Full text of "Handbook of Nature Study"

See other formats

-D COMSTOCK, B. S.

niversity; Author of How to Keep Bees, and
..rator and Engraver for Manual for the
.sects and for Insect Life

HANDBOOK OF

NATURE-STUDY

For Teachers and Parents

Based on the Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets, with Much
Additional Material and Many New Illustrations

By ANNA BOTSFORD QOMSTOCK, B. S.

Professor in Nature-Study in Cornell University; Author of How to Keep Bees, and
Ways of the Six-Footed; Illustrator and Engraver for Manual for the
Study of Insects and for Insect Life

FIFTEENTH EDITION

McClelland and stewart, ltd.

TORONTO CANADA

LIBRARY of the university
OF ALBERTA

Printed in the U. S. A,

LIBERTY HYDE BAILEY

UNDER WHOSE WISE, STAUNCH AND INSPIRING LEADERSHIP THE
NATURE-STUDY WORK AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY
HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED

AND TO MY CO-WORKER

JOHN WALTON SPENCER

WHOSE COURAGE, RESOURCEFULNESS AND UNTIRING ZEAL

WERE POTENT FACTORS IN THE SUCCESS v

~ f ;

OF THE CA$BE

THIS BOJDR IS ^DEDICATED

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2016

https://archive.org/details/handbookofnature00coms_0

PREFACE

The Cornell University Nature-Study propaganda was essentially an
agricultural movement in its inception and its aims; it was inaugurated as
a direct aid to better methods of agriculture in New York State. During
the years of agricultural depression 1891-1893, the Charities of New York
City found it necessary to help many people who had come from the rural
districts — a condition hitherto unknown. The philanthropists managing
the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor asked,
“What is the matter with the land of New York State that it cannot
support its own population?” A conference was called to consider the
situation to which many people from different parts of the State were
invited; among them was the author of this book, who little realized that
in attending that meeting the whole trend of her activities would be thereby
changed. Mr. George T. Powell, who had been a most efficient Director
of Farmers’ Institutes of New York State was invited to the conference as
an expert to explain conditions and give advice as to remedies. The
situation seemed so serious that a Committee for the Promotion of Agricul-
ture in New York State was appointed. Of this committee the Honorable
Abram S. Hewitt was Chairman, Mr. R. Fulton Cutting, Treasurer, Mr.
Wm. H. Tolman, Secretary. The other members were Walter L. Suydam,
Wm. E. Dodge, Jacob H. Schiff, George T. Powell, G. Howard Davidson,
Howard Townsend, Professor I. P. Roberts, C. McNamee, Mrs. J. R.
Lowell, and Mrs. A. B. Comstock. Mr. George T. Powell was made
Director of the Department of Agricultural Education.

At the first meeting of this committee Mr. Powell made a strong plea
for interesting the children of the country in farming as a remedial measure,
and maintained that the first step toward agriculture was nature-study.
It had been Mr. Powell’s custom to give simple agricultural and nature-
study instruction to the school children of every town where he was con-
ducting a farmers’ institute, and his opinion was, therefore, based upon
experience. The committee desired to see for itself the value of this idea,
and experimental work was suggested, using the schools of Westchester
County as a laboratory. Mr. R. Fulton Cutting generously furnished the
funds for this experiment, and work was done that year in the Westchester
schools, which satisfied the committee of the soundness of the project.

The committee naturally concluded that such a fundamental movement
must be a public rather than a private enterprise ; and Mr. Frederick Nixon
then Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee of the Assembly,
was invited to meet with the committee at Mr. Hewitt's home. Mr.
Nixon had been from the beginning of his public career deeply interested
in improving the farming conditions of the State. In 1894, it was through

Handbook of Nature-Study

his influence and the support given him by the Chautauqua Horticultural
Society under the leadership of Mr. John W. Spencer, that an appropriation
had been given to Cornell University for promoting the horticultural inter-
ests of the western counties of the State. In addition to other work done
through this appropriation, horticultural schools were conducted under
the direction of Professor L. H. Bailey with the aid of other Cornell
instructors and especially of Mr. E. G. Lodeman; these schools had proved
to be most useful and were well attended. Therefore, Mr. Nixon was open-
minded toward an educational movement. He listened to the plan of the
committee and after due consideration declared that if this new measure
would surely help the farmers of the State, the money would be forth-
coming. The committee unanimously decided that if an appropriation
were made for this purpose it should be given to the Cornell College of
Agriculture; and that year eight thousand dollars was added to the Cornell
University Fund, for Extension Teaching and inaugurating this work. The
work was begun under Professor I. P. Roberts; after one year Professor
Roberts placed it under the supervision of Professor L. H. Bailey, who for
the fifteen years since has been the inspiring leader of the movement, as well
as the official head.

In 1896, Mr. John W. Spencer, a fruit grower in Chautauqua County,
became identified with the enterprise; he had lived in rural communities
and he knew their needs. He it was who first saw clearly that the first step
in the great work was to help the teacher through simply written leaflets;
and later he originated the great plan of organizing the children in the
schools of the State into Junior Naturalists Clubs, which developed a
remarkable phase of the movement. The members of these clubs paid
their dues by writing letters about their nature observations to Mr. Spencer,
who speedily became their beloved ‘‘Uncle John;” a button and charter
were given for continued and earnest work. Some years, 30,000 children
were thus brought into direct communication with Cornell University
through Mr. Spencer. A monthly leaflet for Junior Naturalists followed;
and it was to help in this enterprise that Miss Alice G. McCloskey, the able
Editor of the present Rural School Leaflet, was brought into the work.
Later, Mr. Spencer organized the children’s garden movement by forming
the children of the State into junior gardeners; at one time he had 25,000
school pupils working in gardens and reporting to him.

In 1899, Mrs. Mary Rogers Miller, who had proven a most efficient
teacher when representing Cornell nature-study in the State Teachers’
Institutes, planned and started the Home Nature-Study Course Leaflets
for the purpose of helping the teachers by correspondence, a work which
fell to the author in 1903 when Mrs. Miller was called to other fields.

For the many years during which New York State has intrusted this
important work to Cornell University, the teaching of nature-study has

Preface

VII

gone steadily on in the University, in teachers’ institutes, in State summer
schools, through various publications and in correspondence courses.
Many have assisted in this work, notably Dr. W. C. Thro, Dr. A. A. Allen,
and Miss Ada Georgia. The New York Education Department with
Charles R. Skinner as Commissioner of Education and Dr. Isaac Stout as
the Director of Teachers’ Institutes co-operated heartily with the move-
ment from the first. Later with the co-operation of Dr. Andrew Draper, as
Commissioner of Education, many of the Cornell leaflets have been written
with the special purpose of aiding in carrying out the New York State
Syllabus in Nature-Study and Agriculture.

The leaflets upon which this volume is based were published in the
Home Nature-Study Course during the years 1903-191 1, in limited editions
and were soon out of print. It is to make these lessons available to the
general public that this volume has been compiled. While the subject
matter of the lessons herein given is essentially the same as in the leaflets,
the lessons have all been rewritten for the sake of consistency, and many
new lessons have been added to bridge gaps and make a coherent whole.

Because the lessons were written during a period of so many years, each
lesson has been prepared as if it were the only one, and without reference to
others. If there is any uniformity of plan in the lessons, it is due to the
inherent qualities of the subjects, and not to a type plan in the mind of the
writer; for, in her opinion, each subject should be treated individually in
nature-study ; and in her long experience as a nature-study teacher she has
never been able to give a lesson twice alike on a certain topic or secure
exactly the same results twice in succession. It should also be stated that
it is not because the author undervalues physics nature-study that it has
been left out of these lessons, but because her own work has been always
along biological lines.

The reason why nature-study has not yet accomplished its mission, as
thought-core for much of the required work in our public schools, is that
the teachers are as a whole untrained in the subject. The children are
eager for it, unless it is spoiled in the teaching; and whenever we find a
teacher with an understanding of out-of-door life and a love for it, there we
find nature-study in the school is an inspiration and a joy to pupils and
teacher. It is because of the author’s sympathy with the untrained teacher
and her full comprehension of her difficulties and helplessness that this book
has been written. These difficulties are chiefly three-fold: The teacher

does not know what there is to see in studying a plant or animal ; she knows
little of the literature that might help her; and because she knows so little
of the subject, she has no interest in giving a lesson about it. As a matter
of fact, the literature concerning our common animals and plants is so
scattered that a teacher would need a large library and almost unlimited
time to prepare lessons for an extended nature-study course.

VIII

Handbook of Nature-Study

The writer’s special work for fifteen years in Extension teaching has been
the helping of the untrained teacher through personal instruction and
through leaflets. Many methods were tried and finally there was evolved
the method followed in this volume : All the facts available and pertinent
concerning each topic have been assembled in the “Teacher’s story” to make
her acquainted with the subject; this is followed by an outline for observa-
tion on the part of the pupils while studying the object. It would seem
that with the teacher’s story before the eyes of the teacher, and the subject
of the lesson before the eyes of the pupils with a number of questions leading
them to see the essential characteristics of the object, there should result a
wider knowledge of nature than is given in this or any other book.

That the lessons are given in a very informal manner, and that the style
of writing is often colloquial, result from the fact that the leaflets upon
which the book is based were written for a correspondence course in which
the communications were naturally informal and chatty. That the book
is meant for those untrained in science accounts for the rather loose termin-
ology employed; as, for instance, the use of the word seed in the popular
sense whether it be a drupe, an akene, or other form of fruit; or the use of
the word pod for almost any seed envelope, and many like instances. Also,
it is very likely, that in teaching quite incidentally the rudiments of the
principles of evolution, the results may often seem to be confused with an
idea of purpose, which is quite unscientific. But let the critic labor for
fifteen years to interest the untrained adult mind in nature’s ways, before he
casts any stones ! And it should be always borne in mind that if the author
has not dipped deep in the wells of science, she has used only a child’s cup.

For many years requests have been frequent from parents who have
wished to give their children nature interests during vacations in the coun-
try. They have been borne in mind in planning this volume; the lessons
are especially fitted for field work, even though schoolroom methods are
so often suggested.

The author feels apologetic that the book is so large. However, it does
not contain more than any intelligent country child of twelve should know
of his environment; things that he should know naturally and without
effort, although it might take him half his life-time to learn so much if he
should not begin before the age of twenty. That there are inconsistencies,
inaccuracies, and even blunders in the volume is quite inevitable. The
only excuse to be offered is that, if through its use, the children of our land
learn early to read nature’s truths with their own eyes, it will matter little
to them what is written in books.

The author wishes to make grateful acknowledgment to the following
people: To Professor Wilford M. Wilson for his chapter on the weather;
to Miss Mary E. Hill for the lessons on mould, bacteria, the minerals, and
reading the weather maps; to Miss Catherine Straith for the lessons on

Preface

the earthworm and the soil; to Miss Ada Georgia for much valuable
assistance in preparing the original leaflets on which these lessons are based;
to Dean L. H. Bailey and to Dr. David S. Jordan for permission to quote
their writings; to Mr. John W. Spencer for the use of his story on the
movements of the sun; to Dr. Grove Karl Gilbert, Dr. A. C. Gill, Dr.
Benjamin Duggar, Professor S. H. Gage and Dr. J. G. Needham for
reading and criticizing parts of the manuscript; to Miss Eliza Tonks for
reading the proof ; to the Director of the College of Agriculture for use of
the engravings made for the original leaflets; to Miss Martha Van Rens-
selaer for the use of many pictures from Boys and Girls; to Professor
Cyrus Crosby, and to Messrs. J. T. Lloyd, A. A. Allen and R. Matheson
for the use of their personal photographs; to the. U. S. Geological Survey
and the U. S. Forest Service for the use of photographs; to Louis A.
Fuertes for drawings of birds; to Houghton, Mifflin & Company for the
use of the poems of Lowell, Harte and Larcom, and various extracts from
Burroughs and Thoreau; to Small, Maynard & Company and to John
Lane & Company for the use of poems of John T. Babb; to Doubleday,
Page & Company for the use of pictures of birds and flowers ; and to the
American Book Company for the use of electrotypes of dragon-flies and
astronomy. Especially thanks are extended to Miss Anna C. Stryke for
numerous drawings, including most of the initials

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I

The Teaching of Nature-Study

Page

What Nature-Study is i

What Nature-Study Should do for the Child i

Nature-Study as a Help to Health 2

What Nature-Study Should do for the Teacher 2

When and Why the Teacher Should say “I do not know !” 3

Nature-Study, The Elixir of Youth 4

Nature-Study as a Help in School Discipline 4

The Relation of Nature-Study to Science 5

Nature-Study not for Drill 6

The Child not Interested in Nature-Study 6

When to Give the Lesson 6

The Length of the Lesson 7

The Nature-Study Lesson Always New 7

Nature-Study and Object Lessens 7

Nature-Study in the Schoolroom 8

Nature-Study and Museum Specimens 8

The Lens, Microscope and Field-glass as Helps 9

Use of Pictures, Charts and Blackboard Drawings 10

The Use of Scientific Names 10

The Story as a Supplement to the Nature-Study Lesson 10

The Nature-Study Attitude toward Life and Death 1 1

Should the N ature-Study Teacher Teach How to Destroy Life ? 13

The Field Note-book 13

The Field Excursion 15

Pets as Nature-Study Subjects 15

The Correlation of Nature-Study with Language Work 16

The Correlation of Nature-Study with Drawing 17

The Correlation of Nature-Study with Geography 18

The Correlation of Nature-Study with History 18

The Correlation of Nature-Study with Arithmetic 19

Gardening and Nature-Study 20

N ature-Study and Agriculture 21

Nature-Study Clubs 22

How to Use this Book 24

PART II
Animal Life

I Bird Study

Beginning Bird Study in the Primary Grades 25

Feathers as Clothing 27

Feathers as Ornament 30

How Birds Fly 33

Eyes and Ears of Birds 36

xn Handbook of N atur e-Study

Page

The Form and Use of Beaks 37

The Feet of Birds 39

Chicken Ways 41

Pigeons 45

The Canary and the Goldfinch 49

The Robin 54

The Bluebird 60

The White-breasted Nuthatch 63

The Chickadee 66

The Downy W oodpecker 69

The Sapsucker 73

The Redheaded Woodpecker 75

The Flicker or Yellow-hammer 77

The Meadowlark 80

The English Sparrow 84

The Chipping Sparrow 88

The Song Sparrow 91

The Mockingbird 94

The Catbird 98

The Belted Kingfisher 101

The Screech Owl 104

The Red Shouldered and Red Tailed Hawks 108

The Swallows and the Chimney Swift 1 1 2

The Hummingbird 120

The Red- winged Blackbird 122

The Baltimore Oriole 125

The Crow 129

The Cardinal Grosbeak 133

Geese 136

The T urkey 143

The Study of Birds’ Nests in Winter 147

II Fish Study

The Goldfish 149

The Bullhead 154

The Common Sucker 158

The Shiner. 161

Brook Trout 164

The Stickleback 168

The Sunfish 172

The Johnny Darter 177

III Batrachian Study

The Common Toad 181

The T adpole Aquarium 185

The T ree-f rog or Tree-toad 190

The Frog 193

The Newt, Eft or Salamander 197

IV Reptile Study

The Garter or Garden Snake 201

The Milk Snake, or Spotted Adder 204

Table of Contents

XIII

Page

The Water Snake 206

The Turtle . . . 208

V Mammal Study

The Cotton-tail Rabbit 213

The Muskrat 218

The House Mouse 224

The W oodchuck 229

The Red Squirrel or Chickaree 233

Furry 238

The Chipmunk 240

The Little Brown Bat 243

The Skunk 247

The Raccoon 250

The Wolf 255

The Fox 257

Dogs 261 -

The Cat 268^

The Goat 275

The Sheep 281

The Horse 286

Cattle 295

The Pig 303

VI Insect Study

The Life History of Insects 308

The Structure of Insects 312

The Black Swallow-tail Butterfly 315

The Monarch Butterfly 320

The Isabella Tiger Moth or Woolly Bear w 326

TheCecropia 330

ThePromethea 336

The Hummingbird, or Sphinx, Moths 340

The Codling Moth 347

Leaf-miners 352

The Leaf-rollers 357

The Gall-dwellers 360

The Grasshopper 365

The Katydid 370

The Black Cricket 373

The Snowy Tree-cricket 377

The Cockroach 378

How to Make an Aquarium for Insects 380

The Dragon-flies and Damsel-flies 382

The Caddis- worms and the Caddis-flies 387

The Aphids or Plant Lice 392

The Ant-lion 395

Mother Lace- wing and the Aphis-lion 397

The Mosquito 400

The House-fly 405

The Colorado Potato-beetle 409

xiv Handbook of N atur e-Study

Page

V The Ladybird 413

The Firefly 416

The W ays of the Ant 419

How to Make a Lubbock Ant-Nest 423

The Ant-Nest and What May be Seen Within it 425

The Mud-dauber 429

The Yellow- jacket 432

The Leaf-cutter Bee 436

The Little Carpenter Bee 439

The Bumblebee 442

The H oney-bee 445

The Honey-comb 451

Industries of the Hive and the Observation Hive 453

VII Other Invertebrate- Animal Study

The Garden Snail 458

The Earthworm 462

The Crayfish ' 466

Daddy Longlegs, or Grandfather Greybeard > 472

Spiders 475

The Funnel- web 477

The Orb-web 478

The Filmy Dome 483

Ballooning Spiders 484

The White Crab-Spider 485

How the Spider Mothers Take Care of their Young 487

PART III
Plant Life

How to Begin the Study of Plants and Flowers 489

How to Make Plants Comfortable 490

How to Teach the Names of the Parts of a Flower 492

Teach the Use of a Flower 493

Flowers and Insect Partners 494

The Relation of Plants to Geography . 495

Seed Germination 495

I Wild-flower Study

The Hepatica 496

The Yellow Adder’s Tongue 499

Bloodroot 503

The Trillium 506

Dutchman’s Breeches and Squirrel Corn 509

Jack-in- the- Pulpit 512

The Violet 515

The May Apple or M andrake 519

The Bluets 523

The Yellow Lady’s Slipper, or Moccasin Flower 525

The Common Buttercup 528

The Evening Primrose 530

Table of Contents

Page

The Hedge Bindweed 535

The Dodder 53$

The Milkweed 54°

The White Water Lily c. 545

Pondweed 54$

The Cat-tail 55 1

A Type Lesson for a Composite Flower 554

TheGoldenrod 555

The Asters 55 8

The White Daisy 560

The Yellow Daisy or Black-eyed Susan 562

The Thistle 563

The Burdock 566

Prickly Lettuce, A Compass Plant 57°

'’'he Dandelion 572

"I 'he Pearly Everlasting 576

The Jewelweed, or Touch-me-not 57$

Mullein 582

The Teasel 586

Queen Anne’s Lace, or Wild Carrot 589

Weeds 594

Outline for the Study of a Weed 595

II Cultivated-Plant Study

The Crocus 596

Daffodils and their Relatives 599

The Tulip 603

The Pansy 60 7

The Bleeding Heart 611

Poppies 613

The California Poppy 616

The Nasturtium 620

The Bee-Larkspur 623

The Blue Flag, or Iris 626

The Sunflower 631

The Bachelor’s Button 636

The Salvia or Scarlet Sage 637

Petunias 640

The Horseshoe Geranium 643

The Sweet Pea 649

The Clovers 652

Sweet Clover 655

The White Clover 658

Maize, or Indian Corn 660

The Cotton Plant 666

The Strawberry 672

The Pumpkin 675

III Flowerless-Plant Study

The Christmas Fern 684

The Bracken 689

How a Fern Bud Unfolds 691

XVI

Handbook of N alur e-Study

Pago

The Fruiting of the Fern 693

The Field Horsetail 699

The Hair-cap Moss, or Pigeon Wheat 702

Mushrooms and other F ungi 706

Puffballs 712

The Bracket Fungi 714

Hedgehog Fungi 717

The Scarlet Saucer 718

The Morels 719

The Stinkhorns 720

Molds 720

Bacteria 723

IV Tree Study

How a Tree Grows 726

How to Begin Tree Study 731

How to Make Leaf Prints 734

The Maples 736

The American Elm 745

The Oak 748

The Shagbark Hickory 755

The Chestnut 757

The Horse-Chestnut 761

The Willows 765

The Cottonwood or Carolina Poplar 770

The White Ash 774

The Apple Tree 778

How an Apple Grows 782

The Apple 785

The Pine 789

The Norway Spruce 796

The Hemlock 801

The Flowering Dogwood 803

The Staghorn Sumac 806

The Witch-Hazel 810

The Mountain Laurel 813

PART IV
Earth and Sky

The Brook 818

How a Brook Drops its Load 822

Crystal Growth 825

Salt 827

How to Study Minerals 828

Quartz 829

Feldspar 831

Mica 832

Granite 833

Calcite, marble and Limestone 835

The Magnet 838

The Soil. 842

Table of Contents

XVII

Page

Water Forms 850

The Weather 857

Experiments to Show Air Pressure 877

The Barometer 878

How to read Weather Maps 879

The Story of the Stars 887

How to Begin Star Study 889

Cassiopeia’s Chair, Cepheus and the Dragon 893

The Winter Stars 895

Orion 895

Aldebaran and the Pleiades 897

The Two Dog-Stars, Sirius and Procyon 898

Capella and the Heavenly Twins > 900

The Stars of Summer 901

The Sun , 905

The Relation between the Tropic of Cancer and the Planting of the Garden 909

The Zodiac and its Signs 9 1 1

The Relations of the Sun to the Earth . 913

How to Make a Sun-dial 915

The Moon .................. ......... 918

In N ature’s infinite book of secrecy
A little can I read.

— Shakespeare.

PART 1.

THE TEACHING OF NATURE-STUDY

WHAT NATURE-STUDY IS

ATURE-STUDY is, despite all discussions and perver-
sions, a study of nature; it consists of simple, truthful
observations that may, like beads on a string, finally be
threaded upon the understanding and thus held together
as a logical and harmonious whole. Therefore, the object
of the nature-study teacher should be to cultivate in the
children powers of accurate observation and to build up within them,
understanding.

WHAT NATURE-STUDY SHOULD DO FOR THE CHILD

IRST, but not most important, nature-study gives the
child practical and helpful knowledge. It makes him
familiar with nature’s ways and forces, so that he is not
so helpless in the presence of natural misfortune and
disasters.

Nature-study cultivates the child’s imagination since there are so
many wonderful and true stories that he may read with his own eyes,
which affect his imagination as much as does fairy lore ; at the same time
nature-study cultivates in him a perception and a regard for what is true,
and the power to express it. All things seem possible in nature ; yet this
seeming is always guarded by the eager quest of what is true. Perhaps,
half the falsehood in the world is due to lack of power to detect the truth
and to express it. Nature-study aids both in discernment and expression
of things as they are.

Nature-study cultivates in the child a love of the beautiful; it brings
to him early a perception of color, form and music. He sees whatever
there is in his environment, whether it be the .thunder-head piled up in the
western sky, or the golden flash of the oriole in the elm ; whether it be the
purple of the shadows on the snow, or the azure glint on the wing of the
little butterfly. Also, what there is of sound, he hears; he reads the
music score of the bird orchestra, separating each part and knowing
which bird sings it. And the patter of the rain, the gurgle of the brook,
the sighing of the wind in the pine, he notes and loves and becomes en-
riched thereby.

But, more than all, nature-study gives the child a sense of companion-
ship with life out of doors and an abiding love of nature. Let this latter
be the teacher’s criterion for judging his or her work. If nature-study as
taught does not make the child love nature and the out-of-doors, then it
should cease. Let us not inflict permanent injury on the child by turning
him away from nature instead of toward it. However, if the love of
nature is in the teacher’s heart, there is no danger; such a teacher, no

Handbook of N ature -Study

matter by what method, takes the child gently by the hand and walks
with him in paths that lead to the seeing and comprehending of what he
may find beneath his feet or above his head. And these paths whether
they lead among the lowliest plants, or whether to the stars, finally con-
verge and bring the wanderer to that serene peace and hopeful faith that
is the sure inheritance of all those who realize fully that they are
working units of this wonderful universe.

NATURE-STUDY AS A HELP TO HEALTH

ERHAPS the most valuable practical lesson the child gets
from nature-study is a personal knowledge that nature’s
laws are not to be evaded. Wherever he looks, he dis-
covers that attempts at such evasion result in suffering
and death. A knowledge thus naturally attained of the
immutability of nature’s “must” and “shall not” is in
itself a moral education. That the fool as well as the transgressor fares
ill in breaking natural laws, makes for wisdom in morals as well as in
hygiene.

Out-of-door life takes the child afield and keeps him in the open air,
which not only helps him physically and occupies his mind with sane
subjects, but keeps him out of mischief. It is not only during childhood
that this is true, for love of nature counts much for sanity in later life.
This is an age of nerve tension, and the relaxation which comes from the
comforting companionship found in woods and fields is, without doubt,
the best remedy for this condition. Too many men wTho seek the out-of-
doors for rest at the present time, can only find it with a gun in hand. To
rest and heal their nerves they must go out and try to kill some unfor-
tunate creature, — the old, old story of sacrificial blood. Far better will it
be when, through properly training the child, the man shall be enabled to
enjoy nature through seeing how creatures live rather than watching
them die. It is the sacred privilege of nature-study to do this for future
generations and for him thus trained, shall the words of Longfellow’s
poem to Agassiz apply :

“ And he wandered away and away, with Nature the dear old nurse,

Who sang to him night and day, the rhymes of the universe.

And when the way seemed long, and his heart began to fail.

She sang a more wonderful song, or told a more wonderful tale.”

WHAT NATURE-STUDY SHOULD DO FOR THE TEACHER

URING many years, I have been watching teachers in our
public schools in their conscientious and ceaseless work;
and so far as I can foretell, the fate that awaits them
finally is either nerve exhaustion or nerve atrophy.
The "teacher must become either a neurasthenic or a
“clam.”

I have had conversations with hundreds of teachers in the public
schools of New York State concerning the introduction of nature-study
into the curriculum, and most of them declared, “Oh, we have not time
for it. Every moment is full now!” Their nerves were at such a tension
that with one more thing to do they must fall apart. The question in
my own mind during these conversations was always, how long can she

The Teaching of N atur e-Study

stand it ! I asked some of them “Did you ever try a vigorous walk in the
open air in the open country every Saturday or every Sunday of your
teaching year?” “Oh no!” they exclaimed in despair of making me
understand. “On Sunday we must go to church or see our friends and on
Saturday we must do our shopping or our sewing. We must go to the
dressmaker’s lest we go unclad, we must mend, and darn stockings; we
need Saturday to catch up.”

Yes, catch up with more cares, more worries, more fatigue, but not
with more growth, more strength, more vigor and more courage for work.
In my belief, there are two and only two occupations for Saturday after-
noon or forenoon for a teacher. One is to be out of doors and the other is
to lie in bed, and the first is best. Out in this, God’s beautiful world,
there is everything waiting to heal lacerated nerves, to strengthen tired
muscles, to please and content the soul that is torn to shreds with duty
and care. To the teacher who turns to nature’s healing, nature-study in
the schoolroom is not a trouble; it is a sweet, fresh breath of air blown
across the heat of radiators and the noisome odor of over-crowded small
humanity. She, who opens her eyes and her heart nature-ward even once
a week, finds nature-study in the schoolroom a delight and an abiding joy.
What does such a one find in her schoolroom instead of the terrors of
discipline, the eternal watching and eternal nagging to keep the pupils
quiet and at work? She finds, first of all, companionship with her
children; and second, she finds that without planning or going on a far
voyage, she has found health and strength.

WHEN AND WHY THE TEACHER SHOULD SAY “i DO NOT KNOW”

m O SCIENCE professor in any university, if he be a man of
1\ high attainment, hesitates to say to his pupils “I do

I \ L*#> not know,” if they ask for information beyond his

I knowledge. The greater his scientific reputation and

^ erudition, the more readily, simply and without apology

he says this. He, better than others, comprehends how
vast is the region that lies beyond man’s present knowledge. It is
only the teacher in the elementary schools who has never received
enough scientific training to reveal to her how little she does know, who
feels that she must appear to know everything or her pupils will lose
confidence in her. But how useless is this pretence, in nature-study !
The pupils, whose younger eyes are much keener for details than hers,
will soon discover her limitations and then their distrust of her will be
real.

In nature-study any teacher can with honor say, “I do not know;” for
perhaps, the question asked is as yet unanswered by the great scientists.
But she should not let her lack of knowledge be a wet blanket thrown over
her pupils’ interest. She should say frankly, “I do not know; let us see
if we cannot together find out this mysterious thing. Maybe no one
knows it as yet, and I wonder if you will discover it before I do.” She
thus conveys the right impression, that only a little about the intricate
life of plants and animals is yet known ; and at the same time she makes
her pupils feel the thrill and zest of investigation. Nor will she lose their
respect by doing this, if she does it in the right spirit. For three years, I
had for comrades in my walks afield, two little children and they kept me

Handbook of Nature-Study

busy saying, “ I do not know’ ’ . But they never lost confidence in me or in
my knowledge; they simply gained respect for the vastness of the un-
known.

The chief charm of nature-study would be taken away if it did not lead
us through the border-land of knowledge into the realm of the undiscovered.
Moreover, the teacher, in confessing her ignorance and at the same time
her interest in a subject, establishes between herself and her pupils a sense
of companionship which relieves the strain of discipline, and gives her a
new and intimate relation with her pupils which will surely prove a
potent element in her success. The best teacher is always one who is the
good comrade of her pupils.

NATURE-STUDY, THE ELIXIR OF YOUTH

HE old teacher is too likely to become didactic, dogmatic
and “bossy” if she does not constantly strive with herself.
Why? She has to be thus five days in the week and,
therefore, she is likely to be so seven. She knows arith-
metic, grammar and geography to their uttermost and
she is never allowed to forget that she knows them,
and finally her interests become limited to what she knows.

After all, what is the chief sign of growing old? Is it not the feeling
that we know all there is to be known ? It is not years which make people
old; it is ruts, and a limitation of interests. When we no longer care
about anything except our own interests, we are then old, it matters not
whether our years be twenty or eighty. It is rejuvenation for the
teacher, thus growing old, to stand ignorant as a child in the presence of
one of the simplest of nature’s miracles — the formation of a crystal, the
evolution of the butterfly from the caterpillar, the exquisite adjustment
of the silken lines in the spider’s orb-web. I know how to “make magic”
for the teacher who is growing old. Let her go out with her youngest
pupil and fall on her knees before the miracle of the blossoming violet and
say: “Dear Nature, I know naught of the wondrous life of these, your

smallest creatures. Teach me !” and she will suddenly find herself young.

NATURE-STUDY AS A HELP IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE

_ jflf UCH of the naughtiness in school is a result of the child’s
lack of interest in his work, augmented by the physical
inaction that results from an attempt to sit quietly. The
1^1 best teachers try to obviate both of these rather than to
V ^ punish because of them. Nature-study is an aid in both
respects, since it keeps the child interested and also gives him something
to do.

In the nearest approach to an ideal school that I have ever seen, for
children of second grade, the pupils were allowed, as a reward of merit, to
visit the aquaria or the terrarium for periods of five minutes, which time
was given to the blissful observation of the fascinating prisoners. The
teacher also allowed the reading of stories about the plants and animals
under observation to be regarded as a reward of merit. As I entered the
schoolroom, there were eight or ten of the children at the windows watch-
ing eagerly what was happening to the creatures confined there in the
various cages. There was a mud aquarium for the frogs and salamanders,

The Teaching of Nature-Study

an aquarium for fish, many small aquaria for insects and each had one or
two absorbingly interested spectators who were quiet, well behaved and
were getting their nature-study lessons in an ideal manner. The teacher
told me that the problem of discipline was solved by this method, and
that she was rarely obliged to rebuke or punish. In many other schools,
watching the living creatures in the aquaria, or terrarium has been used
as a reward for other work well done.

THE RELATION OF NATURE-STUDY TO SCIENCE

ATURE-STUDY is not elementary science as so taught,
I Safe . because its point of attack is not the same ; error in this
tlMli1/ respect has caused many a teacher to abandon nature-
study and many a pupil to hate it. In elementary science
work begins with the simplest animals and plants
and progresses logically through to the highest forms ; at
least this is the method pursued in most universities and
schools. The object of the study is to give the pupils an outlook over
all the forms of life and their relation one to another. In nature-study
the work begins with any plant or creature which chances to interest the
pupil. It begins with the robin when it comes back to us in March,
promising spring; or it begins with the maple leaf which flutters to the
ground in all the beauty of its autumnal tints. A course in biological
science leads to the comprehension of all kinds of life upon our globe.
Nature-study is for the comprehension of the individual life of the
bird, insect or plant that is nearest at hand.

Nature-study is perfectly good science within its limits, but it is not
meant to be more profound or comprehensive than the capabilities of the
child’s mind. More than all, nature-study is not science belittled as if
it were to be looked at through the reversed opera glass in order to bring
it down small enough for the child to play with. Nature-study, as far as
it goes, is just as large as is science for “grown-ups” and may deal with the
same subject matter and should be characterized by the same accuracy.
It simply does not go so far.

To illustrate : If we are teaching the science of ornithology, we take

first the Archaeopteryx, then the swimming and the scratching birds and
finally reach the song birds, studying each as a part of the whole. Nature-
study begins with the robin because the child sees it and is interested in it
and he notes the things about the habits and appearance of the robin that
may be perceived by intimate observation. In fact, he discovers for him-
self all that the most advanced book of ornithology would give concerning
the ordinary habits of this one bird; the next bird studied may be the
turkey in the barnyard, or the duck on the pond, or the screech-owl in the
spruces, if any of these happen to impinge upon his notice and interest.
However, such nature-study makes for the best of scientific ornithology,
because by studying the individual birds thus thoroughly, the pupil
finally studies a sufficient number of forms so that his knowledge, thus
assembled, gives him a better comprehension of birds as a whole than
could be obtained by the routine study of the same. Nature-study does
not start out with the classification given in books, but in the end it builds
up a classification in the child’s mind which is based on fundamental
knowledge; it is a classification like that evolved by the first naturalists,
it is built on careful personal observations of both form and life.

Handbook of Nature-Study

NATURE-STUDY NOT FOR DRILL

If nature-study is made a drill, its pedagogic value is lost. When it
is properly taught, the child is unconscious of mental effort or that he
is suffering the act of teaching. As soon as nature-study becomes a
task, it should be dropped; but how could it ever be a task to see that
the sky is blue, or the dandelion golden, or to listen to the oriole in the
elm!

THE CHILD NOT INTERESTED IN NATURE-STUDY

HAT to do with the pupil not interested in nat-
ure-study subjects is a problem that confronts
many earnest teachers. Usually the reason for
this lack of interest, is the limited range of sub-
jects-used for nature-study lessons. Often the
teacher insists upon flowers as the lesson
subject, when toads or snakes would prove
the key to the door of the child’s interest.
But whatever the cause may be, there is only
one right way out of this difficulty : The child

not interested should be kept at his regular
school work and not admitted as a member
of the nature-study class, where his influence
is always demoralizing. He had much bet-
ter be learning his spelling lesson than learn-
ing to hate nature through being obliged to
study subjects in which he is not interested. In general, it is safe to
assume that the pupil’s lack of interest in nature-study is owing to a fault
in the teacher’s method. She may be trying to fill the child’s mind
with facts when she should be leading him to observe these for himself,
which is a most entertaining occupation for the child. It should always
be borne in mind that mere curiosity is always impertinent, and that it
is never more so than when exercised in the realm of nature. A genuine
interest should be the basis of the study of the lives of plants and lower
animals. Curiosity may elicit facts, but only real interest may mold these
facts into wisdom.

WHEN TO GIVE THE LESSON

HERE are two theories concerning the time when a nature-
study lesson should be given. Some teachers believe
that it should be a part of the regular routine; others
have found it of greatest value if reserved for that period
of the school day when the pupils are weary and restless,
and the teacher’s nerves strained to the snapping point.
The lesson on a tree, insect or flower at such a moment affords immedi-
ate relief to everyone; it is a mental excursion, from which all return
refreshed and ready to finish the duties of the day.

While I am convinced that the use of the nature-study lesson for
mental refreshment makes it of greatest value, yet I realize fully that if it
is relegated to such perio.ds, it may not be given at all. It might be
better to give it a regular period late in the day, for there is strength and
sureness in regularity. The teacher is much more likely to prepare her-
self for the lesson, if she knows that it is required at a certain time.

The Teaching of Nature-Study

THE LENGTH OF THE LESSON

^fffJTlKRE nature-study lesson should be short and sharp and may
vary from ten minutes to a half hour in length. There
should be no dawdling; if it is an observation lesson, only
a few points should be noted and the meaning for the ob-
servations made clear. If an outline be suggested for
field observation, it should be given in an inspiring man-
ner which shall make each pupil anxious to see and read the truth for
himself. The nature story when properly read is never finished ; it is
always at an interesting point, “continued in our next.”

The teacher may judge as to her own progress in nature-study by the
length of time she is glad to spend in reading from nature’s book what is
therein written. As she progresses, she finds those hours spent in study-
ing nature speed faster, until a day thus spent seems but an hour. The
author can think of nothing she would so gladly do as to spend days and
months with the birds, bees and flowers with no obligation for telling
what she should see. There is more than mere information in hours thus
spent. Lowell describes them well when he says :

“Those old days when the balancing of a yellow butterfly o'er a thistle bloom
Was spiritual food and lodging for the whole afternoon."

THE NATURE-STUDY LESSON ALWAYS NEW

A nature-study lesson should not be repeated unless the pupils
demand it. It should be done so well the first time that there is no need
of repetition, because it has thus become a part of the child’s conscious-
ness. The repetition of the same lesson in different grades was, to begin
with, a hopeless incubus upon nature-study. One disgusted boy declared,
“Darn germination ! I had it in the primary and last year and now I am
having it again. I know all about germination. ” The boy’s attitude was
a just one ; but if there had been revealed to him the meaning of germina-
tion, instead of the mere process, he would have realized that until he had
planted and observed every plant in the world he would not know all
about germination, because each seedling has its own interesting story.
The only excuse for repeating a nature-study lesson is in recalling it for
comparison and contrast with other lessons. The study of the violet will
naturally bring about a review of the pansy; the dandelion, of the sun-
flower; the horse, of the donkey; the butterfly, of the moth.

NATURE-STUDY AND OBJECT LESSONS

HE object lesson method was introduced to drill the child
to see a thing accurately, not only as a whole, but in
detail and to describe accurately what he saw. A book
or a vase or some other object was held up before the class
for a moment and then removed ; afterwards the pupils
described it as perfectly as possible. This is an excellent
exercise and the children usually enjoy it as if it were a
game. But if the teacher has in mind the same thought when she is giv-
ing the nature-study lesson, she has little comprehension of the meaning
of the latter and the pupils will have less. In nature-study, it is not de-
sirable that the child see all the details, but rather those details that have
something to do with the life of the creature studied ; if he sees that the

Handbook of Nature-Study

grasshopper has the hind legs much longer than the others, he will inev-
itably note that there are two other pairs of legs and he will in the
meantime have come into an illuminating comprehension of the reason
the insect is called “grasshopper.” The child should see definitely and
accurately all that is necessary for the recognition of a plant or animal;
but in nature-study, the observation of form is for the purpose of better
understanding life. In fact, it is form linked with life, the relation of
“being” to “doing.”

NATURE-STUDY IN THE SCHOOLROOM

ANY subjects for nature-study lessons may be brought
into the schoolroom. Whenever it is possible, the pupils
should themselves bring the material, as the collecting
of it is an important part of the lesson. There should
be in the schoolroom conveniences for caring for the
little prisoners brought in from thefield. The terrarium
and breeding cages, of different kinds should be pro-
vided for the insects, toads and little mammals. Here they may live
in comfort, when given their natural food, while the children observe
their interesting ways. The ants’ nest, and the observation hive yield
fascinating views of the marvelous lives of the insect socialists, while the
cheerful prisoner in the bird cage may be made a constant illustration of
the adaptations and habits of all birds. The aquaria for fishes, tadpoles
and insects afford the opportunity for continuous study of these water
creatures and are a never-failing source of interest to the pupils, while
the window garden may be made not only an ornament and an aesthetic
delight, but a basis for interesting study of plant growth and development.

A schoolroom thus equipped is a place of delight as well as enlighten-
ment to the children. Once, a boy whose luxurious home was filled with
all that money could buy and educated tastes select, said of a little nature-
study laboratory which was in the unfinished attic of a school building, but
which was teeming with life : “I think this is the most beautiful room in

the world.”

NATURE-STUDY AND MUSEUM SPECIMENS

HE matter of museum specimens is another question for
the nature-study teacher to solve, and has a direct
bearing on an attitude toward taking life. There are
many who believe the stuffed bird or the case of pinned
insects have no place in nature-study; and certainly
these should not be the chief material. But let us use
our common sense ; the boy sees a bird in the woods or
field and does not know its name ; he seeks the bird in the museum and
thus is able to place it and read about it and is stimulated to make other
observations concerning it. Wherever the museum is a help to the study
of life in the field, it is well and good. Some teachers may give a live les-
son from a stuffed specimen, and other teachers may stuff their pupils
with facts about a live specimen; of the two, the former is preferable.

There is no question that making a collection of insects is an
efficient way of developing the child’s powers of close observation, as well
as of giving him manual dexterity in handling fragile things.. Also it is
a false sentiment which attributes to an insect the same agony at being

The Teaching of Nature-Study

impaled on a pin that we might suffer at being thrust through by a stake.
The insect nervous system is far more conveniently arranged for such an
ordeal than ours; and, too, the cyanide bottle brings immediate and pain-
less death to the insects placed within it; moreover, the insects usually
collected have short lives anyway. So far as the child is concerned, he is
thinking of his collection of moths or butterflies and not at all of taking
life; so it is not teaching him to wantonly destroy living creatures.
However, an indiscriminate encouragement of the making of insect col-
lections cannot be advised. There are some children who will profit by it
and some who will not, and unquestionably the best kind of study of
insects is watching their interesting ways while they live.

To kill a creature in order to prepare it for a nature-study lesson is not
only wrong but absurd, for nature-study has to do with life rather than
death, and the form of any creature is interesting only when its adapta-
tions for life are studied. But again, a nature-study teacher may be an
opportunist ; if without any volition on her part or the pupils’, a freshly
killed specimen comes to hand, she should make the most of it. The
writer remembers most illuminating lessons from a partridge that broke
a window and its neck simultaneously during its flight one winter night,
a yellow hammer that killed itself against an electric wire, and a muskrat
that turned its toes to the skies for no understandable reason. In each of
these cases the creature’s special physical adaptations for living its own
peculiar life were studied, and the effect was not the study of a dead
thing, but of a successful and wonderful life.

THE LENS, MICROSCOPE AND FIELD GLASS AS HELPS IN NATURE-STUDY

JN elementary grades, nature-study deals with objects which
the children can see with the naked eye. However, a lens
is a help in almost all of this work because it is such a joy
to the child to gaze at the wonders it reveals. There is no
.g lesson given in this book which requires more than a simple

lens for seeing the most minute parts discussed. An ex-
cellent lens may be bought for a dollar, and a fairly good one for fifty
cents or even twenty-five cents. The lens should be chained to a table
or desk where it may be used by the pupils at recess. This gives each
an opportunity for using it and obviates the danger of losing it. If
the pupils themselves own lenses, they should be fastened by a string or
chain to the pocket.

A microscope has no legitimate part in nature-study. But if there is
one available, it reveals so many wonders in the commonest objects, that
it can be made a source of added interest ofttimes. For instance, to thus
see the scales on the butterfly’s wing affords the child pleasure as well as
edification. Field or opera glasses, while indispensible for bird study, are
by no means necessary in nature-study. However, the pupils will show
greater interest in noting the birds’ colots if they are allowed to make the
observations with the help of a glass.

Handbook of Nature-Study

USES OF PICTURES, CHARTS AND BLACKBOARD DRAWINGS

ICTURES alone should never be used as the subjects for
nature-study lessons, but they may be of great use in
illustrating and illuminating a lesson. Books well illus-
trated are more readily comprehended by the child and
are often very helpful to him, especially after his interest
in the subject is thoroughly aroused. If charts are used
to illustrate the lesson, the child is likely to be misled by the size of the
drawing, which is also the case in blackboard pictures. However, this
error may be avoided by fixing the attention of the pupil on the object
first. If the pupils are studying the ladybird and have it in their hands,
the teacher may use a diagram representing the beetle as a foot long and
it will still convey the idea accurately ; but if she begins with the pict-
ure, she probably can never convince the children that the picture has
anything to do with the insect.

In making blackboard drawings illustrative of the lesson, it is best, if
possible, to have one of the pupils do the drawing in the presence of the
class; or, if the teacher does the drawing, she should hold the object in
her hand while doing it and look at it often so that the children may
see that she is trying to represent it accurately. Taking everything into
consideration, however, nature-study charts and blackboard drawings are
of little use to the nature-study teacher.

THE USES OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES

ISQUIETING problems relative to scientific nomenclature
always confront the teacher of nature-study. My own
practice has been to use the popular names of species,
except in cases where confusion might ensue, and to use
the scientific names for anatomical parts. However,
this matter is of little importance if the teacher bears in
mind that the purpose of nature-study is to know the subject under obser-
vation and to learn the name incidentally.

If the teacher says : “I have a pink hepatica. Can anyone find me a

blue one?” the children, who naturally like grown-up words, will soon be
calling these flowers hepaticas. But if the teacher says, “These flowers
are called hepaticas. Now please everyone remember the name. Write
it in your books as I write it on the blackboard, and in half an hour I shall
ask you again what it is,” the pupils naturally look upon the exercise as a
word lesson and its real significance is lost. This sort of nature-study is
dust and ashes and there has been too much of it. The child should never
be required to learn the name of anything in the nature-study work ; but
the name should be used so often and so naturally in his presence, that
he will learn it without being conscious of the process.

THE STORY AS A SUPPLEMENT TO THE NATURE-STUDY LESSON

ANY of the subjects for nature lessons can be studied only
in part, since but one phase may be available at the
time. Often, especially if there is little probability that
the pupils will find opportunity to complete the study, it
is best to round out their knowledge by reading or telling
the story to supplement the facts which they have discov-

The Teaching of Nature-Study

ered for themselves. This story should not be told as a finality or as a
complete picture but as a guide and inspiration for further study. Always
leave at the end of the story an interrogation mark that will remain ag-
gressive and insistent in the child’s mind. To illustrate: Once a club

of junior naturalists brought me rose leaves injured by the leaf-cutter
bee and asked me why the leaves were cut out so regularly. I told
them the story of the use made by the mother bee of these oval and cir-
cular bits of leaves and made the account as vital as I was able ; but at
the end I said, “I do not know which species of bee cut these leaves.
She is living here among us and building her nest with your rose leaves
which she is cutting every day almost under your very eyes. Is she
then so much more clever than you that you cannot see her nor find her
nest?” For two years following this lesson I received letters from mem-
bers of this club. Two carpenter bees and their nests were discovered by
them and studied before the mysterious leaf-cutter was finally ferreted
out. My story had left something interesting for the young naturalists
to discover. The children should be impressed with the fact that the
nature story is never finished. There is not a weed nor an insect nor a
tree so common that the child, by observing carefully, may not see things
never yet recorded in scientific books; therefore the supplementary story
should be made an inspiration for keener interest and further investi-
gation on the part of the pupil. The supplementary story simply thrusts
aside some of the obscuring underbrush thus revealing more plainly the
path to further knowledge.

THE NATURE-STUDY ATTITUDE TOWARD LIFE AND DEATH

ERHAPS no greater danger besets the pathway of the
nature-study teacher than the question involved in her
pupils’ attitude toward life and death. To inculcate in
the child a reverence for life and yet to keep him from
becoming mawkish and morbid is truly a problem. It
is almost inevitable that the child should become sym-
pathetic with the life of the animal or plant studied,
since a true understanding of the life of any creature
creates an interest which stimulates a desire to protect this particular
creature and make its life less hard. Many times, within my own ex-
perience, have I known boys, who began by robbing birds’ nests for egg
collections, to end by becoming most zealous protectors of the birds.
The humane qualities within these boys budded and blossomed in the
growing knowledge of the lives of the birds. At Cornell University, it is
a well known fact that those students who turn aside so as not to crush
the ant, caterpillar or cricket on the pavement are almost invariably
those that are studying entomology; and in America it is the botanists
themselves who are leading the crusade for flower protection.

Thus, the nature-study teacher, if she does her work well, is a sure aid
in inculcating a respect for the rights of all living beings to their own lives ;
and she needs only to lend her influence gently in this direction to change
carelessness to thoughtfulness and cruelty to kindness. But with this
impetus toward a reverence for life, the teacher soon finds herself in a
dilemma from which there is no logical way out, so long as she lives in a
world where lamb chop, beefsteak and roast chicken are articles of ordi-

Handbook of Nature-Study

nary diet; a world in fact, where every meal is based upon the death of
some creature. For if she places much emphasis upon the sacredness of
life, the children soon begin to question whether it be right to slay the
lamb or the chicken for their own food. It would seem that there is
nothing for the consistent nature-study teacher to do but become a
vegetarian, and even then there might arise refinements in this question
of taking life, she might have to consider the cruelty to asparagus in
cutting it off in plump infancy, or the ethics of devouring in the turnip the
food laid up by the mother plant to perfect her seed. In fact, a most
rigorous diet would be forced upon the teacher who should refuse to sus-
tain her own existence at the cost of life; and if she should attempt to
teach the righteousness of such a diet she would undoubtedly forfeit her
position; and yet what is she to do! She will soon find herself in the
position of a certain lady who placed sheets of sticky fly-paper around her
kitchen to rid her house of flies, and then in mental anguish picked off the
buzzing, struggling victims and sought to clean their too adhesive wings
and legs.

In fact, drawing the line between what to kill and what to let live,
requires the use of common sense rather than logic. First of all, the
nature-study teacher, while exemplifying and encouraging the humane
attitude toward the lower creatures, and repressing cruelty which
wantonly causes suffering, should never magnify the terrors of death.
Death is as natural as life and the inevitable end of physical life on our
globe. Therefore, every story and every sentiment expressed which
makes the child feel that death is terrible, is wholly wrong. The one right
way to teach about death is not to emphasize it one way or another, but to
deal with it as a circumstance common to all; it should be no more
emphasized than the fact that creatures eat or fall asleep.

Another thing for the nature-study teacher to do is to direct the
interest of the child so that it shall center upon the hungry creature
rather than upon the one which is made into the meal. It is well to
emphasize the fact that one of the conditions imposed upon every living
being in the woods and fields, is that it is entitled to a meal when it is
hungry, if it is clever enough to get it. The child naturally takes this
view of it. I remember well as a child I never thought particularly about
the mouse which my cat was eating; in fact, the process of transmuting
mouse into cat seemed altogether proper, but when the cat played with
the mouse, that was quite another thing, and was never permitted.
Although no one appreciates more deeply than I the debt which we owe to
Thompson-Seton and writers of his kind, who have placed before the
public the animal story from the animal point of view and thus set us all
to thinking, yet it is certainly wrong .to impress this view too strongly
upon the young and sensitive child. In fact, this process should not
begin until the judgment and the understanding is well developed, for we
all know that although seeing the other fellow’s standpoint is a source of
strength and breadth of mind, yet living the other fellow’s life is, at
best, an enfeebling process and a futile waste of energy.

The Teaching of N ature-Study

SHOULD THE NATURE-STUDY TEACHER TEACH HOW TO DESTROY LIFE ?

FT IS probably within the proper scope of the nature-study
— x teacher to place emphasis upon the domain of man, who
being the most powerful of all animals, asserts his will as
to which ones shall live in his midst. From a standpoint
of abstract justice, the stray cat has just as much right
to kill and eat the robin which builds in the vine of my
porch as the robin has to pull and eat the earthworms
from my lawn; but the place is mine, and I choose to kill
the cat and preserve the robin.

When emphasizing the domain of man, we may have to deal with the
killing of creatures which are injurious to his interests. Nature-study
may be tributary to this, in a measure, and indirectly, but it is surely not
nature-study. For example, the child studies the cabbage butterfly in
all its stages, the exquisitely sculptured yellow egg, the velvety green
caterpillar, the chrysalis with its protecting colors, the white- winged
butterfly, and becomes interested in the life of the insect. Not under any
consideration, when the attention of the child is focused on the insect,
should we suggest a remedy for it when a pest. Let the life-story of the
butterfly stand as a fascinating page of nature’s book. But later, when
the child enters on his career as a gardener, when he sets out his row of
cabbage plants and waters and cultivates them, and does his best to bring
them to maturity, along comes the butterfly, now an arch enemy, and
begins to rear her progeny on the product of his toil. Now the child’s
interest is focused on the cabbage, and the question is not one of killing
insects so much as of saving plants. In fact, there is nothing in spraying
the plants with Paris green which suggests cruelty to innocent caterpillars,
nor is the process likely to harden the child’s sensibilities.

To gain knowledge of the life-story of insects or other creatures is
nature-study. To destroy them as pests is a part of Agriculture or
Horticulture. The one may be of fundamental assistance to the other,
but the two are quite separate and should never be confused.

THE FIELD NOTE-BOOK

A field note-book may be made a joy to the pupil and a help to the
teacher. Any kind of a blank book will do for this, except that it should
not be too large to be carried in the pocket, and it should always have the
pencil attached. To make the note-book a success the following rules
should be observed :

(a) The book should be considered the personal property of the child
and should never be criticized by the teacher except as a matter of
encouragement; for the spirit in which the notes are made, is more im-
portant than the information they cover.

(b) The making of drawings should be encouraged for illustrating
what is observed. A graphic drawing is far better than a long description
of a natural object.

(c) The note-book should not be regarded as a part of the work in
English. The spelling, language and writing of the notes should all be
exempt from criticism.

(d) As occasion offers, outlines for observing certain plants or ani-
mals may be placed in the note-book previous to the field excursion so as
to give definite points for the work.

Handbook of Nature-Study

(e) No child should be compelled to have a note-book.

The field note-book is a veritable gold mine for the nature-study
teacher to work, in securing voluntary and happy observations from the
pupils concerning their out-of-door interests. It is a friendly gate which
admits the teacher to a knowledge of what the child sees and cares for.
Through it she may discover where the child’s attention impinges upon
the realm of nature and thus may know where to find the starting point for
cultivating larger intelligence and a wider interest.

Tnf

No. m

297

* ?

]

»«

CDcirMevus*.

C U|>tar &XV-
Ja w tv

t %JLt.

^cuj, OL KJxv ^ 9

G-CrU'k OaJI Hn. ,

fi s' G (^|^JuvCL rjpAjo-kju? cwA ' , ctwjl

1 , ; Y’i ■*» PaJUcC*^

0 CtGeJ< IvTU I'A^V

3..

wu;-u

fJ^+lta-VtV.

9o /7J ^ ,-hcIv

7V*«ks%"

Cnw >

CUv UfM ^aTS^aa. J kU. i

gvi»«w ( wvfcit. clavIL AuCVtic Ctvjl.

(GuStsJL 'tfvvfru^ o|| CL ^4 WuMw

^L/VvlU^uvw'i^ -Co^L

Yj. 8-vcXxvJ* 5- (04AV- CL W Gu*A4.

/Vvuf^XcXv. AA^Vj^UC/C-AA^j, /O' CpAAI^XcA. ^ O^v

"Gvi-C . <>v-wkcv<jl , AaJI ,^AdU*_u{

t£cX kv Y1- * k^c, - o - kcv * k.

(vvj ^\s~tdUc .

k/Vv -<jU (3^k^ «1^a| aJIw w^Uanv

wwt JiN-Ji , k £«. ^.vaamaj^a. %\M&4 i 'yv'^'^4

Wt- nt

'h\. s — -k

cJo-Kd/.

'■&,e ,« %v,t

TcjjcLt-io.'n,

Crick

A page from the field note-hook of a lad of fourteen who read Thoreau and admired
the hooks of Thompson-Seton.

The Teaching of Nature-Study

I have examined many field note-books kept by pupils in the inter-
mediate grades and have been surprised at their plenitude of accurate
observation and graphic illustration. These books ranged from blank
account books furnished by the family grocer up to a quarto, the pages of
which were adorned with many marginal illustrations made in passionate
admiration of Thompson-Seton’s books and filled with carefully trans-
cribed text, that showed the direct influence of Thoreau. These books, of
whatever quality, are precious beyond price to their owners. And why
not? For they represent what cannot be bought or sold, personal
experience in the happy world of out-of-doors.

THE FIELD EXCURSION

NY teachers look upon the field excursion as a precar-
ious voyage, steered between the Scylla of hilarious
seeing too much and the Charybdis of seeing nothing at
all because of the zest which comes from freedom in the
fields and wood. This danger can be obviated if the
teacher plans the work definitely before starting, and
demands certain results.

It is a mistake to think that a half day is necessary for a field lesson,
since a very efficient field trip may be made during the ten or fifteen
minutes at recess, if it is well planned. Certain questions and lines of
investigation should be given the pupils before starting and given in such
a manner as to make them thoroughly interested in discovering the facts,.
A certain teacher in New York State has studied all the common plants
and trees in the vicinity of her school with these recess excursions and the
pupils have been enthusiastic about the work.

The half hour excursion should be preceded by a talk concerning the
purposes of the outing and the pupils must know that certain observa-
tions are to be made or they will not be permitted to go again. This
should not be emphasized as a punishment; but they should be made to
understand that a field excursion is only, naturally enough, for those who
wish to see and understand outdoor life. For all field work, the teacher
should make use of the field notebook which should be a part of the pupils’
equipment.

PETS AS NATURE-STUDY SUBJECTS

~ ^ asY' JITTLE attention has been given to making the child un-

derstand what would be the lives of his pets if they were
in their native environment; or to relating their habits
and lives as wild animals. Almost any pet, if properly
observed, affords an admirable opportunity for under-
standing the reasons why its structure and peculiar habits
may have made it successful among other creatures and in other lands.

Moreover the actions and the daily life of the pet make interesting
subject matter for a note-book. The lessons on the dog, rabbit and horse
as given in this volume may suggest methods for such study, and with
apologies that it is not better and more interesting, I have placed with the
story of the squirrel a few pages from one of my own note-books regarding
my experiences with “Furry.” I include this record as a suggestion for
the children that they should keep note-books of their pets. It will lead

1 6 Handbook of Nature-Study

them to closer observation and to a better and more natural expression
of their experiences.

THE CORRELATION OF NATURE-STUDY WITH LANGUAGE WORK

ATURE-STUDY should be so much a part of the child’s
thought and interest that it will naturally form a thought
core for other subjects quite unconsciously on his part.
In fact, there is one safe rule for correlation in this case, it
is legitimate and excellent training as long as the pupil
does not discover that he is correlating. But there is
something in human nature which revolts against doing one thing to
accomplish quite another. A boy once said to me, “I’d rather never go
on a field excursion than to have to write it up for English,” a sentiment
I sympathized with keenly ; ulterior motive is sickening to the honest
spirit. But if that same boy had been a member of a field class and had
enjoyed all the new experiences and had witnessed the interesting things
discovered on this excursion, and if later his teacher had asked him to
write for her an account of some part of it, because she wished to know
what he had discovered , the chances are that he would have written his
story joyfully and with a certain pride that would have counted much for
achievement in word expression.

When Mr. John Spencer, known to so many children in New York
State as “Uncle John,” was conducting the Junior Naturalist Clubs, the
teachers allowed letters to him to count for language exercises; and the
eagerness with which these letters were written should have given the
teachers the key to the proper method of teaching English. Mr. Spencer
requested the teachers not to correct the letters, because he wished the
children to be thinking about the subject matter rather than the form of
expression. But so anxious were many of the pupils to make their letters
perfect, that they earnestly requested their teachers to help them write
correctly, which was an ideal condition for teaching them English.
Writing letters to Uncle John was such a joy to the pupils that it was used
as a privilege and a reward of merit in many schools. One rural teacher
reduced the percentage of tardiness to a minimum by giving the first
period in the morning to the work in English which consisted of letters to
Uncle John.

WTiy do pupils dislike writing English exercises ? Simply because they
are not interested in the subject they are asked to write about, and they
know that the teacher is not interested in the information contained in the
essay. But when they are interested in the subject and write about it to
a person who is interested, the conditions are entirely changed. If the
teacher, overwhelmed as she is by work and perplexities, could only keep
in mind that the purpose of a language is, after all, merely to convey ideas,
some of her perplexities would fade away. A conveyance naturally
should be fitted for the load it is to carry, and if the pupil acquires the
load first he is very likely to construct a conveyance that will be adequate.
How often the conveyance is made perfect through much effort and
polished through agony of spirit and the load entirely forgotten !

Nature-study lessons give much excellent subject matter for stories
and essays, but these essays should never be criticized or defaced with the
blue pencil. They should be read with interest by the teacher; the mis-

The Teaching of Nature-Study

takes made in them, so transformed as to be unrecognizable, may be used
for drill exercises in grammatical construction. After all, grammar and
spelling are only gained by practice and there is no royal road leading to
their acquirement.

THE CORRELATION OF NATURE-STUDY AND DRAWING

HE correlation of nature-study and drawing is so natural
and inevitable that it needs never be revealed to the
pupil. When the child is interested in studying a.ny ob-
ject, he enjoys illustrating his observations with draw-
ings ; the happy absorption of children thus engaged is a
delight to witness. At its best, drawing is a perfectly
natural method of self-expression. The savage and the young child,
both untutored, seek to express themselves and their experiences by
this means. It is only when the object to be drawn is foreign to the in-
terest of the child that drawing is a task.

Nature-study offers the best means for bridging the gap that lies
between the kindergarten child who makes drawings because he loves to
and is impelled to from within, and the pupil in the grades who is obliged
to draw what the teacher places before him. From making crude and
often meaningless pencil strokes, which is the entertainment of the young
child, the outlining of a leaf or some other simple and interesting natural
object, is a normal step full of interest for the child because it is still self-
expression.

Miss Mary E. Hill gives every year in the Goodyear School of Syracuse
an exhibition of the drawings made by the children in the nature-study
classes; and these are universally so excellent that most people regard
them as an exhibition from the Art Department; and yet many of these
pupils have never had lessons in drawing. They have learned to draw
because they like to make pictures of the living objects which they have
studied. One year there were many pictures of toads in various stages in
this exhibit, and although their anatomy was sometimes awry in the pic-
tures, yet there was a certain vivid expression of life in their representa-
tion; one felt that the toads could jump. Miss Hill allows the pupils to
choose their own medium, pencil, crayon, or water-color, and says that
they seem to feel which is best. For instance, when drawing the outline
of trees in winter they choose pencil, but when representing the trillium
or iris they prefer the water-color, while for bitter-sweet and crocuses they
choose the colored crayons.

It is through this method of drawing that which interests him, that the
child retains and keeps as his own, what should be an inalienable right, a
graphic method of expressing his own impressions. Too much have we
emphasized drawing as an art ; it may be an art, if the one who draws is
an artist ; but if he is not an artist he still has a right to draw if it pleases
him to do so. We might as well declare that a child should not speak
unless he put his words into poetry, as to declare that he should not draw
because his drawings are not artistic.

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE CORRELATION OF NATURE-STUDY WITH GEOGRAPHY

IFE depends upon its environment. Geographical
conditions and limitations have shaped the mold
into which plastic life has been poured and by
which its form has been modified. It may be
easy for the untrained mind to see how the des-
erts and oceans affect life. Cattle may not roam
in the former because there is nothing there for
them to eat, nor may they occupy the latter be-
cause they are not fitted for breathing air in the
water. And yet the camel can endure thirst and
live on the scant food of the desert; and the
whale is a mammal fitted to live in the sea. The question is, how are we
to impress the child with the “ have to ” which lies behind all these geo-
graphical facts. If animals live in the desert they have to subsist on
scant and peculiar food which grows there; they have to get along with
little water; they have to endure heat and sand storms; they have to
have eyes that will not become blinded by the vivid reflection of the sun-
light on the sand ; they have to be of sand color so that they may escape
the eyes of their enemies or creep upon their prey unperceived.

All these have to’s are not mere chance, but they have existed so long
that the animal, by constantly coming in contact with them, has attained
its present form, and habits.

There are just as many have to’s in the stream or the pond back of the
school-house, on the dry hillside behind it or in the woods beyond the creek
as there are in desert or ocean ; and when the child gets an inkling of this
fact, he has made a great step into the realm of geography. When he
realizes why water lilies can grow only in still water that is not too deep
and which has a silt bottom, and why the cat-tails grow in swamps where
there is not too much water, and why the mullen grows in the dry pasture,
and why the hepatica thrives in the rich, damp woods, and why the daisies
grow in the meadows, he will understand that this partnership of nature
and geography illustrates the laws which govern life. Many phases of
physical geography belong to the realm of nature-study; the brook, its
course, its work or erosion and sedimentation ; the rocks of many kinds,
the soil, the climate, the weather, are all legitimate subjects for nature-
study lessons.

THE CORRELATION OF NATURE-STUDY WITH HISTORY

ERE are many points where nature-study impinges
upon history in a way that may prove the basis for an
inspiring lesson. Many of our weeds, cultivated plants
and domestic animals have been introduced from Eu-
rope and are a part of our colonial history; while there
are many of the most commonly seen creatures which
have played their part in the history of ancient times.
For instance, the bees which gave to man the only
means available to him for sweetening his food until the 1 7th century,
were closely allied to the home life of ancient peoples. The buffalo
which ranged our western plains had much to do with the life of the red
man. The study of the grasshopper brings to the child’s attention stories

The Teaching of N atur e -Study

of the locusts’ invasion mentioned in the Bible, and the stars which
witnessed our creation and of which Job sang and the ancients wrote,
shine over our heads every night.

But the trees, through, the lengthy span of their lives, cover more history
individually, than do other organisms. In glancing across the wood-covered
hills of New York one often sees there, far above the other trees, the
gaunt crowns of old white pines. Such trees belonged to the forest
primeval and may have attained the age of two centuries; they stand
there looking out over the world, relics of another age when America be-
longed to the red man, and the bear and the panther played or fought
beneath them. The cedars live longer than do the pines and the great
scarlet oak may have attained the age of four centuries before it yields
to fate.

Perhaps in no other way may the attention of the pupil be turned so
naturally to past events, as through the thought that the life of such a tree
has spanned so much of human history. The life history of one of these
ancient trees should be made the center of local history; let the pupils
find when the town was first settled by the whites and where they came
from and how large the tree was then. What Indian tribes roamed the
woods before that and what animals were common in the forest when this
tree was a sapling? Thus may be brought out the chief events in the
history of the county and township, when they were established and for
whom or what they were named ; and a comparison of the present
industries may be made with those of a hundred years ago.

THE CORRELATION OF NATURE-STUDY WITH ARITHMETIC

HE arithmetical problems presented by nature-study
are many; some of them are simple and some of
them are complicated, and all of them are illumin-
ing. Seed distribution especially lends itself to
computation; a milkweed pod contains 140 seeds;
there are five such pods on one plant, each milkweed
plant requires at least one square foot of ground to
grow on ; how much ground would be required to
grow all of the seeds from this one plant ? Or, count
the seeds in one dandelion head, multiply by the
number of flower heads on the plant and estimate
how many plants can grow on a square foot, then
ask a boy how long it would take for one dandelion
plant to cover his father’s farm with its progeny; or
count the blossoms on one branch of an apple tree,
later count the ripened fruit ; what percentage of blossoms matured in-
to fruit ? Measuring trees, their height and thickness and computing the
lumber they will make combines arithmetic and geometry, and so on ad
infinitum.

As a matter of fact, the teacher will find in almost every nature lesson
an arithmetic lesson ; and when arithmetic is used in this work, it should
be vital and inherent and not “tacked on;” the pupils should be really
interested in the answers to their problems; and as with all correlation,
the success of it depends upon the genius of the teacher.

Handbook of Nature-Study

GARDENING AND NATURE-STUDY

ERRONEOUSLY, some people maintain that gardening is
nature-study; this is not .so necessarily nor ordinarily.
^ Gardening may be a basis for nature-study but it is
* rarely made so to any great extent. Even the work in
children’s gardens is so conducted that the pupils know
little or nothing of the flowers or vegetables which they
grow except their names, their uses to man and how to
cultivate them. They are taught how to prepare the soil, but the
reason for this from the plant’s standpoint is never revealed; and if
the child becomes acquainted with the plants in his garden, he makes the
discovery by himself. All this is nothing against gardening! It is a
wholesome and valuable experience for a child to learn how to make a
garden even if he remains ignorant of the interesting facts concerning the
plants which he there cultivates. But if the teachers are so inclined, they
mayl find in the garden and its products, the most interesting material for
the best of nature lessons. Every plant the child grows is an individual
with its own peculiarities as well as those of its species in manner of
growth. Its roots, stems and leaves are of certain form and structure;
and often the special uses to the plant of its own kind of leaves, stems and
roots are obvious. Each plant has its own form of flower and even its
own tricks for securing pollination ; and its own manner of developing
and scattering its seeds. Every weed of the garden has developed
some special method of winning and holding its place among the culti-
vated plants ; and in no other way may the child so fully and naturally
come into a comprehension of that term “the survival of the fittest ”
as by studying the ways of the fit as exemplified in the triumphant weeds
of his garden.

Every earthworm working below the soil is doing something for the
garden. Every bee that visits the flowers there is on an errand for the
garden as well as for herself. Every insect feeding on leaf or root is doing
something to the garden. Every bird that nests near by or that ever
visits it, is doing something which affects the life and the growth of the
garden. What all of these uninvited guests are doing is one field of
garden nature-study. Aside from all this study of individual life in the
garden which even the youngest child may take part in, there are the
more advanced lessons on the soil. What kind of soil is it ? From what
sort of rock was it formed ? What renders it mellow and fit for the grow-
ing of plants ? Moreover, what do the plants get from it ? How do they
get it? What do they do with what they get?

This leads to the subject of plant physiology, the elements of which
may be taught simply by experiments carried on by the children them-
selves, experiments which should demonstrate the sap currents in the
plant ; the use of water to carry food and in making the plant rigid ; the
use of sunshine in making the plant food in the leaf laboratories; the
nourishment provided for the seed and its germination, and many other
similar lessons.

A child who makes a garden, and thus becomes intimate with the plants
he cultivates, and comes to understand the interrelation of the various
forms of life which he finds in his garden, has progressed far in the funda-
mental knowledge of nature’s ways as well as in a practical knowledge
of agriculture.

The Teaching of Nature-Study

NATURE-STUDY AND AGRICULTURE

IUCKILY, thumb-rule agriculture is being pushed to the wall
in these enlightened days. Thumb rules would work much
better if nature did not vary her performances in such a
confusing way. Government experiment stations
were established because thumb rules for farming
were unreliable and disappointing; and all the work
of all the experiment stations has been simply ad-
vanced nature-study and its application to the prac-
tice of agriculture. Both nature-study and agriculture are based upon
the study of life and the physical conditions which encourage or limit life;
this is known to the world as the study of the natural sciences ; and if we
see clearly the relation of nature-study to science, we may understand
better the relation of nature-study to agriculture, which is based upon
the sciences.

Nature-study is science brought home. It is a knowledge of botany,
zoology and geology as illustrated in the dooryard, the corn-field or the
woods back of the house. Some people have an idea that to know these
sciences one must go to college; they do not understand that nature has
furnished the material and laboratories on every farm in the land. Thus,
by beginning with the child in nature-study we take him to the laboratory
of the wood or garden, the roadside or the field, and his materials are the
wild flowers or the weeds, or the insects that visit the golden-rod or the
bird that sings in the maple tree, or the woodchuck whistling in the pas-
ture. The child begins to study living things anywhere or everywhere,
and his progress is always along the various tracks laid down by the laws
of life, along which his work as an agriculturist must always progress if it
is to be successful.

The child through nature-study learns the way a plant grows, whether
it be an oak, a turnip or a pigweed; he learns how the roots of each is
adapted to its needs ; how the leaves place themselves to get the sunshine
and why they need it ; and how the flowers get their pollen carried by the
bee or wind; and how the seeds are finally scattered and planted. Or he
learns about the life of the bird, whether it be a chicken, an owl or a
bobolink ; he knows how each bird gets its food and what its food is, where
it lives, where it nests and its relation to other living things. He studies
the bumblebee and discovers its great mission of pollen carrying for many
flowers, and in the end would no sooner strike it dead than he would
voluntarily destroy his clover patch. This is the kind of learning we call
nature-study and not science or agriculture. But the country child can
never learn anything in nature-study that has not something to do with
science; and that has not its own practical lesson for him, when he shall
become a farmer.

Some have argued, “Why not make nature-study along the lines of
agriculture solely? Why should not the child begin nature-study with
the cabbage rather than the wild flowers?” This argument carried out
logically provides recreation for a boy in hoeing com rather than in play-
ing ball. Many parents in the past have argued thus and have, in conse-
quence, driven thousands of splendid boys from the country to the city
with a loathing in their souls for the drudgery which seemed all there was
to farm life. The reason why the wild flowers may be selected for begin-

Handbook of Nature-Study

ning the nature-study of plants, is because every child loves these wood-
land posies, and his happiest hours are spent in gathering them. Never
yet have we known of a case where a child having gained his knowledge of
the way a plant lives through studying the plants he loves, has failed to be
interested and delighted to find that the wonderful things he discovered
about his wild flower may be true of the vegetable in the garden, or the
purslane which fights with it for ground to stand upon.

Some have said, “We, as farmers, care only to know what concerns our
pocket-books; we wish only to study those things which we must, as
farmers, cultivate or destroy. We do not care for the butterfly, but we
wish to know the plum weevil ; we do not care for the trillium but we are
interested in the onion; we do not care for the meadow-lark but we
cherish the gosling.” This is an absurd argument since it is a mental
impossibility for any human being to discriminate between two things
when he knows or sees only one. In order to understand the important
economic relations to the world of one plant or animal, it is absolutely
necessary to have a wide knowledge of other plants and animals. One
might as well say, “I will see the approaching cyclone, but never look at
the sky; I will look at the clover but not see the dandelion ; I will look for
the sheriff when he comes over the hill but will not see any other team on
the road.”

Nature-study is an effort to make the individual use his senses instead
of losing them ; to train him to keep his eyes open to all things so that his
powers of discrimination shall be based on wisdom. The ideal farmer is
not the man who by hazard and chance succeeds ; he is the man who loves
his farm and all that surrounds it because he is awake to the beauty as well
as to the wonders which are there ; he is the man who understands as far
as may be the great forces of nature which are at work around him, and
therefore, he is able to make them work for him. For what is agriculture
save a diversion of natural forces for the benefit of man ! The farmer who
knows these forces only when restricted to his paltry crops, and has no
idea of their larger application, is no more efficient as a farmer than would
a man be as an engineer who knew nothing of his engine except how to
start and stop it.

In order to appreciate truly his farm, the farmer must needs begin as a
child with nature-study ; in order to be successful and make the farm pay,
he must needs continue in nature-study; and to make his declining years
happy, content, full of wide sympathies and profitable thought, he must
needs conclude with nature-study; for nature-study is the alphabet of
agriculture and no word in that great vocation may be spelled without it.

NATURE-STUDY CLUBS

\HE organizing of a club by the pupils for the purpose of
studying out-of-door life, is a great help and inspiration
to the work in nature-study in the classroom. The
essays and the talks before the club, prove efficient aid in
English composition; and the varied interests of the
members of the club, furnish new and vital material for
study. A button or a badge may be designed for the club
and, of course, it must have constitution and by-laws.
The proceedings of the club meetings should be conducted
according to parliamentary rules ; but the field excursions

should be entirely informal.

The Teaching of Nature -Study

2 3

The meetings of the Junior Naturalists Clubs, as organized in the
schools of New York State by Mr. John W. Spencer, were most impres-
sive. The school session would be brought to a close, the teacher stepping
down and taking a seat with the pupils. The president of the club, some
bashful boy or slender slip of a girl would take the chair and conduct the
meeting with a dignity and efficiency worthy of a statesman. The order
was perfect, the discussion much to the point. I confess to a feeling of
awe when I attended these meetings, conducted so seriously and so
formally, by such youngsters. Undoubtedly, the parliamentary training
and experience in speaking impromptu, are among the chief benefits of
such a club.

These clubs may be organized for special study. In one bird club of
which I know there have been contests. Sides were chosen and the
number of birds seen from May ist to 31st inclusive was the test of
supremacy. Notes on the birds were taken in the field with such care,
that when at the end of the month each member handed in his notes, they
could be used as evidence of accurate identification. An umpire with the
help of bird manuals decided the doubtful points. This year the score
stood 79 to 81.

The programs of the nature club should be varied so as to be continually
interesting. Poems and stories, concerning the objects studied, help
make the program attractive.

Handbook of Nature-Study

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

IRST and indispensably, the teacher should have at
hand the subject of the lesson. She should make
herself familiar with the points covered by the
questions and read the story before giving the lesson.
If she does not have the time to go over the observa-
tions suggested, before giving the lesson, she should
take up the questions with the pupils as a joint
investigation, and be boon companion in discover-
ing the story.

The story should not be read to the pupils. It is given as an assistance
to the teacher, and is not meant for direct information to the pupils. If
the teacher knows a fact in nature’s realm, she is then in a position to lead
her pupils to discover this fact for themselves.

Make the lesson an investigation and make the pupils feel that they
are investigators. To tell the story to begin with, inevitably spoils this
attitude and quenches interest.

The “leading thought” embodies some of the points which should be
in the teacher’s mind while giving the lesson; it should not be read or
declared to the pupils.

The outlines for observations herein given, by no means cover all of
the observations possible; they are meant to suggest to the teacher
observations of her own, rather than to be followed slavishly.

The suggestions for observations have been given in the form of ques-
tions, merely for the sake of saving space. The direct questioning
method, if not employed with discretion, becomes tiresome to both pupil
and teacher. If the questions do not inspire the child to investigate, they
are useless. To grind out answers to questions about any natural object
is not nature-study, it is simply “grind,” a form of mental activity which
is of much greater use when applied to spelling or the multiplication table
than to the study of nature. The best teacher will cover the points
suggested for observations with few direct questions. To those who
find the questions inadequate I will say that, although I have used
these outlines once, I am sure I should never be able to use them again
without making changes.

The topics chosen for these lessons may not be the most practical nor
the most interesting nor the most enlightening that are to be found ; they
are simply those subjects which I have used in my classes, because we
happened to find them at hand the mornings the lessons were given.

While an earnest attempt has been made to make the information in
this book accurate, it is to be expected and to be hoped that many dis-
crepancies will be found by those who follow the lessons. No two ani-
mals or plants are just alike, and no two people see things exactly the
same way. The chief aim of this volume is to encourage investigation
rather than to give information. Therefore, if mistakes are found, the
object of the book will have been accomplished, and the author will feel
deeply gratified. If the teacher finds that the observations made by her
and her pupils, do not agree with the statements in the book, I earnestly
enjoin upon her to trust to her own eyes rather than to any book.

No teacher is expected to teach all the lessons in this book. A wide
range of subjects is given, so that congenial choice may be made.

PART II.

ANIMAL LIFE

I. BIRD STUDY

eason for studying any bird is to ascertain what
it does; in order to accomplish this, it is necessary
to know what the bird is, learning what it is, being
simply a step that leads to a knowledge of what
it does. But, to hear some of our bird devotees
talk, one would think that to be able to identify
a bird is all of bird study. On the contrary, the
identification of birds is simply the alphabet to
the real study, the alphabet by means of which
we may spell out the life habits of the bird. To
know these habits is the ambition of the true orni-
thologist, and should likewise be the ambition of the beginner, even
though the beginner be a young child.

Several of the most common birds have been selected as subjects for
lessons in this book; other common birds, like the phoebe and wrens, have
been omitted purposely; after the children have studied the birds, as
indicated in the lessons, they will enjoy working out lessons for them-
selves with other birds. Naturally, the sequence of these lessons does not
follow scientific classification; in the first ten lessons, an attempt has
been made to lead the child gradually into a knowledge of bird life.
Beginning with the chicken there follow naturally the lessons with
pigeons and the canary; then there follows the careful and detailed study
of the robins and constant comparison of them with the blue birds. This
is enough for the first year in the primary grades. The next year the
work begins with the birds that remain in the North during the winter,
the chickadee, nuthatch and downy woodpecker. After these have been
studied carefully, the teacher may be an opportunist when spring comes
and select any of the lessons when the bird subjects are at hand. The
classification suggested for the woodpeckers and the swallows is for more
advanced pupils, as are the lessons on the geese and turkeys. It is to
be hoped that these lessons will lead the child directly to the use of the
bird manuals, of which there are several excellent ones.

BEGINNING BIRD STUDY IN THE PRIMARY GRADES

The hen is especially adapted as an object lesson for the young
beginner of bird study. First of all, she is a bird, notwithstanding the
adverse opinions of two of my small pupils who stoutly maintained that
“a robin is a bird, but a hen is a hen.” Moreover, the hen is a bird always
available for nature-study; she looks askance at us from the crates of the
world’s marts; she comes to meet us in the country barnyard, stepping
toward us sedately; looking at us earnestly, with one eye, then turning her

Handbook of Nature-Study

head so as to check up her observations with the other; meantime she
asks us a little question in a wheedling, soft tone, which we understand
perfectly to mean “have you perchance brought me something to eat?”
Not only is the hen an interesting bird in herself, but she is a bird with
problems; and by studying her carefully we may be introduced into the
very heart and center of bird life.

This lesson may be presented in two ways : First, if the pupils live in

the country where they have poultry at home, the whole series of lessons
may best be accomplished through interested talks on the part of the
teacher, which should be followed on the part of the children, by observa-
tions, which should be made at home and the results given in school in
oral or written lessons. Second, if the pupils are not familiar with fowls,
a hen and a chick, if possible, should be kept in a cage in the schoolroom
for a few days, and a duck or gosling should be brought in one day for
observation. The crates in which fowls are sent to market make very
good cages. One of the teachers of the Elmira, N. Y. Schools introduced
into the basement of the schooihouse a hen, which there hatched her
brood of chicks, much to the children’s delight and edification. After the
pupils have become thoroughly interested in the hen and are familiar with
her ways, after they have fed her and watched her, and have for her a
sense of ownership, the following lessons may be given in an informal
manner, as if they were naturally suggested to the teacher’s mind through
watching the fowl.

Bird Study

FEATHERS AS CLOTHING

Teacher's Story

HE bird’s clothing affords a natural beginning for bird
study because the wearing of feathers is a most strik-
ing character distinguishing birds from other crea-
tures; also, feathers and flying are the first things
the young child notices about birds.

The purpose of all of these lessons on the hen are: (a) To induce the

child to make continued and sympathetic observations on the habits of.
the domestic birds, (b) To cause him involuntarily to compare the
domestic with the wild birds, (c) To induce him to think for himself why
the shape of the body, wings, head, beak, feet, legs and feathers are
adapted in each species to protect the bird and assist it in getting its
living.

The overlapping of the feathers on a hen’s back and breast is a pretty
illustration of nature’s method of shingling, so that the rain, finding no
place to enter, drips off, leaving the bird’s underclothing quite dry. It
is interesting to note how a hen behaves in the rain ; she droops her tail
and holds herself so that the water finds upon her no resting place, but

simply a steep surface down which to flow to the ground.

Each feather consists of
three parts, the shaft or quill,
which is the central stiff stem
of the feather, giving it
strength. From this quill
come off the barbs which,
toward the outer end, join to-
gether in a smooth web, mak-
ing the thin, fan-like portion
of the feather ; at the base is
the fluff, which is soft and
downy and near to the body
of the fowl. The teacher
should put on the blackboard
this figure so that incidentally
the pupils may learn the parts
of a feather and their struc-
t u r e . If a microscope is
available, show both the web
and the fluff of a feather under a three- fourths objective.

The feathers on the back of a hen are longer and narrower in propor-
tion than those on the breast and are especially fitted to protect the back
from rain ; the breast feathers are shorter and have more of the fluff, thus
protecting the breast from the cold as well as the rain. It is plain to any
child that the soft fluff is comparable to our woolen underclothing while
the smooth, overlapping web forms a rain and wind-proof outer coat.
Down is a feather with no quill ; young chicks are covered with down. A
pin-feather is simply a young feather rolled up in a sheath, which bursts
later and is shed, leaving the feather free to assume its form. Take a
large pin-feather and cut the sheath open and show the pupils the young
feather lying within.

Handbook of N ature-Study

When a hen oils her feathers it is a process well worth observing. The
oil gland is on her back just at the base of the tail feathers; she squeezes
the gland with her beak to get the oil and then rubs the beak over the sur-
face of her feathers and passes them through it; she spends more time
oiling the feathers on her back and breast than those on the other parts,
so that they will surely shed water. Country people say when the hen
oils her feathers, it is a sure sign of rain. The hen sheds her feathers once
a year and is a most untidy looking bird meanwhile, a fact that she seems
to realize, and is as shy and cross as a young lady caught in company in
curl papers; but she seems very pleased with herself when she finally
gains her new feathers.

Feathers of a rooster , showing their relative size, shape and position
i, neck hackle; 2, breast; 3 , wing shoulder covert ; 4, wing flight covert; 5, wing primary;
6, wing secondary; 7, wing covert; 8, back; 9, tail covert; 10, 'main tail; n, fluff;
12, thigh; 13, saddle hackle; 14, the sickle or feather of beauty; 15, lesser sickle.
Prof. J. E. Rice in Rural School Leaflet.

Bird Study
LESSON I

Feathers as Clothing

Leading thought — Feathers grow from the skin of a bird and protect
the bird from rain, snow, wind and cold. Some of the feathers act as
cloaks or mackintoshes and others as underclothing.

Method — The hen should be at close range for this lesson where the
children may observe how and where the different kinds of feathers grow.
The pupils should also study separately the form of a feather from the
back, from the breast, from the under side of the body, and a pin-feather.

Observations for pupils — i. How are the feathers arranged on the
back of the hen ? Are they like shingles on the roof? If so, what for?

2. How does a hen look when standing in the rain?

3. How are the feathers arranged on the breast?

4. Compare a feather from the back and one from the breast and
note the difference.

5. Are both ends of these feathers alike? If not, what is the
difference ?

6. Is the fluffy part of the feather on the outside or next to the
bird’s skin ? What is its use ?

7. Why is the smooth part of the feather (the web) on the outside?

8. Some feathers are all fluff and are called “down.” At what age
was the fowl all covered with down ?

9. What is a pin-feather? What makes you think so?

10. How do hens keep their feathers oily and glossy so they will
shed water?

11. Where does the hen get the oil? Describe how she oils her
feathers and which ones does she oil most? Does she oil her feathers
before a rain ?

“ How beautiful your feathers be!”

The Redbird sang to the Tulip-tree
New garbed in autumn gold.

“Alas!” the bending branches sighed,

‘‘They cannot like your leaves abide
To keep us from the cold!”

— ■ John B. Tabb.

30 Handbook of Nature-Study

FEATHERS AS ORNAMENT
Teacher's Story

HE ornamental plumage of birds is one of the
principal illustrations of a great principle of evo-
lution. The theory is that the male birds win
their mates because of their beauty, those that
are not beautiful being doomed to live single
and leave no progeny to inherit their dullness.
On the other hand, the successful wooer hands
down his beauty to his sons. However, another
quite different principle acts upon the coloring
of the plumage of the mother birds; for if they should develop
bright colors themselves, they would attract the eyes of the enemy
to their precious hidden nests; only by being inconspicuous, are
they able to protect their eggs and nestlings from discovery and
death. The mother partridge, for instance, is so nearly the color of the
dead leaves on the ground about her, that we may almost step upon her
before we discover her; if she were the color of the oriole or tanager she
would very soon be the center of attraction to every prowler. Thus, it
has come about that among the birds the feminine love of beauty has
developed the gorgeous colors of the males, while the need for protection
of the home has kept the female plumage modest and unnoticeable.

The curved feathers of the rooster’s tail are weak and mobile and
could not possibly be of any use as a rudder; but they give grace and
beauty to the fowl and cover the useful rudder feathers underneath by a
feather fountain of iridescence. The neck plumage of the cock is also
often luxurious and beautiful in color and quite different from that of the
hen. Among the ducks the brilliant blue-green iridescent head of the
drake and his wing bars are beautiful, and make his wife seem Quaker-like
in contrast.

As an object lesson to instil the idea that the male bird is proud of his
beautiful feathers, I know of none better than that presented by the
turkey gobbler, for he is a living expression of self-conscious vanity. He
spreads his tail to the fullest extent and shifts it this way and that to show
the exquisite play of colors over the feathers in the sunlight, meanwhile
throwing out his chest to call particular attention to his blue and red
wattles; and to keep from bursting with pride he bubbles over in vain-
glorious “gobbles.”

The hen with her chicks and the turkey hen with her brood, if they
follow their own natures, must wander in the fields for food. If they
were bright in color, the hawks would soon detect them and their chances
of escape would be small ; this is another instance of the advantage to the
young of adopting the colors of the mother rather than of the father; a
fact equally true of the song birds in cases where the males are brilliant in
color at maturity. The Baltimore oriole does not assist his mate in
brooding, but he sits somewhere on the home tree and cheers her by his
glorious song and by glimpses of his gleaming orange coat. Some have
accused him of being lazy; on the contrary, he is a wise householder for,
instead of attracting the attention of crow or squirrel to his nest, he dis-
tracts their attention from it by both color and song.

A peacock’s feather should really be a lesson by itself, it is so much a
thing of beauty. The brilliant color of the purple eye-spot, and the grace-

Bird Study

ful flowing barbs that form the setting to the central gem, are all
a training in aesthetics as well as in nature-study. After the
children have studied such a
feather let them see the peacock
either in reality or in picture
and give them stories about this
bird of Juno; a bird so incon-
spicuous if it were not for his
great spread of tail, that a child
seeing it first cried, “Oh, oh, see
this old hen all in bloom!”

The whole question of sexual
selection may be made as plain
as need be for the little folks, by
simply telling them that the
mother bird chooses for her mate the one which is most brightly and
beautifully dressed, and make much of the comb and wattles of the
rooster and gobbler as additions to the brilliancy of their appearance.

Peacock feathers. Is beauty useful?

LESSON II

Feathers as Ornament

Leading thought — The color of feathers and often their shape are for the
purpose of making birds more beautiful ; while in others, the color of the
feathers protects them from the observation of their enemies.

Methods — While parts of this lesson relating to fowls, may be given in
primary grades, it is equally fitted for pupils who have a wider knowledge
of birds. Begin with a comparison of the plumage of the hen and the
rooster. Then, if possible, study the turkey gobbler and a peacock in life
or in pictures. Also the plumage of a Rouen duck and drake, and if
possible, the Baltimore oriole, the goldfinch, the scarlet tanager and
the cardinal.

Observations — 1. Note difference in shape and coloj of the tail
feathers of hen and rooster.

2. Do the graceful curved tail feathers of the rooster help him in
flying? Are they stiff enough to act as a rudder?

3. If not of use in flying what are they for? Which do you think
the more beautiful the hen or the rooster?

4. In what respects is the rooster a more beautiful fowl?

5. What other parts of the rooster’s plumage is more beautiful than
that of the hen ?

6. If a turkey gobbler sees you looking at him he begins to strut.
Do you think he does this to show off his tail feathers? Note how he
turns his spread tail this way and that so the sunshine will bring out the
beautiful changeable colors. Do you think he does this so }rou can see
and admire him ?

7. Describe the difference in plumage between the hen turkey and
the gobbler? Does the hen turkey strut?

8. Note the beautiful blue-green iridescent head and wing patches

32 Handbook of Nature-Study

on the wings of the Rouen ducks ? Is the drake more beautiful than the
duck?

9. What advantage is it for these fowls to have the father bird
more beautiful and bright in color than the mother bird ?

10. In case of the Baltimore oriole is the mother bird as bright in
color as the father bird? Why?

11. Study a peacock’s feather. What color is the eye-spot? What
color around that? What color around that ? What color and shape are
the outside barbs of the feather? Do you blame a peacock for being
proud when he can spread a tail of a hundred eyes? Does the peahen
have such beautiful tail feathers as the peacock?

Peahens and peacocks

The bird of Juno glories in his plumes;

Pride makes the fowl to preene his feathers so.

His spotted train fetched from old Argus' head ,

With golden rays like to the brighest sun,

Inserteth self-love in the silly bird;

Till midst its hot and glorious fumes
He spies his feet and then lets fall his plumes.

— The Peacock, Robert Greene, (1560).

Bird Study

HOW BIRDS FLY

Teacher's Story

TO convince the children that a bird’s wings correspond
to our arms, they should see a fowl with its feathers off,
prepared for market or oven, and they will infer the
fact at once.

The bird flies by lifting itself through pressing down upon the air with
its wings. There are several experiments which are needed to make the
child understand this. It is difficult for children to conceive that the air
is really anything, because they cannot see it; so the first experiment
should be to show that the air is something we can push against or that
pushes against us. Strike the air with a fan and we feel there is something
which the fan pushes ; we feel the wind when it is blowing and it is very
difficult for us to walk against a hard wind. If we hold an open umbrella
in the hand while we jump from a step we feel buoyed up because the
umbrella presses down upon the air. The bird presses down upon the air
with the wings, just as the open umbrella does. The bird flies by pressing
down upon the air with its wings just as a boy jumps high by pressing
down with his hands on his vaulting pole.

Hen with wing outstretched showing primaries and secondaries
of the wing and the overlapping of the feathers.

From practical exercise on feathers by Prof. J. E. Rice in Rural
School Leaflet.

Handbook of Nature-Study

Study wing and note : (a) That the wings open and close at the
will of the bird, (b) That the feathers open and shut on each other like a
fan. (c) When the wing is open the wing quills overlap, so that the air
cannot pass through them, (d) When the wing is open it is curved so
that it is more efficient, for the same reason that an umbrella presses
harder against the atmosphere when it is open than when it is broken by
the wind and turned wrong side out.

A wing feather has the barbs on the front edge lying almost parallel to
the quill while those on the hind edge come off at a wide angle. The
reason for this is easy to see, for this feather has to cut the air as the bird
flies; and if the barbs on the front side were like those of the other side
they would be tom apart by the wind. The barbs on the hind side of the
feather form a strong, close web so as to press down on the air and not let
it through. The wing quill is curved; the convex side is up and the con-
cave side below during flight. The concave side, like the umbrella,
catches more air than the upper side ; the down stroke of the wing is for-
ward and down; while on the up stroke, as the wing is lifted, it bends at
the joint like a fan turned sidewise, and offers less surface to resist the air.
Thus, the up stroke does not push the bird down.

Observations should be made on the use of the bird’s tail in flight.
The hen spreads her tail like a fan when she flies to the top of the fence;
the robin does likewise when in flight. The fact that the tail is used as a
rudder to guide the bird in flight, as well as to give more surface for
pressing down upon the air, is hard for the younger pupils to understand,
and perhaps can be best taught by watching the erratic unbalanced flight
of young birds whose tail feathers are not yet grown.

The tail feather differs from the wing feather in that the quill is not
curved, and the barbs on each side are of about equal length and lie at
about the same angle on each side the quill. See Fig. p. 28.

References — The Bird Book, Eckstorm, pp. 75-92; Story of the
Birds, Baskett, pp. 171-176; Bird Life, Chapman, p. 18; The Bird,
Beebe, Ch. XIII; First Book of Birds, Miller.

LESSON III.

How Birds Fly

Leading thought — A bird flies by pressing down upon the air with its
wings, which are made especially for this purpose. The bird’s tail acts as
a rudder during flight.

Method — The hen, it is hoped will by this time be tame enough so that
the teacher may spread open her wings for the children to see. In addi-
tion, have a detached wing of a fowl such as are used in farm houses
instead of a whisk-broom.

Observations — 1. Do you think a bird’s wings correspond to our
arms? If so why?

2. Why do birds flap their wings when they start to fly?

3 . Can you press against the air with a fan ?

4. Why do you jump so high with a vaulting pole? Do you think
the bird uses the air as you use the pole?

5 . How are the feathers arranged on the wing so that the bird can
use it to press down on the air?

Bird Study

6. If you carry an umbrella on a windy morning, which catches
more wind, the under or the top side? Why is this? Does the curved
surface of the wing act in the same way ?

7. Take a wing feather. Are the barbs as long on one side of the
quill as on the other? Do they lie at the same angle from the quill on
both sides ? If not why ?

8. Which side of the quill lies on the outer side and which on the
inner side of the wing?

9. Is the quill of the feather curved?

10. Which side is uppermost in the wing, the convex or the concave
side? Take a quill in one hand and press the tip against the other.
Which way does it bend easiest, toward the convex or the concave side?
What had this to do with the flight of the bird ?

11. If the bird flies by pressing the wings against the air on
the down stroke, why does it not push itself downward with its
wings on the up stroke ?

12. What is the shape and arrangement of the feathers so as to
avoid pushing the bird back to earth when it lifts its wings ?

13. Why do you have a rudder to a boat?

14. Do you think a bird could sail through the air without some-
thing to steer with? What is the bird’s rudder?

15. Have you ever seen a young bird whose tail is not yet grown,
try to fly? If so, how did it act?

16. Does the hen when she flies keep the tail closed or open like
a fan?

17. Compare a tail feather with a wing feather and describe the
difference.

Handbook of Nature-Study

EYES AND EARS OF BIRDS
Teacher's Story

HE hen’s eyes are placed at the side of the head so that
she cannot see the same object with both eyes at the
same time, and thus she has the habit of looking at us
first with one eye and then the other to be sure she
sees correctly; also the position of the hen’s eyes give
her a command of her entire environment. All birds
have much keener eyes than have we; and they can
adjust their eyes for either near or far vision much
more effectively than we can ; the hawk, flying high in the air, can see
the mouse on the ground.

There is a wide range of colors found in the eyes of birds; white, red
blue, yellow, brown, gray, pink, purple and green are found in the iris of
different species. The hen’s eye consists of a black pupil at the center,
which must always be black in any eye, since it is a hole through which
enters the image of the object. The iris of the hen’s eye is yellow; there
is apparently no upper lid but the lower lid comes up during the process of
sleeping. When the bird is drowsy the little film lid comes out from the
corner of the eye and spreads over it like a veil; just at the comer of our
own eye, next the nose, is the remains of this film lid, although we cannot
move it as the hen does.

The hearing of birds is very acute, although the ear is simply a hole in
the side of the head in most cases, and is more or less covered with
feathers. The hen’s ear is like this in many varieties; but in others and
in the roosters there are ornamental ear lobes.

LESSON IV

Eyes and Ears of Birds

Leading thought — The eyes and ears of birds are peculiar and very
efficient.

Methods — The hen or chicken and the rooster should be observed for
this lesson ; notes may be made in the poultry yard or in the schoolroom
when the birds are brought there for study.

Observations — i . Why does the hen turn her head first this side and
that as she looks at you? Can she see an object with both eyes at once?
Can she see well?

2. How many colors are there in a hen’s eye? Describe the pupil
and the iris.

3. Does the hen wink as we do? Has she any eyelids?

4. Can you see the film lid? Does it come from above or below or
the inner or outer comer? When do you see this film lid?

5. Where are the hen’s ears? How do they look? How can you
tell where the rooster’s ears are?

6. Do you think the hen can see and hear well ?

Bird Study 3 7

THE FORM AND USE OF BEAKS

Teacher's Story

INCE the bird uses its arms and hands for flying, it
has been obliged to develop other organs to take
their place, and of their work the beak does its full
share. It is well to emphasize this point by letting
the children at recess play the game of trying to eat
an apple or to put up their books and pencils with
their arms tied behind them; such an experiment
will show how naturally the teeth and feet come to the aid when the
hands are useless.

The hen feeds upon seeds and insects which she finds on or in the
ground; her beak is horny and sharp and acts not only as a pair of nip-
pers, but also as a pick as she strikes it into the soil to get the seed or
insect, having already made bare the place by scratching away the grass
or surface of the soil with her strong, stubby toes. The hen does not have
any teeth, nor does she need any, for her sharp beak enables her to seize
her food; and she does not need to chew it, since her gizzard does this for
her after the food is swallowed.

The duck’s bill is broad, flat, and much softer than the hen’s beak.
The duck feeds upon water insects and plants ; it attains these by thrust-
ing its head down into the water, seizing the food and holding it fast while
the water is strained out through the sieve at the edges of the beak; for
this use, a wide, flat beak is necessary. It would be quite as impossible
for a duck to pick up hard seeds with its broad, soft bill as it would for
the hen to get the duck’s food out of the water with her narrow, horny
bill.

Both the duck and hen use their bills for cleaning and oiling their
feathers and for fighting also ; the hen strikes a sharp blow with her beak
making a wound like a dagger, while the duck seizes the enemy and
simply pinches hard. Both fowls also use their beaks for turning over the
eggs when incubating, and also as an aid to the feet when they make nests
for themselves.

The nostrils are very noticeable and are situated in the beak near the
base. However, we do not believe that birds have a keen sense of smell
since their nostrils are not surrounded by a damp, sensitive, soft surface
as are the nostrils of the deer and dog, this arrangement aiding these
animals to detect odor in a marvelous manner.

LESSON V
The Beak of a Bird

Leading thought — Each kind of bird has a beak especially adapted for
getting its food. The beak and feet of a bird are its chief weapons and
implements.

Methods — Study first the beak of the hen or chick and then that of
the duckling or gosling.

Observations — 1. What kind of food does the hen eat and where and
how does she find it in the field or gaiden? How is her beak adapted to
get this food? If her beak were soft like that of a duck could she peck so
hard for seeds and worms ? Has the hen any teeth ? Does she need any ?

Handbook of Nature-Study

2. Compare the bill of the hen with that of the duck? What are
the differences in shape? Which is the harder?

3. Note the saw teeth along the edge of the duck’s bill. Are these
for chewing? Do they act as a strainer? Why does the duck need to
strain its food ?

4. Could a duck pick up a hen’s food from the earth or the hen
strain out a duck’s food from the water? For what other things than
getting food do these fowls use their bills?

5. Can you see the nostrils in the bill of a hen? Do they show
p’ainer in the duck? Do you think the hen can smell as keenly as the
duck?

Supplementary reading — The Bird Book, p. 99; The First Book of
Birds, pp. 95-7; Mother Nature’s Children, Chapter VIII.

11 It is said that nature- study teaching should be accurate , a statement that every good
teacher will admit without debate; but accuracy is often interpreted to mean complete-
ness, and then the statement cannot pass unchallenged. To study ‘the dandelion,' ‘the
robin,' with- emphasis on the particle ‘the' , working out %he complete structure, may be
good laboratory work in botany or zoology for advanced pupils, but it is not an elemen-
tary educational process. It contributes nothing more to accuracy than does the natural
order of leaving untouched all those phases of the subject that are out of the child's reach;
while it may take out the life and spirit of the work, and the spiritual quality may be
the very part that is most worth the while. Other work may provide the formal ‘drill' ;
this should supply the quality and vivacity. Teachers often say to me that their
children have done excellent work with these complete methods, and they show me the
essays and drawings; but this is no proof that the work is commendable. Children
can be made to do many things that they ought not to do and that lie beyond them. We
all need to go to school to children." — “The Outlook to Nature,” L. H. Bailey.

“ Weather and wind and waning moon,
Plain and hilltop under the sky,
Ev’ning, morning and blazing noon.
Brother of all the world am I.

The pine-tree, linden and the maize,

The insect, squirrel and the kine,

All — natively they live their days —

As they live theirs, so I live mine,

I know not where, I know not what: —
Believing none and doubting none
What'er befalls it counteth not, —

Nature and Time and I are one."

— L. H. Bailey.

Bird Study

THE FEET OF BIRDS

Teacher's Story

BVIOUSLY, the hen is a digger of the soil; her claws
are long, strong and slightly hooked, and her feet
and. legs are covered with homy scales as a protec-
tion from injury when used in scratching the hard
earth, in order to lay bare the seeds and insects
hiding there. The hen is a very good runner indeed.
She lifts her wings a little to help, much as an
athletic runner uses his arms, and so can cover
ground with amazing rapidity, her strong toes giv-
ing her a firm foothold. The track she makes is
very characteristic; it consists of three toe-marks
projecting forward and one backward. A bird’s
toes are numbered thus:

A duck

has the same number of toes as
the hen, but there is a membrane,
called the web, which joins the
second, third and fourth toes, mak-
ing a fan-shaped foot ; the first or
the hind toe has a little web of its
own. A webbed foot is first of all
a paddle for propelling its owner
through the water; it is also a very useful foot on the shores of ponds
and streams, since its breadth and flatness prevent it from sinking into
the soft mud.

The duck’s legs are shorter than those of the hen and are placed farther
back and wider apart. The reason for this is, they are essentially swim-
ming organs and are not fitted for scratching nor for running. They are
placed at the sides of the bird’s body so that they may act as paddles, and
are farther back so that they may act like the wheel of a propeller in

Duck's foot and hen's foot with
toes numbered.

Rouen ducks. The Rouens are colored like the Wild Mallards .

Handbook of Nature-Study

pushing the bird along. We often laugh at a duck on land, since its short
legs are so far apart and so far back that its walk is necessarily an awk-
ward waddle; but we must always remember that the duck is naturally
a water bird, and on the water its movements are graceful. Think once,
how a hen would appear if she attempted to swim! The duck’s body is
so illy balanced on its short legs that it cannot run rapidly; and if chased
even a short distance, will fall dead from the effort, as many a country
child has discovered to his sorrow when he tried to drive the ducks home
from the creek or pond to coop. The long, hind claw of the hen enables
her to clasp a roost firmly during the night; a duck’s foot could not do
this and the duck sleeps squatting on the ground. However, the Mus-
covy ducks, which are not good swimmers, have been known to perch.

LESSON VI
The Feet of Birds

Leading thought — The feet of' birds are shaped so as to assist the bird in
getting its food as well as for locomotion.

Methods — The pupils should have opportunity to observe the chicken
or hen and a duck as they move about; they should also observe the
duck swimming.

Observations — i. Are the' toes of the hen long and strong? Have
they long, sharp claws at their tips?

2. How are the legs and feet of the hen covered and protected?

3. How are the hen’s feet and legs fitted for scratching the earth,
and why does she wish to scratch the earth?

4. Can a hen run rapidly? What sort of a track does she make?

5. You number your fingers with the thumb as number one and the
little finger as five. How do you think the hen’s toes are numbered?

6. Has the duck as many toes as the hen? What is the chief
difference between the feet of the duck and the hen ?

7. Which of the duck’s toes are connected by a web? Does the
web extend to the tips of the toes ? What is the web for and how does it
help the duck ?

8. Are the duck’s legs as long as the hen’s? Are they placed
farther forward or farther back than those of the hen ? Are they farther
apart?

9. Can a duck run as well as a hen? Can the hen swim at all?

10. Where does the hen sleep and how does she hold on to her
perch? Could the duck hold on to a perch? Does the duck need to
perch while sleeping?

Bird Study

CHICKEN WAYS
Teacher's Story

AME Nature certainly pays close attention to details,
and an instance of this is the little tooth on the tip of
the upper mandible of the young chick to aid it in
breaking out of its egg-shell prison ; and since a tooth
in this particular place is of no use later, it disappears.
The children are delighted with the beauty of a fluffy,
little chick with its bright, questioning eyes and its life
of activity as soon as it is freed from the shell. What
a contrast to the blind, bare, scrawny young robin,
which seems to be all mouth ! The difference between
the two is fundamental since it gives a character for separating ground
birds from perching birds. The young partridge, quail, turkey and chick
are clothed and active and ready to go with the mother in search of food
as soon as they are hatched ; while the young of the perching birds are
naked and blind, being kept warm by the brooding mother, and fed and
nourished by food brought by their parents, until they are large enough to
leave the nest. The down which covers the young chick differs from the
feathers which come later; the down has no quill but consists of several
flossy threads coming from the same root; later on, this down is pushed
out and off by the true feathers which grow from the same sockets. The

An anxious stepmother.

Handbook of Nature-Study

pupils should see that the down is so soft that the little, fluffy wings of the
chick are useless until the real wing feathers appear.

We chew food until it is soft and fine, then swallow it, but the chick
swallows it whole and after being softened by juices from the stomach it
passes into a little mill, in which is gravel that the chicken has swallowed,
which helps to grind the food. This mill is Called the gizzard and the
pupils should be taught to look carefully at this organ the next time they
have chicken for dinner. A chicken has no muscles in the throat, like
ours, to enable it to swallow water as we do. Thus, it has first to fill its

“Chums."

beak with water, then hold it up so the water will flow down the throat of
itself. As long as the little chick has its mother’s wings to sleep under, it
does not need to put its head under its own wing; but when it grows up
and spends the night upon a roost, it always tucks its head under its wing
while sleeping.

The conversation of the barnyard fowl covers many elemental emo-
tions and is easily comprehended. It is well for the children to under-
stand from the first that the notes of birds mean something definite. The
hen clucks when she is leading her chicks afield so that they will know
where she is in the tall grass; the chicks follow “cheeping” or “peeping,”
as the children say, so that she will know where they are ; but if a chick

Bird Study

feels itself lost its “peep” becomes loud and disconsolate; on the other
hand, there is no sound in the world so full of cosy contentment as the low
notes of the chick as it cuddles under the mother’s wing. When a hen
finds a bit of food she utters rapid notes which call the chicks in a hurry,
and when she sees a hawk she gives a warning “q-r-r” which makes every
chick run for cover and keep quiet. When hens are taking their sun and
dust baths together, they evidently gossip and we can almost hear them
saying, “Did you not think Madam Dorking made a great fuss over her egg
to-day?” Or, “that overgrown young rooster has got a crow to match his
legs, has he not?” Contrast these low tones to the song of the hen as she
issues forth in the first warm days of spring and gives to the world one of
the most joyous songs of all nature. There is quite a different quality in
the triumphant cackle of a hen telling to the world that she has laid an
egg and the cackle which comes from being startled. When a hen is
sitting or is not allowed to sit, she is nervous and irritable and voices her
mental state by scolding. When she is really afraid, she squalls and when
seized by an enemy, she utters long, horrible squawks. The rooster
crows to assure his flock that all is well; he also crows to show other
roosters what he thinks of himself and of them. The rooster also has
other notes; he will question you as you approach him and his flock, and
he will give a warning note when he sees a hawk; when he finds some
dainty tidbit he calls his flock of hens to him and they usually arrive just in
time to see him swallow the morsel.

When roosters fight, they confront each other with their heads lowered
and then try to seize each other by the back of the neck with their beaks,
or strike each other with the wing spurs, or tear with the leg spurs.
Weasels, skunks, rats, hawks and crows are the most common enemies of
the fowls, and often a rooster will attack one of these invaders and fight
valiantly ; the hen will also fight if her brood is disturbed.

“Well, who are you ?”

Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON VII

Chicken Ways

Leading thought — Chickens have interesting habits of life and extensive
conversational powers.

Method — For this lesson it is necessary that the pupils observe the
inhabitants of the poultry yard and answer these questions a few at a
time.

Observations — i. Did the chick get out of the egg by its own efforts?
For what use is the little tooth which is on the tip of the upper part of a
young chicken’s beak? Does this remain?

2. What is the difference between the down of the chick and the
feathers of the hen ? The little chick has wings ; why can it not fly ?

3. Why is the chick just hatched so pretty and downy, while the
young robin is so bare and ugly? Why is the young chick able to see
while the young robin is blind ?

4. How does the young chick get its food?

5. Does the chick chew its food before swallowing? If not, why?

6. How does the chick drink? Why does it drink this way?

7. Where does the chick sleep at night? Where will it sleep when
it is grown up ?

8. Where does the hen put her head when she is sleeping?

9. How does the hen call her chicks when she is with them in the
field ?

10. How does she call them to food?

1 1 . How does she tell them that there is a hawk in sight ?

12. What notes does the chick
make when it is following its
mother ? When it gets lost ?
When it cuddles under her wing?

13. What does the hen say
when she has laid an egg? When
she is frightened? When she is
disturbed while sitting on eggs?
When she is grasped by an enemy?
How do hens talk together? De-
scribe a hen’s song.

14. When does the rooster
crow? What other sounds does
he make?

15. With what weapons does
the rooster fight his rivals and his
enemies ?

16. What are the natural
enemies of the barnyard fowls and
how do they escape them?

Supplementary reading — T rue
Bird Stories, Miller p. 102.

This figure should be placed on the blackboard
where pupils may consult it when studying
colors arfd markings of birds.

Bird Study

Pigeon houses of the upper Nile.

Photo by J. H. Comstock.

PIGEONS

Teacher's Story

HERE is a mention of domesticated pigeons by writers
three thousand years ago ; and Pliny relates that the
Romans were fervent pigeon fanciers at the beginning
of the Christian era. All of our domestic varieties of
pigeons have been developed from the Rock pigeon, a
wild species common in Europe and Asia. The carrier
pigeon was probably the first to be specially developed
because of its usefulness ; its love and devotion to mate
and young and its homesickness when separated from them were used by
man for his own interests. When a knight of old started off on a
Crusade or to other wars, he took with him several pigeons from the home
cote ; and after riding many days he wrote a letter and tied it to the neck
or under the wing of one of his birds, which he then set free, and it flew
home with its message ; later he would set free another in like manner.
The drawback to this correspondence was that it went only in one direc-
tion; no bird from home brought message of cheer to the wandering
knight. Now-a-days mail routes, telegraph wires and wireless currents
enmesh our globe and the pigeon as a carrier is out-of-date ; but fanciers
still perfect the homer breed and train pigeons for very difficult flight
competitions, some of them a distance of hundreds of miles. Recently
a homer made one thousand miles in two days, five hours and fifty
minutes. Read to the pupils “Amaux” in Animal Heroes by Thompson
Seton to give them an idea of the life of a homing pigeon.

Handbook of Nature-Study

The natural food of pigeons is grain; we feed them cracked
com, wheat, peas, Kafir corn, millet and occasionally hemp seed; it

is best to feed mixed rations
as the birds tire of the
monotonous diet. Pigeons
should be fed twice a day;
the pigeon is the only bird
which can drink like a
horse, that is, with the
head lowered. The walk
of a pigeon is accom-
panied by a peculiar nod-
ding as if the head were in
some way attached to the
feet, and this movement
sends waves of iridescent
colors over the bird’s
plumage. The flight of the
pigeon is direct without
soaring, the wings move
rapidly and steadily, the
birds circling and sailing as
" Game Leg ” a homer pigeon of notable achievement they start or alight. The
(Courtesy of Country Life in America.) CrOW flaps hard and then

sails for a distance when
it is inspecting the ground, while the hawk soars on motionless
wings. It requires closer attention to understand the language of the
pigeon than that of the hen, nor has it so wide a range of expression as
the latter ; however, some emotions are voiced in the cooing, which the
children will understand.

The nest is built of grass and twigs ; the mother pigeon lays two eggs
fora sitting; but in some breeds a pair will raise from seven to twelve
broods per year. The eggs hatch in from sixteen to eighteen days, and
both parents share the labors of incubating. In the case of the homer
the father bird sits from io a. m. to 4 p. m. and the mother the remainder
of the day and night. The devotion of pigeons to their mates and to their
young is great, and has been sung by the poets and praised by the philoso-
phers during many ages ; some breeds mate for life. The young pigeons
or squabs are fed in a peculiar manner; in the crops of both parents is
secreted a cheesy substance, known as pigeon milk. The parent seizes
the beak of the squab in its own and pumps the food from its own crop
into the stomach of the young. This nutritious food is given to the squab
for about five days and then replaced by grain which is softened in the
parents’ stomachs, until, the squabs are old enough to feed themselves.
Rats, mice, weasels, and hawks are the chief enemies of the pigeons;
since pigeons cannot fight, their only safety lies in flight.

As the original Rock pigeon built in caves, our domesticated varieties
naturally build in the houses we provide for them. A pigeon house
should not be built for more than fifty pairs; it should be well ventilated
and kept clean ; it should face the south or east and be near a shallow,
running stream if possible. The nest boxes should be twelve inches
square and nine inches in height with a door at one side, so

Bird Study

that the nest may remain hidden. In front of each door there
should be a little shelf to act as a balcony on which the resting parent bird
may sit and coo to
relieve the monotony
of the sitter. Some
breeders make a
double compartment
instead of providing a
balcony, while in
Egypt branches are
inserted in the wall
just below the doors
of the very ornamen-
tal pigeon houses.

The houses should be
kept clean and white-
washed with lime
to which carbolic acid
is added in the pro-
portion of one tea- Pouter pigeons

spoonful of acid to two Photo hV j- Demary

gallons of the wash; the leaf stems of tobacco should be given to the
pigeons as material for building their nests, so as to help keep in check the
bird lice. There should be near the pigeon house plenty of fresh water
for drinking and bathing; also a box of table salt, and another of cracked
oyster shell and another of charcoal as fine as ground coffee. Salt is very
essential to the health of pigeons. The house should be high enough from
the ground to keep the inmates safe from rats and weasels.

LESSON VIII
Pigeons

Leading thought — The pigeons differ in appearance from other birds
and also in their actions. Their nesting habits are very interesting and
there are many things that may be done to make the pigeons comfortable.
They were, in ancient days, used as letter carriers.

Methods — If there are pigeons kept in the neighborhood, it is best to
encourage the pupils to observe these birds out-of-doors. Begin the
work with an interesting story and with a few questions which will arouse
the pupils’ interest in the birds. A pigeon in a cage in the schoolroom for
a special lesson on the bird’s appearance, is desirable but not necessary.

Observations — % For an out-of-door exercise during recess let the
pupils observe the pigeon and tell the colors of the beak, eyes, top of the
head, back, breast, wings, tail, feet and claws. This exercise is excellent
training to fit the pupils to note quickly the colors of the wild birds.

2. On what do pigeons feed? Are they fond of salt?

3. Describe how a pigeon drinks. How does it differ in this respect
from other birds?

4'. Describe the peculiar movement of the pigeon when walking.

5. Describe the pigeon’s flight. Is it rapid, high in the air, do the
wings flap constantly, etc? What is the chief difference between the
flight of pigeons, crows or hawks ?

48 Handbook of Nature-Study

6. Listen to the cooing of a pigeon and see if you can understand
the different notes.

7. Describe the pigeon’s nest. How many eggs are laid at a time ?

8. Describe how the parents share the labors in hatching the eggs,
and how long after the eggs are laid before the young hatch ?

9. How do the parents feed their young and on what material?

10. What are the enemies of pigeons and how do they escape from
them? How can we protect them?

11. Describe how a pigeon house should be built.

12. What must you do for pigeons to keep them healthy and com-
fortable ?

13. How many breeds of pigeons do you know? Describe them.
Supplementary reading — “Amaux” in Animal Heroes, Thompson

Seton; Audubon Leaflet, Nos. 2 and 6; Neighbors with Wings and Fins
Ch. XV; Noah and the Dove, The Bible; Daddy Darwin’s Dove Cote,
Mrs. Ewing; Squab Raising, Bui. of U. S. Dept. Agr.

For my own part I readily concur with you in supposing that housedoves are
derived from the small blue rock-pigeon, Columba livia , for many reasons. * * *

But what is worth a hundred arguments is, the instance you give in Sir Roger Mostyn’s
housedoves in Caernarvonshire ; which, though tempted by plenty of food and gentle
treatment, can never be prevailed on to inhabit their cote for any time; but as soon as they
begin to breed, betake themselves to the fastnesses of Ormshead, and deposit their young
in safety amidst the inaccessible caverns and precipices of that stupendous promontory.
“You may drive nature out with a pitchfork, but she will always return :”

“Naturam expellas furca * * * tamen usque recurret.”

Virgil, as a familiar occurrence, by way of simile, describes a dove haunting the
cavern of a rock in such engaging numbers, that I cannot refrain from quoting the
passage.

“ Qualis spelunca subito commota Columba,

Cui domus, et dulces latebroso in pumice nidi,

Fertul in arva volans, plausumque exterrita pennis
Dat tecto ingentem, mox aere lapsa quieto,

Radit iter liquidum, celeres neque commovet alas."

(Virg. Aen. v. 2 13-2 17).

“As when a dove her rocky hold forsakes,

Roused, in a fright her sounding wings she shakes;

The cavern rings with clattering: — out she flies.

And leaves her callow care, and cleaves the skies;

At first she flutters: — but at length she springs
To smoother flight, and shoots upon her wings.”

('Dryden’ s T ranslation) .

White of Selboi/rne.

Bird Study

THE CANARY AND THE GOLDFINCH

Teacher's Story

N childhood the language of bird's and animals is learned
unconsciously. What child, who cares for a canary, does
not understand its notes which mean loneliness, hunger,
eagerness, joy, scolding, fright, love and song!

The pair of canaries found in most cages are not natural
mates. The union is one de convenance, forced upon them
by people who know little of bird affinities. We could
hardly expect that such a mating would be always happy.
The singer, as the male is called, is usually arbitrary and tyrannical and
does not hesitate to lay chastising beak upon his spouse. The expression
of affection of the two is usually very practical, consisting of feeding each
other with many beguiling notes and much fluttering of wings. The
singer may have several songs ; whether he has many or few depends upon
his education ; he usually shows exultation when singing by throwing the
head back like a prima-donna, to let the music well forth. He is usually
brighter yellow in color with more brilliantly black markings than his
mate; she usually has much gray in her plumage. But there are about
fifty varieties of canaries and each has distinct color and markings.

Canaries should be given a more varied diet than most people think.
The seeds we buy or that we gather from the plantain or wild grasses, they
eat eagerly. They like fresh, green leaves of lettuce and chickweed and
other tender herbage; they enjoy bread and milk occasionally. There
should always be a piece of cuttle-fish bone or sand and gravel where they
can get it, as they need grit for digestion. Above all, they should have
fresh water. Hard-boiled egg is given them while nesting. The canary
seed which we buy for them is the product of a grass in the Canary Islands.
Hemp and rape seed are also sold for canary food.

The canary’s beak is wide and sharp and fitted for shelling seeds; it is
not a beak fitted for capturing insects. The canary, when drinking, does
not have to lift the beak so high in the air in order to swallow the water as
do some birds. The nostrils are in the beak and are easily seen; the ear
is hidden by the feathers. The canary is a fascinating little creature
when it shows interest in an object; it has such a knowing look, and its
perfectly round, black eyes are so intelligent and cunning. If the canary
winks, the act is so rapid as to be seen with difficulty, but when drowsy,
the little inner lid appears at the inner corner of its eye and the outer lids
close so that we may be sure that they are there; the lower lid covers
more of the eye than the upper.

The legs and toes are covered with scale armor; the toes have long,
curved claws that are neither strong nor sharp but are especially fitted for
holding to the perch ; the long-hind toe with its stronger claw makes com-
plete the grasp on the twig. When the canary is hopping about on the
bottom of the cage we can see that its toes are more fitted for holding to
the perch than for walking.

When the canary bathes, it ducks its head and makes a great splashing
with its wings and likes to get thoroughly wet. Afterward, it sits all
bedraggled and “humped up” for a time and then usually preens its
feathers as they dry. When going to sleep, it at first fluffs out its feathers
and squats on the perch, draws back its head and looks very drowsy.

Handbook of Nature-Study

Later it tucks its head under its wing for the night and then looks like a
little ball of feathers on the perch.

Canaries make a great fuss when building their nest. A pasteboard
box is usually given them with cotton and string for lining;, usually one
pulls out what the other puts in; and they both industriously tear the
paper from the bottom of the cage to add to their building material.
Finally, a make-shift of a nest is completed and the eggs are laid. If the
singer is a good husband, he helps incubate the eggs and feeds his mate
and sings to her frequently ; but often he is quite the reverse and abuses
her abominably. The nest of the caged bird is very different in appear-
ance from the neat nests of grass, plant down, and moss which the wild
ancestors of these birds made in some safe retreat in the shrubs or ever-
greens of the Canary Islands. The canary eggs are pale blue, marked
with reddish-brown. The incubation period is 13 to 14 days. The
young are as scrawny and ugly as most little birds and are fed upon food
partially digested in the parents’ stomachs. Their first plumage resem-
bles that of the mother usually.

In their wild state in the Canary and Azore Islands, the canaries are
olive green above with golden yellow breasts. When the heat of spring
begins, they move up the mountains to cooler levels and come down again
in the winter. They may rear three or four broods on their way up the
mountains, stopping at successive heights as the season advances, until
finally they reach the high peaks.

THE GOLDFINCH OR THISTLE BIRD

A pair of goldfinches.
(Courtesy of Audubon Educational
Leaflet No. 17).

The goldfinches are bird midgets
but their songs are so sweet and
reedy that they seem to fill the
world with music more effectually
than many larger birds. They
are fond of the seeds of wild
grass, and especially so of thistle
seed ; and they throng the pastures
and fence corners where the thistles
hold sway. In summer, the male
has bright yellow plumage with
a little "black cap “pulled down
over his nose” like that of a
grenadier. He has also a black
tail and wings with white-tipped
coverts and primaries. The tail
feathers have white on their inner
webs also, which does not show
when the tail is closed. The female
has the head and back Drown and
the under parts yellowish white,
with wings and tail resembling
those of the male except that they
are not so vividly black. In
winter the male dons a dress more
like that of his mate ; he loses his

black cap but keeps his black wings and tail.

Bird Study

The song of the goldfinch is exquisite and he sings during the entire
period of his_ golden dress ; he sings while flying as well as when at rest.
The flight is in itself beautiful, being wave-like up and down, in graceful
curves. Mr. Chapman says when on the down half of the curve the male
sings “Per-chick or-ree.” The goldfinch's call notes and alarm notes are
very much like those of the canary.

Since the goldfinches live so largely upon seeds of grasses, they stay
with us in small numbers during the winter. During this period both
parents and young are dressed in olive green, and their sweet call notes
are a surprise to us of a cold, snowy morning, for they are associated in our
memory with summer. The male dons his winter suit in October.

The goldfinch nest is a mass of fluffiness. These are the only birds
that make feather beds for their young. But, perhaps, we should say
beds of down, since it is the thistle down which is used for this mattress.
The outside of the nest consists of fine shreds of bark or fine grass closely
woven ; but the inner portion is a mat of thistle down — an inch and a half
thick of cushion for a nest which has an opening of scarcely three inches;
sometimes the outside is ornamented with lichens. The nest is usually
placed in some bush or tree, often in an evergreen, and not more than 5 or
6 feet from the ground; but sometimes it is placed 30 feet high. The
eggs are from four to six in number and bluish white in color. The female
builds the nest, her mate cheering her with song meanwhile; he feeds her
while she is incubating and helps feed the young. A strange thing about
the nesting habits of the goldfinches is that the nest is not built until
August. It has been surmised that this nesting season is delayed until
there is an abundance of thistle down for building material. Audubon
Leaflet No. 17 gives special information about these birds and also
furnishes an outline of the birds for the pupils to color.

LESSON IX

The Canary and the Goldfinch

Leading thought — The canary is a very close relative of the common
wild goldfinch. If we compare the habits of the two we can understand
how a canary might live if it were free.

Method — Bring a canary to the schoolroom and ask for observations.
Request the pupils to compare the canary with the goldfinches which are
common in the summer. The canary offers opportunity for very close
observation which will prove excellent training for the pupils for beginning
bird study.

Observations — 1. If there are two canaries in the cage are they
always pleasant to each other? Which one is the “boss?” How do they
show displeasure or bad temper? How do they show affection for each
other?

2. Which one is the singer? Does the other one ever attempt to
sing? What other notes do the canaries make besides singing? How do
they greet you when you bring their food? What do they say when they
are lonesome and hungry ?

3. Does the singer have more than one song? How does he act
while singing? Why does he throw back his head like an opera singer
when singing ?

LIBRARY OF THF. UNIVERSITY

OF ALBERTA

I UBR
a****1

Handbook of Nature-Study

4. Are the canaries all the same color? What is the difference in

color between the singer and the mother bird? Describe the colors of
each in your note book as follows: Top and sides of head, back, tail,

wings, throat, breast and under parts?

5. What does the canary eat? What sort of seeds do we buy for it?
What seeds do we gather for it in our garden ? Do the goldfinches live on
the same seeds? What does the canary do to the seeds before eating
them ? What tools does he use to take off the shells ?

6. Notice the shape of the canary’s beak. Is it long and strong like
a robin’s? Is it wide and sharp so that it can shell seeds? If you should
put an insect in the cage would the canary eat it ?

7. Why do we give the canary cuttlebone? Note how it takes off
pieces of the bone. Could it do this if its beak were not sharp?

8. Note the actions of the birds when they drink. Why do they do
this?

9. Can you see the nostrils? Where are they situated? Why can
you not see the ear?

10. When the canary is interested in looking at a thing how does it
act? Look closely at its eyes? Does it wink? How does it close its
eyes? When it is drowsy can you see the little inner lid come from the
comer of the eye nearest the beak? Is this the only lid?

11. How are the legs and feet covered? Describe the toes. Com-
pare the length of the claw with the length of the toe. What is the shape
of the claw? Do you think that such shaped claws and feet are better
fitted for holding to a branch than for walking? Note the arrangement
of the toes when the bird is on its perch. Is the hind toe longer and
stronger? If so, why? Do the canaries hop or walk about the bottom
of the cage ?

1 2 . What is the attitude of the canary when it goes to sleep at night ?
How does it act when it takes a bath? How does it get the water over its
head? Over its back? What does it do after the bath ? If we forget to
put in the bath dish how does the bird get its bath ?

NESTING HABITS TO BE OBSERVED IN THE SPRING

13. When the canaries are ready to build a nest what material do
we furnish them for it? Does the father bird help the mother to build
the nest? Do they strip off the paper on the bottom of the cage for nest
material? Describe the nest when it is finished.

14. Describe the eggs ‘carefully. Does the father bird assist in
sitting on the eggs? Does he feed the mother bird when she is sitting?

15. How long after the eggs are laid before the young ones hatch?
Do both parents feed the young? Do they swallow the food first and
partially digest it before giving it to the young?

16. How do the very young birds look? What is their appearance
when they leave the nest? Does the color of their plumage resemble
that of the father or the mother?

17. Where did the canaries originally come from? Find the place
on the map.

Supplementary reading — “A Caged Bird,” Sarah Orne Tewett in Songs
of Nature, p. 75; True Bird Stories, Miller.

Bird Study

The Goldfinch

Leading thought — Goldfinches are seen at their best in late summer or
September when they appear in flocks wherever the thistle seeds are
found in abundance. Goldfinches so resemble the canaries in form, color,
song and habits that they are called wild canaries.

Method — The questions for this lesson should be given to the pupils
before the end of school in June. The answers to the questions should be
put in their field note-books and the results be reported to the teacher in
class when the school begins in the autumn.

Observations — i. Where do you find the goldfinches feeding? How
can you distinguish the father from the mother birds and from the young
ones in color ?

2. Describe the colors of the male goldfinch and also of the female as

follows : Crown, back of head, back, tail, wings, throat, breast and lower

parts. Describe in particular the black cap of the male.

3. Do you know the song of the goldfinch? Is it like the song of the
canary? What other notes has the goldfinch?

4. Describe the peculiar flight of the goldfinches. Do they fly high
in the air? Do you see them singly or in flocks usually?

5. Where do the goldfinches stay during the winter? What change
takes place in the coat of the male during the winter? Why? What do
they live upon during the winter?

6. At what time of year do the goldfinches build their nests? Why
do they build these so much later than other birds? Describe the nest.
Where is it placed? How far above the ground ? How far from a stream
or other water? Of what is the outside made? The lining? What is
the general appearance of the nest? Do you think the goldfinches wait
until the thistles are ripe in order to gather plenty of food for their young,
or to get the thistle down for their nests ? What is the color of the eggs ?

Supplementary reading — True Bird Stories, Miller, pp. 6, 9, 26, 45.
The Second Book of Birds, Miller, p. 82; Our Birds and Their Nestlings,
Walker, pp. 186, 200.

Sometimes goldfinches one by one will drop
From low-hung branches; little space they stop,
But sip, and twitter, and their feathers sleek,

Then off at once, as in a wanton freak;

Or perhaps, to show their black and golden wings;
Pausing upon their yellow flutterings.

—John Keats.

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE ROBIN

Teacher's Story

OST of us think we know the robin well, but very few
U of us know definitely the habits of this, our commonest
Wf bird. The object of this lesson is to form in the pupils
W~ a habit of careful observation, and enable them to read
for themselves the interesting story of this little life
which is lived every year before their eyes. Moreover,
a robin note-book, if well kept, is a treasure for any child; and the close
observation necessary for this lesson trains the pupils to note in a com-
prehending way the habits of other birds. It is the very best preparation
for bird study of the right sort.

A few robins occasionally find a swamp where they can obtain food to
nourish them during the northern winter, but for the most part, they go
in flocks to our Southern States where they settle in swamps and cedar
forests and live upon berries. They are killed in great numbers by the
native hunters who eat them or sell them for table use, a performance not
understandable to the northerner. The robins do not nest nor sing while
in Southland, and no wonder! When the robins first come to us in the
spring they feed on wild berries, being especially fond of those of the
Virginia creeper. As soon as the frost is out of the ground they begin
feeding on earthworms, cutworms, white grubs, and other insects. The
male robins come first, but do not sing until their mates arrive.

The robin is ten inches long and the English sparrow is only six and
one-third inches long; the pupils should get the sizes of these two birds
fixed in their minds for comparison in measuring other birds. The father
robin is much more decided in color than his mate; his beak is yellow,
there is a yellow ring about the eye and a white spot above it. The head
is black and the back slaty-brown ; the breast is brilliant reddish brown
or bay and the throat is white, streaked with black. The mother bird has
paler back and breast and has no black upon the head. The wings of both
are a little darker than the back, the tail is black with the two outer
feathers tipped with white. These white spots do not show except when
the bird is flying and are “call colors,” that is, they enable the birds to
see each other and thus keep together when flying in flocks during the
night. The white patch made by the under tail-coverts serves a similar
purpose. The feet and legs are strong and dark in color.

The robin has many sweet songs and he may be heard in the earliest
dawn and also in the evenings; if he wishes to cheer his mate he may
burst into song at any time. He feels especially songful before the
summer showers when he seems to sing, “I have a theory, a theory, its
going to rain.” And he might well say that he also has a theory, based
on experience, that a soaking shower will drive many of the worms and
larvae in the soil up to the surface where he can get them. Besides these
songs the robins have a great variety of notes which the female shares,
although she is not a singer. The agonizing, angry cries they utter when
they see a cat or squirrel must express their feelings fully; while they give
a very different warning note when they see crow or hawk, a note hard to
describe, but which is a long, not very loud squeak.

A robin can run or hop as pleases him best, and it is interesting to see
one, while hunting earthworms run a little distance, then stop to bend the

Bird Study

head and listen for his prey, and when he finally seizes the earthworm he
braces himself on his strong legs and tugs manfully until he sometimes
almost falls over backward as the worm lets go its hold. The robins,
especially at nesting time, eat many insects as well as earthworms.

The beginning of a robin’s nest is very interesting; much strong grass,
fine straw, leaves and rootlets are brought and placed on a secure support.
When enough of this material is collected and arranged, the bird goes to
the nearest mud puddle or stream margin and fills its beak with soft
mud and going back “peppers” it into the nest material, and after the
latter is soaked the bird gets into it and molds it to the body by nestling
and turning around and around. In one case which the author watched
the mother bird did this part of the building, although the father worked
industriously in bringing the other materials. After the nest is molded
but not yet hardened, it is lined with fine grass or rootlets. If the season
is very dry and there is no soft mud at hand, the robins can build without
the aid of this plaster. There are usually four eggs laid which are ex-
quisite greenish blue in color.

Both parents share the monotonous business of incubating, and in the
instance under the eyes of the author the mother bird was on the nest at
night; the period of incubating is from eleven to fourteen days. The
most noticeable thing about a very young robin is its wide, yellow-
margined mouth, which it opens like a satchel every time the nest is
jarred. This wide mouth cannot but suggest to anyone that it is meant

Robin on nest.

Handbook of Nature-Study

to be stuffed, and the two parents work very hard to fill it. Both parents
feed the young and often the father feeds the mother bird while she is
brooding. Professor Treadwell experimented with young robins and
found that each would take 68 earthworms daily; these worms if laid
end to end would measure about 14 feet. Think of 14 feet of earthworm
being wound into the little being in the nest, no wonder that it grows so
fast! I am convinced that each pair of robins about our house has its
own special territory for hunting worms, and that any trespasser is
quickly driven off. The young bird’s eyes are unsealed when they are
from six to eight days old, and by that time the feather tracts, that is,
the place where the feathers are to grow, are covered by the spine-like
pin-feathers ; these feathers push the down out and it often clings to their
tips. In eleven days the birds are pretty well feathered; their wing
feathers are fairly developed but alas, they have no tail feathers! When
a young robin flies from the nest he is a very uncertain and tippy young-
ster not having any tail to steer him while flying, nor to balance him when
alighting.

It is an anxious time for the old robins when the young ones leave the
nest, and they flutter about and scold at any one who comes in sight, so
afraid are they that injury will come to their inexperienced young ones;
for some time the parents care for the fledglings, solicitously feeding them
and giving them warnings of danger. The young robin shows in its
plumage its relation to the thrush family, for it is yellowish and very
spotted and speckled, especially the breast. The parents may raise
several broods, but they never use the same nest for two consecutive
broods, both because it may be infested with parasites and because it is
more or less soiled; although the mother robin works hard to keep it
clean, carrying away all waste matter in her beak and dropping it.
Robins do not sing much after the breeding season is over until after they
have molted. They are fond of cherries and other pulp fruits and often
do much damage to such crops. The wise orchardist will plant a few
Russian mulberry trees at a reasonable distance from his cherry trees,
and thus, by giving the robins a fruit which they like better, and which
ripens a little earlier, he may save his cherries. It has been proven con-
clusively that the robins are far more beneficial than damaging to the
farmer; they destroy many noxious insects, two-thirds of their food the
entire year consisting of insects; during April and May they do a great
work in destroying cutworms.

The robins stay with us later than most migrating birds, not leaving
us entirely before November. Their chief enemies in northern climates
are cats, crows and squirrels. Cats should be taught to let birds alone
(see lesson on cat) or should be killed. The crows have driven the robins
into villages where they can build their nests under the protection of
man. If crows venture near a house to attack the robins, firing a gun at
them once or twice will give them a hint which they are not slow to take.
The robins of an entire neighborhood will attack a nest-robbing crow, but
usually too late to save the nestlings. The robins can defend themselves
fairly well against the red squirrel unless he steals the contents of the nest
while the owners are away. There can be no doubt that the same pair of
robins return to the same nesting place year after year. On the Cornell
Campus a robin lacking the white tip on one side of his tail was noted
to have returned fo the same particular feeding ground for several years;

Bird Study

and we are very certain that the same female bird built in the vines of our
piazza for seven consecutive years; it took two years to win her confi-
dence; but after that, she seemed to feel as if she were a part of the family
and regarded us all as friends. We were sure that during her fifth year
she brought a new young husband to the old nesting site ; probably her
faithful old husband had been served for a dinner in some Tennessee hotel
during the previous winter.

Young robins. Their spotted breasts show their relationship to the thrushes.

(Photo by Silas Lottridge).

LESSON X
The Robin

Leading thought — To understand all we can about the life and ways of
the robin.

Methods — For first and second grades this work may be done by
means of an extra blackboard, or what is far better, sheets of ordinary,
buff, manilla wrapping paper fastened together at the upper end, so that
they may be hung and turned over like a calendar. On the outside page
make a picture of a robin in colored chalk or crayons, coloring according
to the children’s answers to questions of series “6”. Devote each page
to one series of questions, as given below. Do not show these questions
to the pupils until the time is ripe for the observations. Those pupils
giving accurate answers to these questions should have their names on a
roll of honor on the last page of the chart.

Handbook of Nature-Study

For third or higher grades the pupils should have individual note-
books in which each one may write his own answers to the questions of the
successive series, which should be written on the blackboard at proper
time for the observations. This note-book should have a page about 6x8
inches and may be made of any blank paper. The cover or first page
should show the picture of the robin colored by the pupil, and may con-
tain other illustrative drawings, and any poems or other literature
pertinent to the subject. If prizes are awarded in the school, a bird book
should be given as award for the best note-book in the class.

Observations by pupils — Series a (To be given in March), i. At
what date did you see the first robin this year?

2 . Where did the robin spend the winter ; did it build a nest or sing
when in its winter quarters?

3. What does it find to eat when it first comes in the spring? How
does this differ from its ordinary food?

4. Does the robin begin. to sing as soon as it comes North .'’

Series b (To be given the first week of April). 1. How large is the
robin compared with the English sparrow?

2. What is the color of the beak? The eye? Around and above
the eye?

3. The color of the top of the head? The back? The throat?
The breast ?

4. Do all the robins have equally bright colors on head, back and
breast ?

5. What is the color of the wing feathers?

6. What is the color of the tail feathers? Where is the white on
them? Can the white spots be seen except during flight of the bird?
Of what use to the robin are these spots?

7. Is there white on the underside of the robin as it flies over you?
Where ?

8. What is the color of the feet and legs?

Series c (To be given the second week of April).

1. At what time of day does the robin sing? Is it likely to sing
before a rain? How many different songs does a robin sing?

2 . What note does a robin give when it sees a cat ?

3. What sounds do the robins make when they see a crow or a
hawk?

4. Does a robin run or walk or hop?

5. Do you think it finds the hidden earthworm by listening? If so
describe the act.

6. Describe how a robin acts as it pulls a big earthworm out of the
ground.

7. Do robins eat other food than earthworms?

Series d (To be given by the middle of April). 1. At what date
did your pair of robins begin to build their nest?

2 . Where was the nest placed and with what material was it begun ?

3. Can you tell the difference in colors between the father and
mother birds? Do both parents help in making the nest?

4. How and with what material is the plastering done? How is
the nest molded into shape? Do both birds do this part of the work?

Bird Study

5. Where is the mud obtained and how carried to the nest?

6. How is the nest lined?

Series e (To be given a week after series d). 1. What is the number

and color of the eggs in the nest?

2. Do both parents do the sitting? Which sits on the nest during
the night ?

3 . Give the date when the first nestling hatches.

4. How does the young robin look? The color and size of its beak?
Why is its beak so large ? Can it see? Is it covered with down? Com-
pare it to a young chick and describe the difference between the two.

5. What does the young robin do if it feels any jar against the nest?
Why does it do this ?

6. Do the young robins make any noise?

7. What do the parents feed their young? Do both parents feed
them? Are the young fed in turns?

8. Does each pair of robins have a certain territory for hunting
worms which is not trespassed upon by other robins?

Series f (To be given three days after series^). 1. How long after
hatching before the young robin’s eyes are open? Can you see where the
feathers are going to grow? How do the young feathers look?

2. How long after hatching before the young birds are covered with
feathers ?

3. Do their wing or tail feathers come first?

4. How is the nest kept clean?

5. Give the date when the young robins leave the nest? How do
the old robins act at this important crisis?

6. Describe the young robin’s flight? Why is it so unsteady?

7. How do the young robins differ in colors of breast from the
parents ?

8. Do the parents stay with the young for a time? What care do
they give them?

9. If the parents raise a second brood do they use the same nest?

Series g (To be given for summer reading and observations). 1.
Do the robins sing all summer? Why?

2. Do the robins take your berries and cherries? How can you
prevent them from doing this?

3. How does the robin help us?

4. How long does it stay with us in the fall?

5. What are the chief enemies of the robin and how does it fight or
escape them? How can we help protect it?

6. Do you think the same robins come back to us each year?
Supplementary reading — Nestlings of Forest and Marsh, Wheelock

p. 62; Our Birds and their Nestlings, Walker, pp. 26, 37, 41, 42;
True Bird Stories, Miller, pp. 37, 138; The Bird Book, Eckstrom, p.
248; Familiar Wild Animals, Lottridge; The History of the Robins,
Trimmer; Field Book of Wild Birds and their Music, Mathews, p. 246;
Birds in Their Relation to Man, Weed and Dearborn, p. 90; Songs of
Nature, Burroughs, p. 94; Wake Robin, Burroughs; Audubon
Leaflet No. 4.

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE BLUEBIRD

Teacher's Story

TERN as were our Pilgrim Fathers, they could not fail
to welcome certain birds with plumage the color of June
skies, whose sweet voices brought hope and cheer to
their homesick hearts at the close of that first, long,
hard winter of 1621. The red breasts of these birds
brought to memory the robins of old England and so
they were called “Blue robins”; and this name ex-
presses well the relationship implied, because the blue-
birds and robins of America are both members of the
thrush family, a family noted for exquisite song.

The bluebirds are usually ahead of the robins in the northward journey
and arrive in New York often amid the blizzards of early March, their
soft, rich “curly” notes bringing, even to the doubting mind, glad con-
victions of coming spring. There is a family resemblance between voices
of bluebird and robin, a certain rich quality of tone, but the robin’s song
is far more assertive and complex than is the soft, “purling” song of the
bluebird, which has been vocalized as “tru-al-ly, tru-al-ly.” These love
songs cease with the hard work of feeding the nestlings in April, but may
be heard again as a prelude to the second brood in June. The red breast
of the bluebird is its only color resemblance to the robin, although the
young bluebirds and robins are both spotted, showing the thrush colors.
The robin is so much larger than the bluebird that commonly the relation-
ship is not noticed. This is easily explained because there is nothing to
suggest a robin in the exquisite cerulean blue of the bluebird’s head, back,
tail and wings. This color is most brilliant when the bird is on the wing,
in the sunshine. However, there is a certain mirror-like quality in these
blue feathers; and among leaf shadows or even among bare branches they
in a measure, reflect the surroundings and render the bird less noticeable.
The female is paler, being grayish blue above and with only a tinge of red-
brown on the breast; both birds are white beneath.

The bluebirds haunt open woods, fields of second growth and especially
old orchards. They flit about in companies of three or four until they
mate for nesting. While feeding, the bluebird usually sits on a low
branch keeping a keen eye on the ground below, now and then dropping
suddenly on an unsuspecting insect and then returning to its perch; it
does not remain on the ground hunting food as does the robin. The nest
is usually built in a hole in a tree or post and is made of soft grass. A
hollow apple tree is a favorite nesting site.

In building birdhouses we should bear in mind that a cavity about ten
inches deep and six inches in height and width will give a pair of bluebirds
room for building a nest. The opening should not be more than two or
two and one-half inches in diameter and there should be no threshold;
this latter is a very particular point. If there is a threshold or place to
alight upon, the sparrows are likely to dispute with the bluebirds and
drive them away, but the sparrow does not care for a place which has no
threshold. The box for the bluebird may be made out of old boards or
may be a section of an old tree trunk ; it should be fastened from six to
fifteen feet above the ground, and should be in nowise noticeable in color
from its surroundings. To protect the nest from cats, barbed wire should

Bird Study

be wound around the tree or post below the box. If the box for the nest
is placed upon a post the barbed wire will also protect it from the squirrels.
The eggs are bluish
white; the young birds,
in their first feathers, are
spotted on the back and
have whitish breasts mot-
tled with brown. The
food of the nestlings is
almost entirely insects.

In fact, this bird during
its entire life is a great
friend to man. The food
of the adult is more than
three-fourths insects and
the remainder is wild
berries and fruits, the
winter food being largely
mistletoe berries. It
makes a specialty of in-
jurious beetles, caterpil-
lars and grasshoppers,
and never touches any of
our cultivated fruits. We
should do everything in our power to encourage and protect these birds
from their enemies, which are chiefly cats, squirrels and English sparrows.

The migration takes place in flocks during autumn, but it is done in a
most leisurely manner with frequent stops where food is plenty. The
bluebirds we see in September are probably not the ones we have had with
us during the summer, but are those which have come from farther north.

They winter largely in the Gulf States ; the writer has often heard them
singing in midwinter in Southern Mississippi. The bluebirds seem to be
the only ones that sing while at their winter resorts. They live the year
round in the Bermudas, contrasting their heavenly blue plumage with
the vivid red of the cardinals. The bluebird should not be confused with
the indigo bunting; the latter is darker blue and has a blue breast.

References — Bulletin, Some Common Birds in Their Relation to
Man, U. S. Dept, of Agr.; Bulletin, The Food of Nestling Birds, U. S.
Dept, of Agr.; Birds in Their Relation to Man, Weed & Dearborn, pp.
86-88; Nature-Study and Life, Hodge, chapters 18-21; Junior Audu-
bon Leaflets; Birds of Eastern North America, Chapman, 9. 403;

Field Book of Wild Birds and Their Music, Mathews, pp. 251-254;
Nature-Study in Elementary Schools, Wilson, p. 188.

“ Winged lute that we call a bluebird.

You blend in a silver strain
The sound of the laughing waters,

The patter of spring’s sweet rain.

The voice of the winds, the sunshine,

And fragrance of blossoming things.

Ah! You are an April poem.

That God has dowered with wings.”

— The Bluebird, Rexford.

Bluebird at the entrance of its nest.
From Country Life in America.

Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON XI
The Bluebird

Leading thought— The bluebird is related to the robins and thrushes
and is as beneficial as it is beautiful. We should study its habits and
learn how to make nesting boxes for it, and protect it in all ways.

Methods — The observations of this lesson must be made in the field
and by the pupils individually. Give to each an outline of questions to
answer through seeing. There should follow reading lessons on the blue-
bird’s value to us and its winter migrations, and the lesson should end in
discussions of best way to build boxes for its use in nesting season, its
protection from cats and other enemies.

Observations — i. Which comes North earlier in spring the robin or
the bluebird?

2. How do the two resemble each other and differ from each other ?

3. Describe the bluebirds’ song. Do they sing all summer?

4. Describe the colors of the bluebird as follows: The head, back,

breast, under parts, wings, tail. How does the male bluebird differ from
his mate in colors ?

5. Where were the bluebirds you saw? What were they doing?
If feeding, how did they act?

6. Can you see the color of the bluebird as plainly when it is in a tree
as when it is flying? If not, why?

7. Where do the bluebirds build their nests? Of what material
are the nests made? Do both parents work at the nest building?

8. What is the color of the eggs? How do the young birds look,
when old enough to leave the nest, as compared with their parents?

9. What do the bluebirds eat? How do they benefit us? Do they
do our fruit any injury?

10. What can we do to induce the bluebirds to live near our houses?
How can we protect them?

11. Where do the bluebirds spend the winter?

12. Make a colored picture of a bluebird. How can we tell the
bluebird from the indigo bunting?

13 . What are the bluebirds’ chief enemies?

Supplementary reading — Nestlings of Forest and Marsh, Wheelock,
p. 62; True Bird Stories, Miller, p. 12; How to Attract the Birds,
Blanchan; Bird Neighbors, Blanchan; Our Birds and their Nestlings,
Walker, p. 17; Familiar Wild Animals, Lottridge; Audubon Leaflet,
No. 24.

Hark! ’ tis the bluebird's venturous strain
High on the old fringed elm at the gate —

Sweet-voiced, valiant on the swaying bough ,

Alert, elate,

Dodging the fitful spits of snow,

New England’s poet-laureate

Telling us Spring has come again! — Thomas Bailey Aldrich.

Bird Study

THE WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH

Teacher's Story

“ The busy nuthatch climbs his tree
Around the great bole spirally ,

Peeping into wrinkles gray,

U naer ruffled lichens gay,

Lazily piping one sharp note
From his silver mailed throat

— Maurice Thompson.

LIHTE and mellow is the ringing “ank, ank” note of the
nuthatch, and why need we allude to its nasal timbre!
While it is not a strictly musical note, it has a most enticing
quality and translates into sound the picture of bare-
branched trees and the feeling of enchantment which
permeates the forest in winter; it is one of the most
‘ ‘woodsy’ ’ notes in the bird repertoire. And while the singer
of this note is not so bewitching as his constant chum
the chickadee, yet it has many interesting ways quite its
own. Nor is this “ank, ank,” its only note. I have often
heard a pair talking to each other in sweet confidential syllables, “wit,
wit, wit” very different from the loud note meant for the world at large.
The nuthatches and chickadees hunt together all winter; it is no mere
business partnership but a matter of congenial tastes. The chickadees
hunt over the twigs and smaller branches, while the nuthatches usually
prefer the tree trunks and the bases of the branches; both birds like
the looks of the world upside down, and while the chickadee hangs
head down from a twig, the nuthatch is quite likely to alight head down
on a tree bole, holding itself safely in this position by thrusting its toes
out at right angles to the body, thus getting a firm hold upon the bark.
Sometimes its foot will be twisted completely around, the front toes
pointed up the tree. The foot is well adapted for clinging to the bark as
the front toes are strong and the hind toe is very long and is armed with
a strong claw. Thus equipped, this bird runs about on the tree so
rapidly, it has earned the name of “tree mouse”. It often ascends a
tree trunk spirally but is not so hidebound in this habit as is the brown
creeper. It runs up or down freely head first and never flops down
backwards like a woodpecker.

In color the nuthatch is bluish gray above with white throat and
breast and reddish underparts. The sides of the head are white; the
black cap extends back upon the neck but is not “pulled down” to the
eyes like the chickadees. The wing feathers are dark brown edged
with pale gray. The upper middle tail feathers are bluish like the back;
the others are dark brown and tipped with white in such a manner
that the tail when spread shows a broad white border on both sides.
The most striking contrast between the chickadee and nuthatch in
markings is that the latter lacks the black bib. However, its entire shape
is very different from that of the chickadee and its beak is long
and slender, being as long or longer than its head, while the beak of
the chickadee is a short, sharp, little pick. The bill of the nuthatch is
exactly fitted to reach in crevices of the bark and pull out hiding
insects, or to hammer open the shell of nut or acorn and get both the

64 Handbook of Nature-Study

meat of the nut and the grub feeding upon it. It will wedge an acorn
into a seam in the bark and then throw back its head, woodpecker fashion,
and drive home. its chisel beak. But it does not always use common

sense in this habit. I have often
seen one cut off a piece of suet, fly
off and thrust it into some crevice
and hammer it as hard as if it were
encased in a walnut shell. This
always seems bad manners, like
carrying off fruit from table d'hote;
but the nuthatch is polite enough in
using a napkin, for after eating the
suet, it invariably wipes its bill on a
branch, first one side then the other
most assiduously until it is perfectly
clean.

The nuthatches are a great
benefit to our trees in winter, for
then is when they hunt for hiding
pests on their trunks. Their food
consists of beetles, caterpillars,
pupae of various insects, also seeds
of ragweed, sunflowers, acorns, etc.
While the nuthatch finds much of
its food on trees, yet Mr. Torrey has seen it awkwardly turning over
fallen leaves hunting for insects, and Mr. Baskett says it sometimes
catches insects on the wing and gets quite out of breath from this un-
usual exercise.

It is only during the winter that we commonly see the nuthatches, for
during the nesting season, they usually retire to the deep woods where
they may occupy a cavity in a tree used by a woodpecker last year, or
may make a hole for themselves with their sharp beaks. The nest is lined
with leaves, feathers and hair; from five to nine creamy, speckled eggs are
the treasure of this cave.

The white breasted nuthatch.

LESSON XII
The Nuthatch

Leading thought — The nuthatch is often a companion of the chickadees
and woodpeckers. It has no black bib, like the chickadee, and it alights
on a tree trunk head downward, which distinguishes it from woodpeckers.

Methods — This bird, like the chickadee and downy, gladly shares the
suet banquet we prepare for them and may be observed at leisure while
“at table.” The contrast between the habits of the nuthatch and those
of its companions make it a most valuable aid in stimulating close and
keen observation on the part of the pupils.

Observations — i. Where have you seen the nuthatches? Were
they with other birds? What other birds?

2. Does a nuthatch usually alight on the ends of the branches of a
tree or on the trunk and larger limbs ? Does it usually alight head down
or up ? When it runs down the tree, does it go head first or does it back

Bird Study 65

down ? When it ascends the tree does it follow a spiral path ? Does it use
its tail for a brace when climbing, as does the downy ?

3. How are the nuthatch’s toes arranged to assist it in climbing?
Are the three front toes of each foot directed downward when the bird
alights head downward? How does it manage its feet when in this
position ?

4. What is the general color of the nuthatch above and below?
The color of the top and sides of head? Color of Back? Wings? Tail?
Throat? Breast?

5. Does the black cap come down to the eyes on the nuthatch as
on the chickadee? Has the nuthatch a black bib?

6. What is the shape of the beak of the nuthatch? For what is it
adapted? How does it differ from the beak of the chickadee?

7. What is the food of the nuthatch? Where is it found? Does it
open nuts for the grubs or the nut meat ? Observe the way it strikes its
beak into the suet, why does it strike so hard?

8. How would you spell this bird’s note? Have you heard it give
more than one note?

9. How does the nuthatch benefit our trees? At what season does
it benefit them most ? Why ?

10. Where do the nuthatches build their nests? Why do we see
the nuthatches oftener in winter than in summer?

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE CHICKADEE

Teacher's Story

“ He is the hero of the woods; there are courage and good nature enough in that com-
pact little body , which you may hide in your fist, to supply a whole groveful of May
songsters. He has the Spartan virtue of an eagle, the cheerfulness of a thrtish, the
nimbleness of Cock Sparrow, the endurance of the sea-birds condensed into his tiny
frame, and there have been added a pertness and ingenuity all his own. His curiosity
is immense , and his audacity equal to it; I have even had one alight upon the barrel of
the gun over my shoulders as I sat quietly under his tree.”

— Ernest Ingersoll.

OWEVER careless we may be of our bird friends
when we are in the midst of the luxurious life of
summer, even the most careless among us give
pleased attention to the birds that bravely endure
with us the rigors of winter. And when this
winged companion of winter proves to be the most
fascinating little ball of feathers ever created, constantly overflowing
with cheerful song, our pleased attention changes to active delight.
Thus it is, that in all the lands of snowy winters the chickadee is a loved
comrade of the country wayfarer; that happy song “chick-a-dee-dee-dee”
finds its way to the dullest consciousness and the most callous heart.

The chickadees appear in
small flocks in the winter and
often in company with the nut-
hatches. The chickadees work
on the twigs and ends of bran-
ches, while the nuthatches
usually mine the bark of the
trunk and larger branches, the
former hunting insect eggs and
the latter, insects tucked away
in winter quarters. When the
chickadee is prospecting for eggs,
it looks the twig over, first above
and then hangs head down and
inspects it from below; it is a
thorough worker and doesn’t
intend to overlook anything
whatever ; and however busily it
is hunting, it always finds time
for singing; whether on the wing
or perched upon a twig or hang-
ing from it like an acrobat,
head down, it sends forth its
happy “chickadeedee” to assure
us that this world is all right and
good enough for anybody. Be-
sides this song, it begins in

February to sing a most seduc- Chick-a-dee-dee-dee

tive “fee-bee,” giving a rising

Bird Study

inflection to the first syllable and a long, falling inflection to the last,
which makes it a very different song from the short, jerky notes of the

phcebe-bird, which cuts
the last syllable short
and gives it a rising in-
flection. More than this,
the chickadee has some
chatty conversational
notes, and now and then
performs a bewitching
little yodle, which is a fit
expression of its own
delicious personality.

The general effect of
the colors of the chicka-
dee is grayish brown
above and grayish white
below. The top of the
head is black, the sides
white, and it has a
seductive little black
bib under its chin. The
back is grayish, the
wings and tail are dark
gray, the feathers having
white margins. The
breast is grayish white
changing to b u ff or
brownish at the sides
and below. It is often
called the “Black-capped Titmouse,” and it may always be distin-
guished by black cap and black bib. It is smaller than the English
sparrow; its beak is a sharp little pick just fitted for taking insect eggs
off twigs and from under bark. Insects are obliged to pass the winter
in some stage of their existence, and many of them wisely remain
in the egg until there is something worth doing in the way of eating.
These eggs are glued fast to the food trees by the mother insect and
thus provides abundant food for the chickadees. It has been
estimated that one chickadee will destroy several hundred insect
eggs in one day, and it has been proven that orchards frequented by these
birds are much more free from insect pests than other orchards in the
same locality. They can be enticed into orchards by putting up beef fat
or bones and thus we can secure their valuable service. In summer these
birds attack caterpillars .and other insects.

When it comes to nest building, if the chickadees cannot find a house
to rent they proceed to dig out a proper hole from some decaying tree,
which they line with moss, feathers, fur or some other soft material.
The nest is often not higher than six to ten feet from the ground. One
which I studied was in a decaying fence post. The eggs are white,
sparsely speckled and spotted with lilac or rufous. The young birds are
often eight in number and how these fubsy birdlings manage to pack
themselves in such a small hole is a wonder, and probably gives them good
discipline in bearing hardships cheerfully.

Chickadee entering her nest.

Handbook of Nature-Study

Reference — Useful Birds and Their Protection, Forbush, p. 163;
Birds of Village and Field, Merriams; Bird Neighbors, Blancham.

LESSON XIII

The Chickadee

Leading thought — The chickadee is as useful as it is delightful; it
remains in the North during winter, working hard to clear our trees of
insect eggs and singing cheerily all day. It is so friendly that we can
induce it to come even to the window sill, by putting out suet to show our
friendly interest.

Methods — Put beef fat on the trees near the schoolhouse in December
and replenish it afresh about every two or three weeks. The chick-
adees will come to the feast and may be observed all winter. Give the
questions a few at a time and let the children read in the bird books a
record of the benefits derived from this bird.

Observations — 1. Where have you seen the chickadees? What
were they doing? Were there several together?

2. What is the common song of the chickadee? What other notes
has it? Have you heard it yodle? Have you heard it sing “fe-bee, fee-
bee.” Flow does this song differ from that of the phoebe-bird? Does it
sing on the wing or when at rest?

3. What is the color of the chickadee: Top and sides of head,

back, wings, tail, throat, breast, under parts?

Compare size of chickadee with that of English sparrow.

4. What is the shape of the chickadee’s bill and for what is it
adapted? What is the food in winter? Where does the bird find it?
How does it act when feeding and hunting for food?

5. Does the chickadee usually alight on the ends of the branches or
on the larger portions near the trunk of the tree?

6. How can you distinguish the chickadees from their companions,
the nuthatches?

7. Does the chickadee ever seem discouraged by the snow and cold
weather? Do you know another name for the chickadee?

8. Where does it build its nest? Of what material? Have you
ever watched one of these nests? If so, tell about it.

9. How does the chickadee benefit our orchards and shade trees?
How can we induce it to feel at home with us and work for us?

Supplementary reading — “Foster Baby,” Nestlings of Forest and
Marsh; “Ch’-geegee-lokh-sis,” Ways of Wood Folk; “Why a Chickadee
Goes Crazy,” Animal Heroes, Seton; “The Titmouse,” a poem, by

Bird Study

THE DOWNY WOODPECKER
Teacher's Story

1 RIEND Downy is the name this attractive little neighbor
has earned, because it is so friendly to those of us who
love trees. Watch it as it hunts each crack and crevice
of the bark of your favorite apple or shade tree, seeking
assiduously for cocoons and insects hiding there, and
you will soon, of your own accord, call it friend; you
will soon love its black and white uniform, which consists of a black coat
speckled and barred with white and whitish gray vest and trousers. The
front of the head is black and there is a black streak extending backward
from the eye with a white streak above and also below it. The male has
a vivid red patch on the back of the head, but his wife shows no such
giddiness ; plain black and white are good enough for her. In both
sexes the throat and breast are white, the middle tail feathers black,
while the side tail feathers are white, barred with black at their tips.

The downy has a way of alighting low down on a tree trunk or at the
base of a larger branch and climbing upward in a jerky fashion; it never
runs about over the tree nor does it turn around and go down head first,
like the nuthatch ; if it wishes to go down a short distance it accomplishes
this by a few awkward, backward hops; but when it really wishes to
descend, it flies off and down. The downy, as other woodpeckers, has a
special arrangement of its physical machinery to enable it to climb
trees in its own manner. In order to grasp the bark on the side of the
tree more firmly, its fourth toe is turned backward
to work as companion with the thumb. Thus it is
able to clutch the bark as with a pair of nippers,
two claws in front and two claws behind ; and
as another aid, the tail is arranged to prop the
bird, like a bracket. The tail is rounded in ^

shape and the middle feathers have rather strong ’ , , .

quills; but the secret of the adhesion of the tail F™nd Downy s foot.
to the bark lies in the great profusion of barbs which, at the edge
of the feathers, offer bristling tips, and when applied to the side
of the tree act like a wire brush with all the wires pushing downward.
This explains why the woodpecker cannot go backward without lifting
the tail.

But even more wonderful than this, is the mechanism by which
the downy and hairy woodpeckers get their food, which consists
largely of wood-borers or larvae working under the bark. When the
woodpecker wishes to get a grub in the wood, it seizes the bark firmly
with its feet, uses its tail as a brace, throws its head and upper part of
the body as far back as possible, and then drives a powerful blow
with its strong beak. The beak is adapted for just this purpose,
as it is wedge-shaped at the end, and is used like a mason’s drill
sometimes, and sometimes like a pick. When the bird uses its beak as a
pick, it strikes hard, deliberate blows and the chips fly; but when it is
drilling, it strikes rapidly and not so hard and quickly drills a small,
deep hole leading directly to the burrow of the grub. When finally the
grub is reached, it would seem well nigh impossible to pull it out
through a hole which is too small and deep to admit of the beak

Handbook of Nature-Study

being used as pincers. This is another story and a very interesting
one ; the downy and hairy can both extend their tongues far beyond the
point of the beak, and the tip of the
tongue is hard and homy and covered
^dth short backward-slanting hooks
acting like a spear or harpoon, and
when thrust into the grub pulls it out
easily (see initial) . The bones of the
tongue have a spring arrangement;
when not in use, the tongue lies soft in
the mouth, like a wrinkled earth-
worm, but when in use, the bones
spring out, stretching it to its full
length and it is then slim and small.

The process is like fastening a pencil
to the tip of a glove finger ; when
drawn back the finger is wrinkled
together, but when thrust out,
straightens. This spring arrangement
of the bones of the woodpecker’s
tongue is a marvellous mechanism
and should be studied through pic-
tures; see Birds, Eckstrom, Chap-
ter XIV; The Bird, Beebe, p.122;

“The Tongues of Woodpeckers,”

Lucas, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture.

Since the food of the downy and
the hairy is where they can get it all winter, there is no need for them to
go South; thus they stay with us and work for us the entire year. We
should try to make them feel at home with us in our orchards and shade
trees by putting up pieces of beef fat, to convince them of their welcome.
No amount of free food will pauperize these birds, for as soon as they
have eaten of the fat, they commence to hunt for grubs on the tree and
thus earn their feast. They never injure live wood.

James Whitcomb Riley describes the drumming of the woodpecker as
“weeding out the lonesomeness” and that is exactly what the drumming
of the woodpecker means. The male selects some dried limb of hard
wood and there beats out his well-known signal which advertises far and
near, “Wanted, a wife.” And after he wins her, he still drums on for a
time to cheer her while she is busy with her family cares. The wood-
pecker has no voice for singing, like the robin or thrush ; and luckily, he
does not insist on singing, like the peacock whether he can or not. He
chooses rather to devote his voice to terse and business-like conversation ;
and when he is musically inclined, he turns drummer. He is rather
particular about his instrument and having found one that is sufficiently
resonant he returns to it day after day. While it is ordinarily the male
that drums I once observed a female drumming. I told her that she was
a bold minx and ought to be ashamed of herself; but within twenty
minutes she had drummed up two red-capped suitors who chased each
other about with great animosity, so her performance was evidently not
considered improper in woodpecker society. I have watched a rival pair

Friend Downy.
Drawing by A. L. Fuertes.

Bird Study

of male downies fight for hours at a time, but their duel was of the French
brand, — much fuss and no bloodshed. They advanced upon each other
with much haughty glaring and scornful bobs of the head, but when they
were sufficiently near to stab each other they beat a mutual and circum-
spect retreat. Although we hear the male downies drumming every
spring, I doubt if they are calling for new wives ; I believe they are, in-
stead. calling the attention of their lawful spouses to the fact that it is
time for nest building to begin. I have come to this conclusion because
the downies and hairies which I have watched for years have always come
in pairs to partake of suet during the entire winter; and while only one at
a time sits at meat and the lord and master is somewhat bossy, yet they
seem to get along as well as most married pairs.

The downy’s nest is a hole, usually in a partly decayed tree; an old
apple tree is a favorite site and a fresh excavation is made each year.
There are from four to six white eggs, which are laid on a nice bed of chips
as fine almost as sawdust. The door to the nest is a perfect circle and
about an inch and a quarter across.

The hairy woodpecker is fully one-third larger than the downy,
measuring nine inches from tip of beak to tip of tail, while the downy
measures only about six inches. The tail feathers at the side are white
for the entire length, while they are barred at the tips in the downy.
There is a black “parting” through the middle of the red patch on the
back of the hairy’s head. The two species are so much alike that it is
difficult for the beginner to tell them apart. Their habits are very
similar, except that the hairy lives in the woods and is not so commonly
seen in orchards or on shade trees. The food of the hairy is much like
that of the downy and it is, therefore, a beneficial bird and should be
protected.

LESSON XIV
The Downy Woodpecker

Leading thought — The downy woodpecker remains with us all winter,
feeding upon insects that are wintering in crevices and beneath the bark
of our trees. It is fitted especially by shape of beak, tongue, feet and tail
to get such food and it is a “friend in need” to our forest, shade and
orchard trees.

Methods — If a piece of beef fat be fastened upon the trunk or branch
of a tree, which can be seen from the schoolroom windows, there will be
no lack of interest in this friendly little bird; for the downy will sooner
or later find this feast spread for it and will come every day to partake.
Give out the questions, a few at a time, and discuss the answers with the
pupils.

Observations — 1 . What is the general color of the downy above and
below? The color of the top of the head? Sides of the head? The
throat and breast? The color and markings of the wings? Color and
markings of the middle and side tail-feathers ?

2. Do all downy woodpeckers have the red patch at the back of the
head ? If not, why ?

3. What is the note of the downy? JDoes it make any other sound?
Have you ever seen one drumming? At what time of the year? On
what did it drum ? What did it use for a drumstick ? What do you sup-
pose was the purpose of this music?

Handbook of Nature-Study

4. How does the downy climb a tree trunk? How does it descend?
How do its actions differ from those, of the nuthatch ?

5. How are the woodpecker’s toes arranged to help it climb a tree
trunk? How does this arrangement of toes differ from that of other
birds?

6. How does the downy use its tail to assist it in climbing? What
is the shape of the tail and how is it adapted to assist ?

7. What does the downy eat and where does it find its food?
Describe how it gets at its food. What is the shape of its bill and how is
it fitted for getting the food? Tell how the downy’s tongue is used to
spear the grub.

8. Why does the downy not. go South in winter?

9. Of what use is this bird to us? How should we protect it and
entice it into our orchards ?

10. Write an English theme on the subject “How the downy builds
its nest and rears its young”.

Supplementary reading — The Woodpeckers, Eckstornr Bird Neigh-
bors, Blanchan- Winter Neighbors Burroughs.

A few seasons ago a downy woodpecker , probably the individual one who is now
my winter neighbor, began to drum early in March in a partly decayed apple-tree
that stands in the edge of a narrow strip of woodland near me. When the morning
was still and mild I would often hear him through my window before I was up, or by
half-past six o'clock, and he would keep it up pretty briskly till nine or ten o'clock,
in this respect resembling the grouse, which do most of their drumming in the forenoon.
His drum was the stub of a dry limb about the size of one's wrist. The heart was
decayed and gone , but the outer shell was loud and resonant. The bird would keep
his position there for an hour at a time. Between his drummings he would preen his
plumage and listen as if for the response of the female, or for the drum of some rival.
How swift his heady would go when he was delivering his blows upon the limb! His
beak wore the surface perceptibly. When he wished to change the key, which was quite
often, he would shift his position an inch or two to a knot which gave out a higher,
shriller note. When I climbed up to examine his drum he was much disturbed. I did
not know he was in the vicinity, but it seems he saw me from a near tree, and came
in haste to the neighboring branches, and with spread plumage and a sharp note de-
manded plainly enough what my business was with his drum. I was invading his
privacy, desecrating his shrine, and the bird was much put out. After some weeks
the female appeared; he had literally drummed up a mate; his urgent and oft-repeated
advertisement was answered. Still the drumming did not cease, but was quite as
fervent as before. If a mate could be won by drumming she could be kept and enter-
tained by more drumming; courtship should not end with marriage. If the bird felt
musical before, of course he felt much more so now. Besides that, the gentle deities
needed propitiating in behalf of the nest and young as well as in behalf of the mate.
After a time a second female came, when there was war between the two. I did not see
them come to blows, but I saw one female pursuing the other about the place, and giving
her no rest for several days. She was evidently trying to run her out of the neighbor-
hood. Now and then she, too, would drum briefly as if sending a triumphant message
to her mate. — Winter Neighbors, John Burroughs.

Bird Study

THE SAPSUCKER

Teacher’s Story

The sapsucker is a woodpecker
that has strayed from the paths of
virtue; he has fallen into tempta-
tion by the wayside, and instead of
drilling a hole for the sake of the
grub at the end of it, he drills for
drink. He is a tippler, and sap is
his beverage ; and he is also fond of
the soft, inner bark. He often
drills his holes in regular rows and
thus girdles a limb or a tree, and for
this is pronounced a rascal by men
who have themselves ruthlessly cut
from our land millions of trees that
should now be standing. It is
amusing to see a sapsucker take his
tipple, unless his saloon happens to
be one of our prized young trees.

He uses his bill as a pick and makes
the chips fly as he taps the tree;
then he goes away and taps another
tree. After a time he comes back
and holding his beak close to the
hole for a long time seems to be
sucking up the sap ; he then throws
back his head and “swigs” it down
with every sign of delirious enjoyment. The avidity with which these
birds come to the bleeding wells which they have made, has in it all the
fierceness of a toper crazy for drink; they are particularly fond of the sap
of the mountain ash, apple, thorn apple, canoe birch, cut-leaf birch, red
maple, red oak, white ash and young pines. However, the sapsucker
does not live solely on sap, he also feeds upon insects whenever he can
find them. When feeding their young, the sapsuckers are true fly-
catchers snatching insects while on the wing. The male has the crown
and throat crimson, edged with black with a black line extending back of
the eye, bordered with white above and below. There is a large, black
circular patch on the breast which is bordered at the sides and below with
lemon yellow. The female is similar to the male and has a red forehead,
but she has a white bib instead of a red one beneath the chin. The
distinguishing marks of the sapsucker should be learned by the pupils.
The red is on the front of the head instead of on the crown, as is the case
with the downy and hairy; when it is flying the broad, white stripes
extending from the shoulders backward, form a long, oval figure, which is
very characteristic.

The sapsuckers spend the winter in the Southern States where they
drill wells in the white oak and other trees. From Virginia to Northern
New York and New England, where they breed, they are seen only during
migration, which occurs in April; then the birds appear two and three
together and are very bold in attacking shade trees, especially the white

The yellow bellied sapsucker.
Drawing by L. A. Fuertes.

Handbook of Nature-Study

birch. They nest only in the Northern United States and northward.
The nest is usually a hole in a tree about forty feet from the ground, and
is likely to be in a dead birch.

LESSON XV
The Sapsucker

Leading thought — The sapsucker has a red cap, a red bib and a yel-
low breast; it is our only woodpecker that does injury to trees. We
should learn to distinguish it from the downy and hairy, as the latter are
among the best bird friends of the trees.

Methods — Let the observations begin with the study of the trees which
have been attacked by the sapsucker, which are almost everywhere
common, and thus lead to an interest in the culprit.

Observations — i. Have you seen the work of the sapsucker? Are
the holes drilled in rows completely around the tree? If there are two
rows or more, are the holes set evenly one below another?

2. Do the holes sink into the wood, or are they simply through the
bark? Why does it injure or kill a tree to be girdled with these holes?
Have you ever seen the sapsuckers making these holes? If so, how did
they act ?

3 . How many kinds of trees can you find punctured by these holes ?
Are they likely to be young trees ?

4. How can you distinguish the sapsucker from the other wood-
peckers? How have the hairy and downy which are such good friends of
the trees been made to suffer for the sapsucker’s sins?

5. What is the color of the sapsucker as follows: Forehead, sides

of head, back, wings, throat, upper and lower breast? What is the
difference in color between the male and female?

6. In what part of the country do the sapsuckers build their nests?
Where do they make their nests and how?

Supplementary reading — Bird Neighbors, Blanchan; Birds, Bees and
Sharp Eyes, John Burroughs.

In the following winter the same bird ( a sapsucker) tapped a maple-tree in front
of my window in fifty-six places; and, when the day was sunny and the sap oozed out
he spent most of his time there. He knew the good sap-days, and was on hand promptly
for his tipple; cold and cloudy days he did not appear. He knew which side of the
tree to tap, too, and avoided the sunless northern exposure. When one series of well-
holes failed to supply him, he would sink another , drilling through the bark with great
ease and quickness. Then, when the day was warm, and the sap ran freely, he would
have a regular sugar-maple debauch, sitting there by his wells hour after hour, and as
fast as they became filled sipping out the sap. This he did in a gentle, carressing
manner that was very suggestive. He made a row of wells near the foot of the tree, and
other rows higher up, and he would hop up and down the trunk as they became filled. —
Winter Neighbors, John Burroughs.

Bird Study

THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER

Teacher's Story

The red-head is well named, for his
helmet and visor show a vivid glow-
ing crimson that stirs the sensibili-
ties of the color lover. It is
readily distinguished from the other
woodpeckers because its entire head
and bib are red. For the rest, it is
a beautiful dark metallic blue with
the lower back, a band across the
wing, and the under parts white;
its outer tail feathers are tipped
with white. The female is colored
like the male, but the young have
the head and breast gray, streaked
with black and white, and the
wings barred with black. It may
make its nest by excavating a hole
in a tree or a stump or even in a
telegraph pole; the eggs are glossy
white. This woodpecker is quite
different in habits from the hairy
and downy, as it likes to flit along
from stump to fence-post and
catch insects on the wing, like a
fly-catcher. The only time that it pecks wood is when it is making a hole
for its nest.

As a drummer, the red-head is most adept and his roll is a long one.
He is an adaptable fellow, and if there is no resonant dead limb at hand,
he has been known to drum on tin roofs and lightning rods ; and once we
also observed him executing a most brilliant Solo on the wire of a barbed
fence. He is especially fond of beechnuts and acorns, and being a thrifty
fellow as well as musical, in time of plenty he stores up food against time
of need. He places his nuts in crevices and forks of the branches or in
holes in trees or any other hiding place. He can shell a beechnut quite
as cleverly as can the deer mouse ; and he is own cousin to the Carpenter
Woodpecker of the Pacific Coast, which is also red-headed and which drills
holes in the oak trees wherein he drives acorns like pegs for later use.

LESSON XVI

The Red-headed Woodpecker

Leading thought — The red-headed woodpecker has very different habits
from the downy and is not so useful to us. It lives upon nuts and fruit
and such insects as it can catch upon the wing.

Methods — If there is a red-head in the vicinity of your school the
children will be sure to see it. Write the following questions upon the
blackboard and offer a prize to the first one who will make a note on
where the red-head stores his winter food.

Handbook of Nature-Study

Observations — i. Can you tell the red-head from the other wood-
peckers? What colors especially mark his plumage?

2. Where does the red-head nest? Describe eggs and nest?

3. What have you observed the red-head eating? Have you
noticed it storing nuts and acorns for the winter? Have you noticed it
flying off with cherries or other fruit?

4. What is the note of the red-head? Have you ever seen one
drumming? What did he use for a drum? Did he come back often to
this place to make his music?

Supplementary reading — “The House That Fell” in Nestlings of Forest
and Marsh; Our Birds and their Nestlings, p. 90; Birds, Bees and
Sharp Eyes, John Burroughs.

Another trait our woodpeckers have that endears them to me, and that has never been
pointedly noticed by our ornithologists, is their habit of drumming in the spring. They
are songless birds, and yet all are musicians; they make the dry limbs eloquent of the
coming change. Did you think that loud, sonorous hammering which proceeded from
the orchard or from the near woods on that still March or April morning was only some
bird getting its breakfast f It is downy, but he is not rapping at the door of a grub;
he is rapping at the door of spring, and the dry limb thrills beneath the ardor of his
blows. Or, later in the season, in the dense forest or by some remote mountain lake,
does that measured rhythmic beat that breaks upon the silence, first three strokes follow-
ing each other rapidly, succeeded by two louder ones with longer intervals between them,
and that has an effect upon the alert ear as if the solitude itself had at least found a
voice — does that suggest anything less than a deliberate musical performance? In
fact, our woodpeckers are just as characteristically drummers as is the ruffed grouse,
and they have their particular limbs and stubs to which they resort for that purpose.
Their need of expression is apparently just as great as that of the song-birds, and it
is not surprising that they should have found out that there is music in a dry, seasoned
limb which can be evoked beneath their beaks.

The woodpeckers do not each have a particular dry limb to which they resort at all
times to drum, like the one I have described. The woods are full of suitable branches,
and they drum more or less here and there as they are in quest of food; yet I am con-
vinced each one has its favorite spot, like the grouse, to which it resorts, especially in
the morning. The sugar-maker in the maple woods may notice that this sound pro-
ceeds from the same tree or trees about his camp with great regularity. A woodpecker
in my vicinity has drummed for two seasons on a telegraph-pole, and he makes the wires
and glass insulators ring. Another drums on a thin board on the end of a long grape-
arbor, and on still mornings can be heard a long distance.

A friend of mine in a Southern city tells me of a red headed woodpecker that drums
upon a lightning-rod on his neighbor's house. Nearly every clear, still morning at
certain seasons, he says, this musical rapping may be heard. “He alternates his
tapping with his stridulous call, and the effect on a cool, autumn-like morning is very
pleasing — John Burroughs, in Birds, Bees and Sharp Eyes.

Bird Study

THE FLICKER OR YELLOW-HAMMER

Teacher's Story

Young flickers “ Two is company ,
three is a crowd."

Photo by J. M. Schreck.

The first time I ever saw a flicker I
said, “What a wonderful meadow-
lark and what is it doing on that
ant hill?” But, another glance
revealed to me a red spot on the
back of the bird’s neck, and as soon
as I was sure that it was not a
bloody gash, I knew that it marked
no meadow-lark. The top of the
flicker’s head and its back are slaty-
gray, which is much enlivened by
a bright red band across the nape
of the neck. The tail is black above
and yellow tipped with black below;
the wings are black, but have a
beautiful luminous yellow beneath,
which is very noticeable during
flight. There is a locket adorning
the breast which is a thin, black
crescent, much narrower than that
of the meadow-lark. Below the
locket, the breast is yellowish white
thickly marked with circular, black spots. The throat and sides of the
head are pinkish brown, and the male has a black mustache extending
backward from the beak with a very fashionable droop. Naturally
enough the female, although she resembles her spouse, lacks his mus-
tache. The beak is long, strong, somewhat curved and dark colored.
This bird is distinctly larger than the robin. The white patch on the
rump shows little or none when the bird is at rest, for this white mark is
a “color call,” it being a rear signal by means of which the flock of
migrating birds are able to keep together in the night. The yellow-
hammer’s flight is wave-like and jerky and quite different from that
of the meadow-lark; nor does it stay so constantly in the meadows
but often frequents woods and orchards.

The flicker has many names, such as golden-winged woodpecker,
yellow-hammer, high-hole, yarup, wake-up, clape and many others. It
earned the name of high-hole because of its habit of excavating its nest
high up in trees, usually between ten and twenty-five feet from the
ground. It especially loves an old apple tree as a site for a nest, and
most of our large old orchards can boast of a pair of these handsome birds
during the nesting season of May and June. The flicker is not above
renting any house he finds vacant, excavated by some other birds last
year. He earned his name of yarup or wake-up from his spring song,
which is a rollicking, jolly “wick-a, wick-a, wick-a-wick” a song com-
monly heard the last of March or early April. The chief food of the flicker
is ants, although it also eats beetles, flies and wild fruit, but does little or
no damage to planted crops. So long has it fed upon ants, that its tongue
has become modified, like that of the ant-eater; it is covered with a
sticky substance; and when it is thrust into an ant hill, all of the little

y8 Handbook of Nature-Study

citizens, disturbed in their communal labors, at once bravely attack the
intruder and become glued fast tc it, and are thus withdrawn and trans-
ferred to the capacious stomach of the bird. It has been known to eat
three thousand ants at a single meal.

Those who have observed the flicker during the courting season declare
him to be the most silly and vain of all bird wooers. Mr. Baskett says:
“When he wishes to charm his sweetheart he mounts a small twig near
her, and lifts his wings, spreads his tail, and begins to nod right and left as
he exhibits his mustache to his charmer. He sets his jet locket first on
one side of the twig and then on the other. He may even go so far as to
turn his head half around to show her the pretty spot on his back hair.
In doing all this he performs the most ludicrous antics and has the silliest
expression of face and voice as if in losing his heart, as some one phrases
it, he had lost his head also.”

The nest hole is quite deep and the white eggs are from four to ten in
number. The feeding of the young flickers is a painful process to watch.
The parent takes the food into its own stomach and partially digests it,
then thrusting its own bill down the throat of the young one it pumps the
soft food into it “kerchug, kerchug,” until it seems as if the young one
must be shaken to its foundations. The young flickers as soon as they
leave the nest climb around freely on the home tree in a delightful, playful
manner.

Flicker coming from the nest.
Photo by George Fiske, Jr.

Bird Study

LESSON XVII

The Flicker

Leading thought — The flicker is a true woodpecker but has changed its
habits and spends much of its time in meadows hunting for ants and other
insects; it makes its nest in trees, like its relatives. It can be distin-
guished from the meadow-lark by the white patch above the tail which
shows during flight.

Methods — This is one of the most important of birds of the meadow
and the work may be done in September when there are plenty of young
flickers, which have not learned to be wary. The observations may be
made in the field, a few questions given at a time.

Observations — i . Where do you find the flicker in the summer and
early autumn? How can you tell it from the meadow-lark in color and
in flight ?

2. What is it doing in the meadows? How does it manage to trap
ants?

3. What is the size of the flicker as compared to the robin ? What
is its general color as compared to the meadow-lark?

4. Describe the colors of the flicker as follows : Top and sides of the

head, back of the neck, lower back, tail, wings, throat and breast. The
color and shape of the beak. Is there a difference in markings between
the males and females ?

5. Does the patch of white above the tail show, except when the
bird is flying? Of wdiat use is this to the bird?

6. What is the flicker’s note? At what time of spring do you hear it
first?

7. Where does the flicker build its nest and how? What is the
color of the eggs ? How many are there ?

8. How does it feed its young? . How do the young flickers act?

9. How many names do you know for the flicker?

Supplementary reading — “The Bird of Many Names,” Nestlings of

Forest and Marsh; A Fellow of Expedients, Long; Our Birds and Their
Nestlings, p. 187; Audubon Leaflet No. 5.

The high-hole appears to drum more promiscuously than does the downy. He
utters his long, loud spring call, whick-whick-whick, and then begins to rap with his
beak upon his perch before the last note has reached your ear. I have seen him drum
sitting upon the ridge of the barn. The log-cock, or pileated woodpecker, the largest
and wildest of our Northern species, I have never heard drum. His blows should wake
the echoes.

When the woodpecker is searching for food, or laying siege to some hidden grub,
the sound of his hammering is dead or muffled, and is heard but a few yards. It is
only upon dry, seasoned timber, freed of its bark, that he beats his reveille to spring and
woos his mate. — John Burroughs, in Birds, Bees and Sharp Eyes.

80 Handbook of Nature-Study

THE MEADOW-LARK
Teacher's Story

The first intimation we have in early spring, that
the meadow-lark is again with us, comes to us
through his soft, sweet, sad note which Van Dyke
describes so graphically when he says it, “leaks
^ slowly upward from the ground.” One wonders

how a bird can express happiness in these melan-
choly, sweet, slurred notes and yet undoubtedly it
is a song expressing joy, the joy of returning home,
the happiness of love and of nest building. But
after one has spent a winter in the Gulf States, and
has witnessed the slaughter there of this most
valuable bird; and after the northern stomach and
heart have turned sick at the sight of breasts once so full of song done
brown on the luncheon table, one no longer wonders that the meadow-
lark’s song of joy is fraught with sadness. There should be national laws
to protect the birds that are of value to one part of the United States from
being slaughtered in their winter haunts, unless they are there a nuisance
and injurious to crops, which is not the case with the meadow-lark.

The meadow-lark, as is indicated by its name, is a bird of the meadow.
It is often confused with another bird of the meadow which has very
different habits, the flicker. The two are approximately of the same size
and color and each has a black crescent or locket on the breast and each
shows the “white feather” during flight. The latter is the chief dis-
tinguishing character; the outer tail feathers of the meadow-lark are
white, while the tail feathers of the flicker are not white at all, but it has
a single patch of white on the rump. The flight of the two is quite
different. The lark lifts itself by several sharp movements and then
soars smoothly over the course, while the flicker makes a continuous up
and down, wave-like flight. The songs of the two would surely never be
confused, for the meadow-lark is among our sweetest singers, to which
class the flicker with his “flick a flick” hardly belongs.

The colors of the meadow-lark are most harmonious shades of brown
and yellow, well set off by the black locket on its breast. Its wings are
light brown, each feather being streaked with black and brown; the line
above the eye is yellow, bordered with black above and below; a buff line
extends from the beak backward over the crown. The wings are light
brown and have a mere suggestion of white bars; portions of the outer
feathers on each side of the tail are white, but this white does not show
except during flight. The sides of the throat are greenish, the middle
part and breast are lemon-yellow, with the large, black crescent just below
the throat. The beak is long, strong and black, and the meadow-lark is
decidedly a low-browed bird, the forehead being only slightly higher than
the upper part of the beak. It is a little larger than the robin which it
rivals in plumpness.

The meadow-lark has a particular liking for meadows which border
streams. It sings when on the ground, on the bush or fence and while on
the wing ; and it sings during the entire period of its northern stay, from
April to November, except while it is moulting in late summer. Mr.
Mathews, who is an eminent authority on bird songs, says that the

Bird Study

meadow-larks of New York have a different song from those of Vermont
or Nantucket, although the music has always the same general character-
istics. The western species has a longer and more complex song than
ours of the East. It is one of the few California birds that is a genuine
joy to the eastern visitor; during February and March its heavenly
music isas pervasive as the California sunshine.

The meadow-lark.
Drawing by L. A. Fuertes.

The nest is built in a depression in the ground near a tuft of grass ; it is
constructed of coarse grass and sticks and is lined with finer grass ; there
is usually a dome of grass blades woven above the nest ; and often a long,
covered vestibule leading to the nest is made in a similar fashion. This is
evidently for protection from the keen eyes of hawks and crows. The
eggs are laid about the last of May and are usually from five to seven in
number; they are white, speckled with brown and purple. The young
larks are usually large enough to be out of the way before haying time in

July.

Handbook of Nature-Study

The food of the meadow-lark during the entire year, consists almost
exclusively of insects which destroy the grass of our meadows. It eats
great quantities of grasshoppers, cut worms, chinch bugs, army worms,
wire worms, weevils, and also destroys some weed seeds. Each pupil
should make a diagram in his note-book showing the proportions of the
meadow-lark’s different kinds of food. This may be copied from Audubon
Leaflet No. 3. The killing of the meadow-lark in New York State is a
punishable offence, as it should be in every state of the Union. Everyone
who owns a meadow should use his influence to the uttermost to protect
this valuable bird. It has been estimated that the meadow-larks save to
every township where hay is produced, twenty-five dollars each year on
this crop alone.

The meadow-lark' s covered nest .
Photo by Robert Matheson

LESSON XVIII
The Meadow-Lark

Leading thought — The meadow-lark is of great value in delivering the
grass of our meadows from insect destroyers. It has a song which we all
know; it can be identified by color as a large, light brown bird with white
feathers on each side of the tail, and in flight, by its quick up and down
movements finishing with long, low, smooth sailing.

Method — September and October are good months for observations on
the flight, song and appearance of the meadow-lark, and also for learning

Bird Study

how to distinguish it from the flicker. The notes must be made by the
pupils in the field, and after they know the bird and its song let them, if
they have opportunity, study the bird books and bulletins, and prepare
written accounts of the way the meadow-lark builds its nest and of its
economic value.

Observations — 1. Where have you seen the meadow-lark? Did

you ever see it in the woods ? Describe its flight. How can you identify
it by color when it is flying? How do its white patches and its flight
differ from those of the flicker?

2. Try and imitate the meadow-lark’s notes by song or whistle.
Does it sing while on the ground, or on a bush or fence, or during flight?

3. Note the day when you hear its last song in the fall and also its
first song in the spring. Does it sing during August and September?
Why? Where does it spend the winter? On what does it feed while in
the South? How are. our meadow-larks treated when on their southern
sojourn?

4. Is the meadow-lark larger or smaller than the robin ? Describe

from your own observation, as far as possible, the colors of the meadow-
lark as follows: Top of head; line above the eye; back; wings; tail;

throat; breast; locket; color and shape of beak. Make a sketch of your
own or a copy from Louis Fuertes’ excellent picture of the meadow-lark in
the Audubon Leaflet, and color it accurately.

5. When is the nest built; where is it placed; of what material is it
built ? How is it protected from sight from above ? Why this protection,
How many eggs? What are their colors and markings?

6. What is the food of the meadow-lark? Copy the diagram from
the Audubon leaflet, showing the proportions of the different kinds of
insects which it destroys. Why should the farmers of the South also
protect the meadow-lark by law?

Supplementary reading — Audubon Education Leaflet No. 3; Farmers’
Bulletin No. 54, U. S. Dept, of Agr.; “A Pioneer,” in Nestlings of Forest
and Marsh, Wheelock.

Sweet, sweet, sweet! O happy that I am!

(. Listen to the meadow-larks, across the fields that sing!)
Sweet, sweet, sweet! O subtle breath of balm,

O winds that blow, O buds that grow, O rapture of the spring!

Sweet, sweet, sweet! O happy world that is!

Dear heart, I hear across the fields my mateling pipe and call.
Sweet, sweet, sweet! O world so full of bliss.

For life is love, the world is love , and love is over all!

— Ina Coolbrith.

Handbook of N atur e-Study

Teacher's Story

So dainty in plumage and hue,

A study in grey and in brown,

How little, hoiv little we knew

The pest he would prove to the town!

From dawn until daylight grows dim,

Perpetual chatter and scold.

No winter migration for him.

Not even afraid of the cold!

Scarce a song-bird he fails to molest,

Belligerent, meddlesome thing!

Wherever he goes as a guest
He is sure to remain as a King.

— Mary Isabella Forsyth.

The English sparrow, like the poor and the house-fly, is always with
us; and since he is here to stay, let us make him useful if we can devise
any means of doing so. There is no bird that gives the pupils a more
difficult exercise in describing colors and markings than does he; and his
wife is almost equally difficult. I have known fairly skilled ornithologists
to be misled by some variation in color of the hen sparrow, and it is safe
to assert that the majority of people “do not know her from Adam.”
The male has the top of the head gray with a patch of reddish brown on
either side ; the middle of the throat and upper breast is black ; the sides
of the throat white ; the lower breast and under parts grayish white ; the

Bird Study

back is brown streaked with black; the tail is brown, rather short, and not
notched at the tip; the wings are brown with two white bars and a jaunty
dash of reddish brown. The female has the head grayish brown, the
breast, throat and under parts grayish white; the back is brown streaked
with black and dirty yellow, and she is, on the whole, a “washed out”
looking lady bird. The differences in Color and size between the English
sparrow and the chippy are quite noticeable, as the chippy is an inch
shorter and far more slender in appearance, and is especially marked by
the reddish brown crown.

When feeding, the English sparrows are aggressive, and their lack of
table manners make them the “goops” among all birds; in the winter
they settle in noisy flocks on the street to pick up the grain undigested by
the horses, or in barnyards where the grain has been scattered by the
cattle. They only eat weed seeds when other food fails them in the
winter, for they are a civilized bird even if they do not act so, and they
much prefer the cultivated grains. It is only during the nesting season
that they destroy insects to any extent ; over one-half the food of nestlings
is insects, such as, weevils, grasshoppers, cutworms, etc.; but this good
work is largely offset by the fact that these same nestlings will soon give
their grown-up energies to attacking grain fields, taking the seed after
sowing, later the new grain in the milk, and later still the ripened grain in
the sheaf. Wheat, oats, rye, barley, corn, sorghum and rice are thus
attacked. Once I saw on the upper Nile a native boat loaded with millet
which was attacked by thousands of sparrows; when driven off by the
sailors they would perch on the rigging, like flies, and as soon as the men
turned their backs they would drop like bullets to the deck and gobble
the grain before they were again driven off. English sparrows also
destroy for us the buds and blossoms of fruit trees and often attack the
ripening fruit.

The introduction of the English sparrow into America is one of the
greatest arguments possible in favor of nature-study; for, ignorance of
nature-study methods in this single instance, costs the United States
millions of dollars every year. The English sparrow is the European
house sparrow and people had a theory that it was an insect eater, but
never took the pains to ascertain if this theory were a fact. About 1850,
some people with more zeal than wisdom introduced these birds into New
York, and for twenty years afterwards there were other importations of
the sparrows. In twenty years more, people discovered that they had
taken great pains to establish in our country one of the worst nuisances
in all Europe. In addition to all the direct damage which the English
sparrows do, they are so quarrelsome that they have driven away many
of our native beneficial birds from our premises, and now vociferously
acclaim their presence in places which were once the haunts of birds with
sweet songs. After they drive off the other birds they quarrel among
themselves, and there is no rest for tired ears in their vicinity . There are
various noises made by these birds which we can understand if we are
willing to take the pains: The harassing chirping is their song; they

squall when frightened and peep plaintively when lonesome, and make a
disagreeable racket when fighting.

But to “give the devil his due” we must admit that the house sparrow
is as clever as it is obnoxious, and its success is doubtless partly due to its
superior cleverness and keenness. It is quick to take a hint, if sufficiently

Handbook of Nature-Study

pointed ; firing a shotgun twice into a flock of these birds has driven them
from our premises ; and tearing down their nests assiduously for a month
seems to convey to them the idea that they are not welcome. Another
instance of their cleverness 1 witnessed one day ; I was watching a robin,
worn and nervous with her second brood, fervently hunting earthworms
in the lawn to fill the gaping mouths in the nest in the Virginia creeper
shading the piazza. She finally pulled up a large, pink worm and a hen
sparrow flew at her viciously; the robin dropped the worm to protect
herself, and the sparrow snatched it and carried it off triumphantly to the
grape arbor where she had a nest of her own full of gaping mouths. She
soon came back, and at a safe distance watched the robin pull out another
worm, and by the same tactics again gained the squirming prize. Three
times was this repeated in an hour, and then the robin, discouraged, flew
up into a Norway spruce and in a monologue of sullen duckings tried to
reason out what had happened.

The English sparrow’s nest is quite in keeping with the bird’s other
qualities; it is usually built in a hole or box or in some protected comer
beneath the eaves; it is also often built in vines on buildings and occa-
sionally in trees. It is a good example of “fuss and feathers”; coarse
straw, or any other kind of material, and feathers of hens or of other
birds, mixed together without fashion or form, constitute the nest. In
these sprawling nests the whitish, brown or gray-flecked eggs are laid
and the young reared; and so far as I can ascertain, no one has ever
counted the number of broods reared in one season. The nesting begins
almost as soon as the snow is off the ground and lasts until late fall.

During the winter, the sparrows gather in flocks in villages and cities,
but in the spring they scatter out through the country where they can
find more grain. The only place where this bird is welcome is possibly
in the heart of a great city, where no other bird could pick up a liveli-
hood. It is a true cosmopolite and is the first bird to greet the traveler
in Europe or northern Africa. • These sparrows will not build in boxes
suspended by a wire ; and they do not like a box where there is no resting
place in front of the door leading to the nest.

After the pupils have made observations upon the habits of the house
sparrow, they may find, in the following books and bulletins, facts which
will teach further the economic importance of this bird : Birds in Their

Relation to Man, by Weed and Dearborn, p. 144. The following bulle-
tins of the U. S. Department of Agriculture: “English Sparrow in

North America;” “Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture,” S. D. Judd,
Bulletin 15; “The Food of Nestlings,” Yearbook 1900.

LESSON XIX
The English Sparrow

Leading thought — The English sparrow was introduced into America
by people who knew nothing of its habits. It has finally over-run our
whole country and, to a great extent, has driven out, from towns and
villages our useful American song birds and it should be discouraged and
not allowed to nest around our houses and grounds. As a sparrow it has
interesting habits which we should observe.

Methods — Let the pupils make their observations in the street or
wherever they find the birds. The greatest value of this lesson is to teach

Bird Study

the pupils to observe the coloring and markings of a bird accurately and
describe them clearly. This is the best of training for later work with
the wild birds.

Observations — 1. How many kinds of birds do you find in a flock of
English sparrows ?

2 . The ones with the black cravat are naturally the men of the
family, while their sisters, wives and mothers are less ornamented.
Describe in your note-book or from memory fhe colors of the cock sparrow
as follows: Top of head; sides of the head; the back; the tail; the

wings; wing bars; throat and upper breast; lower breast and under
parts.

3. Describe the hen sparrow in the same manner and note the
difference in markings between the two. Are the young birds, when they
first fly, like the father or the mother?

4. Compare the English sparrow with the chippy and describe the
differences in size and color.

5. Is the tail when the bird is not flying, square across the end or
notched ?

6. What is the shape of the beak? For what sort of food is this
shaped beak meant?

7. What is the food of the English sparrows and where do they find
it? Describe the actions of a flock feeding in the yard or street. Are
the English sparrows kindly or quarrelsome in disposition?

8. Why do the English sparrows stay in the North during the coldest
of winters? Do they winter out in the country or in villages?

9. Describe by observation how they try to drive away the robins or
other native birds.

10. Describe the nest of this sparrow. Of what material is it made ?
How is it supported? How sheltered? Is it a well-built nest?

1 1 . Describe the eggs ? How many broods are raised a year? What
kind of food do the parents give the nestlings?

12. If you have ever seen these sparrows do anything interesting
describe the circumstance ?

13. In what ways are these birds a nuisance to us?

14. How much of English sparrow talk do you understand?

15. How can we build bird-boxes so that the English sparrows will
not try to take possession of them ?

Supplementary reading — “A Street Troubadour,” in Lives of the
Hunted, Thompson Seton. First Book of Birds, Miller, p. 81. “Bliz-
zard” and “Three Sparrows that live in the House,” from True Bird
Stories, Miller.

Do not tire the child with questions; lead him to question you , instead. Be
sure , in any case, that he is more interested in the subject than in the questions
about the subject.

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE CHIPPING SPARROW

Teacher's Story

HIS midget lives in our midst, and yet, not among all
bird kind, is there one which so ignores us as does the
chippy. It builds its nest about our houses, it hunts
for food all over our premises, it sings like a tuneful
grasshopper in our ears, it brings up its young to dis-
regard us, and every hour of the day it “tsip-tsips” us
to scorn. And, although it has well earned the name
of “doorstep sparrow,” since it frugally gathers the
crumbs about our kitchen doors, yet it rarely be-
comes tame or can be induced to eat from the hand, unless it is trained
so to do as a nestling.

Its cinnamon-brown cap and tiny black forehead, the gray streak over
the eye and the black through it, the gray cheeks and the pale gray,
unspotted breast distinguish it from the other sparrows, although its
brown back streaked with darker, and brown wings and blackish tail
have a very sparrowish look; the two whitish wing bars are not striking;
it has a bill fitted for shelling seeds, a characteristic of all the sparrows.
Despite its seed-eating bill, the chippy’s food is thirty-eight per-cent
insects, and everyone should read what Mr. Forbush says about the good
work this little bird does in our gardens and to our trees. It takes in
large numbers cabbage caterpillars, the pea louse, the beet leaf-miners,
leaf hoppers, grasshoppers, cutworms, and does its best to annihilate the
caterpillars of the terrible gypsy and browntail moths. In fact, it works
for our benefit even in its vegetable food, as this consists largely of the
seeds of weeds and undesirable grasses. It will often fly up from its
perch after flies or moths, like a flycatcher; and the next time we note it,
it will be hopping around hunting for the crumbs we have scattered for it
on the piazza floor. The song of the chippy is more interesting to it than
to us; it is a continuous performance of high, shrill, rapid notes, all alike
so far as I can detect ; when it utters many of these in rapid succession it
is singing, but when it gives them singly they are call notes or mere
conversation.

One peculiarity of the nest has given this sparrow the common name
of hair-bird, for the lining is almost always of long, coarse hair, usually
treasure trove from the tails of horses or cattle switched off against boards,
burs or other obstacles. Of the many nests I have examined, black
horsehair was the usual lining; but two nests in our yard show the
chippy to be a resourceful bird ; evidently the hair market was exhausted
and the soft, dead needles of the white pine were used instead and made
a most satisfactory lining. The nest is tiny and shallow; the outside is
of fine grass or rootlets carefully but not closely woven together; it is
placed in vine or tree, usually not more than ten or fifteen feet from the
ground; a vine of a piazza is a favorite nesting site. Once a bold pair
built directly above the entrance to our front door and mingled cheer-
fully with other visitors. Usually, however, the nest is so hidden that it
is not discovered until after the leaves have fallen. The eggs are light
blue tinged with green, with fine, purplish brown specks or markings
scrawled about the larger end.

Bird Study

The chippy comes to us
in April and usually raises
two broods of from three to
five “piggish” youngsters,
which even after they are fully
grown follow pertinaciously
their tired and “frazzled out”
parents and beg to be fed;
the chippy parents evidently
have no idea of discipline
but indulge their teasing
progeny until our patience, at The chipping sparrow .

least, is exhausted. The

young differ from the parents in having streaked breasts and lacking the
reddish crown. In the fall the chippy parents lose their red-brown
caps and have streaked ones instead; and then they fare forth in flocks
for a seed-harvest in the fields. Thereafter our chippy is a stranger to
us; we do not know it in its new garb, and it dodges into the bushes as
we pass, as if it had not tested our harmlessness on our own door-stone.

Reference — Wild Life, Ingersol, p. 132.

LESSON XX

Leading thought — The chipping sparrow is a cheerful and useful little
neighbor. It builds a nest, lined with horsehair, in the shrubbery and
vines about our homes and works hard in ridding our gardens of insect
pests and seeds of weeds.

Methods — Begin this lesson with a nest of the chippy, which is so
unmistakable that it may be identified when found in the winter. Make
the study of this nest so interesting that the pupils will wait anxiously
to watch for the birds which made it. As soon as the chippies appear,
the questions should be asked, a few at a time, giving the children several
weeks for the study.

The Nest

Observations — 1. Where was this nest found? How high from the
ground?

2. Was it under shelter? How was it supported?

3. Of what material is the outside of the nest? How is it fastened
together? How do you suppose the bird wove this material together?

4. Of what material is the lining? Why is the bird that built this
nest called the “hair bird?” From what animal do you think the lining
of the nest came? How do you suppose the bird got it?

5. Do you think the nest was well hidden when the leaves were about
it? Measure the nest across and also its depth; do you think the bird
that made it is as large as the English sparrow?

The Bird

6. How can you tell the chippy from the English sparrow?

7. Describe in your note-book or orally the colors of the chippy as

follows: beak, forehead, crown, marks above and through the eyes,

90 Handbook of N ature-Study

cheeks, throat, breast, wings and tail. Note if the wings have whitish
bars and how many.

8. Describe the shape of the beak as compared with that of the robin.
What is this shaped bill meant for?

9. What is the food of the chippy? Why has it been called the
doorstep-sparrow ?

10. Note if the chippy catches flies or moths on the wing like the
phoebe-bird.

11. Why should we protect the chippy and try to induce it to live
near our gardens ?

12. Does it run or hop when seeking food on the ground?

13. How early in the season does the chippy appear and where does it
spend the winter?

14. Can you describe the chippy’s song? How do you think it won
the name of chipping sparrow?

15. If you have the luck to find a pair of chippies nesting, keep a

diary of your observations in your note-book covering the following
points: Do both parents build the nest? How is the frame-work laid?

How is the finishing done ? The number and color of the eggs? Do both
parents feed the young? How do young chippies act when they first
leave the nest ? How large are the young birds before the parents stop
feeding them? What are the differences in color and markings between
parents and young?

THE FIELD-SPARROW

A bubble of music floats, the slope of the hillside over;

A little wandering sparrow’s notes; and the bloom of yarrow and clover ,

And the smell of sweet-fern and the bayberry leaf, on his ripple of song are stealing,
For he is a cheerful thief, the wealth of the fields revealing.

One syllable, clear and soft o,j c raindrop’s silvery patter,

Or a tinkling fairy-bell; heard aloft, in the midst of the merry chatter
Of robin and linnet and wren and jay, one syllable, oft repeated;

He has but a word to say, and of that he will not be cheated.

The singer I have not seen; but the song I arise and follow
The brown hills over, the pastures green, and into the sunlit hollow.

With a joy that his life unto mine has lent, I can feel my glad eyes glisten,

Though he hides in his happy tent, while I stand outside, and listen.

This way woutd I also sing, my dear little hillside neighbor!

A tender carol of peace to bring to the sunburnt fields of labor
Is better than making a loud ado; trill on, amid clover and yarrow!

There's a heart-beat echoing you, and blessing you, blithe little sparrow!

— Lucy Larcom.

Bird Study

THE SONG SPARROW

Teachers' Story

*'He does not wear a Joseph's coat of many colors, smart and gay
His suit is Quaker brown and gray, with darker patches at his throat.

And yet of all the well-dressed throng, not one can sing so brave a song.

It makes the pride of looks appear a vain and foolish thing to hear
His “Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer."

A lofty place he does not love, he sits by choice and well at ease
In hedges and in little trees, that stretch their slender arms above
The meadow brook; and then he sings till all the field with pleasure rings;

And so he tells in every ear, that lowly homes to heaven are near
In 'Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer.' "

— Henry Van Dyke.

Children should commit to memory the poem from which the above
stanzas were taken; seldom in literature, have detailed accurate observa-
tion and poetry been so happily combined as in these verses. The lesson
might begin in March when we are all listening eagerly for bird voices,
and the children should be asked to look out for a little, brown bird which
sings, “Sweet, sweet, sweet, very merry cheer,” or, as Thoreau interprets
it, “Maids! Maids! Maids! Hang on the teakettle, teakettle-ettle-
ettle.” In early childhood I learned to distinguish this sparrow by its
“Teakettle” song. Besides this song, it has others quite as sweet; and
when alarmed it utters a sharp “T’chink, t’chink.”

The song sparrow prefers the neighborhood of brooks and ponds which
are bordered with bushes, and also the hedges planted by nature along
rail or other field fences, and it has a special liking for the shrubbery about
gardens. Its movements and flight are very characteristic; it usually
sits on the tip-top of a shrub or low tree when it sings, but when disturbed

Handbook of Nature-Study

never rises in the air but drops into a low flight and plunges into a thicket
with a defiant twitch of the tail which says plainly, “find me if you can.”

The color and markings of this bird are typical of the sparrows. The
head is a warm brown with a gray streak along the center of the crown
and one above each eye, with a dark line through the eye. The back is
brown with darker streaks. The throat is white with a dark spot on
either side; the breast is white spotted with brown with a large, dark
blotch at its very center; this breast blotch distinguishes this bird from
all other sparrows. The tail and wings are brown and without buff or
white bars or other markings. The tail is long, rounded and very expres-
sive of emotions, and makes the bird look more slender than the English
sparrow.

The nest is usually placed on the ground or in low bushes not more
than five feet from the ground; it varies much in both size and material;
it is sometimes constructed of coarse weeds and grasses ; and sometimes
only fine grass is used. Sometimes it is lined with hair, and again, with
fine grass; sometimes it is deep, but occasionally is shallow. The eggs
have a whitish ground-color tinged with blue or green, but are so blotched
and marked with brown that they are safe from observation of enemies.
The nesting season begins in May, and there are usually three and some-
times four broods; but so far as I have observed, a nest is never used for
two consecutive broods. The song sparrow stays with us in New York
State very late in the fall, and a few stay in sheltered places all winter.
The quality in this bird which endears him to us all is the spirit of song
which stays with him ; his sweet trill may be heard almost any month of
the year, and he has a charming habit of singing in his dreams, if sudden
noise disturbs his slumber.

The song sparrow is not only the dearest of little neighbors, but it also
works lustily for our good and for its own food at the same time. It
destroys cutworms, plant-lice, caterpillars, canker-worms, ground beetles,
grasshoppers and flies; in winter it destroys thousands of weed seeds,
which otherwise would surely plant themselves to our undoing. Every
boy and girl should take great pains to drive away stray cats and to teach
the family puss not to meddle with birds ; for cats are the worst of all the
song sparrow’s enemies, destroying thousands of its nestlings every year.

LESSON XXI
The Song Sparrow

Leading thought — The beautiful song of this sparrow is heard earlier in
the spring than the notes of bluebird or robin. The dark blotch in the
center of its speckled breast distinguishes this sparrow from all others;
it is very beneficial and should be protected from cats.

Methods — All the observations of the song sparrow must be made in
the field, and they are easily made because the bird builds near houses, in
gardens, and in the shrubbery. Poetry and other literature about the
song sparrow should be given to the pupils to read or to memorize.

Observations — i . Have you noticed a little brown bird singing a very
sweet song in the early spring ? Did the song sound as if set to the words
“Little Maid! Little Maid! Little Maid! Put on the teakettle, tea-
kettle-ettle ettle?”

Bird Study

2. Where was this bird when you heard him singing? How high was
he perched above the ground? What other notes did you hear him utter?

3. Describe the colors and markings of the song sparrow on head,
back, throat, breast, wings and tail. Is this bird as large as the English
sparrow? What makes it look more slim?

4. How can you distinguish the song sparrow from the other spar-
rows? When disturbed does it fly up or down? How does it gesture
with its tail as it disappears in the bushes ?

5. Where and of what material does the song sparrow build its nest?

6. What colors and markings are on the eggs? Do you think these
colors and markings are useful in concealing the eggs when the mother
bird leaves the nest?

7 . How late in the season do you see the song sparrows and hear their
songs? Does this bird, when disturbed, fly up or down?

8. How can we protect these charming little birds and induce them to
build near our houses?

9. What is the food of the song sparrows and how do they benefit our
fields and gardens ?

Supplementary reading — Our Birds and Their Nestlings, Walker, pp.
43, 49, 50, 52; Second Book of Birds, Miller, p. 80; Birds of Song and
Story, Grinnell, p. 73; The Song Sparrow, Van Dyke; Birds Through
an Opera Glass, Merriam, p. 66; Field Book of Wild Birds, Mathews, p.
109; Wild Life, Ingersoll, p. 144; Audubon Leaflet No. 31.

THE SING-AWAY BIRD
Have you ever heard of the Sing-away bird,

That sings where the Runaway River
Runs down with its rills from the bald-headed hills
That stand in the sunshine and shiver ?

“Oh, sing! sing-away! sing-away!”

How the pines and the birches are stirred
By the trill of the Sing-away bird!

And the bald-headed hills, with their rocks and their rills,
To the tune of his rapture are ringing;

And their faces grow young, all the gray mists among,
While the forests break forth into singing.

“Oh sing! sing-away! sing-away !”

And the river runs singing along;

And the flying winds catch up the song.

'T was a white-throated sparrow, that sped a light arrow
Of song from his musical quiver,

And it pierced with its spell every valley and dell
On the banks of the Runaway River.

“Oh, sing! sing-away! sing-away!”

The song of the wild singer had

The sound of a soul that is glad.— Lucy Larcom.

Handbook of N ature-Study

The mockingbird.
Drawing by L. A. Fuertes.

THE MOCKINGBIRD

Teacher's Story

Among all the vocalists in the bird world, the mockingbird is unrivaled
in the variety and richness of his repertoire; and he has thus won his
place among men, convincing many ignorant people by the means of his
voice that a bird is good for something besides “victuals.” The mocking-
birds go as far north as southern New England, but they are found at their
best in the Southern States and in California. On the Gulf Coast the
mockers begin singing in February ; in warmer climates they sing almost
the year through. During the nesting season, the father mocker is so
busy with his cares and duties during the day, that he does not have time
to sing and so devotes the nights to serenading; he may sing almost all
night long if there is moonlight, but even on dark nights he gives now
and then a happy, sleepy song. Not all mockingbirds are mockers;
some sing their own song which is rich and beautiful ; while others learn
in addition, not only the songs of other birds, but their call notes as well.
One authority noted a mocker which imitated the songs of twenty
species of birds during a ten-minute performance. When singing, the
mocker shows his relationship to the brown thrasher by lifting the head

Bird, Study

and depressing and jerking the tail. A good mocker will learn a tune, or
parts of it, if it is whistled often enough in his hearing; he will also
imitate other sounds and will often improve on a song he has learned from
another bird by introducing frills of his own; when learning a song, he
sits silent and listens intently, but will not try to sing it until it is learned.

Although the mockingbirds live in wild places, they prefer the haunts
of men, taking up their home sites in gardens and cultivated grounds.
Their flight is rarely higher than the tree tops and is decidedly jerky in
character with much twitching of the long tail. For nesting sites, they
choose thickets or the lower branches of trees, being especially fond of
orange trees ; the nest is usually from four to twenty feet from the ground.
The foundation of the nest is made of sticks, grasses and weed stalks
interlaced and crisscrossed; on these is built the nest of softer materials,
such as, rootlets, horsehair, cotton, or in fact, anything suitable which is
at hand. The nest is often in plain sight, since the mocker trusts to his
strength as a fighter to protect it. He will attack cats with great ferocity
and vanquish them; he will kill snakes; often good-sized black snakes
have been known to end thus. The mocker, in making his attack, hovers
above his enemy and strikes it at the back of the head or neck; he will
also drive away birds much larger than himself.

The female lays from four to six pale greenish or bluish eggs
blotched with brown and which hatch in about two weeks; then
comes a period of hard work for the parents, as both are indefatigable
in catching insects to feed the young. The mocker, by the way, is a
funny sight when he is chasing a beetle on the ground, lifting his wings
in . a pugnacious fashion. The mockers often raise three broods a
season ; the young birds have spotted breasts, showing their relationship
to the thrasher.

As a wooer, the mocker is a bird of much ceremony and dances into his
lady’s graces. Mrs. F. W. Rowe, in describing this, says that the birds
stand facing each other with heads and tails erect and wings drooping;
“then the dance would begin, and this consisted of the two hopping
sideways in the same direction and in rather a straight line a few inches at
a time, always keeping directly opposite each other and about the same
di stance apart. They would chassez this way four or five feet, then go
back over the same line in the same manner.’’ Mrs. Rowe also observed
that the male mockers have hunting preserves of their own, not allowing
any other males of their species in these precincts. The boundary was
sustained by tactics of both offense and defense ; but certain other species
of birds were allowed to trespass without reproof.

Maurice Thompson describes in a delightful manner the “mounting”
and “dropping” songs of the mocker which occur during the wooing season.
The singer flits up from branch to branch of a tree, singing as he goes, and
finally on the topmost bough gives his song of triumph to the world ; then,
reversing the process, he falls backward from spray to spray, as if drunk
with the ecstasy of his own song, which is an exquisitely soft “gurgling
series of notes, liquid and sweet, that seem to express utter rapture.”

The mockingbirds have the same colors in both sexes; the head is
black, the back is ashy-gray ; the tail and wings are so dark brown that
they look black; the tail is very long and has the outer tail feathers
entirely white and the two next inner ones ere white for more than half
their length; the wings have a strikingly broad, white bar. which is very

Handbook of Nature-Study

noticeable when the bird is flying. The under parts and breast are
grayish white ; the beak and legs are blackish. The food of the mocking-
birds is about half insects and half fruit. They live largely on the berries
of the red cedar, myrtle and holly, and we must confess are often too
devoted to the fruits in our orchards and gardens; but let us put down to
their credit that they do their best to exterminate the cotton boll cater-
pillars and moths, and also many other insects injurious to crops.

The mocker is full of tricks and is distinctly a bird of humor. He will
frighten other birds by screaming like a hawk and then seem to chuckle
over the joke.

Sidney Lanier describes him well.

Whate’er birds did or dreamed, this bird could say.

Then down he shot, bounced airily along

The sward, twitched in a grasshopper, made song

Midflight, perched, prinked, and to his art again.

LESSON XXII
The Mocking Bird

Leading thought — The mockingbird is the only one of our common
birds that sings regularly at night. It imitates the songs of other birds
and has also a beautiful song of its own. When feeding their nestlings,
the mockers do us great service by destroying insect pests.

Method — Studies of this bird are best made individually by the pupils
through watching the mockers which haunt the houses and shrubbery.
If there are mockingbirds near the schoolhouse the work can be done in
the most ideal way by keeping records in the school of all the observations
made by the pupils, thus bringing out an interesting mockingbird story.
The experiment in teaching songs to the birds may best be made with pet
mockers.

Observations — i. At what months of the year and for how many
months does the mockingbird sing in this locality?

2. Does he sing only on moonlight nights? Does he sing all night?

3. Can you distinguish the true mockingbird song from the songs
which he has learned from other birds ? Describe the actions of a mocker
when he is singing.

4. How many songs of other birds have you heard a mocker give and
what are the names of these birds?

5. Have you ever taught a mocker a tune by whistling it in his
presence? If so, tell how long before he learned it and how he acted
while learning.

Describe the flight of the mockingbirds. Do they fly high in the air
like crows?

7. Do these birds like best to live in wild places or about houses and
gardens ?

8. Where do they choose sites for their nests? Do they make an
effort to hide the nest? If not, why?

9. Of what material is the nest made? How is it lined? How far
from the ground is it placed?

10. What are the colors of the eggs? How many are usually laid?
How long before they hatch?

Bird Study

11. Give instances of the parents’ devotion to the young birds.

12. Have you seen two mockingbirds dancing before each other just
before the nesting season ?

13. In the spring have you heard a mocker sing while mounting from
the lower to the upper branches of a tree and then after pouring forth his
best song fall backward with a sweet, gurgling song as if intoxicated with
his music ?

14. How many broods does a pair of mockers raise during one season ?
How does the color of the breast of the young differ from that of the
parent ?

15. How does the father bird protect the nestlings from other birds,
cats and snakes?

1 6 . Does the mocker select certain places for his own hunting grounds
and drive off other mockers which trespass?

17. Describe the colors of the mockingbird as follows: Beak, head,

back, tail, wings, throat, breast, under parts and feet.

1 8. What is the natural food of the mockingbirds and how do they
benefit the farmer? How does the mocker act when attacking a ground
beetle ?

19. Have you seen mockingbirds frighten other birds by imitating
the cry of a hawk? Have you seen them play other kinds of tricks?

20. Write a little story which shall include your own observations on
the ways of pet mockingbirds which you have known.

Supplementary reading — True Bird Stories, Miller, p.142; Bob, by
Sidney Lanier; Second Book of Birds, Miller, p. 34; Birds of Song and
Story, Grinnell, p. 29; Stories About Birds, Kirby, p. 94.

“Soft and low the song began: I scarcely caught it as it ran

Through the melancholy trill of the plaintive whip-poor-will ,

Through the ringdove's gentle wail, chattering jay and whistling quail.
Sparrow's twitter, catbird's cry, redbird's whistle, robin's sigh;

Blackbird, bluebird, swallow, lark, each his native note might mark.

Oft he tried the lesson o'er, each time louder than before;

Burst at length the finished song, loud and clear it poured along;

All the choir in silence heard, hushed before this wondrous bird.

All transported and amazed, scarcely breathing, long I gazed.

Now it reached the loudest swell; lower, lower, now it fell, —

Lower, lower, lower still, scarce it sounded o'er the rill."

— Joseph Rodman Drake.

Handbook of Nairn e-Study

Catbird on nest.

Photo by Robert Matheson.

THE CATBIRD

Teacher's Story

“ The Catbird sings a crooked song, in minors that are flat,

And, when he can't control his voice he mews just like a cat.

Then nods his head and whisks his tail and lets it go at that."

— Oliver Davie.

As a performer, the catbird distinctly belongs to the vaudeville, even
going so far as to appear in slate-colored tights. His specialties range
from the most exquisite song to the most strident of scolding notes; his
nasal “n-y-a-a-h, n-y-a-a-h” .is not so very much like the cat’s mew after
all, but when addressed to the intruder it means “get out;” and not in the
whole gamut of bird notes is there another which so quickly inspires the
listener with this desire. I once trespassed upon the territory of a well-
grown catbird family and the squalling that ensued wTas ear-splitting; as
I retreated, the triumphant youngsters followed me for a few rods with
every sign of triumph in their actions and voices; they obviously enjoyed
my apparent fright. The catbirds have rather a pleasant “cluck, cluck”
when talking to each other, hidden in the bushes, and they also have a
variety of other notes. The true song of the catbird, usually given in the
early morning, is very beautiful. Mr. Mathews thinks it is a medley
gathered from other birds, but it seems to me very individual. However,
true to his vaudeville training, this bird is likely to introduce into the
middle or at the end of his exquisite song some phrase that suggestshis
cat call. He is, without doubt, a true mocker and will often imitate
the robin’s song, and also if opportunity offers learns to converse fluently
in chicken language. One spring morning, I heard outside my window

Bird Study

the mellow song of the cardinal, which is a rare visitor in New York, but
there was no mistaking the “tor-re-do, tor-re-do.” I sprang from my bed
and rushed to the window only to see a catbird singing the cardinal song,
and thus telling me that he had come from the sunny South and the
happy companionship of these brilliant birds. Often when the catbird is
singing, he sits on the topmost spray of some shrub lifting his head and
depressing his tail, like a brown thrasher; and again, he sings completely
hidden in the thicket.

In appearance the catbird is tailor-made, belonging to the same social
class as the cedar-bird and the bam swallow. However, it affects quiet
colors, and its well-fitting costume is all slate-gray except the top of the
head and the tail which are black; the feathers beneath the base of the
tail are brownish. The catbird is not so large as the robin, and is of very
different shape; it is far more slender and has a long, emotional tail.
The way the catbird twitches and tilts its tail, as it hops along the ground
or alights in a bush, is very characteristic. It is a particularly alert and
nervous bird, always on the watch for intruders, and the first to give
warning to all other birds of their approach. It is a good fighter in
defending its nest, and there are several observed instances where it has
fought to defend the nest of other species of birds; and it has gone even
further in its philanthropy, by feeding their orphaned nestlings.

The catbird chooses a nesting site in a low tree or shrub or brier, where
the nest is built usually about four feet from the ground. The nest looks
untidy, but is strongly made of sticks, coarse grass, weeds, bark strips
and occasionally paper; it is lined with soft roots and is almost always
well hidden in dense foliage. The eggs are from three to five in number
and are dark greenish blue. Both parents work hard feeding the young
and for this purpose destroy many insects which we can well spare.
Sixty-two per cent, of the food of the young has been found in one instance
to be cutworms, showing what a splendid work the parents do in our
gardens. In fact, during a large part of the summer, while these birds
are rearing their two broods, they benefit us greatly by destroying the
insect pests; and although later they may attack our fruits and berries, it
almost seems as if they had earned the right to their share. If we only
had the wisdom to plant along the fences some elderberries or Russian
mulberries, the catbirds as well as the robins would feed upon them instead
of the cultivated fruits.

The catbirds afford a striking example for impressing upon children
that each species of birds haunts certain kinds of places. The catbirds are
never found in deep woods nor in open fields, but always near low thickets
along streams,- and in shrubbery along fences, in tangles of vines, and
especially do they like to build about our gardens, if we protect them.
They are very fond of bathing, and if fresh water is given them for this
purpose, we may have opportunity to witness the most thorough bath a
bird can take. A catbird takes a long time to bathe and preen 'its feathers
and indulges in most luxurious sun baths and thus deservedly earns the
epithet of “well-groomed;” it is one of the most intelligent of all our birds
and soon learns “what is wdiat,” and repays in the most surprising way
the trouble of careful observation.

IOO

Handbook of N ature-Study

LESSON XXIII
The Catbird

Leading thought — The catbird has a beautiful song as well as the harsh
“miou,” and can imitate other birds, although not so well as the mocking-
bird. It builds in low thickets and shrubbery and during the nesting
season is of great benefit to our gardens.

Methods — First, let the pupils study and report upon the songs,
scoldings and other notes of this our northern mockingbird; then let
them describe its appearance and habits. Of course, the study must be
made outside of school hours in the field.

Observations — i. Do you think the squall of the catbird sounds like
the mew of a cat ? When does the bird use this note and what for ? What
other notes have you heard it utter?

2. Describe as well as you can the catbird’s true song. Are there any
harsh notes in it ? Where does he sit while singing ? Describe his actions
while singing.

3. Have you ever heard the catbird imitate the songs of other birds
or other noises ?

4. Describe the catbird as follows: its size and shape compared to
the robin; the color and shape of head, beak, wings, tail, breast and
under parts.

5. Describe its peculiar actions and its characteristic movements.

6. Where do catbirds build their nests? How high from the ground?
What material is used? Is the nest compact and carefully finished?
Is it hidden ?

7. What is the color of the eggs? Do both parents care for the
young?

8. What is the food of the catbird? Why is it an advantage to us to
have catbirds build in our gardens?

9. Do you ever find catbirds in the deep wroods or out in the open
meadows ? Where do you find them ?

10. Put out a pan of water where the catbirds can use it and then
watch them make their toilets and describe the process. Describe how
they take sun baths.

Supplementary reading — “Monsieur Mischief,” Nestlings of Forest and
Marsh, Wheelock; Our Birds and Their Nestlings, Walker, pp. 167, 174;
Second Book of Birds, Miller, p. 37; Songs of Nature, Burroughs, p. 172;
Birds of Song and Story, Grinnell, p. 36.

11 He sits on a branch of yon blossoming bush.

This madcap cousin of robin and thrush.

And sings without ceasing the whole morning long ;

Now wild, now tender, the wayward song
That flows from his soft , gray, fluttering throat;

But often he stops in his sweetest note,

And, shaking a flower from the blossoming bough.

Drawls out, l‘Mi-eu, mi-owl"

— “The Catbird”, Edith M. Thomas.

IOI

Bird Study

THE BELTED KINGFISHER
Teacher's Story

HIS patrol of our streams and lake shores, in his cadet
uniform, is indeed a military figure as well as a militant
personality. As he sits upon his chosen branch over-
hanging some stream or lake shore, his crest abristle,
his keen eye fixed on the water below, his whole bearing
alert, one must acknowledge that this fellow puts
“ginger” into his environment, and that the spirit
which animates him is very far from the ildolce far
niente ” which permeates the ordinary fisherman. However, he does not
fish for fun but for business; his keen eye catches the gleam of a moving
fin and he darts from his perch, holds himself for a moment on steady
wings above the surface of the water, to be sure of his quarry, and then
there is a dash and a splash and he returns to his perch with the wriggling
fish in his strong beak; he at once proceeds to beat its life out against a
branch and then to swallow it sensibly, head first, so that the fins will not
prick his throat nor the scales rasp it. He swallows the entire fish, trust-
ing to his internal organs to select the nourishing part ; and later he gulps
up a ball of the indigestible scales and bones.

The kingfisher is very different in form from an ordinary bird; he is
larger than a robin, and his head and fore parts are much larger in propor-
tion; this is the more noticeable because of the long
feathers of the head which he lifts into a crest, and
because of the shortness of the tail. The beak is very
long and strong in order to seize the fish and hold it
fast; but the legs are short and weak; the third and
fourth toes are grown together for a part of their
length; perhaps this is of use to the bird in pushing
earth from the burrow, when excavating. The king-
fisher has no need for running and hopping, like the
robin and, therefore, does not need the robin’s strong
legs and feet . His colors are beautiful and harmonious ;
the upper parts are grayish blue, the throat and collar
white, as is also the breast, which has a bluish gray
band across the upper part, this giving the name of
the Belted Kingfisher to the bird. The feathers of the wings are tipped with
white and the tail feathers narrowly barred with white. The under side
of the body is white in the males, while in the females it is somewhat chest-
nut in color. There is a striking white spot just in front of the eye.

The kingfisher parents build their nest in a burrow which they tunnel
horizontally in a bank ; sometimes there is a vestibule of several feet
before the nest is reached, and at other times it is built very close to the
opening. Both parents are industrious in catching fish for their nestlings,
but the burden of this duty falls heaviest upon the male. Many fish
bones are found in the nest, and they seem so clean and white that they
have been regarded as nest lining. Wonderful tales are told of the way
the English kingfishers use fish bones to support the earth above their
nests, and tributes have been paid to their architectural skill. But it is
generally conceded that the lining of fish bones in nests of our kingfisher
is incidental, since the food of the young is largely fish, although frogs,

Kingfisher' s foot.

This shows the weak
toes; the third and
fourth are joined
together, which un-
doubtedly assists
the bird in push-
ing out soil when
excavating.

102

Handbook of Nature-Study

insects and other creatures are often eaten with relish. It is interesting
to note the process by which the young kingfisher gets its skill in fishing.

I have often seen one dive horizontally for a yard or two beneath the
water and come up indignant and sputtering because the fish had escaped.
It was fully two weeks after this before this one learned to drop like a
bullet on its quarry.

The note of the kingfisher is a loud rattle, not especially pleasant close
at hand, but not unmusical at a little distance. It is a curious coinci-
dence that it sounds very much like the clicking of the fisherman’s reel;
it is a sound that conjures visions of shade-dappled streams and the danc-
ing, blue waters of tree-fringed lakes and ponds.

There seems to be a division of fishing ground among the kingfishers,
one bird never trespassing upon its neighbor’s preserves. Unless it be
the parent pair working near each other for the nestlings, or the nestlings
still under their care, we never see two kingfishers in the same immediate
locality.

References — The Bird, p. 97; The Bird Book, pp. 154, 444.

LESSON XXIV
The Kingfisher

Leading thought — The kingfisher is fitted by
form of body and beak to be a fisherman.

Methods — If the school be near a stream or
pond the following observations may be made
by the pupils; otherwise let the boys who go
fishing make a study of the bird and report to
the school.

Observations — 1. Where have you seen
the kingfisher? Have you often seen it on a
certain branch which is its favorite perch? Is
this perch near the water? What is the
advantage of this position to the bird?

2. What does the kingfisher feed upon?
How does it obtain its food? Describe the
actions of one of these birds while fishing.

3 . With what weapons does the kingfisher secure the fish ? How long
is its beak compared with the rest of its body ? How does it kill the fish ?
Does it swallow the fish head or tail first? Why? Does it tear off the
scales or fins before swallowing it ? How does it get rid of these and the
bones of the fish ?

4. Which is the larger, the kingfisher or the robin? Describe the
difference in shape of the bodies of these two birds; also in the size and
shape of feet and beaks and explain why they are so different in form.
What is there peculiar about the kingfisher’s feet? Do you know which
two toes are grown together ?

5. What are the colors of the kingfisher in general? The colors of
head, sides of head, collar, back, tail, wings, throat, breast and under
parts ? Is there a white spot near the eye ? If so, where ? Do you know
the difference in colors between the parent birds ?

6. Where is the nest built ? How is it lined?

The belted kingfisher

Drawn by L. A. Fuertes.

Bird Study

103

7. What is the note of the kingfisher? Does it give it while perching
or while on the wing? Do you ever find more than one kingfisher on the
same fishing grounds ?

Supplementary reading — The Second Book of Birds, Chapter XXX;
“The Halycon Birds,” Child’s Study of the Classics; Audubon Leaflet
No. 19; “Kooskosemus,” Long; American Birds, Finley.

THE KINGFISHER (OF ENGLAND )

For the handsome Kingfisher, go not to the tree,

No bird of the field or the forest is he;

In the dry river rock he did never abide,

And not on the brown heath all barren and wide.

He lives where the fresh, sparkling waters are flowing,

Where the tall heavy Typha and Loosestrife are growing ;

By the bright little streams that all joyfully run
Awhile in the shadow, and then in the sun.

He lives in a hole that is quite to his mind,

With the green mossy Hazel roots firmly entwined;

Where the dark Alder-bough waves gracefully o'er,

And the Sword- flag and Arrow-head grow at his door.

There busily, busily, all the day long,

He seeks for small fishes the shallows among;

For he builds his nest of the pearly fish-bone,

Deep, deep, in the bank, far retired, and alone.

Then the brown Water-Rat from his burrow looks out ,

To see what his neighbor Kingfisher' s about;

And the green Dragon-fly, flitting slowly away,

Just pauses one moment to bid him good-day.

O happy Kingfisher! What care should he know.

By the clear, pleasant streams, as he skims to and fro.

Now lost in the shadow, now bright in the sheen
Of the hot summer sun, glancing scarlet and green!

— Mary Howitt.

104 Handbook of Nature-Study

THE SCREECH OWL
Teacher's Story

“ Disquiet yourselves not: lTis nothing hut a little, downy owl.” — Shelley.

Of all the fascinating
sounds to be heard at night
in the woods, the screech
owl’s song is surely the
most so ; its fascination does
not depend on music but
upon the chills which it
sends up and down the
spine of the listener, thus
attacking a quite different
set of nerves than do other
bird songs. The weird wail,
tremulous and long drawn
out, although so blood-
curdling, is from the stand-
point of the owlet the most
beautiful music in the
world; by means of it he
calls to his mate, cheering
her with the assurance
of his presence in the
world ; evidently she is not
a nervous creature. The
screech owls are likely to
sing at night during any
part of the year; nor should
Screech owls. we infer that when they are

From Country Life in America. singing they are not hunt-

ing, for perchance their music frightens their victims into fatal activ-
ity. Although the note is so unmistakable, yet there is great varia-
tion in the songs of individuals; the great variety of quavers in the
song offering ample opportunity for the expression of individuality.
Moreover, these owls often give themselves over to tremulous
whispering and they emphasize excitement by snapping their beaks in
an alarming manner.

Any bird that is flying about and singing in the night time must be able
to see where it is going, and the owls have special adaptations for this.
The eyes are very large and the yellow iris opens and closes about the pupil
quite similar to the arrangement in the cat’s eye, except that the pupil in
the owl’s eye is round when contracted instead of elongated; in the night
this pupil is expanded until it covers most of the eye. The owl does not
need to see behind and at the sides, since it does not belong to the birds
which are the victims of other birds and animals of prey. The owl is a
bird that hunts instead of being hunted, and it needs only to focus its eyes
on the creature it is chasing. Thus, its eyes are in the front of the head
like our own; but it can see behind, in case of need, for the head turns
upon the neck as if it were fitted on a ball-bearing joint. I have often

Bird Study

io5

amused myself by walking around a captive screech owl, which would
follow me with its eyes by turning the head until it almost made the
circle, then the head would twist back with such lightning rapidity that I
could hardly detect the movement; it seemed almost as if the head was
on a pivot and could be moved around and around indefinitely. Al-
though the owl, like the cat, has eyes fitted for night hunting, it can also
see fairly well during the daytime.

A beak with the upper mandible ending in a sharp hook signifies that
its owner lives upon other animals and needs to rend and tear flesh.
The owl’s beak thus formed is somewhat buried in the feathers of the face,
which gives it a striking resemblance to a Roman nose. This, with the
great, staring, round eyes, bestows upon the owl an appearance of great
wisdom. But it is not the beak which the owl uses for a weapon of
attack; its strong feet and sharp, curved claws are its weapons for striking
the enemy and also for grappling with its prey. The outer toe can be
moved back at will, so that in grasping its prey or its perch, two toes may
be directed forward and two backward, thus giving a stronger hold.

The ear is very different in form from the ear of other birds ; instead
of being a mere hole opening into the internal ear, it consists of a fold of
skin forming a channel which extends from above the eye around to the
side of the throat. (See The Bird, Beebe, p. 217). Thus equipped,
while hunting in the dark the owl is able to hear any least rustle of mouse
or bird and to know in which direction to descend upon it. There has
been no relation established between the ear tufts of the screech owl and
its ears, so far as I know, but the way the bird lifts the tufts when it is
alert, always suggests that this movement in some way opens up the ear

In color there are two types among the screech owls, one reddish
brown, the other gray. The back is streaked with black, the breast is
marked with many shaft-lines of black. The whole effect of the owl’s
plumage makes it resemble a branch of a tree or a part of the bark, and
thus it is protected from prying eyes, during the daytime when it is sleep-
ing. Its plumage is very fluffy and its wing feathers, instead of being
stiff to the very edge, have soft fringes which cushion the stroke upon the
air. The owl’s flight is, therefore, absolutely noiseless and the bird is thus
able to swoop down upon its prey without giving warning of its approach.

The screech owls are partial to old apple orchards for nesting sites.
They will often use an abandoned nest of a woodpecker; the eggs are
almost as round as. marbles and as white as chalk, showing very clearly
that they are laid within a dark hole, otherwise their color would attract
the eyes of enemies. There are usually four eggs; the fubsy little owlets
climb out of their home cave by the end of May and are the funniest little
creatures imaginable. They make interesting but decidedly snappy pets;
they can be fed on insects and raw beef. It is most interesting to see one
wake up late in the afternoon after its daytime sleep. All day it has sat
motionless upon its perch with its toes completely covered with its fluffy
feather skirt. Suddenly its eyes open, the round pupils enlarging or con-
tracting with great rapidity as if adjusting themselves to the amount of
light. When the owl winks it is like a moon in eclipse, so large are the
eyes, and so entirely are they obscured by the lids which seem like circular
curtains. When it yawns, it<? wide bill absurdly resembles a human mouth,
and the yawn is very human in its expression. It thetj stretches its wings
and it is astonishing how long this wing can be extended below the feet.

io6

Handbook of N ature-Stndy

It then begins its toilet. It dresses its feathers with its short beak,
nibbling industriously in the fluff; it scratches its under parts and breast
with its bill, then cleans the bill with its foot, meanwhile moving the head
up and down as if in an attempt to see better its surroundings.

The owls are loyal lovers and are said to remain mated through life,
the twain being very devoted to their nests and nestlings. Sometimes
the two wise-looking little parents sit together on the eggs, a most happy
way to pass the wearisome incubation period.

The screech ow'ls winter in the north and they are distinctly fore-
sighted in preparing for winter. They have often been observed catching
mice, during the late fall, and placing them in some hollow tree for cold
storage, whence they may be taken in time of need. Their food consists
to some extent of insects, especially night-flying moths and beetles, also
caterpillars and grasshoppers. However, the larger part of their food is
mice; sometimes small birds are caught and the English sparrow is a fre-
quent victim. Chickens are rarely taken, except when small, since this
owlet is not as long as a robin. It swallows its quarry as whole as possi-
ble, trusting to its inner organs to do the sifting and selecting. Later it
throws up pellets of the indigestible bones, hair, etc. By the study of
these pellets, found under owl roosts, the scientists have been able to
determine the natural food of the bird, and they all unite in assuring us
that the screech owl does the farmer much more good than harm, since it
feeds so largely upon creatures which destroy his crops.

LESSON XXV

The Screech Owl

Leading thought — This owl is especially adapted to get its prey at night.
It feeds largely on field mice, grasshoppers, caterpillars and other in-
jurious insects and is therefore the friend of the farmer.

Method — This lesson should begin when the children first hear the cry
of this owl; and an owlet in captivity is a fascinating object for the
children to observe. However, it is so important that the children learn
the habits of this owl that the teacher is advised to hinge the lesson on any
observation whatever made by the pupils, and illustrate it with pictures
and stories.

Observations — i. Have you ever heard the screech owl? At what
time of the day or night? Why was this? Why does the owl screech?
How did you feel when listening to the owl’s song?

2. Describe the owl’s eyes. Are they adapted to see by night?
What changes take place in them to enable the owl to see by daytime also?
In what way are the owl’s eyes similar to the cat’s? Why is it necessary
for an owl to see at night? Are the owl’s eyes placed so that they can
see at the sides like other birds. How does it see an object at the sides or
behind it?

3. Note the owl’s beak. For what purpose is a hooked beak? How
does the owl use its beak? Why do we think that the owl looks wise?

4. Describe the feet and claws of the screech owl. What are such
sharp hooked claws meant for? Does an owl on a perch always have three
toes directed forward and one backward ?

Bird Study

107

5. Describe the colors of the screech owl. Are all these owls of the
same color? How do these colors protect the bird from its enemies?

6. How is the owl’s plumage adapted to silent flight? Why is silent
flight advantageous to this bird?

7. How does the owl’s ear differ from the ears of other birds? Of
what special advantage is this? As the owl hunts during the night, what
does it do in the daytime? How and by what means does it hide itself?

8. Where does the screech owl make its nest? Do you know any-
thing about the devotion of the parent owls to each other and to their
young? How many eggs are laid? What is their color? At what time
of year do the little owls appear?

9 Where does the screech owl spend the winter? What do the
screech owls feed upon ? Do they chew their food ? How do they get rid
of the indigestible portion of their food? How does this habit help the
scientists to know the food of the owls?

10. How does the screech owl work injury to the farmers? How does
it benefit them? Does not the benefit outweigh the injury?

11. How many other kinds of owls do you know? What do you
know of their habits?

Supplementary reading — Audubon Educational Leaflets, Nos. 22, 12,
14; Second Book of Birds, Miller, Chap. 32-3; Familiar Wild Animals,
Lottridge; “The Boy and Hushwing,” Kindred of the Wild; “Koos, Koos,
Koos” in Wilderness Ways; Wings and Fins, chap. 19; Heart of Oak
Books, Vol. 4, p. 51; The Aziola, Shelley; American Birds, Finley.

TWO WISE OWLS

We are two dusky owls, and we live in a tree;

Look at her, — look at me!

Look at her, — she's my mate, and the mother of three
Pretty owlets, and we

Have a warm cosy nest, just as snug as can he.

We are both very wise; for our heads, as you see,

{Look at her — look at me!)

Are as large as the heads of four birds ought to be;

And our horns, you'll agree,

Make us look wiser still, sitting here on the tree.

And we care not how gloomy the night-time may be;

We can see, — we can see
Through the forest to roam, it suits her, it suits me;

And we're free, — we are free
T o bring back what we find, to our nest in the tree.

— Anonymous.

io8

Handbook of Nature-Study

Red-tailed hawk on nest.

Photo by R. W. Hegner.

THE HEN HAWKS
Teacher's Story

11 Above the tumult of the canon lifted, the gray hawk breathless hung,

Or on the hill a winged shadow drifted where furze and ihornbush clung.”

— Bret Harte.

It is the teacher’s duty and privilege to try to revolutionize some
popular misconceptions about birds, .and two birds, in great need in this
respect, are the so-called hen hawks. They are most unjustly treated,
largely because most farmers consider that a “hawk is a hawk,” and should
always be shot to save the poultry, although there is as much difference
in the habits of hawks as there is in those of men. The so-called hen
hawks are the red-shouldered and the red-tailed species, the latter being
somewhat the larger and rarer of the two ; both are very large birds ; the
red-shouldered has cinnamon brown epaulets, the tail blackish, crossed
by five or six narrow white bars, and the wing feathers are also barred.
The red-tailed species has dark brown wings, the feathers not barred, and
is distinguished by its tail which is brilliant cinnamon color with a black
bar across it near the end; it is silvery white beneath. When the hawk
is soaring, its tail shows reddish as it wheels in the air. Both birds are
brown above and whitish below, streaked with brown.

The flight of these hawks is alike and is very beautiful; it consists of
soaring on outstretched wings in wide circles high in the air, and is the
ideal of graceful aerial motion. In rising, the bird faces the wind and
drops a little in the circle as its back turns to the leeward, and thus it
climbs an invisible winding stair until it is a mere speck in the sky. This
wonderful flight, on motionless wings, is what has driven to despair our
inventors of airships who have not been able to fathom the mystery of it
from a practical standpoint. When the bird wishes to drop, it lifts and

Bird Study

109

holds its wings above its back, and comes down like a lump of lead, only
to catch itself whenever it chooses to begin again to climb the invisible
spiral. And all this is done without fatigue, for these birds have been
observed to soar thus for hours together without coming to earth. When
thus soaring the two species may be distinguished from each other by
their cries; the red-tailed gives a high sputtering scream, which Chapman
likens to the sound of escaping steam; while the red-shouldered calls in a
high not unmusical note “kee-you, kee-you” or “tee-ur, tee-ur.”

The popular fallacy for the teacher to correct about these birds, is that
they are enemies of the farmers. Not until one has actually been seen to
catch the chickens should it be shot, for very few of them are guilty of this
sin. Sixty-six per cent, of the food of the red-tailed species consists of
injurious animals, i. e., mice and gophers, etc., and only 7 per cent, con-
sists of poultry; the victims are probably old or disabled fowls, and fall
an easy prey; this bird much prefers mice and reptiles to poultry. The
more common red-shouldered hawk feeds generally on mice, snakes,
frogs, fish and is very fond of grasshoppers. Ninety per cent, of its food
consists of creatures which injure our crops or pastures and scarcely 1%
per cent, is made up of poultry and game. These facts have been ascer-
tained by the experts in the department of Agriculture at Washington
who have examined the stomachs of hundreds of these hawks taken from
different localities. Furthermore, Dr. Fisher states that a pair of the red-
shouldered hawks bred for successive years within a few hundred yards of
a poultry farm, containing 800 young chickens and 400 ducks, and the
owner never saw them attempt to
catch a fowl.

However, there are certain
species of hawks which are to be
feared; these are the Cooper’s
hawk and the sharp-shinned
hawk, the first being very destruc-
tive to poultry and the latter kill-
ing many wild birds. These are
both somewhat smaller than the
species we are studying. They
are dark gray above and have very
long tails, and when flying, they
flap their wings for a time and
then glide a distance. They do
not soar on motionless outspread
pinions by the hour.

When hawks are seen soaring,
they are likely to be hunting for
mice in the meadows below them ;
their eyes are remarkably keen;
they can see a moving creature
from a great height, and can
suddenly drop upon it like a
thunder bolt out of a clear sky.

Their wonderful eyes are far-
sighted when they are circling in

the sky. but as they drop, the The red-tailed hawk.

Handbook of Nature-Study

focus of the eyes changes automatically with great rapidity, so that
by the time they reach the earth they are near-sighted, a feat quite im-
possible for our eyes unless aided by glasses or telescope.

These so-called hen hawks will often sit motionless, for hours at a
time, on some dead branch or dead tree; they are probably watching for
something eatable to stir within the range of their keen vision. When
seizing its prey, a hawk uses its strong feet and sharp, curved
talons. All hawks keep their claws sharp and polished, even as
the warrior keeps his sword bright, so as to be ready for use;
the legs are covered by a growth of feathers extending down from above,
looking like feather trousers. The beak is hooked and very sharp and is
used for tearing apart the flesh of the quarry. When a hawk fights some
larger animal or man, it throws itself over upon its back and strikes its
assailant with its strong claws as well as with its beak; but the talons are
its chief weapons.

Both species build a large, shallow nest of coarse sticks and grass,
lined with moss, feathers, etc.; it is a rude, rough structure, and is placed
in tall trees from fifty to seventy-five feet from the ground. Only two to
four eggs are laid; these are whitish spotted with brown. These hawks
are said to remain mated for life and are devoted to each other and their
young. Hawks and eagles are very similar in form and habits, and if the
eagle is a noble bird so is the hawk.

LESSON XXVI

The Red-shouldered and Red-tailed Hawks

Leading thought — Ignorant people consider all hawks dangerous
neighbors because they are supposed to feed exclusively on poultry.
This idea is false and we should study carefully the habits of hawks before
we shoot them. The ordinary large reddish “hen-hawks,” which circle
high above meadows, are doing great good to the farmer by feeding upon
the mice and other creatures which steal his grain and girdle his trees.

Methods — Begin by observations on the flight of one of these hawks
and supplement this with such observations as the pupils are able to
make, or facts which they can discover by talking with hunters or others
and b}' reading.

Observations — i . How can you tell a hawk, when flying, from a crow
or other large bird? Describe how it soars? Does it move off in any
direction; if so, does it move off in circles? How often does it make
strokes with its wings? Does it rise when it is facing the wind and fall as
it turns its back to the wind?

2. Have you seen a hawk flap its wings many times and then soar
for a time? If so, what hawk do you think it was? How does it differ
in habits from the “hen-hawks?”

3. Have you noticed a hawk when soaring drop suddenly to earth?
If so, why did it do this ?

4. How does a hawk hunt? How can it see a mouse in a meadow
when it is so high in the air that it looks like a circling speck in the sky?
If it is so far-sighted as this, how can it be near-sighted enough to catch
the mouse when it is close to it? Would you not have to use field glasses
or telescope to do this ?

Ill

Bird Study

5. When a hawk alights what sort of a place does it choose? How
does it act ?

6. Do hawks seize their prey with their claws or their beaks? What
sort of feet and claws has the hawk ? Describe the beak? What do you
think this shaped beak is meant for?

7. Why do people shoot hawks? Why is it a sign of ignorance in
people to wish to shoot all hawks?

8. What is the food of the red-shouldered hawk as shown by the
bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture or by the Audubon
leaflets?

9. Where does the hawk place its nest? Of what does it build its
nest?

10. Compare the food and the nesting habits of the red-shouldered
and red-tailed hawks ?

11. How devoted are the hawks to their mates and their young?
Does a hawk, losing its mate, live alone ever after?

12. Describe the colors of the hen hawks and describe how you can
tell the two species apart by the colors and markings of the tail.

13. What is the cry of the hawk ? How can you tell the two species
apart by this cry? Does the hawk give its cry only when on the wing?

14. Why should an eagle be considered so noble a bird and the hawk
be so scorned? What difference is there between them in habits?

Supplementary reading — Audubon Educational Leaflets Nos. 8, 9 and
10; “The Sparrow Hawk,” Familiar Wild Animals, Lottridge; “Eyes as
Cameras,” also pp. ioi-io2The Bird Book, Eckstorm; pp. 3 17-3 19, 326,
Birds that Hunt and are Hunted; “Cloud Wings, The Eagle,” in Wilder-
ness Ways; “The Sky King and His Family,” “Hannah Lomond’s
Bairn,” in Neighbors with Wings and Fins, American Birds, Finley.

Reference books — The Bird, Beebe, pp. 389, 376, 208-211; Hawks and
Owls from the Standpoint of the Farmer, Fisher, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

Yet, ere the noon, as brass the heaven turns,

The cruel sun smites with unerring aim,

The sight and touch of all things blinds and burns.

And bare, hot hills Seem shimmering into flame!

On outspread wings a hawk, far poised on high,

Quick swooping screams, and then is heard no more:

The strident shrilling of a locust nigh

Breaks forth, and dies in silence as before.

-—“Summer Drought,” by J. P. Irvine0

112

Handbook of Nature-Study

Swallows and swifts.

Drawn by L. A. Fuertes for General Biology by J. G. Needham.

THE SWALLOWS AND THE CHIMNEY SWIFT

Teacher's Story

JHESE friendly little birds spend their time darting through
the air on swift wings, seeking and destroying insects
which are foes to us and our various crops. However, it
is safe to assume that they are not thinking of us as they
skim above our meadows and ponds, hawking our tiny
foes; for like most of us, they are simply intent upon
getting a living. Would that we might perform this
necessary duty as gracefully as they.

In general, the swallows have a long, slender, graceful
body, with a long tail which is forked or notched, except
in the case of the eave swallow. The beak is short but
wide where it joins the head; this enables the bird to open its mouth wide
and gives it more scope in the matter of catching insects ; the swift flight,
of the swallows enables them to catch insects on the wing; their legs are
short, the feet are weak and fitted for perching; it would be quite impos-
sible for a swallow to walk or hop like a robin or blackbird.

The eave , or cliff ’, swallows — These swallows build under the eaves of
bams or in similar locations. In early times they built against the sides
of cliffs; but when man came and built barns, they chose them for their
dwelling sites. The nest is made of mud pellets and is somewhat globular

Bird Study

113

in shape, with an entrance at one side. When building on the sides of
cliffs or in unprotected portions of a bam, a covered passage is built
around the door, which gives the nest the shape of a gourd or retort ; but
when protected beneath the eaves the birds seem to think this vestibule is
unnecessary. The mud nest is warmly lined with feathers and soft
materials, and there are often many nests built so closely together that
they touch. The eave swallow comes north about May 1st, and soon
after that, may be seen along streams or other damp places gathering
mud for the nests. It seems necessary for the bird to find clay mud in
order to render the nest strong enough to support the eggs and nestlings.
The eggs are white, blotched with reddish brown. The parents cling to

The barn swallow’s feather bed.

the edge of the nest when feeding the young. Both the bam and eave
swallows are blue above but the eave swallow has the forehead cream
white and the rump of pale brick-red, and its tail is square across the end
as seen in flight. The bam swallow has a chestnut forehead and its outer
tail feathers are long, making a distinct fork during flight, and it is not
red upon the rump.

The barn swallows— These birds choose a bam where there is a hole in
the gable or where the doors are kept open all the time. They build upon
beams or rafters, making a cup-shaped nest of layers of pellets of mud,
with grass between ; it is well lined with feathers. The nest is usually the
shape of half of a shallow cup which has been cut in two lengthwise, the
cut side being plastered against the side of the rafter. Sometimes the

Handbook of N ature-Study

114

A bank swallow tenement.
Photo by J. T. Lloyd.

nests are more or less supported upon a beam or rafter; the eggs are
white and dotted with reddish brown. The barn swallows, aside from

their constant twittering, have also a
pretty song. Both parents work at
building the nest and feeding the
young; there are likely to be several
pairs nesting in the same building.
The parents continue to feed the
young long after they have left the
nest; often a whole family may be
seen sitting on a telegraph wire or wire
fence, the parents still feeding the well-
grown youngsters. This species comes
north in the latter part of April and
leaves early in September. It winters
as far south as Brazil.

The barn swallow has a distinctly
tailor-made appearance ; its red-brown
vest and iridescent blue coat, with
deeply forked “coat tails” give it an
elegance of style which no other bird, '
not even the chic cedar waxwing can
emulate.

The Bank Swallow — When we see a
sandy bank apparently shot full of
holes as by small cannon balls, we
may know that we have found a tenement of bank swallows. These
birds always choose the perpendicular banks of creeks or of railroad cuts
or of sand pits for their nesting sites ; they require a soil sufficiently soft
to be tunneled by their weak feet, and yet not so loose as to cave in upon
the nest. The tunnel may extend from one to four feet horizontally in
the bank with just enough diameter to admit the body of the rather
small bird. The nest is situated at the extreme end of the tunnel and
is lined with soft feath-
ers and grasses.

The bank swallows
arrive late in April and
leave early in Septem-
ber. They may be dis-
tinguished from the
other species by their
grayish color above ; the
throat and breast are
white with a broad,
brownish band across
the breast; the tail is
slightly forked. The
rough-winged swallow,
which is similar in habits
to the bank swallow,
may be distinguished
from it by its gray breast
which has no dark band.

Bank swallow's nest with earth removed showing
the upward direction of the tunnel.

Photo by J T. Lloyd.

Tree swallows.

Photo by A. A. Allen.

The Tree Swallow — This graceful little bird builds naturally in holes in
trees, but readily accepts a box if it is provided. It begins to build soon
after it comes north in late April and it is well for us to encourage the tree
swallows to live near our houses by building houses for them and driving
away the English sparrows. The tree swallows live upon many insects
which annoy us and injure our gardens and damage our orchards; they
are, therefore, much more desirable neighbors than the English sparrows*
The tree swallows congregate in great numbers for the southern migration
very early in the season, often in early August. They are likely to con-
gregate in marshes, as are also the other swallows. In color the tree
swallow has a green metallic back and head, a pure white breast with no
band across it, and these peculiarities
distinguish it from all other species.

The Purple Martin — The martin is
a larger bird than the largest swallow,
being eight inches in length, while the
bam swallow does not measure quite
seven. The male is shining, steel-
blue above and below; the female is
brownish above, has a gray throat,
brownish breast and is white beneath.

The martins originally nested in hol-
low trees but for centuries have been
cared for by man. The Indians were
wont to put out empty gourds for
them to nest in; and as soon as
America was settled by Europeans,
martin boxes were built extensively.

But when the English sparrows came,
they took possession of the boxes, and
the martins have to a large extent

A martin house.

Handbook of Nature-Study

disappeared, this is a pity since they are beneficial birds, feeding upon
insects which are injurious to our farms and gardens. They are
also delightful birds to have around, and we may possibly induce them to
come back to us by building houses for them and driving away the
sparrows.

The Chimney Swift

HEN the old-fashioned fire-places went out of use
and were walled up, leaving the great old chimneys
useless, these sociable birds took possession of
them. Here they built their nests and reared their
young, and twittered and scrambled about,
awakening all sleepers in the neighborhood at
earliest dawn, and in many ways made themselves
a distinct part of family life. With the disap-
pearance of these old chimneys and the growing use of the smaller
chimney, the swifts have been more or less driven from their close
association with people; and now their nests are often found in hay
barns or other secluded buildings, although they still gather in chim-
neys when opportunity offers.

The chimney swifts originally built nests in hollow trees and caves;
but with the coming of civilization they took possession of the chimneys
disused during the summer, and here is where we know them best. The
nests are shaped like little wall pockets; they are made of small sticks of
nearly uniform size which are glued together and glued fast to the chim-
ney wall by means of the saliva secreted in the mouth of the bird. After
the nesting season, the swifts often gather in great flocks and live together
in some large chimney; toward night-fall they may be seen circling about
in great numbers and dropping into the mouth of the chimney, one by
one, as if they were being poured into a funnel. In the morning they
leave in reverse manner, each swift flying about in widening circles as it
leaves the chimney. The swifts are never seen to alight anywhere except
in hollow trees or chimneys or similar places; their tiny feet have sharp
claws for clinging to the slightest roughness of the upright wall ; the tail
acts as a prop, each tail feather ending in a spine which is pressed against
the chimney side when the bird alights and thus enables it to cling more
firmly. In this fashion the swifts roost, practically hung up against a
wall.

The swift has a short beak and wide mouth which it opens broadly to
engulf insects as it darts through the air. Chimney swifts have been
known to travel at the rate of no miles an hour.

This bird should never be confused with the swallows, for when flying,
its tail seems simply a sharp point, making the whole body cigar-shaped.
This character alone distinguishes it from the long tailed swallows. In
color it is sooty brown, with a gray throat and breast; the wings are long
and narrow and apparently curved. The manner of flight and appear-
ance in the air make it resemble the bat more than it does the swallow.

Bird Study

117

LESSON XXVII
The Swallows and Swifts

Leading thought — The swallows are very graceful birds and are exceed-
ingly swift fliers. They feed upon insects which they catch upon the
wing. There are five native swallows which are common — the eave, or
cliff, the barn, the bank, the tree swallow and the purple martin. The
chimney swift, although often called so, is not a swallow; it is more
nearly related to the hummingbird than to the swallows.

Method — The questions should be given as an outline for observation,
and may be written on the blackboard or placed in the field notebook.
The pupils should answer them individually and from field observation.
We study the swifts and swallows together to teach the pupils to distin-
guish them apqrt.

Observations — 1. What is the general shape of the swallow? What
is the color of the forehead, throat, upper breast, neck, rump and tail?

2. Is the tail noticeably forked especially during flight?

3. Describe the flight of the swallow. What is the purpose of its
long, swift flight? How are the swallow’s wings fitted for carrying the
bird swiftly?

4. Describe the form of the beak of the swallow. How does it get its
food ? What is its food ?

5. In what particular locations do you see the swallows darting
about ? At what time of day do they seem most active ?

6. Describe the swallow’s legs and feet and explain why they look
so different from those of the robin and blackbird.

The Eave, or Cliff Swallow

7 . Where do the eave swallows build their nests ? Of what material
is the outside? The lining? Describe the shape of the nest and how it is
supported.

8. How early in the spring do the eave swallows begin to make their
nests? Where and by what means do they get the material for nest
building? Are there a number of nests usually grouped together?

9. Describe the eave swallow’s egg. Where do the parents sit when
feeding the young? What is the note of the eave swallow?

10. What are the differences between the barn and the eave swallow
in color and shape of tail ?

The Barn Swallow

11. Where does the bam swallow place its nest? What is the shape
of the nest ? Of what material is it made ?

1 1 8

Handbook of Nature-Study

1 2 . What is the color of the eggs ? Describe the feeding of the young
and the sounds made by them and their parents. Do both parents work
together to build the nest and feed the young?

13. Is there usually more than one nest in the same locality? When
the young swallows are large enough to leave the nest, describe how the
parents continue to care for them.

14. Have you ever heard the bam swallows sing? Describe their
conversational notes.

15. When do the bam swallows migrate and where do they go during
the winter? How can you distinguish the bam swallow from the eave
swallow?

The Bank Swallow

16. Where do the bank swallows build? What sort of soil do they
choose?

17. How does a bank look which is tenanted by these birds?

18. How far do the bank swallows tunnel into the earth? What is
the diameter of one of these tunnels ? Do they extend straight or do they
rise or deflect ?

19. With what tools is the tunnel excavated? Where is the nest
situated in the tunnel and how is it lined ?

20. How can you distinguish this species from the barn and eave and
tree swallows ? At what time do the bank swallows leave us for migration
south ?

The Ti-ee Swallow

2 1 . Where does the tree swallow
make its nest? How does its nest
differ from that of the bam, eave, or
bank swallow ? When does it begin
to build ?

22. How can we encourage the
tree swallow to build near our
houses ? Why is the tree swallow a
much more desirable bird to have in
bird houses than the English spar-
row?

23. Describe the peculiar mi-
grating habits of the tree swallow.
How can you tell this species from
the barn, the eave and the bank
swallows ?

The Purple Martin

24. Compare the purple martin
with the swallows and describe how
it differs in size and color.

25. Where did the martins build
their nests before America was

Where do they like to nest now? How do the purple martins

A tree swallow.
Photo by Geo. Fiske, Jr.

civilized ?

benefit us and how can we induce them to come to us ?

Bird Study 119

The Chimney Swift

26. Where do the chimney swifts build their nests? Of what
materials is the nest made? What is its shape and how is it supported?
Where does the chimney swift get its glue for nest building?

27. Describe how the chimney swifts enter their nesting place at
night. WThere and how do they perch? Describe the shape of the swift’s
tail and its use to the bird when roosting.

28. On what does the chimney swift feed and how does it procure this
food? Describe how its beak is especially fitted for this?

29. How can you distinguish the chimney swift from the swallows?
In what respect does the chimney swift resemble the swallows? In what
respects does it differ from them?

Supplementary reading — “Chimney Swifts,” Familiar Wild Animals,
Lottridge; The Chimney Swifts, Washington Irving; Nestlings of Forest
and Marsh, Wheelock, p. 191; “The Eave Swallow” and “The Purple
Martin” in The Bird Book, Eckstorm; The Second Bird Book, Miller;
True Bird Stories, Miller, p. 118; Our Birds and Their Nestlings, p. 155;
A Watcher in the Woods, Sharp, p. 163.

Formerly it was
believed that this
daintiest of birds
found the nectar
of flowers ample
support for its
active life ; but
the later methods
of discovering
what birds eat by
examining the
contents of their
stomachs, show
that the hum-
mingbird is an
insect eater of
most ravenous
appetite. Not

only does it catch insects in mid air, but undoubtedly takes them while
they are feasting on the nectar of the
tubular flowers which the humming-
bird loves to visit. Incidentally, the
hummingbird carries the pollen for
these flowers and may be counted
as a friend in every respect, since
usually the insects in the nectaries
of the fl o w e r s with long tubu-
lar corollas, are stealing nectar without
giving in return compensation to the
flower by carrying its pollen. Such in-
sects may be the smaller beetles, ants
and flies. The adaptations of the hum-
mingbird’s beak and long, double-
tubed tongue, are especially for secur-
ing this mingled diet of insects and
nectar. It is interesting to note that
the young hummingbirds have the
beak much shorter than when mature.

Its beak is exactly fitted to probe
those flowers where the humming-
bird finds its food. The tongue has the,
outer edges curved over making a tube
on each side. These tubes are pro-
vided with minute brushes at the tips
and thus are fitted both for sucking
nectar and for sweeping up the insects.

The natural home of the humming- Two young hummingbirds in nest.
bird seems to have been in the Ameri Half natural size.

$36 Handbook of Nature-Study

THE HUMMINGBIRD

Teacher's Story

A hummingbird taking sweetened water from a flower.
Photo by Mary Pierson Allen. Courtesy of Bird Lore.

Bird Study

121

can tropics. Our one species east of the Rocky Mountains with which we
are all familiar has a ruby throat. This comes to us after a very long
journey each year. One species on the Pacific Coast is known to travel
three thousand miles to the north for the summer and back again in
winter.

Hummingbirds are not supposed to sing, but to use their voices for
squeaking when angry or frightened. However, I once had the privilege
of listening to a true song by a hummingbird on the Pacific Coast. The
midget was perched upon a twig and lifted up his voice with every
appearance of ecstasy in pouring forth his lay. To my uncultured ear
this song was a fine, shrill, erratic succession of squeaks, “as fine as a
cambric needle,” said my companion.

The nest of the hummingbird is a most exquisite structure ; it is about
three-fourths of an inch in diameter on the inside and about half an inch
deep. It is, in shape, a symmetrical cup; the outside is covered with
lichens to make it exactly resemble the branch on which it rests; the
inside is lined with the down of plant seeds and plant fibres. The lichens
are often fastened to the outside with the silk web of spiders or cater-
pillars. The nest is usually saddled on a branch of a tree from io to 50
feet above the ground. The eggs are two in number and white; they
look like tiny beans. The young are black and look, at first glance, more
like insects than like birds.

LESSON XXVIII

The Hummingbird

Leading thought — The hummingbird in
flight moves its wings so rapidly that we
cannot see them. It can hold itself poised
above flowers while it thrusts its long beak
into them for nectar and insects.

Method — Give the questions to the pupils
and let them make the observations when
they have the opportunity.

Observations — 1. Where do you find
the hummingbird? What flowers was it
visiting? At what time of day? Can you
tell whether it is a hummingbird or a hawk-
moth which is visiting the flowers? At
what time of day do the hawk-moths
appear?

2. Does the hummingbird ever come
to rest? Describe its actions while resting.

3. What are the colors of the back, throat, breast and under parts?
How do you distinguish the mother hummingbird from her mate ?

4. How does the hummingbird act when extracting the nectar?
How does it balance itself in front of a flower? Have you ever seen
hummingbirds catch insects in the air? If so, describe how they did it.

5. Describe the hummingbird’s nest. How large is it in diameter?
Whac is the covering outside? With what is it lined?

122

Handbook of Nature-Study

Photo by A. A. Allen.

THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD

Teacher's Story

The blackbirds are among our earliest visitors in the spring ; they come
in docks and beset our leafless trees like punctuation marks, meanwhile
squeaking like musical wheelbarrows. What they are, where they come
from, where they are going and what they are going to do, are the ques-
tions that naturally arise at the sight of these sable flocks. It is not
easy to distinguish grackles, cowbirds and rusty blackbirds at a glance,
but the red-wing proclaims his identity from afar. The bright red
epaulets, margined behind with pale yellow, is a uniform to catch the
admiring eye. The bird’s glossy black plumage brings into greater con-
trast his bright decorations. That he is fully aware of his beauty, who
can doubt who has seen him come sailing down at the end of his strong,
swift flight, and balancing himself on some bending reed, drop his long
tail as if it were the crank of his music box, and holding both wings
lifted to show his scarlet decorations, sing his .“quong quer ee-ee.” Little
wonder that such a handsome, military looking fellow should be able now
and then to win more than his share of feminine admiration. But what
though he become an entirely successful bigamist or even trigamist, he has
proven himself to be a good protector of each and all of his wives and
nestlings; however, he often has but one mate.

“The red-wing flutes his O-ka-lee” is Emerson’s graphic description of
the sweet song of the red-wing; he also has many other notes. He clucks
to his mates and clucks more sharply when suspicious, and has one alarm
note that is truly alarming. The male red-wings come from the South in
March ; they appear in flocks, often three weeks before their mates arrive.
The female looks as though she belonged to quite a different species.
Although her head and back are black, the black is decidedly rusty; it is
quite impossible to describe her, she is so inconspicuously speckled with
brown, black, whitish buff and orange. Most of us never recognize her
unless we see her with her spouse. As she probably does most of the nest

Bird Study

123

building, her suit of salt, pepper and mustard renders her invisible to the
keen eyes of birds of prey. Only when she is flying, does she show her
blackbird characteristics, — her tail
being long and of obvious use as a
steering organ ; and she walks with
long, stiff strides. The red-wings
are ever to be found in and about
swamps and marshes. The nest is
built usually in May ; it is made of
grasses, stalks of weeds and is lined
with finer grass or reeds. It is
bulky and is placed in low bushes
or among the reeds. The eggs are
pale blue, streaked and spotted with
purple or black. The young resem-
ble the mother in color, the males
being obliged to wait a year for
their epaulets. As to the food of
the red-wings here in the North,

Mr. Forbush says:

“Although the red-wings almost
invariably breed in the swamp or
marsh, they have a partiality for
open fields and plowed lands ; how-
ever, most of the blackbirds that
nest in the smaller swamps adjacent
to farm lands get a large share of
their food from the farmer’s fields.

They forage about the fields and
meadows when they first come
north in the spring. Later, they
follow the plow, picking up grubs,
worms and caterpillars; and should
there be an outbreak of canker-
worms in the orchard, the black-
birds will fly at least half a mile to
get canker-worms for their young.

Wilson estimated that the red-
wings of the United States would
in four months destroy sixteen
thousand two hundred million T he mother red-wing, her nest and nestlings .
larvae. They eat the caterpillars Photo by a. a. Alien,

of the gypsy moth, the forest tent-caterpillar, and other hairy larvae. They
are among the most destructive birds to weevils, click beetles, and wire-
worms. Grasshoppers, ants, bugs, and flies form a portion of the red-
wing’s food. They eat comparatively little , grain in Massachusetts
although they get some from newly sown fields in spring, as well as
from the autumn harvest; but they feed very largely on the seeds of
weeds and wild rice in the fall. In the South they join with the bobolink
in devastating the rice fields, and in the West they are often so numerous
as to destroy the grain in the fields ; but here the good they do . far out-
weighs the injury, and for this reason they are protected by law.”

124

Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON XXIX

The Red-winged Blackbird

Leading thought — The
red-winged blackbird
lives in the marshes
where it builds its nest
However, it comes over
to our plowed lands and
pastures and hdps the
farmer by destroying
many insects which in-
jure the meadows, crops
and trees.

Method — The obser-
vations should be made
by the pupils individually in the field. These birds may be looked for in
flocks early in the spring, but the study should be made in May or June
when they will be found in numbers in almost any swamp. The questions
may be given to the pupils a few at a time or written in their field note-
books and the answers discussed when discovered.

Observations — i . How can you distinguish the red-winged blackbird
from all other blackbirds? Where is the red on his wings? Is there any
other color besides black on the wings? Where? What is the color of
the rest of the plumage?

2. What is there peculiar in the flight of the red-wing? Is its tail
long or short ? How does it use its tail in flight ? What is its position
when the bird alights on a reed?

3. What is the song of the red-wing? Describe the way he holds his
wings and tail when singing, balanced on a reed or some other swamp
grass. Does he show off his epaulets when singing? Why? What note
does he give when he is surprised or suspicious ? When frightened ?

4. When does the red-wing first appear in the spring ? Does he come
alone or in flocks? Does his mate come with him? Where do the red-
wings winter? In what localities do the red-wing blackbirds live? Why
do they live there? What is the color of the mother red-wing? Would
you know by her looks that she was a blackbird? What advantage is it
to the pair that the female is so dull in color ?

5. At what time do these birds nest ? Where is the nest built? Of
what material? How is it concealed? What is the color of the eggs?

6. Do the young birds resemble in color their father or their mother?
Why is this an advantage?

7. Is the red-wing ever seen in fields adjoining the marshes? What
is he doing there? Does he walk or hop when looking for food? What
is the food of the red-wings ? Do they ever damage grain ? Do they not
protect grain more than they damage it?

8. What great good do the red-wings do for forest trees? For
orchards ?

9. At what time in the summer do the red-wings disappear from the
swamps? Where do they gather in flocks? Where is their special feed-
ing ground on the way south for the winter?

Bird Study 12s

THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE

Teacher's Story

<lI know his name , I know his note ,

That so with rapture takes my soul;

Like flame the gold beneath his throat.

His glossy cope is black as coal.

O Oriole, it is the song

You sang me from the cottonwood,

Too young to feel that I was young,

Too glad to guess if life were good."

—William Dean Howells.

.NGLING from the slender, drooping branches of
the elm in winter, these pocket nests look like some
strange persistent fruit; and, indeed, they are
the fruit of much labor on the part of the
oriole weavers, those skilled artisans of the bird
world. Sometimes the oriole “For the summer
voyage his hammock swings” in a sapling, placing
it near the main stem and near the top, otherwise
it is almost invariably hung at the end of branches
and is rarely less than twenty feet from the
ground. The nest is pocket-shaped, and usually
long, and four and a half inches wide at the
is the bottom. The top is attached to forked
that the mouth or door will be kept open to
allow the bird to pass in and out; when within, the weight of the
bird causes the opening to contract somewhat and protects the inmate
from prying eyes. Often the pocket hangs free so that the breezes may
rock it, but in one case we found a nest with the bottom stayed to a twig
by guy lines. The bottom is much more closely woven than the upper
part for a very good reason, since the open meshes admit air to the sitting
bird. The nest is lined with hair ^r other soft material, and although this
is added last, the inside of the nest is woven first. The orioles like to
build the framework of twine, and it is marvellous how they will loop this
around a twig almost as evenly knotted as if crocheted ; in and out of this
net the mother bird with her long, sharp beak weaves bits of wood fibre,
strong, fine grass and scraps of weeds. The favorite lining is horse hair,
which simply cushions the bottom of the pocket. Dr. Detwiler had a pet
oriole which built her nest of his hair which she pulled from his head ; is
it possible that orioles get their supply of horse hair in a similar way? If
we put in convenient places, bright colored twine or narrow ribbons the
orioles will weave them into the nest, but the strings should not be long,
lest the birds become entangled. If the nest is strong the birds will use
it a second year.

That Lord Baltimore found in new America a bird wearing his
colors, must have cheered him greatly; and it is well for us that this
brilliant bird brings to our minds kindly thoughts of that tolerant, high-
minded English nobleman. The oriole’s head, neck, throat and
part of the back are black; the wings are black but the feathers are
margined with white; the tail is black except that the ends of the outer
feathers are yellow; all the rest of the bird is golden orange, a luminous

about seven inches
largest part, which
twigs at the Y so

126

Handbook of Nature-Study

color which makes him seem a splash of brilliant sunshine. The female,
although marked much the same, has the back so dull and mottled that

it looks olive-brown;
the rump, breast, and
under parts are yel-
low but by no means
showy. The advan-
tage of these quiet
colors to the mother
bird is obvious since it
is she that makes the
nest and sits in it
without attracting at-
tention to its location.
In fact, when she is
sitting , her brilliant
mate places himself
far enough away to
distract the atten-
tion of meddlers, yet
near enough for her
to see the flash of his
breast in the sunshine
and to hear his rich and cheering song. He is a good spouse and
brings her the materials for the nest which she weaves in, hanging
head downward from a twig and using her long sharp beak for a
shuttle. And his glorious song is for her alone; some hold that no two
orioles have the same song ; I know of two individuals at least whose
songs were sung by no other birds; one gave a phrase from the Wald-
vogel’s song in Sigfried; the other whistled over and over, “Sweet
birdie, hello, hello.” The orioles can chatter and scold as well as sing.

The oriole is a brave defender of his nest and a most devoted father,
working hard to feed his ever hungry nestlings ; we can hear these hollow
mites peeping for more food, “Tee dee dee, Tee dee dee”, shrill and con-
stant, if we stop for a moment under the nest in June. The young birds
dress in the safe colors of the mother, the males not donning their bright
plumage until the second year. A brilliant colored fledgling would not
live long in a world Tyhere sharp eyes are in constant quest for little birds
to fill empty stomachs.

The food of the oriole places it among our most beneficial birds, since
it is always ready to cope with the hairy caterpillars avoided by most
birds; it has learned to abstract the caterpillar from his spines and is thus
able to swallow him minus his “whiskers.” The orioles are waging a
great war against the terrible brown-tail and gipsy moths in New England ;
they also eat click beetles and many other noxious insects. Once when
we were breeding big caterpillars in the Cornell insectary, an oriole came
in through the open windows of the greenhouse, and thinking he had
found a bonanza proceeded to work it, carrying off our precious crawlers
before we discovered what he was at.

The orioles winter in Central America and give us scarcely four months
of their company. They do not usually appear before May and leave in
early September.

Bird Study

127

An oriole nest. An anchor to the windward.

Photo by C. R. Crosby.

LESSON XXX
The Oriole

Leading thought — The oriole is the most skillful of all our bird archi-
tects. It is also one of our prized song birds and is very beneficial to the
farmer and fruit grower because of the insect pests which it destroys.

Method — Begin during winter or early spring with a study of the nest,
which may be obtained from the elms of the roadsides. During the first
week in May, give the questions concerning the birds and their habits.
Let the pupils keep the questions in their note-books and answer them
when they have opportunity. The observations should be summed up
once a week.

Observations by pupils — 1. Where did you find the nest? On what
species of tree? Was it near the trunk of the tree or the tip of the
branch ?

2. What is the shape of fhe nest? How long is it? How wide? Is
the opening as large as the bottom of the nest? How is it hung to the
twigs so that the opening remains open and does not pull together with
the weight of the bird at the bottom ? Is the bottom of the nest stayed
to a twig or does it hang loose ?

128

Handbook of Nature-Study

3. With what material and how is the nest fastened to the branches?
Of what material is the outside made ? How is it woven together? Is it
more loosely woven at the top than at the bottom ? How many kinds of
material can you find in the outside of the nest ?

4. With what is the nest lined? How far up is it lined? With what
tool was the nest woven ? If you put out bright colored bits of ribbon and
string do you think the orioles will use them? Why should you not put
out long strings?

5. At what date did you first see the Baltimore oriole? Why is it

called the Baltimore oriole? How many other names has it? Describe
in the following way the colors of the male oriole: top of head, back,

wings, tail, throat, breast, under parts. What are the colors of his mate?
How would it endanger the nest and nestlings if the mother bird were as
bright colored as the father bird?

6. Which weaves the nest, the father or the mother bird? Does
the former assist in any way in nest building?

7. Where does the father bird stay and what does he do while the
mother bird is sitting on the eggs?

8. What is the oriole’s song? Has he more than one song? What
other notes has he? After the young birds hatch does the father bird
help take care of them?

9. By the middle of June the young birds are usually hatched and if
you know where an oriole nest is hung, listen and describe the call of the
nestlings for food.

10. Which parent do the young birds resemble in their colors? Why
is this a benefit?

11. What is the oriole’s food? How is the oriole of benefit to us in
ways which other birds are not ?

12. Do the orioles use the same nest two years in succession? How
long does the oriole stay in the North? Where does it spend its winters?

“Hush! 'tis he!

My oriole, my glance of summer fire.

Is come at last, and, ever on the watch,

Twitches the packthread I had lightly wound
About the bough to help his housekeeping, — -
Twitches and scouts by turns, blessing his luck.

Yet fearing me who laid it in his way,

Nor, more than wiser we in our affairs.

Divines the Providence that hides and helps.

Heave, ho! Heave, ho! he whistles as the twine
Slackens its hold; once more, now! and a flash
Lightens across the sunlight to the elm
Where his mate dangles at her cup of felt."

■ — “Under the Willows”, Lowell.

129

Bird Study

THE CROW

Teacher’s Story

HOREAU says: “What a perfectly New England
sound is this voice of the crow! If you stand still
anywhere in the outskirts of the town and listen, this
is perhaps the sound which you will be most sure to
hear, rising above all sounds of human industry and
leading your thoughts to some far-away bay in the
woods. The bird sees the white man come and the
Indian withdraw, but it withdraws not. Its untamed
voice is still heard above the tinkling of the forge.
It sees a race pass away, but it passes not away.
It remains to remind us of aboriginal nature.”

The crow is probably the most intelligent of all our native birds. It is
quick to learn and clever in action, as many a farmer will testify who has
tried to keep it out of com fields with various devices, the harmless
character of which the crow soon understood perfectly. Of all our birds,
this one has the longest list of virtues and of sins, as judged from our
standpoint; but we should listen to both sides of the case before we pass
judgment. I find with crows, as with people, I like some more than I do
others. I do not like at all the cunning old crow which steals the suet I
put on the trees in winter for the chickadees and nuthatches; and I have
hired a boy with a shotgun to protect the eggs and nestlings of the robins
and other birds in my neighborhood from the ravages of one or two cruel

A pet crow.

Photo by S. A. Lottride.

I3°

Handbook of Nature-Study

old crows that have developed the nest-hunting habit. On the other
hand, I became a sincere admirer of a crow flock which worked in a field
close to my country home, and I have been the chosen friend of several
tame crows who were even more interesting than they were mischievous.

The crow is larger than any other of our common blackbirds; the
northern raven is still larger, but is very rarely seen. Although the
crow’s feathers are black, yet in the sunlight a beautiful purple iridescence
plays over the plumage, especially about the neck and back; it has a
compact but not ungraceful body, and long, powerful wings; its tail is
medium sized and is not notched at the end ; its feet are long and strong ;
the track shows three toes directed forward and one long one directed
backward. The crow does not sail through the air as does the hawk, but
progresses with an almost constant flapping of the wings. Its beak is
very strong and is used for tearing the flesh of its prey and for defense,
and in fact, for almost anything that a beak could be used for; its eye is
all black and is very keen and intelligent. When hunting for food in the
field, it usually walks, but sometimes hops. The raven and the fish crows
are the nearest relatives of the American crow, and next to them the
jays. We should hardly think that the bluejay and the crow were
related to look at them, but when we come to study their habits, much is
to be found in common.

The crow’s nest is usually very large; it is made of sticks, of grape
vines and bark, sod, horse-hair, moss and grasses. It is placed in trees or
in tall bushes rarely less than twenty feet from the ground. The eggs are
pale bluish green or nearly white with brownish markings. The young
crows hatch in April or May. Both parents are devoted to the care of the
young, and remain with them during most of the summer. I have often
seen a mother crow feeding her young ones which were following her with
obstreperous caws, although they were as large as she.

While the note of the crow is harsh when close at hand, it has a musical
quality in the distance. Mr. Mathews says: “The crow when he sings

is nothing short of a clown ; he ruffles his feathers, stretches his neck, like
a cat with a fish bone in her throat, and with a most tremendous effort
delivers a series of hen-like squawks.” But aside from his caw, the crow
has some very seductive soft notes. I have held long conversations with
two pet crows, talking with them in a high, soft tone and finding that they
answered readily in a like tone in a most responsive way. I have also
heard these same tones among the wild crows when they were talking
together; one note is a gutteral tremolo, most grotesque.

Crows gather in flocks for the winter ; these flocks number from fifty to
several hundred individuals, all having a common roosting place, usually
in pine or hemlock forests or among other evergreens. They go out from
these roosts during the day to get food, often making a journey of many
miles. During the nesting season they scatter in pairs and do not gather
again in flocks until the young are fully grown.

When crows are feeding in the fields there is usually, if not always, a
sentinel posted on some high point so that he can give warning of danger.
This sentinel is always an experienced bird and is keen to detect a
dangerous from a harmless intruder. I once made many experiments
with these sentinels ; I finally became known to those of a particular flock
and I was allowed to approach within a few yards of where the birds were
feeding, a privilege not accorded to any other person in the neighborhood.

Bird Study

131

The crow is a general feeder and will eat almost any food ; generally,
however, it finds its food upon the ground. The food given to nestlings
is very largely insects, and many pests are thus destroyed. The crows
damage the farmer by pulling the sprouting corn and by destroying the
eggs and young of poultry. They also do much harm by destroying the
eggs and nestlings of our native birds which are beneficial to the farmer;
they also do some harm by distributing the seeds of poison ivy and other
noxious plants. All these must be set down in the account against the
crow, but on the credit side must be placed the fact that it does a tremen-
dous amount of good work for the farmer by eating injurious insects,
especially the grubs and cut-worms which work in the ground, destroying
the roots of grasses and grains. It also kills many mice and other rodents
which are destructive to crops.

The best method of preventing crows from taking sprouting com is to
tar the seed com, which is planted around the edge of the field.

If any of the pupils in your school have had any experience with tame
crows they will relate interesting incidents of the love of the crow for glit-
tering objects. I once knew a tame crow which stole all of the thimbles
in the house and buried them in the garden ; he would watch to see when
a thimble was laid aside when the sewing was dropped, and would seize it
almost immediately. This same crow persisted in taking the clothes-pins
off the line and burying them, so that he was finally imprisoned on wash-
days. He was fond of playing marbles with a little boy of the family.
The boy would shoot a marble into a hole and then Billy, the crow, would
take a marble in his beak and drop it into the hole. The bird understood
the game perfectly and was highly indignant if the boy took his turn and
made shots twice in succession.

References — The American Crow, Barrows & Schwartz, Bulletin
No. 6, Division of Ornithology, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Birds
in Relation to Man, Weed & Dearborn; Bird Neighbors, Blanchan;
Birds of Villages and Field, Merriam; Outdoor Studies, Needham.

LESSON XXXI
The Crow

Leading thought — The crow has the keenest intelligence of any of our
common birds. It does good work for us and also does damage. We
should study its ways before we pronounce judgment, for in some locali-
ties it may be a true friend and in others an enemy.

Methods — This work should begin in winter with an effort on the part
of the boys to discover the food of the crows while snow is on the ground.
This is a good time to study their habits and their roosts. The nests are
also often found in winter, although usually built in evergreens. The
nesting season is in early April, and the questions about the nests should
be given then. Let the other questions be given when convenient. The
flight, the notes, the sentinels, the food, the benefit and damage may all
be taken as separate topics.

The following topics for essays should be given to correlate with work
in English: “What a pet crow of my acquaintance did;” “Evidences of

crow intelligence;” “A plea a crow might make in self-defence to the
farmer who wished to shoot him ;” ‘ ‘The best methods of preventing crows
from stealing planted com.”

132 Handbook of Nature-Study

Observations — 1 . How large is the crow compared with other black-
birds?

2. Describe its colors when seen in the sunlight?

3. Describe the general shape of the crow.

4. Are its wings long and slender or short and stout?

5 . Is the tail long or short ? Is it notched or straight across the end ?

6. Describe the crow’s feet. Are they large and strong or slender?
How many toes does the track show in the snow or mud? How many
are directed forward and how many backward?

7. Describe a crow’s flight compared with that of the hawk.

8. Describe its beak and what it is used for.

9. What is the color of the crow’s eye?

10. When hunting for food does the crow hop or walk?

11. Which are the crow’s nearest relatives?

12. Where and of what material do the crows build their nests?

13. Describe the eggs. At what time of the year do the young crows
hatch? Do both parents take care of and feed the young? How long
do the parents care for the young after they leave the nest?

1 4. What are the notes of the crow? If you have heard one give any
note except “caw,” describe it.

15. Where and how do crows live in winter? Where do they live in
summer?

16. Do they post sentinels if they are feeding in the fields? If so,
describe the action of the sentinel on the approach of people.

17. Upon what do the crows feed? What is fed to the nestlings?

18. How do the crows work injury to the farmer? How do they
benefit the farmer ? Do you think they do more benefit than harm to the
farmer and fruit-grower?

19. Have you known of instances of the crow’s fondness for shining
or glittering articles, like pieces of crockery or tin?

Supplementary reading — “The Story of Silver Spot” in Wild Animals
I have Known, Seton; Second Book of Birds, p. 117 ; “Jim’s Babies” in
Nestlings of Forest and Marsh; “Howthe Crow Baby was Punished,” True
Bird Stories; “The Children of a Crow,” and “The Scare Crow” by Celia
Thaxter; Our Birds and their Nestlings; “Crow Ways,” Ways of Wood
Folk, Long; “Not so Black as he is Painted,” Outdoor Studies, Needham;
The Crows, John Hay; “Jack Crow,” American Birds, Finley.

Bird Study 133-

THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK
Teacher's Story

There never lived a Lord Cardinal who
possessed robes ol state more brilliant in
color than the plumage of this bird. By
the way, I wonder how many of us ever
think when we see the peculiar red, called
cardinal, that it gained its name from the
dress of this high tunctionaryof the church ?
The cardinal grosbeak is the best name for
the redbird because that describes it
exactly, both as to its color and its chief
characteristic, since its beak is thick and
large; the beak is also red, which is a rare
color in beaks, and in order to make its
redness more emphatic it is set in a frame
of black feathers. The use of such a large
beak is unmistakable, for it is strong
enough to crush the hardest of seed shells
or to crack the hardest and driest of
grains.

11 What cheer! What cheer!

That is the grosbeak’s way,

With his sooty +ace and ins coat of red ”

sings Maurice Thompson. But besides
the name given above, this bird has been called in different localities
the redbird, Virginia redbird, crested redbird, winter redbird, Virginia
nightingale, the red corn-cracker; but it remained for James Lane
Allen to give it another name in his masterpiece, “The Kentucky
Cardinal.”

The cardinal is a trifle smaller than the robin and is by no means slim
and graceful, like the catbird or the scarlet tanager, but is quite stout and
is a veritable chunk of brilliant color and bird dignity. The only other
bird that rivals him in redness is the scarlet tanager which has black
wings; the summer tanager is also a red bird, but is not so vermilion and
is more slender and lacks the crest. The cardinal surely finds his crest
useful in expressing his emotions; when all is serene, it lies back flat on
the head, but with any excitement, whether of joy or surprise or anger, it
lifts until it is as peaked as an old-fashioned nightcap. The cardinal’s
mate is of quiet color; her back is greenish gray and breast buffy, while
her crest, wings and tail reflect in faint ways the brilliancy of his costume.

The redbird’s song is a stirring succession of Syllables uttered in a rich,
ringing tone, and may be translated in a variety of ways. I have heard
him sing a thousand times “tor-re’-do, tor-re’-do, tor-re’-do,” but Dr.
Dawson has heard him sing “che’-pew, che’-pew, we’-woo, we ’-woo;”
“bird-ie, bird-ie, bird-ie; tschew, tschew, tschew;” and “chit-e-kew,
chit-e-kew; he-weet- he-weet.” His mate breaks the custom of other
birds of her sex and sings a sweet song, somewhat softer than his. Both
birds utter a sharp note “tsip, tsip.”

The nest is built in bushes, vines or low trees, often in holly, laurel or
other low evergreens, and is rarely more than six or eight feet above the

The cardinal grosbeak.
After Audubon Leaflet No. 18.

134

Handbook of N ature-Study

ground. It is made of twigs, weed stems, tendrils, the bark of the grape
vine and coarse grass; it is lined with fine grass and rootlets; it is rather
loosely constructed but firm and is well hidden, for it causes these birds
great anguish to have their nest discovered. Three or four eggs are laid,
which are bluish white or grayish, dully marked with brown. The father
cardinal is an exemplary husband and father; he cares for and feeds his
mate tenderly and sings to her gloriously while she is sitting; and he
works hard catching insects for the nestlings. He is also a brave defender
of his nest and will attack any intruder, however large, with undaunted
courage. The fledglings all have the dull color of the mother and have
dark-colored bills. Their dull color protects the young birds from the
keen eyes of their enemies while they are not yet able to take care of
themselves. If the male fledglings were the color of their father, probably
not one would escape a tragic death. While the mother bird is hatching
the second brood the father keeps the first brood with him and cares for
them ; often the whole family remains together during the winter, making
a small flock. However, the flocking habit is not characteristic of these
birds, and we only see them in considerable numbers when the exigencies
of seeking food in the winter naturally bring them together.

The car dinals are fond of the shrubbery and thickets of river bottoms,
near grain fields, or where there is plenty of wild grass, and they only visit
our premises when driven to us by winter hunger. Their food consists of
the seeds of rank weeds, com, wheat, rye, oats, beetles, grasshoppers,
flies, and to some extent, wild and garden berries ; but they never occur in
sufficient numbers to be a menace to our crops. The cardinals may often
be seen in the com fields after the harvest, and will husk an overlooked ear
of corn and crack the kernels with their beaks in a most dexterous man-
ner. During the winter we may coax them to our grounds by scattering
com in some place not frequented by cats; thus, we may induce them to
nest near us, since the cardinal is not naturally a migrant but likes to stay
in one locality summer and winter. It has been known to come as far
north as Boston and southern New York, but it is found in greatest num-
bers in our Southern States. Many nestlings were formerly taken, to ship
in cages to Europe, but the National Association for Bird Protection has
put a stop to this. In Ohio, no cardinal is allowed to be caged, and this
same law should protect this beautiful bird in every Southern state, since
it does not live long or happily in confinement. The cardinal’s song is not
at its best in a cage, but as the poet Naylor says:

“ Along the dust-white river road.

The saticy redbird chirps and trills;

His liquid notes resound and rise
Until they meet the cloudless skies.

And echo o'er the distant hills.”

LESSON XXXII
The Cardinal Grosbeak

Leading thought — The cardinal is the most brilliantly colored of all our
birds and because of its color and song, it has been destroyed by thousands
as cage birds. We should seek to preserve it as a beautiful ornament to
our groves and grounds.

Bird Study

*35

Methods — This work must be done by personal observation in the field.
The field notes should be discussed in school. The effect of the whole
lesson should be to stimulate an interest in protecting these beautiful
birds. If possible, send for outline figures of the cardinal for the children
to color ; these outlines may be had at the cost of fifteen cents per dozen
from the Audubon Society, 141 Broadway, New York City.

Observations — 1. Do you know the cardinal? Why is it so called?

2. How many names do you know for this bird?

3. Is the cardinal as large as the robin? Is it graceful in shape or
stout?

4. Is there any color except red upon it ? If so, where ?

5. What other vividly red birds have we and how can we distinguish
them from the cardinal ?

6. Describe the cardinal’s crest and how it looks when lifted. Why
do you think it lifts it ?

7. Describe its beak as to color, shape and size. What work is such
a heavy beak made for?

8. Is the cardinal’s mate the same color as he ? Describe the color of
her head, back, wings, tail, breast.

9. Can you imitate the cardinal’s song? What words do you think
he seems to sing? Does his mate sing also ? Is it usual for mother birds
to sing? What other notes besides songs do you hear him utter?

10. Where does the cardinal usually build its nest? How high from

the ground ? Of what materials ? Is it compact or bulky ? How many

eggs and what are their colors?

1 1 . How does the father bird act while his mate is brooding ? How
does he help take care of the young in the nest ?

12. How do the fledglings differ in color from their father? From
their mother? Of what use to the young birds is their sober color?

13 . What happens to the fledglings of the first brood while the mother
is hatching the eggs of the second brood?

14. In what localities do you most often see the cardinals? Do you
ever see them in flocks?

15. What is the food of the cardinals? What do they feed their
nestlings?

16. How can you induce the cardinals to build near your home?

1 7 . What do you know about the laws protecting the redbirds ?

Supplementary reading — The Second Book of Birds, Miller, p. 83;

True Bird Stories, Miller, p. 86; The Song of the Cardinal, Porter;
Audubon Educational Leaflet No. 18.

“ Upon the gray old foresfs rim
I snuffed the crab-tree’s sweet perfume;

And farther, where the light was dim, I saw the bloom
Of May apples, beneath the tent
Of umbrel leaves above them bent;

Where oft was shifting light and shade
The blue-eyed ivy wildly strayed;

The Solomon’s seal, in graceful play,

Swung where the straggling sunlight lay
The same as when I earliest heard
The Cardinal bird.”

— W. S. Gallagher.

Handbook of Nature-Study

GEESE
Teacher's Story

called a goose should be considered most com-
plimentary, for of all the birds the goose is probably
the most intelligent. An observant lady who
keeps geese on her farm assures me that no animal,
not even dog or horse, has the intelligence of the
goose. She says that these birds learn a lesson
after a few repetitions, and surely her geese were
patterns of obedience. While I was watching them
one morning, they started for the brook via the
com field; she called to them sharply, “No, no,
way!” They stopped and conferred; she spoke
again and they waited, looking at her as if to make up their minds to this
exercise of self-sacrifice ; but when she spoke the third time they left the
com field and took the other path to the brook. She could bring her
geese into their house at any time of day by calling to them, “Home,
home!” As soon as they heard these words, they would start and not
stop until the last one was housed.

In ancient Greece maidens made pets of geese; and often there was
such a devotion between the bird and girl that when the latter died her
statue with that of the goose was carved on her burial tablet. The
loyalty of a pet goose came under the observation of Miss Ada Georgia.
A lone gander was the special pet of a small boy in Elmira, N. Y., who
took sole care of him. The bird obeyed commands like a dog but would
never let his little master out of his sight if he could avoid it ; occasionally
he would appear in the school yard, where the pupils would tease him by
pretending to attack his master at the risk of being whipped with his
wings so severely that it was a test of bravery among the boys to so chal-
lenge him. His fidelity to his master was extreme; once when the boy

Bird Study

137

was ill in bed, the bird wandered about the yard honking disconsolately
and refused to eat ; he was driven to the side of the house where his mas-
ter could look from the window and he immediately cheered up, took his
food and refused to leave his post beneath the window while the illness,
lasted.

The goose is a stately bird whether on land or water; its long legs give
it good proportions when walking, and the neck being so much longer
than that of the duck gives an appearance of grace and dignity. The
duck on the other hand is beautiful only when on the water or on the
wing; -its short legs, placed far back and far out at the sides, make it a
most ungraceful walker. The beak of the goose is harder in texture and
is not flat like the duck’s; no wonder the bird was a favorite with the
ancient Greeks for the high ridge from the beak to the forehead resembles
much the famous Grecian nose. The plumage of geese is very beautiful
and abundant and for this reason they are profitable domestic birds.
The “picking” occurs late in summer when the feathers are nearly ready
to be molted; at this time the geese flap their wings often and set
showers of loose feathers flying. A stocking or a bag is slipped over the
bird’s head and she is turned breast side up, with her head firmly between
the knees or under the arm of the picker. The tips of the feathers are
seized with the fingers and come out easily; only the breast, the under
parts and the feathers beneath the wings are plucked. Geese do not seem
to suffer while being plucked except through the temporary inconvenience
and ignominy of having their heads thrust into a bag; it hurts their
dignity more than their bodies.

The wings of geese are very large and beautiful ; although our domestic
geese have lost their powers of flight to a great extent, yet they often
stretch their wings and take little flying hops, teetering along as if they
can scarcely keep to earth; this must surely be reminiscent of the old
instinct for traveling in the skies. The tail of the goose is a half circle
and is spread when flying; although it is short, it seems to be sufficiently
long to act as a rudder. The legs of the goose are much longer than those
of the duck; they are not set so far back toward the rear of the body, and,
therefore, the goose is the much better runner of the two. The track
made by the goose’s foot is a triangle with two scallops on one side made
by the webs between the three front toes ; the hind toe is placed high up ;
the foot and the unfeathered portion of the leg, protected by scales, are
used as oars when the bird is swimming. When she swims forward
rapidly, her feet extend out behind her and act on the principle of a
propeller; but when swimming around in the pond she uses them at
almost right angles to the body. Although they are such excellent oars
they are also efficient on land; although when running, her body may
waddle somewhat, her head and neck are held aloft in stately dignity.

The Toulouse are our common gray geese; the Embdens are pure
white with orange bill and bright blue eyes. The African geese h ave a
black head with a large black knob on the base of the black bill ; the neck
is long, snakelike, light gray, with a dark stripe down the back; the wings
and tail are dark gray; there is a dewlap at the throat. The brown
Chinese geese have also a black beak and a black knob at the base of the
bill. The neck is light brown with a dull yellowish stripe down the neck.
The back is dark brown, breast, wings and tail grayish brown. The white
Chinese are shaped like the brown Chinese but the knob and bill are
orange and the eyes light blue.

138 Handbook of Nature-Study

The Habits of Geese

Geese are monogamous and are loyal to their mates. Old-fashioned
people declare that they choose their mates on Saint Valentine’s Day, but
this is probably a pretty myth; when once mated, the pair live together
year after year until one dies ; an interesting instance of this is one of the
traditions in my own family. A fine pair of geese belonging to my
pioneer grandfather had been mated for several years and had reared
handsome families; but one spring a conceited young gander fell in love
with the old goose, and as he was young and lusty, he whipped her legiti-
mate lord and master and triumphantly carried her away, although she
was manifestly disgusted with this change in her domestic fortunes. The
old gander sulked and refused to be comforted by the blandishments of
any young goose whatever. Later the old pair disappeared from the
farmyard and the upstart gander was left wifeless. It was inferred that
the old couple had run away with each other into the encompassing
wilderness and much sympathy was felt for them because of this sacrifice
of their lives for loyalty. However, this was misplaced sentiment, for
later in the summer the happy pair was discovered in a distant “slashing”
with a fine family of goslings and were all brought home in triumph.
The old gander, while not able to cope with his rival, was still able to
trounce any of the animal marauders which approached his home and
family.

The goose lines her nest with down and the soft feathers which she
plucks from her breast. The gander is very devoted to his goose while
she is sitting; he talks to her in gentle tones and is fierce in her defence.
The eggs are about twice as large as those of the hen and have the ends
more rounded. The period of incubation is four weeks. The goslings
are beautiful little creatures, covered with soft down, and have large,
bright eyes. The parents give them most careful attention from the first.
One family which I studied consisted of the parents and eighteen goslings.
The mother was a splendid African bird; she walked with dignified step,
her graceful neck assuming serpentine curves ; and she always carried her
beak “lifted,” which gave her an appearance of majestic haughtiness.
The father was just a plebeian white gander, probably of Embden descent
but he was a most efficient protector. The family always formed a
procession in going to the creek, the majestic mother at the head, the
goslings following her and the gander bringing up the rear to be sure
there were no stragglers; if a gosling strayed away or fell behind, the male
went after it, pushing it back into the family circle. When entering the
coop at night he pushed the little ones in gently with his bill; when the
goslings took their first swim both parents gently pushed them into the
water, “rooted them in,” as the farmer said. Any attempt to take
liberties with the brood was met with bristling anger and defiance on the
part of the gander; the mistress of the farm told me that he had whipped
her black and blue when she tried to interfere with the goslings.

The gander and goose always show suspicion and resentment by open-
ing the mouth wide, making a hissing noise, showing the whole round
tongue in mocking defiance. When the gander attacks, he thrusts his
head forward, even with or below the level of his back, and seizes his victim
firmly with his hard, toothed bill so that it cannot get away, and then with
his strong wings beats the life out of it. I remember vividly a whipping

Bird Study 139

which a gander gave me when I was a child, holding me fast by the blouse
while he laid on the blows.

Geese feed much more largely upon land vegetation than do ducks;
a good growth of clover and grass make excellent pasture for them ; in the
water, they feed upon water plants but do not eat insects and animals to
any extent.

Undoubtedly goose language is varied and expresses many things.
Geese talk to each other and call from afar; they shriek in warning and in
general make such a turmoil that people do not enjoy it. The goslings,
even when almost grown, keep up a constant “pee wee, pee wee,” which is
nerve-racking. There is a good opportunity for some interesting investi-
gations in studying1 9%t just what the different notes of the geese mean.

The goose is very particular about her toilet; she cleans her breast
and back and benesrth her wings with her bill; and she cleans her bill
with her foot; she also cleans the top of her head with her foot and the
under side of her wing with the foot of that side. When oiling her
feathers, she starts the oil gland flowing with her beak, then rubs her head
over the gland until it is well oiled; she then uses her head as a “dauber”
to apply the oil to the feathers of her back and breast. When thus pol-
ishing her feathers, she twists the head over and
over and back and forth to add to its efficiency.

WILD GEESE

THERE is a sound, that, to the weather-wise farmer,
means cold and snow, even though it is heard
through the hazy atmosphere of an Indian summer
day ; and that is the honking of wild geese as they
pass on their southward journey. And there is not a
more interesting sight anywhere in the autumn
landscape than the wedge-shaped flock of these long-necked birds with
their leader at the front apex. “The wild goose trails his harrow,”
sings the poet; but only the aged can remember the old-fashioned harrow
which makes this simile graphic. The honking which reveals to us the
passing flock, before our eyes can discern the birds against the sky, is
the call of the wise old gander who is the leader, to those following him,
and their return salute. He knows the way on this long thousand-mile
journey, and knows it by the topography of the country. If ever fog
or storm hides the earth from his view, he is likely to become confused,
to the dismay of his flock, which follows him to the earth with many
lonely and distressful cries.

The northern migration takes place in April and May, and the southern
from October to December. The journey is made with stops for rest and
refreshment at certain selected places, usually some secluded pond or
lake. The food of wild geese consists of water plants, seeds and com,
and some of the smaller animals living in water. Although the geese come
to rest on the water, they go to the shore to feed. In California, the
wild geese are dreaded visitors of the cornfields, and men with guns are
employed regularly to keep them off.

The nests are made of sticks lined with down, usually along the shores
of streams, sometimes on tree stumps and sometimes in deserted nests of
the osprey. There are only four or five eggs laid and both parents are

140

Handbook of Nature-Study

devoted to the young, the gander bravely defending his nest and family
from the attacks of any enemies.

Although there are several species of wild geese on the Atlantic
Coast, the one called by this name is usually the Canada goose. This

bird is a superb creature.

brown above and gray be-
neath, with head, neck, tail,
bill and feet of black. These
black trimmings are highly
ornamental and, as if to
emphasize them, there is
a wttte crescent-shaped
‘‘bibWRending from just
back or the eyes under-
neath the head . This white
patch is very striking, and
gives one the impression of
a bandage for sore throat.
It is regarded as a call-
color, and is supposed to
help keep the flock to-
gether; the side tail-coverts
are also white and make
another guide to follow.

Often some wounded or
wearied bird of the migrat-
ing flock spends the winter
in farmyards with domes-
tic geese. One morning a
neighbor of mine found
that during the night a wild
gander, injured in some
way, had joined his flock.
The stranger was treated
with much courtesy by its
new companions as well as
by the farmer’s family and
soon seemed perfectly at
home. The next spring he
mated with one of the
domestic geese. In the late
summer, my neighbor.
Wild geese flying in even ranks. mindful of wild geese hab-

Photographed directly underneath by A. R. Dugmore. its, clipped the wings of the

Courtesy of Country Life in America. gander SO that he Would be

unable to join any passing flock of his wild relatives. As the migrating
season approached, the gander became very uneasy; not only
was he uneasy and unhappy always but he insisted that his
wife share his misery of unrest. He spent days in earnest remon-
strance with her and, licting himself by his cropped wings to the top of
the barnyard fence, he insisted that she keep him company on this, for
web feet, uneasy resting place. Finally, after many days of tribulation.

Bird Study

141

the two valiantly started south on foot. News was received of their prog-
ress for some distance and then they were lost to us. During the winter our
neighbor visited a friend living eighteen miles to the southward and
found in his barnyard the errant pair. They had become tired of
migrating by tramping and had joined the farmer’s flock; but we were
never able to determine the length of time required for this journey.

LESSON XXXIII

Geese

Leading thought — Geese are the most intelligent of the domesticated
birds, and they have many interesting habits.

Method — This lesson should not be given unless there are geese where
the pupils may observe them. The questions should be given a few at a
time and answered individually by the pupils after the observations are
made. •

Observations — 1 . What is the chief difference between the appearance
of a goose and a duck? How does the beak of the goose differ from that
of the duck in shape and in texture? Describe the nostrils and their
situation.

2. What is the difference in shape between the neck of the goose and
that of the duck?

3. What can you say about the plumage of geese? Howt are geese
“picked?” At what time of year? From what parts of the body are the
the feathers plucked?

4. Are the wings of the goose large compared with the body? How
do geese exercise their wings ? Describe the tail of the goose and how it
is used.

5. How do the legs and feet of the goose differ from those of the duck?
Describe the goose’s foot. How many toes are webbed? Where is the
other toe? What is the shape of the track made by the goose’s foot?
Which portions of the legs are used for oars? When the goose is swim-
ming forward where are her feet? When turning around how does she
use them? Does the goose waddle when walking or running as a duck
does? Why? Does a goose toe-in when walking? Why?

6. Describe the shape and color of the following breeds of domestic
geese : The Toulouse, the Embden, the African, and Chinese.

Habits of Geese

1. What is the chief food of geese? What do they find in the water
to eat ? How does their food differ from that of ducks ?

2. How do geese differ from hens in the matter of mating and nesting?
At what time of year do geese mate? Does a pair usually remain mated
for life ?

3. Describe the nest and compare the eggs with those of hens.
Describe the young goslings in general appearance. With what are they
covered? What care do the parents give to their goslings? Describe
how the parents take their family afield. How do they induce their
goslings to go into the water for the first time? How do they protect
them from enemies ?

142

Handbook of Nature-Study

4. How does the gander or goose fight ? What are the chief weapons ?
How is the head held when the attack is made ?

5. How does the goose clean her feathers, wings and feet ? How does
she oil her feathers? Where does she get the oil and with what does she
apply it ?

6. How much of goose language do you understand? What is the
note of alarm? How is defiance and distrust expressed? How does a
goose look when hissing? What is the constant note of the gosling?

7 . Give such instances as you may know illustrating the intelligence
of geese, their loyalty and bravery.

8. Write an English Theme on “The Canada Goose, its appearance,
nesting habits, and migrations.”

Supplementary reading — Birds that Hunt and are Hunted, Blanchan;
“In Quest of Waptonk The Wild,” Northern Trails, Long; “The Home-
sickness of Kehonka,” Kindred of the Wild, Roberts; Wild Geese, Celia
Thaxter.

A sea-gull.

Photo by G. K. Gilbert.

Bird Study

THE TURKEY
Teacher's Story

HAT the turkey and not the eagle should have been
chosen for our national bird, was the conviction of
Benjamin Franklin. It is a native of our country,
it is beautiful as to plumage, and like the American
Indian, it has never yielded entirely to the in-
fluences of civilization. Through the hundreds of
years of domestication it still retains many of its
wild habits. In fact, it has many qualities in
common with the red man. Take for instance its
sun dance, which any one can witness who is
willing to get up early enough in the morning and who has a flock of
turkeys at hand. Miss Ada Georgia made a pilgrimage to witness this
dance and she describes it thus: “While the dawn was still faint and

gray, the long row of birds on the ridge-pole stood up, stretched legs and
wings and flew down into the orchard beside the barnyard and began a
curious, high-stepping, ‘flip-flop’ dance on the frosty grass. It consisted
of little, awkward, up-and-down jumps, varied by forward springs of
about a foot, with lifted wings. Both hens and males danced, the latter
alternately strutting and hopping and all ‘singing,’ the hens calling
‘Quit, quit,’ the males accompanying with a high-keyed rattle, sounding
like a hard wood stick drawn rapidly along a picket fence. As the sun
came up and the sky brightened, the exhibition ended suddenly when
‘The Captain,’ a great thirty pound gobbler and leader of the flock, made
a rush at one of his younger brethren who had dared to be spreading a tail
too near to his majest}^.”

144

Handbook of Nature-Study

The bronze breed resembles most closely our native wild turkey and is
therefore chosen for this lesson. The colors and markings of the plumage
form the bronze turkey’s chief beauty. From the skin of the neck, reach-
ing half way to the middle of the back is a collar of glittering bronze with
greenish and purple iridescence, each feather tipped with a narrow jet
band. The remainder of the back is black except that each feather is
edged with bronze. The breast is like the collar and at its center is a
tassel of black bristles called the beard which hangs limply downward
when the birds are feeding; but when the gobbler stiffens his muscles to
strut, this beard is thrust proudly forth. Occasionally the hen turkeys
have a beard. The long quills, or primaries, of the wings are barred
across with bands of black and white; the secondaries are very dark,
luminous brown, with narrower bars of white. Each feather of the fan-
shaped tail is banded with black and brown and ends with a black bar
tipped with white; the tail coverts are lighter brown but also have the
black margin edged with white. The colors of the hen are like those of
the gobbler except that the bronze brilliance of breast, neck and wings is
dimmed by the faint line of white which tips each feather.

The heads of all are covered with a warty wrinkled skin, bluish white
on the crown, grayish blue about the eyes, and the other parts red.
Beneath the throat is a hanging fold called the wattle, and above the beak
a fleshy pointed knob called the caruncle, which on the gobbler is pro-
longed so that it hangs over and below the beak. When the bird is angry
these carunculated parts swell and grow more vivid in color, seeming to
be gorged with blood. The color of the skin about the head is more exten-
sive and brilliant in the gobblers than in the hens. The beak is slightly
curved, short, stout, and sharp-pointed, yellowish at the tip and dark at
the base.

The eyes are bright, dark hazel with a thin red line of iris. Just back
of the eye is the ear, seemingly a mere hole, and yet it leads to a very
efficient ear, upon which every smallest sound impinges.

The legs of the young turkeys are nearly black, fading to a brownish
gray when mature. The legs and feet are large and stout, the middle
toe of the three front ones being nearly twice the length of the one on
either side ; the hind toe is the shortest of the four. On the inner side of
the gobbler’s legs, about one-third the bare space above the foot, is a
wicked looking spur which is a most effective weapon. The wings are
large and powerful ; the turkey flies well for such a large bird and usually
roosts high, choosing trees or the ridge-pole of the bam for this purpose.

In many ways the turkeys are not more than half domesticated. They
insistently prefer to spend their nights out of doors instead of under a
roof. They are also great wanderers and thrive best when allowed to
forage in the fields and woods for a part of their food.

The gobbler is the most vainglorious bird known to us ; when he struts
to show his flock of admiring hens how beautiful he is, he lowers his wings
and spreads the stiff primary quills until their tips scrape the ground, lift-
ing meanwhile into a semi-circular fan his beautiful tail feathers ; he pro-
trudes his chest, raises the iridescent plumage of his neck like a ruff to
make a background against which he throws back his red, white and blue
decorated head. He moves forward with slow and mincing steps and
calls attention to his grandeur by a series of most aggressive “gobbles.”
But we must say for the gobbler that although he is vain he is also a brave

Bird Study

145

fighter. When beginning a fight he advances with wings lowered and
sidewise as if guarding his body with the spread wing. The neck and the
sharp beak are outstretched and he makes the attack so suddenly, that it
is impossible to see whether he strikes with both wing and beak or only
with the latter, as with fury he pounces upon his adversary apparently
striving to rip his neck open with his spurs.

Turkey hens usually begin to lay in April in this latitude and much
earlier in more southern states. At nesting time each turkey hen strays
off alone, seeking the most secluded spot she can find to lay the large, oval,
brown-speckled eggs. Silent and sly, she slips away to the place daily, by
the most round-about ways, and never moving in the direction of the nest
when she thinks herself observed. Sometimes the sight of any person
near her nest will cause her to desert it. The writer has spent many hours
when a child, sneaking in fence comers and behind stumps and tree
trunks, stalking turkeys’ nests. Incubation takes four weeks. The
female is a most persistent sitter and care should be taken to see that she
gets a good supply of food and water at this time. Good sound com or
wheat is the best food for her at this period. When sitting she is very
cross and will fight most courageously when molested on her nest.

Turkey nestlings are rather large, with long, bare legs and scrawny
thin necks, and they are very delicate during the first six weeks of their
lives. Their call is a plaintive “peep, weep,” and when a little turkey
feels lost its cry is expressive of great fear and misery. But if the mother
is freely ranging she does not seem to be much affected by the needs of
her brood ; she will fight savagely for them if they are near her, but if they
stray, and they usually do, she does not seem to miss or hunt for them,
but strides serenely on her way, keeping up a constant crooning “kr-rit,
kr-rit,” to encourage them to follow. As a consequence, the chicks are
lost or get draggled and chilled by struggling through wet grass and
leaves, that are no obstacle to the mother’s strong legs, and thus many
die. If the mother is confined in a coop it should be so large and roomy
that she can move about without trampling on the chicks, and it should
have a dry floor since dampness is fatal to the little ones.

For the first week the chicks should be fed five times a day, and for
the next five weeks they should have three meals a day. They should be
given only just about enough to fill each little crop and none left over to be
trodden under their awkward little feet. Their quarters should be kept
clean and free from vermin.

LESSON XXXIV

Turkeys

Leading thought — The turkey is a native of America. It was intro-
duced into Spain from Mexico in about 1.518, and since then has been
domesticated. However, there are still in some parts of the country
flocks of wild turkeys. It is a beautiful bird and has interesting habits.

Method — If the pupils could visit a flock of turkeys the lesson would be
given to a better advantage. If this is impossible, ask the questions a few
at a time and let those pupils who have opportunities for observing the
turkeys give their answers before the class.

Observations — 1. Of what breed are the turkeys you are studying,
Bronze, Black, Buff, White Holland or Narragansett?

146

Handbook of Nature-Study

2. What is the general shape and size of the turkey? Describe its
plumage, noting every color which you can see in it ? Does the plumage
of the hen turkey differ from that of the gobbler?

3. What is the covering of the head of the turkey, what is its color
and how far does it extend down the neck of the bird? Is it always the
same color, and if not, what causes the change? Is the head covering
alike in shape and size on the male and the female? What is the part
called that hangs from the front of the throat below the beak? From
above the beak?

4. What is the color of the beak? Is it short or long, straight or
curved ? Where are the nostrils situated ?

5. What is the color of the turkey’s eyes? Do you think it is a keen-
sighted bird ?

6. Where are the ears? Do they show as plainly as a chicken’s ears
do ? Are turkeys quick of hearing ?

7. Do turkeys scratch like hens? Are they good runners ? Describe
the feet and legs as to shape, size and color. Has the male a spur on his
legs, and if so, where is it situated-? For what is it used?

8. Can turkeys fly well ? Are the wings small or comparatively large
and strong for the weight of the body? Do turkeys prefer high or low
places for perching when they sleep ? Is it well to house and confine them
in small buildings and parks as is done with other fowls ?

9. Tell, as nearly as you can discover by close observation, how the
gobbler sets each part of his plumage when he is “showing off” or strut-
ting? What do you think is the bird’s purpose in thus exhibiting his fine
feathers? Does the “King of the flock” permit any such action by other
“gobblers” in his company?

10. Are turkeys timid and cowardly or independent and brave, ready
to meet and fight anything which they think is threatening to their com-
fort and safety ?

1 1 . When turkeys fight, what parts of their bodies seem to be used
as weapons? Does the male “gobble” during a fight, or only as a chal-
lenge or in triumph when victorious? Do the hen turkeys ever fight, or
only the males ?

12. How early in the spring does the turkey hen begin to lay? Does
she nest about the poultry yard and the bams or is she likely to seek some
secret and distant spot where she may hide her eggs? Describe the
turkey’s egg, as well as you can, as to color, shape and size. Can one tell
it by the taste from an ordinary hen’s egg? About how many eggs does
the turkey hen lay in her nest before she begins to “get broody” and want
to sit ?

13. How many days of incubation are required to hatch the turkey
chick? Is it as downy and pretty as other little chicks? How often
should the young chicks be fed, and what food do you think is best for
them ? Are turkey chicks as hardy as other chicks ?

14. Is the turkey hen generally a good mother? Is she cross or
gentle when sitting and when brooding her young? Is it possible to keep
the mother turkey as closely confined with her brood as it is with the
mother hen? What supplies should be given to her in the way of food,
grits, dust-baths, etc.?

Supplementary reading — Birds that Hunt and are Hunted, Blanchan.

*47

Bird Study
LESSON XXXV

The Study of Birds’ Nests in Winter

There are very good reasons for not studying birds’ nests in summer,
since too much familiarity on the part of eager children is something the
birds do not understand and are likely, in consequence, to abandon both
nest and locality. But after the birds have gone to sunnier climes and
the empty nests are the only mementos we have of them, then we may
study these habitations carefully and learn how to properly appreciate
the small architects which made them. I think that every one of us who
carefully examines the way that a nest is made must have a feeling of
respect for its clever little builder.

I know of certain schools where the children make large collections of
these winter nests, properly labelling each, and thus gaining a new
interest in the bird life of their locality. A nest when collected should be
labelled in the following manner?

Name of the bird which built the nest.

Where the nest was found.

If in a tree, what kind?

How high from the ground?

Bird Homes, by A. R. Dugmore is a book which affords practical
help in determining the species of birds which made the nests.

After a collection of nests has been made let the pupils study them
according to the following outline:

1. Where was the nest found?

a. If on the ground, describe the locality.

b. If on a plant, tree or shrub, tell the species, if possible.

c. If on a tree, tell where it was on a branch, in a fork, or hanging
by the end of the twigs.

d. How high from the ground, and what was the locality?

e. If on or in a building, how situated?

2 . Did the nest have any arrangement to protect it from rain ?

3 . Give the size of the nest, the diameter of the inside and the outside ;
also the depth of the inside.

4. What is the form of the nest? Are its sides flaring or straight?
Is the nest shaped like a cup, basket or pocket?

5. What materials compose the outside of the nest and how are they
arranged ?

6. Of what materials is the lining made, and how are they arranged?
If hair or feathers are used, on what creature did they grow?

7. How are the materials of the nest held together, that is, are they
woven, plastered, or held in place by environment?

8. Had the nest anything peculiar about it either in situation, con-
struction or material that would tend to render it invisible to the casual
glance?

148

Handbook of Nature-Study

“ Noon time and June time down around the river /*

149

Fish Study
II. FISH STUDY

“It remains yet unresolved whether the happiness of a man in this world doth consist
more in contemplation or action. Concerning which two opinions I shall forebear to
add a third by declaring my own, and rest myself contented in telling you that both of
these meet together, and do most properly belong to the most honest, ingenious, quiet and
harmless art of angling. And first I tell you what some have observed, and I have
found to be a real truth, that the very sitting by the riverside is not only the quietest and
the fittest place for contemplation, but will invite an angler to it .” — Isaak Walton.

M human, old Isaak Walton discovered that nature-

study, fishing, and philosophy were akin and as inevitably
related as the three angles of a triangle. And yet it is
W / surprising how little the fish have been used as subjects

■/ W for nature lessons. Every brook and pond is a treasure

to the teacher who will find what there is in it and who
knows what may be gotten out of it.

Luckily there are some very good books on fishes which will assist
materially in making the fish lessons interesting: Fishes, by David Starr

Jordan, is a magnificent popular work in two volumes; American Food
and Game Fishes, by Jordan and Evermann, is one of the volumes of the
valuably Nature Library. While for supplementary reading the follow-
ing will prove instructive and entertaining: The Story of the Fishes,

Baskett; Fish Stories, by Holder and Jordan; “The Story of a Salmon,”
in Science Sketches, by Jordan; Neighbors with Wings and Fins, Johon-
not; Half Hours with Fishes, Reptiles and Birds, Holder.

Almost any of the fishes found in brook or pond may be kept in an
aquarium for a few days of observation in the schoolroom. A water pail
or bucket does very well if there is no glass aquarium. The water should
be changed every day and at least once a day it should be aerated by
dipping it up and pouring it back from some distance above. The prac-
tice should be established, once for all, of putting these finny prisoners
back into the brook after they have been studied.

THE GOLDFISH

Teacher's Story

NCE upon a time, if stories are true, there lived
a king called Midas, whose touch turned
everything to gold. Whenever I see gold-
fish, I wonder if, perhaps, King Midas
were not a Chinese and if he perchance
did not handle some of the little fish in
Orient streams. But common man has
learned a magic as wonderful as that of King
Midas, although it does not act so im-
mediately, for it is through his agency in
selecting and breeding that we have gained these exquisite fish for our
aquaria. In the streams of China the goldfish, which were the ancestors
of these effulgent creatures, wore safe green colors like the shiners in
our brooks; and if any goldfish escape from our fountains and run wild,
their progeny return to their native olive-green color. There are many

Handbook of Nature-Study

15°

such dull-colored goldfish in the Delaware and Potomac and other east-
ern rivers. It is almost inconceivable that one of the brilliant colored
fishes, if it chanced to escape into our ponds, should escape the fate of
being eaten by some larger fish attracted by such glittering bait.

The goldfish, as we see it in the aquarium, is brilliant orange above and
pale lemon-yellow below; there are many specimens that are adorned
with black patches. And as if this fish were bound to imitate the precious
metals, there are individuals which are silver instead of gold: they are
oxydized silver above and polished silver below. The goldfish are closely
related to the carp and can live in waters that are stale. However, the
water in the aquarium should be changed at least twice a week to keep it
clear. Goldfish should not be fed too lavishly. An inch square of one of
the sheets of prepared fish food, we have found a fair daily ration for five
medium sized fish; these fish are more likely to die from overfeeding than
from starving. Goldfish are naturally long-lived; Miss Ada Georgia has
kept them until seven years old in a school aquarium; and there is on
record one goldfish that lived nine years.

Too often the wonderful common things are never noticed because of
their commonness; and there is no better instance of this than the form
and movements of a fish. It is an animal in many ways similar to ani-
mals that live on land; but its form and structure are such that it is
perfectly adapted to live in water all its life; there are none of the true
fishes which live portions of their lives on land as do the frogs. The first
peculiarity of the fish is its shape. Looked at from above, the broader
part of the body is near the front end which is rounded or pointed so as to
cut the water readily. The long, narrow, hind portion of the body with
the tail acts as a propeller. Seen from the side, the body is a smooth,
graceful oval and this form is especially adapted to move through the
water swiftly, as can be demonstrated to the pupil by cutting a model of
the fish from wood and trying to move it through the water sidewise.

Normally, the fish has seven fins, one along the back called the dorsal,
one at the end of the tail called the tail or caudal fin, one beneath the rear
end of the body called the anal, a pair on the lower side of the body called
the ventrals, and a pair just back of the gill openings called the pectorals.
All these fins play their own parts in the movements of the fish. The dor-

This figure should be copied on the blackboard for reference.

Fish Study

*5*

sal fin is usually higher in front than behind and can be lifted or shut down
like a fan. This fin when it is lifted gives the fish greater height and it
can be twisted to one side or the other and thus be made a factor in
steering. The anal fin on the lower side acts in a similar manner. The
tail fin is the propeller and sends the body forward by pressing backward
on the water, first on one side and then on the other, being used like a
scull. The tail fin varies in shape very much in different species. In the
goldfish it is fanlike, with a deeply notched hind edge, but in some it is
rounded or square.

The paired fins correspond anatomically to our arms and legs, the
pectorals representing the arms, the ventrals the legs. Fins are made up
of rays, as the bony rods are called which support the membrane; these
rays are of two kinds, those which are soft, flexible, many jointed and
usually branched at the tip; and those which are bony, not jointed and
which are usually stiff spines. When the spines are present in a fin they
precede the soft rays.

Fishes’ eyes have no eyelid but the eyeball is movable, and this often
gives the impression that the fish winks. Fishes are necessarily near-
sighted since the lens of the eye has to be spherical in order to see in the
water. The sense of smell is located in a little sac to which the nostril
leads; the nostrils are small and often partitioned and may be seen on
either side of the snout. The nostrils have no connection whatever with
breathing, in the fish.

The tongue of the fish is very bony or bristly and immovable. There
is very little sense of taste developed in it. The shape, number and
position of the teeth vary according to the food habits of the fish. The
commonest type of teeth are fine, sharp and short and are arranged in
pads, as seen in the bullhead. Some fish have blunt teeth suitable for
crushing shells. Herbivorous fishes have sharp teeth with serrated edges,
while those living upon crabs and snails have incisor-like teeth. In some
specimens we find several types of teeth, in others the teeth may be
entirely absent. The teeth are borne not only on the jaws but also in the
roof of the mouth, on the tongue and in the throat.

The ear of the fish has neither outside form nor opening and is very
imperfect in comparison with that of man. Extending along the sides of
the body from head to tail is a line of modified scales containing small
tubes connecting with nerves; this is called the lateral line and it is
believed that it is in some way connected with the fish’s senses, perhaps
with the sense of hearing.

Since fishes must push through water, which is more difficult than
moving through air, they need to have the body well protected. This
protection is, in most fishes, in the form of an armor of scales which are
smooth and allow the body to pass through the water with little friction.
These scales overlap like shingles in a roof and are all directed backward.
The study of the fish scale shows that it grows in layers.

In order to understand how the fish breathes we must examine its gills.
In front, just above the entrance to the gullet are several bony ridges
which bear two rows of pinkish fringes ; these are the gill arches and the
fringes are the gills. The gills are filled with tiny bloodvessels, and as the
water passes over them, the impurities of the blood pass out through the
thin skin of the gills and the life-giving oxygen passes in. Since fish
cannot make use of air unless it is dissolved in water, it is very important

*5*

Handbook of Nature-Study

that the water in the aquarium jar should often be replenished. The gill
arches also bear a series of bony processes called gill-rakers. Their
function is to prevent the escape of food through the gills while it is being
swallowed, and they vary in size according to the food habits of the fish.
We note that the fish in the aquarium constantly opens and closes the
mouth; this action draws the water into the throat and forces it out over
the gills and through the gill openings; this then, is the act of breathing.

LESSON XXXVI
A Study of the Fish

Leading thought — A fish lives in the water where it must breathe, move
and find its food. The water world is quite different from the air world
and the fish have developed forms, senses and habits which fit them for
life in the water.

Method — The goldfish is used as a subject for this lesson because it is
so conveniently kept where the children may see it. However, a shiner
or minnow would do as well.

Before the pupils begin the study, place the diagram shown on p. 150
on the blackboard, with all the parts labelled; thus the pupils will be able
to learn the parts of the fish by consulting it, and not be compelled to
commit them to memory arbitrarily. It would be well to associate the
goldfish with a geography lesson on China.

Observations — 1. Where do fishes live? Do any fishes ever live any
part of their lives on land like the frogs? Could a salt-water fish live in
fresh water, or vice versa ?

2. What is the shape of a fish when seen from above? Where is the
widest part? What is its shape seen from the side ? Think if you can in
how many ways the shape of the fish is adapted for moving swiftly through
the water.

3. How many fins has the fish? Make a sketch of the goldfish with
all its fins and name them from the diagram on the blackboard.

4. How many fins are there in all? Four of these fins are in pairs;
where are they situated? What are they called? Which pair corres-
ponds to our arms? Which to our legs?

5. Describe the pectoral fins. How are they used? Are they kept
constantly moving? Do they move together or alternately? How are
they used when the fish swims backwards?

6. How are the ventral fins used? How do they assist the fish
when swimming?

7. Sketch a dorsal fin. How many spines has it? How many soft
rays are there in it? What is the difference in structure between the stiff
spines in the front of the dorsal fin and the rays in the hind portion? Of
what use to the fish are these two different kinds of fin supports ?

8. Sketch the anal fin. Has it any spines in front? How many
rays has it? How is this fin used when the fish is swimming?

9. With what fin does the fish push itself through the water?
Make a sketch of the tail. Note if it is square, rounded, or notched at the
end. Are the rays of the tail fin spiny or soft in character?

10. Watch the goldfish swim and describe the action of all the fins
while it is in motion. In what position are the fins when the fish is at
rest?

Fisk Study

I53

1 1 . What is the nature of the covering of the fish ? Are the scales
large or small? In which direction do they seem to overlap? Of what
use to the fish is this scaly covering?

12. Can you see a line which extends from the upper part of the gill
opening, along the side to the tail? This is called the lateral line. Do
you think it is of any use to the fish?

13. Note carefully the eyes of the fish. Describe the pupil and the
iris. Are the eyes placed so that the fish can see in all directions? Can
they be moved so as to see better in any direction? Does the fish wink?
Has it any eyelids? Do you know why fish are near-sighted?

14. Can you see the nostrils? Is there a little wartlike projection
connected with the nostril? Do you think fishes breathe through their
nostrils?

15. Describe the mouth of the fish. Does it open upward, down-
ward, or directly in front? What sort of teeth have fish? How does the
fish catch its prey? Does the lower or upper jaw move in the process of
eating?

16. Is the mouth kept always in motion? Do you think the fish is
swallowing water all the time ? Do you know why it does this ? Can you
see a wide opening along the sides of the head behind the gill cover?
Does the gill cover move with the movement of the mouth? How does a
fish breathe ?

17. What are the colors of the goldfish above and below? What
would happen to our beautiful goldfish if they were put in a brook with
other fish? Why could they not hide? Do you know what happens to
the colors of the goldfish when they run wild in our streams and ponds?

18. Can you find in books or cyclopedias where the goldfish came
from? Are they gold and silver in color in the streams where they are
native? Do you think that they had originally the long, slender, swallow
tails which we see sometimes in goldfish? How have the beautiful colors
and graceful forms of the gold and silver fishes been developed?

“I have my world, and so have you ,

A tiny universe for two,

A bubble by the artist blown,

Scarcely more fragile than our own.
Where you have all a whale could wish,
Happy as Eden's primal fish.

Manna is dropt you thrice a day
From some kind heaven not far away,
And sUll you snatch its softening crumbs,
Nor, more than we, think whence it comes.
No toil seems yours but to explore
Your cloistered realm from shore to shore;
Sometimes you trace its limits round,
Sometimes its limpid depths you sound,
Or hover motionless midway,

Like gold-red clouds at set of day;
Erelong you whirl with sudden whim

— “The

Off to your globe's most distant rim.
Where, greatened by the watery lens,
Methinks no dragon of the fens
Flashed huger scales against the sky,
Roused by Sir Bevis or Sir Guy;

And the one eye that meets my view,
Lidless and strangely largening, too.
Like that of conscience in the dark,
Seems to make me its single mark.

What a benignant lot is yours
That have an own All-out-of-doors ,

No words to spell, no sums to do.

No Nepos and no parlyvoo!

How happy you, without a thought
Of such cross things as Must and Ought —
I too the happiest of boys
To see and share your golden joys!”
Oracle of the Goldfishes,” Lowell,

154

Handbook of Nature-Study

Bullhead at bottom of a pond.
Photo by Verne Morton.

THE BULLHEAD

Teacher's Story

The bull-head does usually dwell and hide himself in holes or amongst stones in
clear water; and in very hot days will lie a long time very still and sun himself and will
be easy to be seen on any flat stone or gravel; at which time he will suffer an angler to
put a hook baited with a small worm very near into his mouth; and he never refuses to
bite , no'hindeed, to be caught with the worst of anglers.” — Isaak Walton.

HEN one looks a bullhead in the face one is
glad that it is not a real bull for its barbels
give it an appearance quite fit for the
making of a nightmare; and yet from
the standpoint of the bullhead, how
truly beautiful those fleshy feelers are!
For without them how could it feel its
way about searching for food in the
mud where it lives? Two of these barbels stand straight up; the
two largest ones stand out on each side of the mouth, and two pairs of
short ones adorn the lower lip, the smallest pair at the middle.

As the fish moves about, it is easy to see that the large barbels at the
side of the mouth are of the greatest use; it keeps them in a constantly
advancing movement, feeling of everything it meets. The upper ones
stand straight up, keeping watch for whatever news there may be from
above; the two lower ones spread apart and follow rather than precede
the fish, seeming >.o test what lies below. The upper and lower pairs seem
to test things as they are, while the large side pair deal with what is going
to be. The broad mouth seems to be formed for taking in all things eatable,
for the bullhead lives on almost anything alive or dead that it discovers as it
noses about in the mud. Nevertheless, it has its notions about its food
for I have repeatedly seen one draw material into its mouth through its
breathing motion and then spew it out with a vehemence one would hardly
expect from such a phlegmatic fish.

Fish Study

155

Although it has feelers which are very efficient, it also has perfectly
good eyes which it uses to excellent purpose; note how promptly it moves
to the other side of the aquarium when we are trying to study it. The eyes
are not large ; the pupils are black and oval and are rimmed with a narrow
band of shiny pale yellow. The eyes are prominent so that when moved
backward and forward they gain a view of the enemy in the rear or at the
front while the head is motionless. It seems strange to see such a pair of
pale yellow, almost white eyes in such a dark body.

The general shape of the front part of the body is flat, in fact, it is
decidedly polywogy; this shape is especially fitted for groping about
muddy bottoms. The flat effect of the body is emphasized by the gill
covers opening below rather than at the sides, every pulsation widening
the broad neck. The pectoral fins also open out on the same plane as the
body although they can be turned at an angle if necessary; they are thick
and fleshy and the sharp tips of their spines offer punishment to whom-
soever touches them. The dorsal fin is far forward and not large; it is
usually raised at a threatening angle.

There is a little fleshy dorsal fin near the tail which stands in line with
the body and one wonders what is its special use. The ventral fins are
small. The anal fin is far back and rather strong, and this with the long,
strong tail gives the fish good motor power and it can swim very rapidly
if occasion requires.

The bullhead is mud-colored and has no scales; and since it lives in the
mud, it does not need scales to protect it; but because of its scaleless con-
dition it is a constant victim of the lampreys, and it would do well,
:ndeed, if it could develop an armor of scales against this parasite. The

Bullhead guarding his nest ,
After Gill.

Handbook of N atur e-Study

156

skin is very thick and leathery so that it is always removed before the fish
is cooked. The bullhead is the earliest fish of the spring. This is
probably because it burrows deep into the mud in the fall and remains
there all winter ; when the spring freshets come, it emerges and is hungry
for fresh meat.

The family life of the bullheads and other catfishes seems to be quite
ideal. Dr. Theodore Gill tells us that bullheads make their nests by
removing stones and gravel from a more or less irregularly circular area
in shallow water, and on sandy or gravelly ground. The nest is somewhat
excavated, both parents removing the pebbles by sucking them into the
mouth and carrying them off for some distance. After the eggs are laid,
the male watches over and guards the nest and seems to have great family
responsibilities. He is the more active of the two in stirring and mixing
the young fry after they are hatched. Smith and Harron describe the
process thus: “With their chins on the bottom, the old fish brush the

comers where the fry were banked, and with the barbels all directed for-
ward, and flexed where they touch the bottom, thoroughly agitate the
mass of fry, bringing the deepest individuals to the surface. This act is
usually repeated several times in quick succession.”

“The nests are usually made beneath logs or other protecting objects
and in shallow water. The paternal care is continued for many days
after the birth of the young. At first these may be crowded together in
a dense mass, but as time passes they disperse more and more and spread
around the father. Frequently, especially when the old one is feeding,
some — one or more — of the young are taken into the mouth, but they are
instinctively separated from the food and spit out. At last the young
swarm venture farther from their birthplace, or perhaps they are led
away by their parents.”

LESSON XXXVII
The Bullhead, or Horned Pout

Leading thought — The bullhead lives in mud bottoms of streams and
ponds and is particularly adapted for life in such locations.

Method — A small bullhead may be placed in a small aquarium jar.
At first let the water be clear and add a little pond weed so as to observe
the natural tendency of the fish to hide. Later add mud and gravel to the
aquarium and note the behavior of the fish.

Observations — 1. What at the first glance distinguishes the bullhead
from other fish? Describe these strange “’whiskers” growing about the
mouth; how many are there and where are they situated? Which are
the longest pair? Can the fish move them in any direction at will?

2. Where do we find bullheads? On what do they feed? Would
their eyes help them to find their food in the mud? How do they find it?

3. Explain, if you can, why the bullhead has barbels, or feelers,
while the trout and bass have none.

4. What is the shape of the bullhead’s mouth?

5. What is the general shape of the body? What is its color? Has
it any scales ?

6. Why should the bullhead be so flat horizontally while the sun-
fish is so flat in the opposite direction?

Fish Study

i57

7. Describe the bullhead’s eyes. Are they large? What is their
color? Where are they placed?

8. Describe the dorsal fin, giving its comparative size and position.
Do you see another dorsal fin? Where is this peculiar fin and how does it
differ from the others?

9. Describe the tail fin. Does it seem long and strong? Is the
bullhead a good swimmer?

10. Is the anal fin large or small as compared with that of the gold-
fish?

1 1 . How do the pectoral fins move as compared with those of the

sunfish ? Why is the position of the pectoral and dorsal fins of benefit to

this fish?

12. How does the bullhead inflict wounds when it is handled? Tell
how these spines protect it from its natural enemies.

13. When is the best season for fishing for bullheads? Does the
place where they are found affect the flavor of their flesh? Why?

14. What is the spawning season? Do you know about the nests
the bullheads build and the care they give their young?

15. Write an essay on the nest-making habits of the bullheads and
the care given the young by the parents.

“ And what fish will the natural hoy naturally take? In America, there is but one
fish which enters fully into the spirit of the occasion. It is a fish of many species
according to the part of the country, and of as many sizes as there are sizes of boys.
This fish is the horned pout, and all the rest of the species of Ameiurus. Horned pout
is its Boston name. Bullhead is good enough for New York; and for the rest of the
country, big and little, all the fishes of this tribe are called catfish. A catfish is a jolly
blundering sort of a fish, a regular Falstaff of the ponds. It has a fat jowl, and a fat
belly, which it is always trying to fill. Smooth and sleek, its skin is almost human in its
delicacy. It wears a long mustache, with scattering whiskers of other sort. Mean-
while it always goes armed with a sword, three swords, and these it has always on hand,
always ready for a struggle on land as well as in the water. The small boy often gets
badly stuck on these poisoned daggers, but, as the fish knows how to set them by a mus-
cular twist, the small boy learns how , by a like untwist, he may unset and leave them
harmless.

The catfish lives in sluggish waters. It loves the millpond best of all, and it has no
foolish dread of hooks when it goes forth to bite. Its mouth is wide. It swallows the
hook, and very soon it is in the air, its white throat gasping in the untried element. Soon
it joins its fellows on the forked stick, and even then, uncomfortable as it may find its
new relations, it never loses sight of the humor of the occasion. Its large head and
expansive forehead betoken a large mind. It is the only fish whose brain contains a
Sylvian fissure, a piling up of tissue consequent on the abundance of gray matter. So
it understands ana makes no complaint. After it has dried in the sun for an hour, pour
a little water over its gills, and it will wag its tail , and squeak with gratitude. And the
best of all is, there are horned pouts enough to go around.”

“ The female horned pout lays thousands of eggs, and when these hatch, she goes
about near the shore with her school of little fishes, like a hen with myriad chicks. She
should be respected and let alone, for on her success in rearing this breed of “ bullying
little ranger s’^ depends the sport of the small boy of the future.”

— David Starr Jordan, in Fish Stories.

Handbook of Nature-Study

158

Fishing for suckers.
Photo by Verne Morton.

THE COMMON SUCKER

Teacher's Story

yE who loves to peer down into the depths of still waters, often
sees upon the sandy, muddy or rocky bottom several
? long, wedge-shaped sticks lying at various angles one to
\ another. But if he thrust down a real stick, behold, these
[ inert, water-logged sticks move off deftly! And then he
i knows that they are suckers. He may drop a hook baited
with a worm in front of the nose of one, and if he waits
long enough before he pulls up he may catch this fish, not by its gills
but by the pit of its stomach ; for it not only swallows'] the hook com-
pletely but tries to digest it along with the worm. Its food is made up
of soft-bodied insects and other small water creatures; it is also a mud
eater and manages to make a digestive selection from the organic
material of silt. For this latter reason, it is not a desirable food fish
although its flesh varies in flavor with the locality where it is found.
The suckers taken along the rocky shores of Cayuga Lake are fairly
palatable, while those taken in the mud of the Cayuga Inlet are very in-
ferior in flavor and often uneatable.

Seen from above, the sucker is wedge-shaped, being widest at the eyes;
seen from the side it has a flat lower surface and an ungracefully rounded
contour above which tapers only slightly toward the tail. The profile of the
face gives the impression of a Roman nose. The young specimens have
an irregular scale-mosaic pattern of olive-green blotches on a paler ground
color, while the old ones are quite brown above and on the sides. The
suckers differ from most other fishes in having the markings of the back
extend down the sides almost to the belly. This is a help in concealing
the fish, since its sides show from above quite as distinctly as its back

Fish Study

159

because of its peculiar form. The scales are rather large and are notice-
ably larger behind than in the region of the head. Like other fish it is
white below.

The dorsal fin is placed about midway the length of the fish as measured
from nose to tail. It is not large and appears to have twelve rays; but
there is a short spine in front and a delicate Soft ray behind so that it
really has fourteen. The tail is long and strong and deeply notched:
the anal fin extends back to where the tail begins. The ventral fins are
small and are directly opposite the hind half of the dorsal fin. The pec-
torals are not large but are strong and are placed low down. The sucker
has not a lavish equipment of fins but its tail is strong and it can swim
swiftly; it is also a tremendous jumper; it will jump from the aquarium
more successfully than any other fish. When resting on the bottom, it is
supported by its extended pectoral and ventral fins, which are strong
although not large.

The eyes are fairly large but the iris is not shiny; they are placed so
that the fish can easily see above it as well as at the sides; the eyes
move so as to look up or down and are very well adapted to serve a fish
that lives upon the bottom. The nostrils are divided, the partition pro-
jecting until it seems a tubercle on the face. The mouth opens below and
looks like the puckered opening of a bag. The lips are thick but are very
sensitive; it is by projecting these lips, in a way that reminds one of a
very short elephant’s trunk, that it is enabled to reach and find its food
in the mud or gravel; so although the sucker’s mouth is not a beautiful
feature, it is doubly useful. The sucker has the habit of remaining
motionless for long periods of time. It breathes very slowly and appears
sluggish; it never seizes its food with any spirit but simply slowly en-
gulfs it; and for this reason it is considered poor game. It is only in the
spring when they may be speared through the .ice that there is any fun in
catching suckers; it is at this season of the year that they move to shallow
water to spawn; those in the lakes move to the rivers, those in the rivers
to the creeks, those in the creeks to the brooks. Even so lowly a creature
as the sucker seems to respond to influences of the springtime, for at that
period the male has a faint rosy stripe along his sides. In the winter these
fish burrow in the mud of the river or pond bottoms; they may be frozen
and thawed without harming them.

There are many species of suckers and they vary in size from six
inches to three feet in length. They inhabit all sorts of waters, but they
do not like a strong current and are, therefore, found in still pools. The
common sucker ( Catostomus commersoni), which is the subject of this
lesson, sometimes attains the length of twenty-two inches and the weight
of five pounds. The ones under observation were about eight inches
long, and proved to be the acrobats of the aquarium, since they were
likely at any moment to jump out; several times I found one languishing
on the floor.

160 Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON XXXVIII
The Common Sucker

Leading thought — The sucker is especially adapted by shape for lying
on the bottom of ponds under still water where its food is abundant.

Method — If still water pools along river or lakesides are accessible, it is
far more interesting to study a sucker in its native haunts, as an introduc-
tion to the study of its form and colors when it is in the aquarium.

Observations — i. Where do you find suckers? How do you catch
them? Do they take the hook quickly? What is the natural food of the
sucker?

2. What is the shape of this fish’s body when seen from above?
From the side? What is the color above? On the sides? Below? Does
the sucker differ from most other fishes in the coloring along its sides?
What is the reason for this? What do suckers look like on the bottom
of the pond ? Are they easily seen ?

3. Describe or sketch a sucker, showing the position, size and shape
of the fins and tail. Are its scales large or small? How does it use its
fins when at rest ? When moving? Is it a strong swimmer? Is it a high
jumper?

4. Describe the eyes; how are they especially adapted in position
and in movement to the needs of a fish that lives on the bottom of streams
and ponds?

5. Note the nostrils; what is there peculiar about them?

6. Where is the mouth of the sucker situated? What is its form ?
How is it adapted to get the food which the sucker likes best?

7. Tell all you know about the habits of the suckers. When do you
see them first in the spring? Where do they spend the winter? Where
do they go to spawn ? How large is the largest one you have ever seen ?
Why is their flesh usually considered poor in quality as food? Is there a
difference in the flavor of its flesh depending upon the locality in which
the fish lives ? Why?

Fish Study 161

“I'm only wishing to go a fishing.'*

THE SHINER
Teacher's Story

“This is a noteworthy and characteristic lineament , or cipher, or hieroglyphic, or
type of spring. You look into some clear, sandy bottomed brook where it spreads into a
deeper bay, yet flowing cold from ice and snow not far off, and see indistinctly poised
over the sand on invisible fins, the outlines of the shiner, scarcely to be distinguished
from the sands behind it as if it were transparent .” — Thoreau.

HERE are many species of shiners and it is by no means
easy to recognize them nor to distinguish them from
chub, dace and minnows since all these belong to one
family; they all have the same arrangement of fins and
live in the same water; and the plan of this lesson can
with few changes be applied to any of them.

Never were seen more exquisite colors than shimmer
along the sides of the common shiner ( Notropis cor-
nutus) It is pale olive-green above, just a sunny brook-color, this is
bordered at the sides by a line of iridescent blue-purple, while the shining
silver scales on the sides below, flash and glimmer with the changing hues
of the rainbow. The minnows are darker than the shiners; the horned
dace develops little tubercles on the head during the breeding season
which are lost later.

The body of the shiner is ideal for slipping through the water. Seen
from above it is a narrow^ wedge, rounded in front and tapering to a point
behind; from the side, it is long, oval, lance-shaped. The scales are large

102

Handbook of Nature-Study

and beautiful, the lateral line looks like a series of dots embroidered at the
center of the diamond-shaped scales.

The dorsal fin is placed just back of the center of the body and is not
very large; it is composed of soft rays, the first two being stiff and un-
branched. The tail is long, large, graceful and deeply notched. The
anal fin is almost as large as the dorsal. The ventral pair is placed on
the lower side, opposite the dorsal fin ; the pectorals are set at the lower
margin of the body, just behind the gill openings. The shiner and its
relatives use the pectoral fins to aid in swimming, and keep them constantly
in motion when moving through the water. The ventrals are moved only
now and then and evidently help in keeping the balance. When the fish
moves rapidly forward, the dorsal fin is raised so that its front edge stands
at right angles to the body and the ventral and anal fins are expanded to
their fullest extent. But when the fish is lounging, the dorsal, anal and
ventral fins are more or less closed, although the tip of the dorsal fin swings
with every movement of the fish.

The eyes are large, the pupils being very large and black; the iris is
pale yellow and shining; the whole eye is capable of much movement
forward and back. The nostril is divided by a little projecting partition
which looks like a tubercle. The mouth is at the front of the head; to
see the capabilities of this mouth, watch the shiner yawn, if the water of
the aquarium becomes stale. Poor fellow! He yawns just as we do in
the effort to get more oxygen.

The shiners are essentially brook fish although they may be found in
larger bodies of water. They lead a precarious existence, for the larger
fish eat them in all their stages. They only hold their own by laying
countless numbers of eggs. They feed on water insects and get even with
their big fish enemies by eating their eggs. They are pretty and graceful
little creatures and may be seen swimming up the current in the middle of
the brook. They often occur in schools or flocks, especially when young.

The common shiner.

163

Fish Study

LESSON XXXIX

The Shiner

Leading thought — The shiners are among the most common of the little
fish in our small streams. They are beautiful in form and play an
important part in the life of our streams.

Method — Place in the aquarium shiners and as many as possible of the
other species of small fish found in our creeks and brooks. The aquarium
should stand where the pupil may see it often. The following questions
may be asked, giving the children plenty of time for the work of observa-
tion:

Observations — 1 . Do you know how the shiner differs in appearance
from the minnow and chub and dace ?

2. What is the shape of the shiner’s body when seen from above?
When seen from the side ? Do you think that its shape fits it for moving
rapidly through the water?

3. What is the coloring above ? On the sides? Below?

4. Are the scales large and distinct, or very small? Can you see the
lateral line ? Where are the tiny holes, which make this line, placed in the
scales ?

5. Describe or sketch the fish, showing position, relative size and
shape of all the fins and the tail.

6. Describe the use and movements of each of the fins when the fish
is swimming.

7. Describe the eyes. Do they move?

8. Describe the nostrils. Do you think each one is double?

9. Does the mouth open upwards, downwards or forwards? Have
you ever seen the shiner yawn ? Why does it yawn ? Why do you yawn ?

10. Where do you find the shiners living? Do they haunt the
middle of the stream or the edges? Do you ever see them in flocks or
schools ?

MINNOWS

How silent comes the water round that bend;

Not the minutest whisper does it send
To the o'er hanging sallows; blades of grass
Slowly across the chequer'd shadows pass,

Why, you might read two sonnets, ere they reach
To where the hurrying freshnesses aye preach
A natural sermon o'er their pebbly beds;

Where swarms of minnows show their little heads ,

Staying their wavy bodies 'gainst the streams.

To taste the luxury of sunny beams
Tempered with coolness. How they ever wrestle
With their own sweet delight, and ever nestle
Their silver bellies on the pebbly sand!

If you but scantily hold out the hand.

That very instant not one will remain;

But turn your eye, and there they are again.

The ripples seem right glad to reach those cresses.

And cool themselves among the em'rald tresses;

The while they cool themselves, they freshness give,

And moisture, that the bowery green may live.

— John Keats.

164

Handbook of Nature-Study

A speckled trout on a brook bottom.
Photo by Verne Morton.

THE BROOK TROUT

T eacher’s Story

“ Up and down the brook I ran, where beneath the banks so steep ,

Lie the spotted trout asleep.'” — Whittier.

UT they were probably not asleep as Mr. Whittier might
have observed if he had cast a fly near one of them.
There is in the very haunts of the trout, a suggestion of
where it gets its vigor and wariness: The cold, clear

streams where the water is pure; brooks that wind in
and out over rocky and pebbly beds, here shaded
by trees and there dashing through the open, — it makes
us feel vigorous even to think of such, streams. Under the overhanging
bank or in the shade of some fallen log or shelving rock, the brook trout
hides where he may see all that goes on in the world above and around
him without being himself seen. Woe to the unfortunate insect that falls
upon the surface of the water in his vicinity or even that flies low over the
surface for the trout will jump easily far out of the water to seize its prey!
It is this habit of taking the insect upon and above the water’s surface
which has made trout fly-fishing the sport that it is. Man’s ingenuity is
fairly matched against the trout’s cunning in this contest. I know of one
old trout that has kept fishermen in the region around on the qui vive for
years; and up to date he is still alive, making a dash now and then at a
tempting bait, showing himself enough to tantalize his would-be captors
with his splendid size, but always retiring at the sight of the line.

The brook trout varies much in color, depending upon the soil and the
rocks of the streams in which it lives. Its back is marbled with dark
olive or black, making it just the color of shaded water. This marbled
coloration also marks the dorsal and the tail fins. The sides, which vary
much in color, are marked with beautiful vermilion spots, each placed in
the center of a larger, brownish spot. In some instances the lower surface

Fish Study

165

is reddish, in others whitish. All the fins on the lower side of the body
have the front edges creamy or yellowish white, with a darker streak
behind.

The trout’s head is quite large and somewhat blunt. The large eye is
a little in front of the middle of the head. The dorsal fin is at about the
middle of the body, and when raised is squarish in outline. Behind the
dorsal fin, and near to the tail is the little, fleshy adipose fin, so called
because it has no rays. The tail is fan-shaped, slightly notched at the end
and is large and strong. The anal fin is rather large, being shaped much
like the dorsal fin, only slightly smaller. The ventral fins are directly
below the dorsal fin and a little behind its middle. The pectorals are
low down, being below and just behind the gill arches.

In size the brook trout seldom is longer than seven or eight inches, but
in the rivers of the Northeastern United States specimens weighing from
six to eleven pounds are sometimes taken. It does not flourish in water
which is warmer than 68°, but prefers a temperature of about 50°. It
must have the pure water of mountain streams and cannot endure water
of rivers which is polluted by mills or the refuse of cities. Where it has
access to streams that flow into the ocean, it forms the salt water habit,
going out to sea and remaining there during the winter. Such specimens
become very large.

The trout can lay eggs when about six inches in length. The eggs are
laid from September until late November, although, as Mr. Bream says,
the brook trout are spawned at some locality in almost every month of the
year except mid-summer. One mother trout lays from 400 to 600 eggs,
but the large-sized ones lay more. The period of hatching depends upon
the temperature of the water. In depositing their eggs the trout seek
water with gravelly bottom, often where some mountain brook opens into

Where the trout hide.

i66

Handbook of Nature -Study

a larger stream. The nest is shaped by the tail of the fish, the larger
stones being carried away in the mouth. To make the precious eggs
secure they are covered with gravel.

There have been strict laws enacted by almost all of our states with
a view to protecting the brook trout and preserving it in our streams.
The open season in New York is from the 15th of April to the 1st of Sep-
tember, and it is illegal to take from a stream a fish that is less than five
inches in length. It is the duty of every decent citizen to abide by these
laws and to see to it that his neighbors observe them. The teacher cannot
emphasize enough upon the child the moral value of being law-abiding.
There should be in every school in the Union children's clubs which should
have for their purpose civic honesty and the enforcement of laws which
affect the city, village or township.

Almost any stream with suitable water may be stocked with trout from
the national or the state hatcheries, but what is the use of this expense if
the game laws are not observed and these fish are caught before they reach
maturity, as is so often the case?

References — American Food and Game Fishes, Jordan & Everman;
Guide to American Fishes, Jordan.

LESSON XL
The Brook Trout

Leading thought — The brook trout have been exterminated in our
streams largely because the game laws have not been observed. The
trout is the most cunning and beautiful of our common fishes and the most
valuable for food. If properly guarded, every pure mountain stream in
our country, could be well stocked with the brook trout.

Method — A trout may be kept in an aquarium of flowing water in-
definitely and should be fed upon liver and hard clams chopped. If there
is no aquarium with running water, the trout may be kept in an ordinary
jar long enough for this lesson. The object of this lesson should be not
only the study of the habits of the fish, but also a lesson in its preserva-
tion.

Observations — 1. In what streams are the brook trout found?

Must the water be warm or cold? Can the trout live in impure water?
Can it live in salt water?

2. Do the trout swim about in schools or do they live solitary?
Where do they like to hide?

3. With what kind of bait is trout caught? Why does it afford
such excellent sport for fly-fishing? Can you tell what the food of the
trout is ?

4. What is the color of the trout above? Wrhat colors along its
sides? What markings make the fish so beautiful? What is its color
below ? Has the trout scales ? Do you see the lateral line ?

5. What is the general shape of the brook trout? Describe the
shape, position and color of the dorsal fin. Describe the little fin behind
the dorsal. Why is it unlike the other fins? What is the shape of the
tail fin? Is it rounded, square or crescent-shaped across the end? What
is the position and size of the anal fin compared with the dorsal? What
colors on the ventral fins and where are they placed in relation to the

Fish Study 167

dorsal fin? What color are the pectoral fins and how are they placed in
relation to the gill arches?

6. Describe the trout’s eyes. Are they large and alert? Do you
think the trout is keen-sighted?

7. When and where are the eggs laid? Describe how the nest is
made. How are the eggs covered and protected ?

8. Why are there no trout in the streams of your neighborhood?
Could a trout live in these streams? Can you get state aid in stocking the
streams?

9. What are the game laws concerning trout fishing? When is the
open season? How long must the trout be to be taken legally? If you
are a good citizen what do you do about the game laws?

10. Write a story telling all you know about the wariness, cunning
and strength of the brook trout.

Supplementary reading — The following from Fish Stories by Holder
and Jordan: “The Trout of Los Laurelles;” “The Golden Trout of the

High Sierras;” “The Lure of the Rainbow.” “The Story of the Salmon” in
Science Sketches, “ The Master of the Golden Pool” in Watchers of the
Trails; The Story of the Fishes, Baskett; Neighbors with Wings and
Fins, Johonnet.

TROUT

“ It is well for anglers not to make trout, of all fishes, the prime objective of a day’s
sport , as no more uncertain game loves the sunlight. Today he is yours for the very
asking , tomorrow, the most luscious lure will not tempt him. One hour he defies you,
the next, gazes at you from some ensconcement of the fishes, and knows you not, as you
pass him, casting, by.

I believe I accumulated some of this angling wisdom years ago, in a certain trout
domain in New England, where there were streams and pools, ripples, cascades and
drooping trees; where everything was fair and promising to the eyes for trout; but it
required superhuman patience to lure them, and many a day I scored a blank. Yet on
these very days when lures were unavailing, the creel empty save for fern leaves, I found
they were not for naught; that the real fishing day ivas a composite of the weather, the
wind, even if it was from the east, the splendid colors of forest trees, the blue tourmaline
of the sky that topped the stream amid the trees, the flecks of cloud mirrored on the sur-
face. The delight of anticipation, the casting, the play of the rod, the exercise of skill, the
quick turns in the steam opening up new vistas, the little openings in the forest, through
which were seen distant meadows and nodding flowers — all these went to make up the real
trout fishing, the actual catch being but an incident among many delights.

Just how long one could be content with mere scenery in lieu of trout, I am not pre-
pared to say; if pushed to the wall, I confess that when fishing l prefer trout to scenic
effects. Still, it is a very impracticable and delightful sentiment with some truth to it,
the moral being that the angler should be resourceful, and not be entirely cast down on the
days when the wind is in the cast

/ am aware that this method of angling is not in vogue with some, and would be
deemed fanciful, indeed inane, by many more; yet it is based upon a true and homely
philosophy, not of today, the philosophy of patience and contentment. “How poor are
they that have not patience," said Othello. It is well to be content with things as we find
them, and it is well to go a-fishing, not to catch fish alone, but every offering the day has
to give. This should be an easy matter for the angler, as Walton tells us that Angling is
somewhat like poetry, men are 10 be born so"

— Fish Stories, Jordan and Holder.

168

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE STICKLEBACK
Teacher's Story

IS is certainly the most sagacious of the
Lilliputian vertebrates; scarcely more
than an inch in length when full-grown, it
gazes at you with large, keen, shining-
rimmed eyes, takes your measure and
darts off with a flirt of the tail that says
plainly, “Catch me if you can.” The
sticklebacks are delightful aquarium pets
because their natural home is in still
water sufficiently stagnant for algas to
grow luxuriously; thus we but seldom
need to change the water in the aquari-
um, which, however, should be well
stocked with water plants and have gravel
at the bottom.

When the stickleback is not resting he
is always going somewhere and he
knows just where he is going and what he
is going to do, and earthquakes shall not
deter him. He is the most dynamic
creature in all creation, I think, except perhaps the dragon fly, and
he is so ferocious that if he were as large as a shark he would destroy all
other fishes. Place an earthworm, cut into small sections, in the aquari-
um and while each section is wriggingly considering whether it may be
able to grow both ends into another worm , the stickleback takes hold
with a will and settles the matter in the negative. His ferocity is
frightful to behold as he seizes his prey and shakes it as a terrier does a rat.

Well is this fish named stickleback, for along the ridge of its back are
sharp, strong spines — five of them in our tiny, brook species. These
spines may be laid back flat or they may be erected stiffly, making an
efficient saw which does great damage to fish many times larger than the
stickleback. When we find the minnows in the aquarium losing their
scales we may be sure they are being raked off by this saw-back; and if
the shiner or sunfish undertakes to make a stickleback meal, there is
only one way to do it, and that is to catch the quarry by the tail, since he is
too alert to be caught in any other way. But swallowing a stickleback
tail first is a dangerous performance, for the sharp spines rip open the
throat or stomach of the captor. Dr. Jordan says that the sticklebacks
of the Puget Sound region are called “salmon killers” and that they well
earn the name; these fierce midgets unhesitatingly attack the salmon,
biting off pieces of their fins and also destroying their spawn.

As seen from the side, the stickleback is slender and graceful, pointed
like an arrow at the front end, and with the body behind the dorsal fin
forming a long and slender pedicel to support the beautifully rounded tail
fin. The dorsal fin is placed well back and is triangular in shape; the
anal fin makes a similar triangle opposite it below and has a sharp spine
at its front edge. The color of the body varies with the light; when
floating among the water weed the back is greenish mottled with paler
green, but when the fish is down on the gravel it is much darker. The
lateral line is marked by a rather broad silver stripe.

Fish Study

169

If large eyes count for beauty, then the stickleback deserves “the
apple,” for its eyes are not only large but gemlike, with a broad iris of
golden brown around the black pupil. I am convinced that the stickle-
back has a keener vision than most fish; it can move its eyes backward
and forward rapidly and alertly. The mouth opens almost upward and
is a wicked little mouth, both in appearance and action.

When swimming, the stickleback darts about rapidly, its dorsal and
anal fins extended, its spines all abristle, its tail lashing the water with
strong strokes and the pectorals flying so fast that they make a blur; the
ventral fins are rarely extended, in fact they are nothing but two little
spines. When the fish wishes to lift itself through the water it seems to
depend entirely upon its pectoral fins and these are also used for balanc-
ing. Its favorite position is hanging motionless among the pond weeds,
with the tail, the dorsal and ventral fins partially closed; it usually rests
upon the pectoral fins which are braced against some stem; in one case I
saw the ventrals and pectorals used together to clasp a stem and hold the
fish in place. In moving backward the pectorals do the work, with a
little beckoning motion of the tail occasionally. When resting upon the
bottom of the aquarium, it closes its fins and makes itself quite incon-
spicuous. It can dig with much power accomplishing this by a comical
augerlike motion; it plunges head first into the gravel and then by
twisting the body and tail around and around, it soon forms a hiding
.place.

But it is as a house builder and father and home protector that the
stickleback shines. In the early spring he builds him a nest made from
the fine green algae called frog-spittle. This would seem a too delicate
material for the house construction, but he is a clever builder. He fastens
his filmy walls to some stems of reed or grass, using as a platform
a supporting stem; the ones which I have especially studied were fastened
to grass stems. The stickleback has a little cement plant of his own, sup-
posed to be situated in the kidneys, which at this time of year secrete the
glue for building purposes. The glue is waterproof. It is spun out in
fine threads or in filmy masses through an opening near the anal fin.
One species weights his platform with sand which he scoops up from the
bottom, but I cannot detect that our brook stickleback does this. In his
case, home is his sphere literally, for he builds a spherical house about the
size of a glass marble, three-quarters of an inch in diameter; it is a hollow
sphere and he cements the inside walls so as to hold them back and give
room, and he finishes his pretty structure with a circular door at the side.
When finished, the nest is like a bubble, made of threads of down and yet
it holds together strongly.

In the case of the best known species, the male, as soon as he has
finished his bower to his satisfaction, goes a-wooing; he selects some lady
stickleback, and in his own way tells her of the beautiful nest he has made
and convinces her of his ability to take care of a family. He certainly has
fetching ways for he. soon conducts her to his home. She enters the nest
through the little circular door, lays her eggs within it, and then being a
flighty creature, she sheds responsibilities and flits off care free. He
follows her into the nest, scatters the fertilizing milt over the eggs and
then starts off again and rolls his golden eyes on some other lady stickle-
back and invites her also to his home; she comes without any jealousy
because she was not first choice, and she also enters the nest and lays her

i7°

Handbook of Nature-Study

eggs and then swims off unconcernedly. Again he enters the nest and
drops more milt upon the eggs and then fares forth again, a still energetic
wooer. If there was ever a justified polygamist, he is one, since it is only
the cares and responsibilities of the home that he desires. He only stops
wooing when his nest holds as many eggs as hs feels equal to caring for.
He now stands on guard by the door, and with his winnowing pectoral
fins, sets up a current of water over the eggs; he drives off all intruders
with the most vicious attacks, and keeps off many an enemy simply by
a display of reckless fury; thus he stands guard until the eggs hatch and
the tiny little sticklebacks come out of the nest and float off, attaching
themselves by their mouths to the pond weeds until they become strong
enough to scurry around in the water.

Some species arrange two
doors in this spherical nest
so that a current of water
can flow through and over
the eggs. Mr. Eugene Bark-
er, who has made a special
study of the little five-
spined sticklebacks of the
Cayuga Basin, has failed to
find more than one door to
their nests. Mr. Barker
made a most interesting ob-
servation on this stickle-
back’s obsession for father-
hood. He placed in the
aquarium two nests, one of
which was guarded by its
loyal builder, which allowed
himself to be caught rather
than desert his post; the
little guardian soon dis-
covered the unprotected nest and began to move the eggs from it to
his own, carrying them carefully in his mouth. This addition made his
own nest so full that the eggs persistently crowded out of the door, and
he spent much of his time nudging them back with his snout. We saw
this stickleback fill his mouth with algae from the bottom of the
aquarium, and holding himself steady a short distance away, apparent-
ly blow the algae at the nest from a distance of half an inch, and we
wondered if this was his method of laying on his building materials
before he cemented them.

The eggs of this species are white and shining like minute pearls, and
seem to be fastened together in small packages with gelatinous matter.
The mating habits of this species have not been thoroughly studied ; there-
fore,'here is an opportunity for investigation on the part of the boys and
girls.

The five-spined stickleback and his nest.
Photo by Eugene Barker.

Fish Study 1 7 1

LESSON XLI

The Stickleback

Leading thought — The stickleback is the smallest of our common fish.
It lives in stagnant water. The father stickleback builds his pretty nest
of frog-spittle which he watches very carefully.

Method — To find sticklebacks go to a pond of stagnant water which
does not dry up during the year. If it is partly shaded by bushes so much
the better. Take a dip net and dip deeply ; carefully examine all the little
fish in the net by putting them in a Mason jar of water so that you can see
what they are like. The stickleback is easily distinguished by the five
spines along its back. If you collect these fish as early as the first of May
and place several of them in the aquarium with plenty of the algae known
as frog-spittle and other water plants they may perhaps build a nest for
you. They may be fed upon bits of meat or liver chopped very fine or
upon earthworms cut into small sections.

Observations — 1. How did the stickleback get its name? How
many spines has ib? Where are they situated ? Are they always carried
erect? How are these spines used as weapons? How do they act as a
means of safety to the stickleback?

2. Describe or make a sketch showing the shape and position of the
dorsal, the anal, the ventral and the pectoral fins. What is the shape of
the tail? What is the general shape of the fish?

3. What is the color of the sticklebacks? Is the color always the
same? What is the color and position of the lateral line?

4. Describe the eyes. Are they large or small? Can they be
moved? Do you think they can see far?

5. Describe the mouth. Does it open upward, straight ahead or
downward ?

6. When the stickleback is swimming what are the positions and
motions of the dorsal, anal, tail and pectoral fins? Can you see the
ventral pair? Are they extended when the fish is swimming?

7. When resting among the pond weed of the aquarium what fins
does the stickleback use for keeping afloat ? How are the other fins held ?
What fins does it use to move backward? Which ones are used when it
lifts itself from the bottom to the top of the aquarium? How are its fins
placed when it is at rest on the bottom?

8. Drop a piece of earthworm or some liver or fresh meat cut finely
into the aquarium and describe the action of the sticklebacks as they eat
it. How large is a full-grown stickleback?

9. In what kind of ponds do we find sticklebacks? Do you know
how the stickleback nest looks? Of what is it built? How is it sup-
ported? Is there one door or two? Does the father or mother stickle-
back build the nest? Are the young in the nest cared for? At what
time is the nest built?

Supplementary reading — Fish-stories, Chap. XXXVI, Jordan and
Holder.

172

Handbook of Nature-Study

The sunfish likes quiet waters for nesting.

THE SUNFISH
Teacher's Story

HIS little disc of gay color has won many popular names.
It is called pumpkin seed, tobacco box and sunfish
because of its shape, and it is also called bream and
pond fish. I have always wondered that it was not
called chieftain also, for when it raises its dorsal fin
with its saw crest of spines, it looks like the head-dress
of an Indian chief; and surely no warrior ever had a
greater enjoyment in a battle than does this indom-
itable little fish.

The sunfish lives in the eddies of our clear brooks and ponds. It is a
near relative to the rock bass and also of the black bass and it has, accord-
ing to its size, just as gamey qualities as the latter. I once had a sunfish
on my line which made me think I had caught a bass and I do not know
whether I or the mad little pumpkin seed was the most disgusted when I
discovered the truth. I threw him back in the water but his fighting
spirit was up, and he grabbed my hook again within five minutes, which
showed that he had more courage than wisdom; it would have served him
right if I had fried him in a pan, but I never could make up my mind to
kill a fish for the sake of one mouthful of food.

Perhaps of all its names, “pumpkin seed” is the most graphic, for it
resembles this seed in the outlines of its body when seen from the side.
Looked at from above, it has the shape of a powerful craft with smooth.

Fish Study

173

rounded nose and gently swelling and tapering sides ; it is widest at the
eyes and this is a canny arrangement, for these great eyes turn alertly in
every direction; and thus placed they are able to discern the enemy or
the dinner coming from any quarter.

The dorsal fin is a most militant looking organ. It consists of ten
spines, the hind one closely joined to the hind dorsal fin, which is sup-
ported by the soft rays. The three front spines rise successively, one
above another and all are united by the membrane, the upper edge of
which is deeply toothed. The hind dorsal fin is gracefully rounded and
the front and hind fin wo^k independently of each other, the latter often
winnowing the water when the former is laid flat. The tail is strong and
has a notch in the end ; the anal fin has three spines on its front edge and

ten soft rays. Each ventral fin also has a spine at the front edge and is
placed below and slightly behind the pectorals. The pectoral fins, I have
often thought, were the most exquisite and gauzelike in texture of any
fins I have ever seen; they are kept almost constantly in motion and
move in such graceful flowing undulations that it is a joy to look at them.

The eye of the sunfish is very large and quite prominent; the large
black pupil is surrounded by an iris that has shining lavender and bronze
in it, but is more or less clouded above ; the young ones have a pale silver
iris. The eyes move in every direction and are eager and alert in their
expression. The mouth is at the front of the body but it opens upward.
The gill opening is prolonged backward at the upper comer, making an
earlike flap; this, of course, has nothing to do with the fish’s ears, but it is
highly ornamental as it is greenish-black in color, bordered by iridescent,
pale green, with a brilliant orange spot on its hind edge. The colors of
the sunfish are too varied for description and too beautiful to reduce to
mere words. There are dark, dull, greenish or purplish cross-bands
worked out in patterns of scale-mosaic, and between them are bands of
pale iridescent-green, set with black-edged orange spots. But just as we

174

Handbook of Nature-Study

have described his colors our sunfish darts off and all sorts of shimmering,
shining blue, green and purple tints play over his body and he settles down
into another comer of the aquarium, and his colors seem much paler and
we have to describe him over again. The body below is brassy-yellow.

The beautiful colors which the male sunfish dons in spring, he puts at
once to practical use. Professor Reighard says that when courting and
trying to persuade his chosen one to come to his nest and there deposit
her eggs, he faces her, with his gill covers puffed out, the scarlet or orange
spot on the ear-flap standing out bravely, and his black ventral fins spread
wide to show off their patent-leather finish. Thus, does he display him-
self before her and persuade her; but he is rarely allowed to do this in
peace. Other males as brilliant as he arrive on the scene and he must
forsooth stop parading before his lady love in order to fight his rival, and

Male of the sunfish guarding his nest.
After Gill

he fights with as much display of color as he courts. But in the sunfish
duel the participants do not seek to destroy each other but to mutilate
spitefully each other’s fins. The vanquished one with his fins all tom retires
from the field. Professor Gill says: “Meanwhile the male has selected a
spot in very shallow water near the shore, and generally in a mass of
aquatic vegetation, not too large or close together to entirely exclude the
light and heat of the sun, and mostly under an over-hanging plant. The
choice is apt to be in some general strip of shallow water close by the shore
which is favored by many others so that a number of similar nests may
be found close together, although never encroaching on each other.
Each fish slightly excavates and makes a saucer-like basin in the chosen
area which is carefully cleared of all pebbles. Such are removed by
violent jerks of the caudal fin or are taken up by the mouth and carried to
the circular boundary of the nest. An area of fine, clean sand or gravel is
generally the result, but not infrequently, according to Dr. Reighard, the

Fish Study

*75

nest bottom is composed of the rootlets of water plants. The nest has
a diameter of about twice the length of the fish.”

On the nest thus formed, the sunfish belle is invited to deposit her
eggs, which as soon as laid fall to the bottom and become attached
to the gravel at the bottom of the nest by the viscid substance
which surrounds them. Her duty is then done and she departs,
leaving the master in charge of his home and the eggs. If truth be told,
he is not a strict monogamist. Professor Reighard noticed one of these
males which reared in one nest two broods laid at quite different
times by two females. For about a week, depending upon the tem-
perature, the male is absorbed in his care of the eggs and defends his nest
with much ferocity, but after the eggs have hatched he considers his duty
done and lets his progeny take care of themselves as best they may.

Sunfish are easily taken care of in an aquarium, but each should be
kept by himself as they are likely to attack any smaller fish and are most
uncomfortable neighbors. I have kept one of these beautiful, shimmer-
ing pumpkin seeds for nearly a year, by feeding him every alternate day
with an earthworm ; these unfortunate creatures are kept stored in damp
soil in an iron kettle during the winter. When I threw one of them into
the aquarium he would seize it and shake it as a terrier shakes a rat ; but
this was perhaps to make sure of his hold. Once he attempted to take the
second worm directly after the first; but it was a doubtful proceeding,
and the worm reappeared as often as a prim a donna, waving each time a
frenzied farewell to the world.

LESSON XLI
The Sunfish

Leading thought — The pumpkin seeds are very gamey little fishes
which seize the hook with much fierceness. They live in the still waters
of our streams or in ponas and build nests in the spring, in which the eggs
are laid and which they defend valiantly.

Method — The common pumpkin seed in the jar aquarium is all that is
necessary for this lesson. However, it will add much to the interest of
the lesson if the boys who have fished for pumpkin seeds will tell of their
experiences. The children should be stimulated by this lesson to a keetv
interest in the nesting habits of the sunfishes.

Observations — 1. Where are the sunfish found? How do they act
when they take the hook ?

2. What is the general shape of the sunfish’s body as seen from
above? As seen from the side? Why is it called pumpkin seed?

3. Describe the dorsal fin. How many spines has it? How many
soft rays? What is the difference in appearance between the front and
hind dorsal fin? Do the two act together or separately? Describe the
tail fin. Describe the anal fin. Has it any spines? If so, where are they!
Where are the ventral fins in relation to the pectorals? What is there
peculiar about the appearance and movements of the pectoral fins ?

4. Describe the eye of the sunfish. Is it large or small? Is it
placed so that the fish can see on each side? Does the eye move in all
directions ?

5. Describe the position of the mouth. In which direction does it
open?

176

Handbook of Nature-Study

6. What is the color of the upper portion /of the gill opening or
operculum? What is the general color of the sunfish ? Above? Below?
Along the sides? What markings do you see?

7. Where does the sunfish make its nest? Does the father or
mother sunfish make the nest ? Do one or both protect it ? Describe the
nest.

8. How many names do you know for the sunfish? Describe the
actions of your sunfish in the aquarium. How does he act when eating
an earthworm ?

Supplementary reading — Chapters XXX, XXXVI, in Fish Stories,
Jordan and Holder.

“ The lamprey is not a fish at all, only a wicked imitation of one which can deceive
nobody. But there are fishes which are unquestionably fish — fish from gills to tail, from
head to fin, and of these the little sunfish may stand first. He comes up the brook in the
spring, fresh as “ coin just from the mint,” finny arms and legs wide spread, his gills
moving, his mouth opening and shutting rhythmically, his tail wide spread, and ready
for any sudden motion for which his erratic little brain may give the order. The scales
of the sunfish shine with all sorts of scarlet, blue, green and pur pie and golden colors.
There is a black spot on his head which looks like an ear, and sometimes grows out in a
long black flap, which makes the imitation still closer. There are many species of the
sunfish, and there may be half a dozen of them in the same brook, but that makes no
difference ; for our purposes they are all one.

They, lie poised in the water, with all fins spread, strutting like turkey-cocks, snap-
ping at worms and little crustaceans and insects whose only business in the brook is that
the fishes may eat them. When the time comes, the sunfish makes its nest in the fine
gravel, building it with some care — for a fish. When the female has laid her eggs the
male stands guard until the eggs are hatched. His sharp teeth and snappish ways, and
the bigness of his appearance when the fins are all displayed, keep the little fishes away.
Sometimes, in his zeal, he snaps at a hook baited with a worm. He then makes a fierce
fight, and the boy who holds the rod is sure that he has a real fish this time. But when
the sunfish is out of the water, strung on a willow rod, and dried in the sun, the boy sees
that a very little fish can make a good deal of a fuss.”

— David Starr Jordan.

Fish Study

177

The johnny darter likes a swift-flowing brook

THE JOHNNY DARTER

Teacher's Story

“IVe never tired of watching the little Johnny , or Tessellated darter ( Boleosoma
nigrum) , although our earliest aquarium friend, {and the very first specimens showed us
by a rapid ascent of the river weed how ‘a Johnny could climb trees,') he has still many
resources which we have never learned. Whenever we try to catch him with the hand
we begin with all the uncertainty that characterized our first attempts, even if we have
him in a two-quart pail. We may know him by his short fins, his first dorsal having
but nine spines, and by the absence of all color save a soft, yellowish brown, which is
freckled with darker markings. The dark brown on the sides is arranged in seven or
eight W-shaped marks, below which are a few flecks of the same color. Covering the
sides of the back are the wavy markings and dark specks which have given the name of
the “Tessellated Darter but Boleosoma is a preferred name, and we even prefer ‘boly‘
for short. In the spring the males have the head jet black; and this dark color often
extends on the back part of the body, so that the fish looks as if he had been taken by tie*
tail and dipped into a bottle of ink. But with the end of the nuptial season this colt*
disappears and the fish regains his normal, strawy hue.

His actions are rather bird-like ; for he will strike attitudes like a tufted titmoua
and he flies rather than swims through the water. He will, with much perseverance
push his body between a plant and the sides of the aquarium and balance himself on <•-
slender stem. Crouching catlike before a snail shell, he will snap off a horn which thy ■
unlucky owner pushes timidly out. But he is also less dainty and seizing the anim u*
by the head, he dashes the shell against the glass or stones until he pulls the body out w
breaks the shell." — -David Starr Jordan.

The johnny darters are, with the sticklebacks, the most amusing little
fish in the aquarium. They are well called darters since their movements
are so rapid when they are frightened that the eye can scarcely follow
them; and there is something so irresistibly comical in their bright, saucy

i78

Handbook of Nature-Study

eyes, placed almost on top of the head, that no one could help calling one
of them “Johnny.” A “johnny” will look at you from one side, and then
as quick as a flash, will flounce around and study you with the other eye
and then come toward you head-on so that he may take you in with both
eyes; he seems just as interested in the Johnny out of the jar as is the
latter, in the johnny within.

The johnny darter has a queer shaped body for a fish, for the head
and shoulders are the larger part of him; not that he suddenly disappears
into nothingness, by no means! His body is long and very slightly
tapering to the tail; along his lateral line he has a row of olive-brown W’s
worked out in scale-mosaics; and he has some other scale-mosaics also
following a pattern of angular lines and making blotches along his back.
The whole upper part of his body is pale olive, which is a good imitation

of the color of the brook.

The astonished and anxious look on the johnny darter’s face comes
from the peculiar position of the eyes which are set in the top of his fore-
head; they are big, alert eyes, with large black pupils, surrounded by a
shining, pale yellow line at the inner edge of the green iris; and as the
pupil is not set in the center of the eye, the iris above being wider than
below, the result is an astonished look, as from raised eyebrows. The
eyes move, often so swiftly that it gives the impression of winking. The
eyes, the short snout, and the wide mouth give johnny a decidedly frog-
like aspect.

Although he is no
frog, yet johnny darter
seems to be in a fair
way to develop some-
thing to walk upon. His
pectoral fins are large
and strong and the ven-
tral pair are situated
very close to them ; when
he rests upon the gravel he supports himself upon one or both of these
pairs of fins. He rests with the pectoral fins outspread, the sharp points
of the rays taking hold of the gravel like toenails and thus give him the
appearance of walking on his fins ; if you poke him gently, you will find
that he is very firmly planted on his fins so that you can turn him around
as if he were on a pivot. He also uses the pectorals for swimming and
jerks himself along with them in a way that makes one wonder if he could
not swim well without any tail at all. The tail is large and almost straight
across the end and is a most vigorous pusher. There are two dorsal fins ;
the front one has only nine rays ; these are not branched and are therefore
spines; when the fin is raised it appears almost semi-circular in shape.
The hind dorsal fin is much longer and when lifted stands higher than
the front one; its rays are all branched except the front one. As
soon as the johnny stops swimming he shuts the front dorsal fin so that
it can scarcely be detected ; when frightened he shuts both the dorsal fins
and closes the tail and the anal fin and spreads out his paired fins so that
his body lies flat on the bottom; this act always reminds one of the
“freezing” habit of the rabbit. But johnny does not stay scared very
long; he lifts his head up inquisitively, stretching up as far as he is able
on his front feet, that is, his pectorals, in such a comical way that one
can hardly realize he is a fish.

Fish Study

J79

The tail and the dorsal fin of the johnny darter are marked with silver
dots which give them an exquisite spun-glass look ; they are as transparent
as gauze.

The johnny darters live in clear, swift streams where they rest on the
bottom, with the head up stream. Dr. Jordan has said they can climb
up water weed with their paired fins. I have never observed them doing
this but I have often seen one walk around the aquarium on his fins as if
they were little fan-shaped feet ; and when swimming he uses his fins as a
bird uses its wings. There are many species of darters, some of them the
most brilliantly colored of any of our fresh-water fishes. The darters are
perch-like in form.

Dr. Jordan says of the breeding habits of the darters: “On the bot-

tom, among the stones, the female casts her spawn. Neither she nor the
male pays any further attention to it, but in the breeding season the male
is painted in colors as beautiful as those of the wood warblers. When you
go to the brook in the spring you will find him there, and if you catch him
and tarn him over on his side you will see the colors that he' shows to his
mate, and which observation shows are most useful in frightening away
his younger rivals. But do not hurt him. Put him back in the brook
and let him paint its bottom with colors of a rainbow, a sunset or a gar-
den of roses. All that can be done with blue, crimson and green pig-
ments, in fish ornamentation, you will find in some brook in which the
darters live.”

LESSON XLIII
Johnny Darter

Leading thought — The johnny darter naturally rests upon the bottom
of the stream where the current is swift. It uses its two pairs of paired
fins somewhat as feet in a way interesting to observe.

Method — Johnny darters may be caught in nets with other small fry
and placed in the aquarium. Place one or two of them in individual
aquaria where the pupils may observe them at their leisure. They do
best in running water.

Observations — 1. Describe or sketch the johnny darter from above.
From the side. Can you see the W-shaped marks along its side? How is
it colored above ?

2. How are the pectoral fins placed? Are they large or small?
How are they used in swimming? Where are the ventral fins placed?
How are the ventrals and dorsals used together? When resting on the
bottom how are the pectoral fins used?

3. What is there peculiar about the dorsal fins of the johnny
darter? When he is resting, what is the attitude of the dorsal fins?
What is the difference in shape of the rays of the front and hind dorsal
fins?

4. When resting on the bottom of the aquarium how is the body
held? On what does it rest? In moving about the bottom slowly why
does it seem to walk? How does it climb up water weed?

5. When frightened how does it act? Why is it called a darter?
What is the attitude of all the fins when the fish is moving swiftly ?

6. What is the shape of the tail?

i8o

Handbook of Nature-Study

7. What is there peculiar about the eyes of the johnny? Describe
the eyes and their position. What reason is there in the life of the fish
that makes this position of the eyes advantageous?

8. Where do we find the johnny darters? In what part of the
stream do they live ? Are they usually near the surface of the water or at
the bottom?

"To my mind, the best of all subjects for nature-study is a brook. It affords studies
of many kinds. It is near and dear to every child. It is an epitome of the nature in
which we live. In miniature, it illustrates the forces which have shaped much of the
earth's surface. It reflects the sky. It is kissed by the sun. It is rippled by the wind.
The minnows play in the pools. The soft weeds grow in the shallows. The grass and
the dandelions lie on its sunny banks. The moss and the fern are sheltered in the nooks .
It comes from one knows not whence; it flows to one knows not whither. It awakens
the desire to explore. It is fraught with mysteries. It typifies the flood of life. It
goes on forever.

In other words, the reason why the brook is such a perfect nature-study subject is the
fact that it is the central theme in a scene of life. Living things appeal to children ."

“ Nature-study not only educates, but it educates nature-ward ; and nature is ever our
companion, whether we will or no. Even though we are determined to shut ourselves in
an office, nature sends her messengers. The light, the dark, the moon, the cloud, the
rain, the wind, the falling leaf, the fly, the bouquet, the bird, the cockroach — they are all
ours.

If one is to be happy , he must be in sympathy with common things. He must live in
harmony with his environment. One cannot be happy yonder nor tomorrow: he is
happy here and now, or never. Our stock of knowledge of common things should be
great. Few of us can travel. We must know the things at home.

Nature-love tends toward naturalness, and toward simplicity of living. It tends
country-ward. One word from the fields is worth two from the city. “ God made the
country."

I expect, therefore, that much good will come from nature-study. It ought to
revolutionize the school life, for it is capable of putting new force and enthusiasm into
the school and the child. It is new, and therefore, is called a fad. A movement is a fad
until it succeeds. We shall learn much, and shall outgrow some of our present notions ,
but nature-study has come to stay. It is in much the same stage of development theft
manual-training and kindergarten work were twenty-five years ago. We must take care
that it does not crystalize into science-teaching on the one hand, nor fall into mere
sentimentalism on the other.

I would again emphasize the importance of obtaining our fact before we let loose the
imagination, for on this point will largely turn the results — the failure or the success of
the experiment. We must not allow our fancy to run away with us. If we hitch our
wagon to a star, we must ride with mind and soul and body all alert. When we ride in
such a wagon, we must not forget to put in the tail-board.”

— L. H. Bailey in The Nature-Study Idea.

Batrachian Study

181

III. BATRACHIAN STUDY

THE COMMON TOAD
Teacher's Story

“ The toad hopped by us with jolting springs .” — Akers.

HOEVER has not had a pet toad has missed a most
entertaining experience. Toad actions are surpris-
ingly interesting; one of my safeguards against the
blues is the memory of the thoughtful way one of my
pet toads rubbed and patted its stomach with its little
hands after it had swallowed a June-bug. Toads do
not make warts upon attacking hands, neither do they
rain down nor are they found in the bed-rock of
quarries; but they do have a most interesting history of their own,
which is not at all legendary, and which is very like a life with two in-
carnations.

The mother toad lays her eggs in May and June in ponds, or in the still
pools, along streams; the eggs are laid in long strings of jellylike sub-
stance, and are dropped upon the pond bottom or attached to water
weeds; when first deposited, the jelly is transparent and the little black
eggs can be plainly seen; but after a day or two, bits of dirt accumulate
upon the jelly, obscuring the eggs. At first the eggs are spherical, like
tiny black pills, but as they begin to develop, they elongate and finally
the tadpoles may be seen wriggling in the jelly mass, which affords them
efficient protection. After four or five days, the tadpoles usually
work their way out and swim away; at this stage, the only way to detect
the head, is by the direction of the tadpole’s progress, since it naturally
goes head first. However, the head soon becomes decidedly larger,
although at first it is not provided with a mouth; it has instead, a
V-shaped elevation where the mouth should be, which forms a sucker
secreting a sticky substance by means of which the tadpole attaches
itself to water weeds, resting head up. When two or three days old, we
can detect little tassels on either side of the throat, which are the gills
by which the little creature breathes; the blood passes through these
gills, and is purified by coming in contact with the air which is mixed in
the water. About ten days later, these gills disappear beneath a mem-
brane which grows down over them; but they are still used for breathing,
simply having changed position from the outside to the inside of the
throat. The water enters the nostrils to the mouth, passes through an
opening in the throat and flows over the gills and out through a little
opening at the left side of the body; this opening or breathing-pore, can
be easily seen in the larger tadpoles; and when the left arm develops, it is
pushed out through this convenient orifice.

When about ten days old, the tadpole has developed a small, round
mouth which is constantly in search of something to eat, and at the same
time constantly opening and shutting to take in air for the gills; the
mouth is provided with horny jaws for biting off pieces of plants. As the

182

Handbook of Nature-Study

tadpole develops, its mouth gets larger and wider and extends back
beneath the eyes, with a truly toadlike expansiveness.

At first, the tadpole’s eyes are even with the surface of the head and
can scarcely be seen, but later they become more prominent and bulge
like the eyes of the adult toad.

The tail of the tadpole is long and flat, surrounded by a fin, thus
making an organ for swimming. It strikes the water, first this side and
then that, making most graceful curves, which seem to originate near the

Toad's eggs.

Photo by Verne Morton.

body and multiply toward the tip of the tail. This movement propels
the tadpole forward, or in any direction. The tail is very thin when seen
from above; and it is amusing to look at a tadpole from above, and then
at the side; it is like squaring a circle.

There is a superstition that tadpoles eat their tails; and in a sense this
is true, because the material that is in the tail is absorbed into the growing
body; but the last thing a right-minded tadpole would do, would be to
bite off its own tail. However, if some other tadpole should bite off the
tail or a growing leg, these organs conveniently grow anew.

When the tadpole is a month or two old, depending upon the species,
its hind legs begin to show; they first appear as mere buds which finally
push out completely. The feet are long and provided with five toes, of
which the fourth is the longest ; the toes are webbed so that they may be
used to help in swimming. Two weeks later the arms begin to appear,
the left one pushing out through the breathing-pore. The “hands” have
four fingers and are not webbed; they are used in the water for balancing;
while the hind legs are used for pushing, as the tail becomes smaller.

Batrachian Study

183

As the tadpole grows older, not only does its tail become shorter but
its actions change. It now comes often to the surface of the water in
order to get more air for its gills, although it lacks the frog tadpole’s
nice adjustment of the growing lungs and the disappearing gills. At
last some fine rainy day, the little creature feels that it is finally fitted
to live the life of a land animal. It may not be a half inch in
length, with big head, attenuated body and stumpy tail, but it swims to
the shore, lifts itself on its front legs, which are scarcely larger than pins,
and walks off, toeing in, with a very grown up air, and at this moment, the
tadpole attains toadship. Numbers of them come out of the water
together, hopping hither and thither with all of the eagerness and vim of
untried youth. It is when issuing thus in hordes from the water and seen
by the ignorant, that they gain the reputation of being rained down, when
they really were rained up. It is quite impossible for a beginner to detect
the difference between the toad and the frog tadpole ; usually those of the
toads are black, while those of the frogs are otherwise colored, though this
is not an invariable distinction. The best way to distinguish the two is
to get the eggs and develop the two families separately.

The general color of the common American toad is extremely variable.
It may be yellowish-brown, with* spots of lighter color, and with reddish or
yellow warts. There are likely to be four irregular spots of dark color
along each side of the middle of the back, and the under parts are light
colored, often somewhat spotted. The throat of the male toad is black
and he is not so bright m color as is the female. The warts upon the back
are glands, which secrete a substance disagreeable for the animal seeking
toad dinners. This is especially true of the glands in the elongated
swelling or wart, above and just back of the ear, which is Called the
parotid gland; these give forth a milky, poisonous substance when the
toad is seized by an enemy, although the snakes do not seem to mind it.
Some people have an idea that the toad is slimy, but this is not true; the
skin is perfectly dry. The toad feels cold to the hand because it is a cold-
blooded animal, which means an animal with blood the temperature of
the surrounding atmosphere; while the blood of the warm-blooded
animal, has a temperature of its own, which it maintains whether the
surrounding air is cold or hot.

The toad’s face is well worth
study; its eyes are elevated
and very pretty, the pupil being
oval and the surrounding iris
shining like gold. The toad
winks in a wholesale fashion, the
eyes being pulled down into the
head ; the eyes are provided with
nictitating lids, which rise from
below, and are similar to those
found in birds. When a toad is
sleeping, its eyes do not bulge
but are drawn in, so as to lie even
with the surface of the head.

The two tiny nostrils are black
and are easily seen ; the ear is a
flat, oval spot behind the eye

After a hard winter.
Photo by Cyrus Crosby.

184

Handbook of Nature-Study

and a little lower down ; in the common species it is not quite so large
as the eye; this is really the ear-drum, since there is no external ear like
ours. The toad’s mouth is wide and its jaws are homy; it does not need
teeth since it swallows its prey whole.

The toad is a jumper, as may be seen from its long, strong hind legs,
the feet of which are also long and strong and armed with five toes
that are somewhat webbed. The “arms” are shorter and there are
four “fingers” to each “hand;” when the toad is resting, its front
feet toe-in, in a comical fashion. If a toad is removed from an
earth or moss garden, and put into a white wash-bowl, in a few hours it
will change to a lighter hue, and vice versa. This is part of its pro-
tective color, making it inconspicuous to the eyes of its enemy. It
prefers to live in cool, damp places, beneath sidewalks or piazzas, etc.,
and its warty upper surface resembles the surrounding earth. If it is
disturbed, it will seek to escape by long leaps and acts frightened; but
if very much frightened, it flattens out on the ground, and looks so
nearly like a clod of earth that it may escape even the keen eyes of its
pursuer. When seized by the enemy, it will sometimes “play possum,”
acting as if it were dead ; but when actually in the mouth of the foe, it
emits terrified and heart-rending cries.

The toad’s tongue is attached to the lower jaw, at the front edge of the
mouth; it can thus be thrust far out, and since it secretes a sticky sub-
stance over its surface, any insects which it touches adhere, and are drawn
back into the mouth and swallowed. It takes a quick eye to see this
tongue fly out and make its catch. The tadpole feeds mostly upon
vegetable matter, but the toad lives entirely upon small animals, usually
insects; it is not particular as to what kind of insects; but because of the
situations which it haunts, it usually feeds upon those which are injurious
to grass and plants. Indeed, the toad is really the friend of the gardener
and farmer, and has been most ungratefully treated by those whom it
has befriended. If you doubt that a toad is an animal of judgment,
watch it when it finds an earthworm and set your doubts at rest ! It will
walk around the squirming worm, until it can seize it by the head,
apparently knowing well that the horny hooks extending backward from
the segments of the worm, are likely to rasp the throat if swallowed the
wrong way. If the worm prove a too large mouthful, the toad promptly
uses its hands in an amusing fashion to stuff the wriggling morsel down
its throat. When swallowing a large mouthful, it closes its eyes; but
whether this aids the process, or is merely an expression of bliss, we have
not determined. The toad never drinks by taking in water through the
mouth, but absorbs it through the skin; when it wishes to drink, it
stretches itself out in shallow water and thus satisfies its thirst; it will
waste away and die in a short time, if kept in a dry atmosphere.

The toad burrows in the earth by a method of its own, hard to describe.
It kicks backward with its strong hind legs, and in some mysterious way,
the earth soon covers all excepting its head; then, if an enemy comes
along, back goes the head, the earth caves in around it, and where is your
toad ! It remains in its burrow or hiding place usually during the day,
and comes out at night to feed. This habit is an advantage, because
snakes are then safely at home and, too, there are many more insects to
be found at night. The sagacious toads have discovered that the
vicinity of street lights is swarming with insects, and there they gather in

Batrachian Study

185

numbers. In winter they burrow deeply in the ground and go to sleep,
remaining dormant until the warmth of spring awakens them; then, they
come out, and the mother toads seek their native ponds there to lay eggs
for the coming generation. They are excellent swimmers; when swim-
ming rapidly, the front legs are laid backward along the sides of the body,
so as to offer no resistance to the water; but when moving slowly, the
front legs are used for balancing and for keeping afloat.

The song of the toad is a pleasant, crooning sound, a sort of gutteral
trill; it is made when the throat is puffed out almost globular, thus form-
ing a vocal sac ; the sound is made by the air drawn in at the nostrils and
passed back and forth from the lungs to the mouth over the vocal chords,
the puffed-out throat acting as a resonator.

The toad has no ribs by which to inflate the chest, and thus draw air
into the lungs, as we do when we breathe; it is obliged to swallow the air
instead and thus force it into the lungs. This movement is shown in the
constant pulsation, in and out, of the membrane of the throat.

As the toad grows, it sheds its homy skin, which it swallows; as this
process is usually done strictly in private, the ordinary observer sees it
but seldom. One of the toad’s nice common qualities is its enjoyment in
having its back scratched gently.

The toad has many enemies; chief among these is the snake and in
only a lesser degree, crows and also birds of prey.

Reference — The Frog Book, Dickerson; Familiar Life in Field and
Forest, Mathews; The Usefulness of the American Toad, U. S. Dept.
Agr., Farmers Bulletin, No. 196.

LESSON XLIV
The Tadpole Aquarium

Leading thought — The children
should understand how to make
the tadpoles comfortable and
thus be able to rear them.

Materials — A tin or agate pan
or a deep earthenware wash-
bowl.

Things to he done — 1. Go to
some pond where tadpoles live.

2. Take some of the small
stones on the bottom and at the
sides of the pond lifting them
very gently so as not to disturb
what is growing on their surface.

Place these stones on the bottom
of the pan, building up one side
higher than the other, so that
the water will be more shallow
on one side than on the other;
a stone or two should project
above the water.

3. Take some of the mud and leaves from the bottom of the pond,
being careful not to disturb them and place upon the stones.

i86

Handbook of Nature-Study

4. Take some of the plants found growing under water in the pond
and plant them among the stones.

5. Carry the pan thus prepared back to the schoolhouse and place it
where the sun will not shine directly upon it.

6. Bring a pail of water from the pond and pour it very gently in at
one side of the pan, so as not to disarrange the plants ; fill the pan nearly
to the brim.

7. After the mud has settled and the water is perfectly clear, remove
some of the tadpoles, which have hatched in the glass aquarium, and place
in the “pond.” Not more than a dozen should be put in a pan of this
size, since the amount of food and microscopic plants which are on the
stones in the mud, will afford food for only a few tadpoles.

8. Every week add a little more mud from the bottom of the pond or
another stone covered with slime, which is probably some plant growth.
More water from the pond should be added to replace that evaporated.

9. Care should be taken that the tadpole aquarium be kept where the
sun will not shine directly upon it for any length of time, because if the
water gets too warm the tadpoles will die.

10. Remove the “skin” from one side of a tulip leaf, so as to expose
the pulp of the leaf, and give to the tadpoles every day or two. Bits of
hard-boiled egg should be given now and then.

Toads’ Eggs and Tadpoles

Leading thought — The toad’s eggs are laid in strings of jelly in ponds.
The eggs hatch into tadpoles which are creatures of the water, breathing
by gills, and swimming with a long fin. The tadpoles gradually change to
toads, which are air-breathing creatures, fitted for life on dry land.

Method — The eggs of toads may be found in almost any pond about the
first of May and may be scraped up from the bottom in a scoop-net. They
should be placed in the aquarium where the children can watch the stages
of development. Soon after they are hatched, a dozen or so should be
selected and placed in the tadpole aquarium and the others put back into
the stream. The children should observe the tadpoles every day, watch-
ing carefully all the changes of structure and habit which take place. If
properly fed, the tadpoles will be ready to leave the water in July, as tiny
toads.

Observations — 1. Where were the toads’ eggs found and on what
date ? Were they attached to anything in the water or were they floating
free? Are the eggs in long strings? Do you find any eggs laid in jelly-
like masses? If so, what are they? How can you tell the eggs of toads
from those of frogs?

2. Is the jellylike substance in which the eggs are placed clear or
discolored? What is the shape and the size of the eggs? A little later
how do they look? Do the young tadpoles move about while they are
still in the jelly mass?

3. Describe how the little tadpole works its way out from the jelly
covering. Can you distinguish then which is head and which is tail?
How does it act at first? Where and how does it rest?

4. Can you see with the aid of a lens the little fringes on each side of
the neck? What are these? Do these fringes disappear a little later?
Do they disappear on both sides of the neck at once ? What becomes of

Batrachian Study

187

Toad development in a single season ( IQ03 ).

1—18, Changes and growth from April to November 9-14, Different sizes, July 30, 1903
1-13 Development &j. 25 to 60 days 15-18 Different sizes, October 21, 1903

10, 11. The same tadpole, 11 is 47 hours older than 10
12, 13, The same tadpole, 13 is 47 hours older than 12
Photo by S. H. Gage.

Handbook of Nature-Study

i8£

them? How does the tadpole breathe? Can you see the little hole on
the left side, through which the water used for breathing passes ?

5. How does the tail look and how is it used? How long is it in
proportion to the body? Describe the act of swimming.

6. Which pair of legs appears first ? How do they look? When they
get a little larger are they used as a help in swimming ? Describe the hind
legs and feet.

7 . How long after the hind legs appear before the front legs or arms
appear ? What happens to the breathing-pore when the left arm is pushed
through?

8. After both pairs of legs are developed what happens to the tail?
What becomes of .it?

9. When the tadpole is very young can you see its eyes? How do
they look as it grows older? Do they ever bulge out like toads’ eyes?

10. As the tadpole gains its legs and loses its tail how does it change
in its actions? How does it swim now? Does it come oftener to the
surface ? Why ?

11. Describe the difference between the front and the hind legs and
the front and the hind feet on the fully grown tadpole. If the tail or
a leg is bitten off by some other creature will it grow again?

LESSON XLV
The Toad

Leading thought — The toad is colored so that it resembles the soil and
thus escapes the observation of its enemies. It lives in damp places and
eats insects, usually hunting them at night. It has powerful hind legs
and is a vigorous jumper.

Method — Make a moss garden in a glass aquarium jar thus: Place

some stones or gravel in the bottom of the jar and cover with moss.
Cover the jar with a wire screen. The moss should be deluged with
water at least once a day and the jar should be placed where the direct
sunlight will not reach it. In this jar, place the toad for study.

Observations — 1. Describe the general color of the toad above and
below. How does the toad’s back look? Of what use are the warts on
its back?

2 . Where is the toad usually found ? Does it feel warm or cold to the
hand? Is it slimy or dry? The toad is a cold-blooded animal, what does
this mean ?

3. Describe the eyes and explain how their situation is of special
advantage to the toad. Do you think it can see in front and behind and
above all at the same time. Does the bulge of the eyes help in this?
Note the shape and color of the pupil and iris. How does the toad wink?

4. Find and describe the nostrils. Find and describe the ear.
Note the swelling above and just back of the ear. Do you know the use
of this?

5. What is the shape of the toad’s mouth? Has it any teeth? Is
the toad’s tongue attached to the front or the back part of the mouth?
How is it used to catch insects?

6. Describe the “arms and hands.” How many “fingers” on the
“hand?” Which way do the fingers point when the toad is sitting down?

Batrachian Study

189

7. Describe the legs and feet. How many toes are there? What is
the relative length of the toes and how are they connected ? What is this
web between the toes for? Why are the hind legs so much larger than
the front legs ?

8. Will a toad change color if placed upon different colored objects?
How long does it take it to do this ? Of what advantage is this to the
toad?

9. Where does the toad live ? When it is disturbed how does it act ?
How far can it jump ? If very frightened does it flatten out and lie still ?
Why is this?

10. At what time does the toad come out to hunt insects ? How does
it catch the insect? Does it swallow an earthworm head or tail first?
When swallowing an earthworm or large insect, how does it use its
hands? How does it act when swallowing a large mouthful?

1 1 . How does the toad drink ? Wh ere does it remain during the day ?
Describe how it burrows into the earth.

12. What happens to the toad in the winter? What does it do in
the spring? Is it a good swimmer? How does it use its legs in swimming?

13. How does the toad look when croaking? What sort of a noise
does it make?

14. Describe the action of the toad’s throat when breathing. Did
you ever see a toad shed its skin ?

15. What are the toad’s enemies? How does it act when caught by
a snake? Does it make any noise? Is it swallowed head or tail first?
What means has it of escaping or defending itself from its enemies ?

16. How is the toad of great use to the farmer and gardener?
References — “The Life History of the Toad,” by S. H. Gage, Cornell

Nature-Study Volume; The Frog Book, Dickerson.

Supplementary reading — “K’dunk, the fat one,” A Little Brother to
the Bear, Long.

“In the early years we are not to teach nature as science , we are not to teach i\
primarily for method or for drill: we are to teach it for loving — and this is nature-

study. On these points I make no compromise.”

— L. H. Bailey.

SSOCIATED with the first songs of robin and bluebird,
is the equally delightful chorus of the spring peepers,
yet how infrequently do most of us see a member of
this invisible choir! There are some creatures which
are the quintessence of the slang word “cute” which,
interpreted, means the pefection of Lilliputian pro-
portions, permeated with undaunted spirit. The
chickadee is one of these, and the tree-frog is another.
I confess to a thrill of delight when the Picker-
ing’s hyla lifts itself on its tiny front feet, twists
its head knowingly, and turns on me the full
gaze of its bronze-rimmed eyes. This is the
tiniest froglet of them all, being little more than
an inch long when fully grown; it wears the
Greek cross in darker color upon its back, with
some stripes across its long hind legs which join
the pattern on the back when the frog is “shut
up,” as the boys say.

The reason we see so little of tree-frogs, is
because they are protected from discovery by
their color. They have the chameleon power
of changing color to match their background.

The Pickering’s hyla will effect this change in
twenty minutes; in this species, the darker
lines forming the cross change first, giving a
mottled appearance which is at once protective.

I have taken three of these peepers, all of them
pale yellowish brown with gray markings, and
have placed one upon a fern, one on dark soil
and one on the purple bud of a flower. Within
half an hour, each matched its surroundings so
closely, that the casual eye would not detect
them. The song of the Pickering’s hyla is a
resonant chirp, very stirring when heard nearby;
it sounds somewhat like the note of a water bird.

How such a small creature can make such a loud
noise, is a mystery. The process, however, may
be watched at night by the light of a lamp, as
none of the tree-frogs seem to pay any atten-
tion to an artificial light; the thin' membrane
beneath the throat swells out until it seems
almost large enough to balloon the little chap off
his perch No wonder that, with such a sound- SM for ^
mg-sac, the note is stirring. There are several Pickering's Hyla.
species of tree-frogs that trill in the branches photo by Cyrus Crosby.

IQO

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE TREE-FROG, OR TREE-TOAD

Teacher's Story

“ Ere yet the earliest warbler wakes, of coming spring to tell%

From every marsh a chorus breaks, a choir invisible,

As if the blossoms underground, a breath of utterance had found.” — Tabs.

Batrachian Study

191

above our heads all summer, and their songs are sometimes mistaken for
those of the cicada, which is far more shrill.

The tree-frogs have toes and fingers ending in little round discs which
secrete at will a substance by means of which they can cling to vertical
surfaces, even to glass. In fact, the way to study these wonderful feet is
when the frog is climbing up the sides of the glass jar. The fingers are
arranged, two short inside ones, a long one, and another short one outside.
The hind feet have three shorter inside toes quite far apart, a
long one at the tip of the foot and a shorter one outside. When climbing
a smooth surface like glass, the toes are spread wide apart, and there
are other little clinging discs on their lower sides, although not so
large as those at the tips. It is by means of these sticky, disc-like toes
that the tree-frogs hold themselves upon the tree trunks.

The whole body of the tree-frog is covered with little tubercles,
which give it a roughened appearance. The eyes are black with the iris
of reddish color. The tongue is like that of other frogs, hinged to the
front of the lower jaw; it is sticky and can be thrust far out to capture
insects, of which the tree-frcgs eat vast numbers.

The hylas breathe by the rapid pulsation of the membrane of
the throat, which makes the whole body tremble. The nostrils are
two tiny holes on either side of the tip of the snout. The ears are a
little below and just behind the eyes, and are in the form of a circular
slit.

The eggs of the spring peepers are laid in ponds during April; each
egg has a little globe of jelly about it and is fastened to a stone
or a water plant. The tadpoles are small and delicate; the under side
of the body is reddish and shines with metallic lustre. These tad-
poles differ from those of other frogs in that they often
leave the water while yet
the tail is still quite long.

In summer, they may be
found among the leaves and
moss around the banks
of ponds. They are in-
defatigable in hunting for
gnats, mosquitoes and ants;
their destruction of mosqui-
toes, as pollywogs and as
grown up frogs, renders them
of great use to us. The voice
of this peeper may be heard
among the shrubs and vines
or in trees during late sum-
mer and until November.

The little creatures sleep be-
neath moss and leaves
during the winter, waking to
give us the earliest news of
spring.

Wree-frog tadpoles*

192 Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON XLVI
The Tree-frog or Tree-toad

Leading thought — The prettiest part of the spring chorus of the frog
ponds is sung by the tree-frogs. These little frogs have the tips of
their toes specially fitted for climbing up the sides of trees.

Method — Make a moss garden in an aquarium jar or a two-quart can.
Place stones in the bottom and moss at one side, leaving a place on
the other side for a tiny pond of water. In this garden place a tree-
frog and cover the jar with mosquito netting and place in the shade.
The frogs may be found by searching the banks of a pond at night
with a lantern. However, this lesson is usually given when by
accident the tree-frog is discovered. Any species of tree-frog will do ; but
the Pickering’s hyla, known everywhere as the spring peeper, is the most
interesting species to study.

Observations — 1. How large is the tree-frog? What is its color?
Describe the markings.

2. Place the tree-frog on some light-colored surface like a piece of
white blotting paper. Note if it changes color after a half hour. Later
place it upon some dark surface. Note if it changes color again. How
does this power of changing color benefit the tree-frog? Place a tree-frog
on a piece of bark. After a time is it noticeable?

3. Describe the eyes. Note how little the tree-frog turns its head
to see anything behind it. Describe its actions if its attention is attracted
to anything. What color is the pupil? The iris?

4. Note the movement of breathing. Where does this show the most ?
Examine the delicate membrane beneath the throat. What has this to
do with the breathing?

5. What is the tree-frog’s note? At what time of day does it peep?
At what time of year? Describe how the frog looks when peeping.

6. How does the tree-frog climb? When it is climbing up a vertical
surface study its toes. How many on the front foot? How are they
arranged ? How many toes on the hind foot ? Sketch the front and hind
feet. How do the toe-discs look when pressed against the glass? How
does it manage to make the discs cling and then let go? Are there any
more discs on the under side of the toes? Is there a web between the toes
of the hind feet ? Of the front feet ?

7. Look at a tree-frog very closely and describe its nostrils and its ears.

8. Are the tree-frogs good jumpers? What is the size and length of
the hind legs as compared with the body?

9. When and where are the eggs of the tree-frog laid? How do they
look?

10. How do the tree-frog tadpoles differ from other tadpoles?
Describe them if you have ever seen them. In what situations do they
live?

11. Of what use are the tree-frogs to us?

References — “The Life History of the Toad,” Cornell Nature Study
Volume, S. H. Gage; The Frog Book, Dickerson; Familiar Life of Field
and Forest, Mathews; American Natural History, Homaday; Elemen-
tary Zoology, V. L. Kellogg; From River Ooze to Tree-top, Sharp.

Batrachian Study

Bullfrog.

THE FROG
Teacher's Story

E stroller along brooksides, is likely to be surprised
some day, at seeing a bit of moss and earth suddenly
make a high leap and a far one, without apparent
provocation. An investigation resolves the clump of
moss into a brilliantly green and yellow, striped frog,
and then the stroller wonders how he could have over-
looked such an obvious creature. But the leopard
frog is only obvious when it is out of its environment.
The common green frog is quite as well protected since its color is exactly
that of green pools. Most frogs spend their lives in or about water, and
if caught on land, they make great leaps to reach their native element;
the leopard frog and a few other species sometimes wander far afield.

In form, the frog is more slim than the toad, and is not covered with
great warts; it is cold and slippery to the touch. The frog’s only chance
of escaping its enemies, is through the slipperiness of its body and by
making long, rapid leaps. As a jumper, the frog is much more powerful
than the toad because its hind legs are so much larger and more muscular,
in comparison with its size. The first toe in the front feet of the leopard
frog is much swollen, making a fat thumb ; the mechanics of the hind legs
make it possible for the frog to feather the webbed feet as it swims. On
the bottom of the toes are hardened places at the joints, and sometimes
others besides, which give the foot a strong hold when pushing for the
jump. The toe tips, when they are pressed against the glass, resemble
slightly the tree-toads’ discs. The hind foot is very long, while on the
front foot the toes radiate almost in a circle. The foot and leg are
colored like the back of the body above, and on the under side resemble
the under parts.

194

Handbook of Nature-Study

The frog is likely to be much more brightly colored than the toad, and
usually has much of green and yellow in its dress. But the frog lives
among green things, while it is to .the toad’s advantage to be the color of
the soil. Frogs also have the chameleon power of changing color, to
harmonize with their environment. I have seen a very green leopard
frog change to a slate-gray when placed upon slate-colored rock. The
change took place in the green portions. The common green frog will
likewise change to slate-color, in a similar situation. A leopard frog
changed quickly from dark green to pale olive, when it was placed in the
water after having been on the soil.

The eyes of frogs are very prominent, and are beautiful when observed
closely. The green frog has a dark bronze iris with a gleaming gold edge
around the pupil, and around the outer margin. The eye of the leopard
frog is darker; the iris seems to be black, with specks of ruddy gold
scattered through it, and there is an outer band of red-gold around the
margin. When the frog winks, the nictitating membrane rises from
below and covers the whole eye ; and when the frog makes a special effort
of any sort, it has a comical way of drawing its eyes back into its head.
When trying to hide at the bottom of the aquarium, the leopard species
lets the eye-lids fall over the eyes, so that they do not shine up and attract
pursuers.

The ear is in a similar position to that of the toad, and in the bullfrog,
is larger than the eye. In the green frog, it is a dull grayish disc, almost
as large as the eye. In the leopard frog, it is not so large as the eye, and
has a giltish spot at the center.

The nostrils are small and are closed when below the water, as may be
easily seen by a lens. The mouth opens widely, the comers extending
back under the eye. The jaws are homy and are armed with teeth,
which are for the purpose of biting off food rather than for chewing it.
When above water, the throat keeps up a rythmic motion which is the
process of breathing; but when below water this motion ceases. The
food of frogs is largely composed of insects, that frequent damp places
or that live in the water.

The sound-sacs of the frogs, instead of being beneath the throat, as is
the case with toads and tree-frogs, are at the side of the throat; and when
inflated, may extend from just back of the eyes, out above the front legs.
The song is characteristic, and pleasant to listen to, if not too close by.
Perhaps exception should be made to the lay of the bullfrog, which like
the song of some noted opera singers, is more wonderful than musical;
the boom of the bullfrog makes the earth fairly quake. If we seize the
frog by the hind leg, it will usually croak and thus demonstrate for us,
the position of its sound-sacs.

In addition to the snakes, the frogs have inveterate enemies in the
herons which frequent shallow water, and eat them in great numbers.
The frogs hibernate in mud and about ponds, burrowing deep enough to
escape freezing. In the spring, they come up and sing their spring songs
and the mother frogs lay their eggs in masses of jelly on the bottom of the
pond, usually where the water is deeper than in the situations where the
toads’ eggs are laid. The eggs of the two can always be distinguished,
since the toads’ are laid in strings of jelly, while the frogs’ are laid in masses.

It is amusing to watch with a lens, the frog tadpoles seeking for their
microscopic food along the glass of the aquarium. There are horny

Batrachian Study

195

upper and lower jaws, the latter being below and back of the former. The
upper jaw moves back and forth slightly and rythmically, but the drop-
ping of the lower jaw opens the mouth. There are three rows of tiny
black teeth below the mouth and one row above ; at the sides and below
these teeth are little, finger-like fringes. Fringes, rows of teeth and jaws
all work together, up and down, out and in, in the process of breathing.
The nostrils, although minute, are present in the tadpole in its early
stages. The pupil of the eye is almost circular and the iris is usually
yellow or copper-bronze, with black mottling. The eyes do not wink nor
withdraw. The breathing-pore on the left side, is a hole in a slight
protuberance.

At first, the tadpoles of the frogs and toads are very much alike ; but
later, most of the frog tadpoles are lighter in color, usually being olive-
green, mottled with specks of black and white. The frog tadpoles usually
remain much longer than the toads in the tadpole stage, and when finally
they change to adults, they are far larger in size than the toads are, when
they attain their jumping legs.

Frog’s eggs.

LESSON XLVII
The Frog

Leading thought — The frog lives near or in ponds or streams. It is a
powerful jumper and has a slippery body. Its eggs are laid in masses of
jelly at the bottom of ponds.

Method — The frog may be studied in its native situation by the pupils
or it may be brought to the school and placed in an aquarium ; however,
to make a frog aquarium there needs to be a stick or stone projecting
above the water, for the frog likes to spend part of the time entirely
out of water or only partially submerged.

Observations — 1. Where is the frog found? Does it live all its life in
the water? When found on land how and where does it seek to escape?

2. Compare the form of the frog with that of the toad. Describe
the skin, its color and texture. Compare the skin of the two.

3. Describe the colors and markings of the frog on the upper and
on the under side. How do these protect it from observation from above ?
From below? How do we usually discover that we are in the vicinity of a
frog?

4. Describe the frog’s ears, eyes, nostrils and mouth.

5. Compare its “hands and feet” with those of the toad. Why the
difference in the hind legs and feet ?

196

Handbook of Nature- Study

6. How does the frog feel to your hand? Is it easy to hold him?
How does this slipperiness of the frog benefit it?

7. On what does the frog feed? What feeds on it? How does it
escape its enemies?

8. What sounds does the frog make? Where are its sound sacs
located ? How do they look when they are inflated ?

9. Is the frog a good swimmer? Is it a better jumper than the toad?
Why?

10. Where are the frog’s eggs laid? How do they look?

11. Can you tell the frog tadpoles from those of the toad? Which
remains longer in the tadpole stage? Study the frog tadpoles, following
the questions given in Lesson XLIV.

12. What happens to the frog in winter?

FESTINA LENTE

Once on a time there was a pool
Fringed all about with flag-leaves cool
And spotted with cow-lilies garish,

Of frogs and pouts the ancient parish.
Alders the creaking redwings sink on,
Tussocks that house blithe Bob o' Lincoln,
Hedged round the unassailed seclusion,
Where muskrats piled their cells Carthu-
sian;

And many a moss-embroidered log,

The watering-place of summer frog,

Slept and decayed with patient skill.

As watering-places sometimes will.

Now in this Abbey of Theleme,

Which realized the fairest dream
That ever dozing bull-frog had,

Sunned, on a half-sunk lily pad,

There rose a party with a mission
To mend the polliwog's condition.

Who notified the selectmen
To call a meeting there and then.

“Some kind of steps,” they said, “are
needed;

They don't come on so fast as we did:

Let's dock their tails; if that don't make
'em

Frogs by brevet, the Old One take 'em!

That boy, that came the other day
To dig some flag-root down this way.

His jack-kniffe left, and 'tis a sign
That Heaven approves of our design:

'T were wicked not to urge the step on,
When Providence has sent the weapon.”.
Old croakers, deacons of the mire,

That led the deep batrachian choir,

“Uk! Uk! Caronk!” with bass that might
Have left Lablache’s out of sight,

Shook nobby heads, and said “No, go!
You'd better let 'em try to grow:

Old Doctor Time is slow, but still
He does know how to make a pill.”

But vain was all their hoarsest bass.
Their old experience out of place,

And spite of croaking and entreating

The vote was carried in marsh-meeting.
“Lord knows, ” protest the polliwogs,

“ We're anxious to be grown-up frogs;

But don't push in to do the work
Of Nature till she prove a shirk;

'Tis not by jumps that she advances.

But wins her way by circumstances;
Pray, wait awhile, until you know
We're so contrived as not to grow;

Let Nature take her own direction,

And she'll absorb our imperfection;

You mightn't like 'em to appear with.

But we must have the things to steer with.”
“No,” piped the party of reform,

“All great results are ta'en by storm;

Fate holds her best gifts till we show
We've strength to make her let them go;
The Providence that works in history,

And seems to some folks such a mystery,
Does not creep slowly on, incog.,

Biit moves by jumps, a mighty frog;

No more reject the Age's chrism.

Your queues are an anachronism;

No more the future's promise mock,

But lay your tails upon the block.
Thankful that we the means have voted
To have you thus to frogs promoted.”

The thing was done, the tails were cropped.
And home each philotadpole hopped,

In faith rewarded to exult,

And wait ihe beautiful result.

Too soon it came; our pool, so long
The theme of patriot bull-frog's song,

Next day was reeking, fit to smother,

With heads and tails that missed each
other, —

Here snoutless tails, there tailless snouts;
The only gainers were the pouts.

MORAL

From lower to the higher next,

Not to the top is Nature's text;

And embryo Good, to reach full stature.
Absorbs the Evil in its nature.

— Lowell

Batrachian Study

191

THE NEWT, EFT, OR SALAMANDER

Teacher's Story

FTER a rain in spring or summer, we see these little orange-red
creatures sprawling along roads or woodland paths, and
since they are rarely seen except after rain, the wise people
of old, declared they rained down, which was an easy way
for explaining their presence. But the newts do not rain
down, they rain up instead, since if they have journeys to make they
must needs go forth when the ground is wet, otherwise they would dry
up and die. Thus, the newts make, a practice of never going out except
when it rains. A closer view of the eft shows plenty of peculiarities
in its appearance to interest us. Its colors are decidedly gay, the body
color being orange, ornamented with vermilion dots along each side of
the back, each red dot margined with tiny black specks; but the eft is
careless about these decorations and may have more spots on one side
than on the other. Besides these vermilion dots, it is also adorned
with black specks here and there, and especially along its sides looks as
if it had been peppered. The newt’s greatest beauty lies in its eyes;
these are black, with elongated pupils, almost parallel with the length of
the head, and bordered above and below with bands of golden, shining iris
which give the eyes a fascinating brilliancy. The nostrils are mere pin-
holes in the end of the snout.

The legs and feet look queerly inadequate for such a long body, since
they are short and far apart. There are four toes on the front feet and
five on the hind feet, the latter being decidedly pudgy, The legs are
thinner where they join the body and wider toward the" feet. The eft
can move very rapidly with its scant equipment of legs. It has a mis-
leading way of remaining motionless for a long time and then darting
forward like a flash, its long body falling into graceful curves as it moves.
But it can go very slowly when exploring; it then places its little hands
cautiously and lifts its head as high as its short arms will allow, in order to
take observations. Although it can see quite well, yet on an unusual
surface, like glass, it seems to feel the way by touching its lower lip to the
surface as if to test it. The tail is flattened at the sides and is used to
twine around objects in time of need; and I am sure it is also used to push
the eft while crawling, for it curves this way and that vigorously, as the
feet progress, and obviously pushes against the ground. Then, too, the
tail is an aid when, by some chance, the eft is turned over on its back, for
with its help, it can right itself speedily. The eft’s method of walking is
interesting; it moves forward one front foot and then the hind foot on
the other side; after a stop for rest, it begins just where it left off when
it again starts on. Its beautiful eyes seem to serve the newt well indeed,
for I find that, when it sees my face approaching the moss jar, it climbs
promptly over to the other side. There are no eyelids for the golden
eyes, but the eft can pull them back into its head and close the slit after
them, thus making them very safe.

The eft with whose acquaintance I was most favored, was not yet
mature and was afraid of earthworms ; but he was very fond of plant-lice
and it was fun to see the little creature stalking them. A big rose plant-
louse would be squirming with satisfaction as it sucked the juice of the
leaf, when the eft would catch sight of it and become greatly

198

Handbook of Nature-Study

the pulsating throat
alert attitude of the
whole front part of
the body and espec-
ially of the eyes and •
the head; then the
neck would stretch
out long and thin,
the orange snout ap-
p r o a c h stealthily

within half an inch
of the smug aphid,
and then there was a
flash as of lightning,
something too swift
to see coming out of
the eft’s mouth and
swooping up the un-
suspecting louse.
Then there would be
a gulp or two and all would be over. If the aphid happened to be a big
one, the eft made visible effort to swallow it. Sometimes his eftship
would become greatly excited when he first saw the plant-louse, and he
would sneeze and snort in a very comical way, like a dog, when eager
for game.

The following is the history of this species as summarized from Mrs. S.
H. Gage’s charming “Story of Little Red Spot.” The egg was laid in some
fresh water pond or the still borders of some stream where there is a
growth of water weed. The egg, which is about the size of a small pea,
is fastened to a water plant. It is covered with a tough but translucent
envelope, and has at the center a little yellowish globule. In a little less
than a month the eft hatches, but it looks very different from the form
with which we are most familiar. It has gray stripes upon its sides and
three tiny bunches of red gills on each side, just back of its broad head.
The tail is long and very thin, surrounded by a fin ; it is an expert swim-
mer and breathes water as does a fish. After a time, it becomes greenish
above and buff below, and by the middle of August it develops legs and
has changed its form so that it is able to live upon land ; it no longer has
gills or fin ; soon the coat changes to the bright orange hue which makes
the little creature so conspicuous.

The newt usually keeps hidden among moss, or under leaves, or in
decaying wood, or other damp and shady places; but after a rain, when
the whole world is damp, it feels confidence enough to go out in the open,
and hunt for food. For two and a half years it lives upon land and then
returns to the water. When this impulse comes upon it, it may be far
from any stream; but it seems to know instinctively where to go. Soon
after it enters the water, it is again transformed in color, becoming olive-
green above and buff below, although it still retains the red spots along
the back, as mementos of its land life; and it also retains its pepper-like
dots. Its tail develops a fin which extends along its back and is some-
what ruffled. In some mysterious way it develops the power to again
breathe the air which is mixed with water.

excited, evidently holding his breath since
would become rigid. There was a particularly

Red-spotted newt stalking plant-lice.

Batrachian Study

199

The male has the hind legs very large and flat; the female is lighter
in color and has more delicate and smaller legs. It is here in the water
that the efts find their mates and finish careers which must have surely
been hazardous. During its long and varied life, the eft often sheds its
skin like the snake; it has a strange habit of swallowing its cast-off coat.

Early stage of
vermil ion-
spotted newt.
Eggs of newt
attached to
water plant.
Drawn by Anna
Stryke.

larger ones? How does the eft resemble a toad?

2. Is the head the widest part of the body? Describe the eyes, the
shape and color of the pupil and of the iris. How does the eft wink?
Do you think it can see well ?

3 . Can you see the nostrils ? How does the throat move and why ?

4. Are both pairs of legs the same size ? How many toes on the front
feet? How many toes on the hind feet? Does the eft toe-in with its
front feet like a toad?

5. Does it move more than one foot at a time when walking? Does it
use the feet on the same side in two consecutive steps ? After putting for-
ward the right front foot what foot follows next ? Can it move backward ?

6. Is the tail as long as the head and body together? Is the tail
round or flat at the sides ? How is it used to help the eft when traveling ?
Does the tail drag or is it lifted, or does it push by squirming?

7. How does the eft act when startled? Does it examine its sur-
roundings? Do you think it can see and is afraid of you?

8. Why do we find these creatures only during wet weather? Why
do people think they rain down?

9. What does the eft eat? How does it catch its prey? Does it shed
its skin ? How many kinds of efts have you seen ?

10. From what kind of egg does the eft hatch? When is this egg
laid? How does it look? On what is it fastened?

1 1 . How many times during its life does the orange eft change color?
What part of its life is spent upon land? What changes take place in its
form when it leaves the water for life upon land, and what changes take
place in its structure when it returns to the water?

LESSON XLVIII

The Newt, Eft, or “Salamander”

Leading thought — The newts change their form three
times to fit different modes of life. They are bom in the
water and at first have fins and gills like fishes. They then
live on land, and have lungs for breathing air and lose
their fins ; later they go back to the water and again
develop the power of breathing the oxygen contained in
water, and also a fin.

Method — The little, orange eft or red-spotted salaman-
der may be kept in an aquarium which has in it an
object, as a stone or a clump of moss which projects above
the water. For food it should be given small earthworms
or leaves covered with plant lice. In this way it may be
studied at leisure.

Observations — 1. Look at the eft closely. Is it all the
same color? How many spots upon its back and what
colors are they? Are there the same number of spots on
both sides? Are there any spots or dots besides these

200

Handbook of Nature-Study

IV. REPTILE STUDY

Yet when a child and barefoot; I more than once, at morn.

Have passed, I thought, a whiplash unbraided in the sun,

When, stooping to secure it, it wrinkled, and was gone.

— Emii.y Dickinson.

the teacher could bring herself to take as much interest as
did Mother Eve in that “subtile animal,” as the Bible calls
the serpent, she might, through such interest, enter the
paradise of the boyish heart instead of losing a paradise of
her own. How many teachers, who have an aversion for
snakes, are obliged to teach small boys whose pet diversion
is capturing these living ribbons and bringing them into
the schoolroom stowed away not too securely in pockets!
In one of the suburban Brooklyn schools, boys of this ilk sought to
frighten their teacher with their weird prisoners. But she was equal to
the occasion, and surprised them by declaring that there were many
interesting things to be studied about snakes, and forthwith sent to the
library for books which discussed these reptiles ; and this was the begin-
ning of a nature-study club of rare efficiency and enterprise.

There are abroad in the land, many errors concerning snakes. Most
people believe that they are all venomous, which is far from true. The
rattlesnake still holds its own in rocky, mountainous places and the
moccasin haunts the bayous of the southern coast; however, in most
localities, snakes are not only harmless but are beneficial to the farmer.
The superstition that if a snake is killed, its tail will live until sun-down, is
general and has but slender foundation in the fact that snakes, being
lower in their nerve-organization than mammals, the process of death is a
slow one. Some people firmly believe that snakes spring or jump from
the ground to seize their prey, which is quite false since no snake jumps
clear of the ground as it strikes, nor does it spring from a perfect coil.
Nor are snakes slimy, quite to the contrary, they are covered with per-
fectly dry scales. But the most general superstition of all is that, when
a snake thrusts out its tongue, it is an act of animosity; the fact is, the
tongue is a sense organ and is used as an insect uses its feelers or antennae,
and the act is also supposed to aid the creature in hearing; thus when a
snake thrusts out its tongue, it is simply trying to find out about its sur-
roundings and what is going on.

Snakes are the only creatures able to swallow objects larger than
themselves. This is rendered possible by the elasticity of the body walls,
and the fact that snakes have an extra bone hinging the upper to the lower
jaw, allowing them to spread widely; the lower jaw also separates at the
middle of its front edge and spreads apart sidewise. In order to force a
creature into a “bag” so manifestly too small, a special mechanism is
needed; the teeth supply this by pointing backward, and thus assist in
the swallowing. The snake moves by literally walking on the ends of its
ribs, which are connected with the crosswise plates on its lower side; each
of these crosswise plates has the hind edge projecting down so that it can
hold to an object. Thus, the graceful, noiseless progress of the snake, is
brought about by many of these crosswise plates worked by the move- ,
ment of the ribs.

Reptile Study

201

Some species of snakes simply chase their prey, striking at it and
catching it in the open mouth, while others, like the black snake, wind
themselves about their victims crushing them to death. Snakes can live
a long time without food ; many instances on record show that they have
been able to exist a year or more without anything to eat. In our north-
ern climate they hibernate in winter, going to sleep as soon as the weather
becomes cold and not waking up until spring. As snakes grow, they
shed their skins; this occurs only two or three times a year. The crested
fly-catcher adorns its nest with these phantom snakes.

References — The Reptile Book, by Ditmars, gives interesting accounts
of our common snakes; Mathew’s Familiar Life of Field and Forest is
also valuable. To add interest to the snake lessons let the children read
“Kaas Hunting” and “Rikki TikkiTavi” from Kipling’s Jungle Books.

THE GARTER, OR GARDEN, SNAKE
Teacher's Story

A chipmunk, or a sudden-whirring quail,

Is startled by my step as on I fare.

A gartersnake across the dusty trail ,

Glances and — is not there . — Riley.

jARTER snakes can be easily tamed, and are ready to meet
friendly advances 'half way. A handsome yellow-striped,
black garter lived for four years beneath our piazza and
was very friendly and unafraid of the family. The
children of the campus made it frequent visits, and never
seemed to be weary of watching it ; but the birds objected
to it very much, although it never attempted to reach their nests in the
vine above. The garter snakes are the most common of all, in our North-
eastern States. They vary much in color; the ground color may be olive,
brown or black, and down the center of the back is usually a yellow, green
or whitish stripe, usually bordered by a darker band of ground-color.
On each side is a similar stripe, but not so brightly colored; sometimes
the middle stripe, and sometimes the side stripes are broken into spots or
absent; the lower side is greenish white or yellow. When fully grown
this snake is about three feet in length.

The garters are likely to congregate in numbers in places favorable
for hibernation, like rocky ledges or stony side-hills. Here each snake
finds a safe crevice, or makes a burrow which sometimes extends a yard
or more under ground. During the warm days of Indian summer, these
winter hermits crawl out in the middle of the day and sun themselves,
retiring again to their hermitages when the air grows chilly toward night ;
and when the cold weather arrives, they go to sleep and do not awaken
until the first warm days of spring; then, if the sun shines hot, they
crawl out and bask in its welcome rays.

After the warm weather comes, the snakes scatter to other localities
more favorable for finding food, and thus these hibernating places are
deserted during the summer. The banks of streams, and the edges of
woods are places which furnish snakes their food, which consists of earth-
worms, insects, toads, salamanders, frogs, etc. The young are born late

202

Handbook of N ature-Study

in July and are about six inches long at birth; one mother may have in
her brood from eleven to fifty snakelings; she stays with them during
the fall to protect them, and there are many stories about the way the
young ones run down the mother’s throat in case of attack; but, as yet,
no scientist has seen this act, or placed it on record. The little snakes
shift for their own food, catching small toads, earthworms and insects.
If it finds food in plenty, the garter snake will mature in one year.
Hawks, crows, skunks, weasels and other predacious animals seem to find
the garter snake attractive food.

Garter snakes.

LESSON XLIX

The Garter, or Garden, Snake

Leading thought — The garter snake is a common and harmless little
creature and has many interesting habits which are worth studying.

Method — A garter snake may be captured and placed in a box with a
glass cover and thus studied in detail in the schoolroom, but the lesson
should begin with observations made by the children on the snakes in
their native haunts.

Observations — i. What are the colors and markings of your garter
snake? Do the stripes extend along the head as well as the body ? How
long is it?

2. Describe its eyes, its ears, its nostrils and its mouth,

3. If you disturb it how does it act? Why does it thrust its tongue
out? What shape is its tongue?

Reptile Study

203

4. In what position is the snake when it rests? Can you see how
it moves? Look upon the lower side. Can you see the little plates
extending crosswise? Do you think it moves by moving these plates?
Let it crawl across your hand, and see if you can tell how it moves.

5. What does the garter snake eat? Did you ever see one swallow
a toad? A frog? Did it take it head first or tail first ?

6. Where does the garter spend the winter? How early does it
appear in the spring?

7 . At what time of year do you see the young snakes ? Do the young
ones run down the throat of the mother for safety when attacked ? Does
the mother snake defend her young?

8. What enemies has the garter snake?

“No life in earth or air or sky;

The sunbeams, broken silently.

On the bared rocks around me lie, —

Cold rocks with half-warmed lichens scarred ,

And scales of moss; and scarce a yard
Away, one long strip, yellow-barred.

Lost in a cleft! ’ T is but a stride
To reach it, thrust its roots aside,

And lift it on thy stick astride!

Yet stay! That moment is thy grace!

For round thee, thrilling air and space,

A chattering terror fills the place!

A sound as of dry bones that stir,

In the dead valley! By yon fir
The locust stops its noon-day whir!

The wild bird hears; smote with the sound.

As if by bullet brought to ground
On broken wing, dips, wheeling round!

The hare, transfixed, with trembling lip.

Halts breathless, on pulsating hip,

And palsied tread, and heels that slip.

Enough, old friend! — His thou. Forget
My heedless foot, nor longer fret
The peace with thy grim castanet!”

From “Crotalus” (The Rattlesnake), Bret Harte.

204

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE MILK SNAKE, OR SPOTTED ADDER

Teacher's Story

The grass divides as with a comb, a spotted shaft is seen,

And then it closes at your feet, and opens farther on.

— Emils Dickinson.

| HIS is the snake which is said to milk cows, a most
absurd belief; it would not milk a cow if it could, and
it could not if it would. It has never yet been induced
to drink milk when in captivity ; and if it were very
thirsty, it could not drink more than two teaspoonfuls
of milk at most; thus in any case, its depredations
upon the milk supply need not be feared. Its object,
in frequenting milk houses and stables, is far other than
the milking of cows, for it is an inveterate hunter of
rats and mice and is thus of great benefit to the farmer. It is a constric-
tor, and squeezes its prey to death in its coils.

The ground color of the milk snake is pale gray, but it is covered with
so many brown or dark gray saddle-shaped blotches, that they seem
rather to form the ground-color; the lower side is white, marked with
square black spots and blotches. The snake attains a length of about
three feet when fully grown. Although it is called commonly the spotted
adder, it does not belong to the adders at all, but to the family of the king
snakes.

During July and August, the mother snake lays from seven to twenty
eggs; they are deposited in loose soil, in moist rubbish, in compost heaps,
etc. The egg is a symmetrical oval in shape and is about one and one-
eighth inches long by a half inch in diameter. The shell is soft and white,
like kid leather, and the egg resembles a puffball. The young hatch
nearly two months after the eggs are laid, meanwhile the eggs have in-
creased in size so that the snakelings are nearly eight inches long when they
hatch. The saddle-shaped blotches on the young have much red in them.
The milk snake is not venomous; it will sometimes, in defence, try to
chew the hand of the captor, but the wounds it can inflict are very slight
and heal quickly.

The milk snake, or spotted adder „

205

Reptile Study
LESSON L.

The Milk Snake, or Spotted Adder

Leading thought — The milk snake is found around stables where it
hunts for rats and mice but never milks the cows.

Method — Although the snake acts fiercely, it is perfectly harmless and
maybe captured in the hands and placed in a glass-covered box for a study
in the schoolroom.

Observations — i. Where is the milk snake found? Why is it called
milk snake? Look at its mouth and see if you think it could possibly
suck a cow. See if you can get the snake to drink milk.

2. What does it live upon? How does it kill its prey? Can the
milk snake climb a tree?

3 . Where does the mother snake lay her eggs ? How do the eggs
look? How large are they? How long are the little snakes when they
hatch from the egg? Are they the same color as the old ones?

4. Describe carefully the colors and markings of the milk snake and
explain how its colors protect it from observation. What are its colors on
the under side?

5. Have you ever seen a snake shed its skin? Describe how it was
done. How does the sloughed-off skin look? What bird always puts
snake skins around its nest?

I have the same objection to killing a snake that I have to the killing of any other
animal, yet the most humane man l know never omits to kill one.

Aug. 5, 1853.

The mower on the river meadows, when he comes to open his hay these days, en-
counters some overgrown water adder, full of young (?) and bold in defense of its
progeny, and tells a tale when he comes home at night which causes a shudder to run
through the village — how it came at him and he ran, and it pursued and overtook him,
and he transfixed it with a pitchfork and laid it on a cock of hay, but it revived and came
at him again. This is the story he tells in the shops at evening. The big snake is a sort
of fabulous animal. It is always as big as a man's arm and of indefinite length.
Nobody knows exactly how deadly is its bite but nobody is known to have been bitten and
recovered. Irishmen introduced into these meadows for the first time, on seeing a snake,
a creature which they have seen only in pictures before, lay down their scythes and run
as if it were the Evil One himself and cannot be induced to return to their work. They
sigh for Ireland, where they say there is no venomous thing that can hurt you.

— Thoreau’s Journal.

206

Handbook of N ature-St-udy

THE WATER SNAKE
Teacher's Story

“VERY boy that goes fishing, knows the snake found com-
monly about mill-dams and wharves or on rocks and
bushes near the water. The teacher will have accomplished
a great work, if these boys are made to realize that this
snake is a more interesting creature for study, than as an
object to pelt with stones.

The water snake is a dingy brown in color, with cross-
bands of brownish or reddish brown which spread out into blotches at
the side. Its color is very protective as it lies on stones or logs in its
favorite attitude of sunning itself. It is very local in its habits, and
generally has a favorite place for basking and returns to it year after
year on sunny days.

This snake lives mostly upon frogs and salamanders and fish ; however,
it preys usually upon fish of small value, so it is of little economic import-
ance. It catches its victims by chasing, and seizing them in its jaws.
It has a very keen sense of smell and probably traces its prey in this
manner, something as a hound follows a fox. It is an expert swimmer,
usually lifting the head a few inches above the water when swimming,
although it is able to dive and remain below the water for a short time.

The water snake is a bluffer, and, when cornered, it flattens itself and
strikes fiercely. But its teeth contain no poison and it can inflict only
slight and harmless wounds. When acting as if it would “rather fight than
eat,” if given a slight chance to escape, it will flee to the water like a
“streak of greased lightning,” as any boy will assure you.

The water snake.

Reptile Study

207

The water snake attains a length of about four feet. The young do
not hatch from eggs, but are bom alive in August and September; they
differ much in appearance from their parents as they are pale gray in
color, with jet-black cross-bands.

LESSON LI
The Water Snake

Leading thought — The water snake haunts the banks of streams because
its food consists of creatures that live in and about water.

Method — If water snakes are found in the locality, encourage the boys
to capture one without harming it, and bring it to school for observation.
However, as the water snake is very local in its habits, and haunts the
same place year after year, it will be better nature-study to get the children
to observe it in its native surroundings.

Observations — 1. Where is the water snake found? How large is the
largest one you ever saw?

2. Why does the water snake live near water? What is its food?
How does it catch its prey?

3. Describe how the water snake swims. How far does its head
project above the water when swimming? How long can it stay com-
pletely beneath the water ?

4. Describe the markings and colors of the water snake. How do
these colors protect it from observation? How do the young look?

5. Does each water snake have a favorite place for sunning itself?

6. Where do the water snakes spend the winter?

May 12, 1858.

Found a large water adder by the edge of Farmer's large mudhole , which abounds
with tadpoles and frogs, on which it was probably feeding. It was sunning on the bank
and would face me and dart its head toward me when I tried to drive it from the water.
It is barred above, but indistinctly when out of the water, so that it appears almost
uniformly dark brown, but in the water, broad, reddish brown bars are seen, very dis-
tinctly alternating with very dark-brown ones. The head was very flat and suddenly
broader than the neck behind. Beneath, it was whitish and reddish flesh-color. It was
about two inches in diameter at the thickest part. The inside of its mouth and throat
was pink. They are the biggest and most formidable-looking snakes that we have. It
was awful to see it wind along the bottom of the ditch at last, raising wreaths of mud
amid the tadpoles, to which it must be a very sea-serpent. I afterward saw another ,
running under Sam Barrett's grist-mill, the same afternoon. He said that he saw a
water-snake, which he distinguished from a black snake, in an apple tree near by, last
year, with a young robin in its mouth, having taken it from the nest. There was a cleft
or fork in the tree which enabled it to ascend.

— Thoreau’s Journal.

Handbook of Nature-Study

208

THE TURTLE
Teacher's Story

A TURTLE is at heart a misanthrope ; its shell is in itself proof of
/\ its owner’s distrust of this world. But we need not

— / \ wonder at this misanthropy, if we think for a moment

If y r — ' of the creatures that lived on this earth, at the time

pks ZfJ! when turtles first appeared. Almost any of us would
have been glad of a shell in which to retire, if we had
been contemporaries of the smilodon and other monsters of earlier geologic
times.

When the turtle feels safe and walks abroad for pleasure, Lis head pro-
jects far from the front end of his shell, and the legs, so wide, and soft that
they look as if they had no bones in them, project out at the side, while
the little, pointed tail brings up an undignified rear; but frighten him
and at once head, legs and tail all disappear, and even if we turn him over,
we see nothing but the tip of the nose, the claws of the feet and the tail
turned deftly sidewise. When frightened, he hisses threateningly; the
noise seems to be made while the mouth is shut, and the breath emitted
through the nostrils.

The upper shell of the turtle is called the carapace and the lower shell,
the plastron. There is much difference in ;the different species of turtles
in the shape of the upper shell and the size and shape of the lower one.
In most species the carapace is sub-globular but in some it is quite flat.
The upper shell is grown fast to the backbone of the animal, and the
lower shell to the breast bone. The markings and colors of the shell offer
excellent subjects for drawing. The painted terrapin has a red-mottled
border to the shell, very ornamental; the wood turtle has a shell made up
of plates each of which is ornamented with concentric ridges ; and the box-
turtle has a front and rear trap-door, hinged to the plastron, which can
be pulled up against the carapace when the turtle wishes to retire, thus
covering it entirely. .

Carapace of painted terrapin in retirement.

Plastron of same terrapin.

Reptile Study

209

The turtle’s head is decidedly snakelike. Its color differs with differ-
ent species. The wood turtle has a triangular, homy covering on the
top of the head, in which the color and beautiful pattern of the shell are
repeated; the underparts are brick-red with indistinct yellowish lines
under the jaw. The eyes are black with a yellowish iris, which somehow
gives them a look of intelligence. The turtle has no eyelids like our own,
but has a nictitating membrane which comes up from below and com-
pletely covers the eye ; if we seize the turtle by the head and attempt to
touch its eyes, we can see the use of this eyelid. When the turtle winks,
it seems to turn the eyeball down against the lower lid.

The sense of smell in turtles is not well developed, as may be guessed
by the very small nostrils, which are mere pin-holes in the snout. The
mouth is a more or less hooked beak, and is armed with cutting edges
instead of teeth. The constant pulsation in the throat is caused by the
turtle swallowing air for breathing.

The turtle’s legs, al-
though so large and soft,
have bones within them,
as the skeleton shows.

The claws are long and
strong; there are five
claws on the front and
four on the hind feet.

Some species have a dis-
tinct web between the
toes; in others, it is less
marked, depending upon
whether the species lives
mostly in water or out
of it. The color of the
turtle’s body varies with
the species; the body is
covered with coarse,
rough skin made up of
various-sized plates.

The enemies of turtles
are the larger fishes and
other turtles. Two tur-
tles should never be kept
in the same aquarium,
since they eat each
others’ tails and legs with
great relish. They feed
upon insects, small fish,
or almost anything soft-
bodied which they can
find in the water; they
are especially fond of.
earthworms. The species which frequent the land, feed upon tender
vegetation and also eat berries. In an aquarium, a turtle should be
fed earthworms, chopped fresh beef, lettuce leaves and berries. The
wood turtle is especially fond of cherries.

Boxy, a trained turtle.
Photo by Silas Lottridge.

210

Handbook of Nature-Study

The aquarium should always have in it a stone or some other object
projecting above the water, so that the turtle may climb out, if it chooses.
In winter, turtles bury themselves in the ooze at the bottom of ponds and
streams. Their eggs have white leathery shells, are oblong or round, and
are buried by the mother in the sand or soil near a stream or pond. The
long life of turtles is a well authenticated fact, dates carved upon' their
shells show them to have attained the age of thirty or forty years.

The following are, perhaps, the most common species of turtles:

(a) The Snapping Turtle — This sometimes attains a shell 14 inches
long and a weight of forty pounds. It is a vicious creature and inflicts a
severe wound with its sharp, hooked beak; it should not be used for a
nature-study lesson unless the specimen is very young.

(b) The Mud Turtle — The musk turtle and the common mud turtle
both inhabit slow streams and ponds; they are truly aquatic and only
come to shore to deposit their eggs. They cannot eat, unless they are
under water, and they seek their food in the muddy bottoms. The
musk turtle when handled, emits a very strong odor; it has on each
side of the head two broad yellow stripes. The mud turtle has no
odor. Its head is ornamented with greenish yellow spots.

(c) The Painted Terrapin, or Pond Turtle — This can be determined by
the red mottled border of its shell. It makes a good pet, if kept in an
aquarium by itself, but will destroy other creatures. It will eat meat or
chopped fish, and is fond of earthworms and soft insects.

(d) The Spotted Turtle — This has the upper shell black with numerous
round yellow spots upon it. It is common in ponds and marshy streams
and its favorite perch is, with many of its companions, upon a log. It
feeds under water, eating insect larvae, dead fish and vegetation. It
likes fresh lettuce.

(e) The Wood Terrapin — This is our most common turtle; it is found
in damp woods and wet places, since it lives largely upon the land. Its
upper shell often reaches a length of six and one-half inches and is made
up of many plates, ornamented with concentric ridges. This is the turtle
upon whose shell people carve initials and dates and then set it free. All
the fleshy parts of this turtle, except the top of the head and the limbs,
are brick-red. It feeds on tender vegetables, berries and insects. It
makes an interesting pet and will soon learn to eat from the fingers of its
master.

(f) The Box-Turtle — This is easily distinguished from the others,
because the front and rear portions of the lower shell are hinged so that
they can be pulled up against the upper shell. When this turtle is
attacked, it draws into the shell and closes both front and back doors, and
is very safe from its enemies. It lives entirely upon land and feeds upon
berries, tender vegetation and insects. It lives to a great age.

(g) The Soft-shelled Turtle — These are found in streams and canals.
The upper shell looks as if it were of one piece of soft leather, and resem-
bles a griddle-cake. Although soft-shelled, these turtles are far from soft-
tempered, and must be handled with care.

Reptile Study

LESSON LII
The Turtle

2 1 1

A snapping turtle.
Photo by J. T. Lloyd.

Leading thought —

The turtle’s shell is
for the purpose of
protecting its owner
from the attack of
enemies. Some tur-
tles live upon land
and others in water.

Method — A turtle
of any kind, in the
schoolroom, is all
that is needed to
make this lesson in-
teresting.

Observatio ns —

i . How much can you
see of the turtle when
it is walking? I f
you disturb it what
does it do? How
much of it can you
see then? Can you
see more of it from the
lower side than the upper? What is the advantage to the turtle of
having such a shell ?

2. Compare the upper shell with the lower as follows: How are

they shaped differently? What is their difference in color? Would it
be a disadvantage to the turtle if the upper shell were as light colored
as the lower? Why? Make a drawing of the upper and the lower shell
showing the shape of the plates of which they are composed. Where
are the two grown together?

3. Is the border of the upper shell different from the central portion
in color and markings? Is the edge smooth or scalloped?

4. How far does the turtle’s head project from the front of the shell?
What is the shape of the head? With what colors and pattern is it
marked ? Describe the eyes. How are they protected ? How does the
turtle wink? Can you discover the little eyelid which comes up from
below to cover the eye?

5. Describe the nose and nostrils. Do you think it has a keen sense
of smell?

6. Describe the mouth. Are there any teeth? With what does it
bite off its food? Describe the movement of the throat. Why is this
constant pulsation?

7. What is the shape of the leg? How is it marked? How many
claws on the front feet ? Are any of the toes webbed ? On which 'feet are
the webbed toes? Why should they be webbed? Describe the way a
turtle swims. Which feet are used for oars?

8. Describe the tail. How much can be seen from above when the
turtle is walking? What becomes of it, when the turtle withdraws into
its shell?

212 Handbook of Nature-Study

9. How much of the turtle’s body can you see? What is its color?
Is it rough or smooth ?

10. What are the turtle’s enemies? How does it escape from them?
What noise does the turtle make when frightened or angry?

11. Do all turtles live for part of the time in water? What is their
food and where do they find it? Write an account of all the species of
turtles that you know.

12. How do turtle eggs look? Where are they laid ? How are they
hidden ?

Supplementary reading — “Turtle Eggs for Agassiz,” Dalles Lore Sharp ,
Altantic Monthly, Feb., 1910.

V. MAMMAL STUDY

OR some inexplicable reason, the word animal, in
common parlance, is restricted to the mammals.
As a matter of fact, the bird, the fish, the insect
and the snake have as much right to be called animals as has
the squirrel or the deer. And while I believe that much
freedom in the matter of scientific nomenclature is permissible
in nature-study, I also believe that it is well for the child to
have a clearly defined idea of the classes into which the animal
kingdom is divided; and I would have him gain this knowledge
by noting how one animal differs from another rather than by
studying the classification of animals in books. He sees
that the fish differs in many ways from the bird and that the
toad differs from the snake; and it will be easy for him to grasp
the fact that the mammals differ from all other animals in that
the young are nourished by milk produced for this purpose in the breasts
of the mother; when he understands this, he can comprehend how such
diverse forms as the whale, the cow, the bat, and human beings are akin.

Mammal Study

21 3

A cotton-tail rabbit.

THE COTTON-TAIL RABBIT

Teacher's Story

“ The Bunnies are a feeble folk whose weakness is their strength.

To shun a gun a Bun will run to almost any length.” — Oliver Herford.

IS well for Molly Cotton-tail and her family that they
have learned to shun more than guns for almost every
predatory animal and bird makes a dinner of them on
every possible occasion. But despite these enemies,
moreover, with the addition of guns, men and dogs,
the cotton-tail lives and flourishes in our midst. A
“Molly” raised two families last year in a briar-patch
back of our garden on the Cornell Campus, where dogs
of many breeds abound ; and after each fresh fall of
snow this winter we have been able to trace our
bunny neighbors in their night wanderings around
the house, beneath the spruces and in the orchard.
The track consists of two long splashes, paired,
and between and a little behind them, two smaller ones; the rabbit
uses its front feet as a boy uses a vaulting pole and lands both
hind feet on each side and ahead of them; owing to the fact that the
bottoms of the feet are hairy the print is not clear-cut. When the rabbit
is not in a hurry it has a peculiar lope, but when frightened it makes long
jumps. The cotton-tails are night wanderers and usually remain hidden
during the day. In summer, they feed on clover or grass or other juicy
herbs and show a fondness for sweet apples and fresh cabbage; in our

214

Handbook of N atur e -Study

garden last summer Molly was very considerate. She carefully pulled
all the grass out of the garden-cress bed, leaving the salad for our enjoy-
ment. In winter, the long, gnawing teeth of the cotton-tail are some-
times used to the damage of fruit trees and nursery stock since the rabbits
are obliged to feed upon bark in order to keep alive.

The long, strong hind legs and the long ears tell the whole bunny
story. Ears to hear the approach of the enemy, and legs to propel the
listener by long jumps to a safe retreat. The attitude of the ears is a good
indication of the bunny’s state of mind; if they are set back to back and
directed backward, they indicate placidity, but a placidity that is always
on guard ; if lifted straight up they signify attention and anxiety ; if one
is bent forward and the other backward the meaning is: “Now just

where did that sound come from?” When running or when resting in the
form, the ears are laid back along the neck. When the cotton-tail stands
up on its haunches with both ears erect, it looks very tall indeed.

Not only are the ears always alert, but also the nose; the nostrils are
partially covered and in order to be always sure of getting every Scent
they wabble constantly, the split upper lip aiding in this performance;
when the rabbit is trying to get a scent it moves its head up and down in a
sagacious, apprehensive manner.

The rabbit has an upper and lower pair of incisors like other rodents,
but on the upper jaw there is a short incisor on each side of the large
teeth ; these are of no use now but are inherited from some ancestor which
found them useful. There are at the back of each side of the upper jaw
six grinding teeth, and five on each side of the lower jaw. The split
upper lip allows the free use of the upper incisors. The incisors are not
only used for taking the bark from trees, but also for cutting grass and
other food. The rabbit has a funny way of taking a stem of grass or
clover at the end and with much wabbling of lips, finally taking it in,
meanwhile chewing it with a sidewise motion of the jaws. The rabbits’
whiskers are valuable as feelers, and are always kept on the qui vive for
impressions ; when two cotton-tails meet each other amicably, they rub
whiskers together. The eyes are large and dark and placed on the bulge
at the side of the head, so as to command the view both ways. Probably
a cotton-tail winks, but I never caught one in the act.

The strong hind legs of the rabbit enable it to make prodigious jumps,
of eight feet or more; this is a valuable asset to an animal that escapes
its enemies by running. The front feet are short and cannot be turned
inward like those of the squirrel, to hold food. There are five toes on the
front feet, and four on the hind feet ; the hair on the bottom of the feet is
a protection, much needed by an animal which sits for long periods upon
the snow. When sleeping, the front paws are folded under and the rabbit
rests on the entire hind foot, with the knee bent, ready for a spring at the
slightest alarm ; when awake, it rests on the hind feet and front toes; and
when it wishes to see if the coast is clear, it rises on its hind feet, with
front paws drooping.

The cotton-tail has a color well calculated to protect it from observa-
tion ; it is brownish-gray on the back and a little lighter along the sides,
grayish under the chin and whitish below; the ears are edged with black,
and the tail when raised shows a large, white fluff at the rear. The general
color of the rabbit fits in with natural surroundings; since the cotton-tail
often escapes its enemies by “freezing,” this color makes the scheme work

Mammal Study

2I.S

Washing up.

well. I once saw a marsh hare, on a stone in a brook, freezing most suc-
cessfully. I could hardly believe that a living thing could seem so
much like a stone; only its bright eyes revealed it to us.

The rabbit cleans itself in amusing ways.

It shakes its feet, one at a time, with great
vigor and rapidity to get off the dirt and then
licks them clean. It washes its face with
both front paws at once. It scratches its ear
with the hind foot, and pushes it forward so
that it can be licked; it takes hold of its fur
with its front feet to pull it around within
reach of the tongue.

The cotton-tail does not dig a burrow,
but sometimes occupies the deserted burrow
of a woodchuck or skunk. Its nest is called a “form,” which simply
means a place beneath a cover of grass or briars, where the grass is beaten
down or eaten out for a space large enough for the animal to sit. The
mother makes a soft bed for the young, using grass and her own hair for
the purpose; and she constructs a coarse felted coverlet, under which she
tucks her babies with care, every time she leaves them. Young rabbits
are blind at first, but when about three weeks old, are sufficiently grown
to run quite rapidly. Although there may be five or six in a litter, yet
there are so many enemies that only a few escape.

Fox, mink, weasel, hawk, owl and snake all relish the young cotton-
tail if they can get it. Nothing but its runways through the briars can
save it. These roads wind in and out and across, twisting and turning
perplexingly ; they are made by cutting off the grass stems, and are just
wide enough for the rabbit’s body. However, a rabbit has weapons and
can fight if necessary; it leaps over its enemy, kicking it on the back
fiercely with its great hind feet. Mr. Seton tells of this way of conquering
the black snake, and Mr. Sharp saw a cat completely vanquished by the
same method. The rabbit can also bite, and when two males are fighting,
they bite each other savagely. Mr. E. W. Cleeves told me of a Belgian
doe which showed her enmity to cats in a peculiar way. She would run
after any cats that came in sight, butting them like a billy-goat. The cats
soon learned her tricks, and would climb a tree as soon as they caught
sight of her. The rabbit’s sound of defiance, is thumping the ground
with the strong hind foot. Some have declared that the front feet are
used also for stamping; although I have heard this indignant thumping
more than once, I could not see the process. The cotton-tail is a hare,
while the common domestic rabbit is a true rabbiti The two differ
chiefly in the habits of nesting; the hares rest and nest in forms, while
the rabbit makes burrows, digging rapidly with the front feet.

Not the least of tributes to the rabbit’s sagacity, are the negro folk-
stories told by Uncle Remus, wherein Bre’r Rabbit* although often in
trouble, is really the most clever of all the animals. I have often thought

• *

Rabbit tracks.

2l6

Handbook of Nature Study

when I have seen the tactics which rabbits have adopted to escape dogs,
that we in the North have under-rated the cleverness of this timid animal.
In one instance at least that came under our observation, a cotton-tail
led a dog to the verge of a precipice, then doubled back to safety, while
the dog went over, landing on the rocks nearly three hundred feet below.

LESSON LIII
The Cotton-tail Rabbit

Leading thought —
The cotton-tail thrives
amid civilization ; its
color protects it from
sight ; its long ears
give it warning of the
approach of danger;
and its long legs en-
able it to run by swift,
long leaps. It feeds
upon grasses, clover,
vegetables and other
herbs.

, _ , ... Method — This study

Belgian hares and Dutch rabbit. may be begun jn thg

winter, when the rabbit tracks can be observed and the haunts of the
cotton-tail discovered. If caught in a box trap, the cotton-tail will be-
come tame if properly fed and cared for, and may thus be studied at
close range. The cage I have used for rabbits as thus caught, is made
of wire screen, nailed to a frame, making a wire-covered box, two feet
high and two or three feet square, with a door at one side and no bot-
tom. It should be placed upon oil-cloth or linoleum, and thus may be
moved to another carpet when the floor needs cleaning. If it is im-
possible to study the cotton-tail, the domestic rabbit may be used
instead.

Observations — i . What sort of tracks does the cotton-tail make in the
snow? Describe and sketch them. Where do you find these tracks?
How do you know which way the rabbit was going? Follow the track
and see if you can find where the rabbit went. When were these tracks
made, by night or by day? What does the rabbit do during the day?
What does it find to eat during the winter? How are its feet protected
so that they do not freeze in the snow?

2. What are the two most noticeable peculiarities of the rabbit?
Of what use are such large ears ? How are the ears held when the rabbit
is resting? When startled? When not quite certain about the direction
of the noise? Explain the reasons for these attitudes. When the rabbit
wishes to make an observation to see if there is danger coming, what does
it do? How does it hold its ears then ? How are the ears held when the
animal is running ?

3 . Do you think the rabbit has a keen sense of smell ? Describe the
movements of the nostrils and explain the reason. How does it move its
head to be sure of getting the scent?

Mammal Study

21 7

4. What peculiarity is there in the upper lip ? How would this be an
aid to the rabbit when gnawing ? Describe the teeth ; how do these differ
from those of the mouse or squirrel ? Of what advantage are the gnawing
teeth to the rabbit ? How does it eat a stem of grass ? Note the rabbit’s
whiskers. What do you think they are used for?

5. Describe the eyes. How are they placed so that the rabbit can
see forward and backward? Do you think that it sleeps with its eyes
open? Does it wink?

6. Why is it advantageous to the rabbit to have such long, strong,
hindlegs? Compare them in size with the front legs. Compare the front
and hind feet. How many toes on each? How are the bottoms of the
feet protected? Are the front feet ever used for holding food like the
squirrel’s? In what position are the legs when the rabbit is resting?
When it is standing? When lifted up for observation?

7. How does the cotton-tail escape being seen? Describe its coat.
Of what use is the white fluff beneath the tail? Have you ever seen a
wild rabbit “freeze” ? What is meant by freezing and what is the use of it ?

8. In making its toilet how does the rabbit clean its face, ears, feet,
and fur?

9. What do the cotton-tails feed upon during the summer? During
the winter? Do they ever do much damage?

10. Describe the cotton-tail’s nest. What is it called? Does it ever
burrow in the ground ? Does it ever use a second-hand burrow ? Describe
the nest made for the young by the mother. Of what is the bed com-
posed? Of what is the coverlet made? What is the special use of the
coverlet? How do the young cotton-tails look? How old are they
before they are able to take care of themselves?

11. What are the cotton-tail’s enemies? How does it escape them?
Have you ever seen the rabbit roads in a briar patch ? Do you think that
a dog or fox could follow them ? Do rabbits ever fight their enemies ? If
so, how? How do they show anger? Do they stamp with the front or
the hind foot ?

12. Tell how the cotton-tail differs in looks and habits from the
common tame rabbit. How do the latter dig their burrows? How
many breeds of tame rabbits do you know?

13. Write or tell stories on the following topics: “A Cotton-tail’s

Story of its Own Life Until it is a Year Old;” “The Jack-rabbit of the
West;” “The Habits of the White Rabbit or Varying Hare;” “The Rab-
bit in Uncle Remus’ Tales.”

Supplementary reading — “Raggylug” and “Little War Horse,” Thomp-
son-Seton; Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs; Watchers in the
Woods, Sharp; American Animals, Stone & Cram; Familiar Life in
Field and Forest, Mathews; Sharp Eyes, Gibson; Neighbors with Claws
and Hoofs, Johonnot; True Tales of Birds and Beasts, Jordan; Uncle
Remus Stories, especially The Tar Baby, which emphasizes the fact that
the rabbits’ runways are in the protecting briar-patch.

2 18

Handbook of Nature-Study

Winter lodge of muskrats.
Photo by Silas Lottridge.

THE MUSKRAT

Teacher's Story

“ Having finished this first course of big-neck clams, they were joined by a third
muskrat, and, together, they filed over the bank and down into the meadow. Shortly
two of them returned with great mouthfuls of the mud-bleached ends of calamus-blades.
Then followed the washing.

They dropped their loads upon the plank, took up the stalks, pulled the blades apart,
and soused them up and down in the water, rubbing them with their paws until they
were as clean and white as the whitest celery one ever ate. What a dainty picture !
Two little brown creatures, humped on the edge of a plank, washing calamus in moonlit
water!" — Dallas Lore Sharp.

RACKING is a part of every boy’s education who
aspires to a knowledge of wood lore ; and a boy with
this accomplishment is sure to be looked upon
with great admiration by other boys, less skilled in
the interpretation of that writing made by small feet,
on the soft snow or on the mud of stream margins.
To such a boy, the track of the muskrat is well
known, and very easily recognized.

The muskrat is essentially a water animal, and therefore its tracks are
to be looked for along the edges of ponds, streams or in marshes. Whether
the tracks are made by walking or jumping, depends upon the depth of
the snow or mud; if it is deep, the animal jumps, but in shallow snow or
mud, it simply runs along. The tracks show the front feet to be smaller

Mammal Study

219

than the hind ones. The muskrat track is, however, characterized by the
tail imprint. When the creature jumps through the snow, the mark of
the tail follows the paired imprints of the feet; when it walks, there is a
continuous line made by this strong, naked tail. This distinguishes the
track of the muskrat from that of the mink, as the bushy tail of the latter
does not make so distinct a mark. Measuring the track, is simply a
device for making the pupils note its size and shape more carefully. The
tracks may be looked for during the thaws of March or February, when
the muskrats come out of the water to seek food.

In appearance the muskrat is peculiar. The body is usually about a
foot in length and the tail about eight inches. The body is stout and
thickset, the head is rounded and looks like that of a giant meadow
mouse; the eyes are black and shining; the ears are short and close to the
head; the teethx like those of other rodents, consist of a pair of front
teeth on each jaw, then a long, bare space and four grinders on each side.
There are long sensitive hairs about the nose and mouth, like the whiskers
of mice.

The muskrat’s hind legs are much larger and stronger than the front
ones; and too, the hind feet are much longer than the front feet and have
a web between the toes; there are also stiff hairs which fill the space
between the toes, outside the web, thus making this large hind foot an
excellent swimming organ. The front toes are not webbed and are used
for digging. The claws are long, stout and sharp. The tail is long, stout
and flattened at the sides; it has little or no fur upon it but is covered
with scales ; it is used as a scull and also as a rudder when the muskrat is
swimming.

The muskrat’s outer coat consists of long, rather coarse hairs; its
under coat is of fur, very thick and fine, and although short, it forms a
waterproof protection for the body of the animal. In color, the fur is
dark brown above with a darker streak along the middle of the back;
beneath, the body is grayish changing to whitish on the throat and lips,
with a brown spot on the chin. In preparing the pelts for commercial
use, the long hairs are plucked out leaving the soft, fine under coat, which
is dyed and sold under the name of “electric seal.”

The muskrat is far better fitted by form, for life in the water than upon
the land. Since it is heavy-bodied and short-legged, it cannot run rapidly
but its strong, webbed hind feet are most efficient oars, and it swims
rapidly and easily; for rudder and propeller the strong, flattened tail
serves admirably, while the fine fur next the body is so perfectly water-
proof that, however much the muskrat swims or dives, it is never wet.
It is a skillful diver and can stay under water for several minutes ; when
swimming, its nose and sometimes the head and the tip of the tail appear
on the surface of the water.

The food of muskrats is largely roots, especially those of the sweet flag
and the yellow lily. They also feed on other aquatic plants and are fond
of the fresh-water shell-fish. Mr. Sharp tells us, in one of his delightful
stories, how the muskrats wash their food by sousing it up and down in
water many times before eating it. Often, a muskrat chooses some
special place upon the shore which it uses for a dining-room, bringing
there and eating pieces of lily root or fresh-water clams, and leaving the
debris to show where it habitually dines. It does most of its hunting for food
at night, although sometimes it may be seen thus employed during the day.

220

Handbook of Nature-Study

The winter lodge of the muskrat is a most interesting structure. A
foundation of tussocks of rushes, in a stream or shallow pond, is built
upon with reeds plastered with mud, making a rather regular dome which
may be nearly two or three feet high ; or, if many-chambered, it may be a
grand affair of four or five feet elevation ; but it always looks so much like
a natural hummock that the eye of the uninitiated never regards it as a
habitation. Always beneath this dome and above the water line, is a
snug, covered chamber carpeted with a soft bed of leaves and moss,
which has a passage leading down into the water below, and also has an
air-hole for ventilation. In these cabins, closely cuddled together, three
or four in a chamber, the muskrats pass the winter. After the pond is
frozen they are safe from their enemies and are always able to go down
into the water and feed upon the roots of water plants. These cabins are
sometimes built in the low, drooping branches of willows or on other
objects.

Whether the muskrat builds itself a winter lodge or not, depends upon
the nature of the shore which it inhabits; if it is a place particularly fitted
for burrows, then a burrow will be used as a winter retreat; but if the
banks are shallow, the muskrats unite in building cabins. The main
entrance to the muskrat burrow is always below the surface of the water,
the burrow slanting upward and leading to a nest well lined, which is
above the reach of high water; there is always an air hole above, for
ventilating this nest, and there is also often a passage, with a hidden
entrance, leading out to dry land.

The flesh of the muskrat is delicious, and therefore the animal has
many enemies; foxes, weasels, dogs, minks and also hawks and owls prey
upon it. It escapes the sight of its enemies as does the mouse, by having
the color of its fur not noticeable; when discovered, it escapes its enemies
by swimming, although when cornered, it is courageous and fights fiercely,
using its strong incisors as weapons. In winter, it dwells in safety when
the friendly ice protects it from all its enemies except the mink ; but it is
exposed to great danger when the streams break up in spring, for it is then
often driven from its cabin by floods, and preyed upon while thus help-
lessly exposed. The muskrat gives warning of daneer to its fellows by
splashing the water with its strong tail

Mammal Study 221

It is called musk-
rat because of the
odor, somewhat re-
sembling musk,
which it exhales
from two glands on
the lower side of
the body between
the hind legs ; these
glands may be seen
when the skin is
removed, which is
the too common
plight of this poor
creature, since it
is hunted merci-
lessly for its pelt.

The little musk-
rats are born in
April and there are
usually from six to
eight in a litter.
Another litter may
be produced in
June or July and
a third in August
or September. It is
only thus, by rear-
ing large families
often, that the
muskrats are able
to hold their own
against the hunters
and trappers and
their natural ene-
mies.

References — Wild Animals, Stone & Cram; A Watcher in the
Woods, Sharp; Wild Life, Ingersoll; Farmers’ Bulletin No. 396, U. S.
Dept, of Agriculture.

The muskrat.
Photo by Silas Lottridge.

LESSON LIV

The Muskrat

Leading thought — The muskrat, while a true rodent, is fitted for life
in the water more than for life upon the land. Its hind feet are webbed
for use as oars and its tail is used as a rudder. It builds lodges of mud,
cat-tails and rushes in which it spends the winter.

Method — It might be well to begin this work by asking for observations
on the tracks of the muskrat which may be found about the edges of
almost any creek, pond or marsh. If there are muskrat lodges in the
region they should be visited and described. For studying the muskrat’s
form a live muskrat in captivity is almost necessary. If one is trapped

222

Handbook of Nature-Study

with a “figure iour” it will not be injured and it may be made more or
less tame by feeding it with sweet apples, carrots and parsnips. The
pupils can thus study it at leisure although they should not be allowed to
handle the creature as it inflicts very severe wounds and is never willing
to be handled. If a live muskrat cannot be obtained perhaps some hunter
in the neighborhood will supply a dead one for this observation lesson.

While studying the muskrat the children should read all the stories of
beavers which are available as the two animals are very much alike in
their habits.

Observations — i. In what locality have you discovered the tracks of
the muskrat? Describe its general appearance. Measure the muskrat’s
track as follows : (a) Width and length of the print of one foot ; (b) the

width between the prints of the two hind feet ; (c) the length between the
prints made by the hind feet in several successive steps or jumps.

2. Was the muskrat’s track made when the animal was jumping or
walking? Can you see in it a difference in the size of the front and hind
feet? Judging from the track, where do you think the muskrat came
from? What do you think it was hunting for?

3. What mark does the tail make in the snow or mud? Judging by
its imprint, should you think the muskrat’s tail was long or short, bare or
brushy, slender or strong?

4. How long is the largest muskrat you ever saw? How much of the
whole length is tail? Is the general shape of the body short and heavy
or long and slender?

5. Describe the muskrat’s eyes, ears and teeth. For what are the
teeth especially fitted ? Has the muskrat whiskers like mice and rats ?

6. Compare the front and hind legs as to size and shape. Is there a
web between the toes of the hind feet? What does this indicate? Do
you think that the muskrat is a good swimmer ?

7. Describe the muskrat fur. Compare the outer and under coat.
What is its color above and below? What is the name of muskrat fur in
the shops?

8. Describe the tail. What is its covering? How is it flattened?
What do you think this strong, flattened tail is used for?

9. Do you think the muskrat is better fitted to live in the water than
on land ? How is it fitted to live in the water in the following particulars :
Feet? Tail? Fur?

10. How much of the muskrat can you see when it is swimming?
How long can it stay under water when diving ?

11. What is the food of the muskrat ? Where does it find it? How
does it prepare the food for eating? Does it seek its food during the night
or day? Have you ever observed the muskrat’s dining room? If so,
describe it.

12. Describe the structure of the muskrat’s winter lodge, or cabin,

in the following particulars : Its size. Where built ? Of what material ?

How many rooms in it ? Are these rooms above or below the water level ?
Of what is the bed made? How is the nest ventilated? How is it
arranged so that the entrance is not closed by the ice? Is such a home
built by one or more muskrats? How many live within it? Do the
muskrats always build these winter cabins? What is the character of
the shores where they are built ?

Mammal Study

223

13. Describe the muskrat’s burrow in the bank in the following

particulars : Is the entrance above or below water ? Where and how is

the nest made ? Is it ventilated ? Does it have a back door leading out
upon the land ?

14. What are the muskrat’s enemies? How does it escape them?
How does it fight? Is it a courageous animal? How does the muskrat
give warning to its fellows when it perceives danger? At what time of
year is it comparatively safe? At what time is it exposed to greatest
danger?

15. Why is this animal called muskrat? Compare the habits of
muskrats with those of beaver and write an English theme upon the
similarity of the two.

16. At what time of year do you find the young muskrats? How
many in a litter ?

17. Read Farmers’ Bulletin No. 396 of the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture
and write an English theme on the destructive habits of muskrats and the
economic uses of these animals.

Supplementary reading — Familiar Wild Animals, Lottridge; Little
Beasts of Field and Wood, Cram; Squirrels and other Fur-bearers, Bur-
roughs; “The Builders” in Ways of Wood Folk, Long.

The white-footed, or deer, mouse.
Drawn by Anna Stryke.

224

Handbook of N atur e-Study

The house mouse feeds upon almost anything which people like to eat.

THE HOUSE MOUSE
Teacher's Story

Somewhere in the darkness a clock strikes two;

And there is no sound in the sad old house ,

But the long veranda dripping with dew ,

And in the wainscot — a mouse. — Bret Harte.

ERE mouse-gray a less inconspicuous color, there
would be fewer mice; when a mouse is running
along the floor, it is hardly discernible, it looks so
like a flitting shadow; if it were black or white or
any other color, it would be more often seen and
destroyed. Undoubtedly, it is owing to the fact
that its soft fur has this shadowy color, that this
species has been able to spread over the world.

At first glance one wonders what possible use a mouse can make of a
tail which is as long as its body, but a little careful observation will
reveal the secret. The tail is covered with transverse ridges and is bare
save for sparse hairs, except toward the tip. Dr. Ida Reveley first called
my attention to the fact that the house mouse uses its tail in climbing. I
verified this interesting observation, and found that my mouse used the
tail for aid when climbing a string. He would go up the string, hand over
hand, like a sailor, then in trying to stretch to the edge of his jar, he
invariably wound his tail about the string two or three times, and hanging
to the string with the hind feet and tail, would reach far out with his head
and front feet. Also, when clinging to the edge of the cover of the jar, he
invariably used his tail as a brace against the side of the glass, so that it
pressed hard for more than half its length. Undoubtedly the tail is of
great service when climbing up the sides of walls.

Mammal Study

225

The tail is also of some use, when the mouse jumps directly upwards.
The hind legs are very much longer and stronger than the front legs. The
hind feet are also much longer and larger than the front feet ; and although
the mouse, when it makes its remarkable jumps, depends upon its strong
hind legs, I am sure that often the tail is used as a brace to guide and
assist the leap. The feet are free from hairs but are downy; the hind
foot has three front toes, a long toe behind on the outside and a short one
on the inside. The claws are fairly long and very sharp so that they are
able to cling to almost anything but glass. When exploring, a mouse
stands on its hind feet, folding its little front paws under its chin while it
reaches up ready to catch anything in sight; it can stretch up to an
amazing height. It feeds upon almost anything which people like to eat
and, when eating, holds its food in its front paws like a squirrel.

The thin, velvety ears are flaring cornucopias for taking in sound; the
large, rounded outer ear can be moved forward or back to test the direc-
tion of the noise. The eyes are like shining, black beads; and if a
mouse can wink, it does it so rapidly as not to be discernible. The nose
is long, inquisitive, and always sniffing for hew impressions. The
whiskers are delicate and probably sensitive. The mouth is furnished
with two long, curved gnawing teeth at the front of each jaw, then a bare
space, and four grinding teeth on each side, above and below, like the
teeth of woodchucks and other rodents. The gnawing teeth are very
strong and enable the mouse to gnaw through board partitions and other
obstacles.

The energy with which the mouse cleans itself is inspiring to behold.
It nibbles its fur and licks it with fervor, reaching around so as to get at it
from behind, and tak-
ing hold with its little
hands to hold firm
while it cleans. When
washing its face and
head, it uses both
front feet, licking
them clean and rub-
bing them both simul-
taneously from behind
the ears down over
the face. It takes its
hind foot in both front
feet and nibbles and
licks it. It scratches
the back of its head
with its hind foot.

Young mice are
small, downy, pink
and blind when born.

The mother makes for
them a nice, soft nest
of pieces of cloth,
paper, grass, or what-
ever is at hand; the

nest is round like Young mice, blind, pink and hairless.

226

Handbook of Nature-Study

a ball and at its center is nestled the family. Mice living in houses,
have runways between the plaster and the outside, or between ceiling
and floor. In winter they live on what food they can find, and upon flies
or other insects hibernating in our houses. The house mice sometimes
live under stacks of com or grain in the fields, but usually confine them-
selves to houses or barns. They are thirsty little fellows and they like to
make their nests within easy reach of water. Our house mice came from
ancestors which lived in Asia originally; they have always been great
travelers and they have followed men wherever they have gone, over the
world. They came to America on ships with the first explorers and the
Pilgrim fathers. They now travel back and forth, crossing the ocean in
ships of all sorts. They also travel across the continent on trains.
Wherever our food is carried they go ; and the mouse, which you see in
your room one day, may be a thousand miles away within a week. They
are clever creatures, and learn quickly to connect cause and effect. For
two years, I was in an office in Washington, and as soon as the bell rang
for noon, the mice would appear instantly, hunting waste-baskets for
scraps of lunch. They had learned to connect the sound of the bell
with food.

Of all our wild mice, the white-footed or deer mouse is the most
interesting and attractive. It is found almost exclusively in woods and is
quite different in appearance from other mice. Its ears are very large;
its fur is fine and beautiful and a most delicate gray color. It is white
beneath the head and under the sides of the body. The feet are pinkish,
the front paws have short thumbs, while the hind feet are very much
longer and have a long thumb looking very much like an elfin hand in a
gray-white silk glove. On the bottom of the feet are callous spots which
are pink and serve as foot

pads. It makes its nest in |

hollow trees and stores nuts ' ^

for winter use. We once
found two quarts of shelled

beech nuts in such a nest. It ** — „

also likes the hips of the wild
rose and many kinds of ber-
ries; it sometimes makes its
summer home in a bird’s nest,
which it roofs over to suit
itself. The young mice are
carried, hanging to the mother’s breasts.

Track of white-footed mouse.
Notice tail-track.

As an inhabitant of summer
cottages, white-foot is cunning and mischievous ; it pulls cotton out of quilts
takes covers off of jars, and as an explorer, is equal to the squirrel. I once
tried to rear some young deer mice by feeding them warm milk with a
pipette; although their eyes were not open, they invariably washed their
faces after each meal, showing that neatness was bred in the bone. This
mouse has a musical voice and often chirps as sweetly as a bird. Like
the house mouse it is more active at night.

The meadow mouse is the one that makes its run-ways under the snow,
making strange corrugated patterns over the ground which attract our
attention in spring. It has a heavy body, short legs, short ears and short
tail. It is brownish or blackish in color. It sometimes digs burrows
straight into the ground, but more often makes its nest beneath sticks and

Mammal Study

227

stones or stacks of com. It is the nest of this field mouse which the
bumblebee so often takes possession of, after it is deserted. The meadow
mouse is a good fighter, sitting up like a woodchuck and facing its enemy
bravely. It needs to be courageous, for it is preyed upon by almost every
creature that feeds upon small animals; the hawks and owls especially
are its enemies. It is well for the farmer that these mice have so many
enemies, for they multiply rapidly and would otherwise soon overrun and
destroy the grain fields. This mouse is an excellent swimmer.

A part of winter work, is to make the pupils familiar with the tracks
of the meadow mice and how to distinguish them from other tracks.

* — — ■ — — — *

Figure 4. trap.

Trapping Field Mice — Probably wild animals have endured more
cruelty through the agency of traps than through any other form of
human persecution. The savage steel traps often catch the animal by the
leg, holding it until it gnaws off the imprisoned foot, and thus escapes
maimed and handicapped for its future struggle for food ; or if the trap
gets a strong hold, the poor creature may suffer tortures during a long
period, before the owner of the trap appears to put an end to its sufferings
by death. If box traps are used, they are often neglected and the poor
creature imprisoned, is left to languish and starve. The teacher cannot
enforce too strongly upon the child the ethics of trapping. Impress
upon him that the box traps are far less cruel; but that if set, they must
be examined regularly and not neglected. The study of mice affords a
good opportunity for giving the children a lesson in humane trapping.
Let them set a figure 4 or a bowl trap, which they must examine
every morning. The little prisoners may be brought to school
and studied; meanwhile, they should be treated kindly and fed bounti-
fully. After a mouse has been studied, it should be set free, even though
it be one of the quite pestiferous field mice. The moral effect of killing an
animal, after a child has become thoroughly interested in it and its life,
is always bad.

References — Claws and Hoofs, Johomot, American Animals, Stone &
Cram; Secrets of the Woods, Long; Wild Life, Ingersoll; Familiar Wild
Animals, Lottridge.

228

Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON LV
The House Mouse

Leading thought — The mouse is fitted by color, form, agility and habits
to thrive upon the food which it steals from man, and to live in the midst
of civilized people.

Method — A mouse cage can be easily made of wire window-screen
tacked upon a wooden frame. I have even used aquarium jars with wire
screen covers, and by placing one jar upon another, opening to opening,
and then laying them horizontal, the mouse can be transferred to a fresh
cage without trouble, and thus the mousey odor can be obviated, while
the little creature is being studied. A little water in a wide-necked bottle
can be lowered into this glass house by a string, and the food can be given
in like manner. Stripped paper should be put into the jar for the comfort
of the prisoner; a stiff string hanging down from the middle of the cage
will afford the prisoner a chance to show his feats as an acrobat.

Observations — -i . Why is the color of the mouse of special benefit to it ?
Do you think it protects it from the sight' of its enemies? Can you see a
mouse easily as it runs across the room ? What is the nature of the fur of
a mouse?

2. How long is a mouse’s tail as compared with its body? What is the
covering of the tail? Of what use to the mouse is this long, ridged tail?
Watch the mouse carefully and discover, if you can, the use of the tail in
climbing.

3. Is the mouse a good jumper? Are the hind legs long and strong
when compared with the front legs? How high do you think a mouse
can jump? Do you think it uses its tail as an aid in jumping? How
much of the legs are covered with hair? Compare the front and hind feet.
What sort of claws have they? How does the mouse use its feet when
climbing the string? How can it climb up the side of a wall?

4. Describe the eyes. Do you think the mouse can see very well?
Does it wink? What is the shape of the ears ? Do you think it can hear
well? Can it move its ears forward or backward?

5. What is the shape of the snout? Of what advantage is this?
Note the whiskers. What is their use? Describe the mouth. Do you
know how the teeth are arranged? For what other use than to bite food
does the mouse use its teeth? What other animals have their teeth
arranged like those of the mouse? What food does the house mouse live
upon? How does it get it?

6. How does the mouse act when it is reaching up to examine some-
thing? How does it hold its front feet ? Describe how the mouse washes
its face. Its back. Its feet.

7. Where does the house mouse build its nest? Of what material?
How do the baby mice look ? Can they see when they are first bom ?

8. House mice are great travelers. Can you tell how they manage
to get from place to place? Write a story telling all you know of their
habits.

9. How many kinds of mice do you know? Does the house mouse
ever live in the field ? What do you know of the habits of the white-footed
mouse? Of the meadow mice? Of the jumping mice?

229

Mammal Study

THE WOODCHUCK

Teacher's Story

E who knows the ways of the woodchuck can
readily guess where it is likely to be found;
it loves meadows and pastures where grass or
clover lushly grows. It is also fond of garden
truck and has a special delectation for melons.
The burrow is likely to be situated near a fence
or stone heap, which gives easy access to the
chosen food. The woodchuck makes its
burrow by digging the earth loose with- its
front feet, and pushing it backward and out of
the entrance with the hind feet. This method
leaves the soil in a heap near the entrance, from which paths radiate into
the grass in all directions. If one undertakes to dig out a woodchuck, one
needs to be not only a husky individual, but something of an engineer;
the direction of the burrow extends downward for a little way, and then
rises at an easy angle, so that the inmate may be in no danger of flood.
The nest is merely an enlargement of the burrow, lined with soft grass,
which the woodchucks bring in in their mouths. During the early part
of the season, the father and mother and the litter of young may inhabit
the same burrow, although there are likely to be at least two separate
nests. There is usually more than one back door to the woodchuck’s
dwelling, through which it may escape, if pressed too closely by enemies;
these back doors differ from the entrance, in that they are usually hidden
and have no earth heaped near them.

The woodchuck usually feeds in the morning and again in the evening,
and is likely to spend the middle of the day resting. It often goes some
distance from its burrow to feed, and at short intervals, lifts itself upon
its hind feet to see if the coast is clear; if assailed, it will seek to escape
by running to its burrow; and when running, it has a peculiar gait well
described as “pouring itself along.” If it reaches its burrow, it at once
begins to dig deeply and throw the earth out behind it, thus making a
wall to keep out the enemy. When cornered, the woodchuck is a coura-
geous and fierce fighter; its sharp incisors prove a powerful weapon and it
will often whip a dog much larger than itself. Every boy knows how to
find whether the woodchuck is in its den or not, by rolling a stone into the
burrow, and listening; if the animal is at home, the sound of its digging
apprises the listener of the fact. In earlier times, the ground-hogs were
much preyed upon by wolves, wildcats and foxes; now, only the fox
remains and he is fast disappearing, so that at present, the farmer and his
dog are about the only enemies this burro wer has to contend with. It is
an animal of resources and will climb a tree if attacked by a dog; it will
also climb trees for fruit, like peaches. During the late summer, it is the
ground-hog’s business to feed very, constantly and become very fat.
About the first of October, it retires to its den and sleeps until the end of
March or April. During this dormant state, the beating of its heart is so
faint as to be scarcely perceptible, and very little nourishment is required
to keep it alive ; this nourishment is supplied by the fat stored in its body,
which it uses up by March, and comes out of its burrow in the spring, look-
ing gaunt and lean. The old saying that the ground-hog comes out on

230

Handbook of Nature-Study

Candlemas Day, and if it sees its shadow, goes back to sleep for six weeks
more, may savor of meteorological truth, but it is certainly not true of the
ground-hog.

The full-grown woodchuck ordinarily measures about two feet in
length. Its color is grizzly or brownish, sometimes blackish in places;
the under parts are reddish and the feet black. The fur is rather coarse,
thick and brown, with longer hairs which are grayish. The skin is very
thick and tough and seems to fit loosely, a condition which gives the
peculiar “pouring along” appearance when it is running. The hind legs
and feet are longer than those in front. Both pairs of feet are fitted for
digging, the front ones being used for loosening the earth and the hind
pair for kicking it out of the burrow.

The woodchuck’s ears are roundish and not prominent, and by mus-
cular contraction they are closed when the animal is digging, so that no

soil can enter; the
sense of hearing is
acute. The teeth con-
sist of two large in-
cisors at the front of
each jaw, a bare space
and four grinders on
each side, above and
below; the incisors
are used for biting
food and also for fight-
ing. The eyes are full
and bright. The tail
is short and brushy,
and it with the hind
legs, form a tripod
which supports the
animal, as it sits with
its forefeet lifted.

When feeding, the
woodchuck often
makes a contented
grunting noise ; when
attacked and fighting,
it growls; and when
feeling happy and con-
versational, it sits up
and whistles. I had a
woodchuck acquaint-
ance once which al-
Treed! ways gave a high,

Photo by Verne Morton. shrill, almost birdlike

whistle when I came in view, a very jolly greeting. There are
plenty of statements in books that woodchucks are fond of music, and
Mr. Ingersoll states that at Wellesley College a woodchuck on the chapel
lawn was wont to join the morning song exercises with a “clear soprano.”
The young woodchucks are born about the first of May and the litter
usually numbers four or five. In June the “chucklings” may be seen
following the mother in the field with much babyish grunting. If

Mammal Study

231

captured at this period, they make every interesting pets. By August or
September the young woodchucks leave the home burrow and start
burrows of their own.

References — Wild Animals, Stone & Cram; Wild Neighbors, Inger-
soll; Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs; Familiar Wild Ani-
mals, Lottridge.

LESSON LVI

The Woodchuck or Ground-Hog

Leading thought — The woodchuck has thriven with civilization, not-
withstanding the farmer’s dog, gun, traps and poison. It makes its nest
in a burrow in the earth and lives upon vegetation; it hibernates in
winter.

Method — Within convenient distance for observation by the pupils of
every country schoolhouse and of most village schoolhouses, maybe
found a woodchuck and its dwelling. The pupils should be given the
outline for observations which should be made individually through
watching the woodchuck for weeks or months.

Observations — 1. Where is the woodchuck found? On what does it
live ? At what time of day does it feed ? How does it act when startled ?

2. Is the woodchuck a good fighter? With what weapons does it
fight ? What are its enemies ? How does it escape its enemies when in or
out of its burrow? How does it look when running?

3 . What noises does the woodchuck make and what do they mean ?
Play a “mouth-organ” near the woodchuck’s burrow and note if it likes
music.

4. How does the woodchuck make its burrow? Where is it likely
to be situated ? Where is the earth placed which is taken from the bur-
row? How does the woodchuck bring it out ? How is the burrow made
so that the woodchuck is not drowned in case of heavy rains? In what
direction do the underground galleries go? Where is the nest placed in
relation to the galleries ? Of what is the nest made ? How is the bedding
carried in? Of what special use is the nest?

5. Do you find paths leading to the entrances of the burrow? If so,
describe them. How can you tell whether a woodchuck is at home or not
if you do not see it enter? Where is the woodchuck likely to station itself
when it sits up to look for intruders?

6. How many woodchucks inhabit the same burrow? Are there
likely to be one or more back doors to the burrow? What for? How do
the back doors differ from the front doors ?

7. How long is the longest woodchuck that you have ever seen?
What is the woodchuck’s color? Is its fur long or short ? Coarse or fine?
Thick or sparse? Is the skin thick or thin? Does it seem loose or close
fitting?

8. Compare the front and hind feet and describe difference in size and
shape. Are either or both slightly webbed ? Explain how both front and
hind feet and legs are adapted by their shape to help the woodchuck. Is
the tail long or short ? How does it assist the animal in sitting up ?

9. What is the shape of the woodchuck’s ear? Can it hear well?
Why are the ears not filled with soil when the animal is burrowing? Of
what use are the long incisors? Describe the eyes.

232

Handbook of Nature-Study

10. How does the woodchuck prepare for winter? Where and how
does it pass the winter? Did you ever know a woodchuck to come out on
Candlemas Day to look for its shadow?

11. When does the woodchuck appear in the spring? Compare its
general appearance in the fall and in the spring and explain the reason for
the difference.

12. When are the young woodchucks bom? What do you know of
the way the mother woodchuck cares for her young?

As I turned round the corner of Hubbard's Grove , saw a woodchuck, the first of
the season, in the middle of the field six or seven rods from the fence which bounds the
wood, and twenty rods distant. I ran along the fence and cut him off, or rather overtook
him, though he started at the same time. When I was only a rod and a half off, he
stopped, and I did the same; then he ran again, and I ran up within three feet of him,
when he stopped again, the fence being between us. I squatted down and surveyed him
at my leisure. His eyes were dull black and rather inobvious, with a faint chestnut
iris, with but little expression and that more of resignation than of anger. The general
aspect was a coarse grayish brown, a sort of grisel. A lighter brown next the skin, then
black or very dark brown and tipped with whitish rather loosely. The head between a
squirrel and a bear, flat on the top and dark brown, and darker still or black on the tip
of the nose. The whiskers black, two inches long. The ears very small and roundish,
set far back and nearly buried in the fur. Black feet, with long and slender claws for
digging. It appeared to tremble, or perchance shivered with cold. When I moved, it
gritted its teeth quite loud, sometimes striking the under jaw against the other chatter-
ingly, sometimes grinding one jaw on the other, yet as if more from instinct than anger.
Whichever way 1 turned, that way it headed. I took a twig a foot long and touched its
snout, at which it started forward and bit the stick, lessening the distance between us to
two feet, and still it held all the ground it gained. I played with it tenderly awhile with
the stick, trying to open its gritting jaws. Ever its long incisors, two above and two
below, were presented. But I thought it would go to sleep if I stayed long enough. It
did not sit upright as sometimes, but standing on its fore feet with its head down, i. e.,
half sitting, half standing. We sat looking at one another about half an hour, till we
began to feel mesmeric influences. When I was tired, I moved away, wishing to see
him run, but I could not start him. He would not stir as long as I was looking at him
or could see him. I walked around him; he turned as fast and fronted me still. I sat
down by his side within a foot. I talked to him quasi forest lingo, baby-talk, at any rate
in a concilatory tone, and thought that I had some influence on him. He gritted his
teeth less. 1 chewed checkerberry leaves and presented them to his nose at last without
a grit; though I saw that by so much gritting of the teeth he had worn them rapidly and
they were covered with a fine white powder, which, if you measured it thus, would have
made his anger terrible. He did not mind any noise I might make. With a little
stick I lifted one of his paws to examine it, and held it up at pleasure. I turned him
over to see what color he was beneath ( darker or most pusely brown) , though he turned
himself back again sooner than I could have wished. His tail was also brown, though
not very dark, rat-tail like, with loose hairs standing out on all sides like a caterpillar
brush. He had a rather mild look. I spoke kindly to him. I reached checkerberry
leaves to his mouth. I stretched my hands over him, though he turned up his head and
still gritted a little. I laid my hand on him, but immediately took it off again, instinct
not being wholly overcome. If I had had a few fresh bean leaves, thus in advance of
the season, I am sure I should have tamed him completely. It was a frizzly tail. His
is a humble, terrestrial color like the partridge' s, well concealed where dead wiry grass
rises above darker brown or chestnut dead leaves — a modest color. If I had had some
food, I should have ended with stroking him at my leisure. Could easily have wrapped
him in my handkerchief. He was not fat nor particularly lean. I finally had to leave
him without seeing him move from the place. A large, clumsy, burrowing squirrel.
Arctomys, bear-mouse. I respect him as one of the natives. He lies there, by his color
and habits ro naturalized amid the dry leaves, the withered grass, and the bushes. A
sound nap, j too, he has enjoyed in his native fields, the past winter. I think I might
learn some wisdom of him. His ancestors have lived here longer than mine. He is
more thoroughly acclimated and naturalized than I. Bean leaves the red man raised
for him, but he can do without them. — Thoreau’s Journal.

Mammal Study

233

THE RED SQUIRREL OR CHICKAREE

Teacher's Story

Just a tawny glimmer, a dash of red and gray,

Was it a flitting shadow, or a sunbeam gone astray !

It glances up a tree trunk, and a pair of bright eyes glow
Where a little spy in ambush is measuring his foe.

I hear a mocking chuckle, then wrathful, he grows bold
And stays his pressing business to scold and scold and scold.

E ought to yield admiring tribute to those animals which
have been able to flourish in our midst despite man and
his gun, this weapon being the most cowardly and
unfair invention of the human mind. The only time
that man has been a fair fighter, in combating his four-
footed brethren, was when he fought them with a
weapon which he wielded in his hand. There is noth-
ing in animal comprehension which can take into
account a projectile, and much less a shot from a gun; but though it does
not understand, it experiences, a deathly fear at the noise. It is pathetic
to note the hush in a forest that follows the sound of a gun ; every song,
every voice, every movement is stilled and every little heart filled with
nameless terror. How any man or boy can feel manly when, with this
scientific instrument of death in his hands, he takes the life of a little
squirrel, bird or rabbit, is beyond my comprehension. In pioneer days
when it was a fight for existence, man against the wilderness, the matter
was quite different ; but now it seems to. me that anyone who hunts what
few wild creatures we have left, and which are in nowise injurious, is,
whatever he may think of himself, no believer in fair play.

Within my own memory, the beautiful black squirrel was as common
in our woods as was his red cousin ; the shot-gun has exterminated this
splendid species. Well may we rejoice that the red squirrel has, through
its lesser size and greater cunning, escaped a like fate; and that pug-
nacious and companionable and shy, it lives in our midst and climbs our
very roofs to sit there and scold us for coming within its range of vision.

234

Handbook of N ature-Study

It has succeeded not only in living despite of man, but because of man, for
it rifles our grain bins and com cribs and waxes opulent by levying tribute
upon our stores.

Thoreau describes most graphically the movements of this squirrel.
He says: “All day long the red squirrels came and went. One would

approach at first warily, warily, through the shrub-oaks, running over the
snow crust by fits and starts and like a leaf blown by the wind, now a few
paces this way, with wonderful speed and waste of energy, making incon-
ceivable haste with his “trotters,” as if it were for a wager, and now as
many paces that way, but never getting on more than half a rod at a
time; and then suddenly pausing with a ludicrous expression and a
gratuitous somersault, as if all the eyes of the universe were fixed on him,
* * * and then suddenly, before you could say Jack Robinson he

would be in the top of a young pitch pine, winding up his clock, and
chiding all imaginary spectators, soliloquizing and talking to all the
universe at the same time.”

It is surely one of the most comical of sights to see a squirrel stop
running and take observations ; he lifts himself on his haunches, and with
body bent forward, presses his little paws against his breast as if to say,
“Be still, oh my beating heart!” which is all pure affectation because he
knows he can scurry away in perfect safety. He is likely to take refuge
on the far side of a tree, peeping out from this side and that, and whisking
back like a flash as he catches our eye ; we might never know he was there
except as Riley puts it, “he lets his own tail tell on him.” When climbing
up or down a tree, he goes head first and spreads his legs apart to clasp as
much of the trunk as possible; meanwhile his sharp little claws cling

securely to the bark.
He can climb out on
the smallest twigs
quite as well, when
he needs to do so, in
passing from tree to
tree or when gather-
ing acorns.

A squirrel always
establishes certain
roads to and from
his abiding place
and almost invar-
iably follows them.
Such a path may be
entirely in the tree-
tops, with airbridges
from a certain
branch of one tree
to a certain branch
of another, or it may
be partially on the
ground between
trees. I have made
notes of these paths
Red squirrel or Chickaree. in the vicinity of

Mammal Study

235

my own home, and have noted that if a squirrel leaves them for ex-
ploring, he goes warily; while, when following them, he is quite reckless
in his haste. When making a jump from tree to tree, he flattens himself
as widely as possible and his tail is held somewhat curved, but on a
level with the body, as if its wide brush helped to buoy him up
and perhaps to steer him also.

During the winter the chickaree is quite dingy in color and is an
inconspicuous object, especially when he “humps himself up” so
that he resembles a knot on a limb ; but with the coming of spring,
he dons a brighter coat of tawny-red and along his sides, where
the red meets the grayish white of the under side, there is a
dark line which is very ornamental; and now his tail is a shower
of ruddiness. As the season advances, the colors seem to fade;
they are probably a part of his wooing costume. When dashing up a tree
trunk, his color is never very striking but looks like the glimmer of sun-
light ; this has probably saved many of his kind from the gunner, whose
eyes being at the front of his head, cannot compare in efficiency with
those of the squirrel, which being large and full and alert, are placed at
the sides of the head so as to see equally well in all directions.

The squirrel’s legs are short because he is essentially a climber rather
than a runner; the hips are very strong which insures his power as a
jumper and his leaps are truly remarkable. A squirrel uses his front
paws for hands in a most human way; with them he washes his face and
holds his food up to his mouth while eating, and it is interesting to note
the skill of his claws when used as fingers. The track he makes in the
snow is quite characteristic. The tracks are paired and those of the large
five-toed hind feet are always in front.

Squirrel tracks.

The squirrel has two pairs of gnawing teeth which are very long and
strong, as in all rodents, and he needs to keep busy gnawing hard things
with them, or they will grow so long that he cannot use them at all and
will starve to death. He is very clever about opening nuts so as to get all
the meats. He often opens a hickory nut with two holes which tap the
places of the nut meats squarely; with walnuts or butternuts, which have
much harder shells, he makes four small holes, one opposite each quarter
of the kernel. He has no cheek-pouches like a chipmunk but he can carry
com and other grain. He often fills his mouth so full that his cheeks
bulge out like those of a boy eating pop-corn ; but anything as large as a
nut he carries in his teeth. His food is far more varied than many sup-
pose and he will eat almost anything eatable; he is a little pirate and
enjoys stealing from others with keenest zest. In spring, he eats leaf
buds and hunts our orchards for apple seeds. In winter, he feeds on nuts
and cones; it is marvelous how he will take a cone apart, tearing off the
scales and leaving them in a heap while searching for seeds; he is espec-
ially fond of the seeds of Norway spruce and hemlock. Of course, he is
fond of nuts of all kinds and will cut the chestnut burs from the tree
before they are ripe, so that he may get ahead of the other harvesters.
He stores his food for winter in all sorts of odd places and often forgets

236

Handbook of Nature-Siudy

where he puts it. We often find his winter stores untouched the next
summer. He also likes birds’ eggs and nestlings, and if it were not for
the chastisement he gets from the parent robins, he would work much
damage in this way.

The squirrel is likely to be a luxurious fellow and have a winter and a
summer home. The former is in some hollow tree or other protected
place; the summer home consists of a platform of twigs in some tree-top,
often built upon an abandoned crow or hawk nest; but just how he uses
these two homes, is as yet, a matter of guessing and is a good subject for
young naturalists to investigate. During the winter, he does not remain
at home except in coldest weather, when he lies cozily with his tail
wrapped around him like a boa to keep him warm. He is too full of
interest in the world to lie quietly long, but comes out, hunts up some of
his stores, and finds life worth while despite the cold. One squirrel
adopted a bird house in one of our trees, and he or his kin have lived there
for years; in winter, be takes his share of the suet put on the trees for
birds, and because of his greediness, we have been compelled to use picture
wire for tying on the suet.

The young are born in a protected nest, usually in the hollow of a tree.
There are four to six young in a litter and they appear in April. If
necessary to move the young, the mother carries the squirrel baby cling-
ing to her breast with its arms around her neck.

The squirrel has several ways of expressing his emotions; one is by
various curves in his long beautiful, bushy tail. If the creatures of the
wood had a stage, the squirrel would have to be their chief actor. Sur-
prise, incredulousness, indignation, fear, anger and joy are all perfectly
expressed by tail gestures and also by voice. As a vocalist he excels ; he
chatters with curiosity, “chips” with surprise, scolds by giving a gutteral
trill, finishing with a falsetto squeal. He is the only singer I know who
can carry two parts at a time. Notice him sometimes in the top of a
hickory or chestnut tree when nuts are ripe, and you will hear him singing
a duet all by himself, a high shrill chatter with a chuckling accompani-
ment. Long may. he abide with us as an uninvited guest at our cribs!
For, though he be a freebooter and conscienceless, yet our world would
lack its highest example of incarnate grace and activity, if he were not
in it.

LESSON LVII

The Red Squirrel or Chickaree

Leading thought — The red squirrel by its agility and cleverness has
lived on, despite its worst enemy — man. By form and color and activity
it is fitted to elude the hunter.

Method — If a pet squirrel in a cage can be procured for observation at
the school, the observations on the form and habits of the animal can be
best studied thus; but a squirrel in a cage is an anomaly and it is far
better to stimulate the pupils to observe the squirrels out of doors. Give
the following question's, a few at a time, and ask the pupils to report the
answers to the entire class. Much should be done with the supplemen-
tary reading, as there are many interesting squirrel stories illustrating its
habits

Mammal Study

237

Observations — i. Where have you seen a squirrel? Does the squirrel
trot along or leap when running on the ground? Does it run straight
ahead or stop at intervals for observation? How does it look? How
does it act when looking to see if the “coast is clear”?

2. When climbing a tree, does it go straight up, or move around the
trunk? How does it hide itself behind a tree trunk and observe the
passer-by? Describe how it manages to climb a tree? Does it go down
the tree head first ? Is it able to climb out on the smallest branches? Of
what advantage is this to it?

3. Look closely and see if a squirrel follows the same route always
when passing from one point to another. How does it pass from tree to
tree? How does it act when preparing to jump? Hew does it hold its
legs and tail when in the air during a jump from branch to branch?

4. Describe the colors of the red squirrel above and below. Is there a
dark stripe along its side, if so, what color? How does the color of the
squirrel protect it from its enemies ? Is its color brighter in summer or in
winter ?

5. How are the squirrel’s eyes placed? Do you think it can see
behind as well as in front all the time? Are its eyes bright and alert, or
soft and tender?

6. Are its legs long or short? Are its hind legs stronger and longer
than the front legs? Why? Why does it not need long legs? Does its
paws have claws? How does it use its paws when eating and in making
its toilet ?

7. Describe the squirrel’s tail. Is it as long as the body? Is it
used to express emotion ? Of what use is it when the squirrel is jumping?
Of what use is it in the winter in the nest ?

8. What is the food of the squirrel during the autumn? Winter?
Spring? Summer? Where does it store food for the winter? Does it
steal food laid up by jays, chipmunks, mice or other squirrels ? How does
it carry nuts ? Has it cheek-pouches like the chipmunk for carrying food ?
Does it stay in its nest all winter living on stored food like a chipmunk?

9. Where does the red squirrel make its winter home? Does it also
have a summer home, if so, of what is it made and where built? In what
sort of a nest are the young bom and reared? At what time of the year
are the young bom ? How does the mother squirrel carry her little ones
if she wishes to move them?

10. How much of squirrel language can you understand? How does
it express surprise, excitement, anger, or joy during the nut harvest?
Note how many different sounds it makes and try to discover what they
mean.

1 1 . Describe or sketch the tracks made by the squirrel in the snow.

1 2. How does the squirrel get at the meats of the hickory nut and the
walnut? How are its teeth arranged to gnaw holes in such hard sub-
stances as shells ?

Supplementary reading — Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, John
Burroughs; American Animals, Stone & Cram; Secrets of the Woods,
Long; Familiar Life in Field and Forest, Mathews; Little Beasts of Field
and Wood; Cram; Wild Neighbors, Ingersoll; Familiar Wild Animals,
Lottridge.

238

Handbook of Nature-Study
FURRY

'URRY was a baby red squirrel. One day
in May his mother was moving him from
one tree to another. He was clinging
with his little arms around her neck and
his body clasped ‘tightly against her breast,
when something frightened her and in her
sudden movement, she dropped her heavy
baby in the grass. Thus, I inherited him
and entered upon the rather onerous
duties of caring for a baby of whose needs I knew little ; but I knew that
every well cared for baby should have a book detailing all that happens to
it, therefore, I made a book for Furry, writing in it each day the things
he did. If the children who have pets keep similar books, they will find
them most interesting reading afterward, and they will surely enjoy
the writing very much.

Extracts from Furry's Note -book

May 1 8, 1902 — The baby squirrel is just large enough to cuddle in one
hand. He cuddles all right when once he is captured; but he is a terrible
fighter, and when I attempt to take him in my hand, he scratches and
bites and growls so that I have been obliged to name him Fury. I told
him, however, if he improved in temper I would change his name to Furry.

May 19 — Fury greets me, when I open his box, with the most awe-
inspiring little growls, which he calculates will make me turn pale with
fear. He has not cut his teeth yet, so he cannot bite very severely, but
that isn’t his fault, for he tries hard enough. The Naturalist said cold
milk would kill him, so I warmed the milk and put it in a teaspoon and
placed it in front of his nose; he batted the spoon with both forepaws
and tried to bite it, and thus got a taste of the milk, which he drank eagerly
lapping it up like a kitten. When I hold him in one hand and cover him
with the other, he turns contented little somersaults over and over.

May 20 — Fury bit me only once to-day, when I took him out to feed
him. He is cutting his teeth on my devoted fingers. I tried giving him
grape-nuts soaked in milk, but he spat it out in disgust. Evidently he
does not believe he needs a food for brain and nerve. He always washes
his face as soon as he is through eating.

May 21 — Fury lies curled up under his blanket all day. Evidently
good little squirrels stay quietly in the nest, when the mother is not at
home to give them permission to run around. When Fury sleeps, he rolls
himself up in a little ball with his tail wrapped closely around him. The
squirrel’s tail is his “furs,” which he wraps around him to keep his back
warm when he sleeps in winter.

May 23 — Every time I meet Uncle John he asks, “Is his name Fury or
Furry now?” Uncle John is much interested in the good behavior of even
little squirrels. As Fury has not bitten me hard for two days, I think I
will call him Furry after this. He ate some bread soaked in milk to-day,
holding it in his hands in real squirrel fashion. I let him run around the
room and he liked it.

May 25 — Furry got away from me this morning and I did not find him
for an hour. Then I discovered him in a pasteboard box of drawing
paper with the cover on. How did he squeeze through?

Mammal Study

23 9

May 26 — He holds the bowl of the spoon with both front paws while
he drinks the milk. When I try to draw the spoon away, to fill it again
after he has emptied it, he objects and hangs on to it with all his little
might, and scolds as hard as ever he can. He is such a funny, unreason-
able baby.

May 28 — To-night I gave Furry a walnut meat. As soon as he smelled
it he became greatly excited; he grasped the meat in his hands and ran off
and hid under my elbow, growling like a kitten with its first mouse.

May 30 — Since he tasted nuts he has lost interest in milk. The nut
meats are too hard for his new teeth, so I mash them and soak them in
water and now he eats them like a little piggy-wig with no manners at all.
He loves to have me stroke his back while he is eating. He uses his
thumbs and fingers in such a human way that I always call his front paws
hands. When his piece of nut is very small he holds it in one hand and
clasps the other hand behind the one which holds the dainty morsel, so as
to keep it safe.

May 3 1 — When he is sleepy he scolds if I disturb him and turning over
on his back bats my hand with all of his soft little paws and pretends that
he is goingto bite.

June 4 — Furry ranges around the room now to please himself. He is a
little mischief; he tips over his cup of milk and has commenced gnawing
off the wall paper behind the book-shelf to make him a nest. The paper is
green and will probably make him sorry.

June 5 — This morning Furry was hidden in a roll of paper. I put my
hand over one end of the roll and then reached in with the other hand to
get him; but he got me instead, because he ran up my sleeve and was
much more contented to be there than I was to have him. I was glad
enough when he left his hiding place and climbed to the top shelf of the
bookcase, far beyond my reach.

June 6 — I have not seen Furry for twenty-four hours, but he is here
surely enough. Last night he tipped over the ink bottle and scattered
nut shells over the floor. He prefers pecans to any other nuts.

June 7 — I caught Furry to-day and he bit my finger so it bled. But
afterwards, he cuddled in my hand for a long time, and then climbed my
shoulder and went hunting around in my hair and wanted to stay there
and make a nest. When I took him away, he pulled out his two hands
full of my devoted tresses. I’ll not employ him as a hairdresser.

June 9 — Furry sleeps nights in the top drawer of my desk; he crawls
in from behind. When I pull out the drawer he pops out and scares me
nearly out of my wits; but he keeps his wits about him and gets away
before I can catch him.

June 20 — I keep the window open so Furry can run out and in and
learn to take care of himself out-of-doors.

Furry soon learned to take care of himself, though he often returned
for nuts, which I kept for him in a bowl. He does not come very near me
out-of-doors, but he often speaks to me in a friendly manner from a cer-
tain pitch pine tree near the house.

There are many blank leaves in Furry’s note-book. I wish that he
could have written on these of the things that he thought about me and
my performances. It would certainly have been the most interesting
book concerning squirrels in the world.

240

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE CHIPMUNK
Teacher's Story

HILE the chipmunk is a good runner and jumper,
it is not so able a climber as is the red squirrel,
and it naturally stays nearer the ground.
One windy day I was struck by the peculiar
attitude of what, I first thought, was a red
squirrel gathering green acorns from a chestnut
oak in front of my window. A second glance
showed me that it was a chipmunk lying
close to the branch, hanging on for “dear life”
and with an attitude of extreme caution, quite
foreign to the red squirrel in a similar situation. He would creep out,
seize an acorn in its teeth, creep back to a larger limb, take off the shell,
and with his little paws stuff the kernel into his cheek pouches; he took
hold of one side of his mouth with one hand to stretch it out, as if open-
ing a bag, and stuffed the acorn in with the other. I do not know
whether this process was necessary or not at the beginning, for his cheeks
were distended when I first saw him ; and he kept on stuffing them until
he looked as if he had a hopeless case of mumps. Then with obvious
care he descended the tree and retreated to his den in the side -hill, the
door of which I had already discovered, although it was well hidden by
a bunch of orchard grass.

Chipmunks are more easily tamed than red squirrels and soon learn
that pockets may contain nuts and other things good to eat. The first
tame chipmunk of my acquaintance belonged to a species found in the
California mountains. He was a beautiful little creature and loved to
play about his mistress’ room; she being
a naturalist as well as a poet, was able
to understand her little companion, and
the relations between them were full of
mutual confidence. He was fond of
English walnuts and would always hide
away all that were placed in a dish on
the table. One day his mistress, when
taking off her bonnet after returning
from church, discovered several of these
nuts tucked safely in the velvet bows;
they were invisible from the front but
perfectly visible from the side. Even
yet, she wonders what the people at
church that day thought of her original
ideas in millinery; and she wonders
still more how “Chipsie” managed to
get into the bonnet-box, the cover of
which was always carefully closed.

The chipmunk is a good home builder
and carries off, presumably in its cheek
pouches, all of the soil which it removes

in making its burrow. The burrow is “Chipsie”, a chipmunk of

made usually in a dry hillside, the the Sierras.

Mammal Study

241

passageway just large enough for its own body, widening to a nest
which is well bedded down. There is usually a back door also, so that
in case of necessity, the inmate can escape. It retires to this nest in
late November and does not appear again until March. In the nest,
it stores nuts and other grains so that when it wakens, at long inter-
vals, it can take refreshment.

If you really wish to know whether you see what you look at or not,
test yourself by trying to describe the length, position and number of
the chipmunk’s stripes. These stripes, like those of the tiger in the
jungle, make the creature less conspicuous; when on the ground,
where its stripes fall in with the general shape and color of the grass
and underbrush, it is quite invisible until it stirs. Its tail is not so
long nor nearly so bushy as that of the squirrel ; it does not need a tail
to balance and steer with in the tree tops; and since it lives in the
ground, a bushy tail would soon be loaded with earth and would be an
incubus instead of a thing of beauty.

The chipmunk is not a vocalist like the red squirrel, but he can cluck
like a cuckoo and chatter gayly or cogently ; and he can make himself into a
little bunch with his tail curved up his back, while he eats a nut from both
his hands, and is even more amusing than the red squirrel in this attitude;
probably because he is more innocent and not so much of a poseur. His
food consists of all kinds of nuts, grain and fruit, but he does little or no
damage, as a rule. He is pretty and distinctly companionable, and I
can rejoice, in that I have had him and his whole family as my near
neighbors for many years. I always feel especially proud when he shows
his confidence, by scampering around our piazza floor and peeping in at
our windows, as if taking a reciprocal interest in us.

LESSON LVIII

The Chipmunk

Leading thought — The chipmunk lives more on the ground than does
the squirrel; its colors are protective and it has cheek pouches in which
it carries food, and also soil when digging its burrow. It stores food for
winter in its den.

Method — The field note-book should be the basis for this work.
Give the pupils an outline of observations to be made, and ask for reports
now and then. Meanwhile stimulate interest in the little creatures by
reading aloud from some of the references given.

Observations — 1. Do you see the chipmunk climbing around in trees
like the red squirrel ? How high in a tree have you ever seen a chipmunk ?

2. What are the chipmunk’s colors above and below? How many
stripes has it? Where are they and what are their colors? Do you
think that these stripes conceal the animal when among grasses and
bushes?

3. Compare the tails of the chipmunk and the red squirrel. Which
is the longer and bushier? Tell if you can the special advantage to the
chipmunk in having this less bushy tail ?

4. What does the chipmunk eat ? How does it carry its food ? How
does it differ in this respect from the red squirrel ? Does it store its food
for winter use ? How does it prepare its nuts ? How does it hold its food
while eating ?

242

Handbook of N ature-Study

5. Where does the chipmunk make its home? How does it carry
away soil from its burrow? How many entrances are there? How is
the den arranged inside ? Does it live in the same den the year round ?
When does it retire to its den in the fall ? When does it come out in the
spring?

6. Does the chipmunk do any damage to crops? What seeds does it
distribute? At what time do the little chipmunks appear in the spring?

7. Observe carefully the different tones of the chipmunk and com-
pare its chattering with that of the squirrel.

Supplementary reading — Squirrels and Other Fur-Bearers, John
Burroughs; American Animals, Stone and Cram.

Photo by Verne Morton
The Eastern Chipmunk.

TO A CAPTIVE CHIPMUNK OF THE SIERRAS

Bright little comrade from the woods, come show
Thy antic cheer about my sunlit room
Of books, that stand in moods of gloom
Because thought's tide is out, heart's rhythm is low
With weariness. Friendly thou art and know
Good friend in me, who yet did dare presume
To take thee from thy home, thy little doom
To make for thee, and longer life bestow.

So, thou hast not been eaten by the snake;

Thy gentle blood no weasel drank at night;

Thou hast not starved 'mid winter's frozen wood,

Nor waited vainly for the sun to make

Sweet the wild nuts for thee. Yet, little sprite.

Thou still doth question if my deed were good?

— Irene Hardy.

Mammal Study 243

THE LITTLE BROWN BAT
Teacher's Story

His small umbrella, quaintly halved.

Describing in the air an arc ahke inscrutable , —

Elate -philosopher ! — Emily Dickenson.

HOEVER first said “as blind as a bat,” surely never
looked a bat in the face, or he would not have
said ib The deep-set, keen, observant eyes are
quite in keeping with the alert attitude of the
f erect, pointed ears; while the pug-nose and the

wide open, little, pink bag of a mouth, set with tiny, sharp teeth, give
this anomalous little animal a deliciously impish look. Yet how have
those old artists belied the bat, who fashioned their demons after his
pattern, ears, eyes, nose, mouth, wings and all! Certain it is, if human
beings ever get to be winged angels in this world, they are far more likely
to have their wings fashioned like those of the bat than like those of the
bird. As a matter of fact, there are no other wings so wonderful as the
bat’s; the thin membrane is equipped with sensitive nerves which
inform the flier of the objects in his path, so that he darts among the
branches of trees at terrific speed and never touches a twig; a blinded bat
was once set free in a room, across which threads were stretched, and
he flew about without ever touching one. After we have tamed one of
these little, silky flitter-mice we soon get reconciled to his wings for he
proves the cunningest of pets; he soon learns who feeds him, and is a
constant source of entertainment.

The flight of the bat is the highest ideal we may have, for the achieve-
ment of the aeroplane. It consists of darting hither and thither with
incredible swiftness, and making sharp turns with no apparent effort.
Swifts and swallows are the only birds that can compete with the bat in
wing celerity and agility ; it is interesting to note that these birds also
catch insects on the wing, for food. The bat, like the swift, keeps his
mouth open, scooping in all the insects in his way; more than this, he
makes a collecting net of the wing membrane, stretched between the hind
legs and tail, doubling it up like an apron on the unfortunate insects, and
then reaching down and gobbling them up; and thus he is always doing
good service to us on summer evenings by swallowing mosquitoes and
gnats.

The short fur of the bat is as soft as silk, and covers the body but not
the wings; the plan of the wing is something like that of the duck’s foot;
it consists of a web stretched between very much elongated fingers. If a
boy’s fingers were as long in proportion, as a bat’s, they would measure
four feet. Stretched between the long fingers is a thin, rubbery mem-
brane, which extends back to the ankles and thence back to the tip of the
bony tail; thus, the bat has a winged margin all around his body. Since
fingers make the framework, it is the thumb that projects from the front
angle of the wing, in the form of a very serviceable hook, resembling that
used by a one-armed man to replace the lost member. These hooks the
bat uses in many ways. He drags himself along the floor with their aid,
or he scratches the back of his head with them, if occasion requires. He
is essentially a creature of the air and is not at all fitted for walking; his

244

Handbook oj Nature-Study

knees bend backward in an opposite direction from ours. This renders
him unable to walk, and when attempting to do so, he has the appeairance
of “scrabbling” along on his feet and elbows. When thus movng he
keeps his wings fluttering rapidly, as if feeling his way in the dark, and
his movements are trembly. He uses his teeth to aid in climbing.

The little brown bat’s wings often measure nine inches from tip to tip,
and yet he folds them so that they scarcely show, he does not fold them
like a fan, but rather like a pocket knife. The hind legs merely act as a
support for the side wing, and the little hip bones look pitifully sharp;
the membrane reaches only to the ankle, the tiny emaciated foot pro-
jecting from it is armed with five, wirelike toes, tipped with sharp hooked
claws. It is by these claws that he hangs when resting during the day,
for he is upside-down-y in his sleeping habits, slumbering during the day-
time, while hanging head downward, without any inconvenience from a
rush of blood to the brain; when thus suspended, the tail is folded down.
Sometimes he hangs by one hind foot and a front hook; and he is a wee
thing when all folded together and hung up, with his nose tucked between
his hooked thumbs, in a very babyish fashion.

The bat is very particular about his personal cleanliness. People who
regard the bat as a dirty creature, had better look to it that they are even
half as fastidious as he. He washes his face with the front part of his
wing, and then licks his wash-cloth clean, he scratches the back of his
head with his hind foot and then licks the foot; when hanging head down,
he will reach one hind foot down and scratch behind his ear with an
aplomb truly comical in such a mite; but it is most fun of all to see him
clean his wings; he seizes the edges in his mouth and stretches and licks
the membrane until we are sure it is made of silk elastic, for he pulls and
hauls it in a way truly amazing.

The bat has a voice which sounds like the squeak of a toy wheelbarrow,
and yet it is expressive of emotions. He squeaks in one tone when holding
conversation with other bats, and squeaks quite differently when seized
by the enemy.

* The mother bat feeds her little ones from her breasts as a mouse does
its young, only she cradles them in her soft wings while so doing; often
she takes them with her when she goes out for insects in the evenings;
they cling to her neck during these exciting rides; but when she wishes to
work unencumbered, she hangs her tiny youngsters on some twig and
goes back to them later. The little ones are bom in July and usually
occur as twins. During the winter, bats hibernate like woodchucks or
chipmunks. They select for winter quarters some hollow tree or cave or
other protected place. They go to sleep when the cold weather comes,
and do not awake until the insects are flying ; they then come forth in the
evenings, or perhaps early in the morning, and do their best to rid the
world of mosquitoes and other insect nuisances.

There are many senseless fears about the bat; for instance, that he
likes to get tangled in a lady’s tresses, a situation which would frighten
him far more than the lady; or that he brings bedbugs into the house,
when he enters on his quest for mosquitoes, which is an ungrateful slander.
Some people believe that all bats are vampires, and only await an oppor-
tunity to suck blood from their victims. It is true that in South America
there are two species which occasionally attack people who are careless
enough to sleep with their toes uncovered, but feet thus injured seem to

Mammal Study

245

recover speedily; and these bats do little damage to people, although
they sometimes pester animals; but there are no vampires in the United
States. Our bats, on the contrary, are innocent and beneficial to man;
and if we had more of them we should have less malaria. There a few
species in our country, which have little, leaf-like growths on the end of
the nose; and when scientists study the bat from a nature-study
instead of an anatomical standpoint, we shall know what these leafy
appendages are used for.

The little brown bat.

LESSON LIX
The Bat

Leading thought — Although the bat’s wings are very different from
those of the bird’s yet it is a rapid and agile flier. It flies in the dusk and
catches great numbers of mosquitoes and other troublesome insects, upon
which it feeds.

Method — This lesson should not be given unless there is a live bat to
illustrate it; the little creature can be cared for comfortably in a cage in
the schoolroom, as it will soon learn to take flies or bits of raw meat when
presented on the point of a pencil or toothpick. Any bat will do for this
study, although the little brown bat is the one on which my observations
were made.

Observations — 1 . At what time of day do we see bats flying? Describe
how the bat’s flight differs from that of birds. Why do bats dart about
so rapidly ?

2. Look at a captive bat and describe its wings. Can you see what
makes the framework of the wings? Do you see the three finger bones
extending out into the wings? How do the hind legs support the wing?
The tail? Is the wing membrane covered with fur? Is it thick and
leathery or thin and silky and elastic? How does the bat fold up its
wings ?

3. In what position does the bat rest? Does it ever hang by his
thumb hooks?

4. Can you see whether the knees of the hind legs bend upward or
downward? How does the bat act when trying to walk or crawl ? How
does it use its thumb hooks in doing this ?

5. What does the bat do daytimes? Where does it stay during the
day ? Do many bats congregate together in their roosts ?

246

Handbook of Nature-Study

6. Describe the bat’s head, including the ears, eyes, nose and mouth.
What is its general expression? Do you think it can see and hear well?
How is its mouth fitted for catching insects? Does it shut its mouth
while chewing or keep it open? Do you think that bats can see by day-
light ?

7. What noises does a bat make? How does it act if you try to
touch it? Can it bite severely? Can you understand why the Germans
call it a flitter-mouse ?

8. Do you know how the mother bat cares for her young? How does
she carry them? At what time of year may we expect to find them?

9. When making its toilet, how does a bat clean its wings? Its face?
Its back? Its feet? Do you know if it is very clean in his habits?

10. How and where do the bats pass the winter? How are they
beneficial to us? Are they ever harmful?

Supplementary reading — American Animals, Stone and Cram.

Nature- study should not he unrelated to the child's life and circumstances. It
stands for directness and naturalness. It is astonishing when one comes to think of it,
how indirect and how remote from the lives of pupils much of our education has been.
Geography still often begins with the universe, and finally, perhaps, comes down to
some concrete and familiar object or scene that the pupil can understand. Arithmetic
has to do with brokerage and partnerships and partial payments and other things that
mean nothing to the child. Botany begins with cells and protoplasm and cryptogams.
History deals with political and military affairs, and only rarely comes down to physical
facts and to those events that express the real lives of the people; and yet political and
social affairs are only the results of expressions of the way in which people live. Read-
ers begin with mere literature or with stories of scenes the child will never see. Of course
these statements are meant to be only general, as illustrating what is even yet a great
fault in educational methods. There are many exceptions, and these are becoming
commoner. Surely, the best education is that which begins with the materials at hand.
A child knows a stone before it knows the earth.

— L. H. Bailey in “The Nature-Study Idea.”

Mammal Study

247

THE SKUNK
Teacher's Story

1^a>AMGER~)H0SE who have had experience with this animal, surely
are glad that it is small; and the wonder always is,
that so little a creature can make such a large impres-
sion upon the atmosphere. A fully grown skunk is
about two feet long; its body is covered with long,
shining, rather coarse hair, and the tail which is carried
like a flag in the air, is very large and bushy. In color,
the fur is sometimes entirely black, but most often has a white patch on
the back of the neck, with two stripes extending down the back and
along the sides to the tail; the face, also, has a white stripe.

The skunk has a long head and a rather pointed snout; its front legs
are very much shorter than its hind legs, which gives it a very peculiar
gait. Its forefeet are armed with long, strong claws, with which it digs
its burrow, which is usually made in light soil. It also often makes its
home in some crevice in rocks, or even takes possession of an abandoned
woodchuck’s hole; or trusting to its immunity from danger, makes its
home under the bam. In the fall, it becomes very fat, and during the
early part of winter, hibernates within its den; it comes out during the
thaws of winter and early spring.

The young skunks appear in May; they are born in an enlarged portion
of the burrow, where a nice bed of grass and leaves is made for them; the
skunk is scrupulously neat about its own nest. The young skunks are
very active, and interesting to watch, when playing together like kittens.

The skunk belongs to the same family as the mink and weasel, which
also give off a disagreeable odor when angry. The fetid material which
is the skunk’s defence, is contained in two capsules under the root of the
tail. These little capsules are not larger than peas, and the quantity of
liquid forced from them in a discharge is scarcely more than a large drop;
yet it will permeate the atmosphere with its odor for a distance of a mile.
The fact that this discharge is so disagreeable to all other animals, has had
a retarding influence upon
the skunk’s intelligence. It
has not been obliged to rely
upon its cunning to escape its
enemies, and has therefore
never developed either fear
or cleverness. It marches
abroad without haste, confi-
dent that every creature
which sees it will give it plenty
of room. It is a night
prowler, although it is not
averse to a daytime prome-
nade. The white upon its fur
gives warning at night, that
here is an animal which had
best be left alone. This im-
munity from attack makes
the skunk careless in learning

Photo by Verne Morton
The skunk.

248 Handbook of Nature-Study

wisdom from experience; it never learns to avoid a trap or a railway
or trolley track.

The skunk’s food consists largely of insects, mice, snakes and other
small animals. It also destroys the eggs and young of birds which
nest upon the ground. It uses its strong forepaws in securing its
prey. Dr. Merriam, who made pets of young skunks after removing
their scent capsules, found them very interesting. He says of one
which was named “Meph”: “We used to walk through -the woods
to a large meadow that abounded in grasshoppers. Here, Meph would
fairly revel in his favorite food, and it was rich sport to watch his
manoeuvres. When a grasshopper jumped, he jumped, and I have seen
him with as many as three in his mouth and two under his fore-paws at
the same time.”

The only injury which the skunk is likely to do to the farmers, is the
raiding of the hens’ nests, and this can be obviated by properly housing
the poultry. On the other hand, the skunk is of great use in destroying
injurious insects and mice. Often when skunks burrow beneath barns,
they completely rid the place of mice. Skunk fur is very valuable and is
sold under the name of Alaskan sable. The skunk takes short steps, and
goes so slowly that it makes a double track, the imprints being very close
together. The foot makes a longer track than that of the cat, as the
skunk is plantigrade; that is, it walks upon its palms and heels as well as
its toes.

** * ** *
m.

Skunk tracks.

References — Wild Neighbors, Ingersoll; Familiar Life in Field and
Forest, Mathews; American Animals, Stone and Cram; Squirrels and
Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs.

LESSON LX .

The Skunk

Leading thought — The skunk has depended so long upon protecting
itself from its enemies by its disagreeable odor, that it has become stupid
in this respect, and seems never to be able to learn to keep off of railroad
tracks. It is a very beneficial animal to the farmer because its food con-
sists so largely of injurious insects and rodents.

Method — The questions should be given the pupils and they should
answer them from personal observations or inquiries.

Observations — 1. How large is a skunk? Describe its fur. Where
does the black and white occur in the fur? Of what use is the white to
the skunk ? Is the fur valuable ? What is its commercial name ?

2. What is the shape of the skunk’s head? The general shape of the
body? The tail? Are the front legs longer or shorter than the hind legs ?
Describe the front feet. For what are they used?

3 . Where and how does the skunk make its nest ? Does it sleep like
a woodchuck during the winter? What is its food? How does it catch
its prey? Does it hunt for its food during the day or the night? Does

Mammal Study

249

the skunk ever hurry? Is it afraid? How does it protect itself from its
enemies? Do you think that the skunk’s freedom from fear has rendered
the animal less intelligent ? (

4. At what time do the skunk kittens appear? Have you ever seen
little skunks playing ? If so, describe their antics. How is the nest made
soft for the young ones?

5. How does the skunk benefit farmers? Does it ever do them any
injury? Do you think that it does more good than harm?

6. Describe the skunk’s track as follows: How many toes show in

the track? Does the palm or heel show? Are the tracks near together?
Do they form a single or a double line?

Supplementary reading — Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs.

Saw a little skunk coming up the river bank in the woods at the white oak, a funny
little fellow, about six inches long and nearly as broad. It faced me and actually com-
pelled me to retreat before it for five minutes. Perhaps I was between it and its hole.
Its broad black tail, tipped with white, was erect like a kitten's. It had what Looked like
a broad white band drawn tight across its forehand or top-head, from which two lines of
white ran down, one on each side of its back, and there was a narrow white line down its
snout. It raised its back, sometimes ran a few feet forward, sometimes backward, and
repeatedly turned its tail to me, prepared to discharge its fluid, like the old ones. Such
was its instinct, and all the while it kept up a fine grunting like a little pig or a red
squirrel. — Henry Thoreau.

Few animals are so silent as the skunk. Zoological works contain no information
as to its voice, and the essayists rarely mention it except by implication. Mr. Bur-
roughs says: “ The most silent creature known to me, he makes no sound, so far as I

have observed, save a diffuse, impatient noise, like that produced by beating your hand
with a whisk-broom, when the farm-dog has discovered his retreat in the stone fence."
Rowland Robinson tells us that: “ The voiceless creature sometimes frightens the

belated farm-boy, whom he curiously follows with a mysterious hollow beating of his feet
upon the ground." Thoreau, as has been mentioned, heard one keep .up a “ fine
grunting, like a little pig or a squirrel;" but he seems to have misunderstood altogether a
singular loud patting sound heard repeatedly on the frozen ground under the wall, which
he also listened to, for he thought it “ had to do with getting its food, patting the earth to
get the insects or worms." Probably he would have omitted this guess if he could have
edited his diary instead of leaving that to be done after his death. The patting is evi-
dently merely a nervous sign of impatience or apprehension, similar to the well-known
stamping with the hind feet indulged in by rabbits, in this case probably a menace like a
doubling of the fists, as the hind legs, with which they kick, are their only weapons.

' The skunk, then, is not voiceless, but its voice is weak and querulous, and it is rarely if
ever heard except in the expression of anger.

— Ernest Ingersol in “Wild Neighbors.”

250

Handbook of Nature-Study

The raccoon.

Photo by George Fiske, Jr.

THE RACCOON
Teacher's Story

)NE other of our little brothers of the forest,
has such a mischievous countenance as the
coon. The black patch across the face
and surrounding the eyes, like large goggles,
and the black line extending from the long,
inquisitive nose directly up the forehead give
the coon’s face an anxious expression; and
the keenness of the big, beady, black eyes
and the alert, “sassy” looking, broadly
triangular ears, convince one that the anxiety
depicted in the face is anxiety lest something
that should not be done be left undone ; and
I am sure that anyone who has had experience with pet coons will aver
that their acts do not belie their looks.

What country child,
wandering by the brook and 7
watching its turbulence in
early spring, has not viewed
with awe, a footprint on the
muddy banks looking as if it
were made by the foot of a^
very little baby. The first
one I ever saw, I promptly
concluded was made by the

^ss>

Coon tracks,
j. Walking 2 Jumping

Mammal Study

*5*

foot of a brook fairy. However, the coon is no fairy; it is a rather
heavy, logy animal and, like the bear and skunk, is plantigrade, walking
on the entire foot instead of on the toes, like a cat or dog. The hind foot
is long, with a well-marked heel, and five comparatively short toes, giv-
ing it a remarkable resemblance to a human foot. The front foot is
smaller and looks like a wide, little hand, with four long fingers and a
rather short thumb. The claws are strong and sharp. The soles
of the feet and the palms of the hands look as if they were covered
with black kid, while the feet above and the backs of the hands are
covered with short fur. Coon tracks are likely to be found during the
first thawing days of winter, along some stream or the borders of
swamps, often following the path made by cattle. The full-length track
is about 2 inches long; as the coon puts the hind foot in the track made by
the front foot on the same side, only the print of the hind feet is left,
showing plainly five toe prints and the heel. The tracks may vary
from one-half inch to one foot or more apart, depending on how
fast the animal is going; when it runs it goes on its toes, but when walking
sets the heel down ; the tracks are not in so straight a line as those made
by the cat. Sometimes it goes at a slow jump, when the prints of the
hind feet are paired, and between and behind them are the prints of the
two front feet.

The coon is covered with long, rather coarse hair, so long as to almost
drag when the animal is walking; it really has two different kinds of
hair, the long, coarse, gray hair, blackened at the tips, covering the fine,
short, grayish or brownish under coat. The very handsome bushy tail is
ringed with black and gray.

The raccoon feeds on almost anything eatable, except herbage. It has
a special predilection for com in the milk stage and, in attaining this
sweet and toothsome luxury, it strips down the husks and often breaks
the plant, doing much damage. It is also fond of poultry and often raids
hen houses; it also destroys birds’ nests and the young, thus damaging
the farmer by killing both domestic and wild birds. It is especially fond
of fish and is an adept at sitting on the shore and catching them with its
hands; it likes turtle eggs, crayfish and snakes; it haunts the bayous of
the Gulf Coast for the oysters which grow there; it is also a skillful frog
catcher. Although fond of animal diet, it is also fond of fruit, especially
of berries and wild grapes.

It usually chooses for a nest a hollow tree or a cavern in a ledge near a
stream, because of its liking for water creatures; and also because of its
strange habit of washing its meat before eating it. I have watched a pet
coon performing this act; he would take a piece of meat in his hands,
dump it into the pan of drinking water and souse it up and down a few
times; then he would get into the pan with his splay feet and roll the meat
beneath and between them, meanwhile looking quite unconcernedly at his
surroundings, as if washing the meat were an act too mechanical to occupy
his mind. After the meat had become soaked until white and flabby, he
would take it in his hands and hang on to it with a tight grip while he
pulled off pieces with his teeth; or sometimes he would hold it with his
feet, and use hands as well as teeth in tearing it apart. The coon’s teeth
are very much like those of the cat, having long, sharp tushes or canines,
and sharp, wedge-shaped grinding teeth, which cut as well as grind.
After eating, the pet coon always washed his feet by splashing them in
the pan.

252

Handbook of Nature-Study

It is a funny sight to watch a coon arrange itself for a nap, on a branch
or in the fork of a tree , it adapts its fat body to the unevenness of the bed
with apparent comfort ; it then tucks its nose down between its paws and
curls its tail about itself, making a huge, furry ball. In all probability,
the rings of gray and black on the tail, serve as protective color to the
animal sleeping in a tree during the daytime, when sunshine and shadow
glance down between the leaves with ever-changing light. The coon
spends much of its days asleep in some such situation, and comes forth at
night to seek its food.

In the fall, the coon lays on fat enough to last it during its winter sleep.
Usually several inhabit the same nest in winter, lying curled up together
in a hollow tree, and remaining dormant all winter except when awakened
by the warmth of a thaw. They then may come forth to see what is
happening, but return shortly to wait until March or April; then they
issue to hunt for the scant food, and are so lean and weak that they fall
easy prey to their enemies.

The young are bom in April and May; there are from three to six in a
litter; they are blind and helpless at first, and are cared for carefully
by their parents, the family remaining together for a year, until the young
are fully grown. If removed from their parents the young ones cry
pitifully, almost like babies. The cry or whistle of the fully grown coon
is anything but a happy sound, and is quite impossible to describe. I
have been awakened by it many a night in camp, and it always sounded
strange, taking on each time new quavers and whimperings. As a cry,
it is first cousin to that of the screech-owl.

The stories of pet coons are many. I knew one which, chained in a
yard, would lie curled up near its post looking like an innocent stone
except for one eye kept watchfully open. Soon a hen, filled with curiosity
would come warily near, looking longingly at remains of food in the pan ;
the coon made no move until the disarmed biddy came close to the pan.
Then, there was a scramble and a squawk and with astonishing celerity
he would wring her neck and strip off her feathers. Another pet coon
was allowed to range over the house at will, and finally had to be sent
away because he had learned to open every door in the house, including
cupboard doors, and could also open boxes and drawers left unlocked;
and I have always believed he could have learned to unlock drawers if he
had been given the key. All coons are very curious, and one way of
trapping them is to suspend above the trap a bit of bright tin; in solving
this glittering mystery, traps are forgotten.

LESSON LXI
The Raccoon

Leading thought — The raccoon lives in hollow trees or caves along
the banks of streams. It sleeps during the day and seeks its food at
night. It sleeps during the winter.

Method — If there are raccoons in the vicinity, ask the older boys to
look for their tracks rear the streams and to describe them very care-
fully to the class. The ideal method of studying the animal, is to
have a pet coon where the children may watch at leisure its enter-
taining and funny performances. If this is impossible, then follow the

Mammal Study

253

less desirable method of having the pupils read about the habits of the
coon and thus arouse their interest and open their eyes, so that they
may make observations of their own when opportunity offers. I would
suggest the following topics for oral or written work in English :

“How and Where Coons Live and What They Do;” “The Autobio-
graphy of a Coon One Year Old;” “The Queer Antics of Pet Coons;”
“Stories of the Coon’s Relative, the Bear.”

Treed.

Observations — 1. Where have you found raccoon tracks? How do
they differ from those of fox or dog? How far are the footprints apart?
Can you see the heel and toe prints? Do you see the tracks of all four
feet ? Are the tracks in a straight line like those of the cat ? What is the
size of the track, the length, the breadth?

2. What do coons eat and how do they get their food? Which of our
crops are they likely to damage? What other damage do they do?
Have you ever heard coons cry or whistle during August nights in the
cornfields?

254

Handbook of Nature-Study

3. Why do raccoons like to live near the water? W hat do they find
of interest there? How do they prepare their meat before eating it?
How does a coon handle its meat while eating it ?

4. What kind of fur has the coon? Why does it need such a heavy
covering? Describe the color of the fur. Describe the tail. Of what use
is such a large and bushy tail to this animal?

5. Describe the coon’s face. How is it marked ? What is its expres-
sion? Describe the eyes and ears. The nose. Has it teeth resembling
those of the cat and dog?

6. Describe the coon’s feet. How many toes on the front feet?
How many on the hind feet? How does this differ from the cat and dog?
How do the front and hind feet differ in appearance ? Can both be used
as hands?

7. How do coons arrange themselves for a nap in a tree? How do
they cover the head? How is the tail used? Do you think this bushy
tail used in this way would help to keep the animal warm in winter?
Do coons sleep most daytimes or nights?

8. At what time of year are coons fattest? Leanest? Why? Do
they ever come out of their nests in winter? Do they live together or
singly in winter?

9. At what time of year are the young coons born? Do you know
how they look when they are young? How are they cared for by their
parents ?

10. Are the coon’s movements slow or fast? What large animal is
a near relative of the coon?

Supplementary reading — American Animals, Stone and Cram; Wild
Neighbors, Ingersoll; Familiar Life of Field and Forest, Mathews; Little
People of the Sycamore, Roberts; Life of Animals, Ingersoll; “Mux” in
Roof and Meadow, Sharp; Little Brother of the Bear, Long.

Professor Fred S. Charles and his pet coon, “Dick,?.

255

Mammal Study

THE WOLF

HE study of the wolf should precede the lessons
on the fox and the dog. After becoming
familiar with the habits of wolves, the pupils
will be much better able to understand the
nature of the dog and its life as a wild animal.
In most localities, the study of the wolf must,
of course, be a matter of reading, unless the
pupils have an opportunity to study the
animal in traveling manageries or in zoo-
logical gardens. However, in all the gov-
ernment preserves, the timber wolf has
multiplied to such an extent, that it may
become a factor in the lives of many people in the United States. This
wolf ranged in packs over New York State a hundred years ago, but
was finally practically exterminated in most of the eastern forests, except
in remote and mountainous localities. A glance at Bulletin 72 by
Vernon Bailey, published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, is a revelation of the success of the timber wolf, in
coming back to his own, as soon as the forest preserves furnished
plenty of game, and forbade hunters. Timber wolves are returning of
late years to Western Maine and Northern New Hampshire; Northern
Michigan and Wisconsin have them in greater numbers ; some have also
been killed in the Apalachian Mountains of Tennessee, Virginia and West
Virginia, but their stronghold is in the great Rocky Mountain Region and
the Northwestern Sierras, from which they have never been driven.

It might be well to begin this lesson on the wolf with a talk about the
gray wolves which
our ancestors had to
contend with, and
also with stories of
the coyote or prairie
wolf which has
learned to adapt
itself to civilization
and flourishes in the
regions west of the
Rocky Mountains,
despite men and
dogs. Literature is
rich in wolf stories.

Although Kipling’s
famous M o w g 1 i
Stories belong t o
the realm of fiction,
yet they contain
interesting accounts
of the habits of the
wolves of India, and

are based upon the Gray Wolf

hunter’s and track-

256

Handbook of Nature-Study

er’s knowledge of these animals. We have many thrillingly interesting
stories in our own literature which deal with our native wolves. The
following are among the best :

“Lobo” in Wild Animals I Have Known; “Tito” in Lives of the
Hunted; “Bad Lands Billy and the Winnipeg Wolf” in Animal Heroes
all by Thompson Seton; “The Passing of Black Whelps” in Watchers of
the Trail by Roberts; Northern Trails by Long; “Pico, Coyote” by Coolidge
in True Tales of Birds and Beasts.

For more serious accounts of the wolves see American Animals,
p. 277; The “Hound of the Plains, ”in Wild Neighbors, and page 188 in
the Life of Animals, both by Ingersoll. “The Coyote” by Bret Harte and
“The Law of the Pack” in the Second Jungle Book bring the wolf
into poetry.

From some or all of these stories, the pupils should get informa-
tion about the habits of the wolves. This information should be in-
corporated in an essay or an oral exercise and should cover the following
points: Where do the wolves live? On what do they feed? How

do they get their prey? Do they hunt alone or in packs? How do they
call to each other? Description of the den where the young are reared.
The wolf’s cleverness in eluding hunters and traps.

“Katrina Wolfchen” , the pet coyote of Professor Fred S. Charles.

Mammal Study

257

Fox cubs.

THE FOX

Teacher's Story

O WE not always, on a clear morning of winter, feel a
thrill that must have something primitive in its
quality, at seeing certain tracks in the snow that
somehow suggest wildness and freedom! Such
is the track of the fox. Although it is somewhat
dike that of a small dog yet it is very different.
The fox has longer legs than most dogs of his
weight, and there is more of freedom in his track
and more of strength and agility expressed in it.
His gait is usually an easy lope; this places the
imprint of three feet in a line, one ahead of
another, but the fourth is off a little at one side, as if to keep the balance.

The fox lives in a den or burrow. The only fox home which I ever
saw, was a rather deep cave beneath the roots of a stump, and there was
no burrow or retreat beyond it. However, foxes often select woodchuck
burrows, or make burrows of their own, and if they are caught within,
they can dig rapidly, as many a hunter can attest. The mother usually
selects an open place for a den for the young foxes ; often an open field or
side-hill is chosen for this. The den is carpeted with grass and is a very
comfortable place for the fox puppies. The den of the father fox is
usually not far away.

The face of the red fox shows plainly why he has been able to cope with
man, and thrive despite and because of him. If ever a face showed
cunning, it is his. Its pointed, slender nose gives it an expression of
extreme cleverness, while the width of the head between the upstanding,
triangular ears gives room for a brain of power. In color the fox is russet-
red, the hind quarters being grayish. The legs are black outside and
white inside; the throat is white, and the broad, triangular ears are tipped
with black. The glory of the fox is his “brush,” as the beautiful, bushy
tail is called. This is red, with black toward the end and white-tipped.
This tail is not merely for beauty, for it affords the fox warmth during the
winter, as any one may see who has observed the way it is wrapped

25B

Handbook of Nature-Study

around the sleeping animal. But this bushy tail is a disadvantage, if it
becomes bedraggled and heavy with snow and sleet, when the hounds are
giving close chase to its owner. The silver fox and the black fox are the
same species as the red fox.

The fox is an inveterate hunter of the animals of the field; meadow
mice, rabbits, woodchucks, frogs, snakes and grasshoppers, are all
acceptable food; he is also destructive of birds. His fondness for the
latter has given him a bad reputation with the farmer because of his
attacks on poultry. Not only will he raid hen-roosts if he can force
entrance, but he catches many fowls in the summer when they are wander-
ing through the fields. The way he carries the heavy burden of his
larger prey shows his cleverness: He slings a hen or a goose over his

shoulders, keeping the head in his mouth to steady the burden. Mr.
Cram says, in American Animals:

“Yet, although the farmer and the fox are such inveterate enemies,
they manage to benefit each other in a great many ways quite uninten-
tionally. The fox destroys numberless field mice and woodchucks for the
farmer and in return the farmer supplies him with poultry, and builds
convenient bridges over streams and wet places, which the fox crosses
oftener than the farmer, for he is as sensitive as a cat about getting his
feet wet. On the whole, I am inclined to believe that the fox gets the
best part of the exchange, for, while the farmer shoots at him on every
occasion, and hunts him with dogs in the winter, he has cleared the land
of wolves and panthers, so that foxes are probably safer than before any
land was ploughed.”

The bark of the fox is a high, sharp yelp, more like the bark of the
coyote than of the dog. There is no doubt a considerable range of
meaning in the fox’s language, of which we are ignorant. He growls
when angry, and when pleased he smiles like a dog and wags his beautiful
tail.

Many are the wiles of the fox to head off dogs following his track : he

often retraces his own
steps for a few yards
and then makes a long
sidewise jump ; the
dogs go on, up to the
end of the trail
pocket, and try in
vain to get the scent
from that point.
Sometimes he walks
along the top rails of
fences or takes the
high and dry ridges
where the scent will
not remain; he often
follows roads and
beaten paths and also
goes around and
around in the midst
of a herd of cattle,
so that his scent is
hidden ; he crosses

Mammal Study

259

streams on logs and invents various other devices too numerous and
intricate to describe. When chased by dogs, he naturally runs in a
circle, probably so as not to be too far from home If there are young
ones in the den, the father fox leads the hounds far away, in the next
county, if possible. Perhaps one of the most clever tricks of the fox, is
to make friends with the dogs. I have known of two instances where
a dog and fox were daily companions and playfellows.

The young foxes are bom in the spring. They are black at first and
are fascinating little creatures, being exceedingly playful and active.
Their parents are very devoted to them, and during all their puppyhood,
the mother fox is a menace to the poultry of the region, because the
necessity is upon her of feeding her rapidly growing litter.

In my opinion, the best story of animal fiction is “Red Fox” by
Roberts. Like all good fiction, it is based upon facts and it presents a
wholesome picture of the life of the successful fox. “The Silver Fox” by
Thompson Seton is another interesting and delightful story. Although
the Nights with Uncle Remus could scarcely be called nature stories,
yet they are interesting in showing how the fox has become a part of
folk-lore.

» * * »

• *

Fox tracks.

LESSON LXI1
The Fox

Leading thought — The red fox is so clever that it has
been able, in many parts of our country, to maintain
itself despite dogs and men.

Method — This lesson is likely to be given largely from
hearsay or reading. However, if the school is in a rural
district, there will be plenty of hunters’ stories afloat,
from which may be elicited facts concerning the cunning
and cleverness of the red fox. In such places there is
also the opportunity in winter to study fox tracks upon
the snow. The lesson may well be given when there are
fox tracks for observation. The close relationship
between foxes and dogs should be emphasized.

Observations and reading — 1. Describe the fox’s track. How does it
differ from the track of a small dog ?

2 . Where does the fox make its home ? Describe the den. Describe
the den in which the young foxes live ?

3. Describe the red fox, its color and form as completely as you can.
What is the expression of its face ? What is there peculiar about its tail ?
What is the use of this great bushy tail in the winter ?

4. What is the food of the fox? How does it get its food? Is it a
day or a night hunter ? How does the fox benefit the farmer ? How does
it injure him? How does the fox carry home its heavy game, such as a
goose or a hen ?

260 Handbook of Nature-Study

5. Have you ever heard the fox bark? Did it sound like the bark
of a dog? How does the fox express anger? Pleasure?

6. When chased by dogs, in what
direction does the fox run? Describe
all of the tricks which you know by
which the fox throws the dog off the
scent.

7. When are the young foxes
bom? How many in a litter? What
color are they? How do they play
with each other? How do they learn
to hunt?

Supplementary reading — Red Fox
by Roberts; Silver Fox by Thompson
Seton; Little Beasts of Field and
Wood, page 25; Squirrels and Other
Fur Bearers, chapter 7 ; Fox Ways in
Ways of Wood Folk; The Springfield Fox in Wild Animals I Have
Known; Familiar Wild Animals; Familiar Life in Field and Forest, page
213; American Animals, page 264; Nights with Uncle Remus.

A pet red fox.
Photo by Fred S. Charles.

Mammal Study

261

DOGS

Teacher's Story

VC onty to-day but in ancient days, before the dawn

of history, the dog was the companion of man.

V % V\ Whether the wild species from whence he sprang,

I \ I \ was wolf or jackal or some other similar animal, we

I \ do no^ know, but we do know that many types of

■ dogs have been tamed independently by savages,

V a r in the region where their untamed relatives run

wild. As the whelps of wolves, jackals and foxes
are all easily tamed, and are most interesting little
creatures, we can understand how they became companions to the children
of the savage and barbarous peoples who hunted them.

In the earliest records of cave dwellers, in the picture writing of the
ancient Egyptians and of other ancient peoples, we find record of the
presence and value of the dog. But man, in historical times, has been
able to evolve breeds that vary more in form than do the wild species of
the present. There are 200 distinct breeds of dogs known to-day, and
many of these have been bred for special purposes. The paleontologists,
moreover, assure us that there has been a decided advance in the size and
quality of the dog’s brain since the days of his savagery ; thus, he has been
the companion of man’s civilization also. It is not, therefore, to be
wondered at that the dog is now the most companionable, and has the
most human qualities and intelligence of all our domesticated animals.

Dogs run down their prey ; it is a necessity, therefore, that they be
equipped with legs that are long, strong and muscular. The cat, which
jumps for her prey, has much more delicate legs but has powerful hips to
enable her to leap. The dog’s feet are much more heavily padded than
those of the cat, because in running, he must not stop to save his feet.
Hounds often return from a chase with bleeding feet, despite the heavy
pads, but the wounds are usually cuts between the toes. The claws are
heavy and are not retractile; thus, they afford a protection to the feet
when running, and they are also used for digging out game which burrows
into the ground. They are not used for grasping prey like those of the cat
and are used only incidentally in fighting, while the cat’s claws are the
most important weapons in her armory. It is an interesting fact that
Newfoundland dogs, which are such famous swimmers, have their toes
somewhat webbed.

262 Handbook of Nature-Study

The dog’s body is long, lean, and
very muscular, a fat dog being
usually pampered and old. The
coat is of hair and is not of fine fur
like that of the cat. It is of inter-
est to note that the Newfoundland
dog has an inner coat of fine hair
• comparable to that of the mink or
muskrat. When a dog is running,
his body is extended to its fullest
length; in fact, it seems to “lie
flat,” the outstretched legs height-
ening the effect of extreme muscular
effort of forward movement. A
dog is master of several gaits; he
can run, walk, trot, bound and
crawl.

The iris of the dog’s eye is
usually of a beautiful brown, al-
though this varies with breeds; in
puppies, the iris is usually blue. The pupil is round like our own; and
dogs cannot see well in the dark like the cat, but in daylight they have
keen sight. The nose is so
much more efficient than the
eyes, that it is on the sense of
smell the dog depends for fol-
lowing his prey and for recog-
nizing friend and foe. The
damp, soft skin that covers
the nose, has in its dampness
the conditions for carrying
the scent to the wide nostrils ;
these are situated at the most
forward part of the face, and
thus may be lifted in any
direction to receive the mar-
velous impressions, so com-
pletely beyond our compre-
hension. Think of being able
to scent the track of a fox
made several hours previously. Bird dog.

Not only to scent it, but to

follow by scent for many miles without ever having a glimpse of the fleeing
foe! In fact, while running, the dog’s attention seems to be focused
entirely upon the sense of smell, for I have seen hounds pass within a few
rods to the windward of the fox they were chasing, without observing him
at all. When the nose of any of the moist-nosed beasts, such as cattle
and dogs, becomes dry it is a sign of illness.

A light fall of damp snow gives the dog the best conditions for follow-
ing a track by scent and a hound, when on the trail, will run until ex-
hausted. There are many authentic observations which show that
hounds have followed a fox for twenty-four hours without food, and
probably with little rest.

Mammal Study

263

The dog’s weapons for battle, like those of the wolf, are his tushes:
with these, he holds and tears his prey; with them, he seizes the wood-
chuck or other small animal through the back and shakes its life out. In
fighting a larger animal, the dog leaps against it and often incidentally
tears its flesh with his strong claws ; but he does not strike a blow with his
foot like the cat, nor can he hold his quarry with it.

Dog’s teeth are especially fitted for their work.

The incisors are small and sharp; the canine teeth
or tushes are very long, but there are bare spaces on
the jaws so that they are able to cross past each
other; the molar teeth are not fitted for grinding,
like the teeth of a cow, but are especially fitted for
cutting, as. may be noted if we watch the way a dog
gnaws bones, first gnawing with the back teeth on
one side and then on the other. In fact, a dog
does not seem to need to chew anything, but simply
needs to cut his meat in small enough pieces so that
he can gulp them down without chewing. His
powers of digesting unchewed food are something Bulldog.

that the hustling American may well envy.

Of all domestic animals, the dog is most humanly understandable in
expressing emotions. If delighted, he leaps about giving ecstatic
little barks and squeals, his tail in the air and his eyes full of happy an-

264

Handbook of N atur e-Study

ticipation. If he wishes to be friendly, he looks at us interestedly, comes
ever to smell of us in order to assure himself whether he has ever met us
before, and then wags his tail as a sign of good faith. If he wishes to
show affection, he leaps upon us and licks our face or hands with his
soft, deft tongue and follows us jealously. When he stands at attention,
he holds his tail stiff in the air, and looks up with one ear lifted as if
to say, “Well, what’s doing?” When angry, he growls and shows his
teeth and the tail is held rigidly out behind, as if to convince us that it
is really a continuation of his backbone. When afraid, he whines and
lies flat upon his belly, often looking beseechingly up toward his master as
if begging not to be punished; or he crawls away out of sight. When
ashamed, he drops his tail between his legs and with drooping head and
sidewise glance slinks away. When excited, he barks and every bark
expresses high nervous tension.

Almost all dogs that chase their prey, bark when so doing, which
would seem at first sight to be a foolish thing to do, in that it reveals their
whereabouts to their victims and also adds an incentive to flight. But it
must be borne in mind that dogs are descended from wolves, which

naturally hunt in packs and
do not stalk their prey. The
baying of the hound is a most
common example of the habit,
and as we listen we can under-
stand how, by following this
sound, the pack is kept to-
gether. Almost all breeds of
dogs have an acute sense of
hearing. When a dog bays
at the moon or howls when he
hears music, it is simply a
reversion to the wild habit of
howling to call together the
pack or in answer “to the
music of the pack.” It is
interesting that our music,
which is the flower of our
civilization, should awaken
the sleeping ancestral traits
in the canine breast. But
perhaps that, too, is why we
in us the strong, primitive
emotions, and for the time, enables us to free ourselves from all conven-
tional shackles and trammels.

Bloodhound.

respond to music, because it awakens

Mammal Study

265

Fox terrier and pups.

LESSON LXIII
DOGS

Leading thought — The dog is a domesticated descendant of wolf-like
animals and has retained certain of the habj.ts and characteristics of his
ancestors.

Method — For the observation lesson it would be well to have at hand, a
well-disposed dog which would not object to being handled; a collie or a
hound would be preferable. Many of the questions should be given to
the pupils to answer from observations at home, and the lesson should be
built upon the experience of the pupils with dogs.

Observations — -1 . Why are the legs of the dog long and strong in pro-
portion to the body compared with those of the cat?

2. Compare the feet of the cat with those of the dog and note which
has the heavier pads. Why is this of use to each?

3. Which has the stronger and heavier claws, the dog or the cat?
Can the dog retract his claws so that they are not visible, as does the cat?
Of what use is this arrangement to the dog? Are the front feet just like
the hind feet? How many toe impressions show in the track of the dog?

4. What is the general characteristic of the body of the dog? Is it
soft like that of the cat, or lean and muscular? What is the difference
between the hair covering of the dog and cat? What is the attitude of
the dog when running fast ? How many kinds of gaits has he ?

5. In general, how do the eyes of the dog differ from those of the
cat ? Does he rely as much upon his eyes for finding his prey as does the
cat? Can a dog see in the dark? What is the color of the dog’s eyes?

6. Study the ear of the dog ; is it covered ? Is this outer ear movable,
is it a flap, or is it cornucopia shaped? How is this flap used when the
dog is listening? Roll a sheet of paper into a flaring tube and place the

266

Handbook of Nature-Study

small end upon your own ear, and note if it helps you to hear better the
sounds in the direction toward which the tube opens? Note how the
hound lifts his long earlaps, so as to make a tube for conveying sounds to
his inner ear. Do you think that dogs can hear well ?

“ Klondike Jack”.

The dog that pulled four hundred fifty pounds five hundred
miles through the White Horse Pass in the winter
of the first gold excitement.

7 . What is the
position of the nose in
the dog’s face? Of
what use is this?
Describe the 'nostrils;
are they placed on
the foremost point of
the face? What is
the condition of the
skin that surrounds
them? How does this
condition of the nose
aid the dog? What
other animals have it ?
Does the dog recog-
nize his friends or
become acquainted
with stralngers by
means of his sight or
of his powers of smell-
ing?

8. How long after
a fox or rabbit has

passed can a hound follow the track? Does he follow it by sight or by
smell? What are the conditions most favorable for retaining the scent?
The most unfavorable? How long will a hound follow a fox trail without
stopping for rest or food? Do you think the dog is your superior in
ability to smell ?

9. How does a dog seize and kill his prey? How does he use his feet
and claws when fighting? What are his especially strong weapons?
Describe a dog’s teeth and explain the reason for the bare spaces on the
jaw next to the tushes. Does the dog use
his tushes when chewing? What teeth does
he use when gnawing a bone? Make a
diagram of the arrangement of the dog’s
teeth.

10. How by action, voice, and especially

by the movement of the tail does the dog ex-
press the following emotions: Delight,

friendliness, affection, attention, anger, fear,
shame, excitement? How does he act when
chasing his prey? Why do wolves and dogs
bark when following the trail ? Do you think
of a reason why dogs often howl at night or
when listening to music? What should we
feed to our pet dogs? What should we do to
make them comfortable in other ways?

11. Tell or write a story of some dog of
which you know by experience or hearsay.

In pleasant mood.
A collie.

Mammal Study

267

Of what use was the dog to the pioneer? How are dogs used in the
Arctic regions? In Holland?

12. How many breeds of dogs do you know? Describe charac-
ters of such as follows: The length of the legs as compared with the

body; the general shape of the body, head, ears, nose; color and character
of hair on head, body and tail.

13. Find if you can the reasons which have led to the develop-
ing of the following breeds: Newfoundland, St. Bernard, mastiffs

hounds, collies, spaniels, setters, pointers, bulldogs, terriers, and pugs.

Supplementary reading — “Stories of Brave Dogs” from St. Nicholas ,
the Century Co.; the following three stories from Thompson-Seton:
“Chink” in Lives of the Hunted, “Snap” in Animal Heroes, “Wully” in
Wild Animals I Have Known; Bob, Son of Battle; Mack, His Book, by
Florence Leigh ; Rab and his Friends ; The Dog of Flanders; “Red Dog”
in Kipling’s Jungle Stories; Animals of the World, Knight and Jenks,
p. 80; Life of Animals, Ingersoll, p. 187.

Fox hunting, in the Genesee Valley, N. Y.

268

Handbook of Nature-Study

An aristocrat.

THE CAT
Teacher's Story

F all people, the writer should regard the cat sym-
pathetically, for when she was a baby of five
months she was adopted by a cat. My self-
elected foster-mother was Jenny, a handsome black
and white cat, which at that time lost her first
litter of kittens, through the attack of a savage cat
from the woods. She was as Rachel crying for her
children, when she seemed suddenly to compre-
hend that I, although larger than she, was an
infant. She haunted my cradle, trying to give
me milk from her own breasts; and later she
brought half-killed mice and placed them enticingly in my cradle, coaxing
me to play with them, a performance which pleased me much more than
it did my real mother. Jenny always came to comfort me when I cried,
rubbing against me, purring loudly, and licking me with her tongue in a
way to drive mad the modern mother, wise as to the sources of children’s
internal parasites. This maternal attitude toward me lasted as long as
Jenny lived, which was until I was nine years old. Never during those
years did I lift my voice in wailing, that she did not come to comfort
me; and even to-day I can remember how great that comfort was,
especially when my naughtiness was the cause of my weeping, and when,
therefore, I felt that the whole world, except Jenny, was against me.

Mammal Study

269

Jenny was a cat of remarkable intelligence and was very obedient and
useful. Coming down the kitchen stairs one day, she played with the
latch and someone hearing her, opened the door. She did this several
times, when one day she chanced to push down the latch, and thus opened
the door herself. After that, she always opened it herself. A little later,
she tried the trick on other doors, and soon succeeded in opening all the
latched doors in the house, by thrusting one front leg through the handle,
and thus supporting her weight and pressing down with the foot of the
other on the thumb-piece of the latch. I remember, guests were greatly
astonished to see her coming thus swinging into the sitting-room. Later
she tried the latches from the other side, jumping up and trying to lift the
hook; but now, her weight was thrown against the wrong side of the door
for opening, and she soon ceased this futile waste of energy; but for
several years, she let herself into all the rooms in this clever manner, and
taught a few of her bright kittens to do the same.

A pet cat enjoys long conversations with favored members of the
household. She will sit in front of her mistress and mew, with every
appearance of answering the questions addressed her; and since the cat
and the mistress each knows her own part of the conversation, it is per-
haps more typical of society chatter than we might like to confess. Of
our language, the cat learns to understand the call to food, its own name,
“scat,” and “No, No,” probably inferring the meaning of the latter from
the tone of voice. On the other hand, we understand when it asks to go
out, and its polite recognition to the one who opens the door. I knew one
cat which invariably thanked us when we let him in as well as out.
When the cat is hungry, it mews pleadingly; when happy in front of the
fire, it looks at us sleepily out of half-closed eyes and gives a short mew
expressive of affection and content; or it purrs, a noise which we do not
know how to imitate and which expresses perfectly the happiness of inti-
mate companionship. When frightened the cat yowls, and when hurt
squalls shrilly; when fighting, it is like a savage warrior in that it howls a
war-song in blood-curdling strains, punctuated with a spitting expressive
of fear and contempt; and unfortunately, its love song is scarcely less
agonizing to the listener. The cat’s whole body enters into the expression
of its emotions. When feeling affectionate toward its mistress, it rubs
against her gown, with tail erect, and vibrating with a purr which seems
fundamental. When angry, it lays its ears back and lashes its tail back
and forth, the latter being a sign of excitement; when frightened, its hair
stands on end, especially the hair of the tail, making that expressive
appendage twice its natural size; when caught in disobedience, the cat
lets its tail droop, and when running lifts it in
a curve.

While we feed cats milk and scraps from
our own table, they have never become entirely
civilized in their tastes. They always catch
mice and other small animals and prove pesti-
ferous in destroying birds. Jenny was wont
to bring her quarry, as an offering, to the front
steps of our home every night; one morning
we found seven mice, a cotton-tail rabbit and
two snakes, which represented her night’s
catch. The cat never chases its prey like the
dog. It discovers the haunts of its victims,

Bones and ligaments
of cat's claw .

A Claw up. B Cla-s. thrust out.

270

Handbook of N ature-Study

and then lies in ambush, flattened out as still as a statue and all its feet
beneath it, ready to make the spring. The weight of the body is a factor
which enters in the blow with which the cat strikes down its victim, and
thus stuns and which it later kills by gripping the throat with the strong
tushes. She carries her victims as she does her kittens, by the back.

The cat’s legs are not long compared with the body, and it runs with a
leaping gallop ; the upper legs are armed with powerful muscles. It walks
on the padded toes, five on the front feet and four of the hind feet. The
cat needs its claws to be sharp and hooked, in order to seize and hold its
prey, so they are kept safely sheathed when not thus used. If the claws
struck the earth during walking, as do the dog’s, they would soon become
dulled. When sharpening its claws it reaches high up against a tree or
post, and strikes them into the wood with a downward scratch; this act
is probably more for exercising the muscles which control the claws than
for sharpening them.

The cat’s track is in a single line as if it had only two feet, one set
directly ahead of the other. It accomplishes this by setting its hind feet
exactly in the tracks made by the front feet. The cat can easily leap
upward, landing on a window-sill five feet from the ground. The jump is
made with the hind legs and the alighting is done silently on the front
feet.

Cats’ eyes are fitted for seeing in the dark; in the daytime the pupil is
simply a narrow, up and down slit; under excitement, and at night, the
pupil covers almost the entire eye. At the back of the eye is a reflecting
surface, which catches such dim light as there is, and by reflecting it
enables the cat to use it twice. It is this reflected light, which gives the
peculiar green glare to the eyes of all the cats when seen in the dark.
Some night-flying moths have a like arrangement for utilizing the light,
and their eyes glow like living coals. Of
course, since the cat is a night hunter, this
power of multiplying the rays of light is of
great use. The iris of the eye is usually
yellow, but in kittens it may be blue or green.

The cat’s teeth are pecularily fitted for
its needs. The six doll-like incisors of the
upper and lower jaw are merely for scraping
meat from bones. The two great tushes,
or canines, on each jaw, with a bare place
behind so that they pass each other freely, are
sharp and hooked, and are for seizing and
carrying prey. The cat is able to open its
mouth as wide as a right angle, in order to
better hold and carry prey. The back teeth,
or molars, are four on each side in the upper
jaw and three, below. They are sharp-edged
wedges made for cutting meat fine enough, so
that it may be swallowed.

The tongue is covered with sharp papillae
directed backwards, also used for rasping
juices from meat. The cat’s nose is moist,
“ Folks are so tiresome .” and her sense of smell very keen, as is also her

sense of hearing. The ears rise like two hollow half-cones on either

Mammal Study

271

side of the head and are filled with sensitive hairs; they ordinarily open
forward, but are capable of movement. The cat’s whiskers consist of
from twenty-five to thirty long hairs set in four lines, above and at the
sides of the mouth ; they are connected with sensitive nerves and are
therefore true feelers. The cat’s fur is very fine and thick, and is also
sensitive; as can readily be proved, by trying to stroke it the wrong
way. While the wild cats have gray or tawny fur, variously mottled
or shaded, the more striking colors we see in the domestic cats are the
result of man’s breeding.

Cats are very cleanly in their habits. Puss always washes her face
directly after eating, using one paw for a wash-cloth and licking it clean
after she rubs her face. She cleans her fur with her rough tongue and
also by biting; and she promptly buries objectionable matter. The
mother cat is very attentive
to the cleanliness of her kit-
tens, licking them clean from
nose tip to tail tip. The ways
of the mother cat with her
kittens do much to sustain
the assertions of Mr. Seton
and Mr. Long that young
animals are trained and edu-
cated by their parents. The
cat brings half-dazed mice to
her kittens, that they may
learn to follow and catch them
with their own little claws.

When she punishes them, she
cuffs the ears by holding one
side of the kitten’s head firm
with the claws of one foot,
while she lays on the blows
with the other. She carries her “ Interested T*

kittens by the nape of the neck,

never hurting them. She takes them into the field when they are old
enough, and shows them the haunts of mice, and does many things for
their education and welfare. The kittens meantime train themselves to
ag ility and dexterity, by playing rough and tumble with each other, and
by chasing every small moving object, even to their own tails.

The cat loves warmth and finds her place beneath the stove or at the
hearthside. She likes some people, and dislikes others, for no reason we
can detect. She can be educated to be friendly with dogs and with
birds. In feeding her, we should give her plenty of sweet milk, some
cooked meat and fish of which she is very fond; and we should keep a
bundle of catnip to make her happy, for even the larger cats of the wilder-
ness seem to have a passionate liking for this herb. The cat laps milk
with her rough tongue, and when eating meat, she turns the head this
way and that, to cut the tough muscle with her back teeth.

272

Handbook of Nature-Study

Cats Should be Trained to Leave Birds Alone

Every owner of a cat owes it to the world to train puss to leave birds
alone. If this training is begun during kittenhood, by switching the
culprit every time it even looks at a bird, it will soon learn to leave them

severefy alone. I have tried
this many times, and I know
it is efficacious, if the cat is
intelligent. We have never
had a cat whose early training
we controlled, that could ever
be induced to even watch
birds. If a cat is not thus
trained as a kitten, it is likely
to be always treacherous in
this respect. But in case any
one has a valuable cat which
is given to catching birds, I
strongly advise the following
treatment which has been
proved practicable by a friend
of mine. When a cat has made the catch, take the bird away and
sprinkle it with red pepper, and then give it back. One Such treatment
as this resulted in making one cat, which was an inveterate bird
hunter, run and hide every time he saw a bird thereafter. Any persons
taking cats with them to their summer homes, and abandoning them
there to prey upon the birds of the vicinity, and to become poor, half-
starved, wild creatures, ought to be arrested and fined. It is not
only cruelty to the cats, but it is positive injury, and damage to the com-
munity, because of the slaughter of beneficial birds which it entails.

This cat has been trained to be friendly
with birds.

LESSON LXIV
The Cat

Leading thought — The cat was made a domestic animal before man
wrote histories. It gets prey by springing from ambush and is fitted by
form of body and teeth to do this. It naturally hunts at night and has
eyes fitted to see in the dark.

Method — This lesson may be used in primary grades by asking a few
questions at a time and allowing the children to make their observations on
their own kittens at home, or a kitten may be brought to school for this
purpose. The upper grade work consists of reading and retelling or writ-
ing exciting stories of the great, wild, savage cats, like the tiger, lion,
leopard, lynx and panther.

Observations- — 1. How much of Pussy’s language do you understand?
What does she say when she wishes you to open the door for her? How
does she ask for something to eat ? What does she say when she feels like
conversing with you ? How does she cry when hurt? When frightened?
What noise does she make when fighting? When calling other cats?
What are her feelings when she purrs? When she spits? How many
things which you say does she understand?

Mammal Study

273

2. How else than by voice does she express affection, pleasure and
anger? When she carries her tail straight up in the air is she in a pleasant
mood? When her tail “bristles up” how does she feel? What is it
a sign of, when she lashes her tail back and forth?

3. What do you feed to cats? What do they catch for themselves?
What do the cats that are wild live upon? How does the cat help us?
How does she injure us?

4. How does a cat catch her prey? Does she track mice by the scent?
Does she catch them by running after them as a dog does? Describe how
she lies in ambush. How does she hold the mouse as she pounces upon it ?
How does she carry it home to her kittens ?

5. Study the cat’s paws to see how she holds her prey. Where are
the sharp claws ? Are they always in sight like a dog’s? Does she touch
them to the ground when she walks? Which walks the more silently.

Amicable advances.

a dog or a cat? Why? Describe the cat’s foot, including the toe-pads.
Are there as many toes on the hind feet as on the front feet? What kind
of a track does the cat make in the snow? How does she set her feet to
make such a track ? How does she sharpen her claws ? How does she use
her claws for climbing ? How far have you ever seen a cat jump? Does
she use her front or her hind feet in making the jump ? On which feet does
she alight? Does she make much noise when she alights?

6. What is there peculiar about a cat’s eyes? What is their color?
What is the color of kittens’ eyes? What is the shape of the pupil in day-
light ? In the dark ? Describe the inner lid which comes from the comer
of the eye.

7. How many teeth has Puss? What is the use of the long tushes?
Why is there a bare space behind these? What does she use her little
front teeth for? Does she use her back teeth for chewing or for cutting
meat ?

8. How many whiskers has she? How long are they? What is
their use? Do you think that puss has a keen sense of smell? Why do

274

Handbook of Nature-Study

you think so? Do you think she has a keen sense of hearing? How do
the shape and position of the ears help in listening? In what position are
the ears when puss is angry?

9. How many colors do you find in our domestic cats. What is the
color of wild cats ? Why would it not be beneficial to the wild-cat to have
as striking colors as our tame cats ? Compare the fur of the cat with the
hair of the dog. How do they differ? If a cat chased her prey like the
dog do you think her fur would be a too warm covering?

10. Describe how the cat washes her face. How does she clean her
fur? How does her rough tongue help in this? How does the mother
cat wash her kittens ?

1 1 . How does a little kitten look when a day or two old? How long
before its eyes open ? How does the cat carry her kittens ? How does a
kitten act when it is being carried ? How does the mother cat punish her
kittens ? How does she teach them to catch mice ? How do kittens play ?
How does the exercise they get in playing fit them to become hunters ?

12. How should cats be trained not to touch birds? When must this
training begin ? Why should a person be punished for injury to the public
who takes cats to summer cottages and leaves them there to run wild?

13 . Where in the room does puss best like to lie? How does she sun
herself? What herb does she like best? Does she like some people and
not others? What strange companions have you known a cat to have?
What is the cat’s chief enemy? How should we care for and make her
comfortable ?

14. Write or tell stories on the following subjects: (1) The things

which my pet cat does; (2) The Wild Cat; (3) The Lion; (4) The Tiger;
(5) The Leopard; (6) The Panther and the Mountain Lion; (7) The Lynx;
(8) The History of Domestic Cats; (9) The Different Races of Cats,
describing the Manx, the Persian and the Angora Cats.

Supplementary reading — The Life of Animals, Ingersoll; American
Animals, Stone and Cram; Our Domestic Animals, Burkett; The Fireside
Sphinx, Repplier; Concerning Cats, Winslow; The following animal
stories from St. Nicholas Magazine : Cat Stories, Lion and Tiger Stories,

Panther Stories.

Photo by Verne Morton

Mammal Study

275

Saanen goats in Switzerland.

Peer, Twenty-first Annual Report Bureau of Animal Industry,

U. S. Department of Agriculture.

THE GOAT
Teacher's Story

Little do we in America realize the close companionship that has ex-
isted in older countries, from time immemorial, between goats and people.
This association began when man was a nomad, and took with him in his
wanderings, his flocks, of which goats formed the larger part. He then
drank their milk, ate their flesh, wove their hair into raiment, or made
cloth of their pelts, and used their skins for water bags. Among peoples
of the East all these uses continue to the present day. In the streets of
Cairo, old Arabs may be seen with goat skins filled with water upon their
backs; and in any city of Western Asia or Southern Europe, flocks of
goats are driven along the streets to be milked in sight of the consumer.

In order to understand the goat’s peculiarities of form and habit, we
should consider it as a wild animal, living upon the mountain heights amid
rocks and snow and scant vegetation. It is marvelously sure-footed and
when on its native mountains, it can climb the sharpest crags and leap
chasms. This peculiarity has been seized upon by showmen who often
exhibit goats which walk on the tight rope with ease, and even turn
themselves upon it without falling. The instinct for climbing still
lingers in the domestic breeds, and in the country the goat may be seen on
top of stone piles or other objects, while in city suburbs, its form may be
discerned on the roofs of shanties and stables.

It is a common saying that a goat will eat anything, and much sport
is made of this peculiarity. This fact has more meaning for us when we
realize that wild goats live in high altitudes, where there is little plant
life, and are therefore, obliged to find sustenance on lichens, moss and such
scant vegetation as they can find.

276

Handbook of Nature-Study

The goat is closely allied to the sheep, differing from it in only a few
particulars ; its horns rise from the forehead curving over backward and
do not form a spiral like those of the rafli; its covering is usually of hair,
and the male has a beard from which we get the name goatee ; the ‘goat
has no gland between the toes, and it does have a rank and disagreeable
odor. In a wild state, it usually lives a little higher up the mountains
than do the sheep, and it is a far more intelligent animal. Mary Austin
says: “Goats lead naturally by reason of a quicker instinct, forage more

freely and can find water on their own account, and give voice in case of
alarm. Goat leaders exhibit jealousy of their rights to be first over the
stepping-stones or to walk the teetering log bridges at the roaring creeks.”
On the great plains, it is a common usage to place a few goats in a flock of
sheep, because of the greater sagacity of these animals as leaders, and also
as defenders in case of attack.

Goats’ teeth are arranged for cropping herbage and especially for

browsing. There are six molar teeth on
each side of each jaw; there are eight
lower incisors and none above. The
goat’s sense of smell is very acute; the
ears are movable and the sense of hear-

Zaraibi milch goats of Egypt .

Thompson. Twenty-first Annual Report Bureau of Animal Industry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ingis keen; the eyes are full and very intelligent; the horns are some-
what flattened and angular and often knobbed somewhat in front, and
curve backward above the neck; they are, however, very efficient as
weapons of defence. The legs are strong, though not large, and are well
fitted for leaping and running. The feet have two hoofs, that is, the
animal walks upon two toe-nails. There are two smaller toes behind

Mammal Study

277

and above the hoofs. The goat can run with great rapidity. The tail
of the goat is short like that of the deer, and does not need to be ampu-
tated like that of the sheep. Although the normal covering of the goat is
hair, there are some species which have a more or less woolly coat.
When angry the goat shakes its head, and defends itself by butting
with the head, also by striking with the horns, which are very sharp.
Goats are very tractable and make affectionate pets when treated with
kindness; they display far more affection for their owner than do sheep.

Our famous Rocky Mountain goat, although it belongs rather to the
antelope family, is a large animal, and is the special prize of the hunter;
however, it still holds its own in the high mountains of the Rocky and

Milch goats in Malta.

Thompson. Twenty-first Annual Report Bureau of Animal Industry,

Department of Agriculture.

Cascade Ranges. Both sexes have slender black horns, white hair, and
black feet, eyes and nose. Owen Wister says of this animal: “He is
white, all white, and shaggy, and twice as large as any goat you ever saw.
His white hair hangs long all over him like a Spitz dog’s or an Angora
cat’s; and against its shaggy white mass the blackness of his hoofs and
horns, and nose looks particularly black. His legs are thick, his neck is
thick, everything about him is thick, save only his thin black horns.
They’re generally about six (often more than nine) inches long, they
spread very slightly, and they curve slightly backward. At their base
they are a little rough, but as they rise they become cylindrically smooth
and taper to an ugly point. His hoofs are heavy, broad and blunt. The
female is lighter than the male, and with horns more slender, a trifle.
And (to return to the question of diet) we visited the pasture where the
herd (of thirty- five) had been, and found no signs of grass growing or grass
eaten; there was no grass on that mountain. The only edible substance

27 8

• Handbook of Nature-Study

was a moss, tufted, stiff and dry to the touch. I also learned that the goat
is safe from predatory animals. With his impenetrable hide and his
disemboweling horns he is left by the wolves and mountain lions respect-
fully alone.” (See American Animals, p. 57 ; Camp Fires of a Naturalist,
chapters VIII and XIII).

Milch Goats — Many breeds of these have been developed, and the
highest type is, perhaps, found in Switzerland. The Swiss farmers have
found the goat particularly adapted to their high mountains and have used
it extensively; thus, goats developed in the Saane and Toggenburg val-
leys have a world- wide reputation. Above these valleys the high moun-
tains are covered with perpetual snow, and winter sets in about Novem-
ber. 1st, lasting until the last of May. The goats are kept with the cows
in bams and fed upon hay; but as soon as the snow is gone from the val-
leys and the lower foot-hills, the cattle and goats are sent with the herders
and boy assistants, to the grazing grounds. A bell is put upon the cow
that leads the herd so as to keep it together and the boys, in their gay

peasant dresses, are as happy as
the playful calves and goats to get
out in the spring sunshine. The
herds follow the receding snows
up the mountains until about mid-
summer, when they reach the
high places of scanty vegetation;
then they start on the downward
journey, returning to the home
and stables about November 1st.
The milk from goats is mixed with
that from cows to make cheese,
and this cheese has a wide reputa-
tion; some of the varieties are:
Roquefort, Schweitzer and Alten-
burger. Although the cheese is
excellent, the butter made from
goat’s milk is quite inferior to
that made from the cow’s. The
milk, when the animals are well
taken care of, is exceedingly
nourishing; it is thought to be the
best milk in the world for children.
Usually, the trouble with goat’s
milk is, that the animals are not
kept clean nor is care taken in
milking. Germany has produced
many distinct and excellent breeds
of milch goats; the Island of
Malta, Spain, England, Ireland,
Egypt and Nubia have each
developed noted breeds. Of all
these, the Nubias give the most milk, sometimes yielding from four to six
quarts per day, while an ordinary goat is considered fairly good if it yields
two quarts per day.

Poona {India) goat.

Thompson . Twenty-first Annual Report Bureau
of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.

Mammal Study

279

•

The Mohair Goats — There are two noted breeds of goats whose hair is
used extensively for weaving into fabrics; one of these is the Cashmere
and the other the Angora. The Cashmere goat has long, straight, silky
hair for an outside coat and has a winter under-coat of very delicate wool.
There are not more than two or three ounces of this wool upon one goat,
and this is made into the famous Cashmere shawls; ten goats furnish
barely enough of this wool for one shawl. The Cashmere goats are grown
most largely in Thibet, and the wool is shipped from the high tableland to
the Valley of Cashmere, and is made into shawls. It requires the work of
several people for a year to produce one of these famous shawls.

The Angora goat has a long, silky and very curly fleece. These goats
were first discovered in Angora, a city of Asia Minor south of the Black
Sea, and some 200 miles southeast from Constantinople. The Angora
goat is a beautiful and delicate animal, and furnishes most of the mohair,
which is made into the cloths known as mohair, alpaca, camel’s hair and
many other fabrics. The Angora goat has been introduced into America,
in California, Texas, Arizona, and to some extent in the Middle West. It
promises to be a very profitable industry. (See Farmers’ Bulletin No.
137, “The Angora Goat,” United States Department of Agriculture.)

The skins of goats are used extensively; morocco, gloves and many
other articles are made from them. In the Orient, the skin of the goat is
used as a bag in which to carry water and wine.

References — American Animals, p. 55; Neighbors with Claws and
Hoofs, p. 190; Familiar Animals, pp. 169 and 183; Camp Fires of a
Naturalist, chapters VIII and XIII; Lives of Animals.

Angora goat.

Thompson, Twenty-first Annual Report Bureau of Animal Industry
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

2 So Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON LXV
The Goat

Leading thought — Goats are among our most interesting domesticated
animals, and their history is closely interwoven with the history of the
development of civilization. In Europe, their milk is made into cheese
that has a world-wide fame; and from the hair of some of the species,
beautiful fabrics are woven. The goat is naturally an animal of the high
mountains.

Method — A span of goats harnessed to a cart is second only to ponies,
in a child’s estimation ; therefore, the beginning of this lesson may well be
a span of goats thus employed. The lesson should not be given unless the
pupils have an opportunity for making direct observations on the animal’s
appearance and habits. There should be some oral and written work in
English done with this lesson. Following are topics for such work:
“The Milch Goat of Switzerland,” “How Cashmere Shawls are Made,”
“The Angora Goat,” “The Chamois.”

Observations — i . Do you think that goats like to climb to high points ?
Are they fitted to climb steep, inaccessible places? Can they jump off
steep places in safety? How does it happen the goat is sure-footed?
How do its legs and feet compare with those of the sheep ?

2. What does the goat eat? Where does it find its natural food on
mountains ? How are the teeth arranged for cutting its food ? Does a
goat chew its cud like a cow?

3. What is the covering of the goat? Describe a billy-goat’s beard.
Do you suppose this is for ornament? For what is goat’s hair used?

4. Do you think the goat has a keen sense of sight, of hearing and of
smell ? Why ? Why did it need to be alert and keen when it lived wild
upon the mountains? Do you think the goat is intelligent? Give in-
stances of this?

5. Describe the horns. Do they differ from the horns of the sheep?
How does a goat fight? Does he strike head on, like the sheep, or side-
wise? How does he show anger?

6. What noises does a goat make? Do you understand what they
mean?

7. Describe the goat, its looks and actions. Is the goat’s tail short at
first or does it have to be cut off like the lamb’s tail? Where and how is
goat’s milk used? What kinds of cheese are made from it ? For what is
its skin used ? Is its flesh ever eaten ?

Everyone knows the gayety of young kids, which prompts them to cut the most
amusing and burlesque capers. The goat is naturally capricious and inquisitive, and
one might say crazy for every species of adventure. It positively delights in perilous
ascensions. At times it will rear and threaten you with its head and horns, apparently,
with the worst intentions, whereas it is usually an invitation to play. The bucks,
however, fight violently with each other; they seem to have no consciousness of the must
terrible blows. The ewes themselves are not exempt from this vice.

They know very well whether or not they have deserved punishment. Drive them
out of the garden, where they are forbidden to go, with a whip and they will flee
without uttering a sound; but strike them without just cause and they will send forth
lamentable cries.

Charles William Burkett in “Our Domestic Animals.”

Mammal Study

281

A Sicilian shepherd.
Photo by J. H. Comstock.

THE SHEEP

Teacher's Story

“ The earliest important achievement of ovine intelligence is to know whether its own
notion or another's is most worth while, and if the other's, which one f Individual
sheep have certain qualities, instincts, competences, but in the man-herded flocks these
are superseded by something which I shall call the flock mind, though I cannot say very
well what it is, except that it is less than the sum of all their intelligences . This is why
there have never been any notable changes in the management of flocks since the first
herder girt himself with a wallet of sheep- skin and went out of his cave-dwelling to the
pastures." — “The Flock,” by Mary Austin.

Both sheep and goats are at home on mountains, and sheep especially,
thrive best in cool, dry locations. As wild animals, they were Creatures
of the mountain crag and chasm, although they frequented more open
places than the mountain goats, and their wool was developed to protect
them from the bitter cold of high altitudes. They naturally gathered in
flocks, and sentinels were set to give warning of the approach of danger;
as soon as the signal came, they made their escape, not in the straight
away race like the deer, but in following the leader over rock, ledge and
precipice to mountain fastnesses where wolf nor bear could follow. Thus,
the instinct of following the leader blindly, came to be the salvation of the
individual sheep.

The teeth of the sheep are like those of the goat, eight incisors below
and none on the upper row, and six grinding teeth at the back of each side

282

Handbook of Nature-Study

of each jaw. This arrangement of teeth on the small, delicate, pointed
jaws enables the sheep to crop herbage where cattle would starve; it can
cut the small grass off at its roots, and for this reason, where vast herds of
sheep range, they leave a desert behind them. This fact brought about a
bitter feud between the cattle and sheep men in the far West. In forests,
flocks of sheep completely kill all underbrush, and now they are not per-
mitted to run in government reserves.

The sheep’s legs are short and delicate below the ankle. The upper
portion is greatly developed to help the animal in leaping, a peculiarity to
which we owe the “leg of lamb” as a table delicacy. The hoof is cloven,
that is, the sheep walks upon two toes; it has two smaller toes above and
behind these. There is a little gland between the front toes which secretes

A sheep of pedigree , Shropshire ram.

an oily substance, which perhaps serves in preventing the hoof from
becoming too dry. The ears are large and are moved to catch better the
direction of sound. The eyes are peculiar; in the sunlight the pupil is a
mere slit, while the iris is yellow or brownish, but in the dark, even of the
stable, the pupils enlarge, almost covering the eye. The ewes either lack
horns or have small ones, but the horns of wild rams are large, placed at the
side of the head and curled outward in a spiral. These horns are perhaps
not so much for fighting the enemy as for rival rams. The ram can strike
a hard blow with head and horns, coming at the foe head on, while the
goat always strikes sidewise. So fierce is the blow of the angry sheep, that
an ancient instrument of war was fashioned like a ram’s head and used to
knock down walls, and was called a battering ram. A sheep shows anger
by stamping the ground with the front feet. The habit of rumination
enables the sheep to feed in a flock and then retire to some place to rest
and chew the cud, a performance peculiarly funny in the sheep.

Mammal Study

283

Sheep under attack and danger are silent; ordinarily they keep up a
constant, gentle bleating to keep each other informed of their where-
abouts; they also give a peculiar call when water is discovered, and
another to inform the flock that there is a stranger in the midst; they also
give a peculiar bleat, when a snake or other enemy which they conquer, is
observed. Their sense of smell is very acute. Mary Austin says,
“Young lambs are principally legs, the connecting body being simply a
contrivance for converting milk into more leg, so you understand how it is
that they will follow the flock in two days and are able to take the trail in
a fortnight, traveling four and five miles a day, falling asleep on their feet
and tottering forward in the way.”

The older lambs have games which
they play untiringly, and which fit
them to become active members of the
flock; one, is the regular game of
“Follow My Leader,” each lamb
striving to push ahead and attain
the place of leader. In playing this
the head lamb leads the chase over
most difficult places, such as logs,
stones and across brooks; thus is a
training begun which later in life may
save the flock. The other game is
peculiar to stony pastures; a lamb
climbs to the top of a boulder and its
comrades gather around and try to
butt it off; the one which succeeds in
doing this, climbs the rock and is “it.” This game leads to agility and
sure-footedness. A lamb’s tail is long and is most expressive of lambkin
bliss, when feeding time comes; but, alas! it has to be cut off so that later
it will not become matted with burrs and filth. In southern Russia there
is a breed of sheep with large, flat, fat tails which are esteemed, as
a great table delicacy. This tail becomes so cumbersome that wheels
are placed beneath it, so that it trundles along behind its owner.

We have a noble species of wild sheep in the Rocky Mountains
which is likely to become extinct soon. The different breeds of
domesticated sheep are supposed to have been derived from different
wild species. Of the domesticated varieties, we have the Merinos
which originated in Spain and which give beautiful, long, fine wool
for our fabrics; but their flesh is not very attractive. The Merinos
have wool on their faces and legs and have wrinkled skins. The English
breeds of sheep have been especially developed for mutton, although
their wool is valuable. Some of these like the Southdown, Shropshire,
and Dorset, give a medium length of wool, while the Cotswold has
very long wool, the ewes having long strings of wool over their eyes
in the fashion of “bangs.”

The dog, as descended from the wolf, is the ancient enemy of sheep ;
and even now after hundreds of years of domestication, some of our
dogs will revert to savagery and chase and kill sheep. This, in fact,
has been one of the great drawbacks to sheep raising in the '’^Eastern
United States. The collie, or sheep-dog, has been bred so many years as
the special care-taker of sheep, that a beautiful relationship has been

284

Handbook „ of N ature-Study

established between these dogs and their flocks. For instances of this,
read the chapter on sheep-dogs in A Country Reader; “Wully” in Wild
Animals I Have Known, and “Bob, Son of Battle.”

LESSON LXVI
The Sheep

Leading thought — Sheep live naturally in high altitudes. When
attacked by enemies, they follow their leader over difficult and dangerous
mountain places.

Method — The questions of this lesson should be given to the pupils and
the observations should be made upon the sheep in pasture or stable.
Much written work may be done in connection with this lesson. The
following topics are suggested for themes : “The Methods by which Wool

is Made into Cloth,” “The Rocky Mountain Sheep,” “The Sheep-herders
of California and their Flocks,” “The True Story of a Cosset Lamb.”

Observations — 1. What is the chief character that separates sheep
from other animals? What is the difference between wool and hair?
Why is wool of special use to sheep in their native haunts ? Is there any
hair on sheep?

2. Where do the wild sheep live? What is the climate in these
places? Does wool serve them well on this account? What sort of
pasturage do sheep find on mountains? Could cows live where sheep
thrive? Describe the sheep’s teeth and how they are arranged to enable
it to crop vegetation closely? What happens to the vegetation on the
range, when a great flock of sheep passes over it ? Why are sheep not
allowed in our forest preserves?

Mammal Study

285

3. What are the chief enemies of sheep in the wilderness? How do
the sheep escape them? Describe the foot and leg of the sheep and
explain how they help the animal to escape its enemies. We say of cer-
tain men that they “follow like a flock of sheep.” Why do we make this
comparison ? What has this habit of following the leader to do with the
escape of sheep from wolves and bears?

4. How do sheep fight? Do both rams and ewes have horns? Do
they both fight ? How does the sheep show anger ? Give your experience
with a cross cosset lamb.

5. Do you think that sheep can see and hear well? What is the posi-
tion of the sheep’s ears when it is peaceful? When there is danger?
How do the sheep’s eyes differ from those of the cow?

6. Does the sheep chew its cud like the cow? Describe the actionas
performed by the sheep. How is this habit of cud chewing of use to the
wild sheep ?

7. Describe a young lamb. Why has it such long legs? How do es
it use its tail to express joy? What happens to this tail later? What
games have you seen lambs play? Tell all the stories of lambs that you
know.

8. How much of sheep language do you understand? What is the
use to the wild flock of the constant bleating?

9. For what purposes do we keep sheep? How many breeds of
sheep do you know? What are the chief differences between the English
breeds and the Merinos? Where and for what purposes is the milk of
sheep used?

10. Have you ever seen a collie looking after a herd of sheep? If so,
describe his actions. Did you ever know of dogs killing sheep ? At what
time of day or night was this done? Did you ever know of one dog
attacking a flock of sheep alone. What is there in the dog’s ancestry
which makes two or three dogs, when hunting, give chase and attack
sheep ?

Photo by Gerrit Miller

286

Handbook of N ature-Study

A herd of ponies in the Isle of Shetland guarded by a sheep-dog.

THE HORSE

Teacher's Story

“ There was once a little animal no bigger than a fox)

And on five toes he scrambled over Tertiary rocks.

They called him Eohippus, and they called him very small ,

And they thought him of no value when they thought of him at all.

Said the little Eohippus, I am going to be a horse!

And on my middle finger nails to run my earthly course!

I am going to have a flowing tail! I am going to have a mane!

And I am going to stand fourteen hands high on the Psychozooic plain!"

— Mrs. Stetson.

It was some millions of years ago, that Eohippus lived out in the
Rocky Mountain Range; its fore feet had four toes and the splint of the
fifth ; the hind feet had three toes and the splint of the fourth. Eohippus
was followed down the geologic ages by the Orohippus and the Mesohippus
and various other hippuses, which showed in each age a successive enlarge-
ment and specialization of the middle toe and the minimizing and final
loss of the others. This first little horse with many toes, lived when the
earth was a damp, warm place and when animals needed toes to spread
out to prevent them from miring in the mud. But as the ages went on,
the earth grew colder and drier, and a long leg ending in a single hoof, was
very serviceable in running swiftly over the dry plains; and according to
the story read in the fossils of the rocks, our little American horses
migrated to South America; and also trotted dry-shod over to Asia in
the Mid-pleocine age, arriving there sufficiently early to become the com-
panion of prehistoric man. In the meantime, horses were first hunted by

Mammal Study

287

savage man for theii
flesh, but were later
ridden. At present,
there are wild horses
in herds on the plains
of Tartary; and there
are still sporadic herds
of mustangs on the
great plains of our
own country, although
for the most part, they
are branded and be-
long to someone, even
though they live like
wild horses ; these
American wild horses
are supposed to be
descendents of those
brought over (centu-
ries ago by the Span-
iards. The Shetland Four-toed, horse of the Eocene period.

ponies are also wild After Charles R- Knight-

in the islands north of Scotland, and the zebras roam the plains of Africa
the most truly wild of all. In a state of wildness, there is always a stal-
lion at the head of a herd of mares, and he has to win his position and keep
it by superior strength and prowess. Fights between stallions are terrible
to witness, and often result in the death of one of the participants. The
horse is well armed for battle ; .his powerful teeth can inflict deep wounds
and he can kick and strike hard with the front feet; still more efficient
is the kick made with both hind feet while the weight of the body is borne
on the front feet, and the head of the horse is turned so as to aim well the
terrible blow. There are no wild beasts of prey which will not slink away
to avoid a herd of horses. After attaining their growth in the herd with
their mothers, the young males are forced by the leader to leave and go off
by themselves; in turn, they must by their own strength and attractions,
win their following of mares. However, there are times and places where
many of these herds join, making large bands wandering together.

The length of the horse’s leg was evidently evolved to meet the need
for flight before fierce and swift enemies, on the great ancient plains.
The one toe, with its strong, sharp hoof, makes a fit foot for such a long
leg, since it strikes the ground with little waste of energy and is sharp
enough not to slip , but it is not a good foot for marshy places ; a horse will
mire where a cow can pass in safety. The development of the middle toe
into a hoof results in lifting the heel and wrist far up the leg, making them
appear to be the knee and elbow, when compared with the human body.

The length of neck and head are necessary in order that an animal,
with such length of leg as the horse, may be able to graze. The head of
the horse tells much of its disposition ; a perfect head should be not too
large, broad between the eyes and high between the ears, while below the
eyes, it should be narrow. The ears, if lopped or turned back, denote a
treacherous disposition. They should point upward or forward ; the ears
laid back is always a sign that the horse is angry; sensitive, quick-moving

288

Handbook of N ature-Study

ears indicate a high-strung, sensitive animal. The eyes are placed so
that the horse can see in front, at the side and behind, the last being

necessary in order to aim a kick. Hazel
eyes are usually preferred to dark ones,
and they should be bright and prominent.
The nostrils should be thin-skinned, wide-
flaring and sensitive; as a wild animal,
scent was one of the horse’s chief aids in
detecting the enemy. The lips should
not be too thick and the lower jaw should
be narrow where it joins the head.

The horse’s teeth are peculiar; there
are six incisors on both jaws; behind them
is a bare space called the bar, of
which we have made use for
placing 4he bit. Back of the
bar, there are six molars or
grinders on each side of each jaw. At the age of about three
years, canine teeth or tushes appear behind the incisors; these are
more noticeable in males, and never seem to be of much use.
Thus, the horse has on each jaw, when full-grown, six incisors, two
canines, and twelve molars, making forty teeth in all. The incisors are
prominent and enable the horse to bite the grass more closely than can
the cow. The horse when chewing, does not have the sidewise motion of
the jaws peculiar to the cow and sheep.

The horse’s coat is, when rightly cared for, glossy and beautiful; but
if the horse is allowed to run out in the pasture all winter, the coat becomes
very shaggy, thus reverting to the condition of wild horses which stand in
need of a warmer coat for winter; the hair is shed every year. The
mane and the forelock are useful in protecting the head and neck from
flies; the tail is also an efficient fly-brush. Although the mane and tail

Hoofs of horses from earliest ages to the present time,
arranged in pairs, hind and front.

Mamma t Study

289

have thus a practical value, they add greatly to the animal’s beauty. To
dock a horse’s tail as an ornament is as absurd as the sliced ears and welted
cheeks of savages; and horses thus mutilated suffer greatly from the
attacks of flies.

Owing to the fact that wild horses made swift flight from enemies, the
colts could not be left behind at the mercy of wolves. Thus it is, the colt
like the lamb, is equipped with long legs from the first, and can run very
rapidly; as a runner, it could not be loaded with a big compound stomach
full of food, like the calf, and therefore, must needs take its nourishment
from the mother often. The colt’s legs are so long that, in order to graze,
it spreads the front legs wide apart in order that it may reach the grass
with its mouth. When the colt or the horse lies down out of doors and in
perfect freedom, it lies flat upon the side. In lying down, the hind quar-
ters go first, and in rising, the front legs are thrust out first.

English draft-horse.

The horse has several natural gaits and some that are artificial. Its
natural methods of progression are the walk, the trot, the amble, the
gallop. When walking there are always two or more feet on the ground
and the movement of the feet consists in placing successively the right
hind foot, the right fore foot, left hind foot, left fore foot, right hind foot,
etc. In trotting, each diagonal pair of legs is alternately lifted and thrust
forward, the horse being unsupported twice during each stride. In
ambling, the feet are moved as in the walk, only differing in that a hind
foot or a fore foot is lifted from the ground, before its fellow fore foot or
hind foot is set down. In a canter, the feet are landed on the ground in
the same sequence as a walk but much more rapidly; and in the gallop,
the spring is made from the fore foot and the landing is on the diagonal
hind foot and just before landing, the body is in the air and the legs are all
bent beneath it.

290

Handbook of Nature-Study

An excellent horseman once said to me, “The whip may teach a horse
to obey the voice, but the voice and hand control the well-broken horse,”
and this epitomizes the best horse training. He also said, “The horse
knows a great deal, but he is too nervous to make use of his knowledge
when he needs it most. It is the horse’s feelings that I rely on. He
always has the use of his feelings and the quick use of them.” It is a
well-known fact that those men who whip and scold and swear at their
horses, are meantime showing to the world that they are fools in this
particular business. Many of the qualities which we do not like in our
domesticated horses, were most excellent and useful when the horses were
wild, for instance, the habit of shying was the wild horse’s method of
escaping the crouching foe in the grass. This habit as well as many others

Saddle-horse.

is best controlled by the voice of the driver instead of a blow from the
whip.

Timothy hay, or hay mixed with clover, form good, bulky food for the
horse, and oats and com are the best concentrated food. Oats are best for
driving-horses and com for the working team. Dusty hay should not be
fed to a horse; but if unavoidable, it should always be dampened before
feeding. A horse should be fed with regularity, and should not be used
for a short time after having eaten. If the horse is not warm, it should
be watered before feeding, and in the winter the water should have the
chill taken off. The frozen bit should be warmed before being placed in
the horse’s mouth; if anyone doubts the wisdom of this, let him put a
frozen piece of steel in his own mouth. The tight-drawn, cruel use of the
over check-rein should not be permitted, although a moderate check is
often needed and is not cruel. When the horse is sweating, it should be
blanketed immediately if hitched outside in cold weather; but in the
barn, the blanket should not be put on until the perspiration has stopped
steaming. The grooming of a horse is a part of its rights, and its legs
should receive more attention during this process than its body, a fact
not always well understood.

The breeds of horses may always be classified more or less distinctly as
follows: Racers or thoroughbreds; the saddle-horse, or hunter; the

Mammal Study

A good coacher.

LESSON LXVII
The Horse

Leading thought — The horse as a wild animal depended largely upon
its strength and fleetness to escape its enemies, and these two qualities
have made it of greatest use to man.

Method — Begin this study of the horse with the stories of wild horses.
“The Pacing Mustang” in Wild Animals I Have Known, is an excellent
story to show the habits of the herds of wild horses ; Chapter first in A
Country Reader and the story of horses in Life of Animals are excellent as
a basis for study. Before beginning actual study of the domestic horses,
ask for oral or written English exercises descriptive of the lives of the
wild horses. Get Remington’s pictures illustrating the wild horses of
America. After the interest has been thus aroused the following observa-
tions may be suggested, a few at a time, to be made incidentally in the
street or in the stable.

Observations — i . Compare the length of the legs of the horse with its
height. Has any other domestic animal legs as long in proportion?
What habits of the ancestral wild horses led to the development of such
long legs? Do you think the length of the horse’s neck and head corre-
spond to the length of its legs? Why?

coach-horse; the draft-horse and the pony. For a description of breeds
see dictionaries or cyclopedias. Of the draft-horses, the Percherons,
Shires and Clydesdales are most common; of the carriage and coach-
horses, the English hackney and the French and German coach-horses are
famed examples. Of the roadster breeds, the American trotter, the
American saddle-horse and the English thoroughbred are most famous.

292

Handbook of Nature-Study

2. Study the horse’s leg and foot. The horse walks on one tee.
Which toe do you think it is ? What do we call the toe-nail of the horse ?
What advantage is this sort of a foot to the horse ? Is it best fitted for
running on dry plains or for marshy land? Does the hoof grow as our
nails do? Do you know whether there were ever any horses with three
toes or four toes on each foot? Make a sketch of the horse’s front and
hind leg and label those places which correspond to our wrist, elbow,
shoulder, hand, heel, knee and hip.

3. Where are the horse’s ears placed on the head? How do they

move? Do they flap back and forth like the cow’s ears when they are
moved, or do they turn as if on a pivot? What do the following different
positions of the horse’s ears indicate : When lifted and pointing forward ?

When thrown back? Can you tell by the action of the ears whether a
horse is nervous and high-strung or not ?

4. What is the color of the horse’s eyes? The shape of the pupil?
What advantage does the position of the eyes on the head give to the wild
horse ? Why do we put blinders on a horse ? Can you tell by the expres-
sion of the eye the temper of the horse?

5. Look at the mouth and nose. Are the nostrils large and flaring?
Has the horse a keen sense of smell? Are the lips thick or thin ? When
taking sugar from the hand, does the horse use teeth or lips?

6. Describe the horse’s teeth. How many front teeth? How many
back teeth? Describe the bar where the bit is placed. Are there any

“ Palo Alto ", a famous running horse.

Mammal, Study

293

canine teeth? If so, where? Do you know how to tell a horse’s age by
its teeth? (See Elements of Agriculture, Warren, page 304, and The
Horse, Roberts, page 246.) Can a horse graze the grass more closely
than a cow? Why? When it chews does it move the jaws sidewise like
the cow? Why? Why did the wild horses not need to develop a cud-
chewing habit?

7. What is the nature of the horse’s coat in summer? If the horse
runs in the pasture all winter, how does its coat change ? When does the
horse shed its coat? What is the use of the horse’s mane, forelock and
tail ? Do you think it is treating the horse well to dock its tail ?

8. Why do colts need to be so long-legged? How does a colt have
to place its front legs in order to reach down and eat the grass? Does the
colt need to take its food from the mother often? How does it differ
from the calf in this respect? , How has this difference of habit resulted
in a difference of form in the calf and colt?

9. When the horse lies down which part goes down first? When
getting up which rises first ? How does this differ from the method of the
cow? When the horse lies down to sleep does it have its legs partially
under it like the cow?

10. In walking which leg moves first? Second? Third? Fourth?
How many gaits has the horse? Describe as well as you can all of these
gaits. (See pictures illustrating the word “movement” in the Standard
Dictionary.)

11. Make a sketch of a horse showing the parts. (See Webster’s
Unabridged). When we say a horse is fourteen hands high what do we
mean?

12. In fighting, what weapons does the horse use and how?

13. In training a horse, should the voice or the whip be used the
most? What qualities should a man have to be a good horse trainer?
Why is shying a good quality in wild horses ? How should it be dealt with
in the domestic horse ?

14. What sort of feed is best for the horse? How and when should
the horse be watered? Should the water be warmed in cold weather?
Why? Should the bit be warmed in winter before putting it in a horse’s
mouth? Why? Should a tight over check-rein be used when driving?
Why? When the horse has been driven until it is sweating what are the
rules for blanketing it when hitched out of doors and when hitched in the
barn ? What is your opinion of a man who lets his horse stand waiting in
the cold, unblanketed in the village street. If horses were kept out of
doors all the time would this treatment be so cruel and dangerous ? Why ?
Why should dusty hay be dampened before it is fed to a horse? Why
should a horse be groomed? Which should receive the most attention,
the legs or the body?

15. How many breeds of horses do you know? What is the use of
each? Describe as well as you can the characteristics of the following
breeds: The thoroughbred, the hackney, and other coach-horses; the
American trotter, the Percheron, the Clydesdale.

16. Write English themes on the following subjects: “The Pre-

historic Horses of America,” “The Arabian Horse and Its Life With Its
Master,” “The Bronchos and Mustangs of the West,” “The Wild Horses
of Tartary,” “The Zebras of Africa,” “The Shetland Ponies and the
Islands on Which They Run Wild.”

294

Handbook of Nature-Study

Supplementary reading — The Horse, Roberts; Elements of Agricul-
ture, Warren; Life of Animals, Cram; Neighbors with Claws and Hoofs;
A Country Reader; Agriculture for Beginners; Black Beauty; John
Brent, by Theodore Withrop; Half Hours with Mammals, Holder;
Chapters on Animals, Hammerton; “Kaweah’s Run” in Claws and
Hoofs.

Many horses shy a good deal at objects they meet on the road. This mostly arises
from nervousness, because the objects are not familiar to them. Therefore, to cure the
habit, you must get your horse accustomed to what he sees, and so give him confidence.

Be careful never to stop a horse that is drawing a vehicle or load in the middle
of a hill, except for a rest; and if for a rest, draw him across the hill and place a big
stone behind the wheel, so that the strain on the shoulder may be eased. Unless abso-
lutely necessary never stop a horse on a hill or in a rut, so that when he starts again it
means a heavy tug. Many a horse has been made a jibber and his temper spoilt by
not observing this rule.

— H. B. M. Buchanan in “A Country Reader.”

Mammal Study

295

The original wild cattle of America.
Photo by John L. Rich.

CATTLE

Teacher’s Story

That in numbers there is safety, is a basic principle in the lives of
wild cattle, probably because their chief enemies, the wolves, hunted in
packs. It has often been related that, when the herd is attacked by
wolves, the calves are placed at the center of the circle made by the cattle,
standing with heads out and horns ready for attack from every quarter.
But when a single animal, like a bear or tiger, attacks any of the herd,
they all gather around it in a narrowing circle of clashing horns, and
many of these great beasts of prey have thus met their death. The cow
is as formidable as the bull to the enemy, since her horns are strong and
sharp and she tosses her victim, unless it is too large. The heavy head,
neck and short massive horns of the bull, are not so much for defence
against enemies as against rival bulls. The bull not only tosses and gores
his victim, but kneels or tramples upon it. Both have effective weapons
of defence in the hind feet, which kick powerfully. The buffalo bull of
India will attack a tiger single handed, and usually successfully. It is a
strange thing that all cattle are driven mad by the smell of blood, and
weird stories are told of the stampeding of herds from this cause, on the
plains of our great West.

Cattle are essentially grass and herbage eaters, and their teeth are
peculiarly arranged for this. There are eight front teeth on the lower
jaw, and a homy pad opposite them on the upper jaw. Back of these on
each jaw there is a bare place and six grinding teeth on each side. As a
cow crops the herbage, her head is moved up and down to aid in severing
the leaves, and the peculiar sound of the tearing of the leaves thus made
is not soon forgotten by those who have heard it. In the wild or domes-
ticated state the habit of cud-chewing is this : The cattle graze in morn-

ings and evenings, swallowing the food as fast as cropped, and storing it

296

Handbook of Nature-Study

Course of food in a
cow’s stomach.

I, ruminant stomach; II, where
the cud-balls are formed ;
III, IV, true stomachs,

mother; the young
for a long journey;
“frozen” and will
never stir unless
actually touched.
As the mother is
obliged to be absent
for some time grazing
with the herd, the
calf is obliged to go
without nourishment
for a number of hours,
and so it is provided
with a large compound
stomach which, if filled
twice per day, suffices
to insure health and
growth. The cow, on
the other hand, giv-
ing her milk out only
twice per day, needs a
large udder in which
to store it. The size
of the udder is what
has made the cow
useful to us as a milch
animal.

A fine cow is a
beautiful creature, her
soft yellow skin be-
neath the sleek coat
of short hair, the well
proportioned body,
the mild face, crowned
with spreading,
polished horns and
illuminated with large
gentle eyes, are all

in their ruminating stomachs. During the
heat of the day, they move to the shade,
preferably to the shady banks of streams,
and there in quiet the food is brought
up, a small portion at a time, and chewed with
a peculiar sidewise movement of the jaws and
then swallowed, passing to the true stomach.
There is probably no more perfect picture of
utter contentment, than a herd of cows chewing
their cuds in the shade, or standing knee-deep
in the cool stream on a summer’s day. The
cattle in a herd when grazing, keep abreast and
move along, heads in the same direction.

Connected with the grazing habit, is that of
the hiding of the new-born calf by its
calf is a wabbly creature and ill-fitted
so the mother hides it, and there it stays

A pet Holstein.

Mammal Study

297

elements of beauty which artists have recognized, especially those
of the Dutch school. The ancients also admired bovine eyes, and
called their most beautiful goddess the ox-eyed Juno.

The cow’s ears can be turned in any direction, and her sense of hearing
is keen; so is her sense of smell, aided by the moist, sensitive skin of the
nose; she always sniffs danger and also thus tests her food. Although a
cow if well kept has a sleek coat, when she is allowed to run out of doors
during the winter, her hair grows long and shaggy as a protection. The
cow walks on two toes, or as we say has a split hoof. She has two lesser
toes above and behind the hoofs which we call dew-claws. The part of
her leg which seems at first glance to be her knee, is really her wrist or
ankle. Although short-legged, the cow is a good runner, as those who
have chased her can bear witness. She can walk, gallop and has a pacing
trot; she is a remarkable jumper, often taking a fence like a deer; she
also has marvelous powers as a swimmer, a case being on record where a
cow swam five miles. But a cow would be illy equipped for comfort if it
were not for her peculiar tail, which is made after the most approved
pattern of fly-brushes, and is thus used. Woe betide the fly she hits with
it, if the blow is as efficient as that which she incidentally bestows on the
head of the milker. It is to get rid of flies, that the cattle, and especially
the buffaloes, wallow in the mud, and thus coat themselves with a fly-
proof armor.

There is a fairly extensive range of emotions expressed in cattle
language, from the sullen bellow of the angry animal to the lowing which
is the call of the herd, and the mooing which is meant for the calf; and
there are many other bellowings and mutterings which we can partially
understand.

Every herd of cows has its leader, which has won the position by fair
fight. Add a new cow to the herd, and there is at once a trial of strength,
to adjust her to her proper place; and in a herd of cows, the leader leads;
she goes first and no one may say her nay. In fact, each member of the
herd has her place in it ; and that is why it is so easy to teach cows each
to take her own stanchion in the stable. In a herd of forty cows which I
knew, each cow took her stanchion, no matter in what order she happened
to enter the stable.

A cow at play is a funny sight ; her tail is lifted aloft like a pennant and
she kicks as lightly as if she were made of rubber. She is also a sure-
footed beast, as anyone can attest who has seen her running down the
rocky mountain sides of the Alps, at a headlong pace and never making a
mistake. In lying down, the cow first kneels with the front legs, or
rather drops on her wrists, and then the hind quarters go down, and then
the front follow. She does not lie flat on her side when resting, like the
horse when at ease, but with her legs partially under her. In getting up,
she rests upon her wrists and then lifts the hind quarters.

The Usefulness of Cattle

When man emerged from the savage state, his first step toward civili-
zation was domesticating wild animals and training them for his own use=
During the nomad stage, when tribes wandered over the face of the
earth, they took their cattle along. From the first, these animals have
been used in three capacities : First, for carrying burdens and as draught

298

Handbook of Nature-Study

animals; second, as meat; third, as givers of milk. They were also used
in the earlier ages as sacrifices to the various deities, and in Egypt, some
were held as sacred.

As beasts of burden and draft animals, oxen are still used in many
parts of the United States. For logging, especially in pioneer days, oxen
were far more valuable than horses. They are patient and will pull a few
inches at a time, if necessary, a tedious work which the nervous horse
refuses to endure. Cows too, have been used as draft animals, and are so
used in China today, where they do most of the plowing; in these oriental
countries milk is not consumed to any extent, so the cow is kept for the
work she can do. In ancient times in the East, white oxen formed a part
of royal processions.

Beef cattle.

Because of two main uses of cattle by civilized man, he has bred them
in two directions; one for producing beef, and one for milk. The beef
cattle are chiefly Aberdeen- Angus, Galloway, Short-horn or Durham, and
Hereford; the dairy breeds are the Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Holstein-
Frisian and Brown Swiss. The beef animal is, in cross-section, approxi-
mately like a brick set sidewise. It should be big and full across the loins
and back, the shoulders and hips covered heavily with flesh, the legs stout,
the neck thick and short, and the face short; the line of the back is
straight, and the stomach line parallel with it. Very different is the
appearance of the milch cow. Her body is oval, instead of being approxi-
mately square in cross-section. The outline of her back is not straight.

Mammal Study

299

but sags in front of the hips, which are prominent and bony. The
shoulders have little flesh on them; and if looked at from above, her body
is wedge-shaped, widening from shoulders backward. The stomach line
is not parallel with the back bone, but slants downward from the shoulder
to the udder. The following are the points that indicate a good milch
cow: Head high between the .eyes, showing large air passages and

indicating strong lungs. Eyes clear, large and placid, indicating good
disposition. Mouth large, with a muscular lower jaw, showing ability to
chew efficiently and rapidly. Neck, thin and fine, showing veins through
the skin. Chest deep and wide, showing plenty of room for heart and
lungs. Abdomen, large but well supported, and increasing in size toward
the rear. Ribs, well spread, not meeting the spine like the peak of a roof,
but the spine must be prominent, revealing to the touch the separate
vertebrae. Hips, much broader than the shoulders. Udder, large, the
four quarters of equal size, and not fat; the “milk veins” which carry
the blood from the udder should be large and crooked, passing into the
abdomen through large openings. Skin, soft, pliable and covered with
fine, oily hair. She should have good digestion and great powers of
assimilation. The milch cow is a milk-making machine, and the more
fuel (food) she can use, the greater her production.

The physiological habits of the beef and milch cattle have been
changed as much as their structure. The food given to the beef cow goes
to make flesh; while that given to the milch cow goes to make milk,
however abundant her food. Of course, there are all grades between the
beef and the milch types, for many farmers use dual herds for both.
However, if a farmer is producing milk it pays him well to get the best
possible machine to make it, and that is always a cow of the right type.

A Geography Lesson

All the best breeds of cattle have been evolved in the British Isles and
in Europe north of Italy and west of Russia. All our domesticated cattle
were developed from wild cattle of Europe and Asia. The cattle which
roam in our rapidly narrowing grazing lands of the far West are European
cattle. America had no wild cattle except the bison. In geography
supplementary readers, read about Scotland, England, the Channel
Islands, the Netherlands, France and Switzerland and the different kinds
of cattle developed in these countries; for example, “A Holland Dairy,”
in Northern Europe, Ginn & Co.

How to Produce Good Milk

There are three main ingredients of milk — fat, curd and ash. The
fat is for the purpose of supplying the animal with fat and we make it into
butter; the curd supplies muscle, or the lean meat of the animal, and
is the main ingredient of cheese, although cheese to be good should con-
tain a full amount of butter fat; the ash which may be seen as residue
when milk is evaporated, builds up the bone of the animal. The best
butter cows are those which give a larger per cent, of fat and a small
per cent, of curd, like the Jerseys; the best cheese cows are those
which give a fair per cent, of fat and a larger yield of curd, like the
Ayrshire and Holstein.

3©o

Handbook of Nature-Study

A cow for producing cheese, is not profitable, unless she gives seven
thousand pounds of milk per year; a butter cow, a Jersey for instance,
should produce five thousand pounds of milk per year to be really
profitable.

The stable where milch cows are kept should be thoroughly cleaned
before each milking, and should be swept each day; the cows’ udders
should be brushed, and the milkers should wear clean aprons and should
wash their hands before milking. Milk should never be strained in the
bam, but in some place where the air is fresh. If milk is perfectly clean,
it will keep sweet much longer; sterilized milk put in bottles will keep
sweet for weeks and even months. Loud talking should not be permitted
in the stables while the cows are being milked, and each cow should be
milked by the same person for the entire season.

The perfect milch type.

Milk to be legally sold in New York State must possess three per cent,
of butter fat. For upper grades or first year work in the high school,
there could not be a more profitable exercise than teaching the pupils the
use of the Babcock milk tester.

The Care of the Milch Cow

The importance cannot be over-estimated of teaching the pupils in
rural districts, the proper care of milch cattle for the production of milk.
The milch cow is a perfect machine, and should be regarded as such in
producing milk. First, she should have plenty of food of the right kind,
that is, a well-balanced ration. Second, she should have a warm, clean
stable and be supplied with plenty of good, fresh air. A cold stable
makes it necessary to provide much more food for the cow; a case on
record shows that when a bam was opened up in cold weather for neces-
sary repairing, the amount of milk from the cows stabled in it, decreased
ten per cent, in twenty-four hours. There should be a protected place for

Mammal Study

3°i

drinking, if the cattle must be turned out of the bam for water in winter;
it is far better to have the water piped into the barn, although the herd
should be given a few hours each day in the open air. A dog should
never be used for driving cows. To be profitable, a cow should give milk
ten months of the year at least. Calves should be dehorned when they
are a few days old by putting caustic potash on the budding horns, thus
obviating the danger of damaging the cow by dehorning.

In a properly run dairy, a pair of scales stands near the can for receiv-
ing the milk; and as the milk from each cow is brought in, it is weighed
and the amount set down opposite the cow’s name on a “milk sheet,” that
is tacked on the wall, near by. At the end of each week, the figures on
the milk sheet are added, and the farmer knows just how much milk each
cow is giving him, and whether there are any in the herd which are not
paying their board.

References — Elements of Agriculture, Warren; Agriculture for
Beginners, Burkett, Stevens and Hill, p. 216; First Principles of Agricul-
ture, Vorhees, p. 117; Elements of Agriculture, Sever, p. 57; Ele-
ments of Agriculture, Shepperd, chapters 15 and 22; First Principles
of Agriculture, Goff and Maine, p. 154; Agriculture Through the
Laboratory, School and Garden, Jackson and Dougherty, chapter 8; The
Dairy Herd, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 55, U. S. Dept, of Agr.; Care of Milk
on the Farm, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 63, U. S. Dept, of Agr.

LESSON LXVIII
The Cow

Leading thought — Certain characteristics which enable the cow to live
successfully as a wild animal, have rendered her of great use to us as a
domestic animal.

Method — Begin the lesson with leading the pupils to understand the
peculiar adaptation of cattle for success, as wild animals. This will have
to be done largely by reading and asking for oral or written work on the
following topics: “The Aurochs,” “Wild Cattle of the Scottish High-

lands,” “The Buffaloes of the Orient,” “The American Bison,” “The
Cow-boys of the West and their Work with their Herds,” “The Breeds of
Beef Cattle, Where they Came From, and Where Developed,” “The
Breeds of Milch Cattle, their Origin and Names.” The following ques-
tions may be given out a few at a time and answered as the pupils have
opportunity for observation.

Observations — 1 . What are the characteristics of a fine cow ? Describe
her horns, ears, eyes, nose and mouth. Do you think she can hear well?
What is the attitude of her ears when she is listening? Do you think she
has a keen sense of smell ? Is her nose moist? Is her hair long or short ?
Smooth or rough ?

2. The cow walks on two toes. Can you see any other toes which she
does not walk on ? Why is the cow’s foot better adapted than that of the
horse, to walk in mud and marshes? What do we call the two hind toes
which she does not walk on? Can you point out on the cow’s leg those
parts which correspond with our elbow, wrist, knee and ankle? Is the
cow a good runner? Is she a good jumper? Can she swim?

302

Handbook of Nature-Study

3. For what use was the cow’s tail evidently intended? How do the
wild buffalos and bisons get rid of attacks of flies?

4. How much of cattle language do you understand? How does the
cow express pleasure? Lonesomeness? Anger? How does the bull
express anger? What does the calf express with the voice?

5. Is there always a leader in a herd of cows? Do certain cows of
the herd always go first and others last? Do the cows readily learn to
take each her own place in the stable? How is leadership of the herd
attained ? Describe cattle at play.

6. At what time of day do cattle feed in the pasture? When and
where do they chew the cud ? Do they stand or lie to do this ? Describe
how a cow lies down and gets up.

7 . How do wild cattle defend themselves from wolves ? From bears
or other solitary animals?

8. For what purposes were cattle first domesticated? For how
many purposes do we rear cattle today?

9. Name and give brief descriptions of the different breeds of cattle
with which you are familiar. Which of these are beef and which milch
types ?

10. What are the distinguishing points of a good milch cow? Of a
good beef animal? What does the food do for each of these? Which
part of the United States produces most beef cattle? Which the most
milch cattle?

1 1 . What do we mean by a balanced ration ? Do you know how to
compute one? What is the advantage of feeding cattle a balanced
ration ?

12. How many pounds of milk should a dairy cow produce in a year
to be profitable if the product is cheese? If the product is butter? Why
this discrepancy? What must be the percent, of butter fat in milk to
make it legally salable in your state? How many months of the year
should a good cow give milk?

13. Why should a cow be milked always by the same person ? Does
the milker always sit on the same side? Why should loud talking and
other noise at milking time be avoided ? Should a dog be used in driving
dairy cows ? Why ?

14. Why is a cool draughty bam an expensive place in which to keep
cattle? Why is a bam not well-ventilated, a danger?

15. Why and where is the dehorning of cattle practiced? When and
how should a calf be dehorned?

16. Why should milk not be strained in the bam? Why is it profit-
able for the dairy farmer to keep his stable clean and to be cleanly in the
care of milk? How does the food of cows affect the flavor of the milk?
Why should a farmer keep a record of the number of pounds of milk which
each cow in his dairy gives each day?

1 7 . For what are oxen used ? Wherein are they superior to horses
as draft animals? Do you know of any place where oxen are used as
riding animals ?

18. How many industries are dependent upon cattle?

19. Give oral or written exercises on the following themes : “How

the Best Butter is Made;” “The Use of Bacteria in Butter;” “How Dairy
Cheese is Made;” “How Fancy Cheeses are Made.”

Mammal Study 303

THE PIG

Teacher's Story

S‘I wander through the underbresh,

Where pig tracks pmtin' to'rds the crick ,

Is picked and printed in the fresh
Black bottom-lands , like wimmen prick
Their pie-crust with a fork." — Riley.

Y a forest law of William the First of England in the
eleventh century, it was ordained that any that were
found guilty of killing the stag or the roebuck or the
wild boar, should have their eyes put out. This shows
that the hunting of the wild boar in England was
considered a sport of gentlemen in an age when nothing
was considered sport unless it was dangerous. The
wild hog of Europe is the ancestor of our common
domesticated breeds; although independent of these, the Chinese domes-
ticated their own wild species, even before the dawn of history.

The wild hog likes damp situations where it may wallow in the water
and mud; but it also likes to have, close by, woods, thicket or under-
brush, to which it can retire for rest and also when in danger. The stiff,
bristling hairs which cover its thick skin, are a great protection when it is
pushing through thorny thickets. When excited or angry, these bristles
rise and add to the fury of its appearance. Even in our own country,
the wild hogs of the South whose ancestors escaped from domestication,
have reverted to their original savagery, and are dangerous when infuri-
ated. The only recorded instance when our great national hunter, Theo-
dore Roosevelt, was forced ignominiously to climb a tree, was after he

Anxious for dinner.

3°4

Handbook of Nature-Study

had emptied his rifle into a herd of “javelins,” as the wild pigs of Texas
are called; the javelins are the peccaries, which are the American repre-
sentatives of the wild hog.

That the hog has become synonymous with filth is the result of the
influence of man upon this animal, for of all animals, the pig is naturally
the neatest, keeping its bed clean, often in the most discouraging and ill-
kept pens. The pig is sparsely clothed with bristles and hairs, which
yield it no protection from the attacks of flies and other insects. Thus it
is the pig, in order to rid itself of these pests, has learned to wallow in the
mud. However, this is in the nature of a mud bath, and is for the pur-
pose of keeping the body free from vermin. The wild hogs of India make
for themselves grass huts, thatched above and with doors at the sides,
which shows that the pig, if allowed to care for itself, understands well
the art of nest-building.

One of the most interesting things about a pig, is its nose; this is a
fleshy disc with nostrils in it and is a most sensitive organ of feeling; it
can select grain from chaff, and yet is so strong that it can root up the
ground in search for food. “Root” is a pig word, and was evidently
coined to describe the act of the pig when digging for roots ; the pig’s nose
is almost as remarkable as the elephant’s trunk, and the pig’s sense of
smell is very keen ; it will follow a track almost as well as a dog. There
are more instances than one of a pig being trained as a pointer for hunting
birds, and showing a keener sense of smell, and keener intelligence in
this capacity, than do dogs. French pigs are taught to hunt for truffles,
which are fungi growing on tree roots, a long way below the surface of the
ground; the pig detects their presence through the sense of smell.

The pig has a full set of teeth, having six incisors, two canines and
seven grinding teeth on each jaw; although in some cases there are only
four incisors on the upper jaw. A strange thing about a pig’s teeth, is the
action of the upper canines, or tushes, which curve upward instead of
downward; the lower canines grind up against them, and are thus
sharpened. The females have no such development of upper tushes as
do the males; these tushes, especially the upper ones, are used as weapons;
with them, the wild boar slashes out and upward, inflicting terrible
wounds, often disabling horses and killing men. Professor H. F. Button
describes the fighting of hogs thus: “To oppose the terrible weapons of

his rival, the boar has a shield of skin over his neck and shoulders, which
may become two inches thick, and so hard as to defy a knife. When two
of these animals fight, each tries to keep the tushes of his opponent against
the shield, and to get his own tushes under the belly or flank of the other.
Thus, each goes sidewise or in circles, which has given rise to the expres-
sion, ‘to go sidewise like a hog to war.’ ”

When, as a small girl, I essayed the difficult task of working button-
holes, I was told if I did not set my stitches more closely together, my
buttonhole would look like a pig’s eye, a remark which made me observant
of that organ ever after. But though the pig’s eyes are small, they cer-
tainly gleam with intelligence, and they take in all that is going on,
which may in any way affect his pigship.

The pig is the most intelligent of all the farm animals, if it is only given
a chance ; it has excellent memory and can be taught tricks readily ; it is
affectionate and will follow its master around like a dog. Anyone who
has seen a trained pig at a show picking out cards and counting, must

Mammal Study

3°5

grant that it has brains, although we stuff it so with fattening food, that
it does not have a chance to use its brain, except now and then when it
breaks out of the sty and we try to drive it back. Under these circum-
stances, we grant the pig all the sagacity usually imputed to the one who
once possessed swine and drove them into the sea. Hunters of wild hogs
proclaim that they are full of strategy and cunning, and are exceedingly
fierce. We pay tribute to the pig’s cleverness when free to outwit us,
when we say of other uncertain undertakings, that they are like “buying
a pig in a poke.”

The head of the wild hog is wedge-shaped with pointed snout, and this
form enables the animal to push into the thick underbrush along the river
banks, whenever it is attacked.

But civilization has changed this
bold profile of the head, so that
now in many breeds, there is a
hollow between the snout and
eyes, giving the form which we
call “dished.” Some breeds have
sharp, forward-opening ears, while
others have ears that lop. The
wild pig of Europe and Asia has
large, open ears extending out
wide and alert on each side of the
head.

The covering of the pig is a
thick skin beset with bristling
hairs; when the hog is excited,
the bristles rise and add to the
fury of its appearance. The bris-
tles aid in protecting the animal
when it is pushing through thorny
thickets. The pig’s querly tail is merely an ornament, although the
tail of the wart hog of Africa, if pictures may be relied upon, might be
used in a limited fashion as a fly-brush.

When the pig is allowed to roam in the woods, it lives on roots, nuts,
and especially acorns and beech nuts ; in the autumn it becomes very fat
through feeding upon the latter. The mast-fed bacon of the semi- wild
hogs of the Southern States is considered the best of all. But almost any-
thing animal or vegetable, that comes in its way, is eaten by the hog, and
it has been long noted that the hog has done good service on our frontier
as a killer of rattlesnakes. The pig is Veil fitted for locomotion on either
wet or dry soil, for the two large hoofed toes enable it to walk well on dry
ground and the two hind toes, smaller and higher up, help to sustain it on
marshy soil. Although the pig’s legs are short, it is a swift runner unless
it is too fat. The razor-backs of the South are noted for their fleetness.

We understand somewhat the pig’s language; there is the constant
grunting, which is a sound that keeps the pig herd together. We under-
stand perfectly the complaining squeal of hunger, the satisfied grunt
signifying enjoyment of food, the squeal of terror when seized, and the
nasal growl when fighting. But there is much more to the pig’s conversa-
tion than this; I know a certain lady, who is a lover of animals, and who
once undertook to talk pig language as best she could imitate it, to two of

3°6

Handbook of Nature-Study

her sows when they were engaged in eating. They stopped eating, looked
at each other a moment and forthwith began fighting, each evidently
attributing the lady’s remark to the other, and obviously it was of an
uncomplimentary character.

The pig’s ability to take on fat was evidently a provision, in the wild
state, for storing up fat from mast that should help sustain the animal
during the hardships of winter ; and this character is what makes swine
useful for our own food. Pigs, to do best, should be allowed to have
pasture and plenty of fresh green food. Their troughs should be kept
clean and they should have access to ashes, and above all, they should
have plenty of pure water; and as the pig does not perspire freely, access
to water where it can take its natural mud-baths helps to keep the body
cool and the pig healthy in hot weather.

The breeds of hogs most common in America are the Berkshires, which
are black with white markings, and have ears extending erect; the
Poland Chinas, which are black and white with drooping ears; the Duroc-
Jersey, which are red or chestnut with drooping ears ; the Yorkshire and
Cheshire, which are white with erect ears, while the Cheshire White is
white with drooping ears. The Poland China and Duroc- Jersey are both
pure American breeds.

References — Elementary Agriculture, Warren; Our Domestic Animals,
Burkett; The Country Reader, Buchanan; Lives of Animals, Ingersoll;
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb; and the bulletins of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture.

LESSON LXIX
The Pig

Leading thought — The pig is something more than a source of pork.
It is a sagacious animal and naturally cleanly in its habits when not made
prisoner by man.

Method — The questions in this lesson may be given to the pupils a few
at a time, and those who have access to farms or other places where pigs

are kept may make
the observations and
in giving them to the
class they should be
discussed. Supple-
mentary reading
should be given the
pupils, which may in-
form them as to the
habits and peculiari-
ties of the wild hogs.
Theodore Roosevelt’s
experience in hunting
the wart-hog in Africa
will prove interesting
reading.

Observations — i.
How does the pig’s
nose differ from that

Bottle-fed babies.

Mammal Study

3°7

of other animals? What is it used for besides for smelling? Do you
think the pig’s sense of smell is very keen? Why do pigs root?

2. Describe the pig’s teeth. For what are they fitted? What are
the tushes for? Which way do the upper tushes turn? How do wild
hogs use their tushes ?

3. Do you think that a pig’s eyes look intelligent? What color are
they? Do you think the pig can see well?

4. Is the pig’s head straight in front or is it dished? Is this dished
appearance ever found in wild hogs? Do the ears stand out straight or
are they lopped? What advantage is the wedge-shaped head to the wild
hogs?

5. How is the pig covered? Do you think the hair is thick enough to
keep off flies? Why does the pig wallow in the mud? Is it because the
animal is dirty by nature or because it is trying to keep clean ? Do the
hog’s bristles stand up if it is angry?

6. If the pig could have its natural food what would it be and where
would it be found ? Why and on what should pigs be pastured ? What
do pigs find in the forest to eat? What kind of bacon is considered the
best?

7. On how many toes does the pig walk? Are there other toes on
which it does not walk? If wading in the mud are the two hind toes of
use ? Do wild pigs run rapidly ? Do tame pigs run rapidly if they are not
too fat ? Do you think the pig can swim ? Do you think that the pig’s
tail is of any use or merely an ornament?

8. What cries and noises do the pigs make which we can understand?

9 . How do hogs fight each other ? When the boars fight , how do they
attack or ward off the enemy ? Where do we get the expression going
‘‘sidewise like a hog to war?”

10. How many breeds of pigs do you know? Describe them.

11. What instances have you heard that show the hog’s intelligence?

12. Give an oral or written English exercise on one of the following

topics : “The antiquity of swine ; how they were regarded by the ancient

Egyptians, Greeks and Romans;” (see encyclopedia). “The story of
hunting wild hogs in India; “The razor-back hogs of the South;” “The
wart-hog of Africa.”

“The nice little pig with a querly tail.

All soft as satin 'and pinky pale

Is a very different thing by far

Than the lumps of iniquity, big pigs are."

— Nonsense Rhyme.

3o8

Handbook of Nature-Study
VI. INSECT STUDY

1 NSECTS are among the most interesting and available of
all living creatures for nature-study. The lives of
many of them afford more interesting stories than are
found in fairy lore ; many of them show exquisite colors
and, more than all, they are small and are, therefore,
easily confined for observation.

While the young pupils should not be drilled in
insect anatomy, as if they were embryo zoologists, yet it
is necessary for the teacher, who would teach intelli-
gently, to know something of the life stories, habits and
structure of the common insects. Generally speaking,
all insects develop from eggs. To most of us the
word egg brings before us the picture of the egg of the hen or of some
other bird. But insect eggs are often far more beautiful than those of any
bird; they are of widely differing forms, and are often exquisitely colored
and the shells may be ornately ribbed and pitted, sometimes adorned
with spines, and are as beautiful to look at through a microscope as the
most artistic piece of mosaic.

From the eggs, larvae {sing, larva) issue. These larvae may be
caterpillars, or the creatures commonly called worms, or may be maggots

The egg of the cotton moth, greatly enlarged.
From Manual for the Study of Insects.

or grubs. The larval stage is always devoted to feeding and to growth.
It is the chief business of the larva to eat diligently and to attain maturity
as soon as possible; for often the length of the larval period depends
more upon food than upon lapse of time. All insects have their skele-
tons on the outside of the body ; that is, the outer covering of the body is
chitinous, and the soft and inner parts are attached to it and supported

The forest tent-caterpillar shedding its skin.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

309

by it. This skin is so
firm that it cannot stretch
to accommodate the in-
creasing size of the grow-
ing insect, thus from time
to time it is shed. But
before this is done, a new
skin is formed beneath
the old one. After the
old skin bursts open and
the insect c'rawls forth,
the new skin is sufficiently
soft and elastic to allow
for the increase in the
size of the insect. Soon,
the new skin becomes
hardened like the old one,
and after a time, is shed.
This shedding of the skin
is called molting. Some insects shed' their skins only four or five times
during the period of attaining their growth, while other species may molt
twenty times or more.

After the larva has attained its full growth, it changes its skin and its
form, and becomes a pupa. The pupa stage is ordinarily one of inaction,
except that very wonderful changes take place within the body itself.
Usually the pupa has no power of moving around, but in many cases it
can squirm somewhat, if disturbed. Th^^upa^of the mosquito is active
and is an exception to the rule. The pupa is usually an oblong object
and seems to be without head, feet or wings; but if it is examined closely,
especially in the case of
butterflies and moths, the
antennae, wings and legs
may be seen, folded down
beneath the pupa skin.

Many larvae, especially
those of moths, weave
about themselves a cover-
ing of silk which serves to
protect them from their
enemies and the weather,
during the helpless pupa
period. This silken cover-
ing is called a cocoon.

The larvae of butterflies
do not make a silken
cocoon, but the pupa is
suspended to some object
by a silken knob, and in
some cases by a halter of
silk, and remains entirely naked. The pupa of a butterfly is called a
chrysalis. Care should be taken to have the children use the words —
pupa, chrysalis and cocoon — understanding^.

A luna cocoon cut open, showing the pupa.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

Insect Study

Full-grown caterpillar of the luna moth.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

3IQ

Handbook of Nature-Study

After a period varying from days to months, depending upon the
species of insect and the climate, the pupa skin bursts open and from it

emerges the adult insect, often
equipped with large and beautiful
wings and always provided with
six legs and a far more complex
structure of body than character-
ized it as a larva. The insect never
grows after it reaches this adult
stage and, therefore, never molts.
A butterfly chrysalis. Some people seem to believe that a

small fly will grow into a large fly,
and a small beetle into a large beetle; but after an insect attains its

A tuna moth.

The delicate, exquisite green of ihe luna’s wings is set off by the rose-purple, velvet border of the front
wings, and the white fur on the body and inner edge of the hind wings. Little wonder that it has been called
the “ Empress of the night” . The long swallow tail of the hind wings give the moth a most graceful shape, at
the same time probably afford it protection from observation. During the day time the moth hangs wings
down beneath the green leaves, and these long projections of the hind, wings folded together resemble a
petiole, making the insect look very much like a large leaf.

Insect Study

3r 1

perfect wings, it does not grow larger. Many adult insects take very
little food, although some continue to eat in order to support life. The
adult stage is ordinarily shorter than the larval stage ; it seems a part of
nature’s economic plan that the grown-up insects should live only long
enough to lay eggs, and thus secure the continuation of the species.
Insects having the four distinct stages in their growth, egg, larva, pupa
and adult, are said to undergo complete metamorphosis.

But not all insects pass through an inactive pupa stage. With some
insects, like the grasshoppers, the young, as soon as they are hatched,
resemble the adult forms in appearance. These insects, like the larvae,
shed their skins to accommodate their growth, but they continue to feed
and move about actively until the final molt when the perfect insect
appears. Such insects are said to have incomplete metamorphosis,
which simply means that the form of the body of the adult insect is
not greatly different from that of the young; the dragon-flies, crickets,
grasshoppers and bugs are of this type. The young of insects with an
incomplete metamorphosis are called nymphs instead of larvae.

A young grasshopper, enlarged.
The line shows its actual length.

The adult of the same
grasshopper, natural
size.

Summary of the Metamorphoses of Insects

Kinds of Metamorphosis
I. Complete metamorphosis

II. Incomplete metamorphosis

Names of Stages

Egg.

Larva.

Pupa. (The pupa is sometimes
enclosed in a cocoon.)

Adult or winged insect.

Egg.

Nymph (several stages).

Adult, or imago.

Insect brownies; tree-hoppers as seen through a lens.

3I2

Handbook of Nature-Study

The Structure of Insects

The insect body is made up of ring-like segments which are grown
together. These segments are divided into groups according to their use
and the organs which they bear. Thus the segments of an insect’s body
are grouped into three regions, the head, the thorax and the abdomen.
The head bears the eyes, the antennas, and the mouth-parts. On each
side of the head of the adult insect may be seen the compound eyes; these
are so called, because they are made up of many small
eyes set together, much like the cells of the honeycomb.
These compound eyes are not found in larvae. In addi-
tion to the compound eyes, many adult insects possess
simple eyes; these are placed between the compound
eyes and are usually three in number. Often they
cannot be seen without the aid of a lens.

The antennas or feelers are composed of many seg-
ments and are inserted in front of the eyes or between
them. They vary greatly in form. In some insects
they are mere threads; in others, like the silk- worm
moths, they are large, feather-like organs.

The mouth-parts of insects vary greatly in structure and in form,
being adapted to the life of the insect species to which they minister.
Some insects have jaws fitted for seizing their prey, others for chewing

Grasshopper, with the parts oj the external anatomy named.

A part of the
compound eye
of an insect,
enlarged.

insect Study

3*3

leaves, others have a sucking tube for
getting the juices from plants or the
blood from animals, and others long
delicate tubes for sipping the nectar
from flowers.

In the biting insects, the mouth-
parts consist of an upper lip, the labrum,
and under lip, the labium, and two
pairs of jaws between them. The upper
pair of jaws is called the mandibles and
the lower pair, the maxillae (sing,
maxilla). There may be also within
the mouth, one or two tongue-like
organs. Upon, the maxillae and upon
the lower lip there may also be feelers
which are called palpi (sing, palpus).
The jaws of insects, when working,
A sphinx moth with the sucking do not move up and down, as do ours,
tongue unrolled. but move sidewise like shears. In

Photo by m. v. Slingeriand. many of the insects, the children are

able to observe the mandibles and the palpi
without the aid of a lens.

The thorax is the middle region of the insect
body. It is composed of three of the body seg-
ments more or less firmly joined together. The
segment next the head is called the prothorax, the
middle one, the mesothorax, and the hind one, the
metathorax. Each of these segments bears a
pair of legs and, in the winged insects, the second
and third segments bear the wings. Each leg

consists of two small segments next
to the body, next to them a longer
segment, called the femur, beyond
this a segment called the tibia, and
beyond this the tarsus or foot. The
tarsus is made up of a number of
segments, varying from one to six,
the most common number being
five. The last segment of the tarsus
usually bears one or two claws.

While we have little to do with
the internal anatomy of insects in
elementary nature-study, the chil-
dren should be taught something of
the way that insects breathe. The
child naturally believes that the
insect, like himself, breathes through
the mouth, while as a matter of fact,
insects breathe through their sides.
If we examine almost any insect
carefully, we can find along the sides
of the body a series of openings.
These are called the spiracles, and

A tree-hopper, show-
ing the mouth as a
long, three-jointed
sucking tube, at a.

Tippet* lip op laftrum

The month-harts of a grasshopper
dissected o ff , enlarged and named.

314

Handbook of Nature-Study

through them the air passes into the insect’s body. The number
of spiracles varies greatly in different insects. There is, however,
never more than one pair on a single segment of the body, and they do
not occur on the head. The spiracles, or breathing pores, lead into a
system of air tubes which are called tracheae (tra'-ke-ee) , which permeate
the insect’s body and thus carry the air to every smallest part of its
anatomy. The blood of the insect bathes these thin-walled air tubes
and thus becomes purified, just as our blood becomes purified by bathing
the air tubes of our lungs. Thus, although the insects do not have
localized breathing organs, like our lungs, they have, if the expression
may be permitted, lungs in every part of their little bodies.

The sphinx caterpillar, with the parts of the external anatomy named .

Head

Thorax

Abdomen

Summary of Structure of am Insect

Antennas.

Compound eyes.

Simple eyes or ocelli.

Labrum, or upper lip.

Mandibles, or upper jaws.
Mouth-parts Maxillae, or lower jaws, and maxillary
palpi.

Labium and labial palpi.

Prothorax and first pair of legs.

Mesothorax and

Metathorax and

f second pair of legs.
[ first pair of wings.

I third pair of legs.

second pair of wings,
veins,
cells.

Two small segments called
coxa and trochanter.

Femur.

Tibia.

Tarsus and claws,
ears (in locusts only),
spiracles,
ovipositor.

References. — Manual for the Study of Insects and Insect Life, Comstock.

Wing

Leg

The abdomen bears

Insect Study 315

THE BLACK SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY

Teacher's Story

HIS graceful butterfly is a very good friend to the
flowers, being a most efficient pollen carrier. It
haunts the gardens and sips nectar from all the blossom
cups held out for its refreshment; and it is found
throughout almost all parts of the United States.
The grace of its appearance is much enhanced by the
“swallow-tails,” two projections from the hind mar-
gins of the hind wings. The wings are velvety black
with three rows of yellow spots across them, the outer
row being little crescents set in the margin of the wing;
hnd each triplet of yellow spots is in the same cell of the wing
between the same two veins. The hind wings are more elaborate,
for between the two inside rows of yellow spots, there are exquisite
metallic blue splashes, more vivid and more sharply outlined toward
the inside of the wing and shading off to black at the outside. And
just above the inner angle of the hind wing is an orange eye-spot with
a black center. On the lower surface of the wings, most of the yellow
spots are replaced with orange.

The mother butterfly is larger than her mate and has more blue on her
wings, while he has the yellow markings of the hind wings much more
conspicuous. She lays her egg, just the color of a drop of honey, on the
under surface of the leaf of the food plant.

After about ten days there hatches from this
egg a spiny little fellow, black and angular,
with a saddle-shaped, whitish blotch in the
middle of its back. But it would take an
elfin rider to sit in this warty, spiny saddle.

The caterpillar has six spines on each segment,
making six rows of spines, the whole length
of the body; the spines on the black portions
are black and those on the saddle white, but
they all have orange-colored bases.

When little, spiny saddle-back gets ready
to change its skin to one more commodious
for its increased size, it seeks some convenient
spot on the leaf or stem and spins a little
silken carpet from the silk gland opening in
its under lip; on this carpet it rests quietly
for some time, and then the old tight skin The eggs of the black swallow-
splits down the back, the head portion coming ta butterfly, enlarged.
off separately. Swelling out to fill its new Phot°'misriingeriandr M‘ V‘
skin to the utmost, it leaves its cast-off clothes
clinging to the silken carpet and marches back to its supper.

But after one of these changes of skin it becomes a very different
looking caterpillar, for now it is as smooth as it was formerly spiny; it is
now brilliant caraway green, ornamented with round wise stripes of
velvety black; and set in the front margin of each of these stripes are six
yellow spots. In shape, the caterpillar is larger toward the head;
its true feet have little , sharp claws and look very different from the

316

Handbook of Nature-Study

four pairs ot prolegs and the hind
prop-leg, all of which enable him
to hold fast to the stem or the leaf;
these fat legs are green, each
ornamented with a black, velvety
polka-dot.

When we were children we spent
hours poking these interesting
creatures with straws to see them
push forth their brilliant orange
horns. We knew this was an act
of resentment, but we did not
realize that from these horns was
exhaled the nauseating odor of
caraway which greeted our nostrils.

We incidentally discovered that
they did not waste this odor upon
each other, for once we saw two of
the full-grown caterpillars meet on
a caraway stem. Neither seemed
to know that the other was there
until they touched ; then both drew
back the head and butted each
other like billy-goats, Whack !
whack! Then both turned labor-
iously around and hurried off in a
panic.

The scent organs of these caterpillars are really little Y-shaped pockets
in the segment back of the head, pockets full of this peculiar caterpillar
perfume. Under the stimulus of attack, the pocket is turned wrong side
out and pushed far out making the “horns,” and at the same time throw-
ing the strong odor upon the air. This spoils the flavor of these cater-
pillars as bird food, so they live on in serene peace, never hiding under
the leaves but trusting, like the skunk, to a peculiar power of repelling
the enemy.

We must admire this caterpillar for the methodical way in which it
eats the leaf : Beginning near the base, it does not burn its bridges

behind it by eating through the midrib, but eats everything down to the
midrib ; after it arrives at the tip of the leaf it finishes midrib and all on
its return journey, doing a clean job, and finishing everything as it moves
along. (See Moths and Butterflies, Dickerson, p. 42.)

When the caterpillar has completed its growth, it is two inches long;
it then seeks some sheltered spot, the lower edge of a clapboard or fence
rail being a favorite place ; it there spins a button of silk which it grasps
firmly with its hind prop-leg, and then, with head up, or perhaps
horizontal, it spins a strong loop or halter of silk, fastening each end
of it firmly to the object on which it rests. It thrusts its head
through, so that the halter acts as a sling holding the insect from falling.
There it sheds its last caterpillar skin, which shrinks back around the
button, revealing the chrysalis which is angular with ear-like projections
in front. Then comes the critical moment, for the chrysalis lets go
of the button with its caterpillar feet, and trusting to the sling for

Black swallow-tail caterpillars, showing
two stages of growth. The larger
one has the scent organs protruded.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

Insect Study

3i7

LESSON LXX

The Black Swallow-Tail Butterfly

Leading thought — The caterpillars of the swallow-tail butterflies have
scent organs near the head which they thrust forth when attacked, thus
giving off a disagreeable odor which is nauseating to birds.

Method — In September, bring into the schoolroom and place in the
terrarium, or breeding cage, a caraway or parsley plant on which these
caterpillars are feeding, giving them fresh food day by day, and allow the
pupils to observe them at recess and thus complete the lesson.

The Caterpillar and Chrysalis.

Observations. — 1. Touch the caterpillar on the head with a bit of
grass. What does it do? What color are the horns? Where do they
come from ? Are there two separate horns or two branches of one horn ?
What odor comes from these horns? How does this protect the cater-
pillar? Does the caterpillar try to hide under the leaves when feeding?
Is this evidence that it is not afraid of birds ?

2. Describe the caterpillar as follows: What is its shape? Is it
larger toward the head or the rear end ? What is its ground color? How
is it striped? How many black stripes? How many yellow spots in each

support, pushes off the shrunken skin just shed and inserts the hooks,

with which it is fur-
nished, firmly in the
button of silk. Some-
times during this pro-
cess, the chrysalis loses
its hold entirely and falls
to the ground, which is
a fatal disaster. The
chrysalis is yellowish
brown and usually looks
very much like the ob-
ject to which it is at-
tached, and is thus un-
doubtedly protected
from sight of possible
enemies. Then some
day it breaks open, and
from it issues a crumpled
mass of very damp insect
velvet, which soon ex-
pands into a beautiful
butterfly.

References. — Every-
The chrysalis. The caterpillar of the day Butterflies, Scud-

Photo by M. V. Slingeriand. black swallow-tail ready der; Moths and Butter-
to change to a chrysalis. flies, Dickerson ; How to

Know the Butterflies, Comstock; Moths and Butterflies, Ballard.

31 8 Handbook of Nature-Study

black stripe? Are the yellow spots in the middle, or at each edge of the
stripe ?

3. How do the front three pairs of legs look? How do they compare

with the prolegs ? How many prop-legs are there ? What is the color of

the prolegs? How are they marked? Describe the prop-leg. What is
its use?

4. Observe the caterpillar eating a leaf. How does it manage so as
not to waste any ?

5. Have you found the egg from which the caterpillar came? What
color is it? Where is it laid?

6. How does the young caterpillar look? What are its colors?
How many fleshy spines has it on each segment? Are these white on the
white segments and black on the black segments? What is the color of
the spines at their base?

Black swallow-tail butterfly.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

7. Watch one of these caterpillars shed its skin. How does it pre-
pare for this? How does it spin its carpet? Where does the silk come
from? Describe how it acts when shedding its skin?

8. When a caterpillar is full grown, how does it hang itself up to
change to a chrysalis ? How does it make the silk button ? How does it
weave the loop or halter? How does it fasten it? When the halter is
woven what does the caterpillar do with it? Describe how the last
caterpillar skin is shed. How does the insect use its loop or halter while
getting free from the molted skin?

9. Describe the chrysalis. What is its general shape? What is its
color? Is it easily seen? Can you see where the wings are, within the
chrysalis? How is the chrysalis supported?

10. How does the chrysalis look when the butterfly is about to
emerge? Where does it break open? How does the butterfly look at
first?

Insect Study

319

The Butterfly

1. Why is this butterfly called the black swallow-tail? What is the
ground color of the wings? How many rows of yellow spots on the front
wings? Are they all the same shape? How are they arranged between
each two veins? Describe the hind wings. What colors are on them
that are not on the front wings? Describe where this color is placed.
Describe the eye-spot on the hind wing. Where is it? How do the
markings on the lower side of the wing differ from those above? How
does the ground color differ from the upper side?

2. What is the color of the body of the butterfly? Has it any
marks? Has it the same number of legs as the Monarch? Describe its
antennae. Watch the butterfly getting nectar from the petunia blossom
and describe the tongue. Where is the tongue when not in use?

3. How does the butterfly pass the winter? How does the mother
butterfly differ in size and in markings from her mate?

“ The ‘ caraway worms 1 were the ones that revealed to us the mystery of the pupa and
butterfly. We saw one climb up the side of a house, and watched it as with many slow,
graceful movements of the head, it wove for itself the loop of silk which we called the ‘ swing"
and which held it in place after it changed to a chrysalis. We wondered why such a
brilliant caterpillar should change to such a dull-colored object , almost the color of the
clapboard against which it hung. Then, one day, we found a damp, crumpled, black
butterfly hanging to the empty chrysalis skin, its wings ‘ all mussed ’ as we termed it;
and we gazed at it pityingly; but even as we gazed, the crumpled wings expanded and
then there came to our childish minds a dim realization of the miracle wrought within
that little, dingy, empty shell."

—How to Know the Butterflies, Comstock.

32°

Handbook of Nature-Study

The Monarch Butterfly
Teacher's Story

T IS a great advantage to an insect to have the
bird problem eliminated, and the monarch
butterfly enjoys this advantage to the utmost.
Its method of flight proclaims it, for it drifts
about in a lazy, leisurely manner, its glowing
red making it like a gleaming jewel in the air, a
very different flight indeed from the zigzag
dodging movements of other butterflies. The
monarch has an interesting race history. It is
a native of tropic America, and has probably
learned through some race instinct, that by following its food plant north
with the opening season, it gains immunity from special enemies other
than birds, which attack it in some stage in its native haunts. Each
mother butterfly follows the spring northward as it advances, as far as she
finds the milkweed sprouted.

There she deposits her eggs,
from which hatch individuals
which carry on the migration
as far to the north as possible.

It usually arrives in New York
State early in July. As
cold weather approaches, the
monarchs often gather in large
flocks and move back to the
South. How they find their
way we cannot understand,
since there are among them
none of the individuals which
pressed northward early in the
season.

The very brilliant copper-
red color of the upper sides of
the wings of the monarch is
made even more brilliant by
the contrasting black markings
which outline the veins and
border the wings, and also
cover the tips of the front wings
with a triangular patch; this
latter seems to be an especially
planned background for show-
ing off the pale orange and The monarch butterfly.

white dots set within it. There

are white dots set, two pairs in two rows, between each two veins
in the black margin of the wings; and the fringe at the edge of
the wings shows corresponding white markings. The hind wings
and the front portions of the front wings have, on their lower sides, a
ground color of pale yellow, which makes the insect less conspicuous when
it alights and folds its wings above its back, upper surfaces together.

Insect Study

3 21

The black veins, on the lower surface of the hind wings, are outlined with
white, and the white spots are much larger than on the upper surface.
The body is black, ornamented with a few pairs of white spots above and
with many large white dots below. The chief distinguishing characteris-
tic of insects, is the presence of six legs; but in this butterfly, the front
legs are so small that they scarcely look like legs.

It is easy to observe the long, coiled tongue of the butterfly. If the
act is done gently, the tongue may be uncoiled by lifting it out with a pin.

To see a butterfly feeding
upon nectar, is a very in-
teresting process and may be
observed in the garden almost
any day. I have also ob-
served it indoors, by bringing
in petunias and nasturtiums
for my imprisoned butterflies,
but they are not so likely to
eat when in confinement.
The antennae are about two-
thirds as long as the body and
each ends in a long knob ; this
knob, in some form, is what
distinguishes the antennae of
the butterflies from those of
moths. The male monarch
has a black spot upon one of
the veins of the hind wing;
this is a perfume pocket and
is filled with what are called
scent scales; these are scales
of peculiar shape which cover
the wing at this place and
give forth an odor, which we
with our coarse sense of smell
cannot perceive ; but the lady monarch is attracted by this odor. The
male monarch may be described to the children, as a dandy carrying a
perfume pocket to attract his sweetheart.

It is very interesting to the pupils if
they are able to see a bit of the butterfly’s
wing through a three-fourths objective; the
covering of scales, arranged in such perfect
rows, is very beautiful and also very
wonderful. The children know that they
get dust upon their fingers from butterflies’
wings, and they should know that each
grain of this dust is an exquisite scale with
notched edges and a ribbed surface.

The monarch is, for some reason un-
known to us, distasteful to birds, and its
brilliant colors are an advertisement to all The scales on a butterfly’ s wing ,
birds of discretion, that here is an insect as seen thr0Kgh a *“!*****•
which tastes most disagreeably and that, therefore, should be left severely

The viceroy butterfly.

Note the black band on the hind wings which
distinguishes it from the monarch, which
it imitates in color and markings.

322

Handbook of Nature- Study

alone. There is another butterfly called the viceroy, which has taken
advantage of this immunity from bird attack on the part of the monarch
and has imitated its colors in a truly remarkable way, differing from
it only in being smaller in size and having a black band across the
middle of the hind wing. (See The Ways of the Six Footed, “A Sheep
in Wolf’s Clothing”).

The milkweed caterpillar, which is the young of the monarch butterfly,
is a striking object, and when fully grown is about two inches long. The
milkweed is a succulent food and the caterpillar may mature in eleven
days; it is a gay creature, with ground
color of green and cross stripes of
yellow and black. On top of the
second segment, back of the head, are
two long, slender whiplash-like organs,
and on the seventh segment of the
abdomen is a similar pair. When
the caterpillar is frightened, the whip-
lashes at the front of the body twitch
excitedly; when it walks, they move
back and forth. Those at the rear of
the body are more quiet and not so
expressive of caterpillar emotions.

These filaments are undoubtedly of
use in frightening away the little
parasitic flies, that lay their eggs upon
the backs of caterpillars; these eggs
hatch into little grubs that feed upon
the internal fatty portions of the
caterpillar and bring about its death
through weakness. I remember well
when I was a child, the creepy feeling
with which I beheld these black and
yellow-ringed caterpillars waving and
lashing their whips back and forth after I had disturbed them; if the
ichneumon flies were as frightened as I, the caterpillars were surely safe.

The caterpillar will feed upon no plant except milkweed ; it feeds both
day and night, with intervals of rest, and when resting, hides beneath the
leaf. Its striking colors undoubtedly defend it from birds, because it is
as distasteful to them as is the butterfly. However,
when frightened, these caterpillars fall to the ground
where their stripes make them very inconspicuous
among the grass and thus perhaps save them from
the attack of animals less fastidious than birds.
These caterpillars, like all others, grow by shedding
the skeleton skin as often as it becomes too tight.

The monarch chrysalis is, I maintain, the most
beautiful gem in Nature’s jewel casket; it is an oblong
jewel of jade, darker at the upper end and shading *o
the most exquisite whitish green below; outlining thh
lower paler portion are shining flecks of gold. If we
look at these gold flecks with a lens, we cannot but
believe that they are bits of polished gold-foil. There

The monarch caterpillar.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

Monarch chrysalis.
A jewel of living jade
and gold.

Insect Study

323

may be other gold dots also, and outlining the apex
of the jewel, is a band of gold with a dotted lower edge
of jet;' and the knob at the top, to which the silk
which suspends the chrysalis is fastened, is also jet.
The chrysalis changes to a darker blue-green after two
days, and black dots appear in the gold garniture.
As this chrysalis is usually hung to the under side of a
fence rail or overhanging rock, or to a leaf, it is
usually surrounded by green vegetation, so that its
green color protects it from prying eyes. Yet it is
hardly from birds that it hides; perhaps its little gilt
buttons are a hint to birds that this jewel is not
palatable. As it nears the time for the butterfly to
emerge, the chrysalis changes to a duller and darker
hue. The butterfly emerges about twelve days after
the change to a chrysalis.

References — Every Day Butterflies, Scudder;
How to Know the Butterflies, Comstock; Moths and Butterflies,
Dickerson; Ways of the Six Footed, Comstock;. Moths and Butter-
flies, Ballard.

The winter home of
the viceroy cater-
pillar.

The male monarch butterfly, showing the scent pockets
on the hind wings.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

324

Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON LXXI
The Monarch Butterfly

Leading thought — The monarch butterfly migrates northward, every
spring and summer, moving up as fast as milkweed appears, so as to give
food to its caterpillar; and it has often been noticed migrating back
southward in the autumn in large swarms. This insect is distasteful to
birds in all its stages. Its chrysalis is one of the most beautiful objects in
all nature.

Method — This lesson should be given in September, while yet the
caterpillars of the monarch may be found feeding upon milkweed, and
while there are yet many specimens of this gorgeous butterfly to be seen.
The caterpillars may be brought in, on the food plant, and their habits
and performances studied in the schoolroom; but care should be taken
not to have the atmosphere too dry.

The Butterfly

Observations-i . How can you tell the monarch butterfly from all others ?
What part of the wings is red? What portions are black? What por-
tions are white? What are the colors and markings on the lower side of
the wings? What is the color of the body and how is it ornamented?

2. Is the flight of the monarch rapid or slow and leisurely? Is it a
very showy insect when flying ? Are its colors more brilliant in the sun-
shine when it is flying than at any other time ? Why is it not afraid of
birds ?

3. When the butterfly alights, how does it hold its wings? Do you
think it is as conspicuous when its wings are folded as when they are open ?

4. Can you see the butterfly’s tongue? Describe the antennae.
How do they differ from the antennae of moths? How many legs has this
butterfly? How does this differ from other insects? Note if you can see
any indications of front legs.

5. Is there on the butterfly you are studying, a black spot near one of
the veins on each hind wing? Do you know what this is? What is it for?

6. Why are the striking colors of this butterfly a great advantage to
it ? Do you know of any other butterfly which imitates it and thus gains
an advantage?

The Monarch Caterpillar

1. Where did you find the Monarch caterpillar? Was it feeding
below or above on the leaves? Describe how it eats the milkweed leaf.

2. What are the colors and the markings of the caterpillar? Do you
think these make it conspicuous?

3. How many whip-lash shaped filaments do you find on the cater-
pillar? On which segments are they situated ? Do these move when the
caterpillar walks or when it is disturbed? Of what use are they to the
caterpillar?

4. Do you think this caterpillar would feed upon anything except
milkweed? Does it rest, when not feeding, upon the upper or the lower
surface of the leaves? Does it feed during the night as well as the day?

5. If disturbed, what does the caterpillar do? When it falls down
among the grass how do its cross stripes protect it from observation ?

6. Tell all the interesting things which you have seen this caterpillar
do.

Insect Study

325

The Chrysalis

1. When the caterpillar gets ready to change to a chrysalis what does
it do ? How does it hang up ? Describe how it sheds its skin.

2. Describe the chrysalis. What is its color? How and where is
it ornamented ? Can you see, in the chrysalis, those parts which cover the
wings of the future butterfly?

3. To what is the chrysalis attached? Is it in a position where it
does not attract attention ? How is it attached to the object?

4. After three or four days, how does the chrysalis change in color?

Observe, if you can, the butterfly come out from the chrysalis, noting the
following points: Where does the chrysalis skin open? How does the

butterfly look when it first comes out ? How does it act for the first two
or three hours ? How does the empty chrysalis skin look ?

A BUTTERFLY AT SEA

Far out at sea — the sun was high ,

While veered the wind and flapped the sail;

We saw a snow-white butterfly
Dancing before the fitful gale
Far out at sea.

The little wanderer , who had lost
His way , of danger nothing knew;

Settled a while upon the mast;

Then fluttered o'er the waters blue
Far out at sea.

Above , there gleamed the boundless sky;

Beneath, the boundless ocean sheen;

Between them danced the butterfly,

The spirit-life of this fair scene,

Far out at sea.

The tiny soul that soared away,

Seeking the clouds oh fragile wings,

Lured by the brighter, purer ray

Which hope's ecstatic morning brings — -
Far out at sea.

Away he sped, with shimmering glee,

Scarce seen, now lost, yet onward borne!

Night comes with wind and rain, and he
No more will dance before the morn.

Far out at sea.

He dies, unlike his mates, I ween.

Perhaps not sooner or worse crossed;

And he hath felt and known and seen
A larger life and hope, though lost
Far out at sea.

— R. H. Horne.

326

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE ISABELLA TIGER MOTH OR WOOLLY BEAR
T eacher's . Story

“ Brown and furry, Which may he the chosen spot,

Caterpillar in a hurry, No toad spy you,

Take your walk Hovering bird of prey pass by you:

To the shady leaf or stalk. Spin and die,

Or what not. To live again a butterfly.”

— Christina Rosetti.

ANY times during autumn, the children find and bring
in the very noticeable caterpillar which they cal]
the “woolly bear.” It seems to them a companion
of the road and the sunshine; it usually seems in
a hurry, and if the children know that it is thus
_ hastening to secure some safe place in which to
|f/ hide during the season of cold and snow, they are
far more interested in its future fate. If the cater-
pillar is already curled up for the winter, it will
“come to” if warmed in the hand or in the sunshine!
The woolly bear is variable in appearance;
sometimes there are five of the front segments
black, four of the middle reddish brown, and
three of the hind segments black. In others
there are only four front segments black, six
reddish ones, and two that are black at the end
of the body; there are still other variations, so that each individual will
tell its own story of color. There are really thirteen segments in this
caterpillar, not counting the head; but the last two are so joined that
probably the children will only count twelve. There are a regular num-
ber of tubercles on each side of each segment, and from each of these arises
a little rosette of hairs; but the tubercles are packed so closely together,
that it is difficult for the children to see how many rosettes there are on
each side. While the body of the caterpillar looks as if it were covered
with evenly clipped fur, there are usually a few longer hairs on the rear
segment.

There is a pair of true legs on each of the three front segments which
form the thorax, and there are four pairs of prolegs. All of the segments
behind the front three, belong to the abdomen, and the prolegs are on
the 3d, 4th, 5th and 6th abdominal segments; the prop-leg is at the rear
end of the body. The true legs of this caterpillar have little claws, and
are as shining as if encased in patent leather; but the prolegs and prop-
leg are merely prolongations of the sides of the body to assist the insect in
holding to the leaf. The yellow spot on either side of the first segment is
a spiracle ; this is an opening leading into the air tubes within the body,
around which the blood flows and is thus purified. There are no spiracles
on the second and third segments of the thorax, but eight of the abdominal
segments have a spiracle on either side.

The woolly bear’s head is polished black; its antennas are two tiny,
yellow projections which can easily be seen with the naked eye. The
eyes are too small to be thus seen; because of its minute eyes, the woolly
bear cannot see very far and, therefore, it is obliged to feel its way. It
does this by stretching out the front end of the body and reaching in every

Insect Study

Woolly bears.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

direction, to observe if there is anything to cling to in its neighborhood.
When we try to seize the woolly bear, it rolls up in a little ball, and the
hairs are so elastic that we take it up with great difficulty. These hairs
are a protection from the attacks of birds which do not like bristles for
food; and when the caterpillar is safely rolled up, the bird sees only a
little bundle of bristles and lets it alone. The woolly bear feeds upon
many plants, grass, clover, dandelion and others. It does not eat very
much after we find it in autumn, because its growth is completed. The
woolly bear should be kept in a box which' should be placed out of doors,
so that it may be protected from storms but have the ordinary winter
temperature. Keeping it in a warm room during the* winter often proves
fatal.

Normally, the woolly bear does not make its cocoon until April or
May. It finds some secluded spot in the fall, and there curls up in
safety for the long winter nap; when the warm weather comes in the
spring, it makes its cocoon by spinning silk about itself; in this silk are
woven the hairs which it sheds easily at that time, and the whole cocoon
seems made of felt. It seems amazing that such a large
caterpillar can spin about itself and squeeze itself into
such a small cocoon; and it is quite as amazing to see
the smooth little pupa within the cocoon, in which is
condensed all that was essential of the caterpillar.
Sometimes when the caterpillars are kept in a warm
room, they make their cocoons in the fall, but this is not
natural.

The issuing of the moth from the cocoon is an
interesting lesson for the last of May. The size of the
moth which comes from the cocoon is quite comparable
as a miracle with the size of the caterpillar that went
into it. The moth is in color dull, grayish, tawny yel-
low with a few black dots on the wings; sometimes the
hind wings are tinted with dull orange- red. On the middle of the
back of the moth’s body there is a row of six black dots; and on
each side of the body is a similar row. The legs are reddish
above and tipped with black. The antennas are small and inconspicuous.

The cocoon of the
woolly bear.

Photo by
M. V. Slingerland.

328

Handbook of Nature-Study

The moths are night fliers, and the mother moth seeks some plant on
which to lay her eggs, that will be suitable food for the little caterpillar
as soon as it is hatched.

References — Moths and Butterflies, Ballard.

The Isabella tiger-moths, the adults of the woolly bear.
The larger is the female.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

LESSON LXXII

The Isabella Tiger-Moth, or Woolly Bear

Leading thought — When we see the woolly bear hurrying along in the
fall, it is hunting for some cozy place in which to pass the winter. It
makes its cocoon of silk woven with its own hair. In May, it comes forth
a yellowish moth with black dots on its wings.

Method — Have the children bring in woolly bears as they find them,
place them in boxes or breeding jars which have grass or clover growing
in them. The children can handle the caterpillars while they are study-
ing them, and then they should be put back into the breeding jars and be
set out of doors where they can have natural conditions; thus the entire
history may be studied.

The Caterpillar

Observations — i. How can you tell the woolly bear from all other
caterpillars? Are tfrey all colored alike? How many segments of the
body are black at the front end? How many are red? How, many seg-
ments are black at the rear end of the body ? How many segments does
this make in all ?

2. Look closely at the hairs of the woolly bear. Are they set
separately or in rosettes? Are any of the hairs of the body longer than
others or are they all even ?

3. Can you see, just back of the head, the true legs with their little
sharp claws ? How many are there ?

4. Can you see the fleshy legs along the sides of the body? How
many are there of these?

Insect Study

329

5. Can you see the prop-leg, or the hindmost leg of all? Of what use
to the caterpillar are these fleshy legs?

6. Describe the woolly bear’s head. How does it act when eating?

7. Can you see a small, bright yellow spot on each side of the segment
just behind the head? What do you suppose this is? Can you see little
openings along each side of all the segments of the body, except the second
and third? What are they? Describe how the woolly bear breathes.

8. On what does the woolly bear feed? If you can find a little
woolly bear, give it fresh grass to eat and see how it grows. Why does it
shed its skin?

9. When the woolly bear is hurrying along, does it lift its head and
the front end of its body now and then? Why does it do this? Do you
think it can see far ?

10. What does the woolly bear do when. you try to pick it up? Do
you find you can pick it up easily? Do you think that these stiff hairs
protect woolly bear from its enemies? What are its enemies?

11. Where should the woolly bear be kept in winter to make it com-
fortable ?

The Cocoon

1. When does the woolly bear make its cocoon?

2. Of what material is it made? How does the woolly bear get into
its cocoon?

3. What happens to it inside the cocoon?

4. Cut open a cocoon and describe how woolly bear looks now.

The Moth

1 . Where did the moth come from ?

2. How did it come out of the cocoon? See if you can find the empty
pupa case in the cocoon.

3. What is the color of the moth and how is it marked? Are the
front and hind wings the same color?

4. What are the markings and colors of the body? Of the legs ?

5. What do you think that the Mother Isabella will do, if you give her
liberty?

The mute insect, fix' t upon the plant

On whose soft leaves it hangs, and from whose cup

Drains imperceptibly its nourishment,

Endear'd my wanderings.

— Wordsworth.

Before your sight,

Mounts on the breeze the butterfly, and soars,

Small creature as she is, from earth's bright flowers
Into the dewy clouds.

— Wordsworth.

33°

Handbook of Nature-Study

The cecropia moth.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

THE CECROPIA
Teacher's Story

E silk-worm which gives us the silk of com-
merce,-has been domesticated for centuries in
China. Because of this domestication, it is
willing to be handled and is reared successfully
in captivity, and has thus come to be the source
of most of our silken fabrics. However, we have
in America native silk-worms which produce a
silk that is stronger and makes a more lustrous
cloth than does that made from the Chinese
species. But we have never had the time and
the patience, here in America, to domesticate
these giant silk-worms of ours, and so they are, as yet, of no commercial
importance.

The names of our common native silk- worms are: The cecropia,
promethea, polyphemus, and luna. In all of these species the moths are
large and beautiful, attracting the attention of everyone who sees them.
The caterpillars are rarely found, since their varied green colors render
them inconspicuous among leaves on which they feed. None of the
caterpillars of the giant silk-worms occur in sufficient numbers to injure
the foliage of our trees to any extent; they simply help nature to do a
little needful pruning. All of the moths are night flyers and are, there-
fore, seldom seen except by those who are interested in the visitors to our
street lights.

The cecropia is the largest of our giant silk-worms, the wings of the
moth expanding sometimes six and one-half inches. It occurs from the
Atlantic Coast to the Rocky Mountains.

Insect Study

33i

The cecropia cocoon is found most abundantly on our orchard and
shade trees; it is called by the children the “cradle cocoon,” since it is
shaped like a hammock and hung close below a branch, and it is a very
safe shelter for the helpless creature within it.
It is made of two walls of silk, the outer one being
thick and paperlike and the inner one thin and
firm; between these walls is a matting of loose
silk, showing that the insect knows how to
make a home that will protect it from winter
weather. It is a clever builder in another
respect, since at one end of the cocoon it spins
the silk lengthwise instead of crosswise, thus
making a valve through which the moth can
push, when it issues in the spring. It is very
interesting to watch one of these caterpillars
spin its cocoon. It first makes a framework by
stretching a few strands of silk, which it spins
from a gland opening in the lower lip; it then
makes a loose net-work upon the supporting

The eggs of the cecropia
moth.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

strands, and then begins laying
on the silk by moving its head
back and forth, leaving the sticky
thread in the &hape of connect-
ing M’s or of figure 8’s. Very
industriously does it work, and
after a short time it is so screened
by the silk, that the rest of
its performance remains to us
a mystery. It is especially
mysterious, since the inner wall
of the cocoon encloses so small a cell that the caterpillar is obliged
to compress itself in order to fit within it. This achievement
would be something like that of a man who should build around

The cecropia caterpillar molting.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

Full-grown cecropia caterpillars.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

332 Handbook of Nature-Study

himself a box only a few inches longer, wider and thicker than himself.
After the cocoon is entirely finished, the caterpillar sheds its skin for
the last time and changes into a pupa.

Very different, indeed, does the pupa look from the brilliant colored,
warty caterpillar. It is compact, brown, oval and smooth, with ability
to move but very little when disturbed. The cases which contain the
wings, which are later to be the objects of our admiration, are now folded
down like a tight cape around the body; and the antennae, like great
feathers, are outlined just in front of the wing cases. There is nothing
more wonderful in all nature than the changes which are worked within
one of these little, brown pupa cases; for within it, processes go on which
change the creature from a crawler among the leaves to a winged inhabi-
tant of the air.
When we see how
helpless this pupa
is, we can under-
stand better how
much the strong
silken cocoon is
needed for protec-
tion from ene-
mies j as well as
from inclement
weather.

In spring,
usually in May,
after the leaves
are well out on
the trees, the
pupa skin is shed
in its turn, and
Cecropia caterpillar weaving its cocoon. out of it comes

Photo by M. V. Slingerland. the Wet and

wrinkled moth, its wings all crumpled, its furry, soft body very
untidy; but it is only because of this soft and crumpled state that it
is able to push its way out through the narrow door into the outer
world. It has, on each side of its body just back of the head, two
little horny hooks that help it to work its way out. It is certainly a
sorry object as it issues, looking as if it had been dipped in water and
had been squeezed in an inconsiderate hand. But the wet wings soon
spread, the bright antennas stretch out, the furry body becomes
dry and fluffy, and the large moth appears in all its perfection. The
ground color of the wings is a dusky, grayish brown while the outer
margins are clay colored; the wings are crossed, beyond the middle,
by a white band which has a broad outside margin of red. There
is a red spot near the apex of the front wing, just outside of the
zigzag white line; each wing bears, near its center, a crescent-shaped
white spot bordered with red. But though it is so large, it does
not need to eat; the caterpillar did all the eating that was necessary
for the whole life of the insect; the mouth of the moth is not
sufficiently perfected to take food.

When the cecropia caterpillar hatches from the egg, it is about a
quarter of an inch long and is black; each segment is ornamented

Insect Study

333

with six spiny tubercles. Like all other caterpillars, it has to grow by
shedding its horny, skeleton skin, the soft skin beneath stretching to give
more room at first, then finally hardening and being shed in its turn.
This first molt of the cecropia caterpillar occurs about four days after it
is hatched, and the caterpillar which issues looks quite different than

it did before; it is now dull orange or
yellow with black tubercles. After six
or seven days more of feeding, the skin is
again shed and now the caterpillar appears
with a yellow body; the two tubercles
on the top of each segment are now
larger and more noticeable. They are
blue on the first segment, large and
orange-red on the second and third seg-
ments, and greenish blue with blackish
spots and spines on all the other
segments except the eleventh,
which has bn top, instead of a
pair of tubercles, one large,
yellow tubercle, ringed with
black. The tubercles along the
side of the insect are blue during
this stage. The next molt occurs
five or six days later; this time
the caterpillar is bluish green in
color, the large tubercles on the
second and third segments being
deep orange, those on the upper
part of the other segments yel-
low, except those on the first
and last segments, which are blue. All the other tubercles along
the sides are blue. After the fourth molt it appears as an enormous
caterpillar, often attaining the length . of three inches, and is as

large through as a man’s thumb; its colors
are the same as in the preceding stage.
There is some variation in the colors of the
tubercles on the caterpillars during these
different molts; in the third
stage, it has been observed that

A cecropia cocoon.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

The cecropia cocoon cut open, showing the pupa within it.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

334

Handbook of Nature-Study

the tubercles usually blue are sometimes black. After the last molt
the caterpillar eats voraciously for perhaps two weeks or longer and
then begins to spin its cocoon.

References — Moths and Butterflies, Ballard; Moths and Butterflies,
Dickerson; Caterpillars and their Moths, Elliot and Soule.

Just out of the cocoon.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

LESSON LXXII

The Cecropia

Leading thought — The cecropia moth passes the winter as a pupa in a
cocoon which the caterpillar builds out of silk for the purpose. In the
spring the moth issues and lays her eggs on some tree, the leaves of which
the caterpillar relishes. The caterpillars are large and green with beauti-
ful blue and orange tubercles.

Method — It is best to begin with the cocoons, for these are easily found
after the leaves have fallen. These cocoons if kept in the schoolroom
should be thoroughly wet at least once a week. However, it is better to
keep them in a box out of doors where they can have the advantage of
natural moisture and temperature; and from those that are kept outside
the moths will not issue, until the leaves open upon the trees and
provide food for the young caterpillars when the eggs hatch.

The Cocoon

Observations — i. How does the cocoon look on the outside? What is
its general shape? To what is it fastened? Is it fastened to the lower
or the upper side of a twig? Are there any dried leaves attached to it?

2. Where do you find cecropia cocoons? How do they look on the
tree? Are they conspicuous?

3. Cut open the cocoon, being careful not to hurt the inmate. Can
you see that it has an outer wall which is firm? What lies next to this?

Insect Study

335

Describe the wall next to the pupa. How does this structure protect the
pupa from changes of temperature and dampness?

4. Is the outside covering easy to tear? What birds are strong
enough to tear this cocoon apart?

5. Are both ends of the cocoon alike? Do you find one end where
the silk is not woven across but is placed lengthwise? Why is this so?
Do you think that the moth can push out at this end better than at the
other? Do you think the caterpillar, when it wove the cocoon, made it
this way so that the moth could get out easily?

The Pupa

1 . Take a pupa out of a cbcoon carefully and place it on cotton in a
wide-mouthed fruit jar where it may be observed. Can the pupa move
at all? Is it unable to defend itself? Why does it not need to defend
itself?

2. Can you see in the pupa the parts that will be the antennae and the
mouth ?

3. Describe how the wing coverings look. Count the rings in the
abdomen.

4. Why does the pupa need to be protected by a cocoon?

The Moth

1 . What is the first sign which you discover that the moth is coming
out of the cocoon ? Can you hear the little scratching noise ? What do
you suppose makes it? How does the moth look when it first comes out?
If it were not all soft and wet how could it come out from so small an
opening?

2 . Describe how the crumpled wings spread out and dry. How does
the covering of the wings change in looks ?

3 . Make a water-color drawing or describe in detail the fully expanded
moth, showing the color and markings of wings, body and antennae.

4. Do the moths eat anything? Why do they not need to eat?

5. If one of the moths lays eggs, describe the eggs, noting color, size
and the way they are placed.

The Caterpillar

1. On what do you find the cecropia caterpillar feeding? Describe
its actions while feeding.

2. What is the color of the caterpillar? Describe how it is orna-
mented.

3 . Can you see the breathing pores, or spiracles, along the sides of the
body? How many of these bn each segment? How do they help the
caterpillar to breathe ?

4. Describe the three pairs of true legs on the three segments just
back of the head. Do these differ in form from the prolegs along the sides
of the body? What is the special use of the prolegs? Describe the prop-
leg which is the hindmost leg of all.

5. Do you know how many times the cecropia caterpillar sheds its
skin while it is growing? Is it always the same color?

6. Watch the caterpillar spin its cocoon, describe how it begins and
how it acts as long as you can see it. Where does the silk come from?

336

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE PROMETHEA
Teacher's Story

HE promethea is not so large as the cecropia,
although the female resembles the latter some-
what. It is the most common of all our giant
silk- worms. Its caterpillars feed upon wild
cherry, lilac, ash, sassafras, buttonwood and
many other forest trees.

During the winter, leaves may often be seen
hanging straight down from the branches of
wild cherry, lilac and ash. If these leaves are
examined, they will be found to be wrapped
around a silken case containing the pupa of the
promethea. It is certainly a canny insect
which hides itself during the winter in so good
a disguise, that only the very wisest of birds
ever suspect its presence. When the promethea caterpillar begins to
spin, it selects a leaf and covers the upper side with silk, then it covers the
petiole with silk, fastening it with a strong band to the twig, so that not
even most violent winter winds will be able to tear it off. Then it draws
the two edges of the leaf about itself like a cloak as far as it will reach, and
inside this folded leaf it makes its cocoon, which always has an opening in
the shape of a conical valve at the upper end, through which the moth

Promethea cocoons.

Note how the leaves are fastened by silk to the twigs.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

Insect Study

337

may . .emerge in the spring. This caterpillar knows more botany than
some people do, for it makes no mistake in distinguishing a compound
leaf from a simple one. When it uses a leaflet of hickory for its cocoon,
it fastens the leaflet to the mid stem of the leaf and then fastens the stem
to the twig. The male pupa is much more slender than that of the female.
The moths do not issue until May or June.

The moth works its way out through the valve at the top of the cocoon.
The female is a large, reddish brown moth with markings resembling
somewhat those of the cecropia. The male is very different in appear-
ance; its front wings have very graceful, prolonged tips, and both wings
are almost black, bordered with ash color. The promethea moths differ
somewhat in habit from the other silk-worms, in that they fly during the
late afternoon as well as at night. The eggs are whitish with brown stain,
and are laid in rows, a good many on the same leaf.

The caterpillars, as they hatch from the eggs, have bodies ringed with
black and yellow. They are sociable little fellows and live together side
by side amicably, not exactly “toeing the mark’’ like a spelling class, but
all heads in a row at the edge of the leaf where each js eating as fast as

possible. When they
are small, the caterpil-
lars remain on the under
side of the leaves out of
sight. In about five
days, the first skin is
shed and the color of the
caterpillar remains about
the same. Four or five
days later, the second
molt occurs, and then
the caterpillar appears in
a beautiful bluish green
costume, with black
tubercles, except four
large ones on the second
and third segments, and
one large one on the
eleventh segment, which
are yellow. This cater-
pillar has an interesting
habit of weaving a carpet of silk on which to change its skin ; it seems
to be better able to hold on while pushing off the old skin, if it has the
silken rug to cling to. After the third molt, the color is a deeper greenish
blue and the black tubercles are smaller, and the five big ones are larger
and bright orange in color. After the fourth molt, which occurs after a
period of about five or six days, the caterpillar appears in its last stage.
It is now over two inches long, quite smooth and most prosperous looking.
Its color is a beautiful, light, greenish blue, and its head is yellow. It has
six rows of short, round, black tubercles. The four large tubercles at the
front end of the body are red, and the large tubercle on the rear end of the
body is yellow.

The cynthia is a beautiful moth which has come to us from Asia ; it is
very large with a ground color of olive-green, with lavender tints and

Promethea caterpillars.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

338

Handbook of Nature-Study

white markings; there are white tufts of hairs on the abdomen. It
builds its cocoon like the promethea, fastening the petiole to the twig.

The male promethea.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

therefore the lesson indicated for the promethea will serve as well foi
the cynthia. The cynthia caterpillars live upon the ailanthus tree and
are found only in the regions where this tree has been introduced.

References — Moths and Butterflies, Dickerson; Caterpillars and Their
Moths, Elliot and Soule; Moths and Butterflies, Ballard.

The female promethea.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

339

Insect Study

LESSON LXXIV

The Promethea

Leading thought — The promethea caterpillar fastens a leaf to a twig
with silk and then makes its cocoon within this leaf. The male and female
moths are very different in appearance.

Method — This work should begin in the late fall, when the children
bring in these cocoons which they find dangling on the lilac bushes or
wild cherry trees. Much attention should be paid to the way the leaf is
fastened to the twig so it will not fall. The cocoons should be kept out
of doors, so that the moths will issue late in the spring when they can have
natural conditions for laying their eggs, and the young caterpillars are
upplied with plenty of food consisting of new and tender leaves.

The Cocoon

Observations — i On what tree did you find it? Does it look like a

cocoon ? Does it not look like a dried leaf still clinging to the tree ? Do
you think that this disguise keeps the birds from attacking it? Do you
know which birds are clever enough to see through this disguise ?

2. How is the leaf fastened to the twig? Could you pull it off readily?
What fastened the leaf to the twig?

3. Tear off the leaf and study the cocoon. Is there an opening to it?
At which end? What is this for?

4. Cut open a cocoon. Is it as thick as that of the cecropia ?

5. Study the pupa. Is it as large as that of the cecropia?

6. Can you see where the antennae of the moth are? Can you see the
wing covers? Can the pupa move?

The Moth

1. Are there two kinds of moths that come from the promethea
cocoons ? Does one of them look something like the cecropia ? This is
the mother promethea.

2. Are any of the moths almost black in color with wings bordered
with gray and with graceful prolonged tips to the front wings? This is
the father moth.

3 . Make water color drawings of promethea moths, male and female.

4. If a promethea mother lays eggs, describe them.

The Caterpillar

1. How do the promethea caterpillars look when they first hatch
from the eggs ? Do they stay together when they are very young? How
do they act? Where do they hide?

2. How do they change color as they grow older? Do they remain
together or scatter? Do they continue to hide on the lower sides of
leaves ?

3 . . What preparation does a promethea caterpillar make before
changing its skin? Why does it shed its skin? Does its colors change
with every change of skin?

4. Describe the caterpillar when it is full-grown. What is its
ground color? What are the colors of its ornamental tubercles? The
color of its head?

5. Describe how a promethea caterpillar makes its cocoon.

340

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE HUMMINGBIRD, OR SPHINX, MOTHS
Teacher's Story

F during the early evening, when all the swift hum-
ming birds are abed, we hear the whirr of rapidly
moving wings and detect the blur of them in the
twilight, as if the creature carried by them hung
entranced before some deep-throated flower, and
then whizzed away like a bullet, we know that it
was a hummingbird, or sphinx, moth. And when
we see a caterpillar with a horn on the wrong end of
the body, a caterpillar which, when disturbed, rears
threateningly, then we may know it is the sphinx
larva. And when we find a strange, brown seg-
mented shell, with a long jug handle at one side, buried in the earth as
we spade up the garden in the spring, then we know we have the sphinx
pupa.

The sphinx was a vaudeville person of ancient mythology who went
about boring people by asking them riddles; and, if they could not give
the right answers, very promptly ate them up. Although Linnaeus gave
the name of sphinx to these moths, because he fancied he saw a resem-
blance in the resting or threatening attitude of the larvae to the Egyptian
Sphinx, there are still other resemblances. These insects present three
riddles: The first one is, “Am I a humming-bird?” the second, “Why do
I wear a horn or an eye-spot on the rear end of my body where horns
and eyes are surely useless?” and the third, “Why do I look like a jug
with a handle and no spout?”

The sphinx moths are beautiful and elegant creatures. They have
a distinctly tailor-made appearance, their colors are so genteel and
“the cut” so perfect. They have long, rather narrow, strong wings
which enable them to fly with extra-
ordinary rapidity. The hind wings
are shorter, but act as one with the
front wings. The body is stout and
spindle-shaped. The antennae are
thickened in the middle or toward
the tip, and in many species have
the tip recurved into a hook.

Their colors show most harmonious
combinations and most exquisite
contrasts; the pattern, although
often complex, shows perfect re-
finement. Olive, tan, brown and
ochre, black and yellow, and the
whole gamut of greys, with eye-
spots or bands athwart
the hind wings of rose
color or crimson t are
some of the sphinx color
schemes.

Most of the sphinx
moths have

Insect Study

34i

able long tongues, being sometimes
twice the length of the body.
When not in use, the tongue is curled
like a watch spring in front and beneath
the head; but of what possible use is
such a long tongue ! That is a story for
certain flowers to tell, the flowers which
have the nectar wells far down at the
base of tubular corollas, like the petunia,
the morning glory or the nasturtium;
such flowers were evidently developed to
match the long-tongued insects. Some
of these flowers, like the jimson weed and
nicotina, open late in the day so as to be
ready for these evening visitors. In
some cases, especially in the orchids,
there is a special partnership established
between one species of flower and one
species of sphinx moths. The tobacco
sphinx is an instance of such partner-
ship ; this moth visits tobacco flowers and helps develop the seeds
by carrying pollen from flower to flower; and in turn it lays its
eggs upon the leaves
of this plant, on which
its great caterpillar
feeds and waxes fat,
and in high dudgeon
often disputes the
smoker’s sole right to
the “weed.” Tobacco
probably receives
enough benefit from
the ministrations of
the moth to compen-
sate for the injury it
suffers from the cater-
pillars ; but the owner
of the tobacco field,
not being a plant, does
not look at it in this equitable manner.

The sphinx caterpillars are leaf eaters and each species feeds upon a
limited number of plants which are usually related; for instance, one
feeds upon both the potato and tomato; another upon the Virginia
creeper and grapes. In color these caterpillars so resemble the leaves
that they are discovered with difficulty. Those on the Virginia creeper,
which, shades porches, may be located by the black pellets of waste
material which fall from them to the ground ; but even after this unmis-
takable hint I have searched a long time to find the caterpillar in the
leaves above; its color serves to hide the insect from birds which feed
upon it eagerly. In some species, the caterpillars are ornamented with
oblique stripes along the sides, and in others the stripes are lengthwise.
There is often a great variation in color between the % caterpillars of

The moth of the sphinx cater pillar , which
feeds on tomato.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland,

The tobacco sphinx moth with
tongue extended.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

342

Handbook of Nature-Study

The pupa of the common tomato
sphinx caterpillar.

Note that the part encasing the long tongue
is free and looks like the handle of a jug.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

the same species; the tomato worm
is sometimes green and sometimes
black.

The horn on the rear end is often
in the young larva of different color
than the body; in some species it
stands straight up and in some it is
curled toward the back. It is an
absolutely harmless projection and
does not sting nor is it poison-
ous. However, it looks awe-inspiring and perhaps protects its owner m
that way. The Pandora sphinx has its horn curled over its back in the
young stage but when fully grown the horn is shed ; in its place is an eye-
spot which, if seen between the leaves, is enough to frighten away any
cautious bird fearing the evil eye of serpents. The sphinx caterpillars
have a habit, when disturbed or when resting, of rearing up the front part
of the body, telescoping the head back into the thoracic segments, which in
most species are enlarged, and assuming a most threatening and ferocious
aspect. If attacked they will swing sidewise, this way and then that,
making a fierce crackling sound meanwhile, well calculated to fill the
trespasser with terror. When resting they often remain in this lifted

attitude for hours, ab-
solutely rigid.

The six true legs are
short with sharp, little
claws. There are four
pairs of fleshy prolegs,
each foot being armed
with hooks for holding on
to leaf or twig; and the
large, fleshy prop-leg on
the rear segment is able to
clasp a twig like a vise.
All these fleshy legs are
used for holding on, while the true legs are used for holding the edges
of the leaf where the sidewise working jaws can cut it freely. These
caterpillars do clean work, leaving only the harder and more woody
ribs of the leaves. The myron caterpillar seems
to go out of its way to cut off the stems of
both the grape and Virginia creeper.

There are nine pairs of spiracles, a pair on
each segment of the abdomen and on the first
thoracic segment. The edges of these air
openings are often strikingly colored. Through
the spiracles the air is admitted into
all the breathing tubes of the body around
which the blood flows and is purified ; no insect
breathes through its mouth. These cater-
pillars, like all others, grow by shedding the
skeleton skin, which splits down the back.

Often one of these caterpillars is seen
covered with white objects which the ignorant,

Tailor-made moth, the adult of the
Myron sphinx.

The eggs of the Myrcn
sphinx.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland

Insect Study

343

who do not know that caterpillars never lay eggs, have called, eggs.
But the sphinx moths at any stage would have horror of such eggs as
these! They are not eggs but are little silken cocoons spun by the
larvae of a hymenopterous parasite. It is a tiny, four-winged “fly” which
lays its eggs within the caterpillar. The little grubs which hatch from
these eggs feed upon the fleshy portions of the caterpillar until they get
their growth, at which time the poor caterpillar is almost exhausted;
and then they have the impudence to come out and spin their

silken cocoons and
fasten them to the
back of their victim.
Later, they cut a little
lid to their silken cells
which they lift up as
they come out into
the world to search
for more caterpillars.

As soon as the
sphinx larva has ob-
tained its growth, it
descends and burrows
into the earth. It
A full-grown caterpillar of the Myron sphinx. does not spin any

cocoon but packs the

soil into a smooth -walled cell in which it changes to a pupa. In the
spring the pupa works its way to the surface of the ground and the moth
issues. In the case of the tomato and tobacco sphinx pupa, the enor-
mously long tongue has its case separate from the body of the pupa, which
makes the “jug handle.” The wing cases and the antennae cases can be
distinctly seen. In the case of the other species the pupae have the
tongue case fast to the body. The larva of the myroti sphinx does not
enter the ground, but draws a few leaves about it on the surface of the
ground, fastens them with silk and there changes to a pupa.

References — Caterpillars and their Moths, Elliot and Soule; Moths and
Butterflies, Dickerson; Moths and Butterflies, Ballard; Manual for the
Study of Insects, Comstock.

A “ cake walk." The caterpillars of the Myron sphinx
in attitude of defence.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

3 44

Handbook of Nature-Study
LESSON LXXV

The Humming-bird, or Sphinx, Moths

Leading thought — The sphinx caterpillars have a slender horn or eye-
spot. on the last segment of the body. When disturbed or when resting
they rear the front part of the body in a threatening attitude. They spin
no cocoons but change to pupae in the ground. The adults are called
humming-bird moths, because of their swift and purring flight. Many
flowers depend upon the sphinx moths for carrying their pollen.

Method — The sphinx caterpillar found on the potato or tobacco, or
one of the species feeding upon the Virginia creeper is in September
available in almost any locality for this lesson. The caterpillars should
be placed in a breeding cage in the schoolroom. Fresh food should be
given them every day and moist earth be placed in the bottom of the
cages. It is useless for the amateur to try to rear the adults from the
pupae in breeding cages. • The moths may be caught in nets during the
evernng when they are hovering over the petunia beds. These may be
placed on leaves in a tumbler or jar for observation.

The C ater pillar

Observations — i. On what plant is it feeding? Wrhat is its general
color? Is it striped? What colors in the stripes? Are they oblique or
lengthwise stripes? Are all the caterpillars the same color?

The pupae of the Myron sphinx within
the cocoons.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

Insect Study

345

2. Can you find the caterpillar easily when feeding? Why is it not
conspicuous when on the plant? Of what use is this to the caterpillar?

3. Note the horn on the end of the caterpillar. Is it straight or
curled? Is it on the head end? What color is it? Do you think it is of
any use to the caterpillar? Do you think it is a sting? If there is no
horn, is there an eye-spot on the last segment? What color is it? Can
you think of any way in which this eye-spot protects the caterpillar?

4. Which segments of the caterpillar are the largest? When the
creature is disturbed what position does it assume? How does it move?
What noise does it make? Do you think this attitude scares away ene-
mies? What position does it assume when resting? Do you think that
it resembles the Egyptian Sphinx when resting?

5. How many true legs has this caterpillar? How does it use them
when feeding? How many prolegs has it? How are these fleshy legs
used? How are they armed to hold fast to the leaf or twig? Describe
the hind or prop-leg. How is it used?

6. Do you see the breathing-
pores or spiracles along the sides
of the body? How many are
there? How are they colored?
How does the caterpillar breathe?
Do you think it can breathe
through its mouth?

7 . How does the sphinx cater-
pillar grow? Watch your cater-
pillar and see it shed its skin.
Where does the old skin break
open? How does the new, soft
skin look? Do the young cater-
pillars resemble the full-grown
ones?

8. Describe how the cater-
pillar eats. Can you see the jaws
move? Does it eat up the plant
clean as it goes?

9. Have you ever found the sphinx caterpillar covered with whitish,
oval objects? What are these? Does the caterpillar look plump or
emaciated? Explain what these objects are and how' they came to be
there.

10. Where does the caterpillar go to change to a pupa? Does
it make cocoons? How does the pupa look? Can you see the long
tongue case, the wing cases, the antennae cases?

The Moth

1. Where did you find this moth? Was it flying by daylight or in
the dusk? How did its swift moving wings sound? Was it visit-
ing flowers? What flowers? Where is the nectar in these flowers?

2. What is the shape of the moth’s body? Is it stout or slender?
What colors has it? How is it marked?

3. The wings of which pair are longer? Sketch or describe the
form of the front and the hind wings? Are the outer edges scalloped,

Handbook of Nature-Study

The moths of the Myron sphinx on
Virginia creeper.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

notched or even? What
colors are on the front wing?
On the hind one? Are these
colors harmonious and beauti-
ful? Make a sketch of the
moth in water-color.

4. What is the shape of
the antennae? Describe the
eyes. Can you see the coiled
tongue? Uncoil it with a
pin and note how long it is.
Why does this moth need such
a long tongue ?

5. From what flowers do
the sphinx moths get nectar?
How does the moth support
itself when probing for nectar?
Do you know any flowers
which are dependent on the
sphinx moths for carrying
their pollen? How many
kinds of sphinx moths do you
know?

Hurt no living' thing:

Ladybird, nor butterfly,

Nor moth with dusty wing,

Nor cricket chirping cheerily,

Nor grasshopper so light of leap,

Nor dancing gnat, nor beetle fat,

Nor harmless worms that creep.

— Christina Rossetti.

The white-lined sphinx
moth.

Insect Study

347

THE CODLING MOTH
Teacher's Story

difficult to decide which seems the most disturbed,
the person who bites into an apple and uncovers
a worm, or the worm which is uncovered. From
our standpoint, there is nothing attractive about
the worm which destroys the beauty and appetizing
qualities of our fruit, but from the insect stand-
point the codling caterpillar (which is not a worm
at alll, is not at all bad. When full-grown, it is
about three-fourths of an inch long, and is likely
to be flesh color, or even rose color, with brownish
head; as a young larva, it has a number of
darker rose spots on each segment and is whitish
in color; the shield on the first segment behind the head, and
that on the last segment of the body, are black. When full-grown, the
apple worm is plump and lively; and while jerking angrily at being dis-
turbed, we can see its true legs, one pair to each of the three segments of
the body behind the head. These true legs have sharp, single claws.
Behind these the third, fourth, fifth and sixth segments of the abdomen
are each furnished with a pair of fleshy prolegs and the hind segment has a
prop-leg. These fleshy legs are mere makeshifts on the part of the cater-
pillar for carrying the long body; since the three pairs of front legs are
the ones from which develop the legs of the moth. The noticing of the
legs of the codling moth is an important observation on the part of the
pupils, since, by their presence, this insect may be distinguished from
the young of the plum curculio, which is also found in apples but which
is legless. The codling moth has twelve segments in the body, back of
the head.

The codling larva usually enters the apple at the blossom end and
tunnels down by the side of the core until it reaches the middle, before •
making its way out into the pulp. The larva weaves a web as it goes,
but this is probably incidental, since many caterpillars spin silk as they
go, “street yarn” our grandmothers might have called it. In this web are
entangled the pellets of indigestible matter, making a very unsavory
looking mass. The place of exit is usually circular, large enough to
accommodate the body of the larva, and it leads out from a tunnel which
may be a half inch or more in diameter beneath the rind. Often the larva
makes the door sometime before it is ready to leave the apple, and plugs
it with a mass of debris, fastened together with the silk. As it leaves the
apple, the remnants of this plug may be seen streaming out of the open-
ing. Often also, there is a mass of waste pellets pushed out by the young
larva from its burrow, as it enters the apple; thus it injures the appear-
ance of the apple, at both entrance and exit. If the apple has not received
infection by lying next to another rotting apple, it first begins to rot
around the burrow of the worm, especially near the place of exit.

The codling caterpillar injures the fruit in the following ways: The

apples are likely to be stunted and fall early; the apples rot about the
injured places and thus cannot be stored successfullv ; the apples thus
injured look unattractive and, therefore, their market value is lessened;
wormy apples, packed in barrels with others, rot and contaminate all the

34^

Handbook of Nature-Study

neighboring apples. This
insect also attacks pears
and sometimes peaches. It
has been carefully estimated
that every year "the codling
moth does three million
dollars worth of injury to
the apple and pear crops in
New York State. Think of
paying three million dollars
a year for the sake of having
wormy apples!

The larvae usually leave
the apples before winter. If
the apples have fallen, they
crawl up the tree and there
make their cocoons beneath
A wormy apple. the loose bark ; but if they

Photo by m. v. siingeriand. leave the apples while they

are on the trees, they spin
silk and swing down. If carried into the storeroom or placed in
barrels, they seek quarters in protected crevices. In fact, while they
particularly like the loose bark of the apple trees, they are likely to build
their cocoons on' nearby fences or on brush, wherever they can find the
needed protection. The cocoon is made of fine but rather rough silk
which is spun from a gland opening near the mouth of the caterpillar;
the cocoon is not beautiful although it is smooth inside. It is usually
spun between a loose bit of bark and the body of the tree; but after mak-
ing it, the insect seems in no hurry to change its condition and remains a
quite lively caterpillar until spring. It is while the codling larvae are in
their winter quarters that our bird
friends of the winter, the nut-
hatches, woodpeckers and chicka-
dees, destroy them in great num-
bers, hunting eagerly for them in
every crevice of the trees. It is
therefore good policy for us to coax
these birds to our orchards by
placing beef fat on the branches
and thus entice these little cater-
pillar hunters to visit the trees
every day.

It is an interesting fact that the
codling caterpillars, which make
cocoons before August first, change
immediately to pupae which soon
change to moths, and thus another
generation gets in its work before
the apples are harvested.

The codling moth is a beautiful The m°‘K

little creature with delicate antenme Photomicrograph by M. V. Siingeriand.

Insect Study

349

and a brown, mottled and banded
body; its wings are graced by wavy
bands of ashy and brown lines, and the
tips of the front wings are dark brown
with a pattern of gold bronze wrought
into them; the hind wings are shiny
brown with darker edges and little
fringes. The moths issue in the spring
and lay their eggs on the young apples
just after the petals fall. The egg
looks like a minute drop of dried milk
and is laid on the side of the bud; but
the little larva, soon after it is hatched,
crawls to the blossom and finds entrance
there; and it is therefore important
that its first lunch should include a bit
of arsenic and thus end its career before
it fairly begins. The trees should be
sprayed with some arsenical poison
directly after the petals fall, and before
the five lobes of the calyx close up
around the stamens. If the trees are
sprayed while blossoming, the pollen
is washed away and the apples do not The pupae and cocoons of the

set; moreover, the bees which help us codling moths.

much in carrying pollen are killed. Photo by m. v. siingeriand.

If the trees are sprayed directly after

the calyx closes up around the stamens the poison does not lodge
at the base of the stamens and the little rascals get into the apples without
getting a dose. (See Lesson on the Apple) .

LESSON LXXVI
The Codling Moth

Leading thought — The codling moth is a tiny brown moth with bronze

markings which lays its
egg on the apple. The
larva hatching from the
egg enters the blossom
end and feeds upon the
pulp of the apple, in-
juring it greatly. After
attaining its growth, it
leaves the apple and
hides beneath the bark
of the tree or in other
protected places, and
in the spring makes
the cocoon from which
the moth issues in time
to lay eggs upon the
young apples.

The adult of the codling moth, showing the variations
of its markings. The two larger are twice natural
size. Photo by M. V. Siingeriand.

Handbook of Nature-Study

35°

Method —
The lesson
should begin
with a study
of wormy
apples, prefer-
ably in the
fall when the
worms are
still within
their burrows.
After the pu-
pils become
familiar with
the appear-
ance of the in-
sect and its
methods of
work, a prize
of some sort
might be
offered for the

one who will

Just ready to spray. A pear and two apples from which the petals bring to
have recently fallen and with calyx lobes widely spread. school the

Photo by m. v. siingeriand. greatest num-

ber of hibernating larvae found in their winter quarters. Place these
larvae in a box with cheese-cloth tacked over its open side; place
this box out of doors in a protected position. Examine the cocoons
to find the pupae about the last of April; after the pupae appear, look for
the moths in about five days.

It would be a very good idea for the pupils to prepare a Riker mount
showing specimens of the moths, of the cocoons shewing the cast pupa
skin, and of the caterpillar in a homeopathic vial of alcohol; pictures
illustrating the work of the insect may be added. The pictures should
be drawn by the pupils, showing the wormy apple, both the outside and
in section. The pupils can also sketch, from the pictures here given, the
young apple when just in the right condition to spray, with a note explain*
ing why.

Observations — i. Find an apple with a codling moth larva in it.
How large is the worm? How does it act when disturbed?

2. What is the color of the caterpillar’s body? Its head?

3. How many segments are there in the body? How many of these
bear legs? What is the difference in form between the three front pairs
of legs and the others?

4. Look at a wormy apple. How can you tell it is wormy from the
outside? Can you see where the worm entered the apple? Was the
burrow large or small at first? Can you find an apple with a worm in it
which has the door for exit made, but closed with waste matter? How is
this matter fastened together? If the apple has no worm in it, can you
see where it left the apple? Make a sketch or describe the evidence o*
the caterpillar’s progress through the apple. Do you find a web of silk in

Insect Study 351

the wormy part? Why is this? Does the worm eat the seeds as well as
the pulp of the apple?

5. Take a dozen rotting apples, how many of them are wormy?
Do the parts of the apple injured by the worm begin to rot first? In how
many ways does the codling moth injure the apple? Does it injure other
fruits than apples?

6. How late in the fall do you find, the codling larvae in the apple?
Where do these larvae go when they leave the apple?

Work to be done in March or early April — Visit an orchard and look
under the loose bark on old trees, or along protected sections of fences or
brush piles and bring in all the cocoons you can find. Do not injure the
cocoons by tearing them from the places where they are woven, but bring
them in on bits of the bark or other material to which they are attached.

1. How does the cocoon look outside and inside? What is in the
cocoon? Why was the cocoon made? When was it made?

2. Place the cocoons in a box covered with cheese-cloth and place
the box out of doors where the contents can be frequently observed and
make the following notes:

3. When does the larva change to the pupa? Describe the pupa.
How does the cocoon look after the moth issues from it?

4. Describe the moth, noting color of head, thorax, body, front and
hind wings?

5. If these moths were free to fly around the orchard, when and
where would they lay their eggs?

6. When should the trees be sprayed to kill the young codling moth?
With what should they be sprayed? Why should they not be sprayed
during the blossoming period? Why not after the calyx closes?

Almost too late to spray. The apples on each side have the calyx
lobes nearly drawn together. The pear in the middle
still has the calyx cavity open.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

352

Handbook of N ature-Study

7- How do the nuthatches, downy woodpeckers and chickadees help
us in getting rid of the codling moth?

8. Write an essay on the life history of the codling moth, the damage
done by it, and the best methods of keeping it in check.

References— The following bulletins from the U. S. Dept, of Agricul-
ture: Farmers’ Bulletin 247, “The Control of the Codling Moth and

Apple Scab;” Bulletin 35, New Series, Bureau of Entomology, “Report
on the Codling Moth Investigations,” price 10 cents; Bulletin 41, “The
Codling Moth,” 105 pages, 15 cents, by Special Field Agent, C. B. Simp-
son; Bulletin 68, Part VII, “Demonstration Spraying for the Codling
Moth,” price 5 cents. The Spraying of Plants, Lodeman, Macmillan
Company; Economic Entomology, Smith.

LEAF-MINERS

Teacher's Story

“ And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean
To be some happy creature's palace".

— Lowell.

AY not Lowell have had in mind, when he wrote
these lines, the canny little creatures which
find sustenance for "their complete growth
between the upper and lower surfaces of a leaf,
which seems to us as thin as a sheet of paper.
To most children, it seems quite incredible
that there is anything between the upper and
lower surfaces of a leaf, and this lesson should
hinge on the fact that in every leaf, however
thin, there are rows of cells containing the
living substance of the leaf, with a wall above
and a wall below to protect them. Some of the smaller insects have
discovered this hidden treasure, which they mine while safely protected
from sight, and thus make strange figures upon the leaves.

Among the most familiar of these are the serpentine mines, so called
because the figure formed by the eating out of the green pulp of the
leaf, curves like a serpent. These mines are made by the caterpillars
of tiny moths, which have long fringes upon the hind wfings. The life
story of such a moth is as follows: The little moth, whose expanded

wings measure scarcely a quarter of an inch across, lays an egg on the
leaf; from this, there hatches a tiny caterpillar that soon eats its way
into the midst of the leaf. In shape, the caterpillar is somewhat “square
built,” being rather stocky and wide for its length; it feeds upon the
juicy tissues of the leaf and divides, as it goes, the upper from the lower
surface of the leaf; and it teaches us, if we choose to look, that
these outer walls of the leaf are thin, colorless, and paper-like. We can
trace the whole life history and wanderings of the little creature, from
the time wThen, as small as a pin point, it began to feed, until it
t* stained its full growth. As it increased in size, its appetite grew larger
also, and these two forces working together naturally enlarged its house.
When finally the little miner gets its growth, it makes a rather larger
and more v,2>mmodious room at the end of its mine, which to us looks like

Insect Study

353

the head of the serpent ; here it
changes to a pupa, perhaps after
nibbling a hole with its sharp little
jaws, so that when it changes to a
soft, fluffy little moth with mouth
unfitted for biting, it is able to escape.

In some species, the caterpillar comes
out of the mine and goes into the
ground to change to a pupa. By
holding up to the light a leaf thus
mined, we can see why this little chap
was never obliged to clean house; it
mined out a new room every day, and
left the sweepings in the abandoned
mine behind. Mines of this sort are
often seen on the leaves of nastur-
tium, the smooth pigweed, columbine,
and many other plants. There are
mines of many shapes, each form
being made by a different species of
insect. Some flare suddenly from a
point and are trumpet-shaped while
some are mere blotches. The blotch
mines are made, through the habits of
the insect within them ; it feeds around
and around, instead of forging ahead,
as is the case with the serpentine miners,
flies and moths may mine leaves, each
special food plant. Most of the smaller leaf mines are made
by the caterpillars of the moths, which are fitly called the Tineina
or Tineids. Most of these barely have a wing expanse that will
reach a quarter of an inch and many are much smaller; they all have
narrow wings, the hind wings being mere threads bordered with
beautiful fringes. The specific names of these moths usually end in

“ella;” thus, the one that mines in
apple is malifoliella, the one in grain is
granella. One of these little moths,
Gelechia pinifoliella lives the whole
of its growing life in half of a pine
needle. The moth lays the egg at
about the middle of the needle, and
the little caterpillar that hatches from
it, gnaws its way directly into the heart
of the needle; and there, as snug
as snug can be, it lives and feeds until
it is almost a quarter of an inch
long, think of it ! Many a time I have
held up to the light a pine needle
thus inhabited, and have seen the little
miner race up and down its abode
as if it knew that something was hap-
pening. When it finally attains its

Serpentine mines in nasturtium
leaf.

The larvae of beetles,
species having its own

Serpentine mines in leaf of
columbine.
Comstock’s Manual.

354

Handbook of N ature-Study

Trumpet mines in leaf of apple.
Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

growth it makes wider the little door, through which it entered ; it does
this very neatly, the door is an even oval, and looks as if it were made
with the use of dividers. After thus opening the door, the caterpillar
changes to a little, long pupa, very close to its exit; and later it emerges,
as an exquisite little moth with silvery bands on its narrow, brown wings,

and a luxurious fringe
on the edges of its
narrow, hind wings
and also on the outer
hind edges of the front
wings.

The gross mines in
the leaves of dock and
beet are not pretty.
The poor leaves are
slitted, sometimes for
their whole length,
and soon turn brown
and lie prone on the
ground, or dangle
pathetically from the
stalk. These mines
are made by the larvae
of a fly, and a whole
family live in the
same habitation. If
we hold a leaf thus
mined up to the light,
while it is still green,
we can see several of
the larvae working,
each making a bag

The pine-needle leaf -miner. The mined leaves of

pine natural size. The caterpillar , pupa and moth
of the leaf miner much enlarged. The lines show actual
size of insect.

Comstock’s Manual.

in the life substance

of the leaf, and yet all joining together to make a great blister. The flies
that do this mischief belong to the family Anthomyina ?; and there are
several species which have the perturbing habit of mining the leaves or
beets and spinach. It behooves those of us who are fond of these
“ greens,” as our New England ancestors called them, to hold every leaf

Insect Study

355

up to the light before we put it into the skillet, lest we get more meat than
vegetable in these viands. The flies, who thus take our greens ahead of
us, are perhaps a little larger than house-flies, and are generally gray in
color with the front of the head silver-white. These insects ought to
teach us the value of clean culture in our gardens, since they also mine in
the smooth pigweed.

References — Manual for the Study of Insects, Comstock.

LESSON LXXVII
Leaf-miners

Leading thought — The serpent-like markings and the blister-like
blotches which we often see on leaves are made by the larvae of insects
which complete their growth by feeding upon the inner living substance
of the leaf.

Method — The nasturtium leaf -miner is perhaps the most available for
this lesson since it may be found in its mine in early September. How-
ever, the pupils should bring to the .schoolroom all the leaves with mines
in them, that they can find and study the different forms.

Observations — i . Sketch the leaf with the mine in it, showing the shape
of the mine. What is the name of the plant on which the leaf grew?

2. Hold the leaf up to the light, can you see the insect within the
mine? What is it doing? Are there more than one insect in the mine?
Open the mine and see how the miner looks.

3. There are three general types of mines: Those that are long,

curving lines called serpentine mines; those that begin small and flare
out, called trumpet mines; and those that are blister-lilce called blotch
mines. Which of these is the mine you are studying?

4. Study a serpentine mine. Note that where the little insect began
to eat, the mine is small. Why does it widen from this point? What
happened in the part which we call the serpent’s head?

5. Look closely with a lens and find if there is a break above the mine
in the upper surface of the leaf or below the mine in the lower surface of
the leaf? If the insect is no longer in the mine can you find where it
escaped? Can you find a shed pupa-skin in the “serpent’s head?”

6. Why does an insect mine in a leaf? What does it find to eat?
How is it protected from the birds or insects of prey while it is getting its
growth ?

7. Look on leaves of nasturtium, columbine, lamb’s quarters, dock
and burdock, lor serpentine mines. Are the mines on these different
plants alike? Do you suppose they are made by the same insect?

8. Look on leaves of dock, burdock, beet and spinach for blotch
mines. Are there more than one insect in these mines ? If the insects are
present, hold the leaf out to the light and watch them eat.

9. Look in the leaves of pitch or other thick leaved pines (not white
pine), for pine needles which are yellow at the tip. Examine these for
miners. If the miner is not within, can you find the little circular door

356

Handbook of Nature-Study

by which it escaped? Would you think there was enough substance in a
half a pine needle to support a little creature while it grew up ?

io. If you find leaf -miners at work, do not pluck off the leaves being
mined but cover each with a little bag of swiss muslin tied close about the
petiole and thus capture the winged insect.

Witch-hazel, showing work of leaf-rollers, leaf-miners
and gall-makers.

357

Insect Study

THE LEAF-ROLLERS
Teacher's Story

' we look closely at sumac leaves before they are
aflame from autumn’s torch, we find many of the
leaflets rolled into little cornucopias fastened with
silk. The silk is not in a web, like that of the
spider, but the strands are twisted together,
hundreds of threads combined in one strong
cable, and these are fastened from roll to leaf,
like tent ropes. If we look at the young bass-
woods, we find perhaps many of their leaves cut
across, and the flap made into a roll and likewise
fastened with silken ropes. The witch-hazel,
which is a veritable insect tenement, also shows
these rolls. In fact, we may find them upon the
leaves of almost any species of tree or shrub, and
each of these rolls has its own special maker or indweller. Each species
of insect, which rolls the leaves, is limited to the species of plant on which
it is found ; and one of these caterpillars would sooner starve than take a
mouthful from a leaf of any other plant. Some people think that insects
will eat anything that comes
in their way ; but of all
created animals, insects are
the most fastidious as to their
food.

Some species of leaf -rollers
unite several leaflets together,
while others use a single leaf.

In the case of the sumac leaf-
roller, it begins in a single leaf;
but in its later stages, it
fastens together two or three
of the terminal leaflets in order
to gain more pasturage. The
little silken tent ropes which
hold the folded leaves are well
worth study with a lens.

They are made of hundreds of
threads of the finest silk,
woven from a gland opening
near the lower lip of the cater-
pillar. The rope is always
larger where it is attached to
the leaf than at the center,
because the caterpillar criss-
crosses the threads in order to Leaf-rollers in sumac, with diagram showing the
make the attachment to the fastenine °> the ^-stay-ropes.

leaf larger and firmer. Unroll a tent carefully, and you may see the
fastenings used in an earlier stage, and may even find the first turned-down
edge of the leaf. However, the center of a leaf roller’s habitation is
usually very much eaten, for the whole reason for making its little house

358

Handbook of Nature-Study

is that the soft-bodied caterpillar may eat its fill completely hidden from
the eyes of birds or other animals. When it first hatches from the egg, it
feeds for a short time, usually on the under side of the leaf ; but when still
so small that we can barely see it with the naked eye, it somehow manages
to fold over itself one edge of the leaf and peg it down. The problem of
how so small a creature is able to pull over and fold down or to make in a
roll a stiff leaf is hard to solve. I, myself, believe it is done by making
many threads, each a little more taut than the last. I have watched
several species working, and the leaf conies slowly together as the cater-
pillar stretches its head and sways back and forth hundreds of times,
fastening the silk first to one side and then to the other. Some observers
believe that the caterpillar throws its weight upon the silk, in order to
pull the leaf together; but in the case of the sumac leaf-roller, I am sure

this is not true, as I have
watched the process
again and again under a
lens, and could detect
no signs of this method.
Many of the caterpillars
which make rolls, change to
small moths known as
Tortricids. This is a very large
family, containing a vast number
of species and not all of the
members are leaf-rollers. These
little moths have the front wings
rather wide and more or less rectangular in
outline. The entomologists have a pleasing
fashion of ending the names of all of these
moths with “ana;” the one that rolls the
currant leaves is Rosana, the one on
juniper is Rutilana, etc. Since many of the
caterpillars of this family seek the ground to
pupate and do not appear as moths until the
following spring, it is somewhat difficult to
study their complete life histories, unless one
has well-made breeding cages with earth at
the bottom ; and even then it is difficult to
keep them under natural conditions, since in
an ordinary living room the insects dry up
and do not mature.

A leaf of
basswood cut
and rolled by
like basswood
leaf-roller.

Comstock,

Manual.

Insect Study

359

Leaflets cf locust , fastened together to make a nest by the
caterpillar of a butterfly.

LESSON LXXVIII
The Leaf-rollers

Leading thought — There are many kinds of insects which roll the
leaves of trees and plants into tents, in which they dwell and feed during
their early stages.

Method — This is an excellent lesson for early autumn wdien the pupils
may find many of these rolled leaves, which they may bring to the school-
room, and which will give material for the lesson. The rolls are found
plentifully on sumac, basswood and wdtch-hazel.

Observations — i. What is the name of the trees and shrubs from
which these rolled leaves which you have collected were taken?

2. Are more than one leaf or leaflet used in making the roll?

3. Is the leaf rolled crosswise or lengthwise? How large is the tube
thus made?

4. Is the nest in the shape of a tube, or are several leaves fastened
together, making a box-shaped nest*?

5. How is the roll made fast? Examine the little silken ropes with
a lens and describe one of them. Is it wider where it is attached to the
leaf than at the middle? Why?

6. How many of these tent ropes are there which make fast the roll?
Unroll a leaf carefully and see if you can find signs of the tent ropes that
fastened the roll tqgether wrhen it was smaller. Can you find where it
began ?

7. As you unroll the leaves what do you see at the center? Has the
leaf been eaten? Can you discover the reason why the caterpillar made
this roll ?

8. How do you think a caterpillar manages to roll a leaf so success-
fully ? Wliere is the spinning gland of a caterpillar ? How does the insect
act when spinning threads back and forth when rolling the leaf? What
sort of insect does the caterpillar which rolls the leaf change into? Do
you suppose that the same kind of caterpillars makes the rolls on two
different species of trees?

9. In July or early August get some of the rolls with the caterpillars
in them, unroll a nest, take the caterpillar out and put it on a fresh leaf
of the same kind of tree or shrub on which you found it, and watch it
make its roll.

Supplementary reading — “A Dweller in Tents” and “A Little Nomad,”
in Ways of the Six-Footed.

36°

Handbook of N ature -Study

The spiny The pointed bullet-gall A cluster The acorn

oak-gall. on oak twigs. of galls on plum- gall.

midrib of photo by

oak leaf. L. H. Weld.

THE GALL-DWELLERS

He retired to his chamber, took his lamp, and summoned the genius as usual.
“ Genius ,” said he, “build me a palace near the sultan' s, fit for the reception of my spouse,
the princess; but instead of stone, let the walls be formed of massy gold and silver, laid,
in alternate rows; and let the interstices be enriched with diamonds and emeralds. The
palace must have a delightful garden, planted with aromatic shrubs and plants, bearing
the most delicious fruits and beautiful flowers. But, in particular, let there be an
immense treasure of gold and silver coin. The palace, moreover, must be well provided
with offices, storehouses, and stables full of the finest horses, and attended by equerries,
grooms, and hunting equipage .” By the dawn of the ensuing morning, the genius
presented himself to Aladdin, and said, “Sir, your palace is finished; come and see if it
accords with your wishes .” — Arabian Nights Entertainments.

LTHOIJGH Aladdin is out of fashion, we still
have houses of magic that are even more
wonderful than that produced by his resource-
ful lamp. These houses are built through an
occult partnership between insects and plant
tissues ; and no one understands just how they
are made, although we are beginning to
understand a little concerning the reasons for
the growth. These houses are called galls
and are thus well named, since they grow
because of an irritation to the plant caused
by the insect.

There are many forms of these gall-dwellings, and they may grow upon
the root, branch, leaf, blossom, or fruit. The miraculous thing about
them is that each kind of insect builds its magical house on a certain part
of a certain species of tree or plant ; and the house is always of a certain
definite form on the outside and of a certain particular pattern within.
Many widely differing species of insects are gall-makers; and he who is
skilled in gall lore knows, when he looks at the outside of the house, just
what insect dwells within it.

Insect Study

361

We may take the history of the common oak apple, as an example.
A little, four-winged, fly-like creature lays its eggs, early in the season,
on the leaf of the scarlet oak. As soon as the larva hatches, it begins to

eat into the substance of
one of the leaf veins. As it
eats, it discharges through
its mouth into the tissues
of the leaf, a substance
which is secreted from
glands within its body.
Immediately the building
of the house commences;
out around the little crea-
ture grow radiating vegeta-
ble fibers, showing by their
position plainly that the
grub is the center of all of
this new growth ; mean-
while, a smooth, thin cover-
ing completely encloses the
globular house; larger and
larger grows the house
until we are accustomed
to call it an oak apple, so
large is it. The little chap
inside is surely content and
happy, ' for it is protected from the sight of all of its enemies, and it
fiflds the wralls of its house the best of food. It is comparable to a boy
living in the middle of a giant sponge cake, and who when hungry would
naturally eat out a larger cave in the heart of the cake. After the inmate
of the oak apple completes its growth, it changes to a pupa and finally
comes out into the world a tiny four -winged fly, scarcely a quarter of an
inch in length.

The story of the willow cone-gall is quite different. A little gnat lays
her eggs on the tip of the bud of a twig; as soon as the grub hatches and
begins to eat, the growth of the twig is arrested, the leaves are stunted
until they are mere scales and are obliged to overlap in rows around the
little inmate, thus making for it a cone-shaped house which is very
thoroughly shingled. The inhabitant of this gall is a hospitable little
fellow, and his house shelters and feeds many other insect guests. He
does not pay any attention to them, being a recluse in his own cell, but
he civilly allows them to take care of themselves in his domain, and
feed upon the walls of his house. He stays in his snug home all winter
and comes out in the spring a tiny, two-winged fly.

There are two galls common on the stems of goldenrod. The more
numerous is spherical in form and is made by a fat and prosperous
looking little grub which later develops into a fly. But although it
is a fly that makes the globular gall in the stem of goldenrod, the
spindle-shaped gall often seen on the same stem has quite another
story. A little brown and gray mottled moth, about three-fourths of an
inch long, lays her egg on the stem of the young goldenrod. The cater-
pillar, when it hatches, lives inside the stem, which accommodatingly

3 62

Handbook of Nature-Study

Willow cone-galls.
Photo by Verne Morton.

enlarges into an oblong room. The caterpillar feeds upon the substance

of the stem until it attains its growth,
something about its future needs. At
least it cuts, with its sharp jaws, a little
oval door at the upper end of its house
and makes an even bevel by widening
the opening toward the outside. It
then makes a little plug of debris
which completely fills the door; but
because of the bevel, no intrusive
beetle or ant can push it in. Thus
the caterpillar changes to a helpless
pupa in entire safety ; and when the
little moth issues from the pupa skin,
all it has to do is to push its head
against the door, and out it falls, and

and then seems to dimly realize

Spherical gall of goldenrod,
opened, showing its pros
per o us looking owner.
Photo by M. V Slingerland.

Insect Study

363

the recluse is now a creature
of the outside world.

Many galls are compound,
that is, they are made up
of a community of larvae,
each in its own cell. The
mossy rose-gall is an instance
of this. The galls made by
mites and aphids are open
either below or above the
surface of the leaf; the little
conical galls on witch-hazel
are examples of these. In. fact, each gall has
its own particular history, which proves a
most interesting story if we seek to read it
with our own eyes.

LESSON LXXIX
The Gall-dwellers

Leading thought — The galls are protective Mossy rose-gall.

habitations for the little insects which dwell Comstock’s Manual,

within them. Each kind of insect makes its

own peculiar gall on a certain species of plant, and no one understands
just how this is done or why it is so.

Method — Ask the pupils to bring in as many of these galls as possible.
Note that some have open doors and some are entirely closed. Cut open
a gall and see what sorts of insects are found within it. Place each

kind of gall in a
tumbler or jar
covered with cheese-
cloth and place
where they may be
under observation
for perhaps several
months; note what
sort of winged insect
comes from each.

Observations — i .
On wdiat plant or
tree did this gall
grow? Were there
many like it? Did
they grow upon the
root, stem, leaf,
flower, or fruit? If
on the leaf, did they

Section of same Female gall- F°W "P°n, .thf pet-
showing cells. fly laying 10-*-e or blade.

eggs in oak 2. Wbat is the
bud. shape of the little

Porcupine gall on
leaf of white oak. showing

Photo by C. J. Triggerson.

36 4

Handbook of N ature-Study

house? What is its color? Its size? Is it
smooth or wrinkled on the outside? Is it
covered with fuzz or with spines ?

3. Open the gall; is there an insect
within it? If so, where is it and how does
it look? What is the appearance of the
inside of the gall?

4. Is there a cell for the insect at the
very center of the gall, or are there many
such cells ?

5. Has the house an open door? If
so, does the door open above or below?
Are there more than one insect in the
galls with open doors? What sort of in-
sect makes this kind of house?

6. Do you find any insects besides the
original gall-maker within it? If so, what
are they doing?

7. Of what use are these houses to
their little inmates? How do they pro-
tect them from enemies? How do they
furnish them with food ?

8. Do the gall insects live all their
lives within the galls or do they change to
winged insects and come out into the
world? If so, how do they get out?

9. How many kinds of galls can you
find upon oaks? Upon goldenrod? Upon
witch-hazel? Upon willow?

Supplementary reading — Outdoor
Studies, Needham, pages 18 and 37;
“Houses of Oak,” in Insect Stories,
Kellogg; Manual for the Study of Insects.

A green little world
With me at its heart !

A house grown by magic ,

Of a green stem, a part.

My walls give me food
And protect me from foes,

I eat at my leisure,

In safety repose.

My house hath no window,

’ T is dark as the night !

But I make me a door
And batten it tight.

And when my wings grow
I throw wide my door;

C And to my green castle

I return nevermore.

Stem of golden-rod , showing the
spherical gall above, made by
larva of a fly; and the spindle-
shaped gall below, made by the
caterpillar of a moth.

Insect Study

365

THE GRASSHOPPER
Teacher's Story

ECAUSE the grasshopper affords special facilities
for the study of insect structure, it has indeed
become a burden to the students in the labora-
tories of American universities. But in nature-
study we must not make anything a burden,
least of all the grasshopper, which being such a
famous jumper as well as flier, does not long
voluntarily burden any object.

Since we naturally select the most salient
characteristic of a creature to present first to
young pupils, we naturally begin this lesson with
the peculiarity which makes this insect a “grass-
hopper. ’ ’ When any creature has unusually strong
hind legs, we may be sure it is a jumper, and the
grasshopper shows this peculiarity at first glance. The front legs are
short, the middle legs a trifle longer, but the femur of the hind leg is
nearly as long as the entire body, and contains many powerful muscles
which have the appearance of being braided, because of the way they are
attached to the skeleton of the leg ; the tibia of the hind leg is long and as
stiff as if made of steel. When getting ready to jump the grasshopper
lowers the great femur below the level of the closed wings and until the
tibia is parallel with it and the entire foot is pressed against the ground.

Grasshopper with parts of external anatomy named.

3 66

Handbook of Nature-Study

The pair of double spines at the end of the tibia, just back of the foot, are
pressed against the ground like a spiked heel, and the whole attitude of
the insect is tense. Then, like a steel spring, the long legs straighten and
the insect is propelled high into the air and far away. This is a remark-
able example of insect dynamics; and since so many species of birds feed
upon the grasshopper, its leaping power is much needed to escape them.
However, when the grasshopper makes a journey it uses its wings.

As we watch a grasshopper crawling up the side of a vial or tumbler we
can examine its feet with a lens. Between and in front of the claws is
an oval pad which clings to the glass, not by air pressure as was once sup-
posed, but by means of microscopic hairs, called tenent hairs, which secrete
a sticky fluid. Each foot consists of three segments and a claw; when
the insect is quiet, the entire foot rests upon the ground ; but when
climbing on glass, the toe pads are used.

The grasshopper’s face has a droll expression; would that some carica-
turist could analyze it ! It is a long face, and the compound eyes placed
high upon it, give a look of solemnity. The simple eyes can be made out
with a lens. There is one just in front of each big eye, and another, like
the naughty little girl’s curl, is “right in the middle of the forehead.”
The antennae are short but alert. The two pairs of palpi connected with
the mouth-parts are easily seen, likewise the two pairs of jaws, the notched
mandibles looking like a pair of nippers. We can see these jaws much

The nymph of the red-legged grasshopper

grasshopper , enlarged. Comstock’s Manual.

better when the insect is eating, which act is done methodically. First, it
begins at one edge of a leaf, which it seizes between the front feet so as to
hold it firm; it eats by reaching up and cutting downwards, making an
even-edged, long hole on the leaf margin; the hole is made deeper by
repeating the process. It sometimes makes a hole in the middle of a leaf
and bites in any direction, but it prefers to move the jaws downward.
While it is feeding, its palpi tap the leaf continually and its whole atti-
tude is one of deep satisfaction. There is an uprolled expression to the
compound eyes which reminds us of the way a child looks over the upper
edge of its cup while drinking milk. The grasshopper has a preference
for tender herbage, but in time of drouth will eat almost any living plant.

Back of the head is a sun-bonnet-shaped piece, bent down at the sides,
forming a cover for the thorax. The grasshopper has excellent wings, as
efficient as its legs; the upper pair are merely strong, thick, membranous
covers, bending down at the sides so as to protect the under wings; these
wing-covers are not meant for flying and are held stiff and straight up in
the air, during flight. The true wings, when the grasshopper is at rest, are
folded lengthwise like a fan beneath the wing-covers; they are strongly
veined and circular in shape, giving much surface for beating the air.
The grasshoppers’ flight is usually swift and short ; but in years of famine

Insect Study

367

they fly high in the air and for long distances, a fact recorded in the Bible
regarding the plague of locusts. When they thus appear in vast hordes,
they destroy all the vegetation in the region where they settle.

The wings of grasshoppers vary in color, those of the red-legged species
being gray, while those of the Carolina locusts are black with yellow edges.
The abdomen is segmented, as in all insects, and along the lower side there
are two lengthwise sutures or creases which open and shut bellows-like,
when the grasshopper breathes. The spiracles or breathing pores can be
seen on each segment, just above this suture.

The grasshopper has its ears well protected; to find them, we must
lift the wings in order to see the two large sounding disks, one on each side
of the first segment of the abdomen. These are larger and much more
like ears than are the little ears in the elbows of the katydids.

The singing of the short-horned grasshoppers is a varied performance,
each species doing it in its own way. One species makes a most seductive
little note by placing the femur and tibia of the hind legs together, and
with the hind feet completely off the ground, the legs are moved up and
down with great rapidity, giving off a little purr. The wings in this case,
do not lift at all. There are other species that make the sound by rubbing
the legs against the wing-covers.

The grasshopper makes its toilet thus : It cleans first the hind feet by

rubbing them together and also by reaching back and scrubbing them
with the middle feet; the big hind femur it polishes with the bent elbow
of the second pair of legs. It cleans the middle feet by nibbling and
licking them, bending the head far beneath the body in order to do it. It
polishes its eyes and face with the front feet, stopping to lick them clean
between whiles, and it has a most comical
manner of cleaning its antennae; this is
accomplished by tipping the head sidewise,
and bending it down so that the antenna of
one side rests upon the floor; it then plants
the front foot of that side firmly upon the
antenna and pulls it slowly backward between
the foot and floor.

The grasshopper has some means of defence
as well as of escape ; it can give a painful nip
with its mandibles; and when seized, it emits
copiously from the mouth a brownish liquid
which is acrid and ill- smelling. This performance interests children,
who are wont to seize the insect by its jumping legs and hold it up,
commanding it to “chew tobacco.”

Grasshoppers are insects with incomplete metamorphosis, which
merely means that the baby grasshopper, as soon as it emerges from the
egg, is similar in form to its parent except that it has a very large head
and a funny little body, and that it has no quiet stage during life. When
immature, the under wings or true wings have a position outside of the
wing-covers and look like little fans.

The short-horned grasshoppers lay their eggs in oval masses protected
by a tough overcoat. The ovipositor of the mother grasshopper is a very
efficient tool, and with it she makes a deep hole in the ground, or sometimes
in fence rails or other decaying wood; after placing her eggs in such a
cavity, she covers the hiding place with a gummy substance so that no

Grasshopper cleaning its
antenna.

368

Handbook of Nature-Study

intruders or robbers may work harm to her progeny. Most species of
grasshoppers pass the winter in the egg stage; but sometimes we find in
early spring the young ones which hatched in the fall, and they seem as
spry as if they had not been frozen stiff.

LESSON LXXX

The Red-Legged
Grasshopper

Leading thought — The grass
hopper feeds upon grass and
other herbage and is especially
fitted for living in grassy fields
Its color protects it from being
seen Dy its enemies the birds.

If attacked, it escapes by long
jumps and by flight. It can
make long journeys on the wing.

Method — The red-legged
grasshopper (M. femur -rubrum )
has been selected for this lesson
because it is the most common of
all grasshoppers, though other
species may be used as well.

The red-legged locust, or grass-
hopper has, as is indicated by its name, the large femur of the hind legs
reddish in color. Place the grasshopper under a tumbler and upon a
spray of fresh herbage, and allow the pupils to observe it at leisure. It
might be well to keep some of the grasshoppers in a cage similar to that
described for crickets. When studying the feet, or other parts of the
insect requiring close scrutiny, the grasshopper should be placed in a vial
so that it may be passed around and observed with a lens. Give the
questions a few at a time, and encourage the pupils to study these insects
in the field.

Observations — i . Since a grasshopper is such a high jumper, discover
if you can how he does this “event.” Which pair of legs is the longest?
Which the shortest? How long are the femur and tibia of the hind leg
compared with the body. What do vou think gives the braided appear-
ance to the surface of the hind femur? What is there peculiar about the
hind femur? Note the spines at the end of the tibia just behind the foot.

2. Watch the grasshopper prepare to jump and describe the process.
How do you think it manages to throw itself so far? If a man were as
good a jumper as a grasshopper in comparison to his size, he could jump
300 feet high or 500 feet in distance. Why do you think the grasshopper
needs to jump so far?

3. As the grasshopper climbs up the side of a tumbler or vial, look at
its feet through a lens and describe them. How many segments are
there? Describe the claws. How does it cling to the glass? Describe
the little pad between the claws.

4. Look the grasshopper in the face. Where are the compound eyes
situated? Can you see the tiny simple eyes like mere dots ? How mar y

Upper lip or labrum

.’-21 'Nlttaw<liWes/
Upper Ja.vvs

lllflxiliae or' <
Jav/S.^

Under lip

The mouth-parts of a grasshopper
dissected off, enlarged and named.

Insect Study

36 9

Long

horned, or meadow
grasshopper.

Front leg of katydid,
showing ear near elbow.
Comstock’s Manual.

are there? Where are they? How long are the antennae? For what are
they used ?

5. How does a grasshopper eat? Do the jaws move up and down or
sidewise? What does the grasshopper eat? How many pairs of palpi
can you see connected with the mouth- parts?
How are these used when the insect is eating?
When there are many grasshoppers, what
happens to the crops?

6. What do you see just back of the grass-
hopper’s head, when looked at from above?

7. Can the grasshopper fly as well as
jump? How many pairs
of wings has it? Does
it use the first pair of
wings to fly with ? How
does it hold them when
flying? Where is the
lower or hind pair of
wings when the grass-
hopper is walking? How
do they differ in shape
from the front wings ?

8. Note the abdomen. It is made of many
rings or segments. Are these rings continuous

TT7. r , , ff , around the entire body? Where do their breaks

mgojma ean offema e occur? Describe the movement of the abdo-

meadow grasshoppers. men ^ the insect breathes Can you see the

omstoc s anua. spiracles or breathing pores? Lift the wings,
and find the ear on the first segment of
the abdomen.

9. If you seize the grasshopper how
does it show that it is offended?

10. How does the grasshopper per-
form its toilet? Describe how it cleans
its antennae, face and legs.

11. What becomes of the grasshop-
pers in the winter? Where are the eggs
laid? How can you tell a young from a
full-grown grasshopper?

12. Do all grasshoppers have anten-
nae shorter than half the length of their
bodies ? Do some have antennae longer
than their bodies? Where are the long-
horned grasshoppers found ? Describe
how they resemble the katydids in the
way they make music and in the position
of their ears.

Supplementary reading — Chapters
XVI-XVIII in Grasshopper Land, Morley.

Short-horned and long-horned,
or meadoi grasshoppers.

3?o

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE KATYDID
Teacher's Story

“7 love to hear thine earnest voice Thou mindest me of gentle folks ,

Old gentle folks are they,

Thou say’st an undisputed thing
In such a solemn way."

— Holmes.

Wherever thou art hid,
Thou testy little dogmatist,
Thou pretty katydid,

ISTANCE, however, lends enchantment to the song oi
the katydid, for it grates on our nerves as well as on
our ears, when at close quarters. The katydid makes
his music in a manner similar to that of the cricket
but is not, however, so well equipped since he has
only one file and onty one scraper for playing. As
with the meadow grasshoppers and crickets, only the
males make the music, the wings of the females being
delicate and normally veined at the base. The ears,
too, are in the same position as those of the cricket,
and may be seen as a black spot in the front elbow.
The song is persistent and may last the night long: “Katy did, she didn’t

she did.” James Whitcomb Riley says, “The katydid is rasping at the
silence,” and the word rasping well describes the note.

The katydids are beautiful insects, with green, finely veined, leaf-like
wing-covers under which is a pair of well developed wings, folded like
fans; they resemble in form the long-horned grasshoppers. The com-
mon northern species ( Cyrtophyllus ) is all green above except for the
long, delicate, fawn-colored antennae and the brownish fiddle of the male,
which consists of a flat triangle just back of the thorax where the wing-
covers overlap. Sometimes this region is pale brown and sometimes
green, and with the unaided eye we can plainly see the strong cross-vein,
bearing the file. The green eyes have darker centers and are not so large
as the eyes of the grasshopper. The body is green with white lines below
on either side. There is a suture the length of the abdomen in which are
placed the spiracles. The insect breathes by sidewise expansion and
contraction, and the sutures rhythmically open and shut; when they are
open, the spiracles can be seen as black dots. The legs are slender and the
hind pair, very long. The feet are provided with two little pads, one on
each side of the base of the claw. In the grasshopper there is only one
pad which is placed between the two hooks of the claw. The female has
a green, sickle-shaped ovipositor at the end of the body. With .his she
lays her flat, oval eggs, slightly over-lapping in a neat row.

The katydids are almost all dwellers in trees and shrubs ; although I
have often found our common species upon asters and similar high weeds.
The leaf-like wings of these insects are, in form and color, so similar to the
leaves that they are very completely hidden. The katydid is rarely dis-
covered except by accident; although when one is singing, it may be
approached and ferreted out with the aid of a lantern.

The katydid, when feeding, often holds the leaf or the flower firmly with
the front feet, while biting it off like a grazing cow, and if it is tough,
chews it industriously with the sidewise working jaws. A katydid will
often remain quiet a long time with one long antenna directed forward
and the other backward, as if on the lookout for news from the front and

Insect Study

37i

the rear. But when the katydid “cleans up,” it does a thorough job. It
nibbles its front feet, paying special attention
to the pads, meanwhile holding the foot to its
mandibles with the aid of the palpi. But once
washing is not enough; I have seen a katydid
go over the same foot a dozen times in succes-
sion, beginning always with the hind spurs of
the tibia and nibbling along the tarsus to the
claws. It cleans its face with its front foot,
drawing it downward over the eye and then
licking it clean. It cleans its antenna with
its mandibles by beginning at the base and drawing it up in a loop as fast
as finished. After watching the process of these lengthy ablutions, we
must conclude that the katydid is among the most fastidious members of
the insect “four hundred.”

References — Manual for Study of Insects, Comstock; American Insects,
Kellogg; Ways of Six Footed, Comstock; Grasshopper Land, Morley.

The front portions of the wings
of a male katydid showing
file on one wing and scraper
on the other.

The angular -winged katydid and her eggs.
Comstock’s Manual.

372

Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON LXXXI

The Katydid

Leading thought — The katydids resemble the long-horned grasshoppers
and the crickets. They live in trees, and the male sings “katy-did” by
means of a musical instrument similar to that of the cricket.

Method — Place a katydid in a cricket cage in the schoolroom, giving it
fresh leaves or flowers each day, and encouraging the pupils to watch it at
recess. It may be placed in a vial and passed around, for close observa-
tion. In studying this insect, use the lesson on the red-legged grass-
hopper and also that on the cricket. These lessons will serve to call the
attention of the pupils to the differences and resemblances between the
katydid and these two allied insects.

A pair of dusky lovers.
Drawing by Ida Baker.

THE BLACK CRICKETS

Of the insect musicians the cricket is easily the most popular. Long associated
with man, as a companion of the hearth and the field, his song touches ever the
chords of human experience. Although we, in America, do not have the house-
cricket which English poets praise, yet our field-crickets have a liking for warm
corners, and will, if encouraged, take up their abode among our hearthstones. The
greatest tribute to the music of the cricket is the wide range of human emotion which
it expresses. “As merry as a cricket" is a very old saying and is evidence that the
cricket's fiddling has ever chimed with the gay moods of dancers and merrymakers.
Again, the cricket's song is made an emblem of peace; and again we hear that the
cricket's “ plaintive cry" is taken as the harbinger of the sere and dying year. From
happiness to utter loneliness is the gamut covered by this sympathetic song. Leigh
Hunt found him glad and thus addresses him:

“ And you, little housekeeper who class
With those who think the candles come too soon.

Loving the fre, and with your tricksome tune
Nick the glad, silent moments as they pass."

Ways of the Six-Footed.

373

Insect Study

THE BLACK CRICKET
Teacher's Story

F we wish to become acquainted with these charming
little troubadours of the field, we should have a
cricket cage with a pair of them within it. They are
most companionable, and it is interesting to note how
quickly they respond to a musical sound. I had a
pair in my room at one time, when I lived very neai
a cathedral. Almost every time that the bells rang
during the night, my cricket would respond with a
most vivacious and sympathetic chirping.

The patent leather finish to this cricket’s clothes is
of great use; for, although the cricket is an efficient
jumper, it is after all, mostly by running between grass blades that it
escapes its enemies. If we try to catch one, we realize how slippery it is,
and how efficiently it is thus able to slide through the fingers.

The haunts of the cricket are usually sunny; it digs a little cave
beneath a stone or clod in some field, where it can have the whole benefit
of all the sunshine, when it issues from its door, These crickets cannot
fly, since they have no wings under their wing-covers, as do the grass-
hoppers. The hind legs have a strong femur, and a short but strong tibia
with downward slanting spines along the hind edge, which undoubtedly
help the insect in scrambling through the grass. At the end of the tibia,
next to the foot, is a rosette of five spines, the two longer ones slanting to

A section of the file enlarged .

The wing of male cricket

enlarged. The front leg of a cricket enlarged

a, file b. scraper. showing ear at a.

meet the foot; these spines give the insect a firm hold, when making
ready for its spring. When walking, the cricket places the whole hind
foot flat on the ground, but rests only upon the claw and the segment next
to it, of the front pairs of feet. The claws have no pads like those of the
katydid or grasshopper; the segment of the tarsus next the claw has long
spines on the hind feet and shorter spines on the middle and front feet,
thus showing that the feet are not made for climbing, but for scrambling
along the ground. When getting ready to jump, the cricket crouches so
that the tibia and femur of the hind legs are shut together and almost on
the ground. The dynamics of the cricket’s leap are well worth studying,

374

Handbook of Nature-Study

The cricket’s features are not so easily made out, because the head is
polished and black; the eyes are not so polished as the head, and the
simple eyes are present but are discerned with difficulty. The antennas
are longer than the body and very active; there is a globular segment
where they join the face. I have not discovered that the crickets are so
fastidious about keeping generally clean as are some other insects, but
they are always cleaning their antennse ; I have seen a cricket play his
wing mandolin lustily and at the same time carefully clean his antennas;
he polished these by putting up a foot and bending the antenna down so
that his mouth reached it near the base; he then pulled the antenna
through his jaws with great deliberation, nibbling it clean to the very end.
The lens reveals to us that the flexibility of the antenna; is due to the fact
that they are many jointed. The palpi are easily seen, a large pair above
and a smaller pair beneath the “chin.” The palpi are used to test food
and prove if it be palatable. The crickets are fond of melon or other
sweet, juicy fruits, and by putting such food into the cage we can see them
bite out pieces with their sidewise working jaws, chewing the toothsome
morsel with gusto. They take hold of the substance they are eating -with
the front feet as if to make sure of it.

The wing-covers of the cricket are bent down at the sides at right
angles, like a box cover. The wing-covers are much shorter than the
abdomen and beneath them are vestiges of wings, which are never used.
The male has larger wing-covers than the female, and they are veined in a

peculiar scroll pattern. This veining
seems to be a framework for the purpose
of making a sounding board of the wing
membrane, by stretching it out as a
drum-head is stretched. Near the base
of the wing-cover, there is a heavy cross-
vein covered with transverse ridges,
which is called the file; on the inner
edge of the same wing, near the base, is>
a hardened portion called the scraper.
When he makes his cry, the cricket lifts
his wing-covers at an angle of forty-five
degrees and draws the scraper of the
under wing against the file of the over-
lapping one; lest his musical apparatus
become worn out, he can change by
putting the other wing-cover above.
The wing-covers are excellent sounding
boards and they quiver as the note is
made, setting the air in vibration, and
sending. the sound a long distance. The
remale cricket’s wing-covers are more normal in venation ; and she may
always be distinguished from her spouse by the long sword-like ovipositor
at the end of her body; this she thrusts into ^he ground when she lays
he* eggs, thus placing them where they will remain safely protected
during the winter. Both sexes have a pair of “tail feathers,” as the
children call them, which are known as the cerci {sing, cerca) and are
fleshy prongs at the end of the abdomen.

Male and female of the . common
black cricket, showing differences
in their wings. The male is
below.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

Insect Study

375

There would be no use of the cricket’s playing his mandolin if there
were not an appreciative ear to listen to his music. This ear is placed
most conveniently in the tibia of the front leg, so that the crickets literally
hear with their elbows, as do the katydids and the meadow grasshoppers.
The ear is easily seen with the naked eye as a little white, disklike spot.

The chirp of the cricket is, in literature, usually associated with the
coming of autumn; but the careful listener may hear it in early summer,
although the song is not then so insistent as later in the season. He
usually commences singing in the afternoon and keeps it up periodically
all night. I have always been an admirer of the manly, dignified methods
of this little “minnesinger,” who does not wander abroad to seek his lady
love but stands sturdily at his own gate, playing his mandolin the best he
is able; he has faith that his sable sweetheart is not far away, and that if
she likes his song she will come to him of her own free will. The cricket is
ever a lover of warmth and his mandolin gets out of tune soon after the
evenings become frosty. He is a jealous musician. When he hears the
note of a. rival, he at once “bristles up,” lifting his wings at a higher angle
and giving off a sharp militant note. If the two rivals come in sight of
each other, there is a fierce duel. They rush at each other with wide open
jaws, and fight until one is conquered and retreats, often minus an
antenna, cerca, or even a leg. The cricket’s note has a wide range of
expression. When waiting for his lady love, he keeps up a constant
droning; if he hears his rival, the tone is sharp and defiant; but as the
object of his affection approaches, the music changes to a seductive
whispering, even having in it an uncertain quiver, as if his feelings were
too strong for utterance.

References — Manual for Study of Insects, p. 115; Insect Musicians;”
Ways of the Six Footed, Comstock.

A cricket cage.

LESSON LXXXII
The Black Cricket

Leading thought — The crickets are among the
most famous of the insect musicians. They live in
the fields under stones and in burrows, and feed
upon grass and clover. As with the song birds,
the male only makes music; he has his wing-
covers developed into a mandolin or violin, which
he plays to attract his mate and also for his own
pleasure.

Method — Make some cricket cages as follows :
Take a small flower-pot and plant in it a root of
fresh grass or clover. Place over this and press
well into the soil a lantern or lamp chimney.
Cover the top with mosquito netting. Place the
pot in its saucer, so that it may be watered by
keeping the saucer filled. Ask the pupils to
collect some crickets. In each cage, place a male
and one or more females, the latter being readily
distinguished by the long ovipositors. Place the
cages in a sunny window, where the pupils may

376

Handbook of Nature-Study

observe them at recess, and ask for the following observations. In
studying the cricket closely, it may be well to put one in a vial and pass
it around. In observing the crickets eat, it is well to give them a
piece of sweet apple or melon rind, as they are very fond of pulpy fruits.

Observations — i. Is the covering of the cricket shining, like black
patent leather, or is it dull? What portions are dull? Of what use
do you think it is to the cricket to be so smoothly polished?

2. Where did you find the crickets? When you tried to catch
them, how did they act? Did they fly like grasshoppers or did they
run and leap?

3. Look carefully at the cricket’s legs. Which is the largest of the
three pairs? Of what use are these strong legs? Look carefully at
the tibia of the hind leg. Can you see the strong spines at the end,
just behind the foot or tarsus? Watch the cricket jump and see if
you can discover the use of these spines. How many joints in the
tarsus? Has the cricket a pad like the grasshopper’s between its claws?
When the cricket walks or jumps does it walk on all the tarsus of each
pair of legs?

4. Study the cricket’s head. Can you see the eyes? Describe the
antennae — their color, length, and the way they are used. Watch the
cricket clean its antennae and describe the process. Can you see the little
feelers, or palpi, connected with the mouth? How many are there?
How does it use these feelers in tasting food before it eats? Watch the
cricket eat, and see whether you can tell whether its mouth is made for
biting or sucking.

5. Study the wings.. Are the wings of the mother cricket the same
size and shape as those of her mate? How do they differ? Does the
cricket have any wings under these front wings, as the grasshopper does?
Note the cricket when he is playing his wing mandolin to attract his
mate. How does he make the noise? Can you see the wings vibrate?
Ask your teacher to show you a picture of the musical wings of the
cricket, or to show you the wings themselves under the microscope, so
that you may see how the music is made.

6. Why does the mother cricket need such a long ovipositor? Where
does she put her eggs in the fall to keep them safe until spring?

7. Look in the tibia, or elbow, of the front leg for a little white spot.
What do you suppose this is? Are there any white spots like it on the
other legs ? Ask your teacher to tell you what this is.

8. Can you find the homes of the crickets in the fields? Do the black
crickets chirp in the day-time or after dark? Do they chirp in cold or
windy weather, or only when the sun shines?

Supplementary Reading — Grasshopper Land, Morley, Chapter XIX.

CRICKET SONG.

Welcome with thy clicking, cricket!
Clicking songs of sober mirth;

Autumn, stripping field and thicket,
Brings thee to my hearth,

Where thy clicking shrills and quickens,
While the mist of twilight thickens. 1

No annoy, good-humored cricket,

With thy trills is ever blent ;

Spleen of mine, how dost thou trick it
To a calm content ?

So, by thicket, hearth, or wicket,

Click thy little lifetime, cricket |

Bayard Taylor.

Insect Study

377

THE SNOWY TREE-CRICKET

Teacher's Story

HIS is a slim, ghost-like cricket. It is pale green,
almost white in color, and about three-fourths of an
inch long. Its long, slender hind legs show that it is
a good jumper. Its long antennas, living threads,
pale gray in color, join the head with amber globe-like
segments. The pale eyes have a darker center and
the palpi are very long. The male has the wing-
covers shaped and veined like those of the black
cricket, but they are not so broad and are whitish and
very delicate. The wings beneath are wide, for these
crickets can fly. The female has a long, sword-like ovipositor.

The snowy tree-cricket, like its relatives, spends much time at its
toilet. It whips the front foot over an antenna and brings the base of the
latter to the mandibles with the palpi and then cleans it carefully to the
very tip. It washes its face with the front foot, always with a downward
movement. If the hind foot becomes entangled in anything it first tries
to kick it clean, and then drawing it beneath the body, bends the head so
as to reach it with the mandibles and nibbles it clean. The middle foot
it also thrusts beneath the body, bringing it forward
between the front legs for cleaning. But when
cleaning its front feet, the snowy tree-cricket puts on
airs; it lifts the elbow high and draws the foot
through the mouth with a gesture very like that of a
young lady with a seal ring on her little finger, hold-
ing the ornate member out from its companions as if
it were stiff with a consciousness of its own import-
ance.

There are two common species of the snowy tree-
crickets which can hardly be separated except by
specialists or by watching their habits. One is
called “the whistler’’ and lives on low shrubs or
grass; it gives a clear, soft, prolonged, unbroken
note. The other is called “the fiddler” and lives on
shrubs and in trees and vines. Its note is a pianis-
simo performance of the katydid’s song; it is delight-
ful, rhythmic and sleep-inspiring ; it begins in the late
afternoon and continues all night until the early,
cold hours of the approaching dawn. The vivacity
of the music depends upon the temperature, as the
notes are given much more rapidly during the hot
nights.

“So far as we know, this snowy tree-cricket is the
only one of the insect musicians that seems conscious
of the fact that he belongs to an orchestra. If you tree*

listen on a September evening, you will hear the first cri,c e berry cane. r°^"
player begin; soon another will join, but not in After c. v. Riley,
harmony at first. For some time there may be a
see-saw of accented and unaccented notes; but after a while the two will
be in unison ; perhaps not, however, until many more players have joined

37s

Handbook of Nature-Study

the concert. When the rhythmical beat is once established it is in as

perfect time as if governed by the baton of a Damrosch or a Thomas.

The throbbing of the cricket heart of September, it has ,

been fitly named. Sometimes an injudicious player v

joins the chorus at the wrong beat, but he soon discovers \ /

his error and rectifies it. Sometimes, also, late at night, \ f

one part of the orchestra in an orchard gets out of time r \f ^

with the majority, and discord may continue for some \ j \ J

moments, as if the players were too cold and too sleepy ^ar*'

to pay good attention. This delectable concert begins

usually in the late afternoons and continues without

ceasing until just before dawn the next morning. Many

times I have heard the close of the concert; with the \ TT /

“wee sma” hours the rhythmic beat becomes slower; \ 1

toward dawn there is a falling off in the number of' players; Snow tree

the beat is still slower, and the notes are hoarse, as if the ” ricket ™

fiddlers were tired and cold; finally, when only two or

three are left the music stops abruptly.” ( Ways of the Six-Footed ,

Comstock.)

The lesson on this cricket may be adapted from that on the black
cricket.

THE COCKROACH
Teacher's Story

OCKROACHES in our kitchens are undoubtedly an
unmitigated nuisance, and yet, as in many other in-
stances. when we come to consider the individual
cockroach, we find him an interesting fellow and
exceedingly well adapted for living in our kitchens
despite us.

In shape, the cockroach is flat, and is thus well
adapted to slide beneath utensils and into crevices
and corners. Its covering is smooth and polished
like patent leather, and this makes it slippery and
enables it to get into food without becoming clogged
by the adherence of any sticky substance. The
antennas are very long and flexible and can be bent in any direction.
They may be placed far forward to touch things which the
insert is approaching, or may be placed over the back in order
to be out of the way. They are like graceful, living threads,
and the cockroach tests its whole environment with their aid.

The mouth has two pairs of palpi or feelers, one of which is
very long and noticeable ; these are kept- in constant motion
as if to test the appetizing qualities of food. The mouth-parts
are provided with jaws for biting and, like all insect jaws, these
work sidewise instead of up and down. The eyes are black
but not prominent or large, and seem to be merely a part of
the sleek, polished head-covering.

Some species of cockroaches have wings, and some do not.

Those which have wings, have the upper pair thickened and used for wing-

Insect Study

379

covers. The under pair are thinner and are laid in plaits like a fan. The
wing-covers are as polished as the body and quite as successful in shedding
dirt.

The legs are armed with long spines which are very noticeable and
might prove to be a disadvantage in accumulating filth; but they are
polished also; and too, this insect spends much time at its toilet.

Cockroaches run “like a streak”, children say; so speedily, indeed, do
they go that they escape our notice, although we may be looking directly
at them. This celerity in vanishing, saves many a cockroach from being
crushed by an avenging foot.

When making its toilet, the cockroach
draws its long antenna through its jaws as
if it were a whiplash, beginning at the base
and finishing at the tip. It cleans each leg
by beginning near the body and so stroking
downward the long spines which seem to shut
against the leg. It nibbles its feet clean to
the very claws, and
scrubs its head vigor-
ously with the front

femur. Egg-case of cockroach.

The cockroach’s

eggs are laid in a mass enclosed in a pod-
shaped covering, which is waterproof and
polished and protects its contents from damp-
ness. "When the cockroaches, or the croton
bugs, as the small introduced species of coek-
Cockroach laying her case roach is called, once become established in a

°f eggs- house, the only way to get rid of them is to

Photo by m. v. simgeriand. fumigate the kitchen with carbon bisulphide
which is a dangerous performance and should be done only by an expert.

LESSON LXXXIII
The Cockroach

Leading thought — The cockroach is adapted for living in crevices, and
although its haunts may be anything but clean, the cockroach keeps itself
quite clean. The American species live in fields and woods and under
stones and sticks and only occasionally venture into dwellings. The
species that infest our kitchens and water-pipes are European.

Method — Place a cockroach in a vial with bread, potato or some other
food, cork the vial, and pass it around so that the children may observe
the prisoner at their leisure.

Observations — i. W7hat is the general shape of the cockroach? Why
is this an advantage? What is the texture of its covering? Why is this
an advantage ?

2. Describe the antennas and the way they are used. Note the two
little pairs of feelers at the mouth. If possible, see how they are used
when the cockroach is inspecting something to eat. Can you see whether
its mouth is fitted for biting, lapping or sucking its food ?

380 Handbook of N ature-Stuay

3. Note the eyes. Are they as large and prominent as those of the
bees or butterflies?

4. Has this cockroach wings? If so, how many and what are they
like? Note two little organs at the end of the body? These are the
cerci, like those of the crickets.

5. Describe the general appearance of the cockroach’s legs, and tell
what you think about its ability as a runner.

6. Note how the cockroach cleans itself and how completely and care-
fully this act is performed. Have you ever seen cockroach’s eggs? If so,
describe them.

7. How can you get rid of cockroaches if they invade your kitchen?

LESSON LXXXIV
How to Make an Aquarium

HE schoolroom aquarium may be a very simple
affair and still be effective. Almost any glass
receptacle will do, glass being chosen because of
its transparency, so that the life within may be
observed. Tumblers, jelly tumblers, fruit jars,
butter jars, candy jars and battery jars are all
available for aquaria. The tumblers are especially
recommended for observing the habits of aquatic
insects.

To make an aquarium: 1. Place in the jar a layer of sand an inch

or more in depth.

2. In this sand plant the water plants which you find growing under
water in a pond or stream; the plants most available are Water-weed,
Bladderwort, Water Starwort, Watercress, Stoneworts, Frog-spittle or
Water-silk.

3. Place on top a layer of small stones or gravel; this is to hold the
plants in place.

4. Tip the jar a little and pour in very gentl / at one side water taken
from a pond or stream. Fill the jar to within two or three inches of
the top; if it be a jelly tumbler, fill to within an inch of the top.

5. Let it settle.

6. Place it in a window which does not get too direct sunlight. A
north window is the best place ; if there is no north window to the school
room, place it far enough at one side of some other window so that it will
not receive too much sunlight.

7. To get living creatures for the aquarium use a dip-net, which is
made like a shadow, insect net.

8. Dip deep into the edges of the pond and be sure to bring up some
of the leaves and mud, for it is in these that the little vater animals live.

9. As fast as dipped up, these should be placed in a pail of water, so
that they may be carried to the schoolroom.

10. In introducing the water animals into the aquarium ;t is well to
put but a few in each jar.

The care of the aquarium — Care should be taken to preserve the plant
life in the aquarium, as the plants are necessary to the life of the animals.
They not only supply the food, but they give off oxygen which the animals

Insect Study 381

need for breathing, and they also take up from the water the poisonous
carbonic acid gas given off from the bodies of the animals.

1. The aquarium should be kept where there is a free circulation of

air.

2. If necessary to cover the aquarium to prevent the insects, like the
water boatmen and water beetles, from escaping, tie over it a bit of mos-
quito netting, or lay upon the top a little square of wire netting used for
window screens.

3. The temperature should be kept rather cool; it is better that the
water of the aquarium should not be warmer than 50 deg. Fahrenheit, but
this is not always possible in the schoolroom.

4. If any insects or animals die in the aquarium they should be
removed at once, as the decomposing bodies render the water foul.

5. To feed the animals that live upon other animals take a bit of raw
beef, tie a string to it and drop it in, leaving the free end of the string
outside of the jar. After it has been in one day, pull it out; for if it
remains longer it will make the water foul.

6. As the water evaporates it should be replaced with water from the
pond.

References — The Fresh Water Aquarium, Eggeling and Ehrenberg;
Insect Life, Comstock; The Brook Book, Miller; Nature Study and
Life, Hodge* The Home Aquarium, How to Care for It, Eugene Smith.

382

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE DRAGON-FLIES AND DAMSEL-FLIES
Teacher's Story

POND without dragon-flies darting above it, or without the ex-
quisitely iridescent damsel-flies clinging to the leaves
of its border would be a lonely place indeed. As one
watches these beautiful insects, one wonders at the
absurd errors which have crept into popular credence
about them. Who could be so silly as to believe
that they could sew up ears or that they could bring
dead snakes to life! The queer names of these in-
sects illustrate the prejudices of the ignorant — devil’s
darning needles, snake doctors, snake feeders, etc.
Despite all this slander, the dragon-flies remain not
only entirely harmless to man, but in reality are his
friends and allies in waging war against flies and
mosquitoes; they are especially valuable in battling mosquitoes since
the nymphs, or young, of the dragon-fly, take the wrigglers in the
water, and the adults, on swiftest wings, take the mosquitoes while
hovering over ponds laying their eggs.

The ten-spot.

From Outdoor Studies, Needham.

The poets have been lavish in their attention to these interesting
insects and have paid them delightful tributes. Riley says:

“ Till the dragon fly , in light gauzy armor burnished bright ,

Came tilting down the waters in a wild, bewildered flight .”

While Tennyson drew inspiration for; one of his most beautiful poems
from the two stages of dragon-fly life. But perhaps Lowell in that
exquisite poem, “The Fountain of Youth,” gives us the perfect descrip-
tion of these insects:

In summer-noon flushes
When all the wood hushes ,
Blue dragon-flies knitting
To and fro in the sun,
With sidelong jerk flitting.
Sink down on the rushes.

And, motionless sitting,

Hear it bubble and run,
Hear its low inward singing
With ' level wings swinging
On green tasselled rushes ,

To dream in the sun.

Insect Study

383

It is while we, ourseives, are dreaming m the sun by the margin of
some pond, that these swift children of the air seem but a natural part
of the dream. Yet if we
waken to note them more
closely, we find many things
very real to interest us.

First, they are truly children
of the sun, and if some cloud
throws its shadow on the
waters for some moments,
the dragon-flies disappear as
if they wore the invisible
cloak of the fairy tale.

Only a few of the common
species fly alike in shade and
sunshine, and early and late.

The best known of these is

A common dragon-fly.

Comstock’s Manual.

the big, green skimmer, which does not care so much for ponds, but
darts over fields and even dashes into our houses, now and then.
Probably it is this species which has started all of the dragon-fly
slander, for it is full of curiosity, and will hold itself on wings whirring too
rapidly to even make a blur, while it examines our faces or inspects the
pictures or furniture or other objects which attract it.

Another thing we may note when dreaming by
the pond is that the larger species of dragon-flies
keep to the higher regions above the water, while
the smaller species and the damsel-flies flit near its
surface. Well may the smaller species keep below
their fierce kindred, otherwise they would surely
be utilized to sate their hunger, for these insects are
well named dragons, and dragons do not stop to
inquire whether their victims are relatives or not.
It is when they are resting, that the dragon and
damsel-flies reveal their most noticeable differences.
The dragon-fly extends both wings as if in flight
while it basks in the sun or rests in the shadow.
There is a big, white-bodied species called the
whitetail which slants its wings forward and down
when it rests; but the damsel-flies fold their wings
together over the back when resting. The damsel-
flies have more brilliantly colored bodies than do
the dragon-flies, many of them being iridescent
green or coppery; they are more slender and
delicate in form. The damsel-fly has eyes which
are so placed on the sides of the head as to make
it look like a cross on the front of the body fastened
to the slender neck, and with an eye at the tip of
each arm. There are very many species of dragon
and damsel-flies, but they all have the same general habits.

The dragon-fly nymphs are the ogres of the pond or stream. To any-
one unused to them and their ways in the aquarium, there is a surprise
in store, so ferocious are they in their attacks upon creatures twice

A damsel-fly.
Outdoor Studies
Needham.

384

Handbook of N ature-Study

their size. The dragon-fly’s eggs are laid in the water; in some
instances they are simply dropped and sink
to the bottom ; but in the case of damsel-flies, the
mother punctures the stems of aquatic plants and
places the eggs within them. The nymph in no
wise resembles the parent dragon-fly. It is a
dingy little creature, with six queer, spider-like
legs and no wings; although there are four little
wing-pads extending down its back, which encase
the growing wings. It may remain hidden in the
rubbish at the bottom of the pond or may cling
to water weeds at the sides, for different species
have different habits. But in them all we find a
most amazing lower lip. This is so large that it
covers the lower part of the face like a mask, and
when folded back reaches down between the front
legs. It is in reality a grappling organ with hooks
and spines for holding prey; it is hinged in such a
manner that it can be thrust out far beyond the
head to seize some insect, unsuspecting of danger.
These nymphs move so slowly and look so much
like their background, that they are always
practically in ambush awaiting their victims.

The breathing of the dragon-fly nymphs is peculiar; there is an
enlargement of the rear end of the alimentary canal, in the walls of which
tracheae or breathing tubes extend in all directions. The nymph draws
water into this cavity and then expels it, thus bathing the tracheae with
the air mixed with water and purifying the air within them. Expelling
the water so forcibly, propels the nymph ahead, so this act serves as a
method of swimming as well as of breath-
ing. Damsel-fly nymphs, on the other
hand, have at the rear end of the body,
three long, plate-like gills, each ramified
with tracheae.

Nymphs grow by shedding the skin
as fast as it becomes too small ; and when
finally ready to emerge, they crawl up on
some object out of the water, and molt for
the last time, and are thereafter swift
creatures of the air.

References — American Insects, Kellogg.

Comstock’s Manual

Nymph of a damsel-fly.
Outdoor Studies, Needham

Nymph of a dragon-fly.

Seen from the side, showing the position
of the great lower lip when folded,
beneath the head.

From Outdoor Studies, Needha m.

LESSON LXXXV

The Dragon-flies and Damsel-flies

Leading thought — The dragon-flies are among the swiftest of all winged
creatures and their rapid, darting flight enables them to hawk their prey,
which consists of other flying insects. Their first stages are passed in the
bottoms of ponds where they feed voraciously on aquatic creatures. The
dragon-flies are beneficial to us because, when very young and when full
grown, they feed largely upon mosquitoes.

Insect Study

385

Front view of the same nymph.
Outdoor Studies, Needham.

Method — The work of observing the habits of adult dragon-flies should
be largely done in the field during late summer and early autumn. The
points for observation should be given the pupils for summer vacation
use, and the results placed in the field note-book.

The nymphs may be studied in the spring, when getting material for
the aquarium. April and May are the best months for securing them.
They are collected by using a dip-net, and are found in the bottoms of
reedy ponds or along the edges of slow-flowing streams. These nymphs
are so voracious that they cannot be trusted in the aquarium with other
insects ; each must be kept by itself. They may be fed by placing other
water insects in the aquarium with them
or by giving them pieces of fresh meat.

In the latter case, tie the meat to a
thread so that it may be removed after
a few hours, if not eaten, since it soon
renders the water foul.

The dragon-fly aquarium should have
sand at the bottom and some water
weeds planted in it, and there should be
some object in it which extends above
the surface of the water which the
nymphs, when ready to change to adults,
can climb upon while they are shedding the
last nymphal skin, and spreading their
new wings.

Observations on the young of dragon-
flies— 1. Where did you find these in-
sects? Were they at the bottom of the
pond or along the edges among the water
weeds?

2 . Are there any plume-like gills at the
end of the body? If so, how many? Are
these plate-like gills used for swimming?

If there are three of these, which is the
longer? Do you know whether the
nymphs with these long gills develop into
dragon or into damsel-flies?

3. If there are no plume-like gills at
the end of the body, how do the insects move? Can they swim? What
is the general color of the body? Explain how this color protects them
from observation? What enemies does it protect them from?

4. Are the eyes large ? Can you see the little wing-pads on the back
in which the wings are developing? Are the antennae long?

5. Observe how the nymphs of both dragon and damsel-flies seize
their prey. Describe the great lower lip when extended for prey. How
does it look when folded up ?

6. Can you see how a nymph without the plume-like gills breathes?
Notice if the water is drawn into the rear end of the body and then
expelled. Does this process help the insect in swimming?

7. When the dragon or damsel-fly nymph has reached its full growth,
where does it go to change to the winged form? How does this change
take place? Look on the rushes and reeds along the pond margin, and see

The same nymph seen from above.

Outdoor Studies, Needham.

386

Handbook of Nature-Study

if you can find the empty nymph skins from which the adults emerged *
Where is the opening in them?

Observations on the adult dragon-flies — i. Catch a dragon-fly, place
it under a tumbler and see how it is fitted for life in the air. Which is the
widest part of its body? Note the size of the eyes compared with the
remainder of the head. Do they almost meet at the top of the head?
How far do they extend down the sides of the head? Why does the
dragon-fly need such large eyes? Why does a creature with such eyes
not need long antennae? Can you see the dragon-fly’s antennae? Look
with a lens at the little, swollen triangle between the place where the two
eyes join and the forehead; can you see the little, simple eyes? Can you
see the mouth-parts?

2. Next to the head, which is the widest and strongest part of the
body? Why does the thorax need to be so big and strong? Study the
wings. How do the hind wings differ in shape from the front wings?
How is the thin membrane of the wings made strong? Are the wings
spotted or colored? If so, how? Can you see if the wings are folded
along the front edges? Does this give strength to the part of the wing
which cuts the air? Take a piece of writing paper and see how easily it
bends ; fold it two or three times like a fan and note how much stiff er it
is. Is it this principle which strengthens the dragon-fly’s wings? Why
do these wings need to be strong?

3 . Is the dragon-fly’s abdomen as wide as the front part of the body?
What help is it to the insect when flying to have such a long abdomen?

Outline for field notes — Go to a pond or sluggish stream when the sun
is shining, preferably at midday, and note as far as possible the following
things :

1. Do you see dragon-flies darting over the pond? Describe their
flight. They are hunting flies and mosquitoes and other insects on the
wing; note how they do it. If the sky becomes cloudy, can you see the
dragon-flies hunting? In looking over a pond where there are many
dragon-flies darting about, do the larger species fly higher than the
smaller ones ?

2. Note the way the dragon-flies hold their wings when they are
resting. Do they rest with their wings folded together over the abdomen
or are they extended out at an angle to the abdomen ? Do you know how
this difference in attitude of resting determines one difference between the
damsel-flies and the dragon-flies?

3 . The damsel-flies are those which hold their wings folded above the
back when resting. Are these as large and strong-bodied as the dragon-
flies? Are their bodies more brilliantly colored? How does the shape of
the head and eyes differ from those of the dragon-flies? How many
different colored damsel-flies can you find?

4. Do you see some dragon-flies dipping down in the water as they
fly? If so, they are laying their eggs. Note if you find others clinging to
reeds or other plants with the abdomen thrust below the surface of the
water. If so, these are inserting their eggs into the stem of the plant.

Supplementary reading — Outdoor Studies, Needham, p. 54; “The
Dragon of L? ^unita” in Insect Stories, Kellogg.

Insect Study

387

THE CADDIS-WORMS AND THE CADDIS-FLIES

Teacher's Story

EOPLE are to be pitied who have never tried to fathom
the mysteries of the bottom of brook or pond. Just to
lie flat, face downward, and watch for a time all that
happens down there in that water world, is far more
interesting than witnessing any play ever given at
matinee. At first one sees nothing, since all the swift-
moving creatures have whisked out of sight, because
they have learned to be shy of moving shadows; but
soon the crayfish thrusts out his boxing gloves ±rom
some crevice, then a school of tiny minnows “stay
their wavy bodies ‘gainst the stream;” and then
something strange happens ! A bit of rubbish on the bottom of the brook
walks off. Perhaps it is a dream, or we are under the enchantment of the
water witches! But no, there goes another, and now a little bundle ot
sand and pebbles takes unto itself legs. These mysteries can only be
solved with a dip-net and a pail half filled with water, in which we
may carry home the treasure trove.

When we finally lodge our catch in the aquarium jar, our mysterious
moving sticks and stones resolve themselves into little houses built in
various fashions, and each containing one inmate. Some of the houses
are made of sticks fastened together lengthwise ; some are built like
log cabins, crosswise ; some consist simply of a hollow stem cut a con-
venient length ; and some are
made of sand and pebbles,
and one, the liveliest of all, is
a little tube made of bits of
rubbish and silk spun in a spir-
al, making a little cornucopia.

On the whole, the species
which live in the log cabins
are the most convenient to
study. Whatever the shape
of the case or house, it has a
very tough lining of silk, which
is smooth within, and forms
the framework to which the
sticks and stones are fastened.

These little dwellings always
have a front door and a back
door. Out of the front door
may protrude the dark-col-
ored head followed by two
dark segments and six per-
fectly active legs, the front
pair being so much shorter
than the other two pairs that

they look almost like mouth Tog cabin caddis-worms in their cases feeding
palpi. In time of utter peace, upon a water plant.

more of the little hermit Photo by j. t. Lloyd.

388

Handbook of Nature-Study

is thrust out and we see the hind segment of the thorax which is
whitish, and behind this the abdomen of nine segments. At the sides

of the abdomen, and apparently be-
tween the segments, are little tassels
of short, white thread-like gills.
These are filled with air, impure from
contact with the blood, and which ex-
changes its impurities speedily for the
oxygen from the air which is mixed
flowing in at the front door of the
cabin, over the gills and out at the back door, by the rhythmic movement
of the body of the little hermit, and thus a supply of oxygen is steadily
maintained.

The caddis-worm is not grown fast to its case as is the snail
to its shell. If we hold down with forceps a case in which the
occupant is wrong side up, after a few struggles to turn itself over, case
and all, it will turn over within the case. It keeps its hold upon the case
by two forward-curving hooks, one on each side of the tip of the rear
segment. These hooks are inserted in the tough
silk and hold fast. It also has on top of the first
segment of the abdomen a tubercle, which may be
extended at will ; this helps to brace the larva in its
stronghold, and also permits the water to flow freely
around the insect. So the little hermit is en-
trenched in its cell at both ends. When the log-
cabin species wishes to swim, it pushes almost its
entire body out of the case, thrusts back the head,
spreads the legs wide apart, and then doubles up, thus moving through
the water spasmodically, -in a manner that reminds us of the crayfish’s
swimming except that the caddis-worm goes head first. This log cabin
species can turn its case over dexterously by movements of its legs.

The front legs of the caddis-worm are so much shorter than the other
two pairs that they look like palpi, and their use is to hold close to the
jaws bits of food, which are being eaten. The other legs are used for this
too if the little legs cannot manage it ; perhaps also these short front legs
help hold the bits of building material in place while the web is woven to
hold it there. The caddis-worm, like the true caterpillars, has the open-
ing of the silk gland near the lower lip. The food of most caddis-worms

is vegetable, usually the various
species of water plants ; but there are
some species which are carnivorous,
like the net-builder, which is a fisher-
man.

The caddis-worm case protects its
inmate in two ways: First, from the

sight of the enemy, and second, from
its jaws. A fish comes along and sees
a nice white worm and darts after it,
only to find a bundle of unappetizing
sticks where the worm was. All of
the hungry predatory creatures of the
pond and stream would be glad to

Pupa of caddis-fly removed from its
case. Note the thread-like gills.
Photo by J. T. Lloyd.

A caddis-worm removed
from its case.
Showing gills and the hooks
on the last segment for
holding fast to the
case.

A caddis-fly.

Photo by J. T. Lloyd,

with the water. Water is kept

Insect

get the caddis-worm, if they knew
where it went. Sometimes caddis-
worm cases have been found in the
stomachs of fishes ; perhaps they
serve as fish breakfast-food.

While it is difficult to see the
exact operation of building the
caddis-worm house, the general
proceeding may be readily observed.

Take a vigorous half -grown larva,
tear off part of the sticks and bits of
leaves that make the log cabin, and
then place the little builder in a tumbler with half an inch of water at the
bottom, in which are many bright flower petals cut into strips, fit for
caddis lumber. In a few hours the little house will look like a blossom
with several rows of bright petals set around its doorway.

When the caddis- worm gets ready to pupate, it fastens its case to some

object in the water and then closes
its front and back doors. Different
species accomplish this in different
ways ; some spin and fasten a
silken covering over the doors ;
often this is in the form of a pretty
grating; others simply fasten the
material of which the case is made
across the door. But though the
door be shut, it is so arranged as to
allow the water to flow through and
to bring oxygen to the thread-like
gills, which are on the pupae as well
as on the larvae. When ready to
emerge, the pupa crawls out of its
case and climbs to some object
above the water, sheds its pupa skin, and the adult insect flies off.
In some species, living in swift water, the adult issues directly from the
water, its wings expanding as soon as touched by the air.

Caddis-flies are familiar to us all even if we do not know them by name.
They are night fliers and flame worshippers. Their parchment-like or
leathery wings are folded like a roof over the back, and from the side
the caddis-fly appears as an elongated triangle with unequal sides. The
front wings are long and the hind ones shorter and wider ; the antennae
are long and threadlike and always waving about for impressions ; the
eyes are round and beadlike ; the tarsi, or feet, are long and these insects
have an awkward way of walking on the entire tarsus which gives them
an appearance of kneeling. Most of the species are dull-colored, brown-
ish or gray, the entire insect often being of one color. Caddis-flies would
not be so fond of burn-
ing themselves in lamps
if they had the human
sense of smell, for the

stench they make when Caddis-fly.

SCOrching is naUSeat- Photo by J. T. Lloyd.

Grating of silk over the door of a caddis-
worm case to protect the pupa.
Photomicrograph by J. T. Lloyd.

Study 389

Caddis-worm case fastened to leaf
for pupation period.

Photo by J. T. Lloyd.

39°

Handbook of Nature-Study

ing. The mother caddis-flies lay their eggs in the water. Perhaps
some species drop the eggs in when hovering above, but in some cases
the insect must make a diving bell of her wings and go down into the
water to place her eggs securely. The wings are covered with hairs
and not with scales, and therefore they are better fitted for diving than
would be those of the moth. I have seen caddis-flies swim vigorously.

References — Aquatic Insects, Miall; Manual for the Study of Insects,
Comstock.

A spiral ribbon caddis-worm case. The Case and caddis-worm,

inmate of this case is a rapid swimmer. Comstock’s Manual.

Photo by J. T. Lloyd.

LESSON LXXXV1
The Caddis-worms and Caddis-flies

heading thought — The caddis-worms build around themselves little
houses out of bits of sticks, leaves or stones. They crawl about on the
bottom of the pond or stream, protected from sight, and able to withdraw
into their houses when attacked. The adult of the caddis-worm is a
winged moth-like creature which comes in numbers to the light at night.

Method — -With a dip-net the caddis-worms may be captured and then
may be placed in the school aquarium. Duckweed and other water
plants should be kept growing in the aquarium. The log cabin species is
best for this study, because it lives in stagnant water and will therefore
thrive in an aquarium.

Observations — i . Where do you find the caddis-worms ? Can you see
them easily on the bottom of the stream or pond? Why?

2. Of what are the caddis-worm houses made? How many kinds
have you ever found? How many kinds of materials can you find on one
case? Describe one as exactly as possible. Find an empty case and
describe it inside. Why is it so smooth inside? How is it made so
smooth? Are all the cases the same size?

3. What does the caddis-worm do when it wishes to walk around?
What is the color of the head and the two segments back of it ? What is
the color of the body? Why is this difference of color between the head
and body protective? Is the caddis-worm grown fast to its case, as the
turtle is to its shell?

4. Note the legs. Which is the shorter pair? How many pairs?
What is the use of the legs so much shorter than the others? If the
caddis-worm case happens to be wrong side up, how does it turn over?

5. When it wishes to come to the surface or swim, what does the
caddis-worm do? When reaching far out of its case does it ever lose its
hold? How does it hold on? Pull the caddis-worm out of its case and
see the hooks at the end of the body with which it holds fast.

6. How does the caddis-worm breathe? When it reaches far out of
its case, note the breathing gills. Describe them. Can you see how many

Insect Study 391

there are on the segments? How is the blood purified through these
gills?

7. What are the caddis-worm’s enemies? How does it escape them ?
Touch one when it is walking, what does it do?

8. On top of the first segment of the abdomen is a tubercle. Do you
suppose that this helps to hold the caddis-worm in its case?

9. What does the caddis-worm eat? Describe how it acts when
eating.

10. How does the caddis-worm build its case? Watch one when it
makes an addition to its case, and describe all that you can see.

1 1 . Can you find any of the cases with the front and back doors closed ?
How are they closed? Open one and see if there is a pupa within it.
Can you see the growing wings, antennae and legs? Has it breathing
filaments like the larva? Cover the aquarium with mosquito netting so
as to get all the moths which emerge. See if you can discover how the
pupa changes into a caddis-fly.

12. How does the caddis-fly fold its wings? What is the general
shape of the insect when seen from the side with wings closed ? What is
the texture of the wings? How many wings are there? Which pair is
the longer?

13. Describe the eyes. The antennae. Does the caddis-fly walk
on its toes, or on its complete foot?

14. Examine the moths which come around the lights at night in the
spring and summer. Can you tell the caddis-flies from other insects?
Do they dash into the light? Do they seem anxious to burn themselves?

Supplementary reading — “A Little Fisherman,” Ways of the Six-
Footed, Comstock.

f •

Spiral case of caddis-worm made of small pebbles and sand.

Comstock’s Manual.

Little brook, so simple so unassuming — and yet how many things love thee !

Lo ! Sun and Moon look down and glass themselves in thy waters.

And the trout balances itself hour-long against the stream, watching for its prey;
or retires under a stone to rest.

And the water-rats nibble off the willow leaves and carry them below the wave to
their nests — or sit on a dry stone to trim their whiskers.

And the May-fly practices for the millionth time the miracle of the resurrection,
floating up an ungainly , grub from the mud below, and in an instant, in the twink-
ling of an eye ( even from the jaws of the baffled trout) emerging, an aerial fairy with
pearl-green wings.

And the caddis-fly from its quaint disguise likewise emerges.

And the prick-eared earth-people , the rabbits, in the stillness of early morning
play beside thee undisturbed, while the level sunbeams yet grope through the dewy
grass.

And the squirrel on a tree-root — its tail stretched far behind — leans forward to
kiss thee.

Little brook, for so many things lo^e thee.

Edward Carpenter.

392

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE APHIDS, OR PLANT-LICE
Teacher's Story

KNOW of no more diverting occupation than
watching a colony of aphids through a lens ;
these insects are the most helpless and amiable
little ninnies in the whole insect world; and
they look the part, probably because their
eyes, so large and wide apart, seem so innocent
and wondering. The usual color of aphids is
green. As they feed upon leaves, this color
protects them from sight ; but there are many
species which are otherwise colored, and some
have most bizarre and striking ornamentations.
In looking along an infested leaf stalk, we see
them in all stages and positions. One may
have thrust its beak to the hilt in a plant stem, and
is so satisfied and absorbed in sucking the juice that
its hind feet are lifted high in the air and its
antennae curved backward, making altogether a
gesture which seems an adequate expression of bliss ;
another may conclude to seek a new well, and pulls
up its sucking tube, folding it back underneath the
body so it will be out of the way, and walks off
slowly on its six rather stiff legs ; when thus moving,
it thrusts the antennae forward, patting its pathway
to insure safety. Perhaps this pathway may lead
over other aphids which are feeding, but this does
not deter the traveler nor turn it aside; over the
backs of the obstructionists it
crawls, at which the disturbed
ones kick the intruder with both
hind legs ; it is not a vicious
kick but a push rather, which
says, “This seat reserved, please !”

Perfect bliss! It is comical to see a row of them
sucking a plant stem for “dear life,” the heads all
in the same direction, and they packed in and
around each other as if there were no other plants
in the world to give them room, the little ones
wedged in between the big ones, until sometimes
some of them are obliged to rest their hind legs on
the antennae of the neighbors next behind.

Aphids are born for food for other creatures —
they are simply little machines for making sap
into honey-dew, which they produce from the
alimentary canal for the delectation of ants; they
are, in fact, merely little animated drops of sap on
legs. How helpless they are when attacked by any
one of their many enemies ! All they do, when they
are seized, is to claw the air with their six impotent Aphids on plant
iegs and two antennae, keeping up this performance photo by siingeriand.

Insect Study

593

as long as there is left a leg, and apparently to the very last, never realiz-
ing “what is doing.” But they are not without means of defence; those
two little tubes at the end of the body are not for ornament nor for
producing honey-dew for the ants, but for secreting at their tips a globule
of waxy substance meant to smear the eyes of the attacking insect. I
once saw an aphid perform this act, when confronted by a baby spider; a
drop of yellow liquid oozed out of one tube, and the aphid almost stood on
its head in order to thrust this offensive globule directly into the face of
the spider — the whole performance reminding me of a boy who shakes
his clenched fist in his opponent’s face and says, “Smell of that!” The
spider beat a hasty retreat.

A German scientist, Mr. Busgen, discovered that a plant-louse smeared
the eyes and jaws of its enemy, the aphis-
lion, with this wax which dried as soon as
applied. In action it was something like
throwing a basin of paste at the head of the
attacking party ; the aphis-lion thus treated,
was obliged to stop and clean itself before it
could go on with its hunt, and the aphid
walked off in safety. The aphids surely
need this protection because they have two
fierce enemies, the larvae of the aphis-lions
and of the ladybirds. They are also the victims of parasitic insects; a
tiny four-winged “fly” lays an egg within an aphid ; the larva hatching
from it feeds upon the inner portions of the aphid, causing it to swell
as if afflicted with dropsy. Later the aphid dies, and the interloper
with malicious impertinence cuts a neat circular door in the poor aphid’s
skeleton skin and issues from it a full fledged insect.

The aphids are not without their resources to meet the exigencies of
their lives in colonies. There are several distinct forms in each species,
and they seem to be needed for the general good. During the summer,
we find most of the aphids on plants are without wings ; these are females
which give birth to living young and do not lay eggs. They do this until
the plant is overstocked and the food supply seems to be giving out, then
another form is produced which has four wings. These fly away to some
other plant and start a colony there ; but at the approach of cold weather,
or if the food plants give out, there are male and female individuals
developed, the females being always wingless, and it is their office to lay
the eggs which shall last during the long winter months, when the living
aphids must die for lack of food plants. The next spring each winter-egg
hatches into a female which we call the “stem mother” since she with her
descendants will populate the entire plant.

Plant-lice vary in their habits. Some live in
the ground on the roots of plants and are very
destructive; but the greater number of species
live on the foliage of plants and are very fond of
the young, tender leaves and thus do great
damage. Some aphids have their bodies covered
with white powder or with tiny fringes, which
Winged and wingless give them the appearance of being covered with
forms of plant-lice. cotton.

A parasitized aphid enlarged,
showing the door cut by
the parasite.

394

Handbook of Nature-Study

The aphids injuring our flowers and plants may be killed by spraying
.ihem with soapsuds made in the proportion of one-quarter pound of
ivory soap to one gallon of water. The spraying must be done very
thoroughly so as to reach all the aphids hidden on the stems and beneath
the leaves. It should be repeated every three days until the aphids are
destroyed.

LESSON LXXXVII
The Aphids, or Plant-lice

Leading thought — Aphids have the mouth in the form of a sucking tube
which is thrust into the stems and leaves of plants ; through it the plant
juices are drawn for nourishment. Aphids are the source of honey-dew of
which ants are fond.

Method — Bring into the schoolroom a plant infested with aphids, place
the stem in water and let the pupils examine the insects through the lens.

Observations — i. How are the aphids settled on the leaf? Are their
heads in the same direction? What are they doing?

2. Touch one and make it move along. What does it do in order to
leave its place? What does it do with its sucking tube as it walks off?
On what part of the plant was it feeding? Why does not Paris green
when applied to the leaves of plants kill aphids?

3 . Describe an aphid, including its eyes, antennae, legs and tubes upon
the back. Does its color protect it from observation?

4. Can you see cast skins of aphids on the plant? Why does an
aphid have to shed its skin?

5. Are all the aphids on a plant wingless? When a plant becomes
dry are there, after several days, more winged aphids? Why do the
aphids need wings ?

6. Do you know what honey-dew is? Have you ever seen it upon the
leaf? How is honey-dew made by the aphids? Does it come from the
tubes on their back? What insects feed upon this honey-dew?

7. What enemies have the aphids?

8. What damage do aphids do to plants? How can you clean plants
of plant-lice ?

I saw it (an ant), at first, pass, without stopping, some aphids which it did not
however disturb. It shortly after stationed itself near one of the smallest, and
appeared to caress it, by touching the extremity of its body, alternately with its anten-
nce , with an extremely rapid movement. I saw, with much surprise, the fluid proceed
from the body of the aphid, and the ant take it in its mouth. Its antennce were after-
wards directed to a much larger aphid than the first, which, on being caressed after
the same manner, discharged the nourishing fluid in greater quantity, which the ant
immediately swallowed: it then passed to a third which it caressed, like the preced-
ing, by giving it several gentle blows, with the antennce, on the posterior extremity oj
the body; and the liquid was ejected at the same moment, and the ant lapped it up „

Pierre Huber, 181©.

Insect Study

395

THE ANT-LION
Teacher's Story

CHILD is thrilled with fairy stories of ogres in their dens,
with the bones of their victims strewn around.
The ants have real ogres, but luckily, they do
not know about it and so cannot suffer from
agonizing fears. The ant ogres seem to have
depended upon the fact that the ant is so ab-
-^sorbed in her work that she carries her booty up
hill and down dale with small regard for the
topography of the country. Thus they build
their pits, with instinctive faith that they will
some day be entered by these creatures,
obsessed by industry and careless of what lies in the path. The pits
vary with the size of the ogre at the bottom ; there are as many sized
pits as are beds in the story of Golden Locks and the bears ; often the
pits are not more than an inch across, or even less, while others are two
inches in diameter. They are always made in sandy or crumbly soil and
in a place protected from wind and rain; they vary in depth in propor-
tion to their width, for the slope is always as steep as the soil will stand
without slipping.

All that can be seen of the ogre at the bottom, is a pair of long, curved
jaws, looking innocent enough at the very center of the pit. If we dig the
creature out, we find it a comical looking insect. It is humpbacked, with
a big, spindle-shaped abdomen; from its great awkward body projects a
flat, sneaking looking head, armed in front with the sickle jaws which are
spiny and bristly near the base, and smooth, sharp and curved at the tip.
The strange thing about these jaws is that they lead directly to the throat,
since the ant-lion has no mouth. Each jaw is made up of two pieces
which are grooved where they join and thus form a tube with a hole in
the tip through which the industrious blood of the ants can be sucked;
not only do the sharp sickle points hold the victim, but there are three
teeth along the side of each jaw to help with this. The two front pairs of
legs are small and spiny ; the hind legs are strong and peculiarly twisted,
and have a sharp spikelike claw at the end, which is so arranged as to push
the insect backward vigorously if occasion requires; in fact, the ant-lion
in walking about, moves more naturally backward than forward because
of the peculiar structure of his legs.

Having studied the ogre,
we can see better how he
manages to trap his victim.

As the ant goes scurrying
along, she rushes over the
edge of the pit and at once
begins to slide downward;
she is frightened and
strugglesto get back; just
then a jet of sand, aimed
well from the bottom of the

pit hits her and knocks her Ant_Uon wUh tts CK00n amJ brm

back. She Still struggles. Comstock's Manual.

396

Handbook of Nature-Study

and there follows a fusillade of sand jets, each hitting her from above and
knocking her down to the fatal center where the sickle jaws await her
and are promptly thrust into her ; if she is large and still struggles, the
big, unwieldy body of the ogre, buried in the sand, anchors him fast
and his peculiar, crooked hind legs push his body backward in this
strange tug of war; thus, the ant-ogre is not dragged out of his den
by the struggles of the ant, and soon the loss of blood weakens her and
she shrivels up.

The secret of the jets of sand, lies in the flat head of the ogre; if
we look at it regarding it as a shovel, we can see that it is well fitted
for its purpose; for it is a shovel with a strong mechanism working it.
In fact, the whole pit is dug with this shovel head. Wonderful stories
are told about the way that ant-lions dig their pits, marking out the outer
margin in a circle, and working inward. However, our common ant-lion
of the East simply digs down into the sand and flips the sand out until it
makes a pit. If an ant-lion can be caught and put in a jar of sand it
will soon make its pit, and the process may be noted carefully.

There is one quality in the ogre which merits praise, and that is his
patience. There he lies in his hole for days or perhaps weeks, with noth-
ing to eat and no ant coming that way; so when we see an absent-minded
ant scrambling over into the pit, let us think of the empty stomach of this
patient little engineer which has constructed his pit with such accuracy
and so much labor. So precarious is the living packed up by the ant-lions,
that it may require one, two or three years to bring one to maturity.
At that time it makes a perfectly globular cocoon of silk and sand, the
size of a large pea, and within it, changes to a pupa; and when finally
ready to emerge, the pupa pushes itself part way out of the cocoon and the
skin is shed and left at the cocoon door. The adult resembles a small
dragon-fly; it has large net -veined wings and is a most graceful insect, as
different as can be from the humpbacked ogre which it once was — a
transformation quite as marvelous as that which occurred in Beauty and
the Beast. Throughout the Middle West, the ant-lion in its pit is called
the “doodle-bug.”

Reference — Manual for Study of Insects, Comstock.

LESSON LXXXVIII
The Ant-Lion

Leading thought — The ant-lion, or “doodle-bug” makes a little pit in
the sand with very steep sides, and hidden at the bottom of it, waits for
ants to tumble in to be seized by its waiting jaws. Later the ant-lion
changes to a beautiful insect with gauzy wings, resembling a small dragon-
fly.

Method — The pupils should see the ant-lion pits in their natural situa-
tions, but the insects may be studied in the schoolroom. Some of the
ant-lions may be dug out of their pits and placed in a dish of sand. They
will soon make their pits, and may be watched during this interesting
process. It is hardly advisable to try to rear these insects, as they may
require two or three years for development.

Observations — i. Where were the ant-lion pits out of doors? Were
they in a windy place? Were they in a place protected from storms?
In what kind of soil were they made?

Insect Study

397

2. Measure one of the pits. How broad across, and how deep? Are
all the pits of the same size ? Why ?

3. What can you see as you look down into the ant-lion’s pit? Roll
a tiny pebble in and see what happens ? Watch until an ant comes hurry-
ing along and slips into the pit. What happens then? As she struggles
to get out how is she knocked back in? What happens to her if she falls
to the bottom?

4. Take a trowel and dig out the doodle-bug. What is the shape of
its body? What part of the insect did you see at the bottom of the pit?
Do you know that these great sickle-shaped jaws are hollow tubes for
sucking blood? Does the ant-lion eat anything except the blood of its
victim ?

5. Can you see that the ant-lion moves backward more easily than
forward? How are its hind legs formed to help push it backward? How
does this help the ant-lion in holding its prey ? How does the big awk-
ward body of the ant-lion help to hold it in place at the bottom of the pit
when it seizes an ant in its jaws?

6. What shape is the ant-lion’s head? How does it use this head in
taking its prey? In digging its pit?

7. Take a doodle-bug to the schoolroom, place it in a dish of sand,
covered with glass, and watch it build its pit.

8. Read in the entomological books about the cocoon of the ant-lion
and what the adult looks like, and then write an ant-lion autobiography.

Supplementary reading — Insect Stories, Kellogg, “The True Story of
Morrowbie Jukes.”

THE MOTHER LACE-WING AND THE APHIS-LION

Teacher's Story

LITTING leisurely through the air on her green gauze
wings, the lace-wing seems like a filmy leaf, broken
loose and drifting on the breeze. But there is pur-
pose in her flight, and through some instinct she is
enabled to seek out an aphis-ridden plant or tree,
to which she comes as a friend in need. As she
alights upon a leaf, she is scarcely discernible because
of the pale green of her delicate body and wings;
however, her great globular eyes that shine like gold
attract the attention of the careful observer. But
though she is so fairy-like in appearance, if you pick
her up, you will be sorry if your sense of smell is keen, for she exhales a
most disagreeable odor when disturbed — a habit which probably protects
her from birds or other creatures which might otherwise eat her.

However, if we watch her we shall see that she is a canny creature
despite her frivolous appearance ; her actions are surely peculiar. A drop
of sticky fluid issues from the tip of her body, and she presses it down on
the surface of the leaf ; then lifting up her slender abdomen like a distaff,
she spins the drop into a thread a half inch long or more, which the air
soon dries ; and this silken thread is stiff enough to sustain an oblong egg,
as large as the point of a pin, which she lays at the very tip of it. This
done she lays another egg in a like manner, and when she is through, the

39^

Handbook of Nature-Study

leaf looks as if it were covered with spore cases of a glittering white mold.
This done she flies off and disports herself in the sunshine, care free, know-
ing that she has done all she can for her family.

After a few days the eggs begin to look dark, and then if we examine
them with a lens, we may detect that they contain little doubled-up
creatures. The first we see of the egg inmate as it hatches, is a pair of
jaws thrust through the shell, opening it for a peep-hole; a little later the
owner of the jaws, after resting a while with an eye on the world which he
is so soon to enter, pushes out his head and legs and drags out a tiny, long
body, very callow-looking and clothed in long, soft hairs. At first the

little creature crawls about
his egg-shell, clinging tightly
with all his six claws, as if
fearful of such a dizzy height
above his green floor; then
he squirms around a little and
thrusts out a head inquiringly
while still hanging on “for
dear life.” Finally he gains
courage and prospects around
until he discovers his egg
stalk, and then begins a rope
climbing performance, rather
difficult for a little chap not
more than ten minutes old.
He takes a careful hold with
his front claws, the two other
pairs of legs carefully balanc-
ing for a second, and then
desperately seizing the stalk
with all his clasping claws,
and with many new grips and panics, he finally achieves the bottom
in safety. As if dazed by his good luck, he stands still for a time,
trying to make up his mind what has happened and what to do next ; he
settles the matter by trotting off to make his first breakfast of aphids;
and now we can see that it is a lucky thing for his brothers and sisters,
still unhatched, that they are high above his head and out of reach, for he
might not be discriminating in the matter of his breakfast food, never
having met any of his family before. He is a queer looking little insect,
spindle-shaped and with peculiarly long, sickle-shaped jaws projecting
from his head. Each of these jaws is made up of two pieces joined length-
wise so as to make a hollow tube, which has an opening at the tip of the
jaw, and another one at the base which leads directly to the little lion’s
throat. Watch him as he catches an aphid; seizing the stupid little bag
of sap in his great pincers, he lifts it high in the air, as if drinking a
bumper, and sucks its green blood until it shrivels up, kicking a remon-
strating leg to the last. It is my conviction that aphids never realize
when they are being eaten ; they simply dimly wonder what is happening.

It takes a great many aphids to keep an aphis-lion nourished until he
gets his growth ; he grows like any other insect by shedding his skeleton
skin when it becomes too tight. Finally he doubles up and spins around
himself a cocoon of glistening white silk, leaving it fastened to the leaf;

Aphis-lion , eggs, larva, cocoon and the
adult, lace wing.

Comstock’s Manual.

Insect Study

399

when it is finished, it looks like a seed pearl, round and polished. I
wish some child would watch an aphis-lion weave its cocoon and tell us
how it is done ! After a time, a week or two perhaps, a round little hole is
cut in the cocoon, and there issues from it a lively little green pupa, with
wing pads on its back ; but he very soon sheds his pupa skin and issues
as a beautiful lace-wing fly with golden eyes and large, filmy, iridescent,
pale green wings,

LESSON LXXXIX

The Mother Lace-wing and the Aphis-lion

Leading thought — The lace-wing fly or golden-eyes, as she is called, is
the mother of the aphis-lion. She lays her eggs on the top of stiff, silken
stalks. The young aphis-lions when hatched, clamber down upon the leaf
and feed upon plant-lice, sucking their blood through their tubular jaws.

Method — Through July and until frost, the aphis-lions may be found
on almost any plant infested with plant -lice ; and the lace-wing’s eggs or
egg-shells on the long stalks are also readily found. All these may be
brought to the schoolroom. Place the stem of a plant infested with
aphids in a jar of water, and the acts of the aphis-lions as well as the
habits of the aphids may be observed during recess or at other convenient
times, by all the pupils.

Observations — i . When you see a leaf with some white mold upon it,
examine it with a lens ; the mold is likely to be the eggs of the lace- wing.
Is the egg as large as a pin head? What is its shape ? What is its color?
How long is the stalk on which it is placed? Of what material do you
think the stalk is made? Why do you suppose the lace- wing mother lays
her eggs on the tips of stalks? Are there any of these eggs near each
other on the leaf?

2. If the egg is not empty, observe through a lens how the young
aphis-lion breaks its egg-shell and climbs down.

3. Watch an aphis-lion among the plant-lice. How does it act?
Do the aphids seem afraid? Does the aphis-lion move rapidly? How
does it act when eating an aphid ?

4. What is the general shape of the aphis-lion? Describe the jaws.
Do you think these jaws are used for chewing, or merely as tubes through
which the green blood of the aphids is sucked? Do the aphis-lions ever
attack each other or other insects? How does the aphis-lion differ in
appearance from the ladybird larva?

5. What happens to the aphis-lion after it gets its growth? Describe
its cocoon if you can find one.

6. Describe the little lace-wing fly that comes from the cocoon.
Why is she called, golden-eyes? Why lace-wing? Does she fly rapidly?
Do you suppose that if she should lay her eggs flat on a leaf, that the first
aphis-lion that hatched would run about and eat all its little brothers and
sisters which were still in their egg-shells ? How do the aphis-lions benefit
our rose bushes and other cultivated plants?

Supplementary Reading — “A Tactful Mother” in Ways of the Six-
Footed.

400

Handbook of N atur e-Study

The egg-raj i Oj a mosquito enlarged.

THE MOSQUITO
T eacher's Story

N DEFIANCE of the adage, the mother of ourmost
common mosquitoes does not hesitate to put her
eggs all in one basket, but perhaps she knows it is
about the safest little basket for eggs in this world
of uncertainties. If it were possible to begin this
lesson with the little boat-shaped egg baskets, I
should advise it. They may be found in almost
any rain barrel, and the eggs look like a lot of tiny
cartridges set side by side, points up, and lashed
or glued together, so there shall be no spilling.
Like a certain famous soap, they “float,” coming up
as dry as varnished corks when water is poured upon them.

The young mosquito, or wrig-
gler, breaks through the shell of
the lower end of the egg and
passes down into the water, and
from the first, it is a most in-
teresting creature to view
through a hand lens. The head
and the thorax are rather large
while the body is tapering and

armed with bunches of hairs. At the rear of the body are two tubes very
different in shape; one is long, straight and unadorned; this is the
breathing tube through which air passes to the tracheae of the body.
This tube has a star-shaped valve at the tip, which can be opened and
shut; when it is opened at the surface of the water, it keeps the
little creature afloat and meanwhile allows air to pass into the body.
When the wriggler is thus hanging at an angle of 45 degrees to the
surface of the water, it feeds upon small particles of decaying vegeta-
tion; it has a remarkable pair of jaws which
are armed with brushes, which in our
common species, by moving rapidly, set up
currents and bring the food to the mouth. This
process can be seen plainly with a lens.
When disturbed, the wriggler shuts the valve to
its breathing tube, and sinks. However, it is
not much heavier than the water; I have often
seen one rise for some distance without apparent
effort. The other tube at the end of the body,
supports the swimming organs, which consist of
four finger-like processes and various bunches of
hairs. When swimming, the wriggler goes tail
first, the swimming organs seeming to take
hold of the water and to pull the creature back-
ward, in a series of spasmodic jerks; in fact,
the insect seems simply to “throw somer-
saults,” like an acrobat. I have often observed
wrigglers standing on their heads in the
bottom of the aquarium, with their jaws bent

mosquito aquarium.

Insect Study

401

under, revolving their brushes
briskly; but they never remain
very long below the surface, as it is
necessary for them to take in fresh
air often.

The pupa has the head and
thoracic segments much enlarged,
making it all “head and shoulders”
with a quite insignificant
body attached. Upon the
thorax are two breathing
tubes, which look like two
ears, and therefore when
the pupa rests at the sur-
face of the water, it remains
head up so that these tubes
may take in the air; at the
end of the body are two
swimming organs which are little,
leaf -like projections. At this stage
the insect is getting ready to live
its life in the air, and for this reason
probably, the pupa rests for long
periods at the surface of the
water and does not swim about
much, unless disturbed. How-
ever, it is a very strange habit
for a pupa to move about at all.

In the case of other flies, butterflies,
and moths, the pupa stage is quiet.

When fully mature, the pupa
rises to the surface of the water,
the skeleton skin breaks open
down its back and the mosquito
carefully works itself out, until
its wings are free and dry, mean-
while resting upon the floating
pupa skin. This is indeed a frail
bark, and if the slightest breeze
ruffles the water, the insect is
likely to drown before its wings
are hard enough for flight.

The reason that kerosene oil,
put upon the surface of the water
where mosquitoes breed, kills the
insects is because both the larvae
and pup® of mosquitoes are
obliged to rise to the surface, and push their breathing tubes through
the surface film so that they will open to the air; a coating of oil on the
water prevents this, and they are suffocated. Also when the mosquito
emerges from the pupa skin, if it is even touched by the oil, it is unable
to fly and soon dies.

A wriggler or larva of
mosquito ( culex ) greatly
enlarged.

Drawn by Evelyn Mitchell.

402

Handbook of Nature-Study

The male mosquitoes have bushy, or feathery, antennas These
antennae are hearing organs of very remarkable construction; (see Ways
of the Six-Footed, p. 8.) The Anopheles may be distinguished from the
Culex by the following characteristics : Its wings are spotted instead of

plain. When at rest it is perfectly straight,
and is likely to have the hind legs in the air.
It may also rest at an angle to the surface
to which it clings. The Culex is not
spotted on the wings and is likely to be
humped up when at rest. In our climate
the Anopheles is more dangerous than the
Culex because it carries the germs of
malaria. A mosquito’s wing under a
microscope is a most beautiful object, as it
is “trimmed” with ornamental scales about
the edges and along the veins. The male
mosquitoes neither sing nor bite ; the song of the female mosquito is
supposed to be made by the rapid vibration of the wings, and her
musical performances are for the purpose of attracting her mate, as
it has been shown that he can hear through his antennae a range of notes
covering the middle and next higher octaves of the piano.

Of late we are learning that the mosquitoes are in a very strange way a
menace to health. Through a heroism, as great as ever shown on field of
battle, men have imperiled their lives to prove that the germs of the terri-
ble yellow fever were transmitted by the biting mosquito, and with
almost equal bravery other men have demonstrated that the germs of
malaria are also thus carried.

In the North, our greatest danger is from the mosquitoes which carry
the malarial germs, and these are the mosquitoes with spotted wings and
belong to the genus Anopheles. This mosquito, in order to be of danger
to us must first feed upon the blood of some person suffering from malaria
(ague) and thus take the
germ of the disease into its
stomach. Here the germ
develops and multiplies into
many minute germs, which
pass through another stage
and finally get into the
blood of the mosquito and
accumulate in the salivary
glands. The reason any
mosquito bite or insect bite
swells and itches is because,
as the insect’s beak is inser-
ted into the flesh, it carries
with it some of the saliva
from the insect’s mouth. In
the case of Anopheles these
malarial germs are carried

with the saliva into the blood The pupa of a mosquito, greatly magnified. Note
of the victim. It has been b the breathing tubes near the head.

proven that in the most Drawn by Evelyn Mitchell.

Antenna of male mosquito
enlarged.

Insect Study

4° 3

nalarial countries, like Italy and India, people are entirely free from
malaria if they are not bitten by mosquitoes.

After this explanation has been made, it would be well for the teacher
Jo take the pupils on a tour of inspection through the neighborhood to see
if there are any mosquito larvae in rain barrels, ponds or pools of stagnant
water. If such places are found, let the pupils themselves apply the
following remedies :

1. Rain barrels should be securely covered.

2. All stagnant pools should be drained and filled up if possible.

3. Wherever there are ponds or pools where mosquitoes breed that
cannot be filled or drained, the surface of the water should be covered
with a spray of kerosene oil. This may be applied with a spray pump or
from a watering can.

4. If it is impracticable to cover such places with oil, introduce into

such pools the following fish : Minnows, sticklebacks, sunfish and gold-

fish.

The effect of this lesson upon the children should be to impress them
with the danger to life and health from mosquitoes and to implant in them
a determination to rid the premises about their homes of these pests.

References — Farmers’ Bulletin No. 15^, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, by L. O. Howard; leaflet in Reading Course for Farmers’ Wives,
series 2, No. 10, by M. V. Slingerland; American Insects, Kellogg; The
Insect Book, Howard; Insect Life, The Manual for the Study of Insects,
Comstock; Ways' of the Six-Footed, Comstock.

Wing of mosquito enlarged.
Comstock’s Manual.

LESSON XC
The Mosquito

Leading thought — The wrigglers, or wigglers, which we find in rain-
barrels and stagnant water are the larvae of mosquitoes. We should
study their life history carefully if we would know how to get rid of
mosquitoes.

Method — There is no better way to interest the pupils in mosquitoes
than to place in an aquarium jar in the schoolroom a family of wrigglers
from some pond or rain barrel. For the pupils’ personal observation , take
some of the wrigglers from the aquarium with a pipette and place them in
a homeopathic vial; fill the vial three-fourths full of water and cork it.
Pass it around with a hand lens and give each pupil the opportunity to
observe it for five or ten minutes. It would be well if this vial could be
left on each desk for an hour or so during study periods, so that the

404

Handbook of Nature-Study

observations may be made casually ancl leisurely. While the pupils are
studying the wrigglers, the following questions should be placed upon the
blackboard, and each pupil should make notes which may finally be given
at a lesson period. This is particularly available work for September.

In studying the adult mosquito, a lens or microscope is necessary. But
it is of great importance that the pupils be taught to discriminate between
the comparatively harmless species of Culex and the dangerous Anopheles
and therefore they should be taught to be observant of the way mosqui-
toes rest upon the walls, and whether they have mottled or clear wings.

The Larva

Observations: i. Note if all the wrigglers are of the same gen

eral shape, or if some of them have a very large head; these latter are
the pupae and the former are the larvae. We will study the larvae first.
Where do they rest when undisturbed? Do they rest head up or down?
Is there any part of their body that comes to the surface of the water?

2. When disturbed what do they do? When they swim, do they go
head or tail first? When they float do they go upward or downward?

3. Observe one resting at the top. At what angle does it hold itself
to the surface of the water? Observe its head. Can you see the jaw
brushes revolving rapidly? What is the purpose of this? Describe its
eyes. Can you see its antennas?

4. Note the two peculiar tubes at the end of the body and see if you
can make out their use.

5. Note especially the tube that is thrust up to the surface of the
water when the creatures are resting. Can you see how the opening of
this tube helps to keep the wriggler afloat? What do you think is the
purpose of this tube ? Why does it not become filled with water when the
wriggler is swimming ? Can you see the two air vessels, or trachae, extend-
ing from this tube along the back the whole length of the body ?

6. Note the peculiarities of the other tube at the rear end of the body.
Do you think the little finger-like projections are an aid in swimming?
How many are there?

7. Can you see the long hairs along the side of the body?

8. Does the mosquito rest at the bottom of the bottle or aquarium?

The Pupa

9. What is the most noticeable difference in appearance between
the larva and pupa?

10. When the pupa rests at the surface of the water, is it the same end
up as the wriggler?

1 1 . Note on the “head” of the pupa two little tubes extending up like
ears. These are the breathing tubes. Note if these open to the air when
the pupa rests at the surface of the water.

1 2 . Can you see the swimming organs at the rear of the body of the
pupa? Does the pupa spend a longer time resting at the surface than the
larva. How does it act differently from the pupas of other flies and
moths and butterflies ?

13. How does the mosquito emerge from the pupa skin? Why does
kerosene oil poured on the surface of the water kill mosquitoes ?

insect Study

405

The Adult Mosquito

1. Has the mosquito feathery antennae extending out in front? If
so, what kind of mosquitoes are such ?

2. Do the mosquitoes with bushy antennae bite? Do they sing?

3 . Are the wings of the mosquito spotted or plain ? How many has it ?

4. When at rest, is it shortened and humpbacked or does it stand
straight out with perhaps its hind legs in the air ?

5. What are the characteristics by which you can tell the dangerous
Anopheles?

6. Why is the Anopheles more dangerous than the Culex?

7. Examine a mosquito’s wing under a microscope and describe it.

8. Examine the antennae of a male and a female mosquito under a
microscope, and describe the difference.

9. Which sex of the mosquito does the biting and the singing?

10. How is the singing done?

THE HOUSE-FLY
Teacher's Story

house-fly is surely an up-to-date member of that
select class which evolutionists call the “fit.” It
flourishes in every land, plumping itself down in
front of uS at table, whether we be eating rice in
Hong Kong, dhura in Egypt, macaroni in Italy, pie
in America, or tamales in Mexico. There it sits,
impertinent and imperturbable, taking its toll,
letting down its long elephant-trunk tongue, rasping
and sucking up such of our meal as fits its needs.
As long as we simply knew it as a thief we, during
untold ages, merely slapped it and shooed it, which
effort on our part apparently gave it exhilarating exercise. But during
recent years we have begun trapping and poisoning, trying to match our
brains against its agility ; although we slay it by thousands, we seem only
to make more room for its well-fed progeny of the future, and in the end
we seem to have gained nothing. But the most recent discoveries of
science have revealed to us, that what the house-fly takes of our food, is
of little consequence to what it leaves behind. Because of this, we have
girded up our loins and gone into battle in earnest.

I have always held that nature-study should follow its own peaceful
path and not be the slave of economic science. But occasionally it seems
necessary, when it is a question of creating public sentiment, and of cul-
tivating public intelligence in combating a great peril, to make nature-
study a handmaiden, if not a slave, in this work. If our woods were filled
with wolves and bears, as they were in the days of my grandfather, I
should give nature-study lessons on these animals, which would lead to
their subjugation. Bears and wolves trouble us no more; but now we
have enemies far more subtle, in the ever-present microbes, which we may
never hope to conquer but which, with proper precautions, we may render
comparatively harmless. Thus, our nature-study with insects which

406

Handbook of Nature-Study

carry disease, like the mosquitoes, flies and fleas, must be a reconnaissance
for a war of extermination ; the fighting tactics may be given in lessons
on health and hygiene.

Perhaps if a fly were less wonderfully made, it would be a less con-
venient vehicle for microbes. Its eyes are two great, brown spheres on
either side of the head, and are composed of thousands of tiny six-sided
eyes that give information of what is coming in any
direction ; in addition, it has on top of the head, looking
straight up, three tiny, shining, simple eyes, which cannot
be seen without a lens. Its antennae are peculiar in
shape, but are evidently sense organs ; it is attracted from
afar by certain odors, and so far as we can discover, its
antennas are all the nose it has. Its mouth-parts are all
combined to make a most amazing and efficient organ
for getting food ; at the tip are two flaps, which can rasp a
substance so as to set free the juices, and above this is a

Head of fly show-

WgandS mouth ^ tube, through which the juices may be drawn to the
parts. stomach. This tube is extensible, being conveniently
jointed so that it can be folded under the “chin” when
not in use. This is usually called the fly’s tongue, but it is really all
the mouth parts combined, as if a boy had his lips, teeth and tongue,
standing out from his face, at the end of a tube a foot long.

The thorax can be easily studied ; it is striped black and white above
and bears the two wings, and the two little flaps that are called balancers
and which are probably remnants of hind wings which the remote ances-
tors of flies flew with. The fly’s wing is a transparent but strong mem-
brane strengthened by veins, and is prettily iridescent. The thorax
bears on its lower side the three pairs of legs. The abdomen consists of five
segments and is covered with stiff hairs. The parts of the leg, seen when
the fly is walking, consists of three segments, the last segment or tarsus
being more slender, and if looked at with a lens, is seen to be composed
of five segments, the last of which bears the claws; it is with these claws
that the fly walks, although all of the,. five segments really form the foot;
in other words, it walks on its tip-toes. But it clings to ceilings by means
of the two little pads below the claws, which are covered with hairs that
excrete at the tips, a sticky fluid. Because of the hairs on its feet, the fly
becomes a carrier of microbes and a menace to health.

The greatest grudge I have against this little, persistent companion of
our household is the way it has misled us by appearing to be so fastidious
in its personal habits. We have all of us seen, with curiosity and admira-
tion, its complex ablutions and brushings. It usually begins, logically,
with its front feet, the hands; these it cleans by rubbing them against
each other lengthwise. The hairs and spines on one leg act as a brush for
the other, and then lest they be not clean, it nibbles them with its rasping
disc, which is all the teeth it has. It then cleans its head with these clean
hands, rubbing them over its big eyes with a vigor
that makes us wink simply to contemplate ; then bob-
bing its head down so as to reach what is literally its
back hair, it brushes valiantly. After this is done, it
reaches forward first one and then the other foot of the
middle pair of legs, and taking each in turn between Foot 0f house-fly
the front feet, brushes it vigorously, and maybe enlarged.

Insect Study

407

nibbles it. But as a pair of military brushes, its hind feet are
conspicuously efficient ; they clean each other by being rubbed together
and then they work simultaneously on each side in cleaning the wings,
first the under side and then the upper side. Then over they come and
comb the top of the thorax; then they brush the sides, top and under
sides of the abdomen, cleaning each other between the acts. Who, after
witnessing all this, could believe that the fly could leave any tracks on our
food, which would lead to our undoing! But the house-fly, like many
housekeepers with the best intentions in the matter of keeping clean, has
not mastered the art of getting rid of the microbes. Although it has so
many little eyes, none of them can magnify a germ so as to make it visible;
and thus it is that, when feeding around where there have been cases of
typhoid and other enteric diseases, the house-fly’s little claws become
infested with disease germs ; and when it stops some day to clean up on our
table, it leaves the germs with us. Thus our only safety lies in the
final extermination of this little nuisance.

It is astonishing how few people know about the growth of flies.
People of the highest intelligence in other matters, think that a small fly
can grow into a large one. A fly, when it comes from the
pupa stage, Js as large as it will ever be, the young stages
of flies being maggots. The house-fly’s eggs are little,
white, elongated bodies about as large as the point of a
pin. These are laid preferably in horse manure. After
a few hours, they hatch into slender, pointed, white
maggots which feed upon the excrement. After five or
six days, the larval skin thickens, turns brown, making
the insect look like a small grain of wheat. This, is the
pupal stage, which lasts about fivc,.days, and then the skin
bursts open and the full-grown fly appears. Of course,
not all the flies multiply according to the example given to the children.
The house-fly has many enemies and, therefore, probably no one hiber-
nating mother fly is the ancestress of billions by September; however,
despite enemies, flies multiply with great rapidity.

I know of no more convincing experiment as an example of the dan-
gerous trail of the fly, than that of letting a house-fly walk over a saucer
of nutrient gelatin. After three or four days, each track is plainly visible
as a little white growth of bacteria.

Much is being done now to eradicate the house-fly, and undoubtedly
there will be new methods of fighting it devised every year. The teacher
should keep in touch with the bulletins on this subject published by the
United States Department of Agriculture, and should give the pupils
instructions according to the latest ideas. At present the following are
the methods of fighting this pest : Keep the stable clean and place the

manure under cover. All of the windows of the house should be well
screened. All the flies which get into the house should be killed by using
the commercial fly papers.

Empty pupa
skin of fly ,
enlarged.

408

Handbook of N ature-Study

LESSON XCI
The House-fly

Leading thought — The house-fly has conquered the world and is found
everywhere. It breeds in filth and especially in horse manure. It is very
prolific; the few flies that manage to pass the winter in this northern
climate, are ancestors of the millions which attack us and our food later
in the season. These are a menace to health because they carry germs of
disease from sputa and excrementitious matter to our tables, leaving them
upon our food.

Method — Give out the questions for observation and let the pupils
answer them either orally or in their note-books. If possible, every pupil
should look at a house-fly through a three-quarters objective. If this is
not possible, pictures should be shown to demonstrate its appearance.

Observations — i . Look at a fly, using a lens if you have one. Describe
its eyes. Do you see that they have a honeycomb arrangement of little
eyes? Can you see, on top of the head between the big eyes, a dot? A
microscope reveals this dot to be made of three tiny eyes, huddled to-
gether. After seeing a fly’s eyes, do you wonder that you have so much
difficulty in hitting it or catching it?

2. Can you see the fly’s antennae? Do you think that it has a keen
sense of smell ? Why ?

3. How many wings has the fly? How does it differ from the bee in
this respect? Can you see two little white objects, one just behind the
base of each wing? These are called poisers, or balancers, and all flies have
them in some form. What is the color of the wings? Are they trans-
parent? Can you see the veins in them? On what part of the body do
the wings grow?

4. Look at the fly from below. How many legs has it? From what
part of the body do the legs come? What is that part of the insect’s body
called, to which the legs and wings are attached?

5. How does the fly’s abdomen look? What is its color and its
covering?

6. Look at the fly’s legs. How many segments can you see in a leg?
Can you see that the segment on which the fly walks has several joints?
Does it walk on all of these segments or on the one at the tip?

7 . When the fly eats, can you see its tongue ? Can you feel its tongue
when it rasps your hand? Where does it keep its tongue usually?

8. Describe how a fly makes its toilet as follows: How does it clean

its front feet? Its head? Its middle feet? Its hind feet? Its wings?

9. Do you know how flies carry disease? Did you ever see them
making their toilet on your food at the table? Do you know what
diseases are carried by flies? What must you do to prevent flies from
bringing disease to your family ?

10. Do you think that a small fly ever grows to be a large fly? How
do the young of all kinds of flies look? Do you know where the house-fly
lays its eggs? On what do the maggots feed? How long before they
change to pupae? How long does it take them to grow from eggs to flies?
How do the house-flies in our northern climate pass the winter?

11. Lesson in Arithmetic — It requires perhaps twenty days to span
the time from the eggs of one generation of the house-fly to the eggs of
the next, and thus there might easily be five generations in one summer.

Insect Study

409

Supposing the fly which wintered behind the window curtain in your home
last winter, flew out to the stables about May 1st and laid 120 eggs in the
sweepings from the horse stable, all of which hatched and matured.
Supposing one-half of these were mother flies and each of them, in turn,
laid 120 eggs, and so on for five generations, all eggs laid developing into
flies, and one-half of the flies of each generation being mother flies. How
many flies would the fly that wintered behind your curtain have pro-
duced by September?

12. Pour some gelatin unsweetened, on a clean plate. Let a house-
fly walk around on the gelatin as soon as it is cool ; cover the plate to keep
out the dust and leave it for two or three days. Examine it then and see
if you can tell where the fly walked. What did it leave in its tracks?

13. Write an essay on the house-fly, its dangers and how to combat it,
basing the essay on Bulletins of the U. S.. Department of Agriculture.

THE COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE
Teacher's Story

HE potato-beetle is not a very attractive insect,
but it has many interesting peculiarities. No
other common insect so clearly illustrates the
advantage of warning colors. If we take a
beetle in the hand, it at first promptly falls
upon its back, folds its legs, and antennae down
close to its body, and “plays possum” in a very
canny manner. But if we squeeze it a little,
immediately an orange-red liquid is ejected on
the hand, and a very ill-smelling liquid it is.
If we press lightly, only a little of the secretion
is thrown off; but if we squeeze harder it
flows copiously. Thus a bird trying to swallow one of these beetles, would
surely get a large dose. The liquid is very distasteful to birds, and it is
indeed a stupid bird that does not soon learn to let severely alone orange
and yellow beetles, striped with black. The source of this offensive and
defensive juice is at first a mystery, but if we observe closely we can see it
issuing along the hind edge of the thorax and the front portion of the
WjLng-covers ; the glands in these situations secrete the protective juice as
it is needed. The larvae are also equipped with similar glands and, there-
f ore,; have the brazen habit of eating the leaves of our precious potatoes
without attempting to hide. They seem to know that they are far safer
when seen by birds than when concealed from them.

The life history of the potato-beetle is briefly as follows: Some
of the adult beetles or pupae winter beneath the surface of the soil,
burrowing down a foot or more to escape freezing. As soon as the potato
plants appear above ground the mother beetle comes out and lays her eggs
upon the under sides of the leaves. These orange-yellow eggs are
usually laid in clusters. In about a week there hatches from the eggs
little yellow or orange humpbacked larvae, which begin at once to feed
upon the leaves. These larvae grow as do other insects, by shedding

4io

Handbook of Nature-Study

Eggs of Colorado potato -
beetle.

Photo by Slingerland.

their skins. They do this four times, and during the last stages, are
very conspicuous insects on the green leaves;
they are orange or yellow with black dots
along the sides, and so humpbacked are they
that they seem to be “gathered with a pucker-
ing string” along the lower side. It requires
from sixteen days to three weeks for a larva
to completje its growth. It then descends into
the earth and forms a little cell in which it
changes to a pupa. It remains in this con-
dition for one or two weeks, according to the
temperature, and then the full-fledged beetle
appears. The entire life cycle from egg to
adult beetle may be passed in about a
month, although if the weather is cold, this
period will be longer. The beetles are very
prolific, a mother beetle having been known
to produce five hundred eggs, and there are
two generations each year. These beetles
not only damage the potato crop by stopping
the growth through destroying the leaves, but they also cause the
potatoes to be of inferior quality.

The adult beetle is an excellent
object lesson in the study of beetle
form. Attention should be called
to the three regions of the body: A
head which is bright orange; the
compound eyes, which are black;
and three simple eyes on the top
of the head, which are difficult to
see without a lens. The antennae
are short, their joints easily noted,
and special attention should be paid
to their use, for they are constantly
moving to feel approaching objects.

The two pairs of mouth palpi may
be seen, and the beetle will eagerly
eat raw potatoes, so that the pupils
may see that it has biting mouth-
parts. The thoracic shield is
orange, ornamented with black.

The three pairs of legs are short,
which is a proof that these beetles
do not migrate on foot. The claws
and the pads beneath can be seen
with the naked eye. Each wing-
cover bears five yellow stripes, also five black ones, although the outside
black stripe is rather narrow. These beetles are very successful flyers.
During flight, the wing-covers are raised and held motionless while the
gauzy wings beneath are unfolded and do the work. Children are
always interested in seeing the way the beetles fold their wings
beneath the wing-covers.

Larvae of Colorado potato-beetle
Photo by Slingerland.

Insect Study

411

One of the most remarkable things about the Colorado potato-beetle
is its history. It is one of the few insect pests which is native to America.
It formerly fed upon sandbur, a wild plant allied to the potato, which
grows in the region of Colorado, Arizona and
Mexico, and was a well behaved, harmless in-
sect. With the advance of civilization west-
ward, the potato came also, and proved to be
an acceptable plant to this insect; and here
we have an example of what an unlimited
food supply will do for an insect species. The
beetles multiplied so much faster than their
parasites, that it seemed at one time as if they
would conquer the earth by moving on from
potato field to potato field. They started on
their march to the Atlantic seaboard in 1859;
in 1874, they reached the coast and judging by
the numbers washed ashore, they sought to fly
or swim across the Atlantic. By 1879, they
had spread over an area consisting of more
than one-third of the United States.

Reference — The Colorado Potato-Beetle,

Chittenden, Bulletin of U. S. Department of Agriculture.

LESSON XCII

The Colorado Potato-beetle

Leading thought — The Colorado potato-beetle is a very important
insect, since it affects the price of potatoes each year. It is disagreeable
as a food for birds, because of an acrid juice which it secretes. We should
learn its life-history and thus be able to deal with it intelligently in pre-
venting its ravages.

Method — The study of the potato-beetle naturally follows and belongs
to gardening. The larvae should be brought into the schoolroom and
placed in a breeding cage on leaves of the potato vine. Other plants may
be put into the cage to prove that these insects will only eat the potato.
The children should observe how the larvae eat and how many leaves a
full grown larva will destroy in a day. Earth should be put in the bottom
of the breeding cage so that the children may see the larvae descend and
burrow into it. The adult beetles should be studied carefully, and espe-
cially, the children should see the excretion of the acrid juice.

Observations — 1. At what time do you see the potato-beetles? Why
are they more numerous in the fall than in the spring? Where do those
which we find in the spring come from? What will they do if they are
allowed to live ?

2. What is the shape of the potato-beetle? Describe the markings
on its head. What color are its eyes? Describe its antennae. How are
they constantly used? Can you see the palpi of the mouth? Give the
beetle a bit of potato and note how it eats.

3. What is the color of the shield of the thorax? Describe the legs. -
Do you think the beetle can run fast? Why not? How many segments
has the foot ? Describe the claws. Describe how it clings to the sides of
a tumbler or bottle.

Handbook of N ature-Study

412

The Colorado potato-beetle.

Photo by Slingerland.

4. If the beetle cannot run rapidly, how does it travel? Describe the
wing-covers. Why is this insect called the ten-lined potato beetle?

5 . Describe the wings. How are they folded when at rest ? How are
the wing-covers carried when the beetle is flying?

6. Take a beetle in your hand. What does it do? Of what advan-
tage is it to ihe insect to pretend that it is dead? If you squeeze the
beetle what happens? How does the fluid which it ejects look and smell?
Try and discover where this fluid comes from? Of what use is it to the
beetle ? Why will birds not eat the potato-beetle ?

7 . Where does the mother beetle lay her eggs ? Are they laid singly
or in clusters? What color are the eggs? How long after they are laid
before they hatch ?

8. Describe the young larva when it first hatches. What color is it at
first? Does it change color later? Describe the colors and markings of a
full grown larva.

9. How does this larva injure the potato vines? Does it remain in
sight while it is feeding? Does it act as if it were afraid of birds ? Why
is it not eaten by bi-rds?

10. Where does the larva go when it is full grown ? How many times
does it shed its skin during its growth ? Does it make a little cell in the
ground ? How does the pupa look ? Can you see in it the eyes, antennae,
legs and wings of the beetle ?

11. Write an English theme giving the history of the Colorado
potato-beetle, and the reasons for its migration from its native place.

Insect Study

THE LADYBIRD
Teacher's Story

Ladybird, Ladybird, fly away home!

Your house is on fire, your children are burning.

HIS incantation we, as children, repeated to this
unhearing little beetle, probably because she is
and ever has been, the incarnation of energetic
indecision. She runs as fast as her short legs can
carry her in one direction, as if her life depended on
getting there, then she turns about and goes with
quite as much vim in another direction. Thus, it
is no wonder the children think that when she

hears this news of her domestic disasters, she

wheels about and starts for home; but she has not
any home now nor did she ever have a home, and she does not carry even a
trunk. Perhaps it would be truer to say that she has a home everywhere,
whether she is cuddled under a leaf for a night’s lodging or industriously
climbing out on twigs, only to scramble back again, or perchance to take
flight from their tips.

There are many species of ladybirds, but in general they all resemble
a tiny pill cut in half, with legs attached to the flat side. Sometimes it
may be a round and sometimes an oval pill, but it is always shining and
the colors are always dull dark red, or yellow, or whit-
ish, and black. Sometimes she is black with red or
yellow spots, sometimes red or yellow with black spots
and the spots are usually on either side of the thorax
and one on each snug little wing-cover. But if we
look at the ladybird carefully we can see the head and the short, clublike
antennae. Behind the head is the thorax with its shield, broadening
toward the rear, spotted and ornamented in various ways ; the head and
thorax together occupy scarcely a fourth of the length of the insect, and
the remainder consists of the hemispherical body, encased with polished
wing-covers. The little black legs, while quite efficient because they can
be moved so rapidly, are not the ladybird’s only means of locomotion;
she is a good flier and has a long pair of dark wings which she folds cross-
wise under her wing-covers. It is comical to see her pull up her wings, as
a lady tucks up a long petticoat; and sometimes ladybrd is rather
slovenly about it and runs around with the tips of her wings hanging out
behind, quite untidily.

But any untidiness must be inadvertent, because the ladybird takes
very good care of herself and spends much time in “washing up.” She
begins with her front legs, cleaning them with her mandibles, industriously
nibbling off every grain of dust ; she then cleans her middle and hind legs
by rubbing the two on the same side, back and forth against each other,
each acting as a whisk broom for the other; she cleans her wings by
brushing them between the edges of the wing-cover above and the tarsus
of her hind leg below.

The ladybird is a clever little creature, even if it does look like a pill,
and if you disturb it, it will fold up its legs and drop as if dead, playing
possum in a most deceptive manner. It will remain in this attitude of

Ladybird larva.

414

Handbook of Nature -Study

rigid death for at least a minute or two and then will begin to claw the aii
with all its six legs in an effort to turn right side up.

From our standpoint the ladybird is of great value, for during the
larval as well as adult stages, all species except one, feed upon those
insects which we are glad to be rid of. They are especially fond of aphids
and scale insects. One of the greatest achievements of economic entomol-
ogy was the introduction on the Pacific Coast of the ladybird from
Australia, called the Vedalia, which preys upon the cottony cushion
scale insect, a species very dangerous to orange and lemon trees. Within
a few years the introduced ladybirds had completely exterminated this
pest.

The ladybird’s history is as follows : The mother beetle, in the spring,

lays her eggs here and there on plants : as soon as the larva hatches, it
starts out to hunt for aphids and other insects. It is safe to say that no
ladybird would recognize her own children in time to save
them, even if the house were burning, for they do not in the
least resemble her; they are neither roly-poly nor shiny, but
are long and segmented and velvety, with six queer, short legs
that look and act as if they were whittled out of wood ; they
seem only efficient for clinging around a stem The larvae are
usually black, spotted with orange or yellow; there are six
warts on each segment, which make the creature’s back look
quite rough. The absorbing business of the larva is to crawl
around on plants and chew up the foolish aphids or the scale
have seen one use its front foot to push an aphid, which it was
eating, closer to its jaws; but when one green leg of its victim still clung
to its head, it did not try to rub it off as its mother would have done, but
twisted its head over this way and that, wiping off the fragment on a plant
stem and then gobbling it up.

After the larva has shed its skeleton skin several times, and destroyed
many times its own bulk of insects, it hunts for some quiet corner, hangs
itself up by the tail and condenses itself into a sub -globular form ;
it sheds its spiny skin pushing it up around the point of attach-
ment, and there lets it stay like the lion’s skin of Hercules. As a
pupa, it is more nearly rectangular than round, and if we look
closely, we can see the wing-cases, the spotted segments of th
abdomen, and the eyes, all encased in the pupa skin; the latter <‘the ’
bursts open after a few days and the shining, little half-globe nine-
emerges a full-grown ladybird, ready for hiding in some cozy spot spotted
to pass the winter, from which she will emerge in the spring, to
stock our trees and vines, next year, with her busy little progeny. u^'

References — American Insects, Kellogg; Manual for the Study of
Insects, Comstock.

Ladybird

pupa.

insects.

LESSON XCIII
The Ladybird

Leading thought — The ladybird is a beetle. Its young are very differ-
ent from the adult in appearance, and feed upon plant -lice.

Method — These little beetles are very common in autumn and may be
brought to the schoolroom and passed around in vials for the children to
observe. Their larvae may be found on almost any plant infested with

Insect Study

415

plant-lice. Plant and all may be brought into the schoolroom and the
actions of the larvae noted by the pupils during recess.

Observations — 1. How large is the ladybird? What is its shape?
Would two of them make a little globe if they were put flat sides together?

2 . What colors do you find on your ladybird ?

3. Do you see the ladybird’s head and antennae? What is7 the broad
shield directly back of the head called ? How is it marked, and with what
colors? What color are the wing-covers? Are there any spots upon
them? How many? Does the ladybird use its wing-covers when it flies?
Describe her true wings. Does she fold them beneath the wing-covers?

4. Note the legs and feet. Are the legs long? Are they fitted for
running? To which part of the body are they attached?

5 . If you disturb the ladybird how does she “ play possum ? ’ ’ Describe
how she makes her toilet.

The larva — 1. Describe the ladybird larva. Does it look like its
mother? What is its form? Is it warty and velvety or shiny ?

2. Describe its head and jaws as far as you can see. How does it act
when eating? Can you see its little stiff legs? Is there a claw at the end
of each?

3 . Describe the actions of the ladybird larva in attacking and eating
the plant-lice. Does it shed its skin as it grows ?

4. Watch a larva until it changes to a pupa. How does the pupa
look? Can you see the shed skin? Where is it? To what is the pupa
attached ? When the pupa skin breaks open what comes out of it ?

5. Why is the ladybird of great use to us ? Write an English theme
upon the ladybird, called Vedalia, which saved the orange orchards of
California.

1. Larva; 2, pupa and 3, adult of a species of ladybird , enlarged.
The small beetle represents actual size.

416

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE FIREFLY

Teacher's Story

And lavishly to left and right.

The fireflies, like golden seeds,

Are sown upon the night.

— Riley.

I time of this sowing is during warm, damp nights in
July and August, and even in September, although
they are sown less lavishly then. How little most of
us know of the harvest, although we see the sowing
which begins in the early twilight against the back-
ground of tree shadows, and lasts until the cold
atmosphere of the later night dampens the firefly
ardor! There is a difference in species as to the
height from the ground of their flight ; some species
hover next to the grass, others fly above our heads,
but rarely as high as the tree tops in northern latitudes. Some species
give a short flash that might be called a refulgent blinking ; others give a
longer flash so that we get an idea of the direction of their flight; and
there is a common species in the Gulf States which gives such long flashes
that they mark the night with gleaming curlicues.

It is likely to be an exciting chase, before we are able to capture a few
of these insects for closer inspection; but when once captured, they do
not sulk but will keep on with their flashing and give us a most edifying
display. The portion of the firefly which gives the light is in the abdomen,
and it glows steadily like “phosphorescent wood”; then suddenly it
gleams with a green light that is strong enough to reveal all its sur-
roundings ; and it is so evidently an act of will on the part of the beetle,
that it is startling to members of our race, who cannot even blush or
turn pale voluntarily. The fireflies may be truly said to be socially bril-
liant, for the flashing of their lights is for the attraction of their mates.

The fireflies are beetles, and there are many
species which are luminous. A common one is here
figured ( Photinus pyralis ) . It is pale gray above

and the head is completely hidden by the big shield
of the thorax. The legs are short; thus this beetle
trusts mostly to its wings as a means of locomotion.

The antennae are rather long and are kept in
constant motion, evidently conveying intelligence
of surroundings to the insect. Beneath the gray
elytra, or wing-covers, is a pair of large, dark-
veined membranous wings which are folded in a
very neat manner crosswise and lengthwise,
when not in use. When in use, the wing-covers are lifted stiffly
and the flying is done wholly with the membranous wings. Looked
at from beneath, we can at once see that some of the segments of the
abdomen are partly or entirely sulphur yellow, and we recognize them as
the lamp. If the specimen is a male, the yellow area covers all of the end
of the abdomen up to the fourth or fifth segment ; but if it is a female,
only the middle portion of the abdomen, especially the fifth segment, is
converted into a lamp. These yellow areas, when dissected under the

A common firefly — The
view of the lower
side shows the
“lamp.”

Insect Study

417

microscope, prove to be filled with fine tracheae, or air-tubes ; and although
we know very little about the way the light is made, it is believed that by
flooding the tubes with air, the oxygen in some way produces the
light.

In some species, the female is wingless and has very short wing-
covers, and a portion of her body emits a steady, greenish light which tells
her lord and master where to find her. These wingless females are called

glow-worms.

Fireflies during their larval stages are popularly called wire worms,
although there are many other beetle larvae thus called. In many of the
species, the firefly eggs, larvae and pupae are all luminescent, but not so
brilliant as when adults. The larva of the species here figured, was
studied by C. V. Riley, who gave us an interesting account of its habits.

It lives in the ground and feeds on soft-bodied
insects, probably earth-worms. Each segment of this
wire worm has a horny, brown plate above, with a
straight white line running through the middle and
a slightly curved white line on each side ; the sides
of the larva are soft and rose-colored; the white
spiracles show against little, oval, brown patches.
Beneath, the larva is cream color with two brown
comma-lilce dots at the center of each segment.
The head can be pulled back completely beneath the
first segment. The most interesting thing about this
larva is the prop-leg at the end of its body, which
t j „ r naturally aids it in locomotion ; but this prop-leg also

rnmmnu .firefiv. functions as a brush ; after the larva has become

soiled with too eager delving into the tissues of some
earthworm, it curls its body over, and with this fan-
shaped hind foot scrubs its head and face very clean. This is a rare
instance of a larva paying any attention to its toilet.

When full-grown, the larva makes a little oval cell within the earth and
changes to a pupa ; after about ten days, the pupa skin is shed and the
full-fledged beetle comes forth. The larva and pupa of this species give
off light, but are not so brilliant as the adult. The pupils should be en-
couraged to study the early stages of the fireflies, because very little is
known concerning them.

In Cuba a large beetle called the cucujo has two great oval spots on its
thorax, resembling eyes, which give off light. The Cuban ladies wear
cucujos at the opera, in nets, in the hair. I once had a pair which I
tethered with gold chains to the bodice of my ball gown. The eye-spots
glowed steadily, but with the movement of dancing, they grew more bril-
liant until no glittering diamonds could compete with their glow.

common firefly.
After C. V. Riley.

LESSON XCIV
The Firefly

Leading thought — When the firefly wishes to make a light, it can pro-
duce one that, if we knew how to make, would greatly reduce the price of
artificial light; for the light made by fireflies and other creatures,
requires less energy than any other light known.

Method — -After the outdoor observations have been made, collect some
of these beetles in the evening with a sweep net; place them under a

4lS

Handbook of Nature-Study

glass jar or tumbler, so that their light can be studied at close range.
The next day give the observation lesson on the insects.

Observations — i. At what time of year do you see fireflies? Do they
begin to lighten before it is dark? Do you see them high in the air or near
the ground? Is the flash they give short, or long enough to make a
streak of light? Do you see them on cold and windy nights or on warm,
still, damp evenings? Make a note of the hour when you see the first one
flash in an evening.

2. Catch a few fireflies in the night ; put them under a glass jar. Can
you see the light when they are not flashing? What color is it? When
they make the flash can you see the outline of the “firefly lamp ?” Watch
closely and see if you think the flashing is a matter of will on the part of
the firefly. Do you think the firefly is signaling to his mate when he
flashes?

3. Study the firefly in daylight. Is it a fly or is it a beetle? What
color is it above? When you look squarely down upon it, can you see its
head and eyes?

4. Are the firefly’s legs long or short? When a beetle has short legs
is it a sign that it usually walks, runs or flies?

5. Describe the antennae. Are they in constant motion? What
service do you think the firefly’s antennae perform for it?

6. Lift one of the wing-covers carefully. What do you find beneath
it? Does the beetle use its wing-covers to beat the air and help it during
flight? How does the beetle hold its wing-covers when flying?

7. Turn the beetle on its back. Can you see the part of the body
that flashes? What color is it?

8. Do you know the life history of the firefly? What is it like in its
earlier stages? Where does it live? Does it have the power of making
light when it is in the larval stage ?

“There, in warm August gloaming.
With quick silent brightenings,

From meadow-lands roaming,

The firefly twinkles
His fitful heat-lightnings .”

— Lowell

A Maybeetle flying, showing that the beetles hold ike
wing-covers stiff and still in flight, the
hind wings doing the work.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

Insect Study

419

THE WAYS OF THE ANT

My child, behold the cheerful ant.

How hard she works, each day;

She works as hard as adamant
Which is very hard , they say.

— Oliver Herford.

ERY many performances on the part of the ant seem
to us without reason; undoubtedly many of our
performances seem likewise to her. But the more
understanding! y we study her and her ways, the
more we are forced to the conclusion that she
knows what she is about ; I am sure that none of us
can sit down by an ant-nest and watch its citizens
come and go, without discovering things to make
us marvel.

By far the greater number of species of ants
find exit from their underground burrows, beneath
stones in fields. They like the stone for more
reasons than one ; it becomes hot under the noon sun and remains warm
during the night, thus giving them a cozy nursery in the evening for their
young. Some species make mounds, and often several neighboring
mounds belong to the same colony, and are connected by underground
galleries. There are usually several openings into these mounds. In
case of some of the western species which make galleries beneath the
ground, there is but one opening to the nest and Dr. McCook says that
this gate is closed at night; at every gate in any ants’ nest, there are
likely to be sentinels stationed, to give warning of intruders.

A', soon as a nest is disturbed, the scared little citizens run helter
skelter to get out of the way; but if there are any larvae or pupae about,
they are never too frightened to take them up and make off with them ;
but when too hard pressed, they will in most cases drop the precious
burden, although I have several times seen an ant, when she dropped a
pupa, stand guard over it and refuse to budge without it. The ant’s eggs
are very small objects, being oblong and about the size of a pin point.
The larvae are translucent creatures, like rice grains with one end pointed.
The pupae are yellowish, covered with a parchment-like sac, and resemble
grains of wheat. When we lift stones in a field, we usually find directly
beneath, the young of a certain size.

There are often, in the same species of ants, two sizes ; the large ones
are called majors and the smaller minors; sometimes there is a smaller
size yet, called minims. The smaller sizes are probably the result of lack
of nutrition. But whatever their size, they all work together to bring
food for the young and in caring for the nest. We often see an ant carry-
ing a dead insect or some other object larger than herself. If she cannot
lift it or shove it, she turns around, and going backwards, pulls it along.
It is rarely that we see two carrying the same load, although we have
observed this several times. In one or two cases, the two seemed not to
be in perfect accord as to which path to take. If the ants find some large
supp^ of food, many of them will form a procession to bring it into the
nest bit by bit ; such processions go back by making a little detour so as
not to meet and inte ffere with tho^e coming. During most of the year,
an ant colony consists only of workers and laying queens, but in early

420

Handbook of Nature-Study

summer the uest may be found swarming with winged forms which are
the kings and queens. Some warm day these will issue from the nest
and take their marriage flight, the only time in their lives when they use
their wings; for ants, like seeds, seem to be provided with wings simply
for the sake of scattering wide the species. It is a strange fact, that often
on the same day swarms will issue from all the nests of one species in the
whole region; by what mysterious messenger, word is sent that brings

about this unanimous exodus, is still a
mystery to us. This seems to be a provi-
sion for cross-breeding; and as bearing upon
this, Miss Fielde discovered that an alien
king is not only made welcome in a nest, but
is sometimes seized by workers and pulled
into a nest; this is most significant, since
no worker of any other colony of the same
species, is permitted to live in any but its
own nest.

After the marriage flight, the ants fall
to the ground and undoubtedly a large
number perish; however, just here our
knowledge is lamentably lacking, and
observations on the part of pupils as to
what happens to these winged forms will be
valuable. In the case of most species, we
know that a queen finds refuge in some
shelter and there lays eggs. Mr. Comstock
once studied a queen of the big, black
carpenter ant which lives under the bark of
trees. This queen, without taking any food
herself, was able to lay her eggs and rear her
first brood to maturity; she regurgitated
food for this first brood, and then they went
out foraging for the colony. However,
Miss Fielde found that in the species she
studied, the queen could not do this; a
question most interesting to solve is
whether any of the young queens, after the
marriage flight, are adopted into other
colonies of the same species. As soon as a
queen begins laying eggs, she sheds her then useless wings, laying them
aside as a bride does her veil.

When we are looking for ants’ nests beneath stones, we often stumble
upon a colony consisting of citizens differing in color. One has the head
and thorax rust-red with the abdomen and legs brown ; associated with
this brown ant, is a black or ash-colored- species. These black ants are
the slaves of the brown species; but slavery in the ant world has its
ameliorations. When the slave makers attack the slave nest, they do not
fight the inmates unless they are obliged to. They simply loot the nest
of the larvae or pupae, which they carry off to their own nests; and there
they are fed and reared, as carefully as are their own young. The slaves
seem to be perfectly contented, and conduct the household affairs of their
masters with apparent cheerfulness. They do all the taking care of the

Agricultural ants. Note that one
ant is carrying a sister .
Drawn by Evelyn Mitchell.

Insect Study

421

nest and feeding the young, but they are never permitted to go out with
war parties; thus they never fight, unless their colony is attacked by
marauders.

If one chances upon an ant battle, one must needs compare it to a
battle of men before the invention of gunpowder; for in those days fight-
ing was more gory and dreadful than now, since man fought man until
one of the twain was slain. There is a great variation in military skill as
• well as in courage shown by different species of ants ; the species most
skilled in warfare, march to battle in a solid column and when they meet
the enemy, the battle resolves itself into duels, although there is no code
of ant honor which declares that one must fight the enemy single-handed.
Although some ants are provided with venomous stings, our common
species use their jaws for weapons; they also eject upon each other a very
acid liquid which we know as formic acid. Two enemies approach each
other, rear on their hind legs, throw this ant vitriol at each other, then
close in deadly combat, each trying to cut the other in two. Woe to the
one on which the jaws of her enemy are once set ! For the ant has bull-
dog qualities, and if she once gets hold, she never lets go even though she
be rent in pieces herself. At night the ant armies retreat to their citadels,
but in the morning fare forth again to battle ; and thus the war may be
waged for days, and the battlefield be strewn with the remains of the dead
and dying. So far as we are able to observe, there are two chief causes
for ant wars; one is when two colonies desire the same ground, and the
other is for the purpose of making slaves.

Perhaps the most interesting as well as most easily observed of all ant
practices, are those that have to do with plant-lice, or aphids. If we find
an ant climbing a plant of any sort, it is very likely that we shall find she
is doing it for the purpose of tending her aphid herds. The aphid is a
stupid little creature which lives by thrusting its bill or sucking tube into
a stem or leaf of a plant, and thus settles down for life, nourished by the

sap which it sucks up ;
it has a peculiar habit
of exuding from its
alimentary canal
drops of honey-dew,
when it feels the caress
of the ant’s antennae
upon its back. I had
one year under obser-
vation, a nest of ele-
gant little ants with
shining triangular ab-
domens which they
waved in the air like
pennants when excit-
ed. These ants were
most devoted attend-
ants on the plantdice
infesting an evening
primrose; if I jarred

An aphid stable, built by ants to protect their herds. the primrose stem.
Photo by simgeriand. the ants had a panic,

422

Handbook of Nature-Study

and often one would seize an aphid in her jaws and dash about madly,
as if to rescue it at all hazards. When the ant wishes honey-dew, she
approaches the aphid, stroking it or patting it gently with her antennas,
and if a drop of the sweet fluid is not at once forthcoming, it is probably
because other ants have previously exhausted its individual supply; if
the ant gets no response, she hurries on to some other aphid not yet
milked dry.

This devotion of ants to aphids has been known for a hundred years,
but only recently has it been discovered to be of economic importance.
Professor Forbes, in studying the corn root-louse, discovered that the ants
care for the eggs of this aphid in their own nests during the winter, and
take the young aphids out early in the spring, placing them on the roots of
smartweed ; later, after the corn is planted, the ants move their charges
to the roots of the corn. Ants have been seen to give battle to the ene-
mies of the aphid. The aphids of one species living on dogwood are pro-
tected while feeding by stables, which a certain species of ant builds around
them, from a mortar made of earth and vegetable matter.

References — Ants, W. M Wheeler, Ant Communities, McCook

LESSON XCV

Field Observations on Ants

Leading thought — However aimless to us may seem the course of the
ant as we see her running about, undoubtedly if we understood her well
enough, we should find that there is rational ant-sense in her perform-
ances. Therefore, whenever we are walking and have time, let us make
careful observations as to the actions of the ants which we may see.

Method — The following questions should be written on the blackboard
and copied by the pupils in their note-books. This should be done in
May or June, and the answers to the questions worked out by observations
made during the summer vacation.

Observations — i. Where do you find ants’ nests? Describe all the
different kinds you have found. In what sort of soil do they make their
nests? Describe the entrance to the nest. If the nest is a mound, is
there more than one entrance ? Are there many mounds near each other?
If so, do you think they all belong to the same colony?

2 . When the nest is disturbed, how do the ants act ? Do they usually
try to save themselves alone? Do they seek to save their young at the
risk of their own lives? If an ant, carrying a young one is hard pressed,
will she drop it ?

3. Make notes on the difference in appearance of eggs, larvae and
pupae in any ants’ nest.

4. In nests under stones, can you find larvae and pupae assorted
according to sizes?

5 . How many sizes of ants do you find living in the same nest ?

6. What objects do you find ants carrying to their nests? Are these
for food? How does an ant manage to carry an object larger than herself?
Do you ever see two ants working together carrying the same load?

7. If you find a procession of ants carrying food to their nest, note if
they follow the same path coming and going.

Insect Study

423

8. If you find winged ants in a nest, catch a few in a vial with a few
of the workers, and compare the two. The winged ants are kings and
queens, the kings being much smaller than the queens.

9. If you chance to encounter a swarm of winged ants taking flight,
make observations as to the size of swarm, the height above the ground,
and whether any are falling to the earth.

10. Look under the loose bark of trees for nests of the big, black
carpenter ant. You may find in such situations a queen ant starting a
colony, which will prove most desirable for stocking an artificial ant’s nest.

11. If you find ants climbing shrubs, trees or other plants, look upon
the leaves for aphids and note the following points:

a. How does an ant act as she approaches an aphid?

b. If the aphids are crowded on the leaf, does she step on them?

c. Watch carefully to see how the ant touches the aphid when she
wishes the honey -dew.

d. Watch how the aphid excretes the honey -dew, and note if the ant
eats it.

e. If you disturb aphids which have ants tending them, note whether
the ants attempt to defend or rescue their herds.

f. If there are aphis-lions or ladybird larvae eating the aphids, note
if the ants attack them.

12. If you find a colony of ants under stones where there are brown
and black ants living together, the black members are the slaves of the
brown. Observe as carefully as possible the actions of both the black
and the brown inhabitants of the nest.

13. If you chance to see ants fighting, note how they make the
attack. With what weapons do they fight? How do they try to get at
the adversary ?

14. Write an English theme covering the following points: How

ants take their slaves; the attitude of masters and slaves toward each
other; the work which the slaves do, and the story of the ant battle.
How ants care for and use their herds.

References — American Insects, Kellogg, Manual for the Study of
Insects, Comstock; Ants, McCook; True Tales, Jordan, page 6.

LESSON XCVI

How to Make the Lubbock Ant-nest

Material — Two pieces of window glass, 10 inches square: a sheet of tin,
11 inches square; a piece of plank, 1% inch thick, 20 inches long and at
least 16 inches wide; a sheet of tin or a thin, flat board, 10 inches square.

To make the nest — Take the plank and on the upper side, a short dis-
tance from the edge, cut a deep furrow. This furrow is to be filled with
water, as a moat, to keep the ants imprisoned. It is necessary, therefore,
that the plank should have no knot holes, and that it be painted thor-
oughly to keep it from checking. Take the sheet of tin 11 inches square,
and make it into a tray by turning up the edges three-eighths of an inch.
Place this tray in the middle of the plank. Place within the tray one
pane of glass. Lay around the edges of this glass four strips of wood
about half an inch wide and a little thicker than the height of the ants
which are to live in the nest. Cover the glass with a thin layer of fine
earth. Take the remaining pane of glass and cut a triangular piece off

424

Handbook of Nature -Study

of one comer, then place the pane on top of the other, resting upon the
pieces of wood around the sides. The cover of the nest may be a piece of
tin, with a handle soldered to the center, or a board with a screw-eye in the
center with which to lift it. There should be a piece of blotter or of very
thin sponge, introduced into the nest between the two panes of glass, in a
position where it may be reached with a pipette, without removing the
upper glass, for it must be kept always damp.

To establish a colony in this nest proceed as follows: Take a two-
quart glass fruit jar and a garden trowel. Armed with these, visit some
pasture or meadow near by, and find under some stone, a small colony of
ants which have plenty of eggs and larvae. Scoop up carefully eggs, ants,
dirt and all and place in the jar, being as careful as possible not to injure
the specimens. While digging, search carefully for the queen, which is a
larger ant and is sometimes thus found. But if you have plenty of eggs,
larvae and pupae, the ants will become very contented in their new nest
while taking care of them. After you have taken all the ants desirable,
place the cover on the jar, carry them to the Lubbock nest and carefully
empty the contents of the fruit jar on top of the board which covers the
nest. Of course the furrow around the plank has been filled with water,
so the stragglers cannot escape. The ants will soon find the way into the
nest through the cut comer of the upper pane of glass, and will transfer
their larvae to it because it is dark. After they are in the nest, which
should be within two or three hours, remove the dirt on the cover, and the
nest is ready for observation. But, since light disturbs the little prison-
ers, the cover should be removed only for short periods.

The Fielde nest is better adapted for a serious study of ants, but it is
not so well adapted for the schoolroom as is the Lubbock nest.

Reference — Ants, W. M. Wheeler.

A Lubbock ant-nest.

Insect Study

425

THE ANT-NEST, AND WHAT MAY BE SEEN WITHIN IT
Teacher's Story

NT anatomy becomes a very interesting study when we
note the vigorous way the ant uses it — even to the
least part. The slender waist characterizes the ant as
well as the wasp; the three regions of the body are
easily seen, the head with its ever moving antennae, the
slender thorax with its three pairs of most efficient legs,
and the long abdomen. The ant’s legs are fairly long
as compared with the size of the body and the ant can
run with a rapidity that, comparatively, would soon
outdistance any Marathon runner, however famed. 1
timed an ant one day when she was taking a constitu-
tional on my foot rule. She was in no hurry, and yet she made time that
if translated into human terms would mean 1 6 yards per second. In addi-
tion to running, many ants when frightened will make leaps with incred-
ible swiftness.

The ant does not show her cleverness in her physiognomy, probably
because her eyes seem small and dull and she has a decidedly “retreating
forehead but the brain behind this unpromising appearance is far more
active and efficient than that behind the gorgeous great eyes of the
dragon-fly or behind the “high brow” of the grasshopper.

The ant’s jaws are very large compared with her head ; they
work sidewise like a pair of shears and are armed with
triangular teeth along the biting edges ; these are not teeth
in a vertebrate sense, but are like the teeth of a saw. These
jaws are the ant’s chief utensils and weapons; with them
she seizes the burdens of food which she carries home ; with
them she gently lifts her infant charges; with them she
crushes and breaks up hard food; with them she carries out soil from her
tunnel, and with them she fights her enemies. She also has a pair of long
palpi, or feelers.

Although her eyes are so small and furnished with coarse facets, as
compared with other insects, this fact need not count against her, for she
has little need of eyes. Her home life is passed in dark burrows where her
antenna give her information of her surroundings. Note how these
antennae are always moving, seeming to be atremble in eagerness to
receive sensations. But aside from their powers of telling things by the
touch, wherein they are more delicate than the fingers of the' blind, they
have other sense organs which are comparable to our sense of .smell.
Miss Fielde has shown that the five end segments of the antennae have
each its own powers in detecting odor. The end segment detects the odor
of the ant’s own nest and enables her to. distinguish this from other nests.
The next, or eleventh segment, detects the odor of any descendant of the
same queen; by this, she recognizes her sisters-wherever she finds them.
Through the next, or tenth segment, she recognizes the odor of her own
feet on the trail, and thus can retrace her own steps. The eighth and
ninth segments convey to her the intelligence and means of caring for
the young. If an ant is deprived of these five end-joints of the antennae,
she loses all power as a social ant and becomes completely disenfranchised.
Miss Fielde gives her most interesting experiments in detail in the Pro-

42(5

Handbook of Nature-Study

The antenna-comb on the front leg
of an ant.

ceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, July and
October, 1901.

It is natural enough that the ant, depending so much on her antennae
for impressions and stimuli, should be very particular to keep them clean
and in good order. She is well equipped to do this, for she has a most
efficient antennae brush on her wrist; it is practically a circular comb,
which just fits over the antenna; and to see the ants using these brushes
is one of the most common sights in the ant-nest and one of the most
amusing. The ant usually commences by lifting her leg over one antenna
and deftly passing it through the brush, and then licks the brush clean by

passing it through her mouth, as a cat
washes her face; then she cleans the
other in a similar manner and possibly
finishes by doing both alternately,
winding up with a flourish, like a
European gentleman curling his mus-
taches. Her antennas cleaned, she
starts promptly to do something, for
she is a little six-footed Martha, al-
ways weighed down or buoyed up by
many duties and cares. Keeping her
antennae on the qui vive, she assures
herself, by touch, of the nature of any
obstacle in her path. If she meets
another ant, their antennae cross and
pat each other, and thus they learn
whether they are sisters or aliens; if they are sisters, they may stand for
some time with their antennae fluttering. One who has watched ants care-
fully, is compelled to believe that they thus convey intelligence of some
sort, one to the other. The ant is a good sister “according to her lights;”
if her sister is hungry, she will give to her, even from her own partially
digested food ; the two will often stand mouth to mouth for some minutes
during this process; if she feels inclined, she will also help a sister at her
toilet, and lick her with her tongue as one cow licks another. The tongue
of the ant is very useful in several ways ; with it she takes up liquids, and
also uses it with much vigor as a washcloth. Sometimes an ant will
spend a half hour or more at her own toilet, licking every part of her own
body that her tongue can reach, meanwhile going through all sorts of
contortions to accomplish it ; she uses her feet to scrub portions of her
body, not to be reached by her
tongue.

But it is as infant nurse that
the ant is a shining example.

No mother instinct is hers, for
she has yielded the power of
motherhood to the exigencies of
business life, since all workers
are females but are undeveloped
sexually. She shows far more
sense in the care of her infant
sisters, than the mother instinct

often supplies to human mothers. Ants making their toilets

Insect Study

427

The ant nurse takes the eggs as soon as laid, and whether or not
her care retards or hastens hatching we know not; but we do
know, that although the queen ant may not lay more than two
eggs per day, a goodly number of these seem to hatch at the same
time. The eggs are massed in bundles and are sticky on the outside so as
to hold the bundle together. Miss Fielde says, as the eggs are hatching,
one ant will hold up the bundle, while another feeds those which have
broken the shell. The larvae, when young, also hang together by means
of tiny hooks on their bodies. This habit of the eggs and young larvae is a
convenient one, since an ant is thus able to carry many at a time.

The larvae are odd looking little creatures, shaped like crookneck
squashes, the small end being the head and neck and the latter being very
extensible. The ant nurses, by feeding some more than others, are able
to keep a brood at the same stage of development; and in a well ordered
ant -nest, we find those of the same size in one nursery. I have often
thought of a graded school as I have noted in ant-nests the youngsters
assorted according to size.

The ants seem to realize the cost and care of rearing their young ; and
when a nest is attacked, the oldest, which are usually in the pupa stage,
are saved first. When the larvae are young, they are fed on regurgitated
food; but as they grow older, the food is brought to them, or they to the
food, and they do their own eating. In one of my nests, I placed part of
the yolk of an egg hard boiled, and the ant nurses dumped the larvae dcwn
around the edges of it; there they munched industriously, until through
their transparent bodies I could see the yellow of the egg the whole length
of the alimentary canal. The ant nurses are very particular about tem-
peratures for their young, and Miss Fielde says they are even more careful
about draughts. Thus they are obliged to move them about in the ground
nests, carrying them down to the lower nurseries in the heat of the day,
and bringing them up, nearer to the warm stones, during the evenings.
This moving is always done carefully, and though the ant’s jaws are such
formidable nippers, she carries her baby sisters with gentleness; and if
they be pupae, she holds them by the loose pupal skin, like carrying a baby
by its clothes. The pupae look like plump little grain bags, tied at one
end with a black string. They are the size of small grains of wheat, and
are often called ants’ eggs, which is absurd, since they are almost as large
as the ant. Ants’ eggs are not larger than pin points.

The ant nurses keep the larvae and pupae very clean by licking them :
and when a youngster issues from the pupa skin, it is a matter of much
interest to the nurses. I have often seen two or three of them help
straighten out the cramped legs and antennae of the young one, and hasten
to feed her with regurgitated food. When ants first issue from the pupa
skin they are pale in color, their eyes being very black in contrast; they
are usually helpless and stupid, although they often try to clean their
antennae and make a toilet; but they do not know enough to follow their
elders from one room to another, and they are a source of much care to the
nurses. In case of moving, a nurse will lock jaws with a “callow,” as a freshly
hatched adult ant is called, and drag her along, the legs of the callow
sprawling helplessly meanwhile. If in haste, the nurse takes hold any-
where, by the neck or the leg, and hustles her charge along; if she takes
her by the waist the callow curls up like a kitten, and is thus more easily
moved. After moving them from one chamber to the next, I have noticed

428

Handbook of Nature-Study

that the callows are herded together, their attendants ranged in a circle
about them. Often we see one ant carrying another which is not a callow,
and this means that a certain number of the colony h ve made up their
minds to move, while the others are not awake to this necessity. In such
a case, one of these energetic sisters will seize another by the waist, and
carry her off with an air that says plainly, “Come along, you stupid!”

Ants are very cleanly in their nests, and we find the refuse piled in a
heap at one corner, or as far as possible from the brood.

If we are fortunate enough to find a queen for the nest, then we may
observe the attention she gets; she is always kept in a special compart-
ment, and is surrounded by ladies in waiting, who feed her and lick her
clean and show solicitude for her welfare ; although I have never observed
in an ants’ nest, that devotion to royalty which we see in a beehive.

Not the least interesting scene in an ants’ nest is when all, or some, are
asleep and are as motionless as if dead.

LESSON XCVII

Observations of Ants in an Artificial Nest

Leading thought — The ants are very devoted to their young and per-
haps the care of them is the most interesting feature in the study of the
artificial nest.

Method — Have, in the schoolroom, a Lubbock’s nest with a colony of
ants within it, with their larvae in all stages, and if possible, their queen.
For observing the form of the ant, pass one or two around in a vial.

Observations — i. What is there peculiar about the shape of the ant’s
body ? Can you see which section bears the legs ? Are the ants’ legs long
compared with her body ? Can she run rapidly ?

2. Look at the ant’s head through a lens, and describe the antennae,
the jaws and the eyes.

3. Note how the ant keeps her antennae in motion. Note how she
gropes with them as a blind person with his hands. Note how she uses
them in conversing with her companions.

4. How does the ant clean her antennae? Does she clean them more
often than any other part of her body ? How does she make her toilet ?

5 . See how an ant eats syrup . How do ants feed each other ?

6. How does the ant carry an object ? How does she carry a larva or
a pupa ? Have you ever seen one ant carry another ? If so, describe it.

7. Note the way the ants feed their young. How do they keep them
clean ? Does an ant carry one egg or one small larva at a time or a bundle
of them ? How do you suppose the bundle is fastened together ?

8. Describe an egg, a larva and a pupa of the ant and tell how they
differ. Do you know which ant is the mother of the larvae in the nest ?

9. Do you find larvae of different sizes all together in your nest? Do
you find larvae and pupae in the same group ? Do the ants move the young
often from one nest to another ? Why do you suppose they do this ?

10. Note how the ant nurses take care of the callow ant when it is
coming out from the pupa skin. How do they assist her and care for her?
How do they lead her around ? How do ants look when resting?

11. Note where the ants throw the refuse from the nest. Do they
ever change the position of this dump heap ?

429

Insect Study

THE MUD-DAUBER

Teacher's Story

THIS little cement worker is a nervous and fidgety creature,
jerking her wings constantly as she walks around in the
sunshine; but perhaps this is not nervousness, but
rather to show off the rainbow iridescence of her black
wings; surely such a slim-waisted being as she, has a
right to be vain. No tight lacing ever brought about
such a long, slim waist as hers; it is a mere pedicel
and the abdomen is a mere knob at the end of it. The
latter seen from the outside, would seem of little use as
an abdomen ; but if we watch the insect flying, we can
see plainly that it is used to steer with.

In early summer, we find this black wasp at her trade as a mason.
She seeks the edges of pools or puddles where she works industriously,
leaving many little holes whence she takes mud to mix with the saliva,
which she secretes from her mouth to make firm her cement. This
cement she plasters on the under side of some roof or rafter or other pro-
tected place, going back and forth until she has built a suitable founda-
tion. She works methodically, making a tube
about an inch long, smooth inside but rough
outside, the walls about one-eighth of an inch
thick. She does all of the plastering with her
jaws, which she uses as a trowel. When the
tube is completed except that the end is left
open, she starts off in quest of spiders, and
very earnestly does she seek them. I have
seen her hunt every nook and comer of a
piazza for this prey. When she finds a spider,
she pounces upon it and stings it until it is
helpless, and carries it to her cement tube,
which is indeed a spider sarcophagus, and
thrusts it within. She brings more spiders
until her tube is nearly full ; she then lays an
egg within it and then makes more cement and
neatly closes the door of the tube. She then
places another tube by the side of this, which
she provisions and closes in the same way;
and then she may make another and another
tube, often a half dozen, under one adobe roof.

• The wasp in some mysterious way knows
how to thrust her sting into the spider’s ner-
vous system in a peculiar way, which renders
her victim unable to move although it yet
lives. The wasp is no vegetarian like the bee,
and she must supply her young with wasp-
meat instead of bee-bread. Since it is during the summer and hot
weather when the young wasps are hatched and begin their growth, their
meat must be kept fresh for a period of two or three weeks. So these
paralyzed spiders do not die, although they are helpless. It is certainly
a practical joke with justice in it, that these ferocious creatures lie

Handbook of Nature-Study

helpless while being eaten by a fat little grub which they would gladly
devour, if they could move.

a* b. c» d*

A mud-dauber and her nests, with cells cut open
showing a, larva full grown; b, cocoon;
c, young larva feeding on its
spider-meat and d, an
empty cell.

Drawn by Anna C. Stryke.

The wasp larva is a whitish, plump grub and it eats industriously until
the spider meat is exhausted. It then weaves a cocoon of silk about itself
which just covers the walls of its home tube, like a silken tapestry; within
this cocoon the grub changes to a pupa. When it finally emerges, it is a
full-grown wasp with jaws which are able to cut a door in the end of its
tube, through which it comes out into the world, a free and accepted
mason. The females or queens, which issue late in the season, hide in
warm or protected places during the winter; they particularly like the
folds of lace window curtains for hibernating quarters. There they
remain until spring comes, when they go off to build their plaster houses.

There are about seventy species of mud wasps in our country. Some
provision their nests with caterpillars instead of spiders. This is true of
the jug-builder, which makes her nest jug-shaped and places two or three
of them side by side upon a twig. She uses hair in her mortar, which
makes it stronger. This is necessary, since the jug is saddled upon twigs
and is more exposed to the rain than is the nest of the most common mud-
dauber. The jug-builder is brown in color and has yellow markings on
the abdomen; but she does not resemble the yellow-jackets, because she
has a threadlike waist. There are other species of mud wasps which use
any small cavity they can find for the nest, plastering up the opening after
the nest has been provisioned and the egg laid. We often find keyholes,
knot-holes and even the cavity in the telephone receiver, plastered up by
these small opportunists.

The mud-dauber which is the most common, and most likely to be
selected for this lesson, is a slender creature and looks as if she were made
of black tinsel; her body gives off glints of steel and blue; her abdomen
constantly vibrates with the movement of breathing. Her eyes are large
and like black beads; her black antennae curve gracefully outward, and
her wings, corrugated with veins, shimmer with a smoky blue, green and
purple. She stands on her black tip-toes when she walks, and she has a

Insect Study

43i

way of turning around constantly as if she expected an attack from the
rear. Her wings, like those of other mud* wasps are not folded fan-wise
like those of the yellow-jacket, but are folded by each other over her back.

The Jug-builder and 'her nests.

LESSON XCVIII

The Mud-dauber

Leading thought — There are certain wasps which gather mud and mix
it into mortar with which to build nests for their young. Within these
nests, the mother wasp places spiders or insects which are disabled by her
sting, for the food of the young wasps.

Method — Have the pupils bring the homes of the mud wasps to school
for observation. The wasps themselves are very common in June and
also in September, and they also may be studied at school and may be
passed around in vials for closer observation ; they do not sting severely
when handled, the sting being a mere prick. The purpose of the lesson
should be to stimulate the pupils to watch the mud-daubers while building
their nests and capturing their prey.

Observations — 1. Where did you find the mud -dauber’s nest? How
was it protected from the rain? Was it easily removed? Could you
remove it all, or did some of it remain stuck fast?

2. What is the shape of the nest? How does it look inside? Of how
many tubes does it consist? How long is each tube? Were the tubes
laid side by side?

3. Of what material was the nest made? Is it not much harder
than mud? How did the wasp change the mud to cement? Where did
she get the mud ? How did she carry it ? With what tools did she plaster
it?

4. For what purpose was the nest made? Is the inside of the tubes
smooth as compared with the outside of the nest?

5. Write a little story about all that happens in one of these tubes,

including the following points: What did the mother wasp place in the

tube? How and why did she close it? What hatched from the egg she
placed within it? How does the young wasp look? On what does it feed ?
What sort of a cocoon does it spin? How does it get out of the nest when
full-grown?

43 2

Handbook of Nature-Study

6. Describe the mud-dauber wasp. How large is she? What is the
color of her body? Of her wings? How many wings has she ? How are
her wings folded differently from those of the yellow-jacket? Describe
her eyes; her antennae; her legs; ' her waist; her abdomen.

7. Where did you find the wasp? How did she act? Do you think
that she can sting? How does she pass the winter?

8. Do you knew the mud wasps which build the little, jug-shaped
nests for their young? Do you know the mud wasps which utilize
crevices and keyholes for their nests and plaster up the opening?

9. Do you know about the digger wasps which pack away grasshop-
pers or caterpillars in a hole in the ground, in which they lay their egg and
then cover it?

Supplementary reading — Insect Stories, Kellogg; Wasps, Social and
Solitary, Peckham ; Wasps and their Ways, Morley ; The Ways of the Six-
footed, Comstock.; Home Studies in Nature, Treat.

THE YELLOW-JACKET

Teacher's Story

ANY wasps are not so waspish after all when we under-
stand one important fact about them; i. e.,
although they are very nervous themselves, they
detest that quality in others. For years the
yellow- jackets have shared with us our meals at
our summer camp on the lake shore. They make
inquisitive tours of inspection over the viands on
the table, often seeming to include ourselves, and
coming so near that they fan our faces with their
wings. They usually end by selecting the
sweetened fruits, but they also carry off bits of
roast beef, pouncing down upon the meat platter
and seizing a tidbit as a hawk does a chicken . We always remain calm
during these visitations, for we know that unless we inadvertently pinch
one, we shall not be harmed; and it is great fun to watch one of these
graceful creatures poising daintily on the side of the dish lapping up the
fruit juice as a cat does milk, the slender, yellow-banded abdomen pal-
pitating as she breathes. Occasionally, two desire the same place, and a
wrestling match ensues which is fierce while it lasts, but the participants
always come back to the dish unharmed. They are extra polite in their
manners, for after one has delved eagerly into the fruit
syrup,, she proceeds to clean her front feet by passing
them through her jaws, which is a wasp way of using a
finger bowl.

Both yellow-jackets and the white-faced black-
hornets build in trees and similarly, although the paper
made by the yellow-jackets is finer in texture. However,
some species of yellow-jackets build their nests in the
ground, but of similar form. The nest is of paper made Ayellow-
of bits of wood which the wasps pull off with their jaws ]ac et
from weather-worn fences or boards. This wood is reduced to a pulp by
saliva which is secreted from the wasp’s mouth, and is laid on in little

Insect Study

433

layers which can be easily seen by examining the outside of the nest.
These layers may be of different colors. A wasp Mull come with her load
of paper pulp, and using her jaws and front feet for tools she will join a
strip to the edge of the paper and pat it into shape. The paper tears more
readily along the lines of the joining, than across. The cover of the nest
is made of many layers of shell-like pieces fastened together and the outer
layers are waterproof; the opening of a nest is at the bottom. Mr. Lub-
bock has shown that certain wTasps are stationed at the door, as sentinels,
to give warning on the approach of the enemy. The number of stories of
combs in a nest depends upon the age and size of the colony. They are
fastened together firmly near the center, by a central core or axis of very
strong, firm paper, which at the top is attached to a branch or whatever
supports the nest. The cells all open downward, in this respect differing
from those of the honey-bee, which are usually placed horizontal. The
wasp-comb differs from the honey-comb in that it is made of paper instead
of wax, and that the rows of cells are single instead of double. The cells
in the wasp-comb are not for storing honey, but are simply the cradles for
the young wasps. (See Fig. p, 457.)

Sometimes a wasp family disaster makes it possible for us to examine
one of these nests with its inmates. Here we find in some of the cells, the
long white eggs fastened to the very bottom of the cell, in an inner angle,
as if a larva when hatched needed to have a cozy corner. These wasp
larvae are the chubbiest little grubs imaginable and are very soft bodied.
It was once a mystery to me how they were able to hang in the cells, head
down, without getting “black in the face” or falling out; but this was
made plain by studying the little disk at the rear end of the larva’s body,
which is decidedly sticky; after a larva is dead, its heavy body can be
lifted by pressing a match against this disk; thus it evidently suffices to
keep the baby wasp stuck fast to its cradle. The larva’s body is mostly
covered with a white, papery, soft skeleton skin ; the head is yellowish and
highly polished, looking like a drop of honey. At one side may be seen a
pair of toothed jaws, showdng that it is able to take and chew any food
brought by the nurses. They seem to be well trained youngsters for they
all face toward the center of the nest, so that a nurse, when feeding them,
can move from one to another without having to pass to the other .side of
the cell. It is a funny sight to behold a combful of well grown larvae, each
fitting in its cell like meal in a bag and with head and several segments
projecting out as if the bag were overflowing. It behooves the wasp
larva to get its head as far out of the cell as possible, so that it will not be
overlooked by the nurses; the little ones do this by holding themselves at
the angle of the cell ; this they accomplish by wedging the back into the
corner. These young larvae do not face hrwards like the older ones, but
iiey rest in an inner angle of the cell.

After a larva has reached the limit of its cell room, it spins a veil
around itself and fastens it at the sides, so that it forms a lining to the
upper part of the cell and makes a bag over the “head and shoulders” of
the insect. This cocoon is very tough, and beneath its loose dome the
larva skin is shed ; the pupa takes on a decidedly waspish form, except
that the color is all black; the legs and the wings are folded piously down
the breast and the antennae lie meekly each side of the face, wdth the
“hands” folded outside of them; the strong toothed jaws are ready, so
that when the pupa skin is molted, the insect can cut its silken curtain,
and come out into its little nest world, as a Ml-fledged vellow-jacket.

434

Handbook of Nature-Study

What a harlequin the wasp is, in her costume of yellow and black!
Often in the invertebrate world these colors mean “sit up and take
notice,” and the wasp’s costume is no exception.
Whoever has had any experience in meddling with
yellow-jackets, avoids acquaintance with all yellow
and black insects. Yet we must confess that the lady
wasp has good taste in dress. The yellow cross bands
on her black skirt are scalloped, and, in fact, all her
yellow is put on in a most chic manner; she, being

Looking a wasp slender, can well afford to dress in roundwise stripes,
in the face. and she folds her wings prettily like a fan, and not over
her back like the mud wasp, which would cover her decorations. There
is a sensation coming to the one who, armed with a lens, looks a wasp in the
face ; she always does her hair pompadour, and the yellow is here put on
with a most bizarre effect, in points and arabesques. Even her jaws are
yellow with black borders and black notches. Her antennae are velvety
black, her legs are yellow, and her antennae comb, on her wrist, is a real
comb and quite ornate.

In the nest which we studied in late August, the
queen cells were just being developed. They were placed
in a story all by themselves, and they were a third larger
than the cells of the workers. The queen of this nest was
a most majestic wasp, fully twice as large as any of her
subjects; her face was entirely black, and the yellow
bands on her long abdomen were of quite a different pat-
tern than those on the workers ; her sting was not so long
in proportion, but I must confess it looked efficient. In cofnb wrist
fact, a yellow-jacket’s sting is a formidable looking spear my a y as &
when seen through a microscope, since it has on one side some backward
projecting barbs, meant to hold it firm when driving home the thrust.

While wasps are fond of honey and other sweets, they are also fond of
animal food and eat a great many insects, benefiting us greatly by
destroying mosquitoes and flies. As no food is stored for their winter use,
all wasps excepting the queens die of the cold. The queens crawl away
to protected places and seem to be able to withstand the rigors of winter;
each queen, in the spring, makes a little comb of a few cells, covering it
with a thin layer of paper. She then lays eggs in these cells and gathers
food for the young; but when these first members of the family, which are
always workers, come to maturity, they take upon themselves the work
of enlarging the nest and caring for the young. After that, the queen
devotes her energies to laying eggs.

Wasps enlarge their houses by cutting away the paper from the inside
of the covering, to give more room for building the combs wider; to com-
pensate for this, they build additional layers on the outside of the nest.
Thus it is, that every wasp’s nest, however large, began as a little comb of
a few cells and was enlarged to meet the needs of the rapidly growing
family. Ordinarily the nest made one year is not used again.

The antenna-

435

Insect Study

LESSON XCIX
The Yellow-jacket

Leading thought — The wasps were the original paper makers, using
wood pulp for the purpose. Some species construct their houses of paper
in the trees or bushes while others build in the ground.

Method — Take a deserted wasp-nest, the larger the better, with sharp
scissors remove one side of the covering of the nest, leaving the combs
exposed and follow with the questions and suggestions indicated. From
this study of the nest encourage the children to observe more closely the
wasps and their habits, which they can do in safety if they learn to move
quietly while observing. (See Fig. page 457.)

Observations — 1. Which kind of wasp do you think made this nest?
Of what is the nest made? Where did the wasp get the material? How
do the wasps make wood into paper ?

2. What is the general shape of the nest ? Is the nest well covered to
protect it from rain? Where is the door where the wasps went in and
out? Is the covering of the nest all of the same color? Do these differ-
ences in color give you any idea of how the wasps build the paper into the
nest? Does the paper tear more easily one way than another? Is the
covering of the nest solid or in layers?

3 . How many combs or stories are there in the wasp house ? How
are they fastened together and how suspended ?

4. Compare the combs of the wasp-nest with those of the honey-bee.
How do they resemble each other and how differ? Do the cells open up-
ward or downward? For what purpose are the combs in the wasp-nest
used? Are all the cells of the same size? Do you know the reason for
this difference in size ?

5. How do the young wasp grubs manage to cling to the cells head
downward ? Are the cells lined with a different color and does this lining
extend out over the opening in some cases? Is this lining of the cells
made of paper also ? Do you know how a young wasp looks and how the
white lining of the cells is made?

6. Do you believe that some wasps of the colony are always posted as
sentinels at the door to give warning if the colony is attacked ?

7. Do wasps store food to sustain them during the winter? What
happens to them during winter? Is the same nest used year after year.

8. Can you describe the beginning of this wasp-nest? When was it
made? Tell the story of the wasp that made it. How large was the nest
at first ? How was the nest enlarged ?

9. What is the food of wasps? How do these insects benefit us?

10. Write a story giving the life history of a wasp.

11. In the summer watch a yellow-jacket eat from a dish of sweetened
fruit which you may place out of doors to coax her to come where you can
carefully observe her. What are the colors of the yellow- jacket? Where
is the yellow? How are the yellow bands made ornamental? How does
she fold her wings ? How many wings has she ? What is the color of her
legs? Describe her antennae and eyes. How does she eat the fruit juice?
Can you see the motion of her body when she breathes?

43 6

Handbook of Nature -Study

THE LEAF-CUTTER BEE
Teacher's Story

fE beautiful day in late June when I was picking some
roses, I saw a bee, almost as large as a honey-bee but
different in shape and darker in color, alight on a leaf
and moving with nervous rapidity, cut a circle out of
a leaf with her jaws “quicker’n a wink;” then taking
the piece between her fore-feet and perhaps holding it
also with her jaws, she flew away, the green disk
looking as large in proportion to her size as a big base
drum hung to the neck of a small drummer. I waited
long for her to come back, but she came not ; mean-
while I examined the leaves of the rose bush and
found many circlets, and also many oblong holes with the ends deeply
rounded, cut from the leaflets.

I knew the story of the little bee and was glad I had seen her cut a
leaflet with her jaw shears, which work sidewise like real shears. I knew
that somewhere she had found a cavity big enough for her needs ; perhaps
she had tunneled it herself in the dead wood of some post or stump, using
her jaws to cut away the chips; maybe she had found a crevice beneath
the shingles of a roof or beneath a stone in the field, or she may have rolled
a leaf; anyway, her little cave was several inches long, circular in outline
and large enough io admit her body. She first cut a long piece from the
rose leaf and folded it at the end of the tunnel; and then she brought
another and another long piece and bent and shaped them into a little
thimble-like cup, fastening them together with some saliva glue, from her
mouth. After the cup was made to her liking,- she went in search of food,
which was found in the pollen of some flowers. This pollen was carried
not as the honey-bees do, because she has no pollen baskets on her legs;
but it was dusted into the fur on the lower side of her body; as she
scraped the pollen off, she mixed it with some nectar which she had
also found in the flowers, and made it into a pasty mass and heaped it at
the bottom of the cup; she probably made many visits to flowers before
she had a sufficient amount of this bee pastry, and then she laid an egg
upon it ; after this, she immediately flew back to the rose bush to cut a lid
for her cup. She is a nice mathematician and she cuts the lid just a little
larger than the rim of the cup, so that it may be pushed down in, making
it fit very closely around the edges; she then cuts another and perhaps
another of the same size and puts them over and fastened to the first cover.
When finished, it is surely the prettiest baby basket ever made by a
mother, all safely enclosed to keep out enemies. But her work is then
only begun. She has other baby baskets to make and she perhaps makes
ten or more, placing one cup just ahead of another in the little tunnel.

But what is happening meanwhile to the bee babies in the baskets?
The egg hatches into a little white bee grub which falls to and eats the
pollen and nectar paste with great eagerness. As it eats, it grows and
sheds its skeleton skin as often as it becomes too tight, and then eats and
grows some more. How many mothers would know Just how much food
it would require to develop a child from infancy until it grows up ! This
bee mother knows well this amount and when the food is all gone, the little
bee grub is old enough to change to a pupa; it looks very different now,

*■

Insect Study

437

and although mummy-shaped we can see its folded wings and antennae.
After remaining a motionless pupa for a few days, it sheds its pupa skin
and now it is a bee just like its mother; but as the oldest bee is at the
bottom of the tunnel, even after it gets its wings and gnaws its way out of
its basket, it very likely cannot escape and find its way out into the sun-
shiny world, until its younger brothers and sisters have gone out before it.

There are many species of these leaf-cutter bees and each species makes
its own kind of a nest, always cutting the same size of circlets and usually
choosing its own special kind of leaf to make this cradle. Some are
daintier in their tastes and use rolled petals instead of leaves; and we
have found some tiny cups made of gorgeous peony petals, and some of
pansy petals, a most exquisite material.

At Chautauqua we found a species which rolled maple leaves into a
tube which held three or four cups, and we also found there a bee stowing
her cups in the open end of a tubular rod, used to hold up an awning.
There are other species which make short tunnels in the ground for their
nests, but perhaps the most common of all wedge their cups between or
beneath the shingles on the roofs of summer cottages. But, however or
wherever the leaf-cutter works, she is a master mechanic and does her
work with niceness and daintiness.

Pansy cut by leaf-cutter bee.
Drawing by Anna C. Stryke.

438

Handbook of N ature-Study

LESSON C

The Leaf-cutter Bee

Leading thought — When we see the edges of rose leaves with holes of
regular pattern in them, some of the holes being oblong and some circular,
we know the leaf-cutter bee has cut them to make her cradle cups.

Method — It is very easy to find in June or autumn the leaves from
which the leaf-cutter bee has cut the bedding for her young. Encourage
the pupils to look for the nest during the summer and to bring some of the
cups to school when they return, where they may be studied in detail;
meanwhile the teacher may tell the story of the nest. This is rather
difficult for the pupils to work out.

Observations — i . Do you find rose leaves with round holes cut in their
edges? Do you find on the same bush some leaflets with oblong holes in
them? Sketch or describe the rose leaf thus cut, noting exactly the shape
of the holes. Are the circular holes of the same size? Are the long holes
about equal in size and shape? Do you find any other plants with holes
like these cut in them? Do you find any petals of flowers thus cut?

2. What do you think made these holes? If an insect was taking a
leaf for food would the holes be as regular? Watch the rose bush care-
fully and see if you can discover the insect which cuts the leaf.

Leaf -cutter bee; the rose leaf cut by her; her nest-cups removed
from the tube in which they were built , the cup made first,
cut open to show bee larva .

Photo by Slineeriand.

Insect Study

439

3. Have you ever seen the little black bee carrying pieces of rose
leaves between her front feet? With what instrument do you suppose she
cut the leaves? Where do you think she was going?

4. Have you ever found the nest of the leaf-cutter bee? Was it in a
tunnel made in dead wood or in some crack or cranny? How many of the
little rose leaf cups are there in it? How are the cups placed? Are the
little bees still in the cups or can you see the holes through which they
crawled out?

5. Take one cup and study it carefully. How are the pieces of
leaves folded to make the cups ? How is the lid put on ? Soak the cup in
water until it comes apart easily. Describe how many of the long pieces
were used and how they were bent to make a cup. Of how many thick-
nesses is the cover made? Are the covers just the same size or a little
larger than the top of the cup? How does the cover fit so tightly?

6. If you find the nest in July or early August, examine one of the
cups carefully and see what there is in it. Take off the cover without
injuring it. What is at the bottom of the nest? Is there an insect
within it? How does it look? What is it doing? Of what do you think
its food was made? How and by whom was the food placed in the cup?
Place the nest in a box or jar with mosquito netting over the top, and put
it out of doors in a safe and shaded place. Look at it often and see what
this insect changes into.

7. If the mother bee made each little nest cup and put in the bee-
bread, and honey for her young, which cup contains the oldest of the
family? Which the youngest? How do you think the full-grown bees
get out of the cup ?

8. Do you think that the same species of bee always cuts the same
sized holes in a leaf? Is it the same species which cuts the rose leaves and
the pansy petals?

THE LITTLE CARPENTER-BEE
Teacher's Story

AKE a dozen dead twigs from almost any sumac or
elder, split them lengthwise, and you will find in at
least one or two of them, a little tunnel down the cen-
ter where the pith once was. In the month of June
or July, this narrow tunnel is made into an insect
apartment house, one little creature in each apart-
ment, partitioned off from the one above and the one
below. The nature of this partition reveals to us
whether the occupants are bees or wasps; if it is
made of tiny chips, like fine sawdust glued together, a
bee made it and there are little bees in the cells ; if it
is made of bits of sand or mud glued together, a wasp was the architect
and young wasps are the inhabitants. Also, if the food in the cells is
pollen paste, it was placed there by a bee; if of paralyzed insects or
spiders, a wasp made the nest.

The little carpenter-bee ( Ceratina dupla) is a beautiful creature,
scarcely one quarter of an inch in length, with metallic blue body and

440

Handbook of Nature-Study

rainbow tinted wings. In May, she selects some broken twig
of sumac, elder or raspberry, which gives her access to the
pith; this she at once begins to dig out, mouthful by mouth-
ful, until she has made a smooth tunnel several inches long;
she then gathers pollen and packs bee-bread in the bottom of
the cell to the depth of a quarter-inch, and then lays upon
it, a tiny white egg. She then brings back some of her chips
of pith and glues them together, making a partition about one-
tenth of an inch thick, which she fastens firmly to the sides of
the tunnel ; this is the roof for the first cell and the floor of
the next one ; she then gathers more pollen, lays another egg,
and builds another partition.

Thus she fills the tunnel, almost to the opening, with cells,
sometimes as many as fourteen ; but she always leaves a space
for a vestibule near the door, and in this she makes her home
while her family below her are growing up.

The egg in the lowest cell of course hatches first; a little
bee grub issues from it and eats the- bee-bread industriously
and grows by shedding his skin when it becomes too tight;
then he changes to a pupa and later to a bee resembling his
The little a m°ther- But, though fully grown, he cannot get out into the
Renter -bee ;her sunshine, for all his younger brothers and sisters are blocking
nest, cut open, the tunnel ahead of him ; so he simply tears down the partition
showing the above him and kicks the little pieces of it behind him, and bides
eJdest larva at hjs time until the next youngest brother tears down the par-
the ° youngest tition above his head and pushes its fragments behind him
nearest theen - into the very face of the elder which, in turn, performs a
trance. similar act ; and thus, while he is waiting, he is kept more

or less busy pushing behind him the broken bits of all the
partitions above him. Finally, the youngest gets his growth, and th^re
they all are in the tunnel, the broken partitions behind the hindmost at
the bottom of the nest, and the young bees packed closely together in a
row with heads toward the door. When we find the nest at this period,
we know the mother because her head is toward her young ones and her
back to the door. A little later, on some bright morning, they all come
out into the sunshine and flit about on gauzy, rainbow wings, a very
happy family, out of prison.

But if the brood is a late one, the home must be cleaned out and used as
a winter nest, and still the loyal little mother bee stays true to her post ;
she is the last one to enter the nest; and not until they are all housed
within, does she enter. It is easy to distinguish her for her poor wings are
torn and frayed with her long labor of building the nest, until they scarcely
serve to carry her afield ; but despite this she remains on guard over her
brood, for which she has worn out her own life.

Nest of carpenter-wasp.
Comstock’s Manual.

Insect Study

44i

The story of the little carpenter-wasps Is similar to that of the bee,
except that we have reason to believe they often use her abandoned
tunnels instead of making new ones They make their little partitions
out of mud ; their pupse are always in long, slender, silken cocoons, and we
have no evidence that the mother remains in attendance.

LESSON Cl

The Little Carpenter-bee

Leading thought — Not all bees live in colonies like
the honey-bees and bumblebees. One tiny bee rears
her brood within a tunnel which she makes in the
pith of sumac, elder or raspberry.

Method — This lesson may be given in June or in
October. In June, the whole family of bees in their
apartments may be observed; in autumn, the empty
tenement with the fragments of the partitions still
clinging may be readily found and examined; and
sometimes a whole family may be found, stowed away
in the home tunnel, for the winter.

Observations — 1. Collect dead twigs of sumac or
elder and cut them in half, lengthwise. Do you find
any with the pith tunneled out?

2 How long is the tunnel ? Are its sides smooth ?
Can you see the partitions which divide the long
narrow tunnel into cells ? Look at the partitions with
a lens, if necessary, to determine whether they are made
of tiny bits of wood or of mud. If made of mud, what
insect made them ? If of little chips how and by what
were they constructed ?

3. Are there any insects in the cells? If so,
describe them. Is there bee-bread in the cells?

4. For what was the tunnel made? With what
tools was it made? How are the partitions fastened
together? How does a young bee look?

5. Write the story of the oldest of the bee family
which lived in this tunnel. Why did it hatch first?
On what did it feed? When it became a full fledged
bee, what did it do? How did it finally get out?

6 Take a glass tube, the hollow at the center
being about one-eighth of an inch across, a tube
which you can get in any drug-store. Break this
tube into sections, six or seven inches long, wrap
around each a black paper or cloth, made fast with
rubber bands and suspend them in a hedge or among
thick bushes in May. Examine these tubes each week
to see if the wasps or bees are using them.

Supplementary reading — “The Story We Love
Best,” in Ways of the Six-footed, Comstock.

Nest of large car-
penter-wasp
Comstock’s Manual.

442

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE BUMBLEBEE
Teacher's Story

Thou, in sunny solitudes,

Rover of the underwoods,

The green silence dost replace
With thy mellow, breezy bass.

— Emerson.

HERE seems to have been an hereditary war between
the farm boy and the bumblebee, the hostilities
usually initiated by the boy. Like many wars, it
is very foolish and wicked, and has resulted in great
harm to both parties. Luckily, the boys of to-day are
more enlightened; and it is to be hoped that they
will learn to endure a bee sting or two for the sake of
protecting these diminishing hosts, upon which so
many flowers depend for carrying their pollen ; for
of all the insects of the field, the bumblebees are the best and most
needed friends of the flowers.

The bumblebees are not so thrifty and forehanded as are the honey-
bees, and do not provide enough honey to sustain the whole colony during
the winter. Only the mother bees, or queens as they are called, survive
the cold season. Just how they do it, we do not know, but probably they
are better nourished and therefore have more endurance than the workers.
In early May, one of the most delightful of spring visitants is one of these
great buzzing queens, flying low over the freshening meadows, trying to
find a suitable place for her nest; and the farmer or fruit grower who
knows his business, is as anxious as she that she find suitable quarters,
knowing well that she and her children will render him most efficient aid
in growing his fruit and seed. She finally selects some cosy place, very
likely a deserted nest of the field mouse, and there begins to build her
home. She toils early and late, gathering pollen and nectar from the
blossoms of the orchard and other flowers which she mixes into a loaf as
large as a bean upon which she lays a few tiny eggs and then covers with
wax. She then makes a honey-pot of wax as large as a small thimble and
fills it with honey; thus provided with food she broods over her eggs,
keeping them warm until they hatch. Each little bee grub then burrows
into the bee-bread making for itself a cave while satisfying its hunger.
When fully grown, it spins about itself a cocoon, changes to a pupa and
then comes out a true bumblebee but smaller than her queen mother.
These workers are daughters and are happy in caring for the growing
family; they gather pollen and nectar and add to the mass of bee-bread
for the young to burrow in, meanwhile the queen remains at home and
devotes her energies to laying eggs. The workers not only care for the
young, but later they strengthen the silken pupa cradles with wax, and
thus make them into cells for storing honey. When we understand that
the cells in the bumblebee’s nest are simply made by the young bees
burrowing in any direction, we can understand why the bumblebee comb
is so disorderly in the arrangement of its cells. Perhaps the boy of the
farm would find the rank bumblebee honey less like the ambrosia of the
gods if he knew that it was stored in the deserted cradles and swaddling
clothes of the bumblebee grubs.

Insect Study

443

A bumblebee' s nest after a frost. Note the mummy of the first owner of the nest.
Photo by Slingerland.

All of the eggs in the bumblebee nest in the spring and early summer
develop into workers which do incidentally the vast labor of carrying
pollen for thousands of flowers ; to these only is granted the privilege of
carrying the pollen for the red clover, since the tongues of the other bees
are not sufficiently long to reach the nectar. The red clover does not
produce seed in sufficient quantity to be a profitable crop, unless there are
bumblebees to pollinate its blossoms. Late in the summer, queens and
drones are developed in the bumblebee nest, the drones, as with the
honey-bees, being mates for the queens. But of all the numerous popula-
tion of the bumblebee nest, only the queens survive the rigors of winter,
and on them and their success depends the future of the bumblebee
species.

There are many species of bumblebees, some much smaller than others,
but they all have the thorax covered with plush above and the abdomen
hairy, and their fur is usually marked in various patterns of pale yellow
and black. The bumblebee of whatever species, has short but very active
antennae and a mouth fitted for biting as well as for sucking. Between
the large compound eyes are three simple eyes. The wings are four in
number and strong ; the front legs are very short ; all the legs have hairs
over them and end in a three-jointed foot, tipped by a claw. On the hind
leg, the tibia and the first tarsal joint are enlarged, making the pollen
baskets on which the pollen is heaped in golden masses. One of the most
interesting observations possible to make, is to note how the bumblebee
brushes the pollen from her fur and packs it into her pollen baskets.

444

Handbook of N ature -Study

LESSON CII
The Bumblebee

Leading thought — The bumblebees are the chief pollen carriers for most
of our wild flowers as well as for the clovers and other farm plants. They
should, therefore, be kindly treated everywhere; and we should be careful
not to hurt the big queen bumblebee which we see often in May.

Method — Ask the questions and encourage the pupils to answer them
as they have opportunity to observe the bumblebees working in the
powers. A bumblebee may be imprisoned in a tumbler for a short period
ifor observation, and then allowed to go unharmed. It is not advisable to
istiHy the nest, which is not only a dangerous proceeding for the pupil, but
jit also means the destruction of a colony of these very useful insects.
Llowever, if the location of a nest is discovered, it may be dug up and
jStudied after the first, heavy frost. Special stress should be laid upon the
'observations of the actions of the bees when visiting flowers.

Observations — i. In how many flowers do you find the bumblebee?
Watch her closely and see how she gets the nectar. Notice how she
“bumbles around” in a flower and becomes dusted with pollen. Watch
her and note how she gets the pollen off her fur and packs it in her pollen
baskets. On which legs are her pollen baskets? How does the pollen
look when packed in them? What does she do with pollen and nectar?

2. Catch a bumblebee in a jelly glass and look at her closely. Can
you see three little eyes between the big compound eyes? Describe her
antennae. Are they active? How many pairs of wings has she? Do
you think they are strong? Which pair of legs is the shortest? How
many segments are there in the leg? Do you see the claws on the foot?

3. What is the bumblebee’s covering? What is the color of her
plush? Is she furry above and below?

4. Can you see that she can bite as well as suck with her mouth-parts ?
Will a bumblebee sting a person unless she is first attacked?

5 . Have you seen the very large queen bumblebee in the spring, flying
near the ground hunting for a place to build a nest? Why must you be
very careful not to hurt her ? How does she pass the winter ? WThat does
she do first, in starting the nest?

6. In how many ways does the bumblebee benefit us?

Insect Study

445

THE HONEY-BEE
Teacher's Story

URING many years naturalists have been study-
ing the habits and adaptations of the honey-
bees, and, as yet, the story of their wonderful
ways is not half told. Although we know fairly
well what the bees do, yet we have no inkling of
the processes which lead to a perfect govern-
ment and management of the bee community ;
and even the beginner may discover things
never known before about these fascinating
little workers. In beginning this work it might
be well to ask the pupils if they have ever heard of a republic that has
many kings and only one queen; and where the citizens do all the
governing without voting, and where the kings are powerless and the
queen works as hard and longer than any of her subjects; and then tell
them that the pages of history contain no account of a republic so wonder-
ful as this; yet the nearest beehive is the home of just this sort of
government.

In addition to the interest of the bee colony from a nature-study stand-
point, it is well to get the children interested in bee-keeping as a commer-
cial enterprise. A small apiary well managed may bring in an acceptable
income ; and it should be the source of a regular revenue to the boys and
girls of the farm, for one hive should net the young bee-keeper from three
to five dollars per year and prove a business education to him in the mean-
time.

Bees are perfect socialists. They have non-competitive labor, united
capital, communal habitations and unity of interests. The bee commune
is composed of castes as immutable as those of the Brahmins, but these
castes exist for the benefit of the whole society instead of for the individ-
uals belonging to them. These castes we have named queens, drones and
workers, and perhaps, first of all, we should study the physical adaptations
of the members of these castes for their special work in the community.

The Worker (p.446, Fig. 3.)

There are three divisions to the body of the bee, as in all insects — head,
thorax and abdomen. The head bears the eyes, antennae and mouth-
parts, (p. 448, W.) There are two large compound eyes on either side
of the head and three simple eyes between them. The antennae arise from
the face, each consisting of two parts, one straight segment at the base,
and the end portion which is curved and made up of many segments.
There is also a short, bead-like segment where the antenna joins the face.
A lens is needed to see the jaws of the bee, folded across, much like a pair of
hooks, and below them the tongue, which is a sucking tube ; the length of
the tongue is very important , for upon this depends the ability of the bee to
get nectar from the flowers.

The thorax bears three pairs of legs below and two pairs of wings
above. Each leg consists of six segments, and the foot or tarsus has four
segments and a pair of claws. The front leg has an antennae comb between
the tibia and tarsus, (p. 447, F, a,) the hind leg has a pollen basket, which
is a long cavity bordered by hairs wherein the pollen is packed and carried
(p. 447, A, pb.) On the other side of the larse ioint beyond the pollen

Handbook of N ature-Study

446

basket are rows of spines which are used to remove the pollen from the
baskets (p. 447 , B , pc,) and between these two large segments are the pin-
cers for removing the wax (p. 447 , B , wp.)

The front pair of wings is larger than the hind pair. The wings of the
old bees that have done much work are always frayed at the edges.

There are six segments or rings to the abdomen, plainly visible from
above. If the five segments next the thorax are marked above with yel-
low bands on their front edges, the bee is an Italian. On the lower side of
the abdomen, each segment is made up of a central plate with an over-
lapping plate on each side; just at the front edge on each side of the cen-
tral plate is a wax pocket which cannot be seen unless the bee is dissected
under a microscope. From these pockets are secreted little flecks of wax
(p. 448, X.)

The Queen

The queen bee is a truly royal insect. She is much larger than the
worker, her body being long, pointed, and extending far beyond the tips of

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

lo Queen bee. 2. Drone. 3. Worker; all enlarged.
4. Queen cells.

From How to Keep Bees — Comstock.

Drawn by A. J. Hammar.

Insect Study

447

her closed wings, giving her a graceful form. She has no pollen baskets or
pollen comb upon her legs, because it is not a part of her work to gather
pollen or honey. The queen bee starts life as an ordinary worker egg.

Legs of worker honey-bee.

A , outer surface of hind leg showing the nine segments and claws ; ph , the
pollen basket of tibia; B. inner surface of part of hind leg; wp, wax-
pincers; pc, pollen-combs ; C. inner surface of part of hind leg of queen;

D, inner surface of part of hind leg of drone; E, part of middle leg of
worker; s, spur; F, part of fore leg showing the antenna cleaner a;

G, part of antenna showing sense-hairs and sense-pits.

From How to Keep Bees— Comstock.

Drawn by A. J. Hammar.

which is selected for special development. The workers tear down the
partitions of the cells around the chosen egg and build a projection over
the top, making an apartment, (p. 446, Fig. 4.) The little white bee grub,
as soon as it hatches, is fed for five days on the same food as is given to
the worker grubs for three days; it is a special substance, secreted by the
worker bees, called royal jelly. This food is very nourishing, and after
being reared upon it, the princess larva weaves around herself a silkeri
cocoon and changes to a pupa. Meanwhile the workers have sealed her
cell with wax.

448 Handbook of N atur e-Study

When the princess-pupa changes to the full-grown queen she cuts a
circular door in the cover of the cell and pushes through it into the world.
Her first real work is to hunt for other queen cells and if she finds one, she
will, if not hindered, make a hole in its side and sting to death the poor
princess within. If she finds another full-grown queen, the two fight
until one succumbs. The queen never uses her sting upon anything or
anyone except a rival queen.

After a few days she takes her marriage flight in the air, where she
mates with some drone, and then returns to her hive and begins her great
work as mother of the colony. She runs about on the comb, pokes her
head into a cell to see if it is ready, then turning about thrusts her abdomen
in and neatly glues an egg fast to the bottom.

When the honey seqson is at its height she works with great rapidity,
sometimes laying at the rate of six eggs per minute, often producing 3,000
eggs during a day, which would equal twice her own weight. If the
workers do not allow her to destroy the other queens, she then takes a
portion of her colony with her and swarms out, seeking a home elsewhere.

D, head of drone ; Q, head of queen bee: W, head of worker;
X, worker bee seen from below, showing plates of wax
secreted from wax pockets.

From How to Keep Bees — Comstock.

Drawn by A. J. Hammar.

Insect Study

449

The Drone

The drone differs much in shape from the queen and the worker. He
is broad and blunt, being very different in shape from the queen, and
larger than the worker, (p. 446, Fig. 2.) He has no pollen baskets on his legs
and has no sting. His eyes are very much larger than those of the queen
or the worker and unite at the top of the head (p. 448, D.) His wings
are larger and stronger than those of the worker or queen. It is not his
business to go out and gather honey or to hplp in the wort of the hive.
His tongue is not long enough to get honey from the flowers; he has no
pollen basket in which to carry pollen ; he has no sting to fight enemies
and no pockets for seer ting wax ; he is fed by his sister wo kers until the
latter part of the season when the honey supply runs low, and then he is
stung or bitten to death by these same sisters who have always given him
such good care. The drone should be called a prince or king, since his
particular office in the hive is to mate with the queen.

References — How to Keep Bees, Comstock; The Bee People, Morley.

LESSON CIII
The Honey-bee

Leading thought — In a colony of honey-bees there are three different,
forms of bees, the queens, the drones, and the workers. All of these
have their own special work to do for the community.

Method— In almost every country or village community there is an
apiary, or at least someone who keeps a few colonies of bees ; to such the
teacher must turn for material for this lesson. If this is not practical the
teacher may purchase specimens from any bee dealer ; she may, for in-
stance, get an untested queen with attendant workers in a queen cage sent
by mail for a small sum. These could be kept alive for some time by
feeding them with honey, during which time the pupils can study the
forms of the two castes. Any apiary during September will give enough
dead drones for a class to observe. Although ordinarily we do not advo-
cate the study of dead specimens, yet common sense surely has its place
in nature-study; and in the case of the honey-bee, a closer .study of the
form of the insect is desirable than the living bee might see fit to permit.
There are no more wonderful instances of adaptation of form to life than
is found in the anatomy of the workers, queens and drones; moreover, it
is highly desirable if the pupils are ever to become bee-keepers, that they
shall know these adaptations.

A lens is almost necessary for these lessons and a compound microscope
used with a low power would be a very desirable adjunct. This lesson
should not be given below the fifth grade; and it is better adapted to
eighth grade work.

The Worker

Observations — 1. How many divisions of the body are there?

2. What organs are borne on the head?

3. Are there small, simple eyes between the large compound ones?

4. What is the difference between the large eyes and the small?

5. Describe the antennae.

6. What can you see of the mouth? Describe it.

45°

Handbook of N atur e-Study

7. Look at the tongue under the microscope and see how it is fitted
for getting nectar from flowers.

8. What organs are borne on the thorax?

9. Study the front or middle leg. How many joints has it?

10. With a lens find the antennae cleaner on the front leg. Describe
it.

1 1 . Describe the feet and claws.

12. Compare the third segment of the hind leg with that of the front
leg.

13. Note that this segment of the hind leg is much wider. Note its
form and describe how it forms the pollen basket.

14. Study the next segment of the hind leg, and note the wax pincers
and the pollen combs.

15. Compare the front and hind wing as to shape and size.

16. How many rings are there on the abdomen and how are the rings
colored above.

17. Study the lower side of the body; do you know where the wax
comes from?

18. Write an English theme on the development of the larva of the
worker bee ; the duties of a worker bee from the time it issues from its
cocoon until it dies working for the colony.

The Queen Bee

1 . How does the queen differ in size and shape from the worker?

2. Has she pollen baskets or pollen combs on her hind legs?

3 . How does the shape of the abdomen differ from that of the worker ?

4. Write an English theme on the life of a queen bee. This should

cover the following points: The kind of cell in which the queen is

developed ; the kind of food on which she is reared ; the fact that she never
stings people but reserves her sting for other queens; why she does not
go out to gather honey ; how and by whom and on what she is fed ; she
would not use pollen baskets if she had them; the work she does for the
colony ; the length of her life compared with that of a worker ; the time
of year when new queens are developed, and what becomes of the old
queen when a new one takes her place; why she is called a queen.

The Drone

1. How does the drone differ in size and form of body from the
worker ?

2. How does he differ in these respects from the queen?

3. Has he pollen baskets on his legs?

4. Hasheasting?

5 . Compare his eyes with those of the queen and worker.

6. Compare the size of his wings with those of the queen and worker.

7. Write an English theme on the drone. This should cover the fol-
lowing points : n what sort of cell is the drone developed ; does he go

out to gather honey or help in the work of the hive ; how he is fed ; how
he is unfitted for work for the colony in the following particulars : Tongue,
lack of pollen baskets, lack of sting, and of wax pockets; why the drone
should be called a prince or king; the death of the drones; when and by
what means it occurs.

45i

Insect Study

Honey-comb

Teacher's Story

HE structure of honey-comb has been for ages
admired by mathematicians, who have meas-
ured the angles of the cells and demonstrated
the accurate manner in which the rhomb-
shaped cell changes at its base to a three faced
pyramid; and proven that, considering the
material of construction, honey-comb exem-
plifies the strongest and most economic struc-
ture possible for the storing of liquid contents.
While recent instruments of greater precision
in measuring angles, show less perfection in
honey-comb than the ancients believed, yet the fact still stands that
the general plan of it is mathematically excellent.

Some have tried to detract from bee skill, by stating that the six-sided
cell is simply the result of crowding cells together. Perhaps this was the
remote origin of the hexagonal cell ; but if we watch a bee build her comb,
we find that she begins with a base laid out in triangular pyramids, on
either side of which she builds out six-sided cells. A cell just begun, is as
distinctly six-sided as when completed.

The shape of the cell of a honey-comb is six-sided in cross section.
The bottom is a three-sided pyramid and its sides help form pyramids
at the bottom of the cells opposite, thus economizing every particle of
space. In the hive, the cells lie horizontal usually, although sometimes
the combs are twisted.

The honey is retained
in the cell by a cap of
wax which is made in a
very cunning fashion;
it consists o± a cir-
cular disc at the mid-
dle supported from
the six angles of the
cell by six tiny girders.

The comb is made fast
to the section of the
hive by being plas-
tered upon it. The
foundation comb sold
to apiarists is quite
thick, so that the
edges of the cell may
be drawn out and al-
most complete the
sides of the cell.

However, the founda-
tion comb is expensive and is ordinarily used by the bee-keeper simply as
a starter, which means a little strip a few inches or so in width fastened
to the top of a section just to give the bees a hint that this is the direction
in which the comb should be built, a hint which the bees invariably take.

A section of honey. Note the caps to the cells, each
supported by six girders.

452

Handbook of Nature-Study

The cells of honey-comb are used also for the storing of bee-bread and also
as cradles for the young bees.

References — -The Bee People, Morley; How to Keep Bees, Comstock.

Starters of foundation comb in section boxes, partially built out by the bees.
The section at the left has a “ starter ” of foundation comb. The other
sections show the work of the bees in drawing out and
building on the "starters.”

LESSON CIV
The Honey-comb

Leading thought — The cells of honey-comb are s;x-sided and in double
rows and are very perfectly arranged for the storing of honey, so as to save
room.

Materials — A section filled with honey and also a bit of empty comb
and a bit of commercial foundation comb which may be obtained in
any apiary.

Observations — i . Look at a bit of empty honey-comb ; what is the
shape of the cell as you look down into it?

2. What is the shape of the bottom of the cell?

3. How does the bottom of the cell join the bottom of the cell oppo-
site ? Explain how honey-comb economizes space as storage for honey,
and why an economy of space is of use to bees in the wild state.

4. In the hive is the honey-comb placed so that the length of the cells
are horizontal or up and down?

5 . Observe honey-comb containing honey ; how is the honey retained
in the cells ?

6. Carefully take off a cap from the honey cell and see if you can
find the six girders that extend inward from the angles of the cell to
support the circular portion in the center.

7. By what means is the honey-comb made fast .to the sides of the
section or the hive?

8. Study a bit of foundation comb and note where the bees will pull
out the wax to form the cell.

9. Why and how is foundation comb used by the bee-keeper?

10. For what purpose besides storing honey are the cells of honey-
comb used by the bees?

I ns e ci Study

453

INDUSTRIES OF THE HIVE AND THE OBSERVATION HIVE

Teacher's Story

EE-hives are the houses which man furnishes for
the bee colonies, the wild bees ordinarily living
in hollow trees or in caves. The usual hive
consists of a box which is the lower story and
of one or more upper stories, called “supers.”
In the lower story are placed frames for the1
brood and for storing the honey for the winter
use of the bees. In the supers are placed the
sections, each of which is planned to hold a
pound of honey. It is the habit of the bees to
place their brood in the lower part of their
nests and store honey in the upper portions.
The bee-keepers have taken advantage of this habit of the bees and
remove the supers with their filled sections and replace them with others
to be filled, and thus get a large crop of honey. The number of bees in a
colony varies; there should be at least 40,000 in a healthy colony. Of
these a large proportion are workers ; there may be a few hundred drones
the latter part of the season but only one queen.

Honey-comb is built of wax and is hung from the frame so that the
cells are horizontal ; its purpose is to cradle the young and for the storage
of pollen and honey. The wax used for building the comb is a secretion
of the bees; when comb is needed, a number of self -elected bee citizens
gorge themselves with honey and hang themselves up in a curtain, each
bee reaching up with her fore feet and taking hold of the hind feet of the
one above her. After remaining thus for some time the wax appears in
little plates, one on each
side of the second,
third, fourth and fifth
segments of the abdo-
men. This wax is
chewed by the bees
and made into comb.

Honey is made from
the nectar of flowers
which the bee takes
into her honey stom-
ach. This, by the way,
is not the true stomach
of the bee and has
nothing to do with
digestion. It is simply
a receptacle for storing
the nectar, which is
mixed with some secre-
tion from the glands of
the bee which brings
about chemical
changes, the chief of
which is changing the

A home-made observation hive.

454

Handbook of Nature-Study

cane sugar of the nectar into the more easily digested grape sugar of
the honey. After the honey is emptied from the honey stomach into
the cell, it remains exposed to the air for some time before the cell is
capped, and thus ripens. It is an interesting fact that up to the seven-
teenth century honey was the only means people had for sweetening
their food, as sugar was unknown.

Bee-bread is made from the pollen of flowers which is perhaps
mixed with saliva so as to hold together; it is carried from the
field on the pollen baskets of the hind legs of the workers; it is
packed into the cell by the bees and is used for food. Propolis
is bee glue; it is used as a cement and varnish; it is gathered by
the bees -from the leaf-buds of certain trees and plants, although
when they can get it, the bees will take fresh varnish. It is used as
a filler to make smooth the rough places of the hive ; it often helps hold
the combs in place ; it calks every crack ; it is applied as a varnish to the
cells of the honey-comb if they remain unused for a time, and if the door of
the observation hive be left open the bees will cover the inside of the glass
with this glue, and thus make the interior of the hive dark.

The young bees are footless, white grubs. Each one lives in its own
little cell and is fed by the nurse bees, which giv$ it partly digested food
from their own stomachs.

The removal of honey from the supers does not do any harm to the bee
colony if there is enough honey left in the brood chambers to support the
bees during the winter. There should be twenty-five or thirty pounds of
honey left in the brood chamber for winter use. In winter, the hives
should be protected from the cold by being placed in special houses or by
being encased in larger boxes, leaving an opening so that the bees may
come out in good weather. The chaff hive is best for both winter and
summer, as it surrounds the hive with a space, which is filled with chaff,
and keeps the hive warm in winter and cool in summer. Many bee-
keepers put their bees in cellars during the winter, but this method is not
as safe as the chaff hive. Care should be taken in summer to place the
hives so that they are shaded at least part, of the day. The grass should
be mown around the hives so that the bees will not become entangled in it,
as they return from the fields laden with honey.

What may be seen in the observation hive — First of ail, it is very
interesting to watch the bees build their comb. When more comb is
needed Certain members of the colony gorge themselvbs with honey and
remain suspended while it oozes out of the wax pockets on the lower side
of the abdomen. This wax is collected and chewed to make it less brittle
and then is carried to the place where the comb is being built and is
molded into shape by the jaws of the workers. However, the bee that
puts the wax in place is not always the one that molds it into comb.

A bee cbmes into the hive with her honey stomach filled with nectar
and disgorges this into a cell. Whefn a bee comes in loaded with pollen, she
first brushes it from the pollen baskets on her hind legs into the cell;
later another worker comes along and packs the pollen grains into the cell
with her head, which is a comical sight.

The bee nurses run about on the cdrnb feeding the young bee grubs
partially digested honey and pollen regurgitated from their own stomachs
Whenever the queen moves about the comb she is followed by a retinue of
devoted attendants which feed her on the rich and perfectly digested royal

Insect Study

455

jelly and also take care
of her royal person and
give her every atten-
tion possible. The
queen, when laying,
thrusts her abdomen
into the cell and glues a
little white egg to the
bottom. The specially
interesting thing about
this is that the queen
always lays an egg
which will produce a
female, or worker in the
smaller cells and will
always lay an egg to produce a drone or male in the larger cells.

If there is any foreign substance in the observation hive it is interesting
to see the bees go to work at once to remove it. They dump all of the
debris out in front of the hive. They close all crevices in the hive; and
they will always curtain the glass, if the door is kept open too much, with
propolis or bee glue, which is a very sticky substance which they get from
leaf buds and other vegetable sources. When bees fan to set up a current
of air in the hive, they glide back and forth, moving the wings so rapidly
that we can only see a blur about their bodies.

If drones are developed in the hive, it is interesting to see how tenderly
they are fed by their sister workers, although they do not hesitate to help
themselves to the honey stored in the cells ; and if the observation hive is
working during September, undoubtedly the pupils may be able to see the
murder of the drones by their sisters. But the children should understand
that this killing of the drones is necessary for the preservation of the
colony, as the workers cannot store enough honey to keep the colony alive
during the winter if the drones were allowed to go on feeding.

If you see the worker bees fighting, it means that robbers are attempt-
ing to get at the stores of the observation hive. The entrance to the hive
should at once be contracted by placing a block of wood in front, so that
there is room for only one bee at a time to pass in and out.

LESSON CV

The Industries of the Hive

Leading thought — In the hive are carried on the industries of wax-
making, building of honey-comb, storing of honey and bee-bread, caring
for the young, keeping the hive clean and ventilated and calking all
crevices with bee glue.

Method — This lesson should be in the nature of a demonstration. If
there is an apiary in the neighborhood, it is quite possible that the teacher
may show the pupils a hive ready for occupancy by the bees ; in any case
she will have no difficulty in borrowing a frame of brood comb, and this
with a section of honey which can be bought at the grocery store, is
sufficient if there is no observation hive. This lesson should be an in-
formal talk between teacher and pupils.

- y, ^ ----- . j , ^

The observation hive made and sold by A. I. Root.

456

Handbook of Nature-Study

An observation hive in the schoolroom is an object of greatest interest
to the pupils, as through its glass sides they may be able to verify for
themselves the wonderful tales concerning the lives and doings of the bees
which have been told us by naturalists. Moreover, the study thus made
of the habits of the bees is an excellent preparation for the practical
apiarist, and we sincerely believe that bee-keeping is one of the ways by
which the boys and girls of the farm may obtain money for their own use.

The observation hive is very simply constructed and can be made by
anyone who knows how to use ordinary carpenter tools. It is simply
a small, ordinary hive with a pane of glass on each side which is covered
by a hinged door. A hive thus made is placed so that the front end
rests upon a window sill ; the sash is lifted an inch or so, a strip of wood, or
a piece of wire netting being inserted underneath the sash except in front
of the entrance of the hive, to hinder the bees from coming back into the
room. A covered passageway should extend from the entrance of the
hive to the outside of the window sill. This window should be one which
opens away from the playground so that the bees coming and going, will
not come into collision with the pupils. The observation window should
De kept carefully shut, except when the pupils are using it, since the bees
object to light in their homes.

The A. I. Root Co., of Medina, Ohio, sell a pretty observation hive
which we have used successfully by stocking it afresh each season, it being
too small for a self-sustaining colony. But it has the advantage of small-
ness which enables us to see all that is going on within it, which would be
impossible in a larger hive. This hive comes in several sizes, and will be
shipped from the makers stocked with bees at prices ranging from $1.25 to
$4.00.

Observations — Industries and care of the hive — 1 . What is the hive, and
what do wild bees use instead of the hive? Describe as follows:

2. Describe a brood chamber and a super and the uses of each.

3. How many and what bees live in a hive.

4. How the honey-comb is made and placed and the purpose of it.

5. How the wax is produced and built into the comb.

6. How honey is made.

7. What bee-bread is and its uses.

8. What propolis is and what it is used for.

9. How young bees look and how they are cradled and fed.

10. Does the removal of the honey from the supers in the fall do any
harm to the bee colony?

11. How much honey should a good-sized colony have in the fall to
winter well?

1 2 . How should the hives be protected in the winter and summer ?

What may be seen in the observation hive — 13. Describe how a bee

works when building honey-comb.

14. How does the bee act when storing honey in a cell?

15. How does a bee place pollen in a cell and pack it into bee-bread?

16. Describe how the nurse bees feed the young, and how the young
look when eating.

17. Describe how the “ladies in waiting” feed and care for the queen.

18. Try to observe the queen when she is laying eggs and describe her
actions.

19. How do the bee workers keep their house clean?

Insect Study

457

•20. How do they stop all crevices in the hive? If you keep the hive
uncovered too long, how will they curtain the window?

21. Describe the actions of the bees when they are ventilating the
hive.

22. If there are any drones in the hive, describe how they are fed.

23. How can you tell queens, drones and workers apart?

A wasp's nest with side walls removed.

458

Handbook of Nature-Study

VII. OTHER INVERTEBRATE-ANIMAL STUDY

THE GARDEN SNAIL
Teacher's Story

b 'A ERCHANCE if those who speak so glibly of a “snail’s pace**'
JLJSf ,, should study it, they would not sneer at it, for carefully
observed, it seems the most wonderful method of locomotion
ever devised by animal. Naturally enough, the snail can-
p i\.' not gallop since it has but one foot ; but it is safe to assert

that this foot, which is the entire lower side of the body, is a
remarkable organ of locomotion. Let a snail crawl up the side of a
tumbler and note how this foot stretches out and holds on. It has
flanges along the sides, which secrete an adhesive substance that enables
the snail to cling, and yet it also has the power of letting go at will. The
slow, even, pushing forward of the whole body, weighted by the un-
balanced shell, is as mysterious and seemingly as inevitable, as the march
of fate, so little is the motion connected with any apparent muscular
effort. But when his snailship wishes to let go and retire from the world,
this foot performs a feat which is certainly worthy of a juggler; it folds
itself lengthwise, and the end on which the head is retires first into the
shell, the tail end of the foot being the last to disappear. And now find
your snail !

Never was an animal so capable of stretching out and then folding up
all its organs, as is this little tramp who carries his house with him. Turn
one on his back when he has withdrawn into his little hermitage, and
watch what happens. Soon he concludes he will find out where he is, and
why he is bottomside up ; as the first evidence of this, the hind end of the
foot, which was folded together, pushes forth ; then the head and horns
come bubbling out. The horns are not horns at all, but each is a stalk
bearing an eye on the tip. This is arranged conveniently, like a marble
fastened to the tip of a glove finger. When a snail wishes to see, it
stretches forth the stalk as if it were made of rubber; but if danger is per-
ceived, the eye is pulled back exactly as if the marble were pulled back
through the middle of the glove finger; or as a boy would say, “it goes
into the hole and pulls the hole in after it.” Just below the stalked eyes,
is another pair of shorter horns, which are feelers, and which may be
drawn back in the same manner ; they are used constantly for testing the
nature of the surface on which the snail is crawling. It is an interesting
experiment to see how near to the eyes and the feelers we can place an
object, before driving them back in. With these two pairs of sense
organs pushed out in front of him, the snail is well equipped to observe
the topography of his immediate vicinity ; if he wishes to explore above,
he can stand on the tip of his tail and reach far up ; and if there is any-
thing to take hold of, he can glue his toe fast to it and pull himself up.
Moreover, I am convinced that snails have decided views about where
they wivSh to go, for I have tried by the hour to keep them marching length-
wise on the piazza railing, so as to study them; and every snail was
determined to go crosswise and crawl under the edge, where it was nice
and dark.

Other Invertebrate-Animal Study

459

It is interesting to observe through a lens, the way a snail takes his
dinner; place before him a piece of sweet apple or other soft fruit, and he
will lift himself on his front toe and begin to work his way into the fruit.

Snail sketches. ■

The thorny path to: bliss; 2. Snail showing the
breathing-pore; 3. Prospecting.

He has an efficient set of
upper teeth, which look like
a saw and are colored as if he
chewed tobacco; with these
teeth and with his round
tongue, which we can see
popping out, he soon makes
an appreciable hole in the
pulp; but his table manners
are not nice, since he is a hope-
less slobberer.

There are right and left
spiraled snails. All those ob-
served for this lesson show the
spiral wound about the center
from left over to right, or in
the direction of the movement
of the hands of a clock, ana
this is usually the case. With
the spiral like this, the breath-
ing pore is on the right side of
the snail and may be seen as
an opening where the snail
joins the shell. This pore
may be seen to open and con-
tract slowly; by this motion,
the air is sucked into the shell
where it bathes the snail’s
lung, and is then forced out — •
a process very similar to our
own breathing.

The snail has good judg-
ment when attacked; at the
first scare, he simply draws in
his eyes and feelers and with-
draws his head, so that noth-
ing can be seen of him from
above, except a hard shell
which would not attract the
passing bird. But if the at-
tack continues, he lets go all
hold on the world, and noth-
ing can be seen of him but a
little mass which blocks the
door to his house ; and if he is

obliged to experience a drought, he makes a pane of glass out of mucus
across his door, and thus stops evaporation. This is a very wise precau-
tion, because the snail is made up largely of moisture and much water is
needed to keep his mucilage factory running.

460

Handbook of N atur e-Study

The way the snail uses his eyes is comical ; he goes to the edge of a leaf
and pokes one eye over to see what the new territory is like ; but if his eye
strikes an object, he pulls that one back, and prospects for a time with the
other. He can lengthen the eye-stalk amazingly if he has need. How
convenient for us if we could thus see around a corner. If a small boy were
as well off as a snail, he could see the entire ball game through a knot-hole
in the fence. In fact, the more we study the snail, the more we admire,
first his powers of ascertaining what there is in the world, and then his
power of getting around in the world by climbing recklessly and relent-
lessly over obstacles, not caring whether he is right side up on the floor or
hanging wrong side up from the ceiling; and, finally, we admire his utter
reticence when things do not go to suit him. I think the reason I always
call a snail “he” is because he seems such a philosopher — a Diogenes in his
tub. However, since the snail combines both sexes in one individual the
pronoun is surely applicable.

■ When observed through a lens, the snail’s skin looks like that of the
alligator, rough and divided into plates, with a surface like pebbled
leather ; and no insect intruder can crawl up his foot and get into the shell
“unbeknownst,” for the shell is grown fast to the flange, that grows out of
the middle of the snail’s back. The smoother the surface the snail is
crawling upon, the harder to make him let go. The reason for this lies in
the mucus, which he secretes as he goes, and which enables him to fasten
himself anywhere ; he can crawl up walls or beneath any horizontal sur-
face, shell downward, and he leaves a shining trail behind him wherever
he goes.

Snail eggs are as large as small peas, almost transparent, covered with
very soft shells, and fastened together by mucus. They are laid under
stones and decaying leaves. As soon as the baby snail hatches, it has a
shell with only one spiral turn in it; as it grows, it adds layer after layer
to the shell on the rim about the opening---which is called the lip ; these
layers we can see as ridges on the shell. If we open an empty shell, we
can see the progress of growth in the size of the spirals. Snails eat suc-
culent leaves and other soft vegetable matter. During the winter, they
bury themselves beneath objects or retire into soft humus. In preparing
for the winter, the snail makes a door of mucus and lime, or sometimes
three doors, one behind another, across the entrance to his shell, leaving a
tiny hole to admit the air. There are varieties of snails which are eaten
as dainties in Europe, and are grown on snail farms for the markets. The
species most commonly used is the same as that which was regarded as a
table luxury by the ancient Romans.

References — Wild Life, Ingersoll; The Natural History of Some Com-
mon Animals, Latter.

LESSON CVI
The Garden Snail

Leading thought — The snail carries his dwelling with nun, and retires
within it in time of danger. He can climb on any smooth surface.

Method — The pupils should make a snailery, which may consist of any
glass jar, with a little soil and some moss or leaves at the bottom, and a
shallow dish of water at one side. The moss and soil should be kept moist.
Place the snails in this and give them fresh leaves or pulpy fruit, and they
will live comfortably in confinement. A bit of cheese-cloth fastened with

Other Invertebrate- Animal Study

461

a rubber band should be placed over the top of the jar. A tumbler in-
verted over a dish, on which is a leaf or two, makes a good observa-
tion cage to pass around the room for closer examination. An empty shell
should be at hand, which may be opened and examined.

Observations — 1. Where do you find snails? Why do they like to
live in such places?

2. How does a snail walk? Describe its “foot.” How can it move
with only one foot? Describe how it climbs the side of the glass jar.
How does it cling?

3 . What sort of a track does a snail leave behind it ? What is the use
of this mucus?

4. Where are the snail’s eyes? Why is this arrangement convenient ?
If we touch one of the eyes what happens? What advantage is this to
the snail? Can it pull in one eye and leave the other out?

5. Look below the eyes for a pair of feelers. What happens to these
if you touch them?

6. What is the use of its shell to a snail? What does the snail do if
startled ? If attacked ? When a snail is withdrawn into its shell can you
see any part of the body? Is the shell attached to the middle of the foot?
How did the shell grow on the snail’s back? How many spiral turns are
there in the full-grown shell ? Are there as many in the shell of a young
snail? Can you see the little ridges on the shell? Do you think that
these show the way the shell grew?

7 . Can you find the opening through which the snail draws its breath ?
Where is this opening? Describe its action.

8. Put the snail in a dry place for two or three days, and see what
happens. Do you think this is for the purpose of keeping in moisture?
What does the snail do during the winter?

9. Place a snail on its back and see how it rights itself . Describe the
way it eats. Can you see the horny upper jaw? Can you see the rasping
tongue? What do snails live on?

10. Do you know how the snail eggs look and where they are laid?
How large is the shell of the smallest garden snail you ever saw? How
many spiral turns were there in it? Open an empty snail shell and see
how the spirals widened as the snail grew. Do you think the shell grew
by layers added to the lip?

11. Do all snails have shells? Describe all the kinds of snails you
know. What people consider snails a table delicacy?

TO A SNAIL

Little Diogenes bearing your tub , whither away so gay,

With your eyes on stalks, and a foot that walks, tell me this I pray!

Is it an honest snail you seek that makes you go so slow,

And over the edges of all things peek? Have you found him, I want to know;

Or do you go slow because you knew, your house is near and tight?

And there is no hurry and surely no worry lest you stay out late at night.

4-62

Handbook of N atur e-Study

THE EARTHWORM

Teacher's Story

LTHOUGH not generally considered attractive,
for two reasons the earthworm has an impor-
tant place in nature-study: it furnishes an

interesting example of lowly organized crea-
tures, and it is of great economic importance
to the agriculturist. The lesson, should have
special reference to the work done by earth-
worms and to the simplicity of the tools with
which the work is done.

The earthworm is, among lower animals,
essentially the farmer. Long before man con-
ceived the idea of tilling the soil, this seemingly
insignificant creature was busily at work
plowing, harrowing, and fertilizing the land. Nor did it overlook
the importance of drainage and the addition of amendments —
factors of comparatively recent development in the management of the
soil by man.

Down into the depths, sometimes as far as seven or eight feet, but
usually from twelve to eighteen inches, goes the little plowman, bringing
to the surface the subsoil, which is exactly what we do when we plow
deeply. To break up the soil as our harrows do, the earthworm grinds it
in a gizzard stocked with grains of sand or fine gravel, which act as mill-
stones. Thus it turns out soil of much finer texture than we, by harrow-
ing or raking, can produce. In its stomach it adds the lime amendment,
so much used by the modern farmer. The earthworm is apparently an
adept in the use of fertilizers ; it even shows discrimination in keeping the
organic matter near the surface, where it may be incorporated into the
soil of the root zone. It drags into its burrows dead leaves, flowers and
grasses, with which to line the upper part. Bones of dead animals, shells,
and twigs are buried by it, and, being more or less decayed, furnish food
for plants. These minute agriculturists have never studied any system
of drainage, but they bore holes to some depth which carry off the surplus
water. They plant seeds by covering those that lie on the ground with
soil from below the surface — good, enriched, well granulated soil it is, too.
They further care for the growing plants by cultivating, that is keeping
fine and granular, the soil about the roots.

It was estimated by Darwin that, in garden soil in England, there are
more than 50,000 earthwQrms in an acre, and that the whole superficial
layer of vegetable mold passes through their bodies in the course of every
few years, at the rate of eighteen tons per acre yearly.

This agricultural work of the earthworm has been going on for ages.
Wild land owes much of its beauty to this diminutive creature which
keeps the soil in good condition. The earthworm has undermined and
buried rocks, changing greatly the aspect of the landscape. It has
preserved ruins and ancient works of art. Several Roman villas in
England owe their preservation to the earthworm. All this work is
accomplished with the most primitive tools, a tiny proboscis, a distensible
pharynx, a rather indeterminate tail, a gizzard and the calcareous glands
peculiar to this lowly creature.

Other Invertebrate-Animal Study

463

An earthworm has a peculiar, crawling movement. Unlike the 6nake,
which also moves without legs, it has no scales to function in part as legs:
but it has a very special provision for locomotion. On the under side of a
worm are found numerous setae — tiny, bristlelike projections. These will
be seen to be in double rows on each segment, excepting the first three and
the last. The setae turn so that they point in the opposite direction from
which the worm is moving. It is this use of these clinging bristles,
together with strong muscles, which enables a worm to hold tightly to itf
burrow when bird or man attempts its removal. A piece of round elastic
furnishes an excellent example of contraction and extension, such as the
earthworm exhibits. Under the skin of the worm are two sets of muscles ;
the outer passing in circular direction around the body, the inner running
lengthwise. The movement of these may be easily seen in a good-sized,
living specimen. The body is lengthened by the contraction of circular
and the extension of longitudinal muscles, and shortened by the opposite
movement.

The number of segments may vary with the age of the worm. In the
immature, the clitellum , a thick, whitish ring near the end, is absent.
The laying of the earthworm’s egg is an interesting performance. A sac-
like ring is formed about the body in the region of the clitellum. This
girdle is gradually worked forward and, as it is cast over the head, the sac-
ends snap together enclosing the eggs. These capsules, yellowish-brown,
football-shaped, about the size of a grain of wheat, may be found in May
or June about manure piles or under stones.

Earthworms are completely deaf, although sensitive to vibration.
They have no eyes, but can distinguish between light and darkness. The
power of smell is feeble. The sense of taste is well developed ; the sense of
touch is very acute; and we are not so sure as is Dr. Jordan, that the
angleworm is at ease on the hook.

Any garden furnishes good examples of the home of the earthworm.
The burrows are made straight down at first, then wind about irregularly.
Usually they are about one or two feet deep, but may reach even eight
feet. The burrow terminates generally in an enlargement where one or
several worms pass the winter. Toward the surface, the burrow is lined
with a thin layer of fine, dark colored earth, voided by the worm. This
creature is an excavator and builder of no mean ability. The towerlike
“castings” so characteristic of the earthworm, are formed with excreted
earth. Using the tail as a trowel, it places earth, now on one side and
now on the other. In this work, of course, the tail protrudes; in the
search for food, the head is out. A worm, then, must make its home,
narrow as it is, with a view to being able to turn in it.

An earthworm will bury itself in loose earth in two or three minutes,
and in compact soil, in fifteen minutes. Pupils should be able to make
these observations easily either in the terrarium or in the garden.

In plugging the mouths of their burrows, earthworms show something
that seems like intelligence. Triangular leaves are invariably drawn in
by the apex, pine-needles by the common base, the manner varying with
the shape of the leaf. They do not drag in a leaf by the footstalk, unless
its basal part is as narrow as the apex. The mouth of the burrow may be
lined with leaves for several inches.

The burrows are not found in dry ground nor in loose sand. The
earthworm lives in the finer, moderately wet soils. It must have moisture

464

Handbook of N ature-Stndy

since it breathes through the skin, and it has sufficient knowledge of soil
texture and plasticity to recognize the futility of attempts at burrow
building with unmanageable, large grains of sand.

These creatures are nocturnal, rarely appearing by day unless “drowned
out” of the burrows. During the day they lie near the surface extended
at full length, the head uppermost. Here they are discovered by keen-
eyed birds and sacrificed by thousands, notwithstanding the strong
muscular protest of which they are capable.

Seemingly conscious of its inability to find the way back to its home,
an earthworm anchors tight by its tail while stretching its elastic length
in a foraging expedition. It is an omnivorous creature, including in its
diet earth, leaves, flowers, raw meat, fat, and even showing cannibalistic
designs on fellow earthworms. In the schoolroom, earthworms may be
fed on pieces of lettuce or cabbage leaves. A feeding worm will show the
proboscis, an extension of the upper lip used to push food into the mouth.
The earthworm has no hard jaws or teeth, yet it eats through the hardest
soil. Inside the mouth opening is a very muscular pharynx, which can be
extended or withdrawn. Applied to the surface of any small object it
acts as a suction pump, drawing food into the food tube. The earth
taken in furnishes some organic matter for food; calcareous matter is
added to the remainder before being voided. This process is unique
among animals. The calcareous matter is supposed to be derived from
leaves which the worms eat. Generally the earth is swallowed at some
distance below the surface, and finally ejected in characteristic “castings.”
Thus, the soil is slowly worked over and kept in good condition by earth*
worms, of which Darwin says; “It may be doubted whether there are
many other animals which have played so important a part in the history
of the world as have these lowly organized creatures.”

References — The Earthworm, Darwin; The Natural History of Some
Common Animals, Latter.

“Fly fishing is an art, a fine art beyond a doubt, but it is an art and, like all art, it is
artificial. Fishing with an angleworm is natural. It fits into the need of the occasion.
It fits in with the spirit of the boy. It is not by chance that the angleworm, earthworm ,
fishworm, is found in every damp bank, in every handy bit of sod, the green earth over ,
where there are races whose boys are real boys with energy enough to catch a fish. It is
not by chance that the angleworm makes a perfect fit on a hook, with no anatomy with
which to feel pains, and no arms or legs to be broken off or to be waved helplessly in the
air. Its skin is tough enough so as not to tear, not so tough as to receive unseemly
bruises, when the boy is placing it on the hook. The angleworm is perfectly at home on
the hook. It is not quite comfortable anywhere else. It crawls about on sidewalks after
rain, Reached and emaciated. It is never quite at ease even in the ground, but on the
hook it rests peacefully, with the apparent feeling that its natural mission is performed .”
— “Boys’ Fish and Boys’ Fishing,” by David Starr Jordan.

LESSON CVII
The Earthworm

Leading thought — The earthworm is a creature of the soil and is of much
economic importance.

Method — Any garden furnishes abundant material for the study of
earthworms. They are nocturnal workers and may be observed by lan-

Other Invertebrate -Animal Study 465

tern light. To form some estimate of the work done in a single night,
remove the “casts” from a square yard of earth one day, and examine
that piece of earth the next. It is well to have a terrarium in the school-
room for frequent observation. Scatter grass or dead leaves on top of
the soil, and note what happens. For the study of the individual worm
and its movements, each pupil should have a worm with some earth upon
his desk.

Observations — 1. How does the earthworm crawl? How does it turn
over? Has it legs? Compare its movement with that of a snake,
another legless animal. What special provision for locomotion has the
earthworm ?

2. Compare the lengths of the contracted and extended body. How
accounted for?

3. Describe the body — its shape and color, above and below.
Examine the segments. Do all the worms have the same number?
Compare the head end with the tail end of the body. Has every worm a
“saddle,” or clitellum?

4. Does the earthworm hear easily? Has it eyes? Is it sensible to
smell or to touch? What sense is most strongly developed?

5. Describe the home of the earthworm. Is it occupied by more
than one worm ? How long does it take a worm to make a burrow ? How
does it protect its home ? How does it make a burrow? In what kind of
soil do you find earthworms at work ?

6. Is the earthworm seen most often at night or by day? Where is
it the rest of the time? How does it hold to its burrow? When is the
tail end at the top ? When the head end ?

7. What is the food of the earthworm? How does it get its food ?

8. Look for the eggs of the earthworm about manure piles or under
stones.

9. What are the enemies of the earthworm? Is it a friend or an
enemy to us? Why?

10. The earthworm is a good agriculturist. Why?

Where the crayfish lurks.

466

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE CRAYFISH
Teacher's Story

HEN I look at a crayfish I envy it, so rich is it in
organs with which to do all that it has to do.
From the head to the tail, it is crowded with a
large assortment of executive appendages. In
this day of multiplicity of duties, if we poor
human creatures only had the crayfish’s capa-
bilities, then might we hope to achieve what lies
before us.

The most striking thing in the appearance of
the crayfish is the great pair of nippers on each of
the front legs. Wonderfully are its “thumb and
finger” put together; the “thumb” is jointed so
that it can move back and forth freely ; and both
are armed, along the inside edge, with saw teeth and with a sharp claw at
the tip so that they can get a firm grip upon an object. Five segments in
these great legs can be easily seen; that joining the body is small, but
each successive one is wider and larger, to the great forceps at the end.
The two stout segments behind the nippers give strength, and also a
suppleness that enables the claws to be bent in any direction.

The legs of the pair behind the big nippers have five segments readily
visible; but these legs are slender and the nippers at the end are small;
the third pair of legs is armed like the second pair ; but the' fourth and
fifth pairs lack the pincers, and end in a single claw.

But the tale of the crayfish’s legs is by no means told ; for between and
above the great pincers is a pair of short, small legs tipped with single
claws, and fringed on their inner edges. These are the ma.xillapeds, or
jaw-feet; and behind them, but too close to be seen easily, are two more
pairs of jaw-feet. As all of these jaw-feet assist at meals, the crayfish
apparently always has a “three fork” dinner; and as if to provide accom-
modations for so many eating utensils, it has three pairs of jaws all work-
ing sidewise, one behind the other. Two of these pairs are maxillae and
one, mandibles. The mandibles are the only ones we see as we look in
between the jaw-feet; they are notched along the biting edge. Com
nected with the maxillae, on each side, are two pairs of threadlike flappers, j
that wave back and forth vigorously and have to do with setting up cur- i
rents of water over the gills.

Thus we see that, in all, the crayfish has three pairs of jaw-feet, one
pair of great nippers and four pairs of walking feet, two of which also have
nippers and are used for digging and carrying.

When we look upon the crayfish from above, we see that the head and
thorax are fastened solidly together, making what is called a cephalo-
thorax. The cephalothorax is covered with a shell called the carapace,
which is the name given, also to the upper part of the turtle’s shell. The
suture where the head joins the thorax is quite evident. In looking at
the head, the eyes first attract our attention; each is black and oval and
placed on the tip of a stalk, so it can be extended or retracted or pushed in
any direction, to look for danger. These eyes are like the compound eyes
of insects, in that they are made up of many small eyes, set together in a
honeycomb pattern.

Other Invertebrate- Animal Study

467

The long antennae are as flexible as braided whiplashes, large at the
base and ending in a threadlike tip. They are composed of many seg-
ments, the basal ones being quite large. Above the antennae on each side,
is a pair of shorter ones called antennules, which come from the same
basal segment; the lower one is the more slender and is usually directed
forward; the upper one is stouter, curves upward, and is kept always
moving, as if it were constantly on the alert for impressions. The anten-
nae are used for exploring far ahead or behind the creature, and are often
thrust down into the mud and gravel at the bottom of the aquarium, as if
probing for treasure. The antennules seem to give warning of things
closer at hand. Between the antennae and antennules is a pair of finger-
like organs, that are hinged at the outer ends and can be lifted back, if we
do it carefully.

In looking down upon a crayfish, we can see six abdominal segments
and the flaring tail at the end, which is really another segment greatly
modified. The first segment, or that next to the cephalothorax, is narrow;
the others are about equal in size, each graceful in shape, with a widened
part at each side which extends down along the sides of the creature.
These segments are well hinged together so that the abdomen may be
completely curled beneath the cephalothorax. The plates along the sides
are edged with fringe. The tail consists of five parts, one semicircular in
the center, and two fan-shaped pieces at each side, and all are margined
with fringe. This tail is a remarkable organ. It can be closed or extended
sidewise like a fan ; it can be lifted up or curled beneath.

Looking at the crayfish from below, we see on the abdomen some very
beautiful featherlike organs called swimmerets. Each swimmeret con-
sists of a basal segment with twin paddles joined to its tip, each paddle
being narrow and long and fringed with hairs. The mother crayfish has
four pairs of these, one pair on each of the second, third, fourth and fifth
segments; her mate has an additional larger pair on the first segment.
These swimmerets, when at rest, lie close to the abdomen and are directed
forward and slightly inward. When in motion, they paddle with a back-
ward, rhythmic motion, the first pair setting the stroke and the other pairs
following in succession. This motion sends the body forward, and the
swimmerets are chiefly used to aid the legs in forward locomotion. A
crayfish, on the bottom of a pond, seems to glide about with great ease;
but place it on land, and it is an awkward walker. The reason for this
difference lies, I believe, in the aid given by the swimmerets when the
creature is in water. Latter says: “In walking, the first three pairs of

legs pull and the fourth pair pushes. Their order of movement is as fol-
lows: The first on the right and the third on the left side move together,

next the third right and the first left, then the second right and fourth
left, and lastly the fourth right and second left.”

When the crayfish really wishes to swim, the tail is suddenly brought
into use; it is thrust out backward, lays hold of the water by spreading
out widely, and then doubles under with a spasmodic, jerk which pulls the
creature swiftly backward.

The crayfish’s appearance is magically transformed when it begins to
swim; it is no longer a creature of sprawling awkward legs and great
clumsy nippers; now, its many legs lie side by side supinely and the great
claws are limp and flow along in graceful lines after the body, all obedient
to the force which sends the creature flying through the water. I cannot
discover that the swimmerets Infip in this movement.

468

Handbook of Nature -Study

A crayfish.

Drawn by Anna C. Stryke.

The mother crayfish has another use for her swimmerets ; in the spring,
when she is ready to lay eggs, she cleans off her paddles with her hind legs,
covers them with waterproof glue, and then plasters her eggs on them in
grapelike clusters of little dark globules. What a nice way to look after
her family! The little ones hatch, but remain clinging to the maternal
swimmerets, until they are large enough to scuttle around on the brook
bottom and look out for themselves.

The breathing apparatus of the crayfish cannot be seen without dissec-
tion. All the walking legs, except the last pair, have gills attached to
that portion of them which joins the body, and which lies hidden under-
neath the sides of the carapace or shell. The blood is forced into these
gills, sends off its impurities through their thin walls and takes in the
oxygen from the water, currents of which are kept steadily flowing for-
ward.

Crayfishes haunt still pools along brooksides and river margins and
the shallow ponds of our fresh waters. There they hide beneath sticks
and stones, or in caves of their own making, the doors of which they guard
with the big and threatening nippers, which stand ready to grapple with
anybody that comes to inquire if the folks are at home. The upper sur-
face of the crayfish’s body is always so nearly the color of the brook bot-
tom, that the eye seldom detects the creature until it moves; and if some
enemy surprises one, it swims off with terrific jerks which roil all the
water around and thus covers its retreat. In the winter, our brook forms
hibernate in the muddy bottoms of their summer haunts. There, are
many species ; some in our Southern States, when the dry season comes on,
live in little wells which they dig deep enough to reach water. They heap

Other Invertebrate -Animal Study

469

tip the soil which they excavate around the mouth of the well, making
well-curbs of mud ; these are ordinarily called “crawfish chimnies.” The
crayfishes fiffH’their food in the flotsam and jetsam of the pool. They
seem fond of the flesh of dead fishes and are often trapped by its use as
bait.

The growth of the crayfish is like that of insects ; as its outer covering
is a hard skeleton that will not stretch, it is shed as often as necessary; it
breaks open down the middle of the back of the carapace, and the soft,
bodied creature pulls itself out, even to the last one of its claws. While its
new skin is yet elastic, it stretches to its utmost; but this skin also
hardens after a time and is, in its turn, "she'd. Woe to the crayfish caught
in this helpless, soft condition after molting! For it then has no way to
protect itself. We sometimes find the old skin floating, perfect in every
detail, and so transparent that it seems the ghost of a crayfish.

Not only is the crayfish armed in the beginning with a great number of
legs, antennae, etc., but if it happens to lose any of these organs, they will
grow again. It is said that, when attacked, it can voluntarily throw off
one or more of its legs. Wediave often found one of these creatures with
one of the front claws much larger than the other; it had probably lost
its big claw in a fight, and the new growth was not yet completed.

I have been greatly entertained by watching a female crayfish make
her nest in my aquarium which has, for her comfort, a bottom of three
inches of clean gravel. She always commences at one side by thrusting
down her antennae and nippers between the glass and stones ; she seizes a
pebble in each claw and pulls it up and in this way starts her excavation;
but when she gets ready to carry off her load, she comes to the task with
her tail tucked under her body, as a lady tucks up her skirts when she has
something to do that requires freedom of movement. Then with her
great nippers and the two pairs of walking feet, also armed with nippers,
she loads up as much as she can carry between her great claws and her
breast. She keeps her load from overflowing by holding it down with her
first pair of jaw-feet, just as I have seen a schoolboy use his chin, when
carrying a too large load of books ; and she keeps the load from falling out
by supporting it from beneath with her first pair of walking legs. Thus,
she starts off with her “apron” full, walking on three pairs of feet, until
she gets to the dumping place; then she suddenly lets go and at the same
time her tail straightens out with a gesture which says plainly, “There!”
Sometimes when she gets a very large load, she uses her second pair of
walking legs to hold up the burden, and crawls off successfully, if not with
ease, on two pairs of legs, — a most unnatural quadruped.

I had two crayfishes in a cage in an aquarium, and each made a nest in
the gravel at opposite ends of the cage, heaping up the debris into a parti-
tion between them. I gave one an earthworm, which she promptly
seized with her nippers; she then took up a good sized pebble in the nip-
pers of her front pair of walking legs, glided over to the other nest, spite-
fully threw down both worm and pebble on top of her fellow prisoner, and
then sped homeward. Her victim responded to the act by rising up and
expressing perfectly, in his attitude and the gestures of his great claws,
the most eloquent of crayfish profanity. In watching crayfishes carry
pebbles, I have been astonished to see how constantly the larger pair of
jaw-feet are used to help pick up and carry the loads.

47<>

Handbook of N ature-Study

LESSON CVIII
The Crayfish

Leading thought — The crayfish, or crawfish, as it is sometimes called,
has one pair of legs developed into great pincers for seizing and tearing its
food and for defending itself from enemies. It can live in mud or water.
It belongs to the same animal group as do the insects, and it is a near
cousin of the lobster.

Method — Place a crayfish in an aquarium (a battery jar or a two-quart
Mason jar) in the schoolroom, keeping it in clear water until the pupils
have studied its form. It will rise to explore the sides of the aquarium at
first, and thus show its mouth parts, legs and swimmerets. Afterwards,
place gravel and stone in. the bottom of the aquarium, so that it can hide
itself in a little cavity which it will make by carrying pebbles from one
side. Wash the gravel well before it is put in, so that the water will be
unclouded and the children can watch the process of excavation.

Observations — i. What is there peculiar about the crayfish which
makes it difficult to pick it up? Examine one of these great front legs
carefully and see how wonderfully it is made. How many parts are there
to it? Note how each succeeding part is larger from the body to the claws.
Note the tips which form the nippers or chelae, as they are called. How
are they armed ? How are the gripping edges formed to take hold of an
object? How wide can the nippers be opened, and how is this done?
Note the two segments behind the great claw and describe how they help
the work of the nippers.

2. Study the pair of legs behind the great claws or chelae, and com-
pare the two pairs, segment by segment. How do they differ except as to-
size? How do the nippers at the end compare with the big ones? Look
at the next pair of legs behind these ; are they similar? How do the two
pairs of hind legs differ in shape from the two pairs in front of them?

3 . Look between the great front claws and see if you can find another
pair of small legs. Can you see anything more behind or above these little
legs?

4. When the crayfish lifts itself up against the side of the jar, study
its mouth. Can you see a pair of notched jaws that work sidewise?
Can you see two or three pairs of threadlike organs that wave back and
forth in and out the mouth?

5. How many legs, in all, has the crayfish? What are the short legs
near the mouth used for? What are the great nippers used for? How
many legs does the crayfish use when walking? In what order are they
moved? Is the hind pair used for pushing? What use does it make of
the pincers on the first and second pairs of walking legs?

6. Look at the crayfish from above ; the head and the covering of the
thorax are soldered together into one piece. When this occurs, the whole
is called a cephalothorax ; and the cover is called by the same name as the
upper shell of the turtle, the carapace. Can you see. where the head is
joined to the thorax?

‘7. Look carefully at the eyes. Describe how they are set. Can they
be pushed out or pulled in? Can they be moved in all directions? Of
what advantage is this to the crayfish?

8 . How many antennae has the crayfish ? Describe the long ones and
tell how they are used . Do the two short ones on each side come from the
same basal segment? These little ones are called the antennules.

Other Invertebrate- Animal Study

47i

Describe the antennules of each side and tell how they differ. Can you
see the little fingerlike organs which clasp above the antennae and below
the antennules on each side of the head? Can these be moved?

9. Look at the crayfish from above. How many segments are there
in the abdomen? Note how graceful the shape of each segment. Note
that each has a fan-shaped piece down the side. Describe how the edges
of the segments along the sides are margined.

10. Of how many pieces is the tail made? Make a sketch of it.
How are the pieces bordered? Can the pieces shut and spread out side-
wise? Is the tail hinged so it can be lifted up against the back or curled
under the body ?

11. Look underneath the abdomen and describe the little fringed
organs called the swimmerets. How many are there?

12. How does the crayfish swim? With what does it make the
stroke ? Describe carefully this action of the tail. When it is swimming,
does it use its swimmerets? Why do not the many legs and big nippers
obstruct the progress of the crayfish, when it is swimming?

13. When does the crayfish use its swimmerets? Do they work so as
to push the body backward or forward? Do you know to what. use the
mother crayfish puts her swimmerets?

14. Do you know how crayfishes breathe? Do you know what they
eat and where they find it?

15. Where do you find crayfishes? Where do they like to hide? Do
they go headfirst into their hiding place, or do they back in? Do they
stand ready to defend their retreat? When you look down into the
brook, are the crayfishes usualty seen until they move? Why is this?
Where do the crayfishes pass the winter? Did you ever see the crayfish
burrows or mud chimnies?

16. If the crayfish loses one of its legs or antennas, does it grow out
again? How does the crayfish grow?

17. Put a crayfish in an aquarium which has three inches of coarse

gravel on the bottom, and watch it make its den. How does it loosen up
a stone? With how many legs does it carry its burden of pebbles when
digging its cave? How does it use its jaw-feet, its nippers, and its first
and second pairs of walking legs in this work? 1

“ A rock-lined , wood-embosomed nook,

Dim cloister of the chanting brook!

A chamber within the channelled hills,

Where the cold crystal brims and spills,

By dark-browed caverns blackly flows,

Falls from the cleft like crumbling snows,

And purls and splashes, breathing round
A soft, suffusing mist of sound”

— J. T. Trowbridge.

472

Handbook of Nature-Study

DADDY-LONGLEGS, OR GRANDFATHER GREYBEARD
Teacher's Story

WONDER if there ever was a country child who has
not grasped firmly the leg of one of these little
sprawling creatures and demanded: “Grandfather

Greybeard, tell me where the cows are or I’ll kill
you,” and Grandfather Greybeard, striving to get
away, puts out one of his long legs this way, and
another that way, and points in so many directions
that he usually saves his life, since the cows must be
somewhere. It would be more interesting to the
children and less embarrassing to the “daddy” if they were taught to look
more closely at those slender, hairlike legs.

“Daddy’s” long legs are seven jointed. The first segment is seemingly
soldered fast to the lower side of his body, and is called the coxa. The
next segment is a mere knob, usually black and ornamental, and is called
the trochanter. Then comes the femur, a rather long segment directed
upward; next is a short swollen segment — the “knee joint” or patella;
next the tibia, which is also rather long. Then comes the metatarsus and
tarsus, which seemingly make one long downward-directed segment, out-
curving at the tips, on which the “daddy” tip-toes along.

I have seen a “daddy” walk into a drop of water and his foot was never
wetted, so light was his touch on the water surface film. The second pair
of legs is the longest ; the fourth pair next, and the first pair usually the
shortest. The legs of the second pair are ordinarily used in exploring the
surroundings. Notice that, when the “daddy” is running, these two legs
are spread wide apart and keep in rapid motion ; their tips, far more sensi-
tive than any nerves of our own, tell him the nature of his surroundings,
by a touch so light that we cannot feel it on the hand. We have more
respect for one of these hairlike legs, when we know it is capable of trans-
mitting intelligence from its tip.

The “daddy” is a good traveler and moves with remarkable rapidity.
And why not? If our legs were as long in comparison as his, they would
be about forty feet in length. When
the “daddy” is running, the body is
always held a little distance above the
ground; but when the second pair
of legs suggests to him that there
may be something good to eat in the
neighborhood, he commences a pecul-
iar teetering motion of the body,
apparently touching it to the ground
at every step ; as the body is carried
tilted with the head down, this move-
ment enables the creature to explore
the surface below him with his palpi, which he ordinarily carries bent be*
neath his face, with the ends curled up under his “chin.” The palpi have
four segments that are easily seen, and although they are ordinarily
carried bent up beneath the head, they can be extended out quite a dis-
tance if “daddy” wishes to test a substance. The end segment of the
palpus is tipped with a single claw

One oj “ daddy's ” long legs with
segments named.

Other Invertebrate- Animal Study

473

Beneath the palpi is a pair of jaws; these, in some species, extend
beyond the palpi. I have seen a daddy-longlegs hold food to his jaws
with his palpi and he seemed also to use them for stuffing it into his

The body of the daddy-longlegs is a little oblong object, looking more
like a big grain of wheat than anything else, because in these creatures the
head, thorax and abdomen are all grown together compactly. On top ot
the body, between the feeler-legs, is a little black dot, and to the nakec
eye it would seem that if this were an organ of sight the creature must be a
Cyclops with only one eye. But under the lens this is seen to be a raised
knob and there is on each side of it, a little shining black eye. We hardly
see the use of two eyes set so closely together, but probably the daddy
does.

The most entertaining thing which a “daddy” in captivity is likely to
do, is to clean his legs; he is very particular about his legs, and he will
grasp one close to the basal joint in his jaws and slowly pull it through,
meanwhile holding the leg up to the jaws with the palpi, while he indus-
triously nibbles it clean for the whole length to the very toe. Owing to
the likelihood of his losing one of his legs, he has the power of growing a
new one; so we often see a “daddy” with one or more legs only half
grown.

There are many species of daddy-longlegs in the United States, and
some of them do not have the characteristic long legs. In the North, all
except one species die at the approach of winter; but not until after the
female, which, by the way, ought to be called “granny-longlegs,” has laid
her eggs in the ground, or under some protecting stone, or in some safe
crevice of wood or bark. In the spring the eggs hatch into tiny little
creatures which look just like the old daddy-longlegs, except for their size.
They get their growth like insects, by shedding their skins as fast as they
outgrow them. It is interesting to study one of these cast skins with a
lens. There it stands with a slit down its back, and with the skin of each
leg absolutely perfect to the tiny claw! Again we marvel at these legs
that seem so threadlike, and which have an outer covering that can be
shed. Some say that the daddy-longlegs live on small insects which they
straddle over and pounce down upon, and some say they feed upon decay-
ing matter and vegetable juices. This would be an interesting line o£
investigation for pupils, since they might be able to give many new facts
ibout the food of these creatures. The “daddies” are night prowlers,
and like to hide in crevices by day, waiting for the dark to hunt for their
food. They have several common names. Besides the two given they

474

Handbook of Nature-Study

are called “harvestmen” and the French call them “haymakers.” Both
of these names were very probably given, because the creatures appear in
greater numbers at the time of haying and harvesting.

LESSON CIX
The Daddy-Longlegs

Leading thought — These long-legged creatures have one pair of legs
too many to allow them to be classed with the insects. They are more
nearly related to the spiders, who also have eight legs. They are pretty
creatures when examined closely, and they do many interesting things.

Method — Put a grandfather greybeard in a breeding cage or under a
large tumbler, and let the pupils observe him at leisure. If you place a few
drops of sweetened water at one side of the cage, the children will surely
have an opportunity to see this amusing creature clean his legs.

Observations — i. Where did you find the harvestman? What did
it do as soon as it was disturbed ? How many names do you know for this
little creature ?

2. A “daddy” with such long legs certainly ought to have them
studied. How many segments in each leg? How do the segments look?
How do the legs look where they are fastened to the body? Which is the
longest pair of legs? The next? The next? The shortest?

3 . If you had such long stilts as he has, they would be about forty feet
long. Would you lift yourself that high in the air? Does the “daddy”
lift his body high or swing it near the ground? What shape is the body?
Can you see if there is a distinct head ? Can you see a black dot on top of
the front end of the body? If you should see this dot through a micro-
scope it would prove to be two bright black eyes. Why should the
daddy’s eyes be on top ?

4. Do you see a pair of organs that look like feelers at the front end of
the body? These are called palpi. How does he use his palpi? Give
him a little bruised or decaying fruit, and see him eat. Where do you
think his mouth is? Where does he keep his palpi when he is not using
them for eating?

5. Note what care he takes of his legs. How does he clean them?
Which does he clean the oftenest? Do you think the very long second
pair of legs is used as much for feeling as for walking? Put some object
in front of the “daddy” and see him explore it with his legs. How much
of the leg is used as a foot when the “daddy” stands or runs?

6. When running fast, how does the “daddy” carry his body? When
exploring how does he carry it? Do you ever find the “daddy” with his
body resting on the surface on which he is standing? When resting, are
all eight of his legs on the ground? Which are in the air? Is the head
end usually tilted up or down?

7. Do you see the daddy-longlegs early in the spring? When do you
find him most often? How do you suppose he passes the winter in our
climate? Have you ever seen a “daddy” with one leg much shorter than
the other? How could you explain this?

8. Try and discover what the daddy-longlegs eats, and where he finds
his food?

475

Other Invertebrate -Animal Study

SPIDERS
Teacher's Story

HE spiders are the civil engineers among the small
inhabitants of our fields and woods. They build
strong suspension bridges, from which they hang
nets made with exquisite precision; and they
build aeroplanes and balloons, which are more
efficient than any that we have yet constructed ;
for although they are not exactly dirigible, yet
they carry the little balloonists where they wish
to go, and there are few fatal accidents. More-
over, the spiders are of much economic impor-
tance, since they destroy countless millions of
insects every year, most of which are noxious —
like flies, mosquitoes, bugs and grasshoppers.

There is an impression abroad that all spiders are dangerous to handle.
Thi; is a mistake; the bite of any of our common spiders is not nearly
so dangerous as the bite of a malaria-laden mosquito. Although there is
a little venom injected into the wound by the bite of any spider, yet there
is no species found in the Northern States whose bite is sufficiently
venomous to be feared.

There is no need for studying the anatomy of the spider closely in
nature-study. Our interest lies much more in the wonderful structures
made by the spiders, than in a detailed study of the little creatures them-
selves.

Cobwebs

“Here shy Arachne winds her endless thread,

And weaves her silken tapestry unseen,

Veiling the rough-hewn timbers overhead.

And looping gossamer festoons between.”

— Elizabeth Akers.

Our house spiders are indefatigable curtain-weavers. We never sus-
pect their presence, until suddenly their curtains appear before our eyes,
in the angles of the ceilings — invisible until laden with dust. The cob-
webs are made of crisscrossed lines, which are so placed as to entangle any
fly that comes near. The lines are stayed to the sides of the wall and to
each other quite firmly, and thus they are able to hold a fly that touches
them. The spider is likely to be in its little den at the side of the web;
this den may be in a crevice in the corner or in a tunnel made of the silk.
As soon as a fly becomes entangled in the web the spider runs to it, seizes
it in its jaws, sucks its blood, and then throws away the shell, the wings
and legs. If a spider is frightened, it at first tries to hide and then may
drop by a thread to the floor. If we catch the little acrobat it will usually
“play possum” and we may examine it more closely through a lens. We
shall find it is quite different in form from an insect. First to be noted, it
has eight legs ; but most important of all, it has only two parts to the body.
The head and thorax are consolidated into one piece, which is called the
cephalothorax. The abdomen has no segments like that of the insects,
and is joined to the cephalothorax by a short, narrow stalk. At the front

476

Handbook of Nature-Study

of the head is the mouth, guarded by two mandibles, each ending in a
sharp claw, at the tip of which the poison gland opens. It is by thrusting
these mandibles into its prey that it kills its victims. On each side of the
mandible is a palpus, which in the males is of very strange shape. The
eyes are situated on the top of the head. There are usually four pairs of
these eyes, and each looks as beady and alert as if it were the only one.

The spinning organs of the spider are situated near the tip of the
abdomen, while the spinning organ of the caterpillar is situated near its
lower lip. The spider’s silk comes from two or three pairs of spinnerets
which are fingerlike in form, and upon the end of each are many small
tubes from which the silk is spun. The silk is in a fluid state as it issues
from the spinnerets, but it hardens immediately on contact with the air.
In making their webs, spiders produce two kinds of silk, one is dry and
inelastic, making the framework of the web ; the other is sticky and elas-
tic, clinging to anything that it touches. The body and the legs of
spiders are usually hairy.

LESSON CX
Cobwebs

Leading thought — The cobwebs which are found in the corners of ceil-
ings and in other dark places in our houses, are made by the house spider
which spins its web in these situations for the purpose of catching insects.

Method — The pupils should have under observation a cobweb in a
corner of a room, preferably with a spider in it.

Observations — i. Is the web in a sheet or is it a mass of crisscrossed,
tangled threads? How are the threads held in place?

2. What is the purpose of this web? Where does the spider hide?
Describe its den.

3. If a fly becomes tangled in a web, describe the action of the spider.
Does the spider eat all of the fly? What does it do with the remains?

4. If the spider is frightened, what does it do? Where does the
silken thread come from, and how does its source differ from the source of
the silken thread spun by caterpillars?

5. Imprison a spider under a tumbler or in a vial, and look at it very
carefully. How many legs has it? How does the spider differ from
insects in this respect ? How many sections are there to the body ? How
does the spider differ from insects in this respect?

6. Look closely at the head. Can you see the hooked jaws, or fangs?
Can you see the palpi on each side of the jaws? Where are the spider’s
eyes? How many pairs has it?

When the tangled cobweb pulls
The cornflower' s cap awry ,

And the lilies tall lean over the wall
To bow to the butterfly,,

It is July.

•Susan Hartley Swett

Other Invertebrate- Animal Study

477

Photo by J. H. Comstock

THE FUNNEL WEB
Teacher's Story

“ And dew-bright webs festoon the grass
In roadside fields at morning.”

— Elizabeth Akers.

Sometimes on a dewy morning, a field will seem carpeted with these
webs, each with its opening stretched wide, and each with its narrow
hallway of retreat. The general shape of the web is like that of a broad
funnel with a tube leading down at one side. This tube is used as a
hiding place for the spider, which thus escapes the eyes of its enemies, and
also keeps out of sight of any insects that might be frightened at seeing it,
and so avoid the web. But the tube is no cul-de-sac; quite to the con-
trary, it has a rear exit, through which the spider, if frightened, escapes
from attack.

The web is formed of many lines of silk crossing each other irregularly,
forming a firm sheet. This sheet is held in place by many guy-lines,
which fasten it to surrounding objects. If the. web is touched lightly, the
spider rushes forth from its lair to seize its prey; but if the web be jarred
roughly, the spider speeds out through its back door and can be found
only with difficulty. The smaller insects of the field, such as flies and
bugs, are the chief food of this spider; it rarely attempts to seize a grown
grasshopper.

47s

Handbook of N atur e-Study

The funnel-shaped webs in dark corners of. cellars are made by a
species which is closely related to the grass spider and has the same general
habits, but which builds in these locations instead of in the grass.

LESSON CXI
The Funnel Web

Leading thought — The grass spider spins funnel-shaped webs in the
grass to entrap the insects of the field. This web has a back door.

Method — Ask the pupils to observe a web on the. grass with a spider
within it.

Observations — i. What is the general shape of the web? Is there a
tunnel leading down from it? Why is it called a funnel web?

2 Of what use is the funnel tube, and what is its shape ? Where does
it lead, and of what use is it to the spider? Can you corner a spider in its
funnel tube ? Why not ?

3. How is the web made? Is there any regularity in the position of
the threads that make it? How is it stayed in place?

4. Touch the web lightly, and note how the spider acts? Jar the
web roughly, and what does the spider do?

5. What insects become entangled in this web?

6. Compare this web with similar funnel webs found in corners of
cellars, sheds or piazzas, and see if you think the same kind of spider made
both.

THE ORB-WEB

Teacher's Story

F all the structures made 'by the lower creatures, the orb-
web of the spider is, beyond question, the most intricate
and beautiful in design, and the most exquisite in work-
manship. The watching of the construction of one of
these webs is an experience that brings us close to those
mysteries which seem to be as fundamental as they are
inexplicable in the plan of the universe. It is akin to
watching the growth of a crystal, or the stars wheeling
across the heavens in their appointed courses.

The orb-web of the large, black and yellow garden spider is, perhaps,
the best subject for this study, although many of the smaller orbs are far
more delicate in structure. These orb-webs are most often placed ver-
tically, since they are thus more likely to be in the path of flying insects.
The number of radii, or spokes, differs with the different species of
spiders, and they are usually fastened to a silken framework, which in
turn is fastened by guy-lines to surrounding objects. These radii or
spokes are connected by a continuous spiral line, spaced regularly except
at the center or hub ; this hub or center is of more solid silk, and is usually
surrounded by an open space; and it may be merely an irregular net-
work, or it may have wide bands of silk laid across it.

The radii or spokes, the guy-lines, the framework and the center of
the web are all made of inelastic silk, which does not adhere to an object
that touches it. The spiral line, on the contrary, is very elastic, and ad-

Other Invertebrate-Animal Study

479

heres to any object brought in contact with it. An insect which touches
one of these spirals and tries to escape, becomes entangled in the neighbor-
ing lines and is thus held fast until the spider can reach it. If one of these
elastic lines be examined with a microscope, it is a most beautiful object.
There are strung upon it, like pearls, little drops of sticky fluid, which
render it not only elastic but adhesive.

Some species of orb-weavers remain at the center of the web, while
others hide in some little retreat near at hand. If in the middle, the

spider always keeps watchful claws upon
the radii of the web so that if there is any
jarring of the structure by an entrapped
insect, it is at once apprised of the fact; if
the spider is in a den at one side, it keeps
a claw upon a trap line which is stretched
tightly from the hub of the web to the den,
and thus communicates any vibration of
the web to the hidden sentinel. When
the insect becomes entangled, the spider
rushes out and envelops it in a band of silk,
which feat it accomplishes, by turning the
insect over and over rapidly, meanwhile
spinning a broad, silken band which
swathes it. It may bite the insect before it
begins to swathe it in silk, or afterwards.
It usually hangs the swathed insect to the
web near where it was caught, until ready
to eat it; it then takes the prey to the
center of the web, if there is where the
spider usually sits, or to its den at one side,
if it is a den-making species, and there
sucks the insect’s blood, carefully throwing
away the hard parts.

The spider does not become entangled
in the web, because, when it runs it steps
upon the dry radii and not upon the sticky
spiral lines. During the busy season, the
spider is likely to make a new web every
twenty-four hours, but this depends largely
upon whether the web has meanwhile been
destroyed by large insects.

The spider’s method of making its first
bridge is to place itself upon some high
point and, lifting its abdomen in the
air, to spin out on the breeze a thread
of silk. ■ When this touches any object, it adheres, and the spider
draws in the slack until the line is “taut;” it then travels across
this bridge, which is to support its web, and makes it stronger by doubling
the line. From this line, it stretches other lines by fastening a thread to
one point, and then walking along to some other point, spinning the thread
as it goes and holding the line clear of the object on which it is walking by
means of one of its hind legs. When the right point is reached, it pulls
the line tight, fastens it, and then, in a similar fashion, proceeds to make

A dewy morning.
Insect Life, Comstock.

480

Handbook of N atur e-Study

another. It may make its first radius by dropping from its bridge to
some point below; then climbing back to the center, it fastens the line for
another radius, and spinning as it goes, walks down and out to some other
point, holding the thread clear and then pulling it tight before fastening it.
Having thus selected the center of the web, it goes back and forth to and
from it, spinning lines until all of the radii are completed and fastened at
one center. It then starts at the center and spins a spiral, laying it onto
the radii to hold them firm. However, the lines of this spiral are farther
apart and much more irregular than the final spiral. Thus far, all of the
threads the spider has spun are inelastic and not sticky; and this first, or
temporary spiral is used by the spider to walk upon when spinning the
final spiral. It begins the latter at the outer edge instead of at the center,
and works toward the middle. As the second spiral progresses, the spider
with its jaws cuts away the spiral which it first made, and which it has used
as a scaffolding. A careful observer may often see remnants of this first
spiral on the radii between the lines of the permanent spiral. The spider
works very rapidly and will complete a web in a very short time. The
final spiral is made of the elastic and adhesive silk.

References — Comstock’s Manual; Common Spiders, Emerton; The
Spider Book, Comstock; Nature’s Craftsmen, McCook.

LESSON CXII
The Orb-web

Leading thought — No structure made by a creature lower than man is
so exquisitely perfect as the orb-web of the spider.

Method — There should be an orb-web where the pupils can observe it,
preferably with the spider in attendance.

Observations — 1. Is the orb-web usually hung horizontally or ver-
tically ?

2. Observe the radii, or “spokes,” of the web. How many are there?
How are they fastened to surrounding objects? Is each spoke fastened
to some object or to a framework of silken lines?

3. Observe the silken thread laid around the spokes. Is it a spiral
line or is each circle complete? Are the lines the same distance apart on
the outer part of the web as at the center? How many of the circling
lines are there ?

4. Is the center of the web merely an irregular net, or are there bands
of silk put on in zigzag shape?

5. Touch any of the “spokes” lightly with the point of a pencil.
Does it adhere to the pencil and stretch out as you pull the pencil away ?
Touch one of the circling lines with a pencil point, and see if it adheres to
the point and is elastic. What is the reason for this difference in the
Stickiness and elasticity of the different kinds of silk in the orb-web?

6. If an insect touches the web, how does it become more entangled
by seeking to get away?

7 . Where does the spider stay, at the center of the web or in a little
retreat at one side ?

8. If an insect becomes entangled in the web, how does the spider
discover the fact and act ?

9. If the spider sits at the middle of the orb, it has a different method
for discovering when an insect strikes the web than does the spider that
hides in a den at one side. Describe the methods of each.

Other Invertebrate- Animal Study

481

10. How does the spider make fast an insect ? Does it bite the insect
before it envelops it in silk? Where does it carry the insect to feed upon
it?

1 1 . How does the spider manage to run about its web without becom-
ing entangled in the sticky thread ? How often does the orb-weaver make
a new web ?

How an Orb-web is Made

Spiders may be seen mak-
ing their webs in the early
morning or in the evening.
Find an orb-web with a spider
in attendance ; break the web
without frightening the- spider
and see it replace it in the
early evening, or in the morn-
ing about daybreak. An orb-
weaver may be brought into
the house on its web, when the
web is on a branch, and placed
where it will not be disturbed,
and thus be watched at
leisure.

Observations — 1. How

does the spider manage to
place the supporting line be-
tween two points ?

2. Flow does it make the
framework for holding the
web in place?

3. How does it make the first radius?

4. How does it make the other radii and select the point which is
to be the center of the web ?

5. How does it keep the line which it is spinning
clear of the line it walks upon?

6. After the radii are all made, are they fastened at

the center ? /

7. How and where does the spider first begin to
spin a spiral ? Are the lines of this spiral close together
or far apart? For what is the first spiral used?

8. Where does it begin to spin the permanent
spiral? Where does it walk when spinning it? By
the way it walks on the first spiral, do you think it is
sticky and elastic? What does it do with the first
spiral while the second one is being finished ?

9. If the center of the web has a zigzag ribbon of silk, when was it put
on?

10. How many minutes did it take the spider to complete the web?

Supplementary reading — “Argiope of The Silver Shield,” Insect Stories,

Kellogg.

The zigzag strength-
ening band at center
of an orb-web.

A partially completed orb-web.

a, the temporary spiral stay line; b, the sticky
spiral line; c, the fragments of the tem-
porary spiral hanging to a radius.
Comstock’s Manual.

482

Handbook of Nature-Study

A flmy-dome web with its maker.
Photo by J. H. Comstock.

Other Invertebrate- Animal Study

483

THE FILMY DOME
Teacher's Story

IKE bubbles cut in half, these delicate domes
catch the light rays and separate them like a
prism into waves of rainbow colors. One of
these domes is usually about the size of an
ordinary bowl, and is suspended with the open-
ing on the lower side. It is held in place by
many guy-lines which attach it to surrounding
objects. Above a filmy dome are always
stretched many crisscrossed threads for some
distance up. These are for the purpose of
hindering the flight of insects, so that they
will fall into the web. The little spider,
which always hangs, back downward, just below the center of the
dome, rushes to its prey from the lower side, pulls it through the
meshes of the web, and feeds upon it. But any remains of the insect or
pieces of sticks or leaves which may drop upon the web, it carefully cuts
out and drops to the ground, mending the hole very neatly.

LESSON CXIII
The Filmy Dome

Leading thought — One little spider spins a filmy dome, beneath the
apex of which it hangs, back downward, awaiting its prey.

Method — On a sunny day in late summer or early autumn, while walk-
ing along woodland paths, the careful observer is sure to see suspended
among the bushes or in the tops of weeds, or among dead branches of
young hemlocks, the filmy dome webs. They are about as large as a small
bowl, and usually so delicate that they cannot be seen unless the sun
shines upon them ; they are likely to be exquisitely iridescent under the
sun’s rays. Such a dome may be studied by a class or by the pupils
individually.

Observations — 1. Where did you discover the filmy dome? What is
the size of the dome? Does it open above or below? How is it held in
place ?

2. Are there many crisscrossed threads extending above the dome?
If so, what do you think they are for?

3. Where does the spider stay? Is the spider large and heavy, or
small and delicate ?

4. What does the spider do if an insect becomes entangled in its web?

5. Throw a bit of stick or leaf upon a filmy dome web, and note what
becomes of it.

“With spiders I had friendship made,

And watch'd them in their sullen trade."

- — Prisoner of Chillon.

484

Handbook of Nature-Study

BALLOONING SPIDERS
Teacher's Story ■

we look across the grass some warm sunny morn-
ing or evening of early fall, we see threads of
spider silk clinging everywhere; these are not
regular webs for trapping insects, but are single
threads spun from grass stalk to grass stalk until
the fields are carpeted with glistening silk. We
have a photograph of a plowed field, taken in
autumn, which looks likes the waves of a lake:
so completely is the ground covered with spidei
threads that it shows the “path of the sun” like
water.

When we see so many of these random threads, it is a sign that the
young spiders have started on their travels, and it is not difficult then to
find one in the act. The spiderling climbs up some tall object, like a twig
or a blade of grass, and sends out its thread of silk upon the air. If the
thread becomes entangled, the spiderling sometimes walks off on it, using
it as a bridge, or sometimes it begins again. If the thread does not become
entangled with any object, there is soon enough given off, so that the
friction of the air current upon it supports the weight of the body of the
little creature, which promptly lets go its hold of earth as soon as it feels
safely buoyed up, and off it floats to lands unknown. Spiders thus sailing
through the air have been discovered in mid-ocean.

Thus we see that the spiders have the same way of distributing their
species over the globe, as have the thistles and dandelions. It has been
asked what the spiders live upon while they are making these long jour-
neys, especially those that have drifted out to sea. The spider has very
convenient habits of eating. When it finds plenty of food it eats a great
deal; but in time of famine it lives on, apparently comfortably, without
eating. One of our captive spiders was mislaid for six months and when
we found her she was as full of “grit” as ever, and she did not seem to be
abnormally hungry when food was offered her.

“A noiseless, patient spider,

I mark'd where, on a little promontory, it stood isolated:
Mark'd how to explore the vacant, vast surrounding,

It launch'd forth filament out of itself :

Ever unreeling them — ever tirelessly speeding them.

“ And you, 0 my soul, where you stand,

Surrounded, surrounded, in measureless oceans of space,

Ceaselessly, musing, venturing, throwing, seeking the spheres to connect them;
Till the bridge you will need he form'd — till the ductile anchor hold;

Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul."

— Walt Whitman.

Other Invertebrate- Animal Study

485

LESSON CXIV
Ballooning Spiders

Leading thought — The young of many species of spiders scatter them-
selves like thistle seeds in balloons which they make of silk.

Method — These observations should be made out of doors during some
warm sunny day in October. Read Nature’s Craftsmen, McCook, p.182.

Observations — 1 . Look across the grass some warm sunny morning or
evening of early fall, and note the threads of spider silk gleaming every-
where, not regular webs, but single threads spun from grass stalk to grass
stalk, or from one object to another, until the ground seems glistening
with silk threads.

2. Find a small spider on a bush, fence post, or at the top of some tall
grass stalk; watch it until it begins to spin out its thread.

3. What happens to the thread as it is spun out?

4. If the thread does not become entangled in any surrounding object
what happens? If the thread does become entangled, what happens?

5. How far do you suppose a spider can travel on this silken aero-
plane? Why should the young spider wish to travel?

THE WHITE CRAB-SPIDER

Teacher's Story

HERE are certain spiders which are crablike in
form, and their legs are so arranged that they
can walk more easily sidewise or backward than
forward. These spiders spin no webs, but lie
in wait for their prey. Many of them live upon
plants and fences and, in winter, hide in pro-
tected places.

The white crab-spider is a little rascal that
has discovered the advantage of protective
coloring as a means of hiding itself from the
view of its victims, until too late to save them-
selves; the small assassin always takes on the
color of the flower in which it lies concealed. In the white trillium, it is
greenish white; while in the golden-rod its decorations are yellow. It
waits in the heart of the flower, or in the flower clusters,
until the visiting insect alights and seeks to probe for the
nectar; it then leaps forward and fastens its fangs into its
strugglingvictim. I have seen a crab-spider in a milkweed
attack a bee three times its size. This spider was white
with lilac or purple markings. If disturbed, the crab-
spider can walk off awkwardly or it may drop by a silken
thread. It is especially interesting, since it illustrates
another use for protective coloring ; and also because this species seems
to be able to change its colors to suit its surroundings.

A common
crab-spider .

486

Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON CXV
The White Crab-spider

heading thought — i. The white crab spider has markings upon its
body of the same color as the flower in which it rests and is thus enabled
to hide in ambush out of the sight of its victims — the insects which come
to the flower for nectar.

Method — Ask the children to bring one of these spiders to school in the
flower in which it was found ; note how inconspicuous it is, and arouse an
interest in the different colors which these spiders assume in different
flowers.

Observations — i. What is the shape of the body of the crab-spider?
Which of the legs are the longest? Are these legs directed forward or
backward ?

2. How is the body marked? What colors do you find upon it?
Are the colors the same in the spiders found in the trilliums, as those in
other flowers? Why is this? Do you think that the color of the spider
keeps it from being seen ?

3. Place the white spider which you may find in a trillium in a
daffodil, and note if the color changes.

4. Do the crab-spiders make webs? How do they trap their prey?

Crab-spiders on golden-rod.

This species is white when lurking in the white trillium and
yellow when among flowers of the golden-rod.

Photo by Slingerland.

Other Invertebrate-Animal Study 457

HOW THE SPIDER MOTHERS TAKE CARE OF THEIR EGGS

Teacher's Story

OTECTING her eggs from the vicissitudes of
the weather seems to be the spider mother’s
chief care; though at the same time and by
the same means, she protects them from the
attacks of predacious insects. Many of the
species make silken egg-sacs, which are often
elaborate in construction, and are carefully
placed in protected situations.

Often a little silvery disk may be seen
attached to a stone in a field. It resembles a
circular lichen on the stone, but if it is examined
it is found to consist of an upper, very smooth,
waterproof coat, while below is a soft, downy
nest, completely enfolding the spider’s eggs.
The egg-sacs of the cobweb weavers are
often found suspended in their webs. One of the large orbweavers makes
a very remarkable nest, which it attaches to the branches of weeds or
shrubs. This sac is about as large as a hickory nut, and opens like a vase
at the top. It is very securely suspended by many strong threads of silk,
so that the blasts of winter cannot tear it loose. The outside is shining
and waterproof, while inside it has a fit lining for a spiderling cradle.

Dr. Burt G. Wilder studied the development of the inmates of one of
these nests by cutting open different nests at different periods of the
winter. In the autumn, the nest contained five hundred or more eggs.
These eggs hatched in early winter but it seemed foreordained that some
of the little spiders were born for food for their stronger brethren. They
seemed resigned to their fate, for when one of these victims was seized by
its cannibalistic brother, it curled up
its legs and submitted meekly. The
result of this process was that, out of
the five hundred little spiders hatched
from the eggs, only a few healthy and
apparently happy young spiders
emerged from the nest in the spring, A wolf-spider carrying her egg-sac.
sustained by the nourishment afforded

them by their own family, and fitted for their life in the outside world.

Some spiders make a nest for their eggs within folded leaves, and some
build them in crevices of rocks and boards.

The running spiders, which are the large ones found under stones,
make globular egg-sacs; the mother spider drags after her this egg-sac
attached to her spinnerets; the young, when they hatch, climb upon their
mother’s back, and there remain for a time.

LESSON CXVI
The Nests op Spiders

Leading thought — The spider mothers have many interesting ways oi
protecting their eggs, which the/ envelop in silken sacs and place in
safety.

48S

Handbook of Nature-Study

Method — Ask the pupils to bring in all the spider egg-sacs that they
can find. Keep some of them unopened, and open others of the same
kind, and thus discover how many eggs are in the sac, and how many
spiderlings come out. This is a good lesson for September and October.

Observations — i . In what situation did you find the nest? How was
it protected from rain and snow.? To what was it attached?

2. Of what texture is the outside of the sac? Is the outside made of
waterproof silk? What is the texture of the lining?

3 . How many eggs in this sac ? What is the color of the eggs ? When

do the spiderlings hatch ? Do as many spiders come out of the sac as

there were eggs? Why is this?

The egg-sac of the large, black and yellow garden-spider suspended for
the winter in a branch of golden-rod.

Photo by Slingerland.

PART III

PLANT LIFE

HOW TO BEGIN THE STUDY OF PLANTS
AND FLOWERS

HE only right way to begin plant study with
young children is through awakening their
interest in and love for flowers. Most children
love flowers naturally; they enjoy bringing
flowers to school, and here, by teaching the
recognition of flowers by name, may be begun
this delightful study. This should be done
naturally and informally. The teacher may
say: “Thank you, John, for this bouquet.

Why, here is a pansy, a bachelor’s button, a
larkspur and a poppy.” Or, “Julia has
brought me a beautiful flower. What is its name, I wonder?” Then
may follow a little discussion, which the teacher leads to the proper con-
clusion. If this course is consistently followed, the children will learn
the names of the common flowers of wood, field and garden, and never
realize that they are learning anything.

The next step is to inspire the child with a desire to care for and pre-
serve his bouquet. The posies brought in the perspiring little hand may
be wilted and look dejected; ask their owner to place the stems in water,
and call attention to the way they lift their drooping heads. Parents and
teachers should very early inculcate in children this respect for the rights
of flowers which they gather; no matter how tired the child or how dis-
inclined to further* effort, when he returns from the woods or fields or
garden with plucked flowers, he should be made to place their stems in
water immediately. This is a lesson in duty as well as in plant study.

490

Handbook of Nature-Study

Attention to the behavior of the thirsty flowers may be gained by asking
the following questions:

1. When a plant is wilted how does it look? How does its stem act?
Do its leaves stand up? What happens to the flower?

2. Place the cut end of the stem in water and look at it occasionally
during an hour; describe what happens to the stem, the leaves, the
blossom.

3. To find how flowers drink, place the stem of a wilted plant in red
ink ; the next day cut the stem across and find how far the ink has been
lifted into it.

HOW TO MAKE PLANTS COMFORTABLE

NOTHER step in plant study comes naturally from
planting the seeds in window-boxes or garden.
This may be done in the kindergarten or in the
primary grades. As soon as the children have had
some experience in the growing of flowers, they
should conduct some experiments which will teach
them about the needs of plants. These experiments
are fit for the work of the second or third grade.
Uncle John says, “All plants want to grow; all they
ask is that they shall be made comfortable.” The
following experiments should be made vital and full of interest, by
impressing upon the children that through them they will learn to make
their plants comfortable.

Experiment 1. To find out what kind of soil plants love best to grow in —
Have the children of a class, or individuals representing a class, prepare
four little pots or boxes, as follows: Fill one with rich, woods humus, or

with potting earth from a florist’s; another with poor, hard soil, which
may be found near excavations ; another with clean sand ; another with
sawdust. Plant the same kind of seeds in all four, and place them where
they will get plenty of light. Water them as often as needful. Note
which plants grow the best. This trial should cover six weeks at least
and attention should now and then be called to the relative growth of the
plants.

Experiment 2. To prove that plants need light in order to grow. — Fill
two pots with the same rich soil ; plant in these the same kind of seeds,
and give them both the same amount of water ; keep one in the window
and place the other in a dark closet or under a box, and note what happens.
Or take two potted geraniums which look equally thrifty; keep one in the
light and the other in darkness. What happens?

Experiment 3. To show that the leaves love the light — Place a geranium
in a window and let it remain in the same position for two weeks. Which
way do all the leaves face? Turn it. around, and note what the leaves
have done after a few days.

Experiment 4. To show that plants need water — Fill three pots with
rich earth, plant the same kinds of seeds in each, and place them all in the
same window. Give one water as it needs it, keep another flooded with
water, and give the other none at all. What happens to the seeds in the
three pots?

Plant Life

49i

The success of these four experiments depends upon the genius of the
teacher. The interest in the result should be keen ; every child should
feel that every seed planted is a living germ and that it is struggling to
grow; every look at the experiments should be like another chapter in a
continued story. In the case of young children, I have gone so far as to
name the seeds, “Robbie Radish” or “Polly Peppergrass.” I did this to
focus the attention of the child on the ‘efforts of this living being to grow.
After the experiments, the children told the story, personating each seed,
thus: “I am Susie Sweet Pea and Johnny Smith planted me in sand. I
started to grow, for I had some lunch with me which my mother put up
for me to eat when I was hungry; but after the lunch was all gone, I
could find very little food in the sand, although my little roots reached
down and tried and tried to find something for me to eat. I finally grew
pale and could not put out another leaf.”

The explanations of these experiments should be simple, with no
attempt to teach the details of plant physiology. The need of plants for
rich, loose earth and for water is easily understood by the children; but
the need for light is not so apparent, and Uncle John’s story of the starch
factory is the most simple and graphic way of making known to the
children the processes of plant nourishment. This is how he tells
it: “Plants are just like us; they have to have food to make them
grow; where is the food and how do they find it? Every green leaf is a
factory to make food for the plant; the green pulp in the leaf is
the machinery; the leaves get the raw materials from the sap and
from the air, and the machinery unites them and makes them into
plant food. This is mostly starch, for this is the chief food of
plants, although they require some other kinds of food also. The
machinery is run by sunshine-power, so the leaf-factory can make
nothing without the aid of light ; the leaf-factories begin to work as soon
as the sun rises, and only stop working when it sets. But the starch has
to be changed to sugar before the baby, growing tips of the plant can use
it for nourishment and growth ; and so the leaves, after making the starch
from the sap and the air, are obliged to digest it, changing the starch to
sugar; for the growing parts of the plant feed upon sweet sap. Although
the starch-factory in the leaves can work only during the daytime, the
leaves, can change the starch to sugar during the night. So far as we
know, there is no starch in the whole world which is not made in the leaf-
factories.”

This story should be told and repeated often, until the children realize
the work done by leaves for the plants and their need of light.

“The clouds are at play in the azure space
And their shadows at play on the bright green vale.

And here they stretch to the frolic chase;

And there they roll on the easy gale.

“ There's a dance of leaves in that aspen bower ,

There's a titter of winds in that beechen tree ,

There's a smile on the fruit and a smile on the flower.

And a laugh from the brook that runs to the sea."

— Bryant.

492

Handbook of N ature-Stuay

HOW TO TEACH THE NAMES OF THE PARTS OF A FLOWER
AND OF THE PLANT

HE scientific names given to the parts of plants
have been the stumbling block to many teachers,
and yet no part of plant study is more easily
accomplished. First of all, the teacher should
have in mind clearly the names of the parts
which she wishes to teach; the illustrations here
given are for her convenience. When talking
with the pupils about flowers let her use these
names naturally:

“See how many geraniums we have; the
corolla of this one is red and of that one is pink.
The red corolla has fourteen petals and the pink one only five,” etc.

“This arbutus which James brought has a pretty little pink bell for a
corolla.”

Ccrci / <#;

'Stamens.

rCdt 1/

vBract i

'oepSl

t-Pedunc/c

Sepal

*veufe\ i i f

r Filament.

lobes of Cm.

A flower with the parts named.

“The purple trillium has a purple corolla, the
white trillium a white corolla; and both have
green sepals.”

The points to be borne in mind are that
children like to call things by their names
because they are real names, and the}?" also like
to use “grown up” names for things; but they
do not like to commit to memory names which to
them are meaningless. Circumlocution is a waste
of breath; calling a petal a “leaf of a flower”
or the petiole “the stem of a leaf,” is like
calling a boy’s arm “the projecting part of
James’ body” or Molly’s golden hair “the yellow

lobes
\alyx tube

A flower with petals
united forming a
tube, and with
sepals likewise
united a

Plant Life

493

top” to her head. All the names should be taught gradually by con-
stant unemphasized use on the part of the teacher; and if the child
does not learn the names naturally then do not make him do it
unnaturally.

The lesson on the garden, or horseshoe geranium with single
flowers, is the one to be given first in teaching the structure of a flower
since the geranium blossom is simple and easily understood.

TEACH THE USE OF THE FLOWER

ROM first to last the children should be taught that the
object of the flower is to develop seed. They should
look eagerly into the maturing flower for the growing
fruit. Poetry is full of the sadness of the fading
flower, while rightly it should be the gladness of the
flower that fades, because its work is done for the
precious seed at its heart. The whole attention of the
child should be fixed upon the developing fruit instead
of the fading and falling petals.

“In all places then and in all seasons.

Flowers expand their light and soul-like wings ,
T eaching us by most persuasive reasons,

How akin they afe to human things."

— Longfellow.

494

Handbook of Nature-Study

FLOWERS AND INSECT PARTNERS

is undoubtedly true that while the processes of
cross-pollenation and the complicated devices of
flowers for insuring it can only be well taught to
older pupils and only fully understood in the college
laboratory, yet there are a few simple facts which
even the young child may know, as follows:
i. Pollen is needed to make the seeds grow; some
flowers need the pollen from other flowers of the
same kind, to make their seeds grow; but many
flowers also use the pollen from their own flowers to
pollenate their ovules, which grow into seeds.

2 . Flowers have neither legs like animals nor wings like butterflies, to
go after pollen ; so they give insects nectar to drink and pollen to eat, and
thus pay them for fetching and carrying the pollen.

I taught this to a four-year-old once in the following manner : A pine

tree in the yard was sifting its pollen over us and little Jack asked what
the yellow dust was; we went to the tree and saw where it came from,
then I found a tiny young cone and explained to him that this was a pine
blossom, and that in order to become a cone with seeds, it must have some
pollen fall upon it ; and we saw how the wind sifted the pollen over it and
then we examined a ripe cone and found the seeds. Then we looked at
the clovers in the lawn. They did not have so much pollen and they were
so low in the grass that the wind could not carry it for them; but right
there was a bee. What was she doing? She was getting honey for her
hive or pollen for her brood, and she went from one clover head to
another; we caught her in a glass fruit jar, and found she was dusted with
pollen and that she had pollen packed in the baskets on her hind legs ; and
we concluded that she carried plenty of pollen on her clothes for the
clovers, and that the pollen in her baskets was for her own use. After
that he was always watching the bees at work ; and we found afterwards
that flowers had two ways of telling the insects that they wanted pollen.
One was by their color, for the dandelions and clovers hide their colors
during dark, rainy days when the bees remain in their hives. Then we
found the bees working on mignonette, whose blossoms were so small that
Jack did not think they were blossoms at all, and we concluded that the
mignonette called the bees by its fragrance. We found other flowers
which called with both color and fragrance; and this insect-flower
partnership remained a factor of great interest in the child’s mind ever
after.

“ Roly-poly honey-bee ,

Humming in the clover ,

Under you the tossing leaves ,

And the blue sky over ,

Why are you so busy, pray?

Never still a minute.

Hovering now above a flower.

Now half buried in it ! ”

— Julia C. R. Dorr.

Plant Life

495

THE RELATION OF PLANTS TO GEOGRAPHY

iHERE should be from first to last a steady growth in the
intelligence of the child as to the places where certain plants
grow. He finds hepaticas and trilliums in the woods,
daisies and buttercups in the sunny fields, mullein on the dry
hillsides, cat-tails in the swamp, and water lilies floating on
the pond. This may all be taught by simply asking the
pupils questions relating to the soil and the special condi-
tions of the locality where they found the flowers they bring to schooL

Egg-shell experiment farm.

The plants from left to right are: cabbage, field com, popcorn, wheat, buckwheat.

SEED GERMINATION

Less than three decades ago, this one feature of plant life once came
near “gobbling up” all of nature-study, and yet it is merely an incident
in the growth of the plant. To sprout seeds is absurd as an object in
itself ; it is incidental as is the breaking of the egg-shell to the study of
the chicken. The peeping into a seed like a bean or a pea, to see that the
plant is really there, with its lunch put up by its mother packed all
around it, is interesting to the child. To watch the little plant develop,
to study its seed-leaves and what becomes of them, to know that they
give the plant its first food and to know how a young plant looks and acts,
are all items of legitimate interest in the study of the life of a plant ; in
fact the struggle of the little plant to get free from its seed-coats may be a
truly dramatic story. (See “First Lessons with Plants,” Bailey, page
79). But to regard this feature as the chief object of planting seed is
manifestly absurd.

Handbook of N atur e-Study

49 <5

The object of planting any seed should be to rear a plant which shall
fulfill its whole duty and produce other seed. The following observa-
tions regarding the germination of seeds should be made while the
children are eagerly watching the coming of the plants in their gardens or
window-boxes :

1. Which comes out of the seed first, the root or the leaf? Which
way does the root always grow, up or down? Which way do the leaves
always grow, no matter which side up the seed is planted ?

2. How do the seed-leaves try to get out of the seed-coat, or shell?
How do the seed-leaves differ in form from the leaves which come later?
What becomes of the seed-leaves after the plant begins to grow?

References — First Lessons with Plants, L. H. Bailey; First Lessons in
Plant Life, Atkinson; Plants and their Children, Dana; Plants, Coulter;
How Plants Grow, Gray; How Plants Behave, Gray.

I. WILD-FLOWER STUDY

THE HEPATICA
Teacher's Story

“ The wise men say the hepatica flower has no petals but has pink, white or purple
sepals instead: and they say, too, that the three leaflets of the cup which holds the flower
are not sepals but are bracts; and they offer as proof the fact that they do not grow close
to the blossom, but are placed a little way down the stem. But the hepatica does not care
what names the wise men give to the parts of its blossom: it says as plainly as if it
could talk: ‘ The bees do not care whether they are sepals or petals since they are pretty

in color, and show where the pollen is to l e found. I will teach the world that bracts are
just as good to wrap around flower-buds as are sepals, and that sepals may be just as
beautif ul as petals. Since my petticoat is pretty enough for a dress why should not 1
wear it thus? ’ ” — “The Child’s Own Book of Wild Flowers.”

We seek the hepatica in its own haunts, because there is a longing for
spring in our hearts that awakens with the first warm sunshine. As we
thread our way into sodden woods, avoiding the streams and puddles
which are little glacial rivers and lakes, having their sources in the snow-
drifts still heaped on the north side of things, we look eagerly for signs of
returning life. Our eyes slowly distinguish among the various shades of
brown in the floor of the forest, a bit of pale-blue or pink-purple that at
first seems like an optical delusion; but as we look again to make sure,
Lo! it is the hepatica, lifting its delicate blossoms above its mass of
purple-brown leaves. These leaves, moreover, are always beautiful in
shape and color and suggest patterns for sculpture like the acanthus, or
for rich tapestries like the palm-leaf in the Orient. It warms the heai t to
see these brave little flowers stand with their faces to the sun and their
backs to the snow-drifts, looking out on a gray-brown world, nodding to
it and calling it good.

The hepatica is forehanded in several ways. After the leaves have
fallen from the trees in the autumn and let in the sunshine, it puts up new
leaves which make food that is stored in the crown bud ; the little flower
buds are then started, and wrapped cozily, are cuddled down at the very

Wild-Flower Study

497

Hepatic as.

center of the plant. These buds, perfected in the autumn, are ready to
stretch up and blossom when the first warmth of spring shall reach them.
The stems and the bracts of the flower are soft and downy, and are much
more furry than those which appear later; while this down is not for the
purpose of keeping the plant at a higher temperature, yet it acts as a
blanket to prevent too rapid transpiration, which is a cooling process, and
thus it does, as a matter of fact, keep the flower warmer. As the stems
lift up, the buds are bent, which position protects them from the beating
storms. The hepatica flowers are white, pink and lavender. The latter
are sometimes called “blue.” The so-called “petals” number from six to
twelve; there are usually six. The three outer ones are sepals and are
exactly like the three inner ones, the petals, but may be distinguished by
their outside position in the half-opened flower. The three green bracts
which encase the flower bud, and later remain with the seed, are placed on
the stem quite distinctly below the flower. On dark days and during the
nights, the young blossoms close ; but when they become old and faded,
they remain open all the time. Thus, the flowers are closed except when
bees are likefy to visit them ; but after they have shed their pollen, they
do not need to remain closed any longer. Not all hepatica blossoms are
fragrant ; and those that are so, lose their fragrance as their colors begin
to fade to white. If a snow-storm comes, the hepatica blossoms close and
bow their heads.

There are many stamens with greenish white anthers and pollen.
They stand erect around the many pistils at the center of the flower.
The number of pistils varies from six to twenty-four. Each pistil holds
aloft the little horseshoe-shaped, whitish stigma and, if pollenated.

498

Handbook of Nature-Study

develops into a seed. The hepatica is a perennial and grows only in rich,
moist woods. It is so adapted to the shade, that it dies if transplanted
to sunny places. The leaves which have passed the winter under the
snow are rich purple beneath, and mottled green and purple above, mak-
ing beautiful objects for water-color drawings. The new leaves are put
forth in spring before the leaves of the trees create too much shade. In
the fall, after the trees are bare, the leaves again become active. The
roots are quite numerous and fine.

Leading thought — The hepatica flower buds are developed in the fall,
so as to be ready to blossom early in the spring. This plant lives only in
moist and shady woods.

Method — The pupils should have the questions before they go into the
woods to gather spring flowers, and should answer them individually.
However, the hepatica plant may be potted early in the spring, and the
flowers may be watched during their development, and studied in the
schoolroom.

Observations — i. Where do you find the hepaticas? Do you ever
find them in the open fields? Do you ever find them in the pine woods?

2. How do the leaves look in early spring? Sketch in color one of
these old leaves. How do the young leaves look? Are the leaves that
come up late in the spring as fuzzy as those that appear early? What
is the difference in texture and color between the leaves that were
perfected in the fall and those that appear in the spring?

3. Find a hepatica plant before it begins to blossom. Look, if possi-
ble, at its very center. Describe these little flower buds. When were
they formed ?

Embroidery design from the hepatica.

The Child’s Own Book of Wild Flowers, drawn by Evelyn Mitchell.

LESSON CXVII
The Hepatica

Wild-Flower Study

499

4. How does the bud look when it begins to lift up? Describe the
stems and the three little blankets that hold the bud. Ask your teacher
how these fuzzy blankets keep the bud from being killed by cold.

5. Are the hepaticas in your woods all pink, or blue, or white? Do
those which are at first pink or blue fade to white later ? Do the blossoms
keep open during the night and stormy weather? Why not? Are they
all fragrant?

6. How many petals has your hepatica? Can you see that the outer
ones are sepals, although they look just like the petals? Peel back the
three sepal-like bracts and see that they are not a part of the flower at all
but join the stem below the flower.

7. Describe the stamens in the hepatica. How many pistils are
there? Does each pistil develop into a seed? How do the three bracts
protect the seeds as they ripen ?

8. What insects do you find visiting the hepaticas?

9. Describe a hepatica plant in the woods; mark it so that you will
know it, and^ visit it occasionally during the summer and autumn, noting
what happens to it.

THE YELLOW ADDER’S TONGUE

Teacher's Story

Adder's tongue.

“ Once a prize was offered to a
child if she would find two leaves
of the adder's tongue that were
marked exactly alike: and she
sought long and faithfully , but
the only prize she won was a
lesson in Nature's book of vari-
ations, where no two leaves oj
any plant, shrub or tree are
exactly alike: for even if they
seemed so to our eyes, yet there
would exist in them differences
of strength and growth too subtle
for us to detect. But this child
was slow in learning this great
fact, and, until she was a woman ,
the adder's tongue leaves, so
beautifully embroidered with
purple and green, were to her a
miracle, revealing the infinite
diversity of Nature's patterns." — ■
“The Child’s Own Book of
Wild Flowers.”

This little lily of the
woods is a fascinating plant.
Its leaves of pale green
mottled with brownish pur-
ple often cover closely large
irregular areas in the rich

s°°

Handbook of Nature-Study

soil of our woodlands; and yet I doubt if the underground story of
these forest rugs is often thought of. The leaves are twins, and to the
one who plucks them carelessly they seem to come from one slender stem.
It requires muscle as well as decision of character to follow this weak
stem down several inches, by digging around it, until we find the corm
at its base. A corm is the swollen base of a stem and is bulb-like in
form; but it is not made up of layers, as is a bulb. It is a store-
house for food and also a means of spreading the species; for from
the corms there grow little corms called cormels, and each cormel develops
a separate plant. This underground method of reproduction is the
secret of why the leaves of the adder’s tongue appear in patches, closely
crowded together.

Only a few of the plants in a “patch” produce flowers, and it is inter-
esting to see how cleverly these lily bells hide from the casual eye. Like
many of the lilies, the three sepals are petal-like and are identified as sepals

only by their outside position, al-
though they are thicker in texture.
They are purplish brown outside,
which serves to render the flower
inconspicuous as we look down upon
it; on the inner side, they are a pure
yellow, spotted with darker yellow near
where they join the stem.
The three petals are pure-
yellow, paler outside]
than in, and they have
dark spots like the tiger
the heart of the flower;
they join the stem, each
has on each side an ear-shaped lobe.

The open flower is bell-shaped;
and like other bells it has a clapper,
or tongue. This is formed by six
downward-hanging stamens, the yel-
low filaments of which have broad
bases and taper to points where the
oblong anthers join them. The anthers
are red or yellow. It is this stamen
clapper that the visiting insects must
cling to when probing upward for
nectar from this flower at the upper
end of the bell. The pale green pistil
is somewhat three-sided, and the long
style remains attached long after the
flower disappears. The flower is
slightly fragrant, and it is visited by
the queen bumblebees and the solitary
bees, of which there are many species. 3
The adder's tongue , showing its under- The flower closes nights and during;

ground storehouse. cloudy, stormy days. The seed eap-

Drawn by F.Dana^^a pupil m gule {& plump and rather triangular,

lilies near
and where

Wild-Flower Study

501

and splits into three sections when ripe. The
seeds are numerous and are fleshy and crescent-
shaped.

But the adder’s tongue, like many other early
blooming flowers, is a child of the spring. The
leaves, at first so prettily mottled, fade out to plain
green; and by midsummer they have entirely dis-
appeared, the place where they were, being covered
with other foliage of far different pattern. But
down in the rich woods soil are the plump globular
corms filled with the food gathered by the spotted
leaves during their brief stay, and next spring two
pairs of spotted leaves may appear where there was
but one pair this year.

The adder's tongue going to seed
Photo by Verne Morton.

LESSON CXVIII

Adder’s Tongue, or Dog-tooth Violet
Leading thought — The adder’s tongue is a lily, and its mottled leaves
appear early in the spring, each pair coming from a corm deep in the soil
below. It has two ways of spreading, one underground by means of new
corms growing from the larger ones, and the other by means of seeds,

502 Handbook of Nature-Study

many of which are probably perfected through the pollen carried by
insects.

Method — This plant should be studied in the woods, notes being made
on it there. But a plant showing corm, roots, leaves and blossom should
be brought to the schoolhouse for detailed study, and then planted in a
shady place in the school garden?

Observations — i. Where does the adder’s tongue grow? Do you ever
find it in open fields? How early do you find its leaves above ground?
At what time does its blossoms appear?

2. How many leaves has each plant? What colors do you find in
them? What is the color of their petioles? Do the leaves remain
mottled later in the season?

3. Do the adder’s tongue plants occur singly or in patches? Digout
a plant and see if you can find why the plants grow so many together?

4. How far below the surface of the ground did you find the corm or
bulb-like growth ? Is this the root of the plant ? How does it differ from
the roots ? How does it differ from a bulb ? Of what use is it to the plant ?

5. Is the flower lifted up, or is it drooping? What is its general
shape? How many sepals? How would you know they were sepals?
How do they differ in color, outside and in, from the petals? How are
the petals marked? Can you see the lobes at the base of each petal?
When sepals and petals are so much alike the botanists call them all
together the perianth.

6. If the perianth, or the sepals and petals together, make a bell-
shaped flower, what makes the clapper to the bell? How do the insects
use this clapper when they visit the flower? Do the flowers stay open
nights and dark days ? Why ?

7. How many stamens are there? Describe or sketch one, noting its
peculiar shape. Are the stamens all the same length? Can you see the
pistil and its stigma? Where is it situated in relation to the stamens?
Do you think the stigma is ready for pollen at the time the anthers are
shedding it?

8. After the petals and .sepals fall what remains? How does the
ripe seed-capsule look? How does it open to let out the seeds? Are
there many seeds in a capsule? What is their shape?

Wild-Flower Study

5°3

“ Bloodroots , whose rolled-up leaves ef you oncurl
Each on em’s cradle to a baby pearl.” — Lowell.

Photo by 0. L. Foster.

BLOODROOT
Teacher’s Story

“What dime the earliest ferns unfold,

And meadow cowslips count their gold;

A countless multitude they stood,

A Milky Way within the wood.” — Danske Dandridge.

NLY a few generations ago, and this
land of ours was peopled by those who
found it fitting to paint their bodies to
represent their mental or spiritual
conditions or intentions. For this
purpose they had studied the plants
of our forests to learn the secrets of
the dyes which they yielded, and a
dye that would remain on the flesh
permanently, or until it wore off, was
highly prized. Such a dye was found
in the bloodroot, a dye appropriate in
its color to represent a thirst for blood ;
and with it they made their war paint, and with it they ornamented
their tomahawks to symbolize their sanguinary purpose.

The Indian warriors have passed away from our forests, and the forests
themselves are passing away, but the bloodroot still lingers, growing
abundantly in rich moist woods or in shaded areas in glades, borders of
meadows and fence corners. Its beautiful white flowers open to the
morning sun in early April, calling the hungry bees to come for pollen;
for, like man}'- other early flowers, it offers no nectar. Probably many of
the little wild bees prefer pollen to nectar at this time of year, for it is an

Handbook of Nature-Study

5°4

important element in the food of all kinds of bee brood. But the blood-
root’s fragile blossoms are elusive and do not remain long; like their
relatives, the poppies, their petals soon fall, and their white masses dis-
appear like the snow-drifts which so recently occupied the same nooks.

The way the bloodroot leaf enfolds the flower-bud seems like such an
obvious plan for protection, that we are unthinkingly prone to attribute
consciousness to the little plants.

Not only does the leaf enfold the bud, but it continues to enfold the
flower stem after the blossom opens. There are two sepals which enclose
the bud, but fall off as the flower opens. There are ordinarily eight white
petals, although there may be twelve; usually every other one of the
eight petals is longer than its neighbors, and this makes the blossom
rather square than circular in outline. There are many stamens, often
24, and the anthers are brilliant yellow with whitish filaments. The two-
lobed stigma opens to receive pollen before the pollen of its own flower is
ripe. The s'tigma is large, yellow, and set directly on the ovary, and is
quite noticeable in the freshly opened blossoms. It is likely to shrivel
before its home-grown pollen is ripe. The blossoms open wide on sunny
morning's; the petals rise up in the afternoon and close at night, and also
remain closed during dark, stormy days until they are quite old, when
they remain carelessly open; they are now ready to fall to the ground at
the slightest jar, leaving the oblong, green seed-pod set on the stem at a
neat bevel, and perhaps still crowned with the yellowish stigma. The
seed-pod is oblong and pointed and remains below the protecting leaf.
There are many yellowish or brownish seeds.

When the plant appears above ground, the leaf is wrapped in a cylinder
about the bud, and it is a very pretty leaf, especially the “wrong side,”
which forms the outside of the roll; it is pale green with a network of
pinkish veins, and its edges are attractively lobed; the petiole is fleshy,
stout and reddish amber in color. The flower stem is likewise fleshy and
is tinged with raw sienna ; the stems of both leaf and flower stand side by
side, and are held together at the base by two scapes with parallel veins.
Later in the season, the leaf having done its full duty as a nurse waxes
opulent, often measuring six inches across and having a petiole ten inches
long. It is then one of the most beautiful leaves in the forest carpet, its
circular form and deeply lobed edges rendering it a fit subject for decora-
tive design.

The rootstock is large and fleshy, and in it is stored the food which
enables the flower to blossom early, before any food has been made by
the new leaves. There are many stout and rather short roots that fringe
the rootstock. Once in clearing a path through a woodland, we happened
to hack off a mass of these rootstocks, and we stood aghast at the gory
results. We had admired the bloodroot flowers in this place in the
spring, and we felt as guilty as if we had inadvertently hacked into a
friend.

LESSON CXIX
Bloodroot

Leading thought — The bloodroot has a fleshy rootstock, in which is
stored food for the nourishment of the blossom in early spring. The
flower bud is at first protected by the folded leaf. The juice of the root-
stock is a vivid light crimson, and was used by Indians as a wrar paint.

Wild-Flower Study

The juice is acrid, and the bloodroot is not relished as food by grazing
animals, but it is used by us as a medicine.

Method — The bloodroot may, in the fall, be transplanted in a pot of
woods earth, care being taken not to disturb its roots. It should be
placed out of doors in a protected place where it may have natural condi-
tions, and be brought to the schoolroom for study in March, so that the
whole act of the unfolding of leaves and flowers may be observed by the
pupils. Otherwise the questions must be given the pupils to answer as
they find the plants blossoming in the woods in April. The blossoms are
too fragile to be successfully transported for study at home or school.

Observations — i. At what time of year does bloodroot blossom? In
what situations does it thrive?

2. What do we see first when the bloodroot puts its head above the
soil? Where is the flower bud ? How is it protected by the leaf ? How
does the leaf hold the flower stem after the flower is in blossom?

3 . Study the flower. How many sepals has it ? What is their color ?
What is the position of the sepals when the flower is in bud? What is
their position when the flower opens? How many petals? What is
their color. and texture? Describe the position of the petals in the bud
and in the open flower. Look straight into the flower; is its shape cir-
cular or square ?

4. Do the flowers close nights and during dark days? Do the flowers
longest open do this? Describe how the petals and sepals fall.

5. Describe the stamens. What is the color of the anthers? Of the
pollen? Describe the pistil. Does the two-grooved stigma open before

Bloodroot.

Photographed by Verne Morton.

506 Handbook of Nature-Study

the pollen is shed, or after? What insects do you find visiting the blood-
root?

6. Sketch or describe a bloodroot leaf as it is wrapped around the
stem of the flower. How are both flower stem and leaf petiole protected
at the base? Describe Or sketch a leaf after it is unfolded and open.
Describe the difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf.
What sort of petiole has it ? Break the petiole; what sort of juice comes
from it ? Describe and measure the leaf later in the season ; do they all
have the same number of lobes?

7. Break a bit off the root of the plant and note the color of the juice.

8. Compare the bloodroot with the poppies; do you find any resem-
blance in habits?

THE TRILLIUM

The white trillium. A white butterfly visiting the
■flower at the left.

Photo by Verne Morton.

trilliums, which flush pink instead of fading,

Teacher's Story
It would be well
for the designer of
tapestries to study
the carpets of our for-
ests for his patterns,
for he would find there
a new carpet every
month, quite different-
in plan and design
from the one spread
there , earlier or later.
One of the most
beautiful designs from
Nature’s looms is a
trillium carpet, which
is at its best when
the white trilliums
are in blossom. It is
a fine study of the ar-
tistic possibilities of
the triangle when re-
duced to terms of
leaves, petals and
sepals.

The trillium season
is a long one ; it begins
in April with the
purple wake-robin or
birthroot, the species
with purple, red, or
sometimes yellowish
flowers. The season
ends in June with the
last of the great white
when old age comes upon

them.

Wild-Flower Study

5°7

The color of the trillium flower depends upon the species studied;
there are three petals, and the white and painted trilliums have the edges
of the petals ruffled; the red and nodding trilliums have petals and sepals
nearly the same size, but in the white trillium the sepals are narrower and
shorter than the petals. The sepals are alternate the petals, so that when
we look straight into the flower we see it as a six-pointed star, three of the
points being green sepals. The pistil of the trillium is six-lobed. It is
dark red in the purple trillium and very large; in the white species, it is
pale green and smaller; it opens at the top with three flaring stigmas.
There are six stamens with long anthers, and they stand between the
lobes of the pistil. The flower stalk rises from the center where three
large leaves join. The flower stalk has a tendency to bend a little, and is
rather delicate. The three leaves have an interesting venation, and make
a good subject for careful drawing. The flower stem varies with different
species, and so does the length of the stem of the plant, the latter being

fleshy and green toward the top and reddish
toward the root. The trilliums have a
thick, fleshy, and much scarred rootstock
from which extend rootlets which are often
corrugated. The trilliums are perennial,
and grow mostly in damp, rich woods. The
painted trillium is found in cold, damp
woods along the banks of brooks ; the white
trillium is likely to be found in large num-
bers in the same locality, while the purple
trillium is found only here and there. Flies
and beetles carry the pollen for the red
trillium, being attracted to it by its rank
odor, which is very disagreeable to us but
very agreeable to them. The large white
trillium is visited by bees and butterflies.
The fruit of the trillium is a berry, that of
the purple species is somewhat six-lobed
and reddish. In late July the fruit of the
white trillium is a cone with six sharp
wings, or ridges, from apex to base, the
latter being three-quarters of an inch across.
These vertical ridges are not evenly spaced,
and beneath them are packed as closely as
possible the yellow-green seeds, which are
as large as homeopathic pills. In cross section, it can be seen that the
trillium berry is star-shaped with three compartments, the seeds growing
on the partitions. This trillium fruit is very rough outside, but smooth
inside, and the dried stamens often still cling to it.

The trilliums are so called from the word triplum, meaning three, as
there are three leaves, three petals, and three sepals.

LESSON CXX
The Trillium

Leading thought — The trilliums are lilies, and are often called wood
lilies, because of their favorite haunts. There are several species, but

5°8

Handbook of Nature-Study

The purple trillium.
Photo by Verne Morton.

they are all alike in that they have three sepals, three petals and three
leaves.

Method — This lesson may be given from trilliums brought to the school-
room by the pupils, who should be encouraged to watch the development
of the berry and also to learn all the different species common to a
locality.

Observations — i. How many leaves has the trillium? How are they
arranged? Draw a leaf showing its shape and veins. Describe the stem
of the plant below the leaves, giving the length and color.

2. How far above the leaves does the flower stem or pedicel extend?
Does the flower stand upright or droop? Describe or sketch the colors,
shape and arrangement of the petals and sepals. Do the petals have
ruffled margins ?

3. Describe the pistil and the stigmas. Describe the stamens and
how they are placed in relation to the pistil.

4. Do the flowers remain open during cloudy days and nights?

5. What insects do you find visiting the trilliums? Do the same
insects visit the purple and the white trilliums? What is the difference in
odor between the purple and the white trillium? Would this bring
different kinds of insects to each?

6. How does the color of the white trillium change as the blossom
matures ? What is the color and shape of the fruit of each different species
of trillium ? When is the fruit ripe ?

7. What kind of a root have the wake-robins? Do they grow from
seed each year, or are they perennial? Where do you find them growing?

Wild-Flower Study

5°9

Dutchman s breeches, or “ boys and girls.”
Photo by O. L. Foster.

DUTCHMAN’S BREECHES AND SQUIRREL CORN
Teacher's Story

‘‘In a gymnasium where things grow,

Jolly boys and girls in a row,

Hanging down from cross-bar stem
Builded purposely for them.

Stout little legs up in the air,

Kick at the breeze as it passes there ;

Dizzy heads in collars wide'

Look at the world from the underside;

Happy acrobats a-swing,

At the woodside show in early spring.”

A. B.C.

“And toward the sun, which kindlier burns ,

The earth awaking, looks and yearns,

And still, as in all other Aprils,

The annual miracle returns.”

Elizabeth Akers.

There are many beautiful carpets spread before the feet of advancing
spring, but perhaps none of them are so delicate in pattern as those woven
by these two plants that spread their fernlike leaves in April and May.
There is little difference in the foliage of the two; both are delicate green
and lacclike above, and pale, bluish green on the underside. And each
leaf, although so finely divided, is, after all, quite simple; for it has three
chief divisions, and these in turn are divided into three, and all the leaves

Handbook of Nature-Study

5io

come directly from the root and not from stems. These plants love the
woodlands, and by spreading their green leaves early, before the trees are
in foliage, they have the advantage of the spring sunshine. Thus they
make their food for maturing their seeds, and also store some of it in their
roots for use early the following spring. By midsummer the leaves have
entirely disappeared, and another carpet is spread in the place which they
once covered.

Dutchman’s breeches and squirrel corn
resemble each other so closely that they are
often confused; however, they are quite
different in form; the “legs” of the Dutch-
man’s breeches are quite long and spread
wide apart, while the blossoms of the squir-
rel corn are rounded bags instead of “legs.”
The roots of the two are quite different.
The Dutchman’s breeches grows from a
little bulb made up of grayish scales, while
the squirrel corn develops from a round,
yellow tuber; these yellow, kernel-like
tubers are scattered along the roots, each
capable of developing a plant next year.
The Dutchman’s breeches likes thin wood-
lands and rocky hillsides, but the squirrel
corn prefers rich, moist woods. The blos-
som of the Dutchman’s breeches comes the earlier of the two. These
flowers are white with yellow tips, and are not fragrant. The flowers of
the squirrel corn are grayish with a tinge of magenta,
and are fragrant.

The legs of the Dutchman’s breeches are nectar
pockets with tubes leading to them, and are formed
by two petals. Opposite these two petals are two
others more or less spoon-shaped, with the spoon
bowls united to protect the anthers and stigma.

There are two little sepals which are scalelike.

The seed capsule of the Dutchman’s breeches is a
long pod with a slender, pointed end, and it opens
lengthwise. The seed capsules of the squirrel corn
are similar and I have found in one capsule, 12 seeds,
which were shaped like little kernels of corn, black in
color and polished like patent leather.

LESSON CXXI
Dutchman’s Breeches and Squirrel Corn

Leading thought — The Dutchman’s breeches, or “boys and girls,” as
it is often called, is one of the earliest flowers of rich woodlands. There
are interesting differences between this flower and its close relative,
squirrel corn. The flowers of both of these resemble in structure the
flowers of the bleeding heart.

Method — As the Dutchman’s breeches blossoms in April and May and
the squirrel corn in May and June, we naturally study the former first
and compare the latter with it in form and in habits. The questions

Seed, capsule of
squirel corn.

The underground store-house of
Dutchman’ s breeches.

Wild-Flower Study

5ii

should be given the pupils, for
them to answer for themselves
during their spring walks in the
woodlands.

Observations — 1. Where do

you find Dutchman’s breeches?
Which do you prefer to call these
flowers, Dutchman’s breeches or
boys and girls? Are there leaves
on the trees when these flowers
are in bloom ?

2. Which blossoms earlier in
the season, Dutchman’s breeches
or squirrel corn? How do the
flowers of the two differ in shape ?
In odor?

3. In the flower of the Dutch-
man’s breeches find two petals
which protect the nectar. How
do they look ? What part do they
form of the breeches ? Find two
other petals which protect the
pollen and stigma.

4. Find the two sepals. How
many bracts do you find on the
flower stem?

5. What insects visit these
flowers? Describe how they get
the nectar.

6. What sort of root has the
Dutchman’s breeches? What is
the difference between its root and
that of the squirrel corn ? Have
you ever seen squirrels harvesting
squirrel corn? What is the pur-

Squirrel corn. pose of the kernels of the squirrel

corn?

7. Study the leaf. How many main parts are there to it? How are
these parts divided? Does the leaf come straight from the root or from a
stem? What is the color of the leaf above? Below? Can you distin-
guish the leaves of the Dutchman’s breeches from those of the squirrel
corn?

8. Describe the seed capsule of Dutchman’s breeches. How does it
open? How many seeds has it? Compare this with the fruit of squirrel
corn and describe the difference.

9. What happens to the leaves of these two plants late in summer.
How do the plants manage to get enough sunlight to make food to mature
their seed ? What preparations have they made for early blossoming the
next spring?

Handbook of Nature-Study

513

JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT

Teacher's Story

“With hooded heads and shields of green.

Monks of the wooded glen,

I know you well; you are, I ween,

Robin Hood's merry men."

— “Child’s Own Book of Flowers.”

IS little preacher is a prime favorite
with all children, its very shape,
like that of the pitcher plant, sug-
gesting mystery; and what child
could fail to lift the striped hood to
discover what might be hidden be-
neath ! And the interest is en-
hanced when it is discovered that
the hood is but a protection for the
true flowers, standing upon a club-
shaped stem, which has been made
through imagination into “Jack,”
the little preacher.

Jack-in-the-pulpit prefers wet lo-
cations but is sometimes found on
dry, wooded hillsides; the greater
abundance of blossoms occurs in late
May. This plant has another name,
which it earned by being interesting
below ground as well as above. It
has a solid, flattened, food-store-
house called a corm with a fringe of
coarse rootlets encircling its upper portion. This corm was used as a food
by the Indians, which fact gave the plant the name of Indian turnip.
I think all children test the corm as a food for curiosity, and retire from
the field with a new respect for the stoicism of the Indian when enduring
torture; but this is an undeserved tribute. When raw, these corms are
peppery because they are filled with minute, needle-like spicules which,
however, soften with boiling, and the Indians boiled them before eating
them.

Jack-in-the-pulpit is a near cousin to the calla lily; the white part of
the calla and the striped hood over “Jack” are both spathes, and a spathe
is a leaf modified for the protection of a flower or flowers. “Jack” has
but one leg and his flowers are set around it, all safely enfolded in the
lower part of the spathe. The pistillate flowers which make the berries
are round and greenish, and are packed like berries on the stalk; they
have purple stigmas with whitish centers. The pollen-bearing flowers are
mere little projections, almost white in color, each usually bearing four
purplish, cup-like anthers filled with white pollen. Occasionally both
kinds of flowers maybe found on one spadix, (as “Jack” is called in the
botanies), the pollen-bearing flowers being set above the others; but
usually they are on separate plants. Professor Atkinson has demon-

Wild-Flower Study

513

strated that when a plant be-
comes very strong and thrifty,
its spadix will be set with the
pistillate flowers and its berries
will be many; but if the same
plant becomes weak, it produces
the pollen-bearing flowers the
next year.

When “Jack” first appears in
the spring it looks like a mottled,
pointed peg, for it is well
sheathed. Within this sheath
the leaves are rolled lengthwise
to a point, and at the very center
of the rolled leaves is a spathe,
also rolled lengthwise, and hold-
ing at its heart the developing
flower-buds. It is a most in-
teresting process to watch the
unfolding of one of these plants.
On the older plants there are
two, or sometimes three leaves,
each with three large leaflets; on the younger plants there may be but
one of these compound leaves, but the leaflets are so large that they seem
like three entire leaves.

The spathes, or pulpits, vary in color, some being
maroon and white or greenish, and some greenish and
white. They are very pretty objects' for water-color
drawings.

Small flies and some beetles seem to be the pollen
carriers for this plant. Various ingenious theories
have been suggested to prove that our Jack-in-the-
pulpit acts as a trap to imprison visiting insects, as does
the English species; but I have studied the flowers in
every stage, and have seen the insects crawl out of the
hoods as easily as they crawled in, and by the same
open, though somewhat narrow, passage between the
spadix and the spathe.

After a time the spathe falls away showing the
globular, green, shining berries. In August even the
leaves may wither away, at which time the berries are
brilliant scarlet. Jack-in-the-pulpit is a perennial. It
does not blossom the first year after it is a seedling. I
have known at least one case where blossoms were not
produced until the third year. Below ground, the main corm gives off
smaller corms and thus the plant spreads by this means as well as bv
seeds.

I. J ack-in-the-pulpit unfolding; 2. Spadix
with pistillate flowers; P, pistillate flower
enlarged; 3. Spadix with staminate flow-
ers; an, a staminate flower enlarged , show-
ing the four anthers.

Handbook of Nature-Study

5*4

Border design by Evelyn Mitchell.

From the Child’s Own Book of Wild Flowers.

LESSON CXXII
Jack-in-the-pulpit

Leading thought — The real flowers of Jack-in-the-pulpit are hidden by
the striped spathe which is usually spoken of as the flower. This plant
has a peppery root which the Indians used for food.

Method — The questions should be answered from observation in the
woods ; a single plant may be dug up and brought to school for study, and
later planted in some shady spot in the school garden.

Observations — i. Where do you find Jack-in-the-pulpit? Is the soil
dry or damp? Do you ever find it in the fields?

2. How early in the season does this plant blossom? How late?

3. How does the Jack-in-the-pulpit look when it first pushes out from
the ground ? How are its leaves rolled in its spring overcoat ?

4. How does the pulpit, or spathe, look when the plant first unfolds?
Is its tip bent over or is it .straight?

5. Describe or sketch the leaves of Jack-in-the-pulpit. How do they
rise above and protect the flower? How many leaflets has each leaf?
Sketch the leaflets to show the venation. How do these stand above the
flower? Can you find any of the plants with only one leaf?

6. Why is the spathe called a pulpit? What are the colors of the
spathe? Are all the spathes of the same colors?

7. Open up the spathe and see the rows of blossoms around the
base of the spadix, or if you call the spadix, “Jack,” then the flowers
clothe his one leg. Are all the blossoms alike? Describe, if you can,
those flowers which will produce the seed' and those which produce the
pollen. Do you find the two on the same spadix or on different plants?

8. What insects do you find carrying the pollen for “Jack?” Do
you know how its seeds look in June? How do they look in August?
Do the leaves last as long as the seeds ?

9. What sort of a root has “Jack?”’ How does it taste? Do you
think the Indians boiled it before they ate it? What other name has
“Jack?” How does the plant multiply below the ground?

10. Compare the Jack-in-the-pulpit with the calla lily.

11. Write an English theme on “The Sermon that Jack Preached from
His Pulpit.”

Wild-Flower - Study

515

The Long-spurred violet. Color of flowers, pale lavender.

Photo by Verne Morton.

THE VIOLET

Teacher's Story

It is interesting to note the flowers which have impinged upon the
imagination of the poets; the violet more than most flowers has been
loved by them, and they have sung in varied strains of its fragrance and
lowliness.

Browning says:

“Such a starved bank of moss,

‘Till that May morn,

Blue ran the flash across;

Violets were born.”

And Wordsworth sings:

' “A violet by a mossy stone,

Half hidden from the eye;

Fair as a star, when only one
Is shining in the sky.“

And Barry Cornwall declares that the violet

“Stands first with most, but always with the lover/'

But Shakespeare’s tribute is the most glowing of all, since the charms of
both the goddesses of beauty and of love are made to pay tribute tc it :
“Violets dim, but sweeter than the lids of Juno’s eyes, or Cytherea’s breath.”

Handbook of Nature-Study

5i6

However, the violets go on living their own lives, in their own way,
quite unmindful of the poets. There are many different species, and they
frequent quite different locations. Some live in the woods, others in
meadows and others in damp, marshy ground. They are divided into
two distinct groups — those where the leaf-stems come directly from the
root, and those where the leaves come from a common stem, the latter
being called the leafy-stemmed violets. Much attention should be given
to sketching and studying the leaf accurately of the specimens under
observation, for the differences in the shapes of the leaves, in many
instances, determine the species; in some cases the size and shape of the
stipules determines the species; and whether the leaves and stems are
downy or smooth is another important characteristic. In the case of
those species where the leaves spring from the root, the flower stems rise
from the same situation; but in the leafy-stemmed violets the flower
stems come off at the axils of the leaves. In some species the flower
stems are long enough to lift the flowers far above the foliage, while in
others ^hey are so short that the flowers are hidden.

The violet has five
sepals and their shape
and length is a distin-
guishing mark. There
are five petals, one pair
above, a pair one at each
side, and a broad lower
petal which gives the
bees and butterflies a
resting place when they
ere seeking nectar.
This lower petal is pro-
longed backward into a
spur which holds the
nectar.

The spur forms the
nectary of the violet,
and in order to reach the
sweet treasure, which is
at the rearmost point of
the nectary, the insect
must thrust its tongue
through a little doer
guarded by both anthers
and pistil; the insect
thus becomes laden with
pollen, and carries it
from flower to flower.
In many of the species,
the side petals have at
their bases a little fringe
which forms an arch
over the door or throat
leading to the nectary.
While this is considered

Common blue violet, showing two of the little flowers
which never open, lying between the bare
rootstocks. Note the three-valved
seed capsules.

Photo by Verne Morton.

Wild-Flower Study

5i7

a guard to keep out undesirable insects like ants, I am convinced that it
is also useful in brushing the pollen from the tongues of the insect visitors.

Some species of violets are
very fragrant, while others have
little odor. The color of the
anthers also differs with differ-
ent species. The children should
be interested in watching the
development of the seeds from
the flower. The seed-pods are
three-lobed, each one of these
lobes dividing lengthwise, with a
double row of seeds within.
Each lobe curls back and thus
scatters the seed.

At the base of most of the
species of violets can be found
the small flowers which never
open; they have no petals, but
within them the pollen and the
pistil are fully developed. The
flowers seem to be developed
purposely for self-pollenation,
and in the botanies they are
called cleistogamous flowers; in
some species they are on upright
stems, in others they lie flat.
There is much difference in the
shape of the rootstock in the
different species of violet; some
are delicate and others are
strong, and some are creeping.

The Canada white violet , a leafy-stemmed
species.

Photo by Verne Morton.

LESSON CXXIII
The Violet

Leading thought — Each violet
flower has a well of nectar, with
lines pointing to it so that the in-
sects may find it. They alsc
have down near their roots,
flowers which never open, which
are self-pollenated and develop
seeds.

Method — To make this work
of the greatest use and interest,
each pupil should make a port-
folio of the violets of the locality.
This may be in the form of
pressed and mounted specimens,
or of water-color drawings. In
either case, the leaf, leaf-stem.

Handbook of N ature-Study

5*8

flower, flower stem, and rootstock should be shown, and each blossom
should be neatly labelled with name, locality and date. From the
nature-study standpoint, a portfolio of drawings is the more desirable,
since from making the drawings the pupils become more observant of
the differences in structure and color which distinguish the species.
Such a portfolio may be a most beautiful object; the cover of thick
cardboard may have an original, conventionalized design made from
the flowers and leaves of the violets. Each drawing may be followed
by a page containing notes by the pupil and some appropriate quota-
tion from botany, poetry or other literature.

Observations — 1. Describe the locality and general nature of the soil
where the violet was found. That is, was it in the woods, dry fields
or near a stream ?

2. Sketch or describe the shape of the leaf, paying particular atten-
tion to its margin and noting whether it is rolled toward the stem
at its base. Is the petiole longer or shorter than the leaf? Does
the leaf stem spring directly from the root, or does it branch from another?
If the latter, are the leaves opposite or alternate? Is there a stipule
where the leaf joins the main stem? If so, is it toothed on the edge?

3. What is the color of the leaf above? Are the leaves and stems
downy and velvety, or smooth and glossy ?

4. Does the flower stem come from the root of the plant, or does it
grow from the main stem at the axil of the leaf? Are the flower stems
long enough to lift the flowers above the foliage of the plant?

5. How many sepals has the violet? Are they long or short ; pointed
or rounded ? How many petals has the violet ? How are they arranged ?
Is the lower petal shaped like the others? What is the use of this broad
lower petal? Are there any marks upon it ? If you should follow one of
these lines, where would it lead to?

6. Look at the spur at the back of the flower. Of which petal is it a
part? How long is it, compared with the whole flower? What is the use
of this spur?

7. Find the door that leads to the nectar-spur and note what the
tongue of the bee or butterfly would brush against when reaching for the
nectar. Are the side petals which form the arch over the door that leads
to the nectar fringed at their bases? If so, what is the use of this fringe?

8. What colors are the petals? Are they the same on both sides?
How are they marked and veined ? Are the flowers fragrant ?

9. What color are the anthers? What color is the stigma? Exam-
ine a fading violet, and describe how the seed is developed from the flower.

10. Find the seed-pods of the violet. How are the seeds arranged
within them? How do the pods open? How are the seeds scattered?

1 1 . Look at the base of the violet and find the little flowers there which
never open. Examine one of these flowers and find if it has sepals, petals,
anthers and pistil. Are these closed flowers on upright stems or do the
stems lie flat on the earth ? Of what use to the plant are these little closed
flowers ?

12. What sort of rootstock has the violet? Is it short and thick of
slender? Is it erect, oblique or creeping?

Wild-Flower Study

5i9

THE MAY APPLE, OR MANDRAKE

Teacher's Story

HIS is a study of parasols and, therefore, of
perennial interest to the little girls who
use the small ones for their dolls, and
with many airs and graces hold the large
ones above their own heads. And when
this diversion palls, they make mandarin
dolls of these fascinating plants. This
is easily done by taking one of the small
plant umbrellas and tying with a grass-
sash all but two of the lobes closely
around the stem, thus making a dress,
the lobes left out being cut in proper
shape for flowing sleeves ; then for a head
some other flower is robbed of its flower
bud, which is put into place and sur-
mounted with a clover leaflet hat, and a
pin is then thrust through hat, head and
neck into the stem of the dressed plant;
the whole is properly finished by placing a small umbrella above the little
green mandarin.

The mandrakes grow in open places where there is sun, and yet not too
much of it; they like plenty of moisture, and grow luxuriantly in open
glades or in meadows or pastures bordering woodlands, and they especially
rejoice in the fence-corners, along roadsides. The first lesson of all
should be how nature folds her little umbrellas. Study the plants when
they first put their heads above ground, each parasol wrapped in its case,
and note how similarly to a real umbrella it is folded around its stem.
Later, after the umbrellas are fairly spread, they afford a most interesting
study in varieties of form and size. Some of the parasols have only four
lobes while others have many more. I have found them with as many as
nine, although the botanies declare seven to be the normal number. One
of the special joys afforded by nature-study is finding things different
from the descriptions of them in the books.

One of these little parasols is a worthy object for careful observation.
Its stem is stout and solid, and at its base may be seen the umbrella-case,
now discarded like other umbrella-cases ; the stem is pink wherever the
sun touches it, but close up under the leaves it is likely to be green; it
ends at the middle of the parasol by sending out strong, pale green, fuzzy
ribs into each lobe. The lobes are narrow toward the stem but broad at
the outer edge, each lobe being sparsely toothed on its outer margins and
with a deep, smooth notch at the. center. From the ribs of each lobe
extend other ribs, an arrangement quite different from that we find in
cloth umbrellas. The lobes of the mandrake parasol are divided almost
to the center, and it is therefore evident that it is much better fitted for
protection from the sun than from the rain. The parasol is a beautiful
shining green on the upper side, and has a pale green lining that feels
somewhat woolly.

In examining any patch of May apples, we find that many of the
parasols are double ; the secret of this is, that the mandrake baby needs

S2°

Handbook of N ature-Study

The blossom of the May apple.

two parasols to shield it from the sun ; one of these twin parasols is always
larger than the other and evidently belongs to the main stem, since its
stem is stouter, and it is likely to have seven lobes while the smaller one
may have but five. However, the number of lobes varies. Neither of
these double parasols has its ribs extending out toward the other, and
thus interfering; instead of having their “sticks” at the center of the
parasol, they are at the side next each other, exactly as if the original
single stem had been split and the whole parasol had been torn in twain.

But of greatest interest is the blossom-baby carried under this double
parasol. At first it is a little, elongate, green ball on a rather stiff little
jstem, which droops because it wants to and not because it has to, and
'which arises just where the two branches fork. One of the strange things
about this precocious baby-bud is, that when the plant is just coming from
the ground, the bud pushes its head out from between the two folded
parasols, and takes a look at the world before it retires under its green
sunshade. As the bud unfolds, it looks as if it had three green sepals,
each keeping its cup form and soon falling off, as a little girl drops her hood
on a warm day; but each of these sepals, if examined, will be found to be
two instead of one; the outer is the outside of the green hood while the
inner is a soft, whitish membrane,

UA rabbit skin,

To wrap the Baby Bunting in."

As the greenish white petals spread out, they disclose a triangular mass of
yellow stamens grouped about the big seed-box, each side of the triangle

Wild-Flower Study

52*

being opposite one of the inner petals. After the flower is fully open, the
stamens spread and each anther is easily seen to be grooved, and each
edge of the groove opens for the whole of its length ; but because of its
shape and position, it lets the pollen fall away from the pistil instead of
toward it; nor do the tips of the anthers reach the waxy, white, ruffled
stigma. There is no nectar in this flower; but the big queen bumblebee
likes the pollen for her new nest, and she “bumbles” around in the flower
while getting her load, so that she becomes well dusted with the pollen,
and thus carries it from flower to flower. But the whole story of the
pollen carriers of the May apple is, as yet, untold; and any child who is
willing to give time and attention to discovering the different insects
which visit this flower, may give to the world valuable and, as yet, un-
known facts. It is said that a white moth is often found hanging to the
flowers, but it is difficult to understand why the moth should be there if
the flower does not have any nectar.

The seed-vessel at the center of the flower is large and chunky, and,
although crowned with its ruffled stigma, looks as if it were surely going to
“grow up” into a May apple. There are usually six wide, white, rounded
petals, three on the outside and three on the inside; but sometimes there
are as many as nine. There are usually twice as many stamens as petals,
but I have often found thirteen stamens, which is not twice any possible
number of petals. The petals soon fall, and, safely hidden from the eyes
of enemies, the green fruit — which is a berry instead of an apple — has
nothing to do but gather sweetness, until in July it is as juicy and luscious
to the thirsty child as if it were the fruit of the gods. It is about two
inches long, a rich yellow in color, and is sometimes called the “wild
lemon,” although it is not sour. It is also called the hog-apple because
the clever swine of the South know how to find it, despite its parasol.
Riley thus celebrates this fruit :

11 And will any poet sing of a lusher, richer thing,

Than a ripe May apple, rolled like a pulpy lump of gold

Under thumb and finger tips; and poured molten through the lips?”

If the May apple itself is edible, certainly its root is not, except when
given by physicians as a medicine, for it is quite poisonous when eaten.
When we see plants growing in colonies or patches, it usually means that
very interesting things are going on underground beneath them, and the
mandrake is no exception to this. Each plant has a running underground
stem, straight and brown and fairly smooth; at intervals of a few inches,
there are attached to it rosettes of stout, white roots, which divide into
tiny, crooked rootlets. There is a large rosette of these roots under the
plant we are studying, and we can always find a rosette of them under the
place where the plant stood last year. Beneath the present plant we can
find the bud from which will grow the root-stem for the coming year. The
working out of the branching and the peculiarities of these root-stems, is
an excellent lesson in this peculiar and interesting kind of plant reproduc-
tion.

LESSON CXXIV
The Mandrake

Leading thought— These interesting plants grow in colonies because of
the spreading of their underground stems. Their odor and poisonous
qualities protect them from being eaten by animals, and their fruit is
well hidden by its green parasol until it is ripe.

522

Handbook of N atur e-Study

Method — Begin the study just as the mandrakes are thrusting their
heads up through the soil in April, and continue the work at intervals
until the fruit is ripe.

Observations — i. How do the mandrakes look when they first appear
above the ground? How are the little umbrellas folded in their cases?
What do the cases look like? How can you tell from the first, the plants
which are to bear the flowers and fruit?

2. Study a patch of mandrakes, and see how many varieties of
parasols you can find? Do they all have the same number of main ribs
and lobes? How many lobes do most of them have? Are there more
single or double parasols in the patch?

3. Take a single plant and study it carefully. What sort of stem has
it? Can you find at its base the old umbrella case? How high is the
stem ? What is its color at the bottom and at the top ? How many ribs
does it divide into at the top? Are these ribs as smooth as the stem?
How does the parasol lining differ from its outside in color and feeling?

4. Study the parasol lobes. What is their general shape? Are they
all notched at the wide end? How close to the stem does the division
between them extend? Do you not think they are better fitted for keep-
ing off the sun than the rain ?

5. Take one of the double parasols. Where is the flower bud to be
found ? How is it protected from the sun ? Does the stem divide equally
on each side of it or is one part larger than the other? Are the twin
parasols of the same size? How many lobes has each? What are the
chief differences in shape between one of these twin parasols and one of
the parasols which has no flower bud?

6. How does the flower bud look? Does it droop because its stem is
weak ? What happens to the green hood or sepals when the flower opens ?
Can you find six sepals in the hood?

7. Does the open flower bow downward? As the flower opens, what
is the shape of the group of stamens at the center? Are there the same
number of white, waxy petals in all the flowers? Are there always about
twice as many stamens as petals? How do the anthers open to shed the
pollen? Do they let the pollen fall away from the raffled stigma of the
“fat” little seed box at the center of the flower?

8. Does the flower have a strong odor? Does not the plant itself
give off this odor? Do you think it is pleasant? Do the cattle eat the
mandrake when it is in pastures?

9. What insects do you find visiting the mandrake flowers?

10. Do you like the May apple ? When is it ripe? Cut a fruit across
and see how the seeds are arranged.

11. Where are mandrakes found? Do they always grow in patches?
Dig up a few plants and find why this is so ?

12. Describe the underground stem. Can you find where the last
year’s plant grew ? How are the roots arranged upon the stem ? Can you
see places which will produce the stem for next year’s growth ? How does
the underground stem differ in appearance from the true roots? Why
must we not taste of the mandrake root?

13. In late July, visit the mandrake patch again. Are there any
umbrellas now? What is left of the plants? Look at the underground
stems again and see if there are new growths, and if they are larger and
stored with food for next year’s plants.

Wild-Flower Study

523

Bluets.

Photo by Cyrus Crosby.

THE BLUETS
Teacher's Story

During April, great patches of blue appear in certain meadows, seem-
ing almost like reflections from the sky; and yet when we look closely at
the flowers which give this azure hue to the fields, we find that they are
more lavender than blue. The corolla of the bluet is a tube, spreading
out into four long, lavender, petal-like lobes ; each lobe is paler toward its
base and the opening of the tube has a ring of vivid yellow about it, the
tube itself being yellow even to its very base, where the four delicate
sepals clasp it fast to the ovary until the flower has done its work; and
after the corolla has fallen the sepals remain;

r standing guard over the growing seed.

If we look carefully at the bluets we find two
forms of flowers: (a) Those with a two-1 obed

stigma protruding from the opening of the flower
tube, (b) Those where the throat of the tube seems
closed by four anthers which join like four finger-
tips pressed together. In opening the flower,
& we observe that those which have the stigmas
1. Section of a bluet bios- protruding from the tube, have four anthers
som that has the anthers fastened to the sides of the tube about half-

andetherstfgmashbe fow.^Y down*» while those that have the tour
, ,, . . . anthers near the opening of the tube, have a

^e^stigmas ° protruding Pistil with a short style which brinfls the stigmas
and the anthers below, about half-way up 'Ll- ' L"1~‘ "" "

the tube. Thus an insect

524

Handbook of N ature-. Study

visiting flower (a) gets her tongue dusted with pollen from the anthers
at the middle of the tube ; and this pollen is applied at exactly the right
place on her tongue to brush off against the stigmas of a flower of the
(b) form. While a bee visiting a bluet of the (b) form receives the pollen
at the base of her tongue, where it is conveniently placed to be brushed
off by the protruding stigmas of the flowers of the (a) form.

This arrangement in flowers for the reciprocal exchange of pollen
characterizes members of the primrose family also ; it is certainly a very
clever arrangement for securing cross-pollen*ation.

LESSON CXXV
The Bluets

Leading thought — The bluets have two forms of flowers, the anthers
and stigmas being placed in different positions in the two, in order to
secure cross-pollenation by visiting insects.

Method — Ask the children to bring in several bits of sod covered with
bluets. During recess let the pupils, with the aid of a lens if necessary,
find the two different forms of flowers. Later, let each see a flower of
each form with the tube opened lengthwise.

Observations — i . Where do the bluets grow? Do they grow singly or
in masses? On what kind of soil do they grow, in woods or meadows?
At what time of year do they bloom?

2. Describe the bluet flower, its color, the shape of its sepals, the form
of the corolla, the color of the corolla-tube and lobes.

3. Where is the nectar in the bluet? What color shows where the
nectar is to be found?

4. Look directly into the flowers. Do you see any with the stigmas
thrust out of the corolla-tube ? Is there more than one style ? Has it one
or two stigmas? Open this flower-tube and describe where the anthers
are situated in it. How many anthers are there?

5. Look for a flower where the stigmas do not protrude and the
anthers close the throat of the tube. Where are the stigmas in this flower,
below or above the anthers? Where are the anthers attached?

6. Work out this problem: How do the insects gathering nectar

from one form of the bluets become dusted with pollen in such a way as
to leave it upon the stigma of the other form of the bluet flower?

7. How many sepals are there? Do they fall off when the blossom
falls?

“So frail, these smiling babies ,

Near mossy pasture bars ,

Where the bloodroot now so coyly
Puts forth her snowy stars;

A nd the maple tall and slender ,

With blossoms red and sweety
Looks down upon the bluets
Close nestled at her feet.

'Innocents' , the children call them, —

These floral babies small,

Of Mother Nature olden.

Whose broad lap holds them all."

— Ray Laurance.

Showy ladies’ slipper
Photo by Verne Morton.

THE YELLOW LADY’S SLIPPER
Teacher's Story

“ Graceful and tall the slender drooping stem,

With two broad leaves below.

Shapely the flower so lightly poised between,

And warm its rosy glow.” — Elaine Goodale.

These showy flowers look so strange in our woodlands that we gaze at
them as curiously as we might upon a veiled lady from the Orient who
had settled in our midst. There is something abnormal and mysterious
in the shape of this flower, and though it be called the lady’s slipper, yet it
would be a strange foot that could fit such a slipper ; and if it is strange
at the first glance, it is still more so as we try to compare it with other
flowers. There are two long sepals that extend up and down, the lower
one being made up of two grown together — but the “seam” does not
show. The sepals are yellow, and are wider than the two long streamers
that extend out at right angles to them, and which are petals ; the brighter
color of the latter, their markings of reddish dots, the hairs near their
bases, all go to show that these petals, although so different in shape,
belong to the same series as the big lower petal which is puffed out into a
sac, shaped like a deep, long bowl, with its upper edges incurved. If we

Handbook of N at ure -Study .

look carefully at this bowl, we find two openings besides the main one
these two are near the stem, and their edges are not incurved. Extending
out into each of these openings is a strange little round object, which is
an anther; but if we try to get pollen from this anther with a pencil or a
knife we get, instead of powdery pollen, a smear that sticks to what it
touches, like melted rubber or gum. The secret of this is, that the lower
side of the anther is gummy, and adheres to whatever touches it and
brings with it, when pulled away, the mealy pollen which lies loose above
it. Another strange thing is that, if this lower part of the anther is not
carried away, it seems to partially harden and opens downward, letting
the pollen escape in a way usual with other flowers. We have to remove
a side of the bowl to see the stigma; it is fan-shaped, and is bent at right
angles to the flower stem; and above it, as if to protect it, is a stiff tri-
angular piece which is really a strangely modified stamen. I think one
reason why the lady’s slipper always is called “she” is because of this
tendency on her part to divert an object from its natural use. Surely a
hairpin used for a paper knife or a monkey-wrench for a hammer, is not
nearly so feminine a diversion as a stamen grown wide and long to make
an awning above a stigma.

The general- color of the flower is yellow, and there are some seductive
dark red spots on the stamen-awning and along the folded-in surface of

the petal-sac which say plainly,
“Come here, Madam Mining-bee,
and see what these spots mean.”
And the little bee alights on the
flower and soon crawls into the
well at the center, the recurved
edges preventing it from return-
ing by the same door. At the
bottom of the sac there are delec-
table vegetable hairs to be
browsed upon ; if there is nectar,
I have never been able to detect
it with my coarse organs of taste ;
and Mr. Eugene Barker who has
examined hundreds of the flowers
has not been able to detect the
presence of nectar in them at any
stage ; but he made no histologi-
cal study of the glands.

After a satisfying meal the
bee, which is a lively crawler,
seeks to get out where it sees the
light shining through one of the openings near to the stem. In doing this,
she presses her head and back, first against the projecting stigma and
then against the sticky anther, which smears he: with a queer kind of
plaster; and it sticks there until she brushes it off on the stigma of
another flower, when crowding past it; and there she again becomes
smeared with pollen plaster from this flower’s anthers. Mr. Barker, who
has especially studied these flowers, has found that the little mining bees
of the genus Andrena were the most frequent visitors; he also found
honey-bees and one stray young grasshopper in the sacs. The mining

Detail of yellow lady's slipper.

1, l, leaf; s,s, sepals; p,p, petals ; p.s, petal-sac.
2, Side-view: ac, anther cover; p.s , petal-sac.
a , anzher. The arrow shows the path of the
insect. 3, an, anther closed; o, anther open.

Wild-Flower Study

527

bees which he sent to me had their backs plastered with the pollen. Mr.
Barker states that the flowers are not visited frequently by insects, and
adds feelingly; “My long waiting was rewarded with little insect activity,
aside from the mosquitoes which furnished plenty of entertainment.”

The ovary looks like a widened and ribbed portion of the flower-stem,
and is hairy outside ; its walls are thick and obscurely three-angled ; seen
in cross-section the seeds are arranged in a triangular fashion which is
very pretty.

The leaves of the yellow lady’s slipper are oval or elliptic, with
smooth edges and parallel veins ; they often have narrow veins between
each two heavier ones. The leaves are of vivid yellowish green and are
scattered, in a picturesque manner, alternately along the stem, which
their bases completely clasp. The stem is somewhat rough and ribbed
and is likely to grow crooked; it grows from one to two feet in height.
The roots are a mass of small rootlets. The species is found in woods
and in thickets.

The pink moccasin flower, also called the stemless lady’s slipper ( C .
acaule ,) is perhaps prettier than the yellow species, and differs from it in
several particulars. The sac opens by the merest crevice, and there are
plenty of dark-pink guiding lines which lead to the little opening of the
well. The downward-folded edges prevent the visiting insect from
getting out by this door even more surely than in the other species. The
side petals are not so long as in the yellow species, and they extend for-
ward as if to guide the insect to the well in the lower petal. The sepals
are greenish purple, and are likewise shorter; and the lower one is wide,
indicating that it is made up of two grown together. At the base of the
ovary there is a pointed green bract or leaf, which lifts up and bends
above the flower. There are but two leaves on the stemless lady’s slipper;
they arise from the base of the stem. They are broadly ovate, and from
six to seven inches long. This species grows in sandy or rocky woods.

Another species more beautiful than these is the showy lady’s slipper,
which is white with a pink entrance to the petal sac. This grows in
peaty bogs, and is not so common as the others.

The interesting points for observation in these flowers are the careful
noting of the kinds of insects which visit them, and how they enter and
leave the “slipper,” or sac.

LESSON CXXVI
The Yellow Lady’s Slipper

Leading thought — The moccasin flower belongs to that famiiy of flowers
known as orchids which especially depend upon insects for bringing and
carrying pollen, and which have developed many strange devices to secure
insect aid in pollenation.

Method — A bouquet of lady’s slippers should be brought to the school-
room. Children who bring them should describe the place where they
were found.

Observations — 1. Where does the yellow lady’s slipper grow? Look
carefully at its leaves and describe them. How do they join the stem?
Are they opposite or alternate ?

2. What is there peculiar about the sepals? How many are there?

528

Handbook of N atur e-Study

3. Describe the three petals and the difference and likeness in their
form and color. What is the shape of the lower petal? Is there a hole
in this sac? Is there more than one hole leading into it? What is the
color of the sac? Is there anything about it to attract insects? If an
insect should enter the mouth of the well in the lower petal could it easily
come out by the same opening? Why not? Where do you think it
would emerge ?

4. Note the two roundish objects projecting into the two openings of
the sac near the stem. Thrust a pencil against the under side of one of
these. What happens? How does this pollen differ from the pollen of
ordinary flowers?

5. Cut away one side of the petal-sac and find the stigma. What
shape is it? Where is it situated with relation to the anthers? How is
the stigma protected above? Where is the ovary, or seed-box?

6. Explain how a bee visiting these flowers, one after another, must
carry the pollen from one to another and deposit it on the waiting stigmas.

7. How is the insect attracted? How is it trapped and made to do
the work?

8. Look at the seed-capsule and describe it from the outside. Cut it
across, and describe the arrangement of the seeds. How many sides of
the seed-capsule open, to let loose the seeds?

9. How many species of lady’s slippers do you know? Do you know

the pink, or stemless species? How does it differ from the yellow species
in the following particulars : The shape of the sac ; its color and mark-

ings; the length and shape of sepals; the number and position of the
leaves.

THE COMMON BUTTERCUP
Teacher's Story

“ The buttercups, bright-eyed and bold ,

Held up their chalices of gold
To catch the sunshine and the dew."

Buttercups and daisies are always associated in the minds of the
children, because they grow in the same fields; yet the two are so widely
different in structure that they may reveal to the child something of the
marvelous differences between common flowers; for the buttercup is a
single flower, while the single daisy is a large family of flowers.

The buttercup sepals are five elongated cups, about one-half as long as
the petals; they are pale yellow with brownish tips, but in the globular
buds, they are green. The petals are normally five in number, but have
a tendency to double, so that often there are six or more; the petals are
pale beneath, but on the inside they are most brilliant yellow, and shine as
if varnished. Probably it is due to this luminous color that one child is
able to determine whether another likes butter or not, by noting when the
flower is held beneath the chin, if it makes a yellow reflection ; it would be
a sodden complexion indeed that would not reflect yellow under this
provocation. Each petal is wedge-shaped, and its broad outer edge is
curved so as to help make a cuplike flower; if a fallen petal be examined,
a tiny scale will be found at its base, as if its point had been folded back a

Wild-Flower Study

529

Do you like butter ?

trifle. However, this is not a mere fold, but is a little scale growing there
— a scale with a mission, for beneath it is developed the nectar.

When the buttercup first opens, all of the anthers are huddled in the
center, so that it looks like a golden nest full of golden eggs. Later the
filaments stretch up, lifting the anthers into a loose, rounded tuft, almost
concealing the bunch of pistils which are packed close together beneath
every stigma, like Bre’r Rabbitt, “laying low.” Later, the filaments
straighten back, throwing the anthers in a fringy ring about the pale
green pistils; and each pistil sends up a short, yellowish stigma. The
anthers open away from the pistils and thus prevent self-pollenation to
some degree; they also seem to shed much of their pollen before the
stigmas are ready to receive it.

Sometimes petals and sepals fall simultaneously and sometimes first
one or the other; but they always leave the green bunch of pistils with a
ragged fringe of old stamens clinging to them. Later the seeds mature,
making a globular head. Each seed is a true akene; it is flattened and
has at its upper end a short, recurved hook which may serve to help it to
catch a ride on passers-by. However, the seeds are largely scattered by
the winds.

The buttercup grows in sunny situations, in fields and along roadsides,
but it cannot stand the shade of the woods. It is a pretty plant ; its long
stems are downy near the bottom, but smooth near the flower ; the leaves
show a variety of forms on the same plant; the lower ones have many,
(often seven) deeply cut divisions, while the upper ones may have three
irregular lobes, the middle one being the longest. Beetles are very fond
of the nectar and pollen of buttercups, and therefore are its chief pollen
carriers ; but flies and small bees and other insects also find their food in
these brilliant colored cups.

53°

Handbook of N atur e-Study

Buttercup flower enlarged.
Note the scale covering
the nectar at the base
of the falling petal.

LESSON CXXVII
The Buttercup

Leading thought — The buttercup grows with
the white daisies, in sunny places, but each
buttercup is a single flower, while each daisy is a
flower family.

Method — Buttercups brought by the pupils to
school may serve for this lesson.

Observations — i . Look at the back of a flower
of the buttercup. What is there peculiar about
the sepals? How do the sepals look on the
buttercup bud? How do they look later?

2. Look into the flower. How many petals
are there? Are there the same number of petals
in all the flowers of the same plant? What is the
shape of a petal? Compare its upper and lower
sides. Take a fallen petal, and look at its pointed base with a lens and
note what is there.

3. How do the stamens look? Do you think you can count them?
When the flower first opens how are the stamens arranged? How, later?
Do the anthers open towards, or away, from the pistils ?

4. Note the bunch of pistils at the center of the flower. How do they
look when the flower first opens? How, later?

5 . When the petals fall, what is left ? Can you see now how each little
pistil will develop into a seed?

6. Describe the seed-ball and the seed.

7. Look at the buttercup’s stems. Are they as smooth near the base
as near the flower? Compare the upper leaf with the lower leaf, and note
the difference in shape and size.

8. Where do the buttercups grow? Do we find them in the woods?
What insects do you find visiting the flowers?

THE EVENING PRIMROSE

Teacher's Story

“ Children came

To watch the primrose blow. Silent they stood ,

Hand clasped in hand , in breathless hush around,

And saw her shyly doff her soft green hood
And blossom — with a silken burst of sound.”

— Margaret Deland.

To the one who has seen the evening primrose unfold, life is richer by a
beautiful, mysterious experience. Although it may be no more wonder-
ful than the unfolding of any other flower, yet the suddenness of it makes
it seem more marvelous. For two or three days it may have been getting
ready; the long tube which looks like the flower stem has been turning

Wild-Flower Study

53i

yellow; pushing up be-
tween two of the sepals,
which clasp tips beyond
it, there appears a row
of petals. Then some
warm evening, usually
about sunset, but vary-
ing from four o’clock in
the afternoon to nine or
ten in the evening, the
petals begin to unfurl;
they are wrapped around
each other in the bud as
an umbrella is folded,
and thus one edge of
each petal becomes free
’first. The petal first in
freeing its edge seems to
be doing all the work,
but we may be sure that
all the others are push-
ing for freedom; little
by little the sepals are
pushed downward, until
their tips, still clasped,
are left beneath ; and
the petals now free, sud-
denly flare open before
our delighted eyes, with
a movement so rapid
that it is difficult for us
not to attribute to them
consciousness of action. Three or four of these flowers may open on a
plant the same evening; and they, with their fellows on the neighboring
plants, form constellations of starry bloom that invite attention from the
winged creatures of the twilight and the night. There is a difference in
the time required for a primrose flower to unfold, probably depending
upon its vigor; once I watched for half an hour to see it accomplished,
and again I have seen it done in two or three minutes. The garden
species seems to unfold more rapidly than the wild species, and is much
more fragrant. The rapidity of the opening of the blossom depends upon
the petals getting free from the sepals, which seem to try to repress them.
The bud is long, conical, obscurely four-sided, and is completely covered
by the four sepals, the tips of which are cylindrical and twisted together;
this is an interesting habit, and one wonders if they hold the petals back
until the latter are obliged to burst out with the force of repressed
energy; after they let go of the petals, they drop below the flower
angularly, and finally their tips open and each sepal turns back length-
wise along the seed-tube.

The four lemon-yellow petals are broad, with the outer margin
notched. The eight stamens are stout, and set one at the middle of each
petal and one between each two petals. The long, pale yellow anthers

1 ?

I, Evening primrose , showing buds , one ready to open,
a flower just opened above at the left, an older
flower at the right , a fading flower and seed-
capsules below. 2, Seed-capsules. Cross section
of seed-capsule with seeds above.

532

Handbook of N atur e-Study

discharge their pollen in cobwebby strings. When the flower first opens,
the stigma is egg-shaped and lies below the anthers ; later, it opens into a
cross and usually hangs off at one side of the anthers. If we try to trace
the style back to the ovary, we find that it extends down into what seems
to be the very base of the flower stem, where it joins the main stem. This
base is enlarged and ribbed and is the seed-box, or ovary. The tube is
rich in nectar, but only the long sucking-tubes of moths can reach it,
although I have sometimes seen the ubiquitous bees attempting it. The
butterflies may take the nectar in the daytime, for the blossoms of the
wild species remain open, or partially open, for a day or two. But the
night-flying moths which love nectar have the first chance, and it is on
them the flower depends for carrying its pollen, threaded on filmy strings.

There are times when we may find the primrose blossoms with holes in
the petals, which make them look very ragged. If we look at such plants
carefully, we may find the culprit in the form of a green caterpillar very
much resembling the green tube of the bud ; and we may conclude, as Dr.
Asa Fitch did, that this caterpillar is a rascal, because it crawls out on the
bud-ends and nibbles into them, thus damaging several flowers. But
this is only half the story. Later this caterpillar descends to the ground,
digs down into it and there changes to a pupa ; it remains there until the
next summer, then, from this winter cell, emerges an exquisitely beautiful
moth called the Alaria florida; its wings expand about an inch, and all
except the outer edges of the front wings are rose-pink, slightly mottled
with lemon-yellow, which latter color decorates the outer margins for
about one-quarter of their length ; the body and hind-wings are whitish
and silky, the face and antennae are pinkish. Coiled up beneath the head
is a long sucking-tube which may be unfolded at will. This moth is the
special pollen-carrier of the evening primrose; it flies about during the
evening, and thrusts its long, tubular mouth into the flower to suck the
nectar, meanwhile gathering strings of pollen upon the front part of its
body. During the day, it hides within the partially closed flower, thus
carrying the pollen to the ripened stigmas, its colors meanwhile protecting
it almost completely from observation. The fading petals of the prim-
rose turn pinkish, and the pink color of the moth renders it invisible when
in the old flowers, while the lemon-yellow tips of its wings protruding from
a flower still fresh and yellow, forms an equally perfect protection from
observation.

The evening primrose is an ornamental plant in both summer and
winter. It is straight, and is ordinarily three or four feet tall, although it
sometimes reaches twice that height. It is branched somewhat, the
lower portion being covered with leaves and the upper portion bearing the
flowers. The leaves are pointed and lanceolate, with few whitish veins.
The leaf edges are somewhat ruffled and obscurely toothed, especially in
the lower leaves. The leaves stand up in a peculiar way, having a short,
pink petiole, which is swollen and joins the stalk like a bracket. The
upper leaves are narrower ; the leafy bracts at the base of the flower grow
from the merest slender leaflet at the base of the bud, to a leaf as long as.
the seed-pod, when the flower blooms.

The seed-capsules are four-sided, long and dark green. In winter they
are crowded in purplish-brown masses on the dry stalks, each one a grace-
ful vase with four flaring tips. At the center of each there projects a
needlelike point; and within the flaring, pale, satin-lined divisions of

Wild-Flower Study

533

these urns, we may see the brown seeds which are tossed by the winter
winds far and near. The young plants develop into vigorous rosettes
during the late summer and autumn, and thus discreetly pass the winter
under the snow coverlet.

LESSON CXXVIII
The Evening Primrose

Winter rosette of evening primrose.
Photo by Verne Morton.

Leading thought — Some flowers have developed the habit of relying on
the night-flying insects for carrying their pollen. The evening primrose
is one of these ; its flowers open in the evening and their pale yellow color
makes them noticeable objects in the twilight, and even in the dark.

Method — The form of the evening primrose may be studied from
plants brought to the schoolroom ; but its special interest lies in the way
its petals expand in the evening, so the study should be continued by the
pupils individually in the field. This is one of the plants which is an
especially fit subject fQr the summer note-book; but since it blossoms
very late and the plants are available even in October, it is also a con-
venient plant to study during the school year. The garden species is
well adapted for this lesson.

Observations — i. Look at the plant as a whole. How tall is it? Is
the stem stiff and straight? Where do you find it growing? Does it
grow in the woods?

2. Are the leaves near the base the same shape as those at the top of
the plant? What is their shape? Are the edges toothed? What is
there peculiar about the veins? How do the leaves join the stem? How

534 Handbook of N ature-Study

do the leaves look which are at the base of the flower stem ? Those at the
base of the buds?

3. Where on the plant do the flowers grow ? Which flowers blossom
first, those above or below? Take a bud nearly ready to open; what is
there peculiar in the appearance of the bud stem? What is the general
shape of the bud ? Describe the sepals. Look at their tips carefully, and
see how they hold together. Cut a bud across and see how the petals are
folded within it.

4. Take an open flower; where are the sepals now? Describe the
open petals, their shape and color.

5. How many stamens are there? How are they placed? What is
the shape of the anthers? How does the pollen look?

6. What is the shape and the position of the stigma in the freshly
opened flower? Later? Open the flower-tube and find how far down the
style extends. Where is the ovary? How does the ovary look on the
outside? Taste the opened tube ; can you detect the nectar? What sort
of a tongue must an insect have to reach this nectar? How do the fading
flowers look and act ?

7 . Describe the seed-pod. Cut it across, and see how many compart-
ments there are within it. How are the seeds arranged in it? How do
the pods open and how are the seeds scattered?

8. Watch the flower of the evening primrose open, and describe the
process carefully. At what hour did it open? What was the movement
of the petals? Can you see how they unfold in relation one to another?
How do they get free from the sepals? How many minutes is required
for the whole process of the opening of the flower? How many flowers
on a plant expand during the same evening? Look at the open blossoms
in the dark; can you see them? How do they look? What insects do
you find visiting these flowers?

9. How long does the primrose blossom remain open? How do the
young plants of the evening primrose pass the winter?

Supplementary reading — Blossom Hosts and Insect Guests, Gibson.

Wild-Flower Study

535

THE HEDGE BINDWEED
Teacher's Story

I once saw by the roadside a beautiful
pyramid, covered completely with green
leaves and beset with pink flowers. I
stopped to examine this bit of landscape
gardening, and for the first time in my life
I felt sorry for a burdock; for this burdock
had met its match and more in standing up
against a weakling plant which it must have
scorned at first, had it been capable of this sensa-
tion. Its mighty leaves had withered, its flower-
stems showed no burs, for the bindweed had
caught it in its hundred embraces and had
squeezed the life out of it. Once in Northern
Florida our eyes were delighted with the most
beautiful garden we had ever seen and which
resolved itself later into a field of corn, in which
every plant had been made a trellis for the bind-
weed ; there it flaunted its pink and white flowers
in the sunshine with a grace and charm that sug-
gested nothing of the oppressor.

Sometimes the bindweed fails to find support
to lift it into the air. Then it quite as cheerfully
mats itself oyer the grass, making a carpet of
exquisite pattern. This vine has quite an effi-
cient way of taking hold. . It lifts its growing tips
into the air, swaying them joyously with every
breeze ; and the way each extreme tip is bent into
d hook seems just a matter of grace and beauty, as do the two or three
loose quirls below it ; when during its graceful swaying the hook catches to
some object, it makes fast with amazing rapidity; later the young arrow-
shaped leaves manage to get an ear over the support, and in a very short
time the vine makes its first loop, and the deed is done. It is very partic-
ular to twine and wind in one way, following the direction of the hands
of the clock — from the right, under, and from the left, over the object to
which it clings. If the support is firm, it only makes enough turns around

536

Handbook of N ature-Study

it to hold itself firmly ; but if it catches to something as unstable as its own
tendrils, they twist until so hard-twisted that they form a support in
themselves.

It is rather difficult to perceive the alternate arrangement of the leaves
on the bindweed stem, so skillful are they in twisting under or over in
order to spread their whole graceful length and breadth to the sun ; to the
careless observer they seem only to grow on the upper or outer side of the
vine. The leaves are arrow-shaped, with two long, backward, and out-
ward projecting points, or “ears,” which are often gracefully lobed.
Early in the year the leaves are glossy and perfect ; bht many insects love
to nibble them, so that by September, they are usually riddled with holes.

The flower bud is twisted as if the bindweed were so in the habit of
twisting that it carried the matter farther than necessary. Enveloping
the base of the flower bud are two large sepal-like bracts, each keeled like
a duck’s breast down the center; if these are pulled back, it is seen that
they are not part of the flower, because they join the stem below it. There
are five pale green sepals of unequal sizes, so that some look like fragments
of sepals. The corolla is long, bell-shaped, opening with five, starlike
lobes; each lobe has a thickened white center; and while its margins are
usually pink, they are sometimes a vivid pink-purple and sometimes
entirely white. Looking down into this flower-bell, and following the
way pointed out by the white star-points which hold out the lobes, we find
five little nectar- wells; and each two of these wells are separated by a
stamen which is joined to the corolla at its base and at its anther-end
presses close about the style of the pistil. When the flower first opens, it
shows the spoon-shaped stigmas close together, pushing up through the
anther cluster; later, the style elongates, bringing the stigmas far beyond
the anthers.' The pollen is white, and through the lens looks like
tiny pearls.

When we study the maturing seed-capsule, we can understand the
uneven size of the sepals better; for after the corolla with the attached
stamens falls, the sepals close up around the pistil; the smallest sepal
wraps it first, and the larger ones in order of size, enfolding the precious
parcel; and outside of all, the great, leafy bracts with their strong keels
provide protection. The pod has two cells and two seeds in each cell.
But it is not by seeds alone that the bindweed spreads; it is the running
rootstock which, when the plant once gets a start, helps it to cover a large
area. The bindweed is a relative of the morning-glory and it will prove
an interesting study to compare the two in methods of twining, in the time
of day of the opening of the flowers, the shape of the leaves, etc. So far
as my own observations go, the bindweed flowers seem to remain open
only during the middle of the day, but Muller says the flowers stay open
on moonlight nights to invite the hawk-moths. This is an interesting
question for investigation, and it may be settled by a child old enough to
make and record truthful observations.

There are several species of bindweed, but all agree in general habits.
The field bindweed lacks the bracts at the base of the flower.

Wild-Flower Study

537

LESSON CXXIX
The Hedge Bindweed

Leading thought — There are some plants which have such weak stems
that they are obliged to cling to objects for support. The bindweed is one
of these, and the way that it takes hold of objects and grows upon them
is an interesting story.

Method — It is better to study this plant where it grows ; but if this is
not practical, the vine with its support should be brought into the school-
room, the two being carefully kept in their natural relative positions.
Several of the questions should be given to the pupils for their personal
observation upon this vine in the field. It is an exoellent study for
pencil or water-color drawing.

Observations — i. How does the bindweed get support, so that its
leaves and its flowers may spread out in the sunshine ? Why does its own
stem not support it ? What would happen to a plant with such a weak
stem, if it did not twine upon other objects?

2. How does it climb upon other plants? Does its stem always wind
or twist in the same direction? How does it first catch hold of the other
plant? If the supporting object is firm, does it wind as often for a given
space as when it has a frail support? Can you see the reason for this?

3. Look at the leaves. Sketch one, to be sure that you see its beauti-
ful form and veins. Note if the leaves are arranged alternately on the
stemi and then observe how and why they seem to come from one side of
the stem. Why do they do this?

4. What is there peculiar about the flower bud? Look at its stem
carefully and describe it. Cut it across and look at the end with a lens
and describe it. Turn back two sepal-like bracts at the base of the flower
or bud. Are they a part of the flower, or are they below it? Find the
true sepals. How many are there? Are they all the same size ?

5. Examine the flower in blossom. What is its shape? Describe its
colors. Look down into it. How many stamens are there, and how are
they set in the flower? How does the pistil look when the flower first
opens? Later? Can you see the color of the pollen? Can you find
where the nectar is borne? How many nectar-wells are there?

6. What insects do you find visiting bindweed flowers? Do the
flowers remain open at night or on dark days?

7. Study the seed-capsule. How is it protected on the outside?
What next enfolds it? Can you see now the uses of the sepals of several
sizes ? Cut a seed-capsule across with all its coverings, and see how it is
protected. How many seeds are there in the capsule?

8. Has the bindweed other methods of spreading than by seeds?
Look at the roots and tell what you observe about them.

9. Make a study of the plant on which the bindweed is climbing, and
tell what has happened to it.

10. Compare the bindweed with the morning-glory, and notice the
differences and resemblances.

Supplementary reading: “Morning-Glory Stories,” in Flowers and

Their Friends, Morley; Botany Reader, Newell, Chap. 10; Golden
Numbers, page 74.

Handbook of N ature-Study

S3S

THE DODDER

Teacher's Story

If Sinbad’s “Old Man of the
Sea” had been also a sneak thief,
then we might well liken him to
dodder. There is an opportu-
nity for an excellent moral lesson
connected with the study of dod-
der and its underhand ways.
When a plant ceases to be self-
supporting, when it gets its own
living from the food made by
other plants for their own sus-
tenance, it loses its own power of
food-making; and the dodder is
an excellent example of the in-
evitable punishment for “spong-
ing” a living. The dodder has
no leaves of its own for it does
not need to manufacture food
nor to digest it. Its dull yellow
stems reach out in long tendrils,
swayed by every breeze, until
they come in contact with some
other plant to which they at once
make fast. One of these tendrils
seizes its victim plant as a serpent
winds its prey, except that it
always winds in the same direc-
tion— it passes under from the
right side and over from the left.
Who knows whether the serpents
are always so methodical ! After
dodder gets its hold, little pro-
jections appear upon its coiled
stems, which look like the prolegs
of a caterpillar ; but they are not
legs, they are suckers, worse
than those of the devil-fish; for
the latter uses its suckers only to
hold fast its prey; but the dod-
der uses its suckers to penetrate
the bark of its victim, and reach
down to the sap channels where
they may, vampirelike, suck the
blood from their victims, or
rather the matured sap which
is flowing from the leaves to
the growing points of the host
plant. Not having anything else to do, dodder devotes its energies to the
producing of seeds, in order to do more mischief. The species which

Dodder in blossom.
Photo by Cyrus Crosby.

Wild-Flower Study

539

attack clover and other farm crops seem to manage to get their seeds
harvested with the rest; and the farmer who does not know how to test
his clover seed for impurities, sows with it the seeds of its enemy.

The dodder flowers are small, globular and crowded together. The
calyx has five lobes; the corolla is globular, with five little lobes around
its margin and a stamen set in each notch. A ew of the species have a
four-lobed calyx and corolla; but however many the lobes, the flowers are
shiftless looking and are yellowish or greenish white ; despite its shiftless
appearance, however, each flower manages to mature four perfectly good,
plump seeds.

There are, according to Gray, nine species of dodder more or less
common in America. Some of the species, among which is the flax
dodder, live only upon certain other species of plant life, while others take
almost anything that comes within reach. Where it flourishes, it grows
so abundantly that it makes large yellow patches in fields, completely
choking out the leaves of its victims.

LESSON CXXX
The Dodder

Leading thought — There are some plants which not only depend upon
other plants to hold them up, but they suck the life-juice from these plants
and thus they steal their living.

Method — Bring in dodder with the host plant for the pupils to study in
the schoolroom, and ask them to observe afterwards the deadly work of
this parasite in the field.

Observations — i. What is the color of the stem? In which direction
does it wind?

2 . How is the stem fastened to the host plant ? Tear off these suckers
and examine the place where they were attached with a lens, and note if
they enter into the stem of the host plant.

3. How does the dodder get hold of its victim? Has the dodder any
leaves of its own? How can it get along and grow without leaves?

4. How do the flowers look through a lens? Are there many flowers?
Can you see the petal lobes and the stamens?

5. How many seeds does each flower develop? How do the seeds
look ? In what way are they a danger to, our agriculture ?

I should also avoid the information method. It does a child little good merely to
tell him matters of fact. The facts are not central to him and he must retain them
by a process of sheer memory; and in order that the teacher may know whether he
remembers , the recitation is employed , — re-cite, to tell over again. The educational
processes of my younger days were mostly of this order, — the book or the teacher told,
I re-told, but the results were always modified by an unpredictable coefficient of
i< evaporation . Good teachers now question the child to discover what he has found out
or what he feels, or to suggest what further steps may be taken , and not to mark him
on what he remembers. In other words, the present-day process is to set the pupil
independently at work, whether he is young or old, and the information-leaflet or
lesson does not do this. Of course, it is necessary to give some information, but
chiefly for the purpose of putting the pupil in the way of acquiring for himself and
to answer his natural inquiries; but information-giving about nature subjects is not
nature-study. — L. H. Bailey in “The Outlook to Nature.”

54®

Handbook of N ature-Slndy

THE MILKWEED
Teacher's Story

“ Little weavers of the summer, with sunbeam shuttle bright,

And loom unseen by mortals, you are busy day and night,
Weaving fairy threads as filmy, and soft as cloud swans, seen
In broad blue sky-land rivers, above earth' s fields of green."

— Ray Laurance.

(S there any other young plant that shows off its
baby-clothes as does the young milkweed!
When it comes up through the soil, each leaf is
folded lengthwise around the stem, flannel
side out, and it is entirely soft and white and
infantile. The most striking peculiarity of
the milkweed plant is its white juice, which is a
kind of rubber. Let a drop of it dry on the
back of the hand, and when we try to remove
it we find it quite elastic and possessed of all
of the qualities of crude rubber. At the first trial it seems quite impossi-
ble to tell from which part of the stem this white juice comes, but by
blotting the cut end once or twice, the hollow of the center of the stem is
seen to have around it a dark green jring, and outside this is a light green
ring. It is from the dark green ring encircling the stem cavity that the
milk exudes. This milk
is not the sap of the plant
any more than resin is the
sap of the pine; it is a
special secretion, and is
very acrid to the taste,
rendering milkweed dis-
gusting to grazing ani-
mals. If a milkweed
stem be broken or gashed,
this juice soon heals the
wound and keeps out
germs, and thus is of great
use to the plant, since
many insects feed upon it.

If cut across, every vein
in every leaf produces
“milk”, and so does every
small flower pedicel.

When the “milk” is by
chance smeared on cloth
and allowed to dry, soap
and water will not remove
it, but it yields readily to
chloroform, which is a sol-
vent of rubber.

The milkweed leaves Milkweed in blossom.

are in Stately Conventional Photo by Verne Morton.

Wild-Flower Study

541

pairs; if one pair points east and west, the pair above and the pair
below point north and south. The leaf is beautiful in every particular;
it has a dark green upper surface, diversified with veins that join in
scallops near the border; it is soft to the touch on the upper surface,
and is velvety below. The lens reveals that the white under surface,
or the nap of the velvet, is a cover of fine white hairs.

The flower of the milkweed is too complicated for little folks even to
try to understand ; but for the pupils of the seventh and eighth grades
it will prove an interesting subject for investigation, if they study it
with the help of a lens. In examining the globular bud, we see the five
hairy sepals, which are later hidden by the five long, pinkish green petals
which bend back around the stem. When we look into the flower, we
see five little cornucopias — which are really horns of plenty, since
they are filled with nectar; from the center of each is a little, fleshy
tongue, with its curved point resting on the disk at the center of the
flower. Between each two of these nectar-horns can be seen the
white bordered opening of a long pocket — like a dress-pocket — at
the upper end of the opening of which is a black dot. Slip a needle into
the pocket opening until it pushes against the black dot, and out pops a
pair of yellow saddle-bags, each attached to the black dot which joins
them. These are the pollen-bags, and each was borne in a sac, shaped
like a vest-pocket, one lying either side of the upper end of the long
pocket. These pollen-bags are sticky, and they contract so as to close
over the feet of the visiting bee.

£, Milkweed flower, enlarged.
2, Same more enlarged, a, a,
nectar-horns; p, pocket; o,o,
openings to the pocket; s,
pollen-bags in place; s',
pollen-bags removed.

Since the stem of the flower cluster droops
and each flower pedicel droops, the bee is
obliged to cling, hanging back down, while get-
ting the nectar, and has to turn about as if on a
pivot in order to thrust her tongue into the five
cornucopias in succession ; she is then certain to
thrust her claws into a long pocket, and
it proceeds to close upon them, its edges
being like the jaws of a trap. The bee, in
trying to extricate her feet, leaves whatever
pollen-bags she had inadvertently gathered
in this trap-pocket, which gives them pass-
age to the stigma. But the milkweed flower,
like some folks, is likely to overdo matters, and
sometimes these pockets grasp too firmly the
legs of the bee and hold her a prisoner. We often
find insects thus caught and dead — a result as
far from the plan of the flower as from that of the
insect victim, had both been conscious. Some-
times bees become so covered with these pollen-
bags, which they are unable to scrape off, that
they die because of the clogging. But for one
bee that suffers there are thousands that carry
off the nectar triumphantly, just as thousands of
people travel by water for one that is drowned.

The milkweed pod has been the admiration of
nature students from the beginning, and surely
there is no plant structure that so interests the

542

Handbook of Nature- Study

child as this house in which the milkweed carries its seeds. When we
look at a green pod, we first admire its beautiful shape; on -either side
of the seam, which will sometime open, are three or four rows of
projecting points rising from the felty surface of the pod in a way
that suggests embossed embroidery. We open the pod by pulling
it apart along the seam; and this is not a seam with a raw edge but is
finished with a most perfect selvage. When we were children we were
wont to dispossess these large green pods of their natural contents, and
because they snapped shut so easily, we imprisoned therein bumblebees
“to hear them sing,” but we always let them go again. We now know
that there is nothing so interesting as to study the contents of the pod
just as it is. Below the opening is a line of white velvet ; at one end, and
with their “heads all in one direction,” are the beautiful, pale-rimmed,
brown, overlapping seeds; and at the other end we see the exquisite
milkweed silk with the skein so polished that no human reel could give us
a skein of such luster. If we remove the contents of the pod as a whole,
we see that the velvety portion is really the seed-support and that it joins
the pod at either end. It is like a hammock full of babies, except that the
milkweed babies are fastened on the outside of the hammock.

No sooner is our treasure open to the air than the shining silk begins to
separate into floss of fairy texture. But before one seed comes off, let us
look at the beautiful pattern formed by the seeds overlapping — such pat-
terns we may see in the mosaics of mosques.

Pull off a seed, and with it comes its own skein of floss, shining like a
pearl; but if we hold the seed in the hand a moment the skein unwinds
itself into a fluff of shining threads as fine as spiders’ silk, and each
individual thread thrusts itself out and rests upon the air: and altogether
there are enough of the threads to float the seed, a balloon of the safest
sort. If we wreck the balloon by rubbing the floss through our fingers,
we shall feel the very softest textile fiber spun by Mother Nature.

If we look closely at our seed we see a margin all around it. Well,
what if the balloon should be driven over sea, and the seed dropped upon
the water ? It must then drown unless it has a life preserver ; this margin
that we have noted is of the safest cork, and is warranted to float ; if you
do not believe it, try it.

If we pull off all the seeds, we can see that the velvety support is flat
and that all of the seeds are attached to it, but before we stop our admir-
ing study we should look carefully again at the inside of the pod, for never
was there a seed cradle with a lining more soft and satiny.

LESSON CXXXI
The Milkweed

Leading thought — The milkweed when wounded secretes a milky juice
which is of a rubberlike composition ; it flows out of the wounded plant
and soon hardens, thus protecting the wound from germs. Milkweed
flowers depend entirely upon insects for pollenation ; the pollen is not a .
free, yellow powder, but it is contained in paired sacs, which, are joined
in V-shape. The seeds are carried by balloons, and they can float on
water as well.

Method — Begin the study of the plant when it first appears above
ground in April or May. Give the pupils the questions about the blossom

Milkweed seed-balloons just leaving the sheltering pod.

544

Handbook of Nature-Study

for a vacation study, and ask that their observations be kept in their note-
books. The study of the pods and seeds may be made in September or
October. When studying the milky juice, add a geography lesson on
rubber trees and the way that rubber is made.

Observations — i. The plant. How does the milkweed look as it ap-
pears above ground in the spring? How are its leaves folded when it first
puts its head up ? Cut off a fully expanded plant a few inches above the
ground. What flows out of the stem? Blot off the “milk” and study
the cross-section of the stem. What is at the center? How many layers
do you see around this center? Can you see from which the milkweed
juice comes? How does the juice feel as it dries on your fingers? How
does it look when dry? Place a few drops on a piece of paper and when
it is dry pull it off and see if it is elastic. Break the edge of the leaf.
Does the milky juice flow from it?. Does it come from the veins? Do
you think that this is the sap of the milkweed? Cut a gash in the milk-
weed stem and see how the “milk” fills the wound. How does this help
the plant? Do cattle feed upon the milkweed when it grows in pastures?
If not, why?

2. How are the leaves arranged on the stem? How do the upper and
under sides of the leaves differ ? Examine with a lens, and see what makes
the nap of the velvet. What gives the light color to the under side?
Sketch a leaf showing its shape and venation, noting especially the
direction of the veins as they approach the edge of the leaf.

3. The flower. Where do the flower clusters come off the stems in
relation to the leaves? Does the stem of the flower cluster stand stiff or
droop? Take a good sized flower cluster and count the flowers in it.
What would happen if all these flowers should develop into pods? How
many flower clusters do you find on one plant? Which of these clusters
open first? Last?

4. Take off a single bud with its stem, or pedicel. Does the milky
juice come at the break? Is the bud stem stiff or drooping? What is its
color and how does it feel? What is the shape of the bud? How many
sepals has it? Look at the stem, sepals and bud with a lens and describe
their covering. Look for a flower just opening where the petals stand out
around it like a five-pointed star. What is their color? What happens
to the petals when the flower is fully expanded ? Can you see the sepals
then? Look straight into the flower. Do you see the five nectar-horns?
Look at them with a lens and describe them. What do you suppose is the
use of the little curved tongue coming out of each? Where does the tip
of the tongue rest? With a lens, look between two of the nectar horns;
can you see a little slit or pocket, with white protruding edges ? Note just
above the pocket a black dot; thrust a needle into this pocket near its
base and lift it toward the crown of the flower, touching the black dot.
What happens?

5 . Describe the little branched ob j ect that came out when you touched
it with a needle. These are the pollen saddle-bags and each bag comes
from a pocket at one side of, and above the long pocket. Do these saddle-
bags cling to the needle? Look with a lens at some of the older flowers,
and see if you can find the pollen-bags protruding' from the long pocket.
See if you can find how the long pocket is a passageway to the stigma.
To see how the little saddle-bags were transported, watch a bee gathering
nectar. Describe what happens.

Wild-Flower Study

545

6. Since the flowers bend over, how must the bee hold on to the
flower while she gathers nectar from the horns? As she turns around,
would she naturally pull out some of the saddle-bags ? Catch a bee in a
collecting tube and see if her feet have upon them these pollen-sacs.
After gathering these pollen-sacs upon her feet, what happens to them
when she visits the next flower? Is the opening of the long pocket like a
trap to scrape the sacs off ? Can you find on milkweed flowers any bees or
other insects that have been entangled in these little traps and have thus
perished? Try the experiment of drawing a thread into one of these
traps and with your lens see if the opening closes over it.

7. How many kinds of insects do you find visiting the milkweed
flowers? Can you detect the strong odor of the flowers? Why must the
milkweed develop so many flowers and offer such an abundance of nectar?

Photo by Verne Morton.

THE WHITE WATER LILY
Teacher's Story

“Whence O fragrant form of light,

Hast thou drifted through the night
Swanlike, to a leafy nest,

On the restless waves at rest."

Thus asks Father Tabb, and if the lily could answer it would have to
say: “Through ages untold have the waves upheld me until my leaves

and my flowers have changed into boats, my root to an anchor, and my
stems to anchor-ropes.”

There is no better example for teaching the relation between geogra-
phy and plant life than the water lily. Here is a plant that has dwelt so
long in a certain situation that it cannot live elsewhere. The conditions
which it demands are quiet water, not too deep, and with silt bottom.
Every part of the plant relies upon these conditions. The rootstock has
but few root hairs; and it lies buried in the silt, not only because this
gives it food, but because it can there act as an anchor. Rising from the
rootstock is a stem as pliable as if made of rubber, and yet it is strong;

546

Handbook of N ature-Study

its strength and flexibility are gained by having at its center four hollow
tubular channels, and smaller channels near the outside. These tubes
extend the whole length of the stem, making it light so that it will float,
and at the same time giving it strength as well as flexibility. At the
upper end of the stem is a leaf or flower, which is fashioned as a boat.
The circular leaf is leathery and often bronze-red below, with prominent
veins, making an excellent bottom to the boat; above, it is green with a
polished surface, and here are situated its breathing-pores, although the
leaves of most plants have these stomata in the lower surface. But how
could the water lily leaf breathe, if its stomata opened in the water? The
leaf is large, circular and quite heavy; it would require a very strong, stiff
stem to hold it aloft, but by its form and structure it is fitted to float upon
the water, a little green dory, varnished inside, and waterproof outside.

The bud is a little, egg-shaped buoy protected by its four pinkish
brown, leathery sepals; as it opens, we can see four rows of petals, each
overlapping the space between the next inner ones; at the center there is
a fine display of brilliant yellow anthers. Those hanging over the green-
ish yellow pit, which has the stigma at its center, are merely golden hooks.

When the flower is quite open, the
four sepals, each a canoe in form, lie
under the lily and float it; although
the sepals are brownish outside, they
are soft white on the inside next the
flower. Between each two sepals
stands a large petal, also canoe-shaped,
and perhaps pinkish on the outside;
these help the sepals in floating the
flower. Inside of these there is a row
of large creamy white petals which
stand upright ; the succeeding rows of
petals are smaller toward the center
and grade into the outer rows of
stamens, which are petallike at the
base and pointed at the tip. The
inner rows of stamens make a fine
golden fringe around the cup-shaped pistil. This flower is of great use in
teaching that sepals, petals and stamens have the same origin and grade
into each other, showing the intermediate stages.

It has been stated that pond lilies, in the state of nature, have an
interesting way of opening in the early morning, closing at noon and
opening again toward evening. If we knew better the habits of the
insects which pollenate these flowers, we should possibly have the key to
this action. In our ponds in parks and grounds we find that each species
of pond lily opens and closes at its own particular time each day. Each
flower opens usually for several consecutive days, and the first day of its
blooming it opens about an hour later and closes an hour earlier than on
the days following. After the lilies have blossomed, the flower stem coils
in a spiral and brings the ripening seeds below the surface of the water.
The reason for this has not yet been discovered. After about two months
the pod bursts letting the seeds out in the water. Each seed is in a little
bag, which the botanists call an aril, and which serves as a life preserver
floating the seed off for some distance from the parent plant. The aril

Egyptian lotus flower and seed-vessel.

Wild-Flower Study

547

finally decays and the seed falls to the bottom where, if the conditions are
favorable, it develops into a new plant.

To emphasize the fact that the water lily is dependent upon certain
geographical conditions, ask the pupils to imagine a water lily planted
upon a hillside. How could its roots, furnished
with such insufficient rootlets, get nourishment
there ? How could its soft, flexible stems hold aloft
the heavy leaves and blossoms to the sunlight? In
such a situation it would be a mere drooping mass.
Moreover, if the pupils understand the conditions
in which the water lilies grow in their own neighbor-
hood, they can understand the conditions under
which the plant grows in other countries. Thus,
when they read about the great Victoria regia of the
Amazon, — that water lily whose leaves are large
enough to support s man, — they would have visions
of broad stretches of still water and they should
realize that the bottom must be silt. If they read
about the lotus, of Egypt, then they should see the
Nile as a river with borders of still water and with
bottom of silt. Thus, from the conditions near at
hand, we may cultivate in the child an intelligent
geographical imagination.

LESSON CXXXII
The Water Lily

Leading thought — The water lily has become dependent upon certain
conditions in pond or stream, and has become unfitted in form to live
elsewhere. It must have quiet waters, not too deep, and with silt bottom.

Method — The study should be made first with the water lilies in a
stream or pond, to discover just how they grow. For the special struc-
ture, the leaves and flowers may be brought to the schoolroom and floated
in a pan of water. The lesson may easily be modified to fit the yellow
water lily, which is in many ways even more interesting, since in shallow
water it holds its leaves erect while in deeper water its leaves float.

Observations — i. Where is the water lily found? If in a pond, how
deep is the water? If in a stream, is it in the current? What kind of
bottom is there to the stream or pond ? Do you find lilies in the water of
a limestone region ? Why ?

2 . What is the shape of the leaf ? What is the color above and below ?
What is the texture? How is it especially fitted to float? How does it
look when very young?

3. Examine the petiole. How long is it? Is it stiff enough to hold
up the leaf? Why does it not need to hold up the leaf? How does it
serve as an anchor? Cut a stem across and describe its inside structure.
How does this structure help it float?

4. Examine the open flower. How many sepals? How many rows
of petals? How do the stamens resemble the petals? Can you see in the
water lily how the sepals, petals and stamens may all be different forms of
the same thing? How are the sepals fitted to keep the flower afloat? At
what times of the day does the lily open? At what hours does it close?

Seed vessel of white
pond lily.

548

Handbook of N ature-Study

5. Describe the pistil. When the lily first opens, how are the stamens
placed around the pis Lil? What happens to the seed-box after the blos-
soms have faded? Does the seed-pod float upon the water as did the
flower? What sort of stem has the flower? How does this stem hold the
seed-pod below the water?

6. What sort of seed has the water lily? Sketch the seed-pod.
How does the seed escape from it ? How is it scattered and planted ?

7. What sort of a root has the water lily ? Are there many fine root-
lets upon it ? Why? How does this rootstock serve the plant aside from
gettingfood?

8. Imagine a water lily set on a dry hillside. Could the stems uphold
the flowers or leaves? Is the petiole large enough to hold out such a
thick, heavy leaf? Could the root get food from a dry location? Why?

9. Judging from what you know of the places where water lilies grow
and the condition of the water there, describe the Nile where the lotus
grows. Describe the Amazon where the Victoria regia grows.

PONDWEED
Teacher's Story

HE study of any plant which has
obvious limitations as to where it
may grow should be made a help in
the study of geography. Pond-
weed is an excellent subject to illus-
trate this principle ; it grows only in
quiet beds of sluggish streams or in
ponds, or in the shallow protected
portions of lakes. It has tremen-
dous powers of stretching up, which
render it able to grow at greater,
depth than one would suppose possi-
ble, often flourishing where the
water is from ten to twenty feet
deep. Often, when the sun is shin-
ing, it may be seen like a bed of sea-
weed on the bottom. Its roots,
like those of most water plants, have
less to do with the matter of absorb-
ing water and nourishment than do
the roots of land plants, one of their
chief functions being to anchor the
plant fast; they have a firm grip on
the bottom ; and if pondweed is cut loose, it at once comes to the sur-
face, floats helplessly on its side, and soon dies.

The stem is very soft and pliable and the plant relies entirely on the
water to keep it upright. A cross-section of the stem shows that its sub-
stance is spongy, with the larger open cells near the outer edge, thus help-
ing it to float. The leaves are two or three inches long, their broad bases
encircling the stem, their tips tapering to slender points. They have

Wild-Flower Study

549

parallel veins and ruffled edges. They are dull olive green in color, much
darker than the stems; in texture they are very thin, papery, and so
shining as to give the impression of being varnished. No land plants have
such leaves; they remind us at once of kelp or other seaweeds. The
leaves are scattered along the stems, by no means thickly, for water
plants do not seem to need profuse foliage.

In blossom time the pondweed shows its real beauty. The stems grow
and grow, like Jack’s bean stalk, and what was a bed of leaves on the pond
bottom suddenly changes into a forest of high plants, each one standing
tall and straight and with every leaf extended, as if its stems wbre as
strong and stiff as ironwood ; but if a wave disturbs the water the graceful
undulations of the plant tell the true story of the pliant stems. There is
something that arouses our admiration when we see one of these pond-
weeds grown so straight and tall, often three or four yards high, in order
to place its little, greenish-brown flower-head above the water’s surface.

We have spent hours looking down into such a
submerged forest, dreaming and wondering about
the real meaning of such adaptations.

Although the stem is flexible, the somewhat
curved, enlarged portion of it just below the flower-
head is rigid ; it is also more spongy than the lower
part of the stem and is thus fitted to float the flower.
The flower itself is one of the prettiest sights that
nature has to show us through a lens. It is a Mal-
tese cross, the four reddish stigmas arranged in a
solid square at the center ; at each side of this cen-
tral square is a double-barrelled anther, and outside
of each anther is a queer, little, dipper-shaped, green
sepal. When the anthers open, they push away
i , Flower of a pond- f rom the stigmas and throw their pollen toward the
weed enlarged, early stage, outside. There may be thirty or more of these
2, Same at later stage. tiny, cross-shaped flowers in one flower-head. In
the bud, the cup-shaped sepals shut down closely, exposing the stigmas
first, which would indicate that the}-' ripen before the pollen is shed. The
pollen is white, and is floated from plant to plant on the surface of the
water; often the water for yards will be covered with this living dust.

LESSON CXXXIII
Pondweed

Leading thought — The pondweed lives entirely below the water; at
blossom time, however, it sends up its flower stems to the surface of the
water, and there sheds its pollen, thus securing cross-pollenation.

Method — As this is primarily a lesson that relates to geography, the
pondweed should be studied where it is growing. It may be studied in
the spring or fall, and the pupils asked to observe the blossoming which
occurs in late July. After the pupils have seen where it grows, the plants
themselves may be studied in an aquarium, or by placing them in a pail or
basin of water. There are confusing numbers of pondweeds but any of
them will do for this lesson. The one described in the Teacher’s Story is
probably P. perfoliatus.

55°

Handbook of Nature-Study

Observations — i. Where is the pondweed found? Does it ever
grow out of water ? Does it ever grow in very deep water? Does it ever
grow in swiftly flowing water?

2. Has the pondweed a root? Does the pondweed need to have
water carried to its leaves, as it would if it were living in the air? What is
-ne of the chief uses of the roots to the pondweed? Break off a plant,
does it float? Do you think it would float off and die, if it was not
anchored by its root?

3 . Compare the stem of pondweed with that of any land plant stand-
ing straight. What is the chief difference ? Why does the pondweed not
need a stiff stem to hold it up? Cut the stem across, and see if you can
observe why it floats?

4. Examine the leaves. Are all of them below the surface of the
water? If some float, how do they differ in texture and form from those
submerged? How are they arranged on the stem? Are they set close
together? What is the difference in texture between its leaves and those
of the jewelweed, dock or any other land plant? If any leaves project
out of the water are they different in form and texture from those sub-
merged? Sketch the leaf, showing its shape, its edges, and the way it
joins the stem.

5. How far below the surface of the water does the pondweed usually
lie ? Does it ever rise up to the water’s surface ? When ? Have you ever
noticed the pondweed in blossom? How does the blossom look on the
water? Can you see the white pollen floating on the surface of the water?
Look down into the water and see the way the pondweed stands in order
to float its blossoms.

6. Study the blossom. Note the stem that bears it. Is the part that
bears the flower enlarged and stiff er than the stem below? Do you think
that this enlarged part of the stem acts like the bob on a fish-line? Ex-
amine a flower cluster with a lens. How many flowers upon it? Study
one flower carefully. Describe the four stigmas at the center. Describe
the anthers arranged around them. Describe the sepal which protects
each anther. When the anthers open do they discharge the pollen toward
or away from the stigmas ?

7. What happens after the flowers are pollenated? Do they still
float? What sort of seed-capsule has the pondweed? Do the seeds
break away and float

“ Again the wild cow-lily floats
Her golden-freighted, tented boats.

In thy cool caves of softened gloom,

O' er shadowed by the whispering reed.

And purple plumes of pickerel weed,

And meadow-sweet in tangled bloom.

“The startled minnows dart in flocks,

Beneath thy glimmering amber rocks.

If but a zephyr stirs the brake;

The silent swallow swoops, a flash
Of light, and leaves with dainty plash,

A ring of ripples in her wake."

— “Birch Stream”, Anna Boynton Averils..

Wild-Flower Study

55i

Cat-tail flag in blossom.

The staminate flowers are massed at the tip, and the pistillate flowers which form the “cat-tail”
are massed lower down on the stalk.

Photo by Verne Morton.

THE CAT-TAIL

Teacher's Story

In June and early July, if the cat -tail be closely observed, it will be
seen to have the upper half of the cat’s tail much narrower and different
in shape from the lower half— as if it were covered with a quite different
fur. It seems to be clothed with a fine drooping fringe of olive-yellow.
With the aid of a lens, we can see that this fringe is a mass of crowded
anthers, two or three of them being attached to the same stalk by a short
filament. These anthers are packed full of pollen, which is sifted down
upon the pistillate flowers below by every breeze ; and with every puff of
stronger wind, the pollen is showered over all neighboring
flowers to the leeward. There is not much use in trying
to find the pistillate flowers in the plush of the cat-tail.
They have no sepals nor petals, and are so imbedded in
the thick pappus which forms the plush that the search
is hardly worth while for nature-study, unless a micro-
scope is used. The ovary is rather long, the style slender,
and the stigma reaches out to the cut-plush surface of the
cat-tail. The pupils can find what these flowers are by
studying the seed; in fact, the seed does not differ very
much from the flower, except that it is mature and is
* browner in color.

It is an interesting process to take apart a cat-tail plant ; the lower,
shorter leaves surround the base of the plant, giving it size and strength.
All the leaves have the same general shape, but vary in length. Each leaf
consists of the free portion, which is long and narrow and flat towards its
tapering tip but is bent into a trough as it nears the plant, and the lower

A cat-tail seed
with its balloon.

552

Handbook of Nature-Study

portion of the leaf, which clasps the plant entirely or partially, depending
upon whether it is an outer or inner leaf, and thus adds to its strength.
We almost feel as if these alternate leaves were consciously doing their
best to protect the slender, flower stem. The free part of the leaves is
strengthened by lengthwise veins, and they form edges that never tear nor
break. They are very flexible, and therefore yield to the wind rather than
defy it. If we look at a leaf in cross-section, we can see the two thick
walls strengthened by the framework of stiff veins which divide the in-
terior into long cells. If we cut the leaf lengthwise we can see that these
long cells are supported by stiff, coarse partitions.

Where the leaf clasps the stem, it is very stiff and will break rather
than bend. The texture of the leaf is soft and smooth, and its shade of
green is attractive. The length of the leaves is often greater than that of
the blossom stalk, and their graceful curves contrast pleasantly with its
ramrod-like stiffness. It is no wonder that artists and the decorators have
used the cat-tail lavishly as a model. It is interesting to note that the
only portion of the leaves injured by the wind is the extreme tip.

The cat-tail is adapted for living in swamps where the soil is wet but
not under water all the time. When the land is drained, or when it is
flooded for a considerable time, the cat-tails die out and disappear. They
usually occur in marshy zones along lakes or streams ; and such a zone is
always sharply defined by dry land on one side and water on the other.
The cat -tail roots are fine and fibrous and are especially fitted, like the
roots of the tamarack, to thread the mud of marshy ground and thus gain
a foothold. The cat-tails form one of the cohorts in the phalanx of
encroaching plants, like the reeds and rushes, which surround and, by a
slow march of years, finally conquer and dry up ponds. But in this they
overdo the matter, since after a time the soil becomes too dry for them
and they disappear, giving place to other plants which find there a con-
genial environment. The place where I studied the cat-tails as a child is
now a garden of joe pye weed and wild sunflowers.

Reference — Plant Life, Coulter.

LESSON CXXXIV
The Cat-tail

Leading thought — The cat-tail is adapted to places where the soil is wet
but not under water; its pollen is scattered by the wind, and its seeds are
scattered by wind and water. Its leaves and stalks are not injured nor
broken by the wind.

Method- — As this is primarily a geography lesson, it should be given in
the field if possible ; otherwise the pupils must explore for themselves to
discover the facts. The plant itself can be brought into the schoolroom
for study. When stadying the seeds, it is well to be careful, or the school-
room and the pupils will be clothed with the pappus for weeks.

Observations — i. Where are the cat-tails found? Is the land on
which they grow under water all the year? At any part of the year ? Is
it dry land all the year? What happens to the cat-tails, if the land on
which they grow is flooded for a season ? What happens tc them, if the
land is drained?

2. How wide a strip do the cat-tails cover, where you have found
them? Are they near a pond or brook or stream Do they grow out in

Wild-Flower Study

55?

Cat-tails sending off their seed balloons.

Photo by Verne Morton.

the stream? Why do they not extend further inland? What is the
character of the soil on which they grow?

3 . What sort of a root has the cat-tail ? Why is this root especially
adapted to the soil where cat-tails grow? Describe the rootstock.

4. The cat-tail plant. Are the leaves arranged opposite or alternate?

Tear off a few of the leaves and describe the difference between the lower
and the upper end of a leaf as follows: How do they differ in shape?

Texture? Pliability? Color? Width? Does each leaf completely
encircle the stalk at its base? Of what use is this to the plant? Of what
use is it to have the plant stiff er where the leaves clasp the stalk? What
would happen in a wind storm if this top-heavy, slender seed stalk was
bare and not supported by the leaves ? What is the special enemy of long,
tall, slender-leafed plants?

5. Take a single leaf, cut it across near where it joins the main stalk
and also near its tip. Look at the cross-section and see how the leaf is
veined. What do its long veins or ribs do for the leaf? Split the leaf
lengthwise and see what other supports it has. Does the cat-tail leaf break
or tear along its edges easily? Does the wind injure any part of the leaf?

6. Study the cat-tail flowers the last half of June. Note the part
that will develop into the cat’s tail. Describe the part above it. Can
you see where the pollen comes from? The pistillate flowers which are in
the plush of the cat-tail have no sepals, petals, odor nor nectar. Do
you think that their pollen is carried to them by the bees? How is it
carried?

7. Examine the cat-tail in fall or winter. What has happened to
that part of the stalk above the cat-tail where the anthers grew? Study

554

Handbook of Nature-Study

two or three of the seeds, and see how they are provided for traveling.
What scatters them? Will the cat-tail seed balloons float? Would the
wind or the water be more likely to carry the cat-tail seeds to a place
where they would grow? Describe the difference between the cat -tail
balloon and the thistle balloon.

8. How crowded do the cat-tail plants grow? How are they arranged
to keep from shading each other? In how many ways is the wind a friend
of the cat-tails?

9. How do the cat -tails help to build up land and make narrower
ponds and streams?

Daises and grasses,

LESSON CXXXV

A Type Lesson for a Composite Flower

Leading thought — Many plants have their flowers set close together to
make a mass of color, like the geraniums or the clovers. But there are
other plants where the flowers of one flower-head act like the members of
a family, those at the center doing a certain kind of work for the produc-
tion of seed, and those around the edges doing another kind of work. The
sunflower, goldenrod, asters, daisies, cone-flower, thistle, dandelion, bur-
dock, everlasting, and many other common flowers have their blossoms
arranged in this way. Before any of the wild-flower members of this
family are studied, the lesson on the garden sunflower should be given.
(See Lesson CLXII).

Method — These flowers may be studied in the schoolroom with sug-
gestions for field observations. A lens is almost necessary for the study
of most of these flowers.

Observations — 1. Can you see that what you call the flower consists
of many flowers set together like a beautiful mosaic? Those at the center
are called disk-flowers; those around the edges banner or ray-flowers.

2. Note that the flowers around the edges have differently shaped
corollas than those at the center. How do they differ? Why should
these be called the banner flowers ? Why should they be called the ray-
flowers? How many banner-flowers are there in the flower family you
are studying? How are the banners arranged to make the flower-head
more attractive ? Cut off or pull out all the banner-flowers and see how
the flower-head looks. What do the banner-flowers hold out their ban-

Wild-Flower Study 555

ners for? Is it to attract us or the insects ? Has the banner-flower any
stigma or stamens ?

3. Study the flowers at the center. Are they open, or are they un-
folded, buds? Can you make a sketch of how they are arranged? Are
any of the florets open ? What is the shape and the color of the corolla ?
Can you see the stamen-tubes pushing out from some ? What color are
the stamen-tubes ? Can you see the two-parted stigmas in others ? What
color is the pollen. Do the florets at the center or at the outside of the
disk open first ? When they first open, do you see the stamen-tube or the
stigma ?

4. The flower-heads are protected before they open with overlapping
bracts, which may be compared to a shingled house protecting the flower
family. As the flower-head opens, these bracts are pushed back beneath
it. Describe the shape of these bracts. Are they set in regular, over-
lapping rows? Are they rough or smooth ? Do they end bluntly, with a
short point, with a long point, with a spine, or a hook? How do the
bracts act when the flower family goes to sleep? Do they remain after
the seeds are ripened ?

5. Take a flower-head apart, and examine the florets. Can you see
what part of the floret will be the seed? Is there a fringe of pappus above
it? If so, what will this be on the seed?

6. Study the ripe seeds. How are they scattered? Do they have
balloons? Is the balloon close to the seed? Is it fastened to all parts of
it?

THE GOLDENROD

Teacher's Story

Coldenrcd.

Once I was called upon to take some
children into the field to study autumn
flowers. The day we studied goldenrod,
I told them the following story on the
way, and I found that they were pleased
with the fancy and through it were led
to see the true purpose of the goldenrod
blossoming:

“There are flowers which live in vil-
lages and cities, but people who also
live in villages and cities are so stupid
that they hardly know a flower city
when they see it. This morning we
are going to visit a golden city where the
people are all dressed in yellow, and
where they live together in families; and
the families all live on top of their little,
green, shingled houses, which are set in
even rows along the street. In each of
these families, there are some flowers
whose business it is to furnish nectar and
pollen and to produce seeds which have
fuzzy balloons; while there are other

556

Handbook of N ature -Study

flowers in each family which wave yellow banners to all the insects that
pass by and signal them with a code of their own, thus: ‘Here, right

this way is a flower family that needs a bee or a beetle or an insect of
some sort to bring it pollen from abroad, so that it can ripen its seed ; and
it will give nectar and plenty of pollen in exchange.’ Of course, if the
flowers could walk around like people, or fly like insects, they could
fetch and carry their own pollen, but as it is, they have to depend
upon insect messengers to do this for them. Let us see who of us will be
the first to guess what the name of this golden city is, and who will be
the first to find it.”

A street in goldenrod city.

The children were delighted with this riddle and soon found the golden-
rod city. We examined each little house with its ornate, green “shingles.”
These little houses, looking like cups, were arranged on the street stem,
right side up, in an orderly manner and very close together; and where
each joined the stem, there was a little, green bract for a doorstep.
Living on these houses we found the flower families, each consisting of a
few tubular disk-flowers opening out like bells, and coming from their
centers were the long pollen-tubes or the yellow, two-parted stigmas.
The ray-flowers had short but brilliant banners ; and they, as well as the
disk-flowers, had young seeds with pretty fringed pappus developing upon
them. The banner-flowers were not set so regularly around the edges as
in the asters ; but the families were such close neighbors, that the banners
reached from one house to another. And all of the families on all of the
little, green streets were signalling insects, and one boy said, “They must
be making a very loud yellow noise.” We found that [very many
insects had responded to this call — honeybees, bumblebees, mining and
carpenter bees, blue-black blister beetles with short wings and awkward
bodies, beautiful golden-green chalcid flies, soldier beetles and many
others ; and we found the spherical gall and the spindle-shaped gall in the
stems, and the strange gall up near the top which grew among the leaves.

Unless one is a trained botanist it is wasted energy to try to distinguish
any but the well-marked species of goldenrod ; for, according to Gray, we
have 56 species, the account of which makes twelve pages of most unin-
teresting reading in the new Manual. The goldenrod family is not in the
least cliquish, the species have a habit of interbreeding to the confusion of
the systematic botanist. Matthew’s Field Book serves as well as any for
distinguishing the well-marked species.

Wild-Flower Study

557

LESSON CXXXVI

The Goldenrod

Leading thought — In the goldenrod the flower-heads or families are so
small that, in order to attract the attention of the insects, they are set
closely together along the stem to produce a mass of color.

Method — Bring to the school-room any kind of goldenrod, and give the
lesson on the flowers there. This should be followed by a field excursion
to get as many kinds of goldenrod as possible. The following observa-
tions will bring out differences in well-marked species :

Observations — i. Use Lesson CXXXV to study
the flower. How many banner-flowers in the family ?
How many disk-flowers? Are the banners arranged
as regularly around the edges as in the asters and
daisies? How are the flower-heads set upon the
stems? Which flower-heads open first — those at
the base or at the tip of the stem? Do the upper
stems of the plant blossom before those lower down ?

2. Do the stems bearing flowers come from the
axils of the leaves? What is the general shape of
the flower branches? Do they come off evenly at
Disk-flower and ban- each side, or more at one side? Are the flower
ner-fiower of goldenrod. branches long or short? Make a sketch of the
general shape of the goldenrod you are studying.

3. Is the stem smooth, downy, or covered with bloom? What is
its color? In cross-section, is it circular or angular? •

4. What is the shape and form of the edges of the lower leaves ? The
upper ones? Are they set with, or without, petioles on the stem? Do
they have a heart-shaped base? Are the leaves smooth or downy? Are
they light, or dark green?

5. Field notes. Where do you find the goldenrod growing? Do you
find one kind growing alone or several kinds growing together? Do you
find any growing in the woods ? If so, how do they differ in shape from
those in the field?

6. How many kinds of insects do you find visiting goldenrod flowers?
How many kinds of galls do you find on the goldenrod stems and leaves?

7 . Study the goldenrods in N ovember. Describe their seeds and how
they are scattered.

“I am alone with nature,

With the soft September day;

The lifting hills above me,

With goldenrod are gay.

Across the fields of ether
Flit butterflies at play;

And cones of garnet sumac
Glow down the country way.

“ The autumn dandelion

Beside the roadway burns;

Above the lichened boulders
Quiver the plumed ferns.

The cream-white silk of the milkweed
Floats from it’s sea-green pod;

From out the mossy rock-seams
Flashes the goldenrod."

— Mary Clemmer Ames.

558

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE ASTERS

Teacher's Story

us believe that the scientist who gave to the
asters their Latin name was inspired. Aster
means star and these, of all flowers, are most
starlike ; and in beautiful constellations they
border our fields and woodsides. The aster
combination of colors is often exquisite. Many
have the rays or banners lavender, oar-shaped
and set like the rays of a star around the yellow
disk-flowers; these latter send out long, yellow
anther tubes, overflowing with yellow pollen,
and add to the stellar appearance of the flower-
head.

“And asters by the brookside make asters in the brook.

Thus sang H. H. of these beautiful masses of autumn flowers. But if
H. H. had attempted to distinguish the species, she would have said
rather that asters by the brookside make more asters in the book; for
Gray’s Manual assures us that we have 77 species including widely differ-
ent forms, varying in size, color and also as to the environment in which
they will grow. They range from the shiftless woodland species, which
has a few whitish ray-flowers hanging shabbily about its yellow disk and
with great, coarse leaves on long, gawky petioles climbing the zigzag stem,
to the beautiful and dignified New England aster, which brings the
glorious purple and orange of its great flower-heads to decorate our hills
in September and October.

Luckily, there are a few sp cies which are fairly well marked, and still
more luckily, it is not of any consequence whether we know the species or
not, so far as our enjoyment of the flowers themselves is concerned. The
outline of this lesson will call the attention of the pupils to the chief points
of difference and likeness in the aster species, and they will thus learn to
discriminate in a general way. The asters, like the goldenrods, begin to
bloom at the tip of the branches, the flower-heads nearest the central
stem, blooming last. All of the asters are very sensitive, and the flower-
heads will close promptly as soon as they are gathered. The ray or
banner-flowers are pistillate, and therefore develop seed. The seed has

i a

I, an aster flower-head enlarged; 2, a disk-flower; 3, a banner-floweyc

Wild-Flower Study

559

attached to its rim a ring of pappus, and is ballooned to its final destina-
tion. In November, the matured flower-heads are fuzzy, with seeds
ready for invitations from any passing wind to fly whither it listeth.

LESSON CXXXVII

The Asters

Leading thought — There are very many different kinds of asters, and
they all have their flowers arranged similarly to those of the sunflower.

Method — Have the pupils collect
as many kinds of asters as possible,
being careful to get the basal leaves
and to take notes on where each
kind was found — that is, whether in
the woodlands, by the brooksides
or in the open fields. This lesson
should follow that on the sunflower.

Observations — i. What was the
character of the soil and surround-
ings where this aster grew? Were
there large numbers of this kind
growing together? Were the flow-
ers wide open when you gathered
them? How soon did they close?

2. How high did the plants
stand when growing? Were there
many flowers, or few, on each plant?

3 . Study the lower and the

upper leaves. Describe each as
follows: the shape, the size, the

edges, the way it was joined to the
stem.

4. Is the stem many-branched
or few? Do the branches bearing
flowers extend in all directions?
Are the stems hairy or smooth, and
what is their color ?

5. What is the diameter of the
single flower-head? What is the
color of the ray-flowers? How
many ray or banner-flowers are
there? What is the shape of a
single banner as compared with
that of a sunflower? What are the
colors of the disk-flowers? Of the

pollen ? Do the disk-flowers change color after blossoming ?

6. Look at the bracts below the flower-head. Are they all the same
sh^pe? What is their color? Do they have recurved tips or do they
overlap closely? Are they sticky?

7. Take the aster flower-head apart and look at it with a lens. In a
disk-flcwer, note the young seed, the pappus, the tubular five-parted
corolla, the anther tube and the stigmas. In the ray-flower, find the
voung seed, the pappus and the stigma.

Handbook of Nature-Study

560

8. Watch the bees working on asters, and find where they thrust their
tongues to reach the nectar.

9. Study an aster plant in November, and describe the seeds and how
they are scattered.

Gathering daisies.
Photo by Verne Morton

THE WHITE DAISY
Teacher's Story

Every child loves this flower, and yet it is not well understood;
it is always at hand for study from June until the frosts have laid
waste the fields. However much enjoyment
we get from the study of this beautiful flower-
head, we should study the plant as a weed
also, for it is indeed a pest to those farmers who
do not practice a rotation of crops. Its root is
long and tenacious of the soil, and it ripens many
seeds which mingle with the grass seed, and thus
the farmer sows it to his own undoing. The
bracts of the involucre, or the shingles of the
daisy-house, are rather long, and have parch-
ment like margins. They overlap in two or three
rows. In the daisy flower-head, the banner-
flowers are white ; there may be twenty or thirty
of these, making a beautiful frame for the golden-
yellow disk-flowers. The banner is rather broad,
is veined, and toothed at the tip. The banner-
flower has a pistil which shows its two-parted
stigma at the base of the banner, and it matures a
seed. The disk-flowers are brilliant yellow,
tubular, rather short, with the five points of the

Daisy florets.

1, Disk-flower in pollen-stage;

2, Disk-flower in stigma-stage;

3, Ray-flower. All enlarged.

Wild-Flower Study

561

corolla curling back. The anther-tubes and the pollen are yellow, so
are the stigmas. The arrangement of the buds at the center is exceed-
ingly pretty. The flowers develop no pappus, and therefore the seeds
have no balloons. They depend upon the ignorance and helplessness of
man to scatter their seeds far and wide with the grass and clover seed,
which he sows for his own crops. It was thus that it came to America,
and in this manner still continues to flaunt its banners in our meadows
and pastures. The white daisy is not a daisy, but a chrysanthemum. It
has never been called by this name popularly, but has at least twenty
other common names, among them the ox-eye daisy, moon-penny, and
herb-Margaret.

LESSON CXXXVIII
The White Daisy

Leading thought — The white-daisy is not a single flower but is made up
of many little flowers and should be studied by the outline given in Lesson

cxxxv.

A daisy meadow.

562

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE YELLOW DAISY, OR BLACK-EYED SUSAN
Teacher's Story

These beautiful, showy flowers have rich contrasts in their color
scheme. The ten to twenty-ray flowers wave rich, orange banners

around the cone of
purple-brown disk-flow-
ers. The banners are
notched and bent down-
ward at their tips ; each
banner-flower has a pis-
til, and develops a seed.
The disk-flowers are
arranged in a conical,
button-like center; the
corollas are pink-purple
at the base of the tube,
but their five recurved,
pointed lobes are pur-
ple-brown. The anther-
tube is purple-brown
and the stigmas show
the same color; but
the pollen is brilliant
orange, and adds much
to the beauty of the
rich, dark florets when
it is pushed from the
anther-tubes. There is
no pappus developed,
and the seeds are car-
ried as are the seeds of
the white daisy, by be-
ing harvested with the
seeds of grain.

The stem is strong
and erect; the bracts
of the involucre, or
“shingles”, are long,
narrow and hairy, the lower ones being longer and wider than those
above; they all spread out flat, or recurve below the open flower-head.
In blossoming, first the ray-flowers spread wide
Itheir banners; then the flowerets around the base
of the cone open and push out their yellow pollen
through the brown tubes; then day by day the
blossoming circle climbs toward the apex — a beau-
tiful way of blossoming upward.

LESSON CXXXIX
The Black-Eyed Susan
Leading thought — This flower should be studied
by the outline given in Lesson CXXXV.

Disk-flower and ray-
flower.

5 &3

Wild-Flower Study

standpoint, is the Canada thistle,
garden, grain field and meadow.

THE THISTLE
Teacher's Story

looking at the thistle from its own
standpoint, we must acknowledge it to
be a beautiful and wonderful plant . It
is like a knight of old encased in armor
and with lance set, ready for the fray.
The most impressive species is the great
pasture, or bull, thistle ( C . pumilis ),
which has a blossom-head three inches
across. This is not so common as the
lance-leaved thistle, which ornaments
roadsides and fence corners, where it
may remain undisturbed for the neces-
sary second year of growth before it
can mature its seeds. The most per-
nicious species, from the farmer’s
Its roots are perennial, and they invade
They creep for yards in all directions,
just deep enough to be sure of moisture, and send up new plants here and
there, especially if the main stalk is cut off. Roots severed by the plow,
send up shoots from both of the broken parts. Not so with the common
thistle, which has a single main root, with many fibrous and clustered
branches but with no side shoots.

The stalk of the lance-leaved thistle is strong and woody, and is
closely hugged by pricky leaf stems, except for a few inches above the root.
The leaves are placed alternately -
on the stalk; they are deep green,
covered above with rough and
bristling hairs, and when young are
covered on the under side with
soft, gray wool which falls away
later. The spines grow on the
edges of the leaves, which are deeply
lobed and are also somewhat wavy
and ruffled, thus causing the savage
spears to meet the enemy in any
direction. The ribs and veins are
without spines. Small buds or
branches may be found at the axils
of the leaves; and if a plant is
beheaded, those axiliary buds near-
est the top of (the stem will grow
vigorously.

The thistle flowers are purple in
color and very fragrant ; they grow
in single heads at the summit of
the stalk, and from the axils of the
upper leaves. The topmost heads
open first. Of the individual

flowers in the head, those of the Lance-leaved thistle.

564

Handbook of N atur e-Study

outer rows first mature and protrude their pistils; the pollen grains
are white. In each flower, the corolla is tube-shaped and purple, part-
ing into five fringelike lobes at the top, and fading to white at its
nectar-filled base.

The stamens have dark purple anthers, united in a tube in which
their pollen is discharged. The pistil, ripening later, shoves out the pollen
with its stigma, which at first is blunt at the end, its two-parted lips so
tightly held together that not a grain of its own flower’s pollen can be
taken. But when thrust far out beyond the anther-tube, the two-parted
stigma opens to receive the pollen which is brought by the many winged
visitors ; for of all flowers, the thistles with their abundant nectar are the
favorites of insects. Butterflies of many species, moths, beetles and bees
— especially the bumblebees — are the happy guests of the thistle blooms.

The thistles believe in large families ; a single head of the lance-leaved
thistle has been known to have 1 16 seeds. The seeds are oblong, pointed,
little akenes, with hard shells. Very beautiful and wonderful is the
pappus of the thistle ; it is really the calyx of the flower, its tube being a
narrow collar, and the lobes are split up into the silken floss.
At the larger end of the seed is a circular depression with a
tiny hub at its center; into this ring, and around the knob, is
fitted the collar which attaches the down to the seed. Hold
the balloon between the eye and the light, and it is easy to see
that the down is made of many-branched plumes which inter-
lace and make it more buoyant. When first taken from its
crowded position on the flower-head, the pappus surrounds
-,j a n the corolla in a straight, close tube; but if placed for just a few
.Aim moments in the sun, the threads spread, the filmy branchlets
■Mil open out, and a fairy parachute is formed, with the seed hang-
mrn ing beneath ; if no breath of air touches it while spreading, it
| III will sometimes form a perfect funnel; when blown upon, some

|/I of the silken threads lose their places on the rim and rise to the

If center. When driven before the breeze, this balloon will float
W for a long distance. When it falls, it lets go of the seed as the

\J wind moves it along the rough surface of the ground, and when

A floret from it is thus unburdened the down fluffs out in every direction,
a thistle making a perfect globe.

flower-head. por ^he season after the seed has rooted, the thistle
develops only rosettes, meanwhile putting down roots and
becoming permanently established. The next season, the flowers and
seeds are developed, and then the plant dies. Would that this fact were
true of the Canada thistle; but that, unfortunately, is perennial, and its
persistent roots can only be starved out by keeping the stalks cut to the
ground for the entire season. This thistle trusts to its extensively creep-
ing rootstocks more than to its seeds for retaining its foothold and for
spreading. While it develops many seed balloons, a large number of its
seeds are infertile and will not grow.

LESSON CXL

The Common, or Lance-leaved, Thistle
Leading thought — The thistle is covered with sharp spines, and these
serve to protect it from grazing animals. It has beautiful purple flowers,
arranged in heads similar to those of the sunflower.

Wild-Flower Study

565

Method — A thistle plant

brought into the schoolroom—
root and all — and placed in water
will serve well for this lesson.
The questions should be given
the pupils as to where thistles
are found. Any thistle will do
for the lesson.

Observations — 1. Where do

you find the thistles growing?
Do you find more than one spe-
cies growing thickly together?
Do you find any of the common
thistles growing in soil which has
been cultivated this season?

2. Describe the stalk, is it
smooth? Is it weak or strong
and woody? What sort of root
has it?

3. Do the leaves grow alter-
nately or opposite? Are they
smooth or downy on one or both
sides? Do the spines grow
around the margins, or on the
leaves and veins? Are the leaf
edges flat, or wavy and ruffled?

4. How does this affect the
direction in which the spines
point? Are the leaves entire or
deeply lobed? Have they peti-
oles, or are they attached directly
to the stalk?

5. Note if any buds or small
branches nestle in the axils of
the lower leaves. What effect
does cutting the main stalk seem
to have on each side shoot?

6. Do the flower-heads of the
thistle grow singly or in clusters?
Do they come from the summit
of the stalk, or do they branch
from its sides? Which blossom-
heads open first — the topmost or
those lowest on the stalk? Are
the flowers fragrant? What in-
sects do you most often see
visiting thistle blossoms for pol-
len or nectar? Study the thistle flower according to Lesson CXXXV.

7. Carefully study a thistle balloon. How is the floss attached to the
seed? Is it attached to the smaller, or the larger end? Hold the thistle
balloon between your eye and the light. Does the down consist of single
separate hairs, or have they many fine branches? Hovr is the down

The Canada thistle.
Drawing by W. C. Baker.

566

Handbook of Nature-Study

arranged when all the flowers are packed together in the thistle-head?
Take a seed from among its closely packed fellows in the thistle-head, and
put it in the sun or in a warm, dry place where it cannot blow away. How
long does it take for the balloon to open out? What is its shape? Is
there any down at the center of the balloon or is it arranged in a funnel-
shaped ring? Can you find a perfectly globular thistle balloon with the
seeds still attached to it? How far do you think the thistle balloons
might travel ?

8. If a thistle seed finds a place for planting during the autumn, how
does the young plant look the next season? Describe the thistle rosette.
What growth does it make the second summer ? What happens to it then ?

9. Why can you not cultivate out the Canada thistles as you can the
other species?

A successful life.

THE BURDOCK
Teacher's Story

Psychologists say that all young things are selfish, and the young
burdock is a shining example of this principle. Its first leaves are broad
and long, with long petioles by means of which they sprawl out from the
growing stem in every direction, covering up and choking out all the lesser
plants near them. In fact, the burdock remains selfish in this respect
always, for its great basal leaves see to it that no other plants shall get the
good from the soil near its own roots. One wonders at first how a plant
with such large leaves can avoid shading itself ; but there are some people

Wild-Flower Study

S<57

very selfish toward the world who are very thoughtful of their own fami-
lies, and the burdock belongs to this class. We must study carefully the
arrangement of its leaves in order to understand its cleverness. The long
basal leaves are stretched out flat; the next higher, somewhat smaller
ones are lifted at a polite angle so as not to stand in their light. This
courtesy characterizes all the leaves of the plant, for each higher leaf is
smaller and has a shorter petiole, which is lifted at a narrower angle from
the stalk; and all the leaves are so nicely adjusted as to form a pyramid,
allowing the sunlight to sift down to each part. While some of the upper-
most leaves may be scarcely more than an inch long, the lower ones are
very large. They are pointed at the tip and wide at the base ; where the
leaf joins the petiole it is irregular, bordered for a short distance on each
side with a vein, and then finished with a “flounce,” which is so full that it
even reaches around the main stem — another device for getting more
sunlight for itself and shutting it off from plants below. On the lower
side, the leaf is whitish and feltlike to the touch ; above it is a raw green,
often somewhat smooth and shining. The leaf is in quality poor, coarse
and flimsy, and it hangs — a web of shoddy — on its strong supporting ribs;
lucky for it that its edges are slightly notched and much ruffled, else they
would be torn and tattered. The petiole and stems are felty in texture;
the petiole is grooved, and expands at its base to grasp the stems on both
sides with a certain vicious pertinacity which characterizes the whole
plant.

The flower-heads come off at the axils of the upper leaves, and are
often so crowded that the leaf is almost lost to sight. It is amazing to
behold the number of flower-heads which develop on one thrifty plant.
The main stem and the pyramid of lower branching stems, are often
crowded with the green balls beset with bracts which are hooked, spiny,
and which hold safe the flowers. This composite flower-house is a
fortress bristling with spears which are not changed to peaceful pruning-
hooks, although they are hooked at the sharp end, every hook turning
toward the flowers at the center ; the lower bracts are shorter and stand
out at right angles, while the others come off at lesser angles, graded so as
to form a globular involucre — a veritable block-house. The flower might
be a tidbit for the grazing animal; but, if so, he has never discovered it,
for these protective hooks have kept him from ever enjoying a taste.
The bracts protect, not only by hooks at the tip, but by spreading out at
the bases so as to make a thickly battened dwelling for
the flower-family.

But if we tear open one of these little fortresses, we are
well repaid in seeing the quite pretty florets. The corol-
las are long, slender, pink tubes, with five, pointed lobes.
The anther-tubes are purple, the pistils and the stigmas
white; the stigmas are broad and feathery when they
are dusting out the pollen from the anther-tubes, but
later they change to very delicate pairs of curly Y’s.
The young seed is shining white, and the pappus forms a
short, white fluff at the upper margin ; but this is simply
a family trait, for the burdock seeds never need to be
ballooned to their destination ; they have a surer method
oi travel. When in full bloom, the burdock flower-

A burdock floret
with hooked
bract.

568

Handbook of N ature-StiAdy

heads are very pretty and the skillful child weaver makes them into
beautiful baskets. When I was a small girl, I made whole sets of
furniture from these flowers ; and then, becoming more ambitious, wove
some into a coronet which I wore proudly for a few short hours, only to
discover later, from my own experience, that great truth which Shake-
speare voiced, — “uneasy lies the head that wears the crown.”

In winter, the tough, gray stalks of the burdock still stand; although
they may partially break, if they can thus better accomplish their pur-
pose,— always falling toward the path. In this way, they may be sure of
inserting the hooks of their seed storehouses into the clothing or covering
of the passer-by; and when one gets a hold, mayhap a dozen others will
hold hands and follow. If they catch the tail of horse or cow, then indeed
they must feel their destiny fulfilled ; for the animal, switching about with
its uneasy appendage, threshes out the seeds, and unheedingly plants
them by trampling them into the ground. Probably some of the live-
stock of our Pilgrim Fathers came to America thus burdened; for the
burdock is a European weed, although now it flourishes too successfully
in America. The leaves of the burdock are bitter, and are avoided by
grazing animals. Fortunately for us, certain flies and other insects like
their bitter taste, and lay eggs upon them, which hatch into larvae that
live all their lives between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. Often
the leaves are entirely destroyed by the minute larvae of a fly, which live
together cozily between these, leaf blankets, giving the leaves the appear-
ance of being afflicted with large blisters.

The burdocks have long vigorous taproots, and it is therefore difficult
to eradicate them without much labor. But persistent cutting off the
plant at the root will, if the cut be deep, finally discourage this determined
weed.

Baskets made from the burdock flower-heads.

569

Wild-Flower Study

LESSON CXLI
The Burdock

Leading thought — The burdock wins because its great leaves shade
down plants in its vicinity, and also by having taproots. It scatters its
seed by hooking its seed-heads fast to the passer-by.

Method — Study a healthy
burdock plant in the field, to
show how it shades down other
plants and does not shade itself.
The flowers and the seed-heads
may be brought into the school-
room for detailed study.

Observations — i. Note a

young plant. How much space
does its leaves cover? Is any-
thing growing beneath them?
How are its leaves arranged to
cover so much space? Of what
advantage is this to the plant?

2. Study the full-grown
plant. How are the lower leaves
arranged? At what angles to
the stalks do the petioles lie?
Are the upper leaves as large as
the lower ones? Do they stand
at different angles to the stalk?

3 . Study the arrangement of
leaves on a burdock plant, to

Burdock blossoming. discover how it manages to shade

down other plants with its leaves
and yet does not let its own upper leaves shade those below.

4. Study a lower and an upper leaf. What is the general shape?
What peculiarity where it joins the petiole? What is the texture of the
leaf above and below? The color? Describe the petiole and how it joins
the stem.

5. Where do the flowers appear on the stem ? Are there many flow-
ers developed? Count all the flower-heads on a thrifty burdock.

6. The burdock has its flowers gathered into families, like the sun-
flower and thistle. Describe the burdock flower-family according to
Lesson CXXXV.

7. What insects visit the burdock flowers? Can you make baskets
from the flower-heads ?

8. Study the burdock again in winter, and see what has happened to
it. Describe the seed and the seed-heads. How are the seed-heads
carried far away from the parent plant? How many seeds in a single
"house?” How do they escape?

9. Write the biography of a burdock plant which came to America as
a seed, attached to the tail of a Shetland pony.

57°

Handbook of Nature-Study

PRICKLY LETTUCE, A COMPASS PLANT

Teacher's Story

The more we know of plants, the more we admire their ways of attain-
ing success in a world where it is only attained by a species after a long
struggle. While plants may not be conscious of their own efforts for
living on successfully, they have developed them just the same, and they
merit our admiration perhaps even more, than as if their strategy was the

result of conscious thought.
The prickly lettuce has a
story to tell us about suc-
cess attained by the pre-
vention of exhaustion from
thirst. In fact, the success
of this weed depends much
upon its being able to live
in dry situations and with-
stand the long droughts of
late summer. The pale
green stems grow up slim
and tall, bearing leaves
arranged alternately and
from all sides, since be-
tween two, one of which is
exactly above the other,
two other leaves are borne.
Thus, if the leaves stood out
naturally, the shape of the
whole plant would be a
somewhat blunt pyramids
But during the hot, dry
weather, the leaves do not
stand out straight from the
stem; instead, they twist
about so that they are
practically all in one plane,
and usually point north
and south, although this is
not invariably the case-
The way this twisting is accomplished is what interests us in this plant.
The long spatulate leaf has a thick, fleshy midrib, and at the base are
developed two pointed lobes which clasp the stalk. The leaf is soft and
leathery and always seems succulent, because it retains its moisture; it
has a ruffled edge near its base, which gives it room for turning without
tearing its margin. Each leaf tips over sidewise toward the stem, and as
far as necessary to bring one edge uppermost. Thus the sun cannot
reach its upper surface to pump water from its tissues. The ruffled
margin of the upper edge is pulled out straight when the leaf stands
in this position, while the lower margin is more ruffled than ever. Thus,
it stands triumphantly, turning edgewise to the sun, retaining its moisture
and thriving when cultivated plants are dry and dying.

A common compass plant.
Photo by Cyrus Crosby.

Wild-Flower Study

57i

It also has another “anchor to the windward.” A plant so full of juice
would prove attractive food for cattle when pastures are dry. The leaves
of this perhaps escape, because each has a row of very sharp spines on the
lower side of the midrib. At first we might wonder why they are thus
placed ; but if we watch a grazing animal, as a cow, reach out her tongue
to pull the herbage into her mouth, we see that these spines are placed
where they will do the most efficient work. The teasel has the same
clever way of warning off meddlesome tongues. The prickly lettuce also
has spines on its stem, and the leaves are toothed with spines at their
points.

LESSON CXLII
Prickly Lettuce

Leading thought — The sunshine sets the machinery in the leaf-factories
going, and incidentally pumps up water from the soil, which pours out
into the air from the leaves ; but if the soil is dry the pump works just the
same, and the plant thus robbed of its water soon withers and dies. The
young plants of wild lettuce prevent the sun from pumping them dry dur-
ing drought, by turning the edges of their leaves toward the sun, and thus
not exposing the leaf surface to its rays. The leaves thus lifted stand in
one plane. They are usually directed north and south. The lettuce also
has spines to protect it from grazing animals.

Method — The lettuce should be studied in the field, and is a good sub-
ject for a lesson in late summer or September. This lesson should supple-
ment the one on transpiration. The young plants show this arrangement
of the leaves best. The flowers may be studied by the outline given in
Lesson CXXXV.

Observations — 1 . Where does the prickly lettuce grow? What sort of
a stem has it ? How are the leaves arranged on the stem ?

2. If the leaves stood straight out from the stem, what would be the
shape of the plant? How do the leaves stand? Is their upper surface
exposed to the rays of the sun? Which portion of the leaf is turned
toward the sun ?

3. If the leaves turn sideways and stand in one plane, do they stand
north and south or east and west. How does the edgewise position of the
leaf protect the plant during drought ? Why does any plant wither dur-
ing drought? If the leaves of the lettuce should extend east and west
instead of north and south, would they get more sun ? (See lesson on the
Sun.)

4. . What is the shape of the lettuce leaf? How does it clasp the stalk ?
How is the base shaped so that the leaf can turn without tearing its
edges? Sketch a leaf thus turned fully, showing how it is done. Does
the leaf turn toward the stem or away from it ?

5. How are the leaves protected against grazing cattle? How does
the cow use her tongue to help bring herbage to her mouth ? How are the
prickly spines placed on the lettuce leaf, to make the cow’s tongue un-
comfortable? Sketch a leaf showing its shape, its venation and its
spines.

572

Handbook of N atur e-Study

THE DANDELION
Teacher's Story

HIS is the most persistent and indomitable
of weeds, yet I think the world would be
very lonesome without its golden flower-
heads and fluffy seed-spheres. Professor
Bailey once said that dandelions in his lawn
were a great trouble to him until he learned
to love them, and then the sight of them
gave him keenest pleasure. And Lowell
says of this “dear common flower” —

“ Tis Spring's largess, which she scatters now
To rich and poor alike, with lavish hand;

Though most hearts never understand
To take it at God's value, and pass by
The offered wealth with unrewarded eye."

It is very difficult for us, when we watch the behavior of the dandelions,
not to attribute to them thinking power, they have so many ways of
getting ahead of us. I always look at a dandelion and talk to it as if it
were a real person. One spring when all the vegetables in my garden
were callow weaklings, I found there, in their midst, a dandelion rosette
with ten great leaves spreading out and completely shading a circle ten
inches in diameter; I said, “Look here, Madam, this is my garden!” and I
pulled up the squatter. But I could not help paying admiring tribute to
the taproot, which lacked only an inch of being a foot in length. It
was smooth, whitish, fleshy and, when cut, bled a milky juice showing
that it was full of food ; and it was as strong from the end-pull as a whip-
cord ; it also had a bunch of rather fine rootlets about an inch below the
surface of the soil and an occasional rootlet farther down ; and then I said
“Madam, I beg your pardon ; I think this was your garden and not mine.”

Dandelion leaves afford an excellent study in variation of form. The
edges of the leaf are notched in a peculiar way, so that the lobes were, by
some one, supposed to look like lions’ teeth in profile ; thus the plant was
called in France “dents-de-lion” (teeth of the lion), and we have made
from this the name dandelion. The leaves are so bitter that grazing
animals do not like to eat them, and thus the plants are safe even in
pastures.

The hollow stem of the blossom-head from time immemorial has been
a joy to children. It may be made into a trombone, which will give to the
enterprising teacher an opportunity for a lesson in the physics of sound,
since by varying its length, the pitch is varied. The dandelion-curls,
which the little girls enjoy making, offer another lesson in physics — that of
surface tension, too difficult for little girls to understand. But the action
of this flower stem is what makes the dandelion seem so endowed with
acumen. ■ If the plant is in a lawn, the stem is short, indeed so short that
the lawn-mower cannot cut off the flower-head. In this situation it will
blossom and seed within two inches of the ground ; but if the plant is in a
meadow or in other high grass, the stem lifts up sometimes two feet or
more, so that its blossom may be seen by bees and its seeds be carried off
by the breeze without let or hindrance from the grass. We found two
such stems each measuring over 30 inches in height.

Wild -Flower Study

573

Before a dandelion head opens, the stem, umess very short, is likely to
bend down to protect the young flowers, but the night before it is to bloom
it straightens up; after the blossoms have matured it may again bend
over, but straightens up when the seeds are to be cast off.

It often requires an hour for a dandelion head to open in the morning
and it rarely stays open longer than five or six hours; it may require
another hour to close. Usually not more than half the flowers of the head
open the first day, and it may require several days for them all to blossom.
After they have all bloomed and retired into their green house and put up
the shutters, it may take them from one to two weeks to perfect their
seeds.

In the life of the flower-head the involucre, or the house in which the
flower family lives, plays an important part. The involucral bracts, in
the row set next to the flowers, are sufficiently long to cover the unopened
flowers; the bracts near the stem are shorter and curl back, making a
frill. In the freshly opened flower-head, the buds at the middle all curve
slightly toward the center, each bud showing a blunt, five-lobed tip which
looks like the tips of five fingers held tightly together. The flowers in the
outer row blossom first, straightening back and pushing the banner out-
ward ; and now we can see that the five lobes in the bud are the five
^ notches at the end of the banner. All the flowers in the dandelion-head
have banners, but those at the center, belonging to the younger flowers,
have shorter and darker yellow banners. After a banner is unfurled,
there pushes out from its tubular base a darker yellow anther-tube ; the
five filaments below the tube are visible with a lens. A little later, the
stigma-ramrod pushes forth from the tube, its fuzzy sides acting like a
brush to bring out all the pollen ; later it rises far above the anther-tube
and quirls back its stigma-lobes, as if every floret were making a dande-
lion curl of its own. The lens shows us, below the corolla, the seed. The
pappus is not set in a collar upon the dandelion seed, as it is in the aster
seed; there is a short stem above the seed which is called the “beak” and
the pappus is attached to this.

Every day more blossoms open ; but on dark, rainy days and during
the night the little green house puts up its shutters around the flower-
family, and if the bracts are not wide enough to cover the growing
family, the banners of the outer flowers have thick or brownish portions
along their lower sides which serve to calk the chinks. It is interesting to
watch the dandelion stars close as the night falls, and still more interesting
to watch the sleepy-heads awaken long after the sun is up in the morning;
they often do not open until eight o’clock. The dandelion flower-families
are very economical of their pollen and profuse nectar, and do not expose
them until the bees and other insects are abroad ready to make morning
calls.

After all the florets of a dandelion family have blossomed, they retire
again into their green house and devote themselves to perfecting their
seeds. They may stay thus in retirement for several days, and during
this period the flower stem often grows industriously ; and when the
shutters of the little green house are again let down, what a different
appearance has the dandelion family ! The seeds with their balloons are
set so as to make an exquisite, filmy globe; and now they are ready to
coquette with the wind and, one after another, all the balloons go sailing
off. One of these seeds is well worth careful observation through a lens.

574

Handbook of N ature-Study

The balloon is attached to the top of the beak as an umbrella frame is
attached to the handle, except that the “ribs” are many and fluffy; while
the dandelion youngster, hanging below, has an overcoat armed with
grappling hooks, which enable it to cling fast when the balloon chances to
settle to the ground.

Floret of dandelion; 2, seed of
dandelion. Both enlarged.

Father Tabb says of the dandelion, — •
“With locks of gold today; tomorrow
silver gray; then blossom bald.” But
not the least beautiful part of the dande-
lion is this blossom-bald head after all
the seeds are gone; it is like a mosaic,
with a pit at the center of each figure
where the seed was attached. There is
an interesting mechanism connected
with this receptacle. Before the seeds
are fully out this soon-to-be-bald head
Is concave at the center, later it becomes
convex, and the mechanism of this move-
ment liberates the seeds which are em-
bedded in it.

Each freshly opened corolla-tube is
full to overflowing with nectar, and much*
pollen is developed ; therefore, the dandelion has many kinds of insect
visitors. But perhaps the bee shows us best where the nectar is
found; she thrusts her tongue down into the little tubes below the
banners, working very rapidly from floret to floret. The dandelion
stigmas have a special provision for. securing cross-pollenation ; and if
that fails, to secure pollen from their own flower-family; and now the
savants have found that the pistils can also grow seeds without any pollen
from anywhere. It surely is a resourceful plant!

The following are the tactics by which the dandelion conquers us and
takes possession of our lands: (a) It blossoms early in the spring and

until snow falls, producing seed for a long season, (b) It is broad-
minded as to its location, and flourishes on all sorts of soils, (c) It thrusts
its long tap-roots down into the soil, and thus gets moisture and food not
reached by other plants, (d) Its leaves spread out from the base, and
crowd and shade many neighboring plants out of existence, (e) It is on
good terms with many insects, and so has plenty of pollen carriers to
insure strong seeds ; it can also develop seeds from its own pollen, and as a
last resort it can develop seeds without any pollen, (f) It develops
almost numberless seeds, and the wind scatters them far and wide and
they thus take possession of new territory, (g) It forms vigorous leaf-
rosettes in the fall, and thus is able to begin growth early in the spring.

LESSON CXLIII
The Dandelion

Leading thought — The dandelions flourish despite our determined
efforts to exterminate them. Let us study the way in which they
conquer.

Method — The study should be made with the dandelions on the school
grounds. Questions should be given, a few at a time, and then let the
pupils consult the dandelions as to the answers.

Wild-Flower Study

575

The dandelion is a composite flower and may be studied according to
Lesson CXXXV. All the florets have banners or rays.

Observations i. Where do you find dandelions growing? If they
are on the lawn, how long are their blossom or seed stems ? If in a meadow
or among high grass, how long is the blossom stem ? Why is this ? Is the
blossom stem solid or hollow ? Does it break easily ?

2. Dig up a dandelion root and then explain why this weed with-
stands drought, and why it remains, when once planted.

3. Sketch or describe a dandelion leaf. Why was the plant named
“lion's teeth?” How are the leaves arranged about the root? How
does this help the dandelion and hinder other plants? In what condition
do the leaves pass the winter under the snow? Why is this useful to the
plant ?

4. Take a blossom not yet open. Note the bracts that cover the
unopened flower-head. Note the ones below and describe them.

5. Note the dandelion flower-head just open. Which flowers open
first? How do the buds look at the center? Do all the florets have
banners? Are the banners of the central florets the same color and
length as of those outside? Examine a floret and note the young seed.
Is the pappus attached to it or above it?

6. What happens to the dandelion blossom on rainy or dark days?
How is the dandelion family hidden during the rain? When does it ap-
pear again ? Do you think that this has anything to do with the insect
visitors? Do bees and other insects gather nectar during dark or rainy
days?

7. Note at what hour the dandelions on the lawn go to sleep and at
what hour they awaken on pleasant days?

8. Make notes on a certain dandelion plant three times a day : How

long does it take the dandelion head to open fully on a sunny morning?
How long does it remain open? How long does it take the flower-head to
close? What proportion of the flowers in the head, blossoms during the
first day ? What proportion of the flowers in the head, blossoms during the
second day? How long before they all blossom? Does the flower-head
remain open longer in the afternoon on some days than on others, equally
sunny? Does ihe stem bend over before the blossom-head opens?

9. After all the little flowers of a dandelion family have blossomed,
what happens to it? How long does it stay shut up in its house? Meas-
ure the stem, and see if it stretches up during the time. How does the
dandelion look when it opens again? Look at a dandelion-head full of
seed, and see how the seeds are arranged to make a perfect globe. Shake
the seeds off and examine the “bald head” with a lens. Can you see
where the seeds were set?

10. Examine a dandelion seed with a lens. Describe the balloon, the
beak or stem of the balloon, and the seed. Why do you suppc:e the seed
has these hooks ?

1 1 . How early in the spring, and how late in the fall, do dandelions
blossom ?

12. Watch a bee when she is working on a dandelion flower, and see
where she thrusts her tongue and which flowers she probes.

13. Tell all the things that you can remember which the dandelion
does in order to live and thrive in spite of us.

14. What use do we make of the dandelions?

576

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE PEARLY EVERLASTING

Teacher's Story

These wraithlike flowers seem never to have been alive, rather than to
have been endowed with everlasting life. The cattle share this opinion
and would no sooner eat these plants than if they were made of cotton
batting. The stems are covered with white felt ; the long narrow leaves

are very pale green, and
when examined with a
lens, look as if they
were covered with a
layer of cotton which
disguises all venation
except the thick mid-
rib. The leaves are set
alternate, and become
shorter and narrower
and whiter toward the
top of the plant, where
they are obliged to give
their sustenance to the
flower stems borne in
their axils. All this
cottony covering has
its uses to prevent the
evaporation of water
from the plant during
the long droughts. The
everlasting never has
much juice in its leaves
but what it has, it
keeps.

The flower stems are
rather stout, woolly,
soft and pliable. They
come off at the axils of
the threadlike whitish
leaves. The pistillate
and the staminate flow-
ers are borne on separ-
ate plants, and usually
in separate patches.
The pistillate, or seed-
developing, plants have
globular l flower! buds,
almost egg-shaped, with
a fluffy lemon-yellow
The pistillate flower-heads of the pearly everlasting. knob at the tip ; this
Photo by Verne Morton. fluff is made up of Stig-

mas split at the end.

At the center of this tassel of lemon-yellow stigma-plush, may often be
seen a depression; at the bottom of this well, there are three or four

Wild-Flower Study

577

perfect flowers. One of the secrets of the everlasting is, evidently, that it
does not put all of its eggs in one basket ; it has a few perfect flowers for
insurance. This pistillate or seed-bearing flower has a long, delicate
tube, ending in five needlelike points and surrounded by a pretty pappus.

The bracts of the flower-cluster seem to cling
around the base of the beautiful yellow tassel of
fertile flowers, as if to emphasize it. They look
as if they were made of white Japanese paper,
and when looked at through a lens, they resemble
the petals of a water lily They are dry to begin
with, so they cannot wither.

The staminate, or pollen-bearing, flower-heads
are like white birds’ nests, the white bracts form-
ing the nest and the little yellow flowers the eggs.
The flower has a tubular, five-pointed starlike
corolla, with five stamens joined in a tube at the
middle, standing up like a barrel from the corolla.
The anther-tube is ocher-yellow with brown
stripes, and is closed at first with five little flaps,
making a cone at the top. Later, the orange-yellow pollen bulges out as
if it were boiling over. The flowers around the edges of the flower-disk
open first.

LESSON CXLIV
The Pearly Ever-
lasting

Leading thought —

There are often found
growing on the poor
soil in dry pastures,
clumps of soft, whitish
plants which are never
eaten by cattle. There
is so little juice in
them that they retain
their form when dried
and thus have won
their name.

Meth od — The pu- ,
pils should see these
plants growing, so that
they may observe the
staminate and pistil-
late flowers, which
are on separate plants
and in separate
clumps. If this is
not practicable, bring
both kinds of flowers
into the schoolroom

for study. The laminate flower-head of pearly everlasting.

Handbook of Nature-Study

578'

Observations — i. Where does the pearly everlasting grow? Do cattle
eat it ? Why is this ? What is the general color of the plant ? What
is the stem covered with?

2. What is the shape of the leaves? How are they veined? With
what are they covered? How are they placed on the stem? What is the
relative size of the lower and upper leaves? Why is there a difference?

3. Do you see some plants which have egg-shaped blossoms, each
with a yellow knob at the tip? Take one apart and look at it with a
lens, and see what iforms the white part and what forms the yellow
knob. Do you see other flowers that look like little white birds’ nests
filled with yellow eggs? Look at one of them with a lens, and tell what
kind of a flower it is.

4. Except that the pistillate and staminate flowers are on different
plants, the flowers of the pearly everlasting should be studied according
to Lesson CXXXV.

5. What do you know of the edelweiss of the Alps? How does it
resemble the pearly everlasting? Do you know another common kind of
everlasting called pussy’s toes?

THE JEWELWEED, OR TOUCH-ME-NOT
Teacher's Story

“ Cup bearer to the summer, this floral Hebe shy
Is loitering by the brookside as the season passes by;

And she's strung her golden ewers with spots of brown all flecked,
O'er dainty emerald garments, like a queen with gems bedecked.

She brooks not condescension from mortal hand,
you know,

For, touch her e'er so gently, impatiently
she'll throw

^Her tiny little jewels, concealed in pockets
small

Of her dainty, graceful garment, and o'er the
ground they fall. ' '

— Ray Laurance

EWELS for the asking at the brookside,
pendant jewels of pale-gold or red-gold and
of strange design ! And the pale and the
red are different in design, although of the
same general pattern. The pale ones seem
more simple and open, and we may study them
first. If the flowers of the jewelweed have been
likened to ladies’ earrings, then the bud must
be likened to the old-fashioned ear-bob ; for it is
done up in the neatest little triangular knob
imaginable, with a little curly pig-tail appendage
at one side, and protected above by two cup-
shaped sepals, their pale green seeming like ena-
mel on the pale gold of the bud. It is worth
while to give a glance at the stem from which

Wild -Flower Study

579

this jewel hangs ; it is so delicate and so gracefully curved ; and just above
the twin sepals is a tiny green bract, elongate, and following the curve of
the stem as if it were just a last artistic touch; and though the flowers
fall, this little bract remains to keep guard above the seed-pod.

It would take a Yankee, very "good at guessing, to make out the parts
of this flower, so strange are they in form. We had best begin by looking
at the blossom from the back side. The two little, greenish sepals are
lifted back like butterfly wings, and we may guess from their position that
there are two more sepals, making four in all. These latter are yellow;
one is notched at the tip and is lifted above the flower; the other is below
and is made into a wide-mouthed triangular sac, ending in a quirl at the
bottom, which, if we test it, we shall find is the nectary, very full of
sweetness. Now, if we look the flower in the face, perhaps we can find
the petals; there are two of them “holding arms” around the mouth of
the nectar-sac. And stiff arms they are too, two on a side, for each petal
is two-lobed, the front lobe being very short and the posterior lobe
widening out below into a long frill, very convenient for the bee to cling
to, if she has learned the trick, when prospecting the nectar-sac behind
for its treasure. The way this treasure-sac swings backward from its
point of attachment above when the insect is probing it, must make the
lady bee feel that the joys of life are elusive. Meanwhile, what is the
knob projecting down above the entrance to the nectar-sac, as if it were a
chandelier in a vestibule ? If we look at it with a lens, we can see that it is
made up of five chubby anthers, two in front, one at each side and one
behind; their short, stout little filaments are crooked just right to bring
the anthers together like five closed fingers holding a fist full of pollen-dust,
just ready to sift it on the first one that chances to pass below. Thus it is
that Madame Bumblebee, who dearly loves the nectar from these flowers,
gets her back well dusted with the creamy-white pollen and does a great
business for the jewelweed in transferring it. But after the pollen is shed,
some day the bumblebee pushes up too hard against the anthers and they
break loose, all in a bunch, looking like a crooked legged table; and
there in their stead, thus left bare and ready for pollen, is the long green
pistil with its pointed stigma ready to rake the pollen out of the fur of any
bumblebee that calls.

The red-gold jewelweed is quite different in shape from the pale
species. The sepal-sac is not nearly so flaring at the mouth, and the
nectar-spur is half as long as the sac and curves and curls under in a most
secretive fashion. The shape of the nectar-spur suggests that it was
meant for an insect with a long, flexible sucking tube that could curl
around and probe it to the bottom; and some butterflies do avail them-
selves of the contents of this bronze pitcher. Mr. Mathews mentions the
Papilio troilus, and I have seen the yellow roadside butterfly partaking
of the nectar. Professor Robertson believes that the form of the nectar-
spur is especially adapted for the hummingbird. But I am sure that the
flowers which I have had under observation are the special partners of a
small species of bumblebee, which visits these flowers with avidity,
celerity, and certainty, plunging into the nectar-sac “like a shot, ’’and out
again and in again so rapidly that the eye can hardly follow. One day,
one of them accommodatingly alighted on a leaf near me, while she
combed from her fur a creamy-white mass of pollen, which matched in
color the fuzz on her back, heaping it on her leg baskets. She seemed to

580

Handbook of N atur e-Study

know that the pollen was on her back, and it was comical to see her
contortions to get it off. The action of these bumblebees in these flowers
is in marked contrast to those of the large bumblebees and the honey-
bees. One medium-sized species of bumblebee has learned the trick of
embracing with the front legs the narrow, stiff portion of the petals which
encircles the opening to the sac, thus holding the flower firm while
thrusting the head into the sac. While the huge species — black with very
yellow plush — does not attempt to get the nectar in a legitimate manner,
but systematically alights, back downward, below the sac of the flower,
with head toward the curved spur, and cuts open the sac for the nectar.
A nectar-robber of the most pronounced type ! The honey-bees, Italian
hybrids, are the most awkward in their attempts to get nectar from these
flowers; they attempt to alight on the expanded portion of the petals and
almost invariably slide off between the two petals. They then circle
around and take observations with a note of determination in their
buzzing, and finally succeed, as a rule, in gaining a foothold and securing
the nectar. But the midget bumblebees show a savoir faire in probing
the orange jewelweed that is convincing; they are so small that they are
quite out of sight when in the nectar-sacs.

The jewelweed flowers of the pale species and the pale flowers of the
orange species — for this latter has sometimes pale yellow flowers — are not
invariably marked with freckles in the nectar-sac. But the most common
forms are thus speckled. There is something particularly seductive to
insects in these brownish or reddish flecks, and wherever we find them in
flowers, we may with some confidence watch for the insects they were
meant to allure. The orange jewelweed flower is a model for an artist in
its strange, graceful form and its color combination of yellow spotted and
marbled with red.

Gray’s Manual states that in the jewelweeds are often flowers of two
sorts “The large ones which seldom ripen seeds, and very small ones
which are fertilized early in the bud, their floral envelopes never expand-
ing but forced off by the growing pod and carried upward on its apex.”
My jewelweed patch has not given me the pleasure of observing these two
kinds of flowers; my plants blossom luxuriously and profusely, and a
large proportion of the flowers develop seed. The little, straight, elon-
gated seed-pods are striped prettily and become quite plump from the
large seeds within them. Impatiens? We should say so! This pod
which looks so smug and straight-laced that we should never suspect it of
being so touchy, at the slightest jar when it is ripe, splits lengthwise into
five ribbon-like parts, all of which tear loose at the lower end and fly up
in spirals around what was once the tip of the pod, but which now looks
like a crazy little turbine wheel with five arms. And meanwhile, through
this act the fat, wrinkled seeds have been flung, perhaps several feet away
from the parent plant, and presumably to some congenial place for growth
the following spring. This surprising method of throwing its seeds is the
origin of the popular name touch-me-not, and the scientific name Im-
patiens by which these plants are known.

The jewelweed has other names — celandine and silver-leaf, and ladies’
ear-drop. It is an annual with a slight and surface-spreading growth of
roots, seeming scarcely strong enough to anchor the branching stems, did
not the plants have the habit of growing in a community, each helping to
support its neighbor. The stem is round, hollow and much swollen at the

Wild-Flower Study

' 581

joints; it is translucent, filled with moisture, and its outer covering is a
smooth silken skin, which may be readily stripped off. Both species of
jewelweed vary in the color of their stems, some being green, others red
and some dark purple ; and all the differing colors may be found within a
few yards of each other.

The leaves are alternate, dark green above and a lighter shade below,
ovate in form with scalloped edges, with midrib and veins very prominent
beneath and depressed on the upper side ; they are smooth on both sides
to the unaided eye, but with a lens a film of fine, short hairs may be seen,
particularly on the under side. When plunged beneath clear water, they
immediately take on the appearance of burnished silver; when removed,
no drop remains on their surface.

The flower stems spring from the axils of the leaves and are very
slender and thread-like, and the flowers nod and swing with every breeze.
They grow in open, drooping clusters, few blossoms open at a time, and
with buds and seed-capsules present in various stages of growth.

The jewelweed is involuntarily most hospitable, and always houses
many uninvited guests, as well as the bee-callers which are invited. Galls
are formed on the leaves and flowers ; the hollow stems are inhabited by
stalk-borers ; leaf-miners live between the upper and under surfaces of the
leaves, making curious arabesque patterns and initials as if embroidering
milady’s green gown.

LESSON CXLV

The Jewelweed, or Touch-me-not

Leading thought — The jewelweed may be found by the brookside, in
swamps, or in any damp and well-shaded area. It is provided with a
remarkable contrivance for scattering its seeds far afield. It has no
liking for open sunny places, unless very damp. There are two kinds,
often found growing together, though the spotted touch-me-not (7m-
patiens biflora) is said to be more widely distributed than its relative — the
golden, or pale, touch-me-not ( Impatiens aurea).

Method — The jewelweeds should be studied where they are growing;
but if this is impracticable, a large bouquet of both kinds (if possible),
bearing buds, blossoms, and seed-capsules, and one or two plants with
roots, may be brought to the schoolroom.

In the fields the children may see how well the plant is provided
with means to sustain itself in its chosen ground, and thus lead them
to look with keener eyes at other common weeds.

Observations — 1 . Do you think the jewelweed is an annual, sustaining
life in its seeds during winter, or do its roots survive ?

2. Do the roots strike deeply into the soil, or spread near the surface ?

3. Study the stem; is it hard and woody or juicy and translucent,
rough or smooth, solid or hollow?

4. Note the shape and position of the leaves; do they grow opposite
or alternately on the stalk? Are their edges entire, toothed or scalloped?
Do they vary in color on upper and lower surface? Are they smooth or
in the least degree rough or hairy? Plunge a plant under clear water in a
good light and observe the beautiful transformation. Does the water
cling to the leaves?

582

Handbook of N ature -Study

5. Where do the flower-stems spring from the main stalk? Do the
flowers grow singly or in clusters ? Do the blossoms all open at nearly the
same time or form a succession of bud, flower and seed on the same stem?

6. Study the parts of the flower. Find the four sepals and describe
the shape and position of each. Describe the nectar-sac in the nectar-
horn. Can you find the two petals? Can you see that each petal has a
lobe near where it joins the stem? Find the little knob hanging down
above the entrance of the nectar-sac; of what is it composed? Look at it
with a lens, and tell how many stamens unite to make the knob ? Where
is the pollen and what is its color? What insect do you think could
reach the nectar at the bottom of the spurred sac? Could any insect get
at the nectar without rubbing its back against the flat surface of the
pollen boxes? What remains after the stamens fall off? Describe how
the bees do the work of pollenation of the jewelweeds. Write or tell as a
story your own observations on the actions of the different bees visiting
these flowers.

7. Carefully observe a seed-capsule without touching it; can you see
the lines of separation between its sections? How many are there?
What happens when the pod is touched? Are the loosened sections
attached at the stem, or at the apex of the pod? Hold a pod at arm’s
length when discharging its contents and measure the distance to which
the seeds are thrown. Of what use is this habit of seed-throwing to the
plant?

8. Describe the differences in shape and color between the pale yellow
and the orange jewelweeds. Watch to see if the same insects visit both.
Which species do you think is best suited to the bumblebees ?

MULLEIN
Teacher's Story

“ I like the plants that you call weeds, —

Sedge, hardback, mullein, yarrow,—

Which knit their leaves and sift their seeds
Where any grassy wheel-track leads
Through country by-ways narrow

— Lucy Larcom.

We take much pride unto ourselves because we belong to the chosen
few of the “fittest,” which have survived in the struggle for existence.
But, if we look around upon other members of this select band, we
shall find many lowly beings which we do not ordinarily recognize as our
peers. Mullein is one of them, and after we study its many ways of
“winning out” then may we bow to it and call it “brother.”

I was wandering one day m a sheep pasture and looking curiously at
the few plants left uneaten. There was a great thistle with its sharp
spines and the pearly everlasting — too woolly and anaemic to be appetiz-
ing even to a sheep ; and besides these, there was an army of mullein
stalks — tall, slim, and stiff-necked, or branching like great candelabra,
their upper leaves adhering alternately to the stalks for half their
length. I stopped before one of them and mentally asked, “Why do

Wild-Flower Study

583

the sheep not relish you ?
Are you bitter?” I took a
bite, Nebuchadnezzar-like,
and to my untrained taste it
seemed as good fodder as any;
but my tongue smarted and
burned for some time after,
from being pricked by the felt
which covered the leaf. I
recalled the practical joke of
which my grandmother once
made me the victim ; she told
me that to be beautiful, I
needed only to rub my cheeks
with mullein leaves, an ex-
perience which convinced me
that there were other things
far more desirable than beauty
— comfort, for instance. This
felt on the mullein is beautiful,
when looked at through a
microscope; it consists of a
fretwork of little, white, sharp
spikes. No wonder my cheeks
were red one day and purple
the next, and no wonder the
sheep will not 1 eat it unless
starved! This frostlike felt
covering not only keeps the
mullein safe from grazing ani-
mals but it also keeps the
water from evaporating from
the leaf and this enables the
plant to withstand drought.
I soon discovered another
means devised by the mullein
for this same purpose, when I
tried to dig up the plant with
a stick; I followed its tap-
root down far enough to
understand that it was a sub-
soiler and reached below most
other plants for moisture and
food. Although it was late
autumn, the mullein was still
in blossom ; there were flowers
near the tip and also one here and there on the seed-crowded stem. I
estimated there were hundreds of seed-capsules on that one plant; I
opened one, still covered with the calyx-lobes, and found that the
mullein was still battling for survival; for I found this capsule and
many others inhabited by little brown-headed white grubs, which gave
an exhibition of St. Vitus dance as I laid open their home. They were the

Mullein.

Photo by Verne Morton

5^4

Handbook of N atur e-Study

young of a snout beetle, which is a far more dangerous enemy of the
mullein than is the sheep.

The mullein plant is like the old woman who lived in a shoe in the
matter of blossom-children ; she has so many that they are unkempt and

irregular, but there are normally four
yellow or white petals and a five-lobed
calyx. I have never been able to solve
the problem of the five stamens which,
when the flower opens, are folded
together in a knock-kneed fashion. The
upper three are bearded below the
anthers, the middle being the shortest.
The lower two are much longer and have
no fuzz on their filaments; they at first
' stand straight out, with the stigma
between them ; but after the upper
^ anthers have shed their pollen, these
j, 2. Mullein flowers in different stages, stamens curve up like boars teeth and
j. Mullein seed enlarged. 4. A bit splash their pollen on the upper petals,
of Mullein leaf enlarged. the stigma protruding desolately and
one-sidedly below. Later the corolla,
stamens and all, falls off, leaving the stigma and style attached to the
seed-capsule.

The color of the mullein flowers varies from lemon-yellow to white.
The filaments are pale yellow; the anthers and pollen, orange. The seed-
capsule is encased in the long calyx-lobes, and is shaped like a blunt egg.
Cutting it in two crosswise, the central core, tough and flattened and
almost filling the capsule, is revealed and, growing upon its surface, are
numberless tiny, brown seeds, as fine as gunpowder. Later the capsule
divides partially in quarters, opening wide enough to shake out the tiny
seeds with every wandering blast. The seed, when seen through a lens,
is very pretty; it looks like a section of a corncob, pitted and ribbed. A
nice point of investigation for some junior naturalist is to work out the
fertilization of the mullein flower, and note what insects assist. The
mullein has another spoke in the wheel of its success. The seed, scattered
from the sere and dried plants, settles comfortably in any place where it
can reach the soil, and during the first season grows a beautiful velvety
rosette of frosted leaves. No wonder Europeans grow it in gardens under
the name of the “American velvet plant.” These rosettes lie flat under
the snow, with their tap-roots strong and already deep in the soil, and are
ready to begin their work of food-making as soon as the spring sun gives
them power.

LESSON CXLVI
Mullein

Leading thought — The mullein has its leaves covered with felt, which
prevents evaporation during the dry weather and also prevents animals
from grazing upon the plant. It has a deep root, and this gives moisture
and food beyond the reach of most other plants. It blossoms all summer
and until the snow comes in the autumn, and thus forms many, many
seeds, which the wind plants for it; and here in our midst it lives and
thrives despite us.

Wild-Flower Study

5*5

Method — The pupils should have a field trip to see what plants are left
uneaten in pastures, and thus learn where mullein grows best. The
flower or seed stalk, with basal leaves and root, may be brought to the
schoolroom for the lesson.

Observations — 1. Where does the mullein grow? Do you ever see it
in swamps or woodlands? Do cattle or sheep eat it? Why? Does it
flourish during the summer drought? How is it clothed to prevent the
evaporation of its sap? Look at a mullein leaf with a lens and describe
its appearance.

2. What sort of a root has the mullein? How is its root adapted to
get moisture and plant food which other plants cannot reach ? Describe
the flowering stalk. How are the leaves arranged on it and attached to
it? Are there several branching flower stalks or a single one?

3. Describe the flower bud. Do the mullein flowers nearest the base
or the tip begin to blossom first? Is this invariable, or do flowers open
here and there irregularly on the stem during the season ?

4. Describe the mullein flower. How many lobes has the calyx?
Are these covered with felt? How many petals? Are there always this
number? Are the petals of the same size? Are they always regular in
shape ?

5. How many stamens? How do the upper three differ from the
lower two? Describe the style and stigma. What are the colors of
petals, anthers and stigma? What insects do you find visiting the flow-
ers?

6. Describe the seed-capsule, its shape and covering. Cut it across
and describe the inside. Where are the seeds borne? Are there many?
Look at the seed with a lens, and describe it. How does the capsule open
and by what means are the seeds scattered?

7. Does the mullein grow from the seed to maturity in one year?
How does it look at the end of the first season? Describe the winter
rosette, telling how it is fitted to live beneath the snows of winter. What
is the advantage of this habit?

8. Write a theme telling all the ways the mullein has of flourishing
and of combating other plants.

“ The mullein's pillar , tipped with golden flowers,

Slim rises upward, and yon yellow bird
Shoots to its top."

— “The Hill Hollow,” A. B. Street.

“ Sober dress never yet made you sullen,

Style or size never brought you a blush;

You're the envy of weavers, O, Mullein,

For no shuttle can mimic your plush.

With your feet in the sand you were born,

Woolly monk of the thorn-field and fallow,

But your heart holds the milk of the mallow,

And your head wears the bloom of the corn."

— Theron Brown

586

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE TEASEL
Teacher's Story

The old teasel stalks standing gaunt and gray in the fields, braving the
blasts of winter, seem like old suits of armor, which elicit admiration from
us for the strength and beauty of the protecting visor, breast-plate and
gauntlets, and at the same time veer our thoughts to the knights of old

who once wore them
in the fray. Thus,
with the teasel, we
admire this panoply
ot spears, and they
recall the purple flow-
ers and the ribbed
seeds which were once
the treasure of every
spear-guarded cavity
and the proud reason
of every lance at rest.

Let us study this
plant in armor : First,
its stem is tough,
woody, hollow, with
ridges extending its
full length and each
ridge armed with
spines which are quite
wide at the base and
very sharp. It is im-
possible to take hold
anywhere without be-
ing pricked by either
large or small spines.
The leaves are just
fitted for such a stem.
They are long, lanceo-
late, set opposite in
pairs, rather coarse in texture, with a stiff, whitish midrib ; the bases of
the two leaves closely clasp the stem; the midrib is armed below with a
row of long, white, recurved prickers, and woe unto the tongue of grazing
beast that tries to lift this leaf into the mouth. If one pair of clasping
leaves point east and west, the next pairs above and below point north
and south.

The flower stems come off at the axils of the leaves and therefore each
pair stands at right angles to the ones above and below. But if the
teasel protects its stem and leaves with spikes, it does more for its flowers,
which are set in dense heads armed with spines, and the head is set in an
involucre of long, upcurving spiny prongs. If we look at it carefully, the
teasel flower-head wins our admiration, because of the exquisite geomet-
rical design made by the folded bases of the spines, set in diagonal rows.
If we pull out a spine, we find that it enlarges toward the base to a tri-
angular piece that is folded at right angles for holding the flower. Note

The teasel.

Wild -Flower Study

587

that the spiny bracts at the tip of the flower-head are longer and more
awesome than those at the sides; if we pass our hands down over the
flower-head we feel how stiff the spines, or bracts are, and can hear them
crackle as they spring back.

The teasel has a qui e original method of blossoming. The goldenrod
begins to blossom at the tip of the flowering branches and the blossom-tide
runs inward and downward toward the base. The clover begins at the
base and blossoms toward the tip, or the center. But the teasel begins at
the middle and blossoms both ways, and how it knows just where to begin
is more than we can tell. But some summer morning we will find its
flower-head girt about its middle with a wide band of purple blossoms;
after a few days, these fade and drop off, and then there a e two bands,
sometimes four rows of flowers in each, and sometimes only two. Below
the lower band and above the upper band, the enfolding bracts are filled
with little, round-headed lilac buds, while between the two rows of blos-
soms the protecting bracts hold the precious growing seed. Away from
each other this double procession moves, until the lower band reaches the
pronged involucre and the upper one forms a solid patch on the apex of the
flower-head. Since the secondary blossom-heads starting from the leaf
axils are younger, we may find all stages of this blossoming in the flower-
heads of one plant.

No small flower pays better for close examination than does that of the
teasel. If we do not pull the flower-head apart, what we see is a little
purple flower consisting of a white tube with four purple lobes at the end,
the lower lobe being a little longer than the others and turning up slightly
at its tip; projecting from between
each of the lobes, and fastened to the
tube, are four stamens with long,
white filaments and beautiful purple
anthers filled with large, pearly white
pollen grains; at the very heart of
the flower, the white stigma may be
seen far down the tube. But a little
later, after the anthers have fallen
or shriveled, the white stigma extends
out of the blossom like a long, white
tongue and is crowded with white
pollen grains.

But to see the flower completely
we need to break or cut a flower-head
in two. Then we see that the long
white tube is tipped at one end with
purple lobes and a fringe of anthers,
and at the other is set upon a little
green, fluffy cushion which caps the
ovary; the shape of the ovary in the
flower tells us by its form how the
seed will look later. Enfolding ovary
and tube is the bract with its spiny
edges, pushing its protecting spear Teasel flower and seed enlarged. The stigma

outward, but not so far out as the \he pollet adhering t0 itf JBelow, are
opening of the flower, for that might ■pollen grains greatly magnified.

588

Handbook of N ature-Study

keep away the insects which carry the teasel’s pollen. The pollen of
the teasel is white and globular, with three little rosettes arranged at equal
distances upon it like a bomb with three fuses. These little rosettes are
the growing points of the pollen grains and from any of them may
emerge the pollen tube to push down into the stigma. The teasel pollen
is an excellent subject for the children to study, since it is so very large;
and if examined with a microscope with a three-fourths objective, the
tubes running from the pollen grains into the stigma may be easily seen.

In blossoming, the teasel does not always seem to count straight in the
matter of rows of flowers. There may be more rows in the upper band
than in the lower, or vice versa; this is especially true of the smaller
secondary blossoms. But though the teasel flowers fade and the
leaves fall off, still the spiny skeleton stands, the thorny stalks holding
up the empty flower-heads like candelabra, from which the seeds are
tossed far and wide, shaken out by the winds of autumn. But though
battered by wintry blasts, the teasel staunchly stands; even until the
ensuing summer, each bract on guard and its heart empty where once
was cherished blossom and seed. Alas, because of this emptiness, it has
been debased by practical New England housewives into a utensil for
sprinkling clothes for ironing.

The spines of one species of teasel were, in earlier times, used for raising
the nap on woolen cloth, and the plant was grown extensively for that
purpose. The bees are fond of the teasel blossoms and teasel honey has
an especially fine flavor.

The teasels are biennial, and during the first season, develop a rosette
of crinkled leaves which have upon them short spines.

LESSON CXLVII
The Teasel

Leading thought — The teasel is a plant in armor, so protected that it can
flourish and raise its seeds in pastures where cattle graze. It has a
peculiar method of beginning to blossom in the middle of the flower-head

and then blossoming
upward and down-
ward from this point.

Method — In Sep-
tember, bring in a
teasel plant which
shows all stages of
blossoming, and let
the pupils make ob-
servations in the
schoolroom.

Observations — i.
Where does the tea-
sel grow? Is it ever
eaten by cattle?
Why not? How is it
protected?

2. What sort of
stem has it? Is it

Wild-Flower Study

589

hollow or solid? Where upon it are the spines situated? Are the
spines all of the same size ? Can you take hold of the stem anywhere
without being pricked ?

3. What is the shape of the leaves? How do they join the stem?
Are the leaves set opposite or alternate? If one pair points east and
west in which direction will the pairs above and below point? How
and where are the leaves armed? How does the cow or sheep draw
the leaves into the mouth with the tongue? If either should try to do
this with the teasel, how would the tongue be injured?

4. Where do the flower stems come off? Do they come off in pairs?
How are the pairs set in relation to each other?

5. What is the general appearance of the teasel flower-head? De-
scribe the long involucre prongs at the base. If the teasel is in blossom,
where do you find the flowers? How many girdles of flowers are there
around the flower-head? How many rows in one girdle? Where did the
first flowers blossom in the teasel flower-head? Where on the head will
the last blossoms appear? Where are the buds just ready to open?
Where are the ripened seeds?

6. Examine a single flower. How is it protected? Cut out a flower
and bract and see how the long-spined bract enfolds it. Is the bract spear
long enough to keep the cattle from grazing on the blossom? Is it long
enough to keep the bees and other insects from visiting the flowers?
Where are the longest spines on the teasel head?

7. Study a single flower. What is the shape of its corolla? How is
it colored? What color are the stamens? How many? Describe the
pollen. If the pollen is being shed where is the stigma ? After the pollen
is shed, what happens to the stigma?

8. What do you find at the base of the flower? How does the young
seed look? Later in the season take a teasel head and describe how it
scatters its seed. How do the ripe seeds look? How long will the old
teasel plants stand?

9. For what were teasels once used? How many years does a teasel
plant live? How does it look at the end of its first season? How is this
an advantage as a method of passing the winter?

QUEEN ANNE’S LACE, OR WILD CARROT
Teacher's Story

Queen Anne was apparently given to wearing lace made in medallion
patterns ; and even though we grant that her lace is most exquisite in
design as well as in execution, we wish most sincerely that there had
been established in America such a high tariff on this royal fabric as to
have prohibited its importation. It has for decades held us and our
lands prisoners in its delicate meshes, it being one of the most stubborn
and persistent weeds that ever came to us from over the seas.

But for those people who admire lace of intricate pattern, and
beautiful blossoms whether they grow on scalawag plants or not, this
medallion flower attributed to Queen Anne is well worth studying. It
belongs to the family Umbelliferae, which one of my small pupils always

Handbook of N ature-Study

called umbrelliferae because,
he averred, they have um-
brella blossoms. In the case
of Queen Anne’s lace the
flower-cluster, or umbel, is
made up of many smaller
umbels, each a most perfect
flower-cluster in itself. Each
tiny white floret has five
petals and should have five
stamens with creamy anthers,
but often has only two.
However, it has always at its
center two fat little pistils set
snugly together, and it rests
in a solid, bristly, green, cup-
like calyx. Twenty or thirty
of these little blossoms are set
in a rosette, the stems of
graded length ; and where the
bases of the stems meet are
some long, pointed, narrow
bracts, which protectingly
brood the flowers in the bud
and the seeds as they ripen.
Each of these little flower-
clusters, or umbels, has a long
stem, its length being just fit
to bring it to its right place in
the medallion pattern of this
royal lace. And these stems
also have set at their bases
some bracts with long, thread-
like lobes, which make a deli-
cate, green background for
the opening blossoms; these
bracts curl up protectingly
about the buds and the seeds.
If we look straight into the
large flower-cluster, we can
see that each component clus-
ter, or umbelicel, seems to
have its own share in making
the larger pattern; the out-
side blossoms of the outside
Queen Anne's lace , or wild carrot clusters have the outside

Photo by Verne Morton. petals larger, thus forming a

beautiful border and calling
to mind the beautiful flowers of the Composites. At the very center of
this flower medallion, there is often a larger floret with delicate wine-
colored petals ; this striking floret is not a part of a smaller flower-cluster,
but stands in stately solitude upon its own isolated stem. The reason

Wild-Flower Study

591

for this giant floret at the center of the wide, circular flower-cluster
is a mystery; and so far as I know, the botanists have not yet explained
the reason for its presence. May. we not, then, be at liberty to explain its
origin on the supposition that her Royal Highness, Queen Anne, was wont
to fasten her lace medallions upon her royal person with garnet-headed
pins?

When the flowers wither and the seeds begin to form, the flower-cluster
then becomes very secretive ; every one of the little umbels turns toward
the center, its stem curving over so that the outside umbels reach over and
“tuck in” the whole family; and the threadlike bracts at the base reach
up as if they, too, were in the family councils, and must do their slender
duty in helping to make the fading flowers into a little, tightfisted clump ;
and all of this is done so that the precious seeds may be safe while they are
ripening. Such little porcupines as these seeds are ! Each seed is clothed
with long spines set in bristling rows, and is a most forbidding-looking
youngster when examined through a lens ; and yet there is method in its
spininess, and we must grudgingly grant that it is not only beautiful in its
ornamentation but is also well fitted
to take hold with a will when wandering
winds sift it down to the soil.

The wild carrot is known in some
localities as the “bird’s-nest weed,” be-
cause the maturing seed-clusters, .their
edges curving inward, look like little
birds’ nests. But no bird’s nest ever
contained so many eggs as does this imi-
tation one. In one we counted 34 tiny
umbels on which ripened 782 seeds; and
the plant, from which this “bird’s nest”
was taken, developed nine more quite as
large.

Altogether the wild carrot is well
fitted to maintain itself in the struggle
for existence, and is most successful in crowding out its betters in pas-
ture and meadow. Birds do not like its spiny seeds; the stem of the
plant is tough and its leaves are rough and have an unpleasant odor and
acrid taste, which render it unpalatable to grazing animals. Winter’s
cold cannot harm it, for it is a biennial; its seeds often germinate in the
fall, sending down long, slender taproots crowned with tufts of incon-
spicuous leaves ; it thus stores up a supply of starchy food which enables
it to start early the next season with great vigor. The root, when the
plant is fully grown, is six or eight inches long, as thick as a finger and
yellowish white in color ; it is very acrid and somewhat poisonous.

The surest way of exterminating the Queen *Anne’s lace is to prevent
its prolific seed production by cutting or uprooting the plants as soon as
the first blossoms open.

“ ’Tis Eden everywhere to hearts that listen
And watch the woods and meadows grow. ”

— Theron Brown.

592

Handbook of Nature-Study

Seed-cluster, or “ bird's nest," of wild carrot.
Photo by Charles F. Fudge.

LESSON CXLVIII

Queen Anne’s Lace, or Wild Carrot

Leading thought — Queen Anne’s lace is a weed which came to us from
Europe and flourishes better here than on its native soil. It has beautiful
blossoms set in clusters, and it matures many seeds which it manages to
plant successfully.

Method — The object of this lesson should be to show the pupils how
this weed survives the winter and how it is able to grow where it is not
wanted, maintaining itself successfully, despite man’s enmity. The weed
is very common along most country roadsides, and in many pastures and
meadows. It blossoms very late in the autumn, and is available for les-
sons often as late as November. Its seed-clusters may be used for a lesson
at almost any time during the winter.

Observations — i. Look at a wild carrot plant; how are its blossoms
arranged? Take a flower-cluster, what is its shape? How many small
flower-clusters make the large one? How are these arranged to make the
large cluster symmetrical ?

2. Take one of the little flower-clusters from near the center, and one
from the outside, of the large cluster ; how many little flowers, or florets
make up the smaller cluster? Look at one of the florets through a lens;

Wild-Flower Study

593

can you see the cup-shaped calyx? How many petals has it? Can you
see its five anthers and its two white pistils?

3. Take one of the outer florets of the outside cluster; are all its
flowers the same shape? How do they differ? Where are the florets
with the large petals placed in the big flower-cluster? How does this help
to make “the pattern?”

4. Do the outside or the central flowers of the large clusters open
first ? Can you find a cluster with an almost black or very dark red floret
at its center? Is this dark flower a part of one of the little clusters or does
it stand alone, its stem reaching directly to the main stalk? Do you
think it makes the flowers of the Queen Anne’s lace prettier to have this
dark red floret at the center?

5. Take a flower-cluster with the flowers not yet open. Can you see
the threadlike green bracts that close up around each bud ? Can you see
finely divided, threadlike bracts that stand out around the whole cluster?
What position do these bracts assume when the flowers are open ? What
do they do after the flowers fade and the seeds are being matured?

6. What is the general shape of the seed-cluster of the wild carrot?
Have you ever found such a cluster broken off and blowing across the
snow ? Do you think this is one way the seed is planted ?

7. Examine a single seed of the wild carrot with a lens. Is it round
or oblong? Thin or flat? Is it ridged or grooved? Has it any hooks or
spines by which it might cling to the clothing of passers-by, or to the hair
or fleece of animals, and thus be scattered more widely? Does the seed
cling to its stem or break away readily when it is touched?

8. Take one seed-cluster and count the number of seeds within it.
How many seed-clusters do you find on a single plant? How many
seeds do you, therefore, think a single plant produces?

9. What should you consider the best means of destroying this pro-
lific weed?

10. What do you think is the reason that the wild carrot remains
untouched, so that it grows vigorously and matures its seeds in lanes and
pastures where cattle graze?

1 1 . Have you noticed any birds feeding on the seeds of the wild carrot ?

I do not want change: I want the same old and loved things, the same wild flowers ,

the same trees and soft ash-green; the turtle-doves, the blackbirds, the coloured yellow-
hammer sing, sing, singing so long as there is light to cast a shadow on the dial ,
for such is the measure of his song, and I want them in the same place. Let me find
them morning after morning, the starry-white petals radiating, striving upwards to their
ideal. Let me see the idle shadows resting on the white dust; let me hear the humble-bees, and
stay to look down on the rich dandelion disc. Let me see the very thistles opening their great
crowns — I should miss the thistles; the reed-grasses hiding the moor-hen; the bryony bine, at
first crudely ambitious and lifted by force of youthful sap straight above the hedgerow to sink
of its own weight presently and progress with crafty tendrils; swifts shot through the air with
outstretched wings like crescent-headed shaftless arrows darted from the clouds; the chaffinch
with a feather in her bill; all the living staircase of the spring, step by step, upwards to the
great gallery of the summer — let me watch the same succession year by year.

— “The Pageant of Summer,” by Richard Jefferies.

594

Handbook cj Nature Study

WEEDS

" The worst weed in corn may be — corn.”

— Professor I. P. Roberts.

Nature is the great farmer. Continually
she sows and reaps, making all the forces of
the universe her tools and helpers; the sun’s
rays, wind, rain and snow, insects and birds,
animals small and great, even to the humble
burrowing worms of the earth — all work
mightily for her, and a harvest of some kind
is absolutely sure. But if man interferes and
insists that the crops shall be only such as may
benefit and enrich himself, she seems to yield a
willing obedience, and under his control does
immensely better work than when unguided.

“eye-servant.” Let the master relax his vigilance for ever so short a
time, and among the crops of his desire will come stealing in the hardy,
aggressive, and to him, useless plants that seem to be her favorites.

A weed is a plant growing where we wish something else to grow, and
a plant may, therefore, be a weed in some locations and not in others.
The mullein is grown in greenhouses in England as the American velvet-
plant. Our grandmothers considered “butter-and-eggs,” a pretty posy,
and planted it in their gardens, wherefrom it escaped, and is now a bad
weed wherever it grows. A weed may crowd out our cultivated plants,
by stealing the moisture and nourishment in the soil which they should
have; or it may shade them out by putting out broad leaves and shutting
off their sunlight. When harvested with a crop, weeds may be unpala-
table to the stock which feed upon it; or in some cases, as in the wild
parsnip, the plant may be poisonous.

Each weed has its own way of winning in the struggle with our crops,
and it behooves us to find that way as soon as possible in order to circum-
vent it. This we can only do by a careful study of the peculiarities of the
species. To do this we must know the plant’s life history ; whether it is
an annual, surviving the winter only in its seeds; or a biennial, storing in
fleshy root or in broad, green leafy rosette the food drawn from the soil
and air during tne first season, to perfect its fruitage in the second year;
or a perennial, surviving and springing up to spread its kind and pester the
farmer year after year, unless he can destroy it “root and branch.”
Purslane is an example of the first class, burdock or mullein of the
second, and the field sorrel or Canada thistle of the third. According

Chickweed.

Photo by Cyrus Crosby.

But Dame Nature is an

Wild-Flower Study

595

to their nature the farmer must use different means of extermination : he
must strive to hinder the annuals and biennials from forming any seed
whatever; and where perennials have made themselves a pest, he must
put in a “hoed crop,” requiring such constant and thorough tillage that
the weed roots will be deprived of all starchy food manufactured by green
leaves and be starved out. Especially every one who plants a garden
should know how the weeds look when young, for seedlings of all kinds
are delicate and easy to kill before their roots are well established.

LESSON CXLIX
Outline for the Study of a Weed

1. Why do we call a plant a weed? Is a weed a weed wherever it
grows? How about “butter and eggs” when it grew in Grandmother’s
garden? Why do we call that a weed now? What did Grandmother call
it?

2 . In how many ways may a weed injure our cultivated crops ?

3 . Why must we study the habits of a weed before we know how to
fight it?

We should ask of every weed in our garden or on our land the following
questions, and let it answer them through our observations in order to
know why the weed grows where it chooses, despite our efforts.

4. How did this weed plant itself where I find it growing? By what
agency was its seed brought and dropped?

5. What kind of root has it? If it has a tap-root like the mullein,
what advantage does it derive from it? If it has a spreading shallow-
growing root like the purslane what advantage does it gain? If it has a
creeping rootstock with underground buds like the Canada thistle, how is
it thereby helped ?

6. Is the stem woody or fleshy? Is it erect or reclining or climbing?
Does it gain any advantage through the character of its stem?

7. Note carefully the leaves. Are they eaten by grazing animals?
If not, why? Are they covered with prickles like the teazel or fuzz like
the mullein, or are they bitter and acrid like the wild carrot?

8. Study the blossoms. How early does the weed bloom? How
long does it remain in bloom? Do insects carry pollen for the flowers?
If so, what insects? What do the insects get in return? How are the
flower buds and the ripening seeds protected ?

9. Does it ripen many seeds? Are these ripened at the same time or
are they ripened during a long period ? Of what advantage is this ? How
are the seeds scattered, carried and planted? Compute how many seeds
one plant of this weed matures in one year.

“ That which ye sow ye reap. See yonder fields!

The sesamum was sesamum, the corn

Was corn. The Silence and the Darkness know!”

— Edwin Arnold.

Handbook of Nature-Study

Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co.

CULTIVATED-PLANT STUDY

THE CROCUS
Teacher's Story

The crocus, like the snowdrop, cannot wait for the
snow to be off the ground before it pushes up its gay
blossoms, and it has thus earned the gratitude of those
who are winter weary.

The crocus has a corm instead of a bulb like the
snowdrop or daffodil. A corm is a solid, thickened,
underground stem, and is not in layers, like the onion.

The roots come off the lower side of the corm. The
corm of the crocus is well wrapped in several, usually
five, white coats with papery tips. When the plant
begins to grow the leaves push up through the coats.

The leaves are grasslike and may be in number from two to eight, depend-
ing on the variety. Each leaf has its edge folded, and the white midrib
has a plait on either side, giving it the appearance of being box-plaited on
the under side. The bases of the leaves enclosed in the corm coats are
yellow, since they have had no sunlight to start their starch factories and
the green within their cells. At the center of the leaves appear the blos-
som buds, each enclosed in a sheath.

The petals and sepals are similar in color, but the three sepals are on
the outside, and their texture, especially on the outer side, is coarser than
that of the three protected petals. But sepals and petals unite into a
long tube at the base. At the very base of this corolla tube, away down
out of sight, even below the surface of the ground, is the seed-box, or
ovary. From the tip of the ovary the style extends up through the
corolla-tube and is tipped with a ruffled three-lobed stigma.

The old and yo
corms of the
crocus.

Cultivated-Plant Study

597

The three stamens are set at the throat
of the corolla tube. The anthers are
very long and open along the sides. The
anthers mature first, and shed their pol-
len in the cup of the blossom where any
insect, seeking the nectar in the tube of
the corolla, must become dusted with it.

However, if the stigma lobes fail to get
pollen from other flowers, they later
spread apart and curl over until they
reach some of the pollen of their own
flower.

Crocus blossoms have varied colors:
white, yellow, orange, purple, the latter
often striped or feather-veined. And,
while many seeds like tiny pearls, are
developed in the oblong capsule, yet
it is chiefly by its corms that the
crocus multiplies. On top of the mother
corm of this year develop several small
corms, each capable of growing a plant
next year. But after two years of this
second-story sort of multiplication the
young crocuses are pushed above the sur-
face of the ground. Thus, they need to
be replanted every two or three years.

Crocuses may be planted from the first of
October until the ground freezes. They
make pretty borders to garden beds and
paths. Or they may be planted in lawns
without disturbing the grass, by punching a hole with a stick or dibble and
dropping in a corm and then pressing back the soil in place above it. The
plants will mature before the grass needs to be mowed.

p, petal; sp, sepa
ment ; stg. stigma; b,
young corms.

1; an, anther; f, fila«
mother corm; b1 b1 b1

LESSON CL
The Crocus

Leading thought — The crocuses appear so early in the spring, because
they have food stored in underground storehouses. They multiply by
seeds and by corms.

Method — If it is possible to have crocuses in boxes in the school-
room windows, the flowers may thus best be studied. Otherwise,
when crocuses are in bloom bring them into the schoolroom, bulbs and all,
and place them where the children may study them at leisure.

Observations — i . At what date in the spring have you found crocuses
in blossom? Why are they able to blossom so much earlier than other
flowers?

2. Take a crocus just pushing up out of its bulb. How many over-
coats protect its leaves ? What is at the very center of the bulb? Has
the flower bud a special overcoat?

598

Handbook of Nature-Study

3. Describe the leaves. How are they folded in their overcoats?
Whac color are they where they have pushed out above their overcoats!
What color are they within the overcoats ? Why ?

4. Do the flowers or the leaves have stems, or do they arise directly
from the bulb ?

5. What is the shape of the open crocus flower? Can yon tcH the
difference between sepals and petals in color? Can you tell the difference
by their position? Or by their texture above or below? As yon 2ook
into the flower, which make the points of the triangle, the sepals or tho
petals ?

6. Describe the anthers. How long are they? How many are there?
How do they open? What is the color of the pollen? Describe how a bee
becomes dusted with pollen ? Why does the bee visit the crocus lelossom?
If she finds nectar there, where is it?

7 . Describe the stigma. Open a flower and see how long tho stylo is?
How do the sepals and petals unite to protect the style? Where is the
seed-box? Is it so far down that it is below ground? How many seeds
are developed from a single blossom?

8. How many colors do you find in the crocus flowers? Which 9£Q
the prettiest in the lawn? Which, in the flower beds?

9. How do the crocus blossoms act in dark and stormy weather?
When do they open? How does this benefit them?

10. How do the crocus bulbs multiply? Why do they lift thcmscivcs
out of the ground and thus need resetting.

11. Describe how to raise crocuses best; the kind of soil, the time of
planting, and the best situations..

Out of the frozen earth below ,

Out of the melting of the snow ,

No flower, but a film, I push to light;

No stem, no bud — yet I have burst
The bars of winter , I am the first

0 Sun, to greet thee out of the night!

Deep in the warm sleep underground
Life is still, and the peace profound:

Yet a beam that pierced, and a thrill that smote
Call'd me and drew me from far away;

I rose, I came, to the open day

1 have won, unshelter' d, alone, remote.

— “The Crocus,” by Harriet E. H. King.

When first the crocus thrusts its point of gold,

Up through the still snow-drifted garden-mould,

A nd folded green things in dim woods unclose
Their crinkled spears , a sudden tremor goes
Into my veins and makes me kith and kin
To every wild-born thing that thrills and blows.

— “A Touch of Nature/' by T. B. Aldrich.

Cultivated-Plant Study

599

THE DAFFODILS AND THEIR RELATIVES
Teacher's Story

“ Daffydown Billy came up in the cold from the hr own mold,
Although the March breezes blew keen in her face,

Although the white snow lay on many a place."

Thus, it is that Miss Warner’s
stanzas tell us the special reason
we so love the daffodils. They
bring the sunshine color to the
sodden earth, when the sun is
chary of his favors in our northern
latitude; and the sight of the
daffodils floods the spirit with a
sense of sunlight.

The daffodils and their rela-
tives, the jonquils and narcissus,
are interesting when we stop to
read their story in their form.

The six segments of the perianth,
or, as we would say, the three
bright-colored sepals and the
three inner petals of the flower,
are different in shape; but they
all look like petals and stand out
in star-shape around the flaring
end of the flower tube, which,
because of its shape, is called the
corona, or crown; however, it
looks more like a stiff little petti-
coat extending out in the middle
of the flower than it does like a
crown. The crown is simply the
widened end of the tube of the
flower, as maybe seen by opening Daffodil.

a flower lengthwise ; the six seem-
ing petals will peel off the tube, showing that they are fastened to the
outside of it. When we look down into the crown of one of these
flowers, we see the long style with its three-lobed stigma pushing
out beyond the anthers, which are pressed close about it at the
throat of the tube; between each two anthers may be seen a little
deep passage, through which the tongues of the moth or butterfly can be
thrust to reach the nectar. In a tube, slit open, we can see the nectar at
the very bottom of it, and it is sweet to the taste and has a decided flavor.
In this open tube we may see that the filaments of the stamens are grown
fast to the sides of the tube for much of their length, enough remaining
free to press the anthers close to the style. The ovary of the pistil is a
green swelling at the base of the tube ; by cutting it across we can see it is
triangular in outline, and has a little cavity in each angle large enough to
hold two rows of the little, white, shining, unripe seeds. Each of these
cavities is partitioned from the others by a green wall ; the partition is
marked by a suture on the outside of the seed-pod.

6oo

Handbook of N atur e-Study

When the flower stalk first appears, it comes up like a sheathed sword,
pointing toward the zenith, green , veined lengthwise, and with a noticeable
thickening at each edge. As the petals grow, the sheath begins to round
out ; and then as if to confuse those people who are so stupid as to believe
that plants do not really do things, the stiff stem at the base of the sheath

bends at right angles. This brings a strain
upon the sheath which bursts it, usually
along the upper side, although sometimes
it tears it off completely at the base. The
slitted sheath, or spathe, hangs around
the stem, wrinkled and parchment-like,
very like the loose wrist of a suede glove.
The stalk is a strong green tube; the
leaves are fleshy and are grooved on the
inner side, the groove being deep enough
to clasp part way around the flower stem.
The number of leaves varies with the
variety, and they are usually as tall as
the flower stalk. There is one flower on a
stalk in the daffodils and the poet’s nar-
cissus, but the jonquils and paper-white
narcissus have two or more flowers on the
same stalk.

A bed should be prepared by digging
deep and fertilizing with stable manure.
The bulbs should be planted in September
or early October, and should be from four
to six inches apart, the upper end of the
bulbs at least four inches below the sur-
face of the soil. They should not be
disturbed but allowed to occupy the bed
for a number of years, or as long as they
give plenty of flowers. As soon as the
surface of the ground is frozen in the win-
a, corona or crown; b, sepals and ter, the beds should be covered from four
petals forming perianth; c> corolla tube; to six inches in depth with straw-mixed
d, ovary or seed-case; e, sheath or *7 . , .

spathe. stable manure, which can be raked off

very early in the spring.

The new bulbs are formed at the sides of the old one ; for this reason
the daffodils will remain permanently planted, and do not lift themselves
out of the ground like the crocuses. The leaves of the plant should be
allowed to stand as long as they will after the flowers have disappeared, so
that they may furnish the bulbs with plenty of food for storing. The
seeds should not be allowed to ripen, as it costs the plant too much
energy and thus robs the bulbs. The flowers should be cut just as they
are opening. Of the white varieties, the poet’s narcissus is the most
satisfactory, as it is very hardy and very pretty, its corona being a shallow,
flaring, greenish yellow rosette with orange-red border, the anthers of its
three longest stamens making a pretty center. No wonder Narcissus bent
over the pool in joy at viewing himself, if he was as beautiful a man as
the poet’s narcissus is as a flower.

Cultivated-Plant Study

601

LESSON CLI

Daffodils, Jonquils and Narcissus

Leading thought — The
daffodil, jonquil and nar-
cissus are very closely re-
lated, and quite similar.

They all come from bulbs
which should be planted in
September; but after the
first planting, they will
flower on year after year,
bringing much brightness
to the gardens in the early
spring.

Method — The fl o w e r s
brought to school may be
studied for form, and there
should be a special study of
the way the flower devel-
ops its seed, and how it is
propagated by bulbs. The
work should lead directly
to an interest in the culti-
vation of the plants. In
seedsmen’s catalogues or
other books, the children
will find methods of plant-
ing and cultivating these
flowers in cities. Daffodils
are especially adapted for
both window gardens and
school gardens.

Observations — i . N ote the snape of the flower. Has it any sepals ? What
do we call the flowers that have their sepals colored like petals, thus form-
ing a part of the beauty of the flower? Can you see any difference in
color, position and texture between the petals and sepals?

2. How do the petal-like parts of these flowers look? How many of
them are there? Do they make the most showy part of the flower?

3. What does the central part of the flower look like? Why is it
called the corona, or crown? Is it a part of the tube which joins the
flower to the stem? Do the petals and sepals peel off this tube? Peel
them off one flower, and see that the tube is shaped like a trumpet.

4. Look down into the crown of the flower and tell what you see.
Can you see where the insect’s tongue must go to reach the nectar?

5. Cut open a trumpet lengthwise to find where the nectar is. How
far is it from the mouth of the tube ? How long would the insect’s tongue
have to be to reach it ? What insects have tongues as long as this ?

6. In order to reach the nectar how would an insect become dusted
with pollen? Are the stamens loose in the flower-tube? Is the pistil
longer than the stamens ? How many parts to the stigma ? Can you see

Paper-white narcissus.

602

Handbook of N atu re-Study

how the flowers are arranged so that insects can carry pollen from
flower to flower?

7. What is the green swelling in the stem at the base of the trumpet ?
Is it connected with the style? Cut it across and describe what you see.
How do the young seeds look and how are they arranged?

8„ Where the flower stem joins the stalk, what do you see? What is
this dry spathe there for? Are there one or more flower stems coming
from this spathe ?

Describe the flower stalk? Are the leaves wide or narrow? Are
they as long as the flower stalk, are they flat, or are they grooved to fit
around the flower stalk?

•10. What are the differences between daffodils, jonquils and poet’s
narcissus? When should the bulbs for these flowers be planted? Will
there be more bulbs formed around the one you plant? Will the same
bulb ever send up flowers and leaves again? How do the bulbs divide to
make new bulbs ?

ii- How should the bed for the bulbs be prepared? How near
together should the bulbs be planted? How deep in the earth? How
protect them in the North during the winter?

12. Why should you not cut the leaves off after the flowers have died?
Why should you not let the seeds ripen? When should the flowers be cut
for bouquets? Who was Narcissus, and why should these early spring
flowers be named after him ?

Supplementary reading — Green Things Growing, Mulock; The Daffo-
dils, Wordsworth; The Story of Narcissus, Child’s Study of the Classics;
Mary’s Garden, Duncan, Chapters XXVI and XXVII.

“7 emphatically deny the common notion that the farm hoy's life is drudgery. Much of
the work is laborious, and this it shares with all work that is productive; for the easier the
job the less it is worth doing. But every piece of farm work is also an attempt to solve a
problem, and therefore it should have its intellectual interest; and the problems are as many
as the hours of the day and as varied as the face of nature. It needs but the informing of the
mind and the quickening of the imagination to raise any constructive work above the level of
drudgery. It is not mere dull work to follow the plow — 7 have followed it day after day — if
one is conscious of all the myriad forces that are set at work by the breaking of the furrow;
and there is always the landscape, the free fields, the clean soil, the rain, the promise of the
crops. Of all men's labor, the farmer's is the most creative. I cannot help wondering why
it is that men will eagerly seek work in the grease and grime of a noisy factory, but will recoil
at what they call the dirty work of the farm. So much are we yet bound by tradition!"

■ — L. H. Bailey.

Cultivated-Plant Study

603

THE TULIP
Teacher's Story

We might expect that the Lady Tulip would be a
stately flower, if we should consider her history.
■She made her way into Europe from the Orient
during the sixteenth century, bringing with her the
honor of being the chosen flower of Persia, where
her colors and form were reproduced in priceless
webs from looms of the most skilled weavers. No
sooner was she seen than worshipped, and shortly
all Europe was at her feet.

A hundred years later, the Netherlands was
possessed with the tulip mania. Growers of bulbs,
and brokers who bought and sold them, indulged in
wild speculation. Rare varieties of the bulbs
became more costly than jewels, one of the famous
black tulips being sold for about $1800. Since then,
the growing of tulips has been one of the noted
industries of the Netherlands, and now the bulbs on
our market are imported from Holland.

There are a great many varieties of tulips, and
their brilliant colors make our gardens gorgeous in
early spring. Although this flower is so prim, yet it
bears well close observation. The three petals, or inner segments of the
perianth, are more exquisite in texture and in satiny gloss on their inner
surface than are the three outer segments or sepals; each petal is like
grosgrain silk, the fine ridges uniting at the central thicker portion. In the
red varieties, there is a six pointed star at the heart of the flower, usually
yellow or yellow-margined, each point of the star being at the middle of a
petal or sepal; the three points on the petals are longer than those on the
sepals.

When the flower’s bud first appears, it is nestled down in the center of
the plant, scarcely above the ground. It is protected by three green
sepals. As it stretches up, the bud becomes larger and the green of the
sepals takes on the color of the tulip flower, until when it opens there is
little on the outside of the sepals to indicate that they once were green.
But they still show that they are sepals, for they surround the petals, each
standing out and making the flower triangular in shape as we look into it.
During storms and dark days, the sepals again partially close about the
flower.

Handbook of Nature-Study

604

The seed-vessel stands up, a stout, three-sided, pale green column at
the center of the flower, in some varieties, its three-lobed yellowish stigma
making a Doric capital; in others, the divisions are so curled as to make
the capital almost Ionian. The six stout, paddle-shaped stamens have
their bases expanded so as to encircle completely the base of the pistil
column; these wide filaments are narrower just below the point where
the large anthers join. The anther opens along each side to discharge the
pollen ; however, the anthers flare out around the seed vessel and do not
reach half way to the stigma, which is probably the tulips’ way of inducing
the insects to carry their pollen, since the bees cannot reach the nectar at
the base of the pistil without dusting themselves with pollen.

The flower stem is stout, pale green, covered with a whitish bloom.
The leaves are long, trough-shaped and narrow with parallel veins; the
bases of the lower ones encircle the flower stem and have their edges more
or less ruffled and their tips recurved ; the upper leaves do not completely
encircle the flower stem at their bases. The texture of the leaves is some-
what softer on the inside than on the outside, and both sides are grayish
green.

After the petals and stamens are dropped
the seed-vessel looks like an ornamental tip
to the flower stem; it is three-sided, and
has within double rows of seeds along each
angle. The seeds should not be allowed to
ripen as they thus take too much strength
from the bulbs.

The bulb is formed of several coats, or
layers, each of which extends upwards and
may grow into a leaf; this shows that the
bulb is made up of leaves which are
thickened with the food which is stored up
in them during one season, so as to start the
plant growing early the next spring. In
the heart of each bulb is a flower bud,
sheltered and cuddled by the fleshy leaf-
layers around it, which protect it during
the winter and furnish it food in the spring.
This structure of the bulb explains why the
leaves clasp the flower stem at their bases.

■ The true roots are below the bulb, making
a thick tassel of white rootlets, which reach
deep into the soil for food and water.

Tulips are very accommodating; they will grow in almost any soil if
it is well drained, so that excessive moisture may not rot the bulbs. In
preparing a bed, it should be rounded up so as to shed water; it should
also be worked deep and made rich. If the soil is stiff and clayey, set
bulbs only three inches deep, with a handful of sand beneath each. If the
soil is mellow loam, set the bulbs four inches deep and from four to six
inches apart each way, depending on the size of the bulbs. They should
be near enough so that when they blossom the bed will be covered ana
show no gaps. Take care that the pointed tip of the bulb is upward and
that it does not fall to one side as it is covered. October is the usual time
for planting as the beds are often used for other flowers during the summer.

Tulip seed-capsule.

n , Tulip seed-capsule ; 2 , the same open
ed; 3, cross section of same.

Cultivated-Plant Study

605

However, September is not too early for the planting, as the more root
growth made before the ground freezes, the better; moreover, the early
buyers have best choice of bulbs. The beds should be protected by a
mulch of straw or leaves during the winter, which should be raked off as
soon as the ground is thawed in the spring. The blossoms should be cut
as soon as they wither, in order that the new bulbs which form within and
at the sides of the parent bulb may have all of the plant food, which
would otherwise go to form seed. Tulips may be grown from seed, but it
takes from five to seven years to obtain blossoms, which may be quite
unlike the parent and worthless. The bulblets grow to a size for bloom-
ing in two or three years ; the large one which forms in the center of the
plant will bloom the next season.

Courtesy Doubleday, Page & Co,

6o6

Handbook of N atur e-Study

LESSON CLII
The Tulips

Leading thought~°~The tulips blossom early, because they have food
stored in the bulbs the year before, ready to use early in the spring.
There are many varieties ; each is worth studying carefully, and we should
all know how to grow these beautiful flowers.

Methods— These observations may be made upon tulips in school
gardens or bouquets. The best methods of cultivating should be a part
of the garden training. For this, consult the seed catalogues ; also let the
pupils form some idea of the number of varieties from the seed catalogues.
Water-color drawings should be a large factor in studying the tulip. The
red varieties are best for beginning the study, and then follow with the
other*colors; note differences.

Observations — i. What is the color of your tulip? Is it all the same
color? Is the bottom of the flower different in color? W^hat is the pretty
shape of these different colors at the heart of the flower?

2. Look at a tulip just opening. What causes it to appear so tri-
angular? Can you see that the three sepals are placed outside the petals?
Is there any difference in color between the sepals and petals on the inside
On the outside? Are the sepals and petals the same in length and shape?
Do you know the name given to this arrangement when sepals and petals
look alike in color? Are the three petals more satiny on the inside than
the sepals? Is the center part of the petal as soft as the edges?

3 . When the tulip flower bud first begins to show, where is it ? What
color are the sepals which cover it? Describe the opening of the flower?
Do the green sepals fall off? What becomes of them?

4. In the open flower, where is the seed-pod, and how does it look?
How do the anthers surround the seed-pod, or ovary? Describe the
anthers, or pollen-boxes? What color are they? What color is the
pollen? Do the anthers reach up to the stigma, or tip of seed-pod?
Where is the nectar in tulips? How do the insects become covered with
the pollen in reaching it? Do the flowers remain open during dark and
stormy days? Why?

5. Describe the tulip stem and the leaves. Do the leaves completely
encircle the flower stem at the base? Are their edges ruffled? In the
sprouting plant, do these outer basal leaves enfold the leaves which grow
higher on the stem? Are the leaves the same color above and below?
What shade of green are they?

6. After the petals have dropped, study the seed-pod. Cut it cross-
wise and note how many angles it has. How are these angles filled?
Should tulips be allowed to ripen seeds? Why not?

7. Study a bulb of a tulip. There are outer and inner layers and a
heart. What part of the plant do the outer layers make? What part
does the center make? Where are the true roots of the tulip?

8. When' should tulip bulbs be planted? How should you prepare
the soil? How protect the bed during the winter? How long would it
take to grow the flowers' from the seed? Where are most of our bulbs
grown ? Do you know about the history of tulips ?

Supplementary reading — Bulbs and Bulb-Culture, Peter Henderson;
Plants and their Children, Dana, p, 216; Mary’s Garden and How It Grew,
Duncan, Ch. XXVI ; Bulbs and How to Grow Them, Doubleday-Page Co.

Cultivated-Plant Study 6oy

Pansies.

Drawn by Anna C. Stryke.

THE PANSY
Teacher's Story

OME people are pansy-faced and some pansies are human-
faced, and for some occult reason this puts people and
pansies on a distinctly chummy basis. When we analyze
the pansy face, we find that the dark spots at the bases of
the side petals make the eyes, the lines radiating from
them looking quite eyelashy. The opening to the nectar-
tube makes the nose, while the spot near the base of the
lower petal has to do for a mouth, the nectar guiding-lines
being not unlike whiskers. Meanwhile, the two upper
petals give a “high -browed” look to the pansy counten-
ance, and make it a wise and knowing little face.

The pansy nectar is hidden in the spur made by the lower petal extend-
ing behind the flower. The guiding lines on the lower and side petals all
converge, pointing directly to the opening which leads to this nectar-well,
telling the secret to every bee that flies. Moreover, the broad lower petal
is a platform for the lady bee to alight upon, while she probes the nectar-
well with her tongue.

But at the door leading to the nectar- well sits a little man ; his head is
green, he wears a white cape with a scalloped, reddish brown collar, and
he sits with his bandy legs pushed back into the spur as if he were taking a
foot bath in nectar. This little pansy man has
plenty of work to do; for his mouth, which is large
and at the top of his green head, is the stigma. The
cape is made of five overlapping stamens, the
brown, scalloped collar being the anthers; his legs
consist of prolongations of the two lower stamens.

And when the bee probes the nectar-well with her
tongue, she tickles the little man’s feet so that his
head and shoulders wriggle; and thus she brushes The little pansy-man.
the pollen dust from his collar against her fuzzy

face, and at the same time his mouth receives the pollen from her dusty
coat.

6o8

Handbook of N ature-Study

As the pansy matures, the little man grows still more manlike; after a
time he sheds his anther cape, and we can see that his body is the ribbed
seed-pod. He did not eat pollen for nothing, for he is full of growing
seeds. Sometimes the plush brushes, which -are above his head in the
pansy flower, become filled with pollen, and perhaps he gets a mouthful of
it, although these brushes are supposed to keep out intruders.

The pansy sepals, five in number, are fastened at about one-third of
their length, their heart-shaped bases making a little green ruffle around
the stem where it joins the flower. There is one sepal above and two at
each side, but none below the nectar-spur. The flower stem is quite short
and always bends politely so the pansy can look sidewise at us instead of
staring straight upward. The plant stem is angled and crooked and stout.
In form, the leaves are most capricious; some are long and pointed,
others wide and rounded. The edges are slightly scalloped and the leaf
may have at its base a pair of large, deeply lobed stipules. In a whole
pansy bed it would be quite impossible to find two leaves just alike.

The pansy ripens many seeds. The ribbed seed-capsule, with its base
set comfortably in the faithful sepals, finally opens in three valves and the
many seeds are scattered. To send them as far afield as possible, the
edges of each valve of the pod curl inward, and snap the seeds out as boys
snap apple seeds from the thumb and finger.

Pansies like deep, rich and cool, moist soil. They are best suited to a
northern climate, and prefer the shady side of a garden to the full sunshine.
The choice varieties are perpetuated through cuttings. They may be
stuck in the open ground in summer in a half-shady place and should be
well-watered in dry weather. All sorts of pansies are readily raised from
seed sown in spring or early summer, and seedlings, when well established,
do not suffer, as a rule, from winter frosts.

The general sowing for the production of early spring bloom is made
out of doors in August, while seeds sown indoors from February to June
will produce plants to flower intermittently during the late summer and
fall months. When sowing pansy seed in August, sow the seed broadcast
in a seed-bed out of doors, cover very lightly with fine soil or well-rotted
manure, and press the seed in with a small board; then mulch the seed-
bed with long, strawy horse manure, from which the small particles have
been shaken off, to the thickness of one inch, so as to have the soil well and
evenly covered. At the end of two weeks the plants will be up. Then
remove the straw gradually, a little at a time, selecting a dull day if possi-
ble . Keep the bed moist .

If the pansies are allowed to ripen seeds the season of bloom will be
short, for when its seeds are scattered the object of the plant’s life is
accomplished . Besides, the plant has not vitality enough to perfect seeds
and continue its bloom, and flowers borne with the forming seeds are
smaller than the earlier ones. But if the flowers are kept plucked as they
open, the plants persistently put forth new buds. The plucked flowers
will remain in good condition longer if picked in the early morning before
the bees begin paying calls, for a fertilized flower fades more quickly than
one which has received no pollen.

Cultivated-Plant Study

Photo by Verne Morton

LESSON CLIII
The Pansy

Leading thought — The pansy is a member of the violet family. The
flower often resembles a face; the colors, markings and fragrance all
attract the bees, who visit it for the nectar hidden in the spur of the lower
petal.

Method — The children naturally love pansies because of the reserm
blance of these flowers to quaint- little faces. They become still more
interested after they see the little man with the green head, which appears
in the flower as it fades. A more practical interest may be cultivated by
studying the great numbers of varieties in the seed catalogs and learning
their names. This is one of the studies which leads directly to gardening.
There are many beautiful pansy poems which should be read in connec-
tion with the lesson.

Observations — i . How does the pansy flower resemble a face ? Where
are the eyes? The nose? The mouth? How many petals make the
pansy forehead ? The cheeks ? The chin ?

2. Where is the nectar in the pansy? Which petal forms the nectar-
tube ?

3 . Describe how a bee gets the nectar. Where does she stand while
probing with her tongue?

4. Where is the pollen in the pansy? What is the peculiar shape of
the anthers ? How do the two lower stamens differ in form from the three
upper ones ?

6io

Handbook of N atur e-Study

5 . Where is the stigma ? Does the bee’s tongue go over it or under it
to reach the nectar? Describe the pansy arrangement for dusting the bee
with pollen and for getting pollen from her tongue.

6. Observe the soft little brushes at the base of the two side petals.
What do you think they are for?

7. Take a fading flower; remove the petals, and see the little man
sitting with his crooked legs in the nectar-tube. What part of the flower
makes the man’s head? What parts form his cape? Of what is his
pointed, scalloped collar formed?

8. How many sepals has the pansy? Describe them. How are they
attached? When the flower fades and the petals fall, do the sepals also
fall?

9. Where in the flower is the young seed-pod? Describe how this
looks after the petals have fallen.

20. Describe how the seed-pod opens. How many seeds are there in
it? How are they scattered ?

11. Study the pansy stem. Is it solid? Is it smooth or rough? Is it
curved? Does it stand up straight or partially recline on the ground?

12. Take a pansy leaf and sketch it with the stipules at its base.
Can you find two pansy leaves exactly alike in shape, color and size?

13. At what time should the pansy seed be planted? How should the
soil be prepared ?

Supplementary reading — “April Fools” (p. 50), “Pansy Song” (p, 125),
Nature in Verse, compiled by Mary J. Lovejoy; “Garden Folk” (p. 179),
“Pansies” pp. 183-184, Among Flowers and Trees with the Poets, Wait &
Leonard; “A Yellow Pansy” (p. 124), Nature Pictures by American Poets
compiled by Annie Russell Marble.

I dropped a seed into the earth . It grew , and the plant was mine .

It was a wonderful thing, this plant of mine . I did not know its name, and the plant
did not bloom . All I know is that I planted something apparently as lifeless as a grain of
sand and there came forth a green and living thing unlike the seed , unlike the soil in which it
stood, unlike the air into which it grew. No one could tell me why it grew , nor how. It had
secrets all its own , secrets that baffle the wisest men; yet this plant was my friend. It faded
when I withheld the light, it wilted when I neglected to give it water , it flourished when I sup-
plied its simple needs. One week I went away on a vacation, and when I returned the plant
was dead; and I missed it.

Although my little plant had died so soon, it had taught me a lesson; and the lesson is
ihat.it is worth while to have a plant. — The Nature-Study Idea, L. H. Bailey.

Cultivated-Plant Study

61 1

Photo by Verne Morton. —Shakespeare

THE BLEEDING HEART

Teacher's Story

For the intricate structure of this type of flower, the bleeding heart is
much more easily studied than its smaller wild sisters, the Dutchman’s
breeches or squirrel corn ; therefore it is well to study these flowers when
we find them in profusion in our gardens, and the next spring we may
study the wildwood species more understandingly.

The flowers of the bleeding heart are beautiful jewel-like pendants
arranged along the stem according to their age ; the mature flower, ready
to shed its petals, is near the main stem, while the tiny unopened bud is
hung at the very tip, where new buds are constantly being formed during a

long season of bloom. This
flower has a strange modifi-
cation of its petals; the two
pink outer ones, which make
the heart, are really little
pitchers with nectar at their
bottoms, and although they
hang mouth downwards the
nectar does not flow out.
When these outer petals are
removed, we can see the
inner pair placed opposite to
them, the two of them close
together and facing each
other like two grooved ladles.
Just at the mouth of the
pitchers these inner petals
are almost divided cross-
wise; and the parts that extend beyond are spoon-shaped, like the bowls'
vf two spoons which have been pinched out so as to make a. wide, flat

i , Flower of bleeding heart with swing-door
ajar , 2, Side-view of flower showing the broad

tips of the inner petals, j, Flower with outer
petals removed showing inner petals— and the
heart-shaped bases of the stamens.

6l2

Handbook of N atur e-Study

ridge along their centers. These spoon-bowls unite at the tip, and
between them they clasp the anthers and stigma. Special attention
should be given to the division between the two portions of these inner
petals; for it is a hinge, the workings of which are of much importance to
the flower. On removing the outer petals, we find a strange framework
around which the heart-shaped part of the flower seems to be modeled.
These are filaments of the stamens grouped in threes on each side; the
two outer ones of each group are widened into frills on the outer edge,
while the central one is stiffer and narrower. At the mouth of the
pitchers all these filaments unite in a tube around the style ; near the
stigma they split apart into six short, white, threadlike filaments, each
bearing a small, brilliant yellow anther. So close together are these
anthers that they are completely covered by the spoon-bowls made by
the inner petals, the pollen mass being flat and disklike. During the
period when the pollen is produced, the stigma is flat and immature; but
after the pollen is shed, it becomes rounded into lobes ready to receive
pollen from other flowers.

Although the description of the plant of this flower is most complex
and elaborate, the workings of the flower are most simple. As the nectar-
pitchers hang mouth down, the bee must cling to the flower while probing
upward. In doing this she invariably pushes against the outside of the
spoon-bowls, and the hinge at their base allows her to push them back
while the mass of pollen is thrust against her body; as this hinge works
both ways, she receives the pollen first on one side and then on the other,
as she probes the nectar-pitchers. And perhaps the next flower she visits
may have shed its pollen, and the swing door will uncover the- ripe stigma
ready to receive the pollen she brings.

The sepals are two little scales opposite the bases of the outer petals.
Before the flower opens, the “spouts of the nectar-pitchers” are clamped
up on either side of the spoon-bowls, as if to keep everything safe until
the right moment comes; at first they simply spread apart, but later
curve backward. The seed-pod is long and narrow, and in cross-section
is seen to contain two compartments with seeds growing on every side of
the partition.

The bleeding heart is a native of China, and was introduced into Europe
about the middle of the last century.

Reference — Our Garden Flowers, Keeler.

LESSON CLIV
The Bleeding Heart

Leading thought — The bleeding heart flower has its pollen and stigma
covered by a double swing door, which the bees push back and forth when
they gather the nectar.

Method — Bring a bouquet of the bleeding heart to the schoolroom, and
let each pupil have a stem with its flowers in all stages. From this study,
encourage them to watch these flowers when the insects are visiting them.

Observations — i. How are these flowers supported? Do they open
upward or downward? Can you see the tiny sepals?

2. How many petals can you see in this flower? What is the shape
of the two outer petals? How do they open? Where is the nectar
developed in these petals?

Cultivated-Plant Study

613

3. Take off the two outer petals and study the two inner ones.
What is their shape near the base ? How are their parts shaped which
project beyond the outer petals? What does the spoon-end of these
petals cover? Can you find the hinge in these petals?

4. Where are the stamens? How many are there? Describe the
shape of the stamens near the base. How are they united at the tip ?

5. Where is the stigma? The style? The ovary?

6. Supposing a bee is after the nectar, where must she rest while
probing for it? Can she get the nectar without pushing against the flat
projecting portion of the inner petals? When she pushes these spoon-
bowls back, what happens? Does she get dusted with pollen ? After she
leaves, does the door swing back ? Suppose she visits another flower which
has shed its pollen, will she carry pollen to its stigma? Does she have to
work the hinged door to do this ?

THE POPPIES
Teacher's Story

ERHAPS we might expect that a plant which
gives strange dreams to those who eat of its
juices should not be what it seems in appear-
ance. I know of nothing so deceptive as the
appearance of the poppy buds, which, rough
and hairy, droop so naturally that it seems as
if their weight must compel the stem to bend;
and yet, if we test it, we find the stem is as stiff
as if made of steel wire. Moreover, the flower
and the ripened seed-capsule must be far heavier than the bud; and
yet, as soon as the flower is ready to open, the stem straightens up,
although it does not always remove the traces of the crook; and after
the capsule is full of ripened seed, the stem holds it up particularly stiff,
as if inviting the wind to shake out the seeds.

The rough covering of the bud consists of two sepals, as can be easily
seen ; but if we wish to see the poppy shed its sepals, we must get up in the
morning, for the deed is usually done as soon as the first rays of the early
sun bring their message of a fair day. The sepals break off at their base
and fall to the ground. The two opposite outer petals unfold, leaving the

Poppies.

Drawn by Anna C. Stryke.

614

Handbook of Nature-Study

two inner petals standing erect and on guard about the precious pollen,
until the sunshine folds them back. An open poppy, when looked at
below, shows two petals, each semicircular, and overlapping each other
slightly; looked at from above, we see two petals, also half circles, set at
right angles to the lower two, and divided from each other by the pistil.

The pistil of the poppy is, from the beginning, a fascinating box. At
first, it is a vase with a round, circular cover, upon which are ridges, placed
like the spokes of a wheel. If these ridges are looked at with a lens,
particles of pollen may be seen adhering to them; this fact reveals the

The poppy seed-
shaker.

Drawn by Anna C.
Stryke.

secret that each ridge is a stigma, and all of these radiating stigmas are
joined so as better to catch the pollen. In a circle of fringe about the
pistil are the stamens. In the study of the stamens, we should note
whether their filaments expand or dilate near the
anthers, and we should also note the color of the masses
of pollen which crowd out from the anthers.

Despite the many varieties of poppies, there are only
four species commonly cultivated. The opium poppy
has upon its foliage a white bloom, the filaments of its
stamens are dilated at the top, and its seed-capsule is
smooth. The oriental poppy has all of these characters,
except that its foliage is green and not covered with
bloom. Its blossom is scarlet and very large and has
a purple center in the petals and purple stamens; it
has three sepals. Its flower stalks are stout and leafy.
The corn poppy, which grows in the fields of Europe, is a
weed we gladly cultivate. This, naturally, has red
petals and is dark at the center of the flower; but it has
been changed by breeding until now we have many
varieties. Its foliage is finely cut and very bristly or
hairy. Its seed-capsule is not bristly. To see this
poppy at its best, we should visit northern Italy or southern France in
late May, where it makes the grain fields gorgeous. This is the origin a>
parent of all the Shirley poppies. The Arctic, or Iceland poppy, has flow-
ers of satiny texture and finely crumpled; its colors are yellow, orange or
white, but never scarlet like the corn poppy ; it has no leaves on its flower
stem, and its seed-capsule is hairy. Of these four species, the opium
poppy and the corn poppy are annuals, while the Arctic and the Oriental
species are perennials.

The bees are over-fond of the poppy pollen and it is a delight to watch
the fervor with which they simply wallow in it, brushing off all of the
grains possible onto their hairy bodies. I have often seen a honey-bee
seize a bunch of the anthers and rub them against the under side of her
body, meanwhile standing on her head in an attitude of delirious joy. As
showing the honey-bee’s eye for color, I have several times seen a bee drop
to the ground to examine a red petal which had fallen. This was plain
evidence that she trusted to the color to guide her to the pollen.

But perhaps it is the development of the poppy seed-capsule which
we find the most interesting of the poppy performances. After fertiliza-
tion, the stigma-disk develops a scalloped edge, a stigma rounding out the
point of each scallop ; and a sharp ridge, which continues the length of the
globular capsule, runs from the center of each scallop. If examined on
the inside, it will be seen that the ridge on the capsule is the edge of a

Cultivated-Plant Study

6i§

partition which extends only part way toward the center of the capsule.
On these partitions, the little seeds are grown in great profusion, and when
they ripen, they fall together in the hollow center of the seed-box. But
how are they to get out? This is a point of interest for the children to
observe, and they should watch the whole process. Just beneath the
stigma-disk, and between each two of the sharp ridges, the point loosens;
later, it turns outward and back, leaving a hole which leads directly into
the central hollow portion of the capsule. The way these points open is as
pretty a story as I know in flower history. This beautiful globular cap
sule, with its graceful pedestal where it joins the stem, is a seed-shaker
instead of a salt or pepper-shaker. Passing people and animals push
against it and the stiff stem bends and then springs back, sending a little
shower of seeds this way and that; or a wind sways the stalk, and the
seeds are sown, a few at a time, and in different conditions of season and
weather. Thus, although the poppy puts all her eggs in one basket, she
sends them to market a few at a time. The poppy seed is a pretty object,
as seen through the lens. It is shaped like a round bean, and is covered
with a honeycomb network.

LESSON CLV
The Poppy

Leading thought — The poppies shed their sepals when the flowers ex-
pand; they offer quantities of pollen to the bees, which are very fond of it.
The seed-capsule develops holes around the top, through which the seeds
are shaken, a few at a time.

Method — It is best to study these flowers in the garden, but the lesson
may be given if some of the plants with the buds are brought to the school-
room, care being taken that they do not droop. If the teacher thinks
wise, the pupils might prepare an English theme on the subject of the
opium poppy and the terrible effects of opium upon the eastern nations.

Observations — i. Look Ft the bud of the poppy; how is it covered?
How many sepals? Can you see where they unite? Is the stem bent
because the bud is heavy? What happens to this crook in the stem
when the flower opens? Does the crook always straighten out com-
pletely ?

2. Describe how the poppy sheds its sepals. At what time of day do
the poppies usually open ?

3. Look at the back of, or beneath, an open flower. How many
petals do you see? How are they arranged? Look at the base of the
flower. How many petals do you see? How are they arranged in rela-
tion to the lower petals and to the pistil?

4. Look at the globular pistil. Describe the disk which covers it.
How many ridges on this disk? How are they arranged? Look at the
ridges with a lens and tell what they are.

5. Look at the stamens. How are they arranged? Describe the
anthers — their color, and the color of the pollen. Watch the bees work-
ing on the poppies, and note if they are after nectar or pollen.

6. Find all the varieties of poppies possible, and note the colors of the
petals on the outside, the inside and at the base ; of the stamens, including
filaments, anthers and pollen; of the pistil-disk and ovary. Sketch the

6i6

Handbook of Nature-Study

poppy opened, and also in the bud. Sketch a petal, a stamen and the
pistil, in separate studies.

7. Study the poppy seed-box as it ripens. How does the stigma-disk
look? What is the shape of the capsule below the disk? Is it ridged?
What relation do its ridges bear to the stigma ridges on the disk? Cut a
capsule open, and note what these ridges on the outside have to do with
the partitions inside. Where are the seeds borne?

8. Note the development of the holes beneath the edge of the disk of
the poppy capsule. How are they made? What are they for? How
are the seeds shaken from these holes? What shakes the poppy seed-box
and helps sow the seeds? Look at a seed through a lens, and describe its
form and decoration.

9. Notice the form of the poppy leaf, and note whether it is hairy or
covered with bloom. What is there peculiar about the smell of the poppy
plant? Where do poppies grow wild?

10. Is the slender stem smooth or grooved and hairy? Is it solid or
hollow?

11. When a stem or leaf is pierced or broken off, what is the color of
the juice which exudes? Does this juice taste sweet or bitter and un-
pleasant? Do you know what harmful drug is manufactured from the
juice of one species of poppy? What countries cultivate and use it most
extensively ?

THE CALIFORNIA POPPY

Teacher's Story

OUGH this brilliant flower blossoms
cheerfully for us in our Eastern gardens, we
can never understand its beauty until we see
it glowing in masses on the California foot-
hills. We can easily understand why it was
selected as the flower of that great State,
since it burnished with gold the hills, above
the gold buried below; and in that land that
prides itself upon its sunshine, these poppies
seem to shine up as the sun shines down.
The literature of California, and it has a
noble literature of its own, is rich in tributes to this favored flower.
There is a peculiar beauty in the contrast between the shining flower
and its pale blue-green, delicate masses of foliage. Although it
is called a poppy and belongs to the poppy family, yet it is not a true
poppy, but belongs to a genus named after a German who visited
California early in the nineteenth century, accompanying a Russian
scientific expedition; this German’s name was Eschscholtz, and he, like
all visitors, fell in love with this brilliant flower, and in his honor it was
named Eschscholtzia (es-sholts-ia) californica. This is not nearly so
pretty, nor so descriptive, as the name given to this poppy by the Spanish
settlers on the Pacific Coast, for they called it Copa-de-oro, cups of gold.

The bud of the Eschscholtzia is a pretty thing; it stands erect on the
slender, rather long stem, which flares near the bud to an urnlike pedestal

Cultivated-Plant Study

617

with a slightly ruffled rim, on
which the bud is set. This
rim is often pink above, and
remains as a pretty base for
the seed-pod. But in some
garden varieties, the rim is
lacking. The bud itself is
covered with a peaked cap,
like a Brownie’s toboggan cap
stuffed full to the tip. It is
the shape of an old-fashioned
candle extinguisher ; it is pale
green, somewhat ribbed, and
has a rosy tip ; it consists of
two sepals, which have*been
sewed together by Mother
Nature so skillfully that we
cannot see the seams. One
of the most interesting per-
formances to watch that I
know, is the way this poppy
takes off its cap before it
bows to the world . Like magic
the cap loosens around the
base; it is then pushed off by
the swelling expanding petals
until completely loosened, and
finally it drops.

The petals are folded under
the cap in an interesting
manner. The outer petal en-
folds all the others as closely
as it can, and its mate within it
enfolds the other two, and the inner two enfold the stamens with their
precious gold dust. When only partially opened, the petals cling pro-
tectingly about the many long stamens ; but when completely opened, the
four petals flare wide, making a flower with a golden rim and orange
center, although among our cultivated varieties they range from orange
to an anaemic white. To one who loves them in their glorious native
hues, the white varieties seem almost repulsive. Compare one of these
small, pale flowers with the great, rich, orange ones that glorify some
favored regions in the Mojave Desert, and we feel the enervating and
decadent influence of civilization.

The anthers are many and long, and are likely to have a black dot on
the short filament; at first, the anthers stand in a close cluster at the
center of the flower, but later they flare out in a many pointed star.
Often, when the flowers first open, especially the earlier ones, the stigmas
cannot be seen at all; but after a time the three, or even six stigmas,
spread wide athwart the flower and above the stamen-star, where they
may receive pollen from the visiting insects. The anthers give abund-
ance of pollen, but there is said to be no nectary present. This flower is a
good guardian of its pollen, for it closes during the nights and also on dark

California poppy.
Drawn by Anna C. Stryke.

6i8

Handbook of N atur e-Study

and rainy days, only exposing its riches when the sunshine insures insect
visitors. It closes its petals in the same order in which they were opened
in our Eastern gardens, although there are statements that in California,
each petal folds singly around its own quota of anthers. The insects in
California take advantage of the closing petals and often get a night’s
lodging within them, where they are cozily housed with plenty of pollen
for supper and breakfast ; and they pay their bill in a strange way by
carrying off as much of the golden meal as adheres to them, just as the
man who weighs gold-dust gets his pay from what adheres to the pan
of his scales.

After the petals fall, the little pod is very small, but its growth is as
astonishing as that of Jack’s beanstalk; it finally attains a slim length
of three inches, and often more. It is grooved, the groove running
straight from its rimmed base to its rosy tip; but later a strange
twisting takes place. If we open one of these capsules, lengthwise, we
must admire the orderly way in which the little green seeds are fastened
by delicate white threads, in two crowded rows, the whole length of
the pod.

The leaf is delicately cut and makes the foliage a fine mass, but each
leaf is quite regular in its form. It has a long, flattened petiole, which
broadens and clasps the stem somewhat at its base. Its blade has five
main divisions, each of which is deeply cut into fingerlike lobes. The
color of this foliage and its form show adaptations to desert conditions.

This plant has a long, smooth tap root, especially adapted for storing
food and moisture needed during the long, dry California summers; for it
is perennial in its native state, although in the wintry East, we plant it as
an annual.

LESSON CLVI
The California Poppy

Leading thought — The California poppy is a native of California. It
blossoms during the months of February, March and April in greatest
abundance. It is found in the desert as well as among the foothills.

. Method — If possible, the students should study this in the garden. In
the East, it flowers until frost comes, and affords a delightful subject for a
September lesson. In California it should be studied in the spring, when
the hills are covered with them. But the plant may be brought into the
schoolroom, root and all, and placed in a jar, under which conditions it
will continue to blossom.

Observations — i. Look at the California poppy as a whole and tell, if
you can, why it is so beautiful when in blossom.

2. Look at the flower bud. What sort of a stem has it? What is
the shape of the stem just below the bud? What is the color of the little
rim on which the bud rests? What peculiarity has this bud ? Describe
the little cap.

3. Watch a flower unfold. What happens to the “toboggan cap?”
How does the bud look after the cap is gone? What is its appearance
when the petals first open? When they are completely open?

4. Describe the anthers. How do they stand when the flower first
opens ? How later ? Can you see the stigmas at first ? Describe them as
they look later.

Cultivated-Plant Study 619

5. Does the poppy remain open at night? Does it remain open
during cloudy or rainy weather ? Why ?

6. Do the petals have the same position that they did in the bud?
As the flower matures, note how each petal curls. Do they all fall at
once? Are there any anthers left after the petals fall?

7. How does the little pod look when the petals first fall? What
happens to it later? Note the little rim at its base. Cut the seed-pod
open lengthwise, examine the seeds with a lens, and describe how they are
fastened to the sides of the pod. Are the ribs straight from end to end in
the pod at first? Do they remain in this position? How does the pod
open and scatter its seeds?

8. Study the leaf of this California poppy. Describe how it joins the
stem. Sketch a leaf showing its chief divisions into leaflets and how each
leaflet is divided. Note that the juice of the stem has the peculiar odor of
muriatic acid.

9. Look at the root. Do you think it is fitted to sustain the plant
through a long, dry summer? What kind of summers do they have in
California? Where does the poppy grow wild?

10. Read all the accounts you can find of the California poppy, and
write a little theme describing why it was chosen as the flower of that great
State, and how it came by its name.

In a low brown meadow on a day
Down by the autumn sea,

I saw a flash of sudden light
In a sweep of lonely gray;

As if a star in a clouded night
One moment had looked on me
And then withdrawn; as if the spring
Had sent an oriole back to sing
A silent song in color, where
Other silence was too hard to bear.

I found it and left it in its place,

The sun-born flower in cloth of gold
That April owns, but cannot hold
From spending its glory and its grace
On months that always . love it less,

But take its splendid alms in their distress.

Back I went through the gray and the brown,

Through the weed-woven trail to the distant town;

The flower went with me, fairly wrought
Into the finest fiber of my thought.

—A California Poppy in November, Irene Hardy

620

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE NASTURTIUM
Teacher's Story

“ Little warriors, brave and fearless, with shields of emerald
green,

Are climbing over fence rails, and everywhere are seen
Looking down on every side, while her brave Nasturtium
army,

Queen Nature views with pride."

— Ray Laurance.

It is quite fitting that the nasturtium leaves
should be shaped like shields , for that is one of their
uses ; they are shields to protect the young nastur-
tium seeds from the hot sun and from the view of
devouring enemies. The nasturtiums are natives
of Peru and Chili, and it is fitting that the leaves
should develop in shield-shape, and the shields
overlap until they form a tent to shade the tender
developing fruit from the burning sun. But they
were never meant to shield the flower, which thrusts
its brilliant petals out between the shields, and calls
loudly to the world to admire it. It would indeed
be a pity for such a remarkable flower to remain
hidden ; its five sepals are united at their base, and
the posterior one is extended into a long spur, a tube
with a delectable nectar-well at its tip. The five
petals are set around the mouth of this tube, the
two upper ones differing in appearance and office
from those below; these two stand up like a pair of
fans, and on them are lines which converge; on the
upper sepals are similar lines pointing toward the
same interesting spot. And what do all these lines
lead to, except a veritable treasure-cave filled with
nectar! The lower petals tell another story; they
stand out, making a platform, or doorstep, on which
the visiting bee alights. But it requires a big insect to do the work of this
flower, and what if some inefficient little bee or fly should alight on the

Cultivated- Plant Stud)

621

petal-doorstep and steal into the cave surreptitiously ! This contingency
is guarded against thus : Each of these lower petals narrows to a mere

insect footbridge at their inner end ; and in order to render this footbridge
quite impassable, it is beset with irregular little spikes and projecting
fringes, sufficient to perplex or discourage any small insect from crawling
that way.

But why all these guiding lines and guarded bridges? If you watch
the same blossom for several successive days, it will reveal this secret.
When a flower first opens, the stamens are all bent downward, but when
an anther is ready to open its pollen doors, the filament lifts it up and
places it like a sentinel blocking the doorway to the nectar treasure.
Then when the robber comes, whether it be butterfly, bee or humming-
bird, it gets a round of pollen ammunition for its daring. Perhaps there

1. Nasturtium flower in early stage of blossoming. Note the

anthers lifted in the path to the nectar which is indicated
by the arrow. The closed stigma is shown deflected at a.

2. The same flower in later stage; the anthers are empty and

deflected. The stigma is raised (a) in the nectar path.

may be two or three anthers standing guard at the same time, but, as soon
as their pollen is exhausted, they shrivel and give room for fresh anthers.
Meanwhile, the stigma has its three lobes closed and lying idly behind and
below the anthers; after all the pollen is shed, the style raises and takes
its position at the cave entrance and opens up its stigmas, like a three-
tined fork, to rake the pollen from any visiting insect, thus robbing the
robber of precious gold-dust which shall fertilize the seeds in its three-
lobed ovary. Although the flower needs to flare its colors wide to call the
bees and hummingbirds, yet the growing seeds must be protected; there-
fore, the stem which held the flower up straight, now twists around in a
spiral and draws the triplet seeds down behind the green shields.

Nasturtium leaves are very pretty, and are often used as subjects for
decorative water-color drawings. The almost circular leaf has its stem
attached below and a little at one side of the center; the leaves are bril-
liant green above but quite pale beneath, and are silvery when placed
beneath the water. The succulent stems have a way of twisting half
around the wires of the trellis and thus holding the plant secure to its
support. But if there is no trellis, the main stem seems to awaken to the

622

Handbook of Nature-Study

x'esponsibility and grows quite stocky, often lifting the plant a foot or two
in height, and from its summit sending out a fountain of leaf and flower
stems.

The nasturtium is among the most interesting and beautiful of our
garden flowers, and will thrive in any warm, sunny, fairly moist place.
Its combinations of color are exceedingly rich and brilliant. H. H. says
of it :

“ How carelessly it wears the velvet of the same
Unfathomed red, which ceased when Titian ceased
To paint it in the robes of doge and priest .”

LESSON CLVII
The Nasturtium

Leading thought — The nasturtium has a special arrangement by which
it sends its own pollen to other flowers and receives pollen from other
flowers by insect messengers.

Method — The nasturtiums and their foliage should be brought into the
schoolroom in sufficient quantity so that each child may have a leaf and a
flower for study. The object of the lesson is to interest the pupils in
studying, in their gardens, one flower from the bud until the petals wither,
taking note of what happens each day and keeping a list of the insect
visitors.

Observations — i. Look at the back of the flower. What is there
peculiar about the sepals? How many sepals are there ? How many join
to make the spur? What is in this spur? Taste of the tip. Find where
the nectar is.

2. Look the flower in the face. How do the two upper petals differ
in shape from the three lower ones? What markings are there on the
upper petals? Where do these lines point ? Are there any markings on
the sepals pointing in the same direction? If an insect visiting a flower
should follow these lines, where would it go?

3. Describe the shape of the lower petals. Suppose a little ant were
on one of these petals and she tried to pass over to the nectar-tube or spur,
would the fringes hinder her?

4. Look down the throat of the spur, and tell what a bee or other
insect would have to crawl over before it could get at the nectar.

5. In your garden, or in the bouquet in the window if you cannot visit

a garden, select a nasturtium that is just opening and watch it every day,
making the following notes : When the blossom first opens where are the

eight stamens? Are the unripe, closed anthers lifted so as to be in the
path of the bee which is gathering nectar? How do the anthers open?
How is the pollen held up in the path to the nectar? Can you see the
stigma of this flower? Where is it? Note the same flower on successive
days: How many anthers are open and shedding pollen to-day? Are

they all in the same position as yesterday? What happens to the anthers
which have shed their pollen ?

6. When the stigma rises in the nectar path, how does it look?
Where are all the anthers when the stigma raises its three tines to rake the
pollen off the visiting insect ? Do you know why it is an advantage to the
nasturtium to develop its seed by the aid of the pollen from another plant ?

Cultivated-Plant Study

623

7. Can you see the beginning
of the seed-case when the stigma
arises to receive the pollen ?

8. The flowers project beyond
the leaves. Do the ripening seed-
cases do this? What happens to
their stems to withdraw them be-
hind the leaf?

9. Sketch a nasturtium leaf,
and explain why it is like a shield. How
does the leaf look when under water?

10. What sort of stem has the nas-
turtium? How does it manage to climb
the trellis? If it has no trellis to climb,
does it lie flat upon the ground?

THE BEE-LARKSPUR
Teacher's Story

This common flower of our gardens, send-
ing up from a mass of dark, deeply-cut leaves
tall racemes of purple or blue flowers, has a
very interesting story to tell those who
watch it day by day and get acquainted with
it and its insects guests. The brilliant color
of the flowers is due to the sepals, which are
purple or blue, in varying shades; but as if to
show that they are sepals instead of petals, each
has-son the back side near its tip, a green thick-
ened spot. If we glance up the flower stalk,
we can see that, in the upper buds, the sepals
are green, but in the lower buds they begin to
show the blue color; and in a bud just ready
to open, we can see that the blue sepals are
each tipped with a green knob, and this remains
green after the sepals expand. The upper and
rearmost sepal is prolonged into a spur, which
forms the outside covering of the nectar-spur;
it is greenish and wrinkled like a long-wristed,
suede glove ; two sepals spread wide at the sides
and two more below. All this expanse of blue
sepals is simply for a background for the petals,
which, by their contrasting color, show the bees
where to probe for nectar. Such inconsequen-
tial petals as they are! Two of them “hold
hands” to make an arch over the entrance to
the nectar tube; and just below these on each
side are two more tiny, fuzzy, spreading petals,
often notched at the tip and always hinged in
a peculiar way about the upper petal; they stand guard at the door
to the nectar storehouse. If we peel off the wrinkled sepal-covering

The bee-larkspur.
Photo by Cyrus Crosby.

02 4

Handbook of Nature-Study

of the spur, we can see the upper petals extending back into it, making
a somewhat double-barreled nectary.

If we look into a larkspur flower just opened, we see below the petals
a bunch of green anthers, hanging by white threadlike filaments to the
center of the flower and looking like a bunch of lilliputian bananas.
Behind these anthers is an undeveloped stigma, not visible as yet.
After the _ flower has been open for a short time, three or four of the
anthers rise up and stand within the lower petals; while in this
position, their white pollen bursts from them, and no bee may then
thrust her tongue into the nectar-spur without being powdered
with pollen. As soon as the anthers have discharged their pollen,
they shrivel and their places are taken by fresh ones. It may
require two or three days for all the anthers' to lift up and get rid of
their pollen. After this has been accomplished, the three white, closely
adhering pistils lift up their three stigmas in the
self-same path to the nectar; and now they are
ready to receive the pollen which the blundering
bee brings from other flowers. Since we cannot
always study the same flower for several conse-
cutive days, we can read the whole story by
studying the flowers freshly opened on the
upper portion of the stalk, and those below them
that are in more advanced stages.

The bees, especially the bumblebee, will tell
the pollenation story to us in the garden. The
contrasting color of the petals and sepals tells
her where to alight; this she does accurately,
and the inconsequential lower petals seem made
for her to grasp; she presses them to her breast
with her front and middle legs with a dramatic,
almost ecstatic, gesture that is comical to wit-
ness, and holds them firmly while she thrusts
her head into the opening between them; she
probes the spur twice, evidently finding there
the two nectar-wells. It is a fascinating past-
time to follow her as she goes from flower to
flower like a Madam Pompadour, powdered
with her white pollen. In order that a bee may
work on these flowers, it is necessary that they
x, Drawing of the bee-lark - hang vertically. The tips of the tall flower

2, Th7 £eTlapsul?etf the stalks are likely to bend or curl overi but n0
bee-larkspur. matter what the direction the broken or bent

stem takes, the flowers will twist around on
their pedicels until they face the world and the bee, exactly as if they were
on a normally erect stem.

All the larkspurs have essentially the same pollen story , although
some have only two petals; in every case the anthers at first hang down,
and later rise up in the path to the nectar, in order to discharge their
pollen; after they wither, the stigmas arise in a similar position.

The bee-larkspur has a very beautiful fruit. It consists of three
graceful capsules rising from the same base and flaring out into pointed
tips. The seeds are fastened to the curved side of e.ach capsule, which.

Cultivated-Plant Study

625

when ripe, opens so that they may be shaken out by the winds. When
studying the bud, we notice two little bracts set at its base and these
remain with the fruit.

LESSON CLVIII
The Bee-larkspur

Leading thought — The bee-larkspur begins blossoming early in the
season, the blossom stalk elongating and developing new buds at its tip
until late in autumn. The flower has a very interesting way of making
the bees carry its pollen.

Method — Bring to the schoolroom a flower stalk of the bee-larkspur,
and there study the structure and mechanism of the flower. This lesson
should inspire the puoils to observe for them-
selves the visiting bees and the maturing seeds.

Ask them to write an account of a bumblebee
making morning calls on the larkspurs

Observations — 1. Which flowers of the lark-
spur open first — those near the tip of the stem or
those below?

2. Examine the buds toward the tip of the
flower stalk. What color are the sepals in
these buds? Do the sepals change color as
the flower opens? Note the little green knobs
which tip the closed sepals that clasp the bud.

What color are the sepals on the open flower?

Is there any green upon them when open?

3. Where is the nectar-spur? Which sepal
forms this ? How are the oth er sepals.arranged ?

4. Now that we know the flower gets its
brilliant color from its sepals, let us find the
petals. Look straight into the flower, and
note what forms the contrasting color of the
heart of the flower; these are the petals. Can
you see that two are joined above the open-
ing into the nectar-tube? How many guard the entrance from below?
How are these lower petals hinged about the upper one? Peel a sepal-
cover from the nectar-spur, and see if the upper petals extend back within
the spur, forming nectar-tubes?

5. Take a flower just opened, and describe what you see below the
petals. What is the color of the anthers? Of the filaments? Can you
see the stigma?

6. Take a flower farther down the stalk, which has therefore been
open longer, and describe the position of the anthers in this. Are there
any of them standing upright ? Are they discharging their pollen ? What
color is the pollen? Are these upright anthers in the way of the bee,
when she thrusts her tongue into the nectar-tube?

7. Take the oldest flower you can find. What has happened to the
anthers? Can you see the pistils in this ? In what position now are the
stigmas ?

8. Push aside the anthers in a freshly opened flower and see if you can
find the stigmas. What is their position? How do they change in form

The larkspur.

1, showing early stage with stig-
ma deflected.

2 . showing advanced stage with
stigma raised.

626

Handbook of N atur e-Study

and position after the pollen is shed ? Do they arise in the path of the
bee before all the pollen from the anthers of their own flower is shed? If
so, how are they pollenated?

9- Suggestions for Observation in the Garden — Watch a bumblebee
working on the larkspur and answer the following questions: How does

she hold on to the flower? Where does she thrust her tongue? Can she
get the nectar without brushing the pollen from the anthers which are
lifting up at the opening of the nectar-tube? In probing the older flow-
ers, how would she come in contact with the lifted stigmas? How do the
petals contrast in color with the sepals? Does this tell the bees where to
look for nectar? Compare the common larkspur with the bee-larkspur,
and notice the likeness and difference. What kind of fruit capsules has
the bee-larkspur? Describe the seeds, and how they are scattered.

THE BLUE FLAG, OR IRIS
Teacher's Story

Beautiful lily, dwelling by still rivers
Or solitary mere,

Or where the sluggish meadow brook delivers
Its waters to the weir!

The burnished dragon fly is thine attendant,

And tilts against the field,

And down the listed sunbeams rides resplendent
With steel-blue mail and shield.

— From “Flower-de-luce,'’ Henry W. Longfellow.

The iris blossom has a strange appearance, and this is because nothing
in it is as it seems. The style of the pistil is divided into three broad
branches and they look like petals; and they have formed a conspiracy
with the sepals to make a tunnel for bees, leaving the petals out of the
plan entirely and the sepals “rise to the occasion.” The petals stand up
lonely between the three strangely matched pairs, and all they accomplish
by their purple guiding lines, is to basely deceive the butterflies and other
insects which are in the habit of looking for nectar at the center of a
flower. If we look directly down into the flower of the blue flag, there are
ridges on the broad styles and purple veins on the petals, all pointing
plainly to the center of the flower, and any insect alighting there would
naturally seek for nectar-wells where all these lines so plainly lead. But
there is an “April fool” for the insects which trust to these guides, for there
is no nectar to be had there. Dr. Needham, in his admirable study of this
flower and its visitors (American Naturalist, May, 1900), tells us that he
has seen the little butterflies called “skippers,” the flag weevils and the
flower beetles all made victims of this deceptive appearance ; this is evi-
dence that the nectar guiding lines on flowers are noted and followed by
insects.

The blue flag is made for bees; the butterflies and beetles are inter-
lopers and thieves at best. The bees are never deceived into seeking the
nectar in the wrong place. They know to a certainty that the sepal with

Cultivated-Plant Study

627

Iris in blossom.
Photo by Verne Morton.

its purple and yellow tip and many guiding lines although far from the
center of the flower, is the sure path to the nectar. A bee alights on the
lip of the sepal, presses forward scraping her back against the down-
hanging stigma, then scrapes along the open anther which lies along the
roof of the tunnel; and she here finds a pair of guiding lines each leading
to a nectar-well at the very base of the sepal. The bees which Dr. Need-
ham found doing the greatest work as pollen-carriers were small solitary
bees ( Clisodon terminalis and Osmia destructa) ; each of these alighted
with precision on the threshhold of the side door, pushed its way in, got
the nectar from both wells, came out and sought another side door
speedily. One might ask why the bee in coming out did not deposit the
pollen from its own anther upon the stigma ; but the stigma avoids this
by hanging down, like a flap to a tent, above the entrance, and its sur-
face for receiving pollen is directed so that it gathers pollen from the
entering bee and turns its back to the bee that is just making its exit.

The arrangement of the flower parts of the iris may be described
briefly thus: three petals, three sepals, a style with three branches ; the
latter being broad and flat and covering the bases of the three sepals,
making tubes which lead to the nectar; three anthers lie along the
under side of the styles. The wild yellow iris is especially fitted for
welcoming the bumblebee as a pollen-carrier, since the door between
the style and the sepal is large enough to admit this larger insect.
The bumblebees and the honey-bees work in the different varieties
of iris in gardens.

6z8

Handbook of Nature-Study

In some varieties of iris
there is a plush rug belong the
vestibule floor over which the
bee passes to get the nectar.
Through a lens, this plush is
exquisite — the nap of white
filaments standing up and tip-
ped with brilliant yellow. Vari-
ous theories as to the use of this
plush have been advanced, the
most plausible being that it is
to keep the ants out ; but the
ant could easily pass along
either side of it. While holding
an iris in my hand, one day in
the garden, a bumblebee visited
it eagerly, never noting me;
after she had probed the nectar-
wells, she probed or nibbled
among the plush, working it
thoroughly on her way out.
Was she a foolish bee, or did
she find something there to
eat? What child will find if
other bees do this?

LESSON CLIX
The Blue Flag or Iris

Leading thought — Each iris flower has three side doors leading to the
nectar-wells; and the bees, in order to get the nectar, must brush off the
pollen dust on their backs.

Method — While the blue flag is the most interesting of our wild species
of iris, yet the flower-de-luce, or the garden iris, is quite as valuable for
this lesson. The form of the flowers may be studied in the schoolroom,
but the pupils should watch the visiting insects in the garden or field.

Observations — i. Look for the side doors of the iris blossom. Which
part of the flower forms the doorstep? How is it marked to show the
way in? Which part of the flower makes the arch above the door?

2. Find the anther, and describe how it is placed. Gan you see two
nectar-wells? Explain how a bee will become dusted with pollen while
getting the nectar.

3 . Where is the stigma ? What is there very peculiar about the styles
of the iris? Can a bee, when backing out from the side door, dust the
Stigma with the pollen she has just swept off? Why not? How does the
stigma of the next flower that the bee visits get some of the pollen from
her back ?

4. Look straight down into an iris flower. Can you see the three
petals? How are they marked? How would these lines on the petals
mislead any insect that was searching for nectar?

5. Watch the insects visiting the iris. Do you know what they are?
What do they do?

Detail of the blossoms of the blue flag flower.

t. Side-view of the passage to the nectar.

1, Looking directly into the iris flowers. Note the
deceiving guide-lines in the petals.

Cultivated-Plant Study

629

What

6. Describe the way the iris flower-bud is enfolded in bracts,
is there peculiar about the way the iris leaves join the stem?

7 . How many kinds of flag, or iris, d o you know ?

S. Describe the seed-vessel and seeds of the iris.

Fleur-de-lts.
Photo by Cyrus Crosby.

The fleur-de-lis is the national flower of France.

“It is said that the Franks of old had a custom , at the proclamation of a king, 0}
elevating him upon a shield or target, and placing in his hand a reed, or flag in blossom,
instead of a sceptre.”

— “Among the Flowers and Trees with the Poets”, Wait and Leonard.

Ihe sunflower. Next to the ray-flowers are the florets in last stages of blossoming with
stigmas protruding; next within are rows in the earlier stage with pollen bursting
from anther-tubes, while at center are the unopened buds.

Cultivated-Plant Study

631

THE SUNFLOWER
Teacher's Story

Many of the most beautiful of the autumn flowers belong to the
Compositae , a family of such complicated flower arrangement that it is
very difficult for the child or the beginner in botany to comprehend it;
and yet, when once understood, the composite scheme is very simple and
beautiful, and is repeated over and over in flowers of very different
appearance. It is a plan of flower cooperation; there are many flowers
associated to form a single flower-head. Some of these, the “ray,” or
“banner,” flowers, hold out bright pennants to attract the attention of
insects; while the disk-flowers, which they surround, attend to the matter
of the pollenation and production of seed.

The large garden sunflower is the teacher’s ally to illustrate to the
children the story of the composites. Its florets are so large that it is like
a great wax model. And what could be more interesting than to watch
its beautiful inflorescence — that orderly march toward the center in
double lines of anther columns, with phalanxes bearing the stigmas sur-
rounding them; and outside all, the ranks of ray-flowers flaunting their
flags to herald to the world this peaceful conquest of the sleeping, tented
buds at the center?

Ordinarily, in nature-study we do not pull the flowers apart, as is
necessary in botany; in nature-study, all that we care to know of the
flower is what it does, and we can see that without dissection. But with
the composite the situation is quite different. Here we have an assem-
blage of flowers, each individual doing its own work for the community;
and in order to make the pupils understand this fact it is necessary to
study the individual florets.

We begin with the study of one of the buds at the center of the flower-
head; this shows the white, immature seed below, and the closed, yellow
corolla-tube above. Within the corolla may be seen the brown anther-
tube, and on the upper part of the seed are two little, white, earlike
scales, to which especial notice should be directed, since in other compo-
sites there are many of these scales and they form the pappus — the bal-
loon to carry the seed. The bud shows best the protecting chaffy scale
which enfolds the seed, its pointed, spine-edged tip being folded over the
young bud, as may be seen by examining carefully the center of a freshly
opened sunflower. In this tubular bud (see Fig. p. 632), there is a tele-
scopic arrangement of the organs, and one after another is pushed out.
First, the corolla-tube opens, starlike, with five pointed lobes, very pretty
and graceful, with a bulblike base; from this corolla pushes out the dark-
brown tube, made up of five anthers grown together. By opening the
corolla, we see the filaments of the stamens below the joined anthers.
This anther tube, if examined through a lens, shows rows of tiny points
above and below, two to each anther, as if they had been opened like a
book to join edges with their neighbors. The anther-tube is closed at the
tip, making a five-sided cone;' and at the seams, the yellow pollen bulges
out, in starlike rays. The pollen bulges out for good reason, for behind it
is the stigma, like a ramrod, pushing all before it in the tube for it is its
turn next to greet the outer world. The two stigma-lobes are pressed
together like the halves of a.sharpened pencil, and they protrude through
the anther-tube as soon as all the pollen is safely pushed out ; then the

Handbook of Nature-Study

632

The flower of the sunflower -head enlarged.

1. A floret of the sunflower in the bud-stage as it appears at the center of the

sunflower. Note the protecting bract at the right,

2. A floret in earliest stage of blossoming.

3. A floret in the latest stage of bloom with the parts named

4. A ray or banner- flower.

stigma-lobes separate, each curling backwards so as to offer a receptive
surface to welcome pollen grains from other florets, or even other sun-
flowers. In the process of curling back, they press the anther-tube down
into the corolla, and thus make the floret shorter than when in the pollen
stage. The banner-flower differs in many essentials from the perfect
florets of the disk. If we remove one from the flower-head, we find at its
base a seedlike portion, which is a mere pretense; it is shrunken, and
never can be a seed because it has connected with it no stigma to bring to
it the pollen. Nor does this flower have stamens nor a tubular corolla;
instead it has one great, petallike banner, many times longer and wider
than the corollas of the other flowers. All this flower has to do is to hold
its banner aloft as a sign to the world, especially the insect world, that
here is to be found pollen in plenty, and nectar for the probing.

But more wonderful than the perfection of each floret is their arrange-
ment in the flower-head. Around the edge of the disk the banner-flowers,
in double or treble rank, flare wide their long petals like the rays of the
sun, making the sunflower a most striking object in the landscape. If
the sunflower has been open for several days, next to the ray-flowers will
be seen a circle of star-mouthed corollas from which both ripened pollen
and stigmas have disappeared, and the fertilized seeds below them are
attaining their growth. Next comes a two or three-ranked circle, where
the split, coiled-back stigma-lobes protrude from the anther-tubes ; within
this circle may be two or three rows of florets, where pollen is being pushed
out in starry radiance ; and within this ring there may be a circle where
the anther-tubes are still closed ; while at the center lie the buds, arranged
in exquisite pattern of circling radii, cut by radii circling in the opposite
direction; and at the very center the buds are covered with the green
spear-points of their bracts. I never look at the buds in the sunflower
without wondering if the study of their arrangement is not the basis of
much of the most exquisite decoration in Moorish architecture. To

Cultivated-Plant Study

63 s

appreciate fully this procession of the bloom of the sunflower from its rim
to its center, we need to watch it day by day — then only can its beauty
become a part of us.

The great, green bracts, with their long pointed tips, which “shingle”
the house of every sunflower family, should be noted with care, because
these bracts have manifold forms in the great Compositae family ; and the
pupil should learn to recognize this part of the flower-head, merely from
its position. In the burdocks, these bracts form the hooks which fasten
to the passer-by; in the thistle, they form the prickly vase about the
blossom; while in the pearly everlasting, they make the beautiful, white,
shell-like mass of the flower which we treasure as immortal. In the sun-
flower, these bracts are very ornamental, being feltlike outside and very
smooth inside, bordered with fringes of pretty hairs, which may be seen
best through a lens. They overlap each other regularly in circular rows,
and each bract is bent so as to fit around the disk.

In looking at a mass of garden sunflowers, we are convinced that the
heavy heads bend the stems, and this is probably true, in a measure.
But the stems are very solid and firm, and the bend is as stiff as the elbow
of a stovepipe; and after examining it, we are sure that this bend is made
with the connivance of the stem, rather than despite it. Probably most
people, the world over, believe that sunflowers twist their stems so that
their blossoms face the sun all day. This belief shows the utter content-
ment of most people with a pretty theory. If you believe it, you had best
ask the first sunflower you see if it is true, and she will answer you if you
will ask the question morning, noon and night. My own observations
make me believe that the sunflower, during the later weeks of its bloom, is
like the Mohammedan, keeping its face toward the east. True, I have
found many exceptions to this rule, although I have seen whole fields of
sunflowers facing eastward, when the setting sun was gilding the backs of
their great heads. If they do turn with the sun, it must be in the period
of earliest blossoming before they become heavy with ripening seeds.

The sunflower seed is eagerly sought by many birds, and it is raised
extensively for chicken-feed. The inadequate little pappus falls off, and
the seeds are set, large end up, in the very ornamental diamond-shaped
sockets. They finally become loosened, and now we see a reason for the
bending flower-head ; for, as the great stem is assaulted by the winds of
autumn, the bended heads shake out their seed and scatter them far
afield.

LESSON CLX
The Sunflower

Leading thought — The sunflower is not a single flower, but is a large
family of flowers living together ; and each little flower, or floret, as it is
called, has its own work to do for the family welfare.

Method — Early in September, when school first opens, is the time for
this lesson. If sunflowers are growing near by, they should be studied
where they stand; and their story may thus be more completely told.
Otherwise, a sunflower should be brought to the schoolroom and placed in
water. If one is selected which has just begun to blossom, it will show,
day by day, the advance of the blossoming ranks. I have kept such a
flower fourteen days, and it blossomed cheerfully from its rim to its very

634

Handbook of N ature-Study

center A large sunflower that has only partially blossomed is also
needed for taking apart to show the arrangement of this big flower-family.
Take a bud from the center, a floret showing anther-tube and another
showing the curled pair of stigmas, and a ray or banner-flower. (See
Fig. p. 632). Each pupil should be furnished with these four florets; and
after they have studied them, show them the other half of the sunflower,
with each floret in place. After this preliminary study, let them observe
the blossoming sunflower for several consecutive da^s.

Observations — 1 . A little flower which is part of a big flower-family is
called a floret. You have before you three florets of a sunflower and a
banner-flower. Study first the bud. Of how many parts is it composed ?
What will the lower, white part develop into? Can you see two little
white points stan ding up from it on each side of the bud ? Note the shape
and color of the unopened floret. Note that there is a narrow, stiff, leaf-
like bract, which at its base clasps the young seed, while its pointed tip
bends protectingly over the top of the bud.

2 . Take an open floret with the long, dark brown tube projecting from
it. Note that the young seed is somewhat larger than in the bud, and
that it still has its earlike projections at the top. Describe the shape of
the open corolla. Look at the brown tube with a lens. How many sides
has it ? How many little points projecting at the top and bottom on each
side of the tube? How does the tube look at the tip, through a lens?
Can you see the pollen bursting out? Tf so, how does it look? Do you
think that there is just one tubular anther, or do you think several
anthers are joined together to make this tube? Open the corolla-tube
carefully, and see if you can answer this last Question. Open the anther-
tube, and see if you can find the pistil with its stigmas.

3. Take a floret with the two yellow horns of the stigma projecting.
Where is the brown anther-tube now? Is it as long as in the floret you
have just studied ? What has happened to it ? What did the stigmas do
to the pollen in the anther-tube ? How do the two parts or lobes of the
stigma look when they first project? How later?

4. Make a banner-flower. How many parts are there to it? How
does the seedlike portion of the blossom look? Do you think it will ever
be a good seed? Describe the corolla of this flower. How much larger is
it than the corolla of the florets? Has the banner-flower any pistil or
stamens? Of what use is the banner-flower to the sunflower family? Do
you think that we would plane sunflowers in our gardens for their beauty
if they had no banner-flowers ?

5. After studying the separate flowers, study a sunflower in blossom,
and note the following* Where are the banner-flowers placed? How
many rows are there ? How are they set so that their banners make the
sunflower look like the sun? Do you see why the central portion of the
sunflower is called the disk, and the banner-flowers are called the rays —
in imitation of the sun ?

6. Next to the banner-flowers, what sort of florets appear? How
many rows are there ? What kind form the next circle, and in how many
rows? What stages of the florets do you find forming the inner circle,
and how many rows ? What do you find at the center of the flower-head i
Note the beautiful pattern in which the buds are arranged. Can you see
the separate buds at the very center of the sunflower? If not, why?

Cultivated-Plant Study

635

7. Make notes on a, sunflower that has just opened, describing the
stages of the florets that are in blossom; continue these notes every day
for a week, describing, each day, what has happened. If the sunflower
you are observing is in garden or field, note how many days elapse between
the opening of the outer row of flowers and the opening of the central
buds.

8. Look below or behind the sunflower, and note the way it is at-
tached to the stem. What covers the disk? These green, overlapping,
leaflike structures are called bracts. What is the shape of one of these
bracts ? What is its texture, outside and inside ? Look at it, with a lens.;
along the edges, and note what you see. How are the bracts arranged?
Do they not “shingle” the house in which the sunflower-family lives?
This covering of the disk, or the house where the sunflower-family lives, is
called the involucre.

9. Does the stem of the sunflower hold it upright? Some people
declare that it twists its stem so as to face the sun all day. Do you think
this is true ?

10. Study a sunflower-head after the seeds are ripe. Do the little
ears which you saw at the top of the seeds still remain? How does the
sunflower scatter the seeds? Note how the disk looks after the seeds are
all gone. What birds are especially fond of sunflower seeds? Of what
use are the seeds commercially?

“ Flowers have an expression of countenance as much as men or animals. Some
seem to smile; some have a sad expression; some are pensive and diffident; others
again are plain, honest, and upright, like the broad-faced Sunflower, and the hollyhock .'

— Henry Ward Beecher.

“ Eagle of flowers! 1 see thee stand,

And on the sun's noon-glory gaze;

With eye like his thy lids expand
A nd fringe their disk with golden rays;

Though fixed on earth, in darkness rooted there,

Light is thy element, thy dwelling air,

Thy prospect heaven."

— “The Sunflower”, Montgomery.

636

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE BACHELOR’S BUTTON
Teacher's Story

This beautiful garden flower gives
a variation in form from other com-
posites when studied according to
Lesson CXXXV. This valued garden
flower came to us from Europe and it
sometimes escapes cultivation and
runs wild in a gentle way. We call
it bachelor’s button; but in Europe
it is called the cornflower, and under
this name it found its way into litera-
ture. None of the flowers that live
in families repays close study better
than does the bachelor’s button.
The ray-flowers are tubular but they
do not have banners. Their tubes
flare open like trumpets, and they are
indeed color trumpets heralding to
the insect world that there is nectar
for the probing and pollen for ex-
change. Looked at from above, the
ray-flowers do not seem tubular;
from the sides, they show as uneven-
mouthed trumpets with lobed edges;
but though we search each trumpet
to its slender depths we can find no
pistils. These ray-flowers have no
duty in the way of maturing seeds.
In some varieties the ray-flowers are
white, and in others they are blue
and purple. They vary in number
from 7 to 1 4, or more.

The disk-flowers have a long
corolla-tube, which is white and
delicately lobed and is enlarged
toward the upper end to a purple
bulb with five, long, slender lobes.
The anther-tube is purplish black,
and is bent into almost a hook, the
tip opening toward the middle
of the flower-head. The
pollen is glistening white tinged with yellow, and
looks very pretty as it bursts out from the dark tubes.

The purple stigma first appears with its tips close to-
gether, but with a pollen brush just below it ; later it opens
into a short Y. The buds at the center of the flower are
bent hook-shaped over the center of the flower-head. The °Pen

involucral bracts or “shingles” are very pretty, each one
ornamented with a scaly fringe; they form a long, elegantly below. En •
shaped base to the flower-head. After the flowers have gone larged.

A bachelor' s button. Note the trumpet-
shape of the ray- flowers.

Photo by Cyrus Crosby.

Cultivated-Plant Study

637

and the seeds have ripened, these bracts flare open, making a wide-
mouthed urn from which the ripened seeds are shaken by the winds; and
after the seeds are gone,
the white fuzz of their
empty cases remains at
the bottom of the urn.

The seed is plump and
shining, with a short
fringe of pappus around
the top and a contracted
place at one side near
the base where it grew
fast to the receptacle;
for these seeds are not set
on end, as are those of
the sunflower. The short
pappus is hardly suffici-
ent to buoy up the seed,
and yet undoubtedly
aids it to make a flying
jump with the passing
breeze.

LESSON CLXI

The Bachelor’s
Button

Leading thought —

Each bachelor’s button
is made up of many
little flowers which may
be studied by the outline
given in Lesson CXXXV .

THE SALVIA, OR
SCARLET SAGE
Teacher's Story
The flower story of
the sage is so peculiar
that Darwin has used it
to illustrate the mechan-
isms present in some
flowers which the visit-
ing insects must work in
order to get the nectar.

The scarlet sage, which
gladdens our flower beds
during the summer and
autumn with its bril- The salvia , or scarlet sage, showing the bracts still

liance, has as interesting present above and falling as the flowers open.

638

Handbook of Nature-Study

a story as has any of its family. Looking at it from the outside, we
should say that its nectar-wells lie too deep to be reached by any insect
except a moth or butterfly, or a humming bird; there is no platform for
a bee to alight upon, and the tube is too long to be fathomed by a bee’s
tongue; but the bees are very good business folk; they adapt themselves
to flowers that are not adapted to them, and in autumn the glow of the
salvia attracts the eye scarcely more than the hum of the visiting bees
attracts the ear.

The calyx of the salvia is as red as the corolla, and is somewhat fuzzy
while the corolla is smooth. The calyx is a three-lobed bulging tube
held stiff by rather strong veins; there is one large lobe above and two
small ones below the corolla. The corolla is a tube which is more than
twice the length of the calyx; it is prolonged above into a projecting
hood, which holds the anthers and the stigma; it has a short, cuplike
lower lip and two little turned-back, earlike lobes at the side.

The special mechanism of the salvia is shown in the stamens; there are
two of these lying flat along the floor of the corolla-tube and grown fast to
it. Near the mouth of the tube, each of these lifts up at a broad angle to
the roof, and is more or less T-shaped, at the tip of one of the arms of the
T is an anther while the other arm is longer and slants down and inward to
the floor of the tube, as shown at 2 in the figure.

The bee visiting the flower and entering the corolla-tube, pushes her
head against the inner arms of the stamens, lifting them, and in so doing
causes the anthers on the front arms of the T to lower and leave streaks of
pollen along her fuzzy sides. The stigma is at first concealed in the hood ;

but, when ripe, it pro-
jects and hangs down in
front of the opening of
the corolla-tube, whe.
it may be brushed along
one side or the other by
the visiting insect, which
has been dusted with
the pollen of some other
flower. The stigma-
lobes open in such a
manner that they do not
catch the pollen from
the insect backing out of
their own corolla. As the
nectar is at the base of
the corolla-tube, the
bees, in order to get it,
crawl in almost out of
sight. Late in the sea-
son they seem to “go
as she crazy” when gathering
this nectar; I have often
seen them searching the
bases of the corolla-tubes which have fallen to the ground, in order to ge*
vhat is left of the sweet treasure.

Blossom of scarlet sage as seen from outside.

The same flower with side removed showing the
arrangement of its parts.

A bee working the stamen's mechanism
seeks the nectar.

Cultivated-Plant Study

639

But the pollen story is not all that is of interest in the salvia. Some of
the parts of the flower which are green in most blossoms, are scarlet as a
cardinal’s robe in this. If we glance at a flower stalk, we see that at its
tip it looks like a braided, flattened cone; this appearance is caused by
the scarlet, long-pointed bracts, each of which covers, with its bulging
base, the scarlet calyx which in turn enfolds the scarlet flower bud.
These bracts fall as the flowers are ready to open, making a brilliant
carpet about the plant. Each flower stem continues to develop buds at
its tip for a long season; and this, taken together with its scarlet bracts
and flowers, renders the salvia a thing of beauty in our gardens, and
makes it cry aloud to pollen-carriers that here, even in late autumn, there
is plenty of nectar.

LESSON CLXII
Salvia, or Scarlet Sage

Leading thought — This flower has the bracts and calyx: scarlet instead
of green, and this makes it a brilliant mass of color to please our eyes and
attract the pollen-carrying insects. Its anthers are arranged at the tip of
two levers, which the insects push up and down as they enter the flower,
thus becoming dusted with pollen.

Method — The structure of this flower may be studied in the schoolroom
and its mechanism there understood; but the most important part of the
lesson is the observation out-of-doors upon the way the bees work the
stamen levers when seeking the nectar. This is best observed during late
September or October, after other flowers are mostly gone, and when the
bees are working with frantic haste to get all the honey possible.

Observations — 1. How does the calyx of the salvia differ from that of
other flowers in color? How does it differ from the corolla in texture?
How many lobes has it? How are they placed about the corolla?

2. What is the shape of the corolla? How does it make a hood over
the entrance to the tube? What does the hood hold ? Is there any plat-
form made by the lower lip of the corolla for a visiting insect to alight
upon ?

3. Cut open one side of the corolla and describe how the stamens are
arranged. Thrust your pencil into an uninjured flower and see if the
anthers in the hood are moved by it. How? Describe how a bee in
visiting this flower moves the anthers so as to become dusted with pollen.

4. Where is the stigma? How does it receive pollen from visiting
insects? Would it be likely to get the pollen which has just been scraped
off from its own anthers by the bee ? Why ?

5. Experiment to find where the nectar is. Do you ever see bees
getting the nectar from fallen flowers? Do they get it from the “front”
or the “back door?”

6. What other parts of this flower are red, which in other flowers are
green? How does this make the budding portions of the flower stem
look? Why does this make the salvia a more beautiful plant for our
gardens?

7. Compare the mechanism of the stamens of the scarlet sage with
the mechanism, of the stamens of the common garden sage.

640

Handbook of bl ature -Study

Drawn by Anna C. Stryke.

PETUNIAS

Teacher's Story

HESE red-purple and white flowers, which,
massed in borders and beds, make gay our gar-
dens and grounds in late summer and early
autumn, have an interesting history. Professor
L. H. Bailey uses it as an illustration in his
thought-inspiring book, “The Survival of the Unlike;’’ he says that our
modern petunias are a strange compound of two original species;
the first one was found on the shores of the La Plata in South America
and was introduced into Europe in 1823. “It is a plant of upright
habit, thick sticky leaves and sticky stems, and very long-tubed
white flowers . which exhale a strong perfume at nightfall.” The
second species of petunia came from seeds sent from Argentina to the
Glasgow Botanical Gardens in 1831. “This is a more compact plant
than the other, with a decumbent base, narrower leaves and small, red-
purple flowers which have a very broad or ventricose tube, scarcely twice
longer than the slender calyx lobes.” This plant was called Petunia
violacea and it was easily hybridized with the white species; it is now,
strangely enough, lost to cultivation, although the white species is found
in some old gardens. The hybrids of these two species are the ancestors
of our garden petunias, which show the purple-red and white of their pro-
genitors. The petunias are of the Nightshade family and are kin to
the potato, tomato, egg-plant,- tobacco and Jimson-weed, and, like the
latter, the flowers are especially adapted to give nectar to the long-
tongued sphinx or humming bird moths.

The petunia corolla is tubular, and the five lobes open out in salver-
shape; each lobe is slightly notched at its middle, from which point a
marked midrib extends to the base of the tube. In some varieties the
edges of the lobes are ruffled. Within the throat of the tube may be seen
a network of darker veins, and in some varieties this network spreads out
over the corolla-lobes. Although many colors have been developed in
petunias, the red-purple and white still predominate; when the two colors
combine in one flower, the pattern may be symmetrical, but is often
broken and blotchy.

Cultivated-Plant Study

641

When a flower-bud is nearly ready to open the long, bristly tube of the
corolla lies with its narrow base set in the calyx, the long, fuzzy lobes of
which flare out in bell-shape ; the tube is marked by lengthwise lines made
by the five midribs; the lobes of the corolla are folded along the outer
portions of these midribs, and these folded tips are twisted together much
as if some one had given them a half turn with the thumb and finger. It
is a pleasing experience to watch one of these flowers unfold. When a
flower first opens, there lies near the bottom of the throat of the tube the
green stigma, with two anthers snuggled up in front of it and two behind
it, the latter being not quite so advanced in age as the former. As the
filaments of the front pair of anthers are longer than those of the rear pair,
the little group lies at a low angle offering a dusty doormat for entering
insects. If we open a flower at this stage, we find another anther, as yet
unopened, and which is on the shortest stamen of the five. This seems to
be a little pollen-reserve, perhaps for its own use later in the season.
There is an interesting mechanism connected with these stamens ; each is
attached to the corolla-tube at the base for about half its length, and at
the point of attachment curves suddenly inward so as to “cuddle up” to
the pistil, the base of which is set in the nectar-well at the bottom of the
flower. If we introduce a slender pencil or a toothpick into the flower-
tube along the path which the moth’s tongue must follow to reach the
nectar, we can see that the stamens, pressing against it at the point where
they curve inward, cause the anthers to move about so as to discharge
their pollen upon it ; and as the toothpick is withdrawn they close upon it
cogently so that it carries off all the pollen with which it is brought in
contact.

If we look at the stigma at the center of its anther-guard, it has a cer-
tain close-fisted appearance, although its outer edges may be dusted with
the pollen ; as the flower grows older, the stigma stands above the empty
anthers at the throat of the flower tube
and opens out into two distinct lobes.

Even though it may have accepted some
of its own pollen, it apparently opens up
a new stigmatic surface for the pollen
brought from other flowers by visiting
insects.

Dr. James G. Needham says that at
Lake Forest he has been attracted to the
petunia beds in the twilight by the whir-
ring of the wings of countless numbers of
sphinx, or hummingbird moths which
were visiting these flowers. We also
may find these moths hovering over
petunia beds in almost any region if we
visit them on the warmer evenings.

And it is a safe guess that the remote
white ancestor of our petunias had some
special species of sphinx moth which it
depended upon for carrying its pollen ;
and the strong perfume it exhaled at nightfall was an odor signal to
its moth friends to come and feast.

A petunia blossom cut open on the
upper side, showing the pistil sur-
rounded by the incurved stamens
and the partially opened stigma
surrounded by the anthers. Note
the short stamen below the pistil.

642

Handbook of Nature-Study

But even though the petunia flowers are especially adapted to the
delectation of hummingbird moths, our bees which — like man — have
claimed all the earth, will work industriously in the petunias, scrambling
into the blossoms with much remonstrating, high-pitched buzzing because
of the tight fit, and thus rifle the nectar-wells that were meant for insects
of quite different build.

The leaves of the petunia are so broadly ovate as to be almost lozenge-
shape, especially the lower ones; they are soft, and have prominent veins
on the lower side; they are without stipules, and have short flat petioles.
The stems are soft and fuzzy and are usually decumbent at the base,
except the central stems of a stool or clump which, though surrounded by
kneeling sisters, seem to prefer to stand up straight.

The flower stems come off at the axils of the leaves, the lower flowers
open first. The blossoms remain open about two days; at the first sign
of fading, the lobes of the corolla droop dejectedly like a frill that has lost
its starch, and finally the corolla — tube and all — drops off, leaving a little
conical seed-capsule nestled snugly in the heart of the bell-shaped calyx.
At this time, if this peaked cap of the seed-capsule be removed, the many
seeds look like tiny white pearls set upon the fleshy, conical placenta. As
the capsule ripens, it grows brown and glossy like glazed manila paper and
it is nearly as thin ; then it cracks precisely down its middle, and the seeds
are spilled out at any stirring of the stems. The ripe seeds are dark
brown, almost as fine as dust, and yet, when examined with a lens, they
are seen to be exquisitely netted and pitted.

References — The Survival of the Unlike, L. H. Bailey; The Encyclo-
pedia of Horticulture, Bailey; Our Garden Flowers, Harriet Keeler.

LESSON CLXIII
The Petunia

Leading thought — The petunias have an interesting history being
native to South America. Their flowers are fitted by form and mechanism
to entice the hummingbird moths as visitors, and to use them for carrying
pollen.

Method — The petunias are such determined bloomers that they give us
flowers up to the time of killing frosts, and they are therefore good material
for nature lessons. Each pupil should have a flower in hand to observe
during the lesson, and should also have access to a petunia bed for
observations on the habits of the plant.

Observations — 1. What colors do you find in the petunia flowers? If
striped or otherwise marked, what are the colors? Are the markings
symmetrical and regular?

2. Sketch or describe a flower, looking into it. What is the shape of
the corolla-lobes? How many lobes are there? How are they veined?
What peculiar markings are at the throat of the flower?

3. What are the color and position of the stigma? How are the
stamens arranged ? How many anthers do you see ? What is the color
of the anthers ? Of the pollen ?

4. Sketch or describe the flower from the side. What is the shape of
the corolla-tube ? Is it smooth or fuzzy? How is it marked ? What are
the number and shape of the sepals, or lobes, of the calyx?

Cultivated-Plant Study

643

5. Study a freshly opened flower, and describe the position and
appearance of the anthers and stigma. Do they remain in these relative
positions after the flower is old ?

6. Cut open a flower, slitting it along the upper side. Describe the
stamens and how they aj-e attached. Is the pistil attached in the same
manner? Where is the nectar? Thrust a slender pencil or a toothpick
into the tube of a fresh flower. Does this spread the anthers apart and
move them around ? When it is withdrawn, is there pollen on it? Can
you see in your open flower the mechanism by which the pollen is dusted
on the object thrust into the flower?

7. What insects have tongues sufficiently long to reach the nectar-
well at the bottom of the petunia flower? At what time do these insects
fly ? At what time of day do most of the petunia flowers open ? Visit the
petunia beds in the twilight, and note whether there are any insects visit-
ing them. What insects do you find visiting these flowers during the day ?

8. Sketch or describe the leaves of the petunia. How do the leaves
feel ? Look at a leaf with a lens and note the fringe of hair along its edges.
Describe the veining of the leaf.

9. Describe the petunia s.tems. Are they stout or slender? How do
they feel? With what are they covered? Where do the flower stems
come off the main stalk ?

10. Describe or sketch a flower-bud just ready to open. How are the
tips of the lobes folded? How long does the flower remain in bloom?
What is the first sign of its fading?

nr Describe the seed-capsule. Where does it open ? Are the seeds
many or few, large or small? What is their color when ripe? When
examined with a lens, have they any pits or markings?

THE HORSESHOE GERANIUM
Teacher's Story

The geraniums perhaps do more to brighten the world than almost any
other cultivated flowers. They will grow for every one, whether for the
gardener in the conservatory of the rich, or in a tin can on the windowsill
of the crowded tenement of the poor. And it is interesting to know that
this common plant has a cultivated ancestry of two hundred years’
standing These geraniums, which are really not geraniums botanically
but are pelargoniums , originally came from southern Africa, and the two
ancestors of our common bedding geraniums were introduced into England
in 1710 and 1714.

The geranium is of special value to the teacher, since it is available for
study at any season of the year, and has a most interesting blossom. The
single-flowered varieties should be used for this lesson, since the blossoms
that are double have lost their original form. Moreover, the geranium’s
blossom is so simple that it is of special value as a subject for a beginning
lesson in teaching the parts of a flower; and its leaves and stems may
likewise be used for the first lessons in plant structure.

The stem is thick and fleshy , and is downy on the new growth ; there is
much food stored in these stems, which accounts for the readiness with
which cuttings from them will grow. Wherever a leaf comes off the stem,
it is guarded, by two stipules at the base; these stipules often remain after

644

Handbook oj Nature-Study

the leaves have fallen, thus giving the stem an unkempt look. The
leaves are of various shapes, although of one general pattern; they are
circular and beautifully scalloped and lobed, with veins for every lobe
radiating from the petiole; they are velvety above and of quite different

Horseshoe Geranium.

Photo by Sheldon.

Note the positions of the opened flowers and the buds. Note the shape of the two upper
petals with their guide-lines, showing the position of the nectar-gland. The flower at the left, seen
in profile, shows that these upper petals project farther forward than those below. Note.,, the
cluster of young buds set in a circlet of bracts just below this flower.

texture beneath, and many show the dark horseshoe which gives the name
to this variety. The petiole is usually long and stiff and the leaves are set
alternately upon the stem.

The flower has five petals, and at first glance they seem of much the
same shape and position ; but if we look at them carefully, we see that the
upper two are much narrower at the base and project farther forward than

Cultivated-Plant Study

645

do the lower three . Moreover, there are certain lines on these upper petals
all pointing toward the center of the flower; these are the nectar guide-
lines, and if we follow them we find a deep
nectar-well just at the base of these upper
petals and situated above the ovary of
the flower. No other flower shows a
prettier plan for guiding insects to the
hidden sweets, and in none is there a
more obvious and easily seen well of
nectar. It extends almost the whole
length of the flower stem, the nectar
gland forming a hump near the base of
the stem. If we thrust a needle down
the whole length of this nectar tube we
can see that this bright flower developed
its nectar especially for some long-tongued
insect, probably a butterfly. It is inter-
esting to note that in the double geranium
where the stamens have been all changed
to petals and where, therefore, no seeds
are formed, this nectar-well has been lost.

There are five sepals, the lower one
being the largest. But the geranium
is careless about the number of its sta-
mens; most flowers are very good mathe-
maticians, and if they have five sepals
and five petals they are likely to have five or ten stamens. The geranium
often shows seven anthers, but if we look carefully we may find ten
stamens, three of them without anthers. But this is not always
true; there are sometimes five anthers and two or three filaments
without anthers. The color of the anthers differs with the variety
of the flower. The stamens broaden below, and their bases are
joined making a cup around the lower part of the ovary. The
pistil is at the center of the flower and has no style, but at the
summit divides into five long, curving stigmas; but again the
geranium cannot be trusted to count, for sometimes there are
seven or eight stigmas. Although many of our common varieties
of geraniums have been bred so long that they have almost lost
the habit of producing seed, yet we may often find in these single blossoms
the ovary changed into the peculiar, long, beaklike pod, which shows the
relationship of this plant to the cranesbill or wild geranium.

When the buds of the geranium first appear, all of them are nestled in
a nest of protecting bracts, each bud being enclosed in its own protecting
sepals. But soon each flower stem grows longer and droops and often the
bracts at its base fall off ; from this mass of drooping buds, the ones at the
center of the cluster lift up and open their blossoms first. Often, when
the outside flowers are in bloom, those at the center have withered petals
but are hidden by their fresher sisters.

It would be well to say something to the pupils about those plants
which have depended upon man so long for their planting that they do
not develop any more seed for themselves. In connection with the
geraniums, there should be a lesson on how to make cuttings and start

geranium.

S, sepals; P, petals; A, anther; F, fila-
ment; m, pistil; St., stigma;

N, opening to nectar tube.

646

Handbook of Nature-Study

their growth. The small side branches or the tips of the main stems may
be used as cuttings. With a sharp knife make a cut straight across. Fill
shallow boxes with sand, place them in a cool room and keep them con-
stantly moist ; plant the cuttings in these boxes, putting the stems for one-
third of their length in the sand. After about a month the plants may be
repotted in fertile soil. The fall is the best time to make cuttings.

LESSON CLXIV
The Horseshoe Geranium

Leading thought — The geraniums are very much prized as flowers for
ornamental beds. Let us see why they are so valued.

Method — A variety of geranium with single flowers should be chosen
for this purpose, and it may be studied in the schoolhouse window or in
the garden. As the parts of this flower are of a very general type, it is an
excellent one with which to teach the names and purposes of the flower
parts. Each child can make a little drawing of the sepals, petals, stamens
and pistil, and label them with the proper names.

Observations — 1 . What sort of a stem has the geranium. Is it smooth
or downy ? What makes the geranium stem look so rough and untidy?

2. Study the leaf. Show by description or drawing its shape, its
wings, its veins. What are its colors and texture above ? Beneath? Is
the petiole long or short ? What grows at the base of the petiole where it
joins the stem? What marking is there on the leaf, which makes us call
this a “horseshoe geranium?” Are there other geraniums with leaves of
similar shape that have no horseshoe mark?

3. Study the flower. Are the petals all the same size and shape?
How many of them are broad? How many narrow? Do the narrow

Cultivated-Plant Study

647

ones project in front of the others ? Do these have guide-lines upon them ?
Where do these lines point? Find the nectar- well, how deep is it? Does
it extend almost the entire length of the flower stem? For what insects
must it have been developed? Are there nectar-tubes in the stems of
the geraniums with double flowers? Why?

4. How many sepals are there ? Are they all the same size ? Where
is the largest?

5. How many stamens can you see? What is the color of the fila-
ments and of the anthers? How are the stamens joined at their bases?
Can you find any stamens without anthers ?

6. Where is the pistil situated ? Can you see the ovary, or seed-box ?
How many stigmas? Describe their color and shape.

7 . In what part of the flower will the seeds be developed ? H-ow does
the geranium fruit look? Sketch the pod. Do the geraniums develop
many seeds? Why not? Do you know the seed-pod of the wild gera-
nium? If so, compare it with the pod of this plant.

8. Take a flower cluster when the flowers are all in the bud, and note

the following: When the buds first appear, what protects them? What

becomes of these bracts later? How do the sepals protect the bud ? Are
the bud stems upright and stiff or drooping? How many buds are there
in a cluster?

9. Take notes on successive days as follows : What happens to the
stem as the bud gets ready to bloom ? Is it a central or an outside blossom
that opens first? How many new blossoms are there each day? How
long is it from the time that the first bud opens until the last bud of the
cluster blossoms? What has this to do with making the geranium a
valuable ornamental plant ?

10. Make some geranium cuttings, and note how they develop into
new plants. Place one of the cuttings in a bottle of water and describe
how its roots appear and grow.

“God made the flowers to beautify
The earth, and cheer man's careful mood;
And he is happiest who hath power
To gather wisdom from a flower,

And wake his heart in every hour
To pleasant gratitude .”

— Wordsworth.

Sweet Peas.

" Here are sweet peas on tip for a flight,

With wings of delicate flush o'er delicate white ,
A nd taper fingers catching at all things,

To hind them all about with tiny rings ”

-Keats.

Cultivated-Plant Study

THE SWEET PEA

Teacher's Story

MONG the most attractive of the seeds which
make up the treasure of the children s seed
packets, the sweet peas are of the prettiest.
They are smooth, little white or brown
globules, marked with a scar on the side, showing where
they were attached to the pod. One of these peas divides
readily into two sections ; and after it has been soaked in
water for twenty-four hours, the germ of the future plant
may, with the aid of a lens, be seen within it. After
planting, the sprout pushes through the seed-coat at a
point very near the scar, and leaf shoots emerge from
the same place ; but the two act very differently . The leaf lifts
upward toward the light, and the root plunges down into the soil.
As the plant grows, it absorbs the food stored in the seed; but the seed
remains below ground and does not lift itself into the air, as happens with
the bean. The root forms many slender branches, near the tips of which
may be seen the fringe of feeding roots, which take up the food and water
from the soil. The first leaves of the pea seedling put forth no tendrils,
but otherwise look like the later ones. The leaves grow alternately on the
stalk, and they are compound, each having from three to seven leaflets.
The petiole is winged, as is also the stem of the plant. There is a pair of
large, clasping stipules at the base of each leaf. If we compare one of
these leaves with a spray of tendrils, we can see that they resemble each
other in the following points : The basal leaflets of the petiole are similar

and the stipules are present in each case ; but the leaflets nearest the tip
are marvelously changed to little, stiff stems with a quirl at the tip of each
ready to reach out and hook upon any object that offers surface to cling
to. Sometimes we find a leaflet paired with a tendril. The sweet pea
could not thrive without a support outside of itself.

Of course, the great upper petal of the sweet pea blossom is called the
banner! It stands aloft and proclaims the sweet pea as open ; but before
this occurs, it tenderly enfolds all the inner part of the flower in the
unopened bud, and when the flower fades it again performs tnis duty.
The wings are also well named; for these two petals which hang like a
peaked roof above the keel, seem like wings just ready to open in flight,
The two lower petals are sewed together in one
of Nature’s invisible seams, making a long,
curved treasure chest resembling the keel of a
boat, and it has thus been called. Within the
keel are hidden the pistil and stamens. The
ovary is long, pod-shaped and downy; from
its tip the style projects, as strong as a wire,
curving upwards, and covered with a brush of
fine, white hairs; at the very tip of the style,
and often projecting slightly from the keel, is
the stigma. Around the sides and below the
ovary and style, are nine stamens, their fila-
ments broadening and uniting to make a white, silken tube about the
ovary, or young pod. From the tip of this stamen -tube, each of the nine

Blossom sweet pea with parts
labelled.

550

Handbook of Nature-Study

filaments disengages itself, and lying close to the style thrusts its anther
up into the point ot the keel, below the stigma. But strange to say, one
lone, lorn stamen “flocks by itself” above the pistil, curving its anther up
stigma-ward. If we touch the point of the keel with the finger, up fly — like
a jack-in-the-box — the anthers splashing the finger with pollen; and if a
bee, in her search for nectar, alights on the wings at the very base of the
petals, up flies the pollen brush and daubs her with the yellow dust, which

she may deposit on the stigma of
another flower. The interesting
part of this mechanism is the
brush near the tip of the style
below the stigma — a veritable
broom, with splints all directed
upward. As the pollen is dis-
charged around it, the brus-h
lifts it up when the keel is pressed
down, and the stiff petals form-
ing the keel, in springing back to
place, scrape off the pollen and
plaster it upon the visitor. But
for all this elaborate mechanism,
sweet peas, of all flowers, are the
Sweet pea pod bursting in spiral. most difficult to cross-pollenate,

since they are so likely to receive
some of their own pollen during this process.

The sweet-pea bud droops, a tubular calyx with its five-pointed lobes
forming a bell to protect it. Within the bud the banner petal clasps all in
its protecting embrace.

After the petals fall, the young pod stands out from the calyx, the five
lobes of which are recurved and remain until the pod is well grown. As
the sweet pea ripens, all the moisture is lost and the pod becomes dry and
hard, through the dampness of dews at night and the sun’s heat which
warps it by day, finally each side of the pod suddenly coils into a spiral,
flinging the seed many feet distant in different directions.

LESSON CLXV
The Sweet Pea

Leading thought — The sweet pea has its leaflets changed to tendrils,
which hold it to the trellis. Its flower is like that of the clover, the upper
petal forming the banner, the two side petals the wings, and the two
united lower petals the keel which protects the stamens and pistil.

Method — This should be a garden lesson. A study should be made of
the peas before they are planted, and their germination carefully watched.
Later, the method of climbing, the flower and the fruit should each be the
subject of a lesson.

Observations on germination — i. Soak some sweet peas over night ;
split them the next morning. Can you see the little plant within ?

2. Plant some of the soaked peas in cotton batting, which may be
kept moist. At what point does the sprout break through the seed cover-
ing? Do the root and leaf-shoot emerge at the same place, or at differ-
ent points? Which is the first to appear?

Cultivated- Plant Study

651

3. Plant some of the soaked peas in the garden. How do the
young plants look when they first appear? Does the fleshy part of the
seed remain a part of the plant and appear above the ground, as is
the case with the bean ? What becomes of the meat of the seed after
growth has started?

4. Do the first leaves which unfold from the seed pea look like the
later ones? Are the leaves simple or compound? Do they grow
opposite each other or alternately?

5. Take a leaf and also a spray of the tendrils. How many leaflets
are there in a compound leaf? Describe the petiole and the basal leaves.
How far apart are the leaflets on the mid-stem? Compare the stem
on which the tendrils grow with this leaf. Are the basal leaflets like
those of the leaf? Is the petiole like that of the leaf? Do you think that
the leaflets toward the tip of the stem often change to tendrils?
Why do you think so? Why must the sweet pea have tendrils? Do
you see the earlike stipules at the base of the leaf? Are there similar
stipules at the base of the tendril stem?

Observations on the flower and fruit — 1 . Take the sweet pea in blossom .
Why is the large upper petal called the banner? How does it compare
in size with the other petals? What is its purpose when the flower is
open ? Why do you think the side petals are called wings ? What is their
position when the flower is open?

2. Describe that part of the flower below the wings. Do you think
that it is made of two petals grown together? Why is it called the keel of
the flower? Press down with your finger on the tip of the keel. What
happens? Is your finger splashed with pollen? Where is the nectar in
the sweet pea? Would an insect getting the nectar press down upon the
keel and receive a splash of pollen?

3. Open the keel. How many stamens do you find within it ? How
many have their filaments joined together? Is there one separate from
the others? Against what are the anthers pressed by the keel?

4. Remove the stamens and describe the pistil. Which part of this
will make the pod in which the new peas will develop ? Describe how the
style is curved. How is the style covered near its tip? What is this
brush for ? Can you find the stigma with the' help of the lens ? When the
bee is seeking for nectar and pushes down on the keel, does the stigma
push out at the same point as the pollen? Does this enable the stigma
sometimes to receive pollen which the bees bring from other flowers?

5. Describe an unopened flower bud. What is its position? How
many lobes to the calyx? What is their shape, and how do they protect
the bud ? Which petal is folded over all the others? How does the posi-
tion of the open flower differ from that of the bud ?

6. How does the young pod look when the petals fall? How does it
look when ripe ? How does it open to scatter little, ripe sweet peas ? Do
the lobes of the sepals still remain with the pod?

652 Handbook of Nature-Study

THE CLOVERS
Teacher's Story

11 Sweet by the roadside , sweet by the rills ,

Sweet in the meadows , sweet on the hills,

Sweet in its wine, sweet in its red,

Oh, half of its sweetness cannot be said;

Sweet in its every living breath.

Sweetest, perhaps, at last, in death."

— “A Song of Clover”, Helen Hunt Jackson.

Clover has for centuries been a most valv.
able forage crop ; and for eons it has been the
special partner of the bees, giving them honey
for their service in carrying its pollen ; and in
recent years it has been discovered that it has
also formed a mysterious and undoubtedly an
ancient partnership with bacteria below
ground, which, moreover, brings fertility to the
soil. The making of a collection of the clovers
of a region is a sure way of enlisting the pupils’
interest in these valuable plants. The species
have some similarities and differences, which
give opportunity for much observation in
comparing them. There may be found in
most localities the white and yellow sweet
clovers, the black and spotted medics and
their relative the alfalfa; while of the true
clovers there are the red, the zigzag, the
buffalo, the rabbit’s foot, the white, the alsike,
Drawn by Ida Baker. the crimson, and two yellow or hop clovers.

In all the clovers, those blossoms which are
lowest, or on the outside of the head, blossom first, and all of them have

Crimson clover; just beginning to blossom at the left,
more advanced at the middle, and at the end of
its bloom at the right.

Photo by G. F. Morgan.

Cultivated-Plant Study

653

upon their roots the little swellings, or nodules, which are the houses in
which the beneficent bacteria grow.

If we pull up or dig out the roots of alfalfa, or of the
true clovers or vetches, we find upon the rootlets little
swellings which are called nodules, or root-tubercles.

Although these tubercles look so uninteresting, no fairy
story was ever more wonderful than is theirs. They are,
in fact, the home of the clover brownies, which help the
plants to do their work. Each nodule is a nestful of liv-
ing beings, so small that it would take twenty-five
thousand of them end to end to reach an inch; therefore,
even a little swelling can hold many of these minute
organisms, which are called bacteria. For many years
people thought that these swellings were injurious to the
roots of the clover, but now we know that the bacteria
which live in them are simply underground partners of
these plants. The clover roots give the bacteria homes
and place to grow, and in return these are able to extract
a very valuable chemical fertilizer from the air, and to
change its form so that the clovers can absorb it. The
name of this substance is nitrogen, and it makes up more
than three-fourths of the air we breathe. Other plants
are unable to take the nitrogen from the air and use it for
food, but these little bacteria extract it from the air which
fills every little space between every two grains of soil and
then change it to a form which the clovers can use.

After the clover crop is h arvested, the roots remain in the
ground, their little storehouses filled with this precious
substance, and the soil falls heir to it.

Nitrogen in the form of commercial fertilizer is the
most expensive which the farmer has to buy. So when
he plants clover or alfalfa on his land, he is bringing to the
soil this expensive element of plant growth, and it costs Alfalfa showing
him nothing. This is why a good farmer practices the root-tubercles.
rotation of crops and puts clover upon his land every three or four years.

Yellow or hop clover. Buffalo clover. Rabhit-foot or pussy clover

654

Handbook of Nature-Study

Alfalfa is so dependent on its little underground partners, that it
cannot grow without them; and so the farmer plants, with the alfalfa
seed, some of the soil from an old alfalfa field, which is rich in these bac-
teria. On a farm I know, the bacterial
soil gave out before all of the seed was
planted ; and when the crop was ready
to cut it was easy to see just where the
seed without the inoculated soil had
been planted, for the plants that grew
there were small and poor, while the
remainder of the field showed a luxu-
rious growth.

It is because of the great quantity of
nitrogen absorbed from the air through
the bacteria on its roots that the alfalfa
is such a valuable fodder; for it con-
tains the nitrogen which otherwise
would have to be furnished to cattle in
expensive grain or cotton-seed meal.
The farmer who gives his stock alfalfa
does not need to pay such large bills
for grain. Other plants belonging to
the same family as the clovers — like
the vetches and cow-peas — also have
bacteria on their roots. But each
species of legume has its own species of
bacteria; although in some cases soil
inoculated with bacteria from one
species of legume will grow it on roots
of another species. Thus, the bacteria
on the roots of sweet clover will grow
on the roots of alfalfa and many farmers
use the soil inoculated by sweet clover
to start their alfalfa crops.

In addition to the enriching of the soil, clover roots, which penetrate
very deeply, protect land from being washed away by freshets and heavy
rains ; and since clover foliage makes a thick
carpet over the surface of the soil, it pre-
vents evaporation and thus keeps the soil
moist. Crimson clover is used extensively
as a cover crop ; it is sowed in the fall,
especially where clean culture is practiced
in orchards, and spreads its leaves above
and its roots within the soil, keeping out
weeds and protecting the land. In the
spring it may be plowed under, and thus
add again to the fertility. This is also an
aesthetic crop, for a field of crimson clover
in bloom is one of the most beautiful sights
in our rural landscape.

Red clover has such deep florets that,
of all our bees, only the bumblebees have Red cljver blossom.

Alfalfa in leaf and blossom.

Cultivated-Plant Study

sufficiently long tongues to reach the nectar.

It is, therefore, dependent upon this bee for
developing its seed, and the enlightened farmer
of to-day looks upon the bumblebees as h; ,
best friends. The export of clover seed frc_n
the United States has sometimes reached the
value of two million dollars per year, and this
great industry can only be carried on with the
aid of the bumblebee. There are sections of
New York State where the growing of clover
seed was once a most profitable business, but
where now, owing to the dearth of bumblebees,
no clover seed whatever is produced.

LESSON CLXVI
The Clovers

Leading thought — The clovers enrich with nitrogen the soil in which
they are planted. They are very valuable as food for stock; and their
flowers are pollenated by bees.

Method — Each pupil should dig up a root of red clover or alfalfa to use
for the lesson on the nodules. The flowers should be studied in the field,
and also in detail in the schoolroom.

Observations — i. How many kinds of clover do you know? How
many of the medics ?

2. In all clovers, which flowers of the head blossom first, those on the
lower or outside, or those on the upper or inside ?

3. Take up a root of red clover or alfalfa, noting how deep it grows.
Wash the root free from soil, and find the little swellings on it. Write the
story of what these swellings do for the clover, and incidentally for the
soil.

4. How must the soil be prepared so that afalfa may grow success-
fully? What does the farmer gain by feeding alfalfa, and why?

5. How do clover roots protect the land from being washed by heavy
rains ?

6. How do clovers keep the soil moist? How does this aid the
farmer?

7. What is a cover crop, and what are its uses?

8. Upon what insects does the red clover depend for carrying pollen ?
Can it produce seed without the aid of these valuable bees? Why not ?

SWEET CLOVER
Teacher's Story

In passing along the country roads, especially those which have
suffered upheaval from the road machines, suddenly we are conscious of
a perfume so sweet, so suggestive of honey and other delicate things,
that we involuntarily stop to find its source. Close at hand we find this
perfume laboratory in the blossoms of the sweet clover. It may be
the species with white blossoms, or the one with yellow flowers, but
the fragrance is the same. There stands the plant, lifting its beautiful

656

Handbook 0] N ature-btudy

White sweet clover.

blue-green foliage and its spikes of flowers for
the enjoyment of the passer-by, while its roots
are feeling their way down deep in the poor,
hard soil, taking air and drainage with them
and building, with the aid of their underground
partners, nitrogen factories which will enrich
the poverty-stricken earth, so that other
plants may find nourishment in it.

Never was there such another beneficent 1
weed as the sweet clover — beneficent alike to
man, bee and soil. Usually we see it growing
on soil so poor that it can only attain a height
of from two to four feet; but if it once gets
foothold on a generous soil, it rises majestically
ten feet tall.

Like the true clover, its leaf has three
leaflets, the middle one being longer and
larger than the other two and separated from
them by a naked midrib; the leaflets are long,
oval in shape, with narrow, toothed edges,
and they are dull, velvety green; the two
stipules at the base of the leaf are little and
pointed.

The blossoming of the sweet clover is a
pretty story. The blossom stem, which
comes from the axil

of the leaf, is at first an inch or so long,
packed closely with little, green buds hav-
ing pointed tips. But as soon as the blos-
soming begins, the stem elongates, bring-
ing the flowers farther apart — just as if
the buds had been fastened to a rubber cord
which had been stretched. The buds lower
down open first ; each day some of the flowers
bloom, while those of the day before linger,
and thus the blossom tide rises, little by little
up the stalk. But the growing tip develops
more and more buds, and thus the blossom
story continues until long after the frosts have
killed most other plants; finally the tip is
white with blossoms, while the seeds developed
from the first flowers on the plant have been
perfected and scattered.

The blossom is very much like a diminutive
sweet pea; the calyx is like a cup with five
points to its rim, and is attached to the stalk
by a short stem. The banner petal is larger
than the wings and the keel . A lens shows the
stamens united into two groups, with a thread-
like pistil pushing out between ; both stamens
and pistil are covered by the keel, as in the pea
blossom.

Yellow sweet clover.

Cultivated-Plant Study

657

The flowers are beloved by bees and many other insects, which are
attracted to them by their fragrance as well as by the white radiance of
their blossoms. The ripened pod is well encased in the calyx at its
base. The foliage of the sweet clover is fragrant, especially so when
drying; it has been used for fodder. The 6weet clovers came to us from
Europe and are, in a measure, compensation for some of the other
emigrant weeds which we wish had remained at home.

LESSON CLXVII
Sweet Clover

Leading thought - — This beneficent plant grows in soil too poor for other
plants to thrive in. It brings nitrogen and air into the soil, and thus
makes it fertile so that other plants soon find in its vicinity nourishment
for growth.

Method — Plants of the sweet clover with their roots may be brought to
the schoolroom for study. The children should observe sweet clover in
the field; its method of inflorescence, and the insects which visit it, should
be noted.

Observations — 1 . What first makes you aware that you are near sweet
clover? On what kinds of soil, and in what localities, does sweet clover
abound ?

2. Do you know how sweet clover growing in poor soils and waste
places acts as a pioneer for other plants?

3. Dig up a sweet clover plant, and see how far its stems go into the
soil?

4. How high does the plant grow? What is the color of its foliage?

5. Compare one of the leaves with the leaf of a red clover, and de-
scribe the likeness and the difference. Note especially the edges of the
upper and the lower leaves, and also the stipules.

6. Describe the way the sweet clover blossoms. Do the lower or
upper flowers open first ? How does the flower stem look before it begins
to blossom ? What happens to it after the blossoming begins ? How long
will it continue to blossom?

7 . Take a blossom and compare it with that of a sweet pea. Can you
see the banner? The wings? The keel? Can you see if the stamens are
united into two sets? Can you see the pistil? Note the shape of the
calyx.

8. How many flowers are in blossom at a time ? Does it make a mass
of white to attract insects? In what other way does it attract insects?
What insects do you find visiting it?

9 . How do the ripened pods look ?

“ The blooming wilds His gardens are; some cheering
Earth's ugliest waste has felt that flowers bequeath,

And all the winds o'er summer hills careering
Sound softer for the sweetness that they breathe.'*

— Theron Brown.

6$8

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE WHITE CLOVER
Teacher's Story

sweet clover should be studied first, for after
making this study it is easier to understand the
1 blossoming of the white and the red clover. In

Sj^.f I Uv \ the sweet clovers, the flowers are strung along the
i i Bl I I stalk but in the red, the white, and many others, it

\ \ I \j is as if the blossom stalk were telescoped, so that

i. the flowers are all in one bunch , the tip of the stalk
making the center of the clover head. We use the
white clover in our lawns because of a peculiarity of its stem,
which, instead of standing erect, lies flat on the ground, send-
ing leaves and blossoms upward and thus making a thick carpet over the
ground. The leaves are very pretty; and although they grow upon the
stems alternately, they always manage to twist around so as to lift their
three leaflets upward to the light. The three leaflets are nearly equal in
size, with fine, even veins and toothed edges; and each has upon it, near
the middle a pale, angular spot. The white clover, in common with other
clovers, has the pretty habit of going to sleep at night. Botanists may
object to this human term, but the great Linnaeus first called it sleep, and
we may be permitted to follow his example. Certainly the way the clover
leaves fold at the middle, the three drawing near each other, looks like
going to sleep, and is one of the things which even the little child will
enjoy observing.

The clover head is made up of many little flowers; each one has a
tubular calyx with five delicate points and a little stem to hold it up into
the world. In shape, the corolla is much like that of the sweet pea, and
each secretes nectar at its base. The outside blossoms open first ; and as
soon as open, the honey bees, which eagerly visit white clover wherever it
is growing, begin at once their work of gathering nectar and carrying
pollen ; as soon as the florets are pollenated they wither and droop below
the flower-head.

“Where I made One, turn down an empty Glass.”

Sings old Omar, and I always think of it when I see the turned-down
florets of the white-clover blossom. But in this case the glass is not
empty, but holds the maturing seed. This habit of the white clover
flowers saves the bees much time, since only those which need pollenating
are lifted upward to receive their visits. The length of time the little
clover head requires for the maturing of its blossoms depends much upon
the weather and upon the insect visitors.

White clover honey is in the opinion of many the most delicious honey
made from any flowers except, perhaps, from orange blossoms. So
valuable is the white clover as a honey plant, that apiarists often grow
acres of it for their bees.

LESSON CLXVIII
The White Clover

Leading thought — The white clover has creeping stems. Its flowers
depend upon the bees for their pollination, and the bees depend upon the
white clover blossoms for honey .

Cultivated-Plant Study

659

Method — The plant may be brought into the schoolroom while in blos-
som, and its form be studied there. Observations as to the fertilization of
the flowers should be made out-of-doors.

Observations — 1. Where does the white clover grow? Why is it so
valuable in lawns?

2. Note carefully the clover leaf, the shape of the three leaflets, stems,
and edges. Is part of the leaflet lighter colored than the rest? If so,
describe the shape. Are the leaflets unequal or equal in size ? Does each
leaf come directly from the root? Are they alternately arranged ? Why
do they seem to come from the upper side of the stem?

3. Note the behavior of the clover leaves at night. How do the two
'side leaflets act ? The central leaflet ? Do you think that this is because
the plant is sleepy ?

i 4. Take a white fclover head, and note that it is made up of many
[little flowers. How many? Study one of the little flowers with a lens.
Can you see its calyx? Its petals? Its stem ? In what way is it similar
to the blossom of the sweet pea?

5. Take a head of white clover which has not yet blossomed. Tie a

string about its stem so that you may be sure you are observing the same
flower and make the following observations during several days : Which

blossoms begin to open first — those outside or inside? How many buds
open each day? What happens to the blossoms as they fade? Of what
use is this to the plant ? How many days pass from the time the flowers
begin to blossom until the last flower at the center opens?

6. What insects do you see working on the white clover blossoms?
How does the bee act when collecting nectar? Can you see where she
thrusts her tongue ? What does the bee do for the clover blossom ? What
sort of honey does the white clover give to the bee ?

7. Tie little bags of cheesecloth over two or three heads of white
clover and see if they produce any seed.

" Little flower; but if I could understand
What you are, root and all, and all in all,

I should know what God and man is."

— Tennyson.

"To me the meanest flower that blows, can give
Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears."

— Wordsworth.

“/ know a place where the sun is like gold,
And the cherry blooms burst with snow,
And down underneath is the loveliest nook
Where the four leaf clovers grow."

Ella Higginson.

66o

Handbook of N atur e-Study

Seneca Indian women husking corn for braiding.

Photo by Arthur C. Parker. From Bulletin 144 of New York State Museum, “Iroquois uses
of Maize and other Food Plants” by Arthur C. Parker.

THE MAIZE, OR INDIAN CORN

Teacher's Story

“Hail! Ha-wen-ni-yu! Listen with open ears to the words of thy people. Continue
to listen. We thank our mother earth which sustains us. We thank the winds which have
banished disease. We thank He-no for rain. We thank the moon and stars which give us
light when the sun has gone to rest. We thank the sun for warmth and light by day. Keep
us from evil ways that the sun may never hide his face from us for shame and leave us in
darkness. We thank thee that thou hast made our corn to grow. Thou art our creator and
our good ruler, thou canst do no evil. Everything thou doest is for our happiness.”

HUS prayed the Iroquois Indians when
the com had ripened on the hills and
valleys of New York State long before
it was a state, and even before Columbus had
turned his ambitious prowrs westward in quest of
the Indies. Had he found the Indies with their
wealth of fabrics and spices, he would have
found there nothing so valuable to the world as
has proved this golden treasure of ripened com.

The origin of Indian com, or maize, is shrouded
in mystery. There is a plant which grows on the
table-lands of Mexico, which is possibly the
original species ; but so long had maize been cultivated by the American
Indians that it was thoroughly domesticated when America was first

Cultivated-Plant Study

66 1

discovered. In those early days of American colonization, it is doubtful,
says Professor John Fiske, if oui forefathers could have remained here had
it not been for Indian com. No plowing, nor even clearing, was necessary
for the successful raising of this grain. The trees were girdled, thus kill-
ing their tops to let in the sunlight , the rich earth was scratched a little
with a primitive tool, and the seed put in and covered; and the plants
that grew therefrom took care of therpselves. It the pioneers had been
obliged to depend alone upon the wheat and rye of Europe, which only
grows under good tilllage, they might have starved before they gained a
foothold on our forest-covered shores.

The Corn Plant

In studying the maize it is well to keep in mind that a heavy wind is its
worst enemy; such a wind will lay it low, and from such an injury it is
difficult for the corn to recover and perfect its seed. Thus, the mechanism
of the corn-stalk and leat is
adapted for prevention of this
disaster. The corn-stalk is, prac-
tically, a strong cylinder with a
pithy center; the fibres of the
stalks are very strong, and at
short intervals the stalk is
strengthened by hard nodes, or
joints, it the whole stalk were as
hard as the nodes, it would be
inelastic and break instead of
bend; as it is, the stalk is very
elastic and will bend far over
before it breaks. The nodes are
nearer each other at the bottom,
thus giving strength to the base;
they are farther apart at the top,
where the wind strikes, and where
the bending and bowing of the
stalk is necessary.

The leaf comes off at a node
and clasps the stalk for a con-
siderable distance, thus making it
stronger, especially toward the
base. Just where the leaf starts
away from the stem there is a
little growth called a rain-guard;
if water should seep between the
stalk and the clasping leaf, it
would afford harbor for destruc-
tive fungi. The structure of the
com leaf is especially adapted to
escape injury from the wind ; the
strong veins are parallel with a
strong but flexible midrib at the
center; often, after the wind has

whipped the leaves severely, only stalk of corn with car and tassel.

66 2

Handbook of Nature-Study

the tips are split and injured. The edges of the corn leaf are ruffled
and, where the leaf leaves the stalk, there is a wide fold in the
edge at either side; this arrangement gives play for a sidewise
movement without breaking the leaf margins. The leaf is thus
protected from the wind, whether it is struck from above or hori-
zontally. The true roots of the com plant go quite deep into
the soil, but are hardly adequate to the holding of such a tall,

slender stalk upright
in a wind storm;
therefore, all about
the base of the plant
are brace-roots, which
serve to hold the stalk
erect — like the stay-
ropes about a flagpole.

The Ear of Corn
The ears of corn
are borne at the joints
or nodes; and the
stalk, where the ear
presses against it, is
hollowed out so as to
hold it snugly; this is
very suggestive of a
mother holding a baby
in her arms. In the
following ways, the
husks show plainly
that they are modified
leaves : The hu sk has

the same structure as
the leaf, having paral-
lel veins; it comes off

the stem like a leaf;

The pollen-bearing flowers of corn. ^ is °^en green, and

therefore does the

work of a leaf; it changes to leaf .shape at the tip of the ear,

thus showing that the husk is really that part of the leaf which

usually clasps the stem. If a husk tipped with a leaf is examined,
the rain -guard will be found at the place where the two join.
As a matter of fact, the ear of com is on a branch stalk which has been
very much shortened, so that the nodes are very close together, and there-
fore the leaves come off close together. By stripping the husks back one
by one, the change from the outside, stiff, green leaf structure to the
inner delicate, papery wrapping for the seed, may be seen in all its stages.
This is a beautiful lesson in showing how the maize protects its seed, and the
husk may well be compared to the clothing of a baby. The pistillate
flowers of the com, which finally develop into the kernels, grow in pairs
alongthe sides of the end portion of the shortened stalk, which is what we
call the “cob.” Therefore, the ear will show an even number of rows, and

Cultivated-Plant Study

663

the cob shows distinctly that the rows are paired.
The corn-silk is the style of the pistillate flowers ; and
therefore, in order to secure pollen, it must extend
from the ovule, which later develops into a kernel,
to the tip of the ear, where it protrudes from the end
of the husk. A computation of the number of
kernels in a row and on the ear makes a very good
arithmetic lesson for the primary pupils, especially
as the kernels occur in pairs.

The Growth of the Corn

The tip of the corn- silk
showing the stigma; j.
The pistillate flower,
which will develop into
the kernel.

If we cut a kernel of com crosswise we can see, near the point where it
joins the cob, the little plant and the root. Com should be germinated
between wet blotters, in a seed-testing experiment, before observations
are made on the growing com of the fields. When the com first appears,
the com leaves are in a pointed roll which pierces the soil. Soon they
spread apart, but it may be some time before the corn-stalk proper
appears. Then it stretches up rapidly, and very soon will be tipped with
beautiful pale brown tassels. These tassels merit careful study for they
are the staminate flowers. Each floret has two anthers hanging down
from it, and each half of each anther is a little bag of pollen-grains ; and in
order that they shall be shaken down upon the waiting corn-silk below,
the bottom of each bag opens wide when the pollen is ripe. The com-silk,
at this stage, is branched at the tip and clothed with fine hairs, so that it
may catch a grain of the precious pollen. Then occurs one of the most
wonderful pollen stories in all nature, for the pollen -tube must push down
through the center of the com-silk for its whole length, in order to reach
the waiting ovule and thus enable it to become a kernel of corn. These

young, unfertilized kernels are pretty
objects, looking like seed-pearls, each
wrapped in furry bracts. If the silk from
one of these young flowers does not
receive its grain of pollen, then the kernel
will not develop and the ear will be im-
perfect. On the other hand if the pollen
from another variety of com falls upon
the waiting stigmas of the silk, we shall
find the ear will have upon it a mixture
of the two varieties . This is best exempli-
fied when we have the black and white
varieties of sweet corn growing near each
other.

One reason why com is such a valu-
able plant to us is that its growth is so
rapid. It is usually not planted until
late spring, yet, with some varieties, by
September the stalks are twenty feet
high. The secret of this is that the com,
unlike many other plants, has many
points of growth. While young, the
lower part of the stalk lying between
every two nodes is a growing center

664

Handbook of Nature-Study

and the tip of the stalk also grows; in most plants, the tip of the stems
is the only center of growth. The first two experiments suggested will
demonstrate this. When blown down by the wind, the corn has a wonder-
ful way of lifting itself, by inserting growing wedges in the lower sides of
the nodes. A corn-stalk blown down by the wind will often show this
wedge-shape at every joint, and the result will be an upward curve
of the whole stalk. Of course, this cannot be seen unless the stalk is
cut lengthwise through the center. Experiment 3 is suggested to
demonstrate this.

During drought the corn leaves check the transpiration of water by
rolling together lengthwise in tubes, thus offering less surface to the sun
and air. The farmer calls this the crtrling of the corn, and it is always a
sign of lack of moisture. If a corn plant with leaves thus curled, be given
plenty of water, the leaves will soon straighten out again into their normal
shape.

References: Corn Plants, Sargent; Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets,
Vol. 1; Elements of Agriculture, Warren; The First Book of Farming,
Goodrich; Agriculture, Jackson and Dougherty; Rural School Agricul-
ture, Hays; Columbia’s Emblem, Houghton, Mifflin and Co.

Corn in the shock.

LESSON CLXIX
The Maize

Leading thought — The Indian corn, or maize, is a plant of much beauty
and dignity. It has wonderful adaptations for the development of its
seed and for resisting its arch-enemy, the wind.

Method — The study may begin in spring when the com is planted,
giving the pupils the outline for observations to be filled out in their note-

Cultivated-Plant Study

66 s

books during the summer, when they have opportunities for observing the
plant; or.it may be studied in the autumn as a matured plant. It may
be studied in the school room or in the field, or both.

Observations on the corn plant — i. Describe the central stem. How
many joints, or nodes, has it ? Of what use to the plant are these nodes ?
Are the joints nearer each other at the bottom or the top of the plant ?

2 . Where do the leaves come off the stem ? Describe the relation of
the bases of the leaves to the stem. Of what use is this to the plant ?

3. Note the little growth on the leaf where it leaves the stalk.
Describe how this prevents the rain from seeping down between the stalk
and the clasping leaf. What danger would there be to the plant if the
water could get into this narrow space?

4. What is the shape of the leaf? Describe the veins. Does the leaf
tear easily across? Does it tear easily lengthwise? Of what use to the
leaf is this condition ?

5. Are the edges of the corn leaf straight or ruffled ? How does this
ruffled edge permit the leaf to turn without breaking? Describe at
length the benefit the com plant derives from having leaves which cannot
be broken across and that can bend readily sidewise as well as up and down .

6. Describe the roots of the com plant. Describe the brace-roots.
Explain their use.

7. Describe all the ways in which the corn plant is strengthened
against its enemy, the wind.

Observation on the ear of corn — 8. Where on the corn plant are the ears
borne ? Are two ears borne on the same side of the stalk ? Remove an
ear, and see how the stalk is changed to give it room.

9. Where do the ears come off the stalk in relation to the leaves?

10. Examine the outside husks, and compare them with the green
leaves. What is there to suggest that the corn-husk is a leaf changed to
protect the seed ? Do you think that the husk represents that portion of
the leaf which clasps the stalk? Why? Describe how the inner husk
differs from the outer in color and texture. Describe how this is a special
protection to the growing kernels.

1 1 . After carefully removing the husk, examine the silk and see if
there is a thread for ever}'" kernel. Is there an equal amount of silk lying
between every two rows? Do you know what part of the corn flower is
the comsilk? What part is the kernel?

12. How many rows of kernels are thereon an ear? How many ker-
nels in a row? How many on the whole ear? Do any of the rows disap-
pear toward the tip of the ear? If so, do they disappear in pairs? Do
you know why ? Are the kernels on the tip of the ear and near the base as
perfect as those along the middle? Do you know whether they will
germinate as quickly and vigorously as the middle ones?

13. Study a cob with no corn on it and note if the rows of kernel-
sockets are in distinct pairs. This will, perhaps show best if you break
the cob across.

14. Break an ear of com in two, and sketch the broken end showing
the relation of the cob to the kernels.

15. Are there any places on the ear you are studjdng. where the
kernels did not grow or are blasted? What happened to cause this?

16. Describe the requisites for a perfect ear of seed-com. Why should
the plant from which the seed-ear is taken be vigorous and perfect?.

666

Handbook of Nature-Study

Observations on the growth of corn — Work for the Summer Vacation —

17. How does the com look when it first comes up? How many
leaves are there in the pointed roll which first appears above the ground?
How long before the central stalk appears?

18. When do the tassels first appear? What kind of flowers are the
com tassels ? Describe the anthers . How many on each flower ? Where
do the anthers open to discharge their pollen?

19. How large are the ears when the pollen is being shed? Study an
ear of corn at this period. Note that the kernel is the ovule, the silk is
attached to it and is the long style extending out beyond the husks. Note
that the tip, or stigma is branched.

20. What carries the pollen for the corn plant? If you have rows of
popcorn and sweet com or of sweet corn and field corn next to each other
why is it that the ears will show a mixture of both kinds?

EXPERIMENT I

Compare the growth of the com plant with that of the pigweed.
When the corn-stalk first appears above ground, tie two strings upon it,
one just above a joint and one below it. Tie two strings the same dis-
tance apart on the stem of a pigweed. Measure carefully the distance
between these two strings on the two plants. Two weeks later measure
the distance between the strings again. What is the result ?

EXPERIMENT 2

Measure the distance between two of the nodes or joints near the tip of
a certain corn-stalk. Two weeks later measure this distance again and
compare the two .

EXPERIMENT 3

When a stalk of corn is still green in August, bend it down and place a
stick across it at about half its length. Describe how it tries to lift itself
to an erect attitude after two or three weeks. Cut lengthwise across one
of the nodes, beyond the point held down by the stick, and see the wedge-
shaped growth within the joint which helps to raise the stalk to an upright
position.

EXPERIMENT 4

During the August drought, note that the corn leaves are rolled. Give
a com plant with rolled leaves plenty of water and note what happens.
Why?

THE COTTON PLANT
Teacher's Story

There are some plants which have made great chapters in the histories
of nations, and cotton is one of them. The fibre of cotton was used for
making clothing so long ago, that its discovery is shrouded in the myths
of prehistoric times. But we believe it first came into use in India, for in
this land we find certain laws concerning cotton which were codified
8co B< C.; and allusions to the fine, white raiment of the peoples of India
are frequent in ancient history. Cotton was introduced into Egypt from
India at an early date: it was in common use there 150 B. C, But not

Cultivated-Plant Study

667

until our Civil War laid fallow the cotton fields of the United States,
did Egypt realize the value of its crop; and although much money was
lost there in agricultural speculation after our own product was again put
on the market, yet cotton has remained since that time one of Egypt’s
most valuable exports.

When Columbus discovered America he found cotton growing in the
West Indies, and the chief articles of clothing of the native Mexicans were
made of cotton. Cloths of cotton were also found in ancient tombs of

The cotton in blossom.

Peru, proving it was used there long before the white man set his foot
upon those shores. When Magellan made his famous voyage around the
world in 1500, he found the cotton fibre in use in Brazil.

It is a strange fact that the only region of the world between the
parallels of 40° north and 40° south latitude, where cotton did not grow as
a native or cultivated plant when America was discovered, was the region
01 our Gulf States, which now produces more cotton than any other.
The first mention of cotton as a crop in the American colonies is in the
report published in 1666. At the time of the Revolutionary War the
cotton industry was thoroughly established. It is one of the significant
facts of history that the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in
1793, which revolutionized the cotton industry and brought it to a much

568

Handbook of Nature-Study

more profitable basis, wrought great evil to the United States, since it
revived the profits of slave-holding. The institution of slavery was sink-
ing out of sight by its own weight; Washington showed that it was the
most expensive way to work land, and Jefferson failed to liberate his own
slaves simply because he believed that liberty would come to all slaves
inevitably, since slave-holding was such an expense to the plantation
owners. But the cotton gin, which removed the seeds rapidly — theretofore
done by slow and laborious hand process — suddenly made the raising of
cotton so profitable that slaves were again employed in its production
with great financial benefits. And thus it came about that the cotton
plant innocently wielded a great influence in the political, as well as the
industrial life of our country.

The cotton plant has a taproot, with branches which go deep into the
soil. The stem is nearly cylindrical, the branches often spreading and
sometimes irregular; the bark is dark and reddish; the wood is white.
In Egypt, and probably in other arid countries, the stalks are gathered
for fuel in winter.

The leaves are alternate, with long petioles. The upper leaves are
deeply cut, some having five, some seven, some three, and some even nine
lobes; strong veins extend from the petiole along the center of each lobe;
the leaves near the ground may not be lobed at a-11. Where the petiole
joins the stem, there is a pair of long, slender, pointed stipules, but they
often fall off early. A strange characteristic of the cotton leaves is tha\.
they bear nectar-glands; these may be seen on the under side and along
the main ribs of the leaf ; they appear as little pits in the rib ; some leaves
may have none, while others may have from one to five. It has been
thought that perhaps these glands might attract bees, wasps or ants,
which would attack the caterpillars eating the leaves, but this has not
been proved. However, many friendly insects get their nectar at these
leaf-wells, and here is an opportunity for some young naturalist of the
South to investigate this matter and discover what insects come to these
glands at all times of day and what they do.

The flower bud is partially hidden beneath the clasping bracts of the
involucre. These bracts are three or four in number, and they have the
edges so deeply lobed that they seem branched. By pushing back the
bracts we can find the calyx, which is a shallow cup with five shallow
notches in its rim. The petals are rolled in the bud like a shut umbrella.
The open flower has five broadly spreading petals; when the bud first
opens in the morning, the petals are whitish or pale yellow with a purplish
spot at the base, by noon they are pale pink, by the next day they are a
deep purplish red and they fall at the end of the second day. There are
nectar-glands also in the flower at the base of the calyx, and the insects
are obliged to thrust their tongues between the bases of the petals to reach
the nectar, only long-tonguedbees, moths and butterflies are able to attain
it.

There are many stamens which have their filaments united in a tube
extending up into the middle of the flower and enlarging a little at the tip;
below the enlarged base of this tube is the ovary which later develops into
the cotton-boll; within the stamen-tube extends the long style, and from
its tip are thrust out from three to five stigmas like little pennants from
the top of a chimney; and sometimes they are more or less twisted to-
gether. The young boll is covered and protected by the fringed bracts.

Cultivated-Plant Study

669

which cover the bud and remain attached to the ripened boll The
calyx, looking like a little saucer, also remains at the base of the bolb
The boll soon assumes an elongated, oval shape, with long, pointed tip,
it is green outside and covered with little pits, as large as pin points.
There are, extending back from the pointed tip, three to five creases or
sutures, which show where the bell will open. If we open a nearly
ripened boll, we find that half way between each two sutures where the
boll will open, there is a partition extending into the boll dividing it into
compartments. These are really carpels, as in the core of an apple, and
their leaf origin may be plainly seen in the venation. The seeds are
fastened by their pointed ends along each side of the central edge of the
partition, from which they break away very easily. The number of seeds
varies, usually two or three along each side; the young seeds are wrapped
in the young cotton, which is a stringy, soft white mass. The cotton
fibres are attached to the covering of the seed around the blunt end, and

1, The cotton flower cut in half, showing the stamen-tube at the center ,
up through which extends the style of the pistil. Note the bracts
and calyx.

2, A young boll, with calyx at its base and set in the involucral bracts.

usually the pointed end is bare. When the boll opens, the cotton becomes
very fluffy and if not picked will blow away; for this cotton fibre is a
device of the wild cotton for disseminating its seeds by sending them off
on the wings of the wind. Heavy winds at the cotton -picking time, are a
menace to the crop and often occasion serious loss.

The mechanism of the opening of the cotton -boll is very interesting;
along the central edge of each partition and extending up like beaks into
the point of the boll, is a stiff ridge, about the basal portion of which the
seeds are attached; as the boll becomes dry, this ridged margin becomes
as stiff as wire and warps outward; at the same time, the outside of the
boll is shriveling. This action tears the boll apart along the sutures and
exposes the seeds with their fluffy balloons to the action of the wind. The
ripe, open, empty boll is worth looking at; the sections are wide apart
and each white, delicate, parchment-like partition, or carpel, has its wire
edge curved back gracefully. The outside of the boll is brown and
shriveled, but inside it is still white and shows that it had a soft lining for
its “seed babies.”

The amount of the cotton crop per acre varies with the soil and
climate; the amount that can be picked per day also depends upon the

6 70

Handbook of Nature-Study

cotton as well as the picker. Children have been known to pick ons
hundred pounds per day, and a first-class picker from five hundred to six
hundred pounds, or even eight hundred; one man has made a record of
picking sixty pounds in an hour. Cotton is one of the most important
crops grown in America, and there are listed more than one hundred and
thirty varieties which have originated in our country.

References — The various bulletins of the United States Department of
Agriculture and of the experiment stations of the Southern States. The
most complete of these is Bulletin No. 33, Office of Experiment Stations,
U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, published in 1896.

LESSON CLXX
Cotton

Leading thought — Cotton has had a great influence upon our country

politically as well as in-
dustrially. Its fibre was
used by the ancients,
and it is to-day one of the
most important crops in
the regions where it is
grown.

Method — A cotton
plant with blossoms and
ripe, bolls upon it may be
brought into the school-
room or studied in the
field.

Observations — 1. How
many varieties of cotton
do you know? Which
kind is it you are study-
ing?

2. What sort of root
has the cotton plant?
Does it go deep into the
soil?

3 . How high does
the plant grow ? Are the
stems tough or brittle?
What is the color of the
bark? Of the wood?
Do you know of a coun-
try where cotton stalks
are used for fuel? Do the
stem and branches grow
erect or very spreading?

4. Are the leaves opposite or alternate? Are the petioles as long as
the leaves ? Are there any stipules where the petioles join the main stem ?
How many forms of leaves can you find on the same stem? How do the
upper differ from the lower leaves? Describe or sketch one of the large
upper leaves, paying especial attention to the veins and the shape of the
lobes.

A donkey laden with cotton stalks in Cairo, Egypt, the
bundles to be sold for fuel.

Photo by J. H. Comstock.

Cultivated-Plant Study

671

5. Look at the lower side of a leaf and find, if you can, a little pit on
the midrib near its base. How many of these pits can you find on the
veins of one leaf? What is the fluid in these pits? Taste it and see if it
is sweet. Watch carefully a growing plant and describe what insects you
find feeding on this nectar. Note if the wasps and ants, feeding on this
nectar, attack the caterpillars of the cotton worm which destroy the leaf.
Where are the nectar-glands of plants usually situated?

6. Study the flower bud ; what covers it ? How many of these bracts
cover the flower bud ? What is their shape and how do their edges look ?
Push back the bracts and find and describe the calyx. How are the
petals folded in the bud ?

7. Take the open flower; how many petals are there, and what is
their shape ? At what time of day do the flowers open ? What Color are
the petals when the flowers first open? What is their color later in the
day ? What is their color the next day ? When do the petals fall ?

8. Describe the stamens ; how are they joined ? How are the anthers
situated on the stamen-tube? Is the stamen-tube perfectly straight or
does it bend at the tip ?

9. Peel off carefully the stamen-tube and describe what you find
within it. How many stigmas come out of the tip of the tube ? Find the
ovary below the stamen-tube. Which part of the flower grows into the
cotton-boll ?

10. Take a boll nearly ripe; what covers it ? Push away the bracts;
can you find the calyx still present? What is the shape of the boll?
What is its color and texture ? Can you see the creases where it will open ?
How many are there of these?

1 1 . Open a nearly ripe boll very carefully . How many partitions are
there in it? Where are they in relation to the openings? Gently push
back the cotton from the seeds without loosening them, and describe how
the seeds are connected with the partitions. Is the seed attached by its
pointed or blunt end ?

12. How many seeds in each chamber in the cotton boll? Whereon
the seed does the*cotton grow? How does the cotton blanket wrap about
the seed? If the cotton is not picked what happens to it ? Of what use
to the wild cotton plant are seeds covered with cotton ?

13. What makes the cotton-boll open? Describe an open and empty
boll outside and inside.

14. How much cotton is considered a good crop per acre in your
vicinity? How much cotton can a good picker gather in a day?

15. Write English themes on the following topics : “The history of

the cotton plant from ancient times until to-day,” “How the cotton plant
has affected American history.”

“ Queen-consort of the kingly maize,

The fair white cotton shares his throne,

And o'er the Southland' s realm she claims
A just allegiance, all her own."

— Minnie Curtis Wait.

672

Handbook of Nature-Study

Photo by Verne Morton

THE STRAWBERRY
Teacher's Story

Of all the blossoms that clothe our open fields, one of the prettiest is
that of the wild strawberry. And yet so influenced is man by his stomach
that he seldom heeds this flower except as a promise of a crop of straw-
berries. It is comforting to know that the flowers of the field “do not
care a rap” whether man notices them or not; insect attentions are what
they covet, and they are surely as indifferent to our indifference as it is to
them.

The field strawbeny’s five petals are little cups of white held up
protectingly around a central treasure of anthers and pistils ; each petal
has its base narrowed into a little stem, which the botanists call a claw.
When the blossom first opens, the anthers are little, flat, vividly lemon-
yellow discs, each disc consisting of two clamped together sternly and
determinedly as if they meant never to open and yield their gold dust.
At the very center of the flower is a little, greenish yellow cone, which if
we examine with a lens, we can see is made up of many pistils set together,
each lifting up a little, circular, eager stigma high as ever it can reach.
Whether all the stigmas receive pollen or not determines the formation of
a good strawberry.

The sepals are slender and pointed and seem to be ten in number,
every other one being smaller and shorter than its neighbors ; but the five
shorter ones are not sepals but are bracts below the calyx. The sepals
unite at their bases so that the strawberry has really a lobed calyx instead
of separate sepals. The blossom stem is soft, pinkish and silky and wilts
easily. There are several blossoms borne upon one stem and the central
one opens first.

Cultivated-Plant Study

673

The strawberry leaf is beautiful ; each of its three leaflets is oval, deeply
toothed, and has strong regular veins extending from the midrib to the
tip of each tooth. I11 color it is rich, dark green and turns to wine-color
in autumn. It has a very
pretty way of coming out
of its hairy bud scales, each
leaflet folded lengthwise
and the three pressed to-
gether. Its whole appear-
ance then, is infantile in
the extreme, it is so soft
and helpless looking. But
it soon opens out on its
pink, downy stem and
shows the world how beau-
tiful a leaf can be.

If a comparison of the
wild and cultivated straw-
berries is practicable, it
makes this lesson more in-
teresting. Much tillage an d food have caused the cultivated blossoms to
double, and they may often have seven or eight petals. And while the
wild flowers are usually perfect, many cultivated varieties have the pollen
and pistils borne in different flowers, and they depend upon the bees to
carry their pollen. The blossom stem of the garden strawberry is round,
smooth and quite strong, holding its branching panicle of flowers erect,
and it is usually shorter than the leaf stems among which it nestles. The
flowers open in a series, so that ripe and green fruit, flowers and buds may
often be found on the same stem. As the strawberry ripens, the petals
and stamens wither and fall away; the green calyx remains as the hull,
which holds in its cup the pyramid of pistils which swell and ripen into the
juicy fruit. To the botanists the strawberry is not a berry, that definition
being limited to fruits having a juicy pulp and containing many seeds,
like the currant or grape. The strawberry is a fleshy fruit bearing its
seed in shallow pits on its surface. These seeds are so small that we do
not notice them when eating the fruit, but each one is a tiny nut, almond-
shaped, and containing within its tough, little shell a starchy meat to sus-
tain the future plant which may grow from it. It is by planting these
seeds that growers obtain new varieties.

The root of the strawberry is fibrous and threadlike. When growers
desire plants for setting new strawberry beds they are careful to take only
such as have light colored and fresh-looking roots. On old plants the
roots are rather black and woody and are not so vigorous.

The stem of the strawberry is partially underground and so short as to
be unnoticeable. However, the leaves grow upon it alternately one above
another, so that the crown rises as it grows. The base of each leaf has a
broad, clasping sheath which partly encircles the plant and extends
upward in a pair of earlike stipules.

The runners begin to grow after the fruiting season has closed; they
originate from the upper part of the crown ; they are strong, fibrous and
hairy when young. Some are short between joints, others seem to reach
far out as if seeking for the best location before striking root; a young

Strawberry leaf. Pistillate flower above.

Perfect flower below.

674

Handbook of Nature-Study

plant wilt often have several leaves before putting forth roots. Each
runner may start one or more new strawberry plants. After the young
plant has root growth so as to be able to feed itself, the runner ceases to
carry sap from the main stem and withers to a mere dry fiber. The
parent plant continues to live and bear fruit, for the strawberry is a per-
ennial, but the later crops are of less value. Gardeners usually renew
their plots each year, but if intending to harvest a second year’s crop,
they cut off the runners as they form.

Strawberry fruit.

LESSON CLXXI
The Strawberry

Leading thought — The strawberry plant has two methods of perpet-
uating itself, one by the seeds which are grown on the outside of the
strawberry fruits, and one by means of runners which start new plants
wherever they find place to take root.

Method — It would be well to have a strawberry plant, with roots and
runners attached, for an observation lesson by the class. Each pupil
should have a leaf, including the clasping stipules and sheath at its base.
Each one should also have a strawberry blossom and bud, and if possible
a green or ripe fruit.

Observations — i. What kind of root has the strawberry? What is its
color?

2. How are the leaves of the strawberry plant arranged? Describe
the base of the leaf and the way it is attached to the stem. Has each
leaflet a pedicel or stem of its own? How many leaflets are there?
Sketch a strawberry leaf, showing the edges and form of the leaflets, and
the veins.

Cultivated-Plant Study

675

3. From what part of the plant do the runners spring? When do the
runners begin to grow? Does the runner strike root before forming a new
plant or does the little plant grow on the runner and draw sustenance
from the parent plant ?

4. What happens to the runners after the new plants have become
established? Does the parent plant survive or die after it sends out
many runners?

5. Describe the strawberry blossom. How many parts are there to
the hull or calyx ? Can you see that five of these are set below the other
five?

6. How many petals has it? Does the number differ in different-
flowers? Has the wild strawberry as many petals as the cultivated ones?

7. Study with a lens the small green button at the center of the
flower. This is made up of pistils so closely set that only their stigmas
may be seen. Do you find this button of pistils in the same blossom with
the stamens ? Does the wild blossom have both stamens and pistils in the
same flower?

8. Describe the stamens. What insects carry pollen for the straw-
berry plants ?

9. Are the blossoms arranged in clusters ? Do the flowers all open at
the same time? What parts of the blossom fall away and what parts
remain when the fruit begins to form?

10. Are the fruits all of the same shape and color? Is the pulp of the
same color within as on the surface? Has the fruit an outer coat or skin?
What are the specks on its surface?

1 1 . How many kinds of wild strawberries do you know? How many
kinds of cultivated strawberries do you know?

12. Describe howyou should prepare, plant and care for a strawberry
bed.

THE PUMPKIN
Teacher's Story

If the pumpkin were as rare as some orchids, people would make long
pilgrimages to look upon so magnificent a plant. Although it trails along
the ground, letting Mother Earth help it support its gigantic fruit, yet
there is no sign of weakness in its appearance ; the vine stem is strong,
ridged, spiny and purposeful. And the spines upon it are surely a protec-
tion under some circumstances, for I remember distinctly when, as
children, bare-footed and owning the world, we “played Indian” and
found our ambush in the long rows of ripening corn, we skipped over the
pumpkin vines, knowing well the punishment they inflicted on the un-
wary feet.

From the hollow, strongly angled stem arise in majesty the pumpkin
leaves, of variously lobed patterns, but all formed on the same decorative
plan. The pumpkin leaf is as worthy of the sculptor’s chisel as is that of
the classic acanthus: it is palmat-ely veined, having from three to five
lobes, and its broad base is supported for a distance on each side of the
angled petiole by the two basal veins. The leaves are deep green above,
paler below and are covered on both sides with minute bristles, and their
edges are finely toothed. The bristly, angled stem which lifts it aloft is a

676

Handbook of Nature-Study

“ When the frost u on the punkin and the fodder's in the shock."

Photo by Verne Morton.

quite worthy support for so beautiful a leaf. And, during our childhood,
it was also highly esteemed as a trombone, for it added great richness of
quality to our orchestral performances, balancing the shrillness of the
basswood whistle and the sharp buzzing of the dandelion-stem pipe.

Growing from a point nearly opposite a leaf, may be seen the pumpkin’s
elaborate tendril. It has a stalk like that of the leaf, but instead of the
leaf blade it seems to have the three to five naked ribs curled in long, small
coils very even and exact. Perhaps, at some period in the past, the
pumpkin vines lifted themselves by clinging to trees, as do the gourd vines
of to-day. But the pumpkin was cultivated in fields with the maize by
the North American Indians, long before the Pilgrim Fathers came to
America, to make its fruit into pies. Since the pumpkin cannot sustain
itself in our Northern climate without the help of man, it was evidently a
native of a warmer land; and, by growing for so long a time as a com-
panion of the corn, it has learned to send its long stems out for many feet,
resting entirely upon the ground. But, like a conservative, elderly
maiden lady, it still wears corkscrew curls in memory of a fashion, long
since obsolete. Occasionally, we see the pumpkin vines at the edge of the
field pushing out and clambering over stone piles, and often attempting to
climb the rail fences, as if there still remained within them the old instinct
to climb.

But though its foliage is beautiful, the glory of the pumpkin is its
vivid yellow blossom and, later, its orange fruit. When the blossom first
starts on its career as a bud, it is enfolded in a bristly, ribbed calyx with
five stiff, narrow lobes, which close up protectingly about the green, cone-
shaped bud, a rib of the cone appearing between each two lobes of the

Cultivated Plant Study

67?

calyx. If we watch one of these buds day after day, we find that the
green cone changes to a yellow color and a softer texture as the bud un-
folds, and then we discover that it is the corolla itself; however, ihese ribs
which extend out to the tip of the corolla-lobes remain greenish below,
permanently. The expanding of the flower bud is a pretty process; each
lobe, supported by a strong midrib, spreads out into a five-pointed star,
each point being
very sharp and an-
gular because,
folded in along
these edges in one
of the prettiest of
Nature’s hems, is
the ruffled margin
"of the flower. Not
until the sun has
shone upon the
star for some little
time of a summer
morning, do these
tumed-in margins
open out; and, late
in the afternoon or
during a .storm,
they fold down
again neatly before
the lobes close up;
if a bee is not lively
in escaping she
may, willy-nilly,
get a night’s lodg-
ing, for these folded
edges literally hem
her in.

The story of the

treasure at the The closing of a pumpkin flower.

heart of this starry, 1, Staminate flower beginning to close; note the folded edges of the lobes
i 11 i j a 2. Pistillate flower nearly closed. 3, Staminate flower closed

bell-shaped flower and in its last stage.

is a double one, and

we had best begin it by selecting a flower that has below it a little green
globe — the ovary — which will later develop into a pumpkin. At the
heart of such a flower there stand three stigmas, that look like liliputian
boxing-gloves ; each is set on a stout, postlike style, which has its base in a
great nectar-cup, the edges of which are slightly incurved over its welling
sweetness. In order to reach this nectar, the lady bee must stand on her
head and brush her pollen-dusted side against the greedy stigmas. Pn>
fessor Duggar has noted that in dry weather the margins of this nectar-cup
contract noticeably, and that in wet weather the stigmas close, down as if
the boxing-gloves were on closed fists.

The other half of the pumpkin-blossom story is to be found in the
flowers which have no green globes below them, for these produce the
pollen. Such a flower has at its center a graceful pedestal with a broad

Handbook of Nature-Study

678

1'he staminate blossom of the pumpkin, showing the anther knob at the center. A bud of
the staminate flower; and a closed blossom at the right.

Photo by Verne Morton.

base and a slender stem, which upholds a curiously folded, elongate knob,
that looks like some ancient or primitive jewel wrought in gold. The
corrugations on its surface are the anther-cells, which are curiously joined
and curved around a central oblong support ; by cutting one across, we
can see plainly the central core, bordered by cells filled with pollen. But
where is the nectar well in the smooth cup of this flower? Some have

anthers joined, forming a knob. 3, Pumpkin tendril.

Cultivated-Plant Study

679

maintained that the bees visit this flower for the sake of the pollen, but I
am convinced that this is not all of the story. In the base of the pedestal
which supports the anther knob there appear, after a time, three incon-
spicuous openings; and if we watch a bee, we shall see that she knows
these openings are there and eagerly thrusts her tongue down through
them. If we remove the anthers and the pedestal, we shall find below the
latter, a treasure cave; it is carpeted with the softest of buff velvet, and
while it does not reek with nectar, as does the cup which encompasses the
styles of the pistil, yet it secretes enough of the sweet fluid so that we can
taste it distinctly. Thus, although the bees find pollen in this flower they
also find there, nectar. The pumpkin is absolutely dependent upon the
work of bees and other insects for carrying its pollen from the blossom
that bears it to the one which needs it, as this is the only way that the
fruit maybe developed.

And after the pollen has been shed and delivered, the flower closes,
this time with an air of finality. The fading corolla looks as if its lobes
had been twisted about by the thumb and finger to secure tightness ; and
woe betide the bee caught in one of these prisons, unless she knows how to
cut through its walls or can find within, sustenance to last until the
withered flower falls. The young pumpkin is at first held up by its stiff
stem but later rests upon the ground .

The ripe pumpkin is not only a colossal but also a beautiful fruit. The
glossy rind is brilliant orange and makes a very efficient protection for the
treasures within it. The stem is strong, five-angled and stubborn, and
will not let go its hold until the fruit is over-ripe. It t en leaves a star-
shaped scar to match the one at the ther end of the fruit, where once the
blossom sat enthroned. The pumpkin in shape is like a little world
flattened at the poles, and with the lines of longitude creased into its
surface. But the number of these longitudinal creases varies with
individual pumpkins, and seems to have no
relation to the angles of the stem or the three
chambers within.

If we cut a small green pumpkin across, we
find the entire inside solid There are three
fibrous partitions extending from the center,
dividing the pulp into thirds; at its outer end
each partition divides, and the two ends curve
in opposite directions. Within these curves
the seeds are borne. A similar arrangement
is seen in the sliced cucumber. As the pump-
kin ripens, the partitions surrounding the
seeds become stringy and very different from
the “meat” next to the rind, which makes a
thick, solid outer wall about the central
chamber, where, within its “groined arches” are contained six
rows of crowded seeds, attached by their pointed tips and supported
by a network of yellow, coarse fibers — like babies supported in hammocks.
All this network, making a loose and fibrous core, allows the seeds to fall
out in a mass when the pumpkin is broken. If we observe where the
cattle have been eating pumpkins we find these masses of seeds left and
trampled into the mud, where, if our winter climate permitted, they
could grow into plants next year.

Section of a pumpkin just
after the blossom has fallen.
Note how the seeds are borne.

68o

Handbook of Nature-Study

The pumpkin seed is attached by its pointed end;
it is flat, oblong and has a rounded ridge at its edge,
within which is a delicate “beading.” The outside is
The s uashVery muc^a§inous^ but when wiped dry, we can see
plant break- that it has an outer, very thin, transparent coat; a
ingout of the thicker white, middle coat ; while the meat of the seed
seed-coats, is covered with a greenish, membranous coat. The
meat falls apart lengthwise and flatwise, the two
halves forming later the seed-leaves and containing
the food laid up by the “pumpkin mother” for the nourishment
of the young plant. Between these two halves, at the pointed
end, is the germ, which will develop into a new plant.

When sprouting, the root pushes out through the pointed end
of the seed’ and grows downward. The shell of the seed is forced
open by a little wedge-shaped projection, while the
seed-leaves are pulled from their snug quarters. In
watching one of these seeds sprout, it is difficult not
to attribute to it conscious effort, while it is sturdily
pulling hard to release its seed-leaves. If it fails to
do this, the seed shell clamps the seed-leaves together
operation bke a v^se> anc^ the little plant is crippled.
further Both squashes and pumpkins figure in the spicy
progressed Thanksgiving pies, but the chief value of the pumpkin
crop in America is as food for milch cows; it causes a
yield of milk so rich, that the butter made from it is as golden
as its flesh. But the Hallow-e’en jack o’lantern appeals to the
children. In this connection, a study of expression might be
made interesting; the turning of the corners of the mouth up
or down, and the angles of the eyebrows, making all the diff-
erence between a jolly grin and an “awful face.”

LESSON CLXXII
The Pumpkin

Leading thought — The pumpkin and squash were cultivated by the
American Indians in their cornfields long before Columbus discovered the
new world. The flowers of these plants depend entirely upon insects for
carrying their pollen, and are unable to develop their fruit without this
aid.

Method — This work may be done in the garden or field in September or
early October; or a vine bearing both kinds of flowers, leaves and tendrils
may be brought to the schoolroom for observation. The lesson on the
pumpkin fruit may be given later. A small green pumpkin should be
studied with the ripe one, and also with the blossoms, so as to show the
position of the seeds during development. This lesson can be modified
to fit the cucumber, the melon and the squash.

The Pumpkin Vine and Flowers

Observations — i. How many different forms of flowers do you find on
a pumpkin vine? What are the chief differences in their shape?

2. Look first at the flowers with the long slender stems : What is the

shape and color of the blossom ? How many lobes has it? Is each lobe

Cultivated-Plant Study

68 1

Partially closed pistillate blossom at the right , showing the stigmas and the nectar-cup at the
center. Note the young pumpkin and the beautiful leaf;
note also the angular, spiny stems.

Photo by Verne Morton.

distinctly ribbed or veined? Is the flower smooth on the inner and the
outer surface ? Are the edges of the lobes scalloped or ruffled ?

3. What do you see at the bottom of the golden vase of this flower?
This yellow club, or knob, is formed by the joining of three anthers, one of
which is smaller than the others. Do all the pumpkin flowers have this
knob at the center? Look at the base of the standard which bears the
anther-knob, and note if there are some openings; how many? Cut off
the anther pedestal, and describe what is hidden beneath it. Note if the
bees find the openings to the nectar-well and probe there for the nectar.
Do they become dusted with pollen while seeking the nectar?

4. What color is the pollen which is clinging to the anther? Is it soft
and light, or moist and sticky? Do you think that the wind would be
able to lift it from its deep cup and carry it to the cup of another flower?

5. Describe the calyx behind this pollen -bearing flower. How many
lobes has it? Are the lobes slender and pointed?

6. Find one of the flowers which has below it a little green globe,
which will later develop into a pumpkin. How does this flower differ
from the one that bears the pollen ?

7. Describe or sketch the pistil which is at the bottom of this flower
vase. Into how many lobes does it divide? Do these three stigmas face
outward, or toward each other? Are the styles which uphold the stigmas
short or long? Describe the cup in which they stand. Break away a bit
of this little yellow cup and taste it. Why do you think the pumpkin
flowers need such a large and well-filled nectary? Could insects get the
nectar from the cup without rubbing against the stigmas, the pollen with

682 Handbook of Nature-Study

which they became so thoroughly dusted when they visited the staminate
flowers?

8. Cut through the center of one of the small green pumpkins. Can
you see into how many sections it is divided? Does the number of seed-
clusters correspond with the number of stigmas in the flower? Make a
sketch of a cross-section, showing where the seeds are placed.

9 . What insects do you find visiting the pumpkin flowers ?

10. Carefully unfold a flower bud which is nearly ready to open, and
note how it is folded. Then notice late in the afternoon how the fl wer
closes. What part is folded over first ? What next? How does it look
when closed?

n. Describe the stems of the pumpkin vine; how are they
strengthened and protected? Sketch or describe a pumpkin leaf.

12. Describe one of the tendrils of the pumpkin vine. Do you think
that these tendrils could help the vine in climbing? Have you ever
found a pumpkin vine climbing up any object?

The Pumpkin Fruit

Observations — i. Do you think the pumpkin is a beautiful fruit?
Why? Describe its shape and the way it is creased. Describe the rind,
its color and its texture, and tell how it protects the fruit. Describe the

stem; does it cling to the pump-
kin? How many ridges in the
stem where it joins the vine?
How many where it joins the
pumpkin? Which part of the
stem is larger? Does this give it
a firmer hold?

2. Cut in halves crosswise a
small green pumpkin and a ripe
one. Which is the most solid?
Can you see how the seeds are
borne in the green pumpkin ?
How do they look in the ripe
pumpkin? What is next to the
rmd in the ripe fruit ? What part
of the pumpkin do we use for pies?

3. Can you see in the ripe
pumpkin where the seeds are
borne? How are they suspended?
How many rows of seeds length-
wise of the pumpkin? Of what
use could it be to the pumpkin to
have the seeds thus suspended
within it by these threads or
fibers? What is left of a pumpkin
after the cattle have eaten it?
Might the seeds thus left plant
themselves?

4. Is the pumpkin seed at-
tached at the round, or the pointed, end? Describe the pumpkin seed its
shape and its edges? How does it feel when first taken from the
pumpkin? How many coats has the seed?

Cultivated-Plant Study

683

5. Describe the meat of the seed? Does it divide naturally into two
parts? Can you see the little germ? Have you ever tried roasting and
salting pumpkin and squash seeds, to prepare them for food as almonds
and peanuts are prepared ?

6. Plant a pumpkin seed in damp sand and give it warmth and light.
From which end does it sprout ? What comes first, the root or the leaves ?
What part of the seed forms the seed-leaves?

7. Describe how the pumpkin sprout pries open the shell to its seed,
in order to get its seed-leaves out. What happens if it does not pull them
out ? Which part of the seedling pumpkin appears above ground first ?

8. How do the true leaves differ in shape from the seed-leaves. What
is the use of the seed-leaves to the plant ?

Ah! on Thanksgiving day , when from East and from West,

From North and from South come the pilgrim and guest,

When the gray-haired New-Englander sees round his board
The old broken lines of affection restored,

When the care-wearied man seeks his mother once more,

And the worn matron smiles where the girl smiled before,

What moistens the lip and brightens the eye?

What calls back the past, like the rich Pumpkin pie?

Oh, fruit loved of boyhood! the old days recalling,

When wood-grapes were purpling and brown nuts were falling
When wild, ugly faces we carved in its skin,

Glaring out through the dark with a candle within!

When we laughed round the corn-heap, with hearts all in tune,

Our chair a broad pumpkin — our lantern the moon,

Telling tales of the fairy who travelled like steam,

In a pumpkin-shell coach, with two rats for her team!

— J. G. Whittier.

684

Handbook of Nature-Study
FLOWERLESS-PLANT STUDY

FERNS

ANY interesting things about ferns may be
taught to the young child, but the more care-
ful study of these plants is better adapted to
the pupils in the higher grades, and is one ot
the wide-open doors that leads directly from
nature-study to systematic science. While
the pupils are studying the different forms in
which ferns bear their fruit, they can make
collections of all the ferns of the locality.
Since ferns are easily pressed and are beauti-
ful objects when mounted on white paper, the
making of a fern herbarium is a delightful pastime ; or leaf-prints may be
made which give beautiful results (see page 734) ;but, better perhaps, than
either collections or prints, are pencil or water-color drawings with details
of the fruiting organs enlarged. Such a portfolio is not only a thing of
beauty but the close observation needed for drawing brings much
knowledge to the artist.

References. — Our Ferns in Their Haunts, W. N. Clute, (of greatest
value to teachers because it gives much of fern literature) ; How to
Know the Ferns, Parsons; Ferns, Waters; New England Ferns, East-
man.

THE CHRISTMAS FERN
Teacher's Story

“No shivering frond that shuns the blast sways on its slender chaffy stem ;

Full veined and lusty green it stands, of all the wintry woods the gem. ”

— W. N. Clute.

The rootstock of the fern is an humble example of “rising on stepping
stones of our dead selves,” this being almost literally true of the tree-ferns.
The rootstock which is a stem and not a root — has, like other stems, a
growing tip from which, each year, it sends up into the world several
beautiful green fronds, and numerous rootlets down into the earth.
These graceful fronds rejoice the world and our eyes for the summer, and
make glad the one who, in winter, loves to wander often in the woods to
inquire after the welfare of his many friends during their period of sleeping
and waking. These fronds, after giving their message of winter cheer,
and after the following summer has made the whole woodland green and
the young fronds are growing thriftily from the tip of the rootstock, die
down, and in midsummer we can find the old fronds lying sere and brown,
with broken stipes, just back of the new fern clump; if we examine the
rootstock we can detect behind them, remains of the stems of the fronds of
year before last ; and still farther behind we may trace all the stems of
fronds which gladdened the world three years ago. Thus we learn that

Flowerless-Plant Study

685

The Christmas fern. The contracted tips of some of the fronds consist of
fruiting pinna.

Photo by Verne Morton.

this rootstock may have been creeping on an inch or so each season for
many years, always busy with the present and giving no heed to its dead
past. One of the chief differences between our ferns and the tree-ferns of
the tropics, which we often see in greenhouses, is that in the tree-fern the
rootstock rises in the air instead of creeping on, or below, the surface of the
ground. This upright rootstock of the tree-fern also bears fronds at its
tip, and its old fronds gradually die down, leaving it rough below its crown
of green plumes.

The Christmas fern has its green stipe, or petiole, and its rachis, or mid-
rib, more or less covered with ragged, brownish scales, which give it an
unkempt appearance. Its pinnae, or leaflets, are individually very
pretty; in color they are dark, shining green, lance-shaped, with a pointed
lobe or ear at the base projecting upward. The edges of the pinnae are
delicately toothed, each point armed with a little spine, and the veins are
fine, straight and free to the margin; the lower pinnae often have the
earlike lobe completely severed.

; In studying a fertile fern from above, we notice that about a dozen
pairs of the pinnae near the tip are narrowed and roughened and are
more distinctly toothed on the margins. Examining them underneath,
we find, on each a double row of circular raised dots which are the fruit-
dots, or sori; there is a row between the midrib and margin on each side,
and also a double row extending up into the point at the base. Early in
the season these spots look like pale blisters, later they turn pale brown,
each blister having a depression at its center; by the middle of June,

686

Handbook of Nature-Study

masses of tiny globules, not larger than pin points, push out from beneath
the margin of these dots. The blisterlike membrane is simply a cover for
the growing spores, and is called the indusium; by July it shrivels into an
irregular scroll, still clinging to the pinnule by its depressed center; and

by this time the profu-
sion of tiny globules
covers the entire under
side of the pinna like
a brown fuzz. If we
scrape off some of this
fuzz and examine it with
a lens, we can see that it
consists of numberless
little globules, each with
a stem to attach it to the
leaf ; these are the spore-
cases, or sporangia, each
globule being packed full
of spores which, even
through the lens, look
like yellowish powder.
But each particle of this
dust has its own structure and contains in its heart the living fern-sub-
stance.

Not all the fronds of the fern clump bear these fruit-dots. The ones
we select for decoration are usually the sterile fronds, for the fertile ones
are not so graceful, and many ignorant people think the brown spore-cases
are a fungus. The Christmas fern being evergreen and very firm in tex-

i. Fertile leaflet of Christmas fern showing indusia
and spore-cases. 2. An indusium and spore-cases, en-
larged. 3. A s pore- case, enlarged. 4. A spore-case
discharging spores, enlarged.

The common polypody often mistaken for the Christmas fern.
Photo by Verne Morton.

Flowerless-Plant Study

687

cure, is much used in holiday decoration, hence its common name, which
is more easily remembered than Polystichum acrostichoides , which is its
real name. It loves to grow in well-shaded woodlands, liking better the
trees which shed their leaves than the evergreens; it is indeed well-
adapted to thrive in damp, cold shade; it is rarely found on slopes which
face the south, and sunshine kills it.

LESSON CLXXIII
The Christmas Fern

Leading thought — The fern has a creeping underground stem called the
rootstock, which pushes forward and sends up fresh fronds each year,
Some of the fronds of the Christmas fern bear spores on the lower surface
of the terminal pinnae.

Method — This lesson should be given during the latter part of May,
when the fruit-dots are still green. Take up a fern and transplant it, in a
dish of moss, in the schoolroom, and later plant it in some convenient
shady place. The pupils should sketch the fertile frond from the upper
side so as to fix in their minds the contracted pinnae of the tip; one of
the lower pinnae should be drawn in detail, showing the serrate edge,
the ear and the venation. The teacher should use the following terms
constantly and insis-
tently, so as to make
the fern nomencla-
ture a part of the
school vocabulary,
and thus fit the
pupils for using fern
manuals.

A frond is all of
the fern which grows
on one stem from the
rootstock; the blade
is that portion which
bears leaflets; the
stipe is the stem or
petiole; the rachis is
the midrib and is a
continuation of the
stipe ; the pinnule
is a leaflet of the last
division; the pinna
is a chief division of
the midrib or rachis,
when the fern is com-
pound; the sori are
the fruit dots; the
mdusium isthe mem-
brane covering the
fruiting organs; the
sporcngia are the

tiny brown globules. Leaf-print of a fern with the parts named .

and are the spore twice pinnate .

Hae hi*

Remains of last,
fronds.

This fern is

688

Handbook of Nature-Study

cases; the spores make up the fine dust which comes from the spore-cases.
It would be well to make a diagram on the blackboard of the fern with its
parts named, so that the pupils may consult it while studying ferns.

Observations — i. Study a stump of the Christmas ferns. Are there any
withered fronds ? Where do they join the rootstock? Do the green fronds
come from the same place on the rootstock as the withered ones ? Do the
green ferns come from near the tip of the rootstock? Can you find the
growing tip of the rootstock? Can you trace back and find where the
fronds of last year and year before last grew? Does that part of the root-
stock seem alive now? Can you find the true root of the fern?

2. Take a frond of the Christmas fern. Is the stem, or stipe, and the
midrib, or rachis, smooth or rough ? What color are the scales of the
stalk? Do you think that these scales once wrapped the fern bud?

3. Does each frond of a clump have the same number of pinnae on
each side? Can you find fronds where the pinnae near the tip are nar-
rower than those below? Take a lower pinna and draw it carefully,
showing its shape, its edges and its veins. Is there a point, or ear, at
the base of every pinna? Is it a separate lobe or a mere point of the
pinna ?

4. Take one of the narrow pinnae near the tip of the frond, and
examine it beneath. Can you see some circular, roundish blisterlike
dots? Are they dented at the center? How many of these dots on a
pinna? Make a little sketch showing how they are arranged on the
pinna and on the little earlike point. Look at the fruiting pinnae of
a fern during July, and describe how they look then.

5. Do all the fronds of a fern clump have these narrowed spore-
bearing pinnae? Do you know what those fronds are called that beai
the fruit-dots?

6. Where do you find the Christmas fern growing? Do you ever find
it in a sunny place? Why is it called the Christmas fern?

FERN SONG

Dance to the heat of the rain, little Fern
And spread out your palms again,

And say, “ Tho ’ the sun
Hath my vesture spun,

He had labored, alas, in vain,

But for the shade

That the Cloud hath made,

And the gift of the Dew and the Rain.”

Then laugh and upturn
All your fronds, little Fern,

And rejoice in the beat of the rain!

—John B. Tabs.

Flowerless-Plant Study
THE BRACKEN

689

Teacher's Story

It is well for the
children to study the
animals and plants
which have a world-
w i d e distribution.
There is something
comforting in finding
a familiar plant in
strange countries ; and
when I have found
the bracken on the
coast ranges of Cali-
fornia, on the rugged
sides of the Alps, and
in many other far
places, I have always
experienced a thrill of
delightful memories of
the fence corners of
the homestead farm.
Since the bracken is
so widespread, it is
natural that it should
find a place in litera-
ture and popular
legend. As it clothes
the mountains of Scot-
land, it is much sung
of in Scottish poetry.
Many superstitions
cluster around it — its
seed, if caught at
midnight on a white
napkin, is supposed to
render the possessor
invisible. Professor
Clute, in Our Ferns in
Their Haunts, gives a
delightful chapter
about the relation of
the bracken to people.

For nature-study
purposes, the bracken
is valuable as a lesson
on the intricate pat-
terns of the fern leaf;
it is in fact a lesson in
pinnateness. The two
lower branches are
large and spreading'

Bracken.

Photo by Verne Morton.

690

Handbook of Nature-Study

and are in themselves often three times pinnate ; the branches higher up
are twice pinnate ; while the main branch near the tip is once pinnate, and
at the tip is merely lobed. The lesson, as illustrated in the diagram of the
fern, should be well learned for future study, because this nomenclature is
used in all the fern manuals. The fact that a pinnule is merely the last
division of a frond, whether it be twice or thrice pinnate, should
also be understood.

The bracken does not love complete shade and establishes itself in
waste places, living contentedly in not too shaded locations ; it is especially
fond of woodsides, and fence corners on high and cold land. As Professor
Clute says, “It is found both in woodland and in the open field; its favor-
ite haunt is neither, but is that half-way ground where man leaves off and
nature begins, the copse or the thicket.” With us it usually grows c^bout
three feet high, but varies much in this respect. The great triangular
fronds often measure two or three feet across, and are supposed to bear a
likeness to an eagle with spread wings. Its rootstock is usually too
deeply embedded in earth for the study of any except the most energetic;
it is about the size of a lead pencil and is black and smooth ; in its way it
is a great traveler, sending up fronds fifteen or twenty feet from its start-
ing place. It also sends off branching rootstocks.

The fruiting pinnules
look as if they were hemmed
and the edges of the hems
embroidered with brown
wool; but the embroidery
is simply the spore-cases
pushing out from under
the folded margin which
protected them while de-
veloping.

Much on which to base
necromancy has been found
in the figure shown in the
cross-section of the Stem or 7 J- fruiting pinnules of the maiden-hair fern, en-
,. rp, .j p larged. 2. Fruiting pinnule of the bracken, enlarged.

Stipe. ine letter U, sup- jn t^ese species spores are borne under the

posed to stand for Christ, recurved edges of the pinnules.
thus made is a potent pro-
tection from witches. But this figure has also been compared to the
devil’s hoof, an oak tree, or the initial of one’s sweetheart, and all these
imaginings have played their part in the lives of the people of past ages.
It was believed in England that burning the bracken from the fields
brought rain ; the roots in time of scarcity have been ground and mixed
with flour to make bread. The young ferns, or croziers, are sometimes
cooked and eaten like asparagus. The fronds have been used extensively
for tanning leather and for packing fish and fruit, and when burned theii
ashes are used instead of soap.

In Europe, bracken grows so rankly that it is used for roof-thatching
and for the bedding of cattle. The name “brake,” which is loosely used
for all ferns, comes from the word “bracken;” some people think that
brakes are different from ferns, whereas this is simply a name which has
strayed from the bracken to other species. Its scientific name, Pteris
aquilina, signifies eagle’s wing.

Flowerless-Plant Study

691

LESSON CLXXIV
The Bracken

Leading thought — The bracken is a fern which has taken possession of
the world. It is much branched and divided, and it covers the ground in
masses where it grows. The edges of its pinnules are folded under to pro-
tect the spores.

Method — Bring to the schoolroom large and small specimens of the
bracken, and after a study is made tell about the superstitions connected
with this fern and as far as possible interest the pupils in its literature.

Observations — 1. Do you find the bracken growing in the woods or
open places? Do you find it in the cultivated fields? How high does it
stand? Could you find the rootstock?

2. Take a bracken frond. What is its general shape? Does it
remind you of an eagle with spread wings? Look at its very tip. Is it
pinnate or merely lobed? Can you find a place farther down where the
leaflets, or pinnules, are not joined at their bases? This is once pinnate.
Look farther down and find a pinna that is lobed at the tip ; at the base
it has distinct pinnules. This is twice pinnate. Look at the lowest
divisions of all. Can you find any part of this which is three times pin-
nate? Four times pinnate? Pinna means feather, pinnate therefore
means feathered. If a thing is once pinnate, it means that it has divisions
along each side similar to q feather; twice pinnate means that each
feather has little feathers along each side ; thrice pinnate means that the
little feathers have similar feathers along each side, and so on.

3. Can you see if the edges of the pinnules are folded under? Lift up
one of these edges and see if you can find what is growing beneath it.
How do these folded margins look during August and September?

4. Cut the stem, or stipe, of a bracken across and see the figure in it.
Does it look like the initial C? Or a hoof, or an oak tree, or another
initial?

5. Discover, if you can, the different uses which people of other
countries find for this fern.

HOW A FERN BUD UNFOLDS

Teacher's Story

Of all "plant babies,” that of the fern is most cozily cuddled; one feels
when looking at it, that not only are its eyes shut but its fists are
tightly closed. But the first glance at one of these little woolly spirals
gives us but small conception of its marvelous enfolding, all so systematic
and perfect that it seems another evidence of the divine origin of mathe-
matics. Every part of the frond is present in that bud, even to the
fruiting organs; all the pinnae and the pinnules are packed in the
smallest compass — each division, even to the smallest pinnule, coiled in
a spiral towards its base. These coiled fern buds are called crosiers ;
they are woolly, with scales instead of hairs, and are thus well blanketed.
Some botanists object to the comparison of the woolly or fuzzy clothing of
young plants with the blankets of human infants. It is true that the young
plant is not kept at a higher temperature by this covering; but because
of it, transpiration which is a cooling process is prevented, and thus the

692

Handbook of Nature-Study

plant is kept warmer. When the fern commences to grow, it stretches up
and seems to lean over backward in its effort to be bigger. First the main

stem, or rachis, loosens its
coil; but before this is com-
pleted, the pinnas, which
are coiled at right angles to
the main stem, begin to un-
fold; a little later the pin-
nules, which are folded at
right angles to the pinnae,
loosen and seem to stretch
and yawn before taking a
look at the world which
they have just entered; it
may be several days before
all signs of the complex coil-
ing disappear. The crosiers
of the bracken are queer look-
ing creatures, soon develop-
ing three claws which some
people say look like the
talons of an eagle; and so
intricate is the action of their
multitudinous spirals, that
to watch them unfolding im-
presses one as in the presence
of a miracle.

LESSON CLXXV
How A Fern Bud Unfolds
Leading thought — All of
Fiddle heads , or crosiers. Young ferns unfolding. f he parts of the frond of a

Photo by Verne Morton. fern are tightly folded spir-

ally within the bud, and
every lobe of every leaflet is also folded in a spiral.

Method — The bracken crosier is a most illuminating object for this
lesson, because it has so many divisions and is so large; it is also con-
venient, because it may be found in September. However, any fern bud
will do. The lesson may be best given in May when the woodland ferns
are starting. A fern root with its buds should be brought to the school-
room, where the process of unfolding may be watched at leisure.

Observations — 1. Take a very young bud. How does it look? Do
you see any reason why ignorant people call these buds caterpillars ? Can
you see why they are popiilarly called “fiddle heads?” What is their true
name? How many turns of the coil can you count.? Whar ■> j the cover-
ing of the crosier? Do you think this cover is a protection? How is the
stem grooved to make the spiral compact ?

2. Take a crosier a little further advanced. How are its pinnae folded?
How is each pinnule of each pinna folded ? How is each lobe of a pinnule
folded? Is each smaller part coiled toward each larger part?

Flowerless-Plant Study

693

3. Write in your note-book the story of the unfolding fern, and
sketch its stages each day from the time it is cuddled down in a spiral
until it is a fully expanded frond.

The walking fern.

THE FRUITING OF THE FERN

Teacher's Story

“If we were required to know the position of the fruit-dots or the character of the
indusium, nothing could he easier than to ascertain it; hut if it is required that you he
affected by ferns, that they amount to anything, signify anything to you, that they he
another sacred scripture and revelation to you, help to redeem your life, this end is not so
easily accomplished .” — Thoreau.

HE fern, like the butterfly, seems to have sev-
eral this-world incarnations; and perhaps
the most wonderful of these is the spore.
Shake the dust out of the ripened fern and
each particle, although too small for the
naked eye to see, has within it the possibili-
ties of developing a mass of graceful ferns.
Each spore has an outside hard layer, and
within this an atom of fern-substance ; but
it cannot be developed unless it falls into
some warm, damp place favorable for its
growth ; it may have to wait many years
before chance gives it this favorable con-
dition, but it is strong and patient and
retains its vital power for years. There
are cases known where spores grew after twenty years of waiting.
But what does this microscopic atom grow into? It develops into a
tiny heart-shaped, leaflike structure which botanists call the
prothallium; this has on its lower side little roots which reach down
into the soil for nourishment; and on its upper surface are two
kinds of pockets, one round and the other long. In the round
pockets are developed bodies which may be compared to the pollen;
and in the long pockets, bodies which may be compared to the ovules
of flowering plants. In the case of ferns, water is necessary to float the
pollen from the round pockets to the ovules in
the long pockets. From a germ thus fertilized
in one of the long pockets, a little green fern
starts to grow, although it may be several years
before it becomes a plant strong enough to send
up fronds with spore-dots on them. To study
the structure of the spore requires the highest
powers of the microscope ; and even the prothal-
lium in most species is very small, varying from
the size of a pin-head to that of a small pea, and it
is therefore quite difficult to find. I found some
once on a mossy log that bridged a stream, and I
was never so triumphant over any other outdoor
achievement. They may be found in damp

Prothallium, greatly en-
larged, showing the two
kinds of pockets and the
rootlets.

694

Handbook of Nature-Study

places, in greenhouses, but the teacher will be very fortunate who is able
to show her pupils this stage of the fern. The prothallium is a stage ot

Christmas fern is below the others..
Photo by Verne Morton.

the fern to be compared to the flower and seed combined in the highei
plants ; but this is difficult for young minds to comprehend. I like to tell
the children that the fern, like a butterfly, has several stages : Beginning

with the spore-bearing
fern, we next have the
^ spores, next the prothal-
lium stage, and then the
young fern. While in
the other case we have
first the egg, then the
caterpillar, then the
chrysalis, and then the

1. a, pinna bearing fruit: b, a fruit-dot, enlarged, showing spore- "h 1 1 ft prAv T.nnVincr at

cases pushing out around the edges of the indusium, c, spore- °

case, enlarged, showing how it discharges the spores.

2. Prothallium, enlarged

3. Young fern growing from the prothallium.

The life of a fern.

the ripe fruit-dots on the
lower side of the fern
leaf, we can easily see
with a lens a mass of tiny globules; each one of these is a spore-case, or
sporangium, (plural sporangia), and is fastened to the leaf by a stalk
and has, almost encircling it, a jointed ring. (See figure on page 686).

When the spores are ripe, this ring straightens out and ruptures the
globule, and out fly the spores. By scraping a little of the brown fuzz
from a fruiting pinna of the Christmas fern upon a glass slide and placing a
cover glass upon it, we find it very easy to examine through the micro*
scope, and we are able thus to find the spore-cases in all stages, and to see

Flowerless-Plant Study

695

1. Fruiting pinnule of the houlder
fern , enlarged. 2. Fruiting
pinnules of spleenwort, enlarged.

the spores distinctly. The spore-cases may also be seen with a hand lens,
the spores seeming then to be mere dust.

The different ways the ferns blanket
their spore-cases is a delightful study, and
one which the pupils enjoy very much. All
of our common ferns except the careless
little polypody thus protect their spores.

Whether this blanket be circular, or horse-
shoe-shaped, or oblong, or in the form of
pocket or cup, depends upon the genus to
which the fern belongs. The little protect-
ing blanket-membrane is called the indu-
sium, and while its shape distinguishes the
genus, the position in which it grows
determines the species. I shall never
forget my surprise and delight when, as a
young girl, I visited the Philadelphia Cen-
tennial Expositon, and there in the great
conservatories saw for the first time the
tree-ferns of the tropics. One of these was
labelled Dicksonia, and mystified, I asked the privilege of examining
the fronds for fruiting organs. When lo! the indusium proved to be a
little cup, borne at the base of the tooth of the pinnule,
exactly like that of our boulder fern, which is also a
Dicksonia. I had a sudden feeling that I must have fern
friends all over the world.

The children are always interested in the way the
maidenhair folds over the tips of her scallops to protect
her spore nursery; and while many of our ferns have
their fertile fronds very similar in form to the sterile ones,
yet there are many common ferns with fertile fronds that
look so different from the others, that one would not
think they were originally of the same pattern; but
although their pinnules are changed into cups,
or spore-pockets, of various shapes, if they be
examined carefully they will be seen to have
the same general structure and the same
divisions however much contracted, as have
the large sterile fronds. The Osmundas,
which include the interrupted, the cinnamon
and the flowering ferns, are especially good for
this part of the lesson. The sensitive fern, so
common in damp places in open fields, is also
an excellent illustration of this method of
fruiting. While studying the ferns, the teacher should lay stress upon
the fact that they represent the earliest and simplest forms of plants,
that they reached the zenith of their growth in the Carboniferous age, and
that, to a large extent, our coal is composed of them. It is interesting
to think that the exquisite and intricate leaf patterns of the ferns should
belong to a primitive type. Often when I have watched the forming
by the frost, of the exquisite fernlike pictures on the window-pane, I
have wondered if, after all, the first expression of the Creator did not

Fruiting pinnules
of evergreen
wood fern.

Fruiting pinnules of the
chain fern.

Handbook oj Nature-Study

696

find form in the most exquisite grace and beauty; and if perchance the
first fishes, so fierce and terrible, did not mark the introduction of Satan.

LESSON CLXXVI
The Fruiting of the Fern

Leading thought — Ferns do not have flowers, but they produce spores.
Spores are not seeds ; but they grow into something which may be com-
pared to a true seed, and this in turn develops into young ferns. Each
genus of ferns has its own peculiar way of protecting its spores ; and if we
learn these different ways, we can recognize ferns without effort.

Method — July is the best time for this lesson, which is well adapted for
summer schools or camping trips. However, if it is desired to use it as a
school lesson, it should be begun in June, when the fruiting organs are
green, and it may be finished in September after the spores are discharged.
Begin with the Christmas fern, which ripens in June, and make the fruit-
ing of this species a basis for comparison. Follow this with other wood
ferns which bear fruit-dots on the back of the fronds. Then study the
ferns which live in more open places, and which have fronds changed in
*orm to bear the spores — like the sensitive, the ostrich, the royal and the
flowering ferns. A study of the interrupted fern is a desirable preparation
for the further study of those which have special fruiting fronds • the

Flovuerless-Plant Study

697

Diagram of the interrupted
fern ; showing the three
pairs of fruiting pinnae ,
and a part of one of these
enlarged. This fern often
has fronds four or five
feet high.

interrupted fern has, at about the middle of its frond, three pinnae on each
side, fitted for spore-bearing, the pinnules being changed into globular
cups filled with spore-cases.

While not absolutely necessary, it is highly de-
sirable that each member of the class should look
at a fruit-dot of some fern through a three-
quarters objective of a compound microscope,
and then examine the spore-cases and the spores
through a one-sixth objective. It must be
remembered that this lesson is for advanced
grades, and is a preparation for systematic
scientific work. If a microscope is not available,
the work may be done with a hand lens aided by
pictures.

Observations — 1 . Take a fern that is in fruit ;
lay it on a sheet of white paper and leave it thus
for a day or two, where it will not be disturbed
and where there is no draught ; then take it up
carefully ; the form of the fern will be outlined in
dust. What is this dust ?

2 . What conditions must the spores have in
ordertogrbw? What do they grow into? (See
First Studies of Plant Life by Atkinson, p. 207).

3 . Look at a ripe fruit-dot on the back of a

fern leaf and see where the spores come from. Can
you see with a lens many little,, brown globules? C

Can you see that some of them are torn open ? These are the spore-cases,
called sporangia, each globule being packed with spores. Can you see
how the sporangia are fastened to the leaf by little stems?

4. Almost all our common wood ferns have the spore-cases protected
by a thin membrane, the spore-blanket, when very, young ; this little
membrane is called the indusium, and it is of different sn^pe in those ferns
which do not have the same sirname, or generic name. Study as many
kinds of wood ferns as you can find. If the blanket, or indusium, is
circular with a dent at the center where it is fastened to the leaf, and the
spore-cases push out around the margin, it is a Christmas fern; if horseshoe-
shaped, it is one of the wood ferns; if oblong, in rows on each side of the
midrib, it is a chain fern; but if oblong and at an angle to the midrib, it is a
spleenwort; if it is ocket-shaped and opening at one side, it is a
bladder fern; if it is cup-shaped, it is a boulder fern; if it breaks open and
lays back in star shape, it is a woodsia; if the edge of the fern leaf is folded
over all along its margin to protect the spore-cases, it is a bracken; if the
tips of the scallops of the leaf be delicately folded over to make a spore
blanket, it is the maidenhair.

5 . If you know of swampy land where there are many tall brakes, look
for a kind that has some of its pinnae withered and brown. Examine
these withered pinnae, and you will see that they are not withered at all
but are changed into little cups to hold spore-cases. This is the inter-
rupted fern. The flowering fern has the pinnae at its tip changed into cups
for spore-cases. The cinnamon fern, which grows in swampy places, has
whole fronds which are cinnamon-colored and look withered, but which
bear the spores. The ostrich fern, which has fronds which look like mag-

698

Handbook of Nature-Study

nificent ostrich feathers, has stiff, little stalks of fruiting fronds very
unlike the magnificent sterile fronds. The sensitive fern, which grows in
damp meadows and along roadsides, also has contracted fruiting fronds.
If you find any of these, compare carefully the fruiting with the sterile
fronds, and note in each case the resemblance in branching and in pinnules
and also the shape of the openings through which the spores are sifted out.

6. Gather and press specimens of as many ferns in the fruiting stage
as you can find, taking both sterile and fruiting fronds in those species
which have this specialization.

7. Read in the geologies about the ferns which helped to make our
coal beds.

Supplementary reading. — The Story of a Fern; First Studies of Plant
Life, Atkinson: The Petrified Fern, M. L. B. Branch,

The bulb-bearing bladder fern. This beautiful fern clothes the banks of damp
ravines. It has, in addition to fruiting organs , buds on
the stem, which take root.

Photo by Verne Morton.

‘ Nature made ferns for pure leaves to see what she could do in that line .” — Thoreau

Flowerless-Plant Study

699

THE FIELD HORSETAIL
Teacher's Story

These queer, pale plants grow in
sandy or gravelly soil, and since they
appear so early in the spring they are
objects of curiosity to children. The
stalk is pale and uncanny looking;
the pinkish stem, all the same size
from bottom to top, is ornamented at
intervals with upward-pointing,
slender, black, sharp-pointed scales,
which unite at the bottom and en-
circle the stalk in a slightly bulging
ring, a ring which shows a ridge for
every scale, extending down the stem.

These black scales are really leaves
springing from a joint in the stem, but
they forgot long ago how to do a
leaf’s work of getting food from the
air. The “blossom” which is not a
real blossom in the eye of the botanist,
is made up of rows of tiny discs which
are set like miniature toadstools
around the central stalk. Before it is
ripe, there extends back from the edge
of each disc a row of little sacs stuffed
so full of green spores that they look
united like a row of tiny green ridges.

The discs at the top of the fertile spike
discharge their spores first, as can be
seen by shaking the plant over white
paper, the falling spores looking 1, Fertile plant of the field horsetail; 2, spore,
like pale green powder. The burst and 3t disk discharging spores; 4, disk with
empty sacs are whitish, and hang sPore'sacs •

around the discs in torn scallops, after the spores are shed. The spores,
when seen under the microscope, are wonderful objects, each a little
green ball with four spiral bands wound about it. These spirals uncoil
and throw the spore, giving it a movement as of something alive. The
motor power in these living springs is the absorbing of moisture.

The beginning of the sterile shoot can be seen like a green bit of the
blossom spike of the plantain; but later, after the fertile stalks have
died down, these cover the ground with their strange fringes.

The person who first called these sterile plants “horsetails” had an
overworked imagination, or none at all ; for the only quality the two have
in common is brushiness. A horse which had the hair of its tail set in
whorls with the same precision as this plant has its branches would be one
of the world’s wonders. The Equicetum is one of the plants which give
evidence of nature’s resourcefulness; its remote ancestors probably had a
whorl of leaves at each joint or node of the main stem and branches ; but
the plant now having so many green branches, does not really need the
leaves, and thus they have been reduced to mere points, and look like

700

Handbook of Nature-Study

nothing but “trimming,” they are so purely ornamental.' Each little cup
or socket, of the joint or node, in branch or stem, has a row of points
around its margin, and these points are terminals of the angles in the
branch. If a branch is triangular in cross section, it will have three
points at its socket, if quadrangular it will have four points, and the main

stem may have six or a dozen,
or even more points. The
main stem and branches are
made up entirely of these .seg-
ments, each set at its lower end
in the socket of the segment be-
hind or below it. These green
branches, rich in chlorophyl,
manufacture for the plant all the
food that it needs. Late in the
season this food is stored in
the rootstocks, so that early next
spring the fertile plants, nour-
ished by this stored material, are
able to push forth before most
other plants, and thus develop
their spores early in the season.
There is a prothallium stage as
in the ferns.

Above where the whorl of
stems comes from the main
branch, may be seen a row of
upward-standing points which
are the remnants of leaves ; each
branch as it leaves the stem is set
in a little dark cup with a toothed
rim. There is a nice gradation
from the stout lower part of the
stem to the tip, which is as deli-
cate as one of the side branches.
The rootstock dies out behind
the plant and pushes on ahead like the rootstock of ferns. The true
roots may be seen attached on the under side. The food made in the
summer is stored in little tubers, which may be seen in the rootstocks.

The sterile plant of the field horsetail,
one-half natural size.

LESSON CLXXVII
The Field Horsetail
The Fertile Plant

Leading thought — The horsetail is a plant that develops spores instead
of seeds, and has green stems instead of leaves.

Method — In April and May, when the children are looking for flowers,
they will find some of these weird looking plants. These should be
brought to the schoolroom and the observation lesson given there.

Observations — i. Where are these plants found? On what kind of
soil ?

Flowerless-Plant Study

701

2. In what respect does this plant differ from other plants in appear-
ance? Can you find any green part to it?

3. What color is the stem? Is it the same size its whole length? Is
it smooth or rough?

4. Do you see any leaves on the stems? Do you see the black-
pointed scales? In which direction do these scales point? Are they
united at the bottom? What sort of a ring do they make around the
stem? Split a stem lengthwise and see if there are joints, or nodes, where
the ring joins the stalk.

5. How does the “blossom” look? What color are the little discs
that make up the blossom? How are the discs set?

6. Take one of the plants which has the discs surrounded by green
ridges. Shake it over a white paper. What comes from it ? Where does
it come from? Which discs on the stalk shed the green spores first?

The Sterile Plants

Leading thought — The horsetail or Equicetum is nourished by very dif-
ferent looking stems than those which bore the spores. It lacks leaves,
but its branches are green and do the work of making food for the plant.

Method — The sterile plants of the horsetail do not appear for several
weeks after the fertile ones; they are much more numerous, and do not
resemble the fertile plants in form or color. These sterile plants may be
used for a lesson in September or October. Some of these plants with
their roots may be brought into the schoolroom for study.

Observations — 1. Has this plant any leaves? How does it make and
digest its food without leaves? What part of it is green? Wherever
there is green in a plant, there is the chlorophyl-factory for making food..
In the horsetail, then, what part of the plant does the work of leaves?

2. Take off one little branch and study with the lens. How does it
look ? Pull it apart ? Where does it break easily ? How many j oints, or
nodes, are there in the branch?

3 . Study the socket from which one of the segments was pulled off.
What do you see around its edge ? How many of these points ? Look at
the branch in cross section. How many angles has it ? What relation do
the points bear to the angles ? Do you think these points are all there are
left of true leaves?

4. How do the little green branches come off the main stem? How
many in a place ? How many whorls of branches on the main stem ?

5. Study the bases of the branches. What do you see? Look
directly above where the whorl of branches comes off the main stem.
What do you see? Cut the main stem in cross-section just below this
place, and see if there are as many little points as there are angles, or
ridges, in the stem. Do you suppose these little points are the remnants
of leaves on the main stem ?

6. What kind of root has the horsetail? Do you think this long
running root is the true root or an underground stem? Where are the
true roots? Do you think the rootstock dies off at the oldest end each
year,, like the fern ? Can you find the little tubers in the rootstock, which
contain nourishment for next year’s spore-bearing stalks?

702

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE HAIR-CAP MOSS. OR PIGEON WHEAT

The mosses are- a
special delight to
children because they
are green and beauti-
ful before other plants
have gained their
greenness in the spring
and after they have
lost it in the fall; to
the discerning eye, a
mossy bankor a mossy
log is a thingof beauty
always. When we
were children we re-
garded moss as a
forest for fairy folk,
each moss stem being
a tree, and we natural-
ly concludedthat fairy
forests were evergreen.
We also had other
diversions with pigeon
wheat, for we took
the fruiting stem,
pulled the cap off the spore-capsule, tucked the other end of the red stem
into the middle of the capsule, making a beautiful coral ring with an
emerald “set.” To be sure these rings were rather too delicate to last
long, but there were plenty more to be had for nothing; so we made these
rings into long chains which we wore as necklaces for brief and happy
moments, their evanescence being one of their charms.

Pigeon wheat is a rather large moss which grows on dry knolls, usually
near the margins of damp woodlands in just those places where winter-
greens love to grow. In fall or winter it forms a greenish brown mass of
bristling stems; in the early summer the stems are tipped with the vivid
green of the new growth. The bristling appearance comes from the long
sharp leaves set thickly upon the ruddy brown stems; each leaf is pretty
to look at with a lens, which reveals it as thick though narrow, grooved
along the middle, the edges usually armed with sharp teeth and the base
clasping the stem. These leaves, although so small, are wonderfully
made ; during the hot, dry weather they shut up lengthwise and twist into
the merest threads, in order to keep their soft, green surfaces from losing
their moisture by exposure to the air ; more than this, they lift themselves
and huddle close to the stem, and are thus as snug and safe as may be from
the effect of drought ; but as soon as the rains come, they straighten back
at right angles to the stem, and curve their tips downward in a joyful
expanding. Bring in some of this moss and let it dry, and then drop it
into a glass of water and watch this miracle of leaf movement ! And yet
it is no miracle but a mechanism quite automatic — and therefore — like
other miracles, when once they are understood.

Teacher's Story

Photo by Verne Morton.
The hair -cap moss.

Flowerless-Plant Study

7°3

In early June the mossy knoll shows us the origin of the name pigeon
grass or pigeon wheat, for it is then covered with a forest of shining, ruddy,
stiff, little stems, each stem bearing on its tip a woolly object about the

1, fruit-bearing moss stem before fertilization; la, the same stem after
fruit is developed ; a, where the ovule was before fertilization; b, fruit
stem ; c, spore-capsule with cap or veil upon it. 2, stem showing the star-
like cups; d, the cup in which was developed the pollen which fertilized
the ovule at a, this year; e, last year’s cup; /, the cup of year before last;
only the leaves from e to d are alive. 3, spore capsule with the cap re-
moved, showing the lid 5, the cap or veil removed. 4, spore capsule
with lid off and shaking out the spores. 6, starlike cup in which the
pollen is developed. 7, leaf of moss; 8, the top of the spore capsule
showing the teeth around the edge between which the spores sift out.
9, a part of a necklace chain made of the spore capsules and their stems.

Handbook of Nature-Study

704

size of a grain of wheat. But it is safe to say that the pigeons and other
birds enjoy our own kind of wheat better than this, which is attributed to
them.

A study of one of these wheat grains reveals it as covered with a yellow-
ish, mohair cap, ending in a golden brown peak at its tip, as if it were the
original pattern of the toboggan cap; it closes loosely and downily
around the stem below. This grain is the spore-capsule of the moss; the
hairy cap pulls off easily when seized by its tip. This cap is present at the
very beginning, even before the stem lengthens, to protect the delicate
tissues of the growing spore-case ; it is only through a lens that we can
see it in all its silky softness. The capsule revealed by the removal of the
cap is a beautiful green object, usually four-sided, set upon an elegant
little pedestal where it joins the coral stem, and with a lid on its top like a
sugar-bowl cover, with a point instead of a knob at its center. When the
spores are ripe, this lid falls off, and then if we have a lens we may see
another instance of moss mechanism. Looking at the uncovered end of
the capsule, we see a row of tiny teeth around the margin, which seem to
hold down an inner cover with a little raised rim. The botanists have
counted these teeth and find there are 64. The teeth themselves are not
important, but the openings between them are, since only through these
openings can the spores escape. In fact, the capsule is a pepper-box with
a grating around its upper edge instead of holes in its cover ; and when it
is fully ripe, instead of standing right side up, it tips over so as to shake
out its spores more easily. These teeth are like the moss leaves; they
swell with moisture, and thus in rainy weather they, with the inner cover,
swell so that not a single spore can be shaken out. If spores should come
out during the rain, they would fall among the parent plants where there
is no room for growth. But when they emerge in dry weather, the wind
scatters them far and wide where there is room for development.

When seen with the naked eye, the spores seem to be simply fine dust,
but each dust grain is able to produce moss plants. However, the spore
does not grow up into a plant like a seed, it grows into fine, green, branch-
ing threads which push along the surface of damp soil; on these threads
little buds appear, each of which grows up into a moss stem.

The spore-capsule is hardly the fruit of the moss plant. If we examine
the moss, we find that some stems end in yellowish cups which look almost
like blossoms; on closer examination, we find that there are several of
these cups, one below the other, with the stem extending up through the
middle. The upp^r cup matured this year, the one below it last year, and
so on. These cups are star-pointed, and inside, at the bottom, is a starlike
cluster of leaves. Among the leaves of this star-rosette are borne the
moss anthers called antheridii, too small for us to see without a high
power microscope. The pollen from these anthers is blown over to other
plants, some of which produce ovules at their very tips, although the
ovule has no leaf-rosette to show where it is. This ovule, after receiving
the pollen, grows into the spore-capsule supported on its coral stem.
These — stem, capsule and all — grow up out of the mother plant, the red
stem is enlarged at its base, and fits into the moss stem like a flagstaff in
the socket. After the star-shaped cup has shed its pollen, the stem grows
up from its center for an inch or so in height and bears new leaves, and
next year will bear another starry cup.

Flowerless-Plant Study

7 °5

The brown leaves on the lower part of the moss stem are dead, and
only the green leaves on the upper part are living.

And this is the story of the moss cycle :

1. A plant with an ovule at its tip; another plant with a star-cup
holding the moss pollen which is sifted by wind over to the waiting egg.

2. The egg or ovule as soon as fertilized develops into a spore-capsule,
and is lifted up into the world on a beautiful shining stem and is pro-
tected by a silky cap.

3 . The cap comes off ; the lid of the spore-case falls off, the spores are
shaken out and scattered by the wind.

4. Those spores that find fitting places grow into a net of green
threads.

5. These green threads send up moss stems which repeat the story.

LESSON CLXXVIII
The Hair-Cap Moss

Leading thought — The mosses, like the butterfly and the fern, have
several stages in their development. The butterfly stages are the egg,
the caterpillar, the chrysalis, the butterfly. The moss stages are the egg
(or ovule), the spores, the branching green threads, the moss plants with
their green foliage. In June we can easily find all these stages, except
perhaps the branching thread stage.

Method — The children should bring to the schoolroom a basin of moss
in its fruiting stage ; or still better, go with them to a knoll covered with
moss. Incidentally tell them that this moss, when dried, is used by the
Laplanders for stuffing their pillows, and that the bears use it for their
beds. Once, a long time ago, people believed that a plant, by the shape of
its leaf or flower, indicated its nature as a medicine, and as this moss
looked like hair, the water in which it was steeped was used as a hair
tonic.

Observation — 1 . Take a moss stem with a grain of pigeon wheat at the
end. Examine the lower part of the stalk. How are the leaves arranged
on it? Examine one of the little leaves through a lens and describe its
shape, its edges, and the way it joins the stem. Are the lower leaves the
same color as the upper ones ? Why ?

2. Describe the pretty shining stem of the fruit, which is called the
pedicel. Is it the same color for its entire length ? Can you pull it easily
from the main plant ? Describe how its base is embedded in the tip of the
plant.

3. Note the silken cap on a grain of the pigeon wheat. This is called
the veil. Is it all the same color? Is it grown fast to the plant at its
lower margin? Take it by the tip, and pull it off. Is this done easily?
Describe what it covers. This elegant little green vase is called a spore-
capsule. How many sides has it? Describe its base which stands upon
the stem. Describe the little lid. Pull off the lid; is there another lid
below it? Can you see the tiny teeth around the edge which hold this
lid in place? Ask your teacher, or read in the books, the purpose of this.

4. Do all the spore vases stand straight up, or do some bend over?

- 5. Do you think the silken cap falls off of itself after a while? Can
you find any capsules where the cap or veil and the lid have fallen off?
See if you can shake any dust out of such a spore vase. What do you

706

Handbook of Nature-Study

think this dust is? Ask your teacher, or read in the books, about moss
spores and what happens if they find a damp place in which to grow.

6. Hunt among the moss for some stems that have pretty, yellowish,
starlike cups at their tips. How does the inside of one of these cups look?
Ask the teacher to tell you what grows in this cup. Look down the stem
and see if you can find last year’s cup. The cup of two years ago?
Measured by these cups how old do you think this moss stem is?

7 . Select some stems of moss, both those that bear the fruit and those
that bear the cups. After they are dried describe how the leaves look.
Examine the plant with a lens and note how these leaves are folded and
twisted. Do the leaves stand out from the stem or lie close to it ? Is this
action of the leaves of any use to the plant in keeping the water from
evaporating ? How do the star-cups look when dry ?

8. Place these dried stems in a glass of water and describe what hap-
pens to the cup. Examine some of the dried moss and the wet moss with
a lens, and describe the difference. Of what use to the moss is this power
of changing form when damp ?

Reference — Eirst Lessons in Plant Life, Atkinson.

MUSHROOMS AND OTHER FUNGI
Teacher's Story

HERE is something uncanny about plants which
have no green parts ; they seem like people with-
out blood. It is; therefore, no wonder that many
superstitions cluster about toadstools. In times
of old, not only did the toads sit on them, but
fairies danced upon them and used them for
umbrellas. The poisonous qualities of some
species made them also a natural ingredient of
the witch’s cauldron. But science, in these days,
brings revelations concerning these mysterious
plants which are far more wonderful than the
web which superstition wove about them in days
of yore.

■ When we find plants with no green parts which grow and thrive,
though unable to manufacture their own organic food through the alchemy
of chlorophyl, sunlight and air, we may safely infer that in one way or
another they gain the products of this alchemy at second hand. Such
plants are either parasites or saprophytes; if parasites, they steal the
food from the cells of living plants; if saprophytes, they live on such of
this food material as remains in dead wood, withered leaves, or soils
enriched by their remains.

Thus, we find mushrooms and other fungus fruiting bodies, pallid,
brown -olive, yellow or red in color, but with no signs of the living green
of other plants ; and this fact reveals their history. Some of them are
parasites, as certain species of bracket fungi which are the deadly enemies
of living trees; but most of the fungus species that we ordinarily see
are saprophytes, and live on dead vegetation. Fungi, as a whole, are a
great boon to the world. Without them our forests would be choked

Flowerless-Plant Study

7°7

out with dead wood. Decay is simply the process by which fungi and other
organisms break down dead material, so that the major part of it returns
to the air in gaseous form, and the remainder, now mostly humus, mingles
with the soil.

As a table delicacy, mushrooms are highly prized. A very large num-
ber of species are edible. But every year the newspapers report deaths
resulting from eating the poisonous kinds — the price of an ignorance which
comes from a lack of the powers of observation developed in nature-study.
It would be very unwise for any teacher to give rules to guide her pupils in
separating edible from poisonous mushrooms, since the most careful direc-
tions may be disregarded or misunder-
stood. She should emphasize the danger
incurred by mistaking a poisonous for an
edible species. One small button of the
deadly kind, if eaten, may cause death.

A few warning rules may be given, which
if firmly impressed on the pupils, may
result in saving human life.

First and most important, avoid all
mushrooms that are covered with scales,
or that have the base of the stem included
in a sac, for two of the poisonous species,
often mistaken for the common edible
mushroom, have these distinguishing
characters. Care should be taken that
every specimen be collected in a way to
show the base of the stem, since in some
poisonous species this sac is hidden be-
neath the soil.

Second, avoid the young, or button,
stages, since they are similar in appear-
ance in species that are edible and in
those that are poisonous.

Third, avoid those that have milky
juices; unless the juices are reddish in
color, the mushrooms should not be
eaten.

Fourth, avoid those with shiny, thin,
or brightly colored caps, and those with
whitish or clay-colored spores.

Fifth, no mushroom or puffball should be eaten after its meat has
begun to turn brown or has become infested with fly larvae.

White form of the deadly Amanita
(A . phalloides ) . Note the form of the
ring and the cup at base of stem.
Photo by G. F. Atkinson.

How Mushrooms Look and How They Live

HERE are many kinds of mushrooms varying greatly in form,
color and size, but wherever they appear it means that
sometime previous the mushroom spores have been
planted there. There they threw out threads which have
penetrated the food substance and gained a successful
growth, which finally resulted in sending up into the world
the fruiting organs. In general shape these consist of a stem with a cap
upon it, making it usually somewhat umbrella-shaped. Attached to the

Handbook of Nature-Study

708

cap and usually under it, are plate-like growths called gills, or a fleshy
surface which is full of pores. In the case of the gills, each side of each

Cone- Bell- Convex. Plane. Raised Depressed Funnel

shaped, shaped. at center. form.

plate develops spores,
other mushrooms.

These, as fine as dust, are capable of producing

In the common edible species of
mushroom ( Agaricus campestris), the
stem is white and almost cylindrical,
tapering slightly toward the base; it is
solid although the core is not so firm as
the outside. When it first pushes above
the ground, it is in what is called the
“button stage” and consists of a little,
rounded cap covered with a membrane
which is attached to the stem. Later
the cap spreads wide, for it is naturally
umbrella-shaped, and it tears loose this
membrane, leaving a piece of it attached
to the stem; this remnant is called the
ring or collar. The collar is very notice-
able in many species, but in the common
mushroom it soon shrivels and disap-
pears. The cap is at first rounded and
then convex; its surface is at first
smooth, looking soft and silky; but as
the plant becomes old, it is often broken
up into triangular scales which are often
dark brown; although the color of the
cap is usually white or pale brown. The
gills beneath the cap are at first white,
but later, as the spores mature, they be-
come brownish black because of the
ripened spores.

References — Mushrooms, a most excel-
lent and practical book with many beau-
tiful pictures, written and illustrated by
Professor George F. Atkinson; Henry Holt & Co., N. Y., $3.00; The
Mushroom Book, Marshall, fully illustrated, $4.00, Doubleday, Page
& Co.; One Thousand American Fungi, Mcllvaine, illustrated,
Bowen-Merrill C6., $5.00; Our Edible Toadstools and Mushrooms, W. H.
Gibson, very fully illustrated, Harper and Bros., $3.50.

The common edible mushroom , in
button stages, mycelium or spawn
also shown.

Photo by G. P. Atkinson.

Flowerless-Plant Study

7°9

LESSON CLXXIX
Mushrooms

Leading thought — Mushrooms are the fruiting organs of the fungi which
grow in the form of threads, spreading in every direction through the food
material. The dust which falls from ripe mushrooms is made up of
spores which are not true seeds, but which will start a new growth of the
fungus.

Method — The ideal method would be to study the mushrooms in the
field and forest, making an excursion for the purpose of collecting as many

Dark form of the A manita ( A . phalloides ) . Com-
pare with white form on page 707.

Photo by George F. Atkinson.

species as possible. But the lesson may be given from specimens brought
into the schoolroom by pupils, care being taken to bring with them the
soil, dead wood or leaves on which they were found growing. After
studying one species thus, encourage the pupils to bring in as many others
as possible. There are a few terms which the pupils should learn to use,
and the best method of teaching them is to place the diagrams shown on
pages 708, 7 11, 712, on the blackboard, and leave them therefor a time.

Since mushrooms are especially good subjects for water-color and
pencil studies, it would add much to the interest of the work if each pupil,
or the school as a whole, should make a portfolio of sketches of all the
species found . With each drawing there should be made on a supplemen-
tary sheet a spore-print of the species. White paper should be covered

Jio

Handbook of Nature-Study

very thinly with white of egg or mucilage, so as to hold fast the discharged
spores when making these prints for portfolio or herbarium.

Observations — i. Where was the mushroom found? If on the
ground, was the soil wet or dry? Was it in open fields or in woods? Or
was it found on rotten wood, fallen leaves, old trees or stumps, or roots?
Were there many or few specimens?

2. Is the cap cone-shaped, bell-shaped, convex, plane, concave, or
funnel-form? Has it a raised point at the center? How wide is it?

3. What is the color of the upper surface of the cap when young?
When old ? Has it any spots of different colors on it ? Has it any striate
markings, dots or fine grains on its surface? Is its texture smooth or
scaly? Is its surface dull, or polished, or slimy? Break the cap and note
the color of the juice. Is it milky ?

4. Look beneath the
cap. Is the under surface
divided into plates like
the leaves of a book, or is
it porous ?

5. The plates which
may be compared to the
leaves of a book are called
gills, although they are
not for the purpose of
breathing, as are the gills
of a fish. Are there more
gills near the edge of the
cap than near the stem?
How does this occur?
What are the colors of the
gills? Are the gills the
same color when young as
when old ? Are the lower
edges of the gills sharp,
blunt or saw-toothed ?

6. Break off a cap and

A spore print from the common edible mushroom. note the relation of the
Photo by George F. Atkinson. gills to the Stem. If they

do not join the stem at all they are termed “free.” If they end by being
joined to the stem, they are called “adnate” or “adnexed.” If they
extend down the stem they are called “decurrent.”

7. Take a freshly opened mushroom, cut off the stem, even with the
cap, and set the cap, gills down, on white paper; cover with a tumbler, or
other dish to exclude draught; leave it for twenty-four hours and then
remove the cover, lift the cap carefully and examine the paper. What
color is the imprint? What is its shape? Touch it gently with a pencil
and see what makes the imprint. Can you tell by the pattern where this
fine dust came from ? Examine the dust with a lens. This dust is made
up of mushroom spores, which are not true seeds, but which do for mush-
rooms what seeds do for plants. How do you think the spores are
scattered? Do you know that one little grain of this spore dust would
start a new growth of mushrooms?

Flowerless-Plant Study

711

The common edible mushroom ( Agaricus campestris) , showing button stage,
vanishing ring and gills.

Photo by George F. Atkinson.

8. Look at the stem. What is its length ? Its color? Is it slender
or stocky? Is its surface shiny, smooth, scaly, striate or dotted? Has it
a collar or ring around it near the top ? What is the appearance of this
ring? Is it fastened to the stem, or will it slide up and down? Is the
stem solid or hollow? Is it swollen at its base? Is its base set in a sac. or
cup, or is it covered with a membrane which scales off? Do you know
that the most poisonous of mushrooms have the sac or the scaly covering
at the base of the stem?

9. Examine with a lens the material
on which the mushroom was growing;
do you see any threads in it that look
like mold? Find if you can what these
threads do for the mushroom? If you
were to go into the mushroom business
what would you buy to start your beds?

What is mushroom “spawn!

10. If you can find where the com-
mon edible mushrooms grow plentifully,
or if you know of any place where they
are grown for the market, get some of
the young mushrooms when they are not
larger than a pea and others that are
larger and older. These young mush-
rooms are called “buttons.” Find by
your own investigation the relation be-
tween the buttons and the threads. Can you see the gills in the button?

712

Handbook of Nature-Study

Gills Gills Gills

free. adnexed. decurrent.

this from the poisonous species ? \\

which covers the base of the stem of

Why? What becomes of the veil
over the gills as the mushrooms
grow large?

1 1 . Do you know the difference
between mushrooms and toad-
stools? Do you know the com-
mon edible mushroom when you
see it? What characters separate
at is the “death cup,” as it is called,
he most common poisonous species?

A common species of puffball, the three at the left showing early stages , the one at the
right ripe and discharging spores.

Photo by G. P. Atkinson.

PUFFBALLS
Teacher's Story

The puffballs are always interesting to children, because of the ‘ ‘smoke”
which issues from them in clouds when they are pressed between thumb
and finger. The common species are white or creamy when young ; and
some of the species are warty or roughened, so that as children we called
them “little lambs.” They grow on the ground usually, some in wet,
shady places, and others, as the giant species, in grassy fields in late
summer. This giant puffball always excites interest, when found. It is
a smoothish, white, rounded mass, apparently resting on the grass as if
thrown there ; when lifted it is seen that it has a connection below at its
center, through its mycelium threads, which form a network in the soil.
It is often a foot in diameter, and specimens four feet through have been
recorded. When its meat is solid and white to the very center, it makes
very good food. The skin should be pared off, the meat sliced and
sprinkled with salt and pepper and fried in hot fat until browned. All
the puffballs are edible, but ignorant persons might mistake the button
stages of some of the poisonous mushrooms for little puffballs, and it is not
well to encourage the use of small puffballs for the table.

Flowerless-Plant Study

A common species — “the beaker puffball” is pear-shaped, with its
small end made fast to the ground, which is permeated with its vegetative
threads.

The interior of a puffball, “the
meat,” is made up of the threads and
spores. As they ripen, the threads
break up so that with the spores they
make the “smoke,” as can be seen if
the dust is examined through a micro-
scope. The outer wall may become
dry and brittle and break open to
allow the spores to escape, or one or
more openings may appear in it as
spore doors. The spores of puffballs
were used extensively in pioneer days
to stop the bleeding of wounds and
especially for nosebleed.

In one genus of the puffball family, An earth-star.

the outer coat splits off in points on Photo by Verne Morton,

maturing, like an orange peel cut

lengthwise in six or seven sections but still remaining attached to the base.
There is an inner coat that remains as a protection to the spores, so that
these little balls are set each in a little star-shaped saucer. These star
points straighten out flat or even curl under in dry Weather, but when
damp they lift up and again envelop the ball to a greater or less extent.

LESSON CLXXX

Puffballs

Photo by Verne Morton

Leading thought —
The puffballs are
fungi that grow from
the threads, or my-
celium, which per-
meate the ground or
other matter on
which the puffballs
grow. The puffballs
are the fruiting or-
gans, and “smoke”
which issues from
them is largely
made up of spores,
which are carried off
by the wind and
sown and planted.

Method — Ask the
pupils to bring to
school any of the
globular or pear-
shaped fungi in the
early stages when

A big puffball.

714 Handbook of Nature-Study

they are white, taking pains to bring them on the soil or wood on which
they are growing.

Observations — i. Where did you find the puffball? On what was it
growing ? W ere there many growing in company ? Remove the puffball,
and examine the place where it stood with a lens to find the matted and
crisscrossed fungus threads.

2. What is the size and shape of the puffball ? Is its surface smooth
or warty? What is its color inside and outside?

3. Have you ever found the giant puffball, which may become four
inches to four feet through? Where was it growing? Have you evei
eaten this puffball sliced and fried? Do you know by the looks of the
meat when it is fit to eat?

4. If the puffball is ripe, what is its color outside and in? What is
the color of its “smoke?” Does the smoke come out through the broken
covering of the puffball, or are there one or more special openings to allow
it to escape?

5. Puff some of the “smoke” on white paper and examine it with a
lens. What do you think this dust is? Of what use is it to the puffball ?

6. Have you ever found what are called earth-stars, which look like
little puffballs set in star-shaped cups? If you find these note the follow-
ing things :

a. Of what is the star-shaped base made? Was it always there?

b. Let this star saucer become very dry ; how does it act ?

c. Wet it; and how does it behave then?

d. Where and how does the spore dust escape from the earth-stars ?

7. For what medicinal purpose is the “smoke” of the puffball some-
times used?

THE BRACKET FUNGI

Teacher's Story

There are some
naturalistswhothink
that one kind of life
is as good as another
and therefore call all
things good. Per-
haps this is the only
true attitude for the
nature lover. To
such the bracketlike
fungi which appear
upon the sides of our
forest and shade
trees are simply an
additional beauty, a
bountiful ornamen-
tation. But some of
us have become
special pleaders in
our attitude toward
life, and those of us
who have come to

A bracket fungus.

Flowerless -Plant Study

7*5

feel the grandeur of tree life can but look with sorrow upon these fungus
outgrowths, for they mean that the doom of the tree is sealed.

There are many species of bracket fungi. Three of these are very
common. The gray bracket, gray above and with creamy surface below
(Polyporous applanatus ) is a favorite for amateur etchers, who with a
sharp point make interesting sketches upon this naturally prepared plate;
this species often grows tc great size and is frequently very old. Another
species (P. lucidus) is in color a beautiful mahogany, or coral-red above
and has a peculiar stem from which it depends; the stem and upper sur-
face are polished as if burnished and the lower surface is yellowish white.
Another species ( P . sulphur ens) is sulphur yellow above and below;
usually many of these yellow brackets are grouped together, their fan-
shaped caps overlapping. Many of the shelf fungi live only on dead wood,
and those are an aid in reducing dead branches and stumps until they
crumble and become again a part of the soil. However, several of the
species attack living trees and do great damage. They can gain access to
the living tree only through an injured place in the bark, a break caused
perhaps by the wind, by a bruise from a falling tree, or more often from
the hack of the careless wood-chopper; often they gain entrance through
an unhealed knot-hole. To one who understands trees and loves them,
their patient striving to heal these wounds inflicted by forces they cannot
withstand is truly pathetic. After the wound is made and before the
healing is accomplished, the wind may sift into the wound the almost
omnipresent spores of these fungi and the work of destruction begins.
From the spores grows the mycelium, the fungus threads which push into
the heart of the wood getting nourishment from it as they go. When we
see wood thus diseased we say that it is rotting, but rotting merely means
the yielding up of the body substance of the tree to these voracious fungus
threads. They push in radially and then grow upward and downward,
weakening the tree where it most needs strength to withstand the on-
slaught of the wind. Later these parasitic threads may reach the cam-
bium layer, the living ring of the tree trunk, and kill the tree entirely ; but
many a tree has lived long with the fungus attacking its heartwood. A
bracket fungus found by Professor Atkinson was eighty years old ; how-
ever, this may have shortened the life of the tree a century or more.

After these fungus threads are thoroughly established in the tree, they
again seek a wound in the protecting bark where they may push out and
build the fruiting organ, which we call the bracket. This may be at the
same place where the fatal entry was made, or it may be far from it. The
bracket is at first very small and is composed of a layer of honeycomb
cells, closed and hard above and opening below — cells so small that we can
see the cell openings only with a lens. These cells are not hexagonal like
the honeycomb, but are tubes packed together. Spores are developed in
each tube. Next year another layer of cells grows beneath this first
bracket and extends out beyond it; each year it is thus added to, making
it thicker and marking its upper surface with concentric rings around the
point of attachment. The creamy surface of the great bracket fungus on
which etchings are made, is composed of a layer of these minute spore-
bearing tubes. Not all bracket fungi show their age by these annual
growths, for some species -form new shelves every year, which decay aftei
the spores are ripened and shed.

yio

Handbook of N atur e-Study

When once the mycelium of such fungus becomes established, the tree
is doomed and its lumber made worthless even though, as sometimes
happens, the tree heals its wounds so that the fungus is imprisoned and
can never send out fruiting brackets. Thus it is most important to teach
the pupils how to protect trees from the attacks of these enemies, which
are devastating our forests and which sometimes attack our orchards and
shade trees.

As soon as a tree is bruised, the wound should be painted or covered
with a coat of tar. If the wind breaks a branch, the splinters left hanging
should be sawed off, leaving a smooth stump, and this be painted. While
ordinary paint if renewed each year will suffice, experiment has shown
that the coat of tar is better and should be used.

Especially should teachers impress on pupils the harm done by careless
hacking with axe or hatchet. We shall do an invaluable service in the
protection of our forests, if we teach the rising generation the respectful
treatment of trees — which is due living organisms whose span of life may
cover centuries.

LESSON CLXXXI
Bracket Fungi

Leading thought — The fungi which we see growing shelflike from trees,
are deadly enemies to the trees. Their spores germinate and penetrate at
some open wound and the growing fungus weakens the wood.

Method — It is desirable that a tree on which shelf fungus grows should
be studied by the class, for this is a lesson on the care of trees. After this
lesson the fungus itself may be studied at leisure in the schoolroom.

Observations — i. On what kind of a tree is the bracket fungus grow-
ing ? Is it alive or dead ? If living, does it look vigorous or is it decaying ?

2 . Is the fungus bracket growing against the side of the tree, or does it
stand out on a stem?

3 . Look at the place where the bracket joined the tree. Does it seem
to be a part of the wood ?

4. What color is the fungus on its upper surface? How large is it?
How thick near the tree? How thick at the edge? Can you detect con-
centric layers or rings ? If it is the large species used for etching, cut down
through it with a knife or hatchet and count the layers ; this should show
its age.

5. Look at the lower surface. How does it appear to the naked eye?
If you scratch it with a pin or knife does the bruise show? Examine the
surface with a lens and describe what you see. Cut or break the fungus
and note that each of these holes is an opening to a little tube. In each of
these tubes spores are borne.

6. Have you ever seen toadstools that, instead of having the leaflike
gills, have beneath the cap a porous surface like a little honeycomb or like
the under side of the shelf fungi ?

7. How manv kinds of shelf fungi can you find? Which of them is on
living trees, and which on stumps or dead wood?

8. If the fungus is on a living tree, then the tree is ruined, for the
fungus threads have worked through it and weakened it so that it will
break easily and is of no use as lumber. There must have been an open
wound in the tree where the fungus entered ; see whether you can find this

Flowerless -Plant Study

717

wound. There must also have been a wound where the shelf grew out;
see whether you can detect it. If the tree should heal all its wounds after
the fungus entered, what would become of the fungus?

9. What does the shelf fungus feed on? What part of it corresponds
to the roots and leaves of other plants? What part may be compared to
the flowering and fruiting parts of plants ?

10. What treatment must we give trees to keep them free from this

enemy ?

The edible Boletus ( B . edulis). This has tubes below the cap instead of gills.

The spores are developed within the tubes , as in the bracket fungi.

Photo by G. F. Atkinson.

LESSON CLXXXII
Hedgehog Fungi

There is something mysterious about all fungi, but perhaps none of
these wonderful organisms so strangely impresses the observer as the
fountainlike masses c creamy white or the branching white coral that we
see growing on a dead tree trunk. The writer remembers as a child that
the finding of these woodland treasures made her feel as if she were in the
presence of the supernatural, as if she had discovered a fairy grotto or a
kobold cave. The prosaic name of hedgehog fungi has been applied to
these exquisite growths. Their life story is simple enough. The spores
falling upon dead wood start threads which ramify within it and feed on its
substance, until strong enough to send out a fruiting organ. This consists
of a stem, dividing into ascending branches ; from these branches, depend-
ing like the stalactites in a cave, are masses of drooping spines, the surface
of each bearing the spores. And it is so natural for these spines to hang
earthward that they are invariably so placed when the tree is in the posi-

718

Handbook of Nature-Study

The bear's head fungus.
Photo by George F. Atkinson.

tion in which they grew. There is one species called the “satyr’s beard,”
sometimes found on living trees, which is a mere bunch of downward-
hanging spines ; the corallike species is called Hydnum coraloides, and the
one that looks like an exquisite white frozen fountain, and maybe seen in
late summer or early autumn growing from dead limbs or branches, is the
bear’s head fungus; it is often eight inches across.

Observations — i. These fungi come from a stem which extends into
the wood.

2. This stem divides into many branchlets.

3 . From these branchlets there hang long fleshy fringes like miniature
icicles.

4. These fringes always hang downward when the fungus is in natural
position.

5 . These fringes bear the spores.

LESSON CLXXXIII

The Scarlet Saucer ( Sarcocypha coccinea)

The heart of the child, searching the woods for hepaticas — woods
where snow banks still hold their ground on north slopes — is filled with
delight at finding these exquisite saucerlike fungi. They are more often
found on fallen rotting branches which are more or less buried in leaves,
and there are likely to be several of different sizes on the same stick.

Flowerless-Plant Study

719

When they grow unhindered and while they are young, they are very per-
fectly saucer-shaped and range from the size of a pea to an inch or two
across. But the larger they are the more likely are they to be distorted,
either by environment or by the bulging of rapid growth. The under side
of the saucer is beautifully fleshlike in color and feeling and is attached at

Scarlet saucer .

the middle to the. stick. The inside of the saucer is the most exquisite
scarlet shading to crimson. This crimson lining bears the spores in little
sacs all over its surface.

Observations — 1. Where did you find the fungus?

2. What is the shape of the saucer? How large is it? Is it regular
and beautiful or irregular and distorted?

3. What is the color inside?

4. What is the color outside?

5. Turn the one you bring in bottom side up — that is, scarlet side
down — on a piece of white paper, and see whether you can get a spore
harvest.

LESSON CLXXXIV

The Morels

In May or June in open, damp places, as
orchards or the moist fence corners of meadows,
the morels may be found. This mushroom family
contains no member that is poisonous, and the
members are very unlike any other family in
appearance. They are very pretty with their
creamy white, thick, swollen stems and a cap
more or less conical, made up of the deep-celled
meshes of an unequal network. The outside
edges of the network are yellowish or brownish
when the morel is young and edible, but later
turn dark as the spores develop. In some species
the stems are comparatively smooth and in others
their surface is more or less wrinkled . The spores
are borne in the depressions of the network.
These mushrooms should not be eaten after the
cells change from creamy white to brownish.

Observations — 1. Where did you find the
morels?

2. Describe the stem. Is it solid or hollow?
Is it smooth hr rough ?

3 . What is the shape of the cap ? How does
it look? What color is the outer edge of the net-

An edible morel ( Morchella
esculents ).

Photo by George F. Atkinson.

720

Handbook of Nature-Study

■work? What is the color within the
meshes?

4. Take one of these fungi, lay it on
a sheet of white paper, and note the
color of the spores.

LESSON CLXXXV
The Stinkhorns

To give a nature-study lesson on the
stinkhorn is quite out of the question,
for the odor of these strange growths is
so nauseating that even to come near to
one of them in the garden is a disagree-
able experience. The reason for men-
tioning them at all is because of the
impression made by them that most
mushrooms are ill smelling, which is a
slander.

It is a pity that these fungi are so
offensive that we do not care to come
near enough to them to admire them,
for they are most interesting in appear-
ance. The scientific name of our com-
monest genus when translated means
“the net bearers,’’ and it is a most ap-
propriate name. The stout, white stem
is composed of network without and
within. The outer covering of the stem seems to tear loose from the
lower portion as the stem elongates, and is lifted so that it hangs as a
veil around the bottom of the bell-shaped cap, which is always covered
with a pitted network. The mycelium, or spawn, of the stinkhorn
consists of strands which push their way through the ground
or through the decaying vegetable matter on which they feed.
On these strands are produced the stinkhorns, which at first
look like eggs; but later the top of the egg. is broken, and the strange
horn-shaped fungus pushes up through it. The spores are borne
in the chambers of the cap, and when ripe the substance of these
chambers dissolves into a thick liquid in which the spores float. The flies
are attracted by the fetid odor and come to feast upon these fungi and to
lay their eggs within them, and incidentally they carry the spores away
on their brushy feet, and thus help to spread the species.

A stinkhorn.

Photo by George F. Atkinson.

MOLDS
Teacher's Story

It is lucky for our peace of mind that our eyes are not provided with
microscopic lenses, for then we should know that the dust, which seems to
foregather upon our furniture from nowhere, is composed of all sorts of
germs, many of them of the deadly kind. The spores of mold are very

Flowerless -Plant Study

721

minute objects, the spore -cases being the little white globes, not larger
than the head of a small pin which we see upon mold, yet each of these
spore-cases breaks and lets out into the world thousands of spores, each
one ready and anxious to start a growth of mold and perfectly able to do
it under the right conditions ; almost any substance which we use for food,
if placed in a damp and rather dark place, will prove a favorable situation
for the development of the spore which swells, bursts its wall and sends
out a short thread. This gains nourishment, grows longer and branches,
sending out many threads, some of which go down into the nutritive
material and are called the mycelium. While these threads, in a way, act
like roots, they are not true roots. Presently the tip ends of the threads,
which are spread out in the air above the bread or other material, begin to
enlarge, forming little globules; the substance (protoplasm) within them
breaks up into little round bodies, and each develops a cell wall and thus
becomes a spore. When these are unripe they are white but later, they
become almost black. In the blue mold the spores are borne in clusters
of chains, and resemble tiny tassels instead of growing within little
globular sacs.

Molds, mildews, blights, rusts and smuts are all flowerless plants and,
with the mushrooms, belong to the great group of fungi. Molds and
mildews will grow upon almost any organic substance, if the right condi-
tions of moisture are present, and the temperature is not too cold.

Molds of several kinds may appear upon the bread used in the experi-
ments for this lesson. Those most likely to appear are the bread mold —
consisting of long, white threads tipped with white, globular spore-cases,
and the green cheese-mold — which looks like
thick patches of blue-green powder. Two
others may appear, one a smaller white mold
with smaller spore-cases, and a black mold.

However, the bread mold is the one most
desirable for this lesson, because of its com-
paratively large size. When examined with a
lens, it is a most exquisite plant. The long
threads are fringed at the sides, and they pass
over and through each other, making a web
fit for fairies — a web all beset with the spore-
cases, like fairy pearls. However, as the spores
ripen, these spore-cases turn black, and after
a time so many of them are developed and
ripened that the whole mass of mold is black.

The time required for the development of mold
varies with the temperature. For two or three
days nothing may seem to be happening upon the moist bread; then a
queer, soft whiteness appears in patches. In a few hours or perhaps
during the night, these white patches send up white fuzz which is soon
dotted with tiny pearl-like spore-cases. At first there is no odor when the
glass is lifted from the saucer, but after the spores ripen, the odor is quite
disagreeable.

The special point to teach the children in this lesson is that dryness and
sunlight are unfavorable to the development of mold ; and it might be
well to take one of the luxuriant growths of mold developed in the dark,
uncover it and place it in the sunlight, and see how soon it withers. The

Bread mold , enlarged.

722

Handbook of Nature-Study

lesson should also impress upon them that dust is composed, in part, of
living germs waiting for a chance to grow.

LESSON CLXXXVI

Molds

Leading thought — The spores of mold are everywhere and help to make
what we call dust. These spores will grow on any substance which gives
them nourishment, if the temperature is warm, the air moist and the sun-
light is excluded.

Method — Take bread in slices two inches square, and also the juice of
apple sauce or other stewed fruit. Have each pupil, or the one who does
the work for the class, provided with tumblers and saucers. Use four
pieces of bread cut in about two-inch squares, each placed on a saucer;
moisten two and leave the other two dry. With a feather or the finger
take some dust from the woodwork of the room or the furniture and with
it lightly touch each piece of bread. Cover each with a tumbler. Set
one of the moistened pieces in a warm, dark place and the other in a dry,
sunny place. Place a dry piece in similar situations. Let the pupils
examine these every two or three days.

Put fruit juice in a saucer, scatter a little dust over it and set it in a
warm, dark place. Take some of the same, do not scatter any dust upon
it, cover it safely with a tumbler and put it in the same place as the other.
A lens is necessary for this lesson, and it is much more interesting for the
pupils if they can see the mold under a microscope with a three-fourths
objective.

Observations — i. When does the mold begin to appear? Which
piece of bread showed it first? Describe the first changes you noticed.
What is the color of the mold at first? Is there any odor to it?

2. At what date did the little branching mold-threads with round
dots appear? Is there an odor when these appear? What are the colors
of the dots, or spore-cases, at first ? When do these begin to change color ?
How does the bread smell then ? What caused the musty odor ?

3. Did the mold fail to appear on any of the pieces of bread? If so,
where were these placed ? Were they moist? Were they exposed to the
sunlight ?

4. Did more than one kind of mold appear on the bread ? If so, how
do you know that they are different kinds ? Are there any pink or yellow
patcheson thebread? If so, these are made by bacteria and not by mold.

5. From the results of the experiments, describe in what temperature
mold grows best. In what conditions of dryness or moisture? Does it
flourish in the sunlight or in the dark?

6. Where does the mold come from? What harm does it do? What
should we do to prevent the growth of mold? Name all of the things on
which you have seen mold or mildew growing.

7. Examine the mold through a microscope or a lens. Describe the
threads. Describe the little round spore-cases. Look at some of the
threads that have grown down into the fruit juice. Are they like the
ones which grow in the air?

8. If you have a microscope cut a bit of the mold off, place it in a
drop of water on a glass slide, put on a cover-glass. Examine it with a
three-fourths objective, and describe the spores and spore-cases.

Flowerless -Plant Study

723

1. Cholera bacillus.

2. Typhoid bacillus.

j. A bacillus found in sewage.

These are all enlarged 2000 times.

4. Bacteria from tubercle on white sweet
clover, much enlarged.

5 and 6. Bacteria of lactic acid ferments
in ripening of cheese, much enlarged.

BACTERIA
Teacher's Story.

The yellow, pink or purple spots developed upon the moist and moldy
bread are caused by bacteria and yeast. Bacteria are one-celled organ-
isms now classed as plants ; they are the smallest known living beings, and
can only be seen through a high power microscope.

Bacteria grow almost everywhere — in the soil, on all foods and fruits,
in the water of ponds, streams and wells, in the mouths and stomachs of
human beings, and in fact in almost all possible places, and occur in the
air. Most of them are harmless, some of them are useful, and some pro-
duce disease in both plants and animals, including man.

What bacteria do would require many large volumes to enumerate.
Some of them develop colors or pigments; some produce gases, often ill-
smelling; some are phosphorescent; some take nitrogen from the air
and fix it in the soil; some produce putrefaction; and some produce
disease. Nearly all of the “catching diseases” are produced by bacteria.
Diphtheria, scarlet fever, typhoid fever, consumption, influenza, grippe,
colds, cholera, lockjaw, leprosy, blood poisoning and many other diseases
are the result of bacteria. On the other hand, many of the bacteria are
beneficial to man. Some forms ripen the cream before churning, others
give flavor to butter; while some are an absolute necessity in making
cheese. The making of cider into vinegar is the work of bacteria; some
clear the pollution from ponds and streams; some help to decompose the
dead bodies of animals, so that they return to the dust whence they came.

We have in our blood little cells whose business it is to destroy the
harmful bacteria which get into the blood. These little fighting cells
move everywhere with our blood, and if we keep healthy and vigorous by
right living, right food and exercise, these cells may prove strong enough
to kill the disease germs before they harm us. Direct sunlight also kills
some of the bacteria. Seven or eight minutes exposure to bright sunlight
is said to kill the germs of tuberculosis. Exposure to the air is also a help
in subduing disease germs. Bichloride of mercury, carbolic acid, formal-
dehyde and burning sulphur also kill germs, and may be applied to cloth-
ing or to rooms in which patients suffering from these germ diseases have
been. We can do much to protect ourselves from harmful bacteria by
being very clean in our persons and in our homes, by bathing frequently
and washing our hands with soap often. We should eat only pure and
freshly cooked food, we should get plenty of sleep and admit the sunlight
to our homes ; we should spend all the time possible in the open air and be
careful to drink pure water. If we are not sure that the water is pure, it
should be boiled for twenty minutes and then cooled for drinking.

In Experiment A the milk vials and the corks are all boiled, so that
we may be sure that no other bacteria than the ones we chose are present,

Handbook of Nature-Study

724

since boiling kills these germs. As soon as the milk becomes discolored
we know that it is full of bacteria.

Experiment B shows that bacteria can be transplanted to gelatin,
which is a material favorable for its growth. But the point of this experi-
ment is to show the child that a soiled finger will have upon it germs
which, by growing, cloud the gelatin. They should thus learn the value
of washing their hands often or of keeping their fingers out of their mouths.

Experiment C shows the way the destructive bacteria attack the
potato. The discolored spots show where the decay begins, and the odor
is suggestive of decay. If a potato thus attacked is put in the bright sun-
light the bacteria are destroyed, and this should enforce the moral of the
value of sunshine.

References — The Story of the Bacteria; Dust and its Dangers, M. T.
Prudden, Putnam’s. Bacteria in. Relation to Country Life, Lipman.

LESSON CLXXXVII
Bacteria

Leading thought — Bacteria are such small plants that we cannot see
them without the aid of a microscope, but they can be planted and
will grow. The object of this lesson is to enforce cleanliness.

Method — Experiment A — The bread used for the mold experiment is
likely to develop spots of yellow, red or purple upon it, and cultures from
these spots may be used in this lesson as follows: Take some vials, boil

them and their corks, and nearly fill them with milk that has been boiled.
Take the head of a pin or hairpin, sterilize the point by holding in a flame,
let it cool, touch one of the yellow spots on the bread with the point, being
careful to touch nothing else, and thrust the point with the bacteria on it
into the milk ; then cork the vials.

Experiment B — Prepare gelatin as for the table but do not sweeten.
Pour some of this gelatin on clean plates or saucers. After it has cooled
let one of the children touch lightly the gelatin in one saucer for a few
seconds with his soiled finger. Note the place. Ask him to wash his
hands thoroughly with soap and then apply a finger to the surface of the
gelatin in the other plate. Cover both plates to keep out the dust and
leave them for two or three days in a dark place. The plates touched by
the soiled finger will show a clouded growth in the gelatin ; the other plate
will show a few irregular, scattered growths or none.

Experiment C — Take a slice of boiled potato, place in a saucer, leave it
uncovered for a time or blow dust upon it, label with date, then cover with
a tumbler to keep from drying and place in a cool, somewhat dark place.

The pupils should examine all these cultures every day and make the
following notes :

Experiment A — How soon did you observe a change in the color of the
milk? How can you tell when the milk is full of the bacteria? How do
you know that the bacteria in the milk was transplanted by the pin ?

Experiment B — Can you see that the gelatin is becoming clouded
where the soiled finger touched it ? This is a growth of the bacteria which
were on the soiled finger.

Experiment C — What change has taken place in the appearance of the
slice of potato ? Are there any spots gro wing upon it ? What is the odor ?

Flowerless-Plant Study

725

What makes the spots? Describe the shape of the spots. The color.
Are any of them pimple-shaped ? Make a drawing of the slice of potato
showing the bacteria spots. What are the bacteria doing to the potato?
Take a part of the slice of potato with the bacteria spots upon it, and put
it in the sunshine. What happens? Compare this with the part kept in
the dark.

After this lesson the children should be asked the following questions.

1. Why should the hands always be washed before eating?

2. Why should the finger nails be kept clean?

3. Why should we never bite the finger nails nor put the fingers in
the mouth ?

4. Why should we never put coins in the mouth?

5. Why should wounds be carefully cleansed and dressed at once?

6. Why should clothing, furniture and the house be kept free from
dust?

7. Why should sweeping be done as far as possible without raising
dust?

8. Why are hardwood floors more healthful than carpets?

9. Why is a damp cloth better than a feather duster for removing
dust?

10. Why should the prohibition against spitting in public places be
strictly enforced ?

11. Why should the dishes, clothes and other articles used bysick
persons be kept distinctly separate from those used by well members of
the family ?

1 2 . Why should food not be exposed for sale on the street ?

1 3 . Why, during an epidemic, should water be boiled before drinking ?

“ This habit of looking first at what we call the beauty of objects is closely associated
•with the old conceit that everything is made to please man: man is only demanding his

own. It is true that everything is man's because he may use it or enjoy it, but not
because it was designed and 'made' for 'him' in the beginning. This notion that all
things were made for man's special pleasure is colossal self-assurance. It has none of
the humility of the psalmist, who exclaimed, ' What is man, that thou art mindful of
him ?

" 'What were these things made for , then!' asked my friend. Just for themselves!
Each thing lives for itself and its kind, and to live is worth the effort of living for man
or bug. But there are more homely reasons for believing that things were not made for
man alone. There was logic in the farmer's retort to the good man who told him that
roses were made to make man happy. 'No, they wa’n't', said the farmer, ‘or they
wouldn't a had pricker sJ A teacher asked me what snakes are ‘good for.' Of course
there is but one answer: they are good to be snakes."

— “The Nature Study Idea”, L. H„ Bailey.

726

Handbook of N atur e-Study

A Pacific Coast live oak showing the effects of constant, strong winds from one direction.
Photo by G. K. Gilbert. Courtesy of U. S. Geological Survey.

TREE STUDY
Teacher's Story

“ I wonder if they like it — being trees?

I suppose they do.

It must feel so good to have the ground so flat,

A nd feel yourself stand straight up like that.

So stiff in the middle; and then branch at ease,

Big boughs that arch, small ones that bend and blow,

And all those fringy leaves that flutter so.,

You'd think they'd break off at the lower end
When the wind fills them, and their great heads bend.

But when you think of all the roots they drop,

As much at bottom as there is on top,

A double tree, widespread in earth and air,

Like a reflection in the water there."

— “Tree Feelings” by Charlotte Perkins Stetson

YTURAL is our love for trees! A tree is a
living being, with a life comparable to our own.
In one way it differs from us greatly: it is sta-
tionary, and it has roots and trunk instead of
legs and body ; it is obliged to wait to have
what it needs come to it, instead of being able
to search the wide world over to satisfy its
wants.

THE PARTS OF THE TREE

The head, or crown, is composed of the
branches as a whole, which in turn are composed
of the larger and smaller branches and twigs.
The spray is the term given to the outer twigs, the finest divisions of the
trunk, which bear the leaves and fruit. The branches are divisions of the
bole, or trunk, which is the body, or stem, of the tree. The bole, at the base,

Tree Study

727

divides into roots, and the roots into rootlets, which are covered with root-
hairs. It is important to understand what each of the parts of a tree’s
anatomy does to help carry on theflife of the tree.

The roots, which extend out in every direction beneath the surface of
the ground, have two quite different offices to perform : First, they absorb
the water which contains the tree food dissolved from the soil; second, they
hold the tree in place against the onslaught of the winds. If we could see a
0 tree standing on its head with its roots spread in the air in the same manner
as they are in the ground, we could then better understand that there is as
much of the tree hidden below ground as there is in sight above ground,
although of quite different shape, being flatter and in a more dense mass.
The roots seem to know in which direction to grow to reach water; thus, the
larger number of the roots of a tree are often found to extend out toward a
stream flowing perhaps some distance from the tree ; when they find plenty
of food and water the rootlets interlace forming a solid mat. On the
Cornell Campus are certain elms which, every six or seven years, completely
fill and clog the nearby sewers ; these trees send most of their roots in the
direction of the sewer pipe. The fine rootlets upon the tree-roots are
covered with root-hairs, which really form the mouths by which the liquid
food is taken into the tree.

Handbook of Nature-Study

728

To understand how firm a base the roots form to hold up the tall trunk,
we need to see an uprooted tree. The great roots seem to be molded to take

firm grasp upon
the soil. It is
interesting to
study some of
the “stump
fences” which
were made by
our forefathers,
who uprooted
the white pines
when the land
was cleared of
the primeval for-
est, and made
fences of their
widespreading
but rather shal-
low extending
roots. Many of
these fences
stand to-day

with branching, out-reaching roots, white and weather-worn, but still
staunch and massive as if in memory of their strong grasp upon the soil
of the wilderness.

The trunk, or bole, or stem of the tree has also two chief offices: It

holds the branches aloft, rising to a sufficient height in the forest so that its
head shall push through the leaf canopy and expose the leaves to the sun-
light. It also is a channel by which the water containing the food surges
from root to leaf and back again through each growing part. The branches
are divisions of the trunk, and have the same work to do.

In cross-section, the tree trunk shows on the outside the layer of protec-
tive bark ; next to this comes the cambium layer, which is the vital part of
the trunk; it builds on its outside a layer of bark, and on its inside a layer
of wood around the trunk. Just within the cambium layer is a lighter
colored portion of the trunk, which is called the sap-wood because it is filled
with sap which moves up and down its cells in a mysterious manner; the
sap-wood consists of the more recent annual rings of growth. Within the
sap-wood are concentric rings to the very center or pith ; this portion is
usually darker in color and is called the heartwood; it no longer has
anything to do with the life of the tree, but simply gives to it strength and
staunchness. The larger branches, if cut across, show the same structure
as the trunk, — the bark on the outside, the cambium layer next, and
within this the rings of annual growth. Even the smaller branches and
twigs show similar structure, but they are young and have not attained
many annual rings.

The leaves are borne on the outermost parts of the tree. A leaf
cannot grow, and if it could would be of no use, unless it- can be reached
by the sunlight. Therefore the trunk lifts the branches aloft, and
the branches hold the twigs far out, and the twigs divide into the
fine spray, so as to spread the leaves and hold them out into the sunshine.

The upturned roots of a white pine; a part of a stump fence
a century old.

Tree Study

729

In structure, the leaf is made up of the stem, or petiole, and the blade, or
widened portion of the leaf, Which is sustained usually with a framework of
many ribs or veins. The petioles and the veins are sap channels like the
branches and twigs.

WOOD-GRAIN

This is the way that the sap-river ran
From the root to the top of the tree
Silent and dark,

Under the bark,

Working a wonderful plan
That the leaves never know,

And the branches that grow
On the brink of the tide never see.

— John B. Tabb.

THE WAY A TREE GROWS

HE places of growth on a tree may be found at the tips of the
twigs and the tips of the rootlets ; each year through this
growth the tree pushes up higher, down deeper and out
farther at the sides. But in addition to all of these grow-
ing tips, there is a layer of growth over the entire tree —
over every root, over the trunk, over the limbs and over
each least twig, just as if a thick coat of paint had been
put over the complete tree. It is a coat of growth instead, and
these coats of growth make the concentric rings which we see when
the trunks or branches are cut across. Such growth as this cannot
be made without food; but the tree can take only liquid food from the
soil; the root-hairs take up the water in which the “fertilizer” is
dissolved, and it is carried up through the larger roots, up through
the sap-wood of the trunk, out through the branches to the leaves,
where in the leaf-factories the water and free oxygen is given off to the
air, and the nourishing elements retained and mixed with certain
chemical elements of the air, thus becoming tree food. The leaf is a factory ;
the green pulp in the leaf cells is part of the machinery ; the machinery is
set in motion by sunshine power ; the raw materials are taken from the air
and from the sap containing food from the soil; the finished product is
largely starch. Thus, it is well, when we begin the study of the tree, to
notice that the leaves are so arranged as to gain all the sunlight possible, for
without sunlight the starch factories would be obliged to “shut down.” It
has been estimated that on a mature maple of vigorous growth there is
exposed to the sun nearly a half acre of leaf surface. Our tree appears to us
in a new phase when we think of it as a starch factory covering half an acre.

Starch is plant food in a convenient form for storage, and it is stored in
sap-wood of the limbs, the branches and trunk, to be used for the growth of
the next year’s leaves. But starch cannot be assimilated by plants in this
form, it must be changed to sugar before it may be used to build up the
plant tissues. So the leaves are obliged to perform the office of stomach and
digest the food they have made for the tree’s use. In the mysterious
laboratory of the leaf-cells, the starch is changed to sugar; and nitrogen,
sulphur, phosphorus and other substances are taken from the sap and starch
added to them, and thus are made the proteids which form another part of

Handbook of Nature-Study

730

the tree’s diet. It is interesting to note that while the starch factories can
operate only in the sunlight, the leaves can digest the food and it can be
transported and used in the growing tissues in the dark. The leaves are
also an aid to the tree in breathing, but they are not especially the lungs of
the tree. The tree breathes in certain respects aswe do ; it takes in oxygen

and gives off carbondi-
oxid; but the air con-
taining the oxygen is
taken in through the
numerous pores in the
leaves called stomata, and
also through lenticels in
the bark; so the tree
really breathes all over
its active surface.

The tree is a rapid
worker and achieves most
of its growth and does
most of its work by mid-
summer. The autumn
leaf which is so beautiful
has completed its work.
The green starch-machin-
ery or chlorophyl, the
living protoplasm in the
leaf cells, has been with-
drawn and is safely se-
cluded in the woody part
of the tree. The autumn
leaf which glows gold or
red, has in it only the
material which the tree
A stump showing rings of growth. can 110 longer use. It is

a mistake to believe that
the frost causes the brilliant colors of autumn foliage; they are caused
by the natural old age and death of the leaves — and where is there to
be found old age and death more beautiful? When the leaf assumes its
bright colors, it is making ready to depart from the tree; a thin, corky layer
is being developed between its petiole and the twig, and when this is per-
fected, the leaf drops from its own weight or the touch of the slightest breeze.

A tree, growing in open ground, records in its shape, the direction of the
prevailing winds. It grows more luxuriantly on the leeward side. It
touches the heart of the one who loves trees to note their sturdy endurance
of the onslaughts of this, their most ancient enemy.

Reference Books for Tree Study — The Tree Book, Julia Rogers; Our
Native Trees, Harriet Keeler; Our Northern Shrubs, Harriet Keeler; The
Trees of the Northern States, Romayne Hough. The Trees, N. L. Britton;
Getting Acquainted with the Trees, J. Horace McFarland; Familiar Trees
and their Leaves, Schuyler Mathews; Our Trees and How to Know Them,
Clarence Moores Weed; A Guide to the Trees, Alice Lounsberry; The First
Book of Forestry, Filibert Roth; Practical Forestry, John Gifford; Trees
in Prose and Poetry, Stone & Fickett ; The Primers of Forestry, Pinchot,

Tree Study

731

Acorns of the red and the scarlet oaks.
Photo by O. L. Foster.

HOW TO BEGIN TREE STUDY

Teacher's Story

'URING autumn the attention of the children should be
attracted to the leaves by their gorgeous colors. It is
well to use this interest to cultivate their knowledge of
the forms of leaves of trees; but the teaching of the tree
species to the young child should be done quite incidentally
and guardedly. If the teacher says to the child bringing
a leaf, “This is a white oak leaf,” the child will soon quite
unconsciously learn that leaf by name. Thus, tree study
may be begun in the kindergarten or the primary grades.

i . Let the pupils use their leaves as a color lesson by classifying them
according to color, and thus train the eye to discriminate tints and color
values.

2. Let them classify the leaves according to form, selecting those which
resemble each other.

3. Let each child select a leaf of his own choosing and draw it. This
may be done by placing the leaf flat on paper and outlining it with pencil
or with colored crayon.

4. Let the pupils select paper of a color similar to the chosen leaf and
cut a paper leaf like it.

5 . Let each pupil select four leaves which are similar and arrange them
on a card in a symmetrical design. This may be done while the leaves
are fresh, and the card with leaves may be pressed and thus preserved.

In the fourth grade, begin with the study of a tree which grows near the
schoolhouse. In selecting this tree and in speaking of it, impress upon the
children that it is a living being, with a life and with needs of its own. I
believe so much in making this tree seem an individual, that I would if
necessary name it Pocahontas or Martha Washington. First, try to ascer-
tain the age of the tree. Tell an interesting story of who planted it and
who were children and attended school in the schoolhouse when the tree
was planted. To begin the pupils’ work, let each have a little note-book in
which shall be written, sketched or described all that happens to this parti-
cular tree for a year. The following words with their meaning should be
given in the reading and spelling lessons: Head , bole, trunk, branches,
twigs, spray, roots, bark, leaf, petiole, foliage, sap.

Mountain maple , sugar maple and red maple.

LESSON CLXXXVIII
Tree Study

Autumn Work — i. What is the color of the tree in its autumn foliage?
Sketch it in water colors or crayons, showing the shape of the head, the rela-
tive proportions of head and trunk.

2. Describe what you can see of the tree’s roots. How far do you sup-
pose the roots reach down ? How far out at the sides ? In how many ways
are the roots useful to the tree ? Do you suppose, if the tree were turned
bottomside up, that it would show as many roots as it now shows branches?

3 . How high on the trunk from the ground do the lower branches come
off? How large around is the trunk three feet from the ground? If you
know how large around it is, how can you get the distance through? What
is the color of the bark ? Is the bark smooth or rough? Are the ridges fine
or coarse ? Are the furrows between the ridges deep or shallow ? Of what
use is the bark to the tree?

4. Describe the leaf from your tree, paying special attention to its
shape, its edges, its color above and below, its veins or ribs, and the relative
length and thickness of its petiole. Are the leaves set opposite or alternate
upon the twigs? As the leaves begin to fall, can you find two which are
exactly the same in size and shape ? Draw in your note-book the two leaves
which differ most from each other of any that grew on your tree. At what
date do the leaves begin to fall from your tree? At what date are they all
off the tree?

Handbook of Nature-Study

Tree Study

7 33

5. Do you find any fruit or seed upon your tree? If so describe and
sketch it, and tell how you think it is scattered and planted.

Winter Study of the Tree — 1. Make a sketch of the tree in your note-
book, showing its shape as it stands bare. Does the trunk divide into
branches, or does it extend through the center of the tree and the branches
come off from its sides? Of what use are the branches to a tree? Is the
spray, or the twigs at the end of the branches, coarse or fine? Does it lift
up or droop ? Is the bark on the branches like that on the trunk ? Is the
color of the spray the same as of the large branches ? Why does the tree
drop its leaves in winter ? Does the tree grow during the winter ? Do you
think that it sleeps during the winter?

2. Study the cut end of a log or stump and also study a slab. Which
is the heart-wood and which is the sap-wood? Can you see the rings of
growth? Can you count these rings and tell how old was the tree from
which this log came? Describe if you can, how a tree trunk grows larger
each year. What is it makes the grain in the wood which we use for furni-
ture ? If we girdle a tree why does.it die ? If we place a nail in a tree three
feet from the ground this winter, will it be any higher from the ground ten
years from now ? How does the tree grow tall ?

3. Take a twig of a tree in February and look carefully at the buds.
What is their color? Are they shiny, rough, sticky or downy? Are they
arranged on the twigs opposite or alternate ? Can you see the scar below
the buds where the last year’s leaf was borne ? Place the twig in water and
put in a light, warm place, and see what happens to the buds. As the
leaves push out, what happens to the scales which protected the buds?

4. What birds do you find visiting your tree during winter ? Tie some
strips of beef fat upon its branches, and note all of the kinds of birds which
come to feast upon it.

Trees in winter.

734

Handbook of N ature-Study

Spring Work— i. At what date do the young leaves appear upon your
tree ? What color are they ? Look carefully to see how each leaf was folded
in the bud. Were all the leaves folded in the same way? Are the young
leaves thin, downy and tender? Do they stand out straight as did the old
leaves last autumn, or do they droop? Why? Will they change position
and stand out as they grow stronger ? Why do the leaves stand out from
the twigs in order to get sunshine ? What would happen to a tree if it lost
all its leaves in spring and summer? Tell all of the things you know which
the leaves do for the tree?

2. Are there any blossoms on your tree in the spring? If so, how do
they look?' Are the blossoms which bear the fruit on different trees from
those that bear the pollen, or are these flowers placed separately on the same
tree ? Or does the same flower which produces the pollen also produce the
seed?. Do the insects carry the pollen from flower to flower, or does the
wind do this for your tree ? What sort of seeds are formed by these flowers ?
How are the seeds scattered and planted?

3. At what date does your tree stand in full leaf? What color is it
now ? What birds do you find visiting it ? What insects ? What animals
seek its shade? Do the squirrels live in it?

4. Measure the height of your tree as follows : Choose a bright, sunny

morning for this. Take a stick 3F2 feet long and thrust it in the ground so
that three feet will project above the soil. Immediately measure the length
of its shadow and of the shadow which your tree makes from its base to the
shadow of its topmost twigs. Supposing that the shadow from the stick is
4 feet long and the shadow from your tree is 80 feet long, then your example
will be : 4 ft. 13 ft. : : 80 ft. :? Which will make the tree 60 feet high.

To measure the circumference of the tree, take the trunk three feet from
the ground and measure it exactly with a tape measure. To find the thick-
ness of the trunk, divide the circumference just found by 3.15.

Supplementary Reading — Among Green Trees, Rogers; Chap. I in A
Primer of Forestry, Pinchot; Part I in A First Book of Forestry, Roth;
Chapter IV in Practical Forestry, Gifford.

LESSON CLXXXIX
How to Make Leaf Prints

A very practical help in interesting children in trees, is to encourage them
to make portfolios of leaf -prints of all the trees of the region. Although the
process is mechanical, yet the fact that every print must be correctly labeled
makes for useful knowledge. One of my treasured possessions is such a
portfolio made by the lads of St. Andrews School of Richmond, Va., who
were guided and inspired in this work by their teacher, Professor W. W.
Gillette. The impressions were made in green ink and the results are as
beautiful as works of art. Professor Gillette gave me my first lesson in
making leaf prints.

Material — 1. A smooth slate, or better, a thick plate of glass, about
12x15 inches.

2. A tube of printer’s ink, either green or black, and costing 50 cents;
one tube contains a sufficient supply of ink for making several hundred
prints. Or a small quantity of printer’s ink may be purchased at any
printing office.

Tree Study

735

3. Two six-inch rubber rollers, such as photographers use in mounting
prints, which cost 1 5 cents each. A letter-press may be used instead of one
roller.

4. A small bottle of kerosene to dilute the ink, and a bottle of benzine
for cleaning the outfit after using, care being taken to store them safe from
fire.

5. Sheets of paper 8^2 x 11 inches. The paper should be of good
quality, with smooth surface in order that it may take and hold a clear out-

Leaf print of a sycamore maple.

line. The ordinary paper used in printers’ offices for printing newspapers
works fairly well. I have used with success the paper from blank note-
books which cost five cents a piece.

To make a print, place a few drops of ink upon the glass or slate, and
spread it about with the roller until there is a thin coat of ink upon the roller
and a smooth patch in the center of the glass or slate. It should never be so
liquid as to “run,” for then the outlines will be blurred. Ink the leaf by
placing it on the inky surface of the glass and passing the inked roller over
it once or twice until the veins show that they are smoothly filled. Now
place the inked leaf between two sheets of paper and roll once with the clean

736

Handbook of Nature-Study

roller, bearing on with all the strength possible; a second passage of the
roller blurs the print. Two prints are made at each rolling, one of the
upper, and one of the under side of the leaf. Dry and wrinkled leaves may
be made pliant by soaking in water, drying between blotters before they are
inked.

Prints may also be made a number at a time by pressing them under
weights, being careful to put the sheets of paper with the leaves between
the pages of old magazines or folded newspapers, in order that the impres-
sion of one set of leaves may not mar the others. If a letter-press is avail-
able for this purpose, it does the work quickly and well.

SAP

Strong as the sea and silent as the grave,

It flows and ebbs unseen,

Flooding the earth, a fragrant tidal wave,

With mists of deepening green.

■ — John B. Tabb.

THE MAPLES
Teacher's Story

E sugar maple, combining beauty with many kinds of
utility, is dear to the American heart. Its habits of
growth are very accommodating; when planted where
it has plenty of room, it shows a short trunk and
oval head, which, like a dark green period, prettily
punctuates the summer landscape;^ but when it
occurs in the forest, its noble bole, a pillar of granite
gray, rises to uphold the arches of the forest canopy;
and it attains there the height of ioo feet. It grows
rapidly and is a favorite shade tree, twenty years
being long enough to make it thus useful. The
foliage is deep green in the summer, the leaf being a glossy, dark green above
and paler beneath. It has five main lobes, the two nearest the stem being
smaller; the curved edges between the lobes are marked with a few,
smoothly cut, large teeth; the main veins extend directly from the petiole
to the sharp tips of the lobes ; the petiole is long, slender, and occasionally
red. The leaves are placed opposite. The shade made by the foliage of the
maple is so dense that it shades down the plants beneath it, even grass grow-
ing but sparsely there. If a shade tree stands in an exposed position, it
grows luxuriously to the leeward of the prevailing winds, and thus makes a
one-sided record of their general direction.

It is its autumn transfiguration which has made people observant of the
maple’s beauty; yellow, orange, crimson and scarlet foliage make these
trees gorgeous when October comes. Nor do the trees get their color uni-
formly; even in September, the maple will show a scarlet branch in the
midst of its green foliage. I believe this is a hectic flush and a premonition
of death to the branch which, less vigorous than its neighbors, is being
pruned out by Nature’s slow but sure method. After the vivid color is on
the maple, it begins to shed its leaves. This is by no means the sad act
which the poets would have us believe; the brilliant colors are an evidence

Tree Study

737

that the trees have withdrawn from the leaves the green life-substance, the
protoplasm-machinery for making the starch, and have stored it snugly in
trunk and branch for winter keeping. Thus, only the mineral substances
are left in the leaf, and they give the vivid hues. It is a mistake to think
that frost causes this brilliance; it is caused by the natural, beautiful, old
age of the leaf. When the leaves finally fall, they form a mulch-carpet for
the tree that bore them, and add their substance to the humus from which
the tree draws new powers for growth.

After every leaf has fallen, the maple shows why its shade is dense. It
has many branches set close and at sharp angles to the trunk, dividing into
fine, erect spray, giving the
tree a resemblance to a giant
whisk-broom. Its dark, deep-
furrowed bark smoothes out
and becomes light gray on the
larger limbs, while the spray
is purplish, a color given it by
the winter buds. These buds
are sharp-pointed and long.

In February, their covering of
scales shows premonitions of
spring by enlarging, and as if
due to the soft influence, they
become downy, and take on a
sunshine color before they are
pushed off by the leaves. The
leaves and the blossoms appear
together. The leaves are at

first, yellowish, downy and Sugar maple leaver.

drooping, thus shunning the

too hot sun and the violent pelting rains and fierce spring winds. The
flowers appear in tassellike clusters, each downy drooping thread of the tassel
bearing at its tip a five-lobed calyx, which may hold seven or eight long,

738

Handbook of Nature-Study

drooping stamens or a pistil with long, double stigmas. The flowers are
greenish yellow, and those that bear pollen and those that bear the seeds
may be borne on separate trees or on the same tree, but they are always in
different clusters. If on the same tree, the seed-bearing tassels are at the
tips of the twigs, and those bearing pollen are along the sides.

The ovary is two-celled,
but there is usually only
one seed developed in the
pair which forms a “key;”
to observe this, however,
we have to dissect the
seeds; they have the ap-
pearance of two seeds
joined together, each pro-
vided with a thin, closely
veined wing and the two
attached to the tree by a
single long, drooping stem.
This twin-winged form is
well fitted to be whirled
off by the autumn winds,
for the seeds ripen in Sep-
tember. I have seen seed-
lings growing thickly for
rods to the leeward of their
parent tree, which stood
in an open field. The
maples bear blossoms and
seeds every year. There
are six species of native
maples which are readily
distinguishable. The sil-
ver and the red maples and
the box elder are rather
large trees; the mountain
and the striped (or goose-
foot) maples are scarcely
The trunk of sugar maple in forest. more than shrubs, and

mostly grow in woods
along streams. The Norway and the sycamore maples have been intro-
duced from Europe for ornamental planting. The cut-leaf silver maple
comes from Japan.

The maple wood is hard, heavy, strong, tough and fine-grained; it is
cream-color, the heart-wood showing shades of brown ; it takes a fine polish
and is used as a finishing timber for houses and furniture. It is used in con-
struction of ships, cars, piano action and tool handles; its fine-grained
quality makes it good for wood-carving; it is an excellent fuel and has many
other uses.

MAPLE-SUGAR MAKING

Although we have tapped the trees in America for many hundred years,
we do not as yet understand perfectly the mysteries of the sap flow. In
1903, the scientists at the Vermont Experiment Station did some very

Tree Study

739

remarkable work In clearing up the mysteries of sap movement. Their
results were published in their Bulletins 103 and 105, which are very
interesting and instructive.

The starch which is changed to sugar in the sap of early spring was made
the previous season and stored within the tree. If the foliage of the tree is
injured by caterpillars one year, very little sugar can be made from that tree
the next spring, because it has been unable to store enough starch in its sap-
wood and in the outer ray-cells of its smaller branches to make a good
supply of sugar. During the latter part of winter, the stored starch dis-
appears, being converted into
tree-food in the sap, and then
begins that wonderful surgin g
up and down of the sap tide
During the first part of a
typical sugar season, more
sap comes from above down
than from below up ; toward
the end of the season, during
poor sap days, there is more
sap coming up from below
than down from above. The
ideal sugar weather consists
of warm days and freezing
nights. This change of tem-
perature between day and
night acts as a pump. Dur-
ing the day when the branches
of the tree are warmed, the
pressure forces into the hole
bored into the trunk all the
sap located in the adjacent
cells of the wood. Then the
suction which follows a freez-
ing night drives more sap into
those cells, which is in turn
forced out when the top of the tree is again warmed. The tree is usually
tapped on the south side, because the action of the sun and the consequent
temperature-pump more readily affects that side.

“Tapping the sugar bush” are magical words to the country boy and
girl. Well do we older folk remember those days in March when the south
wind settled the snow into hard, marblelike drifts, and the father would
say, “We will get the sap-buckets down from the stable loft and wash them,
for we shall tap the sugar-bush soon.” In those days the buckets were
made of staves and were by no means so easily washed as are the metal
buckets of to-day. Well do we recall the sickish smell of musty sap that
greeted our nostrils, when we poured in the boiling water to clean those old
brown buckets. Previously during the winter evenings, we all had helped
fashion sap-spiles from stems of sumac. With buckets and spiles ready
when the momentous day came, the large, iron caldron kettle was loaded
on a stoneboat together with a sap-cask, log-chain, ax and various other
utensils, and as many children as could find standing room; then the oxen
were hitched on and the procession started across the rough pasture to the

740 Handbook of Nature-Study

woods, where it eventually arrived after numerous stops for reloading almost
everything but the kettle.

When we came to the boiling place, we lifted the kettle into position and
flanked it with two great logs against which the fire was to be kindled.
Meanwhile the oxen and stoneboat returned to the house for a load of
buckets. The oxen blinking, with bowed heads, or with noses lifted aloft
to keep the underbrush from striking their faces, “gee’d and haw’d” up hill
and down dale through the woods, stopping here and there while the men
with augers bored holes in certain trees near other holes which had bled
sweet juices in years gone by. When the auger was withdrawn, the sap
followed it, and enthusiastic young tongues met it half way, though they
received more chips than sweetness therefrom ; then the spiles were driven
in with a wooden mallet.

The next day after “tapping,” those of us large enough to wear the neck-
yoke donned cheerfully this badge of servitude and with its help brought

pails of sap to the kettle, and the
“boiling” began. As the evening
shades gathered, how delicious was
the odor of the sap steam, per-
meating the woods farther than
the shafts of firelight pierced the
gloom ! How weird and delightful
was this night experience in the
woods! And how cheerfully we
swallowed the smoke which the
contrary wind seemed ever to turn
toward us! We poked the fire to
send the sparks upward, and now
and then added more sap from a
barrel, and removed the scum from
the boiling liquid with a skimmer
thrust into the cleft of a long stick
for a handle. As the evening wore
on, we drew closer to each other
as we told stories of the Indians,
bears, panthers and wolves which
had roamed these woods when our
father was a little boy ; and came
to each of us a disquieting suspicion
that perhaps they were not all gone
yet, for everything seemed possible
in those night-shrouded woods; and
our hearts suddenly “jumped into our throats” when near by there
sounded the tremulous, blood-curdling cry of the screech owl.

After about three days of gathering and boiling sap, came the “siruping
down.” During all that afternoon we added no more sap and we watched
carefully the tawny, steaming mass in the kettle; when it threatened to
boil over, we threw in a thin slice of fat pork which seemed to have some
mysterious calming influence. The odor grew more and more delicious and
presently the sirup was pronounced sufficiently thick. The kettle was
swung off the logs and the sirup dipped through a cloth strainer into a
carrying-pail. Oh, the blackness of the residue left on that strainer! But

Tree Study

74i

it was clean woods-dirt and never destroyed our faith in the maple-sugar,
any more than did the belief that our friends were made of dirt destroy our
friendship for them. The next day our
interests were transferred to the house
where we “sugared off.” There we
boiled the sirup to sugar on the stove
and pouring it thick and hot upon snow
made that most delicious of all sweets —
the maple-wax; or we stirred it until
it “grained,” before we poured it into
the tins to make the “cakes” of maple-
sugar.

Now the old stave bucket and the
sumac spile are gone; in their place
the patent galvanized spile not only
conducts the sap but holds in place a
tin bucket carefully covered. The old
caldron kettle is broken, or lies rusting
in the shed. In its place, in the new-
fangled sugar-houses, are evaporating
vats, set over furnaces with chimneys.

But we may as well confess that the
maple-sirup of to-day seems to us a
pale and anaemic liquid, lacking the
delicious flavor of the rich, dark nectar
which we, with the help of cinders,
smoke and various other things, brewed of yore in the open woods.

LESSON CXC
The Sugar Maple
Leading thought — The sugar
maple grows very rapidly, and
is therefore a useful shade
tree. Its wood is used for
many purposes, and from its
sap is made a delicious sugar.

Method — This study of the
maple should be done by the
pupils out of doors, with a tree
to answer the questions. The
study of the leaves, blossoms
and fruit may be made in
the schoolroom. The maple
is an excellent subject for
Lesson CLXXXVIII. The
observations should begin in
the fall and continue at
intervals until June.

Observations. Fall Work — ■
i . Where is the maple you are
studying? Is it near other

742

Handbook of Nature-Study

trees ? What is the shape of the head ? What is the height of the trunk
below the branches? What is the height of the tree? How large around

Blossoms of the silver maple.

Photo by Ralph Curtis.

is the trunk three feet from the ground ? Can you find when the tree was
planted? Can you tell by the shape of the tree from which direction the
wind blows most often ?

2 . Can you find seeds on your tree ? Each pair of seeds is called a key.
Sketch a key, showing the way the seeds are joined and the direction of the
wings. Sketch the stem which holds the key to the twig. Are both seeds
of the key good or is one empty ? How are the seeds scattered and planted ?

Blossoms of mountain maple.

Photo by Ralph Curtis.

Tree Study

743

How far will a maple key fly on its wings ? Plant a maple seed where you
can watch it grow next year.

3 . Make leaf prints and describe a leaf of the maple, showing its shape,
its veins and petiole. Are the leaves arranged opposite or alternate on the
twig ? Make leaf-prints or sketches of the leaves of all the other kinds of
maples which you can find. How can you tell the different kinds of maples
by their leaves ?

4. If your tree stands alone, measure the ground covered by its shadow
from morning until evening. Mark the space by stakes. What grows
beneath the tree? Do grass and other plants grow thriftily beneath the
tree ? Do the same plants grow there as in the open field ?

5. Does your maple
get its autumn colors
all at once, or on one or
two branches first? At
what time do you see
the first autumn colors
on your tree ? When is
it completely clothed in
its autumn dress? Is
it all red or all yellow,
or mixed? If it is yel-
low this year do you
think it will be red next
year? Watch and see.

Sketch your maple in
water-colors.

6. At what time do
the leaves begin to fall ?

Do those branches
which first colored
brightly shed their
leaves before the others ?

At what date does your
tree stand bare ?

7. Find a maple
tree in the forest and
compare • it with one
that grows as a shade
tree in a field. Why
this difference?

Winter Work — 8.

Make a sketch of your
maple with the leaves
off. What sort of
bark has it ? Is the bark on the branches like that on the trunk ? Are the
main branches large ? At what angle do they come off the trunk ? Does
the trunk extend up through the entire tree ? Is the spray fine or coarse ?
Is it straight or crooked?

9. Study the winter buds. Are they alternate or opposite on the
twigs ? Are they shining or dull ?

Blossom of striped maple.

Photo by Ralph Curtis.

744

Handbook of Nature-Study

Spring Study — io. At what time do we tap maple trees for sap? On
which side of the tree do we make the hole? If we tapped the tree earlier

would we get any sap? What
kind of weather is the best for
causing sap flow? Do you sup-
pose that it is the sap going up
from the root to the tree and the
branches, or that coming down
from the branches to the root
which flows into the bucket ?
Why do we not make maple-
sugar all summer? Do you sup-
pose the sap ceases to run because
there is no more sap in the tree?

11. Write a story telling all
you can find in books or that you
know from your own experience
about the making of maple-sugar.

12. When do the leaves of
your maple first appear? How
do they then look ? Do they
stand out or droop ?

13. Do the blossoms appear
with the leaves or after them?
How do the blossoms look?
Can you tell the blossoms with
stamens from those with pistils?
Do you find them in the same

cluster? Do you find them on the same tree?

14. What uses do we find for maple wood? What is the character of
the wood ?

Supplementary reading — Trees in Prose and Poetry pp. 25-41.

Leaves and fruit of striped maple.

Photo by Ralph Curtis.

Blossoms of red maple.
Photo by Ralph Curtis.

Tree Study

745

THE AMERICAN ELM

Teacher's Story

LTHOUGH the American elm loves moist woods,
it is one of those trees that enjoys gadding; and
without knowing just* how it has managed to do
it, we can see plainly that it has planted its seeds
along fence corners, and many elms now grace
, our fields on sites of fences long ago laid low.
Because of its beautiful form and its rapid
growth, the elm has been from earliest times a
favorite shade tree in the Eastern and Middle
States. Thirty years after being planted, the
elms on the Cornell Campus clasped branches
across

the avenues; and the beauty of
many a village and city is due
chiefly to these graceful trees of
bounteous shade. Moreover the
elm is at no time more beautiful
than when it traces its flowing
lines against the background of
snow and gray horizon. Whether
the tree be shaped like a vase or
a fountain, the trunk divides
into great uplifting branches,
which in turn divide into
spray that oftentimes droops
gracefully, as if it were made pur-
posely to sustain from its fine tips
the woven pocket-nest of the
oriole. No wonder this bird so
often chooses the elm for its roof-
tree!

In winter, the dark, coarsely-
ridged bark and the peculiar,
wiry, thick spray, as well as the
characteristic shape of the tree
reveal to us its identity; it also

The elm in winter.

746

Handbook of Nature-Study

has a peculiar habit of growing its short branches all the way down its
trunk, making it look as if it were entwined with a vine. The elm leaf,
although its ribs are straight and simple, shows a little quirk of its own in
the uneven sides of its base where it joins the petiole', it is dark green
and rough above, light green and somewhat rough below; but this leaf is
rough only when stroked in certain directions, while the leaf of the slippery
elm is rough whichever way it may be stroked. The leaf has the edges saw-
toothed, which are in turn toothed; the petiole is short. The leaf comes
out of the bud in the spring folded like a little fan ; but before the fans
are opened to the spring breezes, the elm twigs are furry with reddish
green blossoms. The blossom consists of a calyx with an irregular
number of lobes, and for every lobe, a stamen which consists of a thread-
like filament from which hangs a bright red anther ; at the center is a two-
celled pistil with two light green styles. These blossoms appear in March
or early April, before the leaves.

When full-grown the fruit hangs like beaded fringe from the twigs. The
seed is flat and has a wide, much veined margin or wing, notched at the tip
and edged with a white silken fringe ; the seed is at the center, wrinkled and
flat. Each seed shows at its base the old calyx and is attached by a slender
threadlike stem to the twig at the axils of last year’s leaves. A little later
the lusty breezes of spring break the frail threads and release the seeds,
although few of them find places fit for growth.

The elm roots
are water hunters
and extend deep
into the earth; they
will grow towards
water, seeming to
know the way. The
elm heart-wood is
reddish, the sap-
wood being broad
and whitish in color ;
the wood is very
tough because of
theinterlaced fibers,
and therefore very
hard to split. It is
used for cooperage,
wheel hubs, sad-
dlery, and is now
used more exten-
sively for furniture ;
its grain is most
ornamental. It is
fairly durable as posts, but perhaps the greatest use of all for the
tree is for shade. The slippery elm is much like the white elm,
except that its inner bark is very mucilaginous, and children love to
chew it. The cork elm has a peculiar corky growth on its branches,
giving it a very unkempt look. The wahoo, or winged elm, is a small
tree, and its twigs are ornamented on each side by a corky layer. The
English elm has a solid, round head, very different from that of our graceful

Elm blossoms.
Photo by Ralph Curtis.

Tree Study

747

species. The elms are long-lived, some living for centuries. The Wash-
ington elm in Cambridge, and the William Penn elm in Philadelphia,
which now has a monument to mark its place, were famous trees.

Elm seed.

Photo Morgan.

LESSON CXCI
The Elm

Leading thought — The elm has a peculiarly graceful form, which makes it
of value as a shade tree. It grows best in moist locations. Its wood is
very tough.

Method — This work should be begun in the fall with the study of the
shape of the tree and its foliage. Sketches should be made when the tree is
clothed in autumn tints, and later it should be sketched again when its
branches are naked. Its blossoms should be studied in March and April
and its seeds in May.

Observations — i . Where does the elm grow ? Does it thrive where there
is little water? What is the usual shape of the elm ? How does the trunk
divide into branches to make this shape possible ? What is the shape of the
larger elms ? Describe the spray. Describe the elm bark. How can you
tell the elm from other trees in winter ?

2. Study the elm leaf. What is its form? What kind of edges has it?
How large is it ? What is the difference in appearance and feeling between
the upper and lower sides ? Are the leaves rough above whichever way you
stroke them ? If a leaf is folded lengthwise are the two halves exactly alike ?
How are the leaves arranged on the twig ? What is their color above and
below ? Describe the leafy growth along the trunk.

3 . What is the color of the elm tree in autumn ? Make a sketch of the
elm tree you are studying.

4- What sort of roots has the elm? Do they grow deep into the earth?
What is the character of its wood? Is it easy to split ? Why? What are
the chief uses of the elm?

748

Handbook of Nature-Study

5. Do you know what distinguishes the slippery elm, the cork elm, the
winged elm, or wahoo, and the English elm from the common American or
white elm which you have been studying ?

6. Write an essay on two famous American elms.

7. What birds love to build in the elm trees ?

Spring Study of the Elm

8. Which appear first, the blossoms or the leaves? Describe the elm
blossom. How long before the seeds ripen? How are the seeds attached
to the twig ? Describe an elm seed. How are the seeds scattered ? How
are the young leaves folded as they come out of the bud?

Supplementary reading — Trees in Prose and Poetry, pp. 81-92.

THE OAK
Teacher's Story

HE symbol of rugged strength since man first
gazed upon its noble proportions, the oak more
than other trees has been entangled in human
myth, legend and imagination. It was regarded
as the special tree of Zeus by the Greeks.
Virgil sang of it thus :

“Full in the midst of his own strength he stands
Stretching his brawny arms and leafy hands,
His shade protects the plains, his head the hills
commands.”

While in primitive England the strange worship
of the Druids centered around it.

Although the oak is a tree of grandeur when its broad branches are
covered with leafage, yet it is only in winter when it stands stripped like an
athlete that we realize wherein its supremacy lies. Then only can we
appreciate the massive trunk and the strong limbs bent and gnarled with
combating the blasts of centuries. But there are oaks and oaks, and each
species fights time and
tempest in his own
peculiar armor and in
his own way. Many of
the oaks achieve the
height of eighty to one
hundred feet. The great
branches come off the
sturdy trunk at wide
angles, branches that
may be crooked or
gnarled but are ever long
and strong; the smaller
branches also come off
at wide angles, and in
turn bear angular in-
dividual spray all of White oak leaves and acorn.

Tree Study

749

which, when covered with leaves, make the broad, rounded head which
characterizes this tree. The oaks are divided into two classes which the
children soon learn to distinguish, as follows :

A. The white oak group , the leaves of which have rounded lobes and
are rough and light-colored below ; the wood is light-colored, the acorns have

sweet kernels and mature in one year, so that there are no acorns on the
branches in winter. To this class belong the white, chestnut, bur, and
post oaks.

AA. The black oak group, the leaves of which are nearly as smooth below
as above, and have angular lobes ending in sharp points. The bark is dark
in color, the acorns have bitter kernels and require two years for maturing,
so that they may be seen on the branches in winter. To this group belong
the red, scarlet, Spanish, pin, scrub, black-jack, laurel and willow oaks.

There is a great variation in the shape of the leaves on the same tree, and
while the black, the red and the scarlet oaks are well-marked species, it is
possible to find leaves on these three different trees which are similar in
shape. Oaks also hybridize, and thus their leaves are a puzzle to the
botanist; but in general, the species can be determined by any of the tree
books, and the pupils should learn to distinguish them.

The acorns and their scaly saucers are varied in shape, and are a delight
to children as well as to pigs. The great acorns of the red oak are made

75o

Handbook of Nature-Study

Swamp white oak in winter.

a century to mature,
is the average
age of most oaks,
yet a scarlet oak
of my acquain-
tance is about
four hundred
years old, and
there are oaks
still living in
England which
were there when
William, the
Conquerer came.

The famous
Wadsworth Oak
at Geneseo.N.Y.
had a circum-
ferenceof twenty

into cups and saucers by the girls,
and those of the scarlet oak into
tops by the boys. The white
oaks turn a rich wine-color in the
autumn, while the bur and the
chestnut are yellow. The red
oak is a dark, wine-red; the black
oak russet, and the scarlet a deep
and brilliant red. When the oak
leaves first come from the buds
in the spring, they are soft and
downy and drooping, those of the
red and scarlet being reddish, and
those of the white, pale green
with red tints. Thoreau says of
them, “They hang loosely, flac-
idly down at the mercy of the
wind, like a new-born butterfly
or dragonfly.”

The pollen-bearing flowers are
like beads on a string, several
strings hanging down from the
same point on the twig, making a
fringe, and they are attractive to
the eye that sees. The pistillate
flowers are inconspicuous, at the
axils of the leaves, and have
irregular or curved stigmas ; they
are on the same branch as the
pollen-bearing flowers.

The oak is long-lived; it does
not produce acorns until about
twenty years of age and requires
Although from two to three hundred years

Leaves and acorn of the swamp white oak.

Tree Study

75i

seven feet . This was a swamp
white oak. One reason for
their attaining great age is
long, strong, tap-roots which
plant them deep, also the
great number of roots near
the surface which act as
braces, and their large and
luxurious heads.

Oak wood is usually heavy,
very strong, tough and coarse.
The heart is brown, the sap-
wood whitish. It is used for
many purposes — ships, fur-
niture, wagons, cars, cooper-
age, farm implements, piles,
wharves, railway ties, etc.
The white and live oaks give
the best wood. Oak bark is
used extensively for tanning.

LESSON CXCII
The Oaks

Leading thought — The oak tree is the symbol of strength and loyalty.
Let us study it and see what qualities in it have thus distinguished it.

Method — Any oak tree may be used for this lesson ; but whatever species
is used, the lesson should lead to the knowledge of all the species of oaks in
the neighborhood. The tree should be sketched, essays concerning the
connection of the oak with human history should be written, while the

Blossoms of chestnut oak.

752

Handbook of Nature-Study

leaves and acorns may be brought into the schoolroom for study. Use
Lesson CLXXXIX for a study of leaves of all the oaks of the neighborhood.

Observations — i. Describe the oak
tree which you are studying. Where
is it growing? What shape is its
head? How high in proportion to
the head is the trunk? What is the
color and character of its bark?

Describe its roots as far as you can
see. Are the branches straight or
crooked? Delicate or strong? Is
the spray graceful or angular ? Cup and saucer made from the acorns of

2. What is the name of your oak red oak

tree ? What is the color of its foliage

in autumn? Find three leaves from your tree which differ most widely in
form, and sketch them or make leaf prints of them for your note-book.
Does the leaf have the lobes rounded, or angular and tipped with sharp
points? Is the leaf smooth on the lower side or rough? Is there much
difference in color between the upper and the lower side ?

3. Describe the acorns which grow on your oak. Has the acorn a
stem, or is it set directly on the twig. How much of the acorn does the cup
cover? Are the scales on the cup fine or coarse? Is the cup rounded in-
wards at its rim ? What is the length of the acorn including the cup ? The
diameter? Are there acorns on your oak in winter? If so, why? Is the
kernel of the acorn sweet or bitter? Plant an acorn and watch it sprout.

4. Read all the stories you
can find about oak trees, and
write them in your note-book.

5. How great an age does the
oak attain? Describe how the
country round about looked when
the oak tree you are studying
was planted.

6. How many kinds of oaks
do you know ? What is the
difference in leaves between the
white and the black oak groups?
What is the difference in the
length of time required for the
acorns to mature in these two
groups? The difference in taste
of the acorns ? The difference in
the general color of the bark?
Why is the chestnut oak an
exception to this latter rule ?

7. How do the oak leaves
look when they first come out of
the bud in spring? What is the
color of the tree covered with new
leaves? When does your oak

The red oak in winter. blossom? Find the pollen-bear-

Photo by Ralph Curtis. ing blossoms which are hung in

Tree Study

753

long, fuzzy, beady strings. Find the pistillate flower which is to form
the acorn. Where is it situated in relation to the pollen-bearing flower?

The leaves and acorn of red oak.

8. Make a sketch of your oak tree in the fall, and another in the
winter. Write the autobiography of some old oak tree in your neighbor-
hood.

Leaves and acorn of black oak.

754

Handbook of Nature-Study

9 . For what is the oak wood used ? How is the bark used ?
Supplementary reading — Trees in Prose and Poetry, pp. m-129.

Leaves and acorn of scarlet oak.

i ree Study

J5S

THE SHAGBARK HICKORY
Teacher's Story

‘OW pathetically the untidy bark of this dignified
tree suggests the careless raiment of a great man!
The shagbark is so busy being something worth
while that it does not seem to have time or energy
to clothe itself in tailor-made bark, like the beech,
the white ash and the basswood. And just as we
^ like a great man more because of his n egligence to

fashion’s demands, so do we esteem this noble tree,
and involuntarily pay it admiring tribute as we
===r note its trunk with the bark scaling off in long,
thin plates that curve outward at the top and bot-
tom and seem to be only slightly attached at the middle.

In general shape, the shagbark resembles the oak; the lower branches
are large and, although rising as they leave the bole, their tips are deflected;
and, for their whole length, they are gnarled and knotted as if to show their
strength. The bark on the larger branches may be scaly toward their bases
but above is remarkably smooth. The spray is angular and extends in
almost every direction. The leaves, like those of other hickories, are com-
pound. There are generally five leaflets, but sometimes only three and
sometimes seven. The basal pair is smaller than the others. The hickory
leaves are borne alternately on the twig, and from this character the hickory
may be distinguished from the ashes, which have leaves of similar type, but
which are placed opposite on the twigs. The shagbark usually has an un-
symmetrical oblong head ; the lower branches are usually shorter than the
upper ones, and the latter are irregularly placed, causing gaps in the foliage.

The nut is large, with a thick, smooth, outer husk channeled at the seams
and separating readily into sections ; the inner shell is sharply angled and
pointed and slightly flattened at the sides ; the kernel is sweet. The winter
buds of the shagbark are large, light brown, egg-shaped and downy; they
swell greatly before they expand. There are from eight to ten bud-scales;
the inner ones, which are red, increase to two or three inches in length
before the leaves unfold, after which they fall away. The young branches
are smooth, soft, delicate in color, and with conspicuous leaf scars.

The hickory bears its staminate and pistillate flowers on the same tree.
The pollen-bearing flowers grow ac the base of the season’s shoots in slender,
pendulous, green catkins, which occur usually in clusters of three swinging
from a common stem. The pistillate flowers grow at the tips of the season’s
shoots singly or perhaps two or three on a common stem. In the shagbark
the middle lobe of the staminate calyx is nearly twice as long as the other
two, and is tipped with long bristles ; it usually has four stamens with yellow
anthers; its pistillate calyx is four-toothed and hairy, and has two large,
fringed stigmas.

The big shagbark, or king nut, is similar to the shagbark in height,
manner of growth, and bark. However, its leaves have from seven to nine
leaflets, which are more oblong and wedgelike than are those of the shag-
bark; they are also more downy when young and remain slightly downy
beneath. The nut is very large, thick-shelled, oblong, angled, and pointed
at both ends. The kernel is large and sweet but inferior in flavor to the
smaller shagbark. The big shagbark has larger buds than has the other.

756

Handbook of Nature-Study

Their fringy, reddish purple, inner scales grow so large that they appear
tuliplike before they fall away at the unfolding of the leaves.

Hickoy wood ranks high in value; it is light-colored, close-grained,
heavy, and very durable when not exposed to moisture. It is capable of
resisting immense strain, and, therefore, it is used for the handles of spades,
plows and other tools, and also for spokes and thills in carriage-making.
As a fuel, it is superior to most woods, making a glowing, hot and quite
lasting fire.

LESSON CXCIII
The Shagbark

Leading thought — The hickories are important trees commercially.
They have compound leaves which are set alternately upon the twig. The
shagbark can be told from the other hickories by its ragged, scaling bark.

Method — This lesson may be begun in the winter when the tree can be
studied carefully as to its shape and method of branching. Later, the
unfolding of the leaves from the large buds should be watched, as this is a
most interesting process; and a little later the blossoms may be studied.
The work should be taken up again in the fall, when the fruit is ripe.

Observations Winter study — i. What is the general shape of the whole
tree? Are the lower branches very large? At what angle do the branches,
in general, grow from the trunk ? Are there many large branches ?

2. Where is the spray borne? What is its character — that is, is it fine
and smooth, or knotted and angled? What is its color?

3. Describe the bark. Is the bark on the limbs like that on the trunk?

4. What is the size and shape of the buds? Are the buds greenish-
yellow, yellowish brown, or do they have a reddish tinge?

5 . Count the bud-scales. Are they downy or smooth ?

Spring study — 6. Describe how the hickory leaf unfolds from its bud.
How is each leaflet folded within the bud?

7. Describe the long greenish catkins which bear the pollen. On what
part of the twigs do they grow ? Do they grow singly or in clusters ?

8. Take one of the tiny, pollen-bearing flowers and hold it under a lens
on the point of a pin. How many lobes has the calyx? Count the
stamens, and note the color of the anthers.

9. Upon what part of the twigs do the pistillate flowers grow? How
many points or lobes has the pistillate calyx ? Describe the growth of the
nut from the flower.

Autumn study — 10. Does the hickory you are studying grow in open
field or wood ?

1 1 . Are the trunk and branches slender and lofty, or sturdy and wide
spreading ?

12. Note the number and shape of the leaflets. Are they slim and
tapering, or do they swell to the width of half their length? Are they set
directly upon or are they attached by tiny stems to the mid-stem? Are
they smooth or downy on the under side? Are the leaves set upon the
twigs alternately or opposite each other ? How are the leaflets set upon the
mid-stem?

13. Describe the outer husk of the nut. Into how many sections does
it open ? Does it cling to the nut and fall with it to the ground ? Is the nut
angled and pointed, or is it roundish and without angles? Is the kernel
sweet or bitter?

Tree Study

757

Photo by Verne Morton.

Chestnut blossoms.

Note the two pistillate flowers above the staminate catkins.

THE CHESTNUT
Teacher's Story

HIS splendid tree, sometimes reaching the height
of one hundred feet, seldom receives the admira-
tion due to it, simply because humanity is so
much more interested in food than in beauty.
The fact that the chestnuts are sought so eagerly
has taken away from interest in the appearance
of the tree. The chestnut has a great round
head set firmly on a handsome bole, which is
covered with grayish brown bark divided into
rather broad, flat, irregular ridges. The foliage
is superb; the long, slender, graceful leaves,
tapering at both ends, are glossy, brilliant green above and paler below;
and they are placed near the ends of the twigs, those of the fruiting
twigs seeming to be arranged in rosettes to make a background
for blossom or fruit. The leaves are placed alternately and have
deeply notched edges, the veins extending straight and unbroken from
midrib to margin; the petiole is short. The leaf is like that of the beech,

758

Handbook of N atur e-Study

except that it is much longer and more pointed; it resembles in general
shape the leaf of the chestnut oak, except that the edges of the latter have
rounded scallops instead of being sharply toothed. The burs appear at the
axils of the leaves near the end of the twig. Thoreau has given us a most
admirable description of the chestnut fruit:

“What a perfect chest the chestnut is packed in ! With such wonderful
care Nature has secluded and defended these huts as if they were her most
precious fruits, while diamonds are left to take care of themselves. First, it
bristles all over with sharp, green prickles, some nearly a half inch long, like
a hedgehog rolled into a ball ; these rest on a thick, stiff, barklike rind one-
sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch thick, which again is most daintily lined
with a kind of silvery fur or velvet plush one-sixteenth of an inch thick, even
rising into a ridge between the nuts, like the lining of a casket in which the
most precious commodities are kept. At last frost comes to unlock this
chest; it alone holds the true key; and then Nature drops to the rustling
leaves a ‘done’ nut, prepared to begin a chestnut’s course again. Within
itself again each individual nut is lined with a reddish velvet, as if to pre-
serve the seed from jar and injury in falling, and perchance from sudden
damp and cold; and within that a thin, white skin envelops the germ.
Thus, it has lining within lining and unwearied care, not to count closely,
six coverings at least before you reach the contents.”

The red squirrels, as if to show their spite because of the protection of
this treasure chest, have the reprehensible habit of cutting off the young
burs and thus robbing themselves of a rich later harvest— which serves them
right. There are usually two nuts in each bur, set with flat sides together;
but sometimes there are three and then the middle one is squeezed so that
it has two flat sides. Occasionally there is only one nut developed in a bur
— an only child, so well cared for that it grows to be almost globular.
The color we call chestnut is derived from the beautiful red-brown of the
polished shell of the nut, polished except where the base joins the bur, and
the apex which is gray and downy.

The chestnut is always a beautiful tree, whether green in summer or
glowing golden yellow in autumn; but it is most beautiful during late June
and July, when covered with constellations of pale yellow stars. Each of
these stars is a rosette of the pollen-bearing blossoms ; each ray consists of a

early enough, we can see these stamens curled up as they come
forth from the tiny, pale yellow, six-lobed calyx. One calyx, although
scarcely one-sixteenth of an inch across, develops from ten to twenty
of these stamens: these tiny flowers are arranged in knots along

Detail of a chestnut blossom.

a. a. pistillate flowers set in a base of scales; b, pistillate flower
enlarged ; c, staminate flower enlarged.

catkin often six or
eight inches in
length, looking like
a thread of yellow-
ish chenille fringe,
clothing this thread
in tufts for its whole
length are the sta-
mens, standing out
like minute threads
tipped with tiny
anther balls. If we
observe the blossom

Tree Study

759

Leaves and flowers of chestnut and chestnut oak showing the differences.

Photo by G. F. Morgan.

the central thread of the catkin. No wonder it looks like chenille!
There are often as many as thirty of these catkin rays in the star
rosette; the lower ones come from the axils of the leaves; but
toward the tips of the twig, the leaves are ignored and the catkins have
possession. In one catkin I estimated that there were approximately 2,500
stamens developed, each anther packed with pollen. When we think that
there may be thirty of the catkins in a blossom-star, we get a glimmering of
the amount of pollen produced.

And what is all this pollen for? Can it be simply to fertilize the three or
four inconspicuous flowers at the tip of the twig beyond and at the center of
the star? These pistillate flowers are little bunches of green scales with
some short, white threads projecting from their centers; and beyond them a
skimpy continuation of the stem with more little green bunches scattered
along it, which are undeveloped pistillate blossoryis. The one or two flow-
ers at the base of the stem get all the nourishment and the others do not
develop. If we examine one of these nests of green scales, we find that
there are six threads belonging to one tiny, green flower with a six-lobed
calyx ; the six threads are the stigmas, each one reaching out and asking for
no more than one grain of the rich shower of pollen.

Chestnut wood is light, rather soft, stiff, coarse and not strong. It is
used in cabinet work, cooperage, for telegraph poles and railway ties.
When burned as fuel, it snaps and crackles almost equal to hemlock.

LESSON CXCIV
The Chestnut

Leading thought — The chestnut is one of our most beautiful trees. We
should learn to appreciate it by observing the beauty of its blossoms and of
its foliage when green and when brilliant yellow in autumn. Until the
chestnut fruit is ripe, it is well protected by its spiny bur.

Handbook of N ature-Study

760

Method — This study may be begun in the fall when chestnuts are ripe.
Ask the boys to describe the trees from which they get this longed-for
harvest. The leaves, burs and nuts may be studied in the schoolroom.

Observations — 1. Where do chestnut trees grow? What is the general
form of the head of the tree? How high is the trunk below the branches?
Do the branches divide into fine twigs or spray at the tips ?

2. Sketch and describe a chestnut leaf, showing the veins, edges and
petiole. Are the leaves placed opposite or alternate ? What is their color
above and below? How do the chestnut leaves differ. from those of the
beech and of the chestnut oak ? What is the color of the chestnut foliage in
autumn?

3 . Where on the branch is the bur borne ? How does the green chest-
nut bur look ? Why is this prickly exterior beneficial to the fruit ? Does the

Chestnuts in burs.
Photo by Verne Morton

bur open easily when green? What causes the chestnut bur to open?
Into how many lobes does it open? Describe an open bur outside and in.

4. Where in the bur are the chestnuts set? How many in one bur?
How can you tell by the shape of the chestnut whether it grew as a twin or
single in a bur. Are there ever three in a bur? If so, what shape is the
middel one? Do the burs fall when the chestnuts are ripe?

5. Take a single chestnut. Describe its shape and color. What is the
mark on its large end? Describe the coloring and covering of the tip.
Open the shell and note the lining. Describe how the meat is finally pro-
tected. Can you see where the germ is? Plant a chestnut and watch it
grow.

6. Study the chestnut blossom in late June or July. What kind of
blossoms are those which look like yellow stars all over the tree ? Study one
of the catkins which makes a ray of the star, and describe it. Can you see
the anthers and the pollen ? How many of these pollen-bearing flowers are

Tree Study

761

Chestnuts.
Photo by O. L. Foster.

on one stem? Where are the pistillate flowers which will grow into young
chestnuts? Describe them.

7 . How much are chestnuts worth per bushel ? To what uses is chest-
nut timber put ? What is the character of the wood ?

THE HORSE-CHESTNUT
Teacher's Story

HE wealth of children is, after all, the truest
wealth in this world; and the horse-chestnuts,
brown and smooth, looking so appetizing and so
belying their looks, have been used from time
immemorial by boys as legal tender — a fit use,
for these handsome nuts seem coined purposely
for boys’ pockets.

The horse-chestnut is a native of Asia
Minor. It has also a home in the high moun-
tains of Greece. In America, it is essentially a
shade tree. Its head is a broad cone, its dark
green foliage is dense and, when in blossom, the
flower clusters stand out like little white
pyramids against the rich back-ground
in a most striking fashion. “A pyramid
of green supporting a thousand pyra-
mids of white” is a clever description of
this tree’s blossoming. The brown bark
of the trunk has a tendency to break into
plates, and the trunk is just high enough
to make a fitting base for the handsome
head.

The blossom panicle is at the tip end
of the twig and stops its growth at that
point; the side buds continue to grow
thus making a forking branch. Each
blossom panicle stands erect like a candle

a, blossom of the sweet buck-eye and *
young fruit; b, blossom and young
fruit of horse-chestnut.

jM
olik -BMi

b°oC

)O09

>0^

fl)0 "

XOn^CkOCO

762

Handbook of Nature-Study

Horse-chestnut blossoms.

Photo by Verne Morton.

flame, and the flowers are arranged spirally around the central stem, each
pedicel carrying from four to six flowers. The calyx has five unequal lobes,
and it and the stem are downy. Five spreading and unequal petals
with ruffled margins are raised on short claws, to form the corolla; seven
stamens with orange colored anthers are thrust far out and up from the
flower. The blossoms are creamy or pinkish white and have purple or
yellow blotches in their throats. Not all the flowers have perfect pistils.
The stigmas ripen before the pollen, and are often thrust forth from the
unopened flower. The flowers are fragrant and are eagerly visited by
bumblebees, honey-bees and wasps.

Very soon after the blossom falls, there may be seen one or two green,
prickly balls which are all the fruits one flower cluster could afford to
mature. By October the green, spherical husk breaks open in three parts,
showing its white satin lining and the roundish, shining, smooth nut at its
center. At first there were six little nuts in this husk, but all except one
gave up to the burly occupant. The great, round, pale scar on the nut is
where it joined the husk. Very few American animals will eat the nut ; the
squirrels scorn it and horses surely disown it.

In winter, the horse-chestnut twig has at its tip a large bud and looks
like a knobbed antenna thrust forth to test the safety of the neighborhood.
There are, besides the great varnished buds at the ends of the twigs, smaller
buds opposite to each other along the sides of the twig, standing out stiffly.
On each side of the end bud, and below each of the others, is a horseshoe-
shaped scar left by the falling leaf of last year. The “nails” in this horse-
shoe are formed by the leafy fibres which joined the petiole to the twig.

Tree Study

763

The great terminal buds hold both leaves and flowers. The buds in winter
are brown and shining as if varnished ; when they begin to swell, they open,
displaying the silky gray floss which swaddles the tiny leaves. The leaves
unfold rapidly and lift up their green leaflets, looking like partly opened
umbrellas, and giving the tree a very downy appearance, which Lowell so
well describes :

“And gray hoss-chestnut’s leetle hands unfold
Softer ’n a baby’s be at three days old.”

The leaf, when fully developed, has seven leaflets, of which the central
ones are the larger. They are all attached around the tip of the petiole.
The number of leaflets may vary from three to nine, but is usually seven.
The leaflets are oval in shape, being attached to the petiole at the smaller
end ; their edges are irregularly toothed. The veins are large, straight and
lighter in color; the upper surface is smooth and dark green, the under side
is lighter in color and slightly rough. The petiole is long and shining and
enlarges at both ends; when cut across, it shows a woody outer part encas-
ing a bundle of fibres, one fiber to each leaflet. The places where these
fibers were attached to the twig make the nails in the horseshoe scar. The
leaves are placed opposite on the twigs.

Very different from that of the horse-chestnut is the flowed of the yellow
or sweet, buckeye; the calyx is tubular, long and five-lobed ; the two side
petals are on long stalks and are closed like spoons over the stamens and
anthers ; the two upper petals are also on long stalks, lifting themselves up
and showing on their inner surfaces a bit of color to tell the wandering bee
that here is a tube to be explored. The flowers are greenish yellow. The
flowers of the Ohio buckeye show a stage between the sweet buckeye and
the horse-chestnut. The Ohio buckeye is our most common native relative
of the horse-chestnut. Its leaves have five leaflets instead of seven. The
Sweet buckeye is also an American species and grows in the Alleghany
mountains.

LESSON CXCV
The Horse-Chestnut

Leading thought — The horse-chestnut has been introduced into America
as a shade tree from Asia Minor and southern Europe. Its foliage and its
flowers are both beautiful.

Method — This tree is almost always at hand for the village teacher, as it
is so often used as a shade' tree. Watching the leaves develop from the
buds is one of the most common of the nature-study lessons. The study of
the buds, leaves and fruits may be made in school ; but the children should
observe the tree where it grows and pay special attention to its insect visi-
tors when it is in bloom.

Observations — 1. Describe the horse-chestnut tree when in blossom.
At what time does this occur ? What is there in its shape and foliage and
flowers which make it a favorite shade tree ? Where did it grow naturally ?
What relatives of the horse-chestnut are native to America?

2. Study the blossom cluster; are the flowers borne on the ends or on
the sides of the twig? Describe the shape of the cluster. How are the
flowers arranged on the main flower stalk to produce this form? Do the
flowers open all at once from top to bottom of the cluster? Are all the
flowers in the cluster the same color ? Are they fragrant ? What insects
visit them?

764

Handbook 0} Nature-Study

Horse-chestnuts , the coin of the small boy.

' Photo by O. L. Foster.

3. Take a single flower; describe the form of the calyx. Is it smooth
or downy ? Are the lobes all the same size ? Are the petals all alike in size
and shape ? What gives them the appearance of J apanese paper ? Are any
connected together? Are they all splashed with color alike?

4. How many stamens are there? Where do you see them? What
color are the anthers? Search the center of a flower for a pistil with its
green style. Do you find one in every flower? Could a bee reach the
nectar at the base of the blossom without touching the stigma? Could she
withdraw without dusting herself with pollen?

5 . How long after the blossom does the young fruit appear ? How does
it look? How many nuts are developed from each cluster of blossoms?
What is the shape of the bur ? Into how many parts does it open ? De-
scribe the outside ; the inside. Describe the shape of the nuts, their color
and markings. Which make the best “conquerers,” those which grow
single in the bur or as twins ? Open a nut. Can you find any division in
the kernel? Is it good to eat?

Horse-chestnut Twigs and Leaves in Spring — 6. Are the buds on the
twigs nearly all the same size ? Where are the larger ones situated ? What
is the color of the buds ? How are the scales arranged on them ? Are they
shiny or dull? What do the scales enfold ? Can you tell without opening
them which buds contain flowers and which ones leaves?

7. Describe the scars below the buds. What caused them? What
marks are on them? What made the “nails” in the horseshoe? Has the
twig other scars ? How do the ring-marks show the age of the twig ? Do
you see the little, light colored dots scattered over the bark of the twig?
What are they ?

8. Describe how the leaf unfolds from the bud. What is the shape of
the leaf? Do all the leaves have the same number of leaflets? Do any of

Tree Study

765

them have an even number? How are the leaflets set upon the petiole?
Describe the leaflets, including shape, veins, edges, color above and below.
Is the petiole pliant, or stiff and strong? Is it the same shape and size
throughout its length? Break a petiole, is it green throughout? What
can you see at its center? Are the leaves opposite or alternate? When
they fall, do they drop entire or do the leaflets fall apart from the stem ?

9. Sketch the horse-chestnut tree.

10. How do the flowers and leaves of the horse-chestnut differ from
those of the sweet buckeye and of the Ohio buckeye?

Supplementary reading — Trees in Prose and Poetry, p. 17.

THE WILLOWS
Teacher's Story

They shall spring up among the grass, as willows by the water courses.

— Isaiah.

“When I cross opposite the end of Willow Row the sun comes out and the trees are very
handsome, like a rosette, pale, tawny or fawn color at base and red-yellow or orange-yellow
for the upper three or four feet. This is, methinks, the brightest object in the landscape
these days. Nothing so betrays the spring sun. I am aware that the sun has come out
of the cloud just by seeing it light up the osiers.” — Thoreau.

HE willow, Thoreau noted, is the golden osier, a colonial
dame, a descendent from the white willow of Europe.
It is the most common tree planted along streams to
confine them to their channels, and affords an excellent
subject for a nature-study lesson. The golden osier has
a short though magnificent trunk, giving off tremendous
branches, which in turn branch and uphold a mass of
golden terminal shoots. But there are many willows
besides this, and the one who tries to determine all the
species and hybrids must conclude that of making
willows there is no end. The species beloved by children
is the pussy willow which is often a shrub, rarely reach-
ing twenty feet in height. It loves moist localities, and on its branches in
early spring are developed the silky, furry pussies. These are favorite
objects for a nature-study lesson, and yet how little have the teachers or
pupils known about these flowers!

The willow pussies are the pollen-bearing
flowers; they are covered in winter by a
brown, varnished, double, tentlike bract.

The pussy in full bloom shows beneath each
fur-bordered scale two stamens with long fila-
ments and plump anthers; but there are no
pistils in this blossom. The flowers which
produce seed are borne on another tree entirely
and in similar greenish gray catkins, but not
so soft and furry. In the pistillate catkin
each fringed scale has at its base a pistil
which thrusts out a Y-shaped stigma. The
question of how the pollen from one gets to

Enlarged willow blossoms.

Pistillate blossom. showing nectar,
gland, (n.gl.)

Staminate flower showing the nec-
tar, gland (n.gl.)

766

Handbook of Nature-Study

The willow pussies. The stami-
nate blossoms of the willow.
Photo by Verne Morton.

the pistils of another is a story which the bees
can best tell. The willow flowers give the bees
almost their earliest spring feast and, when they
are in blossom, the happy hum of the bees
working in them can be heard for some distance
from the trees. The pollen gives them bee
bread for their early brood, and they get their
honey supply from the nectar which is pro-
duced in little jug-shaped glands, at the base
of each pollen-bearing flower on the “pussy”
catkin, and in a long pocket at the base of each
flower on the pistillate catkin. So they pass
back and forth, carrying their pollen loads to
fertilize the stigmas on trees where there is no
pollen. It has been asserted that the pussies,
or pollen-bearing flowers, yield no nectar but
give only pollen, so that the bee is obliged to
seek both trees in order to secure a diet of
“balanced ration;” but the person who made
this statement had never taken the pains to look
at the tiny jugs over-flowing with nectar found
at their bases.

In June the willow seed is ripe. The catkin
then is made up of tiny pods, which open like
milkweed pods and are filled with seed equipped
with balloons. When these fuzzy seeds are
being set free people say that the willows “shed
cotton.”

Although the seed of the willow is produced
in abundance, it is hardly needed for preserving
the species. Twigs which we place in water to
develop flowers will also put forth roots; even
if the twigs are placed in water wrong side up,
rootlets will form. A twig lying flat on moist
soil will push out rootlets along its entire length
as though it were a root; and shoots will grow
from the buds on its upper side. This habit of
the willows and the fact that the roots are long,
strong and fibrous make these trees of great use
as soil binders. There is nothing better than a
thick hedge of willows to hold streams to their
proper channels during floods; the roots reach
out in all directions, interlacing themselves in
great masses, and thus hold the soil of the banks
in place. The twigs of several of the species,
notably the crack and sand-bar willows, are
broken off easily by the wind and carried off
down stream, and where they lodge, they take
root ; thus, many streams are bordered by self-
planted willow hedges.

The willow foliage is fine and makes a
beautiful, soft mass, with delicate shadows.
The leaf is long, narrow, pointed and slender,

Tree Study

767

with finely toothed edges and short petiole; the exact shape of the leaf,
of course, depends upon the species, but all of them are much lighter in
color below than above. The willows are, as a whole, water lovers and
quick growers.

Although willow wood is soft and
exceedingly light, it is very tough when
seasoned and is used for many things.

The wooden shoes of the European
peasant, artificial limbs, willowware,
and charcoal of the finest grain used in
the manufacture of gunpowder, are all
made from the willow wood. The
toughness and flexibility of the willow
twigs have given rise to many indus-
tries ; baskets, hampers, carriage bodies
and furniture are made of them. To
get these twigs the willow trees are pol-
larded, or cut back every year between
the fall of the leaves and the flow of
the sap in the spring. This pruning
results in many twigs. The use of wil-
low twigs in basketry is ancient. The
Britons fought the Roman soldiers from
behind shields of basket work ; and the
wattled huts in which they lived were
woven of willow saplings smeared with
clay. Salicylic acid, used widely in
medicine, is made from willow bark,
which produces also tannin and some
unfading dyes.

There are many insect inhabitants
of the willow, but perhaps the most
interesting is the little chap which
makes a conelike object on the twig of
certain species of willow growing along
our streams. This cone is naturally
considered a fruit by the ignorant,
but we know that the willow seeds are
grown in catkins instead of cones.

This willow cone is made by a small
gnat which lays its egg in the tip of
the twig; as soon as the little grub
hatches, it begins to gnaw the twig,
and this irritation for some reason stops
the growth. The leaves instead of de-
veloping along the stem are dwarfed
and overlap each other. Just in the center of the cone at the tip of the twig
the little larva lives its whole life surrounded by food and protected from
enemies; it remains in the cone all winter, in the spring changes to a pupa,
and after a time comes forth — a very delicate little fly. The larva in this
gall is very hospitable. It has its own little apartment at the center but does
not object to having a tenant in its outer chambers, a fact which is taken

The pistillate blossoms of the willow.
Photo by Verne Morton.

768

Handbook of N ature-Study

advantage of by another gall-gnat which breeds there in large numbers.
It is well to gather these cones in winter; examine one by cutting it open
to find the larva, and place others in a fruit jar with a cover so as to see the
little flies when they shall issue in the spring. (See p. 362). For supple-

mentary reading see “Outdoor Studies,” page 24.

There is another interesting winter tenant of willow leaves, but it is
rather difficult to find. On the lower branches may be discovered, during
winter and spring, leaves rolled lengthwise and fastened, making elongated
cups. Each little cup is very full of a caterpillar which just fits it, the cater-
pillar’s head forming the plug of the opening. This is the partially grown
larva of the viceroy butterfly. It eats off the tip of the leaf each side of the
midrib for about half its length, fastens the petiole fast to the twig with silk,
then rods the base of the leaf into a cup, lines it with silk and backs into it,
there to remain until fresh leaves on the willow in spring afford it new food.

“My willow -tent.”
Photo by W. C. Baker.

LESSON CXCVI
The Willows

Leading thought — The willows have their pollen-bearing flowers and
their seed-bearing flowers on separate trees; the bees carry the pollen from
one to the other. The willow pussies are the pollen-bearing flowers.

Method — As early in March as is practicable, have the pupils gather
twigs of as many different kinds of willows as can be found ; these should
be put in jars of water and placed in a warm, sunny window. The catkins
will soon begin to push out from the bud-scales, and the whole process
of flowering may be watched.

Tree Study

769

Observations — 1 . How can you tell the
common willow tree from afar? In what
localities do these trees grow? What is
the general shape of the big willow ? How
high is the trunk, or bole? What sort of
bark has it? Are the main branches
large or small? Do they stand out at a
wide angle or lift up sharply? What
color are the terminal shoots, or spray ?

2. Are the buds opposite or alternate
on the twigs? Is there a bud at exactly
the end of any twig? How many bracts
are there covering the bud ?

3. Which appear first, the leaves or
the blossoms ? Study the pussies on your
twigs and see if they are all alike. Is one
kind more soft and furry than the other?

Are they of different colors?

4. Take one of the furry pussies.

Describe the little bract, which is like a
protecting hood at its base. What color
is the fur? After a few days, what color
is the pussy? Why does it change from
silver color to yellow? Pick one of the
catkins apart and see how the fur protects
the stamens.

5. Take one of the pussies which is
not so furry. Can you see the little
pistils with the Y-shaped stigmas set in
it? Is each little pistil set at the base
of a little scale with fringed edges ?

6. Since the pollen-bearing catkins
are on one tree and the seed-bearing cat-
kins are on the other, and since the seeds
cannot be developed without the pollen,
how is the pollen carried to the pistils?

For this answer, visit the willows when
the pussies are all in bloom and listen.

Tell what you hear. What insects do
you see working on the willow blossoms ?

What are they after? Seeds of willow.

7. What sort of seed has the willow? Photo by Verne Morton.

How is it scattered? Do you think the

wind or water has most to do with planting willow seed ?

Work for May or September — 8. Describe willow foliage and leaves.
How can you tell willow foliage at a distance?

9. What sort of roots has the willow? Why are the willows planted
along the banks of streams? If you wished to plant some willow trees how
would you do it ? Would you plant seeds or twigs ?

10. For what purposes is willow wood used ? How are the twigs used ?
Why are they specially fitted for this use? What is pollarding a tree?
.What medicine do we get from willow bark?

77°

Handbook of Nature-Study

1 1 . Do you find willow cones on your willows ? Cut one of these cones
through and see if you can find any seeds? What is in the middle of it?
What do you think made the scales of the cone? Do you think this little
insect remains in here all winter?

12. In winter, hunt the lower branches of willows for leaves rolled
lengthwise making a winter cradle for the young caterpillars of the viceroy.

Supplementary reading — Trees in Prose and Poetry, p. 137.

THE COTTONWOOD, OR CAROLINA POPLAR

Teacher's Story

HE sojourner on our western plains where streams
are few and sluggish, disappearing entirely in
summer, soon learns to love the cottonwoods,
for they will grow and cast their shade for men
and cattle where no other tree could endure.
The cottonwood may be unkempt and ragged,
but it is a tree, and we are grateful to it for its
ability to grow in unfavorable situations. In
the Middle West it attains its perfection, al-
though in New York we have some superb
specimens — trees which are more than one
hundred feet in height and with majestic
trunks, perhaps five or six feet through. The deep-furrowed, pale gray
bark makes a handsome covering. The trunk divides into great out-swing-
ing, widely spaced branches, which bear a fine spray on their drooping ends.
Sargent declares that at its best the cottonwood is one of the statliest in-
habitants of our eastern forests. The variety we plant in cities we call the
Carolina poplar, but it is a cottonwood. It is a rapid grower, and therefore
a great help to the “boom towns” of the West and to the boom suburbs in
the East; although for a city tree its weak branches break too readily in
wind storms in old age. However, it keeps its foliage clean, the varnished
leaves shedding the dust and smoke; because of this latter quality it is of
special use in towns that burn soft coal.

The cottonwood twigs which we gather for study in the spring are
yellowish or reddish, those of last year’s growth being smooth and round,
while those showing previous growth are angular. The buds are red-brown
and shining, and covered with resin which the bees like to collect for their
glue. The leaf buds are slender and sharp-pointed; the flower buds are
wider and plumper.

The two sexes of the flowers are borne on separate trees. The trees
bearing pollen catkins are so completely covered with them that they
take on a very furry, purplish appearance when in blossom. These catkins
are from three to five inches long and half an inch thick, looking fat and
pendulous ; each fringed scale of the catkin has at its base a disc looking
like a white bracket, from which hang the reddish purple anthers; these
catkins fall after the pollen is shed and look like red caterpillars upon the
ground.

The seed-bearing flowers are very different ; they look like a string of
Jittle, greenish beads loosely strung. Each pistil is globular and set in a
tiny cup, and it has three or four stigmas which are widened or lobed; as

Tree Study

771

it matures, it becomes larger and darker green,
and the string elongates to six or even ten
inches. The little pointed pods open into two or
more valves and set free the seeds, which are
provided with a fluff of pappus to sail them off on
the breeze; so many of the seeds develop that
every object in the neighborhood is covered with
their fuzz, and thus the tree has gained its name
“cottonwood.”

The foliage of the cottonwood is like that of other
poplars, trembling with the breeze. The heavy, sub-
circular leaf is supported on the sidewise flattened
petiole, so that the slightest breath of air sets it quak-
ing; a gentle breeze sets the whole tree twinkling and
gives the eye a fascinating impression as of leaves
beckoning. The leaf is in itself pretty. It is from
three to five inches long, broad, slightly angular at the
base and has a long, tapering, pointed tip. The edge
is saw-toothed, and also slightly ruffled except near the
stem where it is smooth ; it is thick and shining green
above and paler beneath. The long, slender petiole
is red or yellowish, and the leaves are placed alternate
on the twigs.

In the autumn the leaves are brilliant yellow. The
wood is soft, weak, fine-grained, whitish or yellowish,
and has a satiny luster ; it is not durable. It is used
somewhat for building and for furniture, in some kinds
of cooperage, and also for crates and woodenware; but
its greatest use is for making the pulp for paper.
Many newspapers and books are printed on cotton-
wood paper. It is common from the Middle States to
the Rocky Mountains and from Manitoba to Texas.

Staminate catkin of
cottonwood.

Drawn by Anna Stryke.

LESSON CXCVII
The Cottonwood

Leading thought — The cottonwood is a poplar. It grows rapidly and
flourishes on the dry western plains where other trees fail to gain a foothold.
It grows well in the dusty city, its shining leaves shedding the smoke and

dirt.

Method — Begin this study in spring before the cottonwoods bloom.
Bring in twigs in February, give them water and warmth, and watch the
development of the catkins. Afterwards watch the unfolding of the leaves
and study the tree.

Observations — 1. What is the color of the bark on the cottonwood ? Is
it ridged deeply? What is the color of the twigs? Are they round or
angular, or both? Describe the winter buds and bud-scales. Can you tell
which bud will produce leaves and which flowers ?

2. Describe the catkin as it comes out. Has this catkin anthers and
pollen, or will it produce seed ? Do you think the seeds are produced on the
same trees as the pollen?

Handbook of Nature-Study

3. Find a pollen-bearing catkin. Describe the stamens.
Can you see anything but the anthers ? On what are they set ?
What color are they? What color do they give to the tree
when they are in blossom? What happens to the catkins
after their pollen is shed?

4. Find a seed-bearing catkin. How long is it? Do you
see why this tree is called the necklace poplar? Describe
the pistils which make the beads on the necklace.

5. When do the seeds ripen? If you have been near the tree, how do
you know when they are ripe? How long is the catkin with the ripened

Cottonwoods.

Courtesy of U. S. Forest Service.

772

0
Seed-pod of
poplar, shut
and open.

seeds? How many balls on the necklace now? What is the color? How
many seeds come out of each little pod? How are the seeds floated on the
air? Why do we call this tree “cottonwood?”

6. How large is the largest cottonwood that you know? Sketch it to
show the shape of the tree. Are the main branches large? Do they droop
at the tips?

7 . How does the foliage of the cottonwood look ? Does it twinkle with
the wind ? Examine the leaves upon a branch and see why they twinkle.
Are the petioles round or flat ? Are they flattened sidewise or up and
down? Are they stiff or slender? Describe the leaves, giving their shape,

Tree Study

773

veins, edges, color and texture above and below. Are the edges ruffled as
well as toothed ? Is the leaf heavy ? If a breeze comes along how would it
affect such a heavy, broad leaf on such a slender, thin petiole? Blow
against the leaves and see how they move? Do you understand, now, why
they twinkle ? Can you see why the leaves shed smoke and dust, when used
for shading city streets?

8. Why is the cottonwood used as a shade tree? Do you think it
makes a beautiful shade tree? How long does it take it to grow? What
kind of wood does it produce ? For what is it used ?

Supplementary reading — Trees in Prose and Poetry, pp. 139-149.

The growing fruit of the cottonwood.
Photo by Cyrus Crosby

774

Handbook of Nature-Study

Pistillate blossoms of white ash.
Photo by G. P. Morgan.

THE WHITE ASH
Teacher's Story

YTHS and legends cluster about the ash tree.
It was, in the Norse mythology, the tree
“Igdrasil,” the tree of the universe, which was
the origin of all things. It is a pity that it
was not the Tree of Life in the Garden of
Eden, for if another myth is true, no snake will
go near it or cross its branches. There is a
widespread belief that it draws lightning, just
as the beech repels the thunderbolts. “As
straight as a white ash tree” was the highest
compliment that could be paid to the young
pioneer; so straight is its fiber and so strong
its quality, that the American Indians made their canoe paddles from it.

The ashes have the most beautiful bark in the world. It is divided into
fine, vertical ridges, giving the trunks the look of being shaded with pencil

1 ree Study

775

lines; the bark smooths out on the lower branches. But even more
characteristic than the bark, are the ash branches and twigs ; the latter are
sparse, coarse and clumsy, those of the white ash being pale orange or gray
and seemingly warped into curves at the ends; they are covered with
whitish gray dots, which reveal themselves under the lens to be breathing-
pores.

The white ash loves to grow in rich woods or in rich soil anywhere, even
though it be shallow; at its best, it reaches the height of 130 feet, with a
trunk six feet through. Its foliage is peculiarly graceful; the leaves are
from eight to twelve inches long and are composed of from five to nine
leaflets. The leaflets have little petioles connecting them with the middle
stem ; in shape they are ovate with edges obscurely toothed or entire ; the
two basal leaflets are smaller than the others and the end one largest ; in
texture, they are satiny, dark green above, whitish beneath, with feather-
like veins, often hairy on the lower side. The petioles are swollen at the
base. The leaves are set opposite upon the twig ; except the horsechestnut,
the ashes are our only trees with compound leaves which have the leaves
opposite. This character alone readily distinguishes the ashes from the
hickories. The autumn foliage has a very peculiar color; the leaves are
dull purple above and pale yellow below ; this brings the sunshine color into
the shadowy parts of the tree, and gives a curious effect of no perspective.
Notwithstanding this, the autumn coloring is a joy to the artistic eye and is
very characteristic.

The seeds of the ash are borne in crowded clusters; the delicate stem,
from three to five inches long, is branched into smaller stems to which are
joined two or three keys, and often several of these main stems come from
the same bud at the tip of last year’s wood so that they seem crowded.
The seed is winged, the wing being
almost twice as long as the seed
set at its base. Thoreau says:

“The keys of the white ash cover
the trees profusely, a sort of mul-
berry brown, an inch and a half
long, and handsome . ’ ’ The seeds
cling persistently to the tree,
and I have often observed them
being blown over the surface of
the snow as if they were skating
to a planting place.

The flowers appear in April or
May, before the leaves. The
pistillate flowers make an untidy
fringe, curling in every direction
around the twigs. The chief
flower stem is three to four inches
long, quite stout, pale green, and
from this arise short, fringed
stems, each carrying along its
sides the knobs on little stems — \
which are the pistillate flowers.

Each, tiny flower^ seems to be g0ie 0j ash showing the beautiful bark .
bristling with individuality , stand- Photo by Ralph Curtis.

Handbook of N atur e-Study

776

ing off at its own angle to get its own pollen. The flower has the calyx
four-lobed; the style is long and slender and is divided into a V-shaped
purple stigma.

The staminate flowers appear early in the spring, and look like knobs on
the tips of the coarse, sparse twigs;, they consist of masses of thick, green
anthers with very short, stout filaments; each calyx is four-lobed.

Staminate blossoms of white ash.
Photo by G. F. Morgan.

These flowers are attached to a five-branching stem ; but the stem and its
branches cannot be seen unless the anthers are plucked off, because they
hang in such a crowded mass. Later the leaves come out beyond them.

The leaf buds in winter are very pretty; they are white, bluntly
pointed, with a pale gray half-circle below, on which was set last year’s
leaf. Another one of nature’s miracles is the bouquet of leaves coming
from one of the big four-parted terminal buds, which is made up of four
scales, two of which are longer and narrower than the others. Within the
bud each little compound leaflet is folded like a sheet of paper lengthwise,
and folded with the other leaflets like the leaves of a book; and when
they first appear they look like tiny, scrawny, birds’ claws. But it is

Tree Study

777

not merely one pair of leaves that comes from this bud, but many, each
pair being set on a twig opposite and at right angles to the next pair on
either side. Even as many as five pairs of these splendid compound
leaves come from this one prolific bud. As they push out, the green stem
of the new wood grows, thus spacing the pairs properly for the making
of beautiful foliage.

LESSON CXCVIII
Ash Trees

Leading thought — The ashes are our most valuable timber trees; the
white ash is one of the most beautiful and useful of them all. It does not
make forests, but it grows in them, and its wood is of great value for many
things.

Method — The pupils should all see the tree where it grows. The ques-
tions should be given to them for their field note-books. The lesson should
begin in the fall and be continued in the spring.

Observations — i. What is there about the bark of the ash tree which
distinguishes it from other trees ? Where does the white ash grow ? What
is the height and thickness of the ash tree you are studying ?

2 . The ash leaf is a compound leaf ; of how many leaflets is it composed ?
What is the texture and shape of the leaflets? Describe the veins. Do
the leaflets have petioles (petiolules) ? Are the edges of the leaflets toothed ?
Which of the leaflets is largest? Which smallest? Is the petiole swollen
at the base? How are the leaves arranged on the twigs? How does this
distinguish the ashes from all other of our trees having compound leaves?
How do the hickories have their leaves arranged ? What color is the ash
foliage in autumn?

3 . Describe the seeds of the ash and the way they are arranged on their
stems. Where are they placed on the tree? How long do they cling?
How does the snow help to scatter them?

4. When does the white ash blossom ? Are the pistillate and staminate
flowers together or separate? Find and describe them.

5. What are our uses for ash timber? For what are the saplings used?
How did the Indians use the white ash? Write a theme on all the interest-
ing things you can find about the ash trees.

6. How many species of the ash trees do you know ?

Supplementary reading — Trees in Prose and Poetry, pp. 60-71.

UI care not how men trace their ancestry ,

To ape or Adam; let them please their whim;

But I in June am midway to believe
A tree among my far progenitors,

Such sympathy is mine with all the race ,

Such mutual recognition vaguely sweet
There is between us. Surely there are times
When they consent to own me of their kin.

And condescend to me and call me cousin, -
Murmuring faint lullabies of eldest time,

Forgotten, and yet dumbly felt with thrills
Moving the lips, though fruitless of the words.”

— From “Under the Willows,” Lowell.

77»

Handbook of Nature-Study

A baldwin apple tree.

THE APPLE TREE
Teacher's Story

As the apple tree among the trees of the wood , so is my beloved among the sons. I sat
down under his shadow with great delight, and his fruit was sweet to my taste.

— The Song of Solomon.

N old-fashioned orchard is always a delight to those of us
if who love the picturesque. The venerable apple tree with

0$ its great twisted and gnarled branches, rearing aloft its

rounded head, and casting its shadow on the green turf
below, is a picture well worthy of the artist’s brush.
And that is the kind of orchard I should always have,
because it suits me, just as it does bluebirds, downies
and chickadees, as a place to live in. However, if I
wished to make money by selling apples, I should
need to have an orchard of comparatively young trees,
which should be straight and well pruned, and the ground beneath them
well cultivated; for there is no plant that responds more generously to
cultivation than does the apple tree. In such an orchard, a few annual
crops might be grown while the trees were young, and each year there
should be planted in August or September the seed of crimson clover or of
some other good cover-crop. This would grow so as to protect the ground
from washing during the heavy rains and thaws of fall and winter, and in
the spring it would be plowed under to add more humus to the soil.

Tree Study

779

The apple originally came from southwestern Asia and the neighboring
parts of Europe, but it has been cultivated so long that we have no accounts
of how it began. The prehistoric lake-dwellers of Switzerland ate this
fruit. In this country the apple thrives best on clay loam, although it
grows on a great variety of soils ; where wheat and corn grow, there will the
apple also grow. In general, the shape of the apple tree head is rounded or
broadly pyramidal; however, this differs somewhat with varieties. The
trunk is short and rather stocky, the bark is a beautiful soft gray and is
decidedly scaly, flaking off in pieces which are more or less quadrangular.
The wood is very fine-grained and heavy. On this account for many years
it was used for wood-engraving and is also a favorite wood for wood-
carving ; it makes a most excellent fuel. The spray is fine, and while at the
tips of the limbs it may be drooping or horizontal, it often grows erect along
the upper sides of the limbs, each shoot looking as if it were determined to
be a tree in itself. The leaves are oval, with toothed edges and long
petioles. When the leaves first appear each has two stipules at its base.
The shape of the apple leaves depends to some extent upon the variety of
the apple.

It has long been the practice not to depend upon the seeds for reproduc-
ing a variety; for, since the bees do such a large work in pollenating the
apple flowers, it would be quite difficult to be sure that a seed would not be
a result of a cross between two varieties. Therefore, the matter is made
certain by the process of grafting or budding. There are several modes of
grafting, but perhaps the one in most common use is the cleft-graft. A

One-half natural size.

Cleft-graft.

Scion for cleft-
grafting.
One-half natural
size.

The graft waxed.

780

Handbook of Nature-Study

scion which is a twig bearing several buds, is cut from a tree of the desired
variety, and its lower end is cut wedge-shaped. The branch of the tree to
be grafted is cut off across and split down through the end to the depth of
about two inches ; the wedge-shaped end of the scion is pressed into this cleft,
so that its bark will come in contact with the inner edge of the bark on one
side of the cleft branch. The reason for this is that the growing part of the
tree is the cambium layer, which is just inside of the bark, and if the cam-
bium of the scion does not come in contact with the cambium of the branch
they will not grow together. After the graft becomes well-established, the
other branches of the tree are cut off and the tree produces apples only from
that part of it which grows from the graft. After the scion has been set in
the stock, all of the wounded parts are covered with grafting wax, which
keeps in the moisture and keeps out disease germs.

the bud. One-half natural

One-half natural size.. size. The bud tied.

Budding is done on a similar principle, but in a different fashion. A
seedling apple tree about a year and a half old has a T-shaped slit cut into
its bark; into this suture a bud, cut from a tree of the desired variety is
inserted, and is bound in with yarn. The next spring this tree is cut back
to just above the place where the bud was set in, and this bud-shoot grows
several feet; the next year the tree may be sold to the orchardist. Budding
is done on a large scale in the nurseries, for it is by this method that the
different varieties are placed on the market.

Most varieties of apple trees should be set forty feet apart each way. It
is possible, if done judiciously, to raise some small crops on the land with
the young orchard, but care should be taken that they do not rob the trees
of their rightful food. The dwarf varieties begin to bear much sooner than
the others, but an orchard does not come into full bearing until after it has
been planted fifteen or twenty years, The present practice is to prune a
tree so that the trunk shall be very short. This makes the picking of the
fruit much easier and also exposes the tree less to wind and sun-scald.

There are certain underlying principles of pruning that every child
should know: The pruning of the root cuts down the amount of food
which the tree is able to get from the soil. The pruning of the top throws
the food into the branches which are left and makes them more vigorous.
If the buds at the tips of the twigs are pruned off, the food is forced into the
side buds and into the fruit, which make greater growth. Thinning the

Tree Study

781

branches allows more light to reach down into the tree, and gives greater
vigor to the branches which are left. A limb should be pruned off smoothly
where it joins the larger limb, and there should be no stump projecting; the
wound should be painted so as not to allow fungus spores to enter.

We should not forget that we have a native apple, which we know as the
thornapple. Its low, broad head in winter makes a picturesque point along
the fences; its fine, thick spray, spread horizontally, makes a fit framework
for the bridal bouquet which will grow upon it in June; and it is scarcely
less beautiful in autumn, when covered with the little, red apples called
“haws.” Though we may refrain from eating these native apples, which
consist of a bit of sweet pulp around large seeds, the codling-moth finds
them most acceptable

LESSON CXCIX
The Apple Tree

Leading thought — The tree of each variety of apple has its own character-
istic shape, although all apple trees belong to one general type. The variety
of the apple grown upon the tree is not determined by the kind of seed
which is planted to produce the tree, but by the process of grafting or
budding the young tree.

Method — A visit to a large, well-grown orchard in spring or autumn will
aid in making this work interesting. Any apple tree near at hand may be
used for the lesson.

Observations — 1. How tall is the largest apple tree you know? What
variety is it ? How old is it ? How can you distinguish old apple trees
from young ones at a glance ?

2. Choose a tree for study: How thick is its trunk? What is the
shape of its head? Does the trunk divide into large branches or does it
extend up through the center of the head?

3. What sort of bark has it ? What is the color of the bark?

4. Does the spray stand erect or is it gnarled and querly? Does the
spray grow simply at the ends of the branches or along the sides of the
branches?

5. Are the leaves borne at the tip of the spray? Are the leaves oppo-
site or alternate ? Describe or sketch an apple leaf. Does it have stipules
at its base when it first appears ?

6 . What is the character of apple-tree wood ? What is it used for ?

7 . Did this tree come from a seed borne in an apple of the same variety
which it produces? What is the purpose of grafting a tree? What is a
scion? How and why do we choose a scion? How do we prepare a
branch to receive the scion? If you should place the scion at the center of
the branch would it grow? Where must it be placed in order to grow?
How do we protect the cut-end of the branch after it is grafted? Why?

8. What is meant by the term “budding?” What is the difference
between grafting and budding? Describe the process of budding.

9. Where is budding done on a large scale ? How do nurserymen know
what special varieties of apples their nursery stock will bear ? How old is a
tree when it is budded? How old when it is sold to the orchardist?

10. Why should the soil around apple trees be tilled? Is this the prac-
tice in the best-paying orchards?

11. What is often used as a cover crop in orchards? When is this
planted? For what purpose?

782

Handbook of Nature-Study

12. How far apart should apple trees be set? How may the land be
utilized while the trees are growing? How old must the apple tree be to
come into bearing?

13 . Is the practice now to allow an apple tree to grow tall ? Why is an
apple tree with a short trunk better?

14. What does it do to a tree to prune its roots? What does it do to a
tree to prune its branches ?

15. How does it affect a tree to prune the buds at the tips of the twigs ?

16. How does it affect a tree to thin the branches? Describe how a
limb should be pruned and how the wound thus made should be treated.
Why?

HOW AN APPLE GROWS
Teacher's Story

An apple tree in full blossom is a beauti-
ful sight. If we try to analyze its beauty we
find that on the tip of each twig there is a
cluster of blossoms, and set around them, as
in a conventional bouquet, are the pale, soft,
downy leaves. These leaves and blossoms
come from the terminal winter buds, which
are protected during winter by little scales
which are more or less downy. With the
bursting of the bud, these scales fall off, each
one leaving its mark crosswise on the twig,
marking the end of the year’s growth; these
little ridges close together and in groups mark
the winters which the twig has experienced, and thus reveal its age.

There is a difference in varieties of apples and in the season as to whether
the blossoms or the leaves push out first. The white, downy leaves at first
have two narrow stipules at the base of their petioles. They are soft,
whitish and fuzzy, as are also the flower stem and the calyx, which holds
fast in its slender, pointed lobes the globular flower bud. We speak of the
lobes of the calyx because they are joined at the base, and are not entirely
separate as are sepals. The basal part of the calyx is cup-shaped, and upon
its rim are set the large, oval petals, each narrowing to a slender stem at its
base. The petals are set between the sepals or lobes of the calyx, the latter
appearing as a beautiful, pale green, five-pointed star at the bottom of the
flower. The petals are pink on the outside and white on the inside, and are
veined from base to edge like a leaf ; they are crumpled more than are the
cherry petals.

The many pale, greenish white stamens of different lengths and heights
stand up like a column . at the center of the flower. They are tipped with
pale yellow anthers, and are attached to the rim of the calyx-cup. They
are really attached in ten different groups but this is not easy to see.

The five pale green styles are very silky and downy and are tipped with
green stigmas. The pistils all unite at their bases making a five-lobed,
compound ovary. The upper part of this ovary may be seen above the
calyx-cup, but the lower portion is grown fast to it and is hidden within it.
The calyx-cup is what develops into the pulp of the apple, and each of these

Tree Study

783

pistils becomes one of the five cells in the apple core. If one of the stigmas
does not receive pollen, its ovary will develop no seed; this often makes the
apple lop-sided. When the petals first fall, the calyx-lobes are spread wide
apart ; later they close in toward the center, making a tube. T o note exactly
the time of this change is important; since the time of spraying for the
codling moth is before the calyx-lobes close. These lobes may be seen in
any ripe apple as five little, wrinkled scales at the blossom end ; within them
may be seen the dried and wrinkled stamens, and within the circle of
stamens, the sere and blackened styles.

Just ready to spray. A pear and two apples from which the petals
have recently fallen and with calyx lobes widely spread.

Photo by M. V. Slingerland.

There may be five or six, or even more blossoms developed from one
winter bud, and there may be as many leaves encircling them, forming a
bouquet at the tip of the twig. However, rarely more than two of these
blossoms develop into fruit, and the fruit is much better when only one
blossom of the bouquet produces an apple ; if a tree bears too many apples
it cannot perfect them.

The blossoms and fruit are always at the end of the twigs and spurs of
the apple tree, and do not grow along the sides of the branches as do the
cherry and the peach. However, there are many buds which produce only
leaves; and just at the side and below the spur, where the apple is borne, a
bud is developed, which pushes on and continues the growth of the twig,
and will in turn be a spur and bear blossoms the following year.

784

Handbook of Nature-Study

Apple blossoms.
Photo by Verne Morton.

LESSON CC
How an Apple Grows

Leading thought — The purpose of the apple blossom is to produce apples
which shall contain seeds to grow into more apple trees.

Method — This lesson should begin with the apple blossoms in the spring
and should continue, with occasional observations, until the apples are well
grown. If this is not possible, the blossom may be studied, and directly
afterward, the apple may be observed carefully, noting its relation to the
blossom.

The Apple Blossom

Observations — 1. How are the apple buds protected in the winter? As
the buds open what becomes of the protecting scales? Can you see the
scars left by the scales after they have fallen. How does this help us to tell
the age of a twig or branch?

2. As the winter buds open, which appear first — the flowers or the
leaves ? Do they both come from the same bud ? Do all the buds produce
both flowers and leaves ?

3. Study the bud of the apple blossom. Describe its stem ; its stipules;
its calyx. What is the shape and position of the lobes, or sepals, of the
calyx? Why do we usually call them the “lobes of the calyx” instead of
sepals?

4. Sketch or describe an open apple blossom. How many petals?
What is their shape and arrangement? Can you see the calyx-lobes
between the petals as you look down into the blossom? What sort of a
figure do they make ? Are the petals usually cup-shaped ? What is their
color outside and inside ? Why do the buds seem so pink and the blossoms
so white? ,

5. How many stamens are there? Are they all of the same length?
What is the color of the filaments and anthers? On what are they set?

6. How many pistils do you see? How many stigmas are there? Are
the ovaries united ? Are they attached to the calyx ?

Tree Study

785

7. Describe the young leaves as they appear around the blossoms.
What is their color? Have they any stipules? Why do they make the
flowers look like a bouquet ?

8. After the petals fall, what of the blossom remains? What part
develops into the apple? Does this part enclose the ovaries of the
pistils ? How can you tell in the ripe apple if any stigma failed to receive
pollen ?

9. What is the position of the calyx-lobes directly after the petals fall?
Do they change later ? How does this affect spraying for the codling moth ?

10. Watch an apple develop; look at it once a week and tell what
parts of the blossom remain with the apple.

il How many blossoms come from one winter bud? How many
leaves? Do the blossoms ever appear along the sides of the branches, as in
the cherries ? How many blossoms from a single bud develop into apples ?

12. Since the apple is developed on the tip of the twig how does the
twig keep on growing?

1 3 . Compare the apple with the pear, the plum, the cherry and the peach
in the following particulars; position on the twigs; number of petals;
number and color of stamens; number of pistils; whether the pistils are
attached to the calyx-cup at the base.

THE APPLE
Teacher's Story

“Man fell with apples and with apples rose ,

If this be true; for we must deem the mode
In which Sir Isaac Newton could disclose,

Through the then unpaved stars, the turnpike road,

A thing to counterbalance human woes.” — Byron.

PLES seem to have played a very important
part in human history, and from the first had
much effect upon human destiny, judging from
the trouble that ensued both to Adam and to
Helen of Troy from meddling, even though
indirectly, with this much esteemed fruit. It
is surely no more than just to humanity — shut
out from the Garden of Eden — that the apple
should have led Sir Isaac Newton to discover
the law which holds us in the universe; and
that, in these later centuries, apples have been
developed, so beautiful and so luscious as almost
to reconcile us to the closing of the gates of Paradise.

While it is true that no two apples were ever exactly alike, any more than
any two leaves, yet their shapes are often very characteristic of the varie-
ties. From the big, round Baldwin to the cone-shaped gillyflower, each has
its own peculiar form, and also its own colors and markings and its own
texture and flavor. Some ha^e tough skins, others bruise readily even with
careful handling; but to all kinds, the skin is an armor against those ever-
present foes, the fungus spores, myriads of which are floating in the air

786

Handbook of Nature-Study

ready to enter the smallest breach, and by their growth bring about decay.
Even the tip of a branch or twig swayed by the wind, may bruise an apple
and cause it to rot ; windfalls are always bruised and will not keep. Greater
care in packing, wrapping, picking and storing, so as to avoid contact with
other apples, is a paying investment of labor to the apple grower.

The cavities at the stem and basin-ends of the fruit are also likely to
have, in the same variety, a likeness in their depth or shallowness, and thus
prove a help in identifying an apple. At the blossom, or basin, end of the
fruit may be seen five scales, which are all that remain of the calyx-lobes
which enclosed the blossom; and within them are the withered and
shrunken stamens and styles.

When the fruit is cut, we see that the inner parts differ as much in the
different varieties as do the outer parts. Some have large cores, others

e, carpels; f, outer core-lines, terminating at a point where stamens are attached; g,
fibres extending from stem to basin. Transverse section of apple showing the five car-
pels and the ten outer core-lines.

small. The carpels, or seed-cells, are five in number, and when the fruit is
cut across through the center these carpels show as a pretty, five-pointed
star; in them the seeds lie, all pointing toward the stem. Some apples
have both seeds and carpels smooth and shining, while in others they are
tufted with a soft, fuzzy outgrowth. The number of seeds in each cell
varies; the usual number is two. In case a carpel is empty, the apple is
often lopsided, and this signifies that the stigma of that ovary received no
pollen. The apple seed is oval, plump and pointed, with an outer shell, and
a delicate inner skin covering the white meat; this separates readily into
two parts, between which, at the point, may be seen the germ. The entire
core, with the pulp immediately surrounding the seed cells, is marked off
from the rest of the pulp by the core-lines, faint in some varieties but dis-
tinct in others. In our native crab-apples this separation is so complete
that, when the fruit is ripe, the core may be plucked out leaving a globular
cavity at the center of the apple.

Extending from the stem to the basin, through the center of the apple,
is a bundle of fibers, five in number, each attached to the inner edge of a

Tree Study

787

carpel, or seed-box. Other bundles of fibers pass through the flesh about
half way between the core and the skin. Delicate as they are, so that no
one observes them in eating the fruit, they show clearly as a second core-
line, and each terminates at a point in the calyx-tube where the stamens
were attached — as can be easily seen by dissecting an apple. In transverse
section, these show as ten faint dots placed opposite each outer point and
inner angle of the star at the center formed by the carpels. Sometimes the
seed-cells are very close to the stem, and the apple is said to have a sessile
core; if at the center of the fruit, it has a medium core; if nearest to the
blossom end, it has a distant core. This position of the core marks different
varieties.

Basket of apples.

Apples evefi of the same variety, differ much in yield and quality
according to the soil and climate in which they grow. The snow apple
grows best in the St. Lawrence Valley, and New York State is noted for the
fine flavor of the Esopus spitzenburg, the northern spy, and the Newtown
pippin, all of which originated and grow best within its boundaries. Thus,
each locality has its favorite variety.

Too often in passing through the country, we see neglected and unprof-
itable orchards, with soil untilled, the trees unpruned and scale- infested,
yielding scanty fruit, fit only for the cider mill and the vinegar barrel.
This kind of orchard must pass away and give place to the new horticulture.

References — Popular Apple Growing, Green; The American Apple
Orchard, Waugh; The Apple and How to Grow It, Farmers’ Bulletin 113,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

LESSON CCI
The Apple

Leading thought — The apple is a nutritious fruit, wholesome and easily
digested. The varieties of apple differ in shape, size, color, texture and
flavor. A perfect apple hasi no bruise upon it and no worm-holes in it.

788

Handbook of Nature-Study

Method — Typical blossoms of different varieties of apples should be
brought into the schoolroom, where the pupils may closely observe and make
notes about their appearance. Each pupil should have one or two apples
that may be cut in vertical and transverse sections, so that the pulp, core-
lines, carpels and seeds may be observed. After this lesson there should be
an apple exhibit, and the pupils should be taught how to score the apples
according to size, shape, color, flavor and texture.

Observations — i . Sketch the shape of your apple. Is it almost spheri-
cal, or flattened, or long and egg-shaped, or with unequal tapering sides?
How does the shape of the apple help in determining its variety?

2. What is the color of the skin? Is it varied by streaks, freckles or
blotches ? Has it one blushing cheek the rest being of a different color ?

3 . Is the stem thick and fleshy, or short and knobby, or slender and
woody and long? Does each variety have a characteristic stem?

4. Is the cavity or depression where the stem grew narrow and deep
like a tunnel, or shallow like a saucer?

5. Examine the blossom end, or basin. What is its shape? Can you
find within it the remnants of the calyx-lobes, the stamens and the pistils of
the flower ?

6. What is the texture of the skin of the apple ? Is it thin, tough, waxy
or oily? Has it a bloom that may be rubbed off? From what sort of
injury does the skin protect the apple?

Experiment 1. Take three apples of equal soundness and peel one of
them ; place them on a shelf. Place one of the unpeeled apples against the
peeled one, and the other a little distance from it. Does the peeled apple
begin to rot before the other two ? Does the unpeeled apple touching the
peeled one begin to decay first at the point of contact ?

Experiment 2. Take an apple with a smooth, unblemished skin and
vaccinate it with some juice from an apple that has begun to decay; per-
form the operation with a pin or needle, pricking first the unsound fruit and
then the sound one ; this may be done in patterns around the apple or with
the initials of the operator’s name. Where does this apple begin to decay ?
What should these two experiments teach us as to the care and storage of
fruit ?

7 . Cut an apple through its center from stem to blossom end. Describe
the color, texture and taste of the pulp. Is it coarse or fine-grained?
Crisp or smooth? Juicy, or dry and mealy? Sweet or sour? Does it
exhale a fragrance or have a spicy flavor?

8. Is the flesh immediately surrounding the core separated from the
rest of the pulp by a line more or less distinct? This is called the core-line
and differs in size and outline in different varieties. Can you find any
connection between the stem and blossom ends and the core ? Can you see
the fibrous threads which connect them?

9. Cut an apple transversely across the middle. In what shape are
the seed-cells arranged in the center? Do the carpels, or seed-cells, vary
in shape in different varieties? Are they closed, or do they all open into a
common cavity ? Can you see, between the core-lines and the skin, faint
little dots? Count, and tell how they are arranged in relation to the star
formed by the core.

10. The stiff, parchment-like walls of the seed-cells are called carpels
How many of these does the apple contain? Do all apples have the same
number of carpels ? Are the carpels of all varieties smooth and glossy, or

Tree Study

789'

velvety? How many seeds do you find in a carpel ? Do they lie with the
points toward the stem-end or the blossom-end of the apple? Where are
they attached to the apple ? Describe the apple seed — its outer and inner
coat and its “meat.” Gan you find the germ within it which will, after the
seed is planted, produce another apple tree?

11. Is the core at the center of the apple, or is it nearer to the stem-end
or to the blossom-end of the fruit? Are all apples alike in this particular?

1 2 . Describe fully all the varieties of apples which you know, giving the
average size, texture and color of the skin, the shape of the cavities at the
stem and blossom ends, the color, texture and flavor of the pulp, and the
position within the apple of the core.

Supplementary reading — Trees in Prose and Poetry, pp. 43-59.

THE PINE
Teacher's Story

NE other of our native trees is more beautiful than
the pine. In the East, we have the white pine with
its fine-tasselled foliage, growing often 150 to 200
feet in height and reaching an age of from two to
three hundred years. On the Pacific coast, the
splendid sugar pine lifts its straight trunk from two
to three hundred feet in height; and although the
trunk may be from six to ten feet in diameter yet it
looks slender, so tall is the tree. A sugar pine cone
on my desk measures 2 2 inches in length and weighs
almost one pound, although it is dried and emptied of seed.

There is something majestic about the pines, which even the most
ignorant feel. Their dark foliage outlined against wintry skies appeals to
the imagination, and well it may, for it represents an ancient tree-costume.
The pines are among the most ancient of trees, and were the contemporaries
of those plants which were put to sleep, during the Devonian age, in the coal
beds. It is because the pines and the other evergreens belong essentially to
earlier ages, when the climate was far different than it is to-day, that they
do not shed their leaves like the more recent, deciduous trees. They stand
among us, representatives of an ancient race, and wrap their green foliage
about them as an Indian sachem does his blanket, in calm disregard of
modem fashion of attire.

All cone-bearing trees have typically a central stem from which the
branches come off in whorls, but so many things have happened to the old
pine trees that the evidence of the whorls is not very plain; the young trees
show this method of growth clearly, the white pine having five branches in
each whorl.' Sometimes pines are seen which have two or three stems near
the top ; but this is a story of injury to the tree and its later victory.

The very tip of the central stem in the evergreens is called “the leader,*
because it leads the growth of the tree upward; it stretches up from the
center of the whorl of last year’s young branches, and there at its tip are the
buds which produce this year’s branches. There is a little beetle which
seems possessed of evil, for it likes best of all to lay its rascally eggs in the
very tip of this leader; the grub, after hatching, feeds upon the bud and
bores down into the shoot, killing it. Then comes the question of which

790

Handbook of Nature-Study

branch of the tipper
whorl shall be elected
to rise up and take the
place of the dead leader ;
but this is an election
which we know less
about than we do of
those resulting from
our blanket ballots.
Whether the tree
chooses, or whether the
branches aspire, we may
not know; but we do
know that one branch
of this upper whorl
arises and continues the
growth of the tree.
Sometimes there are
two candidates for this
position, and they each
make such a good strug-
gle for the place that
the tree grows on with
two stems instead of
one — and sometimes

with even three. This
evil insect injures the
leaders of other conifers
also, but these are less
likely to allow two
competitors to take the
place of the dead leader.

The lower branches
of many of the pines
come off almost at right
angles from the bole;
the foliage is borne above the branches, which gives the pines a very
different appearance from that of other trees. The foliage of most of
the pines is dark green, looking almost black in winter ; the pitch pine
has the foliage yellowish green, and the white pine, bluish green; each
species has its own peculiar shade. There is great variation in the color
and form of the bark of different species. The white pine has nearly
smooth bark on the young trees, but on the older ones it has ridges that are
rather broad, flat and scaly, separated by shallow sutures, while the
pitch pine has its bark in scales like the covering of a giant alligator.

The foliage of the pine consists of pine needles set in little bundles on
raised points which look like little brackets along the twigs. When the pine
needles are young, the bundle is enclosed in a sheath making the twig look
as if it were covered with pin-feathers. In many of the species this sheath
remains, encasing the base of the bundle of needles ; but in the white pine it
is shed early. The number of leaves in the bundle helps to determine the
tree ; the white pine has five needles in each bunch, the pitch pine has three,

The young and the mature cones of white pine.
Photo by Ralph Curtis.

Tree Study

791

while the Austrian pine has two.

There is a great difference in the
length and the color of the needles
of different species of pine. Those
of the white pine are soft, delicate
and pliable, and from three to
four inches in length; the needles

of the pitch pine are stiff and ^4 pari 0f a necklace of pitch pine needles.
coarse and about the same length;

the white pine needles are triangular in section, and are set so as to form dis-
tinct tassels, while those of the Austrian pine simply clothe the ends of the
twigs . The needles of the pine act like the strings of an aeolian harp ; and the
wind, in passing through the tree, sets them into vibration, making a sighing
sound which seems to the listener like the voice of the tree. Therefore, the
pine is the most companionable of all our trees and, to one who observes
them closely, each tree has its own tones and whispers a different story.

The appearance of the unripe cone is another convincing evidence that
mathematics is the basis of the beautiful. -The pattern of the overlapping

Austrian pine in blossom showing staminate flowers.
Photo by G. F. Morgan.

792

Handbook of Nature-Study

scales is intricate and yet regular — to appreciate it one needs to try to
sketch it. Beneath each scale, when it opens wide, we find nestled at its
base two little seeds in twin boxes; each provided with a little wing so that
it can sail off with the wind to find a plaoe to grow. The shape of the scales
of the cone is another distinguishing character of the pine, and sketching
the outside of scales from several different species of pine cones will develop
the pupils’ powers of observation; the tip of the scale may be thickened or
armed with a spine, and one wonders if these spines are for the purpose of
discouraging the squirrels from stealing the green seeds.

The pine cone requires two years for maturing ; the pistillate flower from
which it is developed is a tiny cone with each scale spread wide and standing
upright to catch the pollen for the tiny ovule nestled within it. The pis-
tillate flower of the white pine grows near the tip of the new twig, and is
pinkish in color. In the Austrian pine it is the merest pink dot at first, but
after a little shows itself to be a true cone with pink-purple scales, which
stand up very erect and makes a pretty object when viewed through a lens;
each scale is pink at its three-pointed tip, with pink wings just below, the
inner portions being pale green. The cone is set just beside the growing
tip of the twig, is pointed upward, and its sheath-scales are turned back
like chaff around its base.

In June when the new shoots of the pine twigs stand up like pale green
candles on a Christmas tree, at their bases may be found the staminate
catkins set in radiating whorls, making galaxies of golden stars against the

dark green back-
ground of foliage. In
the Austrian pine,
one of these pollen
catkins may be an
inch or two long and
a half -inch in width;
each little scale of
this cone is an anther
sac, filled to bursting
with yellow pollen.
From these starry
pollen cones there
descends a yellow
shower every time a
breeze passes; Dr
the pine trees depend
upon the wind to sift
their pollen dust into
the lifted cups of the
cone scales, which
will close upon the
treasure soon. The
pollen grains of pine
are very beautiful
when seen through a
microscope; and it
seems almost incredible that the masses of yellow dust sifted in showers
from the pines when in blossom, should be composed of these beautiful

T ree Study

793

Yellow pine on the brink of the Little Yosemite Valley.
Photo by G. K. Gilbert. Courtesy of U. S. Geological Survey.

structures. When the pine forests on the shores of the Great Lakes are in
bloom, the pollen covers the waves for miles out from the shores.

White pine.

If we examine the growing tips of the pine branches, we find the leaves
look callow and pin-feathery. The entire leaf is wrapped in a smooth,
shining, silken sheath, at the tip of which its green point protrudes. The
sheath is tough like parchment and is cylindrical because the pine needles

794

Handbook of Nature-Study

within it are perfectly adjusted one to another in cylindrical form. The
sheath is made up of several layers, one over the other, and may be pulled
apart. The new leaves are borne on the new, pale green wood.

The uses of pines are many. The lumber of many of the species, es-
pecially that of the white pine, is free from knots and is used for almost
everything from house-building to masts for ships. In the Southern States,
the long-leafed pines are tapped for resin, which is not the sap of the tree, as
is generally supposed. Pine sap is like other sap ; the resin is a product of
certain glands of the tree, and is of great use to it in closing wounds and
thus keeping out the spores of destructive fungi. It is this effort of the
tree to heal its wounds that makes it pour resin into the cuts made by the
turpentine gatherers. This resin is taken to a distillery, where the turpen-
tine is given off as a vapor and condensed in a coiled tube which is kept cold.
What is left is known as “rosin.”

The mountain pine of the Sierras.

This species stands upright normally and is often over one hundred feet high; but on the mountain
tops, exposed to wind and snow, its trunk reclines on the ground and its branches look like
shrubs, as shown in the foreground. Trees of the same species, wind-beaten
but standing are shown in the background.

Photo by G. K. Gilbert. Courtesy of the U. S. Geological Survey.

LESSON CCII
The Pine

Leading thought — The pines are among our most ancient trees. Their
foliage is evergreen but is shed gradually. The pollen-bearing and the
seed-bearing flowers are separate on the tree. The seeds are winged and
are developed in cones.

Tree Study

795

Method — At least one pine tree should be studied in the field. Any
species will do but the white pine is the most interesting. The Austrian
pine which is commonly planted in parks is a good subject. The leaves and
cones may be studied in the schoolroom, each pupil having a specimen.

Observations — i . What is the general shape of the pine tree ? Is there
one central stem running straight up through the center of the tree to the
top. Do you find any trees where this stem is divided into two or three
near the top? Describe how the pine tree grows. What is the “leader?”
What happens if the leader is injured? How do the topmost branches of
the young pine look ? Do they all come off from the same part of the stem ?
How many are there in a whorl ?

2. What color is the bark? Is it ridged or in scales?

3 . Do the branches come off the main stem at right angles or do they
lift up or droop down ? Where is the foliage borne on the branches ? What
is the color of the foliage? Is the pine foliage ever shed or does the pine
leaf, when it comes, stay on as long as the tree lives ?

4. Study the pine leaves. Why are they called needles? Note that
they grow several together in what we call a bundle. How many in one
bundle? Is the bundle enclosed in a little sheath at the base? Are the
bundles grouped to make distinct tassels ? Study one of the needles. How
long is it? Is it straight or curved? Flexible or coarse and stiff? Cut it
across and examine it with a lens. What is the outline in cross section?
Why does the wind make a moaning sound in the pines ?

5. Study a pine cone. Does it grow near the tip of
the branch or along the sides? Does it hang down or
stand out stiffly ? What is its length ? Sketch or describe
its general shape. Note that it is made up of short,
over-lapping scales. What pattern do the scales make as
they are set together? Describe or sketch one scale; has
it a thickened tip ? Is there a spine at the tip of the scale ?

6. Where in the cone are the seeds? Describe or
sketch a pine seed. How long is its wing? How is it
carried and planted? When the cone opens, how are the
seeds scattered ? What creatures feed upon the pine seed ?

7. Study the pine when in blossom, which is likely to
occur in June. This time is easily determined because
the air around the tree is then filled with the yellow pollen
dust. Study the pollen-bearing flower. Is it conelike in
form? Does it produce a great deal of pollen? If you
have a microscope, look at the pollen through a high
objective and describe it. How many of the pollen cat-
kins are clustered together? On what part of the twigs
are they borne? Where are the pistillate flowers which
are to form the young cones? How large are they and
how do they look at the time the pollen is flying ? Do they
point upward or droop downward ? Why ? Look beneath
the scales of a little cone with a lens and see if you can find
the flowers. What carries the pine pollen to the flowers in the cone?

8. Name all the uses for pine lumber that you know. Write an
English theme on how turpentine is produced from pines and the effect of
this industry upon pine forests. Where does resin appear on the pine?
Of what use is it to the tree? Do you think it is pine sap? What is the
difference between resin and rosin?

White pine cone.

796

Handbook of Nature-Study

9. How long do the pine trees live? Write a story of all that has
happened to your neighborhood since the pine tree which you have been
studying was planted.

10. Make the following drawings: A bundle of pine needles showing
the sheath and its attachment to the twig; the cone; the cone scale; the
seed. Sketch a pine tree.

Supplementary reading — Trees in Prose and Poetry, pp. 32, 151, 152;
The Spirit of the Pine, Bayard Taylor; To a Pine Tree, Lowell; Nature in
Verse, pp. 15, 288.

THE NORWAY SPRUCE
Teacher's Story

HE Norway spruce is a native of Europe, and we
find it in America the most satisfactory of all
spruces for ornamental planting; it lifts its
slender cone from almost every park and private
estate in our country, and is easily distinguished
from all other evergreens by the drooping, pen-
dant habit of its twigs, which seem to hang
down from the straight, uplifted branches. We
have spruces of our own— the black, the white
and the red spruces ; and it will add much to the
interest of this lesson for the pupils to read in
the tree and forestry books concerning these
American species. Chewing gum and spruce beer are the products of the
black and red spruce of our eastern forests. The Douglas spruce, which is
a fir and not a spruce, is also commonly planted as an ornamental tree, but

Slaminate blossoms and young cone of a Norway spruce
Photo by G. F. Morgan.

Tree Study 797

it is only at its best on the Pacific Coast, where it is one of the most magni-
ficent of trees.

The Norway spruce tree is in form a beautiful cone, slanting from its
slender tip to the ground, on which its lower drooping branches rest; the
upper branches come off at a narrower angle from the sturdy central stem
than do the widespreading lower branches. On the older trees, the twigs
hang like pendulous fringes from the branches, enabling them to shed the
snow more readily — a peculiarity which is of much use to the tree, because
it is a native of the snowy northern countries of Europe and also grows
successfully in the high altitudes of the Alps and other mountains. If we
stroke a spruce branch toward the tip, the hand slides smoothly over it ; but
brusn backward from the tip, and the hand is pricked by hundreds of the
sharp, bayonet-pointed leaves; this is another arrangement for letting the
snow slide off.

If we examine a twig of the present year’s growth, we can see on every
side of its brown stem the pointed leaves, each growing from a short ridge;
but the leaves on the lower side stretch out sidewise to get the light, and
those above lift up angularly. Perhaps the twig of last year’s growth has
shed its leaves which grew on the under side and thus failed to reach the
sun. The leaf of the spruce is curved, stiff, four-sided and ends in a sharp
point. It is dark yellowish above and lighter beneath and is set stiffly on
the twig. The winter buds for next year’s growth may be
seen at the tips of the twigs, covered with little, recurved,
brown scales quite flowerlike in form. In the balsam fir,
which is often planted with the Norway spruce, these buds
are varnished.

The cones are borne on the tips of the branches and
hang down. In color they are pale, wood-brown; they
are from four to six inches long, and are very conspicuous.

They are made up of broad scales that .are thin toward the
notched tips; they are set around the central stem in
spirals of five rows. If we follow one spiral around mark-
ing it with a winding string, it will prove to be the fifth
row above the place where we started. These manifold
spirals can be seen sometimes by looking into the tip end
of a cone. The cone has much resin on it, and is a very
safe box for seeds; but when it begins to open, squirrels
impatiently tear it to pieces, harvesting the seeds and
leaving a pile of cone-scales beneath the tree to tell of their
piracy. _ way spruce, show-

A Norway spruce m blossom is a beautiful sight; the ing that the spiral
little, wine-red pistillate cones are lifted upwards from the of the scales is in
tips of the twigs, while short, terminal branches are laden rows °f ftve'
with the pollen-bearing catkins, which are soft and cater- Ph°cr5by.yrus
pillarish, growing on soft, white stems from the base of
scales which enclosed and protected them during the winter; these catkins
are filled with the yellow dust. The young cones continue to stand
upright after the scales have closed on the pollen which has been sifted
by the wind to the ovules which they guard; and for some time they
remain most ornamentally purplish red. Before the cone is heavy enough
to bend from its own weight, it turns deliberately around and downward,
as if the act were a wilful deed, and then changes its color to green, ripening
into brown in the fall.

A cone of Nor-

798

Handbook of N ature-Study

The Norway spruce grows on the Alps abundantly, and like the youth
with the banner, “excelsior” is not only its motto but its scientific name,
{Pi. ea excelsa ) . Here it grows to the height of one hundred to one hundred
and fifty feet. Its wood is valuable and its pitch is marketed. In this
country, it is used chiefly for ornamental planting and for wind-breaks.

LESSON CCIII
The Norway Spruce

Leading thought — The
Norway spruce is one of the
most valuable of the trees
which have come to America
from Europe. It grows
naturally in high places and
in northern countries where
there is much snow ; its
drooping twigs cannot hold
a great burden of snow, and
thus it escapes being
crushed.

Method — This lesson
should begin in the autumn
when the cones are ripe.
The tree should be observed
by all of the pupils, and they
should bring in twigs and
cones for study in the
schoolroom. The lesson
should be taken up again
in May when the trees are
in blossom.

Observations — r. What
is the general shape of the
tree ? Do the lowter branches
come off at the same angle
as the upper? If un-
trimmed, what can you see of the trunk ? Do the lower branches rest upon
the ground ? What advantage would this be to the tree in winter ? Do the
twigs stand out, or droop from the branches ? Of what advantage is this in
case of heavy snow? What is the color of the foliage? Where did the
Norway spruce come from?

2. What is the color of the twig? How are the leaves set upon it?
Are there more leaves on the upper than on the under side of the twigs of
this year’s growth? Of last year’s growth? Brush your hand along a
branch toward the tip. Do the leaves prick? Brush from the tip back-
ward. Is the result the same ? Why is this angle of the leaves to the twig
a benefit during snowstorms?

3. Take a single leaf. What is its shape? How many sides has it?
Is it soft or stiff? Is it sharp at the tip? Describe the buds which are
forming for next year’s growth. Look along the twigs and see if you can
discover the scales of the bud which produced last year’s growth?

Tree Study

799

4. Where are 1 he cones borne ? How long does it take a cone to grow?
Is it heavy? Is there resin on it ? Note that the scales are set in a spiral
around the center of the cone. Wind a string around a cone following the
same row of scales. How many rows between those marked with a string?
Look into the tip of a cone and see the spiral arrangement. Sketch and
describe a cone-schle, paying special attention to the shape of the tip. Try
to tear a cone apart. Is this easily done? Hang a closed cone in a dry
place and note what happens.

5. Describe the seed, ics wings and where it is placed at the base of the
scale. How many seeds under each scale? When do the cones open of

6 themselves to scatter the seed? Do you observe squirrels tearing these
i apart to get the seed ?

6. The Norway spruce blossoms in May. Find the little flower which
will produce the cone, and describe it. What color is it ? Is it upright or
hanging down ? Do the scales turn toward the tip or backward ? Why is
this ? Where are the pollen-catkins borne ? How many of them arise from
the same place on the twig?" Can you see the little scales at the base of
each pistillate catkin ? What are they ? Are they very full of pollen ? Do
the insects carry the pollen for the Norway spruce, or does the wind sift it
over the pistillate blossoms ? After the pollen is shed, note if the scales of
the young cones close up. How long before the cones begin to droop ? Do
you think it is their weight which causes them to droop ?

7. What use do we make of the Norway spruce? What is it used for
in Europe ?

11 All outward wisdom yields to that within,

Whereof nor creed nor canon holds the key;

We only feel that we have ever been
And evermore shall be.

A nd thus I know, by memories unfurled
In rarer moods, and many a nameless sign,

That once in Time, and somewhere in the world ,

I was a towering pine.

Rooted upon a cape that overhung

The entrance to a mountain gorge; whereon

The wintry shade of a peak was flung,

Long after rise of sun.

There did I clutch the granite with firm feet ,

There shake my boughs above the roaring gulf,

When mountain whirlwinds through the passes beat,

A nd howled the mountain wolf.

There did I louder sing than all the floods
Whirled in white foam adown the precipice,

A nd the sharp sleet that stung the naked woods,

Answer with sullen hiss.

I held the eagle till the mountain mist

Rolled from the azure paths he came to soar,

And like a hunter, on my gnarled wrist
The dappled falcon bore."

■ — From “The Spirit of the Pine,” Bayard Taylor

White pine. Norway spruce

Pitch pine Hemlock

Tree Study 801

THE HEMLOCK
Teacher's Story

“ O'er lonely lakes that wild and nameless lie ,

Black , shaggy, vast and still as Barca's sands
A hemlock forest stands. Oh forest like a pall!

Oh hemlock of the wild , Oh brother of my soul
I love thy mantle black, thy shaggy bole.

Thy form grotesque, thy spreading arms of steel."

— Pattee.

N ITS prime, the hemlock is a magnificent tree.
It reaches the height of from sixty to one hun-
dred feet, is cone-shaped, its fine, dense foliage
and its drooping branches giving to its appear-
ance exquisite delicacy; and I have yet to see
elsewhere such graceful tree-spires as are the
hemlocks of the Sierras, albeit they have bend-
ing tips. However, an old hemlock becomes
very ragged and rugged in appearance; and
dying, it rears its wind-broken branches against
the sky, a gaunt figure of stark loneliness.

The hemlock branches are seldom broken by snow; they droop to let
the burden slide off. The bark is reddish, or sometimes gray, and
is furrowed into wide, scaly ridges. The foliage is a rich dark green,
but whitish when seen from below. The leaves of the hemlock are
really arranged in a spiral, but this is hard to demonstrate. They
look as though they were arranged in double rows along each side of the
little twig; but they are not in the same plane and there is usually a row of
short leaves on the upper side of the twig. The leaf is blunt at the tip and
has a little petiole of its own which distinguishes it from the leaves of any
other species of conifer; it is dark, glossy green above, pale green beneath,
marked with two white, lengthwise lines. In June, the tip of every twig
grows and puts forth new leaves which are greenish yellow in color, making
the tree very beautiful and giving it the appearance of blossoming. The
leaves are shed during the third year. The hemlock cones are small and
are borne on the tips of the twigs. The seeds are borne, two beneath each
scale, and they have wings nearly as large as the scale itself. Squirrels are
so fond of them that probably but few have an opportunity to try their
wings. The cones mature in one year, and usually fall in the spring. The
hemlock blossoms in May ; the pistillate flowers are very difficult to observe
as they are tiny and greenish and are placed at the tip of the twig. The
pollen-bearing flowers are little, yellowish balls on delicate, short stems,
borne along the sides of the twig.

Hemlock bark is rich in tannin and is used in great quantities for the
tanning of leather. The timber, which is coarse-grained, is stiff and is used
in framing buildings and for railroad ties; nails and spikes driven into it
cling with great tenacity and the wood does not split in nailing. Oil dis-
tilled from the leaves of hemlock is used as an antiseptic.

The dense foliage of the hemlock offers a shelter to birds of all kinds in
winter; even the partridges roost in the young trees. These young tree
often have branches drooping to the ground, making an evergreen tent

802

Handbook of Nature-Study

which forms a winter harbor for mice and other beasties. The seed-eating
birds which remain with us during the winter, feed upon the seeds; and as
the cones grow on the tips of the delicate twigs, the red squirrels display
their utmost powers as acrobats when gathering this, their favorite food.

LESSON CCIV
The Hemlock

Leading thought — This is one of the most common and useful and beauti-
ful of our evergreen trees. Its fine foliage makes it an efficient winter shel-
ter for birds

Method — Ask the children the questions and request them to make notes
on the hemlock trees of the neighborhood. The study of the leaves and the
cones may be made in the schoolroom.

Observations — i. Where does the hemlock tree grow in your neighbor-
hood? What is the general, shape of the tree? What sort of bark has it ?
How tall does it grow ? How are its branches arranged to shed the snow ?

2. What is the color of the foliage? How are the leaves arranged on
the twigs ? Are all the leaves of about the same size ? What is the position
of the smaller leaves ?

3 . Break off a leaf and describe its shape ; its petiole. Does the leaf of
any other evergreen have a petiole ? What is the color and marking of the
hemlock leaf above? Below? At what time of year are the new leaves
developed ? How does the hemlock tree look at this time ? Does the hem-
lock ever shed its leaves?

Tree Study

803

4. Are the hemlock cones borne on the tip of the twigs or along the
side ? How long does it take a cone to mature ? When does it fall ? How
many scales has it ? Where are the seeds borne ? How many seeds beneath
each scale? Describe and sketch a hemlock seed. How are the seeds
scattered ? Study the tree in May, and see if you can find the blossom ?

5. Make drawings of the following: The hemlock twig, showing the

arrangement of the leaves ; single leaf, enlarged; cone; cone scale; seed.

6. What creatures feed upon the hemlock seed? What birds find pro-
tection in the hemlock foliage in winter ?

7 . For what purposes is hemlock bark used ? What is the timber good
for? Is a nail easily pulled out from a hemlock board?

THE DOGWOOD
Teacher's Story

Through cloud rifts the sunlight is streaming in floods to far depths of the wood,
Retouching the velvet-leafed dogwood to crimson as vital as blood.

HERE is no prettier story among the flowers than
that of the bracts of the dogwood, and it is a
subject for investigation which any child can
work out for himself. I shall never forget the
thrill of triumph I experienced when I dis-
covered for myself the cause of the mysterious
dark notch at the tip of each great white bract,
which I had for years idly noticed. One day
my curiosity mastered my inertia, and I hunted
a tree over for a flower bud, for it was rather late in the season; finally I
was rewarded by finding the bracts in all stages of development.

The flowering dogwood forms its buds during the summer, and of course
they must have winter protection; therefore, they are wrapped in four,
close-clasping, purplish brown scales, one pair inside and one pair outside,
both thick and well fitted to protect the bunch of tiny flower buds at their
center. But when spring comes, these motherly bud-scales change their
duties, and by rapid growth become four beautiful white or pinkish bracts
calling aloud to all the insect world that here at their hearts is something
sweet. 1 For months they brood the flowers and then display them to an
admiring world. The artistic eye loves the little notch at the tip of the
bracts, even before it has read in it the story of winter protection, of which
it is an evidence.

The study of the flowers at the center is more interesting if aided by a
lens. Within each blossom can be seen its tube, set in the four-lobed calyx.
It has four slender petals curled back, its four chubby,
greenish yellow anthers set on filaments wh'ch lift them
up between the petals ; and at the center of all is the tiny
green pistil. There may be twenty, more or less, of
these perfect flowers in this tiny, greenish yellow bunch at
the center of the four great, flaring bracts. These flowers
do not open simultaneously, and the yellow buds and open Bhsscl%Znd bud o)
flowers are mingled together m the rosette. The calyx dogwood, enlarged.

804

Handbook of Nature-Study

shows better on the bud than on the open flower. It might be well to
explain to the pupils that a bract is simply a leaf in some other business
than that ordinarily performed by leaves.

The twigs have a beautiful, smooth bark, purplish brown above
and greenish below. The flowers grow at the tips of the twigs; and
the young leaves are just below the flowers and also at the tips of the
twigs. These twigs are spread and bent in a peculiar way, so that each
white flower-head may be seen by the admiring world and not be hidden
behind any of its neighbors. This habit makes this tree a favorite for plant-
ing, since it forms a mass of white bloom.

The flowers of dogwood.

Photo by Cyrus Crosby.

The dogwood banners unfurl before the flowers at their hearts open, and
they remain after the last flower has received within itself the gracious, vital
pollen which will enable it to mature into a beautiful berry. This long
period of bloom is another quality which adds to the value of the dogwood
as an ornamental tree. At the time the bracts fall, the curly petals also fall
out leaving the little calyx-tubes standing with style and stigma projecting
from their centers, making them look like a bunch of liliputian churns with
dashers. In autumn, the' foliage turns to a rich, purplish crimson — a most
satisfying color.

During the winter, the flowering dogwood, which renders our forests so
beautiful in early spring, may be readily recognized by its bark, which is
broken up into small scales and mottled like the skin of a serpent ; and on
the tips of its branches are the beautiful clusters of red berries, or speaking
more exactly, drupes. This fruit is oval, with a brilliant, shining, red,
pulpy covering which must be attractive to birds. At its tip it has a little
purple crown, in the center of which may be seen the remnant of the style,

1 ree Study

»o5

but this attractive outside covers a seed with a very thick, hard shell,
which is quite indigestible and fully able to protect, even from the attack of
the digestive juices of the bird’s stomach, the tender white kernel within it,
which includes the stored food and the embryo. There are in the North
two other common species of dogwood which have dark blue fruit.

LESSON CCV
The Dogwood

Leading thought — The petals are not the only means of attracting insects
to the flowers. Sometimes other parts of the plant are made into banners
to show insects where the nectar is to be found.

Method — Bring in a branch of the dogwood when it is in flower. The
branch should have upon it some flowers that are unopened. Study the
flower first, and ask the
pupils to discover for
themselves why the
great white bracts have
a notch in the tip. A
lens is a great help to
the interest in studying
these tiny flowers.

Observations — i.

What is there at the
center of the dogwood
flower? How do the
parts at the center look ?

Are they of the same
shape? Are some
opened and others not ?

Take a penknife and
cut out one that is
opened and describe it.

Can you see how many
petals this tiny flowei
has ? Describe its
calyx. How many sta-
mens has it? Can you
see the pistil ? If a flower has a calyx and stamens and a pistil, has it not all
that a flower needs?

2. How many of these flowers are there at the center of the dogwood
“blossom?” What color are they? Would they show off much if it were
not for the great white banners around them ? Do we not think of these
great white bracts as the dogwood flower ?

3 . Study one of these banners. What is its shape ? Are the four white
bracts the same shape and size? Make a sketch of these four bracts with
the bunch of flowers at the center. What is there peculiar about each one
of these white bracts. Why should this notch be there? Find one of the
flower-heads which is not yet opened and watch it develop, and then write
a little story of the work done in the winter for the flowers by these bracts
and the different work done by them in the spring, all for the sake of the
precious blossoms.

8o6

Handbook of Nature-Study

4. Sketch the bracts from below. Is one pair wider than the other?
Is the wider pair inside or outside? Why is this so?

5. Where are the flowers of the dogwood borne? How are the twigs
arranged so as to unfurl all the banners and not hide one behind another, so
that the whole tree is a mass of white ?

6 . While studying the flowers, study where the young leaves come from.
Can you still see the scales which protected the leaf buds ?

7. What kind of fruit develops from the dogwood blossoms? What
colors are its leaves in autumn?

THE VELVET, OR STAGHORN, SUMAC
Teacher's Story

The sumacs with flame leaves at half-mast , like wildfire spread over the glade;

A hove them, the crows on frayed pinions move northward in ragged parade.

HE sumacs, in early autumn, form a “firing line” along
the borders of woodlands and fences, before any other
plant but the Virginia creeper has thought of taking
on brighter colors. No other leaves can emulate the
burning scarlet of their hues. The sumacs are a glory
to our hills; and sometime, when Americans have
time to cultivate a true artistic sense, these shrubs
will play an important part in landscape gardening.
They are beautiful in summer, when each crimson
“bob” (a homely New England name for the fruit
panicle) is set at the center of the bouquet of spread-
ing, fernlike leaves. In winter nakedness they are
most picturesque, with their broadly branching twigs bearing aloft the w'ne-
colored pompons against the background of snow, and calling to the winter
birds to come and partake of the pleasantly acid drupes. In spring, they
put out their soft leaves in exquisite shades of pale pinkish green, and when
in blossom their staminate panicles of greenish white cover them with loose
pryamids of delicate bloom.

Well may it be called velvet sumac, for this year’s growth of wood and
the leaf stems are covered with fine hairs, pinkish at first, but soon white;
if we slip our fingers down a branch, we can tell even without looking where
last year’s growth began and ended, because of the velvety feel. Th.3 name
staghorn sumac is just as fitting, for its upper branches spread widely like a
stag’s horns and, like them, the new growth is covered with velvet.

The leaves are borne on the new wood, and therefore at the ends of
branches; they are alternate; the petiole broadens where it clasps the
branch, making a perfect nursery for the little next-year’s bud, which is
nestled below it. The leaves are compound and the number of leaflets
varies from eleven to thirty-one. Each leaflet is set close to the midrib,
with a base that is not symmetrical ; the leaflets have their edges toothed,
and are long and narrow ; they do not spread out on either side the midrib
like a fern, but naturally droop somewhat, and thus conceal their under-
sides, which are much lighter in color. The leaflets are not always set
exactly opposite; the basal ones are bent back toward the main stem, mak-

Tree Study

807

ing a fold in the base of each. The end leaflets are not always three, sym-
metrically set, but sometimes are two and sometimes one, with two basal
lobes.

The wine-colored “bob” is cone-shaped, but with a bunchy surface.
Remove all the seeds from it and note its framework of tiny branches, and
again pay admiring tribute to nature’s way of doing up compact packages.
Each seed is a drupe, as is also the cherry. A drupe is merely a seed within
a fleshy layer, all being enclosed in a firmer outside covering; here, the out-
side case is covered with dark red fuzz, a clothing of furs for winter, the fur
standing out in all directions. The fleshy part around the seed has a
pleasantly acid taste, and one of my childhood diversions was to share these
fruits in winter with the birds. I probably inadvertently ate also many a
little six-footed brother hidden away for winter safe-keeping, for every
sumac panicle is a crowded insect-tenement.

It is only in its' winter aspect that we can see the peculiar way of the
sumac’s branching, which is in picturesque zigzags, ending with coarse,
wide-spreading twigs. As each terminal twig was a stem for the bouquet of
blossom and fruit set- about with graceful leaves, it needed room and this is
reason enough for the coarse branching. The wood of the sumac has a pith,
and is coarse in texture.

During late May the new growth starts near the end of last year’s twig;
the buds are yellowish and show off against the dark gray twigs. From the
center of these buds comes the fuzzy new growth, which is usually reddish
purple; the tiny leaves are folded, each leaflet creased at its midrib and

The stag-horn sumac.
Photo by Verne Morton.

8o8

Handbook of Nature-Study

folded tightly against itself; as the leaves unfold, they are olive-green
tinted with red, and look like tassels coming out around the old dark red
“bob.” When the sumacs are in blossom, we see in every group of them,
two kinds; one with pyramids of white flowers, and the other with pinkish
callow bobs. The structure of these two different flower-clusters is really
the same, except that the white ones are looser and more widely spread.
Each flower of the white panicle is staminate, and has five greenish, some-
what hairy sepals and five yellowish white petals, at the center of which are
five large anthers. A flower from the bob is quite different ; it has the five
hairy sepals alternating with five narrow, yellowish white petals, both
clasping the globular base, or ovary, which is now quite covered with pinkish
plush, and bears at its tip the three styles flaring into stigmas.

The velvet sumac is larger than the smooth species
{Rhus glabra), and is easily distinguished from it, since
the new wood of the latter is smooth and covered with
bloom but is not at all velvety. The poison sumac,
which is very dangerous to many people when handled,
is a swamp species and its fruit is a loose, drooping panicle of
whitish berries, very much like that of poison ivy; therefore,
any sumac that has the red bob is not dangerous. The poison
species has the edges of its leaflets entire and each leaflet has a
distinct petiole of its own where it joins the midrib.

There is much tannin in sumac and it is used extensively to
tan leather. The bobs are used for coloring a certain shade of
brown. The famous Japanese lacquer is made from the juice of
a species of sumac.

LESSON CCVI

The Velvet, or Staghorn, Sumac
Leading thought — The sumac is a beautiful shrub in summer because of
its fern-like leaves; it is picturesque in winter, and its colors in autumn are
most brilliant. Its dark red fruit clusters remain upon it during the entire
winter. In June it shows two kinds of blossoms on different shrubs, one is
whitish and bears the pollen, the other is reddish and is a pistillate flower,
later developing into the seed on the “bob,” or fruit cluster.

Method — Begin this study in October when the beautiful autumn color
of the leaves attracts the eye. Observations to be made in the field should
be outlined and should be answered in the field note-books. The study of
the fruit and leaf may be made in the schoolroom, and an interest should be
developed which will lead to the study of the interesting flowers the follow-
ing spring. The sumacs in autumn make a beautiful subject for water-
color sketches, and their peculiar method of branching with their dark red
seed clusters or bobs, make them excellent subjects for winter sketching.

Observations — i . Why is this called the velvet sumac ? Why is it called
the staghorn sumac? Look at the stems with a lens and describe the
velvet. Can you tell this year’s wood by the velvet? Is there any velvet
on last year’s wood? Is there any on the wood below? What is there
peculiar in the appearance of last year’s wood? What are the colors of the
hairs that make the velvet on this year’s growth? On last year’s growth?
What is the color of this year’s growth under the velvet? Where are the
leaves borne?

a, Pistillate
flower from
a “bob.”

b, Staminate
flower from
the greenish
panicle.

Tree Study

809

2 . Look at the leaves. How many come off the stem between two, one
of which is above the other? Is the midrib velvety? What is its color at
base and at tip ? What is the shape of the petiole where it joins the stem?
Remove the leaf. What do you find hidden and protected by its broad
base?

3. How many leaflets are there on the longest leaf which you can find?
How many on the shortest ? Do the leaflets have little petioles, or are they
set close to the midrib ? How does the basal pair differ from the others ?
Are the leaflets the same color above as below? Are the pairs set exactly
opposite each other ? Look at the three leaflets at the tips of several leaves
and see if they are all regular in form. Draw a leaflet showing its base, its
veins and its margin. Draw an entire leaf, and color it as exactly as
possible.

4. Study the fruit. Pick one of the bobs and note its general shape.
Is it smooth or bunchy ? Sketch it. Remove one of the little bunches and
find out why it is of that shape. Remove all of the seeds from one of last
year’s bobs and see how the fruit is borne. Sketch a part of such a bare
stem.

5. Take a single seed; look at it through a lens and describe it. What
are the colors? Cut or pare away the flesh, and describe the seed. What
birds live on the sumac seeds in winter? How many kinds of insects can
you find wintering in the bob ? Find a seed free from insects and taste it.

Winter study of the Sumac — 6. Study the sumac after the leaves have
fallen and sketch it. What is there peculiar in its branching? Of what
use to the plant is its method of branching ? Break a branch and look at the
end. Is there a pith? What color is the wood and pith ?

May or June Study of the Sumac — 7. Where on the branch does the
new growth start ? How are the tiny leaves folded ? Look over a group of
sumacs and see if their blossoms all look alike. Are the different kinds of
blossoms found on the same tree or on different trees? Take one of the
white pyramidal blossom clusters; look at one of these flowers with a lens
and describe its sepals and petals. How many anthers has it and where are
they? This is a pollen-bearing flower and has no pistil. How are its tiny
staminate flowers arranged on the stem to give the beautiful pyramid
shape? This kind of flower cluster is called a panicle.

8. Take one of the green bobs and see if it is made up of little round
flowers. Through a lens study one of these. How many sepals? How
many petals? Describe the middle of the flower around which the petals
and sepals clasp. Is this the ovary, or seed box? Can you see the stigmas
protruding beyond it ? What insects visit these flowers ?

9. How can you tell the velvet or staghorn sumac from the smooth
sumac? How can you tell both of these from the poison sumac?

10. To what uses are the sumacs put?

“I see the partridges feed quite extensively upon the sumach berries, at my old house.
They come to them after every snow, making fresh tracks, and have now stripped many
bushes quite bare."

— Thoreau’s Journal, Feb. 4, 1856.

Bio

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE WITCH-HAZEL
Teacher's Story

In the dusky, somber woodland, thwarting vistas dull and cold,
Thrown in vivid constellations, gleam the hazel stars of gold,
Gracious gift of wealth untold.

Hazel blossoms brightly gl owing through the forests dark and drear,
Work sweet miracles, bestowing gladness on the dying year,

Joy of life in woods grown sere.

ITCH-HAZEL is not only a most interesting
shrub in itself, but it has connected with it many
legends. From its forked twigs were made the
divining rods by which hidden springs of water
or mines of precious metals were found, as it was
firmly believed that the twig would turn in the
hand when the one who held it passed over the
spring or mine. At the present day, its fresh
leaves and twigs are used in large quantities for
the distilling of the healing extract so much in
demand as a remedy for cuts and bruises and
for chapped or sunburned skins. It is said that the Oneida Indians first
taught the white people concerning its medicinal qualities.

The witch-hazel is a large shrub, usually from six to twelve feet high,
although under very advantageous circumstances it has been known to
take a tree-like form and attain a height of more than twenty feet. Its
bark is very dark grayish brown,
smooth, specked with little dots,
which are the lenticels, or breathing-
pores. If the season’s growth has
been rapid, the new twigs are lighter
in color, but when stunted by drouth
or poor soil, the new growth has a tint
similar to the old. The wood is
white, very tough and fibrous, with
a pith or heart-wood of softer sub-
stance and yellow in color. The
leaves are alternate, and the leaf buds
appear at the tips of the season’s
twigs, while the blossoms grow at the
axils of the leaves.

The witch-hazel leaf is nearly as
broad as it is long, bluntly pointed at
its tip, with a stem generally less than
one-half inch in length. The sides
are unequal in size and shape, and the
edges are roughly scalloped. The
veins are straight, are depressed on
the upper side but very prominent
beneath, and they are lighter in color

than the rest of the leaf. Witch- Wiich-hazeL

Tree Study

81 1

hazel leaves are likely to be apartment houses for insects, especially the
insects that make galls. Of these there are many species, each making a
different shaped gall. One of the most common is a gall, shaped like a little
horn or spur on the upper side of the leaf and having a tiny door opening on
the under side of the leaf. If one of these snug little homes is torn open, it
will be found occupied by a community of little aphids, or plant-lice.

The witch-hazel blossoms appear at the axil of a leaf or immediately
above the scar from which a leaf has fallen, the season of bloom being so late
that often the bush is bare of leaves and is clothed only with the yellow,
fringe-like flowers. Usually the flowers are in c usters of three, but occa-
sionally four or five can be found on the same very short sfem. The calyx
is four-lobed, the petals are four in number, shaped like tiny, yellow ribbons,
about one-half inch long and
not much wider than a coarse
thread. In the bud, these
petals are rolled inward in a
close spiral, like a watch-
spring, and are coiled- so tightly
that each bud is a solid little
ball no larger than a bird-shot.

There are four stamens lying
between the petals, and be-
tween each two of these
stamens is a little scale just
opposite the petal. The
anthers are most interesting.

Each has two little doors
which fly open, as if by magic
springs, and throw out the
pollen which clings to them.

The pistil has two stigmas,
which are joined above the
two-celled seed-box, or ovary.

The blossoms sometimes open
in late September, but the
greater number appear in
October and November. They are more beautiful in November after
the leaves have fallen, since these yellow, starry flowers seem to bring
light and warmth into the landscape. After the petals fall, the calyx
forms a beautiful little urn, holding the growing fruit.

The nuts seem to require a sharp frost to separate the closely joined
parts ; it requires a complete year to mature them. One of these nuts is
about half an inch long and is covered with a velvety green outer husk, until
the frost turns it brown; cutting through it discloses a yellowish white
inner shell, which is as hard as bone ; within this are the two brown seeds
each ornamented with a white dot ; note particularly that these seeds lie in
close-fitting cells. The fruit, if looked at when the husk is opening, bears
an odd resemblance to a grotesque monkey-like face with staring eyes.
Frosty nights will open the husks, and the dry warmth of sunny days or of
the heated schoolroom, will cause the edges of the cups which hold the seeds,
to curve inward with such force as to send the seeds many feet away;
ordinarily they are thrown from ten to twenty feet, but Hamilton Gibson

1, A queer little face — witch-hazelnut ready
to shoot its seeds. 2, Enlarged flower of witch-
hazel showing the long petals; p, with dotted
line the pistil; an, anther; a, anther with doors
open; c, lobes of calyx; sc, scale opposite the
base of petal.

8l2

Handbook of Nature-Study

records one actual measurement of forty-five feet. The children should
note that the surface of the seeds is very polished and smooth, and the way
they are discharged may be likened to that by which an orange seed is shot
from between the fingers.

LESSON CCVII
The Witch-Hazel

Leading thought — The witch-
hazel blossoms during the autumn,
and thus adds beauty to the
landscape. It has an interesting
mechanism by which it can shoot
its seeds for a distance of many
feet.

Method — This lesson divides
naturally into two parts; a study
of the way the seeds are distributed
is fitted for the primary grades,
and a study of the flower for more
advanced grades. For the pri-
mary grades the lesson should
begin by the gathering of the twigs
which bear the fruit. These should
be brought to the schoolroom —
there to await results. Soon the
seeds will be popping all over the
schoolroom, and then the question
as to how this is done, and why,
may be made the topic of the
lesson. For the study of the flower
and the shrub itself, the work
should begin in October when the
blossoms are still in bud. As they
expand they may be studied, a lens being necessary for observing the
interesting little doors to the anthers.

Observations — i. Is the witch-hazel a shrub or a tree?

2. What is the color of the bark? Is it thick or thin, rough or smooth,
dark or light, or marked with dots or lines ? Is there any difference in color
between the older wood and the young twigs? Is the wood tough or
brittle? Dark or light in color?

3 . Do the leaves grow opposite each other or alternate ? On what part
of the plant do the leaf buds grow? .

4 . What is the general shape of the leaf ? Is it more pointed at the base
or at the tip ? Are the leaves regular in form, or larger on one side than the
other ? Are the edges entire* toothed or wavy ? Are the petioles short or
long? Are the veins straight or branching? Are they prominent? Are
the leaves of the same color on both sides ?

5. Are there many queer-shaped little swellings on the leaf above and
below? See how many of these you can find? Tell what you think they
are.

6. Do the flowers grow singly or in clusters? What is the shape and
color of the petals, and how many of them are there in each blossom?

Tree Study 813

Describe the calyx. If there are any flower buds just opening, observe and
describe the way the petals are folded within them.

7. How many stamens? With a lens observe the way the two little
doors to the anther fly open; how is the pollen thrown out? What is the
shape of the pistil? How many stigmas?

8. Does each individual flower have a stem or is there a common stem
for a cluster of blossoms ? Do the flowers grow at the tips or along the sides
of the twigs? When do the witch-hazel flowers appear and how long do
they last ?

9. Make a drawing of a witch-hazel nut before it opens. What is the
color of the outer husk when ripe? Cut into a closed nut and observe the
extreme hardness and strength of the inner shell.

10. Where are the seeds situated? Can you see that the shell, when
partially open, ready to throw out the seeds resembles a queer little face?
Describe the color and marking of the seeds; are they rough or smooth?
How far have you known the witch-hazel to throw its seeds ? Study the
nut and try to discover how it throws the seeds so far.

References — Tree Book, Rogers ; Our Northern Shrubs, Keeler; Familiar
Trees and Their Leaves, Mathews; Field, Forest and Wayside Botany,
Gray.

THE MOUNTAIN LAUREL
Teacher's Story

a child I never doubted that the laurel wreaths
of Grecian heroes were made from mountain
laurel, and I supposed, of course, that the
flowers were used also . M y vision was of a hero
crowned with huge wreaths of laurel bouquets,
which I thought so beautiful. It was a shock to
exchange this sumptuous headgear of my
dreams for a plain wreath of leaves from the
green-bay tree.

However, the mountain laurel leaf is ever-
green and beautiful enough to crown a victor;
in color it is a rich, lustrous green above, with a
yellow midrib, the lower side being of a much lighter color. In
shape, the leaf is long, narrow, pointed at each end and smooth-edged,
with a rather short petiole, The leaves each year grow on the new
wood, which is greenish and rough, in contrast with the old wood,
which is rich brownish red. The leaves are arranged below the flower
cluster, so that they make a shining green base for this natural bouquet.

The flowers grow on the tips of the branching twigs, which are huddled
together in a manner that brings into a mass many flowers. I have counted
seventy-five of them in a single bunch; the youngest flowers grow nearest
the tip of the twig. The blossom stems are pink, and afford a rich back-
ground for the starry open flowers and knobby closed buds. The bud of
the laurel blossom is very pretty and resembles a bit of rose-colored pottery ;
it has a five-sided, pyramidal top, and at the base of the pyramid are ten
little buttresses which flare out from the calyx. The calyx is five-lobed,
each lobe being green at the base and pink at the point. Each one of the

814

Handbook of Nature-Study

ten little buttresses or ridges is a groove in which a stamen is growing, as
we may see by looking into an opening flower; each anther is “headed”
toward the pocket which ends the groove. The filament lengthens and
shoves the anther into the pocket, and then keeps on growing until it forms
a bow-shaped spring, like a sapling with the top bent to the ground. The
opening flower is saucerlike, pinkish white, and in form is a five-pointed
star. At the bottom of the saucer a ten-pointed star is outlined in crimson;
and bowed above this crimson ring are the ten white filaments with their
red-brown anthers stuffed cozily into the pockets, one pocket at the center
of each lobe, and one half-way between; each pocket is marked with a
splash of crimson with spotty edges. From the
center of the flower projects the stigma, far from and
above the pollen-pockets.

Each laurel flower is thus set with ten spring-traps
all awaiting the visit of the unwary moth or bee
which, when seeking the nectar at the center of the
flower, is sure to touch one or all of these bent fila-
ments. As soon as one is touched, up it springs and
slings its pollen hard at the intruder. The pollen is
not simply a shower of powder, but is in the form of a
sticky string, as if the grains were strung on cobweb
silk. When liberating these springs with a pencil
point, I have seen the pollen thrown a distance of thirteen inches; thus, if
the pollen ammunition does not strike the bee, it may fall upon some open
flower in the neighborhood. The anthers spring back after this perform-
ance and the filaments curl over each other at the center of the flower below
the pink stigma ; but after a few hours they straighten out and each empty
anther is suspended above its own pocket. The anthers open while in the
pocket, each one is slit open at its tip so that it is like the leather pocket of a
sling.

After the corollas fall, the long stigma still projects from the tip of the
ripening ovary, and there it stays, until the capsule is ripe and open. The
five-pointed calyx remains as an ornamental cup for the fruit. The capsule
opens along five valves, and each section is stuffed with little, almost
globular seeds.

The mountain laurel grows in woods and shows a preference for rocky
mountain sides or sandy soil.

Another of the common species is the sheep laurel, which grows in
swampy places, especially on hillsides. The flowers of this are smaller and
pinker than the mountain laurel, and are set below the leaves on the twig.
Another species called the pale, or swamp, laurel, has very small flowers, not
more than half an inch in breadth and its leaves have rolled-back edges and
are whitish green beneath. This species is found only in cold peat-bogs and
swamps

LESSON CCVII1
The Mountain Laurel

Leading thought — The laurel blossom is set with ten springs, and each
spring acts as a sling in throwing pollen upon visiting insects, thus making
sure that the visitor will carry pollen to other waiting flowers.

Method — Have the pupils bring to the schoolroom a branch of laurei
which shows blossoms in all stages from the bud. Although this lesson is
on the mountain laurel, any of the other species will do as well.

Diagram of flower of
laurel.

p, pocket; st, stamen.

Tree Study

815

Observations — 1. How are the laurel leaves set about the blossom
clusters to make them beautiful? What is the shape of the laurel leaf?
What are its colors above and below? How do the leaves grow with
reference to the flowers? Do they grow on last year’s or this year’s wood?
How can you tell the new wood from the old?

2. Take a blossom bud. What is its shape ? How many sides to the
pyramid-like tip ? How many little flaring ridges at the base of the pyra-
mid? Describe the calyx.

3. What is the shape of the flower when open? How many lobes has
it? What is its color? Where is it marked with red?

4. In the open blossom, what do you see of the ten ridges, or keels,
which you noticed in the bud ? How does each one of these grooves end ?
What does the laurel blossom keep in these ten pockets ? Touch one of the
ten filaments with a pencil and note what happens.

5. Take a bud scarcely open. Where are the stamens? Can you see
the anthers ? Take a blossom somewhat more open. Where are the anthers

Mountain laurel.
Photo by Verne Morton.

Bi6

Handbook of Nature-Study

now? From these observations explain how the stamens place their
anthers in the pockets. How do the filaments grow into bent springs? '

6. Are the anthers open when they are still in the pocket ? Look at an
anther with a lens and tell how many slits it has. How do they open ? Are
the pollen grains loose when they are thrown from the anther? How are
they fastened together? Does this pollen mass stick to whatever it
touches ?

7. What is the use to the flower of this arrangement for throwing
pollen? What insects set free the stamen-springs? Where is the nectar
which the bee or moth is after? Can it get this nectar without setting free
the springs ? Touch the filaments with a pencil and see how far they will
sling the pollen.

8. Describe the pistil in the open flower. Is the stigma near the
anthers? Would they be likely to throw their pollen on the stigma of their
own flower? Could they throw it on the stigmas of neighboring flowers?

9. How does the fruit of the laurel look? Does the style still cling
after the corolla falls? Describe the fruit-capsule. How does it open?
How do the seeds look? Are there many of them?

10. Where does the mountain laurel grow? What kind of soil does it
like? Do you know any other species of laurel? If so, are they found in
the same situations as the mountain laurel?

“A childish gladness stays my feet,

.4$ through the winter woods I go,

Behind some frozen ledge to meet

A kalmia shining through the snow.

I see it, beauteous as it stood

Ere autumn's glories paled and fled,

And sigh no more in pensive mood,

‘My leafy oreads are all dead.'

I hear its foliage move, like bells

On rosaries strung, and listening there.

Forget the icy wind that tells

Of turfless fields, and forests bare.

All gently with th' inclement scene
I feel its glossy verdure blend; — ■

I bless that lovely evergreen

As heart in exile hails a friend.

Its boughs, by tempest scarcely stirred,

A re tents beneath whose emerald fold
The rabbit and the snowbound bird
Forget the world is white and cold.

And still, ’ mid ruin undestroyed,

Queen arbor with the fadeless crown,

Its brightness warms the frosty void,

And softens winter's surliest frown."

— From “The Mountain Laurel” Theron Brown.

Brook study.
Photo by Verne Moiton.

PART IV

EARTH AND SKY

THE BROOK
Teacher's Story

“ Little brook , sing a song of a leaf that sailed along,

Down the golden braided center of your current swift and strong.”

— J. W. Riley.

A brook is undoubtedly the most fascinating bit of geography which the
child encounters ; and yet how few children who happily play in the brook — ■
wading, making dams, drawing out the crayfish by his own grip from his
lurking place under the log, or watching schools of tiny minnows — ever
dream that they are dealing with real geography. The geography lesson on
the brook should not be given for the purpose of making work out of play,
but to conserve all of the natural interest in the brook, and add to it by
revealing other and more interesting facts concerning it. A child who thus
studies the brook will master some of the fundamental facts of physical
geography, so that ever after he will know and understand all streams,
whether they are brooks or rivers. An interesting time to study a brook is
after a rain; and May or October give attractive surroundings for the
study. However, the work should be continued now and then during the
entire year, for each season gives it some new features of interest.

Each brook has its own history, which can be revealed only to the eyes
of those that follow it from its beginning to where it empties its water into
a larger stream or pond. At its source the brook usually is a small stream
with narrow banks; not until it receives water from surrounding hills does
it gain enough power to cut its bed deeper into the earth, thus making its
banks higher. Where it flows with swift current down a hillside, it cuts its
bed deeper, because swift-moving water has more power for cutting and
carrying away the soil. However, if the hillside happens to be in the
woods, the roots of trees or bushes will help to keep the soil from being
washed away. Unless there are obstacles, the course of the brook is likely
to be more direct in flowing down a hillside than when crossing level fields.
The delightful way in which brooks meander crookedly across the level
areas is due to the inequalities of the surface, which interfere more with
water on a- plain than on a hillside, since the gravity which pulls it forever
down has less chance to act upon it forcibly in these situations. After a
stream has thus started its crooked course, in time of flood the current
strikes with more force against the curves, and cutting them deeper, makes
the course still more crooked. The places on the banks where the soil is
bare and exposed to the force of the current, are the points where the banks
are cut most deeply at flood time.

But the brook is not simply an object to look at and admire; it is a very
busy worker, its chief labor being that of a digger and carrier. When it is
not carrying anything — that is, when its waters are perfectly clear — the

Earth Study

819

stream is doing the least work. The poets, as well as common people,
speak of the playing of the brook when its limpid waters catch the sun-
beams on their dimpling surface; but when the waters are roily the brook
is working very hard. This usually occurs after a rain, which adds much
more water to the volume of the brook; the action of gravity upon this
larger and heavier body forces it to flow more swiftly and every drop in the
stream that touches the bank or bottom, snatches up a tiny load of earth
and carries it along. And every drop thus laden, when it strikes against a
comer of the bank, tears more soil loose through the impact, and other
drops snatch it up and carry it on down the stream. And after a time
there are so many drops carrying loads and bumping along, knocking loose
more earth, that the whole brook, which is made up of drops, looks muddy.
In its work as a digger, every drop of water that touches the soil at the
bottom or on the banks of the brook uses its own little load of earth or
gravel as a crowbar or pickaxe to pry up other bits of dirt and gravel ; and
all of the drops hastening on, working hard together, dig the channel of the
brook wider and deeper In some steep places, so many of the drops are
working together that they are able .to pick up pebbles or stones, with
which they batter and tear down larger pieces of the bank and scrape out
greater holes in the bottom of the stream. On and on the brook flows, a
gang of workmen each of which is using its own load as a tool, all in close
procession and working double quick. But as soon as the brook reaches a
plain or level, its activity ceases; the drops act tired and seem to have no
ambition to pick up more soil, and each lets fall its own load as soon as
possible, dropping the larger pieces of gravel and rock first, carrying the
finer soil farther, but finally letting that down also. If we examine the
sediment of a flooded brook, we find that the gravel is always dropped first,
and that the fine mud is carried farthest before it is deposited.

The roar of a flooded stream is very different from the murmur of its
waters when they are low. It is not to be wondered at, when we once think
of all that is going on in the brook during periods of flood. There are some
s mple experiments to show what the force of water can do when turned
against the soil. Pour water from a pitcher into a bed of soft soil, and note
how quickly a hole will be made ; if the pitcher is held near the soil, less of a
hole will be formed than if the pitcher is held high up, which shows that the
farther the water falls, the greater is its force. This explains why the banks
of streams are undermined when a strong current is driven against them.
The swift current, of course, breaks away more earth at bends and curves
than when it is flowing in a straight line; for ordinarily, when flowing
straight, the current is swiftest in the bed of the stream, and is therefore
only digging at the bottom ; but when it flows around curves, it is directed
against the banks, and therefore has much more surface to work upon.
Thus it is that bends are cut deeper and deeper. If the bare arm is thrust
into a flooded brook, we find that many pieces of gravel strike against it;
and if we reach the bottom, we can feel the pebbles being moved along over
the brook bed.

LESSON CCIX
The Brook

Leading thought — The water from the little brook near our schoolhouse is
flowing toward the ocean, and is meanwhile digging out and carrying along
with it the soil through which it flows.

820

Handbook of Nature-Study

What the children find living in the brook.

Method — The best time to study a brook is after a rain, and October or
May is an interesting time for beginning this lesson. The work should be
continued during the entire year. It may be done at noon or recess, if the
brook is near at hand; or there may be excursions after school, if the brook
is at some distance. The observations should be made by the class as a
whole.

Observations — i. Does the brook have its source in a spring or a
swamp, or does it receive its water as drainage from surrounding hills?
Follow it back to its very beginning. Do you find this in open fields or
woods? Is the land about it level or hilly?

2 . Are its banks deeper at the beginning, or is the brook at first almost
on a level with the surrounding fields? Do the banks become deeper
farther from the source ? Are the banks higher where the brook flows down
hill, or where it is on a level?

3 . Is the course of the brook more crooked on a hillside or when flowing
through a level area? Are the banks more worn away and steep where the
brook flows through woods or bushes than through the open fields ?

4. Can you find the places where the water is cutting the banks most,
when the brook is flooded? Why does it cut the banks at these particular
points ?

5. Into what stream, pond or lake does the brook flow? If you should
launch a toy boat upon the waters of this brook, and it should keep afloat,
through what streams would it pass to reach the ocean? Through what
townships, counties, states or countries would it pass ?

6. When is the brook working and when is it playing? What is the
difference between the color of the water ordinarily and when the brook is
flooded? What causes this difference?

Earth Study

821

7. Make the following experiment to show what the brook is carrying
after a storm when the water is roily. Dip from the swift portion of the
stream a glass fruit jar full of water. Place it on a window-sill and do not
disturb it until the water is clear. How much sediment has settled at the
bottom of the jar? Where was this sediment when you dipped up the
water? If this quart of water could carry so much soil or sediment, how
much, do you think, would the whole brook carry ?

8. Where did the brook get the soil to make the water roily ? Study
its banks in order to answer this question. Do you think the soil in the
water came from the banks that are covered by vegetation or from those
which are bare?

9. How did the brook pick up the soil that it carried when it was
flooded? Do you think that one of the tools that the brook digs with is
the current? Try to find a place where the swift current strikes the bank,
and note if the latter is being worn away.

10. Does the swift current take more soil where it is flowing straight,
or where there are sharp bends ? How are the bends in the brook or creek
made?

1 1 . Thrust your bare hand or arm into the swift current of the brook
when it is flo’oded. Do you feel the gravel strike against your arm or hand ?
Wade in the water. Do you feel the pebbles strike against the feet or legs,
as they are being rolled along the bed of the stream?

12. Does the water, loaded with soil and pebbles, dig into the banks
more vigorously than just the water alone could do ? Which washes away
more earth and carries it down stream — a fast or a slow current ?

13 . Does the water of the brook flow fastest when its waters are low or
high? When the brook is at its highest flood, do you think it is working
the hardest? If so, explain why? When it is working the hardest and
carrying most soil and gravel, does it make a different sound than when it is
flowing slowly and its waters are clear?

14. How does the brook look when it is doing the least amount of work
possible?

15 Make a map of your brook showing every pool, indicating the
places where the current is swiftest and showing the bends in its course.
To test the rapidity of the current, put something afloat on it and measure
how far it will go in a minute.

16. How many kinds of trees, bushes and plants grow along the banks
of your brook ? How many kinds of fish and insects do you find living in it ?
How many, kinds of birds do you see frequently near it ?

A brook puzzle for pupils to solve — When we have a load to carry we go
slowly because we are obliged to ; and the heavier the load, the slower we
go. On the other hand, when we wish to run very swiftly we drop the load
so as not to be weighted down; when college or high school boys run races
in athletic games, they do not wear even their ordinary clothing, but dress
as lightly as possible in trunks and tights; they also train severely so that
they do not have to carry any more flesh on their bones than is necessary.
How is it that in the case of a brook just opposite is true? The faster the
brook runs, the more it can carry; and the heavier it becomes the faster it
runs ; and the faster it runs the more work it can do.

822

Handbook of Nature-Study

Where the stream drops its load.

HOW A BROOK DROPS ITS LOAD
Teacher's Story

The brook is most discriminating in the way it takes up its burdens, and
also in the way it lays them down. It, with quite superhuman wisdom,
selects the lightest material first, leaving the heaviest to the last; and when
depositing the load, it promptly drops the heaviest part first. And thus
the flowing waters of the earth are eternally lifting, selecting, and sifting
the soils on its surface.

The action of rain upon the surface of the ground is in itself an excellent
lesson in erosion. If there is on a hillside a bit of bare ground which has
been recently cultivated or graded, we can plainly see, after a heavy rain,
where the finer material has been sorted out and carried away, leaving the
larger gravel and stones. And if we examine the pools in the brook, we
shall find deltas as well as many examples of the way the soil is sifted as it is
dropped. The water of a rill flowing through pasture and meadow is
clear, even after a hard rain. This is owing, not so much to the fact that
the roots hold the banks of the brook firmly, as that the grass on the surface
of the ground acts as a mulch and protects the soil from the erosive impact
of the raindrops. On the other hand, and for a reverse reason, a rill
through plowed ground is muddy. On a hillside, therefore, contour plow-
ing is practiced — that is, plowing crosswise the hillside instead of up and
down. When the furrow is carried crosswise, the water after showers can
not dash away, carrying off in it all the finer and more fertile portions of the
soil. There are many instances in our Southern States where this difference
in the direction of plowing has saved or destroyed the fertility of hillside
farms.

The little experiment suggested at the beginning of the following lesson,
should show the pupils clearly the following points : It is through motion

that water takes up soil and holds it in suspension. The tendency of still

Earth Study

823

water is to drop all the load which it is carrying and it drops the heaviest
part first. We find the pebbles at the bottom of the jar, the sand and
gravel next, and the fine mud on top. The water may become perfectly
clear in the jar and yet, when stirred a little, it will become roily again
because of the movement. Every child who wades in a brook, knows that
the edges and the still pools are more comfortable for the feet than is the
center of the stream under the swift current. This is because, where the
water is less swift at the sides, it deposits its mud and makes a soft bottom;
while under the swifter part of the current, mud is washed away leaving
the larger stones bare. For the same reason, the bottom of a stream cross-
ing a level field is soft, because the silt, washed down from the hills by the
swift current, is dropped when the waters come to a more quiet place. If,
across a stony brook, the pupils can build a dam that will hold for two or
three months in the fall or spring when the brook is flooded, they will be
able to note that the stones will soon be more or less covered with soft mud;
for the dam, stopping the current, causes the water to drop its load of silt.
It would have to be a very recently made pool in a stream, which would not
have a soft mud bottom. The water at times of flood is forced to the side
of the streams in eddies, and its current is thus checked, and its load of mud
dropped.

It should be noted that at points where the brook is narrowest the cur-
rent is swiftest, and where the current is swiftest the bottom is more stony.
Also, where there is a bend in the stream the brook digs deeper into the
bank where it strikes the curve, and much of the soil thus washed out is
removed to the other side of the stream where the current is very slow, and
there is dropped. (See Introduction to Physical Geography, Gilbert and
Brigham, pp. 51 and 52.) If possible, note that where a muddy stream
empties into a pond or lake, the waters of the latter are made roily for some
distance out, but beyond this the water remains clear. The pupils should
be made to see that the swift current of the brook is checked when its
waters empty into a pond or lake, and because of this they drop their load.
This happens year after year, and a point extending out into the lake or
pond is thus built up. In this manner the great river deltas are formed.

References — The Brook Book, Mary Rogers Miller; Brooks and Brook
Basins, Frye; Up and Down the Brooks, Bamford; Physical Geography,
Tarr; Introduction to Physical Geography, Gilbert and Brigham.

LESSON CCX

How a Brook Drops Its Load

Leading thought — The brook carries its load only when it is flowing
rapidly. As soon as the current is checked, it drops the larger stones and
gravel first and then the finer sediment. It is thus that deltas are built up
where streams empty into lakes and ponds.

Method — Study the rills made in freshly graded soil directly after a
heavy rain. Ask the pupils individually to make observations on the
flooded brook.

Experiment — Take a glass fruit jar nearly full of water from the brook,
add gravel and small stones from the bed of the brook, sand from its borders
and mud from its quiet pools. Have it brought into the schoolroom, and
shake it thoroughly. Then place in a window and ask the pupils to observe
the following things:

824

Handbook of Nature-Study

(a) Does the mud begin to settle while the water is in motion; that i?,
while it is being shaken?

(b) As soon as it is quiet, does the settling process begin?

(d) Notice that as long as the water is in the least roily, it means that
the soil in it has not all settled; if the water is disturbed even a little it
becomes roily again, which means that as soon as the water is in motion it
takes up its load.

Observations — 1. Where is the current swiftest, in the middle or at the
side of the stream ?

2 . What is the difference, in the bottom of the brook, between the place
below the swift current and the edges? That is, if you were wading in the
brook, where would it be more comfortable for your feet — at the sides or in
the swiftest part of the current? Why?

3 . Does the brook have a more stony bed where it flows down a hillside
than where flowing through a level place?

4. Place a dam across your brook where the bottom is stony, and note
how soon it will have a soft mud bottom. Why is this?

5. Can you find a still pool in your brook that has not a soft, muddy
bottom? Why is this?

6. Does the brook flow more swiftly in the steep and narrow places
than in the wide portions and where it is dammed ?

7 . Do you think if water, flowing swiftly and carrying a load of mud,
were to come to a wider or more level place, like a pool or millpond dam,
that it would drop some of its load? Why?

8. If the water flows less swiftly along the edges than in the middle,
would this make the bottom below softer and more comfortable to the feet
than where the current is swiftest? If so, why?

9. If you can see the place where a brook empties into a pond or lake,
how does it make the waters of the latter look after a storm? What is the
water of the brook doing to give this appearance, and why?

10. What becomes of the soil dropped by the brook as it enters a pond
or lake? Do you know of any points of land extending out into a lake or
pond where the stream enters it ? What is a stream delta?

“In the bottom .of the valley is a brook that saunters between oozing banks. It falls over
stones and dips under fences. It marks an open place on the face of the earth , and the trees
and soft herbs bend their branches into the sunlight. The hangbird swings her nest over it.
Mossy logs are crumbling into it. There are still pools where the minnows play. The brook
runs away and away into the forest. As a boy I explored it but never found its source. It
came somewhere from the Beyond and its name was Mystery.

The mystery of this brook was its changing moods. It had its own way of recording the
passing of the weeks and months. I remember never to have seen it twice in the same mood ,
nor to have got the same lesson from it on two successive days: yet, with all its variety , it always
left that same feeling of mystery and that same vague longing to follow to its source and to know
the great world that I was sure must lie beyond. I felt that the brook was greater and wiser
than I. It became my teacher. I wondered how it knew when March came , and why its
round of life recurred so regularly with the returning seasons. I remember that I was
anxious for the spring to come, that I might see it again. I longed for the earthy smell when
the snow settled away and left bare brown margins along its banks. I watched for the suck-
ers that came up from the river to spawn. I made a note when the first frog peeped. I waited
for the unfolding spray to soften the bare trunks. I watched the greening of the banks and
looked eagerly for the bluebird when I heard his curling note somewhere high in the air."

— “The Nature-Study Idea,” L. H. Bailey

Earth Study 825

CRYSTAL GROWTH
Teacher's Story

To watch the growth of a crystal is to witness a
miracle; involuntarily we stand in awe before it,
as a proof that of all truths mathematics is the
most divine and inherent in the universe. The
teacher will fail to make the best use of this lesson
if she does not reveal to the child through it some-
thing of the marvel of crystal growth.

That a substance which has been dissolved in
water should, when the water evaporates, assem-
ble its particles in solid form of a certain shape,
with its plane surfaces set exactly at certain A snow crystaL
angles one to another, always the same whether Photomicrograph by w. a.
the crystal be large or small, is quite beyond our

understanding Perhaps it is no more miraculous than the growth of living
beings , but it seems so. The fact that when an imperfect crystal, unfinished
or broken, is placed in water which is saturated with the same substance, it
will be built out and made perfect, shows a law of growth so exquisitely
exemplified as to again make us glad to be a part of a universe so perfectly
governed. Moreover, when crystals show a variation in numbers of angles
and planes it is merely a matter of division or multiplication. A snow
crystal is a six-rayed star, yet sometimes it has three rays.

The window-sill of a schoolroom may be a place for the working of
greater wonders than those claimed by the astrologists of old, when they
transmuted baser metals to gold and worthless stones to diamonds. It
may be a place where strings of gems are made before the wondering eyes of
the children; gems fit to make necklaces for any naiad of the brook or
oread of the caves.

It adds much to the interest of this lesson if different colored substances
are used for the forming of the crystals. Blue vitriol, potassium bichro-
mate, and alum give beautiful crystals, contrasting in shape as well as in
colors.

Copper sulphate and blue vitriol are two names for one substance; it is
a poison when taken internally and, therefore, it is best for the teacher to
carry on the experiment before the pupils instead of trusting the substance
to them indiscriminately. Blue vitriol forms an exquisitely beautiful blue
crystal, which is lozenge-shaped with oblique edges. Often, as purchased
from the drug store, we find it in the form of rather large, broken, or imper-
fect crystals. One 01 the pretty experiments is to place some of these broken
crystals in a saucer containing a saturated solution of the vitriol, and note
that they straightway assert crystal nature by building out the broken
places, and growing into perfect crystals. Blue vitriol is used much in the
dying and in the printing of cotton and linen cloths. It has quite wonderful
preservative qualities; if either animal or vegetable tissues are permeated
by it they will remain dry and unchanged.

Potassium bichromate is also a poison and, therefore, the teacher should
make the solution in the presence of the class. It forms orange-red crystals,
more or less needle-shaped. It crystallizes so readily that if one drop of the
so'ution be placed on a saucer the pupils may see the formation of the
crystals by watching it for a few moments through a lens.

826

Handbook of Nature-Study

The common alum we buy in crystal form, however, it is very much
broken. Its crystals are eight-sided and pretty. Alum is widely used in
dyes, in medicines, and in many other ways. It is very astringent, as every
child knows who has tried to eat it, and has found the lips and tongue much
puckered thereby

Although we are more familiar with crystals formed from substances
dissolved in water, yet there are some minerals, like iron which crystallize
only when they are melted by heat; and there are other crystals, like the
snow, which are formed from vapor. Thus, substances must be molten
hot, or dissolved in a liquid, or in form of gas, in order to grow into crystals.

LESSON CCXI
Crystal Growth

Leading thought — Different substances when dissolved in water will
re-form as crystals; each substance forms crystals of its own peculiar color
and shape.

Method — Take three test tubes, long vials or clear bottles. Fill one
with a solution made by dissolving one part of blue vitriol in three parts of
water; fill another by dissolving one part of bichromate of potash with
twenty-five parts of water; fill another 'with one part of alum in three
parts of water. Suspend from the mouth of each test tube or vial, a piece of
white twine, the upper end tied to a tooth pick, which is placed across the
mouth of the vial; the other end should reach the bottom of the vial. If
necessary, tie a pebble to the lower end so that it will hang straight. Place
the bottles on the window sill of the schoolroom, where the children may
observe what is happening. Allow them to stand for a time, until the
string in each case is encrusted with crystals ; then pull out the string and
the crystals. Dry them with a blotter, and let the children observe them
closely. Care should be taken to prevent the children from trying to eat
these beautiful crystals, by telling them that the red and blue crystals are
poisonous.

Observations — i. In which bottle did the crystals form first? Which
string is the heaviest with the crystals ?

2. What was the color of the water in which the blue vitriol was
dissolved? Is it as brilliant in color now as it was when it was first made?
Do you think that the growth of the crystals took away from the blue
material of the water? Look at the blue vitriol crystals with a lens, and
describe their shape. Are the shapes of the large crystals of the vitriol the
same as those of the small ones?

3. What is the shape of the crystals of the potassium bichromate?
What is the color ? Are these crystals as large as those of the blue vitriol or
of the alum?

4. What shapes do you find among the crystals of alum?

5. Do you think that vitriol and potassium bichromate and alum
will, under favorable circumstances, always form each its own shape of
crystal wherever it occurs in the world? Do you think crystals could be
formed without the aid of water?

6. How many kinds of crystals do you know? What is rock candy?
Do you think you could make a string of rock candy if you dissolved sugar
in water and placed a string in it?

Earth Study

827

SALT

Teacher's Story

A “saturated solution” is an uninspiring term to one
not chemically trained; and yet it merely means water
which holds as much as it can take of the dissolved sub-
stance; if the water is hot, it disso vesmore of most sub-
stances. To make a saturated solution of salt we need two
parts of salt or a little more, for good measure, to five parts
of water; the water should be stirred until it will take up
no more salt.

A slip of paper placed in a saucer of this solution will prove a resting
place for the crystals as they form. In about two days the miracle will be
working, and the pupils should now and then observe its progress. Those
saucers set in a draft or in a warm place will show crystals sooner than
others, but the crystals will be smaller; for the faster a crystal grows, the
smaller is its stature. If the water evaporates rapidly, the crystals are
smaller, because so many crystals are started which do not have material
for large growth. When the water is evaporated, to appreciate the beauty
o f the crystals we should look at them with a lens or microscope. Each
crystal is a beautiful little cube, often with a pyramid-shaped depression in
each face or side. After the pupils have seen these crystals, the story of
where salt is found should be told them.

Salt is obtained by two methods: by mining large deposits of rock salt,
and by evaporating water containing a strong solution of salt. The oldest
salt works in this country are in Syracuse, New York, where the salt comes
from salt springs which were famous among the American Indians. At
Ithaca, N. Y., the salt deposits are about 2000 feet below the surface of the
earth. Water is forced down into the stratum of rock, which was evidently
once the bottom of a briny sea ; the water dissolves the salt, and it is then
pumped up to the surface and evaporated, leaving the salt in crystals. In
Michigan and Louisiana there are other large salt works of a similar
character. The largest salt mines in the world are those in Poland, which
have been used for hundreds of years. In these mines there are fifty miles
of corridors, and the salt has been carved Into beautiful chambers with
statues and other decorations, all cut from the solid salt. One of these
chambers represents a chapel beautifully ornamented.

When the United States was first settled, salt was brought over from
England; but this was so expensive that people could not afford it and
they soon began to make their own salt by evaporating sea water in kettles
on the beach. In those countries where it is scarce, salt is said to be literally
worth its weight in gold. The necessity for salt to preserve the health of
both people and animals has tempted the governments of some countries to
place a special tax upon it; in Italy, especially, the poor people suffer
greatly on account of the high price of salt from this cause.

Salt lakes are found in natural basins of arid lands, and are always with-
out outlets. The water which runs in escapes by evaporation, but the salt
it brings cannot escape, and accumulates. A salt lick is a place where salt
is found on the surface of the earth, usually near a salt spring. Animals
will travel a long distance to visit a salt lick which gained its name through
their attentions.

■ ■

Form of a salt
crystal

828

Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON CCXII
Salt

Leading thought — Salt dissolves in water, and as the water evaporates
the salt appears in beautiful crystals.

Method — Let each pupil, if possible, have a cup and saucer, a square of
paper small enough to go into the saucer, some salt and water. Let each
pupil take five teaspoonfuls of water and add to this two spoonfuls of salt,
stirring the mixture until dissolved. When the water will take no more salt
let each pupil write his name and the date on the square of paper, lay it in
the saucer, pressing it down beneath the surface. Let some place their
saucers in a warm place, others where they may be kept cool, and others in a
draft. If it is impossible for each pupil to have a saucer, two or three pupils
may be selected to perform the experiments.

Observations — i. When you pour the salt into the water, what becomes
of it? How do you know when the water will hold no more salt?

2 . After a saucer, filled with the salt water, stands exposed to the air for
several days, what becomes of the water? From which saucers did the
water evaporate fastest — those in the warm places, or those in the cold?
In which did the crystals form first?

3 . Which saucers contained the largest crystals — those from which the
water evaporated first, or those from which it evaporated more slowly?

4. Could you see how the crystals began? What is the shape of the
perfect salt crystal ? Do the smallest crystals have the same shape as the
largest ones ?

5 . What happens to people who cannot get salt to eat ?

6. How is dairy salt and table salt obtained? What is rock salt?
What are salt licks ? Where are the salt mines found ? Why .is the ocean
called “the briny deep?”

7. Name and locate the salt lakes. Why are lakes salt?

LESSON CCXIII
How to Study Minerals

Many children are naturally interested in
stones. I once knew two children, aged seven and
five, who could invariably select the boulders and
pebbles of metamorphic rock in the region about
Ithaca. They also could tell, when the pebbles
were broken, which parts were quartz and which
mica. They had incidentally asked about one of
these stones, and I had told them the story of the
glacial period and how these stones were torn
away from the mountains in Canada and brought
down by ice and dropped in Ithaca. It was a
story they liked, and their interest in these granite
voyagers was always a delightful element of our walks in the field.

For the pupils in the elementary grades it seems best to limit the study
of minerals to those which make up our granite and common rocks. In
order to teach about these minerals well, the teacher should have at least
one set of labelled specimens. Such a collection may be obtained from
Edward E. Howell, 612 17th St., N. W., Washington, D. C., and also from

A snow crystal.
Photomicrograph by
W. A. Bentley.

Earth Study

829

Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, College Avenue Rochester, N. Y.
These collections vary in number of specimens and price from one to two
dollars and are excellent. The teacher should have one or two perfect
crystals of quartz, feldspar and calcite. An excellent practice for a boy is
to copy these crystals in wood for the use of the teacher.

The physical characteristics used in identifying minerals are briefly as
follows :

1. Form. This may be crystalline, which shows the shape of the
crystals definitely; granular, like marble, the grains having the internal
structure, but not the external form, of crystals; compact, which is without
crystalline form, as limestone or flint.

2. Color.

3. Luster or shine , which may be glassy like quartz, pearly like the
inside of a shell; silky like asbestos; dull; or metallic like gold.

4. Hardness or resistance to scratching, thus : Easily scratched with
the finger nail; cannot be scratched by the finger nail; easily scratched
with steel ; with difficulty scratched with steel ; not to be scratched by
steel. A pocket knife is usually the implement used for scratching.

Forms of quartz crystals.

QUARTZ
Teacher's Story

There is in the Cornell University Museum a great quartz crystal, a six-
sided prism several inches in thickness. One-half of it is muddy and the
other half clear, transparent and beautiful. The professor in charge, who
has the imagination necessary to the expert crystallographer, said to his
class: “This crystal was begun under conditions which made it cloudy;

then something happened, perhaps some cataclysm that changed all the
conditions around the half-grown crystal, and it may have lain a hundred
or a thousand years unfinished, when, some other change occurring, there
came about conditions which permitted it to resume growth, and the work
began again exactly where it was left off, the shaft being perfected even to
its six-sided pyramidal tip.” And ever afterwards that crystal, half clouded
and half clear, remained in the minds of his pupils as a witness of the eternal

endurance of the laws which govern the growth of crystals.

Quartz is the least destructible and is one of the most abundant materials
in the crust of the earth as we know it. It is made up of two elements
chemically united — the solid silicon and the gas oxygen. It is the chief
material of sand and sandstones, and it occurs, mixed with grains of other
minerals, in granite, gneiss, and many lavas; it also occurs in thick masses
or sheets, and sometimes in crystals ornamenting the walls of cavities in the
rocks. Subterranean waters often contain a small amount of silica, the
substance of quartz, in solution; from such solutions it may be deposited in

830

Handbook of Nature-Study

fissures or cracks in the rock, thus forming bodies called “veins.” Other
materials are often deposited at the same time, and in this way the ores of
the precious metals came to be associated with quartz. Sometimes quartz
is deposited from hot springs or geysers, forming a spongy substance called
sinter. In this case, some of the water is combined with the quartz, making
what is called opal. Quartz crystal will cut glass.

Quartz occurs in many varieties : (a) In crystals like glass. If colorless

and transparent it is called rock crystal ; if smoky brown, it is called
smoky quartz; if purple, amethyst, (b) In crystals, glassy but not
transparent. If white, it is milky quartz; if pink, rose quartz, (c) As a
compact crystalline structure without luster, waxy or dull, opaque or
translucent, when polished. If bright red, it is carnelian; if brownish red,
sard; if in various colors in bands, agate; if in horizontal layers, onyx; if
dull red or brown, jasper; if green with red spots, bloodstone; if smoky or
gray, breaking with small, shell-like or conchoidal fractures, flint.

Rock crystals are used in jewelry and especially are made to imitate
diamonds. The amethyst is much prized as a semi-precious stone. Car-
nelian, bloodstone and agate are also used in jewelry; agate is used also in
making many ornamental objects, and to make little mortars and pestles
for grinding hard substances.

One of the marvels of the world is the petrified forest of Arizona, now set
aside by the government as a national reserve. Great trees have been
changed to agate and flint, the silica being substituted for the tissues of the
wood so that the texture is preserved though the material is changed.

When our country was first settled, flint was used to start fires by strik-
ing it with steel and letting the sparks fly into dry, fine material, called
tinder. It was also used in guns before the invention of cartridges, and the
guns were called flintlocks. The Indians used flint to make hatchets and
for tips to their arrows. The making of flint implements dates far back
into prehistoric times; it was probably one of the first steps upward which
man achieved in his long, hard climb from a level with the brute creation
to the heights attained by our present civilization.

Quartz sand is used in making glass. It is melted with soda or potash or
lead, and the glass varies in hardness according to the minerals added.
Quartz is also used for sandpaper and glass paper; and ground to a fine
powder, it is combined with Japans and oils and used as a finish for wood
surfaces. Mineral wool is made from the slag refuse of furnaces where glass
is made, and is used for rat-proof and fireproof padding for the walls of
houses. Quartz combined with sodium or potassium and water, forms a
liquid called water-glass, which is used for waterproof surfaces; it is also
fireproof to a certain degree. Water-glass is the best substance in which to
preserve eggs; one part of commercial water-glass to ten parts of water
makes a proper solution for this purpose.

LESSON CCXIV
Quartz

Leading thought — Quarts is one of the most common of minerals. It
occurs in many forms. As a crystal it is six-sided, and the ends terminate
in a six-sided pyramid. It is very hard and will scratch and cut glass.
When broken, it has a glassy luster and it does not break smoothly but
shows an uneven surface.

Earth Study

831

Method — The pupils should have before them as many varieties of
quartz as possible; at least they should have rock crystal, amethyst, rose
and smoky quartz and flint.

Observations — 1. What is the shape of quartz crystals? Are the sides
ail of the same size? Has the pyramid-shaped end the same number of
plane surfaces as the sides?

2. What is the luster of quartz? Is this luster the same in all the
different colored kinds of quartz?

3. Can you scratch quartz with the point of a knife? Can you scratch
glass with a corner or piece of the quartz ? Can you cut glass with quartz ?

4. Describe the following kinds of quartz and their uses: amethyst,

agate, flint.

5. How many varieties of quartz do you know? What has quartz to
do with the petrified forests of Arizona?

FELDSPAR
Teacher's Story

We most commonly see feldspar as the pinkish portion of granite. This
does not mean that feldspar is always pink, for it may be the lime-soda form
known as labradorite, which is dark gray, brown or greenish brown, or
white ; or it may be the soda-lime feldspar called oligoclase, which is grayish
green, grayish white, or white; but
the most common feldspar of all is
the potash feldspar — orthoclase —
which may be white, nearly trans-
parent, or pinkish. Orthoclase is
different from other feldspars in
that, when it splits, its plane sur-
faces form right angles. Feldspar
is next in the scale of hardness to quartz, and will with effort and per-
severance scratch glass but will not cut it; it can be scratched with a
steel point. Its luster is glassy and often somewhat pearly.

Maine leads all other states in the production of feldspar. It is quarried
and crushed and ground to powder, as fine as flour, to make the clay from
which china and all kinds of pottery are made. Our clayey soils are made
chiefly from the potash feldspar which is weathered to fine dust. Kaolin,
which has been used so extensively in making the finest porcelain, is the
purest of all clays, and is formed of weathered feldspar; floor tiling and
sewer pipes are also made from ground feldspar. Moonstone is clean, soda-
lime feldspar, whitish in color and with a reflection something like an opal.

LESSON CCXV
Feldspar

Leading thought — Feldspar is about five times as common as quartz.
The crystal is obliquely brick-shaped, and when broken splits in two direc-
tions at right angles to each other. It is next in hardness to quartz, and
will scratch glass but will not cut it.

Method — If possible, have the common feldspar (orthoclase), the soda-
lime feldspar (oligoclase) and the lime-soda feldspar (labradorite).

Forms of feldspar crystals.

832

Handbook of Nature-Study

Observations — 1. What is the shape of the feldspar crystal?

2. What colors are your specimens of feldspar? How many kinds
have you?

3. What is the luster of feldspar?

4. Can you scratch feldspar with the point of a knife? Can you
scratch it with quartz ? Can you scratch glass with it ?

5. When you scratch feldspar with steel what is the color of the streak
left upon it?

6. If feldspar is broken, does it break along certain lines, leaving
smooth faces ? At what angles do these smooth faces stand to each other ?

7. How can you tell feldspar from quartz? Write a comparison of
feldspar and quartz, giving clearly the characteristics of both.

8. Hunt over the pebbles found in a sand-bank. Which ones are
quartz? Do you find any of feldspar?

9. When there is so much more feldspar than quartz in the earth’s
crust, why is there so much more quartz than feldspar in sand?

MICA

Teacher's Story

The mica crystal when perfect is a flat crystal with six straight edges.
These crystals separate in thin layers parallel with the base. In color mica
varies through shades of brown, from a pale smoked pearl to black. Its
luster is pearly, and it can be scratched with the thumb nail. Its distin-
guishing characteristic is that the thin layers into which it splits bend with-
out breaking and endure great heat.

Mica was used in antiquity for windows. Because it is transparent and
not affected by heat, it is used in the doors of stoves and furnaces and for
lamp chimneys. Its strength makes it of use for automobile goggles.
Diamond dust is powdered mica, as is also the artificial snow scattered
over cotton batting for the decoration of Christmas trees. When ground
finely, it is used as an absorbent for nitroglycerine in the manufacture of
dynamite

Mica mines are scarce in this country. There is an interesting one in
North Carolina which had evidently been worked centuries before the
advent of the white man in America. There are other mica mines in New
Hampshire and Canada. The entire production of this mineral in the
United States for the year 1908, was valued at a little more than a quarter
of a million dollars. Nearly all of this output was used in the electrical
industries, since mica is one of the best insulating materials known.

LESSON CCXVI
Mica

Leading thought — Mica is a crystal which flakes off in thin scales parallel
with the base of the crystal. We rarely see a complete mica crystal but
simply the thin plates which have split off. The ordinary mica is light
colored, but there is a black form.

Method — If it is not possible to obtain a mica crystal, get a thick piece of
mica which the pupils may split off into layers.

Earth Study

833

Observations — 1 . Describe your piece of mica. Pull off a lay er with the
point of your knife. See if you can separate this layer into two layers or
more.

2. Can you see through mica? Can you bend it? Does it break
easily? What is the color of your specimen? What is its luster? Can
you cut it with a knife? Can you scratch it with the thumb nail ? What
color is the streak left by scratching it with steel ?

3. What are some of the uses of mica? How is it especially fitted for
some uses?

4. Write a theme on how and where mica is obtained.

GRANITE

Teacher's Story

In granite, the quartz may be detected by its fracture which is always
conchoidal and never flat; that is, it has no cleavage planes. It is usually
white or smoky, and is glassy in luster. It cannot be scratched with a
knife. The feldspar is
usually whitish or flesh-
colored and the smooth
surface of its cleavage
planes shines brilliantly
as the light strikes upon
it; it can be scratched
with a knife but this
requires effort. The
mica is in pearly scales,
sometimes whitish and
sometimes black. The
scales of these mica
particles may be lifted
off with a knife, and it
may thus be distin-
guished. If there are
black particles in the
granite which do not
separate, like the mica,
into thin layers, they
probably consist of
hornblende.

Granite is used ex-
tensively for building
purposes and for monu-
ments. It is a very
durable stone but in
the northeastern United
States where there is

much rain and cold 77^ granite obelisk still standing on the site of the ancient
weather, the stone city of On.

decays. Mica is the Photo by J. H. Comstock.

834

Handbook oj Nature-Study

weakest, hornblende next, and feldspar is next to quartz, the strongest con-
stituent of granite. Water permeates the mica, hornblende, feldspar and
sometimes the quartz, and by its expansion in freezing causes the stone to
crumble. The reason why polished granite endures better than the rough
finished, is that the smooth surface gives less opportunity for the water to
lodge and freeze. When the weathered granite is cut up into small
particles by the waters of streams, they are sifted and all the parts which
are soluble are carried off, leaving a sand composed of quartz and mica,
which are insoluble. This sand is washed by streams into lakes, and then
is dropped to the bottom; if enough is thus carried and dropped, it forms
sandstone rock. All of our sandstones used for building purposes were
thus laid down.

Cleopatra’s Needle, which stood for thousands of years in the dry
climate of Egypt, soon commenced to weather and crumble when placed in
Central Park, N. Y. This shaft has a most interesting history. It was
quarried near Assuan, in the most famous of all granite quarries of
ancient Egypt. It was cut as a solid shaft in the quarry and carried
down the Nile River for 500 miles — an engineering feat which would be
hard to accomplish to-day, with all our modern appliances. It was one of
the obelisks that graced the ancient city of On, later called Heliopolis,
situated on a plateau near the present city of Cairo ; On was the city where
Moses was born and reared. There is still standing where it was first
placed as a part of a magnificent temple, the temple a part of a magni-
ficent city, one of these obelisks. It now stands alone in the middle of
a great fertile plain, which is vividly green with growing crops ; a road
shaded by tamarisk and lebbakh trees leads to it; nearby is a sakiah,
creaking as the blindfolded bullock walks around and around, turning the
wheel that lifts the chain of buckets from the well to irrigate the crops;
and a hooded crow, whose ancestors were contemporaries of its erection,
caws hoarsely as it alights on the beautiful apex of this ancient shaft,
which has stood there nearly four thousand years and has seen a great
city go down to dust to fertilize a grassy plain.

LESSON CCXVII
Granite

Leading thought — Granite is composed of feldspar, quartz and mica, and
often contains hornblende.

Method — Specimens of coarse granite and a pocket knife are needed.

Observations — 1. What minerals do you find in granite? How can you
tell what these minerals are? Look at the granite with a lens. How can
you tell the quartz from feldspar? Take a knife and scratch the two.
Can you tell them apart in that way? How can you tell the mica ? How
can you tell the hornblende?

2 . What buildings have you seen made of granite ? What monuments
have you seen made from it ?

3. Which mineral in granite is especially affected by water? Which
remains unharmed the longest ?

4. What is weathering? Mention some of the characteristics of
weathering. Why does the rough-finished granite weather sooner than
that which is polished?

Earth Study 835

5. Examine some sand with a lens. What mineral do you find present
in it in the greatest quantity?

6. Write the story of the Cleopatra’s Needle in Central Park, New
York City.

CALCITE, MARBLE AND LIMESTONE
Teacher's Story

Calc spar, or calcium carbonate, is a mineral and is the material of which
marble, limestone and chalk are made. The faces of the calcite crystal are
always arranged in groups of three or multiples of three — a three-sided
pyramid or two pyramids joined base to base. The pyramids may be
obtuse or acute. When acute and formed of three pairs of faces, the
crystals are called dog-tooth spar. The crystals appear in a great variety
of forms, but they all have the common quality of splitting readily in three
directions, the fragments resembling cubes
which are oblique instead of rectangular.

When these cleaved, or split pieces, are trans-
parent, they are called Iceland spar. When an
object is viewed through Iceland spar at least
one-quarter inch thick, it appears double. The
calcite crystal is often transparent with a slight
yellowish tinge, but it also shows other colors;
and it has a slightly cloudy or slightly pearly or
almost glassy luster like feldspar. It is easily
scratched with a knife and will not scratch
glass. If a drop of strong vinegar or weak
hydrochloric acid falls upon it, it will effervesce.

Limestone — so called because it is burned to
make quicklime — was formed on the bottoms
of oceans; its substance came chiefly from the
skeletons of corals and the shells of other sea Forms of calcite crystals.
creatures, since sea-shells and coral stems are

pure calcium carbonate in composition. In the water, the shells and
corals were broken down, and then deposited in layers on the bottom of the
sea. So wherever we find limestone, we know that there was once the
bottom of a great sea. Such layers of limestone are now being deposited off
the shores of Florida, where corals grow in great abundance. Limestone is
used extensively for building purposes, and in most climates is very durable.
The great pyramids of Egypt are of limestone. It is not a good material
for making roads, since it is so soft that it wears out readily, making a fine
easily-blown dust. It is slowly dissolved in water, especially if the water be
acid; thus, in limestone regions, there are caves where the water has
dissolved out the rock ; and attached to their roofs and piled upon their
floors may be large icicle-shaped stalactites and stalagmites, which were
made by the lime-bearing water dripping down and evaporating, leaving its
burden in crystals behind it. When the roof of a cave falls in, the cavity
thus made is called a sink hole and is often dangerous. The famous Natural
Bridge in Virginia is all that is left of what was once the roof of such a
cavern. The water in limestone regions is always hard, because of the lime
which it holds in solution; and in such regions the streams usually have no

83 6

Handbook oj Nature-Study

silt, but have clean bottoms; moreover, the springs are likely to become
contaminated because the water has run through long caves instead of
filtering through sand.

Chalk is similar in origin to limestone; it is made up of the shells of
minute sea creatures, so small that we can only see them with the aid of a
microscope. Try and think how many years it must have required for the
shells of such tiny beings to build up the beds which make the great chalk
cliffs of England!

Marble is formed inside of the earth from limestone, under the influence
of heat and pressure; it differs from limestone chiefly in that the grains are
of crystalline structure, and are larger; it is usually white or gray in color,
and sometimes is found in differing colors. At Cadiz in California, marble
is found showing twenty or more quite different colors. The most famous
marbles are the Carrara of Italy, the Parian from the Island of Paros, and
the Pentelican from the mountain of that name near Athens. The reason
why these marbles are so famous is that in ancient times sculptors carved
beautiful statues from them, and the architects used them for building
magnificent temples. The principal marble deposits in the United States
are in Vermont. Georgia, Tennessee and California. Marble deteriorates
when it is exposed to air which is filled with smoke and gases. It is also
used to make lime. When either marble or limestone is heated very hot, it
separates into two parts, one of which is lime, and the other carbonic acid
gas — the same that is used for charging soda-water fountains.

LESSON CCXVIII
Calcite, Marble and Limestone

Leading thought — Calcite or calc spar is formed more than half of lime.
The best known forms of its crystals are cubelike, but instead of having
twelve right-angled edges, the sides are lozenge-shaped, and are set together
with six obtuse angles and six acute. Dog-tooth spar is one form of calcite
crystal. Limestone is a solid form of calcite. Marble is granular lime-
stone which shows the broken crystals of calcite. Chalk is very fine,
pulverized calcite.

Method — Specimens of dog-tooth spar, limestone, marble, shells of
oysters or other sea creatures and coral should be provided for this lesson;
also a bottle of dilute hydrochloric acid, and a piece of glass tubing about
six inches long with which to drop the acid on the stones. Some strong
vinegar will do instead of the acid.

Observations — i. What is the form of the calcite crystal ? What is the
luster of the crystal ? Is it the same as the inside of sea-shells ? Will calcite
scratch glass ? Can you scratch it with a knife ? What happens to calcite
if you put a drop of weak hydrochloric acid upon it ?

2. Is marble made up of crystals? Examine it with a lens to see.
What is its color? Have you seen marble of other colors than white ? Do
you know the reason why marble is sometimes clouded and streaked?

3. Put a drop of weak hydrochloric acid on the marble. What happens?

4. What are the uses of marble ? What have you ever seen made from
marble? Why is it used for sculpture? What famous statues have you
seen which were made of marble ? N ame some of the famous ancient marble
buildings.

Earth Study

8 37

5. Test a piece of limestone for hardness. Can you scratch it with a
knife? Is it as soft as marble? Put on it a drop of acid. Does it effer-
vesce? If there are any fossils in your piece of limestone, test them with
acid and see if they will effervesce. Any other mineral that you have which
will effervesce when touched with acid, is probably some form of calcite.

6. Are there any buildings in your town made of limestone ? How do
you know the stone is limestone? Where was it obtained? Is it affected
by the weather?

7. Is limestone a good material for making or mending roads? Give a
reason.

8 . Why is water in limestone regions hard ? Why are limestone regions
likely to have caves within the rocks ? How are stalactites and stalagmites
formed in caves ? What are sink holes ? How are they formed ? In what
county of your state is limestone found ?

9. How is the lime which is used for plastering houses made?

10. Write a theme on how the chalk rocks are made?

11. Test a shell with acid; test a piece of coral with acid. How does
it happen that these, which were once a part of living creatures, are now
limestone ? Of what are our own bones made ?

“A great chapter in the history of the world is written in the chalk. Few passages in the
history of man can he supported by such an overwhelming mass of direct and indirect evi-
dence as that which testifies to the truth of the fragment of the history of the globe , which I
hope to enable you to read , with your own eyes, to-night. Let me add, that few chapters of
human history have a more profound significance for ourselves. I weigh my words well
when I assert, that the man who should know the true history of the bit of chalk which every
carpenter carries about in his breeches-pocket, though ignorant of all other history, is likely, if
he will think his knowledge out to its ultimate results, to have a truer, and therefore a better,
conception of this wonderful universe, and of man's relation to it, than the most learned
student who is deep-read in the records of humanity and ignorant of those of Nature ."

“ During the chalk period, or 1 cretaceous epoch,' not one of the present great physical
features of the globe was in existence. Our great mountain ranges, Pyrenees, Alps , Hima-
layas, Andes, have all been upheaved since the chalk was deposited, and the cretaceous sea
flowed over the sites of Sinai and Ararat. All this is certain, because rocks of cretaceous
or still later date, have shared in the elevatory movements which give rise to these mountain
chains; and may be found perched up, in some cases, many thousand feet high upon their
flanks."

— Thomas Huxley.

838

Handbook of Nature-Study

THE MAGNET
Teacher's Story

NTIL comparatively recent times, the power of the
magnet was so inexplicable that it was regarded as the
working of magic. The tale of the Great Black Moun-
tain Island magnet described in the “Arabian Nights
Entertainments” — the story of the island that pulled
the nails from passing ships and thus wrecked them —
was believed by the mariners of the Middle Ages. Pro-
fessor George L. Burr assures me that this mountain
of lodestone and the fear which it inspired were potent factors in the
development of Medieval navigation. Even yet, with all our
scientific knowledge, the magnet is a mystery. We know what it
does, but we do not know what it is. That a force unseen by us is
flowing off the ends of a bar magnet, the force flowing from one end
attracted to the force flowing from the other and repellent to a force similar
to itself, we perceive clearly. We also know that there is less of this force
at a point in the magnet half-way between the poles ; and we know that the
force of the magnet acts more strongly if we offer it more surface to act
upon, as is shown in the experiment in drawing a needle to a magnet by
trying to attract it first at its point and then along its length. That this
force extends out beyond the ends of the magnet, the child likes to demon-
strate by seeing across how wide a space the magnet, without touching the
objects, can draw to it iron filings or tacks. That the magnet can impart
this force to iron objects is demonstrated with curious interest, as the child
takes up a chain of tacks at the end of the magnet ; and yet the tacks when
removed from the magnet have no such power of cohesion. That some
magnets are stronger than others is shown in the favorite game of “stealing
tacks, ’ ’ the stronger magnet taking them away from the weaker ; it can also
be demonstrated by a competition between magnets, noting how many
tacks each will hold.

One of the most interesting things about a magnet is that like poles repel
and opposite poles attract each other. How hard must we pull to separate
two magnets that have the south pole of one against the north pole of the
other ! Even more interesting is the repellent power of two similar poles,
which is shown by approaching a suspended magnetized needle with a
magnet. These attractive and repellent forces are most interestingly
demonstrated by the experiment in question 13 of the lesson. These
needles floating on cork join the magnet or flee from it, according to which
pole is presented to them.

Not only does this power reside in the magnet, but it can be imparted to
other objects of iron and steel. By rubbing one pole of the magnet over a
needle several times, always in the same direction, the needle becomes a
magnet. If we suspend such a needle by a bit of thread from its center, and
the needle is not affected by the nearness of a magnet, it will soon arrange
itself nearly north and south. It is well to thrust the needle through a cork,
so it will hang horizontally, and then suspend the cork by a thread. The
magnetized needle will not point exactly north, for the magnet poles of the
earth do not quite coincide with the poles of the earth’s axis.

The direction assumed by the magnetized needle may be explained by
the fact that the earth is a great magnet, but the south pole of the great

Earth Study

839

earth magnet lies near the North Pole of the earth. Thus, a magnet on
the earth’s surface, if allowed to move freely, will turn its north pole
toward the south pole of the great earth magnet. Then, we might ask,
why not call the earth’s magnetic pole that lies nearest our North Pole its
north magnetic pole ? That is merely a matter of convenience for us. We
see that the compass needle points north and south, and the arm of the
needle which points north we conveniently call its north pole.

The above experiment with a suspended needle shows how the mariner’s
compass is made. This most useful instrument is said to have been
invented by the Chinese, at least 1400 B. C., and perhaps even longer ago.
It was used by them to guide armies over the great plains, and the needle
was made of lodestone. The compass was introduced into Europe about
1300 A. D., and has been used by mariners ever since. To “box the com-
pass” is to tell all the points on the compass dial, and is an exercise which
the children will enjoy.

We are able to tell the direction of the lines of force flowing from a
magnet, by placing fine iron filings on a pane of glass or a sheet of paper and
holding close beneath one or both poles of a magnet ; instantly the filings
assume certain lines. If the two ends of a horseshoe magnet are used, we
can see the direction of the lines of force that flow from one pole to the
other. , It is supposed that these lines of magnetic force streaming from the
ends of the great earth magnet cause the Northern Lights, or Aurora
Borealis .

Lodestone is a form of iron with a special chemical composition, and it is
a natural magnet. Most interesting stories are told of the way the ancients
discovered this apparently bewitched material, because it clung to the iron
ends of their staffs or pulled the iron nails from their shoes. In the Ward’s
collection of minerals sent out to schools, which costs only one dollar, there is
included a piece of lodestone, which is of perennial interest to the
children.

Magnets made from lodestone are called natural magnets. A bar
magnet or a horseshoe magnet has received its magnetism from some other
magnet or from electrical sources. An electro magnet is of soft iron, and is
only a magnet when under the influence of a coil of wire charged with
electricity. As soon as the current is shut off the iron immediately ceases
to be a magnet.

LESSON CC&IX
The Magnet

Leading thought — Any substance that will attract iron is called a magnet,
and the force which enables it to attract iron is called magnetism. This
force resides chiefly at the ends of magnets, called the poles. The forces
residing at the opposite ends of a magnet act in opposite directions; in
two magnets the like poles repel and the unlike poles attract each other.
The needle of the mariner’s compass points north and south, because the
earth is a great magnet which has its south pole as a magnet at the North
Pole of the world.

Method — Cheap toy horseshoe magnets are sufficiently good for this
lesson, but the teacher should have a bar magnet, also a cheap toy compass,
and a specimen of lodestone, which can be procured from any dealer in
minerals. In addition, there should be nails, iron filings and tacks of both
iron and brass, pins, darning needles or knitting needles, pens, etc. Each

840

Handbook of Nature-Study

child, during play time, should have a chance to test the action of the
magnets on these objects, and thus be able to answer for himself the ques-
tions which should be given a few at a time.

Observations — 1, How do we know that an object is a magnet? How
many kinds of magnets do you know? Of what substance are the objects
made which the magnets can pick up ? Does a magnet pick up as many iron
filings at its middle as at its ends? What does this show?

2. How far away from a needle must one end of the magnet be before
the needle leaps toward it? Does it make any difference in this respect, if
the magnet approaches the needle toward the point or along its length?
Does this show that the magnetic force extends out beyond the magnet?
Does it show that the magnetic force works more strongly where it has
more surface to act upon?

3. Take a tack and see if it will pick up iron filings or another tack.
Place a tack on one end of the magnet, does it pick up iron filings now ?
What do you think is the reason for this difference in the powers of the tack ?

4. Are some magnets stronger than others? Will some magnets pull
the iron filings off from others? In the game of “stealing tacks,” which
can be played with two magnets, does each end of the magnet work equally
well in pulling the tacks away from the other magnet ?

5. Pick up a tack with a magnet. Hang another tack to this one end
to end. How many tacks will it thus hold ? Can you hang more tacks to
some magnets than to others? Will the last tack picked up attract iron
filings as strongly as the first next to the magnet? Why? Pull off the
tack which is next to the magnet. Do the other tacks continue to hold
together? Why? Instead of placing the tacks end to end, pick up one
tack with the magnet and place others around it. Will it hold more tacks
in this way ? Why ? If a magnet is covered with iron filings will it hold as
many tacks without dropping the filings?

6. Take two horseshoe magnets and bring their ends together. Then
turn one over and again bring the ends together. Will they cling to each
other more or less strongly than before? Bring two ends of two bar mag-
nets together; do they hold fast to each other? Change ends with one,
now do the two magnets cling more or less closely than before? Does this
show that the force in the two ends of a magnet is different in character?

7 . Magnetize a knitting needle or a long sewing needle by rubbing one
end of a magnet along its length twelve times, always in the same direction,
and not back and forth. Does a needle thus treated pick up iron filings?
Why?

8. Suspend this magnetized needle by a thread from some object
where it can swing clear. When it finally rests does it point north and
south or east and west?

9. Bring one end of a bar magnet or of a horseshoe magnet near to the
north end of the suspended needle; what happens? Bring the other end
of the magnet near the north end of the needle ; what happens ?

1 o . Magnetize two needles so that their eyes point in the same direction
when they are suspended. Then bring the point of one of these needles
toward the eye of the other, what happens? Bring the eye of one toward
the eye of the other, what happens ? When a needle is thus magnetized the
end which turns toward the north is called the north pole, and the end
pointing south is called the south pole.

Earth Study

841

1 1 . Try this same experiment by thrusting the needles through the top
of a cork and float them on a pan of water. Do the north poles of these
needles attract or repel each other? Do the south poles of these needles
attract or repel each other ? If you place the north pole of one needle at
the south pole of the other do they join and make one long magnet pointing
north and south?

12. Take a pocket compass; place the north end of one of the mag-
netized needles near the north arm of the compass needle ; what happens ?
Place the south pole of the needle near the north arm of the compass needle,
what happens? Can you tell by the action of your magnet upon the
compass needle which end of your magnet is the north pole and which the
south pole?

13. Magnetize several long sewing needles by rubbing some of them
toward the eye with the magnet and some from the eye toward the point.
Take some small corks, cut them in cross sections about one-fourth inch
thick, thrust a needle down through the center of each leaving only the eye
above the cork. Then set them afloat on a pan of water. How do they
act toward each other? Try them with a bar magnet first with one end
and then with the other, how do they act?

14. Describe how the needle in the mariner’s compass is used in
navigation.

15. Place fine iron filings on a pane of glass or on a stiff paper. Pass a
magnet underneath; what forms do the filings assume? Do they make a
picture of the direction of the lines of force which come from the magnet?
Describe or sketch the direction of these lines of force, when the poles of a
horseshoe magnet are placed below the filings. Place two similar poles of a
bar magnet beneath the filings ; what form do they take now ?

16. What is lodestone? Why is it so called ?

17. What is the difference between lodestone and a bar magnet ? What
is an electro magnet?

18. Write an English theme on “The Discovery and Early Use of the
Mariner’s Compass.”

Supplementary reading — Electrical Experiments, Bonney; The Wonder
Book of Magnetism, Houston ; ‘ ‘The Third Royal Calendar” from Arabian
Nights Entertainments.

“Now, chief of all, the magnet's power I sing ,

A nd from what laws the attractive functions spring;

The magnet's name the observing Grecians drew
From the magnetic regions where it grew;

Its viewless potent virtues men surprise,

Its strange effects they view with wondering eyes,

When, without aid of hinges, links , or springs,

A pendant chain we hold of steely rings

Dropt from the stone — the stone the binding source, —

Ring cleaves to ring, and owes magnetic force:

Those held superior, those below maintain,

Circle 'neath circle downward draws in vain,

Whilst free in air disports the oscillating chain.''

— “De Rerum Naturae,” Lucretius, 93-52 B. C.

.>42

Handbook of Nature-Study

A tiller of the soil.

THE SOIL
Teacher's Story

The soil is the sepulcher and the resurrection of all life in the past. The greater the
sepulcher the greater the resurrection. The greater the resurrection the greater the growth.
The life of yesterday seeks the earth to-day that new life may come from it tomorrow.
The soil is composed of stone flour and organic matter {humus) mixed ; the greater the
store of organic matter the greater the fertility. — John Walton Spencer.

Because the child, after making mud pies, is told that his face is dirty,
he naturally concludes that all soil is dirt. But it is only when out of place
that it is dirt; for, in place, it is the home of miracles — the matrix from
which comes that wonderful force which we call life. After the study of
the brook, the crystals, the minerals and the rocks, the pupils are ready for
a more careful study of the soil. However, most of the study in soils
belongs to agriculture rather than to nature-study.

The Soil Makers

If we could go back to the very beginning, we should find that the soil
consisted solely of broken off particles of rock — particles so finely ground
by nature’s forces that we might properly call them “rock flour.” In our
study of the brook, we noted that those stones with sharp corners were just
beginning their experience in the brook mill, and those that were
rounded out, forming pebbles, had their corners ground off in the making
of the soil grist. And in the work of the brook we saw how this grind-
ing was done, and how the soil grist is sifted, sorted, carried and
dropped.

Earth Study

843

But there are other agencies besides
water that help in grinding the stone flour.

If we visit some rocky cliff, we are sure to
find at its base a heap of stones, gravel and
soil, which the geologists call talus. In our
eastern country we know that these pebbles
and soil were pried loose by Jack Frost
with his ice wedges. The water filters into
all the cracks and crevices of the rock, and
since water, when freezing, is obliged to
expand, the particles of rock were thereby
torn loose and forced off and fell to the
bottom of the cliff. Moreover, rocks
expand when hot, and are often thus
broken without the aid of water and frost .

In the rocks of the desert, the changes in
temperature pry off the rock particles,
which the winds carry away to make up
the sands of the desert. The winds hurl
these sands against other rocks which are
still standing, and hurl them with such force
that more particles are torn off, making
more sand. In fact, the _ wind, in some Qne of Uncle John's nieces making
regions, grinds the rocks into stone flour stone flour.

as effectually as does the water in other

places. Then, too, the gases of the air also cause rocks to decay. We
know how iron rusts and falls to pieces through contact with the gases
of the air. Some rocks decompose in a similar way. We often see that
the inscriptions on old headstones have been almost obliterated, because
the gases in the air have so decomposed the marble.

In addition to the other soil makers, there are the little plants which we
call lichens. The spores of these plants are so minute that we cannot see
them, and they drift about in the air until they find resting place upon some
rock. Here they begin to grow, and as they grow they become strongly
acid ; they are thus enabled to eat a foothold into the rock, softening its

Lichens growing on rocks.
Photo by Verne Morton,

844

Handbook of Nature-Study

surface and powdering it into stone flour. And in these situations other
plants grow later, sending their roots down into every crack and orevice
and thus prying off more of the rock.

The Soil Carriers

In the study of the brook we have seen how the water lifts, carries and
deposits the soils ; and since, at one time or another, the entire surface of
the earth has been under water, we can see that water has been the most
important of the soil carriers and has done the greatest work. The wind
carries much soil, especially in the arid regions ; the movements of the sand
dunes in the deserts and on the seashores bear witness to what the wind can
do as a soil carrier. But in the northern United States, from New England
to the Dakotas, much of our soil has been carried by a great ice river that
once upon a time flowed down upon our lands from the North. This great,
slow-moving river, perhaps a mile or more high, plowed up the soil and
stones, and freezing them fast carried and shoved them along under its
great weight. After a time the ice melted and dropped its burden. Many
of the stones were of granite taken up from the old mountains of northern
Canada and ground off and rounded during their journey. We call these
stones which were brought down to us from the North, “boulders and the
soils which were brought along on the bottoms of glaciers and dropped and
pressed down by the tremendous ice weight and thus made compact
although unsorted, we call “hardpan.”

The Kinds of Soil

By the work of these soil makers and soil carriers, the rock flour was
made. But if we should take some of it and plant our seeds in it, we should
find that they would not grow thriftily, even though we watered them and
gave them every care. The reason for this is that most rock flour does not
have in it the substances which the plants most need for their growth. But
if we should go to the woods and get some of the black woods-earth and mix
it with rock flour, we should find that our plants would thrive. This rich,
earth mold in the forest is almost wholly made up of matter once alive, but
which is now decayed, and which we call “humus.” The more humus that
we have in the rock flour, the richer it is in plant food, and the more plant
growth it will support.

In general, soils may be divided into clay, sand, gravel, loam and
humus.

Clay in its purest sftate is kaolinite, the result of weathering of feldspar,
or mica. It is finely powdered a,nd is used for pottery, while the less pure
clays are used for brickmaking. Clayey soil is sticky and slippery when
wet, and bakes hard and cracks when dry. It is hard to cultivate, but it
absorbs moisture from the air and holds fast to its fertility, and is especially
good for permanent pastures and meadows.

Sand, in a pure state, is made up mostly of finely broken particles of
quartz and feldspar, and is used for the making of glass. A sandy soil is
light and open and easy to work. It absorbs little water from the air and
has little power for holding plant food, since the water washes it out. It is
especially valuable for truck gardening, because it is a warm soil. It is
warm because water does not evaporate from its surface rapidly.

Earth Study

845

Humus is composed of decayed animal and vegetable matter. It is very
rich in plant food. Wherever there is humus in the soil it is likely to be
darker in color than the stone flour.

Loam is a mixture of clay, sand and humus. For many crops it is the
most desirable soil.

LESSON CCXX

The Soil

Leading thought — The soil is composed of rock flour and humus. Soil,
to support life, must be porous, so that the roots of the plants may receive
through it both water and air.

Method — The children should bring in specimens of soils from various
localities near the school. Parts of each specimen should be wet to see if
they are clayey, that quality showing quickly in the puttylike adhesiveness
when rubbed between the fingers. It would be well to get some pure blue
day, and let the children make marbles of it to impress upon them this
quality of clay. They should try and make marbles of other soils to show
the lack of adhesiveness in them. They should examine sand through a
lens and should examine humus in a similar way. After they are familiar
with these three kinds of soils, they are ready for the lesson.

Observations — 1 . Look at any kind of soil with a lens, and tell why you
think it is made up of small pieces of stone and rock.

2. Take a piece of rock and pound it fine. What does it look like?
Do you think that your plants will grow well if you plant them in the rock
flour which you have just made? Try the experiment and describe the
results.

3 . How does the water grind off the stones and make soil ? How does
the wind do it?

4. How do water and frost pry off pieces of rock. Is there a cliff in
your neighborhood that has at its foot a heap of soil and stones? Where
did these comes from?

5. How do the lichens and other plants pry off the outside of rocks?
Have you ever found lichens growing on stones?

6. Have you ever noticed old headstones in the cemetery that were
falling to pieces ? What causes them to decay ?

7. Write an English theme on the great glacier that formerly covered
the northeastern portion of the United States.

8 . Go to the woods, scrape off the leaves and get some of the black earth
beneath them. Of what is this soil composed? Is it rock flour? What
makes it so black ? Why do you call this soil rich ? What does it do if you
add it to the soil in the pots where your flowers are growing?

9. Find a railroad cut or some other place where the earth is exposed
for some distance up and down. Is there solid rock at the bottom? How
deep is the soil above the rock ? Is the soil the same color at the surface as
it is below? Why is this?

10. Experiment 1: To show which kinds of soil hold most water— Take

three lamp chimneys, or bottles from which the bottoms have been broken.
Place in one loam in another clay, in another fine-grained sand, using in
each case the same amount. Tie cheesecloth over the bottom, so that the
soil will not fall out; make the soil compact by jarring down. Place each
over a tumbler. From a cup of water, held as near as possible to the soil,
pour water into one of the bottles slowly, so as to keep the surface of the soil

846

Handbook of Nature-Study

covered. Consult a watch and note how long before the water begins
dripping below. Do the same with the other two. Compare the results.
Which soil takes the water most rapidly? Which lets it through first ?
Which lets through the most ? How would rain affect fields of clayey soil ?
Of sandy soil ? Of loam ?

Hints for teacher on Experiment No. i — Through sand the water passes
very rapidly — in less than a minute if the sand is coarse. It takes several
minutes (14 min.) to go through loam, but requires some hours to appear
below the clay. It requires more water to saturate clay. Care should be
taken to use the same amount of water on the three kinds of soil. More
than one application will be required for clay, since the amount of water

Loam. Sand. Clay.

Note that the sand has allowed the most water to drip through it, the loam next,
while no water has passed through the clay.

accommodated in the chimney above the soil will not be sufficient to satu-
rate clay.

More water will be found to have percolated through sand than through
loam or clay. The latter are more retentive of moisture than is sand,
although absorbing rain less readily than sand. The mixture of sand and
clay in loam is most ideal for cultivated fields, absorbing moisture more
readily than clay and retaining it better than sand.

Experiment 2 — Fill a glass tumbler with very small marbles or buckshot.
Pour water over them to fill the glass. Placing cheesecloth over the top of
the tumbler pour off all the water that easily drains away. Remove the
cheesecloth, and immediately examine the marbles for the film of water
which surrounds each one and can clearly be seen where one marble comes in
contact with another marble or the side of the glass.

Hints for teacher on Experiment 2 — It is sucn a film of water as remains
on the marbles that on each particle of soil supplies the plant with water and
food. The water between the marbles has been drained off. This water
corresponds to that carried out of the soil by drainage; it is injurious to the
plant, keeping “its feet too wet,” and should be removed.

Earth Study

847

Experiment 3 — To show that soil lifts water up from below — Use the same
soils arranged in the same way as for Experiment 1 , but instead of pouring
water in at the top, place the three lamp chimneys in a pan which has water
in it about an inch deep. In which
soil does the water rise most rapidly ?

In which does it rise the highest?

After the water has been taken up,
let the soil stand in the lamp
chimneys for several days. Which
soil dries out the soonest? If we
had three fields, one of loam, one of
clay, and one of sand, in which
would the most water be lifted from
below for the use of the plants?

Which would retain the water
longest ?

Hints for teacher on Experiment 3
— Water rises through the sand in a
short time; if rather fine sand is used Sand. Clay. Loam.

it requires less than half an hour. The water has nearly reached the upper surface
To rise through loam it will require of the sand and is halfway up the loam; in the
three or four times as long, and may clay u has climbed but a short distance-
not reach the top of the clay for

several days. If the glass tubes were three or four feet long and allowed
to stand for several days, we would find that although the water climbs
very slowly through the clay it will climb to a greater height in clay than

in loam or sand. Under field
conditions clay will retain
moisture for a longer time
than sand or loam.

Experiment 4 — To show
that mulch keeps the water from
evaporating from soils — Take
two of the lamp chimneys
filled half full with loam.
Pour in the same amount of
water in each until the soil is
thoroughly wet. Cover the
top of one with an inch deep
of dry, loose earth. Which
dries out first? What does
the loosening and pulverizing
of the soil in our fields by
harrowing do for our planted
crops? What is a mulch?

Hints for teacher on Experi-
ment 4 — The soil covered
with a layer of dry soil —
a dust mulch — will retain
moisture much longer than
the unmulched soil. Hence,
the farmer or gardener loosens

The unmulched loam in the chimney at the left
dried out in four days. The loam covered with a
dust mulch in the other chimney retained moisture
for a month.

848

Handbook of Nature-Study

and pulverizes the top soil by harrowing, hoeing or raking in order to
retain moisture for plant roots. A mulch may also be of straw, boards,
leaves or stones. Fallen leaves form a natural mulch in the woods.
There, at any time, under this covering, may be found moist earth. A
mulch is a soil cover which breaks the capillary connection, so that water
will not rise to the surface to be evaporated. To be efficient a mulch
must be dry. After rain the “dust blanket” on the garden bed should be
renewed by cultivation.

Experiment 5 — Fill several vials with different soils from fields in the
neighborhood. If the soil in any of the vials is dry, moisten it. Take
a piece of blue litmus paper and press down into the soil in each vial. Does
the litmus paper turn red as it becomes dampened by the soil in any
of the vials? If so, this soil is acid. Add a little lime and mix it in
thoroughly with the soil m the vial that shows the acid soil. Test it again
with the litmus paper. Does the paper remain blue or turn red? Does
alfalfa and clover grow on acid soils? Why should we add lime to such
soils ?

Hints for teacher on Experiment 5 — A slightly acid soil may show no
reaction with litmus paper. It may be well to have a prepared soil wnh a
few drops of vinegar or other acid added, which will show the reaction.
The addition of lime will correct the acid condition. Soils for alfalfa or

Experiment to show the proper treatment of clay soil.

Earth Study 849

clover should never be acid. They are usually well limed before an
attempt is made to grow these legumes.

Experiment 6, which indicates the proper treatment of clay soils — Fill four
pie tins with clay which has been wet and smoothly puddled. In one mix
with the clay a small portion of lime; in another add a larger portion of
muck; leave two with pure clay, and place one of these out-of-doors where
it will freeze hard. Then place the four tins on a shelf and allow to dry.
In which of these is the clay most friable ? In which is it the hardest ?

Hints to the teacher on Experiment 6 — This experiment shows that freez-
ing the clay rendered it finer, so that it may be broken easily into particles
small enough to set closely about the plant’s roots. The clay mixed with
lime is much more friable than the one mixed with muck, showing that clay
needs lime more than organic matter to make it of greatest use. The pure
clay which is dried without freezing hardens into large, flat pieces,, each
being almost as hard as stone.

Supplementary reading — Ch. I, II, III in The Great World’s Farm, Gaye:
Oa. IV. in Practical Forestry, Gifford.

Beside the moist clods the slender flags arise filled with the sweetness of the earth. Out of
the darkness — under that darkness which knows no day save when the ploughshare opens its
chinks — they have come to the light. To the light they have brought a colour which will
attract the sunbeams from now till hax'vest. — Richard Jefferies.

“ Here is a problem , a wonder for all to see.

Look at this mansions thing I hold in my hand!

This is a magic surprising, a mystery

Strange as % miracle , harder to understand.

What is it? Only a handful of dust : to your touch
A dry, rough powder you trample beneath your feet.

Dark and lifeless; but think for a moment, how much
It hides and holds that is beautiful, bitter, or sweet.

Think of the glory c f color ! The red of the rose,

Green of the myriad leaves and the fields of grass ,
yellow as bright as the sun where the daffodil blows,
vurple where viol ;ts nod as the breezes pass.

Strangs, that this lifeless thing gives vine, flower, tree,

Color and shape and character, fragrance too;

That the timber that builds the house, the ship for the sea,

Out of this powder its strength and its toughness drew!"

— From “Dust,” Celia Thaxter,

Some years ago there was receh’.d at Cornell University a letter from a boy working upon
a farm in Canada. In this letter ie said:

11 1 have read your leaflet entitled, ‘The Soil, What It Is,’ and as I trudged up and down
the furrows every stone, every lump f earth, every shady knoll, every sod hollow had for me
a new interest. The day passed, the work was done, and I at least had had a rich experience ."

850 Handbook of Nature-Study

Fog on Mount Tamalpais, California.
Photo by G. K. Gilbert.

WATER FORMS
Teacher's Story

Water, in its various changing forms, is an example of another over-
worked miracle — so common that we fail to see the miraculous in it. We
cultivate the imagination of our children by tales of the Prince who
became invisible when he put on his cap of darkness, and who made far
journeys through the air on his magic carpet. And yet no cap of darkness
ever wrought more astonishing disappearances than occur when this most
common of our earth’s elements disappears from under our very eyes, dis-
solving into thin air. We cloak the miracle by saying ‘ ‘water evaporates, ’ ’
but think once of the travels of one of these drops of water in its invisible
cap! It may be a drop caught and clogged in a towel hung on the line
after washing, but as soon as it dons its magic cap, it flies off in the atmos-
phere invisible to our eyes ; and the next time any of its parts are evident to
our senses, they may occur as a portion of the white masses of cloud sailing
across the blue sky, the cloud which Shelley impersonates:

“I am the daughter of Earth and Water,

And the nursling of the Sky;

I pass through the pores of the ocean and shores;

I change, but I cannot die.”

We have, however, learned the mysterious key-word which brings back
the vapor spirit to our sight and touch. This word is “cold.” For if our
drop of water, in its cap of darkness, meets in its travels an object which is

Earth Study

851

cold, straightway the cap falls off and it becomes visible. If it be a stratum
of cold air that meets the invisible wanderer, it becomes visible as a cloud,
or as mist, or as rain. If the cold object be an ice pitcher, then it appears as
drops on its surface, captured from the air and chained as ‘'flowing tears"
upon its cold surface. And again, if it be the cooling surface of thA earth at
night that captures* the wanderer, it appears as dew.

But the story of the water magic is only half told. The cold brings back
the invisible water vapor, forming it into visible drops; but if it is cold
enough to freeze, then we behold another miracle, for the drops are changed
to crystals. The cool window-pane at evening may be dimmed with mist
caught from the air of the room ; if we examine the mist with a lens we find
it composed of tiny drops of water. But if the night be very cold, we find
next morning upon the window-pane exquisite ferns, or stars, or trees, all
formed of the crystals grown from the mist which was there the night before.
Moreover, the drops of mist have been drawn together by crystal magic,
leaving portions of the glass dry and clear.

If we examine the grass during a cool evening of October we find it
pearled with dew, wrung from the atmosphere by the permeating coolness
of the surface of the ground. If the following night be freezing cold, the
next morning we find the grass blades covered with the beautiful crystals of
hoar frost.

If a raincloud encounters a stratum of air cold enough to freeze, then
what would have been rain or mist comes down to us as sleet, hail or snow-
flakes, and of all the forms of water crystals, that of snow in its perfection is
the most beautiful ; it is, indeed, the most beautiful of all crystals that we
know. Why should water freezing freely in the air so demonstrate geome-
try by forming, as it does, a star with six rays, each set to another, at an
angle of 60 degrees? And as if to prove geometry divine beyond cavil,
sometimes the rays are only three in number — a factor of six — and include
angles of twice 60 degrees. Moreover, the rays are decorated, making
thousands of intricate and beautiful forms; but if one ray of the six is
ornamented with additional crystals the
other five are decorated likewise. Those
snow crystals formed in the higher
clouds and, therefore, in cooler regions
may be more solid in form, the spaces in
the angles being built out to the tips of
the rays including air spaces set in sym-
metrical patterns: and some of the

crystals may be columnar in form, the
column being six-sided. While those
snow crystals formed in the lower cur-
rents of air, and therefore in warmer
regions, show their six rays marvellously
ornamented. The reason why the snow
crystals are so much more beautiful and
perfect than the crystals of hoar frost or
ice, is because they are formed from water
vapor, and grow freely in the regions of
the upper air. Mr. W. A. Bentley, who has spent many years photo-
graphing the snow crystals, has found more than 1300 distinct types.

Composite snow crystal formed in
high and medium clouds.
Photomicrograph by W. A. Bentley.

852

Handbook of Nature-Study

The high clouds are composed of
ice crystals formed from the cloud mists;
such ice clouds form a halo when veiling
the sun or the moon.

When the water changes to vapor and
is absorbed into the atmosphere, we call
the process evaporation. The water
left in an open saucer will evaporate more
rapidly than that in a covered saucer,
because it comes in contact with more
air. The clothes which are hung on the
line wet, dry more rapidly if the air is dry
and not damp; for if the air is damp, it
means that it already has almost as much
water in it as it can hold. The clothes
will dry more rapidly when the air is hot,
because hot air takes up moisture more
readily and holds more of it than does
cold air. The clothes will dry more
rapidly on a windy day, because more air
moves over them and comes in contact
with them than on a still day.

If we observe a boiling teakettle, we
can see a clear space of perhaps an inch
or less in front of the spout. This space
is filled with steam, which is hot air
saturated with hot water vapor. But
what we call “steam” from a kettle, is
this same water vapor condensed back
into thin drops of water or mist by
coming into contact with the cooler air Blizzard type of snow crystal formed
of the room. When the atmosphere is in low cloud.

dry, water will boil away much more Photomicrograph by W. A. Bentley,
rapidly than when the air is damp.

The breath of a horse, or our own breath, is invisible during a warm day;
but during a cold day, it is condensed to mist as soon as it is expelled from
the nostrils and comes in contact with the cold air. The one who wears
spectacles finds them unclouded during warm days; but in winter the
glasses become cold out of doors, and as soon as they are brought into con-
tact with the warmer, damp atmosphere of a room, they are covered
with a mist. In a like manner, the window-pane in winter, cooled by
the outside temperature, condenses on its inner surface the mist from the
damp air of the room.

The water vapor in the atmosphere is invisible, and it moves with the
air currents until it is wrung out by coming into contact with the cold.
The air thus filled with water vapor may be entirely clear near the surface
of the earth; but, as it rises, it comes in contact with cooler air and dis-
charges its vapor in the form of mist, which we call clouds; and if there is
enough vapor in the air when it meets a cold current, it is discharged as rain
and falls back to the earth. Thus, when it is very cloudy, we think it will
rain, because clouds consist of mist or fog; and if they are subjected to a
colder temperature, the mist is condensed to rain. Thus, often in moun-

Snow crystal formed in high clouds.
Photomicrograph by W. A. Bentley.

Earth Study

853

tainous regions, the fog may be seen streaming and boiling over a mountain
peak, and yet always disappears at a cer-
tain distance below it. This is because the
temperature around the peak is cold and
condenses the water vapor as fast as the
wind bringsit along, but the mist passes over
and soon meets a warm current below and,
presto, it disappears! It is then taken
back into the atmosphere. The level base
of a cumulus cloud has a stratum of warmer
air below it, and marks the level of con-
densation.

At the end of the day, the surface of the
ground cools more quickly than the air
above it. If it becomes sufficiently cold
and the air is damp, then the water from it
is condensed and dew is formed during the
night. However, all dew is not always
condensed from the atmosphere, since some
of it is moisture pumped up by the plants,
which could not evaporate in the cold night
air. On windy nights, the stratum of air
cooled by the surface of the earth is moved
along and more air takes its place, and it
therefore does not become cold enough to
be obliged to yield up its water vapor as
dew. If the weather during a dewy night
becomes very cold, the dew becomes
crystallized into hoar frost. The crystals
of hoar frost are often very beautiful and
are well worth our study.

The ice on the surface of a still pond
begins to form usually around the edges
first, and fine, lancelike needles of ice are
sent out across the surface. It is a very
interesting experience to watch the ice
crystals form on a shallow pond of water.

This may easily be seen during cold winter
weather. It is equally interesting to
watch the formation of the ice crystals in a
glass bottle or jar. Water, in crystallizing, Dew on spider's web; Dewdrops on
expands, and requires more room than it strawberry leaf; Hoarfrost on
does as a fluid; therefore, as the water strawberry leaf .

changes to ice it must have more room, and Photographs by w. a. Bentley,
often presses so hard against the sides of the bottle as to break it. The ice
in the surface soil of the wheat fields expands and buckles, holding fast in
its grip the leaves of the young wheat and tearing them loose from their
roots; this “heaving” is one cause for the winter-killing of wheat. Sleet
consists of rain crystallized in the form of sharp needles. Hail consists of
ice and snow compacted together, making the hard, more or less globular
hailstones.

§54

Handbook of Nature-Study

Frost crystals on window-pane.
Photo by W. A. Bentley.

LESSON CCXXI

Water Forms

Leading thought — W ater occurs
as an invisibl^Vapor in the air
and also as mist and rain; and
when subjected to freezing, it
crystallizes into ice and frost and
snow.

Method — The answers to the
questions of this lesson should, as
far as possible, be given in the
form of a demonstration. All of
the experiments suggested should
be tried, and the pupils should
think the matter out for them-
selves. In the study of the snow
crystals a compound microscope
is a great help, but a hand lens
will do. This part of the work
must be done out of doors. The
most advantageous time for
studying the perfect snow cry-
stals is when the snow is falling in
small, hard flakes; since, when
the snow is soft, there are many
crystals massed together into
great fleecy flakes, and they have
lost their original form. The
lessons on frost or dew may be
given best in the autumn or
spring.

Observations — i. Place a saucer
filled with water near a stove or
radiator; do not cover it nor
disturb it. Place another saucer
filled with water near this but
cover it with a tight box. From
which saucer does the water
evaporate most rapidly? Why?

2 . We hang the clothes, after
they are washed, out of doors to
dry; what becomes of the water
that was in them? Will they
dry more rapidly during a clear
or during a damp day? Why?
Will they dry more rapidly dur-
ing a still or during a windy day?
Why? Will they dry more
rapidly during hot or cold
weather? Why?

3. Watch a teakettle of

855

Earth Study

water as it is boiling. Notice that near its spout there is no mist, but what
we call steam is formed beyond this. Why is this so? What is steam?
Why does water boil away ? Do kettles boil dry sooner on some days than
on others? Whv^?

4. If the water disappears in the atmosphere where does it go? Why
do we say “the weather is damp” ? What force is it that wrings the water
out of the atmosphere?

5. Why does the breath of a horse show as a mist on a cold day?
Why do persons who wear spectacles find their glasses covered with mist

Forms of hoar frost.
Photo by W. A. Bentley.

as soon as they enter a warm room after having been out in the cold ? Why
do the window-panes become covered with mist during cold weather? Is
the mist on the outside or on the inside ? Why does steam show as a white
mist? Why does the ice pitcher, on a warm day, become covered on the
outside with drops of water? Would this happen on a cold day? Why not?

6. Why, when the water is invisible in the atmosphere, does it become
visible as clouds? What causes the lower edges of cumulus clouds to be
so level? What is fog? Why do clouds occur on mountain peaks?
What causes rain?

7. What causes dew to form? When the grass is covered with
dew, are the leaves of the higher trees likewise covered? Why not?
What kind of weather must we have in order to have dewy nights? What
must be the atmosphere of the air in relation to that of the ground in
order to condense the dew ? Does dew form on windy nights ? Why
not? Does all dew come from the air, or does some of it come from the
ground through the plants? Why is not this water, pumped up by the
plants, evaporated?

8 . What happens to the dew if the weather becomes freezing during the
night? What is hoar frost? Why should water change form when it is
frozen ? How many forms of frost crystals can you find on the grass on a
frosty morning?

856

Handbook of Nature-Study

9. When a pond begins freezing over, what part ot it freezes first?
Describe how the first layer of ice is formed over the surface.

10. Place a bottle of water out of doors in freezing weather. How
does the ice appear in it at first? What happens later? Why does the
bottle break? How is it that water which has filled the crevices of rocks
scales off pieces of the rock in cold weather? Why does winter wheat
* ‘winter-kill” on wet soil ?

1 1 . Why does frost form on a window-pane ? How many different
figures can you trace on a frosted pane? Are there any long, needlelike
forms? Are there star forms? Can you find forms that resemble ferns
and trees? Do you sometimes see, on boards or on the pavement, frost
in forms like those on the window-pane?

12. When there is a fine, dry show
falling, take a piece of dark flannel and
catch some flakes upon it. Examine them
with a lens, being careful not to breathe
upon them. How many forms of snow
crystals can you find? How many rays
are there in the star-shaped snow crystals ?

Do you find any solid crystals? Can you
find any crystals that are triangular?

When the snow is falling in large, feathery
flakes, can you find the crystals? Why
not?

13. What is the difference between a
hailstone and a snow crystal ? What is sleet ?

Supplementary reading — Water Won-
ders, Thompson ; F orms of W ater, Tyndall.

High cloud snow crystal.
Photomicrograph by W. A. Bentley.

“When in the night we wake and hear the rain
Which on the white bloom of the orchard falls,

And on the young, green wheat-blades, where thought recalls
How in the furrow stands the rusting plow,

Then fancy pictures what the day will see —

The ducklings paddling in the puddled lane ,

Sheep grazing slowly up the emerald slope,

Clear bird-notes ringing, and the droning bee
Among the lilac's bloom — enchanting hope —

How fair the fading dreams we entertain,

When in the night we wake and hear the rain!"

■ — Robert Burns Wilson.

“ The thin snow now driving from the north and lodging on my coat consists of those
beautiful star crystals, not cottony and chubby spokes, but thin and partly transparent
crystals. They are about a tenth of an inch in diameter, perfect little wheels with six spokes
without a tire, or rather with six perfect little leaflets, fern - like, with a distinct straight and
slender midrib, raying from the center. On each side of each midrib there is a transparent
thin blade with a crenate edge. How full of creative genius is the air in which these are
generated! I should hardly admire more if real stars fell and lodged on my coat. Nature
is full of genius, full of divinity. Nothing is cheap and coarse, neither dewdrops nor
snowflakes .”

“A divinity must have stirred within them before the crystals did thus shoot and set.
Wheels of storm-chariots. The same law that shapes the earth-star shapes the snow-stars.
As surely as the petals of a flower are fixed, each of these countless snow-stars comes whirling
to earth , pronouncing thus, with emphasis, the number six.” — Thoreau’s Journal.

Weather Study

857

Temple of the winds at Athens ,
Photo by J. H. Comstock.

THE WEATHER
By Wilford M. Wilson

Section Director, U. S. Weather Bureau, and Professor of Meteorology
in Cornell University.

The atmosphere, at the bottom of which we
live, may be compared to a great ocean of air,
about two hundred miles deep, resting upon the
earth. The changes and movements that take
place in this ocean of air, the storms that invade
it, the clouds that float in it, the sunshine, the
rain, the dew, the sleet, the frost, the snow, and
the hail are termed “weather.” We live in it;
we partake of its moods; we reflect its sunshine
and shadows; it invades the everyday affairs
of life, influences every business and social
activity, and molds the character of nations;
and yet nearly everything we know about the
weather has been learned within the lifetime
of the present generation. N ot that the weather
did not interest men of early times, but the
problem appeared to be so complicated and so
complex that it baffled their utmost endeavors.

Composite snow crystal; the
center formed in a high
cloud and the margins in
a lower cloud.

Photomicrograph by
W. A. Bentley.

8sS

Handbook of Nature-Study

Snow crystal.
Photomicrograph by
W. A. Bentley.

The Temple of the Winds at Athens

The Temple of the Winds, erected probably
about five hundred years B. C., indicates the
knowledge f the weather possessed by the
ancient Greeks. This temple is a little octagon
tower, the eight sides of which face the eight
principal winds. On each of its eight sides is a
human figure cut in the marble, symbolizing
the kind of weather the wind from that particu-
lar direction brought to Athens.

Boreas, the cold north wind, is represented
by the figure of an old man wearing a thick
mantle, high buskins (boots) and blowing on
a “weathered horn. ” The northeast wind, which
brought, and still brings to Athens, cold, snow, sleet and hail, is symbolized
by a man with a severe countenance who is rattling slingstones in a
shield, thus expressing the noise made by the falling hail and sleet.

The east wind, which brought weather favorable to the growth of vegeta-
tion, is shown by the figure of a beautiful youth bearing fruit and flowers in
his tucked-up mantle.

Natos, the warm south wind, brought rain, and he is about to pour the
water over the earth from the jar which he carries.

Lips, the southwest wind, beloved of the Greek sailors, drives a ship
before him, while Zephros, the gentle west wind, is represented by a youth
lightly clad, scattering flowers as he goes.

, The northwest wind, which brought dry and sometimes hot weather to
Athens, is symbolized in the figure of a man holding a vessel of charcoal
in his hands. Thus, the character of the weather brought by each separate
wind is fixed in stone, and from this record we learn that, even with the
lapse of twenty centuries, there has come no material change.

Historical

There is no record of any rational progress
having been made in the study of the weather
until about the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury, when Torricelli discovered the principles
of the barometer. This was a most important
discover}' and marks the beginning of the
modem science of meteorology. Soon after
Torricelli’s discovery of the barometer his great
teacher, Galileo, discovered the thermometer,
and thus made possible the collection of data
upon which all meteorological investigations
are based. About one hundred years after
the discovery of the barometer, Benjamin
Franklin made a discovery of equal import-
ance. He demonstrated that storms were
eddies in the atmosphere, and that they pro-
gressed or moved as a whole, along the surface of the earth.

It might be interesting to leam how Franklin made this discovery.
Franklin, being interested at that time in astronomy, had arranged with a

Snow crystal.
Photomicrograph by
W. A. Bentley.

Weather Study

859

friend in Boston to take observations of a lunar eclipse at the same time
that he, himself, was to take observations at Philadelphia. On the night of
the eclipse a terrific northeast wind and rain storm set in at Philadelphia,
and Franklin was unable to make any observations. He reasoned, that as
the wind blew from the northeast, the storm must have been experienced in
Boston before it reached Philadelphia. But imagine his surprise, when he
heard from his friend in Boston that the night had been clear and favorable
for observation, but that a fierce wind and rain storm set in on the following
morning. Franklin determined to investigate. He sent out letters of
inquiry to all surrounding mail stations, asking for the time of the beginning
and ending of the storm, the direction and strength of the wind, etc. When
the information contained in the replies was charted on a map it showed
that, at all places to the southwest of Philadelphia, the beginning of the
storm was earlier than at Philadelphia, while at all places to the northeast
of Philadelphia the beginning of the storm was later than at Philadelphia.
Likewise, the ending was earlier to the southwest and later to the northeast
of Philadelphia than at Philadelphia. He also found that the winds in
every instance passed through a regular sequence, setting in from some
easterly point and veering to the south as the storm progressed, then to the
southeast and finally to the west or northwest as the storm passed away and
the weather cleared.

A further study of these facts convinced Franklin that the storm was an
eddy in the atmosphere, and that the eddy moved as a whole from the
southwest toward the northeast, and that the winds blew from all directions
toward the center of the eddy, impelled by what he termed suction.

Franklin was so far in advance of his time that his ideas about storms
made little impression on his contemporaries, and so it remained for
Redfield, Espy, Loomis, Henry and Maury and other American meteorolo-
gists, a hundred years later, to show that Franklin had gained the first
essentially correct and adequate conception of the structure and movement
of storms.

During the first half of the nineteenth century, considerable progress
was made in the study of storms, principally by American meteorologists,
among whom was William Redfield of New York, who first demonstrated
that storms had both a rotary and progressive movement. James Espy
followed Redfield in the construction of weather maps, although he had
already published much on meteorological subjects before the latter entered
the field.

Professor Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution at
Washington, was the first to prepare a daily weather map from observations
collected by telegraph. He made no attempt to make forecasts, but used
his weather map to demonstrate to members of Congress the feasibility of a
national weather service.

An incident occurred during the Crimean War that gave meteorology
a great impetus, especially in Europe. On November 10th, 1854, while
the French fleet was at anchor in the Black Sea, a storm of great intensity
occurred which practically destroyed its effectiveness against the enemy.
The investigation that followed showed that the storm came from western
Europe, and had there been adequate means of communication and its
character and direction of progress been known, it would have been
possible to have warned the fleet of its approach and thus afforded an
opportunity for its protection.

86o

Handbook of Nature-Study

This report created a profound impression among scientific men and
active measures were taken at once that resulted in the organization of
weather services in the principal countries of Europe between 1855 and
i860.

The work of Professor Henry, Abbe, and others in this country would,
doubtless, have resulted in such an organization in the United States in the
early 6o’s, had not the Civil War intervened, absorbing public attention to
the exclusion of other matters. It was not until 1870, that Dr. Increase A.
Lapham of Milwaukee, in conjunction with Representative Paine of that
city, was able so to present the claims for a national weather service that
the act. was finally passed that gave birth to the present meteorological
bureau in the United States. Dr. Lapham issued from Chicago on Novem-
ber 10, 1871, the first official forecast of the weather made in this country.

The Atmosphere

What is known about the atmosphere of our
earth has been learned from the exploration of
a comparatively thin layer at the bottom.
There is reason to believe that the atmosphere
extends upwards about two hundred miles from
the surface of the earth. W e have a great mass
of observations made at the surface, some on
mountains, but few in the free air more than
a few miles above the surface. Our knowledge
of the upper atmosphere is, therefore, in the
nature of conclusions drawn from such obser-
vations as are at hand, and is subject to changes
and modifications as the facts become known
by actual observation.

During the past few years a concerted effort has been made in various
parts of the world to explore the upper atmosphere by means of kites and
balloons, carrying meteorological instruments that automatically record
the temperature, pressure, humidity, velocity and direction of the wind, etc.
In this country this work has been carried on principally at the Mount
Weather Observatory, which is located in Loudon County, Virginia, and is
under the direction of the United States Weather Bureau and at Blue Hill
Observatory, a private institution located near Boston and supported by
Professor Lawrence Rotch. From observations thus obtained much has
been learned about the upper atmosphere that was not even suspected
before. Some theories have been confirmed and some destroyed, but this
line of research is gradually bringing us nearer the truth.

Air as a Gas

Air is not a simple substance, as was once supposed, but is composed of
a number of gases, each one of which tends to form an atmosphere of its
own, just as it would if none of the other gases were present. The different
gases of the atmosphere are not chemically combined but are very
thoroughly mixed, as one might mix sugar and salt. Samples of air col-
lected from all parts of the world show that the relative proportion of the
gases forming the atmosphere is practically uniform.

Snow crystal.
Photomicrograph by
W. A. Bentley.

Weather Study

861

The Composition of Air

Dry air is composed chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen. There are, how-
ever, small quantities of carbon dioxide, argon, helium, krepton, neon,
hydrogen and xenon, and probably other gases yet to be discovered.

The approximate proportion, by volume is as follows: Nitrogen 78

parts, oxygen 21 parts, argon 1 part, carbon-dioxide .03 parts, and krepton
helium and xenon a trace. Pure dry air does not exist in nature, so there is
always present in natural air a variable amount of water vapor, depending
upon the temperature and the source of supply. Besides these, which may
be termed the permanent constituents of the atmosphere, many other sub-
stances are occasionally met with. Lightning produces minute quantities
of ammonia, nitrous acid and ozone. Dust comes from the earth, salt from
the sea, while innumerable micro-organisms, most of which are harmless,
besides the pollen and spores of plants, are frequently found floating in the
atmosphere. Recent investigations in atmospheric electricity lead to the
conclusion that electric ions are also present, and perform important func-
tions, especially with respect to precipitation.

Oxygen

Oxygen is one of the most common substances. It exists in the atmos-
phere as a transparent, odorless, tasteless gas. It combines with hydrogen
to form the water of the oceans, and with various other substances to form
much of the solid crust of the earth. Chemically, it is a very active gas,
and because of its tendency to unite with other substances to form chemical
compounds, it is believed that the volume of oxygen now in the atmosphere,
is less than during the early history of the earth. It supports combustion
by combining with carbon and other substances, producing light and heat.
It combines with some of the organic constituents of the blood, through the
function of respiration, which is in itself a slow process of combustion, and
thus supports life and maintains the bodily heat.

Nitrogen

Nitrogen forms the largest proportion of the atmosphere, but unlike
oxygen it is a very inert substance, uniting with no element at ordinary
temperatures, and at high temperatures with only a few; and when so
united the bonds that hold it are easily broken and the gas set free. For
this reason, it is utilized in the manufacture of explosives, such as gun-
powder, guncotton, nitroglycerine, dynamite, etc. Its office in the atmos-
phere appears to be to give the air greater weight and to dilute the oxygen,
for in an atmosphere of pure oxygen a fire once started could not be con-
trolled. Although nitrogen does not contribute directly to animal life, in
that it is not absorbed and assimilated from the air direct as oxygen is,
nevertheless, it is a very important element of food both for animals and
plants, and in combination with other substances forms a large proportion
of animal and vegetable tissues.

Carbon Dioxide

Carbonic acid gas, known chemically as C02 is a product of combustion.
It results from the burning of fuel and is exhaled by the breathing of ani-
mals. It also results from certain chemical reactions. The amount in the
atmosphere varies slightly, being somewhat greater at night than by day

862

Handbook of Nature-Study

and during cloudy weather than during clear weather. Air containing
more than 0.06% of carbon dioxide is not fit to breathe, not because air
loaded with carbon dioxide is poisonous, but because it excludes the oxygen
and thus produces death by suffocation. It is considerably heavier than
air, and in certain localities, where it is emitted from the ground, accumu-
lates in low places in such quantities as to suffocate animals. Death’s
Gulch, a deep ravine in Yellowstone Park, and Dog’s Grotto near Naples,
are examples. At the latter place, the gas, on account of being heavier than
air, lies so close to the ground that a man, standing erect, will have no
difficulty in breathing, while a dog will die of suffocation. It also accumu-
lates in unused wells, cisterns and mines, and can usually be detected by
lowering a lighted candle. If carbon dioxide is present in large quantities,
the candle will be extinguished because of the lack of oxygen to support
combustion.

Although carbon dioxide forms but a small proportion of the atmos-
phere, it is a very important element in plant life. Animals consume
oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide, while plants take in carbon dioxide and
give off oxygen ; thus, the amount of these gases in the atmosphere is main-
tained at an equilibrium. Plants, through their leaves, absorb the carbon
dioxide, which is decomposed by the sunlight, returning the oxygen free
into the air, while the carbon is used to build up plant tissue.

Other Gases

Argon, on account of its resemblance to nitrogen, was not discovered
until 1894, having been included with the nitrogen in all previous analyses
of air. It constitutes about 1% of air by volume. Krepton, neon and
xenon exist in minute quantities and have some interest chemically, but
little for the meteorologists. Helium and hydrogen probably exist at great
elevations in the atmosphere.

Water Vapor

The vapor of water in the atmosphere varies from about one per cent
for arid regions to about five per cent, of the weight of the air for warm,
humid regions. It is a little over one-half as heavy as air and moist air is,
therefore, lighter than dry air; but the increase of moisture near the center
of cyclones has only a slight effect in reducing the pressure. The amount of
vapor decreases very rapidly with elevation, and probably disappears at an
elevation of five or six miles above the surface. The amount of water in
the form of vapor that can exist in the atmosphere increases with the
temperature, being .54 grains Troy per cubic foot at zero temperature and
14.81 at 90°.* When the air has taken up all the moisture it can contain
at a given temperature it is said to be saturated.

The dewpoint is the temperature at which saturation occurs. If the
air is saturated, the temperature of the air and the dewpoint will be the
same, but if the air is not saturated the dewpoint will be below that of the
air.

Relative humidity is expressed in percentages of the amount necessary
to saturate. If the air contains one-half enough vapor to saturate it, the
relative humidity will be 50%; if one-fourth, enough to saturate, 25%; if
saturated 100% etc.

The absolute humidity is the actual amount of water in the form of
vapor in the air, and is usually expressed by weight in grains per cubic foot

Weather Study

863

or in inches of mercury, the weight of which would counterbalance the
weight of the vapor in the air. The conditions present in a volume of.
saturated air at a temperature of 3 2 0 may be expressed as follows : Relative
humidity 100%; dewpoint 3 20; absolute humidity 2 . 1 1 grains per cu. ft.
or .18 inch.

Pressure of Atmosphere

Although the atmosphere is composed of these various gases, it acts in
all respects like a simple, single gas. It is very elastic, easily compressed,
expands when heated and contracts when cooled. It is acted, upon by
gravity and, therefore, has weight and exerts pressure, which at sea level
amount to about 14.7 pounds on each square inch of the surface. Because
it is compressible and has weight, it is more dense at the surface than at any
elevation above the surface, and as we ascend in the atmosphere the weight
or pressure decreases in proportion to the weight of that part of the atmos-
phere left below. The weight or pressure of the atmosphere is measured
by means of a barometer and is expressed in terms of inches of mercury.
The normal atmosphere at sea level will sustain a column of mercury
about thirty inches high, and we therefore say that the normal pressure
of the atmosphere is thirty inches. (See Lessons on air pressure and the
barometer.)

The Height of the Atmosphere ■

The air that surrounds the earth is called its
atmosphere, but it is a rather curious fact that the
earth has really ten atmospheres and may have
others not yet discovered.

The air near the surface is a mixture of eight
different gases, and each individual gas arranges
itself so as to form an atmosphere just as it would
if no other gases were present. Thus, the earth is
surrounded by an atmosphere of oxygen, an
atmosphere of nitrogen, one of carbon dioxide,
one of water vapor, one each of argon, krypton,
neon, and xenon, while hydrogen and helium
are believed to exist at great elevations above the
earth’s surface.

These gases are kept from flying off into space by the force of gravity,
just as a piece of iron, stone, or a building is held fast to the earth by the
same force. Gravity acts with greater force on some things than on others.
For example, a piece of iron is pulled down by gravity with greater force
than is a piece of wood of the same size ; likewise, a piece of lead is pulled
down with greater force than a piece of iron. We, therefore, say that iron is
heavier than wood and that lead is heavier than iron, simply because gravity
acts with greater force on the one than on the other. The weight of gases
differ just as the weight of different solids, such as lead, wood or iron differ.
For instance, nitrogen is 14 and oxygen 16 times heavier than hydrogen.

Gases having the least weight extend upward the farthest, because the
lighter the gas the greater its expansive force. Every boy who rides a
bicycle takes advantage of the expansive force of air when he pumps his
tires. The air is compressed by the pump into the tube and the expansive
force exerted by the air in trying to expand makes the tire “stand up.” If
it requires 10 pounds pressure to compress the gas into the tube, the expan-
sive force will be just ten pounds.

Snow crystal.

Photomicrograph by
W. A. Bentley.

864

Handbook of Nature-Study

There are two forces in constant operation on each gas that surrounds
the earth, viz., expansive force and gravity. Expansive force pushes the
gas up and gravity pulls it down, but the force of gravity decreases as the
distance from the center of the earth increases, so there is a point at a cer-
tain distance above the earth where the two forces just balance each other,
and each gas will expand upward to that point but will not rise beyond it.
Therefore, if we know the expansive force of a gas and the rate at which
gravity decreases, it is possible to calculate the height to which the differ-
ent gases that compose the air will rise.

In this way it has been determined that carbon dioxide, which is one of
the heavier gases, extends upward about ten miles, water vapor about 12
miles, oxygen about 30 miles and nitrogen about 35 miles while hydrogen
and helium, the lightest gases known, do not appear at the surface at all, but
probably exist at a height of from 30 miles to possibly 200 miles.

The zone of twilight in midwinter.

From Todd’s New Astronomy.

There are other ways in which we are able to gain some idea of the
approximate height at which there is an appreciable atmosphere. When
the rays of light from the sun enter our atmosphere they are broken up or
scattered — diffracted — so that the atmosphere is partially lighted for
some time before sunrise and after sunset. This is called twilight. If there
were no atmosphere, there would be no twilight, and darkness would fall the
instant the sun passed below the horizon. Twilight, which is caused by the
sun shining on the upper atmosphere, is perceptible until the sun is about
1 6° below the horizon.* ' From this it is calculated that the atmosphere has
sufficient density at a height of 40 miles to scatter, or diffract, sunlight.

Observations of meteors, commonly called shooting stars, indicate that
there is an appreciable atmosphere at a height of nearly 2 00 miles. Meteors
are solid bodies flying with great velocity through space. Occasionally
they enter our atmosphere. Their velocity is so great that the slight
resistance offered by the air generates enough heat by friction, or by the
compression of the air in the path of the meteor, to make it red hot or to
bum it up before it reaches the bottom of the atmosphere. Only the largest
meteors reach the earth.

When a meteor is observed by two or more persons at a known distance
from each other, and the angle which the line of vision makes with the
horizon is noted by each, it is a simple matter to calculate the distance from
the earth where the lines of vision intersect, and thus determine the height
of the meteor. In this way, reliable observations have given the height at
which there is sufficient density in the atmosphere to render meteors lumin-
ous as 188 miles.

Weather Study

865

Temperature of the Atmosphere

The condition of the atmosphere with respect to its temperature is
determined by means of the thermometer. This instrument is in such
common use that a detailed description is not necessary. It might be
interesting to note that the instrument invented by Galileo was very
different from those now in use. Galileo’s original thermometer was what
is known as an air thermometer, and its operation when subjected to differ-
ent degrees of heat or cold depended upon the expansion and contraction of
air instead of mercury or alcohol. It had one serious defect, viz. , the length
of a column of air is affected by pressure as well as by temperature and it
was, therefore, necessary, when using this thermometer, to obtain the pres-
sure of the atmosphere by means of the barometer before the temperature
could be determined. This is obviated in the modern thermometer by the
use of mercury or alcohol in a vacuum tube. Mercury is not used when it
is expected to register very low temperatures, because it congeals at about
45 degrees below zero Fahr.

Thermometer Scales in Use

There are three systems in common use for marking the degrees on the
scale, viz., Fahrenheit, Centigrade and Reaumur.

The Fahrenheit scale was the invention of a German by that name, but it
is worthy of note that this scale is used principally by English speaking
nations and is not in common use in Germany. Fahrenheit found that by
mixing snow and salt he was able to obtain a very low temperature, and
believing that the temperature thus obtained was the lowest possible he
started his scale at that point, which he called zero. He then fixed the
freezing temperature of water 32 degrees above this zero, and the boiling
point of water at 212 degrees. There are, therefore, 180 divisions or de-
grees between the freezing and boiling point of water on the Fahrenheit
scale.

The Centigrade scale starts with zero at the freezing point of water and
makes the boiling point 100. Thus 180 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale
equal 100 degrees on the Centigrade. The Fahrenheit degree is, therefore,
only a little more than half as large, to be exact five-ninths of a degree, as a
degree on the Centigrade scale. The Centigrade scale is in common use in
France and is used almost exclusively in all scientific work throughout the
world.

The Reaumur scale is used generally in Russia and quite commonly in
some parts of Europe, especially in Germany. On this scale the zero is
placed at the freezing point of water and the boiling point at 80 degrees.
The divisions are, therefore, larger than those of the Centigrade scale and
more than twice as large as the Fahrenheit. The general use of these
different scales has led to endless confusion and made the comparison of
records difficult, so that even at the present time when making a tempera-
ture record it is necessary to indicate the scale in use.

Distribution of the Temperature and Pressure

The heat received on the earth from the sun is the controlling factor in
all weather conditions. If the earth were composed of all land or all water,
and the amount of heat received were everywhere the same throughout the
year, there would be no winds, no storms and probably no clouds and no

866

Handbook of Nature-Study

rain, because the force of gravity, which acts on everything on the earth’s
surface and on the air as well, would soon settle all differences and the at-
mosphere would become perfectly still. But the earth is composed of land
and water and the land heats up more rapidly under sunshine than the
water and also gives off —“radiates” its heal more rapidly than water. As
a result, the air over the land is warmer in summer than the air over the
water. During the winter this is reversed, and the air over the oceans is
warmer than the air over the land. The great ocean currents, by carrying
the heat from the equatorial regions toward the poles, and by bringing the
cold from the polar regions toward the equator, assist in maintaining a con-
stant difference in temperature between the continents and the adjacent
oceans.

Furthermore, the fact that the path of the earth about the sun is not a
circle but an ellipse, and that the axis of the earth is not perpendicular to
the plane of its orbit, result in an unequal distribution of heat over the sur-
face. It is always warmer near the equator than at the poles, and warmer
in summer than in winter. All these differences in temperature cause
corresponding differences in density, which, in turn, cause differences in
weight or pressure over various parts of the earth’s surface. These changes
are, in no way, the result of chance but are determined by the operation of
fixed natural laws, and with this in mind we may now take up the study of
the winds of the world.

The Winds of the World

The general circulation of the atmosphere may
be best studied by disregarding those smaller differ-
ences of temperature and pressure that result from
local causes and by viewing the earth and its atmos-
phere as a whole, considering only those larger
differences which are in constant operation. In
the great oceans of the world we find the water con-
stantly moving in a very systematic manner, and
we call this system of movements ocean currents.
The Gulf Stream, the Equatorial Current, the Japan
Current and others may be likened to great rivers
of water moving systematically on their courses
in the ocean.

There are greater rivers of air in the atmosphere
than any in the oceans, and they move on their
courses with equally systematic precision and in obedience to fixed laws,
which we may in a measure understand.

The river, at the bottom of which we live, is broad and deep, extending
in width from Florida northward, nearly to the north pole. It flows from
west to east circling the globe and its name is The Prevailing Westerlies.
The other river in this hemisphere extends southward from latitude about
35° nearly to the equator. Its name is The Northeast Trade Winds.

In the southern hemisphere are two similar rivers, one extending south-
ward from latitude about 30° nearly to the south pole with its current,
like its counterpart in the northern hemisphere, flowing from west, to
east, circling the globe. It is also called The Prevailing Westerlies.
The other river in the southern hemisphere extends from about latitude
30° northward nearly to the equator and flows from the southeast

Snow crystal.
Photomicrograph by
W. A. Bentley.

Weather Study

867

toward the northwest, hence the name Southeast Trade Winds.
The dividing line, or bank, between the rivers in each hemisphere
belts the earth at about 3 50 north and 3 o° south of the equator. Why
does the air move and why does it move in such a regular, systematic
manner ? To answer these questions we will rely upon gravity, the heat
from the sun and the effect of the rotation of the earth on moving wind
currents.

Everyone knows that water flows down hill because of the force of
gravity. Gravity is nature’s great peacemaker. It is always trying to
settle disturbances, even things up, smooth them over. If there were
no winds to bring rain to the land or to stir up the ocean, gravity would

soon run all the water into the lakes and the seas, and then smooth them
out like sheets of glass; and if there were nothing to stir up the winds,
gravity would soon settle all differences in the atmosphere and the air would
become perfectly quiet. So gravity is kept busy trying to smooth out the
water which the wind stirs up, at the same time trying to quiet the winds
which are stirred up by the heat of the sun.

Tyndall says that heat is a mode of motion, that when heat is imparted
to a substance the molecules of which it is composed are set into very rapid
vibration. They are continually trying to get away from each other and
usually succeed in getting more space, and thus increase the size or volume
of the substance, or, in other words, expand it. Iron, brass, copper, water
and many other substances expand under heat. Air is a gas and expands
very rapidly when heated. One cubic foot of cold air becomes two cubic
feet when heated. Now gravity pulls things down toward the center of
the earth in accordance with their weight-density, and a cubic foot of cold
air, being more dense and thus heavier than an equal volume of warm air, is
pulled down with greater force. We, therefore, say that warm air is lighter
than cold air, and if lighter it will rise. What, it actually does is to press
equally in all directions and when a place is found where there is less

868

Handbook of Nature-Study

resistance than elsewhere it moves in that direction. So when heat causes
air to expand and become lighter than the surrounding cool air, it moves,
and air in motion is wind.

This diagram represents a section of the atmosphere over a broad, level
plain with the air at rest and pressing down equally on every part of the sur-
face. The dotted line H represents the top of the quiet atmosphere. Such
a condition occurs frequently at night after the heat from the sun is with-
drawn and gravity has settled the atmosphere. When the rays of the sun
fall upon the earth upon which this quiet air rests they warm the earth first,
then the layer of air immediately in contact with the surface, so the atmos-
phere is heated from the bottom upward. We will assume that the layer
of air between the earth and the dotted line, G, is thus heated to a higher
temperature than the air above it. It will, therefore, expand. It cannot
expand downward because of the earth. It cannot expand much laterally
because it is pressed upon by air that is also seeking more space. It, there-
fore, expands upward as represented by the line ABC. Now in expanding

upward it lifts all the air above it and the line H, representing the top of the
atmosphere, will become bowed upward also as indicated by the line A'B'C'.
As a result, the air at the top of the atmosphere over the warm center
slides down the slopes on either side toward the cool margins. As soon as
the flow of air away from the warm center begins, just that instant the
pressure upon the heated layer at the surface is relieved and the warm air
rushes upward (is pushed upward) and the whole circulation, as indicated
by the arrows, begins. It must be remembered that gravity is the really
active force in maintaining this movement, because it pulls down the denser,
heavier air at the cool margins with greater force than the warm, expanded,
light air at the warm center. The descent of the cool air actually lifts the
warm air.

The normal pressure, or weight, of the atmosphere at sea level is about
14.7 pounds on each square inch of surface. It is customary, however, to
express the weight of the atmosphere in terms of inches of mercury instead
of in pounds and ounces. A column of air one inch square from sea level to
the top of the atmosphere will just counterbalance a column of mercury
30.00 inches high in a barometer tube of the same size. We, therefore, say
that the normal pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is about 30.00
inches. If, for any reason, the atmosphere becomes heavier than normal,
it will raise the column of mercury above the 30 inch mark, and we say that
the pressure is “high. ’ ’ If the atmosphere becomes lighter than normal, we

Weather Study ' 869

say that the pressure is ‘ ‘low. ’ ’ So high pressure means a heavy atmosphere
and low pressure a light atmosphere.

At the beginning we assumed that the atmosphere over the broad, level
plain was quiet and that it pressed down equally on every part of the sur-
face. We will now assume that the pressure was normal, or 30.00 inches,
and note the changes in pressure that result from the interchange of air
between the warm center and the cool margins. So long as none of the air
raised by the expanding layer at the surface, moved away toward the cool
margins, no change in pressure occurred; but the instant the air began to
glide down the slopes away from the warm center, *then the pressure at the
surface decreased, because, some air having moved away, there was less to
press down than before. The pressure at the warm center, therefore,
became less than 30.00 inches, or in other words, low. Likewise, the air as
it moved away from the warm center, having lost much of its heat during
its ascent, was gradually pulled down by gravity because of its greater
density, thus increasing the pressure over the cool margins. We, therefore,
have low pressure at the warm center, 29.90 inches and high pressure, 30.10
inches, at the cool margins. From this illustration we obtain the six prin-
ciples of convectional circulation, viz. :

1 . Low pressure at warm center.

2. High pressure at cool margins.

3 . Ascending currents at warm center.

4. Descending currents at cool margins.

5. Surface winds from high pressure to low pressure.

6. Upper currents from low pressure to high pressure.

Now, we all know that the temperature of air is much higher at the
equator than at the poles and we may, therefore, let Fig. 1 represent a sec-

Fig. 2. Isobars of the world.

Handbook of Nature-Study

870

tion of the atmosphere along any meridian from the north to the south pole.
The equator would then become the warm center and the poles the cool
margins. We would then expect to find a belt of low pressure around the
world near the equator because of the high temperature, and high pressure
at the poles because of the low temperature. We would, also, expect to
find ascending currents at the equator; upper currents flowing from the
equator toward the poles; descending currents at the poles, and surface
winds blowing from the poles toward the equator. Let us now test our
theory by actual facts and see how far they are in accord.

The chart, Fig. 2, represents the normal, or average, pressure at sea
level for the world, and if our theory is in accord with the facts, we should
find a belt of low pressure all around the world near the equator, with areas
of high pressure at the poles. Let us examine the chart. Beginning at the
equator, and bearing in mind that the normal pfessure is about 30.00 inches.

\ r
t t

N. Pole
Low

35°

High

Equator

tow

30°

High

S.Pcde

Low

Fig. j. Diagram showing air currents along any meridian.

we find irregular lines, representing pressures of 29.90 inches — slightly
below normal — around the world on both sides of the equator. Between
these lines we find pressure as low as 29.80. It is, therefore, evident that
there is a belt of low pressure around the world near the equator, as antici-
pated. Let us look for the high pressure at the poles. We have compara-
tively few observations near the poles, but the line nearest the south pole
is marked 29.30 inches, a surprisingly low pressure, much lower even than
the low belt at the equator, and just the reverse of what we expected to find.
When we look at the north pole we find that the pressure is not so low as at
the south pole, but still below normal and about as low as at the equator.
Going north and south from the equator we find that the pressure increases
gradually up to about latitude 3 50 in the northern hemisphere and to about
latitude 30° in the southern, after which it decreases toward the poles. So
there are two well marked belts of high pressure circling the globe ; the one
about 3 50 north, and the other about 30°, south of the equator. May it not
be significant that these belts of high pressure coincide so nearly with the
margins, or banks, of the air rivers mentioned on page 867 ?

Thus far our theory does not accord very well with the facts. True, we
found the low pressure at the equator as anticipated ; but we also found low
pressure at the poles, where the reverse was expected ; and the high pressure
that we anticipated at the poles, we found not far north and south of the
equator. We will, therefore, have to discard our theory, or reconstruct it
to accord with the facts. Let us reconstruct Fig. 1 , and mark the pressure
on the line representing the earth’s surface along any meridian to accord
with the facts as they appear on Fig. 2.

The above diagram now represents the true pressure along any meridian,
as determined by actual observations, and we cannot escape the conviction
that the requirements as to temperature and pressure at the warm center

Weather Study

871

are fulfilled by the high temperature and low pressure found at the equator.
Furthermore, the temperature decreases north and south from the equator,
and thus the belts of high pressure near the tropics may be taken to repre-
sent the conditions at the cool margins. The first and second principles of
a convectional circulation, viz., low pressure at the warm center and a high
pressure at the cool margins, are thus fulfilled. To satisfy the remaining
conditions, we should find ascending currents near the equator, upper cur-
rents flowing from the equator toward the tropical belts of high pressure,
descending currents at the tropics, and surface winds blowing from the
tropics toward the equator. Let us now examine the surface winds of the
world as illustrated by the diagram on page 867.

On either side of the equator and blowing toward it, we find the famous
trade winds — the most constant and steady winds of the world. Their
northern and southern margins coincide with the tropical belts of high pres-
sure. They blow from high pressure to low pressure and we cannot doubt
that they act in obedience to the fifth principle of convectional circulation.
From observation of the lofty, cirrus clouds in the trade wind belts, we have
abundant evidence of upper currents, flowing away from the equator toward
the tropical belts of high pressure ; thus the sixth principle is satisfied. The
torrential rains and violent thunderstorms, characteristic of the equatorial
regions, bear evidence to the rapid cooling of the ascending currents near the
equator; while the clear, cool weather and light winds of the Horse Lati-
tudes clearly indicate the presence of descending currents at the tropics.
Thus, the six principles of a convectional circulation are satisfied, and the
evidence is conclusive that the trade winds form a part of a convectional
circulation between the tropical belts of high pressure and the equatorial
belt of low pressure.

You have doubtless observed that the trade winds do not blow directly
toward the equator but are turned to the west so that they blow from the
northeast in the northern hemisphere, and from the southeast in the south-
ern. This peculiarity is not in strict accord with our ideas of a simple con-
vectional circulation and suggests, at least, the presence of some outside
influence. If we turn to Ferre’s treatise on the winds, we find a demonstra-
tion of the following principle : a free moving body, such as air, in moving
over the surface of a rotating globe, such as the earth, describes a path on
the surface that turns to the right of the direction of motion in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern. The curvature of the path
increases with the latitude, being zero at the equator and greatest at the
poles, and is independent of direction. With this in mind, if we take posi-
tion at the northern limit of the trade winds in the northern hemisphere and
face the equator, (see p. 867), we find that the winds moving toward the
equator turn to our right ; likewise, if we face the equator from the southern
limit of the southeast trades, we find them turning to our left. Observa-
tions of upper clouds in the trade wind belts show that the upper currents
also turn to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the
southern. It is, therefore, clear that the systematic turning of the trade
winds from the meridian is due to the rotation of the earth. The value of a
force at various latitudes and for various velocities that would cause a body
to turn away from a straight line, is purely a problem in mathematics, and
for the benefit of those versed in the science the formula is given. The
amount of such a force is expressed by 2 MVW sin D, where M is the mass,
V the velocity, W the angular rotation of the earth, and D the latitude.

872

Handbook of Nature-Study

Not all of us may be able to solve the problem, but we may understand
something of the effect of the rotation of the earth on moving wind currents.
It is a well-known principle of physics that if a body be given a motion in
any direction, it will continue to move in a straight line by reason of its
inertia, without reference to north, south, east or west. A personal
experience of this principle may be gained in a street car while it is rounding

a curve.

In this diagram, we have a view of the northern hemisphere. The direc-
tion of the rotation is indicated by the curved arrows outside the circle
representing the equator. Suppose that a wind starts from the equator,
moving along the meridian A directly toward the north pole. It is clear
that it cannot continue to move along the meridian, because the direction of
the meridian with reference to space, is continually changing, and the inertia
of the wind compels it to move in a straight line without reference to the
points of the compass. So when the meridian A has been moved to B by

the rotation of the earth, the wind, al-
though it maintains its original direc-
tion, no longer points toward the pole
but to the right of the pole. Like-
wise, a wind starting from the pole
toward the equator also turns to the
right of the meridians and becomes a
northeast wind as it approaches the
equator. A wind moving east or west,
also turns to the right of the parallels
for the same reason. So a wind start-
ing out from the equator with the best
possible intention of hitting the pole,
and all the while continuing in the
same straight line, will miss the pole by
many miles, and always on the right
side in the northern and on the left side
in the southern hemisphere. Thus,
the oblique movement of both the trade winds and the prevailing westerlies
is accounted for.

It now remains to consider the cause of the unexpected low pressure
found at the poles, and the reason for the belts of high pressure at the
tropics. If we refer to Fig. 2, it is evident that not all the air that ascends
at the equator descends at the tropics, else there would be an absence of air
at the higher latitudes, which is manifestly not the case. On the other
hand, it is equally impossible that all the air ascending at the equator
should move to the poles, because the space it could occupy decreases
rapidly from a maximum at the equator to zero at the poles. Only a part
of the air that ascends at the equator is, therefore, involved in the trade
wind circulation and a part passes over the tropics and moves on toward
the low pressure at the poles. Furthermore, some of the air that descends
at the tropics moves along the surface toward the poles, obeying the law
that impels air to move from high pressure to low pressure. Now every
particle of air that passes over the tropics, every particle that moves north-
ward along the surface, turns to the right in the northern and to the left in
the southern hemisphere. All, therefore, miss the poles — on the right side
in the northern and on the left side in the southern hemisphere. The result

Diagram showing effect of earth's rotation
on the atmosphere.

Weather Study

873

is that two great whirlpools develop in the atmosphere; one whirling about
the north and the other whirling about the south pole. The outer margins
of these whirlpools coincide with the tropical belts of high pressure.

As an example of a whirlpool we may take a oasin having a vent at the
center of the bottom. If the basin is filled with water, the plug withdrawn
and the water given a slight rotary motion, its velocity will increase as it
approaches the center and the rapid whirling will develop sufficient cen-
trifugal force to open an empty core. Those who have visited the great
whirlpool at Niagara, undoubtedly noticed that the whirling waters are
held away from the center and piled up around the margins by the centrif-
ugal force developed. Let us suppose that air starting from the equator,
moves without friction or other resistances toward the pole. Its velocity
must increase as its radius shortens, because the law of the conservation of

areas requires that the radius must always sweep over equal areas in a given
unit of time. (See law of conservation of areas.) At the equator, the air
has an easterly motion equal to the eastward motion of the earth, which is
1 ,000 miles per hour. At latitude 6o° the radius will have decreased one-
half and the velocity, therefore, doubled; but at latitude 6o° the eastward
motion of the earth is only 500 miles per hour, so the air would be moving
1500 miles per hour faster than the earth. At a distance of 40 miles from
the pole the wind would attain an easterly velocity of 100,000 miles per
hour, and moving on so short a radius would develop sufficient centrifugal
force to hold all the air away from the pole and thus form a vacuum. That
the supposed case of no friction is far from the truth is evidenced by the
fact that the pressure at the north pole is but little less than at the equator ;
but the centrifugal force developed by the gyration winds, in thus with-
drawing the air from the poles and piling it up at the tropics, may be fairly
taken as sufficient cause for the low pressure found at the poles and the
belts of high pressure at the tropics.

The questions that remain to be considered are : ( 1 ) the low pressure at

the south pole as compared with the pressure at the north pole and (2) the

874

Handbook of Nature-Study

unequal distance of the tropical belts of high pressure from the equator.
These questions may be considered together.

It is to be remembered that the southern hemisphere is the water hemi-
sphere, and that the prevailing westerlies, in gliding over the smooth water
surface, are but little retarded by friction and, therefore, attain a higher
velocity than the corresponding winds of the northern hemisphere, where
the rougher surface materially retards their movement. As a consequence,
the circumpolar whirl of the southern hemisphere is stronger, and develops a
greater centrifugal force, thus holding a larger quantity of air away from the
south pole and reducing the pressure to a greater degree than is brought
about by the weaker winds of the northern hemisphere.

Since the circumpolar whirl of the southern hemisphere is the stronger
of the two, it withdraws the air to a greater distance from the pole than does
its weaker counterpart of the northern hemisphere, and piles it up in the
tropical belt of high pressure about five degrees nearer the equator than
does the weaker forces of the northern hemisphere.

Storms

Having gained a comprehensive view of the
general, planetary wind system, we may now
undertake the study of local disturbances that
arise within the general circulation and are
known as “storms.”

Storms are simply eddies in the atmosphere.
They may be compared to the eddies that are
often seen floating along with the current of a
river or creek. In these eddies the water is
seen to move rapidly around a central vertex,
developing sufficient centrifugal force to hold
some of the water away from the center, thus
forming a well marked depression, frequently
of considerable depth. The whole circulation
of the eddy is quite independent of the current
of the stream which carries it along its course, and while its general direction
and velocity of movement coincide with that of the current, there are times
when it will be seen to move quickly from side to side and again when it will
remain nearly stationary for a time or take on a rapid movement.

The eddies or storms in the atmosphere act in much the same way.
They are carried along by the general currents of the river of air in which
they exist. Their general direction coincides with the direction of the
current in which they are floating, and their rate of movement conforms in
a general way to its velocity ; but like the eddies in the river, they do not
always move in straight lines nor at a uniform rate of speed.

There is one important respect in which the eddies in the air differ from
eddies in water. The water eddy may revolve in either direction, depend-
ing upon the direction in which the initial force was applied, but the storm
eddies in the atmosphere always revolve counter-clockwise in the northern
hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern.

This is due to the deflecting force of the earth’s rotation, which is fully
explained on page 872.

Snow crystal.

Photomicrograph by
W. A. Bentley.

Weather Study

875

Weather Maps

A weather map is a sort of flashlight photograph
of a section of the bottom of one or more of these
great rivers of air. It brings into view the whole
meteorological situation over a large territory at a
given instant of time ; and, while a single map con-
veys no indication of the movements continually
taking place in the atmosphere, a series of maps, like
a moving picture, shows not only the whirling
eddies, the hurrying clouds and the fast-moving
winds, but the ceaseless on-flow of the great river of
air in which they float. Our present knowledge of
the movements of the atmosphere has been gained
chiefly from a study of weather maps ; they form the basis of the modern
system of weather forecasting, and their careful study is essential to any
adequate understanding of the problems presented by the atmosphere.
(See pages 884-885.)

The Principles of Weather Forecasting
The forecasting of the weather has been
made possible by the electric telegraph. It is
based upon a perfectly simple, rational process
constantly employed in everyday affairs. We
go to a railway station and ask the operator
about a certain train. He tells us that it will
arrive in, an hour. We accept his statement
without question, because we are confident that
he knows the speed at which the train is ap-
proaching, a few clicks of his telegraph instru-
ment has told him just where it is and the time it
will arrive, barring accidents, is a simple calcula-
tion. Information of coming weather changes Snow crystal.

are obtained in a similar manner. Although Photomicrograph by

storms do not run on steel rails like a train, w. a. Bentley,

nevertheless their movements may be foreseen with a reasonable degree of
accuracy, depending chiefly upon the size of the territory from which tele-
graphic reports are received and the experience and skill of the forecaster.
As a rule, the larger the territory brought under observation, especially in
its longitudinal extent (the general currents carry storms of the middle
latitudes eastward around the world and those of the tropics westward) , the
earlier advancing changes may be recognized and the more accurately their
movements foreseen.

Forecasts Based on Weather Maps

The forecasts issued by the United States Weather Bureau are based on
weather maps, prepared from observations taken at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m. at
about 200 observatories. In addition to the reports received by telegraph
by the Central Office at Washington, the several forecast centers and other
designated stations from observatories or stations in the United States, a
system of interchange with Canada, Mexico, the West Indies and other
island outposts in the Atlantic and Pacific gives to the forecaster two daily
photographs of the weather conditions over a territory embracing nearly

876

Handbook of Nature-Study

the whole of the inhabited part of the western hemisphere north of the
equator. Any sort of disturbance within this vast region is photographed
at once upon the weather map. If it be a West Indies hurricane or other
destructive storm, its character is recognized instantly, its rate and direc-
tion determined and information of the probable time of its arrival sent to
those places that lie in its path. The method is perfectly simple. Anyone
with a weather map and a little experience can forecast the weather with
some degree of accuracy, or, at least, gain an intelligent understanding of
the conditions upon which the forecasts that accompany the map are based.

Maps, Where Published and How Obtained

Weather maps are published in many daily papers, and in somewhat
larger form and more in detail, at many Weather Bureau stations. They
may usually be obtained for school use by applying to the nearest Weather
Bureau station or to the Chief of the Weather Bureau at Washington, D. C.

The forecasts that accompany the maps are simply an expression on the
part of the official forecaster as to the weather changes he expects to occur
in various parts of the country within the time specified, usually within 36
to 48 hours. His opinion is based upon the conditions shown by the map.
He has no secret source of information. You may accept his conclusions,
or, if in your opinion they are not justified, you have all the information
necessary to make a forecast for yourself. Weather maps are published so
extensively with a view to thus stimulating an intelligent interest in the
problem of weather forecasting, and also that one may see at a glance
what the temperature, rainfall, wind and weather is in any part of the
country in which he may be interested. The friends of the weather service
are those who best understand its work.

The Value of the Weather Service
No one knows so well as the forecaster that the
changes that appear most certain to come some-
times fail, or come too late; but taking all in all,
about 85 out of 100 forecasts are correct. Of
those that fail, probably not more than three of
four per cent, fail because the changes come
unannounced. Most forecasters predict too
much, and their forecasts fail because the expected
changes come after the time specified or not at all.
It is fortunate that this is so ; for it is better to be
prepared for the change though it be late in co m±ng
than to have it come without warning.

The value of the weather service to the agriculture and commerce of the
United States cannot be questioned seriously. That the appropriations
for its support have been increased year by year from $1,500 in 1871 to
nearly $1,500,000 in 1910 is evidence of its value and efficiency. A con-
servative estimate places the value of property saved by the warnings issued
by the Weather Bureau at $30,000,000 annually.

Snow crystal.
Photomicrograph by
W. A. Bentley.

Weather Study

877

LESSON CCXXI1

Experiments to Show Air Pressure

Leading thought — The air presses equally
in all directions.

Experiment 1 — To show that air presses
upward — Fill a tumbler which has an
unbroken edge as full of water as possible.

Take a piece of writing paper and cover the
tumbler, pressing the paper down firmly
upon the edge of the glass. Turn the glass
bottom side up and ask why the water does
not flow out. Allow a little air to enter;
what happens? Why? Turn the glass
filled with water and covered with paper
sidewise ; does the water flow out ? If not,
why?

Experiment 2 — To show that air passes
downward — Ask some of the boys of the
class to make what they call a sucker.

This is a piece of leather a few inches
across. Through its center a string is
drawn which fits very closely into the leather and is held in place by a very
flat knot on the lower side. Dampen the leather and press it against any
flat surface, and try to pull it off. If possible, place the sucker on a flat
stone and see how heavy a stone can be lifted by the sucker. Ask why a
sucker clings so to the flat surface. If a little air is allowed to get between
the sucker and the stone, what happens ? Why ?

Hints to the teacher regarding the Experiments — The water is kept in the
tumbler in Experiment 1 by the pressure of the atmosphere against the
paper. If the tumbler is tipped to one side the water still remains in the
glass, which shows that the air is pressing against the paper from the side
with sufficient force to restrain the water, and if the tumbler is tipped
bottom side up it shows the air is pressing upward with sufficient force to
keep the water within the glass.

In the case of Experiment 2 , we know that the leather pressing upon the
floor or on the stone is not in itself adhesive, but it is made wet simply so
that it shall press against the smooth surface more closely. The reason
why we cannot pull it off is that the air is pressing down upon it with the
force of about fifteen pounds to the square inch. If the experiment is per-
formed at sea level, we should be able to lift by the string of the sucker a
stone weighing fifteen pounds. The reason why the water falls out of the
tumbler after a little air is let beneath the paper, is that then the air is
pressing on both sides of the paper; and the reason why the sucker will not
hold if there is any air between it and the stone, is because the air is pressing
in both directions upon it.

Supplementary reading — The Wonderbook of the Atmosphere, Houston,
Chapters III, IV, V.

Composite crystal; high cloud at
center and medium high cloud
at the border.

Photomicrograph by W. A. Bentley.

878

Handbook of Nature-Study

Compound snow crystals.
Photo by W. A. Bentley.

LESSON CCXXIII
The Barometer

Leading thought — The weight of our
atmosphere balances a column of mercury
about thirty inches high, and is equal to
about fifteen pounds to the square inch.
This pressure varies from day to day, and
becomes less as the height of the place
increases. The barometer is an instru-
ment for measuring the atmospheric pres-
sure. It is used in finding the height of
mountains, and, to a certain extent, it
indicates changes of the weather.

Method — A glass tube about 36 inches
long, closed at one end; a little glass
funnel about an inch in diameter at the top ;
a small cup — a bird’s bathtub is a good size
since it allows plenty of room for the
fingers ; mercury enough to fill the tube and
have the mercury an inch or more deep in the cup. Be careful not to
spill the mercury in the following process, or you will be as badly off as
old Sisyphus with his rolling stone.

Set the closed end of the tube in the cup so that
any spilled mercury will not be lost ; with the help
of the funnel slowly and carefully fill the tube clear
to the top with the mercury ; empty the rest of the
mercury into the cup ; place the end of one of the
fingers of the left hand tightly over the open end of
the tube and keep it there; with the right hand
invert the tube, keeping the end closed with the
finger, and place the hand, finger and all, beneath
the mercury in the cup then remove the finger,
keeping the open end of the tube all the time below
the surface of the mercury. When the mercury has
ceased to fall measure the distance from the surface
in the cup to the top of the mercury in the tube.

Observations — 1. How high is the column of
mercury in the tube?

2 . What keeps the mercury in the tube ? Place
the cup and the tube on a table in the corner of the
room, place behind the tube a yardstick, and note
whether the column of mercury is the same height
day after day. If it varies, why ?

3. Would the mercury column be as high in the tube if it were placed
on top of a mountain as it would at the foot ? Why ?

Supplementary reading — Chap. II in The Wonderbook of the Atmos-
phere, Houston.

A barometer made by
pupils.

Weather Study

879

HOW TO READ WEATHER MAPS
Teacher's Story

Weather maps may be obtained by
writing to the nearest Weather Station,
or by writing to the Chief of the Weather
Bureau, Dr. Willis L. Moore, Washing-
ton, D. C., stating that you wish to post
the maps in a public place. A supply
of maps for three successive days for use
in these lessons may be obtained at 20
cents per hundred. Sometimes they are
sent free, if it is stated that they are
to be used for school purposes.

The words isobar and isotherm have
been bogies which have frightened
many a teacher from undertaking to
teach about weather maps, and yet how
simple are the meaning of these two
words. Isobar is made up of two
Greek words, isos meaning equal and
baros meaning weight. Therefore, an
isobar means equal weight, and on a map
one of these continuous lines means that,
wherever it passes, the atmosphere there
has equal weight and the barometer
stands at equal height. The isobar of
30 means that the mercury in the bar-
ometer stands 30 inches in height in
all the regions where that line passes.

“Isotherm” comes from the two Greek words, isos meaning equal and
iherme meaning heat. Therefore, on the map the dotted lines show the
region where the temperature is the same. If at the end of the dotted line
you find 60 it means that, wherever that line passes, the thermometer
stands at 60 degrees.

Many of the “highs” and “lows” enter the United States from the
Pacific Ocean about the latitude of Washington State or southwest British
Columbia. They follow one another alternately, crossing the continent in
the general direction of west to east in a path which curves somewhat to the
north, and they leave the United States in the latitude of Maine or New
Brunswick. If they enter by way of lower California, they pass over to the
Atlantic Ocean farther south. The time for the passage of a high or low
across the continent averages about three and one-half days, sometimes a
little more. These areas are usually more marked in winter, and wind
storms are more marked and more regular.

A low area is called a cyclone and a high area an anti-cyclone. The
destructive winds, popularly called cyclones, which occur in certain regions,
should be called tornadoes instead, although in fact they are simply small
and violent cyclones. But a cyclone, when used in a meteorological sense,
extends over thousands of square miles and is not violent ; while a tornado
may be only a few rods in diameter and be very destructive. The little
whirlwinds which lift the dust in the roads are rotary winds also, but merely
the eddies of a gentle wind.

88o

Handbook of Nature-Study

In a cyclone or “low,” and also in a tornado, the air blows from all sides
spirally inward toward the center where there is a column of ascending air.

In an anti-cyclone or “high” the air blows outward in every direction
in curved lines from a column of descending air.

In the above map, the curved lines are isobars; the line of crosses from
A to B indicates the course of the storm ; the arrows indicate the direction
of the wind, note that it is moving counter-clockwise around the area of
low pressure; the shaded area indicates the region where it is raining or
snowing; note that this is the area where the warm, moist air from the
Gulf and the Ocean meets the colder air of the North.

The weather conditions during the passage of a cyclone are briefly as
follows: Small, changing wisps of cirrus clouds appear about 24 hours
before rain ; these gradually become larger and cover the whole sky, making
a nimbus cloud. The wind changes from northeast to east or southeast to
south. The barometer falls ; the thermometer rises, that is, air pressure is
less to the square inch, and the temperature of the atmosphere is warmer.
Rain begins and falls for a time, varying from an hour to a day or more.
After the rain there appear breaks in the great nimbus clouds and finally the
blue sky conquers until there are only a few or no clouds. The wind
changes to southwest and west; the barometer rises, the temperature falls.
The rain ceases, the sun shines out brightly. The low has passed and the
high is approaching to last about three days.

Weather Study

881

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WEATHER BUREAU

No. f

Pair Weather

EXPLANATION OF WEATHER SIGNALS

No. 2 No. 3 No. 4

8 hi.

Rain or Snow Local Rain or Snow Temperature

No. 5

Cold Wave

INTERPRETATION OF DISPLAYS
No. i, alone, indicates fair weather, stationary temperature.

No. 2, alone, indicates rain or snow, stationary temperature.

No. 3, alone, indicates local rain or snow, stationary temperature.

No. i, with No. 4 above it, indicates fair weather, warmer.

No. i, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, colder.

No. 2, with No. 4 above it, indicates rain or snow, warmer.

No. 2, with No. 4 below it, indicates rain or snow, colder.

No. 3, with No. 4 above it, indicates local rain or snow, warmer.

No. 3, with No. 4 below it, indicates local rain or snow colder.

WILLIS L. MOORE,

Chief U. S. Weather Bureau.

EXPLANATION OP WHISTLE SIGNALS
A warning blast of fifteen to twenty seconds duration is sounded to attract atten-
tion. After this warning the longer blasts (of four to six seconds duration) refer to
weather, and shorter blasts (of one to three seconds duration) refer to temperature;
those for weather are sounded first.

Blasts Indicate. Blasts. Indicate.

One long Fair weather. One short Lower temperature.

Two long Rain or snow. Two short Higher temperature.

Three long Local rain or snow. Three short Cold wave.

By repeating each combination a few times, with intervals of ten seconds, liability
to error in reading the signals may be avoided.

STORM AND HURRICANE WARNINGS

Storm warnings.

NW. winds. SW. winds.

Hurricane

warning.

Explanation of Storm and Hurricane Signals

Storm warning — A red flag with a black center indicates that a storm of marked violence is expected.

The pennants displayed with the flags indicate the direction of the wind; red, easterly (from north-
east to south) ; white (westerly from southwest to north). The pennant above the flag indicates that
the wind is expected to blow from the northerly quadrants; below from the southerly quadrants.

By night a red light indicates easterly winds and a white light below a red light westerly winds.

Hurricane warning — Two red flags with black centers displayed one above the other indicates the
expected approach of a tropical hurricane or one of those extremely severe and dangerous storms which
occasionally move across the Lakes and northern Atlantic coast.

No night hurricane warnings are displayed.

882

Handbook of Nature-Study

U. S. weather maps, showing the eastward progress
Note the course of the low that was on the Pacific Coast Dec. 24- this

Weather Study

883

of an area of low pressure for four consecutive days.
is indicated by the line of dots and dashes on the later maps.

884

Handbook of Nature-Study

LESSON CCXXIV
How to Read Weather Maps

Leading thought — Weather maps are made with great care by the
Weather Bureau experts. Each map is the result of many telegraphic
communications from all parts of the country. Every intelligent person
should be able to understand the weather maps.

Method — Get several weather maps of the nearest Weather Bureau Sta-
tion. They should be maps for successive days, and there should be
enough so that each pupil can have three maps, showing the weather condi-
tions for three successive days.

Observations — i . T ake the map of the earliest date of the three. Where
was your map used? What is its date ? How many kinds of lines are there
on your map ? Are there explanatory notes on the lower left-hand comer of
your map ? Explain what the continuous lines mean. Find an isobar of
30 ; to what does this figure refer? Find all the towns on your map where
the barometer stands at 30 inches. Is there more than one isobar on your
map where the barometer stands at 30?

2 . Where is the greatest air pressure on your map ? How high does the
barometer stand there? How are the isobars arranged with reference to
this region ? What word is printed in the center of this series of isobars ?

3 . What do the arrows indicate ? What do the circles attached to the
arrows indicate?

4. In general, what is the direction of the winds with reference to this
high center?

5 . Is the air rising or sinking at the center of this area ? If the wind is
blowing in all directions from a center marked high, what sort of weather
must the places just east of the high be having? Do the arrows with their
circles indicate this?

6. Find a center marked low. How high does the barometer stand
there? Does the air pressure increase or diminish away from the center
marked low, as indicated by the isobars ? Do the winds blow toward this
center or away from it ?

7 . What must the weather in the region just east of the low be ? Why ?
Do the arrows and circles indicate this ?

8. Is there a shaded area on your map ? If so, what does this show ?

9. Compare the map of the next date with the one you have just
studied. Are the highs and lows in just the same position that they were
the day before ? Where are the centers high and low now ? In what direc-
tions have they moved ?

10. Look at the third map and compare the three maps. Where do the
high and low centers seem to have originated ? How long does it take a high
or low to cross the United States ? How far north and south does a high or
low, with all its isobars, extend?

11. What do the dotted lines on your map mean? Do they follow
exactly the isobars ?

12. What is the greatest isotherm on your map? Through or near
what towns does it pass ?

13 . Do the regions of high air pressure have the highest temperature or
the lowest ? Do high temperatures accompany low pressures? Why ?

14. What is the condition of the sky just east of a low center? What
is its condition just west of low?

Weather Study

88S

15. If the isobars are near together in a low, it means that the wind
is moving rather fast and that there will be a well marked storm. Look at
the column giving wind velocity. W as the wind blowing toward the center
of the low on the map? If so, does that mean it is coming fast or slow?
How does this fact correspond with the indications shown by the distance
between the isobars ?

16. Describe the weather accompanying the approach and passage of a
low in the region where your town is situated ? What sort of clouds would
you have, what winds, what change of the barometer and thermometer?

How to Find the General Direction and Average Rate of Motion of
Highs and Lows

Observations — 1. On the first map of the series of three given, put an X
in red pencil or crayon at the center of the high and a blue one at the center
of the low; or if you do not have the colored pencils, use some other dis-
tinguishing marks for the two. If there are two highs and two lows use a
different mark for each one.

2. Mark the position of each center on this map for the following day
with the same mark that you first used for that area. Do this for each of
the highs and lows until it leaves the map or until your maps have been
used. All the marks of one kind can be joined by a line, using a red line for
the red marks and a blue line for the blue marks.

3 . What do you find to be the general direction of the movement of the
highs and lows?

4. Examine the scale marked statute miles at the bottom of the map.
How many miles are represented by one inch on the scale ?

5 . With your ruler find out how many miles one area of high or low has
moved in twenty-four hours ; in three days. Divide the distance which the
area has moved in three days by three and this will give the average velocity
for one day.

6. In the same way find the average veolcity of each of the areas on
your map for three days and write down all your answers. From all your
results find the average weekly velocity; that is, how many miles per hour
and the general direction which has characterized the movement of the high
and low areas.

Supplementary reading — The Wonderbook of the Atmosphere, Houston,
Chapters XI V-XXIII.

How to Keep a Daily Weather Map

The pupils should keep a daily weather map record for at least six
months. The observations should be made twice each day and always at
the same hours. While it would be better if these records could be made at
8 o’clock in the morning and again at 8 o’clock in the evening, this is hardly
practicable and they should, therefore, be made at 9 o’clock and at 4. The
accompanying chart may be drawn enlarged. Sheets of manila paper are
often used, so that one chart may cover the observations for a month.

Few schools are able to have a working barometer, but observations of
temperature and sky should be made in every school. Almost any boy can
make a weather vane, which should be placed on a high building or tree
where the wind will not be deflected from its true direction when striking it.
A thermometer should be placed on the north side of a post and on a level

886 Handbook of Nature-Study

with the eyes ; it should not be hung to a building, as the temperature of the
building might affect it.

The direction of the wind and the cloudiness of the day may be indicated
on the chart, as it is on the weather maps, by a circle attached to an arrow
which points in the direction in which the wind is blowing.

References — Elementary Meteorology, W aldo, American Book Co. ,$1.50;
Elementary Meteorology, Davis, Ginn and Co., $2.50; Bulletins from the
United States Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C.

Chart for School Weather-Records.

Date

Hour

Temp.

Baro-

meter

Direc-
tion of
wind

Cloudi-

ness.

Fogs.

Dew or
Frost

Rain or
Snow

Remarks.

Weekly-

Sum-

mary

Sky Study

887

“ Though I know not what you are , twinkle, twinkle liltle star .”

THE STORY OF THE STARS
Teacher's Story

tlWhy did not somebody teach me the constellations and make me at home in the starry
heavens, which are always overhead, and which I don't half know to this day."

—Thomas Carlyle.

For many reasons aside from the mere knowledge acquired, children
should be taught to know something of the stars. It is an investment for
future years; the stars are a constant reminder to us of the thousands of
worlds outside our own, and looking at them intelligently, lifts us out of
ourselves in wonder and admiration for the infinity of the universe, and
serves to make our own cares and trials seem trivial. The author has not a
wide knowledge of the stars; a dozen constellations were taught to her as a
little child by her mother, who loved the sky as well as the earth; but
perhaps nothing she has ever learned has been to her such a constant source
of satisfaction and pleasure as this ability to call a few stars by the names
they have borne since the men of ancient times first mapped the heavens.
It has given her a sense of friendliness with the night sky, that can only be
understood by those who have had a similar experience.

There are three ways in which the mysteries of the skies are made plain
to us: First, by the telescope; second, by geometry, trigonometry and
calculations — a proof that mathematics is even more of a heavenly than an
earthly science; and third, by the use of the spectroscope, which can only
be understood after we study physics. It is an instrument which tells us,
by analyzing the light of the stars, what chemical elements compose them ;
and also, by the means of the light, it estimates the rate at which the stars
are moving and the direction of their motion toward or away from us.

Thus, we have learned many things about the stars ; we know that every
shining star is a great blazing sun, and there is no reason to doubt that
many of these suns have worlds, like the earth, spinning around them
although, of course, so far away as to be invisible to us ; for our world could
not be seen at all from even the nearest star. We also know that many of

888

Handbook of Nature-Study

the stars which seem single to us are really double — made up of two vast
suns swinging around a common center; and although they may be mil-
lions of miles apart, they are so far away that they seem to us as one star.
The telescope reveals many of these double stars and shows that they circle
around their orbits in various periods of time, the most rapid making the
circle in five years, another in sixteen years, another in forty-six years;
while there is at least one lazy pair which seems to require fully sixteen
hundred years to complete their circle. And the spectroscope has revealed
to us that many of the stars which seem single through the largest telescope
are really double, and some of these great suns race around each other in the
period of a few hours, which is a rate of speed we could hardly imagine.

Astronomers have been able to measure the distance from us to many of
the stars, but when this distance is expressed in miles it is too much for us to
grasp. Thus, they have come to measure heavenly distance in terms of the
rate at which light travels, which is 186,400 miles per second or about six
trillions of miles per year ; this distance is called a light-year. Light reaches
us from the sun in about eight minutes, but it takes more than four years for
a ray to reach us from the nearest star. It adds new interest to the Pole-
star to know that the light which reaches our eyes left that star almost half
a century ago, and that the light we get from the Pleiades may have started
on its journey before America was discovered. Most of the stars are so far
away that we cannot measure the distance.

Although stars seem stationary, they are all moving through space
just as our own sun is doing; but the stars are so far away that even if
one moved a million miles a day, it would require years of observation
to detect that it moved at all, unless it was moving toward or away from
us. We know the rate of movement of some stars but have no idea of
their goal, nor do we know where our sun is dragging us at the rate of
nearly 800 miles a minute; all we know is that each star is going some-
where and attending strictly to its own business.

The spectroscope reveals the life cycle of stars; when young they are
composed of thin gases shining red and are giant stars; when older and
more condensed they shine yellow, when still more condensed they shine
white and blue, which marks middle life. With old age they contract
and begin to cool; after this they shine white, then yellow, then red, and
then become dark, cold, dead stars. Red is a sign of infancy and of old
age; but the young red stars are giants and the old red stars are dwarfs.
The spectroscope reveals many dark stars in our skies ; but they are not
all dead suns for some of them may still be unborn. If one of these dark
stars should approach another star, the force developed would shatter it
into glowing, gaseous atoms and it would finally become a shining star.

Scattered through the skies are masses of misty light called nebulae,
meaning “clouds.” They are vast gaseous bodies of different shapes, and
are classified as irregular, globular, ringed and spiral. While some are
dark, many are made up of glowing gases, largely hydrogen and helium,
and each nebula keeps its own place in the heavens like a star, and moves
through space like a star. The spiral nebulae are at least 100,000 light-
years distant and are moving away at the rate of 800 miles a second;
many believe that the spiral nebulae are star galaxies like our Milky
Way. Many astronomers believe that nebulae have to do with the
formation of stars, but this much only do they know by observation : they
have seen stars change to nebulae but never the reverse.

Sky Study

889

Nebulae are practically beyond our unaided vision; the telescope
reveals about eight thousand irregular nebulae and photography shows
numberless others. It is thought that radiation from the stars sets up
the activity in nebulae that gives off light. The ring nebulae are mere
dots compared with the spiral forms yet some idea of their size is given
by Ball who says of the ring nebula of Lyra, which we cannot see with
the- naked eye, if a railroad train started to cross its middle, at the rate
of a mile a minute, one thousand years would not complete the journey.

The number of stars that may be seen with the unaided eye, if one were
to travel from the southern to the northern polar region, would be between
six and seven thousand; but it would require very keen eyes to see two
thousand at one time. With the help of the telescope, about eight hundred
thousand stars have been discovered, classified and catalogued, while
photography of the skies reveals millions. It is thought that the new
international photographic chart, which shall cover all the space seen from
our globe may show thirty millions of stars. The Milky Way or Galaxy,
that great, white band across the heavens, is made up of stars which are so
far away that we cannot see them, but see only their diffused light. It is
well called a “River of Stars” flowing in a circle around our whole solar
system ; and, except during the spring months, one-half of it may be seen
directly above us while the other half is hidden below us. The place of the
Milky Way in the heavens seems fixed and eternal; any star within its
borders is always seen at the same point. When the Northern Cross lifts
itself toward the zenith we are able to see that, near that constellation, the
star river divides into three streams with long, blue islands between.

Reference books — There are a large number of excellent text-books and
popular books on astronomy. The following are a few which I have used
most often: Astronomy for Everybody, Newcomb; Todd’s New Astron-
omy; The Friendly Stars, Martin; Starland, Ball; The Stars Through an
Opera Glass, Serviss; Other Suns than Ours, Proctor; Other Worlds
than Ours, Proctor.

For children — Earth and Sky, Holden ; Stories of Starland, Proctor; The
Children’s Book of Stars, G. E. Mitton ; Storyland of the Stars, Pratt ; Stars
in Song and Legend, Porter; The Planisphere, Thos. Whittaker.

HOW TO BEGIN STAR STUDY
The Pole-star and the Dippers
Teacher's Story

The way to begin star study is to learn to know the Big Dipper, and
through its pointers to distinguish the Pole-star; for whenever we try to
find any star we have to find the Big Dipper and Pole-star first so as to have
some fixed point to start from. There are four stars in the bowl of the Big
Dipper and three in the curved handle. A line drawn through the outer
two stars of the bowl, if extended, will touch the North Star, or Pole-star.
It is very important for us to know the Pole-star, because the northern end
of the earth’s axis is directed toward it, and it is therefore situated in the
heavens almost directly above our North Pole. For those of us who live in
the northern Hemisphere, the North Star never sets, but is always in our
sky. Of course, the North Star has nothing to do with the axis of our earth

890

Handbook of Nature-Study

any more than the figure on the blackboard has to do with the pointer; it
simply happens to lie in the direction toward which the northern end of the
earth’s axis points. In the southern skies, there is no convenient star which
lies directly above the South Pole, so there is no South Pole-star. It is also
a coincidence that the needle of the mariner’s compass points toward the
North Star; the earth being a large magnet exercises its influence on all
substances which can be magnetized, and since the poles of our great earth-
magnet are nearly in line with the poles of the earth’s axis, the magnetic
needle naturally points approximately north and south in many regions,
and the North Star chances to be nearly in the direction toward which
the northern end of the compass needle points.

The Pole-star cannot be seen from the southern hemisphere; but if we
should start from Florida, on a journey toward Baffin’s Bay, we should
discover that each night this star would seem higher in the sky. And if
we should succeed in reaching the North Pole, we would find the Pole-
star directly over our heads, and what a wonderful sight the stars would
be from this point ! For none of the stars which we could see would rise
or set, but would move around us in circles parallel to the horizon.

The Big Dipper shows to us the Pole-star, and to us seems to revolve
around it every twenty-four hours but, of course, this appearance is caused
by the fact that we ourselves are revolving from west to east. Therefore,
the stars seems to revolve from west to east under the Pole-star and from
east to west above it, or in exactly the opposite direction in which the
hands of a clock turn. Owing to the movement of the earth in its orbit, the
Big Dipper and all the other stars arrive at a certain point in our sky four
minutes earlier each day or about two hours earlier each month; thus, the
Big Dipper is east of the Pole-star with handle down in the evenings of
January, while at the same time of night in July, it is west of the Pole-star
with the handle up. But the time of year that a certain star reaches a cer-
tain point is so invariable, that if we know star time, or sidereal time as it is
called, we can tell just what hour of the night it is when a star passes this
point. Thus, the Big Dipper and the other polar constellations are the
night clock of the sailors of the northern hemisphere; for though this great
polar clock has its hands moving around the wrong way, it gains time

with such regularity that anyone
who understands is able to compute
exact time by it.

The Little Dipper liesmuchnearer
the Pole-star than does the Big Dip-
per; in fact, the Pole-star itself is
the end >f the handle of the Little
Dipper. Besides the Pole-star, there
are two more stars in the handle
of the Little Dipper, and of the four
stars which make the bowl, the two
that form the outer edge are much
the brighter. The bowl of the Little
Dipper is above or below the Pole-
star according to the hour of the
evening, or the night of the year, for
it apparently revolves about the
The Pole-star and the Big and Little Dippers. Pole-star as does the Big Dipper.

Sky Study 891

The two Dippers open toward each other, and some one said “they pour
into each other.”

The Big Dipper is a part of a constellation called Ursa Major, the
Great Bear; and the Little Dipper is the Little Bear, the handle of the
dipper being the bear’s tail.

There is an ancient myth telling the story of the Big and Little
Bears: A beautiful mother called Callisto had a little son whom

she named Areas. Callisto was so beautiful that she awakened the
anger of Juno, who changed her to a bear; and when her son grew up
he became a hunter, and one day would have killed his transformed
mother; but Jupiter seeing the danger of this crime caught the two up into
the heavens, and set them there as shining stars. But Juno was still
vindictive, so she wrought a spell which never allowed these stars to rise and
set like other stars, but kept them always moving around and around.

References — The Friendly Stars by Martin is a most delightful book and
at the same time gives explicit directions for finding the stars and much
interesting information concerning them. The planisphere is a little chart
with a mechanical device which enables us to find what stars are in sight
every night of the year, or at any time of night. It is published by Thos.
Whittaker, Bible House, New York, and costs seventy-five cents.

LESSON CCXXV
The Two Dippers

Leading thought — The North Star or Pole-star may always be found by
the stars known as the pointers in the Big Dipper; the stars of the Big
Dipper seem to revolve around the Pole-star once in twenty-four hours.

Method — The time to begin these observations is when the moon is in its
last quarter, so that the moonlight will not make pale the stars in early
evening. Draw upon the blackboard, from the chart shown on page 890, the
Big Dipper and the Pole-star, with a line extending through the pointers.
Say to the pupils that this Big Dipper is above or below or at one side of the
Pole-star, and that you wish them to observe for themselves where it is and
tell you about it the next day. After they surely know the Big Dipper, ask
the following questions :

Observations — 1. Can you find the Big Dipper among the stars

2. Is it in the north, south, east or west?

3. Which stars are the “pointers” in the dipper, and why are they
called so ?

4. Make a drawing showing how you can always find the Pole-star, if
you can see the Big Dipper.

5. How many stars make the bowl of the Dipper?

6 . How many stars in the handle ?

7 . Is the handle straight or is it curved ?

8. Does the Big Dipper open toward the Pole-star, or away from it?

9. Is it above or below the Pole-star at eight o’clock in the evening, or
at the right or the left of it?

10. Does the Big Dipper remain in the same direction from the Pole-
star all night ? Look at it at seven o’clock and again at nine o’clock and see
if it has changed position ?

1 1 . Do you think it moves around the Pole-star once every twenty-four
hours ? In which direction ? How could you tell the time of night by the
Big Dipper and the Pole-star?

892

Handbook of Nature-Study

1 2 . Does the Big Dipper ever rise and set ?

13. The Big Dipper is also called the Great Bear. Can you find the
stars which make the bear’s head and front legs?

After the pupils surely know the Big Dipper and Pole-star draw the com-
plete diagram upon the board to show the Little Dipper and where it may be
found, and call attention to the fact that the end of the Little Dipper’s
handle is the Pole-star itself and that its bowl is not flaring, like that of the
Big Dipper and that the two pour into each other. Let the pupils find the
Little Dipper in the sky for themselves and ask the following questions :

Observations — 14. Is the Little Dipper nearer or farther from the Pole-
star than the Big Dipper ?

1 5 . How many stars in the handle of the Little Dipper ?

16. How many stars make the bowl of the Little Dipper? Which of
these stars arp the brightest? Is the bowl of the Little Dipper above or
below the Pole-star ?

17. Does the Little Dipper extend in the same direction in relation to
the Pole-star all night?

18. Make observations on the relation to each other of the two dippers
at eight o’clock in the evening of January, February, March and April.

After the above lessons are well learned, give the following questions, and
try to have the pupils answer by thinking :

Questions about Polaris ( the North Star ) for the pupils to think about and
answer:

19. How many names has the Pole-star? Can the Pole-star be seen
from the southern hemisphere ? If not, why not ?

20. If you should start from southern Florida and travel straight north,
how would the Pole-star seem to change position each succeeding night ?

21. If you could stand at the North Pole, where would the Pole-star
seem to be ?

22. If you were at the North Pole, would any of the stars rise and set?
In what direction would the stars seem to move and why?

23. How does the North Star help the sailors to navigate the seas and
why?

24. How do astronomers reckon distances between us and the stars?
What is a light-year ?

Topics for English lesson — (a) What a star is. (b) What a constellation
is. ( c ) How the stars and constellations received their names in ancient
times. In ancient times the Big and Little Dippers were named the Big
and Little Bears, and that is their Latin name to this day. Write a story
about what the ancient Greeks told about these Bears and how they came
to be in the sky.

Supplementary reading — Stories of Starland, Proctor, pp. 117-121:
Storyland of the Stars, Pratt, p. 75 ; Child’s Study of the Classics, p. 33.

Sky Study

893

CASSIOPEIA’S CHAIR, CEPHEUS, AND THE DRAGON
Teacher's Story

There are other constellations besides the two Dippers, which never rise
and set in this latitude, because they are so near to the Pole-star that, when
revolving around it, they do not fall below the horizon. There is one very
brilliant star, called Capella, which almost belongs to the polar constella-

The polar constellations as they appear at about 8 o'clock January 20, the Dragon
being south of the Pole-star. By revolving this chart as indicated, the positions
of the stars is shown for 6 p.m., midnight, 6 a. m. and
noon of January 20th.

tions but not quite, for it is far enough away from Polaris to dip below the
horizon for four hours of the twenty-four.

Queen Cassiopeia’s Chair is on the opposite side of the Pole-star from
the Big Dipper and at about equal distance from it. It consists of five bril-
liant stars that form a W with the top toward Polaris, one-half of the W
being wider than the other. There is a less brilliant sixth star which finishes
out half of the W into a chair seat, making of the figure a very uneasy look-
ing throne for a poor queen to sit upon.

King Cepheus is Queen Cassiopeia’s husband, and he sits with one foot
on the Pole-star quite near to his royal spouse. His constellation is marked

894

Handbook of N ature-Study

by five stars, four of which form a lozenge, and a line connecting the two
stars on the side of the lozenge farthest from Cassiopeia, if extended, will
reach the Pole-star as surely as a line from the Big Dipper pointers.
Cepheus is not such a shining light in the heavens as is his wife, for his stars
are not so brilliant. Perhaps this is because he was only incidentally put in
the skies. He was merely the consort of Queen Cassiopeia, who being a
vain and jealous lady boasted that she and her daughter, Andromeda, were
far more beautiful than any other goddesses that ever were, and thus in-
curred the wrath of Juno and Jupiter who set the whole family “sky high”
and quite out of the way, a punishment which must have had its compensa-
tions since they are where the world of men may look at and admire them
for all ages.

Lying between the Big and Little Dippers and extending beyond the
latter is a straggling line of stars, which, if connected by a line, make a very
satisfactory dragon. Nine stars form his body, three his head, the two
brighter ones being the eyes.

LESSON CCXXVI

Cassiopeia’s Chair, Cepheus, and the Dragon

Leading thought — To learn to know and to map the constellations which
are so near the Pole-star that they never rise or set in our latitude, but seem
to swing around the North Star once in twenty-four hours.

Method — Place on the blackboard the diagram given showing the Pole-
star, Big and Little Dippers and Cassiopeia’s Chair, and ask for observa-
tions and sketches showing their position in the skies the following evening.
After the pupils have observed the Chair and know it, add to your diagram,
first Cepheus and then the Dragon. After you are sure the pupils know
these constellations, give the following lesson. The observations should be
made early and late in the same evening and at different times of the
month, so that pupils will in every case note the apparent movement of these
stars around Polaris.

Observations — i. How many stars form Cassiopeia’s Chair? Make a
drawing showing them and their relation to the Pole-star.

2. Is the Queen’s Chair on the same side of the Pole-star as the Big
Dipper? Is the top or the bottom of the “W” which forms Cassiopeia’s
Chair turned toward the Pole-star?

3. Does Cassiopeia’s Chair move around the Pole-star, like the Big
Dipper?

4. How many stars mark the constellation of Cepheus?

5. Make a sketch of these stars and show the two which are pointers
toward the North Star.

6. Does Cepheus also move around the Pole-star, and in which diree
fcion?

7. Describe where the Dragon lies, and where are his tail and his head
in relation to the two Dippers. Make a sketch of the Dragon.

8. Why do all the poplar constellations seem to move around the Pole-
star every twenty-four hours, and why do they seem to go in a direction
opposite the movement of the hands of a clock? What do we mean by
“Polar constellations”?

Topics for English Themes — The Story of Queen Cassiopeia, King
Cepheus and their daughter, Andromeda; the storyof the Dragon.

Supplementary reading — Storyland of the Stars, -tralL

Sky Study

895

A diagram of the principal stars of winter as seen in early evening late in February .

To use the chart take it in the hands, face the Pole-star and hold the chart above the head
so that the side marked east will extend eastward.

THE WINTER STARS
Teacher's Story

The natural time for beginning star study is in the autumn
when the days are shortening and the early evenings give us
opportunity for observation. After the polar constellations are learned,
we are then ready for further study in the still earlier evenings of winter,
when the clear atmosphere and beautiful blue of the heavens make the stars
seem more alive, more sparkling, and more beautiful than at any other
period of the year. One of the first lessons should be to instruct the pupils
how to draw an imaginary straight line from one star to another, and to
perceive the angles which such lines make when they meet at a given star.
A rule, or what is just as effective, a postal card or some other piece of stiff
paper which shows right-angled corners, is very useful in this work. It
should be held between the eyes and the stars which we wish to connect, and
thus make us certain of a straight line and a right angle.

Orion ( o-ri'on )

During the evenings of January, February and March the splendid con-
stellation of Orion takes possession of the southern half of the heavens; and
so striking is it that we find other stars by referring to it instead of to the
Pole-star. Orion is a constellation which almost everyone knows; three
stars in a row outline his belt, and a curving line of stars, set obliquely
below the belt, outline the sword. Above the belt in the evening sky we can

896

Handbook of Nature-Study

■ see the splendid red star Betelgeuse (bet-el-gerz) , and
below the belt, at about an equal distance, is the white
star Rigel ( re-jel ). West of the red star above, and east
of the white star below, are two fainter stars, and if
these four stars are connected by lines, an irregular four-
sided figure results, which includes the belt and the
sword. In this constellation the ancients saw Orion, the
great hunter, with his belt and his sword ; Betelgeuse was
set like a glowing ruby on his shoulder, and the white
star Rigel was set like a spur on his heel. Thus, stood
the great hunter in the sky, with his club raised to keep
off the plunging bull whose eye is the red Aldebaran
Orion, the three large (al-deb' a-ran) . And beyond him follows the Great Dog
stars in a line form- with the bright blue star Sirius ( sir'i-us ) in his mouth,
ing the belt, the an(} the Little Dog branded by the white star Procyon
C^sLrs below form- (pro' si-on). However, our New England ancestors did
ing the sword, Betel- not see this grand figure in the sky ; they called the con-
geuse above , Rigel stellation the Yard-ell or the Ell-yard.
below. The three beautiful stars which make Orion’s belt

are all double stars; the belt is just three degrees
long and is a good unit for sky measurement. The sword is not
merely the three stars which we ordinarily see, but is really a curved
line of five stars; and what seems to be the third star from the tip
of the sword and which looks hazy, is in fact a great nebula. Through the
telescope this nebula seems a splash of light with six beautiful stars within
it. The first star in Orion to appear above the horizon is red Betelgeuse,
a blushing young giant just starting on its career as a star; it is com-
posed of a gas much thinner than our air. Its diameter is 215,000,000
miles, which is millions more than that of the Earth’s orbit. It is one
hundred and sixty light-years away from us and it is receding from us
all the time. About fifteen minutes after Betelgeuse rises, and after the
belt and sword are in sight, a white sparkling star appears at the south-
west of the belt. This is Rigel, and its distance is too great to measure.

LESSON CCXXVII
Orion

Leading thought — Orion is one of the most beautiful constellations in the
heavens. It is especially marked by the three stars which form Orion’s
belt, and the line of stars below the belt which form the sword.

Method — Place on the blackboard the outline of Orion as given in the
diagram. Ask the pupils to make the following observations in the even-
ing and give their report the next day.

Observations — 1. Where is Orion in relation to the Pole-star?

2. How many stars in the belt of Orion? How many stars in the
Sword? Can you see plainly the third star from the bottom of the sword?

3. Notice above the belt, about three times its length, a bright star;
this is Betelgeuse. What is the color of this star? What do we know
about the age of a star if it is red ?

4. Look below the belt and observe another bright star at about the
same distance below that Betelgeuse is above. What is the color of thie
star? What does its color signify? The name of this star is Rigel.

Sky Study

897

5. Note that west of the red star above and east of the white star
below are two fainter stars. If we connect these four stars by lines we
shall make an irregular four-sided figure, fencing in the belt and sword.
Sketch this figure with the belt and sword, and write on your diagram
the name of the red star above and the white star below and also the
name of the constellation.

6. Which star of the constellation rises first in the evening? Which
last?

7. Write an English theme on the story of Orion, the great hunter.

Supplementary reading — Stories of Starland, Proctor; The Stars in

Song and Legend, Porter; Storyland of the Stars, Pratt.

ALDEBARAN AND THE PLEIADES

Teacher's Story

Almost in a line with the. belt of Orion, up in the skies northwest from
it, is the rosy star Aldebaran. This star, which is also a ruddy young
giant, marks the end of the lower arm of a V-shaped
constellation composed of this and four other stars.

This constellation is the Hyades ( hi'a-dez ). The

Hyades is a part of the constellation called by the
ancients Taurus, the bull, and is the head of the in-
furiated animal. Aldebaran is a comparatively near
neighbor of ours, since it takes light only thirty-two-^^&araw in the V-
years to pass from it to us. It gives off about forty- shaped constellation
five times as much light as does our sun ; it lies in the C^h-S is ea p“rt
path traversed by the moon as it crosses the sky, and the constellation,
is often thus hidden from our view. Taurus.

Although we are attracted by many bright stars in the winter sky,
yet there is a little misty group of stars, which has ever held the human
attention enthralled, and of which the poets of all the ages have sung.
These stars are called the Pleiades ( ple'ya-dees) ; most eyes can count
only six stars in the constellation. There are nine stars large enough
to be seen through the telescope, and which have been given names;
but sky photography has revealed to us that there are more than three
thousand stars in this little group. Perhaps no stars in the heavens
give us such a feeling of the infinity of the universe as do the Pleiades;
for astronomers believe that they form a great star system, known as
one of the globular nebulae. The reason for this belief is that these stars
seem to be surrounded by a brilliant mist which
sometimes seems to be looped from one to another;
and, too, the stars are all in the same stage
of development and have the same chemical com-
position, and they are all moving together in the
same direction. These stars which look so close
together to us are so far apart really that our own
The Pleiades . a group sun and all its planets could roll in between them

louMlyTmiPy and naver..ba . dt would several

light. years for light to travel from one of these stars

in the Pleiades to another. The Pleiades are so far
from us that only recently have astronomers estimated that it takes
light six hundred years to reach us from them. There is a mythical

8g8

Handbook of Nature-Study

story found in literature, that once the unaided eye could see seven
instead of six stars in the Pleiades, and much poetic imagining has been
developed to account for the “lost Pleiad.”

LESSON CCXXVIII
Aldebaran and the Pleiades

Leading thought — The Pleiades seem to be a little misty group of six
stars, but instead there are in it three thousand stars. Half way between
the Pleiades and Orion’s belt is Aldebaran, an ageing ruddy star.

Method — Draw the diagram (p. 895) on the blackboard showing Orion,
Aldebaran and the Pleiades, and the lines B, C, D. Give an outline of
the observations to be made by the pupils, and let them work out the
answers when they have opportunity. Each pupil should prepare a chart
of these constellations.

Observations — 1. Imagine a line drawn from Rigel to Betelgeuse and
then another line just as long extending to the west of the latter at a little
less than a right angle, and it will end in a bright, rosy star, not so red as
Betelgeuse.

2. What is the name of this star ? Write it on your chart.

3 . Can you see the figure V formed by Aldebaran and four fainter stars ?
Sketch the V and show where in it Aldebaran belongs. This V-shaped
constellation is called the Hyades.

4. Imagine a line drawn from Orion’s belt to Aldebaran and extend it
to not quite an equal length beyond it, and it will end near a “fuzzy little
bunch” of stars which are called the Pleiades. Place the Pleiades on your
chart.

5 . How many stars can you see in the Pleiades ?

6. Why are they called the seven sisters?

7. How many stars in the Pleiades which are named, and how many
does photography show that there really are in the group?

8. How far apart from each other are the nearest neighbors of the
Pleiades ?

9. What do the astronomers think about the Pleiades and why do they
think this ?

THE TWO DOG STARS, SIRIUS AND PROCYON
Teacher's Story

If a line from Aldebaran pass through the belt of Orion and is extended
about as far on the other side, it will reach the Great Dog Star, following at
Orion’s heels. This is Sirius, (Sir'-e-us) the most brilliant of all the stars in
our skies, glinting with ever changing colors, sometimes blue, at others rosy
or white. It must have been of this star that Browning wrote :

“All that I know
Of, a certain star
Is, it can throw
(Like the angled spar)

Now a dart of red,

Now a dart of blue.”

Sky Study

899

Sirius has reached the blue-
white stage of star develop-
ment. Although it is larger
than our sun, its superior
brilliance is due to its near-
ness to us; it is only eight
and one-half light-years away
from us and is the most cele-
brated star in literature. The
ancients knew it, the Egyp-
tians worshipped it, Homer
sang of it, and it has had its
place in the poetry of all ages.

Procyon, ( pro'-se-on ) the
Little Dog Star, was so-called
perhaps because it trots up the
eastern skies a little ahead of
the magnificent Great Dog
Star; it gives out eight times
as much light as our sun, and is only ten light-years away from us. It has a
fainter companion about three or four degrees to the northwest of it.

Orion and the Dog Stars.

B, Betelgeuse; R, Rigel; S, Sirius, the Great Dog Star;
P, Procyon, the Little Dog Star.

LESSON CCXXIX

The Two Dog Stars

Leading thought — The Great Dog Star, Sirius, is the most famous of all
stars in the literature of the ages. The Two Dog Stars were supposed by
the ancients to be following the great hunter, Orion.

Method — Draw upon the board from the chart shown on this page, the
constellation of Orion with Sirius and Procyon. Ask the pupils to note
that after Orion is well up in the sky a straight line drawn through Orion’s
belt and dropping down toward the eastern horizon ends in a beautiful
white star, which is Sirius. And that if we draw a line from Betelgeuse to
Rigel from Rigel to Sirius and then draw lines to complete a quadrangle, we
shall find our lines meet at a bright star just a little too far away to make
the figure a square, but making it somewhat kite-shaped instead. This is
the Little Dog Star, Procyon, and it has a twin star near it. After giving
these directions let the children make the following observations :

1 . How do you find Sirius ? Which rises first, Orion or Sirius ?

2 . What color is Sirius ? Judging from its color what stage of develop-
ment do you think it is in ?

3 . Try and find out how large Sirius is compared with our sun and how
near it is to us.

4. Why is Sirius called the Great Dog Star? Is the Little Dog Star
nearer to the North Star than Sirius? Which is the brighter, the Great
Dog Star or the Little Dog Star? Can you see any fainter star near
Procyon?

5. Why is Procyon called the Little Dog Star?

6. Make a chart showing Orion and the two Dog Stars.

900

Handbook of Nature-Study

CAPELLA AND THE HEAVENLY TWINS
Teacher's Story

Capella is nearer to the North Star than any other
of the bright stars and it comes very near belonging
to the strictly polar constellations, since it falls below
the horizon only four hours out of twenty-four. In
composition it much resembles our sun, as do all the
bright yellow stars ; but it is much larger ; it gives off
one hundred and twenty times as much light as our
sun, and it is forty light-years away from us. Capella
is always a beautiful feature of the northern skies,
being almost in the zenith during the evenings of
January and February. It is in a brilliant shield,
shaped constellation known as Auriga. Capella is a double star.

During the winter evenings we see two stars set like glowing eyes almost
in the zenith, and in a region of the sky where there are no other bright stars.
These twin stars are set just a little closer together than are the pointers of
the Big Dipper. To this brilliant pair the ancients gave the names of
Castor and Pollux. Pollux is the brighter of the two and is the more south-
ward in situation. Pollux and Castor were two beauti-
ful twin boys who loved each other so much that, after
they were; dead, they were placed in the skies where
they could always be near each other. The twin stars
are supposed to exert a benign influence on oceans and
seas and are, therefore, beloved by sailors. Although
they seem to us so near together, they are separated by
a space so great that we cannot conceive of it and they
are going in opposite directions.

Pollux is a ye1 low star, and supposed to be in the same
stage of development as our sun, while Castor is white
and according to star ages is young. When a boy says “By Jimminy,”
he does not realize that he is using an ancient expletive “By Gemini,”
which is the Latin name of these twin stars and was a favorite ancient oath,
especially of sailors.

LESSON CCXXX
Capella and the Heavenly Twins

Leading thought — There are, during the evenings of January and Febru-
ary, three brilliant stars almost directly overhead. One of these is Capella,
the other two are the Heavenly Twins.

Method — Place on the board the part of the chart (p. 895) showing the
Big Dipper, Pole-star, Capella and the Twins. Draw a line, L, from the
pointers of the Big Dipper, and extend it to the Pole-star. Draw another
line, K, from the Pole-star at right angles to the line L, and on the side
away from the Big Dipper’s handle, and it will pass through a large, bril-
liant, yellow star which is Capella. Ask the pupils to imagine similar
lines drawn across the sky, when they are making their observations and
thus find these stars, and to place them on their charts, making the
following observations :

1. What color is Capella, and how does its color compare with that of
our sun?

Gemini, the heavenly
twins, the larger
one is Pollux and
the other is Castor.

Capella in the constel-
lation Auriga.

Sky Study 901

2. Is Capella as near to the Pole-star as the Big Dipper? Is it near
enough so that it never sets ?

3 . Can you see the shield-like constellation of which Capella is a part ?
Do you know the name of this constellation ?

4. How do you find the Heavenly Twins after you have found Capella?

5. Why are these stars called the Heavenly Twins? What is their
Latin name ? What are the names of the two stars ? Are these twins set
nearer together than the pointers of the Big Dipper ?

6. How can you tell the Heavenly Twins from the Little Dog Star and
its companion ?

7. Read in the books all that you can find about the Heavenly Twins.
Try and find if they are the same age, if they are as near together as they
seem, and if they are going in the same direction. What did the ancient
sailors think of these twin stars ?

THE STARS OF SUMMER

To us, who dwell in a world of change, the stars give the comfort of
abidingness ; they remain ever the same to our eyes and the teacher should
make much of this. When we once come to know a star, we know exactly
where to find it in the heavens, wherever we may be. A star which a person
knows during childhood will, in later life and in other lands, seem a staunch
friend and a bond, drawing him back to his early home and associations.

A chart of the brightest stars of summer, showing their positions in early evenings of
June. To find the stars hold the chart above the head and face the north.

902

Handbook of Nature-Study

The summer is an enticing season for making the acquaintance of eight
of the fifteen brightest stars visible in northern latitudes. F ew midsummer
entertainments rival that of lying on one’s back on the grass of some open
space which commands a wide view of the heavens, and there with a plani-
sphere and an intermittently lighted candle with which to consult it, learn
by sight, by name and by heart those brilliant stars which will ever after
meet with friendly greeting our uplifted eyes. To teach the children in a
true informing way about the stars, the teacher should know them, and
nowhere in nature’s realm is there a more thought-awakening lesson.

LESSON CCXXXI
The Bright Stars of Summer

Leading thought — The stars which we see shining during summer even-
ings are not the same ones that we see during the winter evenings, except
those in the polar constellations. There are eight of the brilliant summer
stars, which we should be able to distinguish and call by name.

Method — Begin by the middle of May when the Big Dipper is well above
the Pole-star in the early evening, and when, therefore, Regulus, Spica,
Arcturus and the Crown are high in the sky. The others may be learned in
June, although July is the best month for observing them. In teaching the
pupils how to find the stars, again instruct them how to draw an imaginary
straight line from one star to another and to observe the angles made by
such lines connecting three or four stars.

Place upon the blackboard the figures from the chart (page 901), as
indicated, leaving each one there until the pupils have observed and learned
it. Then erase and place another figure. In each case try to get the pupils
interested in what we know about each star, a brief summary of which is
given. Note that the observations given in the lessons are for early in the
evenings of the last of May, of June, and of early July.

Regulus ( reg'-u-lus )

Draw upon the blackboard from the chart (p. 901)
the Pole-star, the Big Dipper, the line G and the Sickle
shown just below the outer end of the line. Extend
the line that passes through the pointers of the Big
Dipper to the North Star backward into the western
skies ; just west of this line lies a constellation called the
Sickle, and the stars that form it outline this implement.
The Sickle has a jewel at the end of the handle, which is
a white and diamond-glittering star called Regulus.
It is a great sun giving out one thousand times as much
light as our own sun, and this light reaches us in about
one hundred and sixty years. The Sickle is part of a
constellation called the Lion, and from which comes the shower of
meteors which we see on the evening of November 13th. Regulus is
seen best in Spring.

Arcturus ( ark-tu'rus )

Place on the blackboard the Big Dipper, the Pole-star and the line
E, Arcturus and the Crown. Extend the handle of the Big Dipper fol-

Regulus , the large
star in the handle
of the sickle.

Sky Study

9C»3

lowing its own curve for about
twice its length and it will end
in a beautiful, yellow star, the
only very bright one in that
region. It is a thousand
times brighter than our own
sun, but its light does not
reach us for a hundred years
after it is given off. Arcturus
is supposed to be one of the largest of all the suns, having a diameter of
twenty-one million miles. During the latter part of June and July it is
almost overhead in the early evening.

The Crown

Between Arcturus and Vega, but much nearer the former,
is a circle of smaller stars that is called the Northern Crown,
and which because of its form is quite noticeable.

Spica ( spi'-ka )

Place on the blackboard the Big Dipper, the Pole-star, the
line F and Spica. To find Spica draw a line through the star
on the outer edge of the top of the bowl of the Big Dipper,
The North- through the star at the bottom of the bowl next the handle,
ern Crown, and extend this line far over to the southwest, during the even-
ings of June and July. (See page 901) In August, this star
sets at ten o’clock. Spica is a white star, and is the only bright one in that
part of the sky. It is so far away from us that the distance has never been
measured. Spica is in the constellation called the Virgin.

Vega (vee'-ga)

Place on the blackboard the Pole-star, the Big Dipper,
the lines H and I and Vega with her five attendant stars,
as shown in the chart. Teach that these stars are the
chief ones in the constellation called The Lyre. To find
Vega, draw a line from the Pole-star to the star in the Big
Dipper which joins the bowl to the handle. Then draw a
line at right angles to this (see chart lines H, I) and extend
the line I a little farther from the North-star than is the
end star of the Dipper handle ; this line will reach a bright
star, bluish in color, which can always be identified by four
smaller attendant stars which lie near it and outline a
parallelogram with slanting ends. Vega is the most
brilliant summer star that we see in the northern hemi- Vega andher train
sphere. It is a very large sun, giving out ninety times as of five stars.
much light as our sun; it is so far away that it requires
twenty-nine years for a ray of light to reach us from it. Vega’s chief
interest for us, aside from its beauty, is that toward it our sun and all its
planets, including our earth, are moving at the rate of thirteen miles per
second.

Arcturus and the Big Dipper.

904

Handbook of Nature-Study

Antares, a brilliant
star in the south-
ern skies.

Antares ( an-ta'-rees )

Add to the last diagram on the blackboard the line E,
Arcturus, the line B and Antares. To find this star,
draw a line half way between Arcturus and Vega from
the Pole-star straight across the sky to the south, and
just above the southern horizon it will point to the glow-
ing star, Antares, in the constellation of the Scorpion.
Also a line drawn at right angles to the line connecting
Altair with its companions and extending toward the
south will reach Antares. Late June and July about
ten o’clock in the evening is the best for viewing this
beautiful star. An interesting thing about Antares is that it is the greatest
of the young giant -stars yet measured; it has a diameter of 400,000,000
miles.

Deneb, or Arided ( den'-eb ; a'-ri-ded)

Erase from the last diagram Antares and the
line B . Add to it the lines C and D making a right
angle at Deneb ; and the Cross — the head of which
is Deneb, the foot ending near the letter on line L.

This star is at the head of the Northern Cross,
which is a very shaky looking cross and appears
upside down in the eastern skies during the evenings
of June and July. Deneb is white in color and
is a very large sun, because it seems to us a bright
star although it is so far away from us that the
distance has never been surely measured; but it
has been estimated that a ray of light would need
at least three hundred and twenty-five years to
reach us from Deneb. It and the cross are a part
4f the constellation of Cygnus, or the Swan.

The Northern Cross, in
the constellation of the
Swan.

Altair

Altair in the con-
stellation of the
Eagle.

Add to the last diagram on the board the lines L, K,
Altair and its two attendant stars and the Dolphin. Em-
phasize the fact that Altair marks the constellation of
Aquila, or the Eagle. This beautiful star is easily distin-
guished because of its small companions, one on each side,
all three in a line. The three belong to a constellation
called the Eagle, and may be seen in early evening from June
to December. Altair, Deneb and Vega form a triangle with
the most acute angle at Altair. (See chart L, K.) Just
northeast of Altair is a little diamond-shaped
cluster of stars called the Dolphin, which
is a good name for it, since it looks like a
Dolphin, the fifth star forming the tail. It is
also called Job’s Coffin, but the reason for this is
uncertain, unless Job’s trials extended to a
coffin which could not possibly fit him. If the
line C on the chart drawn from the Pole-star to The Dolphin or Job's Coffin..
Deneb be extended, it will touch the Dolphin. Altair is always low in
the sky; it is a great sun giving off nearly ten times as much light as our
own sun ; light reaches us from it in fifteen years.

Sky Study

90S

THE SUN
Teacher's Story

To be retold to pupils.

If, only once in a century, there came to us from our great sun, light and
heat, bringing the power to awaken dormant life, to lift the plant from the
seed and clothe the earth with verdure, then it would indeed be a miracle.
But the sun by shining every day cheapens its miracles in the eyes of the
thoughtless. While it hardly comes within the province of the nature-
study teacher to make a careful study of the sun, yet she may surely stimu-
late in her pupils a desire to know something of this great luminous center
of our system.

Our sun is a great shining globe about one hundred and ten times as
thick through as the earth, and more than a million times as large. If we
look at the sun in a clear sky, it is so brilliant that it hurts our eyes. Thus,
it is better to look at it through a smoked glass, or when the atmosphere is
very hazy. If we should see the sun through a telescope, we should find
that its surface is not one great glare of light but is mottled, looking like a
plate of rice soup, and at times there are dark spots to be seen upon its sur-
face. Some of these spots are so large that during very “smoky weather”
we can see them with the naked eye. In September, 1908, a sun-spot was
plainly visible ; it was ten thousand miles across, and our whole world could
have been dropped into it with a thousand miles to spare all around it. We
do not, know the cause of these sun-spots, but we know they appear in
greater numbers in certain regions of the sun, above and below the equator.
And since each sun-spot retains its place on the surface of the sun, just as a
hole dug in the surface of our earth would retain its place, we have been able
to tell by the apparent movement of these spots how rapidly and in which
direction the sun is turning on its axis; it revolves once in about twenty-six
days and, since the sun is so much larger than our earth, a spot on the
equator travels at a rate of more than a mile a second. There is a queer
thing about the outside surface of the sun — the equator rotates more
rapidly than the parts lying nearer the poles ; this shows that the sun is a
gaseous or liquid body, for if it were solid, like our earth, all its parts would
have to rotate at the same rate. At periods of eleven years the greatest
number of spots appear upon the sun.

Another interesting feature of the sun is the tremendous explosion of
hydrogen gas mixed with the vapors of calcium and magnesium, which
shoot out flames from twenty-five thousand to three hundred thousand
miles high, at a rate of speed two hundred times as swift as a rifle bullet
travels.) Think what fireworks one might see from the sun’s surface all the
time! One would not need to wait until the Fourth of July for fireworks
there. These great, explosive flames can be seen by the telescope when the
moon eclipses the sun, and they have been analyzed by means of the
spectroscope. Besides these magnificent explosions, there is surrounding
the sun a glow which is brighter near the sun ’si surface and paler at the
edges; it is a magnificent solar halo, some of its streamers being millions of
miles long. This halo is called the Corona, and is visible during total
eclipses. By means of the spectroscope we know that there are about
fifty chemical elements in the sun, which are the same as those we find
upon our earth.

The sun weighs 330,000 times as much as the earth; the force of grav-
ity upon its surface is twenty-seven and two-thirds times as much as it

906

Handbook of Nature-Study

is here. A letter which weighs an ounce here would weigh almost a pound
and three quarters on the sun; and a man of ordinary size in this world
would weigh more than two tons there, and would be crushed to death by
his own weight. Find how much your watch, your book, your pencil, your
baseball, your football would weigh on the sun.

Our Sun and its Family

First of all we shall have to acknowledge that our great, blazing sun is
simply a medium-sized star, not nearly so large as Vega, nor even as large
as the Pole-star; but it happens to be our own particular star and so is of
the greatest importance to us. The sun has several other worlds, more or
less like our own, revolving around it on almost the same level or plane in
which our world revolves, but some of these worlds are much nearer the sun
and others much farther away than ours. Nearest of all is Mercury, but it
is not half so thick through as our earth, and it is so close to the sun that it
circles around in 88 days ; that is, its year is only 88 days long. Next comes
Venus, almost as large as the earth, with a year 225 days long; next comes
our earth, which completes its year in 365 days; next beyond us is Mars, a
little more than half as thick as the earth and with a year 687 days long;
beyond Mars is a group of small planets which are not large enough to be
seen with the telescope, but we know that one of the largest of the group is
only 490 miles through; beyond this mysterious swarm of little worlds is
great Jupiter almost ten times as thick through as the earth, and it is so far
away that it does not circle about the sun but once in 1 1 years ; beyond
great Jupiter comes Saturn, not quite ten times the diameter of the earth
and so far from the sun that it takes 29^ years for it to move around its
orbit; beyond Saturn is Uranus, only about four times as thick through as
our world, and it has a year 84 years long; but the outermost of all our
sun’s planets is Neptune, little larger than Uranus, but so far from the
sun that 165 years are required for it to complete its circle. Just think
of a spring or a winter 41 years long! If Methuselah had lived on Nep-
tune, he would have died before he was five and one-half years old.

Almost all of the Earth’s sister planets are better off for moons than she ;
neither Venus nor Mercury has any moons. Mars has two moons, Jupiter
nine and Saturn has nine besides some splendid rings; strangely, two of
Jupiter’s and one of Saturn’s moons revolve in an opposite direction from
the others. Uranus has four moons, while Neptune is not any better
off than we are, unless there are some we have not been able to discover
because they are so far away.

One peculiar thing about all of the planets of the sun’s family and all of
their moons is that they all shine by reflecting the light of the sun, and none
of them are hot enough to give off light independently; but these sister
worlds of ours are so near us that they often seem larger and brighter than
the stars, which are true suns and give off much more light than our own
sun. After a little experience the young astronomer learns to distinguish
the planets from the true stars ; the planets always follow closely the path
of the sun and moon through the sky; they often seem larger and brighter
than the true stars and do not twinkle so much. The so-called morning
and evening stars are other planets of our sun’s family and are not stars at
all.

Dr. Simon Newcomb in his delightful book, “Astronomy for Every-
body,” gives the best illustration to make us understand the place of our

Sky Study

907

sun and its planets and its relation to the stars in space. He explains that
if here in the Atlantic States we should make a model of our solar system by
putting an apple down in a field to represent the sun ; then our earth could
be represented by a mustard seed forty feet away revolving around the
apple; and Neptune, our outermost planet, could be represented as a small
pea circling around the apple at the distance of a quarter of a mile. Thus,
our whole solar system could be modeled in a field one-half mile square,
except for comets which might extend out in their long orbits for several
miles. But to find the star nearest to our earth, the stai that is only four
and one-half light-years away from us, we should have to travel from this
field across the whole of North America to California, and then take steamer
and go out into the Pacific Ocean before we should reach our nearest star
neighbor, which would be another sun like our own and be represented by
another apple.

Comets

Besides planets and stars there are in space other bodies spinning around
our great sun, and following paths shaped quite differently than those
followed by our earth and its sister planets. We move around the sun
nearly in a circle with the sun at the center, but these other heavenly bodies
move in narrow oval orbits, the sun being near one end of the ellipse and
the other end being out in space beyond our farthest planet. These bodies
do not revolve around the sun in the same plane as our world and the other
planets; indeed they often move in quite the opposite direction. The
most noticeable of these bodies whose race-track around the sun is long
instead of circular are the comets, and we know that some of these almost
brush the sun when turning at the end of their course. The astronomers
have been able to measure the length of the race-tracks of some of the
comets and thus tell when they will come back. Encke’s comet, named
after the German astronomer, makes its course in three and one-half years
and this is the shortest period of any we know. There are five hundred
comets whose courses have been thus measured ; the longest period belongs
to Halley’s comet, which makes such a long trip that it comes back only
once in seventy-six years; but there are other comets which astronomers
are sure travel such long routes that the]’ come back only once in hundreds
or even thousands of years. About twelve hundred comets have been dis-
covered, many of them so small that they can only be seen through the
aid of the telescope; and it has been found that in one instance, at least,
three comets are racing around the sun on the same track.

A comet is a beautiful object, usually having a head which is a point of
brilliant light and a long, flaring tail of fainter light, which always extends
out from it on the side opposite the sun. The head of a comet must be
nearly twice as thick through as the earth in order to be large enough for
our telescopes to discover it. Some of the comet heads have been measured,
and one was thirty-one times, and another one hundred and fifty times,
as wide as our earth. If the heads are this large, imagine how long the
tails must be! Some of them are far longer than the distance from our
earth to the sun. The comet head decreases as it approaches the sun.

The head of a comet is supposed to be a swarm of meteors with some
gas, glowing partly by reflected light and partly by the sun’s radiation.
In fact, this gas has so little weight that light can push it; one would
never believe that light could push anything, because we cannot feel it

go8

Handbook of Nature-Study

strike against us; but the physicists have found that it does push, and by
pushing against the particles of the gas of comets it sends them out into a
streamer away from the sun, just as the heat pushes out a flaring cloud of
steam from the spout of a teakettle.

Comets have played an important part in history ; they were formerly
considered signs of the approval or wrath of God. The comet appearing
in 1066 struck terror to the Saxons and presaged the Norman conquest
of England. The comet of 18 11 was thought to warn us of the war of
1812 and Napoleon of his coming defeat. This was a wonderful comet
illuminating our skies for a year and a half; its rosy head was veiled in
a gaseous sphere one hundred and twenty miles across and its tail was
one hundred and thirty million miles long. Some comets that have
failed to appear when expected have their orbits marked by swarms of
meteors.

Since comets are moving around the sun in every direction, it is possible
that the earth may sometime meet one ; and if this proves to be a “head on
collision” there are those who prophesy that there will be no people left to
tell the story; but the tails of comets are so thin and ethereal that our
earth actually passed through one once, and no one but the astronomers
knew anything about it.

Shooting Stars

When we look up during an evening walk and see a star falling through
space, sometimes leaving a track of light behind it, we wonder which of the
beautiful stars of the heavens has fallen. But astronomers tell us that no
real star ever fell, but that what we saw was a lump of the matter of which
worlds and comets are made; and it was following its own swift path
around the sun, when by chance it crossed our earth’s path, and there was
a collision. Luckily for us we were the larger of the two colliding bodies,
and luckier still for us is the fact that our earth is surrounded by some
miles of air, else we should be helpless under this meteoric bombardment.
Although this shooting star was just a dark, cold lump of metal, too small
for us to see, yet it was moving so swiftly along its path around the sun
that the friction caused by its passing through our air, lighted it and burned
it up, just as a match scratched on sandpaper lights and burns; as soon
as it blazed we saw it and said, “There is a shooting star!” Sometimes
the lump is so big that it does not have time to burn up while passing
through the hundred miles or more of our atmosphere, and what is left
of it strikes the earth usually with such force as to bury itself deep in the
soil. Such lumps are called “meteoroids” before they fall and “meteors”
while plunging white-hot through the air, but when they reach our earth
we call what is left of them “meteorites.” There are, in museums, many
meteorites of this so-called stone, which is largely iron. Chemists find
no new metals or elements in these strangers from space, but they do find
new kinds of chemical partnerships and combinations. Some of these
meteorites weigh hundreds of pounds, one in the Yale Museum weighing
1635 pounds. If it were not for the air that wraps our globe, like a
great, kindly blanket, and by its friction sets fire to the meteors and
destroys them, no one could live on this earth because we all should be
pelted to death. Prof. Newton estimated that every twenty-four hours
our world meets seven millions of these shooting stars, some of them
no larger than shot and others weighing tons.

Sky Study

909

The Relation Between Comets and Meteors

It has been discovered that many of the shooting stars are gathered in
great flocks and move about the sun in elongated paths, like the comets.
We have learned the times of year when the path our earth follows comes
close to these flocks of meteors which are flying around the sun like birds.
One of these flocks is straggling, and we begin to meet it about the end of
July and reach the center of the crowd on August 10th, and then continue
to take stragglers until the last of August. We can see the point where we
meet this flock of meteors, if we look for it in the direction of the constella-
tion Perseus (see planisphere). On November 13th, we meet another flock
which we find in the direction of the constellation Leo, of which the great
star Regulus is the heart (see chart) ; but this flock is usually all in a bunch
and we pass it in two days. Once there was a splendid flock which our
world met every thirty-three years, and we took so many stragglers from it
that our skies were filled with shooting stars, and ignorant people were
greatly frightened ; but for some reason, this flock has changed its path and
we looked in vain for the great display of fireworks which was due to occur
in 1899.

While we know from observation that the flocks of shooting stars, which
make our star showers, are just broken pieces of comets which once traveled
the same path, yet it does not follow that all our shooting stars are comet
fragments. Prof. Elkins has shown by photographing meteors that some
of them must be wanderers in the vast spaces which lie between the stars.

* THE RELATION BETWEEN THE TROPIC OF CANCER AND
THE PLANTING OF THE GARDEN
By John W. Spencer
A story to be read to the pupils

In years gone by, many farmers had a favorite phase of the moon when
they planted certain crops, usually spoken of as the “dark” or the “light” of
the moon. I once knew a woman who picked her geese by the “sign of the
moon. ’ ’ Hogs were butchered in the ‘ ‘light” of the moon, and then the pork
would not “fry away” so much in the skillet. It is true some pork from
some hogs wastes faster than that of others, but the difference is due to the
kind of food given the hogs. Many farmers hold to those old superstitions
yet, but the number is much less now than twenty-five years ago. I wish I
might impress on you young agriculturists that the moon has no influence
on plant life, or pork, or geese, but the position of the sun most decidedly
has. We have some plants that had best be planted when the sun’s rays
strike the state of New York slantingly, which means in early spring or late
fall. We have other plants that should not be put in the open ground until
the rays of the sun strike the state more direct blows, which means the hotter
weather of summer. If I were in close touch with you pupils, I should be
glad to tell some things that happen to three young friends of mine, hoping
that thereby my statement might give the boys and girls an interest in three
geographical lines concerning the tropics, and lead them to find their loca-
tion on the map, particularly when later they learn what happens to my

*A portion of a letter to apprentice gardeners from Uncle John, published as a supplement to tfee
Home Nature-Study Course Leaflet, for April-May, 1907.

9io

Handbook of Nature-Study

three young friends, whom we will call by the following names: There is
one in Quito, Ecuador, of whom we will speak as Equator Shem; the one on
the Island of Cuba is named Tropic of Cancer Ham; and the other in San
Paulo, Brazil, answers to the name of Tropic of Capricorn Japhet.

What happens to these three boys, Shem, Ham and Japhet, is this. At
certain times of the year they have no shadow when they go home for dinner
at noon. This state of affairs is no fault of theirs. It is not because they
are too thin to make shadows. It is due to the position of the sun. ' If the
boys should look for that luminary at noon, they would find it as directly
over their heads as a plumb line. It is a case of direct or straight blows from
rays of the sun, and, oh, how hot — hotter than any Fourth of July the oldest
inhabitant can remember! These three boys are not hit squarely on the
head on one and the same day. Each is hit three months after the other.
The first boy to be hit this year in the above manner will be the Equator
Shem. The time will be during the last half of March. Can any of my
young friends in this grade tell me the exact day of March that Equator
Shem has no shadow? If no one of you can answer that question at this
time, you had best talk it over with your friends, and bring your answers
tomorrow. It happens at a time when our days are of about equal length.

Another thing about this particular day is that our almanacs call it the
first day of spring. All because no boy or anything else has a shadow on the
equator at noon time. People and bluebirds and robins in the state of New
York will see squalls of snow about that time, and there will be some freez-
ing nights. But after the first day of spring the cold storms do not last so
long, as was the case during December, January, and early February, when
the sun’s rays hit us with very glancing blows. Watch to see how much
faster the sun melts the snow on the last days of March than it did at
Christmas time. The light is also stronger and brighter, and plants in
greenhouses and our homes have more life, and are not so shiftless, so to
speak. Even the hens feel the influence, for they begin to lay more eggs and
cackle, and down goes the price of eggs. Do not forget to learn what day in
March spring begins, when the Equator boy finds it so hot that he would like
to take off his flesh, and sit in his bones. After a few days, Equator Shem
will find he again has a shadow at noon. A short one it is true, but it will get
longer and longer each day. N ow his shadow will be on the south side of him.
Is this a queer thing to happen ? On which side of you is your noon-time
shadow ? I will give every one of you a red apple that finds it anywhere but
on the north side of him at twelve o’clock. Every time the sunshines at
noon, watch to find your old uncle in the wrong, and thereby get the apple.
Each day that the shadow of Equator Shem becomes longer and longer, the
noon-day shadow of Tropic of Cancer Ham , living on the Island of Cuba, will
be getting shorter and shorter, until at last there comes a day during the last
of June that he, too, will have no shadow, and the almanac says that that
day is the beginning of summer.

Now it will be the turn of the Tropic of Cancer Ham, on the Island of
Cuba, to say the weather is hotter than two Fourths of July beat into one,
and he too will wish that he could take off his flesh, and sit in his bones.
Everybody in the state of New York will say that the first summer day is
the longest day of the year. It is on this day that Equator Shem will have
as long a shadow as he ever had in his life. No United States boy will ever
be without a shadow at noon so long as he remains in his own country.
When the eight o’clock curfew bell says it is time for boys and girls to go to

Sky Study

911

bed, it will yet be light enough to read the papers. The sun not only sets
late on that first summer day, but it appears early next morning. What a
beautiful spectacle a sunrise in June is ! Men of wealth will pay thousands
of dollars for pictures showing its glory, yet I suppose that not one boy in
five hundred ever saw the beauty of the birth of a new day in the sixth
month of the year, and with no price of admission at that.

For only one day do the sun’s rays fall directly on top of the head of
Tropic of Cancer Ham, who lives on the Island of Cuba — just for one day,
after which the up and down rays travel back towards the Equator Shem.
On the twenty-first of September Shem again has no shadow at noon, and
the almanac makers say that is the last day of summer, and tomorrow will
be the first day of autumn. Again it is very hot where Shem lives, but the
alligators and monkeys and the parrots do not seem to mind it. Where do
the up and down rays of the sun go next ? They keep going south, hunting
for the boy named Tropic of Capricorn Japhet, to warm him up, as was the
case with the boys in Cuba and at the Equator. The up and down rays do
not find the top of the head of the lad in the City of San Paulo, Brazil until
the last part of December, just four days before Christmas, and then the
almanac says this is the beginning of winter, and the shorter days of the
year, when we in the state of New York light the lamp at five o’clock in the
afternoon. Now, my boys and girls, do you understand why we have a
change of seasons ? Do you understand that the sun changes his manner of-
pitching his rays at us? That in winter, when he is over the head of the
Tropic of Capricorn Japhet in San Paulo, and making summer on that part
of the earth, to us people in the north, in the State of New York, he pitche ;
only slanting rays that do not hit us hard, and have but little power ? Thus
you will see that the rays of the sun that strike the earth direct blows, swing
back and forth like a pendulum, year after year, and century after century,
coming north as far as Tropic of Cancer Shem, but no farther, and then
swinging south as far as the boy named Tropic of Capricorn Japhet, and no
farther, just stopping and swinging back again towards the north.

THE ZODIAC AND ITS SIGNS
Teacher's Story

To be retold to pupils.

The mysterious symbols of the Zodiac on the first pages of almanacs are
always a source of wonder and awe to children, and remain a life-long
mystery to most people except fortune tellers; and yet the Zodiac is the
simplest thing in the world to understand. However, the lesson should
not be given until after the children have had their lessons on the sun and
the shadow-stick, and also the lessons on the stars.

The ancients who believed the earth stood still and the sun moved around
it, noticed inevitably that the path through the heavens pursued by the sun
reached in summer a point farther north and higher up than in the winter,
and they naturally wished to map this path, so as to fix it in their minds and
writings. Nothing could be easier, for there in the skies were the eternal
stars always following the same fixed path through the heavens and never
wobbling up and down like the sun. So they chose the constellation which
marked the highest point in the sun’s path for each month, and these con-
stellations might be likened to a stairway with six steps down toward the

912

Handbook of Nature-Study

south and six steps up toward the north, the highest stair being reached by
the sun in June, for then the sun is highest in the heavens and the farthest
north. So beginning in June with Cancer, (the Crab) , which is high in the
heavens, it steps down to Leo, (the Lion) in July, takes another step lower
to the Virgin in August, another down to the Scorpion in September, and
comes to the lowest step of all, Sagittarius, (the Archer), in November; for
at the last of November, the sun’s path reaches its lowest point farthest
south in the heavens and then the days are shortest. But in December it
begins to climb and takes a short step up to Capri cornus, (the Goat) , in
January it rises to Aquarius, (the Water Carrier), and in February rises
another step to Pisces, (the Fishes). In March it reaches up to Aries, (the
Ram) , in April attains Taurus, (the Bull) , and in May reaches Gemini, (the
Twins), which step is almost as high and as near to the North Star as was
the Cancer, where the journey began the June before.

It may be difficult for the pupils to learn to know all these constellations,
as some of them are not very well marked; however, if they wish to learn
them they can do so by the use of the planisphere. Some of the Zodiac
constellations are marked by brilliant stars which have already been learned.
Regulus is the heart of Leo, the Lion ; Spica which means “ear” is the ear of
wheat which the Virgin is holding in the constellation Virgo. Red Antares
lies in the Scorpion; and the Milk Dipper, which is shaped like the Big
Dipper, but smaller, marks Sagittarius. Red Aldsbaran is the fiery eye of
Taurus, the Bull, while the Gemini, or Twins, are the most conspicuous of
the stars in the evening skies of February and March. It should be noted,
however, that at the present day, owing to the peculiar movement of our
earth, the path of the sun in climbing up and down these constellation
steps is not quite the same as it seemed to the ancients.

From Todd's New Astronomy.

Sky Study

9i3

THE RELATIONS OF THE SUN TO THE EARTH

Teacher's Story

“ Whether we look or whether we listen,

We hear life murmur or see it glisten

— Lowell.

All this murmuring and glistening life on our earth planet has its source
in the great sun which swings through our skies daily, sending to us through
the friendly ether his messages of light and warmth — messages that kindle
life in the seed and perfect the existence of every living organism, whether it
be the weed in the field or the king on his throne.

At sunrise this heat which the sun sends out equally at all times of day
and night, is tempered when it reaches us because it passes obliquely through
our atmosphere-blanket, and thus traverses a greater distance in the cooling
air.. The same is true at sunset ; but at noon, when the sun is most directly
over our heads its rays pass through the least possible distance of the at-
mosphere-blanket and, therefore, lose less heat on the way. It is true that
often about three o’clock in the afternoon is the hottest period of the day,
but this is because the air-blanket has become thoroughly heated; but we
receive the most heat directly from the sun at noon.

The variations in the time of the rising and the setting of the sun may be
made a most interesting investigation on the part of the pupils. They
should keep a record for a month in the winter ; and with this as a basis, use
the almanac to complete the lesson. Thus, each one may learn for himself
which is the shortest and which the longest day of the year. There is a
slight variation in different years ; the shortest day of the year when this
lesson was written, as computed from a current almanac, was the 2 2d of
December ; it was nine hours and fourteen minutes long. The longest day
of the year was the 2 2d of June, and it was fifteen hours and six minutes in
duration. ' On the longest day of the year the sun reaches its farthest point
north and is, therefore, most nearly above us at mid-day. On the shortest
day of the year, the sun reaches its farthest point south and is, therefore,
farther from the point directly above us at mid-day than during any other
day of the year.

Also the movement of the sun north and south is an interesting subject
for personal investigation, as suggested in the lesson. Through quite
involuntary observation, I have become so accustomed to the arc traversed
by the points of sunrise as seen from my home, that I can tell what month
of the year it is, by simply noting the place where the sun rises. When
it first peeps at us over a certain pine tree far to the south, it is Decem-
berwhen it rises over the reservoir it is February or October; and when it
rises over Beebe pond it is July. Only at the equinox of spring and fall does
it rise exactly in the east and set directly in the west. Equinox means equal
nights, that is, the length of the night is equal to that of the day.

So vast is the weight of the sun that the force of gravity upon its surface
is so great that even if it were not for the white-hot fireworks there so con-
stantly active, we could not live upon it, for our own weight would crush us
to death. • But this multiplying the weight of common objects by twenty-
seven and two-thirds to find how much they would weigh on the sun is an
interesting diversion for the pupils, and incidentally teaches them how to
weigh objects, and something about that mysterious force called gravity ;
and it is also an excellent lesson in fractions.

Handbook of Nature-Study

914

LESSON CCXXXII

The Relation of the Sun to the Earth.

Leading thought — The sun which is the source of all our light and heat
and, therefore, of all life on our globe travels a path that is higher across the
sky in June than the path which it follows in December, and hence we
experience changes of seasons. The lesson should be given to the pupils of
the upper grades and should be correlated with reading, arithmetic and
thinking.

Observations — 1. What does the sun do for us?

2 . At what time of the day after the sun rises do we get the least heat
from it ? What hour of the day do we get the most heat from it ?

3. Is the sun equally hot all day? Why does it seem hotter to us at
one time of the day than at another?

4. At what hour does the sun rise and set on the first of the following
months; February, March, Arpil, May and June?

5 . Which is the shortest day of the year, and how long is it ?

6. Which is the longest day of the year, and how many hours and
minutes are there in it?

7. What day of the year is the sun nearest a point directly over our
heads at mid-day?

8. Which day of the year is the sun at mid-day farthest from the point
directly above our heads? Explain why this is so.

9. Standing in a certain place, mark by some building, tree or other
object just where the sun rises in the east and sets in the west on the first of
February. Observe the rising and setting of the sun from the same place
on the first day of March and again on the first of April. Does it rise and
set in the same place always or does it move northward or southward ?

10. Is the sun farthest south on the shortest day of the year? If so, is
it farthest north on the longest day of the year ?

11. At what time of the year does the sun rise due east and set due
west?

12. The sun is so much larger than the earth that its force of gravity
is twenty-seven and two-thirds times that of the earth. How much would
your watch weigh if you were living on the sun? How much would you
yourself weigh if you were there?

13 . Experiment. A shadow stick — Place a peg two or three inches high
upright in a board and place the board lengthwise on the sill of a south

window or where it will get the
south light. Note the length
cast by the shadow of the peg
during a sunny day and draw a
line with pencil or chalk out-
lining the tip of the shadow of
the stick from 9 a. m. to
4 p. m. Make a similar out-
line a month later and again a
month later and note whether the shadow traces the same line during
each of these days of observation. Note especially the length of the
shadow at noon.

A shadow-stick.

Sky Study

9i5

Another excellent observation lesson for teaching the fact that the sun
travels farther south in the winter, is to measure the shadow of a tree on the
school grounds at noonday once a month during the school year. The
length of the tree shadow can be measured from the base of the tree trunk, a
memorandum being made of it.

14. When does the stick or tree cast its longest shadow at noon — in
December or February ? February or April? April or June? Why?

T opics for English themes — The size and distance of the sun. The heat of
the sun and its effect upon the earth. What we know about the sun spots.
Our path around the sun.

Supplementary reading — Starland, Ball; The Earth and Sky, Holden.

LESSON CCXXXIII
How to Make a Sundial

Method — The diagram for the dial is a
lesson in mechanical drawing. Each pupil
should construct a gnomon ( no-mon ) of
cardboard, and should make a drawing of
the face of the dial upon paper. Then the
sundial may be constructed by the help of
the more skillful in the class. It should be
made and set up by the pupils. A sundial
in the school grounds may be made a center
of interest and an object of beauty as well.

Materials — For the gnomon a piece of
board a half inch thick and six inches
square is required. It should be given
several coats of white paint so that it will
not warp. For the dial, take a board
about 14 inches square and an inch or more thick. The lower edge may
be bevelled if desired. This should be given three coats of white paint, so
that it will not warp and check.

To make the gnomon — The word gnomon is from a Greek word meaning

“one who knows.” It is the hand of
the sundial, which throws its shadow
on the face of the dial, indicating the
hour. Take a piece of board six
inches square, and be very sure its
angles are right angles. Let s, t, u, v
represent the four angles; draw on
it a quarter of a circle frorr stou
with a radius equal to the line vs.
Then with a cardboard protractor,
costing fifteen cents, or by working it
out without any help except knowing
that a right angle is 90°, draw the line
vw making the angle at x the same as
the degree of latitude where the sun-
dial is to be placed. At Ithaca the
latitude is 420, 27' and the angle at x

A sundial made by pupils.

Handbook of Nature-Study

916

measures 420 27'. Then the board should be cut off at the line vw,
and later the edge sw may be cut in some ornamental pattern.

To make the dial — Take the painted board 14 inches square and find its
exact center, y. Draw on it with a pencil the line A A" a foot long and one-
fourth inch at the left of the center. Then draw the line B B" exactly par-
allel to the line A A' ' and a half inch to the right of it. These lines should
be one-half inch apart — which is just the thickness of the gnomon. If the
gnomon were only one-fourth inch thick, then these lines should be one-
fourth inch apart, etc.

With a compass, or a pencil fastened to a string, draw the half-circle
A A' A" with a radius of six inches with the point C for its center. Draw a
similar half-circle B B' B" opposite with c' for its center. Then draw the
half-circle from D, D', D", from c with a radius of five and three-quarter
inches. Then draw similarly from c' the half-circle E, E', E". Then draw
from c the half-circle F, F', F" with a radius of five inches and a similar half-
circle G, G', G" from c' as a center.

Find the points M, M' just six inches from the points F, G; draw the
line J, K through M, M' exactly at right angles to the line A, A'. This will

The face of the sundial.

Sky Study

917

mark the six o’clock point so the figures VI may be placed on it in the space
between the two inner circles. The noon mark XII should be placed as
indicated (the “X” at D, F, the “II” at E, G). With black paint outline all
the semi-circles and figures.

To set up the sundial — Fasten the base of the gnomon by screws or
brads to the dial with the point s of the gnomon at F, G, and the point v
of the gnomon at M, M', so that the point W is up in the air. Set the dial
on some perfectly level standard with the line A, A" extending exactly
north and south. If no compass is available, wait until noon and set the
dial so that the shadow from W will fall exactly between the points A, B,
and this will mean that the dial is set exactly right. Then with a good
watch note the points on the arc E, K', on which the shadow falls at one,
two, three, four, and five o’clock : and in the morning the points on the arc
J' D on which the shadow falls at seven, eight, nine, ten and eleven o’clock.
Draw lines from M to these points, and lines from M' to the points on the
arc E K'. Then place the figures on the dial as indicated in the spaces
between the two inner circles. The space between the two outer circles
may be marked with lines indicating the half and quarter hours. The
figures should be outlined in pencil and then painted with black paint, or
carved in the wood and then painted.

T wilight, twilight of the west,

Sky-lines fading into rest,

Cloud-bars lying far and slight,

Shadows sinking into night, —

O moon, ye moon, so faint and still,

Hanging, hanging as ye will
Low along the western sky,

Far and far and yet so nigh
A finger's breadth within the sheen
And silent shoreless vasts between —

Thy aching heart is long ages lost.

And clear and calm as film of frost,

Ye know no longer strain or stress,

All passionless and passionless.

— From “The New Moon,” L. H. Bailey.

918

Handbook of Nature-Study

A photograph of the moon.

THE MOON
Teacher's Story

The moon is in more senses than one an illuminating object for both the
earth and the skies. As a beginning for earth study it is an object lesson,
illustrating what air and water do for our world and incidentally for us;
while as the beginning of the study of astronomy, it is the largest and
brightest object seen in the sky at night ; and since it lies nearest us, it is the
first natural step from our world to outer space.

The moon is a little dead world that circles around our earth with one
face always towards us, just as a hat-pin thrust into an apple would keep
the same side of its head always toward the apple no matter how rapidly the
apple was twirled. As we study the face of the moon, thus always turned
toward us, we see that it is dark in some places and shining in others, and
some ignorant people have thought that the dark places are oceans and the
light places, land. But the dark portions are simply areas of darker rocks,
while the lighter portions are yellowish or whitish rocks. The dark portions
are of such a form that people have imagined them to represent the eyes,
nose and mouth of a man’s face; but a far prettier picture is that of a
woman’s uplifted face in profile. The author has a personal feeling on this
point, for as a child she saw the man’s face always and thought it very ugly
and, moreover, concluded that he chewed tobacco; but after she had been
taught to find the face of the lady, the moon was always a beautiful object
to her.

The moon is a member of our sun’s family, his granddaughter we might
call her if the earth be his daughter ; and since the moon has no fires or light
of its own, it shines by light reflected from the sun and, therefore, one-half
of it is always in shadow. When we see the whole surface of the lighted
half we say the moon is full; but when we see only half of the

Sky Study

9L9

lighted side turned toward us, we
say the moon is in its quarter,
because all we can see is one-
half of one-half which is one-
quarter; and when the lighted
side is almost entirely turned
away from us we say it is
a crescent moon; and when
the lighted side is entirely
turned away from us we say there
is no moon, although it is always
there just the same. Thus, we
can understand that, although we
can never see the other side of the
moon, the sun shines on all sides of
it. Our earth, like the moon,
shines always by reflected light and
is almost four times as wide as
the moon. Think what a splendid moon our earth must seem to the
lady in the moon! When we see the old moon in the new moon’s
arms, the dark outline of the moon within the bright crescent is visible
because of the earthshine reflected from it. Sometimes pupils con-
fuse this appearance of the moon with a partial eclipse ; but the former is the
new or old moon, which is one edge of the moon shining in the sunlight, the
remainder faintly illumined by earth light, while an eclipse must always
occur at the full of the moon when the earth passes between the sun and the
moon, hiding the latter in its shadow.

It is approximately a month from one new moon to the next, since it
takes twenty-nine and one-half days for the moon to complete its cycle
around the earth and thus turn once around in the sunshine. Therefore,
each moon day is fourteen and three-quarter days long and the night is the
same length. The moon always rises in the east and sets in the west, follow-
ing pretty nearly the sun’s summer path. The full moon rises at sunset and
sets at sunrise, but owing to the movement of the earth around the sun the
moon rises about fifty minutes later each evening ; however, this time varies
with the different phases of the moon and at different times of the year.
This difference in the time of rising is so shortened in August, that we have
several nights when the full moon lengthens the day; and it is called the
“harvest moon,” because in England it adds to the hours devoted to
harvesting the grain.

A’ Visit to the Moon

If we could be shot out from a Jules Verne cannon and make a visit to
the moon, it would be a strange experience. First, we should find on this
little world, which is only as thick through as the distance from Boston to
Salt Lake City, mountains rising from its surface more than thirty thousand
feet high, which is twice as high as Mt. Blanc and a thousand feet higher
than the tallest peak of the Himalayas ; and these moon mountains are so
steep that no one could climb them. Besides ranges of these tremendous
mountains, there are great craters or circular spaces enclosed with steep
rock walls many thousand feet high. Sometimes at the center of the crater
there is a peak lifting itself up thousands of feet, and sometimes the space

920 Handbook of Nature-Study

within the crater circle is level. Thirty-three thousand of these craters
have been discovered. And, too, on the moon, there are great plains and
chasms ; and all these features of the moon have been mapped, measured
and photographed by people on our earth. For a boy studying geometry,
the measuring of the height of the mountains of the moon is an interesting
story.

But we could never in our present bodies visit the moon, because of one
terrible fact — the moon has no air surrounding it. No air ! What does that
mean to a world? First of all, as we know life, no living thing — animal or
plant — could exist there, for living beings must have air. Neither is there
water on the moon; for if there were water there would have to be air.
And without water no green thing can be grown, and the surface of the moon
is simply naked, barren rock. If we were on the moon, we could not turn
our eyes toward the sun, for with no air to veil it, its fierce light would blind
us; and the sky is as black at midday as at midnight, since there is no at-
mosphere to sift out the other rays of light, leaving the beautiful blue in the
sky ; nor is there a glow at sunset because there is no air prism to separate
the rays of light and no clouds to reflect or refract them. The stars could
be seen in the black skies of midday as well as in the black skies of night, and
they would be simply points of light and could not twinkle, since there is no
air to diffuse the sun’s light and thus curtain the stars by day and cause
them to twinkle at night. The shadows on the moon are, for the same
reason, as black as midnight and as sharply defined; and if we should step
into the shadow of a rock at midday we should be hidden although some
light reflected from the rocks around us might reach us. Hiding in
such a shadow would be like putting on the invisible cloak of fairy lore.

The moon's surface seen through a telescope , showing the craters Mercator and Cam -
panus. Note that the shadows give some idea of their height.

Photo after Nasmyth.

Sky Study

921

And because of no layers of air to make an aerial perspective, a mountain
a hundred miles away would seem as close to us as one a mile away.

Since there is no atmosphere on the moon to act as a buffer between the
cold of outer space, which is estimated to be 250° below zero, and the
heat of the sun, which is 500° above zero, the temperature of the moon
reaches above boiling point at noon and absolute zero at midnight, be-
cause there is no air to carry the heat over into the shadow or to blanket
the moon at night. But this great change of temperature between sun-
light and darkness is the only force on the moon to change the shape of
its rocks, for the expansion under heat and contraction under cold must
break and crumble even the firmest rock more or less. Our rocks are
broken by the freezing of water that creeps into every crevice, but there
is no water to act on the moon’s mountains in this fashion or to wear
them away by dashing over their surface. However, the rocks and
mountains of the moon may be changed in shape by the battering of
meteorites, which pelt into the moon by the million, since the moon has
no air to set them afire and make them into harmless shooting stars,
burning up before they strike. But though a meteorite weighing thou-
sands of tons should crash into a moon mountain and shatter it to atoms
there would be no sound, since sound is carried only by the atmosphere.

Imagine this barren, dead world, chained to our earth by links forged
from unbreakable gravity, with never a breath of air, a drop of rain or flake
of snow, with no streams, nor seas, nor graced by any green thing — not even
a blade of grass — a tree, nor by the presence of any living creature ! Out
there in space it whirls its dreary round, with its stupendous mountains
cutting the black skies with their jagged peaks above, and casting their
inky shadows below ; heated by the sun’s rays until hotter than the flame of
a blast furnace, then suddenly immersed into cold that would freeze our air
into solid ice, its only companion the terrific rain of meteoric stones driven
against it with a force far beyond that of cannon balls, and yet with never a
sound as loud as a whisper to break the terrible stillness which envelops it.

LESSON CCXXXIV
The Moon

Leading thought — The moon always has the same side turned toward us
so we do not know what is on the other side. The moon shines by re-
flected light from the sun, and is always half in light and half in shadow.
The moon has neither air nor water on its surface and what we call the
moon phases depend on how much of the lighted surface we see.

Method — Have the pupils observe the moon as often as possible for a
month, beginning with the full moon. After the suggested experiment, the
questions which follow may be given a few at a time.

Experiment for recess — Darken the room as much as possible; use a
lighted lamp or gas jet or electric light for the sun, which is, of course,
stationary. Take a large apple to represent the earth and a small one to
represent the moon. Thrust a hat pin through the big apple to represent
the axis of the earth and also the axis about which the moon revolves. Tie
a string about a foot long to the stem of the moon apple and make fast the
other end to the hat pin just above the earth apple. Hold the hat pin in
one hand and revolve the apple representing the moon slowly with the other

922

Handbook of Nature-Study

hand letting the children see that if they were living on the earth apple the
following things would be true :

1 . Moving from right to left when the moon is between the earth and
the sun it reflects no light.

2. Moving a little to the left a crescent appears.

3 . Moving a quarter around shows the first quarter.

4. When just opposite the lamp, it shows its whole face lighted turned
toward the earth.

5 . Another quarter around shows a half disc, which is the third quarter .

6. When almost between the sun and the earth the crescent of the old
moon appears.

7. Note that the moon always keeps one face toward the earth.

Experiment for illustrating the phases of the moon.

8 . N ote that the new moon crescent is the lighted edge of one side of the
moon, while the old moon crescent is the lighted edge of the opposite side.

9. Make an eclipse of the moon by letting the shadow of the earth fall
upon it, and an eclipse of the sun by revolving the moon apple between the
sun and the earth. The earth’s orbit and the moon’s orbit are such that
this relative position of the two bodies occurs but seldom.

Observations — 1. Describe how the moon looks when it is full.

2 . What do you think you see in the moon ?

3. Describe the difference in appearance between the new moon and
the full moon, and explain this difference.

4. Where does the new moon rise and where does it set?

5. When does it rise and when does it set ?

6. Where and when does the full moon rise and where and when does it
set?

7. How does the old moon look?

8. Could the crescent moon which is seen in early evening be the old
moon instead of the new; and, if not, why not?

Sky Study 923

9. When and where do we ordinarily see the old moon when it is
crescent shaped ?

10. Does the moon rise earlier or later on succeeding nights? What is
approximately the difference in time of moonrise on two successive nights ?

1 1 . Do you think we always look at the same side of the moon ? If so,
why?

12. Is more than one side of the moon luminous ? Why ?

13 . How many days from one new moon until the next ?

14. How long is the day on the moon and how long the night ?

15. How many times does the moon go around the earth in a year?

16. What is the difference between the disappearance of the old moon
and an eclipse of the moon? In both cases the moon is hidden from us.

The Physical Geography of the Moon

Questions for the pupils to think about and answer if they can — 17. Since
it has been proved that there is no air or water on the moon, could there be
any life there ?

18. Supposing you could do without air or water and should be able to
visit the moon, what would you find to be the color of the sky there?

19. Would there be a red glow before sunrise or beautiful colors at
sunset ?

20. Would the sun appear to have rays? Could you look at the sun
without being blinded ?

2 1 . Would the stars appear to twinkle ? Could you see the stars in the-
daytime ?

2 2 . How would the shadows look ? If you could step into the shadow
of a rock at midday, could you be seen?

23 . Could you tell by looking at it whether a mountain was far or near?

24. It is estimated that the temperature of outer space is 250 degrees
below zero, and the sun’s direct heat is 500 degrees above zero. If this be
correct, how hot would it be in the sunshine on the moon? How cold
would it be at midnight ?

25. Why is it so much hotter and colder on the moon than upon the
earth?

26. If you could shout on the moon, how would it sound? If one
hundred cannons should be fired at once on the moon, how would it sound?

27. Is there any rain or snow on the moon? Are there any clouds
there? If there are no air and water on the moon, would the intense heat
and the powerful cold affect the soils or rocks, as freezing and thawing affect
our rocks ?

28. Professor Newton estimated that the earth meets seven million
meteorites (shooting stars) every twenty-four hours. Why do we not see
more of these? What happens when a meteorite strikes the moon?

29. The moon is so small that the force of gravity on its surface is one-
sixth that on the earth’s surface. If a man can carry seventy-five pounds
on his back here, how much could he carry on the moon? If a boy can
throw a ball one hundred yards here, how many yards could he throw on the
moon ? If a boy can kick a football one hundred and thirty-five feet in the
air here, how far could he kick it on the moon?

BOOKS OF REFERENCE

The following list of nature books is by no means complete. It simply
includes books which the author has consulted in her work as a teacher, and to
which she naturally referred in the lessons. The list is given with the publishers for
the convenience of those who may use this volume.

BIRD STUDY

American Birds — Wm. L Finley — Scribners.

Birdcraft — Wright — MacMillan.

Bird Life — Chapman — Appleton.

Bird Neighbors — Blanchan — Doubleday, Pa *e & Co.

Birds that Hunt and are Hunted — Blanchan — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Bird Homes — Dugmore — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Birds and Bees — John Burroughs — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Birds of New York — Eaton and Fuertes — University of State of New York Press.
Birds of the United States — Apgar — American Book Co.

Birds of Song and Story — Grinnell — Mumford, Chicago.

Birds in their Relation to Man — Weed & Dearborn — Lippincott.

Birds of Village and Field — Merriam — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Birds through an Opera Glass — Merriam — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Bob: The Story of a Mockingbird — Lanier — Scribner.

Citizen Bird — Wright — MacMillan.

Everyday Birds — Torrev — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Field Book of Wild Birds and their Music — Mathews — Putnams.

First and Second Book of Birds — Miller — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Guide to the Birds — Hoffman, — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Handbook of Birds of Eastern N. America — Chapman — Appletons.

How to Attract the Birds — Blanchan — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Leaflets of National Association of Audubon Societies — 141 Broadway, N. Y.
Mother Nature’s Children — Gould — Ginn & Co.

Nestlings of Forest and Marsh — Wheelock — A. C. McClurg & Co.

Neighbors with Wings and Fins — Johonnot — American Book Co.

Notes on New England Birds — H. D. Thoreau — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Our Birds and their Nestlings — Walker — American Book Co.

Sharp Eyes — John Burroughs — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Story of the Birds — Baskett — Appletons.

Stories About Birds — Kirby — Educational Publishing Co.

The Bird: Its Form and Function — Beebe — Henry Holt & Co.

The Bird Book — Eckstorm — D. C. Heath & Co.

The Song of the Cardinal — Porter — Bobbs, Merrill & Co.

The Woodpeckers — Eckstorm — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

True Bird Stories — Miller — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Useful Birds and Their Protection — Forbush — Mass. Board of Agri.

FISH STUDY

American Food and Game Fishes — Jordan & Everman — Doubleday, Page & Co,
Fish Stories — Holder & Jordan — Henry Holt & Co.

Fisherman ’s Luck — V an Dyke — Scribners.

Guide to the Study of the Fishes — Jordan — Henry Holt & Co.

Neighbors with Wings and Fins — Johonnot — American Book Co.

Science Sketches — Jordan — McClurg.

The Complete Angler — Isaac Walton — Little Brown & Co.

The Freshwater Aquarium — Eggeling & Ehrenberg — Henry Holt & Co.

The Home Aquarium — Eugene Smith — E. P. Dutton & Co.

The Story of the Fishes — Baskett — Appletons.

BATRACHIAN AND REPTILE STUDY
American Natural History — Hornaday — Scribner.

Elementary Zoology — Kellogg — Henry Holt & Co.

Familiar Life of Field and Forest — Mathews — Appletons.

Books of Reference

The Frog Book — Dickerson — Doubleday, Page & Co.

The Reptile Book — Ditmars — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Serpents of Pennsylvania — Surface — State College, Penn.

MAMMAL STUDY

American Animals — Stone & Cram — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Animals of the World — Knight & Jenks — Frederick Stokes Co.

Animal Heroes — Thompson-Seton — Scribners.

A Country Reader — Buchanan— MacMillan.

A Wat' her in the Woods — Dallas Lore Sharp — Century Co.

Black Beauty — Sewell — Lothrop.

Bob, Son of Battle — Olliphant — McClure, Phillips & Co.

Campfires of a Naturalist — Edwards — Appletons.

Camp Life in the Woods — Gibson — Harpers.

Concerning Cats — Winslow — Lothrop.

Domestic Animals — Burkett — Ginn & Co.

Domesticated Animals — Shaler — Scribners.

Dog of Flanders — Ouida — .

Familiar Life of Field and Forest — Mathews — Appletons.

Familiar Wild Animals — Lottridge — Henry Holt & Co.

Forest Neighbors — Hurlbert — McClure, Phillips & Co.

Half Hours with Mammals — Holder— American Book Co.

In Praise of the Dog — Bicknell — E. P. Dutton & Co.

Jack of the Bush Veldt — Fitz Patrick — Longmans, Green & Co
Jungle Books, First and Second — Kipling — Century Co.

Kindred of the Wild — Roberts — L. C. Page & Co.

Life of Animals — Ingersoll— MacMillan.

Lives of the Hunted — Thompson-Seton — .Scribners.

Little Beasts of Field and Wood — Cram — Small, Maynard & Co.

Little Brother of the Bear — Long — Ginn & Co.

Little People of the Sycamore — Roberts — L. C. Page & Co.

Mack, His Book — Florence Leigh — Frederick Stokes Co.

Neighbors of Field, Wood and Stream — Grinnell — Frederick Stokes.
Neighbors with Claws and Hoofs — Johonnot — American Book Co.
Nights with Uncle Remus — Harris — McClure, Phillips & Co.

Rab and his Friends — Dr. John Brown — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Red Fox — Roberts — L. C. Page & Co.

Roof and Meadow — Dallas Lore Sharp — Century Co.

Secrets of the Woods — Wm. J. Long — Ginn & Co.

Squirrels and other Fur-bearers — Burroughs — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Stickeen — John Muir — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

The Animals and Man — Kellogg — Henry Holt & Co.

The Horse — I. P. Roberts — Mac Millans.

The Fiieside Sphinx — Repplier — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

The Face of the Fields — D. Lore Sharp — Houghton, Miffllin & Co.

The Case for the Goat — Various Authors — E. P. Dutton.

The Silver Fox — Seton — Century Co.

Two Little Savages — Seton — Doubleday, Page & Co.

True Tales of Birds and Beasts — 'Jordan — .

Ways of Wood Folk — Wm. J. Long — Ginn & Co.

Wild Animals I Have Known — Seton — Scribners.

Wild Life Near Home — Dalla? - ore Sharp — Century Co.

Wild Life in Orchard and Fie1 -Ingersoll — Harpers.

Wild Neighbors — Ingersoll— .cMilian.

Wild Mammals of North America — Merriam — Henry Holt & Co.

Ii "GTS AND OTHER INVERTEBRATES
American Insects — Kellc C_J£e nry Holt & Co.

A. B. C. of Bee Culture — ^ S - Root — A. I. Root Co., Medina, O.

Ant Communities — McCook: — Harpeis.

Ants. W. M. Wheeler — Columbia University Press.

Caterpillars and their Moths — Elliot & Soule — Century Co.

Common Spiders — Emerton — Gmn & Co.

Handbook of Nature-Study

926

Earthworms — Darwin — Appletons.

Economic Entomology — Smith — Lippincotts.

Everyday Butterflies — Scudder — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Grasshopper Land — Morley — A. C. McClurg & Co.

Home Studies in Nature — Treat — American Book Co.

How to Keep Bees — Comstock — Doubleday, Page & Co.

How to Know the Butterflies — Comstock — Appletons.

Insect Book — Howard — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Insect Life — Comstock — Appletons.

Insect Stories — Kellogg — Henry Holt & Co.

Life Histories of American Insects — Weed — MacMillan.

Life of the Honey Bee — Ticknor Edwards— Methuen & Co.

Manual for the Study of Insects — Comstock — Comstock Pub. Co.
Mosquito Life — Mitchell — Putnams.

Moths and Butterflies — Ballard — Putnams.

Moths and Butterflies — Dickerson — Ginn & Co.

Nature Biographies — Weed — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Nature’s Craftsmen — McCook — Harpers.

Outdoor Studies — Needham — American Book Co.

The Bee People — Morley — A. C. McClurg & Co.

The House Fly— Howard — Frederick S. Stokes Co.

The Natural History of Some Common Animals — Latter — Cambridge Press.
The Spider Book — Comstock — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Wasps and their Ways — Morley — A. C. McClurg & Co.

Wasps, Social and Solitary — Peckham — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Ways of the Six-footed — Comstock — Ginn & Co.

PLANT LIFE— FLOWERS

Beginner’s Botany — Bailey — MacMillan.

Blossom Hosts and Insect Guests — Gibson — Newson & Co.

Botany Reader — Newell — Ginn Co.

Botany; Elementary Textbook — Bailey — MacMillan.

Childs Own Book of Wild Flowers — Comstock — American Book Co.

Field Book of American Wild Flowers — Mathews — Putnams.

Field, Forest and Garden Botany — Gray — American Book Co.

Field, Forest and Wayside Flowers — Going — Baker, Taylor Co.

First Lessons in Plant Life — Atkinson — Ginn & Co.

First Lessons with Plants — Bailey — MacMillan.

Flowers and their Friends — Morley — Ginn & Co.

Flowers of Field, Hill and Swamp — Creevy — Harpers.

Flowers of Northeastern United States— Miller & Whitney — Putnams.
Guide to the Wild Flowers — Lounsberry — Frederick S. Stokes Co.

How Plants Behave — Gray — American Book Co.

How Plants Grow — Gray — American Book Co.

How to Know the Wild Flowers — Dana — Scribners.

Manual of Botany — Gray — American Book Co.

Our Garden Flowers — Keeler — Scribners.

Plants and their Children Dana — American Book Co.

Plant Life — Coulter — Appletons.

Procession of the Flowers — Higginson — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Recreations in Botany — Creevy — Harpers.

Who’s Who Among the Wild Flowers — Beecroft — Moffatt Yard & Co.

FLOWERLESS PLANTS

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life — Lipman — Macmillan.

Dust and its Dangers — Prudden — Putnams.

Ferns — Waters — Henry Holt & Co.

Fern Allies of North America — Clute— Frederick Stokes.

Fungi: Their Nature and Uses — McCook — Appletons.

How to Know the Ferns — Parsons — Scribners.

Mosses with a Hand Lens — A. J. Grout — O. T. Lewis Co., N. Y.

Moulds, Mildews and Mushrooms — Underwood — Henry Holt & Ca
Mushrooms — Atkinson — Henry Holt & Co.

Books of Reference

927

New England Ferns — Eastman — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Our Edible Toadstools and Mushrooms — Gibson — Harpers.

Our Ferns in their Haunts — Clute — Frederick Stokes.

One Thousand American Fungi — Mcllvaine — Bobbs, Merrill & Co.

Story of the Bacteria — Prudden — Putnam.

PLANT LIFE— GARDENING AND AGRICULTURE
Agriculture for Beginners — Burkett, Stevens & Hill — Ginn & Co.

Agricultural Botany — Percival — Henry Holt & Co.

All the Year in the Garden — Matson — Crowell
Among School Gardens — Greene — Sage Foundation.

An Island Garden — Thaxter — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Book of Corn — Myrick — Orange, Judd Co.

Bulbs and How to Grow them — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Common Weeds of Field and Garden — Long — Smith, Elder & Co.

Corn Plants — Sargent — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Elements of Agriculture — Warren — MacMillan.

Encyclopedia of Horticulture — Bailey — MacMillan.

Farm Grasses of United States — Spillman — Orange, Judd Co.

First Principles of Agriculture — Goff & Mayne — American Book Co.

First Book of Farming — Goodrich — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Four Seasons in a Garden — Rexford — Lippincott.

Handy Book of Agriculture — Hayes — E. P. Dutton & Co.

Indoor Gardening — Rexford — Lippincotts.

Living Plant, the — Knight — Hutchinson & Co.

Mary’s Garden and How it Grew — Duncan — Century Co.

Manual of Gardening — Bailey — MacMillan.

School Garden Book — Weed & Emerson — Scribners.

Seed Dispersal — Beal — Ginn & Co.

Spraying of Plants — Lodeman — MacMillan.

Story of a Grain of Wheat — Edgar — Appletons.

Survival of the Unlike — Bailey — MacMillan.

The Amateur’s Practical Garden-Book — Hunn and Bailey — Mac Millan.

TREE STUDY

A Guide to the Trees — Lounsberry — Stokes.

A First Book of Forestry — Roth — Ginn & Co.

Among Green Trees — Rogers — Mumford— Chicago.

Familiar Trees and their Leaves — Mathews — Appletons.

Forestry in Nature-Study — Jackson — Office of Expt. Sta., Washington, D. G=
Getting Acquainted with the Trees — McFarland — Outlook Co.

Handbook of the Trees — Romeyn Hough — Harpers.

Manual of Trees of N. America — Sargent — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

North American Trees — N. L. Britton — Henry Holt & Co.

North American Forests and Forestry — Bruncken — Putnams.

Our Native Trees — Keeler — Scribners.

Our Northern Shrubs — Keeler — Scribners.

Our Trees and How to Know Them — Emerson & Weed — Lippincott.

Practical Forestry — Gifford — Appletons.

Primer of Forestry — Pinchot — Bureau of Forestry, Washington, D. C.
Studies of Trees — Mosher, 3 vols — C. W. Bardeen.

Studies of Trees in Winter — Huntingdon — Knight & Mellet.

The Tree Book — Rogers — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Trees of Northern United States — Apgar — American Book Co.

Trees, Shrubs and Vines — Parkhurst — Scribners.

Trees in Prose and Poetry — Stone & Pickett — Ginn & Co.

With the Trees — Going — Baker Taylor & Co.

ASTRONOMY— GEOLOGY— METEOROLOGY
Astronomy for Everybody — Newcomb — McClure, Phillips & Co.

Astronomy Through an Opera- Glass — Serviss — Appletons.

Children’s Book of Stars — Milton — Adam, Black & Co.

Earth and Sky — Holden — Appletons.

Fieldbook of the Stars — Olcutt — Putnams.

928

Handbook of Nature-Study

Friendly Stars — Martin — Harpers.

New Astronomy — Todd — American Book Co.

Other Suns than Ours — Proctor — Longman, Green & Co.

Other Worlds than Ours — Proctor — Longman, Green & Co.

The Planisphere — Thos. Whittaker.

Starland— Ball — Ginn & Co.

Stars in Song and Legend — Porter — Ginn & Co.

Storyland of Stars — Pratt — Educational Publishing Co.

Stories of Star Land — Miss Proctor — Potter & Putnam Co.

Study of the Sky — Howe — Flood & Vincent.

The Moon — Nasmyth & Carpenter — Murray, London.

The Stars in their Seasons — Proctor — Longmans Green & Co.

Brooks and Brook Basins — Frye — Ginn & Co.

Brook Book — Miller — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Geological Story Briefly Told — Dana — American Book Co.

Great World’s Farm — Gaye — MacMillan.

Introduction to Physical Geography — Gilbert & Brigham — Appletons
Physical Geography — Tarr — MacMillan.

Soils — King — MacMillan.

Soils — Fletcher — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Story of our Continent — Shaler — Appletons.

Up and Down the Brooks — Bamford — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Water Wonders — Thompson — Doubleday, Page & Co.

W onder Book of the Atmosphere — Houston — Stokes.

Wonder Book of Magnetism — Houston — Stokes.

NATURE-STUDY— MANUALS AND LITERATURE

Education through Nature — Munson — E. L. Kellogg & Co.

Field Work in Nature-Study — Jackman — Flanagan.

Handbook of Nature-Study — Lange — MacMillan.

How Nature-Study Should be Taught — Bigelow — Hinds & Noble.

How to Study Nature — J. D. Wilson — Bardeen.

Lessons in Nature-Study — Jenkins & Kellogg — Whittaker & Ray, San Francisco.
Nature-Study Idea— L. H. Bailey — MacMillan.

Nature-Study and Life — Hodge — Ginn & Co.

Nature-Study and the Child — Scott — D. C. Heath & Co.

Nature-Study in the Common Schools — Jackman — Henry Holt & Co.

Nature-Study for Grammar Grades — Jackman — MacMillan.

Nature-Study — Holtz — Scribner’s.

Nature-Study in the Lower-Grades — Cummings — American Book Co.
Nature-Study in Elementary Schools — L. L. Wilson — MacMillan.

Nature-Study Lessons — Various Authors — Hinds, Noble & Co.

Nature-Study — Overton & Hill — American Book Co.

Nature Teaching — Watts & Freeman — E, P. Dutton & Co.

Outlines in Nature-study — Engel — Silver, Burdett & Co.

Outlook to Nature — L. H. Bailey — MacMillan.

Practical Nature-Study — Coulter & Patterson — Appletons.

Study of Nature — Schmucker — Lippincott.

Writings of H. D. Thoreau — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Works of John Burroughs — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

The Land of Little Rain — Mary Austin— Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

The Flock — Mary Austin — Houghton, Mifflin & Co.

Songs of Nature, edited by John Burroughs — McClure, Phillips & Co.

Golden Numbers, edited by Wiggin & Smith — McClure, Phillips & Co.

The Posy Ring, edited by Wiggin & Smith — Doubleday, Page & Co.

Among Flowers and Trees with the Poets, edited by Wait & Leonard — Lee & SheparcL
Nature in Verse, comp, by Mary I. Lovejoy — Silver, Burdett Co.

Poetry of the Seasons, comp, by Mary I. Lovejoy — Silver, Burdett Co.

Nature Pictures by American Poets, Annie R. Marble — MacMillan Co.

Trees in Prose and Poetry — Stone & Fickett — Ginn & Co.

Stars in Song and Legend — Jermain G. Porter — Ginn & Co.

Sharp Eyes, by Hamilton Gibson — Harpers.

Pageant of Summer — by Richard Jefferies — Mosher, Portland, Me.

“Ye Gardeyne Boke,” J. D. Haines — Paul Elder & Co., San Francisco.

INDEX

Page

Abbe, Prof. Henry 860

Abdomen (of insect) 3 12-3 14

Acid Soils 848

Acorns 731

Acorn — cup and saucer 752

of Burr Oak 754

of Chestnut Oak 751

of Red Oak 753

of Scarlet Oak 754

of Swamp White Oak 750

Acorn plum-gall 360

Adder’s Tongue or Dogtooth Violet

499, 500,501,502

Adult Stage or Imago (of insects) .... 31 1

Agaricus Campestris 708,710,711

Agate . . 830

Allan thus tree 330

Air, as a gas 860

Composition of 861

Akers, Elizabeth 475, 477, 509

Allen, A. A 115,117,122,123

Aldebaran 896,897,898,912

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey 62, 598

Allen, James Lane 133

Altair 904

Alfalfa 654,653,654

Altenburger Cheese 278

Alum 826

Amanita plialloides 707, 709

Ames, Mary Clemmer 557

Amethyst 830

Animal Life 25

Anopheles 402

An tares 904, 901

Ants 419,420,425,426,422

agricultural 480

Ant-nest 424,425

Antennae 312,314

of male mosquito 402

Antenna-comb on ant’s leg 426

on wasp 434

Anther- tube 631, 632

Anther idii 704

Anthomyince 354

Ant-lion 395,396

Anti-cyclone 879, 880

Aphids 392,393,394,421

Aphid stable 421

Aphis-lion 397,398,399

Apple 73-779.785.787,789

Apple The ' 778 — 788

Apples — basket of . ' 787

Apple — blossoms 783

the core-lines 787

just ready to spray 350, 783

too late to spray 351

the tree 778-781

Aquarium, tadpole 185

Aquarium, how to make

for insects 380

Page

Aquarius (the Water Carrier) 912

Arc turns 902, 903, 904

Argon 862

Arided 904

Aries (the Ram) 912

Arnold, Edwin 595

Ash, white 774,775,776

Asters 558, 559, 560

Atmosphere 860

height of 863

temperature of 865

Atmosphere pressure 860, 863

High 868, 869, 879

Low 869, 879, 885

Atkinson, Prof. Geo. F

496, 697, 708, 715, 717, 718, 719, 720

Aurora Borealis 839

Austin, Mary 281

Averill — Anna Boynton 550

Babcock Milk Tester 300

Bachelor’s Button 636

Bacteria 723

Bailey Prof. L. H....38, 180, 189, 246,
495, 496, 539, 602, 610, 640, 642, 725, 824

Bailey, Vernon 255

Baker, W.C 565,768

Baker, Ida 372, 652

Ball, Sir Robert. . 889

Ballard, Julia P 317, 323, 328, 334, 338, 343

Barb, (of feather) 27

Barbels, (of feather) 27, 154

Barker, Eugene 170, 526

Barometer 878

Baskett, J.N 64, 149, 167

Batrachian Study 18 1

Bat 245

Bear, Great (Ursa Major) 890,891

Little (Ursa Minor) 891

Bee 18, 20, 541, 679

Bumble

21 , 442, 444, 579, 580, 624, 626, 655

Carpenter 439, 440

Carpenter nest of 441

drone 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450

Honey. 445-449

queen 445, 446, 447, 448, 450

Leaf-cutter 1 1 , 436, 438, 437

Mining 526

worker 445,446,447,448,449

Beecher, H. W. . v 635

Bee larkspur 623, 624, 625

Beetle .61, 64, 310

Ground 92

Colorado Potato 409,410,411

Beet leaf-miners . 88

Belgian Hares 216

Benefits of Nature-Study to Child. . . I
to Teachers 2

93°

Handbook of Nature-Study

Page

Bentley, W. J..825, 828, 851, 852, 853,
854. 855, 856, 857, 858, 860, 863,
866, 874, 875, 876, 877, 878, 879

Big Dipper 889, 890, 891,

892, 893, 894, 900, 901, 902, 903

Big and Little Dippers 894

3indweed 535, 536

Birch 73

Birds 25

Leaks of 37

ears of 36

eyes of 36

feet of 39

nostrils of 37

Birds — Flight of 33

Bird houses 47, 60

Birds’ Nests 147

Bird, parts named 147

Bird Study 25

Birthroot 506, 508

Blackbirds 130

red-winged 122, 123

Blade (of leaf) 493, 687

Blanchan, Neltje 131, 142, 146

Bleeding Heart 611,612,613

Blights 721

Bloodroot 503, 504, 505, 506

Bloodstone 830

Bluebird 60, 61

Bluets 523, 524

Blue Hill Observatory 860

Blue Vitriol 825, 826

Bole or Trunk of Tree 726, 727

Boreas 858

Box Elder 738

Boulders 844

Bracken 689

Branch 727

Bread mold, enlarged 721

Breathing pores of insect 314

Brook Study 817

Brook, the 818, 819, 844

Brown, Theron 585, 591, 657, 816

Browning Robert 515, 898

Bryant, W. C 491

Buchanan, H. B. M 294, 306

Buckeye, sweet, blossom 761

Budding 780

Buffalo 18, 295

Bull 295

Bullfrog 193

Bullhead 154, 155, 156

Burdock 566, 567, 568, 569, 594, 633

Burkett, W. B 280

Burroughs, John 72, 74, 76, 79

Burr, Prof. Geo. L 838

Butter-and-eggs 594

Buttercup 528,529,530

Butterfly — Black swallow-tail . . . .315, 318

changing to chrysalis 317

scales on wing of 321

Cabbage 317

Monarch 320,324

Butterfly — Papilio troilus 579

Viceroy 321, 322, 768

Byron 785

Caddis-fly 387,388,389,390

Caddis- worms cases of . . 387, 389, 390, 391

spiral ribbon 390, 391

with a grating of silk 389

Cage, bird 8

breeding 8

for crickets 375

Calcite, marble and limestone. . . .835, 836

Callalily 512

Callisto 891

Calves , dehorned 301

Camel 18

Campanus 920

Canada thistles 566

Canary 49

Cancer (the crab) 912

Tropic of 910,911

Canker-worms 92

Capella 901

and the Heavenly Twins 900

Capricorn, Tropic of 91 1

Capricornus, (the Goat) 912

Carapace (of turtle) 208

of crayfish 466

Caraway worms 319

Carbon dioxide 861, 862, 864

Cardinal bird 31, 133

Carlyle 887

Carolina locusts 367

poplar 770

Carpenter, Edward 391

Carpenter bee 439, 440, 441

Carrot, wild 590, 591, 592

Cassiopeias Chair, Cepheus and the

Dragon 893,894

Castor 900

Catastomus commersoni 159

Cat-tail 18, 551, 552, 553, 554

Cat, the 56,61,268,272

Catbird 98

Caterpillars 61,64, 92,308

Cabbage 88

Cecropia 331

cotton-boll 96

external anatomy of 314

Forest tent 308

Milkweed or Monarch 322, 324

Myron sphinx 343

Myron sphinx parisitized 345

pro-legs, prop legs and true legs of 314

Promethea , 337

shedding skin 308

skin of 309

Caterpillars, swallow-tail 316

Viceroy in winter home 323

Woolly bear 327

Catkins 766, 767

Cattle 295,298

Original American wild 295

Index

93i

Page

Cayuga Basin 170

Cayuga Lake 158

Cecropia, caterpillar, molting 331

weaving cocoon 332

cocoon, cut open 333

moth 330,334

Cedars 19

Celandine, silver leaf, ladies’ eardrop . 580

Carnelian 830

Chalk 836

Chapman Frank 51

Charles, Prof. Fred S 254, 256, 260

Charts, use of 10

Chart, of bright stars of summer. ... 901

of Polar Constellations 893

of Winter Stars 895

Cheese, Altenburger 278

Roquefort 278

Schweitzer 278

Chestnut 757, 758, 759, 760, 761

Chickadee 63,66

Chickaree 233,234,236

Chick, the 41

Chicken ways 41

Chickweed 594

Chinch bug 82

Chipmunk 240, 241 , 242

Chlorophyll 729

Chrysalis 309

of Monarch 322

Chrysanthemum 561

Chub 163

Circumpolar whirl 873,874

Civil War 86

Claws of Cat 269

(of insects) 313

Clay 844,845,846,847

Cleopatra’s Needle 834

Clisodon terminalis 627

Clitellum, (of earthworm) 463

Clouds 851,852,855,871

Clovers, the 652, 653, 655

Alfalfa 654

Buffalo . „ 653

Crimson 652, 778

Rabbit-foot or pussy 653

Red 654

Spotted medic ................. 655

Sweet .654 655,656,657

White 658, 659

Yellow or Hop 653

Clute Prof. W. N 684, 680, 690

Cob-webs 475, 476

Cockroach 378,379

laying case of eggs 379

Cocoon 309

of Cecropia 333

of Luna 309

of Promethea 336

of woolly bear 327

Codling Moth 347, 349

larva of 348

Collections of birds or insects 8

Page

Colorado Potato Beetle . . 409, 410, 41 1 ,412

larva of 410

Colt 289

Comet 907, 908

Compass, Mariner’s 839, 841

plant 570

Compositae 554, 631, 633

Composite snow crystal, formed in high

and medium clouds 851

Composite flower 554

Comstock, Prof. J. H 45, 319, 833, 857

Cone-bearing trees 789

Constellations, of the Chair 893

The Archer 912

The Bull 897,912

The Crown 903

Cygnus 904

Orion 896

Pleiades 897

Dippers 890

The Virgin 912

Coolbrith, In a 83

Coon, a pet 254

tracks 250

Copper sulphate 825

Coral 837

Corm (of crocus) 596

of Jack-in-pulpit 512

Corn 85,131,660,665

anthers of 663

an ear of 662,665

ears with braided husks 663

husking for braiding by Seneca

Indian women 660

pollen-bearing flower of 662

growth of 663,665

in the shock 664

Corn-cracker, the red 133

Cornwall Barry 515

Corona (of daffodils) 599

(of the sun) 905

Correlation of Nature Study with :

Arithmetic 19

Drawing 17

English 16

Geography.. 18

History 18

Language work 16

Cotton 666,667,668,669,670

Cotton-gin 668

Cotton-tail rabbit 213, 216

Cottonwood tree 770, 771, 772, 773

Cotyledons or seed-leaves 496

Country Life in America 61

Coverts (of feathers) 44

Cow 295,296,298,300,301

care of milch 300

Cows as draft animals .• . 298

Cow’s stomach 296

Cow-peas 654

Coxa (of insect) 314

Coyote, pet 256

932

Handbook of Nature-Study

Page

Cray-fish 466, 468, 470

where it lurks 465

Crickets 31 L 373. 375

Black male and female 372, 374

frontlegof 373

Snowy Tree 377, 378

wing covers of 374

Crocus 596, 597, 598

Crosby, Prof. Cyrus. . . . 190, 523, 538, 570,
594, 623, 629, 636, 773, 79 7. 798

Crosiers (of ferns) 692

Cross, Northern 889, 904

Croton bug 378

Crow the 43, 46, 56, 129, 131

Crown , N orthern 902 , 903

of bird 44

of daffodil' 599

Crystal, growth of 825

Crystals 825, 851

Alum 826

Cal cite 835

Feldspar 831

Frost 854

Quartz 829

Rock 830

Salt 827

Cultivated-Plant Study 596

Curculio of Plum 347

Curtis, Ralph . . 742, 743, 744, 746, 752, 775

Cutworm 56, 82, 85, 92

Cyclone 879

Cygnus 904

Cynthia Moth 337

Dace 161

“Daddy Longlegs” 472,474

Daffodils 599,600,601

Daisy 18, 560, 561

Yellow 562

Damsel-flies 382,383,384

Dandelion 19, 572, 573, 574, 575

Dandridge, Danske 503

Davie, Oliver 98

Dawson, Dr 133

Day, longest 913

shortest 913

Definition of Nature-Study 1

Deland, Mrs. Margaret 530

Deneb 904

Design for embroidery 498, 502

Devil’s darning needle 382

Dew 479, 851, 853, 855, 862, 879

Dickinson, Emily 200, 204

Dicksonia (fern) 695

Dippers, Big and Li title . . 889, 890, 891 , 901

Disk-flowers

554, 557, 558, 560, 562, 564, 567, 577, 632

Dodder 538

Dogs 261,267

Dog Stars, Great 898, 899

Dogtooth Spar 835, 836

Dogwood 803,804,805

Dolphin, or Job’s Coffin 904

Page

Dorr, Julia C 494

Double Stars 888

Dragon-flies 311, 382, 386

Drake, J. R 97

Drawing and N ature-Study 13

Dry den , J ohn 48

Duck, Rouen 31, 37, 39

Duggar, Prof 677

Dugmore,A. R 140 147

Dutchman’s breeches 509, 511

Eagle, the constellation of 904

Ears (of insects) 3H. 365» 369, 373

Earth and Sky 818

Earthworms 20, 56, 462, 464

Eft or newt 197, 198, 199

Egg-shell Experiment farm 495

Egyptian lotus flower 546

Elkins, Prof 909

Elm, American or White. . . .745, 746, 747

Electro-magnet 839

Ell-yard, the 896

Emerson, R. W 442

Eohippus 286

Equatorial Current 866

Equipment for teaching Nature-Study 8

Eschcholtzia calif ornica 616

Everlasting, early or Pussy-toes 578

Pearly 576, 577, 633

Evening Primrose 530, 531

Excursions, field 15

Eyelid, .film 36

Eyes, insects, compound 312, 314

simple

Feathers, as clothing 27

as ornament 30

form of 27

wing, coverts 44

wing, primaries 33, 44

wings, secondaries 33» 44

Feelers — insects 312

Feldspar 831, 833, 834, 844

Femur, insect 312, 313, 314

Ferns 684-698

bladder 697,698

boulder 695, 697

bracken or brake . . . 689, 690, 69 1 , 697

chain 695, 697

Christmas 684, 685, 688, 694

cinnamon 697

Dicksonia 695

fiddle-heads or crosiers 691

flowering 695, 697

frond of 687

fruiting of 693, 694

indusia or spore-cases of

686, 694, 695, 697

interrupted 697

leaf-print of, with parts named. . . 687

Maiden-hair 697

Osmunda 695

Ostrich 697

Index

933

Page

Ferns — pinna of 687

pinnule of 691, 694, 687

polypody, common 686

Poly stick iuvi acrostichoides 687

prothallium 693,694

rachis of 687

Sensitive 695, 696, 698

sori of 687, 694

Spleenwort 697

sporangia of 686, 694, 697

stipe or stem of 687

unfolding of 691 , 692

Walking 693

Woodsia 697

FestinaLente 196

Fielde, Miss Adele 420

Ant-nest 424

Field lessons 15

Field note-book 13

Firefly 416, 417

Fish Study 149, 152

Fish bream 161

Brook-trout 164

Bullhead 154,155

Catostomus commersoni 159

Chub 163

Dace 163

gills of 156

Horned pout 156

Johnny darter 177

Minnows 163

Shiner 161, 162

Stickleback 168, 170

Sucker common 158, 160

Sunfish or Pumpkin seed . 172, 173, 174

Fiske Geo 78, ri8, 119,250

John, Prof 661

Fleur-de-lis 626, 629

Flower head 554

Flower and insect partners 494

wild 21, 496

with parts named 492

Flowerless Plant Study 684

Fly, House 405, 406, 407

Fog 850,852,853,855

Forestry, Practical 849

Forest Service 255,771

Forsyth, Mary Isabella 84

Foster, O. L 509, 731, 761, 764

Fox 257,259,260,267

Franklin 858, 859

Frog 193,195

tree, or Pickering’s Hyla 190, 191

Frost 853,854, 855

Fudge, C.F 592

Fuertes, Louis A. 45, 70, 73, 75, 80, 81, 94

Fungi 706-725

Fungus, bears head 718

Bracket 714

Earth star 713

Hedgehog 717

Sarcocypha coccinea or scarlet

saucer 718, 719

Shelf 714

Page

Fungus — stink-horn 720

Furry 238

Gage, Prof. S. H 187, 192

Gage, Mrs. S. H 198

Galaxy the, (of stars) 889

Galileo 858,865

Gallager, W. S 135

Gall-dwellers . .360,361, 362, 363, 364, 768

Galls 360,364, 767

Garden, window 8

Gardening and Nature-Study 20

Geese 136-1 42

Canada or wild 139, 140

Gelechia pinifoliella 353

Gemini, (the Heavenly Twins) . . . 900, 912
Geography 18, 299, 545, 548, 552, 818, 822

Geranium 643, 644, 645, 646

Gilbert, Grove Karl, 142, 726, 793, 794, 850

Glass 830

Glow-worms. 417

Gnomon, the 915

Goat, The 275, 276, 277, 278, 279

Goldfinch, or Thistle bird 31, 49, 50

Goldfish with parts named 150

Golden Osier 765

Goldenrod 555,556,557

Goodale, Elaine 525

Grades, bird study in primary 25

Grafting, cleft 779

Grandfather Greybeard 472, 473

Granite 833

Obelisk 833

Grasshoppers 8, 18, 61, 82, 85,

92, 311, 312, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369
Grasshopper, with external parts

named 365

Short-horned 367-369

Gravel 844

Green Bay-tree 813

Greene, Robert 32

Grosbeak, the Cardinal 133

Ground-hog 229,230

Gulf Stream 866

Hail 853

Hardpan 844

Hardy, Irene 243,619

Hares 216

Harte, Bret 203,224,256

Hawks 36,43,46, 108, 109

Hay, John 132

Health value of N ature-Study 2

Helium 862, 864

Hemlock 800, 801 , 802

Hen 25, 27, 30, 33, 36, 37, 39, 41 , 42, 43

Henry, Prof. Joseph 859

Hepatica 496, 497, 498

Herford, Oliver 213,419

Hickory, the shagbark 755

H.H 558,622,652

Higginson, Ella 659

Hill, Mary E . . . : 17

Hives — observation 453,455

934

Handbook of Nature-Study

Page

Hoar-frost .851,853,855,879

Hog, the .304,305,306

Homer 899

Honey, honeycomb 451, 452, 453

Hornblende 383

Horne, R. H 325

Horse-chestnut 761, 762, 763, 764

Horse, the . 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291 , 292

Horsetail or Equisetum 699, 700

Howells, W. D 125

Howitt, Mary 103

How an apple grows 782

a brook drops its load 822

to begin study of plants and -flowers 489

to begin study of stars 889

to make an aquarium 380

to make a sun-dial 915

to read weather maps 879

to keep daily weather maps 883

to find the general direction and
average rate of motion of high

and low areas 883

to make leaf prints 734

to make plants comfortable 490

to produce good milk 299

to study minerals 828

to teach names of parts of plants

and flowers 492

Humidity, absolute and relative 862

Hummingbird 120

Huxley, Thomas 837

Hyades 897

Ice 853, 854, 856

Iceland spar 835

Imagination, training of 1

Impatiens or Touch-me-not 578

Indians, North American503, 660, 676. 810

Indian turnip 512

Indusia of ferns. . . 686, 68 7, 694, 695, 697

Insect Study 308

Insects, breathing of 313

biting and sucking 313

brownies 3 1 1

eggs of 308

Ingersoll, Ernest 249

In vertebrate- Animal Study 458

Iris, or blue flag 626, 627, 628, 629

Irvine, J. P 1 1 1

Isaiah 765

Isobar 870, 879

Isotherm 879

Jack-in-the-pulpit 512, 513, 514

Japan Current 866

Jasper 830

Javelins (hogs) 304

Jeffries, Richard 593, 849

Jewel weed or touch-me-not 578

Jimsonor Jamestown weed 640

Job’s Coffin 904

Johnny darter 177,178

Jonquils 599, 602

Page

Jordan, David Starr 149, 157,

166, 167, 168, 176, 177, 179, 217

Jug-building wasp 431

Junior Naturalist Clubs 23

Jupiter 9°6

Kaolin

Katydid

Keats, John

Kentucky Cardinal

King, Harriet

Kingfisher, Belted .

. . . 831, 844
369,370,371
.53,163, 648

133

598

101

Labium 313, 3*4

Labrum 3*3. 3*4

Labradorite 831

Lace- wing 397. 398

Ladybird 413,414,415

Lady in the Moon 919

Lady’s Slipper 525, 526

Lanier, Sydney 96

Lapham, Dr. Increase 860

Larcom, Lucy 90. 93. 582

Larkspur 623, 624, 625

Laurel 813, 814,81.5

Laurence, Ray 524, 540, 578, 620

Larvae 308,311

Leaf, with parts named 493

Leaf-factories 491, 729, 730

Leaf-miners 352,353,354

Leaf-print, how to make 734

of fern with parts named 687

Leaf-rollers 357 , 358, 359

Leaves, their use 491, 728

Leigh, Florence 267

Lens 9

Leo, (the Lion) 902.909,912

Lesson, the nature-study 10

always new 7

length of 7

time for 6

object lesson method 7

Lichens, growing on rocks 843

Lily, calla 512

pond or water, white 545,546,547

Lime 835,836,837,849

Light-year 888

Limestone 835, 836, 837

Lippincott, R. A 603

Lips 858

Little Dipper 892

Dog Star 896,899

Living material in schoolroom 8

Loam 844, 845, 846, 847

Lodestone 838, 841

Longfellow, Henry W 2, 493,626

Lowell, James Russell. 7, 128, 153, 196,
382, 418, 503, 572, 763, 777

Lloyd, J.T 114,211, 387,388,389, 390

Lubbock, Sir John. 423> 433

Lyra 889,903

Maggots 3°8

Index

935

Page

Magnets 838, 839, 840

Maize or Indian corn 660,661, 662, 663, 664

Mammal Study 212

M andibles — insects 313,314

Mandrake or May apple 519, 520

Maple, the 732, 735, 736

Mountain 732, 742

Norway 738

Red 732, 744

seedlings 741

Silver 738,741,742

Striped or goosefoot 738, 743, 744

Sugar or hard 732, 739, 740, 741

Sycamore 735, 738

Maple-sugar, making 738

Marble 835

Mars 906

Matheson, Robert 82,98

Maxillae, insect 313, 314

May beetle 131, 418

Meadow lark 77, 80, 81, 82

Mercator 920

Mercury 906

Merriam Dr. C. Hart 248

Mesothorax ..313,314

Metathorax 313.314

Meteorites 908,921

Meteoroids 908

Meteors 864,908

Mica 832,833,834,844

Mice 224,225,226,227

Mildews 721

Milk 299

Milk-dipper, the 912

Milky Way, the 889

Milkweed 540, 541, 543

Minnows 163

Mist 852

Mitchell, Evelyn. . .401, 402, 498, 502, 514

Metamorphosis, insect 3 1 1 , 367

Moccasin flower or Lady’s Slipper 525, 527

Mockingbird 94

Molds 720,721

Molting insects 308, 309

Montgomery 635

Moon, the 906, 918, 919, 920

shadows on 920

Moonstone 831

Moore, Dr. Willis L 879

Morgan, G. F 652, 747, 759,

774. 776, 79L 792, 796, 812
Morton, Verne — Photos by — Frontispiece,
164, 230, 242, 247, 271, 274, 501, 505,
506, 508, 515, 516, 517, 520, 525, 529,
533. 545, 551, 553, 560, 561, 562, 563,
566, 576, 577, 583, 586, 588, 590, 609,
611, 627, 664, 672, 676, 678, 681, 682,
685, 686, 689, 692, 694, 698, 702, 713,
714, 737, 757, 76o, 762, 766, 767, 769,
784,807,815,817,843
Mosquito 309, 400, 401, 402,403

Page

Moss, hair cap or pigeon wheat . . 702, 703

Moth, Cecropia 330,331,332,333, 334

Codling 347, 349

Cynthia 337

Isabella tiger 326, 327, 328

Luna 309, 310, 330

Promethea 330, 336, 337, 338

Polyphemus 330

Sphinx

313, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346

Mouse, deer, or whitefooted 223 ,226

house 224,225

Mulch 847

Mullein 18,582,583,584

Mulock, Miss 602

Muskrat 218, 220, 221

Museum specimens 8

Mushrooms 706,707,708, 709, 710, 711, 712

Nape, (of bird) 44

Narcissus 599,601

Nasturtium 620, 621

Natos 858

Natural Bridge in Virginia 835

Nature-study clubs 22

Naylor 134

Nebula 888

Needham, Dr. James G.,

382, 383, 384, 385, 626, 627, 641

Neptune 906

Newcomb, Dr. Simon 906

Newt, red-spotted. . 197, 198, 199

Nitrogen 653, 861, 864

North pole 839, 889, 890 ■

Northern Lights 839

North Star 889,890,891, 892, 893, 894,902

Nuthatch, white-breasted 63, 64

Nymph 31 1

of damsel-fly 384, 385

of dragon-fly 384

of red-legged grasshopper 366

Oaks, the 748

Black 749, 753

Burr 754

Chestnut 751

Live 726

Red 752,753

Scarlet 754

White 748, 749 750

Oak-apple 361

Ocelli (of insects) 312, 314

Oligoclase 831

Onyx 830

Oriole, Baltimore 125, 126, 127

Ovipositor (of insect) 314

Owl, screech 104

Oxen 298

Oxygen 730, 861, 864

Orion 888, 895, 896, 897, 899

Palpi, insect 313,314

936

Handbook of Nature-Study

Page

Pansies 607, 608, 609

Partridge 30,41

Pattee 801

Peacock 30, 31, 32

Pears and apples, reAdy to spray. ... 350

Peccaries 304

Pelargonium 643

Perianth 599

Perseus 909

Petrified forest of Arizona 830

Pets 15

Petunia 640, 641

Phoebe-bird 67

Pig, the 303,305, 306

Pigeons 45, 46, 47

Pigeon houses 45,47

Pigeon-grass or pigeon wheat. . . .702, 703

Pine, the 73, 789

Austrian 791

Pitch 791,800

White 19, 790, 792, 793, 795, 800

Yellow 793

Mountain, of Sierras 794

upturned roots 728

Pisces (the Fishes) 912

Planisphere 891

Plant-lice 92, 392, 393, 421

Plant Life 489

Plant Physiology 20, 491

Pleiad, the lost 898

Pleiades, the 888, 889, 897

Polaris — Pole-star 888, 890, 891,

892, 893, 894, 895, 901, 902, 904, 906

Pollen 494

Pollux 900

Pond- weed 548, 549

Poplar Carolina 770, 771 , 772

Poppy, the 613,614

California 616, 617

Potassium bichromate 825

Potash, bichromate of 825

Prickly Lettuce 570

Procyon 898

Pruning, principles of 780

Pumpkin, the

675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681

seed (sunfish) 172

Pupae 309, 31 1

of caddis fly 388

of Codling Moth 349

of firefly 417

of Potato beetle 411

of Ladybird 415

of Mosquito 402

(jug handle) Tomato sphinx. . . . 342
Purslane 594

Quail 41

Quartz 829,844

Queen Anne’s Lace. 589, 590, 591, 592, 593

Rabbit .
Raccoon

213, 215,216
.250, 253,254

Page

Rain 852, 874. 880

Rattlesnake, The 203

Redbird 133

Red- winged blackbird, 122, 123

Regulus 902,909,912

Reighard, Professor 1 74, 1 75

Reptile Study 200

Resin 794

Rexford, Eben 61

Rice, Prof. J. E 33

Rich, John 295

Rigel 896

Riley, James Whitcomb . .70, 201, 521, 818

Robin 54, 55, 57

Root, A. I. Co 456

Root tubercles 653

Rosin 794

Rossetti, Christina 326

Rotch, Prof. Laurence 860

Rowe, Mrs. F. W 95

Rusts 721

Saggittarius (the Archer) 912

Salamander 197, 198, 199

Salt 827, 828

Salvia or Scarlet Sage 637, 638

Sand 834, 844, 845, 847

Sand-stones 834

Sap movements of 739

poem 736

Sard 830

Saturn 906

Scales, on butterfly’s wing 421

Screech Owl 104

Seed germination 495

Seed-leaves (cotyledons) 496

Shakespeare 515,611

Shadow-stick, A 914

Sheep 281,283,284,285

Sheldon, S. L 644

Shelley 850

She pher d , a Sicilian 281

Shiner 161,162

Sickle, the (constellation) 902

Silk- worm 312

American 330

Skunk 43, 247, 248

Sleet 853

Slingerland, M. V. . . .308, 309, 313, 315,
316, 317, 318, 322, 323, 327, 328, 330,
33L 332, 333, 334, 336, 337, 338, 340,
341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 34^, 348, 349,
350, 35L 362, 374, 379, 392, 410, 411,
418, 421, 429, 430, 438, 443, 457, 489,

Slingerland, M.V 488, 737, 741, 783

Smuts 721

Snake 194

Garden 201, 202

Garter 201, 202

Milk 204

Rattle 203

Spotted Adder 204

Water 206

Index

937

Page

Snakedoctor 382

Snail, garden 458,459

Snow 851

Snow-crystals 825, 828, 851, 852, 856

858, 860, 863, 866, 874, 875, 876

Soil, the 842

Solar System 906

Song of Solomon 778

Spadix 512, 513

Sparrow-chipping 88, 89

English 54, 61, 84

Song 91

Spathe 512, 513

Spectroscope 887, 888

Spencer, John W 16, 23, 842, 909

Spiders 475

Ballooning 484

White Crab 485

care of eggs 487, 488

Spider-webs, cobwebs 475

Filmy Dome 482, 483

funnel 477

Orb 478,479,481

Spiracles, (of insects) 313, 314

Spores 686, 693, 699, 704, 708, 713, 715,721

Spore-prints, (of mushrooms) 710

Spray of tree 727,728

Spruce, Douglas 796

Norway 796,797,798

Squash 680

Squirrel 56, 61, 2 33, 234, 236

Squirrel corn 509, 511, 61 1

Stalactites 835, 837

Stalagmites 835

Starch 491,729

Star Study 887

Stars, “the Friendly” 891

the Story of 889

ofSummer 901

of Winter 895

shooting 898

Stetson, Charlotte Perkins 286, 726

Stickleback 168

Stigma 492

Storms 874

Storm and Hurricane warnings 881

Strawberry 672, 673, 674, 675

Street. A. B 585

Stryke, Anna — Drawings by . ... 1, 2, 3, 4,

5,6,7,8,9,10,11,15 16,17,24,136,
161, 181, 190, 193, 197, 199, 200, 204,
223, 233, 247, 250, 255, 261, 288, 315,
320, 326, 336, 340, 347, 352, 357, 360,
365, 370, 373, 377, 378, 387, 392, 395,
397, 400, 405, 409, 413, 416, 429, 430,
432, 436, 439, 442, 451, 453, 458, 462,
468, 472, 4757483, 484, 485, 487, 494,
495, 535, 540, 607, 613, 614, 616, 617,
630, 640, 684, 707, 727, 736, 745, 748,
755, 757, 76i, 765, 770, 77i, 774, 785,
789, 796, 801, 806, 810, 813

Sucker, common 158, 160

Sumac, velvet or Staghorn . . . 806, 807, 808

Page

Sumac, smooth 808

Poison 808

Sun, the 905

Sun-spots 905

Sundial 915, 916

Sunfish 172, 173, 174

Sunflower 554, 630, 632

Swallows, the 112

Swan the (constellation 904

Sweet Peas 648, 649, 650

Swett, S. H 476

Swift, chimney 112

Tabb, John B 29, 545, 729, 736

Tadpoles 182, 183, 186

of frog 194

of toad. 187

of tree-frog 191

aquarium for 185

Talus 843

T anager , scarlet 31

Taurus, (the Bull) 897, 912

Taylor, Bayard 376, 799

Teasel 586, 587, 588

Telescope 887

Temple of Winds at Athens 857, 858

Tennyson 659

Thaxter, Celia 132, 142, 849

Thermometer scales in use 865

Thistles 563, 564, 566, 633

Thomas, Edith 100

Thompson Maurice 63, 95, 133, 279

Thoreau, H. D 91, 129

161, 205, 207, 232, 249, 758, 765, 856

Thornapples 781

Thrush family 57, 60

Titmouse, black-capped 66, 67, 68

Toad, common 181, 182, 183, 187

development of a season 187

eggs of 182, 186

tree 190, W*

Todd, Professor. . . 864,912

Tornado 880

Torrecelli 858

Treadwell, Prof 56

Tree Study 72^

how to begin 73 1

Tree anatomy of 7 2 7

how it grows 733

head or crown of 777, 789

to measure 734

T ree-stu mp , showing rings of growth . 730

Tree-trunkorbole 727

Trilliums, The . . 506,507,508

Trowbridge, J. T 471

Trout 164,167

Tulips 603,604,605

Turkey, the . 41 >

Turtles 208,209,211

Tyndall, Prof. John 837, 867

“Uncle John” 16, 23, 490, 842, 843, 9°9

938

Handbook of Nature Study

Page

U. S. Dept, of Agriculture .

Uranus

906

Ursa Major

891

Valley of Cashmere. . . .

279

Vampires

244

Van Dyke, Henry

80, 91

Vapor, water

.852,853,862,864

Vega

903,904,906

Velvet Plant, American

584

Venus

906

Vetches, the

654

Violet, The

5L5

Canada white

517

Common blue

5i6

Long-spurred

515

Virgil

48,748

Virgin, the (constellation) 912

Vitriol, blue

825, 826

Wadsworth

267,750

Wait, M. C

671

Wake- robin

506, 508, 509

Walton, Isaac

149, 154

Wasp .

429,437

Jug-builder and nest

431

Mud-dauber

429,430

Yellow Jacket

432,434

Wasp-nest, with side removed 457

nest of carpenter. . .

440

nest of mud-dauber .

429

Yellow-iackets

432,435

Water, crystallizing of .

853

forms of

850, 854

Water-glass

830

Water-lily

545,546,547

Water- vapor

852, 853, 862, 864

Weasel

Weather, the

857

U. S. Bureau

875

value of service

876

Weather-maps : How to read 879

where published and how obtained

875,876

Weather-maps, forecasts based on . . . 875

■ showing eastward progress 884

Weather-forecasting, principles of . . . 875

Weather signals, explanation of 881

Weeds 594

outline for study of 595

Page

Wheat 85

cause of winter-killing 853

White, Gilbert 48

Whitman, Walt 484

Whittier, J. G 164, 683

Whitney, Eli 667

Wildflower Study 496

Willow 765, 766 767 768, 769

cone-gall 362, 767

Wilson, Wilford M 857

Wilson, Robert B 856

Winds of the World 866, 867

Trade 871

Trade northeast 866

Temple of, at Athens 857, 858

Window-pane in winter 851, 852, 854

Winter Rosettes, evening primrose. . . 533

Mullein 584

Teasel 588

Wister, Owen 277

Witch-hazel 356 810,811 812,813

Wolf, gray 255

Woodchuck or groundhog 229,230

Wood grain 72 9,730

Woodpeckers, carpenter 75

Downy 69, 70

Hairy 69

Flicker, yellow hammer or golden-

shafted 77, 80

Red-headed 75

Sapsucker 73

Woolly-bear 326, 327, 328

Wordsworth 329, 515, 602, 647, 659

Worms 308

Army 82

Canker 92

Caraway 319

Cut 82, 92

Earth 462

Glow 417

Wire 82,417

Xenon 862

Yard-ell 896

Yellow bird 49

Yellow-jacket 432,433

Zephros 858

Zodiac and its signs 911,912

Zone of twilight in mid- winter 864

Date Due

; v~ —

t;- ’

;

j f- ;

•

Qs£40*iT3

ter

D«-Z-

]anJJ_2

^ -

^WT

4 ?£7yj^

mi 2«

RETUSM

I1AQ 27

‘•Lo2 WiT&lfxJ

RFTURM

5EP2

2®RK

fiRURK

^6 18’®

1 1
1

QH S3 C73 C. 2

Coffistoc k t Anna Botsf ord 9 1 854- 1930
fla odbook of nature— study for
teachers and parents;

39447930 CU RR

— « «-/

cuwhcuuui

HISTORICAL

COLL'

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Handbook of Nature Study"

See other formats