Swan. 

On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  Mr.  Seebohm, 
and  most  of  our  leading  British  ornithologists  regard  the  Polish 
Swan  as  only  a  kind  of  quasi-albino,  probably  produced  by 
domestication.  This  opinion  is  endorsed  by  Count  Salvador], 


256  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

our  first  authority  on  the  Anatida,  who  says  that  none  of  the 
characters  attributed  to  C.  immutabilis  are  constant. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Swan  is  now  universally  distri- 
buted as  a  tame  or  semi-domesticated  bird  all  over  the  three 
kingdoms,  but  it  has  been  introduced  into  many  of  its  present 
habitats.  The  species  is  said  to  have  been  first  brought  to 
England  by  King  Richard  I.  from  Cyprus.  At  Lord  Ilchester's 
seat  at  Abbotsbury,  near  Weymouth  in  Dorsetshire,  there  is 
the  largest  Swannery  in  this  country.  Specimens  are  often 
shot  in  the  winter,  and  these  are  generally  supposed  to  be 
escaped  birds,  but  as  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  points  out,  they 
may  be  thoroughly  wild  birds  which  have  migrated  to  our 
shores  from  the  Continent,  in  many  parts  of  which  the  Mute 
Swan  breeds  in  a  thoroughly  wild  condition. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  present  species  breeds 
in  Southern  Sweden,  in  Denmark  and  Germany,  in  Central 
and  Southern  Russia,  on  the  Lower  Danube,  the  Black  and 
Caspian  Seas,  and  as  far  east  as  Turkestan,  Mongolia,  and 
Amurland.  In  winter  it  visits  the  Mediterranean,  and  has 
been  found  at  that  season  in  North-western  India. 

Habits. — These  are  so  well-known  to  every  one  of  my  readers 
that  but  few  words  are  necessary.  Mr.  Mansel-Pleydell  gives 
a  very  interesting  account  of  the  Abbotsbury  Swannery  in 
his  "Birds  of  Dorset,"  and  he  states  that  in  1865  there 
were  about  500  Swans  on  the  estuary  of  the  Fleet,  and  that 
the  number  had  increased  to  1,400  birds  in  1880,  but  in  the 
last-named  year  "the  number  became  reduced  by  one-half, 
owing  to  the  Fleet  becoming  frozen  over  during  an  extremely 
low  spring-tide,  when  the  water-plants  growing  at  the  bottom 
became  entangled  in  the  ice,  and  were  torn  up  by  the  roots  at 
the  returning  tide.  Many  of  the  Swans,  thus  suddenly  de- 
prived of  their  supply  of  food,  either  died  of  famine  or 
migrated,  and  reduced  the  number  to  about  800,  which 
average  it  now  maintains." 

The  food  of  the  Mute  Swan  consists  of  aquatic  plants,  as 
well  as  molluscs  and  insects,  and  it  is  said  to  devour  frogs  on 
occasion,  while  there  are  not  wanting  many  river-side  fisher- 
men, who  declare  that  the  Swans  eat  small  fish  and  ova. 

The  tame  Swans  nest  earlier  than  wild  ones,  which  do  not 


THE    TRUE   DUCKS. 


257 


have  eggs  before  May,  and  they  do  not  breed  until  they  are 
two  or  more  years  old. 

Nest. — A  large  structure  of  dead  reeds  and  grass,  sometimes 
more  than  two  feet  high  and  five  feet  across. 

Eggs.— Three  to  five  in  number,  but  more  are  often  found, 
and  sometimes  as  many  as  ten  or  twelve  have  been  recorded. 
They  are  greenish-white,  and  measure :  Axis,  4*3-4*65  inches ; 
diam.,  2 '8-3*1. 


THE   TRUE   DUCKS.     SUB-FAMILY   ANATIN^E. 

All  the  members  of  this  Sub-family  have,  according  to  Count 
Salvadori,  the  hind-toe  very  narrowly  lobed.  There  is  in  nearly 
every  species  a  "speculum"  of  metallic  colour  on  the  wing, 
and  the  males  have  a  bony  swelling,  or  "  bulla  ossea,"  on  the 
trachea.  The  bill  is  rather  flat  and  broad  in  the  true  Ducks, 
and  distinguishes  them  from  the  Chenonettince^  or  Goose-like 
Ducks,  which  inhabit  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

The  Egyptian  Goose,  as  it  is  called,  (Chenalopex  cegyptiacd),  is 
considered  by  Count  Salvador!  to  belong  to  the  present  Sub- 
family. It  is  a  species  which  has  long  been  kept  in  confinement, 
and  the  many  examples  which  have  been  shot  in  a  wild  state 
are  doubtless  individuals  which  have  escaped.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  Summer  Duck  (/Ex.  sponsd)  and  the  Muscovy 
Duck  (Cairina  moschata).  The  changes  of  plumage  through 
which  most  of  the  Ducks  pass  is  very  curious,  and  there  are  at 
least  six  of  these.  After  the  young  have  acquired  their  first 
plumage,  both  sexes  resemble  the  old  female.  In  the  first 
year  they  are  like  the  adults,  but  differ  somewhat  from  both  ; 
then  the  male  has  a  separate  plumage  from  the  female  in  the 
fully  adult  stage,  and  lastly  there  is  the  post-nupital  dress  of  the 
male,  when  he  retires  into  a  sober-coloured  plumage  like  that 
of  his  wife.  This  is  when  he  is  about  to  moult  his  quills,  and 
at  this  season  the  males  keep  mostly  apart  from  the  females. 
Mr.  De  Winton  writes  to  me :  "All  the  Ducks  take  on  the 
characteristic  '  adult '  plumage  in  the  first  year,  but  this  is  far 
from  perfect,  and  though  they  may  breed,  I  believe  that  it  takes 
quite  four  years  before  a  Duck  arrives  at  the  perfection  of 
plumage.  The  full  dress  is  scarcely  complete  by  Christmas, 


253  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

and  to  see  Ducks  at  their  best,  they  must  be  observed  in 
February  and  March,  so  that  it  would  seem  that  they  take 
nearly  six  months  to  attain  their  perfect  plumage,  after  the 
change  into  their  dull  summer  dress." 

THE  SHELD-DUCKS.  GENUS  TADORNA. 

Tadojna,  Fleming,  Phil.  Zool.  ii.  p.  260  (1822). 

Type,  T.  tadorna  (L.). 

The  Sheld-Ducks — of  which  the  beautiful  species  figured  in 
the  accompanying  plate  is  the  typical  representative — have  the 
tarsus  scutellated  in  front,  a  conspicuous  wing-speculum,  and 
the  outer  web  of  the  innermost  secondaries  chestnut.  On 
the  edge  of  the  bill  the  lamellse  are  prominent,  and  are  more 
developed  towards  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible.  The  bill 
widens  out  towards  the  tip,  and  is  broader  at  the  end  than  at 
the  base,  and  on  the  lower  mandible  the  lamellae  do  not  pro- 
ject outwardly.  The  sexes  are  alike  in  plumage,  and  the  feet 
are  flesh-coloured.  These  are  the  characters  of  the  genus 
Tadorna,  according  to  Count  Salvador!,  and  they  are  ample  for 
its  definition,  as  the  two  species  of  which  it  consists  are  both 
remarkable  for  their  coloration,  and  are  easily  recognisable. 
Besides  Tadorna  tadorna,  the  European  species,  there  is  but 
one  other,  T.  radjah,  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago. 

I.    THE   COMMON    SHELD-DUCK.       TADORNA    TADORNA. 

Anas  tadorna,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  195  (1766). 

Tadorna  vulpanser,  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p.  22  (1852). 

Tadorna  cornuta,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  451,  pi.  420  (1878); 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  122  (1883) ;    Saunders,  ed.  Yarr. 

Br.    B.  iv.  p.  352  (1885);  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.   p.   520 

(1885) ;  Saunders,  Man.  p.  407  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 

Brit.    B.  part  xxvii.  (1893);   Salvad.  Cat.   B.  Brit.  Mus. 

xxvii.  p.  171  (1895). 

(Plate  L  VI.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  varied,  black,  white,  and 
orange-chestnut,  the  head  being  black  with  a  gloss  of  bottle- 
green,  the  black  occupying  the  entire  head  and  upper  throat  j 


and  to  se  at  their  best,  they  must '  be  observed   in 

i  that  it  woiild  seem   that  they  take 

the,ir  perfedt  plumage,  after  the 


. 

'  . '    ->2 
'    £'•• 


The  which  the  beautiful  species  figured  in 

is  the  typical  representative — have  the 

'.  d  in  front,  a  conspicuous  wing-speculum,  and 

the  outer  web  of  the  innermost  secondaries  chestnut     On 

«lge  of  the  bill  the  lamellae  are  prominent,  and  are  more 

'   towards  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible.     T' 
s  out  towards  the  tip,  and  is  broader  at  the  end  than  at 
ise,  and  on  the  lower  mandible  the  lamellae  do  not  pro- 
utwardly.  ,  The  sexes  are  alike  in  plumage,  and  the  feet 
are  flesh-coloured.     These  are  the  characters  of  the  genus 
according  to  Count  "Salvadqri,  and  they  are  ample  for 
•  two  species  of  which  it  consists  are  both 
-iloration,  and  are  easily  rt 

nropean  species,  there  is  bui 
Archipe' 

P-  195  (1- 

I 


Iford,  Col. 

• 
p.  171  \ 


.    B.  Brit.   M 


Adult  Male.— General  d,  black,  whii 

-stnut,  the  tu  'ih  a  gloss  of  '•• 

.:k  occup) .  utiie  head  and  upper  i! 


o 


THE    SHELD-DUCKS.  259 

round  the  hind-neck  a  white  collar,  widening  out  into  a  broad 
band  across  the  lower  throat  and  fore-neck ;  this  white  band 
followed  by  a  broad  band  of  orange-chestnut  occupying  the 
mantle,  and  widening  out  in  a  broad  band  of  the  same  colour 
across  the  chest,  which  is  divided  longitudinally  by  a  black 
band,  which  descends  down  the  breast  and  joins  the  black 
of  the  abdomen ;  the  rest  of  the  under-parts  pure  white, 
except  the  under  tail-coverts,  which  are  orange-chestnut ;  the 
back  pure  white  from  the  mantle  downwards,  as  also  are 
the  wing-coverts ;  the  scapulars  black,  the  inner  ones  half 
white  and  half  black,  and  those  nearest  the  back  pure  white ; 
bastard-wing  feathers  white,  blackish  towards  the  ends ; 
primary-coverts  and  quills  black,  ashy  on  their  inner  webs; 
secondaries  black,  externally  metallic-green,  forming  a  specu- 
lum, both  bases  of  the  inner  webs  white,  the  inner  secondaries 
externally  chestnut,  internally  white  or  ashy,  and  the  inner- 
most secondaries  white  like  the  back ;  tail  white,  with  a  band 
of  black  at  the  end ;  bill  red,  as  well  as  the  basal  knob ;  feet 
and  webs  of  toes  fleshy-pink  ;  iris  hazel.  After  the  breeding- 
season  the  knob,  or  shield,  at  the  base  of  the  bill  is  not  so 
noticeable,  and  becomes  dull  pale  red.  Total  length,  22 
inches;  culmen,  2*2;  wing,  13*0;  tail,  4*6;  tarsus,  2*0. 

Adult  Female. — Not  so  handsomely  coloured  as  the  male,  the 
chestnut  of  the  mantle  obscured  by  blackish  frecklings,  and 
the  chestnut  band  across  the  chest  represented  by  a  sooty- 
black  band,  which  only  inclines  to  chestnut  on  the  sides.  The 
knob  at  the  base  of  the  bill  is  not  developed.  Total  length, 
20  inches  ;  wing,  11-5. 

Young  Birds. — Much  duller  in  colour  than  the  adults,  the 
head  and  throat  being  dusky-white  with  a  good  deal  of  black 
on  the  chin  and  fore-part  of  the  cheeks ;  the  black  feathers  of 
the  back  of  a  more  or  less  brown,  with  white  margins  and 
ashy  mottlings;  the  chestnut  collar  on  the  mantle  scarcely 
denned  at  all,  and  the  feathers  mottled  with  blackish  and 
edged  with  white ;  the  entire  under  surface,  from  the  throat 
downwards,  is  entirely  white,  without  any  black  or  chestnut, 
excepting  a  patch  of  the  latter  colour  on  each  side  of  the 
upper  breast.  Mr.  De  Winton  informs  me  that  the  Sheld- 
Duck  does  not  breed  during  its  second  year,  and  the  knob  on 

s  2 


260  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

the  bill  does  not  appear  till  the  bird  is  at  least  two  years  old, 
and  commences  to  breed  for  the  first  time.  The  knob  in- 
creases in  size  with  age. 

Nestling. — Brown  above,  white  beneath,  with  a  slight 
yellowish  tinge ;  forehead  and  sides  of  face  white ;  in  the 
middle  of  the  back  a  white  patch ;  a  white  patch  on  each 
side  of  the  lower  back,  and  a  white  streak  along  each  side  of 
the  rump. 

Characters. — The  striking  contrast  of  colours  in  this  beautiful 
species,  to  say  nothing  of  its  red  bill  and  frontal  knob,  render 
it  easy  of  identification,  and  there  is  no  other  species  of 
British  Duck  with  which  it  can  possibly  be  confounded. 

Hybrids. — The  Common  Sheld-Duck  has  been  known  to 
interbreed  with  the  South  African  Sheld-Duck  (Casarca  catia) 
and  with  the  Wild  Duck  (Anas  boscas).  Cf.  Salvador!,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  173. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  present  species  occurs  in  suit- 
able localities  on  most  parts  of  the  British  coasts,  and  is  found 
breeding  in  those  portions  which  afford  it  suitable  nesting- 
places.  Mr.  Ussher  states  that  it  breeds  in  small  numbers  on 
the  coasts  of  Donegal,  Londonderry,  Antrim,  Down,  Dublin, 
VVexford,  Waterford,  Kerry,  Clare,  and  Mayo.  In  winter  con- 
siderable numbers  visit  us  from  the  north  of  Europe,  and  the 
bird  is  then  killed  in  many  parts  of  Great  Britain,  in  which  it  is 
not  seen  in  the  summer. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Sheld-Duck  is  a  Palse- 
arctic  bird,  and  breeds  on  the  coast  of  Norway  up  to  70°  N. 
lat.,  being  only  occasionally  met  with  in  the  Faeroes.  It  nests 
in  Sweden,  Denmark,  the  Baltic  provinces,  and  Holland,  as  well 
as  on  the  shores  of  France  and  Spain,  but  in  other  parts  of 
Europe  and  the  Mediterranean  countries  it  is  only  known  as 
a  winter  visitor.  It  is,  however,  again  resident  on  the  shores 
of  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  and  its  range  extends  in  locali- 
ties suited  to  its  habits,  through  Central  Asia  and  Southern 
Siberia  to  Mongolia  and  Japan. 

Habits. — From  its  habit  of  nesting  in  rabbit-holes  in  many 
parts  of  the  country  the  Sheld-Duck  is  known  as  the  "  Burrow 
Duck,"  and  the  nest  is  often  constructed  at  the  end  of  a 


THE    SHELD-DUCKS.  26 J 

burrow  to  a  depth  of  four  or  five  feet,  while  the  distance  has 
alco  been  known  to  extend  to  as  many  as  twelve  feet  from  the 
entrance,  and  in  these  cases  the  burrows  are  said  to  be  exca- 
vated by  the  birds  themselves.  Mr.  Robert  Read  states  that 
the  Sheld-Duck  nests  most  commonly  in  burrows  amongst 
the  sand-hills  by  the  seaside,  but  in  Scotland  he  has  found  the 
nest  in  a  rabbit-burrow  amongst  a  group  of  trees  near  a  fresh- 
water loch.  When  breeding  in  the  sand-hills,  the  nest  usually 
consists  simply  of  the  down  of  the  parent-bird,  but  when  near 
trees  and  herbage,  there  are  generally  a  good  many  leaves 
mixed  with  the  down. 

Mr.  W.  E.  de  Winton  observes  that  in  South  Wales  the  local 
names  for  this  species  are  "  Perrenet"  and  "  St.  George's  Duck  " 
(in  Scotland,  "  Stockenet"),  and  he  tells  me  that  he  has  known 
them  to  nest  on  precipitous  cliffs,  in  burrows  at  such  a  height 
that  it  is  difficult  to  imngine  how  the  young  ones  could  be  got 
down  to  the  water ;  generally,  however,  the  nest  has  been  in 
rabbit-holes  in  the  sand-dunes  by  the  sea,  covered  with  long 
sword-grass.  There  is  seldom  any  track  to  the  nest,  into  which 
the  female  appears  to  dive  in  full  flight.  When  watching  them, 
he  has  known  the  two  birds  to  suddenly  appear  over  a  sand- 
hill, and  then  fly  round  and  round  together  for  some  time,  but 
on  taking  his  eye  off  them  for  a  moment,  it  has  often  happened 
that  only  the  male  is  seen  afterwards,  the  female  having  suddenly 
dived  into  the  nest  like  an  arrow. 

The  food  of  the  Sheld-Duck  consists  of  worms,  small 
molluscs,  and  water-insects,  as  well  as  various  aquatic  plants, 
and  also,  it  is  said,  of  seaweeds.  In  many  of  their  ways  they 
resemble  Geese,  while  Mr.  Seebohrn  describes  the  flight  as 
"performed  by  slow  and  laboured  beats  of  the  wings,  very  un- 
like the  rapid  motion  of  smaller  Ducks,  and  much  more  re- 
sembling that  of  the  Swan."  The  same  writer  says  that  the 
call-note,  which  is  common  to  both  sexes,  is  a  harsh  quack. 
During  the  pairing-season,  the  male  utters  a  clear  rapidly- 
repeated  whistle  or  trill ;  and  when  the  young  are  hatched,  his 
anxious  alarm-note  to  his  mate  on  the  approach  of  danger 
may  constantly  be  heard,  and  resembles  the  syllables  kor-kor, 
uttered  in  a  deep  tone.  In  confinement  Lord  Lilford  says  that 
lie  has  never  heard  any  noise  produced  by  the  birds  beyond  a 


262  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

short  hiss,  when  bullying  some  other  bird  or  fighting  amongst 
themselves,  but,  he  adds  "  I  have  heard  occasionally  on  the 
coast  of  North  Wales  at  night  a  somewhat  Wigeon-like  whistle 
that  emanated,  as  I  believe,  from  '  Sand-Geese '  on  the  wing." 

Nest. — Composed  principally  of  the  bird's  own  down,  with  a 
few  leaves  occasionally,  as  mentioned  above  by  Mr.  Robert 
Read.  In  some  parts  of  Denmark  the  peasants  make  artificial 
burrows  for  the  birds,  and  systematically  rob  the  nest,  as  many 
as  thirty  eggs  having  been  taken  from  one  burrow  in  a  single 
season. 

Eggs. — From  seven  to  twelve  in  number,  but  sometimes  as 
many  as  sixteen  have  been  found.  They  are  dull  creamy- 
white,  with  very  little  gloss.  Axis  2 '45-2 '6  inches  ;  diam., 
i -8-1-95.  The  down  is  ashy-grey,  with  silvery  white  ends, 
and  with  a  few  white  feathers  intermingled. 

THE  RUDDY  SHELD-DUCKS.      GENUS    CASARCA. 
Casarca,  Bp.  Comp.  List  B.  Eur.  &  N.  Amer.  p.  56  (1838). 
Type,  C.  casarca  (L.). 

The  members  of  the  genus  Casarca,  according  to  the  conclu- 
sions of  Count  Salvador!,  differ  from  the  typical  Sheld-Ducks 
(Tadornd)  in  the  following  characters  : — The  bill  does  not 
widen  towards  the  tip,  and  is  no  broader  at  the  tip  than  it  is  at 
the  base;  the  culmen  is  almost  straight;  the  lamellae  are 
equally  developed  along  the  inner  edge  of  the  upper  mandible, 
and  the  lamellae  on  the  edge  of  the  lower  mandible  project 
outwardly ;  the  bill  and  feet  are  dark,  and  the  sexes  generally 
differ  in  colour. 

Four  species  of  the  genus  Casarca  are  known,  C.  casarca, 
C.  cana  from  South  Africa,  C.  variegata  from  New  Zealand, 
and  C.  tadornoides  from  South  Australia  and  Tasmania.  In 
the  Ruddy  Sheld-Duck,  where  the  sexes  are  alike,  there  has  as 
yet  been  no  proof  of  any  change  of  plumage  in  summer,  such 
as  occurs  in  most  species  of  ducks.  The  post-nuptial  plumage 
is  probably  emphasised  by  the  loss  of  the  black  collar.  In 
the  three  other  species,  however,  where  the  sexes  are  different 
in  colour,  the  male  doubtless  undergoes  a  change,  as  Mr. 
Blaauw  has  noticed  a  double  moult  in  C.  tadornoides. 


THE    RUDDY   SHELD-DUCKS.  263 

* 
T.    THE    RUDDY   SHELD-DUCK.       CASARCA    CASARCA. 

Anas  casarca,  Linn.  S.  N.  iii.  A  pp.  p.  224  (1768). 
Tadorna   casarca,  Macg.   Br.    B.   v.   p.    19   (1852);    Dresser, 
B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  461,  pi.  421  (1875) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p. 
122  (1883);  Saunders,  ed.Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  347  (1885) ;  id. 
Man.  p. 409  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  partxx.  (1891). 
Tadorna  rutila,  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  524  (1885). 
Casarca  rutila,  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  177  (1895). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  tawny-chestnut ;  the  wing- 
coverts  paler  and  of  a  light  fawn-colour,  with  white  bases  ; 
bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  quills  black  ;  secondaries 
black  internally,  externally  bronzy-green  with  a  coppery  gloss, 
the  inner  secondaries  externally  deep  chestnut,  ashy  on  the 
inner  webs  ;  lower  back  pale  tawny,  vermiculated  with  dusky- 
grey  ;  rump,  upper  tail-coverts,  and  tail  black,  with  a  greenish 
gloss ;  under  surface  of  body  dark  tawny,  deepening  into  chest- 
nut ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  white ;  the  head  and 
neck  also  tawny,  but  the  crown  paler  and  inclining  to  white, 
as  also  the  lores  ;  round  the  neck  a  black  collar  ;  bill  black  ; 
feet  black,  somewhat  brownish  on  the  toes  and  tarsus ;  iris 
black.  Total  length,  25  inches;  culmen,  17;  wing,  14-5  ; 
tail,  4'9  ;  tarsus,  2 '2. 

Adult  Female. — Smaller  than  the  male,  and  wanting  the  black 
collar;  the  head,  face,  and  wing-coverts  whiter  ;  bill  black  ;  feet 
brown,  blackish  on  the  joints  and  black  on  the  webs,  except 
at  the  junction  with  the  toes ;  iris  deep  brown.  Total  length, 
22'5  inches;  wing,  13*5. 

There  seems  to  be  but  little  difference  in  colour  between 
the  summer  and  winter  plumages  of  the  Ruddy  Sheld-Duck, 
but  the  feathers  have  sooty-brown  centres  in  summer,  and 
during  the  winter  the  black  ring  round  the  neck  is  absent, 
while  the  buff  tinge  on  the  wing-coverts  is  also  probably  a  sign 
of  the  breeding-season,  as  these  are  white  in  many  birds  killed 
in  the  winter. 

Young  Birds. — Resemble  the  female,  and  have  no  black 
collar ;  they  are  also  more  dingy  in  colour. 

Characters. — Besides  the  generic  features  given  above,  the 
general  tawny-colour  of  the  bird  and  its  size  serve  to  dis'.inguish 
it  from  the  other  Ducks, 


264  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Ruddy  Sheld-Duck  has  occurred 
in  all  three  kingdoms,  but  can  only  be  considered  a  rare  and 
occasional  visitor,  while  some  of  the  records  of  its  capture 
are  doubtless  founded  on  escaped  specimens,  as  the  bird  is 
frequently  kept  in  confinement  in  this  country.  In  1892, 
however,  there  was  a  large  immigration  of  wild  birds,  and  a 
very  interesting  record  of  the  visit  of  the  Ruddy  Sheld-Duck 
to  Great  Britain  in  the  summer  of  1892  has  been  published  by 
Mr.  F.  Menteith  Ogilvie  in  the  "  Zoologist "  for  that  year  (pp. 
392-398).  Flocks  consisting  of  as  many  as  ten  to  fourteen 
birds,  in  one  instance  twenty,  were  observed  between  the 
middle  of  June  and  the  middle  of  September,  and  there  were 
probably  many  others.  Mr.  Ogilvie  surmises  that  it  was  from 
the  South  Russian  habitat  of  the  species  that  the  immigra- 
tion occurred.  "  Those  that  visited  this  country,  being  non- 
breeders,  who  probably  accompanied  the  older  birds  on  their 
northern  journey  in  the  spring,  were  driven  away  by  them  from 
the  breeding-grounds,  lost  their  bearings,  and,  crossing  Russia 
and  the  North  Sea,  found  themselves  on  our  inhospitable 
shores."  Mr.  Ogilvie,  however,  notices  that  in  every  specimen 
killed,  the  inner  secondaries  were  extremely  worn,  which  looks 
as  if  the  birds  had  nested,  and  seeing  that  the  Ruddy  Sheld- 
Duck  is  rather  an  early  breeder,  with  the  young  swimming 
about  on  the  3oth  of  May  (cf.  Seebohm,  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  524), 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  British  specimens,  at  the  end 
of  June,  from  being  birds  which  had  bred  in  South-eastern 
Europe,  and  migrated  north-west  instead  of  south. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — In  Asia  the  Ruddy  Sheld- 
Duck  breeds  as  far  north  as  the  Common  Sheld-Duck,  but  in 
Europe  it  is  a  bird  of  the  Mediterranean  Sub-region,  extend- 
ing eastwards  to  Southern  and  Eastern  Siberia,  and  Mongolia. 
In  winter  it  visits  Northern  Africa,  India,  and  China. 

Habits. — However  gregarious  this  species  may  be  in  winter, 
the  observations  of  naturalists  tend  to  prove  that,  during  the 
breeding  season,  it  is  only  found  in  isolated  pairs,  usually 
selecting  holes  of  cliffs  as  its  nesting-site,  and  often  at  a  great 
height.  Thus  the  species  has  been  found  breeding  in  Ladak 
and  Tibet,  at  an  elevation  of  13,000  to  16,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  young  birds  are  tended  with  great  care  by  the 


THE  SHOVELERS.  265 

mother,  who  shams  to  be  wounded,  so  as  to  draw  off  attention 
from  the  young,  while  Dr.  Henderson  states  that  he  saw  a 
female  make  all  her  young  ones  dive,  by  swimming  and 
flapping  on  to  each  of  them  as  soon  as  it  showed  itself  above 
water,  after  which  she  pretended  to  be  wounded,  and  lay 
on  the  water  every  now  and  then,  with  wings  spread  out,  as 
if  unable  to  fly.  It  is  evident  that  the  old  birds,  breeding  in 
cliffs  so  high  above  the  water,  must  convey  the  young  to  the 
latter.  The  food  of  the  Ruddy  Sheld-Duck  consists  of  grass 
and  water-plants,  as  well  as  small  molluscs. 

Nest. — This  is  placed  in  a  variety  of  situations,  in  a  burrow, 
in  the  middle  of  a  corn-field,  in  the  cleft  of  a  precipice,  or, 
in  Eastern  Siberia,  in  the  deserted  nest  of  a  bird  of  prey. 

Eggs. — From  nine  to  as  many  as  sixteen  in  number,  and 
creamy-white,  with  scarcely  any  gloss.  Axis,  2*7-2 '85;  diam., 
i  '85-1  "9.  The  colour  of  the  down  in  the  nest  has  not  yet 
been  described. 

THE  SHOVELERS.    GENUS  SPATULA. 

Spatula,  Boie,  Isis,  1822,  p.  564. 

Type,  S.  clypeata  (L.). 

The  Shovelers  are  very  easily  distinguished  by  their  flat 
and  shovel-like  bills,  and  in  their  plumage  they  resemble 
the  true  Ducks,  especially  the  Teal,  having  blue  wing-coverts 
like  some  of  the  members  of  the  genus  Nettion.  Two  genera 
of  Shoveler  Ducks  are  known,  the  genus  Spatula  containing 
four  species,  of  which  our  English  S.  clypeata  is  the  best 
known  and  the  most  widely  distributed ;  S.  rhynchotis  comes 
from  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  S.  plataka  from  S.  America, 
and  S.  capensis  from  South  Africa.  Their  range  is,  therefore, 
nearly  cosmopolitan.  In  Australia  and  Tasmania  another 
curious  genus  of  Shovelers  is  found,  Malacorhynchus,  with  a 
single  species,  M.  membranaceus,  confined  to  the  countries 
above-mentioned. 

I.  THE  SHOVELER.   SPATULA  CLYPEATA. 

Anas  clypeata,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  200  (1766) ;  Seebohm,  Br.  B. 
iii.  p.  554  (1885)  ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  x. 
(i8C9). 


266  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Rhynchaspis  clypeata^  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p.  74  (1852). 

Spatula  clypeata,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p,  497,  pi.  425  (1873); 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  128  (1883) ;  Saunders,  ed.   Yarr. 

Br.  B.  iv.  p.  375  (1885) ;   id.  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  415  (1889) ; 

Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  306  (1895). 

(Plate  L  VII.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  blackish-brown  on  the 
mantle  and  upper  back,  becoming  deep  black  on  the  lower 
back,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts,  the  lateral  series  of  the 
latter  glossed  with  steel-blue,  of  which  there  is  also  a  faint 
gloss  on  the  black  rump  ;  scapulars  white,  the  long  feathers 
greyish-blue,  with  a  good  deal  of  black  towards  the  base  of 
the  inner  web  and  a  broad  streak  of  white  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  shaft;  wing-coverts  greyish-blue,  the  greater  series  dusky 
internally,  blue  externally,  and  somewhat  broadly  tipped  with 
white;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  primary-quills  black- 
ish, the  latter  paler  brown  on  the  inner  web,  with  white 
shafts;  the  secondaries  brown,  externally  metallic  steel-green, 
changing  to  purple  under  certain  lights  ;  the  long  inner  secon- 
daries externally  velvety-black,  with  white  centres  towards  the 
end  of  the  shafts ;  centre  tail-feathers  black,  the  rest  white, 
mottled  and  marbled  with  ashy-brown,  the  bars  nowhere  com- 
plete, and  varying  in  shape ;  crown  of  head  and  lores  dusky- 
black,  without  any  metallic  gloss ;  the  sides  of  the  face,  neck, 
and  throat  black,  glossed  with  green,  and  especially  with 
purple  on  the  hinder  neck  and  crest ;  fore-neck  and  chest 
white,  extending  on  to'the  sides  of  the  chest,  and  nearly  reach- 
ing in  a  collar  round  the  hind-neck,  in  the  centre  of  which  are 
a  few  blackish  feathers  :  remainder  of  under  surface  from  the 
chest  downwards  vinous-chestnut,  with  a  large  white  patch 
on  each  side  of  the  vent ;  the  flank -feathers  paler  buff  at  their 
ends,  freckled  with  dusky,  some  of  the  feathers  on  the  lower 
flanks  freckled  with  dusky  lines ;  under  tail-coverts  black, 
white  at  base  with  a  few  blackish  wavy  lines ;  the  lateral 
under  tail-coverts  glossed  with  green  or  purple  ;  axillaries  and 
under  wing-coverts  white  ;  lower  under  wing-coverts  and  quill- 
lining  ashy-grey;  bill  lead- colour;  feet  reddish  orange ;  iris 
yellow.  Total  length,  19  inches;  culmen,  2*55;  wing,  9^5; 
tail,  3-3;  tarsus,  1-3. 


ALLEN'S  NATURALISI  v. 

Or.  B.  v,  p.  74  (1852). 

.  vi.  p,  497,  pi.  425  (i 
rSSs);   Saunders,  ( 

!*.  p.  415  (i8<- 
ii.  p.  306  (1895). 

7/.) 

AtaU  1  brown  Oi 

black  on  the 

!  series  of  the 

v,  of  which  there  is  also  a  faint 
apulars  white,  the  Jong   feathers 
.:  good  deal  of  black  towards  the  ha 
uid  a  broad  streak  of  white  on  the  inner  s 
wing-coverts  greyish-blue,  the  greater  series  dusky 
blue  externally,  and  somewhat  broadly  tipper: 
.  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  primary-quills  black- 

)  itter  paler   brown  on   the  inner    web,    with 

;  the  secondaries  brown,  externally  metallic  steel 

r>  purple-  under  certain  lights  ;  the  long  inner 

Ivety-black,  with  white  centres  towav 

•re  tail-feathers   black,  the  "rest 

>:own,  th(. 

;  crown  of  head  and  lores  d 
:  the  sidts  of  the  face. 
«.-n,  and    especially 

which  ai.- 

. 

. 

• 

;cs  ;  the  i 
;  axillaru 
verts  and 

vv-grey  :   !  :  eddish- ov 

,     Total  length,    ;  i,    2*55  ;  win_. 

J'3- 


THE  SHOVELER&  567 

Adult  Female. — General  colour  above  dusky-brown,  with  ashy 
margins  and  irregular  sandy-buff  markings  and  marblings,  the 
scapulars  paler,  barred  and  edged  with  whitish  or  pale  buff ; 
lower  back  and  rump  blackish-brown,  the  upper  tail-coverts 
edged  and  irregularly  barred  with  white  or  buff ;  wing-coverts 
blue  like  the  male,  the  greater  series  more  dingy  and  tipped 
with  white  ;  the  quills  as  in  the  male  and  the  speculum  also 
metallic  green,  but  the  inner  secondaries  brown ;  crown  of 
head  nearly  uniform  blackish,  as  also  the  nape ;  lores,  fore- 
part of  cheeks,  and  chin  whitish ;  remainder  of  sides  of  face 
and  sides  of  neck  dull  reddish-buff,  streaked  with  narrow  lines 
of  dusky ;  the  lower  throat  similarly  streaked ;  remainder  of 
under  surface  buff,  a  little  paler  in  the  centre  of  the  abdomen ; 
the  chest  and  sides  of  body  and  flanks  scalloped  with  dusky 
bars  and  markings,  principally  of  a  horse-shoe  shape,  very 
thickly  distributed  on  the  chest  and  less  closely  so  on  the 
flanks  ;  the  lower  abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts  spotted 
with  dusky ;  axillaries  and  under  wing-coverts  white.  Total 
length,  17  inches;  culmen,  2*6;  wing,  8*8  ;  tail,  3*6;  tarsus, 
1-25. 

The  young  male  in  its  first  plumage,  according  to  Count 
Salvadori,  resembles  the  old  female,  but  is  distinguished  by  its 
more  brightly  coloured  wings,  the  bill  being  pale  reddish- 
brown,  and  the  legs  and  feet  flesh-coloured. 

The  male,  after  breeding,  passes  into  a  dark  plumage,  like 
that  of  the  female,  but  with  the  crown  dark  brown.  Mr.  De 
Winton  tells  me  that  the  pattern  of  this  summer  dress  of  the 
male  is  very  much  like  that  of  the  old  female,  but  is  much 
more  rufous,  and  the  bill  becomes  orange  and  black,  the  feet 
red,  and  the  iris  is  orange  instead  of  lemon-grey.  All  trace 
of  the  breeding-dress  is  gone,  no  bright  colours  remaining, 
except  the  blue  of  the  wing-coverts. 

Young  in  Down. — Nearly  uniform  above,  like  the  nestling 
Wigeon,  with  some  indistinct  paler  spots,  and  a  dark  brown 
stripe  through  the  eye,  as  in  the  Mallard.  The  bill  is  not 
widened  at  the  tip,  but  the  spatulated  form  is  very  rapidly 
developed. 

Hybrids  — Apparently  few  instances  of  the  crossing  of  the 


258  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Shoveler  with  any  other  species  of  Duck  have  been  recorded, 
though  Von  Tschusi  has  mentioned  an  instance  of  its  mating 
with  a  Domestic  Duck. 

Characters. — The  flattened  form  of  the  Shoveler's  bill,  widened 
at  the  end,  and  "  spatulate,"  as  it  is  called,  as  well  as  the 
blue  wing-coverts,  and  the  green  speculum  in  the  wing,  dis- 
tinguish this  species. 

Kange  in  Great  Britain. — A  few  pairs  breed  annually  in  England, 
especially  in  parts  of  Norfolk,  where  the  Ducks  are  protected, 
as  well  as  in  the  marsh-lands  of  other  parts  of  England  and 
Scotland.  It  nests  on  the  island  of  Tiree,  where  Colonel 
Irby  has  found  it,  but  not  on  the  Outer  Hebrides.  In  many 
localities  it  is  increasing  in  numbers  as  a  breeding-bird,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  Ireland,  where,  according  to  Mr. 
Ussher,  it  nests  sparingly  in  Donegal,  Antrim,  Fermanagh, 
Westmeath,  Louth,  Dublin,  Queen's  County,  Galwayf  Ros- 
common,  Mayo,  and  Sligo,  and  probably  in  King's  County 
and  Kerry.  During  the  winter  the  species  occurs  in  most 
parts  of  Great  Britain. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Shoveler  is  found,  in 
America,  as  well  as  in  the  Old  World,  and  breeds  in  temperate 
North  America,  visiting  the  United  States  in  winter,  and  ex- 
tending as  far  south  as  Panama.  In  Europe  it  does  not  go 
so  far  north  as  some  of  the  other  Ducks,  and  is  a  species  of 
the  temperate  portions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  visiting  Northern 
Africa,  India,  and  China  in  winter.  It  has  been  procured  in 
Borneo,  and  seems  to  wander  as  far  south  as  Australia. 

Habits. — This  species  is  more  of  a  fresh-water  Duck  than 
many  of  its  relations,  and  frequents  marshes  and  inland  lakes, 
where  it  searches  in  the  shallows  for  the  food  which  its  broad 
bill  enables  it  easily  to  sift,  as  it  consists  of  tender  shoots  of 
grass  and  weeds,  as  well  as  aquatic  insects  and  small  molluscs, 
while  it  is  also  said  to  include  tadpoles,  frogs'  spawn,  and  very 
small  fish.  As  a  rule,  it  is  not  so  shy  as  other  Ducks,  and,  in 
its  winter  quarters  in  India,  it  is  described  by  Mr.  Hume  as 
being  very  tame.  The  female  is  a  devoted  mother,  and  watches 
over  her  brood  with  great  anxiety,  while  Mr.  Whitaker  states 
that  he  has  found  the  male  bird  sitting  on  the  eggs.  When 
flying,  the  bird  is  said  by  Mr.  Seebohm  to  utter  a  guttural  note, 


THE   TRUE    DUCKS.  269 

puck-puck,"  and  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  says  that  the  note 
during  the  breeding-season  is  "  took-took."  The  quack  of  the 
Duck  is  said  by  Mr.  Seebohm  to  resemble  that  of  the  domestic 
species,  the  voice  of  the  drake  being  a  little  the  deeper,  and 
sounding  like  quaak,  while  that  of  the  duck  might  be  repre- 
sented as  "quauk." 

Nest.— A  neat  but  unskilfully  made  structure  of  grass,  placed 
in  a  tuft  of  reedy  grass  or  heath,  without  much  lining  beyond 
that  of  the  bird's  own  down,  and  a  little  grass, 

Eggs.— Five  or  six  in  number,  of  a  pale  buffy-white  or 
greenish-white.  Mr.  Robert  Read  found  ten  eggs  in  a  nest 
in  Scotland.  Axis,  2*05-2-4;  diam.,  1-5.  Down  very  dark, 
spotted  with  white.  The  colour  is  dark  brown,  with  whitish 
tips,  scarcely  visible,  and  with  a  white  star-like  spot  in  the 
centre  of  the  plume. 

THE  TRUE  DUCKS.  GENUS  ANAS. 

Anas,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  194  (1766). 

Type,  A.  boscas  (L.). 

The  common  Duck,  of  which  the  Mallard  is  the  type,  is 
distinguished  from  the  other  Ducks  rather  by  negative  than 
positive  differences,  as  one  gathers  from  Count  Salvadori's 
characters  of  the  genus  Anas.  It  has  no  chestnut  on  the  inner 
secondaries  like  the  Sheld-Ducks,  but  possesses  a  generally 
mottled  plumage,  without  any  large  uniform  patches,  as  in  the 
foregoing  birds.  Nor  is  the  bill  spatulate  as  in  the  Shovelers, 
but  is  rather  broad,  and  is  of  about  the  length  of  the  head. 
From  the  Shovelers  and  some  of  the  Teal  it  differs  also  in 
having  the  wing-coverts  dull  grey,  and  not  blue. 

I.    THE   WILD    DUCK,    OR    MALLARD,       ANAS    BOSCAS. 

Anas  boschas,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  205  (1766);  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p. 

31  (1852);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  469,  pi.  422  (1873); 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  part  viii.  (1888). 
Anas  boscas,  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  125  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Br. 

B.  iii.  p.  559(1885);  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  358 

(1885);    Saunders,    Man.  Br.  B.  p.  411   (1889);  Salvad. 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  189  (1895). 


270  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  brown,  deepening  into 
black  on  the  lower  back,  the  rump  and  tail-coverts  being  black, 
with  a  purplish  or  green  gloss  ;  the  scapulars  pearly-grey,  with 
very  fine  wavy  lines  of  darker  grey,  the  outer  scapulars  dark 
chestnut-brown,  continuous  with  the  dark  outer  webs  of  the 
innermost  secondaries ;  the  wing-coverts  ashy-grey,  more  or 
less  washed  with  brown  ;  the  greater  coverts  with  a  sub-terminal 
bar  of  white,  the  tips  being  black,  and  forming  the  upper  bor- 
der to  the  wing-speculum ;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and 
quills  ashy-brown,  externally  more  grey ;  the  inner  webs  of 
the  primaries  conspicuously  lighter  and  more  ashy ;  the 
secondaries  ashy-grey  on  the  inner  web,  metallic-purple  on  the 
outer  web,  and  tipped  with  white,  before  which  is  a  sub-terminal 
bar  of  velvety-black ;  the  colour  of  the  speculum  varying, 
according  to  the  light,  from  rich  purple  to  steel-blue  or  greenish- 
blue  ;  the  inner  secondaries  pearly-grey,  those  adjoining  the 
speculum  being  externally  chestnut-brown ;  centre  tail-feathers 
recurved,  black  like  the  rump,  the  rest  of  the  feathers  white, 
with  grey  or  brown  centres,  these  dark  centres  gradually  dis- 
appearing and  only  represented  by  ashy  frecklings  on  the 
outer  ones;  head  and  neck  all  round  metallic-green,  chang- 
ing into  purple. according  to  the  light ;  on  the  lower  throat  a 
narrow  white  band  not  completely  joining  on  the  nape ;  fore- 
neck  and  chest  deep  chestnut,  extending  on  to  the  sides  of  the 
neck  and  nearly  meeting  on  the  hind-neck ;  remainder  of  under 
surface  greyish-white,  finely  freckled  with  ashy  vermiculations, 
which  are  more  distinct  on  the  sides  of  the  body ;  under  wing- 
coverts  and  axillaries  white  ;  under  tail-coverts  velvety-black  ; 
bill  olive-yellowish ;  feet  and  toes  orange ;  iris  dark  brown. 
Total  length,  22  inches;  culmen,  2^4;  wing,  iro;  tail,  3*5; 
tarsus,  1*8. 

Adult  Female. — Entirely  different  from  the  male,  brown  above 
with  reddish  margins  and  centres  to  the  feathers,  imparting  a 
narrowly  streaked  appearance  to  the  head  and  neck,  and  a 
broadly  streaked  appearance  to  the  back,  but  it  must  be 
noticed  that  great  variation  in  these  markings  takes  place ; 
wing-coverts  dark  ashy-brown,  the  greater  series  and  the 
secondaries  banded  with  white,  the  former  with  a  velvety-black 
tip  and  the  latter  with  a  sub-terminal  black  bar ;  the  speculum 


THE   TRUE    DUCKS.  27  I 

is  therefore  as  in  the  male,  but  it  is  not  so  bright  and  is  more 
broadly  bordered  with  black ;  the  inner  secondaries  bordered 
with  rufous,  like  the  scapulars ;  lower  back,  rump,  and  upper 
tail-coverts  like  the  upper  back  ;  tail-feathers  ashy-whitish,  cen- 
tred with  dark  brown,  which  is  more  or  less  broken  up  into 
rufous  markings ;  under  surface  of  body  yellowish-buff ;  the 
throat  uniform,  but  the  sides  of  the  face  and  neck  streaked 
like  the  head ;  the  chest  and  sides  of  the  body  mottled 
with  dark  brown  centres  to  the  feathers ;  fore  neck  and  chest 
tinged  with  chestnut ;  under  tail-coverts  white,  with  black 
streaks ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  white.  Total  length, 
20  inches;  culmen,  2*1;  wing,  10*3;  tail,  3*4;  tarsus,  1*5. 

Young  Males  and  Young  Females. — Almost  alike  in  plumage, 
and  at  first  resembling  the  old  female  in  general  appearance, 
but  the  darker  head  and  blacker  appearance  of  the  back  are 
generally  sufficient  to  distinguish  the  males,  which  have  also  a 
clearly  indicated  dark  eye-stripe.  Young  birds  also  seem  to 
be  much  more  plentifully  streaked  with  brown  on  the  under- 
parts.  For  a  short  period  in  the  summer,  males  assume  a 
plumage  only  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  female  by 
its  blacker  appearance  above,  the  feathers  of  the  back  being 
edged  with  rufous,  while  the  crown  and  a  broad  stripe  through 
he  eye  are  also  black  ;  the  quills  are  fully  moulted,  as  well  as 
he  body  feathers,  and  the  full  plumage  is  again  assumed  by  a 
direct  moult. 

Hybrids. — These  are  so  many  that  it  is  impossible  to  enu- 
merate them  all  here.  Crossings  with  at  least  a  dozen  other 
species  of  Ducks  are  recorded  by  Count  Salvadori. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Of  all  the  fresh-water  Ducks,  the 
Mallard  is  the  commonest,  and  though  it  was  more  plentiful 
in  former  days,  there  are  still  so  many  places  where  it  is 
encouraged  to  breed,  that  it  is  extremely  numerous  in  some 
districts,  and  every  winter  there  is  a  vast  accession  of  numbers 
due  to  arrivals  from  the  Continent.  At  this  season  of  the  year, 
the  species  quits  its  northern  habitat,  and  is  absent  from  many 
of  the  northern  districts  of  Scotland  and  its  islands.  It 
bretds,  according  to  Mr.  Ussher,  in  every  county  in  Ireland. 


272  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Mallard  may  be  said 
to  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  temperate  portions  of  the  Palgearctic 
and  Nearctic  Regions,  not  breeding  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle, 
but  throughout  Europe,  including  the  Mediterranean  countries, 
and  across  the  temperate  portions  of  Asia,  and  wintering  in 
India  and  China.  It  even  breeds  in  Cashmere.  In  America 
it  breeds  in  the  temperate  latitudes,  and  wanders  south  in 
winter,  when  it  is  found  as  far  south  as  Panama. 

Habits. — The  tame  Duck  of  our  farmyards,  which  is  suffi- 
ciently well-known  to  preclude  any  special  description  of  its 
habits,  is  a  derivative  of  the  true  Wild  Duck,  but  the  latter 
bird  in  its  native  habitat  is  decidedly  a  wary  bird. 

The  Mallard  is  a  very  interesting  species  to  study  where 
one  has  an  opportunity  of  so  doing,  as  its  habits  are  very 
varied.  Sometimes  numbers  of  nests  will  be  found  in  the 
growing  grass  of  a  meadow  close  to  a  lake,  at  other  times 
most  curious  situations  are  chosen  for  the  nest.  In  the 
choice  of  a  situation  the  Duck  is  very  cautious,  and  it  is 
often  not  discovered  until  the  appearance  of  the  young  ones 
betrays  its  situation.  It  is  especially  where  there  are  plenty  of 
foxes  that  the  wariness  of  the  Duck  is  developed,  and  at 
Avington  Park — where  the  head-keeper  once  told  me  that  he 
had  known  forty  sitting  ducks  to  be  taken  off  their  nests  in  a 
season  by  foxes — I  have  found  some  curious  sites  for  the 
nest.  One  was  in  a  dell,  quite  half  a  mile  from  the  lake,  and  it 
was  artfully  concealed  under  some  outgrowing  roots  of  a  tree  : 
another  was  made  in  the  hollow  between  two  wide-spreading 
limbs  of  an  oak,  about  ten  feet  from  the  ground,  and  quite  a 
mile  away  from  any  water.  Mr.  De  Winton  has  known  a  nest 
to  be  built  in  the  thick  ivy  on  the  wall  of  a  house.  Mr.  Robert 
Read  also  tells  me  that  he  has  found  it  in  the  open  amongst 
heather,  under  a  rock  amongst  bracken,  in  rushes  by  the 
water-side,  and  in  the  hollow  of  a  pollard-tree,  while  in  1894,  he 
found  a  nest  on  the  Thames  with  ten  eggs  and  one  egg  of  a 
Pheasant. 

Like  the  tame  Duck,  the  Mallard  is  almost  omnivorous  in 
its  choice  of  food,  many  kinds  of  aquatic  plants  and  weeds,  as 
well  as  all  kinds  of  water-insects,  worms  and  slugs,  forming  its 
staple  diet,  but  it  will  also  eat  grain,  acorns,  &c. 


THE   GADWALLS.  273 

Nest. — Although  generally  carefully  concealed,  the  nest  is 
rather  loosely  made  of  grass  and  rushes,  and  is  lined  with  the 
bird's  own  down. 

Eggs. — From  eight  to  ten  or  twelve  in  number,  though  as 
many  as  sixteen  have  been  found ;  greenish  or  greenish- 
white  in  colour,  sometimes  inclining  to  buffy-white.  Axis, 
2'i-2'35  inches  ;  diam.,  i'6. 

Down. — Mostly  light  brown,  with  whitish  thread-like  tips, 
but  mixed  with  a  considerable  number  of  pure  white  downy 
plumes. 

.THE  GADWALLS.     GENUS   CHAULELASMUS. 

Chaulelasmus,  Bp.  Comp.  List  B.  Eur.  &  N.  Amer.  p.  56 
(1838). 

Type,  C.  strepems  (L.) 

Two  species  only  of  Gad  wall  are  known,  the  widely  distributed 
C.  streperus,  and  Coues'  Gadwall,  C.  couesi^  which  is  only 
known  from  the  Fanning  Islands.  The  bill  is  not  so  broad  as 
in  the  genus  Anas  and  is  shorter  than  the  head,  and  has  no 
fringe  of  soft  membrane  near  the  tip ;  the  lamellae  of  the  upper 
mandible  are  quite  prominent  (Salvadori).  The  colouring  of 
the  two  sexes  is  not  nearly  so  different  as  in  the  generality  of 
Ducks.  The  central  tail-feathers  scarcely  extend  beyond  the 
lateral  ones. 

I.    THE   GADWALL.       CHAULELASMUS    STREPERUS. 

Anas  strepera.  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  200  (1766);   Saunders,  ed. 

Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  370  (1885);   Seebohm,  Br.   B.  iii.  p. 

530  (1885) ;  Saunders,  Man.  p.  413  (1889);  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xv.  (1890). 

Querquedula  strepera,  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p.  59  (1852). 
Cluiulelasmus  streperus.  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  487,  pi.  424 

(1873);    B.  O.  U.  List   Br.   B.  p.   125   (1883);    Salvad. 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  221  (1895). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dusky-brown,  the  hind- 
leck,   mantle,  and  upper  scapulars  freckled   with  wavy  bars 
"  black  and  ashy-white ;    the  lower  back  darker  and  scarcely 
:kled;  the  rump  and  upper  tail- coverts  velvety-black;  the 

8  T 


274  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

long  scapulars  margined  with  tawny-brown ;  wing-coverts 
ashy,  with  a  few  dusky  frecklings;  the  median-coverts 
for  the  most  part  chestnut;  the  greater  coverts  velvety- 
black  ;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  quills  dark  ashy, 
paler  on  the  inner  webs ;  the  outer  secondaries  velvety- 
black  and  tipped  with  white,  the  inner  ones  white  externally, 
forming  a  speculum,  the  innermost  ashy-grey ;  tail-feathers 
ashy-grey,  edged  with  white  towards  the  ends,  and  mottled 
with  dark  broun  near  the  ends  of  the  outer  feathers;  crown  of 
head  dusky-brown,  slightly  mottled  with  paler  edges  to  the 
feathers  ;  eyebrow  and  sides  of  face  ashy,  minutely  spotted  with 
dusky-brown  ;  lores  and  base  of  forehead  more  hoary  ;  cheeks 
and  throat  whitish,  minutely  spotted  with  dusky ;  fore-neck  and 
chest  closely  barred  with  dusky-blackish  and  white,  the  bars 
irregular  in  shape,  but  mostly  circular  ;  remainder  of  under  sur- 
face white,  with  a  few  dusky  streaks  on  the  abdomen  ;  the  sides 
of  the  body  and  flanks  thickly  freckled  with  wavy  lines  of 
dusky-blackish ;  under  tail-coverts  black  ;  under  wing-coverts 
and  axillaries  pure  white ;  bill  black  ;  feet  orange,  almost  the 
whole  of  the  web  black.  Total  length,  19  inches;  culmen, 
1*6;  wing,  10-5;  tail,  3*5;  tarsus,  i'5. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male.  General  colour 
above  brown,  with  edges  of  sandy-buff  and  irregular  bars  and 
frecklings  of  the  same  colour ;  the  wings  as  in  the  male,  but  the 
black  of  the  greater  wing- coverts  much  reduced  in  extent  and 
the  white  speculum  not  so  large ;  the  chestnut  patch  on  the 
median-coverts  entirely  absent ;  tail  mottled  with  irregular 
bars  of  brown  and  buff;  head  rather  darker  than  the  back  and 
more  uniform  ;  eyebrow,  sides  of  face,  and  throat  buff,  minutely 
lined  with  streaks  of  blackish-brown  ;  the  lower  throat  and  fore- 
neck  more  rufescent,  as  also  the  sides  of  the  body,  flanks,  and 
under  tail-coverts,  all  these  parts  being  strongly  mottled,  with 
blackish  centres  to  the  feathers  ;  the  rest  of  the  under  surface 
white,  more  minutely  spotted  with  dusky;  under  wing-coverts 
and  axillaries  white.  Total  length,  19*5  inches;  wing,  9*9. 

Young  Males. — At  first  resemble  the  old  females,  but  are 
more  barred  on  the  back  and  not  so  streaked  with  sandy-buff. 
They  are  densely  spotted  with  brown  on  the  under  surface,  and 
niny  be  distinguished  by  having  a  little  chestnut  on  the  greater 


THE   GAD  WALLS.  275 

wing-coverts,  and  by  having  a  broad  black  border  to  the  outer 
aspect  of  the  speculum,  as  in  the  male.  In  the  female  the 
external  black  border  to  the  speculum  is  scarcely  visible,  and 
there  is  no  chestnut  on  the  greater  wing-coverts. 

The  Gadwall  Drake,  like  the  Mallard,  assumes  a  sort  of 
female  plumage,  after  the  breeding-season.  The  male  then 
resembles  the  female,  but  is  darker,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
other  Ducks  which  assume  the  female  coloration.  The  black 
rump,  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  adult  Gadwall,  disappears, 
as  do  the  distinctive  markings  of  the  wing,  and  the  male  in 
the  hen-like  plumage  can  scarcely  be  told  from  the  female, 
Mr.  De  Winton  says  that  the  summer  dress  is  not  so  dis- 
tinctive as  in  some  of  the  other  Ducks,  as  the  male  does  not 
lose  his  speckled  breast  or  all  the  vermiculated  feathers  of  the 
body,  or  the  black  under  tail-coverts.  The  bill  has  much  more 
yellow  on  it,  and  is  more  like  that  of  the  hen,  while  the  feet 
are  dull  orange,  with  sooty  webs. 

Nestling. — Very  dark  chocolate-brown,  with  a  blackish  head ; 
a  broad  eyebrow  of  buff,  followed  by  a  distinct  eye-line  of 
brown ;  on  each  side  of  the  mantle  some  white  marks,  and  a 
distinct  white  spot  on  each  side  of  the  rump ;  under  surface  of 
body  yellowish-white. 

Characters. — The  male  Gadwall  is  easily  recognised  by  the 
chestnut  and  black  patch  on  the  wing,  and  by  its  white  speculum. 
The  female  has  the  same  characters,  but  the  amount  of  chest- 
nut on  the  wing  is  smaller. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Chiefly  known  as  a  winter  visitor, 
though  it  now  breeds  plentifully  in  certain  parts  of  Norfolk, 
where  it  has  been  preserved.  In  the  series  of  nests  of  British 
birds  in  the  National  Museum  is  one  presented  by  Lord 
Walsingham,  from  Merton,  where  the  species  breeds  regularly. 
It  occurs,  however,  only  as  a  winter  visitor  to  Scotland  and 
Ireland. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Gadwall  does  not  breed 
in  the  Arctic  Regions,  but  is  known  to  do  so  in  Iceland,  as 
well  as  in  Southern  Sweden  and  the  Baltic  provinces,  and 
throughout  Northern  and  Central  Europe.  Throughout  the 
Mediterranean  countries  it  also  breeds,  and  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  says  that  it  nests  in  Spain  near  the  mouth  of  the 

T  2 


276  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Guadalquivir;  while  in  winter  it  extends  to  Northern  Africa  and 
up  the  valley  of  the  Nile  into  Nubia.  It  occurs  throughout 
Central  Asia,  breeding  in  Turkestan,  and  reaches  to  the  Pacific 
coast  in  Eastern  Siberia.  The  eastern  birds  winter  in  India  and 
China.  The  Gadwall  also  breeds  in  North  America  at  about 
the  same  latitudes  as  in  the  Old  World,  and  is  found  in  winter 
as  far  south  as  Mexico  and  the  Greater  Antilles. 

Habits. — The  Gadwall  is  a  great  skulker  and  always  shy,  but 
on  the  water  it  is  a  very  smart-looking  bird,  as  it  swims  lightly, 
with  its  feathers  brushed  hard  back  to  a  point  behind  its  neck. 
It  is  a  fresh-water  Duck  and  is  not  often  captured  on  the  sea 
coasts,  and  is  to  a  great  extent  gregarious,  being  sometimes 
seen  in  hundreds  on  fresh-water  lakes.  It  has  a  powerful 
flight,  and  rises  easily  from  the  .water.  Its  food  consists  of 
leaves  and  flower-buds  of  water-plants,  and  in  India,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  A.  O.  Hume,  largely  of  rice,  so  that  in  the  early 
season  its  flesh  is  said  to  be  excellent.  Like  other  Ducks,  the 
diet  also  partly  consists  of  insects  and  their  larvae,  small  frogs, 
and  worms.  The  name  of  strepera,  or  "  noisy,"  is  a  decided 
misnomer  for  the  present  species,  as  it  is  a  very  quiet  Duck. 
Lord  Lilford  says  that  the  note  of  the  male  is  a  curious  rattling 
croak,  a  sort  of  mixture  of  the  alarm-cry  of  the  Mallard  and 
the  sound  uttered  by  the  male  Garganey. 

Nest. — A  mere  depression  in  the  ground,  with  a  scanty  lining 
of  dry  grass,  bits  of  reed  or  rush,  and,  in  some  cases,  a  few  dead 
leaves.  It  is  carefully  concealed  by  the  overhanging  grass  or 
rushes. 

Eggs. — From  eight  to  twelve  in  number;  buffy-white  or 
creamy-white,  and  slightly  glossy,  some  inclining  to  greenish. 
Axis,  2-1-2-25  inches;  diam.,  1-55. 

Down. — Light  brown,  with  a  centre  star  of  white,  the  fila- 
ments brown  at  the  ends,  not  silvery-whitish ;  there  is  also  an 
admixture  of  pure  white  downy  plumes. 

THE  WIGEON.    GENUS   MARECA. 
Mareca,  Steph.  Gen.  Zool.  xii.  pi.  2,  p.  130  (1824). 

Type,  M.  penelope  (L.). 

The  form  of  the  Wigeon  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
Gadwalls,  but  the  lamellae  of  the  upper  mandible  are  not  so 


i 


THE   WIGEON.  277 

prominent,  the  tail  is  rather  more  acuminate,  and  the  central 
feathers  extend  somewhat  beyond  the  lateral  ones.  The  bill 
is  small  and  gradually  tapering  towards  the  tip.  The  above 
characters  are  given  for  the  genus  by  Count  Salvador!,  and 
to  them  must  be  added  the  style  of  plumage,  which  is  well 
pronounced ;  thus,  though  many  recent  writers  have  placed 
the  Gadwalls,  Shovelers,  and  Wigeon  in  the  genus  Anas,  I 
thoroughly  agree  with  Count  Salvadori  that  they  should  be 
separated  as  distinct  genera.  Three  species  of  Wigeon  are 
known,  our  British  bird  (M.  penelope\  the  American  Wigeon 
(M.  americana),  and  M.  sibilatrix  from  South  America. 

I.    THE   WIGEON.       MARECA    PENELOPE. 

A nas penelops.  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  202  (1766). 

Anas penelope,  Gm.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  527  (1788);  Seebohm,  Br. 

B.  iii.  p.  539  (1885). 
Mareca penelope,  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p.  83  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur. 

vi.  p.  541,  pis.  432,  433  (1876);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.   p. 

123    (1883);    Saunders,    ed.    Yarr.   Brit.   B.  iv.   p.   397 

(1885) ;  id.  Man.  p.  425  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B. 

part  xv.  (1890);  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.   p.  227 

(1895)- 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  grey,  with  fine  vermicula- 
tions  of  darker  grey,  the  lower  back  and  rump  more  finely 
vermiculated ;  the  sides  of  the  lower  rump  white  ;  central  tail- 
coverts  grey,  with  coarser  vermiculations  and  the  ends  of  the 
feathers  white,  the  lateral  upper  tail-coverts  velvety-black ;  lesser 
wing-coverts  grey,  very  finely  vermiculated ;  the  median-  and 
greater  wing-coverts  pure  white,  forming  a  large  patch,  the  latter 
tipped  with  velvety-black,  forming  the  upper  border  to  the 
speculum  ;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  quills  ashy-grey, 
the  inner  webs  dusky,  with  a  mirror  of  buff  on  the  inner  web 
of  the  primaries;  the  secondaries  grey  internally,  metallic- 
green  externally,  but  black  at  the  ends,  this  forming  the  wing- 
speculum  ;  the  next  inner  secondary  white  externally,  forming 
an  inner  border  to  the  speculum,  the  next  three  inner  second- 
aries externally  velvety-black,  with  white  shafts,  the  innermost 
grey  with  darker  vermiculations  like  the  scapulars ;  crown  of 
head  light  cinnamon-buff,  paler  on  the  lores;  the  hinder 


278  ALT-EN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

crown,  nape,  and  hind-neck,  as  well  as  the  sides  of  the  face 
and  throat,  chestnut,  slightly  mottled  with  green  behind  the  eye 
and  on  the  occiput ;  the  lower  throat  and  fore-neck,  as  well  as 
the  sides  of  the  neck  and  of  the  chest,  pale  vinous,  shaded  with 
grey ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of  body  from  the  fore-neck 
downwards  pure  white ;  the  under  tail-coverts  black  ;  the  sides 
of  the  body  ashy-grey,  finely  vermiculated  with  darker  grey  ; 
under  wing-coverts  ashy-grey ;  axillaries  white,  freckled  with 
grey  ;  bill  bluish  lead-colour,  black  at  the  tip ;  feet  and  toes 
dark  brown;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  18  inches;  culmen, 
1-45;  wing,  10-4;  tail,  4-1  ;  tarsus,  1-55. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male,  the  back  being  ashy- 
brown,  narrowly  barred  with  rufous  on  the  hind-neck  and 
mantle  ;  the  dorsal  feathers  brown-edged  with  ashy-grey,  these 
edgings  becoming  whiter  on  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts ; 
the  scapulars  with  more  rufous  margins;  wing-coverts  ashy-grey, 
margined  with  white,  more  broadly  on  the  greater  series ;  the 
bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  primaries  as  in  the  male  ; 
the  secondaries  dusky-brown,  externally  black  and  tipped  with 
white,  but  not  showing  a  distinct  speculum  like  the  male; 
inner  secondaries  velvety-black,  edged  with  white  on  the  outer 
web,  and  separated  from  the  black  speculum  by  a  line  of  white, 
caused  by  the  white  outer  web  of  a  single  inner  secondary ; 
tail  ashy-brown,  narrowly  fringed  with  white ;  crown  of  head 
blackish,  with  small  white  bars,  producing  a  thickly  mottled 
appearance ;  lores,  sides  of  face,  and  sides  of  throat  fulvous, 
dotted  and  spotted  with  blackish,  throat  slightly  more  rufous  ; 
remainder  of  the  under  surface  pure  white;  the  under  tail- 
coverts  centred  and  barred  with  brown  ;  the  sides  of  the  chest 
and  of  the  body  mottled  with  rufous.  Total  length,  16  inches; 
wing,  9-6. 

Young  Birds. — Are  at  first  like  the  old  female,  and  the  males 
evidently  take  some  time,  probably  two  or  three  years,  before 
they  acquire  their  perfect  livery.  The  younger  birds  with  tl 
speculum  developed  have  often  only  half  the  wing-covei 
white,  and,  judging  by  a  specimen  in  the  British  Museui 
killed  in  June  at  Kiukiang  by  Mr.  Styan,  I  should  say  tl 
until  the  second  summer,  the  male  retains  a  wing  exactly  lil 
that  of  the  old  female.  After  the  breeding-season,  Mr. 


1HE   WtGEON.  279 

Winton  writes  to  me,  "  both  males  and  females  assume  a  very 
distinct  summer  dress  of  reddish-brown,  though  the  female  is 
not  quite  so  rufous.  In  the  male  all  traces  of  the  beautiful 
breeding-dress  disappear."  Sir  Savile  Crossley,  finding  that 
I  was  interested  in  the  summer  plumage  of  Ducks,  very  kindly 
had  a  pair  of  Wigeon  caught  for  me  and  sent  up  to  London 
alive.  On  the  day  of  their  arrival  (August  24th)  the  male 
had  moulted  his  wings  and  assumed  the  full  plumage, 
speculum  and  all,  but  the  female  was  still  helpless,  the  quills 
being  in  full  moult.  The  male,  however,  still  retained  much 
of  his  post-nuptial  dress,  and  the  feathers  of  the  back  were 
blackish,  with  rufous  margins  and  bars ;  the  head  and  neck 
were  rufous,  spotted  with  black,  but  distinctly  glossed  with 
green ;  the  chest  and  sides  of  the  body  were  dark  chestnut, 
mottled  with  sub-terminal  bars  of  black. 

The  female  was  darker  than  the  male,  but  the  feathers  were 
also  blackish,  with  rufous  bars  and  margins,  and  the  head  was 
especially  dark,  almost  black,  but  with  a  very  distinct  green 
gloss ;  the  wing-markings,  however,  were  very  different  from 
those  of  the  male,  and  resembled,  as  far  as  the  feathers  were 
developed,  those  of  the  full-plumaged  hen-bird. 

Characters. — The  Wigeon  is  distinguished  by  the  white  patch 
on  the  wing,  formed  by  the  median  and  greater  coverts,  the 
grey  bill  tipped  with  black,  and  the  green  speculum. 

Hybrids. — Crosses  have  been  known  to  take  place  between 
the  Wigeon  and  Mallard,  Teal,  and  Pin-tail.  The  latter  are 
very  rare,  but  Sir  Edward  Grey  possesses  a  brood  of  the  latter 
hybrids  hatched  on  his  estate  in  Northumberland. 

Range  in  Great  Britain.— Occurs  chiefly  in  England  during 
autumn  and  spring  migration,  sometimes  in  immense  numbers. 
It  has  not  been  known  to  nest  anywhere  in  England,  but  in 
the  north  of  Scotland,  in  Sutherland,  Ross,  Cromarty,  and 
Caithness  it  breeds  regularly.  Mr.  Ussher  writes  with  regard 
to  the  Wigeon  in  Ireland  : — "  Lord  Caledon  states  that  he 
has  seen  the  old  birds  in  summer,  at  Caledon,  Co.  Tyrone.  A 
pair  of  Wigeon  were  seen  in  June,  1893,  on  Lough  Allen  in 
Leitrim."  The  mere  appearance  of  birds  during  the  summer 
does  not  prove  that  they  bred  in  the  neighbourhood.  This 
autumn  a  specimen  was  sent  to  the  British  Museum  as  a 


2§o  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

young  Wigeon,  and  the  bird  in  question  was  supposed  to 
have  been  hatched  in  Hampshire,  but  it  was  not  a  young 
bird  at  all,  but  an  old  male,  changing  from  his  short-lived 
summer  plumage  to  his  full  dress,  and,  therefore,  he  was 
probably  a  non-breeding  individual  which  had  remained  in 
southern  latitudes  instead  of  going  north  to  breed.  This  I 
take  to  be  the  case  with  the  birds  which  have  been  seen  in 
Norfolk  and  other  counties  of  England  during  the  summer. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Breeds  in  the  Arctic  Re- 
gions of  the  Old  World,  from  Iceland  to  Eastern  Siberia. 
It  also  breeds  occasionally  in  more  southern  latitudes,  and 
its  eggs  have  been  taken  on  the  Lower  Danube  by  Mr.  See- 
bohm,  so  that  the  improbability  of  its  breeding  in  England  is 
lessened,  as  the  same  author  states  that  its  nests  have  been 
found  in  France,  Germany,  and  Bohemia.  The  range  of  the 
species  extends  eastwards  to  Kamtchatka.  In  winter  it  ranges 
south  to  Abyssinia  and  to  Madeira,  as  well  as  to  Northern 
India  and  the  Burmese  provinces  and  China,  while  stray 
examples  have  been  met  with  in  Borneo,  and  even  as  far  south 
as  the  Marshall  Islands.  In  North  America  it  is  found  in 
Alaska  and  occurs  as  for  south  as  California,  and  it  is  also 
found  in  winter  on  the  Atlantic  coasts. 

Habits. — In  winter,  when  the  Wigeon  principally  visits  our 
coasts,  it  is  a  gregarious  bird,  and  often  occurs  in  enormous 
flocks  on  the  sea-coasts  and  also  on  inland  lakes,  herding 
together  on  the  latter  with  other  Ducks,  especially  the 
Tufted  Duck.  The  male,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  birds  lent  to 
me  by  Sir  Savile  Crossley,  gets  through  his  summer  moult 
more  rapidly  than  the  female,  and  leaves  to  the  latter  the 
charge  of  bringing  up  the  young.  Lord  Lilford  says  that  "  the 
note  of  the  male  bird  is  a  shrill  double  whistle,  once  heard 
never  to  be  forgotten,"  and  Mr.  Seebohm  writes,  "  The  cry 
of  this  Duck  is  a  prolonged  whistle  or  scream,  immediately 
followed  by  a  short  note.  I  can  best  represent  it  by  the 
syllables  mee-yu,  the  first  very  loud  and  prolonged,  the  last 
low  and  short.  It  sounds  very  wild  and  weird,  as  in  startles 
the  ear  on  the  margin  of  a  mountain  tarn  or  moorland  lake,  a 
solitary  cry,  high  in  key,  not  unmusical  in  tone,  but  one  of  the 
most  familiar  sounds  on  the  banks  of  the  Petchora  or  the 


THE   WIGEON.  281 

Yenesei,  where  the  Wigeon  is  very  abundant,  especially  on 
the  banks  of  the  borderland  where  the  forest  merges  into 
the  tundra  not  far  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle." 

Nest.— The  nests,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohnt,  are  well  con- 
cealed, generally  close  to  the  margin  of  a  lake  or  pond,  and 
are  placed  in  the  long  grass  and  sedge,  often  under  a  willow- 
bush.  Like  those  of  most  Ducks  which  breed  in  the  Arctic 
Regions,  they  are  very  deep,  well  lined  with  dead  grass  and 
sedge,  and,  when  the  full  clutch  is  laid,  contain  a  quantity  of 
down  with  which  the  eggs  are  covered  when  the  female  leaves 
the  nest. 

Eggs. — From  seven  to  ten  in  number,  more  rarely  twelve 
being  found;  buffy-white  or  cream-colour.  Axis,  2-0-2-25 
inches;  diam.,  1-45-1-55. 

Down. — Extremely  dark  chocolate-brown  with  a  dull  star 
of  white,  and  dull  whitish  filaments  at  the  end  of  the  down. 
The  general  aspect,  however,  is  dark  brown,  the  white  being 
scarcely  visible. 

II.    THE    AMERICAN    WIGEON.       MARECA    AMERICANA. 

Anas  americana,  Gm.  S.  N.  p.  526  (1788);  Seebohm,  Br.   B. 

iii.  p.  543  (1885). 
Mareca  americana,   Macg.   Br.  B.  v.   p.  90  (1852);    B.  O.  U. 

List  Br.  B.  p.   124  (1883);  Saunders,   ed.  Yarr.  Br.   B. 

iv.  p.  403  (1885) ;  id.  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  427  (1889) ;  Salvad. 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  233  (1895). 

Adult  Male. — Differs  from  M.  penelope  in  having  the  upper 
part  of  the  head  whitish  instead  of  buff,  the  sides  of  the  head 
and  upper  neck  whitish,  thickly  spotted  with  black,  and  a  broad 
patch  of  green  extending  from  behind  the  eye  to  the  hinder 
nape ;  bill  light  greyish-blue,  black  at  the  end ;  legs  and  feet 
light  bluish;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  18  inches;  culmen, 
1-6;  wing,  10*2;  tail,  4-4;  tarsus,  1-4. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  female  of  M.  penelope  in 
having  the  head  and  neck  much  whiter,  the  light  part  of  the 
feathers  being  whitish  instead  of  reddish-brown.  Total  length, 
16-5  inches;  culmen,  1-4;  wing,  9-6;  tail,  3-2;  tarsus,  1-5. 


282  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Kange  in  Great  Britain. — In  the  winter  of  1837-38,  Mr.  Bartlett 
secured  a  specimen  of  the  American  Wigeon  from  a  market  in 
London.  He  preserved  the  bird,  which  afterwards  passed  into 
the  collection  of  Mr.  J.  H.  Gurney,  In  these  days  of  freezing - 
chambers  on  board  ship,  the  presence  of  a  foreign  Duck  in 
an  English  market  would  be  absolutely  worthless  as  evidence  of 
the  occurrence  of  the  species  within  the  British  area,  but  sixty 
years  ago  the  modes  of  transit  were  not  so  easy,  and  the  appear- 
ance of  an  American  Wigeon  among  a  lot  of  English  Wigeon 
may  be  taken  as  sound  evidence  that  the  specimen  had  been 
procured  within  British  limits.  The  few  other  records  of  the 
occurrence  of  the  species  in  Great  Britain  all  appear  to  be  un- 
trustworthy, though  its  capture  once  in  France  and  again  in 
the  Azores  is  authentic. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  American  Wigeon 
breeds  in  the  arctic  portion  of  North  America,  occasionally  as 
far  south  as  the  Northern  United  States.  In  winter  it  extends 
to  the  Southern  States,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies. 

Habits. — Similar  to  those  of  M.  penelope. 

Nest. — Like  that  of  M.  penelope. 

Eggs. — Pale  buff.     Axis,  2*06  inches;  diam.,  1*48  (Ridgway). 


THE  TEAL.  GENUS  NETTION. 

)  Kaup,  Natiirl.  Syst.  p.  95  (1829). 
Type,  N.  crecca  (L.). 

Though  resembling  the  Wigeon  in  the  character  of  the  bill, 
which  has  the  lamellae  of  the  upper  mandible  scarcely  at  all 
prominent,  the  Teal  differ  in  having  the  bill  moderate,  and 
graduated  towards  the  tip,  where  it  becomes  more  rounded  and 
broader  than  in  the  species  of  Mareca  ;  the  scapulars  and  inner 
secondaries  are  longer  and  narrower  than  in  that  genus,  and 
the  coloration  of  the  two  sexes  is  distinctly  different. 

Fifteen  species  are  recognised  by  Count  Salvador!,  and  the 
rai-ge  of  the  genus  is  cosmopolitan. 


• 


Scebohm,  Br. 
•art  viii.  (... 


. 

.  3*87(1885); 
. 


dnlt    M 

able  line 

vhiter  rm 

r:the  o 

. 

inner  seconda-. 
ashy-broAv: 

the  chin  I 


• 

. 


mff  i.  :ie  bi 

CO!: 
the  side  of  the  inded  by 


is  Don!-; 


the  f; 

lack  ; 


unites  on 

: 


THE    TEAL.  283 

I.    THE   COMMON    TEAL.       NETTION    CRECCA 

Aims  creaa,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  204  (1766). 

Quei\]iiedula  crecca,  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p.  48  (1852);  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.  vi.  p.  507,  pi.  426  (1871);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p. 

127  (1883);  Saunders,  ed.  Yarn  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  387(1885); 

Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii.  p.  545  (1885);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br. 

B.  part  viii.  (1888) ;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  419  (1889). 
Nettion  crecca,  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  243  (1895). 

(Plate  LVIII.     Fig.  i.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dusky-grey,  with  some- 
what coarse  vermiculations  of  ashy-grey ;  the  scapulars,  lower 
back,  and  rump  browner,  with  darker  centres  to  the  feathers 
and  scarcely  any  vermiculations ;  the  outer  scapulars  black  and 
white,  forming  a  double  line  of  these  colours  ;  the  upper  tail- 
coverts  blackish,  with  whiter  margins ;  wing-coverts  uniform 
ashy-grey,  the  greater  series  broadly  tipped  with  white,  the 
inner  ones  with  cinnamon-buff,  forming  a  band  along  the 
upper  edge  of  the  speculum  ;  the  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts, 
and  quills  dusky-grey,  the  inner  webs  of  the  primaries  browner ; 
the  outer  secondaries  velvety-black,  the  inner  ones  externally 
metallic-green,  or  purplish-blue  in  other  lights,  followed  by  a 
line  of  velvety-black,  of  which  the  outer  web  of  some  of  the 
inner  secondaries  are  composed ;  the  innermost  secondaries 
ashy-brown;  tail-feathers  ashy-brown;  crown  of  head  deep 
cinnamon  or  chestnut,  as  also  the  sides  of  the  face  and  throat ; 
the  chin  black,  extending  in  a  line  at  the  base  of  the  bill  to  the 
forehead,  which  is  also  blackish ;  this  is  succeeded  by  a  line 
of  creamy-buff  in  a  crescent  from  the  base  of  the  bill  to  the 
eye,  and  is  continued  above  the  latter  in  a  narrow  line  along 
the  side  of  the  crown ;  the  eye  is  surrounded  by  a  black  band, 
glossed  with  green  or  purple,  which  unites  on  the  nape,  and 
is  bordered  below  for  some  distance  by  a  line  of  white  con- 
tinuous with  the  line  which  divides  in  front  of  the  eye ;  lower 
eyelid  with  a  white  spot ;  under  surface  of  body  creamy-white  ; 
the  fore-neck  and  breast  more  fulvescent,  and  thickly  spotted 
with  black ;  the  sides  of  the  body  and  flanks  vermiculated  with 
dusky-grey  and  blackish ;  under  tail-coverts  black,  the  longer 
ones  bordered  with  white,  the  basal  ones  white  barred  with 
dusky;  on  each  side  of  the  vent  a  patch  of  crcamy-'huff,  with  a 


284  ALLEN'S   NATURALIST'S   LIBRARY. 

velvety-black  base ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  white ; 
bill  nearly  black ;  feet,  toes,  and  membrane  brownish-grey  ;  iris 
hazel.  Total  length,  14  inches;  culmen,  1*5  ;  wing,  7 'o;  tail, 
27  ;  tarsus,  n. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male.  Dark  brown  above, 
with  crescentic  or  horse-shoe  markings  of  tawny-buff  on  the 
mantle  and  back ;  the  lower  back,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts 
dusky  and  more  blackish-brown,  mottled  with  whitish  edgings 
and  centres  to  the  feathers ;  wing  as  in  the  male,  with  an 
equally  distinct  speculum,  showing  green  in  certain  lights  and 
purplish-blue  in  others ;  the  black  border  to  the  inner  margin 
of  the  speculum  dusky-black,  not  velvety-black ;  crown  of  head 
rufous-brown  with  dusky  streaks ;  sides  of  face  and  throat 
ashy-whitish,  minutely  spotted  with  dusky ;  lores,  a  spot  under 
the  eye,  and  upper  throat  white;  breast  white,  with  a  slight 
reddish  tinge  on  the  fore-neck,  this  and  the  breast  and  flanks 
mottled,  and  the  under  tail-coverts  streaked  with  dark  brown 
centres  to  the  feathers.  Total  length,  15-5  inches:  culmen, 
1-25;  wing,  67;  tail,  2-5;  tarsus,  ri. 

Mr.  De  Winton  writes  to  me  concerning  the  post-nuptial 
plumage  of  the  Teal : — "  In  the  summer  dress  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  tell  the  males  from  the  females,  and  they  resemble  each 
other  more  than  any  Duck  I  know.  After  a  close  inspection, 
the  chief  difference  I  can  find  is  that  the  males  have  a  more 
lead-coloured  head,  with  no  light  stripe  over  the  eye,  but  they 
show  a  little  buff  at  the  sides  of  the  base  of  the  tail.  The 
female  has  a  pale  stripe  over  the  eye,  though  this  is  never  so 
distinct  as  in  the  hen  Garganey." 

Young. — At  first  both  sexes  resemble  the  old  female  in 
plumage,  but  are  more  distinctly  mottled  with  dark  centres 
to  the  feathers  of  the  under  surface,  while  the  wing-coverts 
have  pale  margins. 

Hybrids. — The  Teal  has  been  known  to  cross  with  other 
Ducks,  such  as  the  Mallard  and  Pin-tail,  while  the  so-called 
Bimaculated  Duck  (A.  bimaculata)  is  now  admitted  to  be  a 
hybrid  between  a  Teal  and  a  Mallard. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Teal  nests  in  most  parts  of  the 
British  Islands,  but  more  plentifully  in  the  north.  Mr.  Ussher 
says  that  it  is  reported  to  breed  in  every  county  in  Ireland 


THE   TEAL.  285 

except  Dublin  and  Carlow.  On  migration  there  is  a  large 
increase  in  the  numbers  of  Teal  which  visit  us,  and  the  species 
is  commoner  in  winter. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  range  of  the  present 
species  in  summer  extends  from  Iceland  throughout  Northern 
Europe  and  Asia  to  Bering  Island,  breeding  as  far  north  as 
70°  N.  lat.  In  Southern  Europe  it  is  less  frequent,  though  it 
nests  in  Madeira  and  in  the  Azores,  but  it  is  more  plentiful  in 
the  Mediterranean  countries  in  winter,  when  it  ascends  the 
Nile  Valley  and  visits  Abyssinia.  In  Central  Asia  and  Eastern 
Siberia  the  species  breeds  more  sparingly,'  but  nests  abun- 
dantly in  the  Commander  Islands,  and  it  is  a  common  winter 
visitor  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Indian  Peninsula,  China,  and 
the  Burmese  countries.  It  is  an  occasional  visitor  to  Green- 
land and  the  Eastern  United  States,  as  well  as  to  Alaska. 

Habits. — This  is  the  smallest  of  the  English  Ducks,  and  is 
found  in  winter  in  a  variety  of  places,  on  the  lakes  consorting 
with  the  Mallards  and  Wigeon,  though  keeping  to  itself  in 
small  parties,  which  generally  take  flight  by  themselves.  At 
other  times  Teal  may  be  found  singly  in  water-holes  in  the 
marshes.  Mr.  Seebohm  writes  : — "  Its  habits  differ  very  little 
from  those  of  its  congeners ;  perhaps  it  might  be  said  that  the 
Teal  is  more  partial  to  small  reedy  ponds,  and  less  fond  of 
visiting  the  mud-banks  on  the  sea-shore  than  its  relations; 
but  its  food  is  the  same  mixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances. Its  quack,  or  alarm-note,  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  Garganey,  and  may  be  represented  by  the  syllable  knake> 
but  the  call-note  of  both  sexes  is  a  sharp  krik,  and  in  the  pair- 
ing-season the  drake  utters  a  harsh  grating  noise.  It  is  quite 
as  gregarious  as  its  congeners." 

Like  the  Mallard,  the  Teal  often  builds  its  nest  at  some 
distance  from  water,  and  Lord  Lilford  says  that  he  feels  sure 
that,  in  such  instances,  it  "carries  its  young  to  the  splashy 
spots  in  which  it  delights." 

Nest. — Does  not  differ  from  that  of  the  other  Ducks,  and  is 
lined  with  down.  As  an  instance  of  the  early  nesting  of  the 
Teal,  Mr.  Robert  Read  writes  to  me  : — "  I  have  taken  the  nest 
of  the  Teal  in  May,  under  a  tuft  of  heather  on  a  hillside  over- 
looking a  fresh-water  loch  in  Scotland.  In  the  same  locality 


286  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

I  know  of  a  nest  with  two  fresh  eggs  having  been  found  in 
February,  when  the  ground  was  covered  with  snow.  A  shep- 
herd, seeing  the  hole  in  the  snow,  put  his  head  in,  expecting 
to  get  a  rabbit,  when  out  flew  the  female  bird." 

Eggs. — Eight  to  ten  in  number ;  buffy-white  or  cream-colour, 
some  greenish-white.  Axis,  i'6^-i-g  inches;  diam.,  i'2-i'35. 
Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  they  are,  as  a  rule,  smaller  than  those 
of  the  Garganey,  but  they  can  only  be  distinguished  with 
certainty  by  the  down.  This  is  sooty  or  deep  chocolate-brown, 
with  a  very  conspicuous  star  of  white,  the  tips  not  being  whitish, 
but  brown,  scarcely  visible. 

II.    THE   AMERICAN    TEAL.       NETTION    CAROLINENSE. 

Anas  carolinensis,  Gm.  S.  N,  i.  p.  533  (1788) ;  Seebohm,  Br.  B. 

iii.  p.  549  (1885). 
Querquedula  carolinensis^  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  127  (1883) ; 

Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  421  (1889). 
Nettion  carolinense,  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.   p.   250 

(1895). 

(Plate  LV1 77.     Fig.  2.) 

Adult  Male. — Very  similar  to  that  of  N.  crecca,  but  distin- 
guished by  the  whitish  crescent  on  each  side  of  the  upper  breast ; 
the  whitish  line  which  envelops  the  green  patch  on  the  sides 
of  the  head,  and  passes  to  the  base  of  the  bill,  is  scarcely 
visible,  and  the  scapulars  are  uniform  pale  grey ;  bill  black  ; 
feet  light  fleshy  (horn-colour  when  dried) ;  iris  brown.  Total 
length,  13-5  inches;  culmen,  1-5;  wing,  7-3;  tail,  2-95;  tar- 
sus, n. 

Adult  Female. — Not  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  N. 
crecca. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Three  specimens  of  this  little  Teal 
have  been  captured  in  England,  one  near  Scarborough  in 
1852,  another  in  Hampshire,  and  one  near  Kingsbridge  in 
South  Devon.  Full  particulars  are  given  by  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  in  his  "Manual." 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — An  inhabitant  of  North 
America,  breeding  chiefly  north  of  the  United  States,  and 


THE    PIN-TAILS.  287 

ranging  in  winter  as  far  south  as  Honduras  and  Cuba  (Ridg- 
way). 

HaMts, — Similar  to  those  of  N.  crecca. 

Eggs. — Pale  dull  buff.     Axis,  175  inch;  diam.,  1*28  (Ridg 

way. 

THE    PIN-TAILS.     GENUS    DAFILA. 

Dafila,  Steph.  Gen.  Zool.  xiii.  part  2,  p.  126  (1824). 
Type,  D.  acuta  (L.). 

The  Pin-tailed  Ducks,  though  in  general  structure  much 
resembling  the  members  of  the  preceding  genera,  have  a  dis- 
tinctive character  in  their  long  tail,  the  central  feathers  of 
which  are  elongated  beyond  the  rest  and  pointed.  The  cul- 
men  also  is  nearly  straight. 

With  the  exception  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  the  range 
of  the  genus  Dafila  may  be  said  to  be  almost  cosmopolitan. 
Only  three  species  are  recognised  by  Count  Salvador!,  for  the 
Dafila  modesta  of  Canon  Tristram,  from  the  Fanning  Islands, 
will,  in  all  probability,  prove  to  be  D.  acuta,  which  has  already 
been  procured  in  Borneo  on  its  southern  migration.  D.  eatoni 
inhabits  Kerguelen  Island,  and  the  Crozettes,  and  D.  spini- 
cauda  is  peculiar  to  South  America. 

I.    THE    PIN-TAIL.       DAFILA    ACUTA. 

Anas  acuta,  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  202  (1766)  ;  Seebohm,  Br.  B.  iii, 

p.  534  (1885). 

Querquedula  acuta,  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p.  65  (1852). 
Dafila   acuta,    Dresser,    B.    Eur.    vi.    p.    531,  pis.   430,   431 
(1873);    B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  124  (1883);   Saunders, 
ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  380  (1885);  id.  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  417 
(1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  part  xiii.  (1890) ;  Salvad. 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  273  (1895). 
Adult  Male.— General  colour  above  ashy-grey,  finely  vermicu- 
lated  with  wavy  lines  of  blackish ;  the  long  scapular  plumes 
and  inner  secondaries  bordered  with  white,  and  longitudinally 
centred  with  black,  with  a  slight  inclination  to  form  a  sickle- 
shaped  curve ;  the  upper  scapulars  black  for  the  greater  part 


288  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

of  their  outer  web,  forming  a  large  patch  ;  lower  back  and  rump 
rather  more  dusky  than  the  upper  back ;  the  upper  tail-coverts 
ashy-grey,  with  the  centre  or  outer  webs  black,  and  the  edge 
white ;  the  two  centre  tail-feathers  black,  six  inches  long,  and 
produced  far  beyond  the  tail ;  the  rest  of  the  tail-feathers  grey 
with  white  margins,  the  inner  ones  blackish  on  the  outer  web ; 
wing-coverts  uniform  grey,  the  greater  series  tipped  with  pale 
cinnamon,  forming  a  band  along  the  upper  margin  of  the 
speculum ;  the  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  quills  grey, 
except  the  outer  webs  of  the  latter  and  the  tips,  which  are 
dusky ;  the  secondaries  externally  bronzy-green,  broadly  tipped 
with  white,  before  which  is  a  sub-terminal  bar  of  black ; 
the  inner  secondaries  externally  black,  forming  a  broad  hind 
margin  to  the  speculum ;  crown  of  head,  sides  of  face,  and 
upper  throat  chocolate-brown,  the  crown  slightly  mottled  with 
dusky,  and  the  lower  margin  of  the  throat-patch  inclining  to 
sooty-brown,  with  a  streak  of  bronzy-green  gloss  from  behind 
the  eye  down  the  sides  of  the  nape ;  hind-neck  ashy,  with 
scarcely  any  trace  of  freckling,  separated  from  the  crown  by  a 
patch  of  black  on  the  nape.  Under  surface  of  body  pure  white, 
this  running  up  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  forming  a  broad 
band  which  reaches  to  the  nape ;  the  sides  of  the  body  freckled 
with  narrow  wavy  lines  of  grey ;  on  each  side  of  the  lower 
flanks  a  conspicuous  patch  of  buff;  under  tail-coverts  black, 
the  lateral  ones  edged  with  white  ;  under  wing-coverts  ashy, 
margined  with  white ;  axillaries  white,  with  a  few  dusky  bars 
or  shaft-stripes ;  bill  black,  pale  leaden-blue  on  sides  of  upper 
mandible ;  legs  and  feet  blackish-grey,  paler  on  outside  of  tarsus 
and  web  of  toes  ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  25  inches ;  oilmen, 
2-0 ;  wing,  107;  tail,  5-0;  tarsus,  1-9. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male.  Brown  above,  the 
feathers  edged  with  sandy-buff  or  white  and  barred  or  irregu- 
larly spotted  with  the  same  colour,  the  markings  being  gener- 
ally in  the  shape  of  a  horse-shoe ;  wing-coverts  ashy-grey,  with 
whitish  margins,  more  distinct  on  the  greater  coverts ;  the 
quills  brown,  darker  at  the  ends  ;  the  secondaries  broadly  edged 
with  white  at  the  ends  and  slightly  darker  brown,  but  showing 
no  speculum ;  the  tail-feathers  brown,  margined  with  white 
and  irregularly  barred  with  sandy-buff;  crown  of  head  rufous-,, 
brown,  narrowly  streaked  with  blackish  ;  the  sides  of  the  face 


THE    PIN-TAILS.  289 

fulvescent,  with  tiny  streaks  of  dusky-brown  extending  down 
the  sides  of  the  neck,  but  absent  on  the  throat,  which  is  white ; 
remainder  of  under  surface  of  body  white,  with  a  few  spots  of 
dusky-brown,  only  distinct  on  the  fore-neck  and  sides  of  body 
where  the  feathers  are  centred  with  bars  of  brown ;  under  wing- 
coverts  ashy,  with  whitish  margins;  axillaries  ashy,  with 
irregular  bars  of  white.  Total  length,  18  inches;  culmen,  17  ; 
wing,  97  ;  tail,  4*1 ;  tarsus,  1-5. 

A  speculum  is  present  in  some  birds  said  to  be  females, 
but  it  is  much  less  distinct  than  in  the  males,  and  generally 
consists  of  a  gloss  cf  bronzy-green  on  the  feather. 

The  old  male,  when  out  of  plumage  after  the  breeding-sea- 
son, resembles  the  female,  but  is  much  darker  above  and  more 
spotted  underneath ;  the  bars  on  the  back  are  narrower  and 
more  distinctly  transverse,  instead  of  being  of  a  horse-shoe 
shape ;  the  speculum  is  like  that  of  the  full  plumage. 

Mr.  De  Winton  writes: — "The  two  sexes  in  their  summer 
dress  closely  resemble  each  other.  The  breast,  under-parts, 
and  tail-coverts  of  the  male  are  handsomely  marked  with 
crescent-shaped  spots,  the  general  colour  is  greyer  than  in  the 
female,  and  the  back  does  not  quite  lose  its  distinctive  colour- 
ing. The  bill  is  not  strikingly  bicoloured,  so  that  if  the  two 
birds  are  not  swimming  close  together,  it  is  not  very  easy  to 
distinguish  them." 

Hybrids. — The  Pin-tail  has  been  known  to  cross  with  the 
Mallard,  the  tame  Duck,  the  Teal,  and  the  Shoveler. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Known  almost  entirely  as  a  winter 
visitor,  though  it  probably  breeds  in  a  few  isolated  localities 
in  Scotland.  Mr.  Harvie  Brown  has  taken  eggs  from  the  island 
of  Hysgeir,  off  Canna,  and  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  has  also 
seen  young  birds  on  the  same  island.  It  is  commoner  on  the 
east  of  Scotland  than  on  the  west,  but  is  much  more  frequent 
on  the  south  and  east  coasts  of  England,  being  sometimes 
captured  inland.  Sir  Ralph  Payne-Gallwey  states  that  he  has 
seen  female  Pin-tails  with  young  broods  on  Loughs  Mask  and 
Corrib,  and  has  noticed  the  species  in  summer  on  Lough 
Inagh  in  Connemara.  It  has  also  bred  many  years  ago  near 
Granston  in  Queen's  County,  and  Lord  Castletown  still  pos- 
8  u 


290  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

sesses  the  egg,  according  to  Mr.  R.  J.  Ussher,  who,  however, 
states  that  there  is  "  no  recent  evidence  of  the  Pin-tail  breed- 
ing in  Ireland." 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Pin-tail  is  a  bird  of  very 
wide  distribution.  It  inhabits  America,  breeding  in  the  far 
north  in  Alaska  and  Labrador  up  to  72°  N.  lat.,  wintering  as 
far  south  as  the  West  Indies  and  Panama.  In  the  old  World 
it  breeds  plentifully  in  the  Arctic  Regions  up  to  70°  N.  lat., 
and  as  far  south  as  50°,  but  less  frequently,  and  its  breeding- 
range  extends  across  Northern  Asia  to  Bering  Island.  In 
winter  it  visits  the  Indian  Peninsula  and  China,  and  has  been 
found  as  far  south  as  Borneo,  and  it  doubtless  occurs  even 
farther  to  the  southward. 

Habits. — For  grace  and  elegance  of  form  in  the  water,  the 
Pin-tail  is  probably  the  handsomest  of  our  British  Ducks.  It 
is  essentially  a  fresh-water  species.  Mr.  Seebohm  gives  a  very 
interesting  account  of  his  experiences  with  the  Pin-tail  in  the 
Petchora,  which  space  forbids  me  from  quoting  in  full,  but  I 
give  the  following  extract  from  his  notes  on  the  species  : — "  It 
breeds  in  the  midst  of  moors,  lakes,  rivers,  and  swamps,  but 
during  migration  and  in  winter  it  spends  most  of  its  time  on 
the  sea-shore,  to  feed  on  the  mud-flats  at  low  tide.  It  is  one 
of  the  earliest  Ducks  to  arrive  in  spring,  and  one  of  the  latest 
to  leave  in  autumn.  If  the  ground  be  not  covered  with  snow, 
it  makes  its  appearance  in  North  Germany  about  the  middle 
of  March,  and  passes  through  again  during  the  month  of 
October,  remaining  in  November  until  it  is  frozen  out.  In  its 
habits  it  closely  resembles  the  Mallard,  feeding,  like  the  other 
fresh-water  Ducks,  partly  on  insects  and  molluscs,  and  partly 
on  the  ends  of  grass  and  the  buds  of  water-plants,  but,  like 
the  Mallard,  it  frequents  the  stubble-fields  in  autumn  to  pick 
up  the  fallen  grain.  Its  voice  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
Mallard  and  the  Shoveler,  but  on  the  whole  it  is  a  silent  bird. 
This  may  be  accounted  for  by  its  extreme  wariness  ;  it  takes 
such  great  care  to  avoid  danger,  that  its  alarm-note  of  quack  is 
not  often  required.  Its  call-note  is  a  low  kah  ;  and  Naumann 
says  that,  in  the  pairing-season,  the  male  may  be  seen  swim- 
ming round  the  female,  uttering  a  deep  cliik,  which,  if  the 
observer  be  fortunate  enough  to  be  sufficiently  near  to  hear  it, 


THE    GARGANEYS.  291 

is  preceded  by  a  sound  like  the  drawing-in  of  the  breath,  and 
followed  by  a  low  grating  note." 

Nest. — Somewhat  deep,  with  a  lining  of  grass  and  sedge? 
placed,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  in  the  grass  among  the 
shrubs  in  dry  places,  generally  at  some  distance  from-  the 
water. 

Eggs. — From  seven  to  ten  in  number,  of  a  pale  greenish-buff 
colour.  Axis,  2*05-2-4  inches  ;  diam.,  i -4-1-5.  The  down  is 
dark  brown,  with  scarcely  distinguishable  whitish  filaments  at 
the  tips,  but  having  a  very  prominent  central  star  of  white. 

THE  GARGANEYS.  GENUS  QUERQUEDULA. 

Querquedula,  Steph.  Gen.  Zool.  xii.  part  2,  p.  142  (1824). 

Type,  Q.  querquedula  (L.). 

The  Garganeys,  or  Blue-winged  Teal,  differ  from  the  true 
Teal  (Nettion\  with  which  they  have  generally  been  associated, 
in  the  soft  membrane  which  fringes  the  terminal  portion  of  the 
upper  mandible,  and  the  blue  upper  wing-coverts,  in  which 
respect  they  greatly  resemble  the  Shoveler. 

Out  of  the  five  species  recognised  by  Count  Salvador!  as 
belonging  to  this  genus,  two  are  exclusively  South  American, 
viz.,  Q.  versicolor  and  Q.  puna  ;  two  are  North  American,  Q. 
discors  and  Q.  cyanoptera,  wintering  in  Central  and  South 
America;  and  one,  Q.  querquedula^  is  Palaearctic. 

I.  THE  GARGANEY.   QUERQUEDULA  QUERQUEDULA. 

Anas  querquedula,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  203  (1766). 

Anas  cirda,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  204  (1766);  Seebohm,  Br. 

B.  iii.   p.  551    (1885);    Lilford,  Col.  Fig.    Brit.   B.   part 

xiii.  (1890). 
Querquedula  circia,  Macg.  Br.  B.  v.  p.  55  (1852);  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.  vi.  p.  513,  pi.  427  (1871);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p. 

126  (1883);  Saunders,  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.  iv.  p.  393  (1885); 

id.  Man.  Br.  B.  p.  423  (1889);  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 

xxvii.  p.  293  (1895). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dark  brown,  the  centres 
of  the  feathers  being  blackish  and  the  edgings  reddish-brown  ; 

u  2 


292  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

the  lower  back,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  darker  than  the 
back,  the  feathers  being  blackish  with  ashy-grey  margins ;  tail- 
feathers  dark  brown,  with  paler  edges  ;  wing-coverts  delicate 
lavender-grey,  the  greater  coverts  broadly  tipped  with  white, 
forming  a  broad  band  across  the  wing  and  making  the  upper 
border  of  the  speculum  ;  bastard-wing  and  primary-coverts  ashy- 
brown,  with  rather  broad  white  margins  ;  quills  blackish,  more 
ashy  on  the  inner  web ;  secondaries  dusky-brown,  externally 
dull  metallic-green  and  broadly  tipped  with  white,  forming  the 
lower  border  to  the  green  speculum  ;  inner  secondaries  brown 
edged  with  whitish,  and  externally  ashy  near  the  base,  the 
innermost  blue-grey  ;  the  adjoining  scapulars  long  and  slightly 
sickle-shaped,  black  with  a  slight  greenish  gloss,  and  relieved 
by  a  well-defined  white  longitudinal  streak  along  the  shaft; 
crown  of  head  blackish,  extending  to  the  nape  ;  a  few  pale  shaft- 
streaks  on'the  forehead  ;  from  above  the  eye  a  broad  band  of 
white  skirting  the  black ;  lores,  sides  of  face,  and  throat  deep 
vinous-red,  with  numerous  tiny  shaft-streaks  of  white  ;  the  fore- 
neck  and  breast  sandy-buff,  thickly  barred  with  lines  and 
circular  marks  of  blackish  ;  abdomen  white,  or  with  a  buff 
tinge,  especially  on  the  under  tail-coverts,  which  are  mottled 
and  streaked  with  brown  centres ;  sides  of  body  white,  with 
fine  cross-bars  of  greyish-black,  with  a  double  band  of  white 
and  blue-grey  divided  by  a  black  line  on  each  side  of  the  lower 
flanks ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  white,  the  edge  of  the 
wing  bluish-grey ;  bill  black  ;  feet  greyish-brown  ;  iris  hazel. 
Total  length,  16  inches;  culmen,  1*55;  wing,  7-3;  tail,  27; 
tarsus,  i*o. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male.  General  colour 
above  dark  brown,  with  rufescent  edges  to  the  feathers ;  lower 
back  and  rump  somewhat  darker,  with  whitish  margins ;  upper 
tail-coverts  brown,  edged  and  barred  with  rufescent  or  buffy- 
white  ;  tail-feathers  similar  to  those  of  the  male  ;  wing-coverts 
light  brown,  washed  with  ashy-grey;  the  greater  coverts  margined 
with  white,  forming  a  white  wing-bar  ;  quills  dark  brown,  the 
secondaries  blackish,  tipped  with  white ;  crown  of  head  minutely 
streaked  with  brown  and  buffy-white,  as  also  the  sides  of  the 
face  and  neck,  becoming  lighter  on  the  hind-neck;  an  indistinct 
eyebrow  of  dull  white  ;  chin  and  throat  white  ;  lower  throat 
longitudinally  streaked  with  minute  brown  centres  to  the 


THE   GARGANEYS.  293 

feathers,  like  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  the  feathers  on  the  fore- 
neck  and  sides  of  body  white,  mottled  with  brown  centres ;  re- 
mainder of  under  surface  buffy-white,  with  indistinct  brown 
centres  to  some  of  the  feathers,  becoming  pear-shaped  on 
the  under  tail-coverts ;  under  wing-coverts  white,  the  outer 
ones  brown,  edged  with  white;  axillaries  pure  white.  Total 
length,  14*3  inches  ;  wing,  6'8. 

Young  Birds. — At  first  resemble  the  old  female,  but  the 
colour  is  rather  darker  and  the  breast  is  more  rufous.  They 
are  very  like  young  Teal,  but  can  be  distinguished  by  the 
absence  of  the  green  speculum. 

In  post-nuptial  plumage  the  colour  of  the  male  becomes 
like  that  of  the  old  female,  but  it  can  always  be  distinguished 
by  its  brighter  green  speculum.  The  hen-like  dress  is  retained 
for  a  longer  period  than  in  most  Ducks,  and  remains  of  it  can 
be  seen  in  specimens  shot  well  into  the  winter  season. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Garganey,  or  Summer  Teal,  as  it 
is  also  called,  comes  to  England  in  the  spring,  and  nests  in  the 
eastern  counties,  but  is  of  irregular  occurrence  elsewhere.  Mr. 
De  Winton  writes  to  me  : — "  It  is  possible  that  the  Garganey 
succeeds  in  rearing  a  brood  in  parts  of  England  not  yet 
recorded.  An  occasional  pair  visit  Herefordshire,  and  I  have 
known  them  to  be  shot  as  late  as  May,  when  they  ought  to  be 
hatching  off.  In  1894,  Mr.  Ashdown,  the  well-known  local 
taxidermist,  received  a  pair  in  the  second  week  in  May." 

In  Scotland  and  Ireland  and  the  greater  part  of  England 
the  Garganey  is  only  of  occasional  occurrence  in  spring,  and 
again  on  its  return  migration  in  autumn. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  range  of  the  Garganey 
seems  to  be  more  southerly  than  that  of  the  other  species.  It 
is  only  known  as  an  accidental  visitor  to  Scandinavia,  the 
Faroes,  and  Iceland,  but  breeds  throughout  the  rest  of  Europe 
and  as  far  north  as  Archangel.  In  Asia  it  is  found  breeding 
in  Turkestan  and  Southern  Siberia,  but  not  in  Northern  Asia. 
In  winter  the  Garganey  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  the 
Black  and  the  Caspian  Seas,  and  extends  as  far  south  as 
Somali-land,  while  in  the  east  it  is  plentiful  during  the  winter 
in  India  and  China,  and  goes  as  far  as  Borneo  and  the  Moluc- 
cas. 


294  ALLEN'S  NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY. 

Habits.  —In  its  ways  the  Garganey  resembles  the  Teal,  but 
Mr.  Seebohm  calls  attention  to  a  few  slight  peculiarities  in 
the  habits  of  this  species,  viz.,  its  intolerance  of  cold,  which  is 
apparently  the.  reason  that  the  bird  does  not  venture  so  far 
north  as  its  congeners,  and  accounts  also  for  its  earlier  depar- 
ture south.  Its  flight  is  very  rapid,  but  almost  noiseless,  and 
altogether  the  Garganey  is  somewhat  of  a  silent  species.  He 
adds  : — "  Its  quack  is  not  so  loud  as  that  of  the  Mallard,  but 
is  in  a  slightly  higher  key ;  it  may  be  represented  by  the 
syllable  knake,  whence  the  German  name  for  this  duck  '  knak- 
ente.' "  It  is  generally  uttered  singly,  but  is  sometimes  re- 
peated twice.  The  quack  is  common  to  both  sexes,  but  in 
the  breeding-season  the  male  utters  a  harsh  grating  note  re- 
sembling kr-r-r" 

Nest — According  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  this  is  placed  in  a  variety 
of  positions — hidden  under  a  bush  or  in  thick  grass  or  sedge, 
far  away  from  water  in  the  forest  or  among  the  corn,  anywhere 
and  everywhere  where  a  hidden  retreat  can  be  found.  It  is 
made  very  deep,  and  is  lined  with  dead  grass  and  leaves,  to 
which  plenty  of  down  is  afterwards  added. 

Eggs. — From  eight  to  twelve,  sometimes  as  many  as  fourteen  ; 
buffy-white  or  cream-colour.  Axis,  1*7-1*8  inch;  diam.,  1*3. 

Down. — Very  dark,  sooty-black  in  colour,  with  indistinct 
filamentous  tips  of  ashy-white,  and  a  small  but  tolerably  well- 
marked  star  of  white  in  the  centre  of  the  down. 

II.   THE   BLUE-WINGED   TEAL.      QUERQUEDULA    DISCORS. 

Anas  discors.  Linn.  S.  N.  i.  p.  205  (1766). 

Querquedula  discors,  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.  p.  126  (1883);  Saun- 
ders,  ed.  Yarr.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  392  (1884) ;  id.  Man.  p.  422 
(1889);  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  300  (1895). 

Adult  Male. — Differs  from  Q.  querquedula  in  having  the 
wing-coverts  bright  smalt-blue  instead  of  pale  blue,  and  also 
by  having  a  crescent-shaped  white  band  between  the  eyes  and 
the  bill  of  the  male  •  the  throat  and  sides  of  the  face  are  sooty- 
grey,  and  the  crown  of  the  head  black ;  the  under  surface  of 
the  body  is  much  darker  than  in  Q.  querquedula,  and  is  thickly 
spotted  all  over  with  dusky  markings  ;  bill  black  ;  feet  yellow- 


THE    GARGANEYS.  295 

ish  ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  14-5  inches  ;  culmen,  1 7  ;  wing, 
7 '6;  tail,  3-0;  tarsus,  1-3. 

Adult  Female. — Darker  than  the  female  of  Q.  querquedula^  and 
easily  distinguished  by  its  blue  wings  and  dusky  speculum  ;  the 
under  surface  of  the  body  deep  buff,  thickly  mottled  with  brown 
centres  to  the  feathers,  very  broad  on  the  flanks.  Total  length, 
14  inches  ;  wing,  7*0. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  purely  accidental  visitor,  of  which 
only  one  authentic  occurrence  is  known,  a  male  bird  having 
been  shot  near  Dumfries.  The  species  has  also  been  procured 
in  Denmark,  in  April,  1886. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands — North  America  in  general, 
but  chiefly  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  winter,  the  whole 
of  the  West  Indies  and  Middle  America,  south  to  Ecuador 
(Ridgiuay). 

Habits. — Similar  to  those  of  Q. '  querquedula. 
Eggs. — Pale  buff.     Axis,  1*84  inch;  diam.,  i'34- 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


Abyssinian  Roller.     74. 
abyssinicus,  Coracias.     74. 
acadica,  Nyctala.     102. 
Acanthyllis  caudacuta.     43. 
acuta,  Anas.     287. 

Dafila.     287. 

Querquedula.     287. 
Accipiter.      141. 

korschun.     171. 

major.     144. 

melanochistus.     144. 

melanoleucus.     142. 

nisus.      141,  142. 
Accipitres.     76,  in. 
Accipitriformes.     76. 
accipitrina,  Strix.     96. 
Accipitringe.     124. 
accipitrinus,  Asio.     96,  97. 
zegyptiaca,  Chenalopex.     257. 
cegyptius,  Caprimulgus.     50. 
sequatorialis,  lynx.     16. 
Aeronautes.     38. 
icruginosus,  Circus.     133,  135. 
cesalon,  Falco.      187. 
affinis,  Micropus.     36. 
africana,  Upupa.     59. 
africanus,  Micropus.     39. 
alaudarius,  Tinnunculus.     201. 
albatus,  Anser.     225. 

Chen.     225. 
albicilla,  Haliaetus.      162,  163. 

Vultur.     163. 
albifrons,  Anser.     227,  230,  231. 

Branta.     230. 
Alcedinidae.     64. 
Alcedininae.     62. 
Alcedo.     66. 

alcyon.     65. 


Alcedo  bengalensis.     68. 

ispida.     64,  66,  67. 
alcyon,  Alcedo.     65. 

Ceryle.     62,  65. 
Alcyone.     64. 
aldrovandi,  Scops.     Si. 
Aluco  flammeus.     108. 
aluco,  Strix.     100. 

Syrnium.      100. 

Ulula.     100 
American  Cuckoos.     30. 

Gos-Hawk.      140. 

Hawk-Owl.     89. 

Teal.     286. 

Tufted  Owl.     82. 

Wigeon.     281. 
americana,  Anas.     281. 

Mareca.     281. 
americanus,  Asio.     95. 

Coccyzus.     30. 

Cuculus.     30,  33. 

Cygnus.     246. 
amurensis,  Cerchneis.     209. 
analis,  Dendrocopus.      I. 
Anas.     269. 

acuta.     287. 

americana.     281. 

boscas.     269. 

boschas.     269. 

casarca.     263. 

carolinensis.     286. 

circia.     291. 

clypeata.     265. 

crecca.     283. 

cygnus.     247. 

discors.     294. 

fabalis.     232. 

leucopsis.     236. 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


297 


Anas  penelope.     277. 

penelops.     277. 

segetum.     232. 

strepera.     273. 

tadorna.     258. 

querquedula.     291. 
Anatidne.     224. 
Anatin;«.     257. 
Anser.     225,  227. 

albatus.     225. 

albifrons.     227,  230,  231. 

anser.     227. 

brachyrhynchus.     234. 

branta.     239. 

branta  glaucogaster.     239. 

gambeli.     231. 

hyperboreus.     225. 

indicus.     224, 225. 

leucopsis.     237. 

rubrirostris.     229. 

ruficollis.     243. 

segetum.     232. 

segetum  brachyrhynchus.     234. 

serrirostris.     233. 
Anseres.     224. 
Anseriformes.     223. 
Anserinre.     224. 
Ant-Eaters.     2. 
apiaster,  Merops.     54.  57. 
apivorus,  Falco.     177. 

Pernis.      176,  177. 
apus,  Cypselus.     40. 

Hirundo.     40. 

Micropus.     35,  36,  38,  39,  40. 
Aquila.      153,   156. 

chrysaetus.      156,  162. 

clanga.     159. 

hastata.     159,  161. 

lagopus.      154. 

maculata.      159,   161. 

naevia.      159. 

pomarina.      161,  162. 
Aquilinoe.      152,  174. 
Archibuteo.     153. 

lagopus.      153,  154. 

sancti  johannis.      155. 
Asio.     93. 

accipitrinus.     96,  97. 

americonus.     95. 


Asio  brachyotus.     96. 

capensis.     98. 

galapagensis.     98. 

otus.     93,94. 

sandwichensis.     98. 
asio,  Scops.     82. 
Astur.     136. 

atricapillus.      140,  141. 

palumbarius.      136,  137,  141. 
ater,  Milvus.      171. 
Athene  noctua.     91. 
atrata,  Chenopsis.     246. 
atricapillus,  Astur.     140,  141. 

Falco.     140. 

bactriana,  Carine.     92. 
Bald  Eagle.      165. 
Banded  Kingfisher.     64. 
Barn-Owl.     77,  107,  108,  no. 
bassana,  Sula.     218. 
bassanus,  Dysporus.     218. 
Bean-Goose.     231,  232. 
Bee-Eater.     53,  64. 

Blue-tailed.     57. 

Common.     54. 

Long-tailed.     54. 
Belted  Kingfisher.     62,  64,  65. 
Bengal  Vulture.     118. 
bengalensis,  Alcedo.     68. 

Pseudogyps.     118. 
Bernacle  Goose.     236. 
bernicla,  Branta.     236,  239,  240. 
Bernicla  canadensis.     225. 

leucopsis.     237. 

ruficollis.     243. 
bewicki,  Cygnus.     252. 
Bewick's  Swan.     252. 
bimaculata,  Querquedula.     284. 
Bimaculated  Duck.     284. 
Black  Gyr-Falcon.      196. 
Black  Kite.     171. 
Black- necked  Swan.     246. 
Black-shouldered  Kite.      173. 
Black  Swan.     246. 
Black-and-White  Kingfisher.     65. 
blakistoni,  Bubo.     80. 
Blue  Kingfishers.     66. 
Blue-tailed  Beef-Eater.     57. 
Blue-winged  Teal.     290,  294. 


298 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


borealis,  Buteo.      151. 

Falco.      151. 
boscas,  Anas.     269. 
boschas,  Anas.     269. 
brachyotus,  Asio.     96. 

Strix.     97. 

Brachypteraciince.     70. 
brachyrhynchus,  Anser.     234. 
Branta.     236. 
Branta  albifrons.     230. 

bernicla.     236,  239. 

glaucogaster.     240. 

hutchinsi.     236. 

leucopsis.     236. 

nigricans.     236,  240. 

minima.     236. 

occidentalis.     236. 
branta,  Anser.     239. 

Bernicla.     239,  240. 
brasiliensis,  Scops.     82,  83. 
Brent  Geese.     224.  236,  239. 
Broad-billed  Rollers.     71. 
Bubo.     77,  78. 

bubo.     78. 

blakistoni.     80. 

ignavus.     78. 

maculosus.     80. 

maximus.     79. 

turcomanus.     80. 

virginianus.     80. 
bubo,  Strix.     78. 
Bubonidre.     77. 
buccinator,  Cygnus,     246. 
Buccones.     I. 
Bucerotes.     33,  58. 
Bulbul,  Gold-vented.     80. 
Burrowing-Owls.     77. 
Bush  Cuckoos.     20,  21. 
Buteo.     147. 

borealis.     151. 

buteo.     147,  150. 

desertorum.     149,  150- 

fuscus.     147. 

lagopus.     154. 

lineatus.     152. 

vulgaris.     147. 
buteo,  Buteo.     147,  150. 

Falco.     147. 
Buteoninae.     123,  146. 


Buzzard,  Common.     147. 

Desert.      150. 

Red-shouldered.      152. 

Red-tailed.      152. 
Buzzard -Eagle.     153. 

Rough-legged.     154. 
Buzzards.     123,  146,  147. 

cseruleus,  Elanus.      174. 

Falco.     174. 
Canada  Goose.     225. 
canadensis,  Bernicla.     225. 
candicans,  Falco.     191. 

Falco  gyrfalco.     195. 

Hierofalco.     191. 
canorus,  Cuculus.     23,  24,  31. 
capensis,  Asio.     98. 

Pycnonotus.     80. 

Scops.     83. 
Caprimulgi.     45. 
Caprimulgidce.     45. 
Caprimulgus.     45. 

segyptius.     50. 

europceus.     45,  46,  50,  52, 

ruficollis.     51. 

unwini.     48. 
carbo,  Pelecanus.     211,  214. 

Phalacrocorax.     2 1 1 . 
Carine.     77,  90. 

bactriana.     92. 

glaux.     92. 

noctua.     90,  91,  104. 
carolinense,  Nettion.     286. 
carolinensis,  Anas.     285. 

Querquedula.     285. 
Casarca.     262. 

casarca.     262, 263. 

rutila.     263. 
casarca,  Anas.     263. 

Casarca.     262,  263. 

Tacforna.     263. 
caudacuta,  Acanthyllis.     43. 

Choetura.     35,  43. 

Hirundo.     43. 
cenchris,  Cerchneis.     204. 

Falco.     204. 

Tinnunculus.     204. 
Centropodinse.     20. 
Cerchneis.     200. 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


299 


Cerchneis  amurensis.     209. 

cenchris.     204. 

naumanni.     204. 

tinnunculus.     200,  201. 

vespertina.     207,  210. 
Certhiidae.     2. 
Ceryle.     64,  65. 

alcyon.     62,  65. 

rudis.     64, 65. 
Ceyx.     63. 
Chsctura.     35. 

caudacuta.     43. 

pelagica.     43. 
Chceturime.     42. 
Chanting  Gos-Hawks.     124. 
Chaulelasmus.     273. 

streperus.     273. 
Chen.     225. 

albatus.     225. 

hyperboreus.     225. 

nivalis.     227. 

Chenalopex  iKgyptiaca.     257. 
Chenonetta.    224. 
Chenonettinse.     257. 
Chenopsis  atrata.     246. 
Chilian  Swan.     246. 
Chloephaga.     224. 
chrysaetus,  Aquila.     156,  162. 

Falco.      156. 

cineraceus,  Circus.     129. 
cinereus,  Anser.     228. 
Circaetus.     153. 

gallicus.     176. 
circia,  Anas.     291. 

Querquedula.     291, 
Circus.     124. 

reruginosus.     133,  138. 

cineraceus.     129. 

cyaneus.      124,  125. 

pygargus.      129. 

spilonotus.     135. 
cissa,  Dendrocopus.     9. 
clanga,  Aquila.      159. 
clypeata,  Anas.     265. 

Rhynchaspis.     266. 

Spatula.     265. 
Coccyges.      19. 
Coccystes.     21. 

glandarius.     21. 


Coccyzus.     30. 

americanus.     30. 

occidentalis.     31. 
Colics.     33. 
Collocalia.     35,  43. 

fuciphaga.     35. 

linchii.     35. 
Common  Bee-Eater.     54. 

Buzzard.     147. 

Cuckoo.     24. 

Flamingo.     222. 

Gos-Hawk.      137. 

Hoopoe.     59. 

Kestrel.     201. 

Kingfisher.     67. 

Kite.     1 68. 

Roller.     71. 

Sheld-Duck.     258. 

Sparrow-Hawk.     142. 

Swift.     40. 

Teal.     283. 

Wryneck.     16. 
communis,  Falco.      181. 
Coraciae.     70. 
Coracias.     71. 

abyssinicus.     74. 

garrulus.     71,  74,  75. 

indicus.     75. 

leucocephalus.     74. 
Coraciidse.     70. 
Coraciiformes.     76. 
Cormorants.     210,  211,  218. 
cornuta,  Tadorna.     258. 
Corythornis.     64, 67. 
Coscoroba  coscoroba.     246. 

melanocoryphus.     246. 
coscoroba,  Coscoroba.     246. 
Coues'  Gadwall.     272. 
crecca,  Anas.     283. 

Nettion.     283,  286. 

Querquedula.     283. 
Crested  Cuckoos.     21. 

Eagles.     153. 

Kingfishers.     64. 
croaticus,  Phalacrocorax.     216. 
Crotophaga.     19. 
Crotophaginae.     2 1 . 
Cuckoo.     19,  20. 

American.     30. 


300 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


Cuckoo,  Bush.     20,  21. 

Common.     24. 

Crested.     21. 

Great  Spotted.     21. 

Lark -heeled.     20. 

True.     20,  21,  23. 

Yellow-billed.     30. 
Cuculince.     20,  21. 
Cuculus.     23. 

americanus.     30,  33. 

canorus.     23,  24,  31. 

glandarius.     21. 
cyaneus,  Circus.      124,  125. 

Falco.     125. 

cyanocephala,  Eudynamis.     20. 
Cygninae.     246. 
Cygnus.     246. 

americanus.     246. 

bewicki.     252. 

buccinator.     246. 

immutabilis.     255. 

musicus.     247. 

olor.     246,  254,  255. 
cygnus.  Anas.     247. 
Cypseli.     34. 
Cypselidre.     35,  38. 
Cypselinae.     37,  38. 
Cypselus  apus.     40. 

melba.     38. 

pekinensis.     41. 

Dacelo  gigas.     63. 
Daceloninse.     62,  64. 
Dafila.     287. 

acuta.     287. 

eatoni.     287. 

modesta.     287. 

spinicauda.     287. 
danfordi,  Dendrocopus.      14. 
delicatula,  Strix.     108. 
Dendrocolaptidae.     2. 
Dendrocopus.     7. 

analis.     I. 

cissa.     9. 

danfordi.      14. 

leuconotus.     4. 

leucopterus.     9. 

lignarius.     8. 

major.     8,  9,  10. 


Dendrocopus  minor.     10,  n,  14. 

mixtus.     8. 

pipra.     14. 

poelzami.     9. 

pubescens.      n,  12. 

quadrifasciatus.     14. 

villosus.     10. 
Desert  Buzzard.     150. 
desertorum,  Buteo.     149,  150. 

Falco.     150. 

desmaresti,  Phalacrocorax.     216. 
Diplopterinoe.     21. 
discors,  Anas.     294. 

Querquedula.    294. 
Double-toothed  Kite-Falcons.    177. 
Downy  Owlets.      102. 

Woodpecker,      n. 
Duck,  Bimaculated.     284. 

Wild.     269. 
Ducks,  Sheld-.     257. 

True.     257,  269. 

Eagle,  Bald.     165. 

Buzzard.     153. 

Crested.     153. 

Golden.     156. 

Harpy.     146. 

Hawk.     153. 

Lesser  Spotted.     156. 

Sea.     153,  162. 

Snake.     153,  176. 

True.      156. 

White-tailed.     163. 
Eagle-Owls.     77,  78. 
eatoni,  Dafila.     287. 
Egyptian  Goose.     257. 
Egyptian  Scavenger  Vulture.      1 20. 
Elanoides.     166. 

furcatus.     166. 
Elanus.     173. 

cieruleus.     174. 
epops,  Upupa.     59. 
ernesti,  Falco.     182. 
Eudynamis  cyanocephala.     20. 
europoeus,  Caprimulgus.    45,  50,  5^ 
European    Black-shouldered    Kit 

174. 

Eurystomus.     71. 
Eutolmaetus.      153. 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


fabalis,  Anas.     232. 
Falco.     1 80. 

sesalon.     187. 

apivorus.     177. 

atricapillus.      140. 

borealis.     151. 

buteo.     147. 

caeruleus.     174. 

candicans.      191. 

cenchris.     204. 

chrysaetus.      159. 

communis.     181. 

cyaneus.     125. 

desertorum.     150. 

ernesti.     182. 

furcatus.     1 66. 

gyrfalco.     192,  194,  197. 

islandicus.     194,  195. 

islandus.      191,  192. 

lagopus.      154. 

lineatus.     152. 

maculatus.      159. 

migrans.      171. 

milvus.     1 68. 

nsevius.     159. 

nisus.      142. 

palumbarius.      137. 

peregrinator.      182. 

peregrinus.     180,  181. 

punicus.      182. 

pygargus.     129. 

regulus.     187. 

subbuteo.     184. 

tinnunculus.     201. 

vespertinus.     207. 
Falconidse.     116,  123. 
Falconing.     180. 
Falcons,  Gyr-.     191. 

Peregrine.      181,  182. 

True,  1 80. 

Fish-eating  Kingfishers.     62,  64. 
Fishing-Owls.     77. 
Fissirostres.     34. 
Flamingo.     221. 

Common.     222. 
flammea,  Strix.      106,  107,  108. 
flammeus,  Aluco.     108. 
Fregati.     210. 
Frigate  Birds.     210. 


Frog-mouths.     33. 
fuciphaga,  Collocalia.     35. 
fulvescens,  Gyps.     118. 
fulvus,  Gyps.     116,117,119. 

Vultur.     117. 
funerea,  Strix.     89. 

Surnia.     87,  88,  89. 

Syrnia.     89. 
furcatus,  Elanoides.     166. 

Falco.     1 66. 

Nauclerus.     166. 
fuscus,  Buteo.     147, 

Gadwalls.     273. 

Gadwall,  Coues'.     273. 

galapagensis,  Asio.     98. 

Galbulse.     i. 

gallicus,  Circaetus.      176. 

gambeli,  Anser.     231. 

gambensis,  Plectropterus.     225. 

Gampsonyx.      174. 

Gannets.     210,  218. 

Garganey.     291. 

garrulus,  Coracias.      /I,  74,  75. 

Gecinus.     5. 

sharpii.     5,  6. 

vaillanti.     5. 

viridis.     5. 
Geese.     223,  224. 

Brent.     224,  236. 

Snow.     225. 

True.     227. 
Geranpspizias.     124. 
Giant  Kingfisher.     63. 
gigas,  Dacelo.     63. 
ginginianus,  Neophron.     121. 
giu,  Scops.     8 1. 
glandarius,  Coccystes.     21. 

Cuculus.     21. 

Oxylophus.     21. 
Glaucidium.     77,  90. 

passerinum.     90. 
glaucogaster,  Anser.     239. 

Branta.     240. 
glaux,  Carine.     92. 
Golden  Eagle.     156. 
Gold-vented  Bulbul.     80. 
Goose,  Bean.     231,  232. 

Bernacle.     236. 


302 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


Goose,  Brent.     239. 

Canada.     225. 

Egyptian.     257- 

Grey  Lag-.     231. 

Indian.     225. 

Kelp.     224. 

Maned.     224. 

Pink-footed.     234. 

Red-breasted.     243. 

Spur-winged,     225. 

White-fronted.     230. 
Gos-Hawks.     136. 

American.     140. 

Chanting.     124. 

Common.     137. 
govinda,  Milvus.     172. 
graculus,  Pelecanus.     215. 

Phalacrocorax.     215. 
grandis,  lyngipicus.     I. 
Grass-Owls.     107. 
Great  Black  Woodpecker.     4. 
Great  Harpy  Eagle.     146. 
Great  Spotted  Cuckoo.     21. 
Great  Spotted  Woodpecker,     8. 
grebnitskii,  Hierofalco.      196. 
Greenland  Gyr-Falcon.     191. 
Green  Woodpecker.     3,  5. 

Sharpe's.     5. 

Vaillant's.     5. 
Grey  Gyr-Falcons.     193,  196,  197. 

Kite-Falcons.      176. 

Lag-Goose.     231. 
Griffon  Vultures.     116,  117. 
Ground  Rollers.     70. 
Guacharos.     33. 
Guira,  19. 
Gypoictinia.     174. 
Gyps.     116. 

fulvescens.     in. 

fulvus.      116,117,119. 

hispaniolensis.     117. 

rueppelli,  117. 
gyrfalco,  Falco.     192,  194,  197. 

Hierofalco.     193,  196,  197. 
Gyr-Falcon.      191. 

Black.      196. 

Greenland.     191. 

Grey.     193,  196,  197. 

Henderson's.     191. 


Gyr-Falcon,  Holboell's.   193,  196. 
Iceland.     194,  196. 
Norwegian.     196. 
Saker.     191. 

Hairy  Woodpecker.     10. 
Halcyon  smyrnensis.     64. 
Halcyones.     62,  63,  64. 
Haliaetus.     153,  162. 

albicilla.     162,  163. 

leucogaster.     163,  165. 
haliaetus,  Pandion.     112. 
Haliastur.      153,  165. 
Harpagus.      177. 
harpyia,  Thrasaetus.     146. 
Harrier,  Hen-.     125,  126. 

Marsh-.     133. 

Montagu's.      129. 
Harriers.      124. 
hastata,  Aquila.     159,161. 
Hawk -Eagles.     153. 
Hawk-Owl.     77,  84,  87. 

American.     89. 

European.     87. 

Hawks,  Long-legged.     123,  124. 
hendersoni,  Hierofalco.      191. 
Henderson's  Gyr-Falcon.     191. 
Ilen-Harrier.      125,  126. 
Henicopernis.      174. 
Hierofalco.     191. 

candicans.     191. 

grebnitskii.     196. 

gyrfalco.     193,  196,  197. 

hendersoni.     191. 

holboelli.     193,  196,  199. 

islandicus.      194,  199. 

islandus.      195. 

mexicanus.     191. 

obsoletus.      196. 

saker.     191. 

uralensis.     196. 
Hirundo  apus.     40. 

caudacuta.     43. 

melba.     38. 

rustica.     36,  37. 
hispaniolensis,  Gyps.      117. 
Hobby.      184. 

holboelli,     Hierofalco.     193,    196, 
199. 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


303 


Holboell's  Gyr-Falcon.     193,  196. 
Honey-Kite.     176,  177. 
Hoopoe.     58. 

Common.     59. 

Indian.     59. 

True.     59. 
Hornbills.     33,  58. 
Horned  Owls.     93. 
Humming-Birds.     2,  33,  34. 
hutchinsi,  Branta.     236. 
hyperboreus,  Anser.     225. 

Chen.     225. 

Iceland  Gyr-Falcon.     194,   196. 
Ictinia.     176. 
ictinus,  Milvus.     168. 
ignavus,  Bubo.     78. 
immutabilis,  Cygnus.     255. 
Indian  Goose.     225. 

Hoopoe.     59. 

Roller.     75. 

Swift.     36. 
indicus,  Anser.     224,  225. 

Coracias.     75. 
insularis,  Strix.     108. 
Isabelline  Night-Jar.     50. 
islandicus,  Falco.     194. 

Hierofalco.     194,  199. 
islandus,  Falco.      191,  192,  195. 

Hierofalco.     195. 
ispida,  Alcedo.     64,  66,  67. 
Ispidina.     63. 
lynginoe.     4. 
lyngipicus  grandis.      I. 
lynx.     15,  1 6. 

tequatorialis.     16. 

pectoralis.     16. 

pulchricollis.     16. 

torquilla.     1 6. 

Jacamars.      I. 

Kelp  Goose.     224. 
Kestrel.     200. 

Common.     201. 

Lesser.     204. 

Red-footed.     207,  209. 
Ketupa.     77. 
Kingfisher.     62. 


Kingfisher,  Banded.     64. 

Belted.     62,  64,  65. 

Black-and-White.     65. 

Blue.     66. 

Common.     67. 

Crested.     64. 

Giant.     63. 
Kite,  Black.     171. 

Black-shouldered.     173,  174. 

Brahminy.      165. 

Common.      168. 

Honey.     176,  177. 

Red.     1 68. 

Riocour's.      166. 
korschun,  Accipiter.     171. 

Milvus.      171. 

lagopus,  Aquila.     154. 
Archibuteo.     153,  154. 
Buteo.     154. 
Falco.     154. 
Laniidre.     in. 
Larger  Spotted  Eagle.     159. 
Lark-heeled  Cuckoos.     20. 
Leptodon.     174. 
Leptosomati .     33. 
Lesser  Kestrel.     204,  205. 
Spotted  Eagle.      156. 
Spotted  Woodpecker.     12. 
leucocephalus,  Coracias.     74. 

Pandion.     113. 

leucogaster,  Haliaetus.     163,  165. 
leuconotus,  Dendrocopus.     4. 
leucopsis,  Anas.     236. 
Anser.     237. 
Bernicla.     237. 
Branta.     236. 

leucopterus,  Dendrocopus.     9 
lignarius,  Dendrocopus.     8. 
linchii,  Collocalia.     35. 
lineatus,  Buteo.     152. 

Falco.      152. 
Little  Owls.     77,  90,  91. 
Long-eared  Owl.     94,  95. 
Long-legged  Hawks.      123,  124. 
Long-tailed  Bee-Eaters.     54. 

Machcerhamphus.     174. 
Machrochires.     34. 


304 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


Macropteryginre.     37. 
maculata,  Aquila.      159,  161. 
maculatus,  Falco.      159. 
maculosus,  Bubo.     80. 
Madagascar  Rollers.     33. 
major,  Accipiter.      144. 

Dendrocopus.     8,  9,  10. 

Picus.     8. 
Malacorhynchus.     265. 

membranaceus.     265. 
Mallard.     269. 
Maned  Goose.     224. 
Mareca.     276. 

americana.     281. 

penelope.     276,  281. 
marginata,  Upupa.     59. 
Marsh-  Harrier.     133. 
martins,  Picus.     4. 
maximus,  Bubo.     79. 
melanochistus,  Accipiter.     144. 
melanocoryphus,  Coscoroba.     246. 
melanoleucus,  Accipiter.      142. 
melanotis,  Milvus.      172. 
melba,  Cypselus.     38. 

Hirundo.     38. 

Micropus.     35,  38, 
Melierax.     124. 
membranaceus,      Malacorhynchus. 

265. 

Merlin.      187. 
Meropidre.     54. 
Meropes.     53,  54. 
Merops  apiaster.     54»  57- 

philippensis.     57. 
mexicanus,  Hierofalco.      191. 
Micrastur.     125. 
Micropus.     38. 

affinis.     36. 

africanus.     39. 

apus.     35,  36,  38',  39,  40. 

melba.     35,  38. 

murarius.     40. 
migrans,  Falco.      171. 

Milvus.      171. 
Milvus.     167. 

ater.    171. 

govinda.      172. 

ictinus.     1 68. 

korschun.      171. 


Milvus  melanotis.      172. 

migrans.      171. 

milvus.     167,  1 68. 

regalis.     161. 
milvus,  Falco.     168. 

Milvus.     167,  1 68. 
minima,  Branta.     176. 
minor,  Dendrocopus.     10,  n,  14. 

Picus.      12. 

mix! us.  Dendrocopus.     8. 
modesta,  Dafila.     287. 
monachus,  Neophron.     120. 
Montagu's  Harrier.      129. 
Moth-plumaged  Night-Jars.     45. 
Mot-mots.     33. 
murarius,  Micropus.     40. 
musicus,  Cygnus.     247. 
Musophagi.      19. 
Mute  Swan.     254. 

nrevia,  Aquila.      159. 
mevius,  Falco.      159. 
Narrow-necked  Woodpeckers.     5. 
Nauclerus  furcatus.     166. 

riocouri.      166. 
naumanni,  Cerchneis.     204. 
Nectariniidae.     2. 
Needle-tailed  Swifts.     43. 
Neomorphince.     2 1 . 
Neophron.     120. 

ginginianus.      12 1. 

monachus.      1 20. 

percnopterus.     120. 

pileatus.     120. 

Nesochen  sandwichensis.     224. 
Nettion.     282. 

carolinense.     286. 

crecca,  283,  286. 
Night-Jar.     34,  43,  45,  47. 

Isabelline.     50. 

Red-necked.     51. 
nigricans,  Branta.     236,  240. 
nisus,  Accipiter.      141,  142. 

Falco.      142. 
nivalis,  Chen.     227. 
nivicolum,  Syrnium.      IOI. 
Noctua  noctua.     91. 
noctua,  Athene.     91. 

Carine.     90,  91,  104. 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


3°5 


noctua,  Noctua.     91. 

Strix.     91. 

Norwegian  Gyr- Falcon.     196. 
Nyctala.     93,  102. 

acadica.      102. 

richardsoni.     105. 

tengmalmi.      103. 
Nyctea.     77, 84. 

nyctea.     84. 

scandiaca.     85. 
nyctea,  Nyctea.     84. 

Strix.     84. 

Surnia.     85. 

Syrnia.     84. 

obsoletus,  Hierofalco.     196. 
occidentalis,  Branta.     236. 

Coccyzus.     31. 

olor,  Cygnus.     246,  254,  255. 
onocrotalus,  Pelecanus.     210. 
Ospreys.     76,  in,  112. 
otus,  Asio.     93,  94. 

Strix.     94. 
Owlets,  Downy.     102. 

Pigmy.     90. 
Owls.     76. 

American  Tufted.     82. 

Barn,  77,  107,  108,  no. 

Burrowing.     77. 

Eagle.     77,78. 

Grass.     107. 

Hawk.     77,84,87. 

Horned.     93. 

Little.     77,  90,  91. 

Long-eared.     94,  95. 

Pigmy.     77. 

Saw-whet.     102. 

Scops.     82. 

Short -eared.     96,  98. 

Small  Tufted.     8i,"82. 

Snowy.     77,  84,  85. 

Tawny.     100,  101. 

Tengmalm's.     103,  104. 

Tufted.     77,  81. 

White.     106,  107. 

Wood.     93,  100. 
Oxylophus  glandarius.     21. 

palumbarius,  Astur.   136,  137,  141. 


palumbarius,  Falco.     137. 
Pandion.     76,  III,  112. 

haliaetus.     112. 

leucocephalus.     113. 
Parrot,  Racket-tailed.     64. 
Passeriformes.     35. 
passerinum,  Glaucidium.     90. 
pectoralis,  lynx.     16. 
pekinensis,  Cypselus.     41. 
Pelecanus  bassanus.     218. 

carbo.     21 1,  214. 

graculus.     215. 

onacrotalus.     210. 
pelagica,  Chcetura.     43. 
Pelargopsis.     64,  65. 
Pelican,  White.     210. 
percnopterus,  Neophron.     120. 

Vultur.     1 20. 
penelope,  Mareca.     277,  281. 

Anas.     277. 

peregrinator,  Falco.     182. 
Peregrine  Falcon.     181,182. 
peregrinus,  Falco.     180,  181. 
Pernis.     174,  176. 

apivorus.     177. 

ptilonorhynchus.     1 79. 
Phieniconaias.     222. 
Phsenicoparrus.     222. 
Phoenicopterus.    221,  222. 

roseus.     222. 

ruber.     223. 
Phalacrocorax  carbo.     211. 

croaticus.     216. 

desmaresti.     216. 

graculus.     215. 
philippensis,  Merops.     57. 
Phaetontes.     210. 
Picarian  Birds.     33. 
Pici.     2. 

Picidse.     2,  3,  4,  15,  17- 
Piciformes.     I. 
Piculets.     2,  4. 
Picus  major.     8. 

martius.     4. 

minor.     12. 

pipra.     8. 

pubescens.     n. 

striolatus.     12. 

villosus.    9,  10. 

X 


306 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


Picus  viridis.     5. 

Pied  Swallow-tailed  Kites.     166. 

Pied  Swift.     38. 

Pied  Woodpeckers.     7. 

Pigmy  Owlets.     90. 

pileatus,  Neophron.     120. 

Pink-fooled  Goose.     234. 

Pin-tail.     286,  287. 

pipra,  Dendrocopus.     14. 

Picus.     8. 

Plectropterus  gambensis.     225. 
Podargi.     33. 

poelzami,  Dendrocopus.     9. 
Polish  Swan.     255. 
Polyborinse.     123. 
Polyboroides.     124. 
pomarina,  Aquila.     161,  162. 
Prioniturus.     64. 
Pseudogyps  bengalensis.     118. 
psilodactyla,  Syrnia.     91. 
Psittaci.     76. 

ptilonorhynchus,  Pernis.     179. 
pubescens,  Dendrocopus.     u,  12. 

Picus.     II. 
Puff-Birds.     I. 
pulchricollis,  lynx.     16. 
punctatissima,  Strix.     108. 
punicus,  Falco.     182. 
Pycnonotus  capensis.     80. 
pygargus,  Circus.     129. 

Falco.     129. 

quadrifasciatus,  Dendrocopus.     14, 
Querquedula.     291. 

acuta.     287. 

bimaculata.     284. 

carolinensis.     286. 

circia.     291. 

crecca.     283. 

discors.     294. 

querquedula.     290,  291. 

strepera.     273. 
querquedula,  Anas.     291. 

Querquedula.    290,  291. 

Racket-tailed  Kingfishers.     64. 
Racket-tailed  Parrots.     64. 
Red -breasted  Goose.     243. 
Reel-footed  Kestrel,     207,  209. 


Red  Kite.     168. 
Red-necked  Night -Jar.     51. 
Red-shouldered  Buzzard.     152. 
Red-tailed  Buzzard.     151. 
regalis,  Milvus.     168. 
regulus,  Falco.      187. 
Rhynchaspis  clypeata.     266. 
richardsoni,  Nyctala.     105 
riocouri,  Nauclerus.     166. 
.Riocour's  Kite.     166. 
Roller,  Abyssinian.     74. 

Broad-billed.     71. 

Common.     71. 

Ground.     70. 

Indian.     75« 

Madagascar.     33. 
roseus,  Phiienicopterus.     222. 
Rosthramus.      174. 
Rough-legged  Buzzard- Eagle.    154. 
ruber,  Phrenicopterus.     222. 
rubrirostris,  Anser.     229. 
Ruddy  Sheld-Duck.     26 1 . 
rudis,  Ceryle.     64,  65. 
rueppelli,  Gyps.     117. 
Ruffed  Gos-Hawks.     125. 
ruficollis,  Anser.     243. 

Bernicla.     243. 

Caprimulgus.     51. 
Ruppell's  Vulture.     117. 
rustica,  Hirundo.     36,  37. 
rutila,  Casarca.     263. 

Tadorna.     263. 

Saker  Gyr- Falcon.     191. 
saker,  Hierofalco.     191. 
sancti  johannis,  Archibuteo.     155. 
sandwichensis,  Asio.     98. 

Nesochen,  224. 
Saw-whet  Owl.     102. 
scandiaca,  Nyctea.    85. 
Scavenger  Vultures.     120. 
Scops.     77,  81. 

aldrovandi.     81. 

asio.     82. 

brasiliensis.     82,  83. 

capensis.     83. 

giu.     81. 

scops.     81. 
scops,  Scops.     81. 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


307 


scops,  Strix.     81. 
Sea- Eagles.     153,  162. 
segetum,  Anas.     232. 

Anser.     232. 
Serpentariinae.     123. 
serrirostris,  Anser.     233. 
Shags.     211. 

Sharpe's  Green  Woodpecker.     6. 
sharpii,  Gecinus.     5,  6. 
Sheld-Duck.     257. 

Common.     258. 

Ruddy.     261. 
Short-eared  Owls.     96,  98. 
Short-tailed  Swifts.    42. 
Shoveler,  Common.     265. 
Small  Tufted  Owl.     81,  82. 
smyrnensis,  Halcyon.     64. 
Snake- Bird.     17. 
Snake-Eagles,  153,  176. 
Snow-Geese.     225. 
Snowy  Owls.     77,  84,  85. 
somalensis,  Upupa.     59. 
Sparrow-Hawk,     Common.       141, 

142,  146. 
Spatula.     265. 

clypeata.     265. 
Speotyto.     77. 
Sphyropicus.     2. 
spilonotus,  Circus.     135. 
Spine-tails.     2. 
spinicauda,  Dafila.     287. 
Spizaetus.     153. 
Spotted  Eagle,  Larger.     159. 
Spur-winged  Goose.     225. 
Steatornithes.     33. 
Steganopodes.     210,211. 
Stork-billed  Kingfishers.     64,  65. 
strepera,  Anas.     273. 

Querquedula.     273. 
streperus,  Chaulelasmus.     272,  273. 
Striges.     76,  84,  106. 
striolatus,  Picus.     12. 
Strix  accipitrina.     96. 

aluco.     100. 

brachyotus.     97. 

bubo.     78. 

delicatula.     108. 

flammea.     106,  107,  108. 

funere-i.     89. 


Strix  insularis.     108. 

noctua.     91. 

nyctea.     84. 

otus.     94. 

punctatissima.     108. 

scops.     81. 

tengmalmi.     103. 

ulula.     87,  88,  89. 
subbuteo,  Falco.     184. 
Sula  bassana.     218. 
Sun-Birds.     2. 
Surnia.     77,  84. 

funerea.     87,  88,  89. 

nyctea.     85. 

ulula.     87. 
Swallows.     35. 
Swans.     223,  246. 
Swan,  Bewick's.     252. 

Black.     246. 

Black-necked.     246. 

Chilian.     246. 

Mute.     254. 

Polish.     255. 

Trumpeter.     246. 

Whistling.     246. 

Whooper.     247. 
Swiftlets.     35. 
Swift,  Common.     40. 

Indian.     36. 

Needle-tailed.     43. 

Pied.     38. 

Short-tailed.     42. 

True.     37,  38. 

White-bellied.     38. 
Syrnia  funerea.     89. 

nyctea.     84. 

psilodactyla.     91. 
Syrnium.     93,  100,  102. 

aluco.     100. 

nivicolum.     101. 

Tadorna,  257. 

casarca.      263. 

cornuta.     258. 

rutila.     263. 

vulpanser.  258. 
tadorna,  Anas.  258. 

Tadorna.  258. 
Tanysiptera.  64. 


3o8 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


Tawny  Owl.     100,  101. 
Teal.     282. 

American.     286. 

Blue-winged.     290,  294. 

Common.     283. 
tengmalmi,  Nyctala.     103. 

Strix.     103. 

Ulula.     103. 

Tengmalm's  Owl.     103,  104. 
Thrasaetus  harpyia.     146. 
Three-toed  Kingfishers.     64. 
Tinnunculus  alaudarius.     201. 

cenchris.     204. 

vespertinus.     227. 
tinnunculus,  Cerchneis.     200,  201. 

Falco.     201. 
torquilla,  lynx.     1 6. 

Yunx.     1 6. 
Todies.     33. 
Tree-Creepers.     2. 
Tree-Swifts.     37,  38. 
Trochilidse.     2. 
Tropic  Birds.     210. 
Trumpeter  Swan.     246. 
Tufted  Owls.     77,  81. 
turcomanus,  Bubo.     80. 

Ulula  aluco.     100. 

tengmalmi.     103. 
ulula,  Strix.    87,  88,  89. 

Surnia.     87. 

unwini,  Caprimulgus.     48. 
Upupa.     58,  59. 

africana.     59. 

epops.     59. 

indica.     59. 

marginata.     59. 

somalensis.     59. 
uralensis,  Hierofalco.     196. 

vaillanti,  Gecinus.     5. 
Vaillant's  Green  Woodpecker.     5. 
vespertina,  Cerchneis.     207,  210. 
vespertinus,  Falco.     207, 
Tinnunculus.     207. 


villosus,  Dendrocopus.     10. 

Picus.     9,  10. 
viridis,  Gecinus.     5. 

Picus.     5. 

virginianus,  Bubo.     80. 
vulgaris,  Buteo.     147. 
vulpanser,  Tadorna.     258. 
Vultur  albicilla.     163. 

fulvus.     117. 

percnopterus.     120. 
Vulture,    Egyptian    Scavenger. 

120. 

Griffon.     116,  117. 
Riippell's.     117. 

Whistling  Swan.     246. 
White  Owl.     106,  107. 
White  Pelican.     210. 
White-backed  Woodpecker.     4. 
White-bellied  Swift.     38. 
White-fronted  Goose.     230. 
White-tailed  Eagle.     163. 
Whooper  Swan.     247. 
Wigeon.     277. 

American.'  ;28i. 
Wild  Duck.  '  269. 
Wood-Owls.     93,  loo. 
Woodpeckers.     I,  2,  3 

Downy,      n. 

English  Green.     3. 

Great  Black.     4. 

Great  Spotted.     8. 

Green.     5. 

Hairy.     10. 

Lesser  Spotted.     12. 

Pied.     7. 

White-backed.     4. 
Wryneck.     2,  4,  15,  16. 

Common.     16. 


Xenopicus.     2. 

Yellow-billed  Cuckoo. 
Yunx.     1 6. 
torquilla.     16. 


30. 


ALLEN'S 

NATURALIST'S  LIBRARY 


The  following  Volumes  have  already  appeared :- 

BRITISH  BIRDS,  Vol.  I. 
GAME  BIRDS,  Vol.  I. 
BRITISH  MAMMALS. 
MARSUPIALS.       - 
CATS. 

MONKEYS,  2  Vols. 
BUTTERFLIES,  Vol.  I. 

For  Authors,  etc.,  see  p.  3. 


London:  W,  H,  ALLEN  &  CO,,  Ltd,,  13,  Waterloo  Place,  S.W, 

[1  000.9.95] 


(     2     ) 

ALLEN'S 

NATURALIST'S    LIBRARY. 


The  extraordinary  favour  which  Jardine's  Naturalist's  Library  has 
enjoyed  during  the  last  fifty  years,  has  induced  the  proprietors  of 
the  copyright  to  issue  a  series  of  volumes,  written  by  some  of  the 
most  eminent  naturalists  of  the  day,  under  the  title  of  "Allen's 
Naturalist's  Library. " 

The  Publishers  have  secured  for  the  Editorial  work  the  services  of 
Dr.  K.  BOWDLER  SHARPE,  of  the  British  Museum,  whose  long  and 
honourable  connection  with  that  Institution,  coupled  with  his  experi- 
ence of  the  Editorship  and  publication  of  many  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  modern  works  on  Natural  Science,  entitle  him  to  be  con- 
sidered one  of  the  fittest  men  in  England  for  the  task. 

The  Editor  has  obtained  the  co-operation  of  the  following  eminent 
naturalists : — 

MR.  R.  LYDEKKER,  M.A.  (Mammalia), 
MR.  H.  O.  FORBES  (Mammalia  and  Birds), 
MR.  W.  R.  OGILVIE-GRANT  (Birds), 
MR.  W.  F.  KIRBY  (Insects), 
PROFESSOR  R.  H.  TRAQUAIR,  F.R.S.  (Fishes), 
while  the  Editor  undertakes  several  of  the  Ornithological  volumes. 

Over  1,000  steel-plate  engravings,  many  of  them  by  the  most 
eminent  artists  of  the  time,  will  be  utilised  for  the  purposes  of  the 
present  work,  and  will  be  produced  in  the  highest  style  of  modern 
chromolithography,  in  addition  to  which  the  services  of  Mr.  Keule- 
mans  and  other  leading  artists  of  the  day  have  been  secured  for  the 
.illustration  of  those  form  of  animal  life  which  it  has  been  found 


(     3     ) 

necessary  to  depict,  in  order  to  bring  the  present  work  up  to  the 
standard  of  Modern  Science. 

The  volumes  are  published  at  the  popular  price  of  6s.,  each  volume 
containing  about  320  pages  of  letterpress,  together  with  from  20  to  40 
coloured  plates. 


TENTATIVE  SCHEME  OF  VOLUMES. 

The  following  List  will  give  an  outline  of  the  General  Scheme,  but  it 
may  be  varied  if,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Editor  and  Publishers,  an 
alteration  would  improve  the  Series. 

Works  set  in  Clarendon  are  Now  Eeady. 


By  HENBY  O.  FOBBES,  LL.D.,  &c. 
MONKEYS,  Vol.  I. 
MONKEYS,  Vol.  II. 
CETACEA. 

By  E.  LYDEKKER,  B.A.,  &c. 
CATS. 
DOGS. 

RUMINANTS. 
BRITISH  MAMMALS. 
MARSUPIALS. 
HORSES. 
PACHYDERMS. 

By  R.  BOWDLER  SHARPE,  LL.D. 
BRITISH  BIRDS,  Vol.  I. 
BRITISH  BIRDS,    „    II. 
BRITISH  BIRDS,         „    III. 
BRITISH  BIRDS,         „    IV. 
KUN-BIRDS. 
HUMMING-BIRDS. 
BIRDS  OF  WEST  AFRICA. 


By  HENBY  O.  FORBES,  F.L.S.,  &c. 
PARROTS. 
PIGEONS. 

By  W.  R.  OGILVIE-GRANT. 
GAME  BIRDS,  Vol.  I. 
GAME  BIRDS,        „    II. 

By  W.  F.  KIRBY,  F.L.S. 

BUTTERFLIES  (with  special  re- 
ference to  British  Species),  Vol.  I. 

BUTTERFLIES  (with  special  refer- 
ence to  British  species),  Vol.  II. 

MOTHS,  Vol.  I. 

MOTHS,     „    II. 

BEETLES,  CRICKETS,  &c. 

BEES. 

By  Professor  R.  H.  TRAQUAIR,  F.R.S. 
FISHES,  Vol.  I. 
FISHES,    „    II. 
FISHES,    „    III. 


London;  W,  H,  ALLEN  &  CO.,  Ltd,,  13,  Waterloo  Place,  S.W, 


(     4     ) 

PEESS    OPINIONS. 


BRITISH  BIRDS,  Vol.  I. 

"For  the  student,  this  book  will  supersede  all  others." — The 
Times. 

"We  know  of  no  popular  handbook  in  which  bird-life  is  more 
charmingly  or  more  helpfully  portrayed  than  in  this.  It  is  accurate 
and  entertaining." — Birmingham  Gazette. 


MONKEYS. 

"  A  most  useful  and  readable  work  upon  the  apes  and  lemurs, 
systematically  set  forth,'  and  liberally  illustrated." — Daily  Chronicle. 

"  Contains  more  accurate  information  and  more  recent  facts  about 
monkeys  than  any  other  book  on  the  subject." — Science  Gossip. 


MARSUPIALS. 

"  There  is  no  better  volume  on  the  subject." — Pall  Mall  Budget. 

"  Much  information  has  been  brought  together  in  a  very  appro- 
priate form.  The  characters,  distribution,  and  habits  of  each  species 
are  clearly  given.  Mr.  Lydekker's  opening  chapter  on  Marsupials  in 
general  is  luminous,  and  his  subsequent  carefully-compiled  notes  on 
the  various  kangaroo  species  are  extremely  interesting." — Globe. 


BUTTERFLIES,  VOL.  I. 

"Mr.  Kirby  is  to  be  congratulated  on  this  book.  The  scheme  is 
admirable,  the  contents  well  arranged,  and  the  descriptions  accurate 
and  lucid." — Land  and  Water. 

"  There  could  be  no  more  competent  authority  than  Mr.  Kirby." — 
Daily  Telegraph. 


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A  hand-book  to  S48 
the  birds  of  Great  v.2 
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