Harbor analog system

TR-154

TECHNICAL REPORT

HARBOR ANALOG SYSTEM
PART II—TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE

A. LAWRENCE GRABHAM

Evaluation Branch
Oceanographic Analysis Division
Marine Sciences Department

JUNE 1963

U. S. NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHIC OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C. 20390
Price 80 cents

ABSTRACT

This report classifies harbor areas having similar water
temperature characteristics. The principal predictor is the
mean monthly air temperature at locations throughout the
world. A system of classification based primarily on the con-
tinentality of the area is presented. Factors which cause
anomalies from the general case are large tidal ranges and
fresh water discharge from rivers. Within each class, the mean
air-water temperature difference at the surface (near the
shore) is presented with standard deviations from the mean
difference for each month. In addition, data showing vertical
thermal gradients from the shore seaward are presented for
the various classes by season.

ERRATA TO TR-154, PART II-TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE

line 2, read--current information is not--
line Oo yenead=— (reference no. 2il)))ane=—

p. 4 footnote* line 1, read--the Arctic and--
line 5, read--(reference nos. 26 and 27).,--
lines 3, 15, and 18, change reference No, 20toreference No, 19.

p. 3 footnote*

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line 16, read--.06 to .38**_-
lines 10and11, read--references 4, 5,6,10,11,15,18,19, and 25,

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FOREWORD

This report is a contribution of the Harbor Analog System program
being pursued by the U. S. Naval Oceanographic Office. Additional
reports will follow as classification systems are developed for other

oceanographic characteristics of harbor and nearshore areas.

Jeane Grate

KNOLL
Rear Admiral, U.S. Navy
Commander
U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD

FIGURES

TABLES

INTRODUCTION

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

CLASSIFICATION INDEX

PREDICTION EXAMPLE

CONCLUSIONS AND COMMENTS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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15

Figure

1 Mean Air
2 Mean Air
3 Mean Air
4 Mean Air
5 Mean Air
6 Mean Air
7 Mean Air
8 Mean Air
9 Mean Air
10 Mean Air
11 Mean Air
12 Mean Air
13

Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature

Temperature

FIGURES

- January

- February
- March

- April

- May

- June

- July

- August

- September
- October

- November

- December

Mean Maximum Semi-Monthly Tide Ranges

Page
35
37
39
41
43
45
47
49
51
53
55
57

59

TABLES

MEAN SURFACE TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES (AIR-WATER)

Add mean correction to mean air temperature to obtain mean

nearshore surface water temperature (ie) or (Eee)

Table Page
lf Tropical Climate Class 18

II Oceanic Climate Class 19

Ill Sub-—continental Climate Class 20

IV Continental Climate Class 21

VERTICAL THERMAL GRADIENTS

Add mean corrections to surface water temperature to obtain
water temperature at designated depths

Vv Tropical Climate Class 22
VI Oceanic Climate Class 24
VII Sub-continental Climate Class 26
VIII Continental Climate Class 28

HORIZONTAL THERMAL GRADIENTS

Add mean correction to nearshore surface water temperature (T_ )
or (ie) to obtain surface water temperature at designated offshore

distances.

IX Tropical Climate Class 30
xX Oceanic Climate Class 31
XI Sub-continental Climate Class 32

XII Continental Climate Class 33

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HARBOR ANALOG SYSTEM
Part Il - TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION

There are considerable published data concerning the factors
which affect the surface water temperatures of the oceans, the trans-
port of heat, and temperature change in the upper layers of the ocean.
After all of the physical and dynamic processes relating environmental
factors such as evaporation, radiation, cloudiness, wind velocity and
turbulence are considered, the useful generality is that a high corre-
lation between surface air and water temperature can be shown. This
correlation, better in low latitudes where annual ranges of temperature
are small, decreases toward higher latitudes. Since fresh water freezes
at 32°F. and highly saline waters freeze at temperatures between 28°
and 29°F., it is apparent that mean air temperatures which are colder
than the sea surface freezing points may differ considerably from the
water temperatures; however, the utility of mean air temperatures in
forecasting water temperatures remains high because mean air temper-
atures below 28°F. for a period of several days will produce ice or
water temperatures in the range between 28° and 32°F.

Since one of the main objectives of this report is to estimate the
surface water temperature in any harbor on earth, it was thought that
the use of H.O. Publication No. 225, “World Atlas of Sea Surface Temp-
eratures.'' would be useful in approximating the surface temperature in
nearshore waters. However, comparison of U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey tide-station temperatures with the isotherms in this publication
revealed these isotherms to be unreliable in nearshore areas, In con-
trast, comparison of meanair temperatures fromthe “U. S. Navy Marine
Climatic Atlas of the World” with surface water temperatures for the
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey tide stations indicated a high corre-
lation between the mean monthly air temperature and the average
nearshore surface water temperature for the same month, The air-
sea temperature difference is least in low latitudes where the annual
range of mean monthly air temperature is small and becomes greater
in higher latitudes where the annual range of air temperature increases.
The average differences were relatively variable where the surface
water temperature was influenced by fresh water river discharge or
where tidal ranges were high. Inland water areas such as the harbors

of Baltimore and Philadelphia showed equally high correlations between
mean air temperature and surface water temperature whenthe mean air
temperature data were taken at the same location as the surface water
temperature data. Local temperature data from climatic summaries of
the Weather Bureau or similar sources should be used for inland air
temperature data because landward extension of isotherms from marine
atlases do not reflect the land-sea thermal discontinuity.

In areas where cold currents, warm currents, or upwelling are
persistent, the water temperature modifies air temperatures so that
climatic air temperature data reflect these phenomena. These factors
do not cause anomalies from the general case; however, high tidal ranges
and fresh water river discharge are phenomena which do present
anomalies in air-water temperature differences from the general case
of low turbulence and homogeneous salinity. It is very possible that
upwelling and thermal current advection may cause anomalous situations
from the general vertical thermal structure. However, in this
preliminary system development, it is deemed impractical to use
upwelling and thermal advection currents in the classification system.

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

By using the CLASSIFICATION INDEX which follows, it is possible
to classify any harbor in the world according to the following criteria:

(a) Mean air temperature in the warmest and coldest months,

(b) An index of continentality as determined by the annual range of
mean monthly air temperature,

(c) Tidal range, and

(d) Presence or absence of fresh water discharge.

Turbulence influenced by winds and waves, the volume of river
discharge, the bottom slope, the depth of water, and other minor
influences probably cause some anomalies from the general case of
low turbulence and homogeneous salinity. Such environmental influences
were considered too trivial or impractical to incorporate into a general
system of classification. Upwelling and horizontal thermal advection
currents are presumed to be reflected in the mean air temperature for
any location and are not regarded as classification items.

The necessary tools needed to classify a harbor according to this
system are the following:

(1) Mean air temperatures for each month, (Figures 1 to 12)*

(2) Tide range tables or charts (Figure 13)**

(3) Hydrographic charts or maps indicating the presence or absence
of fresh water influence.

*Mean air temperatures from Figures |] through 12 should be used
only when a more detailed atlas or currentinformation are not available.
Actual averages of air temperatures for two weeks to a month prior to
the forecast date should be used whenever possible. U.S. Weather
Bureau data and averaging techniques should give optimum results if
the air temperature data are representative of the vicinity of the forecast
point. Climatic data from U. S. Weather Bureau, foreign climatic
tables and atlases, and ‘‘U. S. Navy Marine Climatic Atlases’’ (Vols.
I-V) (reference no, 25) are recommended when current information is
not available.

**Figure 13 should be used when tide tables or suitable tide range
analysis is not available.

CLASSIFICATION INDEX

1, First Designator:

z. Second Designator:

3. Third Designator:

CONTINENTALITY CLASS

T - Tropic

O — Oceanic

S - Sub-Continental
C - Continental

A - Arctic

The first two numerals indicate the mean
air temperature to the nearest 1°F. for
the coldest month of the year (usually
January or February in the Northern
Hemisphere and July or August in the
Southern Hemisphere).

The second two numerals indicate the
mean air temperature tothe nearest 1°F.
for the warmest month of the year (July
or August in the Northern Hemisphere,
January or February in the Southern
Hemisphere).

The difference between the first and
second designators is an indication of
continentality. The Third Designator is
taken from the following table.

ANNUAL RANGE OF

MEAN MONTHLY AIR TEMPERATURE

Less than 6°F.

6° to 14°F.

15° to 35°F.

Greater than 35°F.
Greater than 50°F .*

Css

*The annual range of mean monthly temperature in the Artic and
Antarctic is generally greater than 50°F. Water temperatures, air-sea
temperature differences, ice location and limits, and typical vertical
thermal structure of the water should be obtained from H. O. Pub. No.
705, ‘‘Oceanographic Atlas of the Polar Seas’’ (reference no. 26).

4. Fourth Designator; Tidal Range

L: Less than 10 feet
H: 10 feet or greater

5. Fifth Designator: N: Area not affected by river (fresh
water) discharge.

R: Area affected by river (fresh water)

discharge.

An example of the use of the CLASSIFICATION INDEX is given
for Los Angeles. The coldest mean monthly air temperature (See
Figures 1 to 12) is 55° in January. The warmest mean monthly air
temperature is 68°F. in July. The tide range as shown by Figure 13
is less than 10 feet. Available maps show that no fresh water discharge
affects this area, The 13°F. temperature difference between 68°F. and
55°F. places this location in the Oceanic Climate Class. The coded
designation of this area, 5568OLN, identifies the harbor class. With
the mean air-water temperature difference (See Table II ) for an OLN
class andthe typical winter and summer vertical temperature differences
from the surface temperature (See Table VI) for OLN class, an estimate
of the surface water temperature (T_ or T__)is possible as well as an
estimate of the 68% confidence interval rough use of the standard
deviation values from the means. Although information in the tables is
compiled only for the warmest and coldest months, a suggested method
of estimation of temperatures at the surface and depth for intermediate
months is shown under PREDICTION EXAMPLE. It shouldbe noted that
the surface water temperature (T_ or T__) derived from Tables I to
IV refers to the surface water very nearshore; whereas, the vertical
differences are with respect to the surface water temperature (Tw 0)
above the 30-fathom isobath. The surface water temperature above five
30-fathom isobath (Tw...) can be estimated by adding the correction (C)
in Tables IX to XII to “he nearshore surface water temperature (T_ or
Ta) an

ms

Since the C values in Tables IX to XIII do not present values for
distances greater than 10 nautical miles from the shore, the C value
at 10 nautical miles should be used to obtain (Tw) when the 30 fathom
isobath is more than 10 miles offshore.

PREDICTION EXAMPLE

The following steps show how a forecast of water temperature is
made for a harbor near New Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi
River.

STEP I
List the mean air temperature in this area by months from Figures

1 through 12 or from ‘‘U. S. Navy Marine Climatic Atlas of the World."'
Estimate the air temperature to nearest 0.1°F.

MONTH MEAN AIR TEMPERATURE (°F.)
Jan 60.0
Feb 60.0
Mar 64.0
Apr 69.8
May 72.5
Jun 81.8
Jul 82.0
Aug 83.2
Sep 82.5
Oct 77.0
Nov 68.0
Dec 63.0

STEP I

Note the coldest month (January and February) to the nearest
degree and assign the First Designator from the Classification Index.

(60)
STEP Ill

Note the warmest month (August) to the nearest degree and assign
the Second Designator from the Classification Index. (83)

STEP IV
Subtract the First Designator value from the value of the Second

Designator to determine the Third Designator from the CLASSIFICATION
INDEX. (23) This places the harbor in the Sub-Continental category

(S) according to the CLASSIFICATION INDEX on page 5.
STEP V

Consult tide tables or Figure 13 to determine the tidal range in the
harbor area andassign the Fourth Designator from the CLASSIFICATION
INDEX. (L)

STEP VI

Consult a map or hydrographic chart to determine whether the harbor
is under the influence of river (fresh water) discharge and assign the
Fifth Designator from the CLASSIFICATION INDEX. (R). From the
foregoing steps, this harbor area is classified as 6083SLR,

STEP VII

Using Table III and data from Step I, list the surface water
temperature (T_) and the 68% Confidence Interval of the surface water
temperature for each month.

MONTH re Ce (has Oe iy 2 orat, o 68% Confidence Interval
a Ww a ms w

Jan 60.0 2.3 62.3 3.7 58.6 to 66.0
Feb _— 60.0 Bin 62.7 4.6 58.1 to 67.3
Mar 64.0 1.4 65.4 5.5 59.9 to 70.9
Apr 69.8 BOM 69.7 353 66.4 to 73.0
May 75.2 -0.9 74,3 ne TGS G9 Oo)
Jun 81.8 “Hal 80.7 3.2 77.5 to 83.9
Jul 82.0 0.0 82.0 2a 79.3 to 84.7
Aug 83.2 0.9 84.1 3.0 81.1 to 87.1
Sep 82.5 0.5 83.0 Zul 80.9 to 85.1
Oct 77.0 0.5 77.5 2.0 75.5 to 79.5
Nov 68.0 2.5 70.5 2.5 68.0 to 73.0

Dec 63.0 2.4 65.4 3.4 62.0 to 68.8

STEP VIII

Using the most likely value of surface water temperature obtained
in Step VII and the most likely vertical temperature differences at each
depth for the coldest month (January) and the warmest month (August)
from Table VII, the following estimates of the most likely temperatures
(means) at various depths can be made:

Depth Jan (°F) Aug (°F) Annual Range (°F)
Surface 62.3 84.1 21.8
10 feet 62.4 83.7 21.3
20 feet 62.5 83.2 20.7
30 feet 62.6 82.2 19.6
50 feet 62.6 79.9 17.3
70 feet 62.8 77.1 14.3
100 feet 62.7 Uo i 9.4
150 feet 63.3 70.3 7.0
180 feet 63.5 70.0 6.5
STEP IX

An estimate of the temperatures at each depth may be made for the
intermediate months of the year by assuming that the seasonal
temperature change at each depth is proportional tothe seasonal change
at the surface. These estimates can be made by use of the following
equation:

R

aS Gl (Ge up Vi ge
m

aml > Ss Fs ee ea (Equation 1)

8

where,
T__.=temperature at depth (d) for month (m)
md

R ,=annual range of temperature at depth (d)

R_=annual range of temperature at surface

Ting em erature at the surface (s) for month (m)

T. =temperature at the surface (s) for coldest month (c), (January

in this example)

To g=temperature at depth (d) for the coldest month (m) (January)
Using Equation 1, an estimate of the most likely temperature at

the 10-foot depth in March is made as follows:

Tg=62-4° (Coldest month, January temperature at 10 feet)
T 702-3" (Coldest month, January temperature at the surface)
R./R =21.3/21.8=0.977
di vis
i055 4°
ms
By substitution in Equation l,
T nd 07917 (65.4° - 62.3°) + 62.4°=0.977(3.1°) + 62.4° =
3.03° + 62.4° = 65.43°
T indo” (Most likely temperature at 10 foot depth in March)
Similarly, an estimate for the 50-foot depth in March using Equation 1

T =65.4° T =62.3° T .=62.6°
ms cs cd

R 4=17.3° R,=21.8° R4/R,=17.3/21.8+=0.793
ae =0.793 (65.4° - 62.3°) + 62.6°
md
Tind 07/93 (3.1°) + 62.6°
T =2.5° + 62.6° = 65.1
md

By use of Equation (1) and the data in Steps VII and VIII, estimates
of the most probable temperature at the designated depths for each
month of the year can be computed and tabulated as follows:

Month Feb Mar Apr Ma Jun Jul Se Oct Nov Dec
Dep Ae = - — =

Surface 62.7 65.4 69.7 74.3 80.7 82.0 83.0 77.5 70.5 65.4
10 feet 62.8 65.4 69.4 74.2 80.4 81.7 82.7 77.3 70.4 65.4
20 feet 62.9 65.4 69.5 73.9 79.9 81.2 82.2 76.9 70.3 65.4
30 feet 63.0 65.4 69.3 73.4 79.2 80.3 81.2 76.3 70.0 65.4
50 feet 62.9 65.1 68.4 72.1 77.3 78.2 79.0 74.6 69.1 65.0
70 feet 63.1 64.5 67.7 70.7 74.9 75.8 76.4 72.8 68.2 64.8

100 feet 62.9 64.0 65.9 67.9 70.6 71.2 71.6 69.2 66.2 64.0

150 feet 63.4 64.3 65.7 67.1 69.2 69.6 69.9 68.2 65.9 64.3

180 feet 63.6 64.4 65.7 67.1 69.0 69.4 69.7 68.1 66.0 64.4

STEP X

Since the (T__) or (T_) represents the surface temperature at

a point nearshore, corrections are presented in Tables IX, X, XI,

and XII to obtain the surface temperature (Tw g)above the 30-fathom

isobath. These corrections are based on ienited data and presented
to show an ‘‘order of magnitude’’ of horizontal gradients of temperature
in each of the four climate classes. Where the 30-fathom isobath is

more than 10 miles offshore, the correction at 10 miles is suggested
as an approximation of that at 30 fathoms.

10

CONCLUSIONS AND COMMENTS

This is a preliminary report primarily directed at presenting a
method of classifying harbors and nearshore areas with respect to
water temperatures, The secondary objective is to present a way of
estimating the most probable temperatures and thermal structures in the
various categories.

One of the shortcomings in this report is the quantity of data used
in the preparation of Tables I through XII. Data in the form needed to
compile such tables are difficult to obtain. The observations used were
taken at various and unknown stages of tide, at various states of wind,
wave, and turbulence conditions, at different locations with respect to
river mouths, without regard to the volume of river discharge, under
various bottom slope conditions which partially determine the volume
of water exchanging energy with air, and without knowledge of the
influence of internal waves.

It is apparent that larger samples areneededto mask some of these
unknown influences inherent in these samples of data. Nevertheless,
the data compiled for this study are presented as an approach to
estimation of temperature values and thermal structure in the various
categories of climate, tide range, and fresh water influence.

The tables in this report do not give any indication of diurnal
temperature variations of the upper layers of the ocean. It is well known
that these variations are small in the open ocean and that the variation
is smallest in high latitudes and greatestinlow latitude tropical waters.
Diurnal variations in temperature decrease rapidly with depth and
become generally insignificant below the surface. In shallow coastal
and inland waters diurnal temperature variations are somewhat greater
than in deep water, but in most instances the variations are less than
2° C. Leipper (Reference No. 14) and Laevastu (University of Hawaii,
1962) have shown special cases where rather large variations take place
in tropical tidal pools or in anarea where upwelling occurs in stratified
(summer) water and tidal currents move over an irregular bottom.
Leipper mentions changes of the order of 7 or 8 degrees Fahrenheit
in the summer at Scripps Pier in California and Laevastu mentions
changes in tropic waters in tidal pools of as high as 10 degrees
Fahrenheit. Dietrich (Reference No. 7) discusses diurnal temperature
variations in both deep and shallow water locations. The following
summary shows values of diurnal temperature changes in water under
several various conditions.

11

Source

The Oceans
(Reference No. 20)

The Oceans
(Reference No. 20)

The Oceans
(Reference No. 20)

Diurnal Variation (°C.)

0.39 (Average)*
0.60 (Maximum)*
0.00 (Minimum)*
0.71 (Average)*

1.10 (Maximum)*
0.30 (Minimum)*

0.93 (Average)*
1.40 (Maximum)*
0.60 (Minimum)*

1.59 (Average)*
1.90 (Maximum)*
1.20 (Minimum)*

0.2 to 0.3**

0.4 to .06**

0.20 in December
0.69 in May

Comments

Observations in deep trop-
ical water--overcast sky--
moderate to fresh breeze.

Observations from deep
tropical waters--clear sky—
moderate to fresh breeze.

Observations from deep
tropical waters -- overcast
sky--calm or light breeze.

Observations from deep
tropical waters--clear sky
-- calm to light breeze.

Deep water surface temper-
ature observations in higher
latitudes (Not the tropics).
Diurnal variation at 50
meters.

Average values at 44 stations
around the British Isles in
coastal waters.

*The numerical values given are believed to be somewhat in error;
however, the influence of clouds and winds are evident. Cloudiness
tends to decrease incoming radiation and reduces the amplitude of
diurnal variation. Windiness tends to mix the surface layers distributing

heat

over a thicker layer, thereby reducing diurnal amplitudes in

comparison with calm or light breeze conditions.

**The diurnal variation of sea temperature is so small that it is of
little importance to the physical and biological processes in the sea.

The small variations are essential to the study of heat exchange between
air and water. (From ‘‘The Oceans’’)

12

Source

Defant
(Reference No. 6)

a0

$1

Dietrich
(Reference No. 7)

Diurnal Variation (°C.)

0.4

1.0

2.0

0.1

0.87

0.25 (Average)

0.16 to 0.40 (Range)

.04 (Average)
*,03 to .09 (Range)

0.22 (Mean)

0.30 (Mean
Maximum)
(Summer)

0.14 (Mean)

0.31 (Mean
Maximum)
(Summer)

0.83 (Mean)

1.34 (Mean
Maximum)
(Summer)

13

Comments

Average surface variationin
the open sea.

Value to which variations
may rise in clear, calm
weather over the open ocean.

Diurnal values may exceed
this value in lakes away
from the shore at _ the
surface.

Diurnal variation at 4-6
meters in lakes away from
the shore.

Surface variation in the Gulf
of Trieste (enclosed basin
close to the land) .. MERZ
(1911).

Surface diurnal variation
from Meteor Expedition
observations between lati-
tudes 12 1/2°N. and211/2°S.

Diurnal variation at 50
meters -—- Meteor Expedition.

North Sea--deep water,
North Sea--deep water,

Gulf of Finland--deep water.
Gulf of Finland--deep water.

Shallow water near Newquay
England, Atlantic Ocean.

Source Diurnal Variation (°C) Comments
<a Ss, SSS

ts 0.56 (Mean) Shallow water--Irish Sea.
0.94 (Mean
Maximum)
(Summer)

ee 0.86 (Mean) Shallow water -- Gulf of
1.90 (Mean Bothnia,
Maximum)
(Summer)

The reader is advised to consult references 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 14,
16, 20, and 30 in the bibliography for physical explanations of the causes
and effects of thermal processes between water and air and within
the water. These references discuss these processes extensively but
not completely.

14

10.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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BARTHOLOMEW, J. G. and HERBERTSON, A. J. Bartholomew's
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“Atlas of Meteorology.” Unpaged. 1899.

BERRY, F. A., BOLLAY, E., and BEERS, N. R. Handbook of
Meteorology, New York; McGraw Hill. 1086 p1945.

CONRAD, V. Fundamentals of Physical Climatology, Milton, Mass.:;
Harvard University, Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory. 121 p.,
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DEACON, G. E. R., SVERDRUP, H. V., STOMMEL, H., and
THORNTHWAITE, C.W. “Discussions onthe Relationships between
Meteorology and Oceanography,” Journal of Marine Research, vol.
it NO.+, Pp. £99=5105), 11955)

DEFANT, A., Physical Oceanography, 2 vols. New York: Pergamon
Press) ViOl ely peoo—l ool LOOM

DIETRICH, G., “Die Elemente des jahrlichen Ganges der
Oberflachentemperatur in der Nord~ und Ostsee und den
angrenzenden Gewassern,” Deutsche Hydrographische Zeitschrift,
Band 6, Heft 2, p. 49-64, 1953.

ELLIOT, F. E. Physical Types and Regional Patterns of the Marine

Cornell University Advanced Electronics Center. 34 p. 1960.

General Electric Advanced Electronics Center, Cornell University.
32 p. 1960. ;

FLEMING, R. H. “Physical Characteristics of the Inshore
Environment,” Journal of Marine Research, vol. 7, no. 3, p. 483-
484, 1948.

LAEVASTU, T. “Factors Affecting the Temperature of the Surface

Layer of the Sea,” Havsforskningsinstitutets Skrift, N:o 195,
136 p., 1960.

15

Ihe

WZ

13

14,

UG),

16.

M76

Se

WY).

20.

LAFOND, E. C. “Factors Affecting Vertical Temperature Gradients
in the Upper Layers of the Sea”, Scientific Monthly, vol. 78,
no, 4, p. 243-253, 1954,

LAFOND, E. C. and MOORE, A. T. “Short Period Variations
in Sea Water Temperatures,” Indian Journal of Meteorology and
Geophysics”, vol. 11, no. 2, p. 163-166, 1960.

LANDSBERG, H. Physical Climatology. 2nd Ed., Revised. DuBois,
Pa.: Gray Printing Co. Inc. 446 p. 1960.

LEIPPER, D. F. “Sea Temperature Variations Associated with
Tidal Currents in Stratified Shallow Water over an Irregular
Bottom,” Journal of Marine Research, vol. 14, no. 3, p. 234-252,
1955.

PROUDMAN, J. Dynamical Oceanography. New York: Wiley.
4095p ligase

PUTNAM, W. C., AXELROD, D.I., BAILEY, H. P., and MCGILL,
J. T. Natural Coastal Environments of the World. Contract Nonr-

233(06), NR 388-013. Los Angeles: University of California.
140 p. 1960.

RODEN, G. I. “Spectral Analysis of a Sea-~Surface Temperature
and Atmospheric Pressure Record off Southern California,”
Journal of Marine Research, vol. 16, no. 2, p. 90-95, 1958.

RODEN, G. I., and GROVES, G. W. “On the Statistical Prediction
of Ocean Temperatures,” Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 65,
no. l, p. 249-263, 1960.

SVERDRUP, H. U., JOHNSON, M. W., and FLEMING, R. H. The
Oceans...New York: Prentice-Hall. 1087 p. 1942.

TOLBERT, W. H., and AUSTIN, G. B. On the Nearshore Marine

Paper No. TP161. Panama City, Fla.: U. S. Navy Mine Defense
Laboratory. 104 p. 1959.

16

21.

22.

23.

24,

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

U. S., Chief of Naval Operations, Naval Aerology Branch, Marine
Climatic Atlas of the World... 5 vols. NAVAER 50-1C-528,...532.

Washington: U. S. Govt. Print. Off. Various pagings. 1955-1959.

U. S:, COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. Surface Water

Pub. 31-1. Washington: U. S. Govt. Print. Off. 76 p. 1960.

U. S., COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. Surface Water

Pub, 31-3. Washington: U. S. Govt. Print. Off. 71 p. 1962.

U. S., NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA CENTER. “Selected
Bathythermograph Observations and Surface Temperature Data.”
Unpublished,

U. S. NAVY HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE. Effects of Weather Upon
the Thermal Structure of the Ocean, Progress Report No. l.
H. O. Misc. 15360. Washington: U. S. Hydrographic Office.
Sisps L952.

ees Sle

1957 (Reprinted 1958).

- -- Oceanographic Atlas of the Polar Seas, Pt. II, Arctic. H.

UQSN}s

- - - World Atlas of Sea Surface Temperatures. Second Edition--
1944, H. O. Pub. No. 225. Washington: U. S. Hydrographic Office.
Unpaged. Reprinted 1954.

U. S.. WEATHER BUREAU. Atlas of Climatic Charts of the Oceans.
W. B. No. 1247. Washington: U. S. Govt. Print. Off. Unpaged. 1938.

TABLE I
TROPICAL CLIMATE CLASS
LEGEND

LN: Low tidal range (<10 ft.), no fresh water influence.
HN: High tidal range ($10 ft.), no fresh water influence.
LR: Low tidal range (<10 ft.), fresh water influence present,
HR: High tidal range (§10 ft.), fresh water influence present.
Cee F :
iwi ai= difference between air and water temperature
(surface)

n=number of observations in class

ba 1 =)Ti
Ca 2G hoo Ge Tt ea
n c
MONTH HR

Northern
Hemisphere|Hemisphel

e
e
e

e
e OMe BOs. tC ae
OA wre COON NW Ww
eO aher .'e

OnuURUH DO HhODDYD

EPXINUROUYKROARO

Ke OOFrFrF OF OO ON

e

= ORK KK KH KE PE Pn eB eS
°

ooooeoseeeeese®
Pe! ON O LO WO HN

Orroorne

All values of ¢ and o. are °F.

18

TABLE I
OCEANIC CLIMATIC CLASS
LEGEND
LN: Low tidal range (<10 ft.), no fresh water influence.
HN: High tidal range (510 ft.), no fresh water influence.
LR: Low tidal range (<10 ft.), fresh water influence present,

HR: High tidal range (510 ft.), fresh water influence present,

Ca lat = difference between air and water temperature
(surface)

n-number of observations in class

C= 2, “gC Sey GS
n
MONTH LN HR
Northern
Hemisphere %
JAN 1.3 0.9 0.5
FEB 1.0 Wes) 0.9
MAR Walt O55 0.4
APR Is 0.7 0.1
MAY 1.4 0.4 1.2
JUN 1.4 0.6 0.4
JUL 0.9 z.0 0.8
AUG 1.5 1.4 1.0
SEP 1.3 0.6 1.0
OCT 1.2 0.7 2.2
NOV 1.6 0.8 0.5
DEC 0.8 1.1 1.3

n=10 n=3

All values of € ando are °F,
Cc

19

TABLE III
SUB-CONTINENTAL CLIMATE CLASS
LEGEND
LN: Low tidal range (<10 ft.), no fresh water influence.
HN: High tidal range ($510 ft.), no fresh water influence.
LR: Low tidal range (<10 ft.), fresh water influence present,

HR: High tidal range (510 ft.), fresh water influence present.

C=T —T . = difference between air and water temperature
(surface)

n=number of observations in class

MONTH LN HR

Northern Southern

Hemisphere Heep ea cd Ws
JAN 3.5 203 Z.7
FEB 2.9 1.7 z.4
MAR 3.1 1.6 Z.2
APR 3.1 1.8 LY)
MAY 2.5 1.9 1.9
JUN z.0 2.1 0%)
JUL 1.9 1.6 1.5
AUG 1.8 1.3 1.6
SEP 1.9 1.6 1.0
OCT 5.5 1.2 1.3
NOV 3.1 1.6 Mo)
DEC 3.7 1.8 Z.2

n=87 n= n=10

All values of ¢ and g, are OTs

20

TABLE IV
CONTINENTAL CLIMATE CLASS
LEGEND
LN: Low tidal range (<10 ft.), no fresh water influence.
HN: High tidal range (510 ft.), no fresh water influence.
LR: Low tidal range (<10 ft.), fresh water influence present.

HR: High tidal range (510 ft.), fresh water influence present,

C=T Ot difference between air and water temperature
(surface)

n=number of observations in class

Spal T,+C=T, lis
MONTH LN HR

Southern
mae oe

Northern
Hemisphere

N
ie

FEB 8.2

MAR 8.0

APR: 6.9

MAY 5.6 3.5
JUN 4.0 3.0
JUL 3.8 0.8
AUG 4.1 1.7
SEP 4.1 Z2.5
OCT 4,6 5)
NOV 6.0 4.4
DEC 6.9 9.3

n= 42

All values of ¢ and oie are °F.

21

TABLE V

VERTICAL THERMAL GRADIENTS
TROPICAL CLIMATE CLASS

LEGEND: q = Surface water temperature as determined from Tables

I through IV

a Water temperature at designated depths

On We) at

n=number of observations

LN: Tidal range less than 10 feet; fresh water influence absent.

HN: Tidal range equal to or greater than 10 feet; fresh water influence
absent.

LR: Tidal range less than 10 feet; fresh water influence present,

HR: Tidal range equal to or greater than 10 feet; fresh water influence

present,
WINTER (coldest month)
LN HN LR HR

Surface

10 feet 0.3 0.0
20 feet 0.4 0.2
30 feet 0.6 0.7
50 feet 0.8 0.5
70 feet 1.1 0.6
100 feet 1.4 0.1
150 feet 1.8 0.1
180 feet Zeal 0.6

All values of ¢ and o. are °F,

22

TABLE V (cont'd)

SUMMER (warmest month)

Surface
10 feet
20 feet
30 feet
50 feet
70 feet
100 feet
150 feet
180 feet

All values of ¢ and g, are OP,
23

TABLE VI

VERTICAL THERMAL GRADIENTS
OCEANIC CLIMATE CLASS

LEGEND: T = Surface water temperature as determined from Tables
T through IV
Ta = Water temperature at designated depths

LN: Tidal range less than 10 feet; fresh water influence absent.

HN: Tidal range equal to or greater than 10 feet; fresh water influence
absent.

LR: Tidal range less than 10 feet; fresh water influence present.

HR: Tidal range equal to or greater than 10 feet; fresh water influence

present.
WINTER (coldest month)

Surface

10 feet 0.1
20 feet 0.2
30 feet 0.3
50 feet 0.6
70 feet ie)
100 feet 3.9
150 feet 6.0
180 feet 7.0

n=10 n=3 n=2 n=3

All values of ¢€ and o. are oh,

24

TABLE VI (cont'd)

SUMMER (warmest month)

Surface

10 feet 0.8]|-0.1 0.3
20 feet 2.1 0.5] 0.5
30 feet 2.5]/-1.0}] 0.9
50 feet 3.9|j-1.7 1.6
70 feet 4.5]||-3.2 3.0
100 feet 4.3||-4.6 ] 4.1
150 feet 4.0}//-5.5] 4.8
180 feet 5.0/]/-8.1 3.9

All values of € and g, are oF,

25

TABLE VI

VERTICAL THERMAL GRADIENTS
SUB-CONTINENTAL CLIMATE CLASS

LEGEND: T, = Surface water temperature as determined from Tables
I through IV
i Water temperature at designated depths

LN; Tidal range less than 10 feet; fresh water influence absent.

HN: Tidal range equal to or greater than 10 feet; fresh water influence
absent.

LR: Tidal range less than 10 feet; fresh water influence present.

HR: Tidal range equal to or greater than 10 feet; fresh water influence

present.
WINTER (coldest month)

Surface 0

10 feet 0.0 0.1 | 0.3 }}0.1 ] O.1
20 feet 0.0 0.2] 0.5 {70.1 |] 0.3
30 feet 0.0 0.3) 0.7 {70.1 | 0.4
50 feet 0.1 0.3} 1.0 |{0.4] 0.7
70 feet 0.3 0.5] 1.5 |]0.4] 1.5
100 feet 0.5 0.4] 1.7 jJ1.1 ] 1.7
150 feet 0.7 We@ || 5 I] | bo} |} 0/4
180 feet 0.8 Nel) MoS Ill 458) |) Soll

n=12 8

All values of C ando are °F.
c

26

TABLE VII (cont'd)

SUMMER (warmest month)

Surface 0
10 feet 0.5 0.7 0.3
20 feet 1.0 les 0.5
30 feet ei (an 0.7
50 feet 4,1 4,4 0.7
70 feet 5.8 6.5 1.6
100 feet 6.7 9.3 325
150 feet 7.4 9.1 4.8
180 feet Call 9.3 5.4

All values of ¢ and g, are ony.

27

TABLE VIII

VERTICAL THERMAL GRADIENTS
CONTINENTAL CLIMATE CLASS

LEGEND: T = Surface water temperature as determined from Tables

LN:
HN:

I through VIII

Ty Water temperature at designated depths

Gh n= number of observations
1 d; Si

Tidal range less than 10 feet; fresh water influence absent.
Tidal range equal to or greater than 10 feet; fresh water influence
absent.

LR: Tidal range less than 10 feet; fresh water influence present,
HR: Tidal range equal to or greater than 10 feet; fresh water influence
present.
WINTER (coldest month)

Surface

10 feet 0.0 } 0.3 0.0 | 0.3 |}0.0 | 0.0

20 feet 0.0 | 0.4 0.0 | 0.5 |{]0.0 | 0.0

30 feet 0.0 | 0.5 0.0 | 0.7 |/0.0 | 0.0

50 feet 0.0 | 0.6 0.0 | 0.8 }|/0.0 | 0.1

70 feet 0.1 | 0.9 O.1 | 1.0 |/ 0.1 | 0.1

100 feet O52 1150 0.1 | 1.3 }70.1 | 0.1

150 feet O55: elt O.1 | 1.7 |{[/ 0.1 | 0.1

180 feet 0.4 | 1.3 O.1 | 1.9 |} 0.1 | 0.1

All values of € and o are °F,

28

Surface

10
20
30
50
70
100
150
180

feet
feet
feet
feet
feet
feet
feet
feet

TABLE VIII (cont'd)

SUMMER (warmest month)

All values of € and o. are °F.

29

TABLE IX

HORIZONTAL THERMAL GRADIENTS
TROPICAL CLIMATE CLASS

Legend

WINTER (Northern Hemisphere): January-February-March
(Southern Hemisphere): July-August-~September

SPRING (Northern Hemisphere): April-May-June
(Southern Hemisphere): October~-November-~December

SUMMER (Northern Hemisphere): July~August-September
(Southern Hemisphere): January-February-—March

AUTUMN (Northern Hemisphere): October-~-November-December
(Southern Hemisphere); April~May-June

T= Surface water temperature at distance x offshore;

x=1,2,3 etc nautical miles.
i= Surface water temperature very nearshore.

Cvs Sat § See a n=number of observations
1 X1 Wi

NAUTICAL MILES OFFSHORE (x)

All values of c and v, are oe

30

TABLE X

HORIZONTAL THERMAL GRADIENTS
OCEANIC CLIMATE CLASS

Legend

WINTER (Northern Hemisphere); January-February-—March
(Southern Hemisphere): July-August-September

SPRING (Northern Hemisphere): April-May-June
(Southern Hemisphere): October-November-~December

SUMMER (Northern Hemisphere): July-August-September
(Southern Hemisphere): January-February-March

AUTUMN (Northern Hemisphere): October-November-December
(Southern Hemisphere): April-May-June

T | =Surface water temperature at distance x offshore;
x=],2,3 etc nautical miles.

T =Surface water temperature very nearshore,
Ww

C=T py eS ces n= number of observations

Winter
Spring
Summer

Autumn

NAUTICAL MILES OFFSHORE (x)

All values of ¢ and o. are °F.

31

TABLE XI

HORIZONTAL THERMAL GRADIENTS
SUB-CONTINENTAL CLIMATE CLASS

Legend

WINTER (Northern Hemisphere); January-February-—March
(Southern Hemisphere); July-August-September

SPRING (Northern Hemisphere): April-May-June
(Southern Hemisphere): October-November-December

SUMMER (Northern Hemisphere): July-August-September
(Southern Hemisphere): January-February-March

AUTUMN (Northern Hemisphere): October-November-December
(Southern Hemisphere): April-May-June

T= Surface water temperature at distance x offshore;

x=1,2,3 etc nautical miles.
a Surface water temperature very nearshore.

C=T ay fener See n=number of observations

Winter } +0.6 |0.4 || +0.8] 0.7
Spring ) +0.3 41.5 |} +03] 1.6
Summer H +0.5 1.0 ]}|+0.5] 1.2
Autumn

NAUTICAL MILES OFFSHORE (x)

All values of ¢ and o are °F.

32

TABLE XII

HORIZONTAL THERMAL GRADIENTS
CONTINENTAL CLIMATE CLASS

Legend

WINTER (Northern Hemisphere): January-~February-—March
(Southern Hemisphere); July-August-~September

SPRING (Northern Hemisphere): April~May-June
(Southern Hemisphere): October~November-December

SUMMER (Northern Hemisphere): July-August-September
(Southern Hemisphere): January-~February-March

AUTUMN (Northern Hemisphere); October-~-November-December
(Southern Hemisphere); April~May-June

VS Surface water temperature at distance x offshore;

x= 1,2,3 etc. nautical miles
T= Surface water temperature very nearshore.

C=T ee wl 2 n=number of observations

Pe feel c [eel] e [eal] [ool] € [ocl] & | eal] € [ooll ¢ [ool] € oll ¢ Joo
+0.2} 0.1

+0.4] 0.3 +0.8]0.6}] +1.0] 0.9 |} +1.3] 1.4 }]/41.5] 1.4 |] +1.6] 1.5 J 2 +1.9] 1.7|N=12

lM +0.7} 0.7 4+1.341.5}) 41.7] 1.8]] 41.7] 1.8 |} 41.8] 1.8 |] +18] 19 : : +1.9}1.9 |N=7
+0.2} 0.3 +0.5}0.7}| +0.6] 0.8 |] +0.7] 1.0 }}4+0.9} 1.2 |]+1.0) 1.2 : : 4+1.2)1.4}|N=10

0 402 0 i 0 . 0 ! 0 ! 0 : L 0 |08)N=7

+0.1] 0.1
0 401 ;
oS a a | | ae | ee | |

NAUTICAL MILES OFFSHORE (x)

Winter

Spring

Summer

Autumn

All values of € and gare oh

33

4.4
|

SSS —

UNION OF SOVIRT SOCLALIST REFODLICS

~ FIGURE 1 Mean Air Temperature—JANUARY

{M1ON OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

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UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

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UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

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——— 1 FIGURE 4 Mean Air Temperature—APRIL i
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nn —
a

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UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

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<< —=—_ SS :

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UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
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UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
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—FIGURE 10 Mean Air Temperature—OCTOBER

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| | | ||

a
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TIDE RANGE 5 |
w UNMARKED COASTS: TIDE RANGE < |

SCALE 1:80,000,000
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FIGURE 13 MEAN MAXIMUM SEMI-MONTHLY TIDE RANGES 59

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