HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN
NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES
BY
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT
Director, Department of Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor
With Appendix, being Abridgement of Field-notes, Chiefly op
Florence H. Danielson, Field Worker, Eugenics Record Office
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HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN
NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES
BY
CHARLES B. DAVENPORT
Director, Department of Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor
With Appendix, being Abridgement of Field-notes, Chiefly of
Florence H. Danielson, Field Worker, Eugenics Record Office
WASHINGTON, D. C.
Published by the Carnegie Institution of Wasiunqton
1918
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 188
Paper No. 20 of the Station for Experimental
Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor, New York
PRESS OF J. B. LIPPIXCOTT COMPANY
PHILADELPHIA
CONTENTS.
Page
A. Statement of the problem i
B. Method of investigation i
C. Evaluation of the data 2
D. Ontogenetic development of the skin color of the negro 4
E. Results:
I. The skin color of Caucasians in Bermuda and Jamaica 8
II. Quantitative determination of the skin color of pure-bred negroes 8
III. Skin color of the children of a negro and a Caucasian (the Fi generation). . 10
IV. Skin color of the children of two mulattoes (the F2 generation) 11
V. Hypothesis 12
VI. Test of the hypothesis 15
VII. Is there a sex-linkage or sex-dimorphism in skin color? 24
VIII. Do the children "take after" the mother and father equally? 25
IX. Selection of mates — "grading up" to white 25
X. The agreement of the hypothesis with popular observation and nomencla-
ture 27
XI. The yellow element in the skin color 28
XII. The "fixed white," the "pass for white," and the "white by law" 28
XIII. Reversion to black skin color 29
F. Discussion of inheritance of traits associated with skin color:
I. Eye color 32
II. Hair color 35
III. Hair form 39
G. Correlation of characteristics in hybrids 44
I. Correlation between the color of the skin and of the hair in the F2 gen-
eration 44
II. Correlation between color of the skin and form of the hair in the Fi gen-
eration 45
H. Fecundity of hybrids 46
I. Summary of conclusions 46
K. Literature cited 47
Appendix A:
I. Bermudian families 49
II. Jamaican families 71
III. Louisianian families 102
Appendix B. Social data concerning miscegenation 105
rn CAPOLTN.A STATE I
HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
By Charles B. Davenport.
A. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEIVI.
Two years ago (1910) Mrs. Davenport and I published some
measurements made on the color of the skin of descendants of matings
between negroes and Caucasians; and we concluded that, in opposi-
tion to current belief, our data afforded evidence that there is segre-
gation in skin color. We concluded that, while skin color is inherited
in typical fashion, the pigmentation of the full-blooded negro is not
dependent on two {i.e., the duplex) determiners, "but perhaps a myriad
of them." Lang (i9ii,*p. 122) cites these results with approval and
brings them in line with other studies in which the presence of several
factors for a single character is indicated, but he would quer>' our
statement "that offspring are rarely darker than the darker parent."
This statement merely summarized the empirical result obtained from
the four quantitatively studied families and was not in complete
harmony with the theoretical explanation offered — a disaccord upon
which we laid no emphasis because our quantitative data were so
limited. Our concluding sentence was as follows :
All studies indicate that blonds lack one or more units that brunets
possess; that the negro skin possesses still additional units; that individuals
with the heavier skin pigmentation may have slight pigmentation covered
over — hypostatic, evidence of this condition appearing in the light offspring
of such hybrids in the second or third generation; and that first-generation
hybrids frequently show, somatically, a color grade less than that which they
carry potentially and may segregate in their germ-cells.
The need for additional data was, however, recognized as great.
B. METHOD OF INVESTIGATION.
The difficulty of getting the desired data is considerable, especially
in our Southern States, where all matings of blacks and whites are
illegal and the genealogies of "colored" people are usually either diffi-
cult to obtain or else unreliable. After having discussed the matter
with persons of experience in other countries, as well as in the Southern
States, it was decided that the best available field for study would be
the islands of Bermuda and Jamaica. Funds were provided to pay
the salary and expense of a field worker to collect the data, through
the generosity of Mrs. E. H. Harriman. Science is greatly indebted
* These numbers refer to the particular paper of the author as listed in the "Litera-
ture cited," p. 48.
1
2 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO- WHITE CROSSES.
to this lady in this instance, as in so many others. Miss Florence H.
Danielson.'who had already spent an entire year in field work upon
pauper families in rural districts and had been markedly successful
in her work, was selected for the study. In her instructions emphasis
was laid upon two points: (i) to ascertain as surely as possible the
actual parentage; (2) to get a quantitative determination of the skin
color for as many as possible of the children, direct ancestors, and
immediate collaterals. This resulted in a lot of data that, with few
exceptions, give internal evidence of trustworthiness. Data concern-
ing a few families in Louisiana were supplied by special studies made
by Miss Susan K. Gillean, of New Orleans.
The color determinations were made in the following manner:
Miss Danielson visited the homes of the colored people and obtained
all of the genealogical data that could be furnished. Then the sleeve
was rolled up to above the elbow and a part of the skin that is usually
covered from the sunlight was thus exposed. The arm was placed on
the table by a good light and a Bradley color-top was spun close to the
arm and the disks adjusted until they matched, when spun, the color
of the skin. Various combinations of black (N), red (R), yellow (Y),
and white (W) gave a close approximation to the skin color.
Acknowledgment must be made of the courtesy with which our
field worker was everywhere received. The people acquiesced in
friendly fashion to the novel request to allow their skin color to be
measured; and in some cases leading persons in the community inter-
ested themselves in securing an introduction to the homes which
furnished the desired combinations of ancestry. Special acknowledg-
ment is made of courtesies extended by Prof. E. L. Mark for introduc-
tions that were of great service in Bermuda; to Sir Sidney Olivier,
governor of Jamaica; to Rev. and Mrs. Reinke, Mr. Frank Cundall,
secretary of the Jamaica Institute, and Mr. Fred. Meyer. In the com-
pany of Dr. Alfred G. Mayer, whose introductions were of great value,
and of Miss Danielson, the writer visited Jamaica, February 16 to 23,
191 2, to look over the ground and to secure the co-operation of influen-
tial persons in our investigation. Assistance was everywhere cordiall}'-
offered and given. The Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington afforded me the opportunity to make this study at Jamaica.
C. EVALUATION OF THE DATA.
Two points in this study deserve critical consideration: First, the
value of the determinations by the color-top ; second, the value of the
alleged relationships in the families.
The color-top, made by the Milton Bradley Company, Springfield,
Massachusetts, is a little device for expressing color quantitatively.
Disks of standard black, red, yellow, and white are arranged so that
var>'ing proportions of each are exposed as sectors of the whole circle.
EVALUATION OF THE DATA. 3
When the top is spun the colors blend. By varying the proportions
of the sectors (with a small dissecting forceps) the color of the blend
is altered. Of the delicacy of the method there is no question; in a
good light the proportions N 55, R 40, W 5 can be readily distinguished
from N 53, R 42, W 5. That two persons who have had some experi-
ence with the tops will form closely similar judgments I am assured
by various tests that I have made; but in these studies all measure-
ments were made by Miss Danielson, except those on the five Lousiana
families, made by Miss Gillean. It is true that the skin color is not
homogeneous — one has to avoid places where veins run near the sur-
face. A real difficulty occurs in securing proper illumination. There
is a difference between skin and the colored papers in light-absorbing
properties, and it is possible that the determinations that had some-
times to be made near sunset upon men after they had returned home
from work are not closely comparable with the determinations made
in broad daylight. Determinations made under imperfectly satisfac-
tory conditions of light are specially indicated. Of all errors the most
likely is the substitution of red by black or vice versa. In a poor light
the difference between the proportions N54, R34, Y6, W6, and
N 48, R 40, Y 6, W 6 is not striking; no doubt an error as great as
this may have crept into the determinations made in poor Hght.
The question of the actual paternity of our fraternities offers
extraordinary difficulties. Even in Jamaica, whose orderliness much
impresses the visitor, the percentage of illegitimacy is given at 60 per
cent from 1855 to 1895. In the province of St. Thomas the rate for one
year was 72 per cent of illegitimacy (Livingstone, 1900, pp. 113, 209).
The fact that there has been no decrease during the last twenty years is
cited as a proof of the invincible unchastity of the race .... Chastity
is considered unnatural.
Irregular as conditions now are, they were much worse 50 years
ago. Livingstone writes of this (p. 94) :
The condition of the young was sad in the extreme. Few became moral
members of society. As very children they lived together, producing children,
and in many cases boys of twelve consorted with more than one girl of the
same age The father of a child was seldom known.
One can see that conditions thus portrayed increase greatly the
difficulty of our study. Nevertheless, it does not militate against the
fact that there are to-day colored families in which a man and a woman
(whether married or not) are mutually faithful, and other cases where,
on careful inquiry, the admission is made of the illegitimacy of some
one child, or the fact that he had a different father from the others.
On the whole, families whose mothers had elevated ideals of chastity
were selected, so that the data are generally reliable; in case the truth is
not told the condition of the eyes and hair in the irregular child some-
4 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
times reveals the deception. We shall have occasion to call attention
to some of these cases where the putative father is not the real father.
D. ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE SKIN COLOR
OF THE NEGRO.
In making comparisons of skin color a certain difficulty is intro-
duced by the fact that the color of the skin is not constant throughout
life in the same individual. The variations due to the direct action of
the sun (tanning) were largely eliminated by making measurements
upon a covered part of the arm. This was possible inasmuch as both
children and adults in both Bermuda and Jamaica usually wear clothing.
Variations due to age have to be carefully considered. It is pretty
generally agreed by accoucheurs, both in Africa and in the Southern
States, that the negro baby is nearly white at birth. Some of this
testimony may be cited.
Pruner-Bey (i860, 1864) stated that it was sometimes impossible to
distinguish a new-bom negro from a new-bom white, by examining skin
color only.
Simonot (1862), stationed at Senegal, says that the negroes of Yoloff de
Saint Louis are the blackest that he knows. At birth the infant of this race is of
a rose color lightly accentuated with a bistre tint, which is the representative
at this early age of the future pigmentation and enables one to distinguish
it from a European infant; but it is not always easy to distinguish it from
certain crosses .... After some hours have elapsed the rose tint is obliterated
and at the same time the bistre shade becomes more pronounced, approaching-
more and more to the black. . . . Only after several days has the skin ac-
quired a definitely black color and this grows darker until the end of the first
year at least and does not acquire its maximum intensity until puberty. The
color is acquired more promptly if the infant is exposed to the sunlight.
Brodnax (1900), who has particularly attended to this matter in our
southern states, writes: "Twenty cases of new-bom negro infants have been
examined by me per year and I have never yet seen a dark-colored infant at
birth. They are of a tallowy white, while the white infant is of a clear,
bright pink. It makes no matter how black or white (mulatto) the parents
are, the scrotum and raphe are of a dark brown."
Schiller-Tietz (1901) concludes, from the accounts of travelers and
sojourners in Africa, that the negro child is born, if not distinctly white, at
least of a clear color, and only after a longer or shorter time after birth acquires
the dark-brown color of its race. He adds : " The color is darker after eating,
at a higher temperature, during exercise, in consequence of psychical disturb-
ances (embarrassment, shame), and, in general, whenever the blood pressure
is increased in the skin capillaries." He concludes that the attainment of
full skin color, even in Africa, varies from 6 weeks to 3 years, but occasionally
takes only a few days.
Studies by Thomson (1891) and others show that the formation of melanic
pigment has already begun at the base of the hairs in the fetus at the age of
S months.
At the Memorial Hospital, Richmond, Va., a male child was ex-
amined 6 days after birth. His mother and father were both dark-
ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF SKIN COLOR OF NEGRO. 5
colored (say N 45 per cent). The skin was not measured, but is esti-
mated at N 25 per cent. The physician who attended the mother
states that it was much Hghter at birth. The scrotum, a hne about
2 mm. broad running in the mid-ventral line in the pubic region nearly
to the umbilicus, and the areolae around the nipples were twice as dark
(say N 50 per cent). On this child the lanugo, which was abundant
on the forehead and back, was dark brown, as were also the head hair,
eyebrows, and eyelashes. The hair of the head was not so dark as that
of the mother. While the hair of both parents formed a close coil (of
about 5 mm. diameter), that of the child was only wa\n>\ The super-
intendent of the Good Samaritan Hospital (for colored persons) at
Columbia, South Carolina, where many full-blooded negresses are
confined, stated that the hair is always nearly straight at birth, and
that the straight hair ma}' be seen at the extremity of the curved hair
when, as happens within a few weeks, the close curl makes its appear-
ance. This has been observed by Pruner-Bey (1861) and by Bloch
and Vigier (1904). The same superintendent states that the color of
the transverse helix of the external ear (pinna) acquired its permanent
pigmentation earlier than the rest of the skin of the face ; and this fact
was strikingly shown in the 6-day child seen at the hospital, and has
been repeatedly confirmed since.
In an infant, 7 days old, at the Memorial Hospital, Richmond,
whose mother's father was half Indian — the rest of the mixture being
chiefly if not wholly negro — the skin color had much more red than in
the child described at the beginning of the preceding paragraph, and
the hair of the head was ver>' dark brown ; the lanugo was very abun-
dant on the back and quite black.
At the Bellevue Hospital, New York City, a child was examined
(about 48 hours after birth) whose mother was the daughter of a white
man and a mulatto woman — her owti skin color probably at least 40
per cent N. The father of the infant was darker than the mother. The
infant had already at least 20 per cent N (estimated) on the upper
arm, but the exposed hands were darker, while the soles and palms
were light. The skin of the scrotum and penis were very dark (say
50 per cent N), and the areolae and pubic line were much darker than
the surrounding skin. There were slight inequalities in the density
of pigmentation in different areas of the buttocks. The hair was nearly
straight, the lanugo and head hair dark brown. In a female child of
18 days, from a brown-skinned woman and her lighter husband, the
hair was coming in curly, though straight on its ends. Over the back
were bluish-black patches, a prominent one at the upper end of the
sacrum (about 4 by 8 cm.), and others lying irregularly over the back.
These correspond in position and general appearance \\*ith the sacral
spots described for the Japanese. These sacral spots have been studied
histologically by Adachi (1903), who finds them to be areas where a
6 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
relatively great amount of pigment is formed in the corium; and this
excess disappears as the formation of pigment in the epidermis is
accelerated.
At the Sloane Hospital in New York City seven colored babies,
2 to 20 days old, were examined. The youngest, of fairly dark ancestry,
was already becoming pigmented and his skin color gave N 15, R 41,
Y 2, W 42. One of the others, at 4 days, had feet that were pink and
quite like those of a white infant, though the forehead (the part most
exposed to the Hght) had about 25 per cent N. Excepting one prac-
tically "white" child, all had spots on the sacrum varying in size
from a centimeter to a third of the whole surface of the back. All
children had nearly straight hair, often standing erect on top of the
head, but a colored infant was seen whose hair at birth formed close
coils.
A series of measurements can be given of the skin color of a baby
both of whose parents are, so far as known, of straight negro origin.
These were taken by the physician in charge* of the maternity division
of the Lincoln Hospital, New York City. The baby was born at 2 a.m.,
February 16, 1913; first observed at 2 p.m. of the same day. At the
time of the first observation light brown lanugo was plentiful on the
back; the head hair was black and quite straight. The deepest pig-
mentation was on the forehead and the descending helix of the external
ear. There was a sacral spot, 65 by 70 mm., and a smaller, darker,
slightly purplish area just above the anal fold, 35 by 25 mm. and with
the color formula ofN58,R3i,Y4,W7. These lumbar spots faded
slightly in the next 10 days. The color of the forearm was determined
on successive days and the following formulae obtained: February 16,
2 p.m., N37, R38, Y7, W18; February 17, 2 p.m., N 40, R42, Y5,
W13; February 18, 2 p.m., N43, R42, Y3, W12; February 19, 2 p.m.,
N 45, R 42, Y 3, W 10; February 22, 2 p.m., N 50, R 40, Y 2, W 8.
In a colored baby, partly white, beginning 14 hours after birth
with a formula N 37, R 36, Y 3, W 24, by the end of 7 days the skin
color was N 40, R 44, Y 4, W 12. In the latter case the development
of pigment was much slower and would probably not go so far.
The presence of sacral spots in mulattoes has been recorded by
Lehmann-Nitsche (1904) and by Herrman (1907). The latter states
that they were distinct in 24 per cent of the infants seen at the Vander-
bilt Clinic, New York City. So far as my experience went, practically
all negro infants showed the spots.
In order to find what allowance, if any, must be made in our
statistics for age, the determinations of the percentage of the black
component have been grouped into classes as follows: under i year;
I year and up to (but not including) 2 years; 2 years and up to (but
*Dr. Nathan B. Eddy.
ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF SKIN COLOR OF NEGRO. 7
not including) 5 years; 5 to 9; 10 to 19; 20 to 39; 40 to 59. Finally,
for reasons that will be discussed more fully later, the measurements
taken at Bermuda and at Jamaica are averaged separately (table i).
Table i. — Average grade of N in skin color of various negro-white crosses, by age classes.
Age.
Under
I year.
I to 1.9
years.
2 to 4.9
years.
5 to 9
years.
10 to 19
years.
20 to 39
years.
40 to 59
years.
Bermuda (fig. i).
Jamaica (fig. 2) . .
p. ct.
16.3
IS-O
p. ct.
(18.8)
16.6
p. ct.
214
18.5
P.ct.
27.0
21.3
p. ct.
28.8
20.9
p. ct.
28.3
18.0
p. ct.
21.6
.... 1
In table i the second Bermuda entry has been smoothed by the
exclusion of five dark sisters who, belonging to an exceptionally dark
strain, have rendered the average unduly high. The number of meas-
urements from which the averages were obtained varies for the different
30
■■"'
25
ft
0
J
■i 20
.5
2
! per cent of
01
to
2
^ 10
]
5
n
0 10 20 30 40 W 60
Age. years
Fig. I. — Polygon showing graphically the
varying percentages of N in skin color
for each age of life (Bermuda).
20
i—
S 15
c
•i
r
2
V. 10
c
0.
a>
2 "
<
n
0 10 20 30
Age. years
40
Fig. 2. — Polygon showing graph-
icxlly the varying percentages
of N in skin color for each age
of life (Jamaica).
classes from over 100 down to 11. It appears that the proportion of
black in the skin increases to about the age of 10 or 12 years and then
slowly diminishes, a fact to which Simonot (1862, p. 147) called atten-
tion. On careful consideration of these facts it seemed desirable to
exclude from further consideration (except as indicated) all measure-
ments made on individuals under the age of 2 years, on the ground
8 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
that such individuals have not yet gained their full pigmentation ; that
in them melanic pigmentation is in an embryonic condition.
E. RESULTS.
I. The Skin Color of Caucasians in Bermuda and Jamaica.
(A) Bermuda.
Case I (i: 463; V, 7 *). — A woman whose father was English and mother
Portuguese, both from Antigua. Her hair is straight and black, com-
plexion oHve. Skin color N 8, R31, Y 22, W39.
Case 2 (1:470; II, 2). — ^A woman of 45 years, bom in London, blue eyes,
straight yellow hair. Skin color N 5, R 34, Y 15, W 46.
Case 3 (i: 492; II, 2). — A woman with hazel (i.e., blue plus a Httle brown)
iris, straight, medium brown hair. Skin color N 7, R 30, Y 15, W 48.
Case 4 (i:554;III, 5). — An Englishman with clear blue eyes, straight medium
brown hair and sandy mustache. Skin color N 5, R 29, Y 27, W 39.
(B) J.^MAICA.
Case I (i : 685 ; II, 6). — Son of an Irishman and a very fair woman, probably
no negro blood; a native Jamaican. Light brown eyes, red hair. Skin
color No, R32, Y 20, W 48. This happens to be an exceptionally
light person, entirely without melanic pigmentation.
Note. — The writer's wrist, somewhat tanned during the summer,
isN8, R50, Y9, W33-
Thus the untanned skin-color formula of the Caucasian contains
from o per cent to 7 per cent black, and probably, in brunets, as much
as 10 per cent black.
II. Quantitative Determination of the Skin Color of Pure-bred
Negroes.
In our study of the normal color of the "pure-bred" negro we
first run upon the complication that the native Africans, even of the
Slave Coast, differ much in skin color. Thus the Fellatahs of the
Soudan vary from a light brown to a dark brown, approximating the
color of the negro. The Krumen of the Liberia coast vary from black
to 3"ellow. The Alandingos of French Guinea and the Jolofs of Senegal
are dark brown. The Yorubas of southern Nigeria are also dark brown,
but not so deeply pigmented as the Mandingos (Dowd, 1907, pp. 79-
83). This variation in skin color of races, all of which are represented
in the area where our studies were made, complicates our problem,
or would seem to do so were it not true that we can rely upon hybridiza-
tion to point the way out of any such complexity. There can be no
doubt that the variation of skin color in a single tribe of Africans
proves the existence in it of various heterozygous or mixed types,
resulting from hybridization. We can not know the skin color of the
negro ancestors of any of our families precisely, and it is not very im-
portant that we should.
* This number refers to the sheet and individual of the original record as preserved
in the Eugenics Record OflBce.
RESULTS.
Various measurements were made in Bermvida, in Jamaica, and
in Louisiana of the skin color of persons reputed to be of pure negro
blood. They are as follows:
Table 2. — Quantitative determinations of the skin color of pure-bred negroes.
I. BERMUD.\.
1 Reference No.*
Sex.
Skin-color formula.
! B.2
B. 3 I
Female
Female. . .
N 75. R 13, Y 3. W 10.
N 71, R 18. Y?, W9.
N78. R8, Y 5. Wo.
N 77. R IS. Y 3. W s. Typical kinky hair. No known white
blood.
N so, R 2S. Y 8. W 17. A typical brown-skinned woman all of
whose people are brown.
N 75. R 18. Y 4. W 3. A negro woman all of whose people are
dark; has typical negro features.
N 45. R 40. Y 7. W 8. All of her ancestors were negroes. She
has typical negro hair and features.
B. 6 II. I
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
B. 7 I
B. 16 II. 6
B. 17 I
B. 29 I
a. JAMAICA.
J. 3. I
J. 12. I
J. 7.1
J. 13. I
J.14.I
I. 24. I
J, 20, I
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
N s8, R 29, Y 6. W 7. A pure-black woman.
N 60, R 29, Y 6, W 5. Typical negro hair and features. 1
N 46, R 39, Y 8, W 7. Pure-black, with typical eyes and hair
N 52, R 32, Y 8, W 8. A pure-black woman. '
N 47. R 37. Y 12, W 4. Ancestors were negroes as far back as |
she knows; has dark brown eves and curly hair. i
N 54. R 35. Y 6, W 5. A pure-black woman. i
N 37. R 47. Y 13. W 3. All of the ancestors, on both the father's 1
and the mother's side, so far as known, are colored. She has
typical hair and eyes. Note that the deficiency in black is en-
tirely compensated by increased red — a negress of high color.
This is a highly exceptional reading and, owing to possible
errors of field work, too much stress must not be laid on it.
3. LOUISIANA.
L.2.I
[L.3,1
L. 4. I
L. 6, I
Male
Female
Female
Female
N 43. R 30, Y 12, W IS. A full-blooded negro. Hair kinky.
lips thick, but nose fairly high.
N 45, R 32, Y 13. W 10. A full-blooded negress with a wide,
flat nose, woolly hair, and thick lips.
N 40, R 32, Y 13. W IS- A full-blooded negress with flat, broad
nose, woolly hair, and thick lips. 1
N 70. R 28.5. Y I, W 0.5. A full-blooded negress. according to !
her own statement. She has typical negro features, flat nose,
thick lips, woolly, kinky hair.
♦The "Reference No." in this and following tables refers to the case number and generation of the
original data filed at the Eugenics Record Office. B, Bermuda; J, Jamaica; L, Louisiana.
Altogether, determinations were made on 18 negroes, and gave
proportions of black in the skin color ranging from 37 to 78. The fre-
quencies of the various classes of the black element in skin color, of the
various grades of the white element, and of the combination of N+R
grades are given in sections Nos. i, 2, and 3 respectively of table 3.
Table 3. — Frequency of each class of skin color (per cent of N) in iS "full-blooded" negroes.
No
. I.
No
. 3.
No
.3.
Class.
Fre-
Class.
Fre-
Class.
Pre-
Np.c.
quency.
W p.c.
quency.
N -H R p.c.
quency.
3S-39
I
0-4
4
70-74
»
40-44
3
5-9
9
75-79
2
45-49
4
10-14
3
80-84
3
S0-S4
3
15-19
3
8S-89
8
SS-S9
I
90-94
2
60-64
I
95-99
I
6S-69
0
70-74
3
75-79
4
18
18
IS
10 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
By No. I we see plainly the presence of two sharply separated
types, of which one has a mode at 45-49, the other in the 70's. On
inquiring into the meaning of this dimorphism of the skin color of the
negro, one has to recognize that it is less a dimorphism of the white
than of the black element of the skin color. If one combines the N +R
grades (table 3, No. 3) only a single mode appears, at 85-89.
The fact that the sum of the black and red constituents of the
skin color of the different negroes, presumably derived from different
African races, is so nearly constant suggests that our negroes fall into
two biotypes differing in the thickness of the skin; for the thicker the
skin the more the red capillaries are obscured and the greater the
depth of the black pigment. This would accord with the difference
in the color of the African races mentioned above, and would suggest
a possible source of variability of negro peoples apart from hybridi-
zation. The question whether the negroes of Jamaica came from a
different part of Africa than those of Bermuda can not be answered
with certainty. It is known, from their language (Johnston, 1910,
p. 247), that the negroes of Jamaica came from the Chwi-speaking
peoples of Ashanti and Fanti, who have lighter complexions than the
Senegambian negroes (Dowd, 1907, p. 81). The importation of negroes
to Bermuda began in 16 16, and there is reason for believing that the
negroes whom the English secured at that early date were of those
captured by the Portuguese, who operated largely in Senegambia.
Attention may be called, at this point, to our great lack of precise
information about the differences in skin color of the native African
races, the anatomical basis of the differences, and the method of inheri-
tance of African skin color of the different sorts.
III. Skin Color of the Children of a Negro and a Caucasian — The
Fi Generation.
In the course of field work there was occasionally found a strict
mulatto; i.e., the first generation hybrid between a Caucasian and a
negro. A collection of all of these cases is here made in order to deter-
mine the standard of color belonging to this cross.
Table 4. — Determinations oj the skin color oj Fi hybrids between whites and negroes.
I. BERMUDA.
Case
No.
B. Ill, 2....
B. VII. 2...
B.X. I
BXI. 1
B. XIII. 2..
B.XV. I...
B. XVII. 2.
B. XXI. I..
B. XXI, I..
B.XXXI, I.
B.XXXII,2
Father.
N. Red.
5 25. ,
white, br.,
dark Jew .
white . . . ,
white . . . ,
white . . . ,
7 40.
white . . . .
Mother.
N. Red.
Offspring — percentage
of black in skin of each.
71 18. . 37
77 15- .' 43
dark br. . . 35 .
35
39
35
30
43
43
37
45
35
30.
35-
white .
white .
white .
orowi
70
isKin
17. .
dark.
75
black
18. .
Af-
rican . . .
negro
41 . .
....
41
39. .
34 40 45; seven others, dead
or absent; also 53° not counted.
39
31 31 32 31 25
22 34 40 32
39
25'
25 41
Remarks.
Father born in Sweden.
Father has blue eyes.
Mother called pure neg^ro.
Father English."
Father English.''
» Hair kinky, parentage doubtful.
* Tanned.
RESULTS.
11
Table 4. — Determinations oj the skin color of Fi hybrids bctu'ccn whiles and negroes. — Cont'd.
II. JAMAICA.
Case
No.
J. II. I
J. Ill, I....
J. XII, 2. ..
J. XIV, 2...
J. XVIII. I.
J. XXIV, I.
J. XXXI, I
J. LI, I
J. LI, 2
J. LX, I....
Father.
N. Red.
white .
white .
white.
white .
white,
white .
white .
white .
white,
white .
Mother.
N. Red.
pure black
African. . .
60 29. .
47
37.
Offspring — percentage
of black in skin of each.
"black". ,
54 35..
"black".
"black".
"black",
"black".
36.
33.
28
23
38.
32.
26.
25
25-
31
23
23°.
Remarks.
Father Bngliih.
Father Jew.
Father English; mother pure
negro.
Father English; mother pure
negro.
Father Jew.
Father ' ' *' ' if pure white.
Father , mother's rel-
ative- k.
Mother not seen; origin un-
certain.
Father blue-eyed Scotchman.
III. LOUISIANA.
L. 111,2.,
L. IV, 2.
L. V, I. .,
L.VI, I..
white,
white .
white .
white .
45 32..
40 32..
"black ". .
70 28.5 .
25
20
20
29
20 20.
Mother full-blooded negress.
" A grandmother. Pigment has faded.
Table 5. — Summary.
Grades of N
in Fi hybrids.
Bermuda.
Jamaica.
Louisiana.
Parents:
white X
'tt!V-
Parents:
white X
ct.N
Parents:
white X
47-60 p.
ct. N
Parents:
white X
40-70 p.
ct. .N
20 to 24
25 to 29
30 to 34
35 to 39
40 to 44
45 to 49
Total.. .
I
I
9
10
6
2
2
I
4
5
4
I
2
3
I
29
3
14
6
Corresponding with the difference in skin color of the parents, a
matter that v^'e have already discussed, there is seen to be an evident
difference in the skin color of the Fi hybrids. The ver\' dark negro
strain produces, on the whole, the darkest offspring, with a mean
value of about 35 per cent N. The hybrids from the lighter strain
have a mean value of about 26 per cent N.
IV. Skin Color of the Children of Two Mul.\ttoes— The Fj
Generation.
The second generation of hybrids is the one which, in modem
studies in heredity, is relied on to give the key to the number of factors
involved in the production of any characteristic; so we look to it with
especial eagerness. Unfortunately, however, the mating of two strict
mulattoes is not common, so that the total number of cases available
12 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
for this study has been small. Such cases as have been collected are
given, with full details, in table 6.
Table 6. — Proportion of black in skin color of offspring of two mulattoes, together with color
of parents a?id grandparents, so far as ascertained.
Ref T^ t:-
F. M.
Ik t % r
F.
(p.ct.
M.
(p. ct.
Offspring, in order of birth (p. ct. N).
'i,- F. F.
1
No.
N).
N).
I
2
3
4
S
6
7
8
9
10
II
12
B. ar.
II. 2 '"White"
African.
White
Afr. (?)
32
39
43
48 +
39±
34
30 +
35
38
42
56
54
48
36
T. 9. I. Scotch ..
Mad'g'r
Engl. . Pureblk.
Mulat.
Mulat.
IS
II
13
18
i8±
r.ss.l White ..
L. I. II White . .
Black . . .
White. 1 Black . . .
2S±
2S±
20
I5±
20±
I0±
30±
Negress .
White. 1 Negress .
30
2S
30
16
16
26
26±
23
33
35
2Q
L. 2. I White . .
Negress.
White.! Negress.
Mulat.
Mulat.
10
••
••
••
••
••
••
Comparing table 4 with table 6, it appears at once that whereas
the total range of skin color in the Fi generation is, for 52 individuals,
26 points; in the F2 generation, for only 32 individuals, it is 47 points.
Since the range increases, other things being equal, with the logarithm
of the number of individuals, we see that the variabilit}' in the F2
generation is more than twice as great as the variability in the Fi
generation. Similarly, the average range of variability inside of a
fraternity of F2 offspring is nearly 1% the average range of variability
inside of a fraternity of Fi offspring. Also, whereas the lightest mulatto
in our records has more than double the percentage of black of a
medium-skinned Caucasian, 2 out of 32 of the F2 generation have 10
or II per cent black or close to the skin color of the ordinary brunet
Caucasian. Compare, for example, the following formulae:
L. 2, I. F2 generation hybrid N 10, R 30, Y 12, W 48
Caucasian N 7, R 30, Y 15, W 48
In these cases the proportion of white and of red is the same; the
difference is in the relative amount of black and ^^ellow.
Similarly, the darkest of the F2 generation may exceed the color
of the mulatto parents; though, owing to the great range of color of
pure-bred blacks, they do not closel}^ approach the color of the darkest
blacks. The following case from Bermuda is instructive :
Fi father N 32, R 41,
Fi mother N 39, R 37,
Child N 56, R 31,
Child N 54, R 28,
Here the skin color of the darker child is almost one-half darker than
the darker parent, is darker than any mulatto in my records, and is
darker than many of the "pure-bred" Africans.
V. Hypothesis.
The increased variability of the F2 as compared with the Fi genera
tion indicates the probability of segregation. It now remains to decide,
if possible, how many factors for black are involved in the pigmenta-
YI4.
W 13
Y 10,
W14
Y 6,
W 7
Y 6.
W 12
RESULTS.
13
50
40
30
^
20
10
tion of the negro skin. If there were only one (duplex) factor involved,
we should expect one-fourth of the children in the F2 generation to be
white, one-fourth black, and about one-half of all to be of the mulatto
grade. But, as a matter of fact, in 32 F2 individuals there are not 8,
but only 2 that are white, or i in 16; consequently it is certain that
more than one (double) factor is involved in black skin pigmentation.
Consideration of all the tables has led
me to the following hypothesis, which
may be stated now in order that it may
be tested by the results of other matings
to be considered directly. There are two
(double) factors (A and B) for black pig-
mentation in the full-blooded negro of the
west coast of Africa, and these are sepa-
rately inheritable.
On the foregoing hypothesis we
may look for five conditions of skin
color, as follows: (i) no factor for
black — the Caucasian condition ; (2) no
B factor, the A factor simplex — the
light-colored ; (3) either no B factor and
the A factor duplex or both A and B
factors simplex — the medium-colored,
or mulatto; (4) one factor duplex and
the other simplex — the dark-colored
skin; (5) both factors duplex — the black
skin. It is evident, moreover, that these
five grades do not correspond to sharp
percentages of black, and, indeed, it
was not to be expected that they would.
Every character is subject to fluctua-
tions due to variations in conditions
during development, effects of sunlight,
etc. If, however, these five points are
real ones they should show themselves
when the grades of the skin color of the
entire population are thrown into one
frequency polygon. This has been done
both for the determinations made at
Bermuda and at Jamaica. The polygon
of percentages of skin black in Bermuda
shows the greater variability and con-
sequently lends itself the better to our
purposes. The polygon of the Jamaica determinations has such an
overwhelming proportion of the light-colored individuals as to obscure
2
10 20 30 -JO • 60 60 1 70
Per cent of N in skin color
80
Fig. 3.-
-PolyRon of frequency of c.ich grade
of N in skin color. Bcrmud.^.
14 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
the evidence of its compoundness. Now the Bermuda polygon (fig. 3)
gives evidence of five maxima, as follows: (i) about 5 per cent; (2)
about 18 per cent; (3) about 35 per cent; (4) about 46 per cent; and
(5) about 70 per cent. Smoothing, somewhat, the empirical results, we
may take the probable range of effect of our five hypothetical factors
as given in table 7.
Table 7. — Classification of hybrid skin colors on the basis of the factor hypothesis*
Factors.
Gametic
formulae.
Color.
Relative
frequen-
cy.
Range of
p. ct. in
ofiEspring.
Popular names
(Jamaica).
Both absent
One present
Two present
Three present. . . .
All four present . .
atbi
Aabi . . .
AaBb ..
AtBb . .
AiBi...
White
Light colored ....
Medium colored
(Fi)
Dark colored ....
Black
I : 16
4 : 16
6 : 16
4 : 16
I : 16
O-II
I2-2S
26-40
41-55
56-78
"Pass for white."
Mustifino.
Mustifee.
Octoroon.
Quadroon.
Mulatto.
Mangro, Sambo.
Negro.
We are now in a position to test this hypothesis in various matings,
of which the ancestry is not precisely known. We may assume, what
is close to the truth, that parents with a skin color of N 9 or less have
the gametic formula 0262;* those with N between the grades of 10
and 25, inclusive, have the formula Aabi; those with N between the
grades of 26 and 40, AaBb; those with N between the grades 41 and
55, A2Bb; those with N between the grades 56 and 78, A2B2. We can
calculate the proportion of offspring of each zygotic composition and
compare with the proportion of offspring of each class of color. If the
agreement is close, the hypothesis is justified; otherwise it is not
justified.
A word about the determination of the class ranges. It was first
determined empirically that grades below 10 per cent were not only
common among Caucasians, but parents with grades less than 10 per
cent do not, with rare exceptions, have children of darker skin color
than themselves. It was then decided to divide the whole range be-
tween 10 and 70 into four equal classes with a range of 15 points each.
In the final adjustment the first of these classes contains 16 points and
the last was extended to 78 to include a few very dark individuals
found in Bermuda. There is reason for thinking that the range of the
first two classes should be somewhat equalized in the offspring. For
"offspring" are, on the whole, younger than parents, and their skin
has undergone less of that fading which is found in older persons. A
filial grade of 10 or 11 corresponds to a parental grade of 9. Accord-
ingly, the limits for the two lower grades of skin color are set, in the
offspring, at o-ii and 12-25, respectively.
•Capital letters {A, B) indicate presence of the factor, lower case letters {a, b)
absence of the factor.
RESULTS.
15
VI. Test of the Hypothesis.
To test the hypothesis we must take up in order the matings of
various grades of skin color and consider their offspring.
Table 8. — Both parents of class o-g; gametes without factor for negro X.
Reference
No.
Grade of
parents.
Frequency of each class of
offspring.
Grades of N found,
p. ct.
Retnarkc.
F.
M.
O-II
12-25
36-40
41-55
56-78
B. 27. II..
B. 30. II..
J. 52, II..
Total.. .
Exp. . . .
S-fc
6
Si:
5
5
8±
4
3
2
9. 7. 9. 4
S±. S. 7
3i:. 8. (2)
Youngest i yr. old.
9
9
Table 8a. — Mother's gametes probably without factor for N; father " passes for white;" half
of his gametes may contain i factor for N.
Reference
No.
Grades of
parents.
Frequency of each class of
offspring.
Grades of N
found.
p.ct.
Remarks.
F.
M.
O-II
..-«
26-40
41-SS
56-78
J. 21. II..
Pass w.
7
•5
3
4=*=. IS. 7. 19. 4. 4. 4*.
19*
•Total blind.
Table 9. — Father without factor for negro N, mother with i factor for negro N.
Reference
No.
Parents.
Offspring.
Remarks.
F.
M.
O-II
I
I
I
2
3
I
2
3
I
2
I
S
I
I
I
0
6
6
3
'2"
12-25
26-40
41-55
56-78
B. 8. Ill
B. 25. II
B. 28. II
B. 29. Ill
B. 29. Ill
B. 32, II
B. 22, II
J. 10, II
9
7
9
S
s
Fair
5 =t
W
8
W
Pass w
0
2
5 ±
6 ±
S
7 ±
7
5 *
0
5
5 ±
S
S *
10
23
10
16
20
17
20
18
19
18
20
IS
13
13
II
19
a 9
16
15=*=
IS =*=
20
12 ±
20
18
3
2
I
4
3
6
I
3
3
4
3
I
5
I
2
I
I
3
2
I
7
2
I
1
+ I ch., 6 mo., N" 5.
+ I ch., I yr. N 8.
+ I ch., I yr.. N 6.
4- I ch., 8 mo.. N' 6.
+ I ch.. I8 mo., N 13.
+ 2 ch. d. about 14 m..
both N 9-
+ 1 ch., iK yrs., X 7.
+ I ch., 6 mo.. N 33.
+ I ch., I yr., N 13.
1
1
i
1
J. IS. II
J- 9. II
J. 22, I
J. 16, II
J. 28, II
J,-39.II
J. 42. II
J. 38. II
J. 38. II
J. 38. II
T.41.II
1 25. II
J- 51. Ill
T. cc. I
J. 5s!ll
J. 56. II
Total
Expectation ....
42
49.5
56
49. 5
I
0
0
0
0
0
" Placed here partly because proportion of white in her skin color formula is low (33 per cent), partly
because of origin, and partly because of the skin color of her progeny.
16 HEREDITY OF SKIX COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Table io. — Father without factor for negro N; mother with 2 factors for negro N.
Reference
No.
Parents.
F.
B. 13, III 5 *
B. 16. II 5 =*=
B. 2S, II 6
J. 8, II Pass w
J. II, II Pass w
J. 18. II 8
J. 23, II Pass w
J. 16. II '3
J. 19, II 3
J. 19, II 8
J. 48. II 2
J. SI. Ill Pass w
Total. . . ,
Expectation . .
M.
27
31
35
25
27
30
38
36
25
25
25
25 +
Offspring.
O-II 12-25 26-40 4I-S5
II
16
I
I
4
2
3
I
2
6
I
5
6
32
32
21
16
[I]
o
S6-78
Remarks.
+ 1 ch., I yr., N so.
Dark child, illegitimate.
Table ii. — Father without factor for negro N; mother with 3 factors for negro N.
Reference
Parents.
Offspring.
Remarks.
No.
F.
M.
o-n
12-25 26-40 j 4I-SS
56-78
B. 16. II
B. 16, III
B. 21, II
B. 31, II
B. 24. II
B. 27, II
J. 7. II
J. 14. II
J. 48, II
J. 56. I
7
5 ±
7
S =»=
5
5
Pass w
W
0
2 =fc
so
so
40
41
40
40 ±
46
47
SO
dark
I
1 2
2 2
I I
I I
1 r
2 4
I 2
3
I
....
+ 1 ch., 6 mo., N 8.
+ I ch., I yr., N 23.
+ I ch., 7 mo., N 10.
+ I ch., 9 mo., N 25.
Total
Expectation ....
I
0
14 13 I
14.5 I4-S 0
0
0
Table 12.-
—Father without factor for negro N; mother •
joith 4 factors for negro N.
Reference
No.
Parents.
Offspring.
F. M.
o-ri
12-25 26-40
4I-S5
56-78
B. 3.11
B. 13, II
B. 17, II
J. 12, II
Total
Expectation. . , .
s 71
5 =*= 70
7 75
W 60
.... 1 .... ' 4
.... ' .... 2
.... ' .... '5
.... i .... "3
•i
1.2
....
:::: ::::
0
0
0 1 14
0 17
3
0
0
0
" N 43.
I- II 8, cJ*. skin color 53. 32, 7, 8; II li 9 , skin 45. 32. 10, 13.
• Including i N 25 per cent.
<* Including 2 N 25 per cent.
Table 13. — Father with i factor for 7iegro N; mother without factor for negro N.
Reference
No.
Parents. Offspring.
Remarks.
F.
M. o-ii
12-25
26-40
41-55
56-78
B.6, IV
B. 27, II
B. 29, III
J. 28, I
J. 28, II
J. 30, II
J. ss, II
19
19
» 8
15 ±
10
19
20
IS ±
8
7
8
7
4
3
S
S
I
I
3
2
2
1
2
2
3
4
I
I
3
4
3
S
+ I ch., 7 mo., N 10.
+ I ch., 4 mo., N 5-
J. 59, II
Total
Expectation ....
14
19
24
19
0
0
0
0
0
0
» From a mating white X 45 per cent N, the mother probably a 3-factor colored. This man tans heavily
and, as N J- R = 52 per cent, he doubtless has one factor for black.
'~. VIM it^ .-oidic: Liuidiy
RESULTS.
Table 14. — Father with i factor for negro N; mother with i factor for negro N.
Reference.
Mo.
Parents
F.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B,
B,
J.
J.
J:
J.
J.
i:
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
8,
25.
25.
26.
27,
29,
36.
19.
19.
4.
13.
17.
9.
9.
9.
47.
22,
26,
51.
51.
51,
S3.
III.
I. .
II.
II. ,
I. .
II.
III.
II.
II.
II..,
II...
II..,
I. . .
II. .
11..,
II..,
II..
II..
III.
III.
III.
II..
54,11
57. III...,
60, II
62. II
13
10 =fc
20
20 =«=
14
16
14
14
19
15
12 =*=
20
12
22
18
23
22
15
20
18
17
17 ±
12 =t
16 =t
23 =t
20
12 =*=
13*
22
13
18 ±
20
23=«=
20
22
15
15=*=
15
20 ±
23
18
18^
Total. . .
Expectation.
M.
16
20 =t
17
16
18
32
16
14
19
20
12
10
13
13
20
20
15
15
23
18
12 ■■
15
16
12
16
12
OfTspring.
o-ii 12-35 26-40 ; 41-55 56-78
24
33.5
4
3
4
2
5
3
3
3
4
3
4
8
4
5
2
3
I
2
8
2
4
4
2
5
87
67
23
33-5
O
O
krmarkt.
+ 1 ch.. 3 wk.. N 17.
+ 1 ch., 3 mo.. N 5.
•f I ch., (I mo., N 8.
+ 1 ch., 1 yr.. N i8.
+ 2 ch., d. inf., N Ic»»
than 13 per cent.
+ 1 ch., A mo.. N 7.
o
o
Table 15. — Father with j factor for negro N; mother with 2 factors for negro N.
Offspring.
Reference
No.
B. 17, III.
B. 23, II.,
B. 25. II. ,
B. 29, III.
B. 31. II. ,
B. 38, II. .
Parents.
F.
j: '■ "
9. III.
IS
18
20 ■■
16
IS ^
20 ■■
II
17
Total.. .,
Expectation . ,
M.
o-ii
32
38
28
36
26
26
33^
33
12-25 26-40
3
2
2
I
5
2
I
16
12
8
12
41-55
S6-78
o
o
Remarks.
-r I ch., 1 yr., N 54'
4- I ch., 9 mo., N 10.
-j- 1 ch., 3 mo.. Nil.
+ I ch., l6 mo.. N 6.
+ I ch. I yr.. N ii.
Table i6. — Father with i factor for negro N; mother with 4 factors for negro N.
1 Remarks.
Reference
No.
Parents.
Offspring.
B. 21. III.
B. 7. II. ..
21
10
Total. . .
Expectation .
M.
°53
77
0-1 1
12-25
26-40
41-55
I
S
3
0
0
1
5
8
5
56-78
I
4- I ch., 6 mo., N 35-
+ 2 ch., at 3 mo., N 30.
" From a brown-skinned family, no white blood known of.
Table 17. — Father with 2 factors for negro N; mother with no factors for negro X.
Reference
Parents.
No.
F.
M.
B. 10, II
B. 16, II
B. 27. I
J. 9.111
J. SI. HI
J. 56. II
35
28
27 ±
25 =t
26
25
5
7
8
7
5*
0
Offspring.
Remarks.
0-1 1
Total
Expectation.
4
3
2
2
2
I
14
6.5
12-25
2
2
3
I
8
13
26-40 41-55 I 56-78
T
h., 5 mo., N T.).
4
6.5
18 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Table i8. — Father with 2 factors for negro N; mother with i factor for negro N.
Reference.
No.
Parents.
Offspring.
Remarks.
F.
M.
O-II
12-25
26-40
41-55
56-78
B. 20, II
B. 21. Ill
B. 22, II
J. 4. Ill
J. 7. Ill
J. 20, II
J.32,11
J. 53. II
J. 61. II
Total
Exp. (abt.)
21
30
25=*=
25
25
33 ±
35 ±
30
30
15
22
20
II
10
13
17=*=
14
13
I
I
I
2
3
3
4
2
5
S
I
2
I
2
I
0
0
17
18.S
20
18.5
0
0
0
0
Table 19. — Father with 2 factors for negro N; mother with 2 factors for negro N.
Reference
No.
Parents.
Offspring.
Remarks.
F.
M.
O-II
12-25
26-40
41-55
56-78
B.4. HI
B. 17,111
B. 21, 11'
B. 24. II
B. 35, I
017
30 =t
32
33 ±
30 ±
26
33
40=fc
40 ±
40
28 ±
brown
35=^
30
26
25 ±
27
25 =t
25 ±
25 =t
30
35
31
39
33
36
36
35
30
35
32
28
31
32 =t
37
37
30
35
39
25
25 ±
25
I
....
....
I
I
I
• •
[
2
6
I
I
2
4
2
3
5
2
4
"i'
4
I
I
"6"
2
6
■■r
I
r
+ ich., d. 6 mo., N 20 =fc.
(i- I ch.. d. 14 mo., N 45.
\-|- I ch..d. 9 mo., N 25.
+ I ch., 10 mo., N 33.
+ I ch., 3 mo., N 32.
+ I ch., 17 mo., N 35-
+ I ch., 2 mo., N 19.
J. 2, II
J. 3, II
J. 5. Ill
J. 7. Ill
J. 7. Ill
J. 7. II
J. 13. II
J. 27.11
J. 29, II
j.3i.n
J- 43. II
1-44. n
J. 32, II
J. 53. II
J. 55.1'
L. I. 11'
Total
Expectation ....
2
2
2
I
2
■4'
I
3
I
3
;:::
4
2.8
18
22
SI
38.5
14
22
I
2.8
" Taken in evening; regarded by observer as unreliable; W 40.
' Both parents Fi mulattoes.
Table 20. — Father with 2 factors for negro N; mother with 3 factors for negro N.
Reference.
No.
Parents.
Offspring.
Remarks.
F.
M.
O-II
12-25
26-40
41-SS
56-78
B. II. II
B. 13, III
B. 21, III
B. 21. Ill
J. I, II
34
30
26
38
30
40
45
45
40
41
I
2
3
2
4
I
3
I
I
Total
Exp. (abt.)
.... 1 -
0
0
3 5
2.5 7-5
II
7.5
I
2.5
RESULTS.
19
Table 21. — Father with 3 factors for negro N; mother with i factor for negro N.
Reference
No.
Parents.
Offspring.
Remark*.
F.
M.
o-ii 1 ia-2s
36-40
4I-5S
56-78
J. 46. II
J. S.III
Total
E.xpectation
40 =*=
55*
22
16
:::: i v
s
3
....
....
+ I ch.. r yr., N i8.
0 2
0 j 2.25
7
45
0
3.25
0
0
Table 22. — Father with j factors for negro N; mother with 2 factors for negro N.
Reference
Parents.
Oflspring.
Remarks.
No.
F.
M.
O-II
12-25
26-40
41-SS
56-78
B. 3. Ill
J. 16, I
40=*=
colored
35
30=*=
T
I
3
I
+ I ch., 4 mo., N 35.
Total
Expectation . . .
0 I
0 0.6
3
1.8
I
1.8
0
0.6
Table 23. — Father with j factors for negro N; mother with j factors for negro N.
Reference
No.
Parents.
Offspring. 1
F.
M.
O-II
12-25
26-40
41-SS
Kemarici.
56-78
1
B. 3. Ill
B. 12. II
B. IS, II
B. 18, II
Total
Exp. (abt.)
S0=t
41
46
49
43
46
39
49 ±
—
3*
I
2
5
4
2
1
.... +1 ch.. I yr.. N 46.
+1 ch.. 1 yr.. N 45.
I +1 ch.. I yr.. N 4S-
.... -1- I ch., 6 mo., N 27.
....
0
0
0
0
4
4-5
13
9
I
4.5
^
Table 24. — Father with 4 factors for negro N; mother with 1 factor for negro N.
Reference
No.
Parents.
Oflspring.
Remarks.
F.
M.
O-II
12-25
26-40
41-55
56-78
B. 21, III
Exp. (abt.)
65
22
....
0
0
'4
2
2
0
"Including two with 25 per cent N. but a low proportion of white (25 per cent and 22 per cent W,
respectively).
Tables 8 to 24 give the number of offspring falling into each class
of skin color and also the expected distribution of the same total num-
ber in the respective classes. This expectation is based on hypothesis.
It will be worth while to consider how this "expectation" was reached
in each case.
20 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
From tables 8 and 8a it is clear that, by hypothesis, the germ-cells
of neither parent contain the factors for black; hence none of the off-
spring should exceed grade ii per cent of N, and none do. There is,
however, one case that stands by itself and is placed in table 8a. The
father in this case was dead. His skin is said to have been so fair that
he would have passed anywhere for white. His mother's mother was
a "colored" woman and his mother a very fair colored woman with
blue eyes; his father and mother's father were British. The mother,
who had a skin-color formula 7, 46, 23, 24, was born of a brunet mother
of East Indian and French origin by a very fair colored father. There
are 8 children, of whom 2 have N 19 per cent and i N 15 per cent,
which are typical "light-colored" grades of pigmentation. This case
might be taken as illustrating the view, so widely held in America,
that two w^hites, of whom at least one is of colored origin, may have
a dark-skinned child by reversion. This view has no scientific founda-
tion, and certainly the present case can not be regarded as critical, for
there are too many unknown factors. The case probably belongs to
table 9, the mother carrying one factor for black which has become
faded with age, as she is over 40. The result favors this assumption,
since there is an approximate equality of skin colors of the grades
without any factor and with one factor for black.
Table g. — In the father all gametes are without factor for N; in
the mother half have one such factor; expectation is an equal number
of zygotes with no factor for N and one factor for N ; actually there is
a not highly improbable excess of the darker offspring. Opposed to
expectation is one case of a child of 7 years with skin color N 29 per
cent who appears to be legitimate and whom we must regard as an
extreme fluctuate, having passed the arbitrary boundary of its class
by 4 per cent.
Table 10. — In this case the gametes of the father contain no factor
for black ; of the gametes of the mother, one out of four has 2 factors,
two have i factor, and one has no factor and the children should have
these factors in these proportions. There is another possibility^, but
it will not often be realized, namely, that the medium-colored parent
has one factor {e.g., the A factor) duplex and the other {B) factor
absent. This combination will be found in one-eighth of the offspring
derived from two strict mulattoes and, in larger proportions, from other
matings. The actual results favor the conclusion that in this case the
gametes of the "mulatto" parent were of the above-mentioned three
kinds in respect to the number of factors for N. The actual distribu-
tion agrees fairly well with expectation based on this assumption, except
that there is one child with skin color N 50, who doubtless has 3
factors for black. This girl is probably illegitimate, although both
parents assert that she is not. She is the only one of her fraternity who
has kinky hair. The mother's hair is curl}' and the father's is straight.
RESULTS. 21
Curly X straight will give wav}^ or straight, never kinky. It is impos-
sible to admit the legitimacy of this child.
Table ii. — The mother produces two kinds of gametes: gametes
with I factor for black and those with 2 factors; consequently an equal
number of light and of medium-colored progeny is to be expected;
and this expectation is nearly realized. In one of the oflfspring the
skin color is given as N 7; in another it is N 45. In both cases the
resemblance in other respects is rather close to the mulatto mother.
Such a range from such a pair of parents is unique, and there is
internal evidence that justifies doubt as to the paternity of these two
children.
Table 12. — This mating gives the strict mulatto, the generation
in which great uniformity of offspring is expected on any hypothesis
of inheritance of sldn color. All offspring should be medium-colored.
Of seventeen, fourteen fall in the expected grade (including two with
N 25 per cent, which is the limiting grade between this and the next
lower class). The three others fall in the next higher class. Of the
two exceptional individuals that are found in the same fraternity the
darker (N 53) has "typical negro hair," which is hardly to be expected
in a mulatto and justifies a doubt as to the paternity. The other,
with N 45 per cent, has mulatto (wavy) hair. This may be an extreme
case, possibly associated with the dark skin (N 70) of the mother. The
case in pedigree B. 3 lies at N 43, just above the limits of the mulatto
class, and her m.other is also very dark, N 71 ; so this child, too, may be
regarded as a fluctuating extreme. Except for the probable "mistake,"
i.e., illegitimacy, the expected uniformity is practically realized.
Table ij. — Expectation is the same as in table 9, namely, an
equal number of the first and second classes. This expectation is
approximately realized.
Table 14. — By hypothesis both parents should produce germ-cells
of two kinds: with one factor, and with no factor for black. In fer-
tilization the unions giving o factor, i factor, and 2 factors in the
zygote should occur respectively 1,2, and i times. The expected three
classes, and they only, are actually realized ; but for some reason there
is a larger proportion in the middle class than theory calls for and a
corresponding deficiency in the extreme classes; but the arbitrary
limits of our classes and developmental changes have constantly to
be kept in mind, so that lack of close accord is not surprising.
Table ij. — There are here two possibilities. If the darker parent
is a strict mulatto she will form germ-cells of three sorts (i.e., 25 per
cent with o factor for N; 50 per cent with i factor for N; 25 per cent
with 2 factors for N), in which case the four classes of zygotes, o, i. 2,
and 3 factors for N, will have a relative frequency indicated by the
numbers 1:3:3:1. But if the darker parent be not a mulatto but the
daughter, or more remote descent, of a mulatto then both factors for
22 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
black may be of the same type (i.e., either A or B), and then 50 per
cent of the offspring will have i factor for black and 50 per cent will
have 2 factors. In table 15 none of the 2 -factor parents are mulattoes,
and the offspring fall into only two categories; and they approach the
expectation on the second hypothesis, viz., an equal proportion of
individuals with i factor and 2 factors for N.
Table 16. — Since the i -factor parent carries germ-cells with no
factor or with i factor, offspring are of two sorts, in equal proportions,
with 2 factors or 3 factors for black. This expectation is, it must be
confessed, not satisfactorily met; but not much weight can be given
to this result, as only two fraternities are involved. If we unite this
table with the reciprocal of table 24 we get a distribution 0:0:5:8:1,
which is close to the expected 0:0:7:7:0. The one individual that
falls in the 4-f actor class (with N 57) is close to the lower limit of that
class (N 55), and may be considered an extreme variant of the 3 -factor
class.
Table 17. — ^Expectation here is the same as in the case of table 10.
The three expected classes, and only they, appear. There is, however,
an excess of the lightest grade among the offspring that inevitably
leads one to suspect that the actual father was in some cases lighter
than the putative father, a result rendered the more probable from the
desire of light mothers to have white children.
Table 18. — This is the reciprocal of table 15. Of the 2 -factor
fathers only one is a strict mulatto (B. 20). By such a father four
possible classes of children might arise, but this possibility is not realized
in these six children. For the rest, expectation is that the two classes
of I factor and 2 factors for N shall appear in equal frequency, although
the possibility of unions giving offspring with o factor and 3 factors
is not excluded. Actually here, as in table 15, the two classes (i factor,
2 factors) are realized and they only, and the frequency is approxi-
mately equal.
Table ig. — This is the most complex of all the matings and yields
the greatest variety of offspring. In three cases, at least (marked b),
both parents are known to be strict (Fi) mulattoes, and they are prob-
ably so in others. Two mulatto parents should yield offspring belong-
ing to all five classes and in the proportion of i : 4 : 6 : 4 : i. Two-
factor parents who are not Fi mulattoes may be expected to give i-,
2-, and 3 -factor offspring only, so in this case the proportions of the
five classes will be o : i : 2 : i : o. It is impossible to say, in all cases, from
which of the given parents the one formula is to be expected and from
which the other. If we assume that half of the matings are of each
kind expectation will be 2.8: 22: 38.5: 22: 2.8. This is fairly close to
the proportions actually obtained.
Table 20. — Expectation is here either that the offspring shall fall
into two classes (if the father is a strict mulatto) or into four classes.
RESULTS.
23
No parent is a strict mulatto, hence the proportions of o : i : 3 : 3 : i
may be expected, approximately. The formula 0:2.5:7.5:7.5:2.5
does, indeed, approximate to the result obtained.
Table 21. — Expectation is that the darker parent forms germ-cells
with I factor and with 2 factors for black, while the lighter parent
forms germ-cells with i factor and o factor. Hence the classes i, 2,
or 3 factors should appear among the children in the proportions
I, 2, I, or expectation for the nine progeny is o: 2.25 : 4.5 : 2.25 : o, not
very far from realization.
Table 22. — This is the reciprocal of table 20. Expectation, cal-
culated in the same way as for table 20, is 0:0.6: 1.8: 1.8:0.6. The
result contains too few individuals to warrant speaking of an agree-
ment.
Table 2j. — Both parents form gametes with either i or 2 factors;
consequently the zygotes will have 2, 3, or 4 factors in the proportions
of 1:2:1 or expectation is 0:0:4. 5:9:4. 5, fairly close to realization;
the shortage of the deeper-colored grades is probably due to the fact
that all fraternities include young children whose pigmentation is not
fully developed.
Table 24. — The father's gametes all have 2 factors; the mother's
either i or none ; consequently there may be expected an equal number
of children with 3 and 2 factors, but the number of children is too
small to test the hypothesis.
We may now set side by side expectation and realization in all
the foregoing tables and compare the sums, so as to get larger numbers
with which to test the hypothesis (table 25).
Table 25. — Comparisons of realization and expectation in 631 offspring.
Classes
Realization.
Expectation.
0
I
2
3
4
0
I
a
3
4
Table 8 . . . .
9
10
II
12
13
14
IS
16
17
18
19
20
21. . . .
22. . . .
23
24
Sum ....
9
42
II
I
14
24
14
4
S6' ■
32
14
24
87
16
"&"
17
18
3
2
I
I
21
13
14
23'
8
I
4
20
SI
S
7
3
4
4
179
I
3
"8"
14
II
" I
13
•
• •
I
I
I
I
9
49-3
16
19
33.S
■ d.'s
' "2.8
• • • •
• • • •
49-5
32
14-5
19
67
12
13
I8.S
22
2.S
a.3
0.6
• • • •
16 ■
I4S
X7
33-5
12
S
6.S
18. 5
38.S
T.S
45
1.8
4-5
a
5
22
-..
2..
I.l
9
a
I
J
J
V.8
2.S
0.6
45 1
.... i
119
278
51
4
136.3
as3.9
181.8 49.6
1
10.4 1
In comparing realization with expectation, we see that there is an
actual deficiency in the o-factor class and a corresponding excess in
the i-factor class, which leads us to conclude that it would have been
24 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
well to have made the limits of the first class 0-12 and of the second
13-25, thus equalizing them and making fuller allowance for the greater
range of o-pigmentation in transparent-skinned children than in their
thick-skinned adults. Otherwise agreement is fair, save for a deficiency
of children in the 4-factor group, which is probably due to the fact
that some of the yoimg children had not yet fully formed the dark
grades of pigment. On the whole, a comparison of the realized and
expected series gives conclusive testimon}^ to the validity of the
hypothesis with which we started. There are two gametic (Jour somatic)
factors for black in negro skin pigmentation.
VII. Is There a Sex-linkage or Sex-dimorphism in Skin Color?
It is well known that in the Silkie fowl abundant black pigment
is formed in the skin, so that these birds, though albinic in plumage,
are melanic sports in the formation of pigment in skin and connective
tissues. In such Silkie fowl, as Bateson and Punnett have shown, the
inhibition of pigment is sex-linked, appearing in the daughters of
hybrids between Silkies and clear-skinned fowl only when carried by
their fathers. That is, if the father is non-Silkie [i.e., non-pigmented)
while the mother is pigmented, the daughters (like the sons) are non-
pigmented; but if the father is Silkie {i.e., lacks the inhibitor for pig-
mentation) the daughters alone will lack it, and so the daughters will
have black skins. It is known that conditions are reversed in mam-
mals— that sons take after their mothers. Is there any evidence of a
preponderance of light sons from matings of light mothers or of dark
sons from matings of dark mothers?
I have tabulated the sexes of dark children of fathers with no
factor by mothers with 2 factors (table 10) and find 9 sons and 12
daughters ; also the sexes of the light children of a father with 2 factors
and mother with no factor (table 17) and find 7 sons and 7 daughters.
Indeed, the sons of light mothers are relatively as apt to be dark as
light ; and the sons of dark mothers are relatively as apt to be light as
dark. There is no sex-linkage in the inheritance of human skin color.
Similarly, there is no evidence of sex-dimorphism in skin color.
Schiller-Tietz (1902) states that J. Al. Hildenbrand finds the negro
women on the average somewhat lighter than the men and ascribes
this difference to the greater tanning of the skin of the males. Our
determinations were made on the untanned skin. I have separated
the sexes and calculated the average per cent of N in each. The adult
males of our data average N 23 per cent; the adult females N 24 per
cent. There is here no evidence of any difference of pigmentation in
the untanned skin of the two sexes.
Though there is no evidence of a sex-dimorphism in adult skin
color there is a sex-difTerence in the rate of developm.ent of pigmenta-
tion. Thus, in children under one year the males have an average of
RESULTS.
25
N 8.1 per cent and the females of 13.3 per cent. Of children of one
year old and under two, the males average N 19.5 per cent and the
females N 24.8 per cent. In the following years the male pigmentation
catches up with that of the female.
VIII. Do THE Children "Take After" the Mother and F.\ther
Equally?
To answer this question table 26 was drawn up. In this table is
given the distribution into classes of the offspring of reciprocal crosses.
Table 26. — Frequency of each class of the offspring of
reciprocal crossei
. ' e
c When mother is darker.
When father is darker.
.5 5
«
0
1
*^ *^
*^
0
a
0
0
:z:
B
(0
-si
V
0
OS
o|
O-II
12-35 26-40
41-55 56-77 o-ii
I2-2S 26-40
41-5556-77
J3
-,•*'
«• 0
c«
0
0 nt
° s
1
H
■z
2:-
!
(
1
9
24
0
I
42
56
I
.. 1
13
8
I
0
'
14
24
, ,
'
10
13 1 0
2
II
32
21
. .
, ,
17
6 ! 2
0
, .
. .
14
8 ' 4
16
3
I
4
I
8 I
24
I
4
I
. ,
, ,
. .
, ,
4
IS
8
I
2
16
8
, ,
, ,
18
9
3
I
. .
. .
, .
17 20
, ,
30
S
2
3
3 5
ir I
. ,
. .
, ,
33
Sum . .
2
3
3
•■
1
•■
I
3
I
1
••
S3 107 35
19
2
28
SO
31
I
■•
Avge. I
lumbe
r of fa
ctors.
1. 124
I.04S !
The excess in the average number of factors in the children when
the mother is the darker is probably without biological significance
and is due largely to the circumstance that there are more children
(because more matings) from mothers that are much darker than
fathers than the reverse; and this tends to overweight the darkness
of the progeny from matings in which the mother is the darker. If
the reciprocal matings of tables 16 and 24 be omitted altogether the
average number of factors in the children of darker mothers falls to
1.03, while that of children of darker fathers is i.oi. The determiners
of skin color carried in the egg and those carried in the sporm nrc alike.
IX. Selection of Mates. — "Grading Up" to White.
Our studies throw Hght on the question of selection of mates by
persons of "colored" blood, for we have in our studies 93 matings of
persons whose skin color has been quantitatively determined. It
appears that of these 93, in 65 the mother is the darker and in 28 the
father is the darker. That is, light men mate with and are accepted
by darker-skinned women; but more rarely does a dark-skinned man
select (or become accepted by) a lighter-skinned woman It will he
26 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
instructive to consider the various matings arranged in order of fre-
quency (table 27).
Table 27. — Relative frequency of matings of persons with various numbers of factors
in skin color.
Factors in skin color
of—
Frequency
of this
mating.
Factors in skin color
of—
Frequency
of this
mating.
Father
Mother
Father
Mother
I
0
2
0
0
2
I
I
2
2
I
2
2
3
I
0
2
0
3
26
24
22
12
10
9
8
8
6
5
0
3
0
I
3
3
4
I
2
3
4
4
3
0
4
I
2
I
3
4
0
0
4
4
3
2
2
2
I
0
0
0
0
As will be seen by an inspection of table 27, the commonest
matings are between persons of the same shade of light to medium
color and then between a white man and a light-, medium-, or dark-
colored woman. Matings that involve dark-colored males come at the
end of the list, partly because only a relatively small part of the whole
population is black. However, only one father in table 27 is a full-
blooded negro, but 6 mothers are. Only 8 fathers are dark-colored as
opposed to 19 dark mothers. It would seem, then, that in Bermuda and
Jamaica dark males have a smaller chance, in proportion to their
numbers, of becoming husbands of light-colored women than light
males have, and probably a smaller chance of becoming fathers, and
this selection against dark males must have a real effect in causing the
hybrids to become, in successive generations, lighter. The black males
marry dark females, but our table does not show this fact, because we
studied only the hybrid portion of the population. At the State Hos-
pital at Columbia, South Carolina, Dr. Babcock and I questioned a
particularly black negro: "Do you like better dark or Hght-colored
girls?" He repHed: "About my own complexion, sah."
The greater discrimination exercised by the woman makes it inter-
esting to tabulate relative frequency of their choices, and this is shown
in table 28.
Table 28. — Different kinds of matings made by females in order of frequency.
No. of skin-color factors in female o o o o o
No. of skin-color factors in male i 2 o 3 4
Frequency of combination 8 6 3 o 0
No. of skin-color factors in female i i i i i
No. of skin-color factors in male I 0 2 3 4
Frequency of combination 26 24 9 2 i
No. of skin-color factors in female 2 2 2 2 2
No. of skin-color factors in male 2 0 i 3 4
Frequency of combination 22 12 8 2 0
No. of skin-color factors in female 3 3 3 3 3
No. of skin-color factors in male o 2 3 i 4
Frequency of combination 10 s 4 o o
No. of skin-color factors in female 4 4 4 4 4
No. of skin-color factors in male o i 2 3 4
Frequency of combination 4 2 o o o
RESULTS. 27
One sees that, in general, and excepting the tendency of a light
or medium-colored woman to mate with a man of the same grade,
the matings are the less frequent the darker the grade of color of the
selected male. All of this selection tends toward an increase in the
proportion of white and Hght-colored offspring in successive generations
of the offspring of mulattoes.
X. The Agreement of the Hypothesis with Popular Observation and
Nomenclature.
In all countries where extensive hybridization has taken place
between black and white a nomenclature has grown up which it is
interesting to consider. This nomenclature indicates a rough attempt
to express the proportion of Caucasian (or negro) blood as measured
by skin color. We may examine this nomenclature to see to what
extent it accords with our fundamental hypothesis.
The word mulatto is widely used to indicate the first generation
of hybridization between black and white. It is used loosely to indi-
cate any person with a grade of skin like that of a mulatto — a grade
which, as we have seen, is expressed quantitatively by 26 to 40 per
cent of black. The children of two mulatto parents (according to
Johnston, 1910, p. 55) are styled cascos in Spanish America, but in
the countries where we have studied we have not found a specific
term for the produce of this mating. This is the more significant as
the mating is fairly common. Failure to apply a term here may well
be a consequence of the great variability in this generation.
To the produce of a mulatto and a pure white is given the term
quadroon. This corresponds, on the average, to our one-factor or
light-colored, but, as we have seen (table 10), strict quadroons vary
from white to medium-colored. This term is also used practically as
synonymous with light-colored and does not always imply precise
knowledge of ancestry.
To the produce of a mulatto and a full-blooded negro is applied
(in Jamaica and the United States) the term "sambo;" also in Ja-
maica, "mangro " is appHed to the progeny of a "sambo" and a
full-blooded negro. This mating really gives, by hypothesis, a variable
progeny, and the term is practically applied to the 3 -factor or dark-
colored condition, without regard to ancestry. Thus for two mulatto
parents one-fourth of their children are sambos.
For social reasons the classification of the matings of quadroons
with whites has been carried still further. But here the basis of
classification is generally the pedigree rather than the skin color. The
social significance of this will be discussed later. Here attention may
be called to the nomenclature used in Jamaica, according to which the
child of a quadroon and a pure-bred white is an octoroon; the child
of an octoroon and a pure Caucasian is a mustifee; the child of a musti-
28 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
fee and a pure white is a mustifino. With such extreme "dilution"
with white the progeny "pass for white" optically, socially, and politi-
cally. It is supposed that, in these successive matings with white,
not only skin color but also the form of the hair and the mental traits
approach those of the white.
XL The Yellow Element in the Skin Color.
-' The xanthic element in many of the determinations of skin color
is extraordinarily high. Where the per cent of N is high that of white
and yellow are both low, for example (in Pedigree 6, III, 2), N 54,
R 35, Y 6, W 5 ; or, the lo-year-old son of a negro woman (N 60, R 15,
Y 9, W 16) and an unknown man has a skin color of 55, 28, 7, 10. A
full-blooded black (Pedigree 7, I) gives 77, 15, 3, 5. The reason for
this is simply that the yellow pigment is largely hidden by the black.
On the other hand, in the light-skinned offspring of black and white
the proportion of yellow is frequently high. A few examples are cited
in table 29.
Table 29. — Examples of high proportion of the yellow element in the skin color of hybrids.
Subject.
N.
25, I, I (Indian blood) . . . . ' 7 29
8, II, 2 S 29
9, III, 20 II I 39
R.
10, II, I (Fi X white) 15
10 11,2 7
10, 11,3 6
13. 11. 7 (Chinese ancestry) 8
IS. II, 3 ' 5
36
32
29
38
34
30
26
25
24
25
28
W,
34
40
25
25
36
37
25 29
25 36
Subject.
N.
J. 17, I, I (quadroon X white): 10
J. 19, II, II (mixed origin) . . .' 5
J. 19, II, IS (mixed origin) . . J 9
J. 19, II, 16 (mixed origin) ... 9
J. 33. 11. 2 (K Chinese) i 8
J. 33. II. 5 (% Chinese) ! 8
J. 33. II, 6 (K Chinese) 1 10
R. Y.
43
38
38
38
38
4<J
40
24
25
23
25
25
23
23
w.
23
32
30
28
29
29
28
Several conclusions can be drawn from table 29: (i) the "olive"
complexion of many mulattoes is due to the uncovering, by dilution of
the black pigment, of the yellow pigment that is present in the negro
as well as Indian and Chinese races to a greater extent than the whites ;
(2) there is a high xanthic tendency in particular families, e.g., J. 10,
J- 19» J- 33>(5) families with Chinese and Indian blood have descendants
with a high proportion of yellow.
XII. The "Fixed White," the "Pass for White,'
BY Law."
AND the "White
Every student of the negro X white crosses at Bermuda and
Jamaica soon hears of the "fixed white." One of the most prominent
Jam.aicans thus defined the term: Fixed whites are those who not
only "pass for white" but also breed all pure whites; and he estimates
that five or six generations at least are necessary for this. "Pass for
white" is used to indicate those who appear white, but some of these
may have had darker children. In Jamaica, as indeed in some of
RESULTS. 29
our Southern States, after a certain dilution with white blood the
descendant of an African becomes white by law. Thus in Florida a
white man may not legally marry a mulatto, a quadroon, or an octo-
roon, but may marry the daughter of a white man and an octoroon.
Now, what biological basis have the.se social distinctions? It fol-
lows from our studies that persons of African descent whose skin
color contains lo per cent or less of black pigment will, if mated uith
a like person, produce only white-skinned children — i.e., \\'ith less than
12 per cent of black in the skin. Such persons constitute "fi.xed white."
Many persons of African descent who have between lo and 15 j)er
cent black in skin color are really hardly darker than dark brunets or
Spaniards; they ma}^ "pass for white," but two such may have a
medium-colored child. The outcome of such a marriage would, then,
satisfy the definition of "pass for white" and justify the appellation
of the term in this case. As for the "less than one-eighth blood," it
appears from our study that a mulatto has two units of black, a quad-
roon one unit, and an octoroon no unit for negro black i)igmentation.
Certainly the offspring of such an octoroon and a white person will,
so far as skin color goes, be a "white person." Our studies, then,
justify the legal limitation, so far as skin color goes. Indeed, a person
of one-eighth blood is, so far as skin color goes, completely "across
the line;" married to white there is no expectation of dark->kinnod
offspring, though the hair may be curly and the lips thick.
XIII. Reversiox to Bl.\ck Skin Color.
This brings us to a matter of great social moment to hundreds of
our citizens, namely, the possibility of a rev^ersion in the offspring of a
white-skinned descendant of a negro to the brown skin color. There
is even a current opinion that such an extracted white, married to a
pure-bred white, may have a "black" child. This tradition has been
used to create dramatic situations in novels and in newspaper "stories; "
and the dread of this tradition hangs over many a marriage that might
otherwise be quite happ}'. In our studies no clear case of this sort has
been found, and our fundamental hypothesis leads us not to expect it.
Nevertheless, it seemed desirable to collect any folk-lore on the sub-
ject, and an attempt was made to do this in Bermuda and Jamaica.
At Bermuda the following cases were cited of "reversion," but
there was no means of checking them. They are given as "stories."
An Englishman married a girl of a very good and, sui>posedly, pure
white family. They moved to Nova Scotia and had a colored child. It is
not known where the colored blood came in. This story was told by an uncle
of the husband aforesaid.
An English soldier married a supposedly white woman in Bemiuda.
She had twins, one of whom was white and one colored. The mother left
both babies in Bermuda and went to England.
30 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
At Jamaica I asked several highly intelligent colored and white
natives if they knew of cases of "reversion" to black skin color. All
replies agreed in holding the idea mythical. It was thought to have
arisen from the fact that two very light-colored persons might be the
parents of a medium-colored child. The following story, cited to
Miss Danielson, can be explained on this ground. Mr. C, of remote
negro origin, shows colored blood a little, and more so as he grows
older; his brother shows even more color in the skin. The former
married a "white" woman and there are five children, of whom three
show colored blood in skin and hair, one being known as "Kinky"
from the form of her hair, while the other two are "dark" (not seen).
The brother married a white person and his children show less of the
colored characteristics than he himself does. This first mating looks
like the union of two i -factor individuals. The Bermuda cases are so
exceptional that I think one is justified in doubting if the putative
fathers are the actual ones.
A few actual pedigrees from Jamaica showing the results of re-
peated back-crossing of negro progeny upon white may be of interest
and are reproduced here.
Case i.
Gen. I. White father, black mother.
Gen. II. Mulatto daughter ; by white man had
Gen. III. Quadroon daughter; by white man had
Gen. IV. Octoroon daughter, has curly, but not at all kinky, hair ; by a white
man had
Gen. V. (a) Son, with olive skin and straight hair; (6) daughter, like
brother; (c) daughter, fair.
Case 2 (a High-class Jamaican Family).
Gen. I. White father and negro mother ; had
Gen. II. Mulatto son; by white woman had
Gen. III. Quadroon daughter; by a Frenchman had
Gen. IV. Octoroon daughter. She married a "pass for white" man derived
from two approximately mulatto parents and had
Gen. V. A white-skinned son. He married a "pass for white" woman
whose parents ' ' passed for white. ' ' There were three children :
Gen. VI. (a) A son with fair skin, black wavy hair; (6) a daughter with
dark "olive" skin and straight black hair; (c) a son with
swarthy complexion, a deeply tanned skin with much yellow,
dark brown eyes and black hair which shows a trace of a
tendency to curl.
Case 3.
Gen. I. White father, black mother; they had
Gen. II. A mulatto daughter; she married a white man and had
Gen. III. A quadroon son; by a quadroon he had
Gen. IV. A white-skinned son; he married a medium woman; there were in
Gen. V. two sons who passed for white; one of these by a Jewish woman
with a little colored blood had
Gen. VI. Four sons, all fair and uniform in type.
RESULTS. 31
Case 4.
Gen. I. White father, a black mother;
Gen. II. Their mulatto daughter had by a white man
Gen. III. a "pass for white" who married a white woman and had
Gen. IV. Three sons and a daughter; (a and b) daughters, "olive" .skin,
European ("good") hair; (c) fair skin and good hair (of a
"European type"); (d) fair skin, but with "suspicious" hair.
Compare also the Jamaican pedigrees 34, 40.
Cases 5 to 7 were given by an intelligent colored physician ; the first one
is of his owTi family.
Case 5.
Gen. I. Father, a colored man, about 15 per cent N, features Eur --. ;
mother English, with light brown hair and eyes; nine *. ; -a.
Gen. II. (a) Son, as dark as father; (6) son, fair, straight brown hair, green
eyes; (c) son, olive skin, black wavy hair, other negro features;
(d) daughter, hke (c) with black, slightly wavy hair; (e)
daughter, skin a light brunet, hair medium brown, eyes light
brown; married an Enghshman and has two sons and one
daughter who are "absolutely white," (/) daughter, olive skin,
dark eyes and straight dark brown hair, married a white
planter and their children show no color, and some have
flaxen hair; (g) daughter, European features, straight nose,
gray eyes, light brown wavy hair, fair skin; (It) son, light
brown eyes, perfectly straight black hair, white skin; married
a distinctly colored girl, with olive skin and gray eyes; they
have a son with milk-white skin and reddish, slightly curly
hair; (i) son, European features, hght brown eyes and hair,
and white skin.
Case 6 (A Promine.nt Jamaican Family).
Gen. I. Father has a little colored blood but barely shows it; mother has
straight black hair, shows colored blood in the sldn, would
pass for a dark Spaniard. They have six children.
Gen. II. (a) Son, looks like a tanned European, features good, eyes gray,
hair light brown cropped close (curly?); (b) son, has very
fair hair, slightly inclined to curl, skin pink and white, face
florid; passes in "the States" for white, as does also his wife,
who has a little colored blood ; their child has blue eyes and
shows no trace of "color;" (c) son, good features, blue eyes.
fresh complexion; married an English girl and their child
appears pure white; (d and e) two sons whose skin is darker
than their parents and hair distinctly negroid; (/) daughter,
shows no traits of "color," married a European, and has white
children.
Case 7.
Gen. I. A man of wealth with blue eyes and wliite skin had by a colored
woman with blue eyes and "walnut" skin (say 15 to 20 per
cent N) two daughters.
Gen. II. They will pass for white in any country, (a) married an English-
man and has white children ; (6) married a blue-eyed man with
a little colored blood which does not show; there are two
blue-eyed, light-haired children.
32
HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
F. DISCUSSION OF INHERITANCE OF TRAITS ASSOCIATED
WITH SKIN COLOR.
I. Eye Color.
As a by-product, our data afford an answer to the question : Does
the inheritance of eye color in black X white crosses follow the same
rule as that already established for eye color among whites ? The data
collected on eye color have been analyzed. From, the fact that the
fraternities studied were a highly selected lot (viz., chiefly offspring of
hybrids), certain matings, e.g., blue X blue, are absent or rare. In
table 30 "hazel" means an eye that has brown pigment only in a nar-
row band around the pupil, the rest of the iris being blue; "green" is
blue with yellow pigment, but with brown pigment practically or
absolutely lacking; "yellow hazel" or "yellow brown" implies the
presence of 3'ellow added to the other type of pigmentation; "light
brown," "dark brown," and "black" are applied to various degrees of
development of the melanic pigment over the whole area of the iris.
Table 30 is arranged in increasing order of pigmentation of the parents.
Table 30. — Distribution of eye color in offspring of parents zvith given amount of iris
pigmentation.
(A) PARENTS HAZEL X HAZEL.
Reference
OfEspring.
Ancestry.
No.
Bl«. Gr.
Hazel
Lt.br.
I
I
M.br.
D.br.
I
I
Y.h.
F.
i
FF. j FM.
M.
MF. ' MM.
B. 29 ..
B. 29 i ..
B.49 1 ..
...
3
I
I
S
2
hazel
hazel
hazel
blue : d. br.
blue 1 d. br.
hazel
y. haz.
haz (?)'
1
Total ...
2
(B) PARENTS LIGHT BROWN X BLUE.
B. 27
3 1 ...
. . .
...
...
. . 1 blue
It. br.
(C) PARENTS LIGHT BROWN X HAZEL.
B. 33
Total. . .
..
2
I
2
2
2
I
2
5
I
hazel
It. br.
It. br.
....
It. br.
hazel
hazel
....
5
4
I
7
I
(D) PARENTS BROWN X BLUE.
B. 33 ....
J;:;:;:;
Total . . .
I
I
2
I
I
r
I
3
br.
br.
br.
....
....
bl.
br.
br.
I
... 1 ...
«Bl.,blue; Gr., green; Lt. br., light brown; M.br., medium brown; D.br., dark brown; Y. h., yellow-hazel
INHERITANCE OF TRAITS ASSOCIATED WITH SKIN COLOR. 33
Table 30. — Distribution of eye color in offspring of parents with given amount of ins
pigmentation. — Continued.
(E) PARENTS BROWN X HAZEL
•slry.
Reference
No.
Offspring. Ancc
Bl.
0,.
Hazel' Lt.br.
M.br.
D.br. Y.h. F.
FF.
PM.
M.
MP. i MM.
B. 24
... 1 ... '.
haz.(?)
br.
bl. br
B. 26.
I
1
br. (?)
hazel
J. 4.
2 3
hr.
hazel
J. 4.
• ■ ■
I 1
.
. .
br.
hazel
J. 8.
I I
o
hazel ....
br. (?)
J- 9.
.. ' 9
.. \ 2 .
hazel , blue
br.
J. 16.
II
hazel
m. hr
J. 17.
. . . ...
3 1
. br.
hazel
J. 49.
■; ' . ..
I
...
. br.
hazel
J. 54.
I
3
...
haze";
m. br.
Total...
3
...
9 JX6
6
8
(F) PARENTS BROWN X LIGHT BROWN.
J. 7
3
2
. br. ?)
It. br.
J.13
. . .
2
3
. br.
....
....
It. br.
....
J. 33
Total . .
••
I
S
It. br.
m. br.
..
3 2
10
(G) PARENTS BROWN X BROWN.
B..7
I
4
. br. (?)
br.
br.
B. 27
2 2
I br.
br.
.... .
B. 30
I
br.
br.
hasel br
J. 7
2
I
. br.
m. br.
.... •
J. 9
I
...
br.
br. (?)
J. 9
3
3
. br. (?)
br.
blue br
J. 9
2
br.
br.
br
. (?)
br.
J. 41
2
3
I
m. br.
br. (?)
....
J. S6
Total . . .
3
2
9
m. br.
I
hazel
m. br.
1
2 11
5
(H) DARK BROWN X BLUE.
B. 10 I . .
3 I
3
2 d.br.(?)
d. br.
d.br.
blue
br. b
ue
B. 14
I
. bl.
• • . •
dk. br. .
, ,
B. 23
2
...
. d.br.(?)
....
dk. bl. .
B. 29
4 I
3
. bl.
dk. br. .
J. 48
I
I bl.
dk. br. .
L.S
2
...
. bl.
3
dk. br. bl
ue
Total ... s
...
7 3
...
7
(I) DARK BROWN X HAZEL.
B. 19
I r
I d.br.(?)
hazel
B.2S
I
I I
...
hazel
...
dk. br.
B. 28
1
I
. dk. br.
dk.
br.
die
.br.
hazel
hazel
B. 29 i
I
5
hazel
bl.
dk
.br.
dk. br.
B. 29
3
. dk. br.
bl.
dk
.br.
d.haze!
J. 14
hazel
dk. br.
. ;
J. A
. dk. br.
hazel
T. 34
2
8
hazel
dk. br.
J. 52
I
I
. dk. br.
hazel
J. 59
I
3
. dk. br.
I
hazel
Total ... 3
I
8 II
3
19
(K) DARK BROWN X LIGHT BROWN.
B. 16
4
I
. d.br.(?)
It. br.
J. 19
I
3
3
. dk. br.
....
....
It. br.
, ,
i:t::::.
I
I
I
. dk. br.
.
. • . >
It. br.
hasel
4
3
I
I
. dk. br.
dark ' ....
I
It. br.
Total
...
I
I 3
5
5
34 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Table 30. — Distribution of eye color in offspring of parents with given amount of iris
pigmentation. — Continued.
(L) DARK BROWN X BROWN.
Reference
No.
I
Offspring.
Ancestry.
}1. Gr.
Hazel
Lt.br.
M.br.
D.br.
Y.h.
F.
FF.
FM.
M.
MF.
MM.
J. 31.
it..
J. 53-
J. 55.
I
I
2
I
2
.
I
2
I
I
I
4
6
2
5
I
dk. br.
br. (?)
br. (?)
br.
m. br.
br. (?)
dk. br.
br.
m. br.
br
b'r
br!
br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk.br.
J dk. br.
m. br.
dk. br.
dk.br.
dk'. br.
br
Total . . .
• ■••
I
4
6
19
I
(M) DARK BROWN X DARK BROWN.
B. 25
J- 19
J- 20
J- 2J
J-27
J- 29
J- 30
J. 38
J- 38
J- 38
]::!:::: :
J-62 _.
Total ... .
[
[
4
2
3
5
3
6
5
4
6
3
3
2
5
2
2
3
4
I
I
I
dk. br.
dk. br.
d.br.(?)
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
d.br.(?)
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
. ...
...
2
6
S6
3
(N) BLACK X DARK BROWN.
J. 18.
J. 38.
■ ■■•
2
I
3
4
n.
n.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
Total
...
. ...
...
...
3
7
Since our matings did not include two pure blue-eyed parents,
the simplest case of heredity (the mating of two negatives) can not
be tested here. Hazel we have regarded as usually a simplex (hetero-
zygous) condition, and on this hypothesis two hazel parents should
produce blue-eyed, brown-eyed, and hazel-eyed offspring again; but
until we know how many factors are involved in brown iris color we can
not say in what percentage of cases blue should reappear. Actually, in
section (A), in 9 offspring there is i case of dark brown iris; none of
blue, and 5 of hazel again. But in sections (E) and (7), when hazel
is used as one parent, a few blues appear in the offspring; actually
6 in 87. On the hypothesis of two factors for black in eye color we
might expect i child in 4, in these two matings, to be blue-eyed. On
the hypothesis of four factors for black in eye color we should look for
I blue-eyed child in 16. The actual result favors the hypothesis of four
factors for black in iris pigmentation of negroes. Brown X brown gives
INHERITANCE OF TRAITS ASSOCIATED WITH SKIN COLOR. 35
occasionally blue, which indicates that persons with brown eye color
may carry germ-cells without the factor for iris pigment ; but from two
dark brown parents, or even a dark brown X brown union no blue-
eyed offspring are recorded. This result supports the hypothesis that
dark eye color rarely forms "blue-eyed" germ-cells; that light brown
and hazel represent the heterozygous forms of eye color.
II. Hair Color.
In studying the heredity of hair color we have first to recognize
that hair pigment has a development and, consequently, the reported
condition of a young child can not be compared with that of its parents.
Thus, as Holmes and Loomis (1909, p. 55) point out, there are twice
as many light brown children under 16 as over, but only half to one-
third as many blacks under as over 16 years. The typical hair color
of white infants is flaxen; only slowly, if at all, is the mature dark
brown acquired. In the case of the Bermudian and Jamaican hybrids
much testimony was gathered as to the development of the pigmenta-
tion of the hair of the head. Thus it was repeatedly stated that a
black-haired person was tow-headed as a child, or a two-year-old boy
who has now dark brown hair formerly had it golden; not infrequently
the hair of a one- or two-year-old child was much darker at the base,
indicating an increasing activity in the production of hair pigment.
On the other hand, there is some testimony to show that the hair at
birth is often black; that the permanent hair, which soon appears, is
flaxen, to become darker as the child develops. For example, in pedi-
gree B 8, Mrs. J. has dark brown hair and IMr. J. has black hair; both
are colored. All of their children were bom with black hair, which
began to lighten in a few weeks, except the youngest child's. The
hair color of the children is now as follows: (i) 11 years old, medium
brown; (2) 8 years, light brown, golden about her face; (3) 7 years,
light brown, golden about her face; (4) 2 years, dark brown.
Pedigree B 25, d^, 3 years old. Hair was dark brown when born; became
lighter, is now light brown with golden curled ends. A cousin of the fore-
going, 9 months old, had black hair when bom, but it was replaced by bright
red hair.
Pedigree B 27, 9,4 years old. Her hair was nearly black when she was
bom ; it came in lighter and is now gro\\'ing dark again (medium brown) .
Pedigree J 10. All 3 children were bom NN-ith black hair, (i) 9,4 years,
light brown hair; (2) 9 , 2J2 years, flaxen; (3) cT, i year, reddish-golden hair.
Dr. J. H. Shawe, of Huntington, N. Y., a family physician of
large experience, who has attended at labor many mothers belonging
to a great range of nationalities, states that while the infants of Scandi-
navian stock have always light head hair at birth, tho.se of South
Italian stock usually have black hair at birth. About the color of the
young permanent hair in these Italians he was unable to say anything.
36 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-AVHITE CROSSES.
All of my observations made at Columbia, South Carolina, and
at Richmond, Virginia, showed that children of dark-colored parents
have, at birth, brown hair which darkens gradually.
Eug. Fischer (1909, p. 1050) has described the hair color of the
"Rehobother Bastardfolk" of Damaraland, descendants of the Boers
(of Dutch origin) and the Hottentots. He says:
Die Haarfarbe ist beim Erwachsenen so gut wie stets, dunkel, was sich
bei solcher Mischung leicht erklart, das vorhandene Pigment, auch in relativ
geringer Menge herrscht xiber die Eigenschaft " Fehlen des Pigments " leicht
vor. Ganz auffallig ist nun, sie dunkeln dann beim Heranwachsen sehr
stark nach.
Fischer adds that it occurs to him that all darkening of hair in
later life may be the result of h^^bridization, for Bantu negroes, Hot-
tentots, and many Mongolians are black-haired even as children and
do not darken subsequently. This suggestion is, it may be added,
quite in harmony with known facts of the slow development of pig-
mentation in simplex or heterozygous hybrids — the diluted enzyme is
retarded in its action.
Table 31. — Hair color in negro X white crosses.
(A) BLACK X BLACK.
Reference „^.^ y
No
br.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
3..
3..
4..
6..
7 . •
II.
13.
13.
21.
21.
21.
21.
21.
24-
27.
29.
31.
1. .
7--
9..
9..
19.
32.
36.
26.
33.
38.
44-
SI.
SI.
51.
59.
61.
62.
Total .
It. ' m.
br. I br.
d.
br.
2 16 28 30 6s
N.
cl.r,
dk.
r.
d.br.r.
N
N
N
N (?)
N (?)
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
FF.
N
dk,
N
m
It
(?)
br.
br.
N
FM.
N
n'
n'
n'
N
N
N
N
M.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
MF.
MM.
dk. br.
dk. br.
It.'br.
N
N
N
N
<: fl'x, flaxen; y. br., yellow brown; lt.br., light brown; m. br., medium brown; d. br., dark brown;
N., black; cl. r., clear red; dk. r., dark red ; d. br. r., dark brown-red.
'' "Mulatto," one is s years, the other i6 months old.
INHERITANXE OF TRAITS ASSOCIATED WITH SKIN COLOR.
37
Table 31. — Hair color in negro X white crosses. — Continued.
(B) BLACK X DARK BROWN.
Reference
No.
fl'- li.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
B.
J.
J-
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
J.
7 '
17
21
21
21
23
24
25
28
29
29
33
36
2
3
4
S
9 ! ..
10 i 'i
31 •■
47 i ..
51 ..
SO : . .
52 M*!
53 -.
S3 ..
55
56 'I
Total .
It.
br.
14
m. d.
br. i br.
17
SI
N. cl.r
27
dk.
d.br.
FF.
N
dr.br. (?)
dk. br.
N
N
N
X
dk. br.
N
dk. br.
dk. br.
N
dk. br.
N
N
N
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk.br.
! N
N
N
N
N
N
dk. br.
N
dk
dk
dk
br.
br.
br.
br.
FM.
N
N
dk. br.
I N
N
br.
N
N
n'
1 M.
MF.
-N
.... 1
N
dk. br.
dk.br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
N
U^ht
dk.br.
dk. br.
N
N
m. br.
dk. br.
N
dk.br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
N
N
N
dk.br.
dk. br.
dk.br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
N
N
dk. br.
dk. br.
MM.
br
die
dk
br.
N
br.
(C) BLACK X MEDIUM BROWN.
B. 7....
B. 14...
B. 16...
B. 19...
B. 21...
B. 29...
B. 33...
J. 9....
J. 42...
J. SI...
J. 55...
J. S3...
Total .
12 '17
br?
Ibr.
I br?
i m. br.
, m. br.
! N
, br.
N
N
br.
br
N
N
m. br.
N
N
N
m. br.
m. br.
I N
m. br.
m. br.
N
N
It. br.
br.
br.
N
(D) BLACK X LIGHT BR
OWN.
J. 14
-•
I
1
.. 3
••
■•
It. br.
N
(E) BLACK X YELLOW BROWN.
B. 10 < ..
I I
4
••
3 ....
1 1
N i N N
1
1
yel. br. br. y. br.
(F) BLACK X AUBURN.
B. 30. .
B. 33..
J. 30. .
Total .
N
sandy
N
aub.
N
r. br.
br.
br.
(G) BLACK X CLEAR RED.
J. 48
••
..|..
I
••
••
••
••
I
d. r.
N
"15 years old; doubt of mother's chastity.
* Reddish-golden; i year old; all black-
haired at birth.
' Flaxen when 2 years old.
•' I year old.
• 3 years old.
•' EnRlishman.
' White woman.
38 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Table 31. — Hair color in negro X white crosses. — Continued.
(H) BLACK X DARK RED BROWN.
Reference
No.
J. 4S..
fl'x
y.
br.
It.
br.
m.
br.
d.
br.
N.
cl.r.
dk.
r.
d. br. r.
F.
FF.
FM.
4
3
I
••
••
N
M.
d.br.r.
MF.
MM.
(I) DARK BROWN X DARK BROWN.
B. 13
"I
I
2
I
dk. br.
dk. br.
N
B. 23
2
I
I
, ,
dk. br.
dk. br.
B.2S
I
I
I
dk. br.
dk. br.
N
B. 25
.1
dk. br.
N
dk. br.
B. 28
f-i
I
2
dk. br. n
I. br.
N
dk. br.
J.4
2
I
I
dk. br.
....
dk. br.
J. 16
• •
2
, ,
, ,
dk.br. It
.br.
dk. br.
J. 17
3
dk. br.
m. br.
dk. br.
J. 19
I
2
3
dk. br.
....
dk. br.
J. 20
I
. ,
2
dk. br.
....
dk. br.
J. 27
2
2
I
.
dk. br.
dk. br.
J. 29
.3
.
dk. br.
dk. br.
J. 38
I
•
dk. br. 1
dk. br.
J. 48
.S
2
,
dk. br. 1
dk. br.
J.si
2
.
dk. br.
dk. br.
J- 40
= 2
I
2
•
dk. br.
dk. br.
Total . . .
I
3
10
14
27
s
•
•
••
■•
(K) DARK BROWN X MEDIUM BROWN.
B. 17.
B. 25.
B. 26.
B. 27.
B. 29.
J. 8..
Total .
3
m. br.
dk. br.
3
br?
dk. br.
2
2
dk. br.
m. br.
2
2
2
2
I
br?
br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
N?
3
2
I
••
br.
dk. br.
• •
••
S
9
7
I
•■
••
N
(L) DARK BROWN X LIGHT BROWN.
J. 23..
J. 49. .
B. 27 .
Total .
1
I
I
I
I
2
3
2
I
I
••
,
It. br.
It. br.
It. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
6
3
I
••
••
" 9 months old.
'' At 2 years.
' Young.
br.
(M) DARK BROWN X CLEAR RED.
B. 33
L.S
••
I
3
2
2
I
I
cl. r.
red
n.
dk. br.
dk. br.
dk. br.
Total . . .
I
S
2
••
2
■•
A study of table 31 shows clearly that as the amount of black
decreases in the parents it diminishes in the offspring. Thus in black
X black matings the commonest grade of the children is black; in
black X dark brown or medium brown, and in dark brown X dark
brown matings the commonest grade in the children is dark brown;
but in the dark brown X medium brown or light brown matings it is
medium brown. The cases are not numerous where the children are
darker than the darker parent, and very light children ("flaxen")
INHERITANCE OF TRAITS ASSOCIATED WITH SKIN COLOR. 39
rarely occur in these hybrids except in extreme youth (5 years or
under). Red hair may be carried by dark brown-haired parents, and
reappears in their children, especially when young, but often becomes
later covered over by brown pigment. It is pretty clear that the fac-
tors involved in hair pigmentation are so numerous that their analysis
will yield only to a careful, quantitative study.
III. Hair Form.
The forms of the head hair constitute a series that is apparently
continuous. Anthropologists, however, recognize only five varieties:
straight, wavy, curly, frizzy, and woolly (Topinard, 1894, p. 35; Den-
icker, 1906, p. 38). These types differ not only in general curvature
but also in cross-section, for the head hair is elliptical on cross-section
and the ratio of the long to the short axis is said to be as 100 to 85 in
straight-haired races like the North American Indian, and as 100 to
34 in Papuans, 100 to 50 in Hottentots, 100 to 60 in negroes. There
seems to be a rather close connection between the degree of flatten-
ing of the hair and the degree of its curvature, and anthropologists
commonly ascribe the curving to the flattening. The terms relating
to general hair form have been defined as follows by Waldeyer (1884,
P- 51)-
Straight hair is characterized by the absence of any wavy or spiral curva-
ture. Wavy hair shows wave-like curves in one plane or in a slightly twisted
surface, the distance from convexity to convexity being great — usually several
centimeters. Curly hair is spirally curved, especially at its free ends. It is
to be noted that curly hair when cut close no longer reveals its true character.
Frizzled hair has a close curl even from the base. Woolly hair, as used com-
monly in speaking of people, is closely, spirally curled hair which does not
grow to the length of more than 2 or 3 cm. and is apt to form tufts (Topinard,
i894,p.35i; Waldeyer, 1884, pp. 5 1-53).* But between these typical conditions
all transitions occur.
Table 32. — Hair form in negro X white crosses.
(A) STRAIGHT X STRAIGHT.
Reference
No.
4.1
>
3
0
>
Semi-
woolly.
2J
"o
0
1^'
S
fa
MM.
J. 38
J-Si
Total . . .
I
6
■ . >
■ . >
...
• > >
. . .
■ ■ •
strt.
strt.
....
strt.
strt.
....
....
7
...
...
..-.
...
...
...
* At the Good Samaritan Hospital (colored) at Columbia, South Carolina, I got hair
from a negro (skin about N 65 per cent) which formed a spiral of about 4 mm. diameter.
The average thickness of the hair mat on the man's head was not over 5 mm. The man
stated he had his hair cut about once in four months; but since colored persons take a pride
in and boast of rapidly growing hair, it is probable that even this represents a minimum
interval.
40
HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Table 32. — Hair form in negro X white crosses. — Continued.
(B) STRAIGHT X WAVY (OR NEARLY STRAIGHT).
Reference
No.
>>
>
3
0
3
u
Kinky.
Semi-
woolly.
Woolly.
&i
strt.
kinky
si. wavy
wavy
wavy
strt.
strt.
nly. str.
strt.
nly. str.
wavy
wavy
wavy
wavy
strt.
strt.
1
B. 8
B. 13
B. 21
B.23
B. 24
B. 25
B. 27
J. SI
B. 28
B.31
J. 7
J-43
J. 45
J.51
Total . . .
I
2
4
I
I
2
I
3
I
I
8
I
2
4
4
I
I
2
I
I
I
4
2
I
OJ
2
2
3
2
. ! . . .
. 1 • • •
strt.
strt.
strt.
wavy
wavy
strt.
nly. str.
strt.
strt.
strt.
strt.
strt.
wavy
wavy
strV.
wavy '
kinky
25
22 j 17 2
.
....
i •••• 1
(C) STRAIGHT X CURLY.
B. 10
B. 11
B. 13
B. 14
B. 21
B. 21
B.23
B.23
B. 26
J. 4
J-9
J. 9
J. 9
J. 16
J. 17
J. 19
J. 26
J. 26
J- 35
J- 38
J. 39
J. 42
J. 48
J. SI
J. 40
J. SO
J.61
Total . . .
I
2
I
2
2
I
I
I
. . .
I
I
3
2
3
2
3
2
\
3
2
6
3
3
I
2
I
2
3
3
4
2
2
4
2
I
2
2
3
2
2
3
...
curly
strt.
strt.
curly
strt.
strt.
strt.
curly
cur.(?)
strt.
curly
curly
curly
strt.
curly
strt.
curly
curly
si. cur.
strt.
strt.
curly
strt.
strt.
curly
curly
v. cur.
strt.
curly
strV.
strt.
curly
curly
strt.
curly
curly
curly
strt.
strt.
v. cur.
strt.
strt.
strt.
curly
strt.
curly
strt.
strt.
strt.
V. cur.
curly
strt.
curly
curly
strt.
strt.
strt.
wavy
strt.
strt.
1
1
strt'.
wavy 1
StrV.
1
si. wav.
31
24
27
10
I
(D) STRAIGHT X KINKY.
B.7
B. 21
J- 9
J. 22
J. 23
J-48
J. SI
tf.::::.
Total . . .
«I
I
I
4
I
2
2
I
I
2
3
2
4
3
I
I
I
I
X
4
I
2
i • • •
strt.C?)
strt.
strt.
kinky I*
strt.
strt.
kinky/
kinky
strt.
wavy
curly
strt".
strt.
kinky
kinky
kinky
strt.
kinky'
kinky
strt.
strt.
kinky
pure
negro
....
7
7
16
8
2
1
(E) STRAIGHT X WOOLLY.
L.4
...
...
...
...
I
1
strt.
woolly
•■ Slightly.
'■Illegitimate?
•Three months old.
^A "sambo" colored man.
• Daughter of a black man and a mulatto.
i Brown father and a very dark mother.
INHERITANCE OF TRAITS ASSOCIATED WITH SKIN COLOR. 41
Table 32.
-Hair form in negro X while crosses. — Continued.
(F) WAVY X WAVY.
♦>
>. 1
1
Reference
No.
U
>>
>
3
0
3
u
>
B
Semi-
woo!
Wooll
P.
2
B.4
I
1
V. wavy
I. wav.
1
B. 21
, . .
I
I
2
.
wavy
si. wav.
....
1 , , , ,
B. 24
. . .
. . .
2
. . .
.
. 1 wavy
wavy
B. 25....
I
-7
I
. . .
si. wav.
wavy
B. 26....
3
I
. . .
'
wavy
si. wav.
B. 29
-, 2
2
I
wavy
wavy
strt. kinky i
J.41....
I
. . .
3
. . .
wavy
wavy
J. 47....
4
4
wavy
wavy
....
J. 30....
2
4
. . .
. V. wavy
wavy
....
J. 52....
Total . .
. . ..
I
...
■ •_ J ■
•
. 1 wavy
si. wav.
10
16
12
3
... 1 ...
\
(G) WAVY X CURLY.
1
i
B. 8
1
I
I
. si. wav.
!
V. cur.
.... i
B. 13....
3
2
curly
wavy
wavy ....
... 1
B. 19
. 1 ...
I
. . .
. si. wav.
V. cur
...
B. 19....
. 1 2
2
I
curly
wavy , ....
. . .
B. 20
. . .
6
V. cur.
wavy , ....
. . .
B. 21....
., 3
. . .
I
wavy
curly
B. 21....
V. cur.
wavy
. . .
B. 27....
I
si. cur.
wavy
B. 29....
I
I
. ' curlv
strt.
kinky
wavy
B. 29....
curly
strt.
kinky
wavy
B. 30....
. ' 2
I
curly
V. wav.
. . .
J. 3
2
2
.
curly
wavy
strt.
J. 9
I
4
2
curlv
wavy
J. 31....
. V. wav.
curly
J. 38....
I
curly
....
wavy
J.53....
I
I
•
V. wav.
strt.
V. cur.
strt.
J. 56. . . .
I
2
. .
wavy
.
v. cur.
. . .
J. 57....
Total. .
. ...
4
3
■
. . wav.(?)
V. cur.
.] II
19
27
i ^3
7
....
—
(H) WAVY X KIXKY.
B. 3
3
kinky
wavy
B. 25....
I
2
. . .
kinky
St
rt.
V. wav.
. . .
B. 29....
2
I
2
I
wavy
kinky
. . .
J. 33
I
. . .
3
2
kmkv
wavy
. . .
J. S3--..
I
4
. . .
. . .
kinky
strt.
wavy
J. 55....
3
2
. . .
kinky
wavy
si.
wav.
J. 62....
I
5
2
kinky
wavy
L. 2
Total. .
...
...
2
kinky
....
wavy
2
12
IS
6
I
2
—
(1) CURLY X CURLY.
B. 14
1
I
curly
curly ....
B. 29
.1 I
2
I
curly
curly j
....
B. 33-. ••
2
2
2
curly
cur.(?)«|
- ■ > >
> • ■ •
J. 1
2
curly
curly '
> . . •
J. 2
> • >
curly
curly
....
. • • .
J- 4
2
curly
curly
....
....
J. 5
• • •
. cur. (?)
v. cur
J. 18....
s
curlv
V. cur. • ....
curly
J. 20
I
I
. cur.(?)
curlv ....
J. 24....
3
curly
curly ....
....
J. 27....
3
2
curly
curlv
....
J. 29....
3
curlv
curly
....
J. 29. . . .
3
X
. si. cur.
si. cur.
....
J. 44....
I
curly
curly
....
J. SI....
t
V. cur.
curly
....
J. 53
2
I
. , V. cur.
strt.
curly I
....
J. 55-...
Total . .
2
2
3
...
.
. si. cur.
wavy
curly i
kinky
strt.
9
II
28
6
I
I
-■-• i
• Almost white father and dark mother.
42 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Table 32. — Hair form in negro X white crosses. — Continued.
(K) CURLY X KINKY.
Reference
No.
'3
CO
>.
s
^
0
3
u
>■
Semi-
woolly.
0
(xi
f^
b
:s
fe
S
S
S
L. I
6
1
. i ...
kinky
....
curly
....
1
(L) CURLY X CRIMPY.
J.S6
I
I
...
V. cur.
crimpy strt.
wavy
The observations made on form of hair were incidental, merely,
to those on skin color. They have, however, some interest as throwing
light on the question of the condition in the offspring of two parents
who belong to different types; also upon the question of segregation
of the types. This is a matter which was considered on a smaller
amount of data some years ago (G. C. and C. B. Davenport, 1908).
We reached the conclusion that hair form is inherited in typical fash-
ion; that two straight-haired parents have only straight-haired off-
spring; that two curly -haired parents will frequently have straight-
haired offspring; that waviness is a heterozygous condition, so that
two wavy-haired parents will have both straight-haired and curly-
haired offspring.
The assertion has been made that a mixture of forms is found on
the heads of half-breeds, and Bond (19 12) has described two such cases.
But Bond makes it clear that such mixture of hair forms is an excep-
tional phenomenon, as exceptional as spotted head-hair color in men.
Such a mixture of forms of hair was not found in our families, though
not particularly looked for except in about ten children.
Fischer (1909, p. 1050) states that in the bastards of Rehoboth
the hair appears as a compromise between the Dutch and negro. It
is almost never entirely smooth, but almost never a close spiral, "pepper
com," hair like the Hottentots. It is of intermediate length, usually
has an open curl, or shows a narrow wave.
Table 32 gives the results of all matings. Section A gives the
only cases where matings of two strictly straight-haired persons oc-
curred. The 7 progeny had straight hair. This accords with studies
made on whites. Straight is the recessive condition that does not
carry curvature.
Section B includes straight by wavy, including some "slightly
wavy" and "nearly straight" or "practically straight." Here there
are three prevailing forms, straight, wavy, and curly, occurring in the
proportions of 25, 22, and 19. On the hypothesis, supported by the
data of my earlier paper (1908, p. 344), that wavy is the heterozygous
or simplex form of curly, we might expect an equality of straight and
wavy in the offspring; but, as in the Caucasian material, curly does
INHERITANCE OF TRAITS ASSOCIATED WITH SKIN COLOR. 43
not alwa3's fail to dominate, but, on the contrary, the simplex curl-
determiner may yield a curly condition of the hair. Theoretically, an
equality of straight and curved is to be expected, instead of which 25:38
is found. This is in part due to a failure to report the hair in describing
a child where it is straight (there are apparently several omissions of
this sort) and partly to classifying as straight-haired some persons
whose hair is really wavy or curly at the ends but is cropped short in
order to conceal the fact — for the near-white hides the cur\'e in his
hair if he can.
(C) The mating straight X curly yields only straight, wa\^% and
curly (in all degrees). In a few cases (J. 4, J. 38), including all where the
hair of the one parent is "very curly," the progeny have all curly hair.
Otherwise the hair of the progeny is straight, wavy, or curly. Assuming
that there would be straight-haired offspring in cases only where the
curly parent carries straightness, we expect 50 per cent of the offspring
to have straight hair. Counting only fraternities that include both
straight- and curved-haired offspring, we find 35 straight to 50 cur\'ed
of all grades. Here, again, the deficiency of "straight" offspring is
probably due to a failure to report a few straight-haired children. The
result is of the order of expectation.
(D) The mating straight X kinky gives rise, prevailingly, to curly-
haired offspring. However, there is one case of a pure-bred, kinky-
haired negro who had a 3 -months-old child whose hair is straight (but
such children usually develop curly hair subsequently) . In all the other
cases where there are ' ' straight ' ' children the kinky-haired parent has
about three-fourths negro blood. The case of J. 51 is remarkable. In
general, kinky does not carry straightness, but apparently may do so
(J. 51). The heterozygous condition is evidently wavy or curly.
(E) The mating straight X woolly occurred once and there was
only one child, and it had kinky hair.
(F) The product of two wavy-haired parents is straight, wavy, and
curly-haired offspring in roughly 1:2:1 proportions — again evidence
of the heteroz3^gous nature of waviness.
(G) Wavy X curly gives mostly wavy and curly offspring, again
the product of c-f C and C-f C determiners respectively. But there
are some straights, indicating that some curly-haired parents have
"straight" germ-cells, as we saw under (C).
(H) Wavy X kinky crosses yield a very few straights and 2 woolly ;
but most of the children have wavy or curly (heterozygous forms of
kinky) .
(I) Curly X curly yields mostly curly; yet some curly parents
apparently carry "straight" as a recessive character, so that 14 per
cent of all offspring belong to that category.
(K) Curly X kinky. — In this, our extreme union of curly types,
only curly and kinky occur in the children (i fraternity).
44 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
G. CORRELATION OF CHARACTERISTICS IN HYBRIDS.
We have seen that from two mulatto parents there may arise a
child with a white skin or a child with a full black skin, as well as chil-
dren with an intermediate skin color. We have now to consider the
question : In how far is the absence or presence of negro skin pigment
associated with the absence or presence of other negro characteristics?
Unfortunately, we have not data for answering this question fully.
But there are two traits that are associated with dark pigmentation
of the skin in the negro of which we can trace the association in the
offspring of hybrids, namely, color of the hair and form of the hair
(degree of curving).
For this study the fraternities listed in table 19 only were used.
This table gives the fraternities derived from two Fi mulattoes (or else
two medium-colored persons who probably transmit as Fi mulattoes
do). The reason for selecting the fraternities listed in this table is to
insure that both parents are trul}' of hybrid origin, and, consequently,
form germ-cells with determiners for both Caucasian and negro charac-
teristics, and hence may have children with any desired combination of
these characters, in so far as the characters are dissociable.
I. Correlation Between the Color of the Skin and of the Hair in
THE Fa Generation.
Correlation can be quantitatively expressed when both characters
considered have been measured. Skin color has been measured in our
study, but hair color has not been. However, we may get closely to
the desired result by forming the series: flaxen, light brown, medium
brown, dark brown, and black, and assigning to these the values 1,2,
3, 4, 5, respectively. Then our correlation surface is formed as in
table 33.
Table 33. — Correlation between color of the skin and of the hair.
Medium class values . 6
Skin color N p. ct .... 1 o-ii
i8
12-25
33
26-40
48
41-55
63 !
1 Total
56-70
Hair color:
1 (flaxen)
2 (light brown) . .
3 (brown)
4 (dark brown) . .
5 (black)
/Total
I
2
V 's
2 4
5 ' 15
I 12
I
2
6
2
I
6
9
22
21
3
1
9 ■?6 1 o 1 2
59
N. B. — Jhe tabular entries indicate the frequency with which the given correlation occurs.
The correlation calculated from this table is -f 0.44 =±=0.07. This
indicates that, as the skin color of the children is light or dark, the
hair color is light or dark respectively, with a degree of correlation
CORRELATION OF CHARACTERISTICS IN HYBRIDS.
45
which is slightly less than half of a perfect correlation (i). This result
indicates that there is a general tendency to pigmentation in the body ;
that this affects both skin and hair, but for some reason a black hair
color tnay be associated with a light-colored skin. Just why this is
can not at present be answered. Ev^idently hair color depends upon
additional factors to those merely which determine skin pigmentation.
II. Correlation Between Color of the Skin and Form of the Hair
IN the Fo Generation.
The correlation surface is given in table 34.
Table 34. — Correlation between color of the skin and form of the hair.
Medium class value. 6 i8
Skin color o-ii i 12-25
33
26-40
48
41-SS
63
56-70
]
Total.
1
Form of hair:
1 (str.iight)
2 (wavy)
3 (curly)
4 (very curly).. . .
5 (woolly)
Total
2
I
4
"s
5
10
IS
9
3
2
2
I
3
4
I
I
1
12
12
27
12
8
3
12
42
12
2
71
1
N. B. — The tabular entries indicate the frequency with which the given correlation occurs.
The correlation calculated from table 34 is + 0.043 =^ o.oSo.
Expressed in English this means that there is no evidence of any corre-
lation at all. An inspection of table 34 shows that one of the two ex-
tracted full black-skinned individuals had straight hair, and that one
of the extracted white-skinned individuals had woolly hair. Black skin
color and woolly hair are closely associated in the pure-bred negro, but
the association is, so to say, accidental. The determiners for the two
traits dissociate in the germ-cells of the h^-brids and reappear in the
next generation in all possible combinations.
The lack of correlation between two, at least, of the negro's char-
acteristics affords additional proof of our conclusion that skin color does
not blend, but segregates. In what other mechanism than that afforded
by segregation in the germ-cells have we an explanation of the result ?
The fact that two, at least, of the negro's traits are inherited
wholly independently opens the way for some interesting considerations
of a social nature. As is often the case, we have let one character —
skin color — epitomize the totality of the racial characters of the negro.
Recognizing the inadequacy of the average black African negro to play
a part in our highly developed society a natural stigma has become
attached to black skin color. Our social distinctions are based on that
skin color; we have separate railway cars and schools for "blacks"
and "whites." Meanwhile, in consequence of hybridization and segre-
gation of characters, we have black-skinned persons with straight hair,
4
46 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
narrow noses, and, as is well known, with many or all the inhibitions
and educability of the Caucasians. And, also (and this is of great and
increasing moment), we have white-skinned persons not only with
negroid features but with that lack of inhibitors, that absence of
educability, that characterizes the typical west coast African. From
a social point of view one may suggest that it had been better for
society had it been possible to find some simple criterion of mental
inferiority that is as conspicuous as skin color. Then we could have
separate cars and schools for the feeble-minded without regard to
skin color, as we now have, on railroad lines that run from a great city
to suburban state hospitals, special cars for the insane, and, in most
large northern cities, special schools for the mentally retarded.
H. FECUNDITY OF HYBRIDS.
There is an ancient tradition that mulattoes are unprolific. This
was affirmed by Long (1774), who stated that he had never heard of
a union of two mulattoes in Jamaica that was prolific; and Nott de-
clared that mulattoes, at least of South Carolina, were unprolific.
Broca's (1864) great argument against the unity of the human species
was based on the assertion that human "hybrids" were sterile. This
matter has been considered recently by Fischer (1911, 1912), who
finds that the number and vigor of the hybrids of the Boers and Hot-
tentots has not suffered any decline. In such hybrids "die durch-
schnittliche Zahl pro Ehe ist 7.7; die Sterblichkeit ist nichts grosser
in Verwandten- und Insuchtsehen, der Gesundheitszustand um nichts
schlechter."
Our own records afford no support to the view of the inferior
fecundity of the black X white crosses. Even Fi crosses are fully
fecund. Referring to table 19 we find four certain fraternities of Fi
hybrids. They have respectively 12,1, and 9 children. Case B XXI
is particularly instructive. The mother had 1 1 children at an average
interval of less than two years. Nine of these were seen by the field
worker; none had died! Taking table 19 as a whole, there are 88 chil-
dren to 21 matings or an average of 4.4 children to a fraternity; which
is equal to the average fecundity of all the matings. There is no sup-
port in our data for the notion of lack of fecundity of negro X white
crosses, nor of their deficient viability.
I. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS.
By the use of quantitative methods of expressing skin color and
by means of the study of complete families, it is possible to get at the
law of inheritance of skin color in negro X white crosses.
Skin pigmentation develops chiefl}^ after birth (i.e., from the begin-
ning of exposure of the skin to daylight), attaining its maximum at
about the age of puberty, and then diminishing in intensity.
LITERATURE CITED. 47
The following hypothesis is supported by the facts: That there
are two (double) factors {A and B) for black pigmentation in the full-
blooded negro of the west coast of Africa.
There is no sex-linkage in skin pigmentation of man.
Colored persons tend to select as consorts persons of about their
own grade of skin color.
The yellow element in the skin color of light-colored persons and
those with Chinese blood is frequently high (about 25 per cent). This
excessive yellow element, obscured in full blacks, is revealed in diluted
black.
The tradition that a person with negro blood who passes for white
may have, by a white consort, a child with a black skin color probably
depends on the observation that two "Hght-colored persons" may have
a medium-colored child.
The darkest grades of eye color are rarely simplex or heterozygous ;
the simplex forms are chiefly hazel and light brown.
The darkest grades of hair color are chiefly or exclusively duplex
in respect to dark pigmentation.
Curliness of hair in the positive condition; when lacking in both
parents it is lacking in their children. Woolly hair is the duplex con-
dition. Wavy -haired persons always, and curly-haired persons some-
times, may carry "absence of curliness" in the germ-cells.
It is not generally true that hybrids between whites and blacks
are relatively infertile; some such hybrids show an exceptionally high
fecundity.
There is a strong correlation between skin and hair color, about
0.44 (where the greatest possible correlation is i.oo).
There is no correlation between skin color and the curliness of
the hair. The determiners of both traits segregate in the germ-cells
of the hybrids and make unions at haphazard in the next generation.
K.— LITERATURE CITED.
Adachi, B.
1903. Hautpigment beim Menschen und bei den Affen. Zeitschr. f. Alorphol. u.
Anthrop., vi, 1-131. Taf. i-iii.
Bateson, W., and R. C. Punnett.
191 1. The Inheritance of the Peculiar Pigmentation of the Silky Fowl. Jour, of
Genetics, i, pp. 185-204. August.
BlOCH, a., et P. ViGIER.
1904. Recherches histologique sur le follicule pileux et le cheveu de deux n^gres
decedcs a Paris. Bull, et Mdm. de la Soc. d'Anthropol. de Paris (5), v, pp.
124-132.
Bond, C. J.
19 12. On Heterochromia Iridis in Man and Animals from the Genetic Point of View.
Jour, of Genetics, 11, pp. 99-129, plates vi, viii.
Brodnax, B. H.
1903. Color of infant negroes. Mississippi Med. Record, vii, p. 174.
Broca, P.
1863. Coleur de la pcau du N^gre k la naissance. Bull. Soc. d'anthrop, Paris, iv,
pp. 612, 613.
1864. The Phenomena of Human Hybridity. Trans, by C. C. Blake. London, 76 pp.
48 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Davenport, G. C., and C. B.
1907. Heredity of Eye Color in Man. Science, xxvr, pp. 589-592.
1909. Heredity of Hair Color in Man. Amer. Nat., xliii, pp. 193-21 1.
19 10. Heredity of Skin Pigment in Man. Amer. Nat., XLiv, pp. 642-672, 705-731.
Deniker, J.
1906. The Races of Man. New York, 611 pp.
DOWD, J.
1907. The Negro Races. Vol. i. New York, 491 pp.
Fischer, E.
1909. Das Rehobother Bastardvolk in Deutsch-Siidwest-Afrika. Die Umschau,
XIII, pp. 1047-1051.
1911. Zum Inzuchts- und Bastardierungsproblem beim Menschen. Korrespondenz
Blatt. Deutsch. Ges. f. Anthrop. Ethnol. u. Urgeschichte, XLii, No. 8/12.
Aug./ Dez.
1913. Die Rehobother Bastards und das Bastardierungs problem beim Menschen.
Jena: 327 pp., 19 pis.
Herrman, C.
1907. Pigmented spots in the sacral region of white and negro infants. Jour, of
Cutaneous Diseases, xxv, pp. 201-205.
Holmes, S. J., and H. M. Lewis,
1909. Heredity of Eye Color and Hair Color in Man. Biol. Bull., xviil, pp. 50-65.
December.
Johnston, H. H.
19 10. The Negro in the New World. New York, 499 pp.
L.\NG, A.
191 1. Fortgesetzte Vererbungsstudien. Zeitschrift fur induk. Abstam. u. Verer-
bungslehre. v, pp. 97-136.
Livingstone, W. P.
1900. Black Jamaica: A Study in Evolution. London, 298 pp.
Lehmann-Nitsche, R.
1904. Die dunklen Hautflecke der Neugeborenen bei Indianern und Mulatten. Globus,
Lxxxv, pp. 297-301.
Pruner-Bey, F.
1 86 1. Memories sur les negres. Mem de la Soc. d'anthrop. de Paris, i, pp. 293-336.
1864. Questions relatives a I'anthropologie g^n^rale. Bull. Soc. d'anthropoL, v,
pp. 64-135.
1864. Coiileur des petits mulatres a la naissance. Bull. Soc. d'anthrop. de Paris,
V, pp. 360-1.
Schiller-Tietz.
1901. Die Hautfarbe der neugeborenen Negerkinder. Deutsch. Med. Wochenschrift.
xxvii, pp. 615-616.
1902. Die Hautfarbe der neugeborenen Negerkinder. Deutsche Rundschau fur
Geogr. u. Statistik, Bd. 24, pp. 55-62.
SiMONOT, P. F.
1862. Sur la coloration de la peau du negre. Bull, de la Soc. d 'Anthropologic, iii,
pp. 140-152.
Thomson, A.
1891. Note on the Skin and Scalp of the Negro Fcetus. J. Anat. u. Physiol., xxv,
pp. 282-285.
Topinard, p.
1894. Anthropology. London, 548 pp.
Waldeyer W.
1884. Atlas der menschlichen und tierischen Haare. Lahr; Schauenburg, 195 pp.,
12 Taf.
APPENDIX A.
ABBREVIATIONS.
Gen. generation, d" male, 9 female, t died.
Initials of husband's name are bracketed.
After the word " skin " is given the percentage of black, red, yellow, and white in the
skin color, in that order.
Roman numerals refer to generations; Arabic to individuals.
I. BERMUDIAN FAMILIES.
(Abridged field notes of Florence H. Danielson, Field Worker, Eugenics Record OfiBce.)
Pedigree i. Q. Family.
I Gen. — Captain W., Englishman, had by a mulatto slave
II Gett. — A son, lighter than IV i. He married a black woman.
III Gen. — Their son was of a "beautiful gingerbread-brown" color. He mar-
ried twice; first, a mulatto, the daughter of a white man and
a "dark" woman; and second, a white Bermudian.
IV Gen. — I, 9 . The only living child of the first wiie; skin 40, 19, 13, 28.
Her hair is slightly wavy, her eyes brown. She married a
black man, and of their eight children, all of whom are dead,
none was darker than the father.
2-7. Of the six children from the second wife none was darker than
the father, though the youngest was distinctly darker than
the only living child, whose skin is 34, 27, 14, 25. Her hair
is more wavy than that of her half-sister. She married a
white man, but has no children.
Pedigree 2.
A fragment, omitted.
Pedigree 3, B. Family.
A Good Case of Black X White Mating.
I Gen. — Mr. B., bom in Sweden (eyes blue, hair sandy, skin 5, 25, 20, 50),
living in Warwick, married a very dark woman (skin 71, 18,
2, 19), who is stated to have had a "very light" illegitimate
son by a white man before her marriage. She has had seven
children by Mr. B. (II 1-7).
II Gen. — I, c^. C. B., absent, same color as II 6 (say N 37).
2, cf . A. E. B., 31 years old; like II 3 (say N 35).
3, 9 . B. B. [A.], 30 years; skin 35, 32, 19, 14; hair black and very
curly. She married a black man (say, N 4o=«=,W 10 ±) and
had three children (III i, 2, 3).
4, 9 . G. B., 25 years. Hair wavy; skin 35, 37, 12, 16. Married
an Italian, but has no children.
5, 9. E. B. [W.], 22 years. Hair black and wavy; skin 43, 27, 12, 18.
Married a West Indian negro, color of III 4 or darker, and
has three children (III 4, 5, 6).
6, 9. M. B. [S.], 21 years. Skin 37, 32, 11, 20. Married a man
lighter than herself, both of whose grandfathers were prob-
ably wliite, and has a child (III 7).
7, 9 . E. B., 17 years. Hair black and wavy; skin 35, 25, 16, 24.
Ill Gen. — I, o". P.A.,Syears. Hairdarkbrown,fairlycurly; skin 46, 29,13,12.
49
50 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
2, 9 . L. A., 6 years. Hair now medium brown, formerly very
light, curly; skin 35, 34, 15, 16.
i 3, cf. E. A., 4 months. Hair black and wavy; skin 35, 30, 13, 22.
I 4, cf . W. W., 4 years. Hair black, with typical negro curl; skin
)' 50. 25, 10, 15.
< 5, 9 . O. W., 3 years. Hair dark brown, curly; skin 41, 25, 10, 24.
6, 9 . M. W., I year. Hair black, not very curly; skin 46, 34, 10, 10.
7, 9 . K. S., 14 months. Skin 25, 20, 19, 36.
Pedigree 4. T. Family.
I Gen. — I. — G. A black man (judging from an old daguerreotype he must
have been very dark) whose father's father was a Spaniard.
Married a woman who is now 84 years old, has been an in-
valid for 40 years, and is "yellowed" and tanned; her eyes
are dark brown and of negroid appearance; her hair was
black and has only a slight wave. Skin 23, 25, 10, 42. She
\ maintains that her parents were white Bermudians. This
pair has had eight daughters, all but one of whom are dead.
They were all mulattoes, like II i in color.
II Gen. — I, 9. — G [T.]. Featuresgood;hairblackandslightly wavy; skin35,
30, 10, 25. Married J. T., who has a broad nose, hair black
and very wavy; skin 17, 33, 10, 40 (taken in the evening).
His mother was dark-skinned and his father probably white,
but possibly mulatto. They had two children, of whom one
is dead (III i, 2).
Ill Gen. — I. — T., f 6 months. Very light mulatto.
2, 9 . E. T., 10 3^ears. Hair black, curly, not woolly. Was darker
"when born" than she is at present; skin 61, 23, 7, 9.
Pedigree 6. W. Family.
I Gen. — S., a blue-eyed, very Hght Fi mulatto man, whose father was a blue-
eyed English slave-owner and whose mother a light mulatto,
married an Fi mulatto woman whose father was an English-
man and mother black and probably a slave. They had four
children (II i, 2, 3, 4).
II Gen. — I, 9 . M. S. [W.]. Ej^es deep blue; hair black and kinky, but, when
a child, of tow color; skin 50, 13, 14, 23. Married a man,
now deceased, whose skin was approximately 78, 8, 5, 9, and
had a daughter (III i). (See fig. i.)
2, 9 . S. S. [B.]. Eyes light brown; skin 55, 8, 15,22; children dead
or scattered.
3, cf. — S. A mulatto whose wife is dead, and child is III 2.
4, cf. D. S. Eyes blue; hair straight ; skin 30, 35, 18, 17. Married
a "black" woman and had one child (III 3).
III Gen. — I, 9. M. W. [M.]. Eyes dark brown; hair typically negroid;* skin
60, 15, 9, 16. By a man of about her own color she had an
illegitimate daughter who at 16 years has dark brown eyes,
*The term " typical hair " is used in a technical sense for the curly hair of the " brown-
skinned " negroes of the Bermudas. The texture is coarse and it is very curly, but can
usually be combed and pulled out straight enough to braid in one or two " pigtails " behind,
or if it is done up on top of the head it makes a fairly respectable " bob." It seems to grow
longer than the black natives' hair and has a less obstinate wiry curl in it. — F. H. D.
BERMUDIAN FAMILIES. 51
typical hair, and skin 68, 13, 5, 14. By a man darker than
herself (about N 78) she had a daughter, 13 years old, skin
58, 30, 6, 6; and a son, 12 years old, skin 52, 30, 9, 9. Then
she married a dark-eyed Englishman, who. however, has a
brother with blue eyes, and they had two children (IV 1,2).
(See fig. I.)
2, 9 . M. S., II years. Skin 54, 35, 6, 5.
3, cT. J. S. Skin 19, 34, 20, 27. Married a woman whose father
was English and whose mother was Portuguese, both from
Antigua. Her hair is black, nearly straight, and the complex-
ion olive, 5, 31, 22,39. They had four children (IV 3, 4, 5, 6).
IV Gen. — I, cf . L. A. M., 10 years. Skin 55, 28, 7, 10. Paternity doubtful.
2, d^. E. M., 4 years. Eyes blue; hair flaxen and straight; skin ^2.
12, 18, 38 (fig. i).
3, 9 . G. S., 7 years. Eyes dark; hair black and straight; skin 15,
20, 15, 50.
4, d^. L. S., 5 years. Eyes dark; hair black and straight; skin 25,
25. 14, 36.
5, 9 . K. S., 4 years. Eyes dark; hair light brown and very curly;
skin 14, 27, 12, 47.
6, 9 . \V. S., 2 years. Hair brown and curly; skin 5, 40, 16, 39.
Pedigree 7. F. Family.
Black X White Mating.
I Gen. — T. F., son of an Englishman and a white Bermudian; blue eyes;
brunet; married a very black woman, who knows of no white
blood in her ancestry; typical kinky hair; skin 77, 15, 3, 5.
They have had six children, of whom five are Hving (II 1-6).
II Gen. — I, gT". C. F., 9 years. Hair very dark, coarse, curly but not woolly ;
skin 43, 35, 7, 15.
2, cf . E. F., 7 years. Hair dark brown, very curly, almost woolly;
skin 39, 35, 10, 16.
3, 9 . — , t 3 months. Skin was like the baby's, No. 6.
4, d^. J. F., 4 years. Hair dark brown, soft, very wavy, not woolly;
skin 43, 26, 10, 21.
5, cf . A. F., 2 years. Hair dark brown, golden on its curly ends,
otherwise straight and soft; skin 45, 28, 11, 16.
6, cf". H. F., 3 months. Hair black and straight; skin 30, 28, i8, 24.
Pedigree 8. J. Family.
I Gen. — H. D. A light-colored man, whose father was Irish and mother a
mulatto, married a light-colored woman whose father was a
mulatto and mother "brown." They had four children (II
I, 2, 3, 4)-
II Gen. — I, 9 . L. D. [J.]. Hair dark brown and slightly wavy; skin 16, 26,
23, 35. Married E. C. J., a barrister, whose hair is black and
straight; skin 13, 38, 15, 34. Their children (III i, 2, 3, 4)
were all bom with black hair which began to lighten in a few
weeks, except in the case of the youngest child.
2, 9 . — D., t, a shade darker than II i.
52 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
3, cf . — D., t, darker than II i or either parent, a medium-colored.
4, cf . E. D. Hair slightly wavy; skin g, 39, 16, 36. Married an F2
mulatto, both of whose grandfathers were white, whose hair
is black and very curly and skin 10, 4S, 10, 32. Children
HI 5, 6, 7.
Ill Gen. — I, cf . E. J., 11 years. Hair medium brown and almost straight;
would easily pass for white; sldn 10, 27, 17, 46.
2, 9 . G. J., 8 years. Hair light brown (golden about face) and
very curly; skin 2 7, 24, 15, 34.
3, 9 . I. J-, 7 years. Hair light brown, golden about face and very
curly; skin 25, 23, 15, 37.
4, 9. M. J., 2 years. Hair dark brown and wavy; skin 3 5, 35, 15, 15.
5, cT. H. D., 5 years. Eyes brown; hair black, kinky; skin 25, 36,
II, 29.
6, 9.1. D., 4 years. Eyes brown; hair medium brown, wavy;
skin 18, 42, 10, 30.
7, 9 . E. D., 2 years. Eyes brown; hair light brown, curly; skin
23, 35, 14, 28.
Pedigree id. M. Family.
Mulatto X White Mating.
I Gen.—M. M., bom in Jamaica 51 years ago. Illegitimate child of L. M. L.
(a dark-eyed, black and straight-haired Jew) and a ' ' sambo,"
i.e., dark-colored woman. His hair is black and curly and
his skin 35,28,10,27. Married R. W. C. in London 45 jj-ears
ago, whose brown-eyed, black-haired father was of an
English, and remotely French, family, and whose blue-
eyed, fair-haired mother was of German extraction. Her
eyes are blue; hair yellow and straight; skin 5, 34, 15, 46.
They have had ten children.
II Gen. — I, cf . L. W. M., bom England 24 years ago. Eyes brown; hair
golden-brown and wavy; skin Hke that of No. 8. Now in
India.
2, 9 . t I day.
3, cf . L. M., bom Jamaica 20 ^-ears ago. Ej^es black; hair black
and curly; shows other negro characteristics; skin 33, 28,
ID, 29.
4, 9 . N. M., bom Africa 18 years ago. Eyes gray; hair at 3 years
golden, became brown, and is wavy; skin 5, 26, 19, 50.
Except for curly hair she would pass for white.
5, cf. R. M., bom Jamaica 14 years ago. E3'^es black; hair black
and very wavy; shows negro blood; skin 25, 29, iS, 28.
6, cf. S. M., born Jamaica 10 years ago. Eyes hazel gray; hair
medium brown, sHghtly v/avy; would pass for white; skin
6, 32, 20, 42.
7, 9. C. M., bom Jamaica 10 years ago (twin with 6). Eyes dark
brown; hair black, curly ringlets; shows other negro char-
acteristics; skin 35, 36, 15, 14.
8, cf . M. M., 7 3^ears. Eyes hazel gray turning darker; hair
medium brown, formerly golden, and very straight; easily
passes for white; skin 5, 28, 17, 50.
BERMUDIAN FAMILIES. 53
9, cf. L. M., 5 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
slightly wavy; skin 24, 26, 13, 37.
10, 9. E. M., 4 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown and
wavy; shows negro blood slightly, skin 10, 35, 20, 35.
Pedigree ii. C. Family.
I. Gen. — E. C, the son of two strict mulattoes; hair black and almost
straight; skin 34, 35, 15, 16. Three of his sibs were fairer
and one darker than he. Married the daughter of a white
Bermudian and a brown-skinned woman. His wife has black
and curly hair; skin 40, t,k, 12, 13. They have si.K children.
II Gen. — I, cT. O. C, 24 years. Hair black, wav-y; skin Hghter than No. 6,
say N 28 per cent.
2, 9 • L. C., 23 years. Hair black, curly; skin 47, 34, 7, 12.
3, cf . R. C, 21 years. Hair black, crimpy; skin darker than No. 2,
say N 50 per cent.
4, cT. L. C, 20 years. Hair dark brown, fairly straight; sldn
lightest of fraternity, say N 25 per cent.
5, 9 . H. C, 16 years. Hair black, wavy; skin 35, 36, 13, 16.
6, d^. H. C, 13 years. Hairdarkbrown, straight;skin32, 35, 14, 19.
Pedigree 12. S. F.\mily.
I Gen. — W. S., the son of a curly-haired strict mulatto and his wife, who,
at 60 years, has black straight hair and a skin color S, 30,
19, 43, having had a white father and a brown-skinned
mother. W. S. is the darkest of ten living sibs; has almost
typical negro hair and skin color 41, 30, 14, 15. He
married a woman of typical negro characteristics, all of
whose people are brown-skinned; sldn 46, 34, 10, 9. They
had nine children, all w4th typical hair and dark skin color.
II Gen. — I, 9 . I. S., 20 years. Skin lil^e No. 4, say N 35 per cent.
2, 9 . M. S., 18 years. Skin 49, 31, 6, 14.
3, cf . A. S., 16 years. Skin like No. 5, say N 45 per cent.
4, 9 . M. S., 14 years. Skin 36, 39, 10, 15.
5, 9 . E. S., 12 3^ears. Skin 44, 34, 10, 14.
6, 9 . E. S., 10 years. Skin 35, 40, 14, 11.
7, cT. R. S., 7 years. Skin 44, 34, 10, 12.
8, d^. F. S., 4 years. Skin 52, 24, 9, 15.
9, 9 . D. S., I year. Hair not yet kinky, only curly; skin 45, 34,
10, II.
Pedigree 13. W. Family.
Negro X White and Medium X Medium Matings.
I Gen. — I. D. N. W. An EngHshman (eyes dark; hair black and straight)
married a typical negress whose nose was broad, face heavy,
and ancestors, so far as known, black; skin 70, 17, 5, 3.
Seven of their eleven children grew up (II i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, ii).
2. — C. A colored man whose father was from the Barbados, and
whose mother was light-colored, called mustee or three-
fourths white. His wife was an Fi mulatto with hair that was
black and slightly wavy. They had two children (II 12, 13).
54 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
II Gen. — I, t- 4 months.
2, f. lo years.
3, cf. D. N. W., 27 years, absent.
4, f. 9 days.
5, 9 . 25 years, absent.
6, 9 . B. W. [A.], 23 years. Hair black, very wavy; skin 34, 45,
10, II. Married a man of the same color and has a child
of 9 months; skin 39, 30, 10, 21.
7, cT. W. W., 21 years. Hair typically negro; skin 40, 36, 14, 10.
8, cf . S. J. W., 19 years. Hair typically negro; skin 53, 32, 7, 8.
9, f. Infant.
10, d^. A. W., 15 years, absent.
11, 9 . A. W. [C], 29 years, hair black and wavy; skin 45, 32, 10, 13.
Married a man (II 13) with black and curly hair; skin
30, 40, 13, 7, and has six children (III i, 2,3, 4, 5, 6).
12, 9 . — C. [S.]. Hair dark brown and wavy; skin 27, 38, 14, 21.
Married — S., whose mother was English and father
Spanish. He had dark straight hair and a white skin, say
N 5 per cent. Their seven children are III 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 13 (fig. 2).
13, cf . R. C, married No. 11, above.
Ill Gen. — I, cf. R. C, 9 years. Hair black and very curly; skin 43, 33, 11, 13.
2, 9 . M. C, 8 years. Hair typically negro; skin 46, 35, 10, 9.
3, 9 . G. C, 7 years. Hair typically negro; skin 45, 34, 10, 11.
4, cf . E. S., 5 years. Hair medium brown and very curly; skin
44, 35. 10. II-
5, 9 . G. C., 3 years. Hair light brown, woolly; skin 15, 35, 20, 30.
6, 9 . M. C., 15 months. Hair dark brown, curly ; skin 24, 39, 13, 24.
7, 9 . M. S., 14 years. Eyes dark; hair black and very curly; skin
30, 38, 13, 19.
8, 9 . W. S., 12 years. Hair dark brown, very wavy; skin 29, 37,
13, 21.
9, cf. A. S., II years. Eyes dark; hair black, nearly straight; skin
36, 30, 14, 20.
10, 9 . V. S., 9 years. Eyes dark; hair dark brown, slightly wavy;
skin 32, 40, 10, 18.
11, c^. E. S., 7 years. Eyes blue with brown on margin of pupil;
hair medium brown, straight; skin 10, 35, 10, 45.
12, cf . t, infant.
13, cf . P. S., 2 years. Eyes dark gray; hair flaxen; skin 5, 32, 13, 50.
Pedigree 14. T. Family.
White X Dark Mating.
I Gen. T., a white Bermudian with blue eyes and curly brown hair had,
illegitimately, by a woman with curly black hair and skin
43, 39, 10, 8, whose father was dark and whose mother was
an Fi mulatto, a son.
II Gen. — I, d^. H., 4 years. Eyes dark blue; hair light brown and wavy;
skin 30, 34, 20, 16.
BERMUDIAN FAMILIES. 55
Pedigree 15. H. Family.
Mulatto X Black Mating.
I Gen. — S. H. (whose parents were brown-skinned), skin 46, 32, 7, 15;
married an Fi mulatto woman with curly black hair; skin
39, 38, 10, 13. Have eleven children, all with typical
negro hair.
II Gen. — I, 9 ■ E. H., 15 years. Skin 44, 40, 10, 6.
2-5, f. Infant.
6, cf . M. H., II years. Skin 46, 32, 9, 13.
7, cf . D. H., 8 years. Skin 60, 22, 8, 10.
8, 9 . H. H., 6 years. Skin 53, 29, 8, lo.
9, cf . L. H., 3 years. Skin 46, 35, 10, 9.
10, cf . W. H., 12 months. Skin 45, 35, 10, 10.
11, f. 13 months. Skin say N 40 per cent.
Pedigree 16. H. Family.
Mulatto X White.
I Gen. — A. H., 70 years, son of H. S. H., a white man, and a mulatto woman.
Black, curly hair; skin 28, 30, 15, 27. Married a white
woman with eyes formerly blue, now a faded brown; and
straight, medium-brown hair; skin 7, 30, 15. 48. They
had eight children, five of whom are living.
II Gen. — I, 9 , t, I year.
2, cf , t, 14 years.
3, cf . O. H., 46 years. Blue eyes; light brown, straight hair; sandy
mustache; skin N 7 per cent.
4, 9. M. H. [T.], 38 years. Dark blue eyes; dark brown, very
wavy hair; skin 10, 37, 18, 35. Married T., a colored man;
skin say N 50 per cent. They have a son, 6 months, eyes
blue; hair dark brown and curly; skin 8, 31, 13, 48.
5, cf . J. H., 36 years. Eyes dark blue; hair medium brown and
curly; except for hair would easily pass for white; skin 7,
20, 16, 57. Married a typical brown-sldnned woman, all
of whose ancestors were brown; skin 50, 25, 8, 17. They
have one daughter, R. H., 16 months, eyes blue; hair light
brown and curly; skin 23, 37, 16, 24.
6, cf . L. F. H., 33 years. Said to have dark eyes and black curly
hair ; skin say N 5 per cent. Married a dark-colored woman ;
skin 50, 29, 7, 14. They have three children (III i, 2, 3).
7, cf, t. twin to 8.
8, cf . E. H. Skin say N 5 per cent. Married a medium-colored
woman, whose father was a mulatto and whose mother was
brown-skinned. Hair fairly straight; skin 31, 39, 15. 15.
They ha\-e a son, 3 years; eyes brown; hair light brown
and wavy; skin 14, 38, 18, 30.
III Gen. — I, 9 . V. H., 6 years. Eyes dark blue and brown in center; hair
light brown and very curly; skin 35, 30, 14, 21.
2, 9. J. H. Eyes light brown; hair light brown, golden on the
ends, and wavy; skin 20, 40, 17, 23.
3, cf . B. H., 12 months. Hair medium brown and curly; skin
27, 34, 15, 14.
56 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Pedigree 17. F. Family.
Black X White.
I Gen. — J. F., 70 years. A white man with medium brown eyes and hair;
skin 7, 40, 18, 35. Married a black woman with typical
negro features; all her people are dark; skin 75, 18, 4, 3.
They have six children.
II Gen. — I, c^. J. F., 44 years. Skin say N 30 per cent.
2, 9. E. F. [T.], 38 years.
3, cf . G. F., 37 years, absent. Skin said to be N 30 per cent.
4, 9. C. F. [D.], 35 years. Hair black and very curly; skin
32, 42, 8, 18. She married T. D., a light-colored man,
whose father was a mulatto and whose mother was brown ;
skin 15, 33, 20, 32. They have five children (III i, 2,
3, 4. 5)-
5, 9 . T. F. [E.]. Hair black and very wavy; skin 31, 34, 14, 21.
She married D. E., whose paternal grandfather was white
and his other ancestors brown-skinned; skin say N 30
per cent. They have seven children (III 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
II, 12).
6, cf . A. F., 31 years. Hair black and slightly curly; skin 25, 38,
17, 20.
Ill Gen. — I, cf . E. D., 11 years. Eyes medium brown; hair black and
straight; skin 20, 39, 11, 30.
2, cT. I. D., 8 years. Eyes brown; hair dark brown and kinky;
skin 26, 40, 8, 26.
3, 9 . L. D., 7 years. Eyes medium brown; hair light brown and
straight, but curls on ends; skin 16, 39, 10, 35.
4, 9 . M. D., 6 years. Eyes medium brown; hair Hght brown and
wavy.
5, d^. R. D., 2 years. Skin 15, 36, 19, 30.
6, cf . I. E., 17 years. Skin say N 50 per cent.
7,9.1. E., 15 years. Hair black and very curly; skin 34, 40,
14, 12.
8, 9 . C. E., 12 years. Tj^pical negro hair; skin 45, 30, 9, 16.
9, d^. H. E., 7 years. Eyes lighter than his sibs; hair dark brown
and slightly wavy; skin 30, 39, 10, 21.
10, cf . E. E., 4 years. Eyes gray-brown or hazel, hair brown and
slightly wavy; skin 25, 37, 13, 25.
11, 9. P. E., died 14 months. Said to have skin say N 45 per
cent.
12, cT. C. E., died 9 months. Hair like III 8, but kinky; skin say
N2S.
Pedigree 18. T. Family.
I Gen. T. About the color of his wife, who has typical curly hair;
skin 49, 26, II, 14. They have four children.
II Gen. — I, cf . A. T., 10 years. Skin 25, 38, 17, 20.
2, 9 . L. T., 7 years. Skin 46, 35, 10, 9.
3, cT. W. T., 6 years. Skin 47, 35, 7, 11.
4, 9 . A. T., 6 months. Skin 27, 29, 15, 29.
BERMUDIAN FAMILIES. 57
Pedigree 19. I. Family.
I Gen. — There were two brothers and a sister bom of W. I., a mulatto, and
his wife, also a mulatto, the daughter of a white man.
(i) One brother, J. I., married a woman whom he re-
sembled in skin color; her father was white, while her
mother was a mulatto; her hair was black and straight,
but curly at the ends; skin 14, 40, 15, 31, They had four
children (II i, 2, 3, 4). (2) Another brother, A. I., who
could pass for white, married a medium-colored woman
whose father was a mulatto and whose mother was brown-
skinned. Eyes hazel; hair dark brown and curly; skin
19, 36, 20, 25. They had three children (II 5, 6, 7). (3)
The sister, with hair black and ver>' curly; sldn 10, 48, 10,
32, married E. D., a very light-colored man, with slightly
wa\^^ hair; skin 9, 39, 16, 36. His fraternity and ancestry
are described in Pedigree 8. Thcv had three children
(II 8, 9, 10).
II Gen. — I, 9 . L. I., 16 years. Eyes black; hair black and straight; skin
(II 8, 9, 10).
I,
9.
L. I., 16 years
9, 34, 20, 37.
2,
9.
G. I., 14 years.
3.
&.
W. I., 13 years.
4.
9.
R. I., II years.
Hair black and very wa\'3^; skin 15, 41, 20,24.
Hair black and straight; skin 17, 43, 15, 25.
Hair black and straight; skin 16, 50, 15, 19.
5, 9. M. I., 13 years. Ej^es black; hair reddish-brown; skin 17,
35. 20, 28.
6, 9 . H. I.. 9 3-ears. Eyes gray; hair dark bromi and curly; skin
13. 35. 20, 32.
7, 9 . G. I., 5 years. Eyes brown; hair brown and curly; skin 18,
35, 20, 27.
8, cf. H. D., 5 years. Skin 25, 36, 10, 29.
9, 9 . I. D., 4 years. Eyes brown; hair medium brown and wavy;
sldn iS, 42, 10, 30.
10, 9. E. D., 2 years. Eyes brown; hair light brown and curly;
skin 23, 35, 14, 28.
Pedigree 20. J. Family,
Fi Mulatto X "Mustee."
I Gen. — C. J. An Fi mulatto, the son of — J., a Dane, from the Danish
West Indies, and a brown-skinned woman. He has very
curly black hair, and his skin is 21, 40, 16, 23. His \x\ie,
a "mustee," has dark bro\ATi and very wavy hair; skin 15,
30, 21, 34; and is the mother of his twelve children, six of
whom were absent.
II Gen. — I, cf . W. J., iS years. Eyes badly crossed; hair very curly; skin
40, 29, 15, 16.
2, 9 . V. J., 14 years. Eyes slightly crossed; hair very curly; skin
30, 32, 16, 22.
3, 9 . R. J., 13 years. Hair very curly; skin 26, 35, 16, 23.
4, cf . S. J., II years. Hair very curly; skin 35, 32, 10, 13.
5, 9 . A. J., 9 years. Hair very curly; skin 33, 40, 16, 11.
6, 9 . H. J., 7 years. Hair very curly; skin 20, 35, 18, 27
58 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Pedigree 21. G. and O. Family.
(Inheritable Deafness Beginning at about 16 Years of Age.)
I Gen. — Four brothers married four sisters. They were the sons of a very
light-colored man, whose father was an Englishman and
whose mother was half white and half Indian,* and of a
mulatto woman. Their wives were Fi mulattoes, their
mother having been a very black African v/ith thin lips and
nose, said to have been derived from an Abyssinian prince.
1 . The first brother, T. O., a mason, whose hair was black
and nearly straight; skin 30, 34, 10, 26 (by lamplight) ; mar-
ried E. G., who had very curly black hair; skin 22,28, 17, 33.
They had eight children (II i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8). (See fig. 4.)
2. The second brother, E. O., married the second sister,
— G., who has black, quite curly hair; skin 34, 28, 12, 26.
They had no children.
3. The third brother, J. 0., 84 years old, whose eyes are
medium brown; hair dark brown and wavy; skin 7, 39, 20,
34, could easily pass for a New England farmer (fig. 3)
and is very deaf. He married — G. , who has slightly Indian
features, hair black and straight, but slightly curly on the
ends; skin 40, 36, 20, 4. They have seven children (II
9, 10, II, 12, 13, 14, 15). (See fig. 3.)
4. The fourth brother married a fourth sister. They had
no children.
5. The brothers had a brother, F. O., who married into
another family (see Pedigree 23, I Gen.).
6. The sisters had a brother, L. G., whose hair was black
and straight; skin 32, 41, 14, 13. He married an Fi mulatto
woman, 39 years old, who had black wav}^ hair, and skin
39, 37, 10, 14. They had twelve children (II 16-27).
II Gen. — I, cT. A. O., 42 years. Hair black and nearly straight; skin 22, 36,
13, 29 (fig. 4). Has two children, both with black, slightly
wavy hair, and skin about N 30 per cent.
2, 9 . I. O. Absent.
3, 9 . G. O., 38 years. Extremel}' deaf; hair black, wavy; skin
39, 32, 13, 16.
4, cT. C. O., 36 years. Features slightly Indian; very deaf; hair
black and nearly straight; skin 30, 36, 13, 21; married, but
no children.
5, 9 . E. O. [A.], 34 years. Very deaf; eyes yellow-brown; hair
black, wavy; skin 33, 37, 15, 15. She married a medium-
colored man, C. A., son of a dark brown man but lighter
mother. He has gray eyes; medium brown, very curly
hair, and skin 37, 35, 14, 14 (by lamplight). They had
three children; only one lived (III i).
6, cf . H. O., 34 years. Twin to II 5; is like II 4; absent.
7, cT. J. O., 32 years. Features like an Indian; hair black and
straight; skin 40, 30, 15, 15 (by lampHght).
8, cf. C. O., 30 years. Deaf.
* During the Pequot war in King Philip's time, some of his tribe, including his wife
and son, were carried to Bermuda as prisoners. Old Susannah, the mother of this woman,
was one of the prisoners and claimed to be descended from King Philip.
BERMUDIAN FAMILIES. 59
9, 9 . E. O. [H.]. Resembles her mother (I 3). Hair black,
straight, but curly on ends; skin 45, 26, 9, 20. Married
O. H., a contractor, both of whose grandfathers were white.
Hair black and straight; skin 26, 38, 17, 19. They have
two children (HI 2, 3).
10, cf . E. O. Eyes dark brown; hair black, curls sHghtly at ends;
easily pass for white; skin 7, 40, 19, 34. Married a brown-
skinned woman who is now dead; they had three children
(III 4, 5, 6).
11, cf . F. O. Hair black and straight; skin 21, 41, 20, 18. Married
a dark woman from a brown-skinned family ; she has typical
negro hair; skin 53, 30, 8, 9. They have seven children
(HI 7, 8, 9, 10, II, 12, 13).
12, 9. S. O., 40 years (?). Very deaf; hair black, straight, Httle
wavy on ends; skin 26, 43, 13, 18.
13, 9. L. O. [T.], 40 years. Features somewhat Indian; hair
black, straight, but a little wavy on the ends; skin 22, 26, 21,
31. She married J. T., with wavy black hair; skin 65, 21,
4, 10. They have four children (III 14, 15, 16, 17).
14, cf . W. O., 26 years. High cheek bones, almost typical Indian
face; hair black and straight; skin 38, 40, 10, 12. He mar-
ried a medium-colored woman, one of whose grandfathers
may have been white. Her hair is black and curly; skin
40, 34, II, 15. They had five children (HI 18, 19, 20, 21, 22).
15, 9 , t 3 months.
16, cf . H. G., 22 years. Hair black, wavy; skin 43, 38, 11, 8.
17, cf . A. G., 21 years. Typical negro hair; skin like II 25.
18, cf . C. G., 20 years. Like his mother (I 6); absent.
19, 9 . E. G., 18 years. Hair black, wavy; skin 34, 39, 11, 16.
20, cf . E. G., 17 years. Hair black, straight; skin say N 30 per cent.
21, 9 . R. G., 16 years. Typical negro hair; skin 35, 29, 16, 20 (by
lamplight).
22, 9 . B. G., 14 years. Hair black and very wa\^; skin 38, 40, 14, 8.
23, 9 . E. G., 12 years. Hair dark brown, straight; skin 42, 43, 10, 5.
24, cf . J. G., 10 years. Hair black and straight; skin 56, 31, 6, 7.
25, cf . G. G., 8 years. Typical negro hair; skin 54, 28, 6, 12.
26, 9. G. G.,6years. Hair coarse, black and wavy; skin 48, 38, 7, 7.
27, 9 . B. G., 4 years. Hair dark brown and straight; skin 42, 36,
II, II.
ni Gen. — I, 9 . E. A., 4 years. Eyes gray; hair medium brown and curly;
skin 37, 35, 14, 14. Had two brothers who died at 7 and
10 weeks, respectively (fig. 4).
2, cf . P. H., 17 years. Hair black, straight; skin 57, 25, 6, 12.
3, 9 . I. H., II years. Hair black, straight; skin 42, 25, 5, 28.
4, 9 . M. O. Skin say N 27 per cent.
5, cf . L. O. Darker than sisters; absent.
6, 9 ■ I. O. Typical negro kinky hair; skin 32, 36, 14, 18.
7, 9 . W. O., 18 years. Hair black, very curly, not kinky, 52, 25,
7, 16.
8, cf . I. O., 15 years. Typical black negro hair; skin 57, 27,, 7, 13.
60 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
9, 9 . M. O., 14 years. Typical black curly hair; skin 45, 31, 10, 14.
10, cf . W. 0., II years. Hair black, wavy; skin 42, 34, 11, 13 (by
lamplight) .
11, 9 . G. O., 9 years. Hair dark brown, very wavy; skin 46, 28,
II, 15-
12, cJ". E. O., 6 years. Hair dark brown, very curly; skin 46, 28,
II, 15-
13, cT. E. O., 6 months. Hair dark brown, soft and straight, may
curl later; skin 35, 35, 10, 20. All the children of this
fraternity have, according to their mother, grown darker.
14, 9 • A. T., 16 years. A little deaf; hair black, curty; skin 25, 40,
13, 22.
15, cf^. C. T., 12 3'ears. Hair black, wavy; skin 25, 35, 15, 25.
16, 9. M.T.,8years. Hair black and quite curly; skin 27, 38, 15,20.
17, 9 . H. T., 4 years. Hair dark brown and very curly; skin 36, 30,
18, 9 . M. O., 13 years. Features somewhat Indian. Hair coarse,
black, like an Indian's, wavy; skin 40, 40, 10, 10.
19, cT. R. 0., 12 3^ears. Not seen.
20, t 14 months.
21, cf. H.0.,7years. Stutters; hair black, straight; skin 50, 27, 7, 16.
22, 9 . V. O., 5 years. Hair black, wavy; skin 50, 30, 8, 12.
Pedigree 22. T. Family.
I Gen* — In this family there are two sisters, the daughters of E. T., a
mulatto with blue eyes and dark brown, wavy hair, and his
wife, a brown-skinned woman, with black, straight hair.
There were also four medium-colored daughters and one
medium-colored son. (i) The first, T. T., who has wavy
dark brown hair and whose skin is 20, 35, 19, 26, married
W. L., a man darker than herself, with skin about N 25 per
cent, and has two daughters (II i, 2). (2) The second,
0. T., 23 years old, who has brown eyes and slightly wavy
hair, and skin 20, 33, 16, 31, married J. A., a fair white
man with blue eyes, whose skin is say N 5 per cent. They
have three children (II 3, 4, 5).
l\Gen. — I, 9 • L. L., 12 years. Hair dark brown and very curly; skin
22, 58, 12, 8.
2, 9. G. L., 5 years. Hair dark brown and slightly wavy; skin
30, 44, IS, II.
3, cf . B. A., 6 years. Eyes and hair light brown; would pass for
white; skin say N 10 per cent.
4, d^. M. A., 4 3^ears. Eyes blue and hair flaxen; very fair; skin
2, 31, 20, 47.
5, cf . R. A., 2 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, golden
and curly on ends; skin 9, 31, 18, 42.
* The mother's father's sister of the sisters of the first generation was a mulatto. She
married a white man and had a Hght-colored daughter, who married in turn a white man
and had a son (T. F.). This son, who would pass anywhere for white, married a woman
who also passes for white and has a number of children, none of whom show signs of colored
blood.
BERMUDIAN FAMILIES. 61
Pedigree 23. J. Family.
I Gen. — Two children were bom of a mulatto father, ]. ]., and a colored
mother, who would pass for white.
1. A son, A. J., who had wavy, black hair and a dark
brown mustache with a reddish tinge, and .skin 18, 34, 17. 6g,
married E. O., daughter of F. O., a mulatto with gray eyes
(see Pedigree 21, I Gen.), and his wife (a typical bro\\Ti-
skinned woman, with possibly a little white blood; skin
32, 38, 13, 17). E. O. has very dark brown, straight hair;
skin 38, 41, II, 10. They had eight children (II i, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8). E. O. has a sister, A. O. [B.] whose hair is black and
wavy; skin 27, 45, 16, 12. There are others in the same
fraternity with brown skin and wavy hair. (See figs. 7 and 8.)
2. The daughter, E. J. (eyes dark blue; hair dark brown
and wavy; might pass for white; skin 20, 30, 21, 29), mar-
ried A. P., a man whose father was mulatto and whose
mother was brown-skinned. Four sons were bom to them
(II 9, 10, II, 12).
II Geyi. — The parents of the following somewhat exceptional fraternity have
a good reputation and the attitude of the mother favors the
conclusion of the legitimacy of all the children (fig. 8) :
1, 9 . H. J. Hair black, wavy; skin 20, 45, 20, 15.
2, 9 . D. J., 15 3'ears. Eyes gray, v*dth a little yellow pigment;
hair flaxen in babyhood, now light yellow-brown, and curly
on the ends; easily passes for white; skin 17, 35, 20, 28.
3, cf. H. J., 12 years. Eyes brown; hair very dark brown and
straight; skin 29, 27, 18, 26.
4, 9. M. J., II years. Eyes light yellow-brown; hair medium
brown and very wa\y; skin 28, 40, 17, 15.
5, 9 . M. J., 9 years. Eyes brown; hair dark brown, and a little
wavy on ends; skin 35, 33, 15, 17.
6, 9 . W. J., 4 years. Eyes brown; hair dark brown, wavy; skin
36, 37, II, 16.
A. J., t 15 months. As light as II 2, but grew darker.
E. J., I year. Typical negro hair; skin 54, 35, 5, 6.*
7.
&.
8,
0 .
9.
&.
10,
cf.
A. P., II years. Hair brown and fairly straight; brown skin.
L. P., 7 years. Eyes blue; hair formerly dark brown and
straight, now light brown and very curly; skin 18, 35, 20, 27.
11, cf . I- P-, 3 years. Ej^es dark blue ; hair fonnerly a darker brown.
now Hght brown, golden about the face and curly; skin
24, 35, 19, 22.
12, cT. G. P., 17 months. Has spinal trouble, is puny and anaemic;
eyes brown; hair dark brown and curly; skin 15, 21, 22, 42.
Pedigree 24. P. Family.
Fi Mulatto X Medium Colored.
I Gen. — There were two colored women who were the daughters of a white
father with blue eyes and light hair and a brown-skinned
mother, (i) One of them, B. G. (eyes brown; hair dark
* Mother called her the "black baby" and wonders if a foolish colored girl who was
living with them during l;er pregnancy marked the child. Father not angry with her,
but says the baby takes after his grandmother.
5
62 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
brown and wavy; skin 33, 35, 14, 18), married — P., said to
be of the same color ; eyes gray or blue ; hair black and wavy.
They have two children (II 1,2). (2) The other, A. G. (29
years old, eyes black, hair black, and straight; would pass
for a brunet; skin 7, 42, 20, 31), married E. H., who has
black wavy hair; skin say N 40 per cent. They have three
children (II 3, 4. s)-
II Gen. — I, cf . R. P., 4 years. Eyes clear blue; hair flaxen, curls, becoming
medium brown near his head; easily pass for a white child;
skin 5, 40, 18, 37. _
2, 9 . M. P., 2 years. Hair medium brown and straight, lighter
on its curly ends; skin 34, 35, 15, 16.
3, 9 . O. H., 4 years. Eyes black; hair soft mediimi brown, a bit
curly on ends; skin 5, 35, 24, 36.
4, 9 . N. H., 2 years. Eyes brown; hair brown, wavy; skin 5, 38,
24, 33-
5, 9 . M. H., 4 months. Skin 5, 47, 20, 28.
Pedigree 25. B. Family.
A Mixture of Colored, Indian, and Irish Blood; Red Hair Segregated in
Youngest Generation.
I Gen. — Five children were bom of J. B., whose father was an Irishman and
whose mother was colored. He has black, straight hair
and skin, say N 10 per cent, and his wife is a light-colored
woman; skin say N 20 per cent.
1. The first daughter, E. B. (with features strikingly
Indian, about 6 feet tall, wiry, high cheek bones, eyes dark
brown; hirr black and almost straight; skin 23, 43, 18, 16),
married J. M., the son of a Scotchman and his wife, niece
of J. B. described above. She had reddish hair (from an
Irish ancestor) and very fair skin. J. M.'s eyes were slightly
brown; hair dark brown and straight; skin 7, 29, 30, 34.
They had three children (II i, 2, 3). (See fig. 6.)
2. The second daughter, A. B. [C.] (eyes dark brown;
hair dark brown, wavy; skin 17, 40, 20, 23), married E. C,
son of white man and a woman whose parents were both
colored. He has dark brown eyes; hair dark brown and
nearly straight; skin 20, 37, 20, 23. They have four chil-
dren (II 4, 5, 6, 7). (See fig. 5.)
3. One son, A. B., skin said to be N 20 per cent, married
a medium-colored woman whose father was brown-skinned
and curly-haired and mother mulatto. She has dark brown
eyes; black, wavy hair; skin 28, 46, 10, 16. They have
three children (II 8, 9, 10).
4. Another son, skin say N 17 per cent, married into
another family (see Pedigree 33, I Generation).
5. A third son, A. B. (eyes greenish; hair dark brown and
kinky; otherwise would pass for white), skin 6, 35, 21, 38;
married a medium-colored woman, with a very broad, flat
nose; hair dark brown and very wavy; skin 35, 40, 13, 12.
They have three children (II 11, 12, 13).
BERMUDIAN FAMILIES. 63
A relative on the maternal side, S. M., son of a medium-
colored man and a woman who would pass for white (her
father having been white and her mother one-fourth white)
has skin say N 2 5 per cent. Married a woman, the daughter
of a nearly white man and white woman; hair dark brown
and straight; skin 18, 43, 18, 21. They have three children
(II 14, 15, 16).
11 Gen. — I, 9. C. M., 13 years. Eyes sHghtly brown, like father's; hair
golden in babyhood, now light brown and curls about her
face; skin, which freckles a little, 16, 44, 20, 20.
2, 9. E. M., 9 j^ears. Eyes yellow-green; hair bright red and
perfectly straight; freckles badly; skin 6, 21, 20, 53.
3, 9 . J. AI., 5 years. Eyes medium brown; hair medium brown and
wavy; skin 15, 44, 21, 20.
4, 9 . P. C, 14 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black and wavy;
v;ould pass for white; clear skin 5, 31, 23, 41.
5, 9 . K. C, 10 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown and
perfectly straight; skin 15, 39, 20, 26.
6, c?'. A. C, 7 years. Eyes medium brown; hair "ginger-colored,"
approaching reddish, wavy; skin 19, 39, 19, 23.
7, o^- 3 years. Eyes dark brown; hair formerly darker, now Hght
brown with golden curled ends; skin 16, 41, 20, 23.
8, 9 . G. B., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair fairly light brown,
very curly; skin 20, 45, 15, 20.
9, 9. F. B.,4years. Resembles sister (II 8) in eyes, hair, and skin.
10, 9 . I. B., 9 months. Hair when bom black and straight, but
in its place came bright red, straight hair like II 2 ; skin
10, 45, 16, 29.
11, 9 . D. B., 10 years. Hair black when born, but now dark brown
and very wavy; skin 34, 42, 13, 11.
12, 9 . H. B., 7 years. Hair dark brown, curly; skin 28, 45, 12, 15.
13, 9 . V. B., 5 years. Hair dark brown, curly; skin 22, 44, 15, 19.
14, <f. E. M., 5 years. Eyes dark brown ; hair medium brown, curly;
skin 29, 50, 10, II.
15, 9 . L. M . , 4 years. Eyes light brown ; hair medium brown, wa\'y ;
skin 30, 45, 15, 10.
16, 9 . M. M., 2 years. Eyes brown; hair medium brown, light on
the ends; skin 27, 45, 15, 13.
Pedigree 26. P. Family.
I Gen. — J. P., a light-colored man (son of a brown-skinned man and his
wife who was three-fourths wliite), has dark bro\^^l, com-
paratively straight hair; skin say N 20 per cent. Married
a liK'ht-colored woman with gray eyes and medium brown,
slightly wavy hair, the daughter of a white soldier and a
mulatto. Skin 16.33,22,29 (fig- 9). They were the parents
of five children. (See fig. 10.)
64 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
II Gen. — I, 9 . E. P., lo years. Eyes brown; hair grown dark since baby-
hood, and is very curly; skin 21, 45, 11, 23.
2, 9 . I. P-, 8 years. Eyes brown; hair dark brown and wavy;
freckles a little; skin 18, 42, 18, 22.
3, 9 . M. P., 5 years. Eyes brown; hair dark brown, wavy; skin
22, 40, 17, 21.
4, cT. J. P., 3 years. Eyes brown; hair medium brown, wavy; skin
24, 43, 16, 17.
5, cf. 3 weeks. Skin 17, 36, 15, 32 (fig. 9).
Pedigree 27. S. Family.
(Includes the offspring of Fi hybrids.)
I Gen. — There were ten children whose father, W. S., was an Fi mulatto with
skin say N 27 per cent, and whose mother was a woman
with brown eyes, black, straight hair, and skin 8, 30, 19, 43.
1, The first son, W. S. (with typical negro hair; skin 41, 30,
14, 15), married into another family (see Pedigree 12, I
generation) .
2 and 3, cf . J. S. and R. S.; both have wavy black hair and brown
skin.
4. The fourth son, W. S., hair black and straight; would pass
for white ; skin say N 5 per cent ; married a woman whose
father was brown-skinned and whose mother was mulatto.
Her eyes are brown ; hair black and nearly straight ; would
pass for a brunet; skin 5, 35, 14, 46. They have six chil-
dren, all of whom except the twins had light hair which
became darker (II i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).
5. 9 . C. S. Has black, straight hair; skin dark-colored; married.
6. A daughter, H. S. [J.] (eyes brown; hair dark brown and curly;
skin fair, 7,37, 10, 46), married R. J., a light-colored man,
with brown eyes; sldn say N 12 per cent. They are the
parents of seven children (II 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13).
7. Another son, F. S., 31 years (eyes blue; hair light brown and
slightly curly, could pass for white; skin 14, 42, 17, 27),
married a light-colored woman ; eyes light brown ; hair dark
brown and wavy; skin 18, 45, 15, 22. They have three
children (II 14, 15, 16).
8. Another daughter, M. S. (eyes light brown; hair dark brown and
very curly; skin 16, 37, 19, 28), married a man, H. T., who
is a brother of F. S.'s wife (I 7). He has light brown eyes;
hair dark brown and curly; skin 5, 35, 14, 46. Their son,
H. T,, is 20 months old; eyes gray; hair light brown, golden
on the ends, but growing darker; sldn 5, 32, 17, 46.
9. The last son is A. S., 22 years; eyes gray, with little brown in
them; hair wavy; skin 27, 4, 15, 54.
10, 9 . M. S., 34 years. Medium-colored.
II Gen. — I, 9. M. S., 13 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown and
very curly, shows negro blood; skin 9, 38, 20, 23.
2, 9 . V. S., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 7, 35, 19, 39.
3, cf. E. S., 9 years. Eyes brown; hair medium brown, slightly
wavy; skin 9, 41, 14, 36.
BERMUDIAN FAMILIES. 65
4, cT. W. S., 6 years. Eyes dark brown: hair light brown, wavy;
could easily pass for white; skin 4, 40, 16, 40.
5 and 6, cf. A. S., 9 . A. S., t 4 months. Twins; said to have had
dark brown hair and fair skin.
7, cf . A. J., iS years. Eyes gray; skin say N 7 per cent.
8, 9 . V. J., 16 years. Eyes brown; hair black, wavy; skin of a
yellow medium color.
9, 9. B. J., 13 years. Eyes blue gray; hair light brown, very curly.
10, cf . A. J., 12 years. Eyes gray; hair black, curly; skin say N 20
per cent.
11, 9. A.J.,7years. Eyes black; hair black, wavy; skin 23, 40, 15, 22.
12, 9. P. J., 4 years. Eyes brown; hair light brown, wavy; skin
19, 35, 20, 26.
13, cf . H. J., 2 years. Eyes brown; hair brown, curly; skin 16, 44,
14, 26.
14, 9 . C. S., 4 years. Eyes dark blue; when bom hair was nearly
black, became lighter, now growing darker, a medium
brown, lighter about the face, and curly; skin 14, 38, 20, 28.
15, c^. C. S., 2% years. Eyes dark blue; hair like II 14, except
wa\'y; skin 18, 45, 15, 22.
16, 9 . G. S., 3 months. Eyes blue; hair medium brown; skin 5, 40,
15. 40.
Pedigree 28. P. Family.
I Gen. — H. A. P., 38 years, the son of a white man, I. P. (a white Bermudian,
possibly of Spanish origin, who had dark eyes and dark
straight hair), and of a fair-skinned woman (whose father
w'as white and mother colored) who has a broad, typical
nose; eyes dark brown; hair once black and kinky, now
white; skin 10, 45, 16, 29. H. A. P. has heavy features;
dark eyes; black straight hair; skin 9, 36, 15, 40. He mar-
ried a woman, A. B. [P.], whose father was a white man, a
soldier, with gray eyes, and dark, straight hair, and whose
mother was colored and had also a blue-eyed son. A. B. P.
is 33 years old; eyes gray; hair dark brown and wavy;
skin 10, 47, 15, 28. They have two children.
II Gen. — I, 9. C. P., II years. Eyes dark brown; hair like her father's,
but slightly wavy on the ends; skin 18, 46, 14, 22.
2, cf. S. P., 9 years. Eyes h'ght brown; hair medium brown,
straight: could pass for white, except for shape of his
mouth and lips; skin 10, i?:, 20, 32.*
Pedigree 29. P. Family.
I Gen. — A. F., 53 years, an Englishman \nth clear blue eyes; hair medium
brown and perfectly straight; mustache sandy; skin 5. 29,
27, 39; married a ncgress with typical negro features and
hair; skin 45, 40, 7, 8. Eight children were bom to them.
(See fig. 12.)
* The mother says it is difficult to get these children educated. She can not send
them to the white school, and at the colored one they are called " half- whites " and teased
by the other children. This is a very respectable family.
66 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
II Gen. — I, cf . D. F., 35 years. Eyes gray; hair dark brown and curly,
shows his negro blood; skin 5, 40, 23, 32. He married a
Hght-colored woman, the daughter of a light-colored man
with skin say N 25 per cent, and of a light-colored woman
whose skin is say N 15 per cent. She has dark eyes, very
wavy black hair, and skin 16, 45, 16, 23. They have six
children (III i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).
2, cf. G. F. Eyes gray; hair straight; absent from home.
3, 9 . L. F. Eyes dark; hair wavy, like II 8.
4, cf. C. F. Said to be like II 8.
5, 9 . A. F. [D.], 28 years. Ej^es dark brown; hair black and wavy;
skin 20, 40, 18, 22, married F. D., whose mother was an
Englishwoman and whose father was light-colored. F. D.
has good features; eyes dark gray; hair dark brown with a
very slight wave; reddish mustache; pass for white; skin 5,
30, 12, 53. They had six children (III 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12).
6, cf. F. F., 32 years. Eyes gray-blue ; typical negro; dark brown,
curly hair; skin 8, 44, 17, 31. He married a fair-skinned
woman, 26 years old, whose father is very fair, skin say N 5
per cent, the son of a white man and a woman with skin say
N 13 per cent. She has good features; blue-gray eyes and
dark brown hair, curling slightly about her face. She freckles
considerably; skin 8, 41, 22, 29. They are the parents of
five children (III 13, 14, 15, 16, 17). (See fig. 12.)
7, cf. A. F., 27 years. Eyes dark gray; typical black, curly negro
hair; skin 16, 46, 19, 19. Married the sister of the wife of
II 6. She is 21 years old; eyes greenish-brown; hair black
and wavy; skin 36, 45, 11, 8. They have two daughters
(III 18, 19). (See fig. 12.)
8, 9 . E. F., 18 years. Eyes dark; hair dark brown, v.^avy; skin
23, 39, 18, 20. (See fig. 12.)
9, 9 . A. F. [F.], 37 years. Sister to wives of II 6, 7. Eyes dark
brown; typical dark brown negro hair; skin 22, 43, 15, 20.
She married her second cousin, P. F., who resembles III
24. They are the parents of six children (III 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25). (See fig. 12.)
Ill Gen. — I, 9. H. F., n years. Eyes blue in babyhood, now gray; hair
very dark brown when bom, now a little lighter, only
slightly wavy; skin 18, 42, 19, 21.
2, cf . C. F., 9 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 22, 45, IS, 18.
3, cf . R. F., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown when
bom, now a medium brown and curly; skin 24, 50, 12, 14.
4, cf. G. F., 4 years. Eyes dark brown; hair flaxen when bom,
but now a light brown and almost reddish in color, curly;
could easily pass for white; skin 7, 36, 15, 42.
5, d^ . A. F., 3 years. Eyes dark brown; hair formerly darker, now a
light brown and golden on the curly ends ; skin 18, 42, 19,21.
6, cf . W. F., 6 months. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown,
straight; skin s, 4°, 23, 32.
7, 9 . A. D., t. 6 years. A very fair baby, which grew a little
darker, like III 11.
BERMUDIAN FAMILIES. 67
8, cT. W. D., lo years. Eyes dark gray; hair dark brown, straight;
has grown lighter in skin color since birth ; skin 19,41,15,25.
9, cf . H. D., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair darker when he was
bom, now dark brown and ver>' curly; skin 19, 41, 15, 25.
xo, 9. E. D., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown since
birth, slightly wavy^; skin 19, 38, 15, 28.
11, 9 . E. D., 4 years. Good features; eyes dark gray; hair golden
with white ends in babyhood, now a light brown and per-
fectly straight; would pass anyw'here as a white child; skin
3. 29. 17. SI-
12, 9 . I. D., 2 years. Nose broad and flat; eyes dark gray; beauti-
ful wavy red hair; would easily pass for white; fair skin
5, 35, 20, 40.
13, 9 . C. F., 10 years. Fairly good features; eyes formerly blue,
now gray; hair in babyhood golden, now a yellow-brown
and wavy; freckles considerably; would pass for white;
skin 8, 42, 21, 29.
14, cf . S. F., 9 years.
15, cf. J. F., 7 years. Typical broad negro nose; eyes light green-
brown; hair lighter in babyhood, now a medimn brown and
wavy; might pass for white; skin 8, 37, 18, 37.
16, 9. D. F., 4 years. Eyes medium brown; hair since birth
medium brown and nearly straight, slight curl on the ends;
skin ID, 40, 18, 32.
17, cf . A. F., 2 years. Eyes dark gray; hair hght brown and curly
on the golden ends; skin 19, 40, 15, 26.
18, 9 . I. F., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, in ringlets; skin
24, 45, 14, 17,
19, 9 . I. F., 3 months. Eyes very dark gray; hair dark brown and
straight, will probably curl; skin 11, 35, 20, 34.
20, cf . H. F., 14 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black in babyhood;
now dark brown and rather wavy ; his skin, which freckles
a little, is 16, 43, 16, 25.
21, 9 . M. F., 12 years. Eyes and hair are typically negro; she has
the darkest skin in the family; skin 21, 38, 16, 25.
22, cf . L. F., II years. Eyes dark blue; hair darker in babyhood,
now reddish-brown and curly; is much freckled and looks
like a little Irishman; skin 15, 36, 18, 31.
23, cf . E. F., 9 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark bro\N'n and very
curly; skin 17, 42, 15, 26.
24, cf . A. F., 7 years. Nose broad and flat; eyes dark blue-gray;
hair darker in babyhood, now a medium brown and very
wavy; skin 16, 40, 15, 29.
25, 9 . P. F., 5 years. Eyes greenish-brown; hair medium brown, but
lighter about the face, and is very curly; skin 11, 45, 15, 29.
Pedigree 30. H. Family.
I Gen. — I. C. H., 38 years, with brown eyes, black curly hair that is quite
typically negro, but with skin 6, 29, 20, 45. Married a
woman 34 years old whose father was an Irishman with
68 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
gray eyes and brown hair, and whose mother was an Fi
mulatto; skin 32, 44, 11, 13. She has brown eyes and very
wavy auburn hair. She would pass for white, for her skin
is decidedly freckled, and is 5, 35, 15, 45. They have four
children.
2. C. P., a sister of wife of C. H., is 25 years old. She has gray
eyes; curly flaxen hair which shows her negro blood; skin
chalky wliite like II 3, say N 5 per cent.
II Gen. — I, 9 . V. H., 13 years. Hair heavy dark brown and wavy; typical
brunet complexion.
2, 9 . V. H., 9 years. Hair lighter in babyhood, now dark brown
and curly; skin say N 5.
3, cT. F. H., 7 years. Eyes brown; hair straight and red; sldn
is freckled and unusually white, almost chalky, 5, 21,
13, 61.
4, 9. T. H., 4months. Hair dark brown, straight; skin 7,44, 17, 32.
Pedigree 31. B. Family.
I Gen. — J. T. B., son of J. T. B., an Englishman (with blue eyes and light
brown hair), and a negress with the typical negro features,
eyes and hair; skin 41, 34, 10, 15. He is a fisherman, with
brown eyes and black straight hair; heavily burned by
the sun, lightest skin of arm 25, 32, 18, 25, natural color
lighter, say N 18 per cent. He married a woman whose
father was a brown-skinned man with one white grand-
father, and whose mother might pass for white. His wife's
hair is black and wavy; skin 26, 44, 16, 14. Eight children
were bom to them.
II Gen. — I, cf . J. T. B., 20 years. Broad nose; eyes light brown; hair light
brown and straight; tanned and freckled; skin 18, 37,
18,27.
2, 9 . D. B. [R.], 17 years. Hair medium brown, curly; skin say
N 20 per cent.
3, 9 . t. 10 months. Hair like its mother's; brown skin.
4, <^ . W. B., 14 years. Eyes black; hair black and straight; his
fair skin is quite freckled. Except for broad nose, he would
pass for white.
5, cf. R. B., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown; would
pass for white except for his nose; freckled skin 16, 35,
20, 29.
6, 9 . D. B., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, straight,
darkest in the family; skin 31, 43, 13, 13.
7, 9 . J. B., 7 years. Hair medium brown, but golden about her
face, with curly ends; skin 29, 43, 13, 15.
8, 9. E. B., 5 years. Eyes brown; hair medium brown, very
sHghtly wavy; skin 19, 39, 14, 28.
Pedigree 32.
White X Black.
I Geii. — E. P., an English soldier with blue eyes and sandy hair, married a
negress with typical negro hair; skin 41, 39, 10, 10. They
have three children.
BERMUDIAN FAMILIES. 69
II Gen. — I, 9 . J. P., lo years. Hair formerly flaxen, now light brown and
curly; skin 25, 47, 15, 13.
2, cf. G. P., 8 years.
3, cf. I. P., 6 years. Hair lighter in babyhood, now medium brown
and curly; skin 41, 40, 10, g.
Pedigree 33. L. Family.
I Gen. — Six children were bom of J. L., a man who is supposed to be pure
white. He has brown eyes and black straight hair. His
w4fe was the daughter of a white man and a light-colored
woman. She has blue eyes, dark-brown wavy hair, and
would pass for white; skin 13, 40, 18, 29.
1. The first son, B. L., has curly red hair and compara-
tively fair skin, say N 5 per cent. He married a light-
colored woman, who had an almost white father and dark
mother. She has the typical negro hair, and skin 17, 40,
18, 25. They have seven children (II i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
(See fig. 13.)
2. The second son, A. L., has red curly hair. His sister
M. L. also has red curly hair, and his brother J. L. has wavy
brown hair. These three children closely resemble white
persons.
3. The fourth son, W. L., has black hair which waves a
little.
4. A second daughter, H. L. [B.], who has light brown
eyes, browm, straight hair, and skin 15, 42, 18, 25, married
A. B. (see Pedigree 25, I generation). He has gray eyes
and curly black hair; skin N 17 per cent. They have four
children (II 8, 9, 10, 11).
II Gen. — I, cf . G. L., 19 years. Eyes brown, hair brown, wavy; skin 22, 41,
15, 22.
2, cf . G. L., 16 years. Eyes brown; hair brown, straight; skin
18, 40, 15, 27.
3, cf . I. L., 13 years. Eyes brown; hair dark brown, wavy; skin
22, 34, 16, 28.
4, cf. S. L., 10 years. Eyes brown; typical negro hair; skin 26. 40,
13, 21.
5, cf . G. L., 8 years. Eyes brown; hair brown, and somewhat
curly; skin 18, 38, 18, 26.
6, 9 . I. L., 4 3'ears. Hair light browTi, curly; skin 18, 35. 17,
30.
7, cf . F. L., I year. Hair red and straight; his mother said all of
her children had such hair in infancy; skin 8, 40, 20, 32 .
8, cf . A. B., 1 8 years. Eyes gray-brown; hair light browm and
curly.
9, cf . A. B., 10 years. Eyes gray; hair brown and straight; fairer
than his mother.
10, 9. S. B., 7 years. Eyes brown; hair light brown, wavy; skin
very fair.
11, cf . R. B., 20 months. Eyes bro\\Ti; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 13. 38, 16, 33.
70 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Pedigree 34. K. Family.
I Gen. — J, W. K., a Portuguese, married E. G., a rather dark-colored
woman, who has the typical negro hair, and skin 40, 40,
12, 8. Three children were bom to them.
11 Gen. — I, 9. V. K., 7 years. Her straight, light brown hair is growing
darker; skin 18, 47, 17, 18.
2, 9 . B. K., 5 years. Hair dark brown, curly; skin 30, 45, 15, 10.
3, d^. J. A. K., I year. Hair dark brown, curly; skin 22, 47, 17, 14.
Pedigree 35. B. Family.
C. B., a brown-skinned man, say N 30, married B. B., a brown-skinned
woman, 36, 37, 18, 9, and had a son, J. B., 5 years, skin 45, 34,
14, 7 ; and a daughter, D. B., 3 years, skin 36, 37, 14, 13.
Pedigree 36. C. Family.
I Gen. — R. C, the son of a man a "little lighter" than himself and his
white wife, has the typical negro hair and skin 25, 33, 20, 22,
He married a brown-skinned woman, by whom he had
seven children (H i, 2).
II Gen. — I, cf. J. C, a doctor, who attended a medical school in Tennessee
and is the authority for this family pedigree, has rather
typical negro hair, but a fair skin (14, 32, 20, 34). His wife
is the daughter of a white man and a woman whose skin
is say N 30 per cent. She has black, straight hair, and
skin 16, 34, 21, 29. They have four children (III 1,2,3, 4)-
2 , cT . H . C. Has skin say N 2 o per cent ; and his wife, skin say N 45
per cent. They have seven children (III 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11).
There are in addition four children about the color of
the father and one about N 20 per cent.
Ill Gen. — I, 9 . E, C, 12 years. Hair black, somewhat wavy; skin 30, 38,
17, 15-
2, cf . B. C, 10 years. Hair black, curly; skin 32, 43, 13, 12.
3, cT. E. C, 7 jxars. Eyes greenish-brown; hair formerly reddish,
now a medium brown, and curly; skin 4, 22, 16, 58.
A, & • IM. C, 5 years. Soft medium brown curls which are growing
darker; skin 4, 22, 16, 58.
5, d^. Between father and mother in skin color.
6, 9 . Resembles her mother in skin color.
7, cf . C. C. Kinky hair; typical African; skin 68, 21, 5, 6.
8, 9 . E.G. Hair dark brown and very wavy; lightest member of
the family; skin 33, 46, 14, 7.
9-1 1 . Three other children resemble their father in skin color.
A sister of the wife in the I Generation, a brown-skinned
woman, married a white man. Their colored daughter
married a white man and their eight children would all
pass for white. One of the boys has blue eyes.
Pedigree 37. H. Family.
I Gen. — A. H., a typical English soldier, 40 years old, with blue eyes and
light brown hair, skin 5, 30, 23, 42, married a typical brown-
skinned woman (skin N 40) , and had by her three children.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 71
II Gen. — I, cf . B. H., 5 years. Hair medium brown, wavy; skin 28, 36, 14, 22.
2, 9 . A. H., 3 years. Frizzy brown hair; skin 16, 43, 15, 26.
3, o^. W. H., 7 months. Soft, dark brown, straight hair; skin 10,
50. 17. 23.
Pedigree 38. T. Family.
I Gen. — C. T., with skin say N 20 per cent, the son of T. T. (a white man)
and a colored woman, whose skin is 45, 32, 10, 13 ; married
a medium-colored woman whose skin is 26, 43, 17, 14; has
a son and daughter.
11 Gen. — I, 9. E. T., 3 years. Hair reddish-brown and very curly; skin
30, 37, 13, 20.
2, d^. H. T., 16 months. Hair reddish-golden and growing darker;
skin 6, 36, 12, 46.
II. JAMAICAN FAMILIES.
(Abridged field notes of Florence H. Danielson, Field Worker, Eugenics Record Office.)
Pedigree i. H. Family.
I Gen. — T. H., a medium-colored man, son of a man of colored origin whose
skin was about N 17 and a woman whose skin was say
N 31. He has skin 30, 34, 19, 17. He has been married
twice. By his first wife, a very black woman, he had one
child (II i). The second wife, a lighter woman, whose
father's skin was say N 30, and whose mother's skin was
say N 41, has hair which has lost its "kink," and skin
41, 42, 6, II. She bore him three children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . V. H., 13 years. Kinky hair; skin 40, 40, 10, 10.
2, cf. t. 13 months. Dark, like II i.
3, cf. E. H., 5 years. Hair curly but not kinky; lighter when
younger; skin 35, 35, 16, 14.
4, 9. D. H., 2 years. Hair curly but not kinky; skin 35, 36, 16, 13.
Pedigree 2. T. Family.
I Gen. — A. T., son of a "sambo" man and a "quadroon," has curly black
hair, and skin 26, 40, 15, 19. He married an Fi mulatto, the
daughter of an Englishman and a black woman. She has
rather coarse, dark brown hair that curls very slightly;
skin 36, 39, 4, II. They have two children.
II Gen. — I, cf . 15/^ years. Said to be like II 2.
2, 9 . R. T., 14 years. Hair rather long, dark brown, and wavy;
skin 30, 44, 12, 14.
Pedigree 3. D. Family,
I Gen. — ^W. I. D., son of a pure white Jew and a verj'- black African woman,
has black, slightly curly hair; skin 33, 42, 13, 12. By a
very dark brown woman, skin 58, 29, 6, 7, he had. before
his marriage, one illegitimate daughter (II i). His own
wife (who had a white grandfather and a father fairer than
she, with finer, straighter hair, and a mother who was
darker than she) has long, wavy hair, and skin 35,41,13,11.
She is the mother of six children.
72 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
II Gen. — I, 9. E. D., the illegitimate daughter. Typical negro hair; skin
36, 46, 6, 12.
2, 9 . M. D., 15 years. Hair dark brown, wavy; skin 40, 42, 10, 8.
3, 9 . E. D., 12 years. Hair dark brown, wavy; skin 33, 47, 11, 9.
4, cf . G. D., 95^ years. Hair dark brown, very curly, but not
kinky; skin 35, 42, 12, 11.
5, cf . V. D., 7 years. Hair black and decidedly kinky; skin 44,
37. 9, lo-
6, 9 . M. D., 5 years. Hair rather light brown, curly; skin 34, 46,
12, 8.
7, cf . E. D., 10 months. Hair medium brov/n, curly; skin 33, 45,
13. 9-
Pedigree 4. B. Family.
I Gen. — R. B., who had both grandfathers white, has brown eyes, black,
almost straight hair, and skin 15, 41, 20, 24. He married
a woman who had both grandfathers white and both
grandmothers black. She has hazel or grayish eyes; very
curly, dark brown hair; and skin 20, 45, 16, 19. They
have seven children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . Eyes hazel; hair dark brown and somewhat curly; skin 11,
51, 20, 18. Married R. E., the son of a quadroon man and
a black woman. He has brown eyes; nearly typical negro
hair; and skin 25, 37, 20, 18. Four children were bom to
them (III I, 2, 3, 4). (See Pedigree 7, II generation i.)
2, d^. H. B., 30 years. Skin say N 27.
3, 9 . M. B., 26 years. Darkest of the girls; skin say N 23.
4, cf . R. B., 24 years. Eyes Hght brown or hazel; hair dark brown
and curly; skin 17, 44, 15, 24.
5, 9 . B. B., 22 years. Eyes medium brown; hair medium brown,
very ctirly; skin 20, 45, 18, 17.
6, 9. M. B., 20 years. Eyes gray; hair dark brown, very curly;
fairest in the family; skin 10, 49, 16, 25.
7, cf. L. B., 17 years. Eyes light brown; almost typical negro
hair; darkest in the family; skin 27, 41, 16, 16.
Ill Gen. — I, 9. G. E., 10 years. Eyes dark brown; decided negroid dark
brown, curly hair; skin 40, 40, 10, 10.
2, cf . C. E., 8 years. Eyes light brown; hair medium brown,
curly; skin 35, 36, 15, 14. _
3, 9 . L. E., 4^ years. Eyes light brown or hazel; hair light
brown, wavy; skin 15, 51, 18, 16.
4, 9 . L. E., 2 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, wavy;
skin say N 15.
Pedigree 5. W. Family.
I Gen. — A medium-colored woman, the daughter of a Jew and a black or
"sambo" woman, had children by three different men.
She has very ciu"ly black hair, and skin 30, 40, 15, 15. By
a "sambo" man, skin say N 40, she had one son with
typical curly hair, and skin 35, 42, 12, 11. ByanFi mulatto
she had a daughter (Hi). By another man who was very
fair, being the son of a white man and a "mustafino" or
very hght woman, she had another daughter (II 2).
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 73
II Gen. — I, 9 . E. H. Eyes light brown; hair dark brown, very curly; skin
30, 40, 16, 14, married a man with white blood but with
skin darker than N 40. They have one daughter who has
brown eyes; dark brown wavy hair; skin 40, 40, 10, 10.
2, 9 . Hair dark brown and quite straight, skin 30, 40, 15, 15; mar-
ried E. Y., a dark-skinned man, say N 40, by whom she had
four children (III 1,2,3,4). By a Jew she had a son with
yellow-brown eyes; black, wavy hair; skin 14, 25, 23, 38.
E. Y., the lawful husband of this woman, had a first
cousin on the maternal side, a woman with dark brown,
curly hair; skin 16, 48, 20, 16. She married a negro. — C,
skin say N 55, by whom she had five children (III 5, 6,
7.8,9)-
III Gen.— I, 9 . L. Y., 18 years. Skin say N 20.
2, 9 . V. Y., 16 years. Nearly typically negro dark brown, very
curly hair; skin 30, 36, 16, 18.
3, cf. B. Y., 15 years. Eyes brown; hair dark bro\^^l, straight;
skin 20, 44, 17, ig.
4, 9 . H. Y., 4 years. Hair dark brown, wavy; skin 34, 41, 14, n.
5, 9 . M. C, 12 years. Said to have curly hair; skin say N 30.
6, cf . E. C, 8 years. Eyes brown; hair curly; skin 15, 47, 22, 16.
7, 9 . L. C, 6 years. Hair crurly; skin 31, 44, 14, 11.
8, 9 . L. C, 3 years. Eyes brown; hair curly; skin 15, 50, 18, 17.
9, 9 . M. C, I year. Eyes brown; hair curly; skin 18, 50, 17, 15.
Pedigree 6.
This pedigree is fragmentary.
Pedigree 7. E. Family.
I Gen. — A. E., a man who would almost pass for white, being the son of a
Jew and a fair-colored woman, married a typical negress
with pure black typical eyes and hair; skin 46, 39, S, 7.
They have fourteen children, six of whom are described.
(His descendants by a "sambo" woman are given in Pedi-
gree 8, I Generation.)
II Gen. — I, cf . R. E. Eyes brown; nearly typical negro hair; skin 25, 37,
20, 18. Married — B. (see Pedigree 4, I Generation, for
the description of the wife and the children) .
2, 9. F. E. [A.]. Eyes medium brown; hair black, wa\y; skin
35. 35. IS. 15- Married — A., the son of a quadroon and a
woman a little darker than II 2. He has black, straight
hair; sldn say N 40. They have three cliildren (III i, 2, 3).
3, 9 . F. E. Hair dark brown, quite wavy; skin 34, 40, 15, 11.
4, cf . H. E. Skin say N 28, married a medium-colored woman
with light brown eyes; brown, curly hair; not quite the
t3-pically negro kind; skin 28, 42, 17, 13. They have six
children (III 4, 5. 6, 7. 8, 9)-
5, cf . A. E. Unwilling to have color recorded; sldn probably like
II I, say N 25. He married — M., the daughter of a man
who was half Jew and of a colored woman. She has skin
10, 51, 17, 22. They have three children (III 10, 11, 12).
74 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
6, 9 . M. E. [M.]. Nearly typical negro hair; skin 32, 43, 11, 14.
Married — M., the brother of the wife of II 5. He has skin
say N 40. They have five children (III 13, 14, 15, 16, 17).
Ill Gen. — I, 9 . D, A., 6 years. Eyes medium brown; hair medium brown,
curly; skin 25, 42, 16, 17.
2, 9 . L. A., 3 years. Eyes brown; hair light brown, fluffy; skin
20, 45, 16, 19.
3, cf . C. A., 3 months. Hair dark brown, soft, and straight; skin
32, 38, 15, 15.
4, cf . A. E. Skin say N 34.
5, 9 . G. E., 16 years. Nearly typical negro features and curly
hair; eyes dark brown; skin 24, 45, 17, 14.
6, cf. H. E. Eyes dark brown; hair curly; skin N 35.
7, cf . A. E., 12 years. Eyes brown-green; hair dark brown,
straight; skin 35, 42, 12, 11.
8, 9.1. E., 8 years. Eyes light brown; hair light brown, fine, and
wavy; skin 34, 40, 15, 11.
9, 9. E. E., 6 years. Eyes light brown; hair Hght brown, very
curly; skin 28, 41, 17, 14.
10, cf^. H. E., 23 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, very wavy;
skin 20, 45, 15, 20.
11, 9. A. E., 21 years. Eyes hazel; hair "mouse-colored," fluffy;
skin 14, 48, 18, 20.
12, 9. E. E., 15 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 12, 56, 19, 13.
13, 9. G. M., 16 years. Eyes brown; hair dark brown, slightly
wavy; skin 28, 47, 12, 13.
14, cf . W. M., 14 years. Eyes hazel; hair short and typically curly;
skin 34, 40, 14, 12.
15, cf. E. M.,ii years. Eyes brov/n ; hair black and nearly straight ;
clearly the darkest one of the family; skin 40, 40, 10, lo.
16, 9 . G. M., 9 years. Eyes brown; hair dark brown, straight; skin
25. 35. 17. 23.
17, cf . J. M. , 7 years. Eyes brown ; hair dark brown, nearly straight ;
skin 12, 45, 21, 22.
Pedigree 8. A. Family.
I Gen. A., a man with gray eyes and brown hair, who is said to be pure
white, married the daughter of A. E. (see Pedigree 7,
I Generation) and a "sambo" wom.an. She has dark
brown hair which waves a little about her face; skin 25, 40,
16, 19. They have six children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . E. A., 22 years. Looks like a Spanish girl with her dark
brown eyes; dark brown, slightly wavy hair; skin 15, 34,
23, 28.
2, 9 . G. A., 18 years. Looks like an English girl with her dark
blue eyes; light brown, straight hair; skin 5, 29, 26, 40.
3, 9 . S. A., IS years. Hair medium brown, straight; skin like II 5.
4, cf . W. A., 14 years. Good featiires; eyes light brown; hair light
brown, straight; could pass for white; skin 5, 36, 23, 36.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 75
5, cf. C. A., II years. Good features; eyes light brown or hazel;
hair light brown, straight; could pass for white; skin 14, 33,
22, 31.
6, 9 . M. A., 2 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
slightly wavy; shows her colored blood but Uttle; skin 14,
38 20, 28.
Pedigree 9. M. Family.
I Geyi. — Five children were bom of a man with skin say N 12 (being the
son of a Scotchman and a Madagascar woman) and of a
colored woman with skin say N 13.
1. The first son, R. B., with skin 15, 41, 20, 24, married a
woman with skin 20, 45, 16, 19 (sec Pedigree 4, 1 Generation).
2. Another son, J. B., with brown eyes; black curly hair;
skin II, 48, 20, 21; married a medium-colored woman,
whose father was "fair" and whose mother was black.
She has straight, Indian hair, and skin say N 33. They
have two sons (II 1,2).
3. A daughter, A. B. [M.], with brown eyes; wavy,
black hair; skin 13, 41, 21, 25; married L. AL, a sergeant,
the son of a light-colored man with blue eyes and light
hair and of a woman whose father was "sambo " and whose
mother was black. He has gray eyes; dark brown, slightly
curly hair; skin 22, 35, 21, 22. They have eleven children
(H 3-13)-
4. Another daughter, E. B. [A.], with brown eyes;
medium brown, straight hair; shows her colored blood a
little; skin 18, 36, 19, 27. Married a white man, J. A., who
has dark brown eyes and light brown hair. They have two
children (II 14, 15).
5. A third son, T. B., whose skin is say N 18, married a
woman whose blue-eyed father was very fair, being the son
of a white man and a "quadroon," and whose mother was
"sambo." She has brown eyes; somewhat curly, black hair;
skin 20, 35, 23, 22. They have five children (II 16-20).
II Gen. — I, d^. W. B. Eyes brown; hair black and almost straight; skin 17,
45, 20, 18; married the daughter of a pure black man and
a mulatto. She has brown eyes; typical negro hair; skin
33, 44, 14, 9; and is the mother of two daughters (III i, 2).
(See fig. II.)
2, d^. J. B. Hair curly; skin like II i.
3, 9 . L. M., 19 years. Eyes brown; hair dark brown, wavy; skin
21, 50, IS, 14.
4, 9 . L. M., 18 years. Assistant teacher in a school; eyes brown;
almost typical negro hair which is curlier than that of
cither parent; skin 17, 48, 17, 18.
5, 9. J. M., 16 years. Eyes brown; hair very curly; fairest one
in her family; freckled skin 8, 41, 23, 28.
6, cf . L. M., 14 years. Eyes dark bro\\Ti; hair dark browTii, prac-
tically straight; skin 15, 45, 21, 19.
7, 9. M. Al., 13 years. Eyes dark brown; almost typical dark
brown negro hair; darkest one in her family; skin 25, 49,
13. 13-
76 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WTIITE CROSSES.
8, d^. S. M., 9 years. Eyes brown; hair medium brown, somewhat
wavy; skin 15, 42, 20, 23.
9, cf. E. M., 8 years. Eyes brown; hair brown, wavy; skin say
N 18.
10, cf. V. M., 7 years. Twin to II 11, and so hke him in every way
that their family could scarcely distinguish them in the
dusk. Eyes brown; hair dark brown, wavy; skin 20, 48,
16, 16.
11, cT. E. M., 7 years. Twin to II 10; skin 20, 48, 15, 17.
12, cf. J. M., 4 years. Eyes brown; hair light brown, curly; skin
18, 45, 15, 22.
13, cf . E. M., 3 years. Eyes brown; hair light brown, fluffy; skin
IS, 47. 20, 18. _
A pair of twins and a boy younger than II 13 have died.
14, cf . — A. Hair Hght brown, straight; skin like II 15.
15, 9 . D. A. [W.]. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown, straight,
but waves a bit about her face; white and freckled skin
7, 29, 20, 44. She married a man with curly hair and skin
say N 25, by whom she had two daughters (III 3, 4).
16, d^. F. B., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, slightly
wavy; skin 9, 45, 23, 23.
17, 9. V. B., 9 years. Eyes light brown; hair Hght brown, very
wa\'y; skin 15, 40, 21, 24.
18, cT. C. B. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown, straight; skin
9. 45, 23, 23.
19, 9 . H. B., 4 years. Eyes Hght brown; hair Hght yellow, wavy;
A skin 17, 36, 21, 26.
20, 9. T. B., 2 years. Eyes dark blue; hair light brown, very
"fuzzy;" skin 11, 39, 25, 25.
Ill Gen. — I, 9 . R. B., 3 years. Eyes brown; hair medium brown, curly;
skin 15, 47, 18, 20.
2, 9. A. B., I year. Eyes brown; hair Hght brown, curly; skin
II, 47, 20, 22.
3, 9. R. W., 10 years. Eyes brown; beautiful curly red-brown
hair; fair, freckled skin 8, 37, 23, 32.
4, 9. M. W., 9 years. Eyes brown; hair bright red, curly; fair,
freckled skin 6, 36, 20, 38.
Pedigree 10. T. Family.
I Gen. — An Englishman had, by a colored woman, a daughter, — T., who
has brown eyes; black, sHghtly wavy hair; skin 18, 40, 20,
22. The father of her children is a "Yankee," with gray
or blue eyes and dark brown hair. She has three children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . J. T., 4 years. Eyes gray; hair Hght brown, straight, but
waving about her face; skin 15, 36, 24, 25.
2, 9 . C. T., 2>^ years. Eyes blue; hair flaxen, straight; sldn 7,32,
25. 36.
3, d^. A. T., I year. Eyes brown; hair reddish-golden, waving a
Httle; slan 6, 29, 28, 37.
The mother says all her cliildren were born with black hair.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 77
Pedigree ii. B. Family.
I Gen. B., the son of a man said to be pure white and of a woman with
probably a little colored blood, has blue eyes and a fair
skin, so that he would pass for white. He married a woman
with brown eyes; slightly wavy, brown hair; skin 27, 40,
17, 16, by whom he had three children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . E. B. Eyes dark blue; hair dark brown, wavy; fair freckled
skin II, 38, 23, 28. She has a little girl with light blue
eyes, flaxen curls, very white skin. The mother and the
grandmother asserted that the child's father was like the
grandmother in color, i.e., N 27.
2, 9 . M. B. Eyes brown; hair dark brown, wavy; shows more
color than II i; skin 15, 35, 20, 30.
3, cf'. — B. Darker than his sisters.
Pedigree 12. S. Family.
White (English) X Negro.
I Gen. — A pure white Englishman had, by a negress, Mrs. S. (who has the
typical negro features and hair; skin 60, 29, 6, 5), three
children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . E. S., 24 years. Eyes brown; hair black, wav>'; skin 28, 39,
IS, 18.
2, 9 . F. S., 22 years. Eyes brown; hair black, curly; skin 25, 40,
19, 16.
3, 9 . M. S., 18 years. Eyes brown; hair black, curly; skin 25, 40,
19, 16.
Pedigree 13. M. Family.
I Gen. — I. A. M. is the son of a pure-blooded Irishman, — M., and of a
dark-colored woman with skin 52, 32, 8, 8. A. M., whose
skin is said to be N 12, married a very Hght-colored woman,
whose father was a Chinaman and whose mother was the
daughter of a Jew and a negress. She shows no marked
Chinese characteristics, although some of her children do.
She has an oval face; straight nose; light brown eyes, some-
what deeply set, but not almond-shaped; nearly black,
somewhat curly hair; skin 12, 41, 20, 27. They have seven
children (II 1-7).
2. Her sister, who claims the same parentage, has dark
brown eyes; dark brown, curly hair; skin 31, 39, 17, 13.
Resembles her sister, but shows no Chinese characteristics.
A brown-skinned man is claimed as the father of her two
children (II 8, 9).
II Gen.—i, &. T. M. No data.
2, 9 . M. M., 20 years. Her round face and wide mouth show her
Chinese blood, otherwise she is a typical brown-skinned
girl. Eyes dark brown; hair very curly; the darkest of the
children; skin 25, 38, 16, 21.
3, 9 . C. M., 17 years. A decidedly Chinese-looking girl, except
for her very curly hair. Her face is round; mouth wide;
eyes gray-green and almost almond-shaped; hair light
brown; comparatively Hght skin 15, 43, 20, 22.
78 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO- WHITE CROSSES.
4, cf. A. M., i^yi years. Features in general negroid, but his
nose is unusually broad and flat; eyes dark brown; hair
light brown, curly; skin lo, 40, 18, 32.
5, 9 . R. M., II years. No marked Chinese characteristics; eyes
dark brown ; typical dark brown curly hair; skin 20,37,20,23.
6, 9 . I. M., 5 years. No marked Chinese characteristics, except
rather small eyes which are gray-brown; hair light brown,
curly; skin 16, 36, 20, 28.
7, 9. M. M., 9 months. No Chinese characteristics; eyes gray-
brown; hair light yellow ttiming to brown on the ends,
wavy; skin 8, 38, 25, 29.
8, 9. D. W., 17 years. Eyes dark brown; hair very curly; skin
32, 35, 17. 16.
9, cT. N. W., 15 years. Negroid features; eyes brown; nearly
typical negro hair; skin 27, 40, 18, 15.
Pedigree 14. H. Family.
I Gen. H., an Englishman with gray eyes and light brown hair, had
three, possibly five, children, by a dark-colored woman, all
of whose people, so far as she knows, were colored. She
has dark brown eyes and the typical curly hair; skin 47,
37, 12, 4. She is the mother of five children.
II Gen. — 1-2, cf , who are stated to be the children of — H., have very
kinky hair and are darker than their sisters; skin like their
mother's. (Field worker doubts the paternity.)
3, 9 . R. H., 18 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 23, 41, 20, 16.
4, 9 . G. H., 15 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 33, 38, 16, 13.
5, 9 . C. H., 10 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, wa\^;
skin 31, 40, 15, 14.
Pedigree 15. C. Family.
I Gen. — I. C, with skin say N 8, son of a Jewish man and a brown-skimied
woman, married a woman with gray eyes; quite wavy,
dark brown hair; skin 19, 36, 21, 24. She is the daughter
of a man with skin say N 10, being the son of an Irishman
and a dark-colored woman, and of a woman with gray eyes,
wavy hair, skin say N 20, being the daughter of a Scotch-
man and a dark-colored woman. They have four boys.
II Gen. — I, cT. L. C, 13 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, rather
coarse and curly; skin 15, 42, 20, 23.
2, cf . C. C, 12 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, almost
straight; skin 15, 44, 20, 21.
3, cf . L. C, 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light yellow, growing
darker on the ends, straight; skin 5, 34, 25, 36.
4, d^. D. C, 4^ years. Eyes dark brown; hair brown, nearly
straight; skin 8, 37, 21, 34.
Pedigree 16. S. Family.
I Gen. — Three daughters of a colored father, all of whose ancestors, so far
as known, were colored, and of a medium-colored woman
whose father may have been white.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 79
1. The first daughter has skin 28, 42, 17, 13. (See Pedi-
gree 7, II generation, 4, for her children.)
2. The second daughter, Mrs. S., who has medium
brown eyes, nearly typical curly hair, skin 36, 40, 11, 13;
married — S., who has gray eyes, dark brown, straight
hair, skin 3, ^s, 21, 43. His father had gray eyes, light
brown hair; would pass for white. They have two sons
(II I, 2).
3. The third daughter, who has hazel eyes, slightly wavy
hair, skin 15, 47, 18, 20; married W. B., whose father was
very fair, being part Irish, perhaps, and whose mother was
fair. He has hght brown eyes, red hair, skin o, 32, 20, 48.
They have eight children (II 3-10).
II Gen. — I, cf . E. S., 9 years. Eyes dark brown; hair Hght brown, curly;
skin 19, 47, 16, 18.
2 , d^ . E. S. Eyes medium brown ; hair Hght brown, nearly straight ;
skin 12, 40, 20, 18.
3, 9 . I. B., 26 years. Rather negroid features; eyes Hght brown;
hair Hght brown, curly; fair, freckled skin, 9, 45, 21, 25.
4, cf . W. B. Resembled II 7 in skin.
5, 9 . Not seen.
6, cf . U. B., 17 j^ears. Eyes dark brown; hair Hght brown, straight;
skin 17, 43, 20, 20.
7 , cf . A. B . , 1 4 years. Eyes dark brown ; hair dark brown, straight ;
skin 8, 45, 20, 27.
8, cf . E. B., 9 years. Eyes medium brown; hair dark brown,
straight; skin say N 20.
9, cf . K. B., 7 years. Eyes hazel; hair light brown, sHghtly curly;
skin 17, 45, 19, 19.
10, c^. H. B., 8 months. Eyes Hght brown; hair Hght brown, wavy;
skin 6, 40, 20, 34.
Pedigree 17. T. Family.
I Gen. — Three children were bom of a white father, — R., who was possibly
Portuguese, and of a quadroon mother.
1. The first daughter, who has gray eyes, dark brown,
straight hair, skin 10, 43, 24, 23; married F. T., whose
father was said to be an Fi mulatto and whose mother
(derived from a "sambo" father and a mulatto mother)
has typical mediiim brown, curly hair; skin 25, 40, 14, 21.
He has brown eyes, typical negro hair, skin 20, 40, 18, 12.
They have three children (II i, 2, 3).
2. The other daughter, A. R., who is 21 years old, has
medium brown eyes, straight, medium brown hair; would
pass an^-^vhere for a white woman ; fair, somewhat freckled
skin, 5, 27, 23, 45. ....
3. The son is said to be like his oldest sister, i.e., skin
say N 10.
II Gen.—i, 9 . I. T., II years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, wavy;
skin 26, 44, 15, 15- , . , , , .• „
2, d". H. T., 10 years. Eyes brown; hair dark brown, practically
straight; skin 24, 42, 15, 19-
3, 9 . D. T., 4 years. Eyes brown; hair dark bro\\Ti, wavy; too
shy to have skin tested, but probably is like II 2.
80 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Pedigree i8. P. Family.
I Gen. — A medium-colored woman is the daughter of a brown man (whose
father was a quadroon and whose m^other, with dark,
straight hair, was partly East Indian) and of an Fi mulatto
woman 80 years old; eyes dark brown; hair black, curly;
skin 28, 48, 15, 9. This woman, who has dark brown eyes,
very curly hair, skin 30, 43, 15, 12, married twice.
By her first husband, whose grandfather was Scotch,
and whose skin was sa}^ N 20, she had one son, J. M., a
boy 15 years old; eyes light brown; hair mediimi brown,
curly; skin 23, 40, 18, 19.
By her other husband, D. P., a man of colored origin,
with black eyes, black, curly hair, skin 8, 37, 22, 33, she
had five children (II 1-5).
11 Gen. — I, 9. L. P., 10 years. Eyes mediimi brown; hair light brown,
tightly curled; the fairest in the family; skin 20, 40, 22, 18.
2, 9 . C. P., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, tightly
curled; skin 24, 48, 17, 11.
3, cf . H. P., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 24, 45, 19, 12.
4, cf. A. P., 3 years. Eyes medium brown; hair medium brown,
curly; skin 31, 41, 15, 13.
5, cf . G. P., I year. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 50, 35, 8, 7.
Pedigree 19. S. Family.
I Gen. — Three Fi mulattoes were bom of a white father and a black
mother, all of them being about N 30.
1. The first married a fair-skinned man, the son of a
white man and a quadroon, by whom she had one son,
C. P., who has dark brown eyes, black, straight hair, skin
3, 42, 22, 33. He married his own cousin, the daughter of
the second Fi mulatto sister and a quadroon. She has dark
brown eyes, black, curly hair, skin 25, 47, 16, 12. They
have nine children (II 1-9).
2. The Fi mulatto son, — S., married a light-skinned
woman; skin say N 10; by whom he had a son, W. J. S.
This son, who has dark brown eyes, dark brown curly hair,
skin 8, 40, 24, 28, married a woman with light brown eyes,
dark brown wavy hair, skin 25, 44, 15, 16, both of her
parents being very fair. They have seven children (II
10-16).
II Gen. — I, 9 . C. P., 25 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, wavy; skin
29, 45, 15, II.
2, cf . J. P., 23 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, very curly;
skin 28, 42, 18, 12.
3, d^. C. P., 21 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, very
curly; skin 25, 34, 22, 19. _
4, cf . S. P., 19 years. Eyes medium brown; hair medium brown,
straight; skin 13, 30, 25, 32. (Record taken in a poor light.)
5, 9 . V. P., 16 years. Eyes medium brown; hair medium brown,
very curly; skin 20, 45, 17, 18.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 81
6, cf . E. P., 14 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
wavy; skin 27, 40, 15, 18.
7, 9 . E. P., II years. Eyes brown; hair medium brown, straight;
skin 20, 41, 20, 19.
8, cf . R. P., 9 years. Eyes brown; hair Hght brown, straight; skin
21, 39, 21, 19.
9, 9 . M. P., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brovsTi, wavy;
skin 25, 40, 17, 18.
10, d^ . T. S., 19 years. Eyes dark brown ; hair dark brown, straight ;
skin 25, 43, 17, 15.
11, cf . E. S., 17 years. Ej-es medium brown; hair medium, some-
what wavy; skin 5, 38, 25, 32.
12, 9 . I. S., 15 years. Eyes light brown; hair light brown, some-
what wavy; skin 10, 42, 22, 26.
13, 9 . N. S., 13 3'ears. Eyes dark brown ; hair medium brown, some-
what curly; skin 30, 40, 15, 15.
14, 9 . I. S., 10 years. Eyes medium brown; hair dark brown, very
curly; skin 30, 43, 15, 12.
15, cf. W. S., 7 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, straight;
passes for white; skin 9, 38, 23, 30.
16, 9 . E. S., 5 years. Eyes medium brown; hair nearly straight;
could pass for white; skin 9, 38, 25, 28.
Pedigree 20. W. Family.
I Gen. — Two sisters were born of a Jewish father and a mother with skin
say N 20. (i) The first sister, who has dark brown eyes,
dark brown curly hair, skin 13, 38, 21, 28, married R. W.,
with skin say N 33, being the son of a colored father and a
sambo mother. They have four children (II 1-4). (2) The
other sister, who is the fairer, married a very fair man who
would pass for white. They have one daughter, who has
dark brown eyes ; black, straight hair ; olive skin 15,46,20, 19.
II Gen. — I, cf. D. W., lo years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 33, 41, 14, 12.
2, cf . A. W., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair fairly straight; skin
19, 35?, 18, 28 (adjusted).
3, 9 . E. W., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, wavy;
too shy to have her skin tested, but probably N 19.
4, 9 . V. W., t 2 years. Eyes black; hair light brovNTi; skin clearer
than that of the others.
Pedigree 21. W. Family.
I Gen. W., now dead, was said to have had skin as fair as N 4, and
would have passed for white anj^where. He was the son of
a Scotchman and a ver>' fair-colored woman with blue
eyes, the daughter of an Englishman and a colored woman.
He married a woman with dark brown eyes; black hair
that waves a little about her face; skin 7, 46, 23, 24. Her
father was a ver}' fair man ^N-ith some colored blood from
his partly Jewish father, and her mother was a woman ^^^th
skin say N 10, being the daughter of an East Indian and a
French woman. They have eight children.
82 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
II Gen. — I, 9 . V. W., 23 years. Eyes light brown; hair dark brown, slightly
curly; would pass for white; skin say N 4.
2, 9 . M. W., 2 1 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, slightly
wavy; Spanish looking; skin 15, 40, 23, 22.
3, cf . E. W., 19 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, straight;
shows colored blood slightly, as he tans deeply; skin 7, 44,
21, 28.
4, cT . H. W. , 1 7 years. Eyes dark brown ; hair dark brown, straight ;
shows his colored blood plainly; skin ig, 39, 21, 21.
5, 9 . S. W., 15 years. Eyes dark brown; hair very light brown,
practically straight; would pass for white if not sunburned;
skin 4, 31, 26, 39.
6, 9 . R. W., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, slightly
wavy; sunburned; skin 4, 31, 26, 39.
7, cf . F. W., 10 years. Said to be like II 6.
8, 9 . A. W., 8 years. Said to be like II 4.
Pedigree 22. D. Family.
I Gen. — Two sisters and a brother were born of a blue-eyed man who would
pass for white, being of Scotch, English, and colored descent,
and of a woman whose father was a "bastard Jew" (i.e.,
probably Jew X colored) and whose mother was a sambo
woman.
1. The first, who has dark brown eyes; black, straight
hair, waving a bit about her face; skin 15, 45, 20, 20; mar-
ried — D., a typical sambo-colored man, who has brown
eyes; black, kinky hair; skin 22, 46, 15, 17. They have
six children (II 1-6).
2. The brother has medium brown eyes; black, straight
hair; skin 10, 38, 24, 28,
3. The other sister has dark brown eyes; black, slightly
wavy hair; color was distvubed by a very vigorous scrubbing
before being tested; result, 14, 50, 15, 21; probably 19, 45,
15, 21 is nearer the normal color.
II Gen. — I, 9 . E. D., 10 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, curl}^;
skin 12, 45, 20, 23.
2, cf. E. D., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair mediiim brown,
typically curly; skin 13, 42, 20, 25.
3, cT. O. D., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, typically
curly; skin 30, 45, 14, 11. ^
4, cf. E. D., 5 years. Eyes mediimi brown; hair light yellow,
ahnost golden, curly; slightly freckled, fair skin 5, 42, 20, 7,3-
5, cf . W. D., 3 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, prac-
tically straight; skin 30, 46, 11, 13.
6, cf . O. D., 16 months. Eyes medium brown; hair very light
brown, almost yellow; skin 18, 44, 20, 18.
Pedigree 23. B. Family.
I Gen. B., who has a very dark brother, has dark brown eyes; light
brown, straight hair; a very fair skin. He married the
daughter of a black man and a mulatto. She has dark
brown eyes; typically negro kinky hair; skin 38, 44, 8, 10.
They have seven children.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 83
II Gen. — I, 9 . G. B., 13 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, slightly
curly; skin say N 27.
2, cf. F. B., 12 years. About like II 3 in skin color.
3, cT. A. B., 10 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, almost
straight; skin 28, 47, 14, 11.
4, cf. C. B., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, nearly
straight; skin 27, 48, 15, 10.
5, 9 . E. B. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown, curly; skin
27, 45, 15, 13.
6, 9. IM. B. Eyes dark brown ; hair medium brown, curly; skin
35, 45, 12, 8.
7, 9 . L. B., 2 years. Eyes dark brown; hair Hght brown, straight;
skin 21, 50, 14, 15.
Pedigree 24. B. Family.
I Gen. — E. B., with not very curly hair, shows his white blood plainly,
having skin say N 20. He married a woman whose father
was possibly pure white and whose mother was black with
skin 54, 35, 6, 5. She has dark brown eyes; typically
curly hair; skin 32, 44, 12, 12. They have three children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . I. B., 13 years. Typical negro eyes and hair; skin 32, 41,
13. ^4- ,
2, d^. C. B., 6 years. Typical negro eyes and hair; skin 28, 41,
15, 16.
3, 9 . D. B., 2^ years. Typical negro eyes and hair; skin 25, 45,
i5> IS-
Pedigree 25. S. Family.
IGen. S. , son of a white man and of a woman whose father was white and
whose mother was sambo, has brown eyes; black, straight
hair; skin o, 28, 18, 54. He married a Hght-colored woman
whose father was colored and whose mother was the daughter
of a white man and an Indian woman. She is said to be the
only one in her family who shows colored blood in the skin,
which is say N 25. They have nine children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . W. S., 21 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, very
curly; fair, white skin 6, 37, 20, 37.
2, 9 . G. S., 20 years. Eyes dark brown; hair red brown, wavy;
skin 10, 35, 18, 37.
3, 9 . G. S., 18 years. Eyes greenish, hair medium brown, wavy;
skin 15, 40, 20, 25.
4, cf . H. S., 16 years. Eyes greenish; hair "mouse-colored."
slightly curly; skin 10, 35, 20, 35.
5, c?'. A. S., 14 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
slightly curly; skin 8, 33, 23, 36.
6, cf . D. S., 12 years. Eyes medium brown; hair red; white,
much freckled skin 4, 34, 19, 43.
7, 9 . D. S., 8 years. Eyes green; hair medium brown, curly;
skin 12, 41, 17, 30.
8, 9 . P. S., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair reddish-brown, curly;
skin 8, 34, 21, 37.
9, cf . H. S., 6 months. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown,
straight; skin 23, 45, 15, 17.
84 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Pedigree 26. C. Family.
I Gen. C, now dead, whose paternal grandfather was a Jew and whose
maternal grandmother was French, had quite curly, black
hair; skin like that of his wife, i.e., say N 15. His wife,
w^hose paternal grandfather was Spanish and whose mother
had skin say N 20, has dark brown eyes; black, straight
hair; skin 15, 40, 21, 24. They have seven children.
II Gen. — I, cf. E. C, 26 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, somewhat
curly; skin 5, 27, 20, 48.
2, 9 . G. C. [G.], 24 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, very
curly; skin 26, 36, 18, 20, but appeared fairer.
3, 9 . M. C, 20 years. Like II 7.
4, 9 . I. C., 18 3'ears. Eyes dark brown; hair black, very curly;
skin 23, 35, 19, 23.
5, &. R. C, 15 years. Like II 4.
6, 9 . B. C., 14 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, straight;
skin 25, 41, 15, 19.
7, cf . V. C., II 3^ears. Eyes dark brown; hair black, straight;
skin 35, 36, 14, 15.
Pedigree 27. S. Family.
I Gen. — C. S., who has dark brown eyes; somewhat curly, dark brown hair;
skin say N 3 5, had a white paternal great-grandfather. He
married a woman who also had a white paternal great-
grandfather. She has dark brown eyes; somewhat curly,
dark brown hair; skin say N 32. They have five children.
II Gen. — I, cT. E. S., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, typically curly;
skin 35, 35, 16, 14.
2, 9. D. S., 7 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, very
curly; skin 30, 33, 17, 20.
3, 9. F. S., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, very
curly; skin 32, 35, 17, 16.
4, <S^. D. S., 3 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown;
slightly curly; skin 34, 29, 15, 22.
5, 9 . G. S., 2 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown, curly;
skin 45, 37, 9, 9.
Pedigree 28. N. Family.
T Gen. N. is the son of a very fair man with dark eyes and hair, and a
fair-skinned woman with black, straight hair, probably of
Spanish descent. His paternal grandfather was French.
He looks like a Spaniard with his black eyes, somewhat
curly hair, clear skin 2, 25, 20, 53. His wife (whose father
had skin say N 20, and whose mother had fine, straight
hair; skin say N 18) has dark brown eyes; abundant fine
hair that is quite curly; skin 13, 48, 20, 19. They have
five children (II 1-5). — N. has a first cousin on his
mother's side whose father was dark-colored and whose
mother was fair. This cousin has dark brown eyes; black,
curly hair; skin 30, 35, 16, 19. She married a man who is
about her color, possibly a trifle darker, by whom she had
one daughter, a child 4 months old; eyes black; hair black,
straight; clear olive skin, 10, 33, 20, 37.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 85
II Gen. — I, 9. I- N., ii years. Eyes brown; hair yellow-brown, perfectly
straight; skin 5, 34, 18, 43.
2, 9 . B. N., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, wavy;
skin 25, 45, 16, 14.
3, 9. L. N., 7 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 29, 44, 15, 12.
4, d^. V. N., 5 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
straight; skin 24, 42, 15, 19.
5, 9 . G. N., 2 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, straight;
skin 25, 45, 16, 14.
Pedigree 29. W. Family.
I Gen. W., w^hose father is lighter than she and whose mother is piire
black, has typical negro eyes and hair; skin 37, 47, 13, 3.
She claims that D. S., whose father has skin say N 28,
and whose mother is black, is the father of her sL\ children.
He has typical negro eyes and hair; skin 30, 41, 14, 15.
II Gen. — I, 9. F.W.,ioyears. Typical negro eyes and hair; skin 46,36, 11, 7.
2, 9. E. W.,8years. Typical negro eyes and hair; skin 52, 37, 8, 3.
3, cT. D. W., 3 years. Typical negro eyes and hair; skin 50, 35, 8, 7.
4-6. t inf. One of these was a little fairer than II i.
Pedigree 30. F. Family.
I Gen. — C. F., whose paternal grandfather was a Jew, and whose maternal
great-grandfather was Scotch, has dark brown eyes; black,
very wavy hair; skin 19, 42, 18, 21. His wife claims a
strictly white Spanish ancestry, but there may be a little
colored blood. She has dark brown eyes; beautiful, dark
red-brown hair, slightly wavy; a very white, somewhat
freckled skin 3, 33, 18, 46. They have six children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . L. F., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, straight;
skin 8, 40, 15, 37.
2, 9 . S. F., II years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, wavy;
skin 26, 45, 14, 15.
3, cf . R. F., 9 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, wavy;
skin 20, 45, 18, 17.
4, cT. C. F., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair very dark brown,
straight; skin 17, 40, 15, 28.
5, 9 . M. F., 5 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, wavy;
skin 16, 42, 23, 19.
6, 9. M. F., 4 months. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown,
wavy; skin 5, 40, 18, 37.
Pedigree 31. L. Family.
I Gett. — I. — L., son of a possibly pure white man and a dark-colored
woman, has mediimi brown eyes; black, very wavy hair;
skin 26, 45, 15, 14. His wife, the daughter of a quadroon
and a pure black woman, has typical negro eyes and hair;
skin 37, 38, 13, 12. They have eight children (II i-S).
2. — W., brother of the wife of I i, with skin say N 37,
married a woman fairer than himself, by whoin he had a
son, R. W., 8 years old; eyes dark brown; hair dark bro\sTi,
very curly; skin 13, 46, 20, 21.
86 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
3. A sister of — W. (II 2) with skin say N 37, married a
man, — P., with skin say N 13, by whom she had one son,
H. P., 9 years old; eyes dark brown; hair dark brown,
nearly straight; skin 27, 43, 16, 14.
II Gen. — I, cf . A. L., 17 years. Like II 4.
2, cf. E. L., IS years. Like II 4.
3, 9 . L. L., 14 years. Eyes dark brown; typical curly hair; skin
39, 40, 12, 9.
4, 9 . A. L., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; nearly typical curly
hair; skin 30, 36, 16, 18.
5, cf . A. L., 10 years. Eyes dark brown; typical hair; skin 40, 37,
13. lo-
6, 9. D. L., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair not as curly as
No. 3's; skin 27, 43, 15, 15.
7, cf . I. L., 7 years. Eyes dark brown; practically typical negro
hair; skin 30, 45, 13, 12.
8, c?'. O. L., 4 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
slightly curly; skin 6, 47, 22, 25.
Pedigree 32. S. Family.
I Gen. — Five children were bom of — S. (who is called "fair," having
skin say N 25, and being the son of a white man and a
black woman) and of a woman who has typical negro eyes
and hair; skin 39, 45, 7, 9.
1. The first, a daughter, with skin say N 20, married
— G., whose skin is as light as N 6. They have three
daughters (II 1-3).
2. The second, a daughter, with skin say N 20, has two
illegitimate children. The first child, a girl, E. S., 8 years
old, whose father is "dark," has typical woolly hair; skin
35, 43, II, II. The second child, a boy, A. S., 4 years old,
whose father was very fair, possibly white, has dark brown
eyes; light brown, straight hair; skin 9, 39?, 20, 31 (adjusted).
3. A son, — S., has skin 6, 40, 24, 30.
4. The third daughter, who has typical hair, skin 17, 50,
17, 16, married — E., who has skin say N 35. They have
three children (II 4-6).
5. The fifth daughter has typical hair; skin 17, 50, 17, 16.
II Gen. — I, 9. M. G., 15 years. Skin 30, 45, 12, 13.
2, 9. C. G., 13 years. Skin 25, 45, 15, 15.
3,9.1. G., 9 years. Skin 20, 50, 16, 14.
4, cf . H. E., 14 years. Said to be like II 5.
5, 9. M. E., 12 years. Hair not quite as kinky as her sister's;
skin 28, 41, 19, 12.
6, 9 . E. E., 9 years. Typical hair; skin 35, 45, 10, 10.
Pedigree 33, M, Family.
I Gen. — S. M., son of a man half Jew and of a woman lighter than her
husband, having skin say N 25, has light brown eyes;
black, kinky hair; skin 10, 35, 20, 35. He married a woman
who is the daughter of a Chinaman and a sambo woman
with skin say N 32. She has medium brown eyes, black,
very wavy hair, skin say N 12. They have six children.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 87
II Gen. — I, cT. H. M., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, typ-
ical; skin 17, 40, 17, 16.
2, cf . R. M., 9 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
straight; skin 8, 38, 25, 29.
3, 9 . IM. IM., 7 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, curly;
skin 16, 35, 20, 29.
4, 9 . L. M., 5 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, very
curly; skin 21, 38, 19, 22.
5, 9 . J. M., 3 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, almost
yellow, very curly; skin 8, 40, 23, 29 or darker.
6, 9 . I. jNI., 7 months. Eyes gray; hair black, curly; skin 10, 40,
23, 27.
Pedigree 34. S. Family.
I Gen. — An Englishman, — S., who has light hazel eyes and brown hair,
married a woman with very good features; very dark
brown eyes; black, straight hair; to all appearances a
brunet. Her mother was Scotch and her paternal great-
grandfather was Scotch, the colored blood being from the
paternal side. They have ten children, of whom the
standard color determination was taken for one brunet and
for one blond.
II Gen. — I, cf. Eyes brown; hair straight; brunet.
Eyes brown; hair straight; bnmet.
Eyes brown; hair wavy; brunet.
Eyes brown; hair straight; brunet.
Eyes brown ; hair straight ; blond.
Eyes brown; hair wav}'; brunet.
Eyes blue; hair wavy; blond.
Eyes blue; hair straight; blond.
Ej-es brown; hair straight; brunet; skin 7, 41, 22, 30.
Eyes brown; hair straight; blond; skin 2, 35, 20, 43.
The blonds would pass for pure English, and, except
in Jamaica, the brunets would pass unquestioned. The
brunets tan more deeply than the blonds, so the contrast
shows more plainly w'hen one sees them.
Pedigree 35. S. Family.
I Gen. S., son of a Jew and a dark brunet, skin say N 15 per cent, the
daughter of a white father and colored mother; has fine
features; gray eyes and sHghtly curly hair, which, judging
from a photograph, is coarse and shows his negro blood.
He married a dark-eyed, practically straight-haired, very
white-skinned woman, whose father was a fair-skinned
man with blue eyes, the son of a Spaniard and a Creole.*
Her mother, daughter of a blue-eyed Englishman and a
Creole, was a fair-skinned woman with medium brown
eyes; bro\vn, slightly wavy hair. They have six sons and a
daughter, all but two of whom have skin about 4, 28, 17, 51.
-I,
&
2,
9
3.
9
4,
9
5.
cT
6,
cf
7,
9
8,
9
9.
&
0,
cT
* Creole probably indicates, in this instance, a little colored blood, but fair complexion
such as would pass for white. The term is applied diversely in Jamaica; sometimes to
indicate a native white; sometimes to indicate a native, merely; thus, "a creole dog"
(Official Guide, Jamaica Tourist Assn., 1912, p. 56). In Soutli America, as is well known,
the term impHes colored blood; but in Louisiana it excludes colored blood (Johnston,
1910, p. 55).
88 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
II Gen. — Two boys have coarse, quite curly hair, which is dark brown and
shows negro blood. One of the two gray-eyed boys has
mouse-colored hair which is inclined to curl. All the others
have soft, dark brown, very slightly wavy hair, except the
baby, whose golden, wavy hair will probably turn darker.
The little girl has skin say N 1 2, and one boy is ordinarily
of the same color, but temporarily much darker from play-
ing cricket.
Pedigree 36. B. Family.
I Gen. — A "brown" man with "bad hair," whose photograph plainly in-
dicates colored blood, married a brown-eyed, brown-
haired, clear, fair-skinned woman, the daughter of a Jew
and a fair-skinned woman with colored blood. They have
seven children.
II Gen. — I, cf. Hair brown, straight; skin clear, white.
2, cf . Resembles II i in hair and skin color.
3, cf . "Bad" {i.e., coarse and curly) hair; fair skin,
4, 9 . "Bad" hair; dark skin say N 12.
5, 9 . Hair golden, straight; fair skin.
6, 9 . Hair golden, straight; fair skin.
9 . Hair golden, curly ; fair skin.
/ )
Pedigree 37. M. Family.
I Gen. — M. is the son of a piire Scotchman and a Creole whose skin from
comparisons was judged to be N 15 per cent and who had
long, straight black hair. M.'s hair and probably olive
complexion show his colored blood sHghtly. He married a
woman with straight, dark brown hair, who maintains
she is white, her father to be a German and her mother a
French refugee. Photographs of this Avoman's three
brothers show "suspicious hair," and consequently there
is probably a Httle colored blood in her ancestry. She has
eight children with practically straight hair and dark
brown eyes.
II Gen. — I, cf . Hair brown; olive skin.
Hair black; w^hite skin.
Hair black; olive skin.
Hair light brown; oHve skin.
Hair light brown; olive skin.
Hair brown; olive skin.
Hair brovvTi; olive skin.
Hair brown; olive skin.
Pedigree 38. H. Family.
I Gen. — Three children were bom to J. C. (who has skin say N 15 per cent
and whose maternal grandfather was Scotch) and his wife,
a daughter of an Englishman and a sambo woman. She
has dark brown eyes; hair formerly dark brown or black,
now gray, very curly and almost tj^pical; skin 7, 35, 23, 35.
I. The first daughter (who has dark brown eyes; very
curly coarse hair; skin 19, 36, 19, 26) married H. (who has
2,
&
3,
&
4,
&
5,
&
6,
9
7)
9
8,
9
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 89
dark brown eyes; quite straight, dark brown hair; skin
5, 25, 20, 50). They have four children (II i, 2. 3, 4). H.,
by a former marriage with a woman whose hair was dark
brown and quite straight, skin say N 15, and whose photo-
graph suggests the possibility of Jewish blood, had a son,
D. H., 13 years old; eyes dark brown; hair very brown,
straight; skin 11, 37, 19, 33.
2. The second child, a son, W. C, who has dark brown
eyes, typical black curly or kinky hair, skin 7, 40, 16, 37,
married a woman, the child of a partly Jewish father and
a colored mother, u-ith skin say N 20 per cent. She has
dark brown eyes; black, nearly straight hair; skin 16, 40,
18, 26; and is the mother of his three children (II 5, 6, 7).
3. Her half-sister, who had a fairer mother, has dark
brown, very curly hair; skin 9, 30, 17, 44.
4. Her half-brother is not as dark as she, but is darker
than his full sister.
5. Another son, J. C, now dead, whose skin was like
his brother's, i.e., N 7 per cent, married a woman whose
paternal grandfather was a Jew and whose maternal grand-
father was Scotch. She has dark-brown eyes; black,
straight hair; skin 9, 34, 24, 33. They have three children
(II 8, 9, 10).
II Gen. — I, cf. P. H., f 13 months. Skin like II 4.
2, $. IM. H., 5 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, very
curly but softer than mother's; skin 6, 38, 22, 34.
3, cf . H. H., 3 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, very
curly and coarse; skin 9, 35, 21, 35.
4, cf . H. H., 15 months. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown,
curly and soft; skin 9, 35, 21, 35.
5, 9 . E. C, 3 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, soft but
very curly; skin 12, 45, iS, 25.
6, cf . W. C., 1 3^ years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown,
coarse; skin 7, 44, 17, 32.
7, cf . 3 weeks. Eyes dark brown; hair brown, soft and straight;
skin pink.
8, cf. J- C, 5 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown and nearly
typically curly; skin 12, 41, 19, 28.
9, cf . R. C, 4 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium bro^NTi and
nearly typically curly; skin 16, 40, 19, 25.
10, 9. C. C, 2 j^ears. Eyes black; hair light brown, straight;
skin 4, 33, 20, 43.
Pedigree 39. M. Family.
I Gen. — I. M., whose mother and father's father were white, would pass
for white with his line straight hair; clear skin say N 5
per cent. He married a woman whose maternal grand-
father was of French and Haitian (negro) descent, and
whose father is colored. She shows her colored blood
plainly in her dark brown eyes; black, ver}- curly hair;
skin 12, 39, 20, 29. They have six children.
90 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-AVHITE CROSSES.
II Gen. — I, 9 . L. M., 15 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, straight;
fairer than a brunet; pass for white anywhere; skin 8, 37, 21,
34-
2, 9 . L. M., 14 years. Eyes medium brown; hair medium brown,
straight; pass for white anywhere; skin 8, 38, 22, 32.
3, 9 . C. M., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, slightly
wavy; fairest in the family; pass for white am^'here; skin
5, 35. 23, 37-
4, 9 . E. M., 10 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, wavy;
pretty brown skin 15, 50, 18, 17.
5, cf. A. M., 9 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown, very
wa\^; said to be like II 6, but very sunburned.
6, 9 . C. M., 3 years. Eyes dark brown ; hair dark brown and wavy ;
skin 8, 36, 19, 37 ; would pass for white in the United States.
Pedigree 40. B. Family.
(A colored family which shows no pigmentation, except possibly in one child.)
I Gen. — B., who has dark, curh", rather coarse hair and a clear white skin,
is the son of an Englishman and a very fair colored woman, a
"mustee," who was darker than her four sisters. His wife,
w'ho has dark brown eyes, straight dark brown hair, and
a clear complexion, is the daughter of an Englishman and
a Jamaican whose ancestors were said to be "white people
from Flanders," though there may be a little colored blood.
They have seven children.
11 Gen. — I, 9. Dark brown, wa\'y hair; the darkest complexion, a rich
brunet; skin not more than N 10.
2,4, 9 9 . Dark browm, wavy hair; from photograph appear to be
brunets; mother and neighbors say they are fairer than
II I.
3, 5. d^ o^- Medium brown eyes and medium brown straight hair.
Pass for white anywhere.
6,7, 99. Mediimi brown eyes ; golden wavy hair ; very white skin ;
pass anj^where for white children, but in Jamaica their
wavy hair makes one suspicious of colored blood.
Pedigree 41. T. Family.
I Gen. — — T., who has mediimi brown eyes and hair, is apparently a
white man ; skin say N 5 per cent ; but his slightly wav}?" hair
and distinctly curly and scant mustache suggest a little
colored blood. His father was an Englishman, his mother
passes for white, his sister is apparently pure white with
dark brown eyes and straight white hair (see Pedigree 45,
I Generation). His wife, who had a white father, clearly
shows her colored blood in her light brown skin, say N 10
per cent, and brown eyes, although her hair is black and
only waves slightly. They have seven children.
II Gen. — I, cf . J. T. Eyes and hair meditmi brown; skin say N 5 per cent.
2, c^. J. E. T. Eyes dark brown; black, curly hair and mustache;
skin 6, 33, 22, 39.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 91
3, 9 . Curly dark brown hair; said to resemble her mother. Absent.
4, cf. C. T. Eyes brown; hair medium brown, perhaps a little
curly; skin said to be less than lo per cent. Absent.
5, cf . P. T. Eyes brown; hair medium brown, straight; skin
say N 2 per cent. Absent.
6, 9 . A. T. Eyes blue; flaxen hair which shows her colored blood
in the slight curl and coarseness; skin like II 7.
7, cf. I. T. Eyes blue; hair yellow-brown and inclined to curl;
shows his colored blood, though his skin is 2, 33, 15, 50.
Pedigree 42. B. Family.
I Gen. B., son of a Jew and a sambo woman, has yellow-browTi eyes;
fine, though curly, brown hair; skin say N 6 per cent. His
wife, who had a white paternal grandfather and great-
grandfather and a white maternal great-grandfather, has
blue-gray eyes; black, practically straight hair; skin 11,
46, 20, 23. They have seven children.
II Gen. — I, cf. V. B., 15 years. Eyes black; hair medium brown; skin say
N 12 per cent.
2, cT. D. B., 13 years. Eyes yellow brown; hair dark brown,
straight; skin 15, 43, 20, 22.
3, cf . L. B., t 7 months. Eyes black; hair black; skin like II 7.
4, cf . N. B., 9 3^ears. At birth, blue eyes and light yellow hair,
but now gray-green eyes and medium brown, straight hair ;
skin 9, 40, 21, 30.
5, 9 . E. B., 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, wavy;
skin 19, 45, 15, 21.
6, cf . E. B., 5 years. Ej-es greenish-brown; hair medium brown,
straight; skin 13, 43, 17, 27.
7, cf . E. B., 18 months. Eyes gray; hair mediimi browTi, wavy;
skin 12, 41, 21, 26.
Pedigree 43. C. Family.
I Gen. C, son of a white man, probably a Jew, and a black woman,
has dark brown eyes; black straight hair; skin say N 25
per cent. His vrde is the daughter of colored parents,
but her mother, with skin 22, 45, 15, 8, shows white blood
in her hazel eyes and in her fine hair, which is black and
waves slightly. She has dark brown eyes; wa\-y hair;
skin 30, 45, 13, 12; and is the mother of six children.
II Gen. — I, cf. E. C, 16 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, curly; skin
21, 44, 16, 19.
2, 9 . I. C, 12 3'ears. Eyes black; hair dark bro^^^^, wavy; skin
27. 47, 15. II-
3, cf. R. C, 10 3'ears. Eyes dark brown; very curly, almost
typical black hair; skin 29, 41, 15, 5.
4, cf. C. C, 7 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
nearly straight; skin 25, 45, 15, 15.
5, 9. M. C, 5 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium bro\A'n,
curly; skin 30, 45, 15, 10.
6, cf . S. C, 2 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, curly;
skin like II 2.
92 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Pedigree 44. M. Family.
I Gen. M., the son of a colored man and a black woman, has dark
brown eyes; nearly typical black curly hair; skin 27, 38, 18,
17. He married a woman whose father may have been
pure white and whose mother was black. She has dark
brown eyes; nearly typical black curly hair; skin 35, 42, 8,
15. They have two children.
II Gen. — I, cf . S. M., 7 years. Eyes dark brown; nearly typical dark-brown
hair; skin 35, 42, 14, 9.
2, 9 . S. M., 17 months. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
probably becoming darker; skin 35, 36, 15, 14.
Pedigree 45. C. Family.
I Gen. C, has Hght brown eyes, lighter than those of any of the chil-
dren; black, slightly wavy hair; would pass for white any-
where but in Jamaica. His father, — C, though called a
"Jew," must have colored blood, as his photograph shows
thick lips and quite wavy hair (see Pedigree 50, I Genera-
tion, for his brother). His mother has dark brown eyes;
white, straight hair; would pass for white (see Pedigree 41,
I Generation) . He married the daughter of an Englishman
and a woman who would pass for white, though receiving a
little colored blood from her mother. Mrs. C. has gray eyes,
dark brown, straignt hair with a slight aubimi tinge, and
would pass for white anywhere. She has eight children.
II Gen. (skin color of fairest and darkest recorded). — i, 9 . Eyes gray-green;
hair medium brown ; straight.
2, cf . Eyes gray; hair black, straight.
3, cf . Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, straight.
4, 9 . Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, straight.
5, cf . Eyes gray; hair medium brown, straight; skin 2, 35, 18, 45.
6, 9 . Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, straight ; skin 8, 47, 20, 25.
7, 9 . Eyes dark brown; hair m.edium brown, straight.
8, cT. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown, straight.
Pedigree 46. A. Family.
I Gen. A., who is an Fi mulatto, son of a Jew and a pure black woman,
has skin say N 30. His wife has a sambo father and a
mother who has medium brown eyes, wavy hair, skin 9, 40,
17,34. She has dark brown eyes ; typically black curly hair ;
skin 22, 43, 16, 19. They have five children. The wife had
two sisters and a brother, all fairer than herself.
II Gen. — I, 9 . Eyes dark brown; typical black, curly hair; skin3o, 46, 15, 19.
Married Mr. W. Same as Pedigree 22,1 Generation. Eyes
meditun brown; hair black and straight; skin 10, 38, 24, 28.
2, cf . — A. Typical eyes and hair; skin 40, 25, 17, 18.
3, 4, cf d^. Said to be like II i.
5, 9 • Said to be like II 2.
Pedigree 47. S. Family.
I Gen. S., whose mother was pure East Indian and whose father was
probably colored, has hair a trifle wavy; skin say N 23
per cent. His wife, who had white paternal and maternal
grandfathers, has wavy black hair, which curls quite a
bit in front; skin 20, 46, 16, 18. They have eight children.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 93
II Gen. — I, 9 . V. S., 21 years. Hair very dark brown, slic;htly wavy; skin
10, 38, 22. 30.
2, cf. J. S. Hair black, straight; skin like II 4.
3, cf . F. S., IS years. Hair very dark brown, wavy; skin 27, 47,
14, 12.
4, 9 . L. S., 12 years. Hair black, practically straight; skin 23,
48, IS. H- .
5, d^. A. S., 10 years. Hair black, perfectly straight; skin 20, 43,
17. 20.
6, 9 . P. S., 7 years. Hair dark brown, practically straight; skin
23, 48, IS, 14-
7, 9. L. S., s years. Hair black, very wavy; skin 27, 48, 13, 12.
8, cT. F. S., 2 years. Hair very dark brown, wavy; skin 17, 43,
15. 2S-
Pedigree 48. D. Family.
I Gen. — Two half-sisters had a very dark mother; skin say N 45 per cent.
1. The father of the first was the illegitimate son of a
Jew and a woman with colored blood. She has dark
brown eyes; nearly typical curly hair; skin 2s, 43, 19, 13;
is the wife of — D., a man with dark brown eyes, dark-
brown straight hair, unusually white skin 2, 20, is, 63.
They have seven children (H i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
2. The other half-sister, whose father had skin say N
SO per cent, has black kinky hair; dark brown eyes; skin
50, 32, 8, 10. Her husband is — P., whose father was
colored, and whose mother was brunet with black hair
and blue eyes, the daughter of a Scotchman and a colored
woman. He has dark blue eyes; straight, bright red hair;
extremely white skin o, 19, 10, 71. He does not even tan.
They have two sons (II 8, 9).
11 Gen. — I, d^. G. D., 26 years. Hair dark brown, fine and very wavy;
skin 8, 41, 20, 31.
2, 9 . V. D., 22 years. Nearly typical curly, dark brown hair;
skin 16, 46, 18, 20.
3, 9 . A. D., 17 years. Looks like an East Indian; black, slightly
wavy hair; skin 16, 47, 17, 20.
4, cf . C. D., 16 years. Hair dark brown, straight; skin 14, 40, 20,
26.
5, 9 . I. D., 14 years. Hair dark brown, rather curly; skin 23, 43,
19. IS- .
6, 9 . M. D., 12 years. Claimed by father and mother as legiti-
mate. Would be taken for pure black girl. Typical black
kinky hair; skin so, 3s, 8, 7.*
* The mother accounted for No. 6's blackness by an illness during pregnancy, when the
medicine she used affected the child. !Miss Danielson writes: "The dark child of 12 aroused
my suspicions as to the morals of the parents. I mistrust the accuracy of their statements all
the more as they live 'in the bush,' i.e., back from the road in a poor sort of house. Eleven
persons occupied the three rooms. When I was at the D. home, I at first thought this dark
girl was a servant, as many 'coffee-colored' negroes had the natives for serv'ants. But
this family is not of the class who employ help. I used the adjective kinky to describe her
hair, as I wanted to emphasize the contrast between it and that of the other members of
the family. The black natives have coarse, kinky, almost woolly hair, which is short and
often braided into several short pigtails on the sides of the head. This dark girl's hair
was like that. I did not come across that type of hair often, nor describe it in any other
case, because my work was not among the black people."
7
94 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
7, cf. H. D. Hair dark brown, straight; skin 24, 45, 16, 15.
8, cf. V. P., 3 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown with
a hidden reddish tinge and very curly; skin 20, 47, 18, 15,
9, cT. A. P., gmonths. Eyes black ; hair brown, fine ; skin 25,40,19,16.
Pedigree 49. N. Family.
(A colored family in which only the mother by her curly hair shows the
colored blood.)
I Gen. — Six children were bom of a brown-eyed man of colored parentage,
his skin being probably N 15 to N 20, and of a gray-eyed
woman, probably with a clear olive complexion. She was
the daughter of a pure white man and a very fair woman
with colored blood.
1-4. Four children had gray eyes, light brown hair and
no skin pigmentation.
5. One son had brow^n eyes, skin somewhat pigmented,
so that he could not pass for white.
6. Another son, N., who has gray eyes, Hght brown hair,
and no N skin pigmentation, married an olive-skinned
woman, not more than N 8, with dark brown hair that is
coarse and strongly inclined to curl. Her paternal great-
great-grandfather was a salve-owner, and it is supposed that
the original cross with black was by him. Her paternal
grandfather was a dark man and his wife colored. Her
father was colored, but her mother a white woman with
blue-gray eyes and brown hair. Mrs. N.'s two fair brothers
and four fair sisters pass for white, but her dark sister and
three dark brothers can not. She has had three children,
all of whom are practically white.
II Gen. — I, cf . Eyes dark gray; hair dark brown, straight; fair creamy skin.
2, 9 . Eyes dark gray; hair medium brown, inclined to be wavy;
brunet skin, a little darker than II i.
3, cf^. 2 years. Eyes blue gray; hair golden, slightly wavy: very
fair skin.
Pedigree 50. S. Family.
I Gen. S., one of a fraternity of six, three of whom were fair and three
dark, has curly black hair and skin probably N 25. His
father was colored and his mother was a woman of Irish
and colored blood, whose photograph showed fairly good
features and straight hair. He married a dark brown-
eyed, straight dark brown-haired woman with an ordinary
brunet complexion. She is the daughter of a probably not
pure Jew (see Pedigree 45, I Generation) and a woman with
a little colored blood. They have five children.
11 Gen. — I, 9. Dark brown, decidedly curly hair; shows colored blood;
skin say N 15, R 25.
2, cf. Nearly straight or perfectly straight hair; much tanned,
brunet skin ; a little darker than his mother.
3, cf*. Nearly straight or perfectly straight hair; much tanned,
brunet skin ; a little darker than his mother.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 95
4, 9. Nearly straight or perfectly straight hair; much tanned,
brunet skin; a little darker than her mother.
5, 9 . Dark brown, slightly curly hair; very dark brunet skin, say
N lo; could hardly pass for white.
Pedigree 51. J. Family.
I Gen. — — J., a fair-colored man with straight black hair, and skin say
N 5, the son of a Scotchman and a colored woman, married
a light-colored woman, daughter of a white man and a
black woman. She has dark brown eyes; very curly dark
brown hair, skin 20, 41, 20, 19. Six children.
II Gen. — I, of. D. J., who has black, very curly hair, and skin say N 20 per
cent, married an Fi mulatto, with nearly typical black hair,
and skin 23, 45, 18, 14, by whom he had two daughters (III
1,2).
2, cf . Probably like II 6.
3, 9. Eyes green-brown; hair black, practically straight and
coarse; skin 27, 35, 20, 18, though badly tanned. Her
husband, — W. (bom of a brown father and a ver^- dark
mother with black, straight hair), has black, kinky hair;
skin 18, 37, 23, 22. They have six children living (III
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8).
4, 9 . About like II 3.
5, 9 . About like II 6. Hair practically straight and black.
6, cT. E. J. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown and straight; if
not tanned might pass for white; skin 5, 30, 23, 42. His
wife, who is of a large fraternity, is the daughter of a man
who is "white by law," son of an Enghshman and a Scotch
X colored mother (Pedigree 53, I Generation), and a
colored woman with w'avy black hair, and skin say N 20
per cent. They had five children, of whom two are living
(III 9, 10). Mrs. J. has dark brown eyes; hair dark brown
and practically straight; skin 20, 42, 20, 18.
E. J.'s wife has eight brothers and sisters. The first
brother has skin say N 17 per cent. A sister, C. F., has
dark brown eyes, very wavy dark browTi hair; skin 17, 38,
24, 21. Another sister, R. F., is fairer than N 12 per cent.
A second brother has skin say N 20 per cent. A sister,
who has dark brown eyes; medium brown, straight hair,
a little wavy about her face; and skin 12, 41, 20, 27, mar-
ried— F., who has dark brown eyes, black straight hair;
skin 17, 44, 20, 19. They have eight children (III 11, 12,
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18).
A fourth sister, I. F., who has very dark brown hair,
practically straight, and skin 19, 41, 21, 19, had, by a man
darker than herself, one child, R. F. ; hair dark broNNTi, very
curly; skin 18, 45, 20, 17.
Another sister is about as dark as N 26 per cent.
A brother, C. F., who has dark brown eyes, black wavy
hair, and skin 26, 44, 17, 13, though his face is much
darker, has a \\Tlfe with medium brown eyes, black straight
hair, and skin 5, 30, 25, 40. They have six children (III
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24).
96 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
Ill Gen. — I, 9 . E. J., 7 years. Hair dark browTi, curly; skin 15, 46, 20, 19.
2, 9 . R. J-, I year. Hair light brown, wavy; skin 18, 45, 17, 20.
3, cf . C. W., 17 years. Eyes medium brown; hair dark brown,
coarse and very curly; skin 22, 40, 18, 20.
4, 9 . Hair straight and black; skin said to be like HI 7.
5, cf. H. W., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; almost black, coarse,
straight hair; skin 20, 35, 21, 24.
6, 9 . R. W., 73^ years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, fine and
straight; skin 29, 46, 13, 12.
7, cf. N. W., 5 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, coarse
and straight; skin 35, 44, 12, 9.
8, of. A. W., 3 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, slightly
wavy; skin 28, 46, 14, 12.
9, cf. E. J., 4 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
straight; skin 18, 41, 20, 21.
10, 9 . E. J., I year. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
slightly curly; skin 13, 41, 21, 25.
11, cf . H. F., 18 years. Skin say N 20 per cent.
12, cf. L. F., 17 years. Skin say N 25 per cent.
13, cf . H. F., 15 years. Hair black, coarse and straight; skin 25,
40, 19, 16.
14, cf . L. F., 13 years. Hair very dark brown, fine and straight;
skin 19, 39, 22, 20.
15, 9. I. F., 8 years. Hair very dark browm, fine and straight;
skin 25, 40, 19, 16.
16, cf . C. F., 6 years. Hair medium brown, fine and straight; skin
18, 37, 21, 24. ^
17, cT. S. F., 4 years. Hair dark brown, fine and straight; skin
16, 41, 20, 23. _ _
18, cT. H. F., 2 years. Hair medium brown, fine and straight; skin
18, 41, 20, 21.
19, 9 . S. F., 12 years. Medium brov/n eyes and mediimi brown,
wavy hair; skin 7, 42, 22, 29.
20, cf. C. F., 10 years. Hair medium brown, wa\'y"; skin 6, 32, 26, 36.
21, 9 . E . F. , 6 years. Hair medium brown, curly ; skin 20,40,21,19.
22, 9 . I. F., 4 years. Hair medium brown, curly; skin 20, 41, 22, 17.
23, 9 . O. F., 2 years. Hair light brown, wavy; skin 18, 38, 29, 15.
24, cT. H. F., 5 months. Hair light brown, wavy; skin 14, 44, 22, 20.
Pedigree 52. M. Family.
(Consequences of repeated introduction of white blood.)
IGen. M., whose father was a Jew and whose mother was the daughter
of a Frenchman and a colored woman, has dark brown
eyes. His hair is claimxcd to be black and straight, but a
photograph shows a slight wave; skin say N 8 per cent.
His wife had a paternal Scotch grandfather, and an Eng-
Hsh maternal grandfather whose wife was probably an Fi
mulatto. Mrs. M. has gray eyes, dark brown, practically
straight hair, and though her nose is rather broad might
pass for white; skin say N 8 per cent. They have three
daughters.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 97
II Gen. — I, 9 . S. M. Eyes gray ; hair light brown (?) ; skin say N 2 per cent.
2, 9 . Z. M., 7 years. Eyes dark brown; liair medium brown,
slightly curly; hardly pass for white; skin 8, 51, 21, 20.
3,9.1 year. Eyes blue ; hair flaxen ; no sign of colored h>lood ;
skin 2, 33, 24, 41.
Pedigree 53. P. Family.
I Gen. — Nine children had a very "fair" father, — P., whose parents were
practically white. He has brown eyes and very curly
auburn hair. Their mother, whose father was white by
law (see Pedigree 51, II Generation, 6) and whose mother
was pure black, has brown eyes, black, almost straight
hair; skin 22, 42, 17, 19. She looks a little like a coolie.
1. The first son, G. P., who has dark brown eyes and
typical kink}^ black hair, skin 30, 34, 19, 17, married a
light-colored woman with somewhat negroid features,
wavy, dark brown hair, and skin 14, 40, 22, 24, by whom he
had six children (II i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).
2. Another son, G. P., who has very curly black hair,
and skin say N 25 per cent, has a wife whose father would
pass for white and whose mother is part Scotch. She has
dark brown eyes; dark brown, fairly curly hair; skin 25, 45,
15, 15. They have three children (II 7, 8, 9). His wife's
sister, E. S., has very curly black hair; skin 27, 40, 16, 17.
3. A daughter, who has dark brown eyes, ver\'' curly
black hair and skin 15, 47, 16, 22, married — L., now dead,
said to have had very wavy, coarse browTi hair, and sldn
say N 17 per cent. His father was part French, and his
mother, whose photograph looks very Uke a white person,
had long, dark brown, straight hair, and skin perhaps N
8 per cent. Four children were bom to them (II 10, 11,
12, 13)-
4. A third son, H. P., with curly hair, and sldn say N
20 per cent, had a wife who was part Jew and part colored,
with black, straight hair. She died at the birth of her
daughter, S. P., now 3 years old; eyes dark bro\\Ti; hair
brown, straight but wa\^ on the ends; skin 15, 50, 19, 16.
5, 9 . V. P, Fairer than any of her sibs; kinky hair.
6, cT. — P. Very like I 2.
7-9, c^cf. About same complexion, say N 15.
II Gen. — I, &. N. P., 13 years. Hair black and slightly wavy: skin 35, 42,
14, 9. He is much darker than either parent.
2, 9.1. P., 10 years. Hair dark brown, curly; skin 18, 39, 20, 23.
3, 9 • B. P., 8 years. Hair dark browTi, curly; skin 15, 32, 25, 28.
4, cf . G. P., 6 years. Hair medium brown, curl}'; skin 15,32,25, 28.
5, 9 . V. P., 3 years. Hair dark brown, curly; skin 15, 43, 21, 21.
6, 9 . t 2 years. Skin between II i and II 2.
7, 9 . R. P., 3 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brouni, curly;
skin 29, 42, 17, 12.
8, cf. E. P., 2 years. Eyes gray, hair bright red,* kinky; a creamy
white skin 7, 41, 23, 29.
* The mother explains his red hair by stating that, when pregnant, she used to make
fun of a red-haired person.
98 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
9, cf . G. P., 2 months. Eyes dark brown; hair indefinite, probably-
dark brown and curly; skin 19, 44, 15, 22, but not fully
pigmented yet.
10, cf . V. L., 10 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, slightly
wavy; skin 13, 43, 20, 24. _
11, cf . G. L. Eyes dark brown; hair black, practically straight and
coarse; looks a little like a coolie; skin 20, 49, 17, 14.
12, 13. t Inf. Skin fairer than II 10.
Pedigree 54. B. Family.
I Gen. B., the illegitimate son of a colored man and English woman,
has gray eyes, and skin say N 12 per cent. His wife is
the daughter of a man whose father was English and whose
mother was colored, and a woman whose father was Eng-
lish and whose mother was black. She has medium brown
eyes; very curly, dark brown hair; skin 16, 43, 21, 20. Three
of their eight children are living.
II Gen. — I, cf. B. B. Blue eyes; very fair.
2, cf. N. B., 10 years. Eyes medium brown; hair medium brown,
curly; skin 12, 36, 22, 30.
3, 9 . M. B., 7 years. Eyes medium or greenish -brown ; hair me-
dium brown, curly; skin 8, 35, 23, 34.
4, d^. J. B., t inf. Hair black; skin darker than his mother's.
5, cf . H. B., t I year. Skin say N 12.
6, 9 . E. B., 3 years. Eyes light brown or hazel; hair light brown,
very wavy; skin 16, 43, 21, 20.
7, 8, cT d^ . Twins, f 3 months. One fairer than the other, the darker
say N 15.
Pedigree 55. S. Family.
I Gen. — Seven children were born of — S., whose father was white and whose
mother was colored. He had "good" hair, and skin say
N 5 ; he married the daughter of a white man and a colored
woman. She was a little darker than her husband and had
slightly wavy hair.
I. A daughter with medium brown eyes; medium brown,
coarse, wavy hair; skin 5, 45, 20, 30; married — R., son
of a possibly pure white man and a dark woman. He has
black, kinky hair; skin 20, 45, 18, 17. They have five
children (II i, 2, 3, 4, 5).
2-4. Three daughters have long, black straight hair and
skin say N 5.
5-6. One son and daughter have skin say N 12.
7. Another son, — S., who has medium brown eyes,
dark brown, slightly curly hair, and skin 5, 28, 21, 46,
married a woman both of whose grandfathers were white
and both grandmothers black. Her parents had skin say
N 30, the father having kinky black hair, but the mother
straighter and fairer hair. Mrs, S. has dark brown eyes,
black, almost kinky hair, and skin 20, 20, 41, 19. They
have seven children (II 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12). Mrs. S.
has a brother about her own color, another a little lighter,
skin say N 15 ; another with kinky hair, and skin say N 30;
and a sister with light brown, wavy hair, and skin say N 10.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 99
11 Gen. — I, 9. I. R. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, wav>'; skin 22,
42, 19. 17-
2, 9 . E. R., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, slightly
wavy; skin 21, 44, 20, 15.
3, 9. I. R., 10 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, very
curly; skin 11, 40, 23, 26.
4, cf. L. R., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brov^ii, very
curly; skin 15, 40, 24, 21.
5, cf . S. R., II months. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
very wavy; skin 11, 35, 23, 31.
6, 9 . I. S., 15 years. Eyes medium brown, hair dark brown, curly;
skin 21, 40, 20, 19.
7, 9 . L. S., 13 years. Eyes black; hair medium brown, very curly;
skin 17, 38, 22, 23.
8, cf . W. S., 12 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, straight;
skin 19, 40, 20, 21.
9, cf . D. S., 10 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, very
curly; skin 14, 35, 25, 26.
10, 9. M. S., 9 years. Eyes dark brown; hair light brown, very
curly; skin 12, 36, 27, 25.
11, cf . C. S., 7 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, slightly
curly; skin 16, 36, 26, 22.
12, cf . V. S., 4 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, nearly
straight; skin 17, 38, 23, 22.
Pedigree 56. H. Family.
I Gen. — Three children whose paternal grandfather was the son of a white
man and a colored woman, and whose paternal grand-
mother was a blue-eyed Irish woman, had a fair-skinned,
gray-eyed father, — H., and a very dark mother called
sambo with black, soft hair, the daughter of a Scotch-
man ( ?) and a colored woman.
1. The son, — H., who had medium browTi eyes, very
curly but not kinky black hair, skin 25, 35, 18, 22, married
a woman with medium brown eyes, ver}' wav>' or crimpy
dark brown hair, white skin and pink cheeks, only the
crimp in her hair denoting her colored blood; skin o, 28.
20, 52. Her father, whose photograph looks like that of a
white man, had dark brown eyes; dark browTi, straight
hair; skin say N 5; while her mother, the daughter of a
Jew and grand-daughter of a Scotchman, in the photograph
shows slightly negro features; has dark bro^vn wavy hair;
skin like her daughter's. They have two boys (II i, 2).
2. A daughter, who has light brown eyes, very curly,
dark brown hair, a little more kink}^ than that of her
brothers, skin 18, 42, 20, 20, married — G., brother of the
wife of I I. He has dark brown eyes: hair probably a little
wa\y or curly, as it was called "not good;" skin a little
darker than that of his sister. They have four children
(11 3, 4. 5. 6).
— G., has a brother with fine straight hair, skin said to
be N 5. He married a brown-skinned woman, and their
children are dark, with long, straight hair.
3. Another daughter is said to have dark bro\\'n eyes;
"nice" hair, i.e., fine and comparatively straight; skin
fairer than N 18.
100 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
II Gen. — I, cf . N. H., 5 years. Eyes medmm brown; hair dark brown,
wavy; skin 12, 44, 25, 19.
2, cf . H. H., 3 years. Eyes medium browTi; hair flaxen and very
curly; skin 10, 43, 24, 23.
3, cf . A. G., 9 years. Eyes gray-brown; hair medium brown, very
curly; skin 12, 37, 20, 31.
4, cf . E. G., 5 years. Eyes greenish and crossed; hair medium
brown, very ciu"ly; freckled skin 5, 30, 21, 44.
5, 9 . E. G., 4 years. Hair black, wavy; skin say N 25, darkest in
the family. Absent.
6, cf . C. G., 3 years. Eyes medium brown: hair very light yel-
low, curly; skin 9, 44, 25, 22.
Pedigree 57. A. Family.
I Gen. — D. A., whose father was part Jew and whose mother had skin say
N 20, has skin say N 16. His wife, the daughter of a
white man and a dark woman, has dark brown eyes; very
curly, dark brown hair; a somewhat freckled skin, 12, 41,
24, 23. They have seven children, all of whom have dark
brown eyes.
II Gen. — I, 9 . D, A., 13 years. Hair dark brown, very wavy; skin 13, 40,
23, 24.
2, 9 . E. A., II years. Hair dark brown, very curly; skin 15, 42,
23, 20.
3, cf . A. A., 9 years. Hair dark brown, very curly; skin 13, 37,
25. 25.
4, 9 . I. A., 6 years. Hair dark brown, very curly; skin 7, 40, 23, 30.
5, cf . V. A., 4 years. Hair reddish- brown, very slightly wavy;
skin 7, 39, 24, 30. _
6, cf . E. A., 3 years. Hair light brown, golden on the wavy ends;
skin 13, 38, 22, 27. _
7, 9 . E. A., 16 months. Hair light brown, slightly wavy; skin 7,
35. 25, 33.
Pedigree 58. D. Family.
(This pedigree is interesting because of the variety of complexions among the
children, though no definite records could be taken.)
I Gen. — A colored man with kinky black hair, skin N 20 to 25, is the son
of a colored man of similar skin whose father was a Jew
and whose mother was black, and of a woman with skin a
little darker than that of her husband. He married a
practically white woman, as both her father and her m^other
were very "near to white." She has dark brown eyes,
reddish-brown straight hair, slightly freckled, very white
skin. They have four children.
II Gen. — I, cf . Skin color half-way between that of his father and that of
his mother.
2, 9 • Brown eyes; very curly flaxen hair; fair white skin like her
mother's.
3, 9. Brown eyes; dark brown, curly hair; the darkest in the
family, being plainly darker than her father.
4, Like its mother.
JAMAICAN FAMILIES. 101
Pedigree 59. M. Family.
I Gen. — F. A. M., the son of a very fair colored man and a black woman,
has dark brown eyes, black wavy, almost kinky, hair,
yellow-brown skin, say N 15. His ^^^fe, the daughter of a
man darker than she and a woman with skin say N 8, has
hazel or green-browTi eyes; black, straight hair; would pass
for wliite anywhere but in Jamaica ; skin 5 , 35, 27, 33. They
have seven children. She has a sister with an olive com-
plexion, say N 8, and two brothers with straight brown
hair; respectively, N 10 and N 6.
II Gen. — I, 9. A. M., 18 years. Eyes medium brown; very curly, almost
kink^', medium-brown hair; olive skin, 8, 40, 23, 29.
2, 9. W. M., 17 years. Eyes gray-brown or hazel, something
like her mother's; very dark brown, very curly hair; skin
10, 42, 21, 27.
3, 9 . D. M., 15 years. Like II 6.
4, cf . H. M., 14 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, very
curly; skin 17, 43, 20, 20.
5, 9 . M. M., 12 3'ears. Eyes medium brown; hair dark brown,
very ciu-ly; sldn 18, 46, 20, 16.
6, cf . L. M., 9 years. Eyes dark brown; medium browTi, typically
curly hair; skin 15, 42, 23, 20.
7, cf . A. M., 8 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
wavy; skin 14, 44, 21, 21.
Pedigree 60. M. Family.
I Gen. — Eleven children were bom of a pure Scotch, blue-eyed father and
a black mother.
I. A son, with sldn say N 23, married a woman whose
father was of white and colored ancestry, had blue eyes
and a white skin, and whose mother, an Fi mulatto, had
black wa\^ hair. Mrs. M. has medium brown eyes; black,
wavy hair; skin 16, 44, 21, 19. They have three children
(III, 2,3).
2-6. A daughter had "bad" hair, i.e., kinky and coarse;
skin say N 15. Three others had black or dark brown,
wavy hair; skin say N 25. A fifth had "bad" hair, and
was darker than N 25.
7-1 1. Five sons, one at least of whom had "nice" hair,
were very dark.
II Geti. — I, (^ . R. Al., 16 years. Eyes medium brown; hair very wavy, dark
brown; very fair when not tanned; skin 3, 32, 23, 42.
2, 9. R- M., 14 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown,
straight, but with a little wave in it; skin 23, 43, 19, 15.
3, 9 . H. M., 12 years. Eyes green; hair mediiun brown, very
cturly, almost kinky; somewhat freckled and tanned skin,
15. 34- 23, 28.
Pedigree Oi. J. Family.
I Gen. J., the son of a man whose skin was fairer than N 13, and of a
woman with skin say N 30, has dark brown eyes; black,
very curly, almost kinky hair; skin 30, 40, 17, 13. His
102 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
wife is the daughter of a man part Jew and part colored
who had black, straight hair, skin darker than N 13, and
of a woman of Portuguese and colored descent who was
fairer than her daughter. Mrs. J. has dark bro^;\Ti eyes;
black, straight hair; skin 13, 36, 21, 30. They have three
children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . G. J., 14 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, straight, but
a little wavy about her face; skin 23, 40, 20, 17.
2, 9 . L. J., 13 years. Eyes dark brown; hair black, straight;
skin 20, 40, 20, 20.
3, cf . R. J., 2 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, fine,
curly, but not kinky; skin 35, 37, 13, 15.
Pedigree 62. C. Family.
I Gen. C, the son of a light-colored man with skin say N 18 and a
lighter-colored woman, the daughter of a Jew and a black
woman, has dark brown eyes, black, very curly, almost
kinky hair, skin 20, 38, 22, 20. He married a woman who
is the daughter of a Jew and a colored woman with skin
darker than her daughter's. Mrs. C. has dark brown eyes,
black wavy hair, skin 12, 40, 21, 27. They have eight
children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . E. C. Hair light brown, wavy; skin say N 12.
2, 9 . L. C, 16 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 12, 42, 21, 25.
3, cf . D. C, 14 years. Eyes dark brown; hair medium brown,
coarse, and wa\'y; skin 21, 37, 20, 22.
4, cf . R. C, 13 years. Eyes medium brown; hair medium brown,
wavy; skin 11, 38, 23, 28.
5, 9 . E. C, II years. Hair black, straight; the darkest in the
family; "like her father," who is much tanned.
6, cf . H. C, 9 years. Eyes medium brown; hair dark brown, curly;
skin 23, 34, 20, 23.
7, 9 . I. C, 6 years. Eyes dark brown; hair very dark brown,
slightly wavy; skin 25, 37, 19, 19.
8, cf . B. C., 4 years. Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, v/avy;
skin 27, 40, 18, 15.
III. LOUISIANIAN FAMILIES.
(Abridged field notes of Susan K. Gillean, Eugenics Record Ofl&ce.)
Pedigree i. P. Family.
I Gen. P., an Fi mulatto, the illegitimate son of a white man, thought
to have had dark eyes and hair, and of a full-blooded
negress, is a well-built fellow with rather thick lips, flat
nose, dark eyes, kinky hair, skin 30, 32, 13, 25. His wife,
an Fi mulatto, the illegitimate daughter of a white man
and a full-blooded negress of South Carolina, has rather
small feet and hands; a well-shaped, straight, narrow nose;
lips a little thick; eyes light brown and close together;
curly hair; skin 25, 21, 13, 41. They have ten children.
LOUISIANIAN FAMILIES. 103
11 Gen. — I, 9. I. P. [W.]. Noseflat;lips thick; hair curly; skin 30, 32, 13, 25.
2, 9 . S. P. [W.]. Nose well shai^ed; Hps thick; eyes Hght brown
and close together; hair curly; skin 16, 32, 12, 40.
3, cT. V. P. Nose well shaped; hps rather thick; eyes brown;
hair curly; skin 16, 30, 12, 42.
4, 9. M. P. Nose flat; mouth good; lips not very thick; eyes
light brown; hair curly; skin 26, 30, 12, 32.
5, cf . P. P. Possibly like II 4. Absent.
6, 9. V. P. Nose good; lips rather thick; hands and feet small;
hair curly; skin 23, 32, 12, 33.
7, d^, P. P. Nose flat; lips thick; eyes dark; hair kinky; skin 33,
32, 12, 23.
8, cT. A. P. Nose flat; lips rather thick; hair curly; skin 35, 32,
12, 21.
9, cf . I. P. Nose flat; hair kinky; skin 29, 32, 12, 27.
10, c^. I week old.
Pedigree 2. F. Family.
I Gen. — B. F., 70 years, a full-blooded negro with fairly good nose, thick
lips, hair kinky, skin 43, 30, 12, 15; married an F2 mulatto,
as both of her parents were illegitimate Fi mulattoes and
both of her grandfathers were white. She has a broad
face; good nose; thick lips; wa\y, white hair; skin 10, 30,
12, 48. They have two children.
II Gen. — I, 9 . E. F. [C.]. Face broad; good nose; hps thick; hair woolly;
skin 39, 12, 32, 17.
2, cf . W. F. Head long; face rather narrow; nose flat; lips thick;
hair woolly; a typical negro; skin 45, 12, 32, 11.
Pedigree 3. W. Family.
I Gen. — S. W., a Jew with dark eyes and hair, had an illegitimate son by a
full-blooded negress with a wide, flat nose, thick lips,
woolly hair, skin 45, 32, 13, 10.
II Gen. — I, cf . S. W. Nose broad and flat; eyes round and close together;
lips thick; kinky hair; skin 25, 32, 13, 30.
Pedigree 4. W. Family.
I Gen. — A white man, a brunet with straight hair, had, by a negress with
a broad, flat nose, thick lips, woolly hair, skin 40, 32, 13.
15, one daughter.
II Gen. — I, 9 . C. W. Nose and mouth good; eyes light brown; hair kinky;
skin 20, 32, 13, 35.
Pedigree 5. S. Family.
I Gen. — M. S. An illegitimate Fi mulatto, the daughter of a white man and
a full-blooded negress, has not a negroid nose, but one u-ith
the muscles tight or drawn at the base, rather thick lips,
crinkly, wavy white hair, skin 20, 30, 12, 38. By a brunet
white man she had an illegitimate daughter, who has nasal
muscles similar to her mother's, thin lij^s, very curly hair,
skin 15, 30, 12, 43. By a lawful marriage to a man with
blue eyes and light hair, said to be white by some, by others
to have colored blood, she had a daughter (II i), with not
a single negroid feature.
104 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
II Gen. — I, 9 . Eyes dark brown; hair dark brown, very wavy; skin 3,32,
12, 53; would pass for white anywhere. She has four
children (III i, 2, 3, 4), whose natural father is a white
man with a high, large nose; blue eyes; red hair. All the
children would pass for white.
Ill Gett. — I, cf . Good nose and mouth; blue eyes; almost straight hair.
2, cf. Large nose; lips thicker than those of III i; curly brown
hair; huge dark brown freckles.
3, 9. Like III 2.
4, 9 . Large, high nose; lips very red and a little thick; eyes blue;
hair red and curly; skin fair but freckled.
Pedigree 6. T. Family.
I Gen. — Three children, the illegitimate offspring of a pure white man with
dark eyes and dark, straight hair, skin said to be red
(evidently he was a planter and his skin was red from ex-
posure), and a negress with typical negro features, flat
nose, thick lips, woolly, kinky hair, skin 70, 28.5, i, 0.5.
1. A daughter, S. T., who has a flat nose, one eye crossed,
crinkly but not kinky hair, skin 29, 32, 13, 26, had, by a
white man, — B., with blue eyes and light brown straight
hair, two illegitimate children (II i, 2).
2. A second daughter, R. T., has a flat nose, rather thick
lips; kinky hair; skin 20, 32, 13, 35.
3. A son, H. T., has a flat nose, extremely flat between
the eyes; rather thick lips; light brown eyes; very kinky
hair; skin 20, 32, 13, 35.
II Gen. — I, cf. C. B., 12 years. Nose good; eyes blue; hair straight; skin
10, 32, 13, 45.
2, cf . R. B., 10 years. Nose good; mouth shaped like a negro's;
eyes blue; hair slightly wavy; skin 10, 32, 13, 45.
APPENDIX B.
SOCIAL DATA CONCERNING MISCEGENATION.
(a) Bermuda.
The brown-skinned negro is the characteristic negro of Bermuda. The
black-skinned negroes in Bermuda are almost entirely the result of imported
labor. When the government was building its dry dock and fixing up its
naval station, it brought many West Indian negroes up to work in Bermuda.
Some of them settled there and intermarried with the brown-skinned people.
The result is that there are more apparently "full black " people in the present
generation than there were in the past. Both the white and the colored people
regret this importation, not only for its effect upon the skin color, but espe-
cially because it has introduced a more lawless element. White men have
told me that formerly it was almost absolutely safe for women to be out alone
in the evening. Now they do not consider it quite so safe because "those
West Indian fellows" have made several disturbances. * * * The white
Bermudians have explained the brown skins of their colored people by the
common practice of the white masters to have children by their slaves. In
such a small territor}% where the number of slaves kept was comparatively
small, this practice would relatively soon affect the whole colored population.
In Jamaica, on the other hand, where the plantations demanded large num-
bers of slaves, the same practice of concubinage would affect a smaller ntmiber.
This smaller nimiber, being segregated, would form that mixed "colored"
class who are so proud of their white blood. For the pure blacks, after eman-
cipation, retired to the mountains and for a long time kept very much to
themselves. * * * The native Bermudians consider themselves, and are
truly, much superior to the Jamaicans. — Florence H. Danielson.
(6) Jamaica.
Mr. G. is a light brown colored man, interested in science and philosophy,
who gave Miss Danielson many details. His father was a strict mulatto and
his mother pure white, from Ireland, who was brought up by a colored family
after the death of her father (who was in the troops) from fever. He has a
very fair sister who married a white man, and one darker sister, deceased.
Mr. G. married a swarthy-complexioned woman \\ath some Carib blood, and
they have a son whose skin is very fair and who worked three years in New
York as a white man. When his father wrote that he was coming to America
to see him he replied : ' ' Please don't come, father ; you vAW spoil all my chances
up here!" So, Mr. G. did not go. As a result of domestic troubles Mr. G.
left his wife and, as he said, "got wild." He had two children by an almost
pure black woman, a mangro. Her father was pure black and her mother
sambo. Both children are of a rich brown sambo color, vn\h. curly negro hair.
Mrs. B. is a little fairer than the average mulatto. She married an
EngHshman, has lived in England, has been several times to New York, and
has considerable money. Her two sons are about 8 to lo per cent N and might
pass for white in America; they were educated in good schools in England,
105
106 HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR IN NEGRO-WHITE CROSSES.
and are intelligent and mature for their years. The daughter, about six years
old, has fluffy, wavy hair and skin with 15 to 20 per cent N. Mrs. B. said:
I understand you have separate cars and churches for colored people. An American
seems to think he will become black if he sits beside a colored person. I can understand
why they might object to marrying a colored person, for then it is a matter of blood, but
I don't see how contact with them can hurt anything. A man doesn't marry for skin color;
he marries someone equal in mental ability, and a white man may find that in a colored
woman as well as in a white.
An olive-skinned man, with a brown wife, five children, and a neat,
well-kept home in a quiet country place, says :
I've often said I'd change the British flag for the American flag any day. In America
they are prejudiced against all colored people. You may be a millionaire, but if you're
colored you can't marry into white families or associate with them. Here with the English,
if you are colored and have money you are all right, they associate with you; but if you
haven't money you are nowhere. The English aren't as honest as the Americans, for they
(English) hate the color just the same and only accept it for the money. So I'd rather be
under the American flag, for I don't want to mingle with the white people. I like my own
race and want to live with my own people.
A brown woman, with a brown husband, in a neat, well-furnished home,
says: "I wouldn't change my race; I'm not ashamed of my color!"
(c) Louisiana.
To the field worker, from a friend :
I have thought a good deal about the subject of which you write and have myself
been interested in it; but I do think it is one of the most difficult pursuits and for the reason
that the data are so obscure, are not on record anywhere, and the people themselves are
inaccurate and frequently ignorant. There are comparatively few pure Africans and when
there is an admixture it is next to impossible, I find, to discover the exact proportions of the
kinds of blood involved, both because of lack of knowledge and untruthfulness.
I have had in my employ at diflferent times notable examples in which I was greatly
interested. One, a handsome mulatto, was notable for her fine contour and color, the daugh-
ter of two comely mulattoes, but of the blood of the parents I know nothing. I always sus-
pected Indian blood in the mother because of her high cheek bones and straight bearing,
but back of her is all guesswork excepting the single fact of a probable white father (or else
mulatto parents). This mother, who was even handsomer than her daughter, married, late
in life, a pure African and had a son who was a little black crow in color like his coal-black
father, and who displayed all the wretched traits of a poor paternal line, nearly breaking
the hearts of his mother and half-sister.
Another — Rose, we'll say — was the daughter of my black cook, her father a white
youth, both absurdly young at the time, so the mother told me. I met Rose, a handsome
mulatto with fairly good hair, after her marriage to a very light blue-eyed mulatto with
kinky hair. Their children were all very light, almost white, but with the close-clinging
reddish negro wool — all excepting a very handsome daughter who was darker but whose
lovely brown limp curls hung low over her shoulders. She was altogether superior as a
type to her brothers, and the mother said to me one day, " Mrs. S., I wouldn't take anything
for Ellen's dark skin. If she had her brothers' light skin with that fine hair, people wouldn't
believe I was an honest woman. You see, there's just so much negro blood in these children
and it's hound to show one way or another. It's either a kinky-haired pale face or a brown
girl with white folk's hair."
Plate i.
Fig. I. Part of W. family, Bermuda pedigree 6, including a dark grandmother
(II I (MM)), a black mother (III i (M)) who by an equally black
man had a black daughter (IV i) and by a white man had a mulatto
child (IV 2).
Fig. 2. Part of W. family, pedigree 13, including a medium-colored mother
and six of her seven children by a white man. Also, a first cousin
(III 6) of the children.
Fig. 3. Part of the G. and O. family, pedigree 21, including a nearly white
man [I 3 (F)], his medium-colored wife [I 3 (M)] and five of their
seven children.
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HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR
PLATE 1
Plate 2.
Fig. 4. Part of the G. and O. family, pedigree 21, including a medium-colored
man [I i(MF), brother to Fig. 3, I 3(F)], his light-colored wife
I I (MM), five of their eight children and the light-colored child of
one of them, i.e., of II 5(M).
Fig. 5. Part of the B. family, pedigree 25, including a light-colored man,
I 2(F), and his light wife, I 2(M), and three of their four children.
Fig. 6. Part of the B. family, pedigree 25, including a practically white
father, I l(F), light-colored mother and their three children.
II. I '?^„
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2,^11,7
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HEREDITY or SKIN COLOR
PLATE 2
Plate 3.
Fig. 7. Wife of F. O. in pedigree 23, and mother of I i(M), in Fig. 8, and
grandmother of the children in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Part of J. family, pedigree 23, comprising the mother, I i(M),
mentioned in the description of Fig. 7, her husband [I i(F)]. a
Hght-colored man, and all of their seven surviving children.
Fig. 9. Light brown mother of the P. family, pedigree 26, and her youngest
child.
Fig. 10. The four oldest children of pedigree 26, from the mother shown in
Fig. 9 and a light-colored man.
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iving children.
and her youngest
n of pedigree 26, from the mother shown
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HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR
PLATE 3
Plate 4.
Fig. II. Part of Jamaica pedigree 9, the M. family, showing light-colored
father, II i(F), medium-colored mother, II i(M), and their
two (lighter-skinned) children.
Fig. 12. Part of Bermuda pedigree 29, F. family, including a white-skinned
man of colored origin, No. 4 of the figure and II 6 of the pedigree,
his white-skinned wife, No. 5 (II 6) and their children: III 13
(No. 7), III 15 (No. 8), III 16 (No. 17), III 17 (No. 6). Also,
a light-colored brother. No. 3 (II 7) of the foregoing father, and his
medium-colored wife (No. 2), sister of No. 5, and their two children:
III 18 (No. 16) and 19 (No. 9). Also a light-colored woman II 9
(No. i) who is a sister to the two foregoing wives and her six
children by a light-colored man; viz.. Ill 20 (No. 11), III 21
(No. 14), III 22 (No. 10), III 23 (No. 12), III 24 (No. 13), III 25
(No. 15).
Key to persons in the photograph; 1, II 9, sister to 2 and 5 and mother to
ID, II, 12, 13, 14, 15. 2, II 7, sister to i and 5, wife to 3 and mother to 9 and
16. 3, II 7, brother to 4, husband to 2, and father to 9 and 16. 4, brother to
3, husband to 5 and father to 6, 7, 8, and 17. 5, sister to i and 2, wife to 4,
and mother to 6, 7, 8, 17. 6, III 17; 7, III 13; 8, III 15; 9, III 19; 10, III 22;
II, III 20; 12, III 23; 13, III 24; 14, III 21; 15, III 25; 16, III 18; 17, III 16.
Fig. 13. Part of the Bermuda pedigree 33, L. family, including a light-colored
mother I i (M) and her seven children.
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HEREDITY OF SKIN COLOR
PLATE 4
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